COUR INTERNATIONALE DE JUSTICE
RECUEIL DES AR|TS,
AVIS CONSULTATIFS ET ORDONNANCES
AFFAIRE
AHMADOU SADIO DIALLO
(RuPUBLIQUE DE GUIuE.E uPUBLIQUE DuMOCRATIQUE
DU CONGO)
EXCEPTIONS PRuLIMINAIRES
ARRE|T DU 24 MAI 2007
2007
INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE
REPORTS OF JUDGMENTS,
ADVISORY OPINIONS AND ORDERS
CASE CONCERNING
AHMADOU SADIO DIALLO
(REPUBLIC OF GUINEA v. DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC
OF THE CONGO)
PRELIMINARY OBJECTIONS
JUDGMENT OF 24 MAY 2007 Mode officiel de citation:
Ahmadou Sadio Diallo
(République de Guinée c. République démocratique du Congo),
exceptions préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2007 ,p.582
Official citation:
Ahmadou Sadio Diallo
(Republic of Guinea v. Democratic Republic of the Congo),
Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2007 ,p.582
N de vente:
ISSN 0074-4441
Sales number 924
ISBN 978-92-1-071030-5 24 MAI 2007
ARRE|T
AHMADOU SADIO DIALLO
(RuPUBLIQUE DE GUINEuE.RE uPUBLIQUE DEuMOCRATIQUE
DU CONGO)
EXCEPTIONS PRuLIMINAIRES
AHMADOU SADIO DIALLO
(REPUBLIC OF GUINEA v. DEMOCATIC REPUBLIC
OF THE CONGO)
PRELIMINARY OBJECTIONS
24 MAY 2007
JUDGMENT 582
INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE
YEAR 2007 2007
24 May
24 May 2007 General List
No. 103
CASE CONCERNING
AHMADOU SADIO DIALLO
(REPUBLIC OF GUINEA v. DEMOCRATIC
REPUBLIC OF THE CONGO)
PRELIMINARY OBJECTIONS
Facts underlying the case — Disputes between Africom-Zaire and Africon-
tainers-Zaire, two sociétés privées à responsabilité limitée (SPRLs) incorpo-
rated under Zairean law, on the one hand, and the Zairean State and other
business partners on the other — Arrest, detention and expulsion of Mr. Diallo,
a Guinean citizen, associé and gérant of the companies, on the ground that his
presence and conduct breached public order in Zaire — Disagreement between
the Parties on the circumstances of Mr. Diallo’s arrest, detention and expulsion.
**
Object of the Application — Diplomatic protection on behalf of Mr. Diallo
for the violation of three categories of rights — Mr. Diallo’s individual personal
rights — Mr. Diallo’s direct rights as associé in Africom-Zaire and Africon-
tainers-Zaire — Rights of the companies.
**
Basis of the Court’s jurisdiction — Declarations made by the Parties under
Article 36, paragraph 2, of the Statute.
**
Preliminary objections raised by the DRC to the admissibility of the Applica-
tion — Guinea’s standing — Non-exhaustion of local remedies — Examination
by the Court in respect of each of the three different categories of rights alleged
by Guinea to have been violated.
*
4 AHMADOU SADIO DIALLO (JUDGMENT ) 583
Mr. Diallo’s individual personal rights.
DRC’s contention that Guinea’s Application is inadmissible on the ground
that local remedies have not been exhausted — Scope ratione materiae of dip-
lomatic protection — Conditions of exercise — Mr. Diallo’s Guinean national-
ity — Burden of proof as regards local remedies — Guinea required to prove
exhaustion by Mr. Diallo of local remedies available in the DRC or the exist-
ence of exceptional circumstances justifying the failure to exhaust them — DRC
required to prove existence and non-exhaustion of available and effective local
remedies — Examination by the Court confined to the question of local rem-
edies in respect of Mr. Diallo’s expulsion — Expulsion characterized as “refusal
of entry” (“refoulement”) when carried out — Refusals of entry not appealable
under Congolese law — DRC cannot rely on error in designation — Request for
reconsideration by the administrative authority having taken the decision not a
local remedy to be exhausted — Objection based on failure to exhaust local
remedies rejected.
*
Protection of Mr. Diallo’s direct rights as associé in Africom-Zaire and Afri-
containers-Zaire.
DRC’s contention that Guinea’s Application is inadmissible for lack of stand-
ing, Mr. Diallo’s expulsion not having injured his direct rights as associé —
Guinea’s contention that the effect of and motive for Mr. Diallo’s expulsion was
to prevent him from exercising his direct rights as associé in Africom-Zaire and
Africontainers-Zaire and his rights as their gérant — Legal nature of the com-
panies governed by Congolese law — Independent legal personality of SPRLs
distinct from that of their associés — National State of associés entitled to exer-
cise diplomatic protection in respect of infringements of their direct rights —
Definition of rights appertaining to the status of associé and to the position of
gérant of an SPRL under Congolese law and assessment of the effects on these
rights of the actions taken against Mr. Diallo, being substantive matters —
Objection based on Guinea’s lack of standing rejected.
DRC’s contention that Guinea’s Application is inadmissible for failure to
exhaust local remedies — Alleged violations of Mr. Diallo’s direct rights as
associé described by Guinea as a direct consequence of his expulsion — Court
having found that the DRC has not proved the existence under Congolese law of
effective remedies against Mr. Diallo’s expulsion — DRC not having shown the
existence of distinct remedies against the alleged violations of Mr. Diallo’s
direct rights as associé — Objection as to inadmissibility based on failure to
exhaust local remedies rejected.
*
Diplomatic protection with respect to Mr. Diallo “by substitution” for Afri-
com-Zaire and Africontainers-Zaire.
DRC’s contention that Guinea’s Application is inadmissible for lack of stand-
ing — Guinea’s argument that customary international law of diplomatic pro-
tection by a company by its State of nationality is subject to an exception
allowing for diplomatic protection of shareholders by their national State “by
5 AHMADOU SADIO DIALLO (JUDGMENT ) 584
substitution” for the company when the State whose responsibility is at issue is
the national State of the company — Exception not, at present, established in
customary international law — Question whether customary international law
contains a more limited rule of protection “by substitution”, such as that pro-
posed by the International Law Commission (ILC) in Article 11 (b) of its draft
Articles on Diplomatic Protection — Does not arise for decision on present
facts — Diplomatic protection of Africom-Zaire and Africontainers-Zaire gov-
erned by the normal rule of the nationality of the claims — Congolese nation-
ality of the companies — Objection based on Guinea’s lack of standing upheld.
DRC’s objection based on failure to exhaust local remedies without object.
**
Application admissible in so far as it concerns protection of Mr. Diallo’s
rights as an individual and his direct rights as associé in Africom-Zaire and
Africontainers-Zaire.
JUDGMENT
Present: President H IGGIN; Vice-President AL-KHASAWNEH ; Judges RANJEVA,
S H,K OROMA ,B UERGENTHAL ,O WADA ,S IMMA ,T OMKA ,A BRAHAM ,
K EITH,B ENNOUNA ,S KOTNIKOV ; Judges ad hoc M AHIOU,M AMPUYA ;
Registrar COUVREUR .
In the case concerning Ahmadou Sadio Diallo,
between
the Republic of Guinea,
represented by
Mr. Mohamed Camara, Chargé d’affaires a.i. at the Embassy of the Repub-
lic of Guinea, Brussels,
as Agent;
Mr. Alain Pellet, Professor at the University of Paris X-Nanterre, Member
and former Chairman of the International Law Commission of the United
Nations,
as Deputy Agent, Counsel and Advocate;
Mr. Mathias Forteau, Professor at the University of Lille 2,
Mr. Jean-Marc Thouvenin, Professor at the University of Paris X-Nanterre,
member of the Paris Bar, Cabinet Sygna Partners,
Mr. Samuel Wordsworth, member of the English Bar, Essex Court Cham-
bers,
as Counsel and Advocates;
6 AHMADOU SADIO DIALLO (JUDGMENT ) 585
Mr. Daniel Müller, Researcher at the Centre de droit international de Nan-
terre (CEDIN), University of Paris X-Nanterre,
Mr. Luke Vidal, member of the Paris Bar, Cabinet Sygna Partners,
as Advisers,
and
the Democratic Republic of the Congo,
represented by
H.E. Mr. Pierre Ilunga M’Bundu wa Biloba, Minister of Justice and Keeper
of the Seals, Democratic Republic of the Congo,
as Head of Delegation;
H.E. Mr. Jacques Masangu-a-Mwanza, Ambassador Extraordinary and
Plenipotentiary of the Democratic Republic of the Congo to the Kingdom
of the Netherlands,
as Agent;
Maître Tshibangu Kalala, Deputy, Congolese Parliament, member of the
Kinshasa and Brussels Bars, Cabinet Tshibangu et Associés,
as Co-Agent, Counsel and Advocate;
Mr. André Mazyambo Makengo Kisala, Professor of International Law,
University of Kinshasa,
as Counsel and Advocate;
Mr. Yenyi Olungu, Principal Advocate-General of the Republic, Directeur
de cabinet of the Minister of Justice and Keeper of the Seals,
Mr. Victor Musompo Kasongo, Private Secretary to the Minister of Justice
and Keeper of the Seals,
Mr. Nsingi-zi-Mayemba, Minister-Counsellor, Embassy of the Democratic
Republic of the Congo in the Netherlands,
Mr. Bamana Kalonji Jerry, Second Counsellor, Embassy of the Democratic
Republic of the Congo in the Netherlands,
Maître Kikangala Ngoie, member of the Brussels Bar,
as Advisers;
Maître Kadima Mukadi, member of the Kinshasa Bar, Cabinet Tshibangu et
Associés,
Maître Lufulwabo Tshimpangila, member of the Brussels Bar,
Maître Tshibwabwa Mbuyi, member of the Brussels Bar,
as Research Assistants;
Ms Ngoya Tshibangu,
as Assistant,
T HE COURT ,
composed as above,
after deliberation,
delivers the following Judgment:
1. On 28 December 1998, the Government of the Republic of Guinea (here-
inafter “Guinea”) filed in the Registry of the Court an Application instituting
7 AHMADOU SADIO DIALLO (JUDGMENT ) 586
proceedings against the Democratic Republic of the Congo (hereinafter the
“DRC”) in respect of a dispute concerning “serious violations of international
law” allegedly committed “upon the person of a Guinean national”. The Appli-
cation consisted of two parts, each signed by Guinea’s Minister for Foreign
Affairs. The first part, entitled “Application” (hereinafter the “Application
(Part One)”), contained a succinct statement of the subject of the dispute, the
basis of the Court’s jurisdiction and the legal grounds relied on. The second
part, entitled “Memorial of the Republic of Guinea” (hereinafter the “Applica-
tion (Part Two)”), set out the facts underlying the dispute, expanded on the
legal grounds put forward by Guinea and stated Guinea’s claims. In the Appli-
cation (Part One) Guinea maintained:
“Mr. Ahmadou Sadio Diallo, a businessman of Guinean nationality,
was unjustly imprisoned by the authorities of the Democratic Republic of
the Congo, after being resident in that State for thirty-two (32) years,
despoiled of his sizable investments, businesses, movable and immovable
property and bank accounts, and then expelled.”
Guinea added:
“[t]his expulsion came at a time when Mr. Ahmadou Sadio Diallo was
pursuing recovery of substantial debts owed to his businesses by the State
and by oil companies established in its territory and of which the State is
a shareholder”.
Mr. Diallo’s arrest, detention and expulsion are alleged to constitute,
inter alia, violations of
“the principle that aliens should be treated in accordance with ‘a minimum
standard of civilization’, [of] the obligation to respect the freedom and
property of aliens, [and of] the right of aliens accused of an offence to a
fair trial on adversarial principles by an impartial court”.
To found the jurisdiction of the Court, Guinea invoked in the Application
(Part One) the declarations whereby the two States have recognized the com-
pulsory jurisdiction of the Court under Article 36, paragraph 2, of the Statute
of the Court.
2. Pursuant to Article 40, paragraph 2, of the Statute, the Application was
immediately communicated to the Government of the DRC by the Registrar;
and, in accordance with paragraph 3 of that Article, all States entitled to
appear before the Court were notified of the Application.
3. By an Order of 25 November 1999, the Court fixed 11 September 2000 as
the time-limit for the filing of a Memorial by Guinea and 11 September 2001 as
the time-limit for the filing of a Counter-Memorial by the DRC. By an Order of
8 September 2000, the President of the Court, at Guinea’s request, extended the
time-limit for the filing of the Memorial to 23 March 2001; in the same Order
the time-limit for the filing of the Counter-Memorial was extended to 4 October
2002. Guinea duly filed its Memorial within the time-limit as thus extended.
4. Since the Court included upon the Bench no judge of the nationality of
either of the Parties, each of them availed itself of its right under Article 31,
paragraph 3, of the Statute to choose a judge ad hoc to sit in the case. Guinea
chose Mr. Mohammed Bedjaoui and the DRC Mr. Auguste Mampuya
Kanunk’a-Tshiabo. Following Mr. Bedjaoui’s resignation on 10 September
2002, Guinea chose Mr. Ahmed Mahiou.
8 AHMADOU SADIO DIALLO JUDGMENT ) 587
5. On 3 October 2002, within the time-limit set in Article 79, paragraph 1, of
the Rules of Court as adopted on 14 April 1978, the DRC raised preliminary
objections in respect of the admissibility of Guinea’s Application. In accord-
ance with Article 79, paragraph 3, of the Rules of Court, the proceedings on
the merits were then suspended. By an Order of 7 November 2002, the Court,
taking account of the particular circumstances of the case and of the agreement
of the Parties, fixed 7 July 2003 as the time-limit for the presentation by Guinea
of a written statement of its observations and submissions on the preliminary
objections raised by the DRC. Guinea filed such a statement within the time-
limit fixed and the case thus became ready for hearing on the preliminary objec-
tions.
6. Pursuant to Article 53, paragraph 2, of the Rules of Court, the Court,
after ascertaining the views of the Parties, decided that copies of the pleadings
and documents annexed would be made accessible to the public on the opening
of the oral proceedings.
7. Public sittings were held from 27 November 2006 to 1 December 2006, at
which the Court heard the oral arguments and replies of:
For the DRC: H.E. Mr. Jacques Masangu-a-Mwanza,
Maître Tshibangu Kalala,
Mr. André Mazyambo Makengo Kisala.
For Guinea: Mr. Mohamed Camara,
Mr. Mathias Forteau,
Mr. Samuel Wordsworth,
Mr. Alain Pellet,
Mr. Jean-Marc Thouvenin.
8. A Member of the Court put a question at the hearing on 28 Novem-
ber 2006, which the Parties answered orally, in accordance with Article 61,
paragraph 4, of the Rules of Court.
9. By a letter dated 1 December 2006, the Court, acting pursuant to Arti-
cle 62, paragraph 1, of the Rules of Court, asked the DRC to furnish it with
certain additional documents.
*
10. In the Application (Part Two), the following requests were made by
Guinea:
“As to the form: To admit the present Application.
As to the merits: To order the authorities of the Democratic Republic of
the Congo to make an official public apology to the State of Guinea for
the numerous wrongs done to it in the person of its national Ahma-
dou Sadio Diallo;
To find that the sums claimed are certain, liquidated and legally due;
To find that the Congolese State must assume responsibility for the pay-
ment of these debts, in accordance with the principles of State responsibil-
ity and civil liability;
To order the Congolese State to pay to the State of Guinea on behalf of
its national Ahmadou Sadio Diallo the sums of US $31,334,685,888.45 and
Z 14,207,082,872.7 in respect of the financial loss suffered by him;
9 AHMADOU SADIO DIALLO (JUDGMENT ) 588
To pay also to the State of Guinea damages equal to 15 per cent of the
principal award, that is to say US $4,700,202,883.26 and Z 2,131,062,430.9;
To award to the applicant State bank and moratory interest at respec-
tive annual rates of 15 per cent and 26 per cent from the end of the
year 1995 until the date of payment in full;
To order the said State to return to the Applicant all the unvalued assets
set out in the list of miscellaneous claims;
To order the Democratic Republic of the Congo to submit within one
month an acceptable schedule for the repayment of the above sums;
In the event that the said schedule is not produced by the date indicated or
is not respected, to authorize the State of Guinea to seize the assets of the
Congolese State wherever they may be found, up to an amount equal to the
principal sum due and such further amounts as the Court shall have ordered.
To order that the costs of the present proceedings be borne by the Con-
golese State.” (Emphasis in the original.)
11. In the written proceedings, the following submissions were presented by
the Parties:
On behalf of the Government of Guinea,
in the Memorial on the merits:
“The Republic of Guinea has the honour to request that it may please
the International Court of Justice to adjudge and declare:
(1) that, in arbitrarily arresting and expelling its national, Mr. Ahma-
dou Sadio Diallo; in not at that time respecting his right to the benefit
of the provisions of the [1963] Vienna Convention on Consular Rela-
tions; in subjecting him to humiliating and degrading treatment; in
depriving him of the exercise of his rights of ownership and manage-
ment in respect of the companies founded by him in the DRC; in pre-
venting him from pursuing recovery of the numerous debts owed to
him — to himself personally and to the said companies — both by the
DRC itself and by other contractual partners; in not paying its own
debts to him and to his companies, the Democratic Republic of the
Congo has committed internationally wrongful acts which engage its
responsibility to the Republic of Guinea;
(2) that the Democratic Republic of the Congo is accordingly bound to
make full reparation on account of the injury suffered by the Republic
of Guinea in the person of its national;
(3) that such reparation shall take the form of compensation covering the
totality of the injuries caused by the internationally wrongful acts of
the Democratic Republic of the Congo including loss of earnings, and
shall also include interest.
The Republic of Guinea further requests the Court kindly to authorize it
to submit an assessment of the amount of the compensation due to it on
this account from the Democratic Republic of the Congo in a subsequent
phase of the proceedings in the event that the two Parties should be unable
to agree on the amount thereof within a period of six months following
delivery of the Judgment.”
10 AHMADOU SADIO DIALLO (JUDGMENT ) 589
On behalf of the Government of the DRC,
in the preliminary objections:
“The Democratic Republic of the Congo respectfully requests the Court
to adjudge and declare that the Application of the Republic of Guinea is
inadmissible,
(1) on the ground that the Republic of Guinea lacks standing to exercise
diplomatic protection in the present proceedings, since its Application
seeks essentially to secure reparation for injury suffered on account of
the alleged violation of rights of companies not possessing its nation-
ality;
(2) on the ground that, in any event, neither the companies in question
nor Mr. Diallo have exhausted the available and effective local rem-
edies existing in Zaire, and subsequently in the Democratic Republic
of the Congo.”
On behalf of the Government of Guinea,
in the written statement containing its observations and submissions on the
preliminary objections raised by the DRC:
“For the reasons set out above, the Republic of Guinea kindly requests
the Court to:
1. Reject the preliminary objections raised by the Democratic Republic
of the Congo, and
2. Declare the Application of the Republic of Guinea admissible.”
12. At the oral proceedings, the following submissions were presented by the
Parties:
On behalf of the Government of the DRC,
at the hearing of 29 November 2006:
“The Democratic Republic of the Congo respectfully requests the Court
to adjudge and declare that the Application of the Republic of Guinea is
inadmissible,
(1) on the ground that the Republic of Guinea lacks standing to exercise
diplomatic protection in the present proceedings, since its Application
seeks essentially to secure reparation for injury suffered on account of
the violation of rights of companies not possessing its nationality;
(2) on the ground that, in any event, neither the companies in question
nor Mr. Diallo have exhausted the available and effective local rem-
edies existing in the Democratic Republic of the Congo.”
On behalf of the Government of Guinea,
at the hearing of 1 December 2006:
“For the reasons set out in its Observations of 7 July 2003 and in oral
argument, the Republic of Guinea kindly requests the International Court
of Justice:
(1) to reject the preliminary objections raised by the Democratic Republic
of the Congo;
(2) to declare the Application of the Republic of Guinea admissible; and
11 AHMADOU SADIO DIALLO (JUDGMENT ) 590
(3) to fix time-limits for the further proceedings.”
*
* *
13. The Court will begin with a brief description of the factual back-
ground to the present case.
14. As set out in their written pleadings, the Parties are in agreement
as to the following facts. Mr. Ahmadou Sadio Diallo, a Guinean citizen,
settled in the DRC (called “Congo” between 1960 and 1971 and “Zaire”
between 1971 and 1997) in 1964. There, in 1974, he founded an import-
export company, Africom-Zaire, a société privée à responsabilité limitée
(private limited liability company, hereinafter “SPRL”) incorporated
under Zairean law and entered in the Trade Register of the city of Kin-
shasa, and he became its gérant (manager). In 1979 Mr. Diallo expanded
his activities, taking part, as gérant of Africom-Zaire and with backing
from two private partners, in the founding of another Zairean SPRL,
specializing in the containerized transport of goods. The capital in the
new company, Africontainers-Zaire, was held as follows: 40 per cent by
Mr. Zala, a Zairean national; 30 per cent by Ms Dewast, a French
national; and 30 per cent by Africom-Zaire. It too was entered in the
Trade Register of the city of Kinshasa. In 1980 Africom-Zaire’s two part-
ners in Africontainers-Zaire withdrew. The parts sociales (see para-
graph 25 hereunder) in Africontainers-Zaire were then held as follows:
60 per cent by Africom-Zaire and 40 per cent by Mr. Diallo. At the same
time Mr. Diallo became the gérant of Africontainers-Zaire. Towards the
end of the 1980s, Africom-Zaire’s and Africontainers-Zaire’s relation-
ships with their business partners started to deteriorate. The two compa-
nies, acting through their gérant, Mr. Diallo, then initiated various steps,
including judicial ones, in an attempt to recover alleged debts. The vari-
ous disputes between Africom-Zaire or Africontainers-Zaire, on the one
hand, and their business partners, on the other, continued throughout the
1990s and for the most part remain unresolved today. Thus, Africom-
Zaire claims payment from the DRC of a debt (acknowledged by the
DRC) resulting from default in payment for deliveries of listing paper to
the Zairean State between 1983 and 1986. Africom-Zaire is involved in
another dispute, concerning arrears or overpayments of rent, with Plan-
tation Lever au Zaire (“PLZ”). Africontainers-Zaire is in dispute with the
companies Zaire Fina, Zaire Shell and Zaire Mobil Oil, as well as with
the Office National des Transports (“ONATRA”) and Générale des Car-
rières et des Mines (“Gécamines”). For the most part these differences
concern alleged violations of contractual exclusivity clauses and the lay-
up, improper use or destruction or loss of containers.
15. The Court considers the following facts also to be established. On
31 October 1995, the Prime Minister of Zaire issued an expulsion Order
against Mr. Diallo. The Order gave the following reason for the expul-
12 AHMADOU SADIO DIALLO (JUDGMENT ) 591
sion: Mr. Diallo’s “presence and conduct have breached public order in
Zaire, especially in the economic, financial and monetary areas, and con-
tinue to do so”. On 31 January 1996, Mr. Diallo, already under arrest,
was deported from Zaire and returned to Guinea by air. The removal
from Zaire was formalized and served on Mr. Diallo in the shape of a
notice of refusal of entry (refoulement) on account of “illegal residence”
(séjour irrégulier) that had been drawn up at the Kinshasa airport on the
same day.
*
16. Throughout the proceedings Guinea and the DRC have continued
to differ on a number of other facts.
17. In respect of the specific circumstances of Mr. Diallo’s arrest,
detention and expulsion, Guinea maintains that Mr. Diallo was “secretly
placed in detention, without any form of judicial process or even exami-
nation” on 5 November 1995. He allegedly remained imprisoned first for
two months, before being released on 10 January 1996, “further to inter-
vention by the [Zairean] President himself”, only then to be “immediately
rearrested and imprisoned for two [more] weeks” before being expelled.
Mr. Diallo is thus said to have been detained for 75 days in all. Guinea
adds that he was mistreated while in prison and was “deprived of the
benefit of the 1963 Vienna Convention on Consular Relations”. Accord-
ing to Guinea, Mr. Diallo has been without means of support since his
expulsion and he has been unable to fulfil his functions as executive
officer (dirigeant) of, or exercise his rights as shareholder in, Africom-
Zaire and Africontainers-Zaire.
18. Guinea further maintains that Mr. Diallo’s arrest, detention and
expulsion were the culmination of a DRC policy to prevent him from
recovering the debts owed to his companies, including judgment debts.
Guinea claims that, before arresting Mr. Diallo and expelling him in Janu-
ary 1996, the Congolese authorities repeatedly interfered in the affairs of
his companies. Guinea contends that Mr. Diallo had already suffered one
year of imprisonment, in 1988, after trying to recover debts owed to Afri-
com-Zaire by the Zairean State. Guinea also cites certain steps taken by
the DRC in the course of 1995 “arbitrarily to stay the domestic proceed-
ings for the enforcement of decisions handed down in favour of
Mr. Diallo’s companies”. It thus explains:
“Enforcement of the judgment [by the Kinshasa Tribunal de grande
instance]inthe Africontainers[-Zaire] v. Zaire Shell case was stayed,
on 13 September [1995], by order of the [Zairean Vice-] Minister of
Justice, without any legal basis.”
After the stay was lifted, property belonging to Zaire Shell was attached
but “the attachments were once again revoked on 13 October [1995], this
13 AHMADOU SADIO DIALLO (JUDGMENT ) 592
time permanently, on ‘oral instructions’ from the Minister of Justice and
outside the law”. Guinea adds that Mr. Diallo’s arrest, detention and
expulsion took place just as Zaire Shell, for its part, and Zaire Fina and
Zaire Mobil Oil, for theirs, approached Zaire’s Minister of Justice, by let-
ters dated 29 August 1995 and 15 November 1995, respectively, “seeking
the intervention of the Government to warn the courts and tribunals
about Mr. Ahmadou Sadio Diallo’s conduct in his campaign to destabilize
commercial companies”.
19. The DRC rejects these allegations by Guinea and argues that the
duration and conditions of Mr. Diallo’s detention during the expulsion
process were in conformity with Zairean law. In particular, it contends
that the statutory maximum of eight days’ detention was not exceeded.
The DRC adds that the decision expelling Mr. Diallo was justified by his
“manifestly groundless” and increasingly exaggerated financial claims
against Zairean public undertakings and private companies operating in
Zaire and by the disinformation campaign he had launched there “aimed
at the highest levels of the Zairean State, as well as very prominent fig-
ures abroad”. The DRC notes that
“the total sum claimed by Mr. Diallo as owed to the companies run
by him came to over 36 billion United States dollars...,which rep-
resents nearly three times the [DRC’s] total foreign debt”.
It adds: “the Zairean authorities also discovered that Mr. Diallo had
been involved in currency trafficking and that he was moreover guilty of
a number of attempts at bribery”. Mr. Diallo’s actions thus allegedly
threatened seriously to compromise not only the operation of the under-
takings concerned but also public order in Zaire.
20. The DRC further claims not to have interfered in the affairs of
Africom-Zaire and Africontainers-Zaire or to have expelled Mr. Diallo
with a view to preventing the companies from completing the legal pro-
ceedings they had brought to recover monies owed them. The DRC does
not deny that in September 1995 the Minister of Justice ordered a stay of
execution of the judgment rendered by the Kinshasa Tribunal de grande
instance in the Africontainers-Zaire v. Zaire Shell case. It nevertheless
explains that, “when the enforcement of a judicial decision is liable to...
lead to serious public disorder”, Zairean law allows the Minister of Jus-
tice to “stay its execution and request the Inspectorat général des services
judiciaires (Inspectorate-General of Courts) to review it for legality”. It
adds that procedures of this type, “found...n i a number of African
States”, are “in no way contrary to the principle of separation of powers,
as it is understood in that part of the world”. The DRC points out that
the stay of execution of the judgment in question “was of very short
14 AHMADOU SADIO DIALLO (JUDGMENT ) 593
duration”, because a few days after the stay took effect the Minister of
Justice “requested the president of the Court of Appeal to ‘take the nec-
essary measures to execute’ the judgment...[onthe ground that] ‘there
had been no manifest error’”. The DRC moreover stresses that Mr. Diallo
should not be confused with Africom-Zaire and Africontainers-Zaire,
that the companies are separate legal entities and that the actions taken
against Mr. Diallo cannot be equated with actions against the companies.
Specifically, the companies remained completely free, after Mr. Diallo’s
expulsion, to pursue any and all legal proceedings they had begun and
did in fact do so, according to the DRC.
21. At the hearings the DRC made reference to various problems said
to exist in connection with Africom-Zaire. Thus, in response to the ques-
tion put by Judge Bennouna at the end of the first round of oral argu-
ment, seeking clarification from both Parties as to
“whether the legislation of the Democratic Republic of the Congo or
the jurisprudence of the courts of the country authorizes the creation
of a sociéte privée à responsabilité limitée with a single shareholder
and by one person” (see paragraph 8 above),
the DRC explained that “Congolese legislation in force does not permit
the incorporation of a société privée à responsabilité limitée by just one
person” and that, contrary to Guinea’s contention, Mr. Diallo could not
therefore be the sole associé in Africom-Zaire.
22. The DRC next argued, for the first time, that in reality Mr. Diallo
was not an associé at all in Africom-Zaire. In support it cited, and pro-
duced at the hearing, the articles of incorporation of a company called
“Africom”, claiming to have discovered them just a few days earlier in
the files of the Trade Register of the city of Kinshasa. After the oral pro-
ceedings had closed, the Court, acting pursuant to Article 62 of the Rules
of Court, asked the DRC to provide it with the articles of incorporation
of “Africom-Zaire”. In response, the DRC, by a letter of 20 Decem-
ber 2006, transmitted to the Registry a document identical to the one it
had produced at the hearings, accompanied by a note stating that it had
been unable to find any reference to Africom-Zaire in the Trade Register
of the city of Kinshasa. After Guinea submitted observations on the let-
ter and its annexes, the DRC communicated to the Court, by a letter of
31 January 2007, comments in reply, in which it acknowledged that Afri-
com-Zaire had indeed existed and been registered in the Trade Register
of the city of Kinshasa but explained that the company had ceased all
activity in the mid-1980s. The DRC stated in that letter that “under Con-
golese law, a commercial company in such a situation [of inactivity] is
automatically struck off the Trade Register as having ceased trading”, so
that it was “highly possible that [the Africom-Zaire] file was removed
from the files, lost or destroyed by the [Congolese] administrative staff”.
15 AHMADOU SADIO DIALLO (JUDGMENT ) 594
23. While admitting that Congolese legislation does not allow for the
incorporation of an SPRL by one person, Guinea, in answering the ques-
tion put by Judge Bennouna (see paragraphs 8 and 21 above), rejected
the DRC’s argument that Mr. Diallo could not be the sole shareholder in
Africom-Zaire. It maintained that “the fact of not being able to create a
one-person company in no way prevents...a company becoming uni-
personal subsequently” and in support cited the Decree of 6 March 1951
establishing Zaire’s trade register, which “does not mention a company’s
becoming unipersonal as a case necessitating the cancellation of its reg-
istration in the trade register”.
24. Guinea further stated that the document referred to by the DRC
at the hearing and provided to the Court concerns another company,
one “not connected with Mr. Diallo’s company”. As proof thereof, it
pointed out that the registered office addresses, registration numbers
in the Trade Register and gérants of the two companies are different,
as are their corporate purposes and dates of incorporation. Guinea
argued that “the existence of [the] company [Africom-Zaire] and its
articles of incorporation is beyond dispute”. In this connection it
pointed out that the validity of the filing of the company’s articles of
incorporation had been confirmed by the public prosecutor before the
Supreme Court of Justice of the DRC, and it cited “many official
documents issued by Zairean authorities” recognizing “Mr. Diallo to
be the gérant of Africom-Zaire”. Finally, Guinea maintained that the
DRC had acknowledged not only the existence of the two companies
in question but also the fact that Mr. Diallo had “become, in fact, the
sole executive officer of these two companies incorporated under the
laws of Zaire”.
**
25. The Court notes at the outset that Africom-Zaire and Africontain-
ers-Zaire are sociétés privées à responsabilité limitée (SPRLs) incorpo-
rated under Congolese law, i.e. companies
“which are formed by persons whose liability is limited to their capi-
tal contributions; which are not publicly held companies; and in
which the parts sociales (shares), required to be uniform and in reg-
istered form, are not freely transferable” (Article 36 of the Decree of
27 February 1887 on commercial companies).
Under Congolese law, holders of parts sociales (“not freely transferable”
shares) in SPRLs, like Mr. Diallo, are termed “associés” (see, for exam-
ple, Articles 43, 44, 45, and 51 of the Decree of 27 February 1887). In
their written pleadings and at the hearings, the Parties have however
often employed the generic term “shareholder” in referring to Mr.
Diallo’s status as associé in the two companies. In light of the foregoing,
16 AHMADOU SADIO DIALLO (JUDGMENT ) 595
“associé” will be the term primarily used by the Court in the present
Judgment, except where it is referring to the Parties’ arguments and when
they themselves used the generic term “shareholder”.
**
26. The Court observes that the dispute between Guinea and the DRC
comprises many aspects and that the Parties have focused on the one or
the other of these at different stages in the proceedings.
27. Thus, the greater part of Guinea’s Application concerns the dis-
putes between Africom-Zaire and Africontainers-Zaire, on the one hand,
and their public and private business partners, on the other. Specifically,
Guinea devotes a lengthy part of its Application to describing the debts
allegedly owed to the companies and Mr. Diallo, as well as to expound-
ing the legal grounds on which the DRC is alleged to be liable for all
these debts. The claims put forward by Guinea in its Application (Part
Two) are also aimed for the most part at obtaining payment of the debts
(see paragraph 10 above).
28. Guinea nevertheless also states in its Application that it seeks to
exercise its diplomatic protection on behalf of Mr. Diallo “with a view to
obtaining [from the Court] a finding that the [DRC] is guilty of serious
violations of international law committed upon [his] person”. It asserts
that the DRC has violated
“the principle that aliens should be treated in accordance with ‘a
minimum standard of civilization’, the obligation to respect the free-
dom and property of aliens, [and] the right of aliens accused of an
offence to a fair trial on adversarial principles by an impartial
court”.
In support of these claims, Guinea cites “numerous international agree-
ments concerning the treatment of aliens and the free movement of goods
and persons”, including in particular the Universal Declaration of Human
Rights of 10 December 1948 and the International Covenant on Civil and
Political Rights of 19 December 1966. It states that “these various viola-
tions of human rights must be construed as breaches of norms of jus
cogens”.
29. In its Memorial on the merits, Guinea continues to devote consid-
erable attention to the issue of the debts allegedly owed to Africom-Zaire
and Africontainers-Zaire and to Mr. Diallo. But Guinea also places
renewed emphasis on the exercise of its diplomatic protection on behalf
of Mr. Diallo and states that it
“is taking up the cause of one of its nationals, and is acting to
enforce his direct rights as an individual and as shareholder and
executive officer of companies which he founded...andof which he
is the sole or principal owner, to the exclusion of distinct rights
which these companies may have against the DRC”.
17 AHMADOU SADIO DIALLO (JUDGMENT ) 596
It divides Mr. Diallo’s rights which it seeks to protect into two separate
categories, according to their nature. In the first, it places Mr. Diallo’s
rights as an individual, including, in addition to those referred to in the
Application, Mr. Diallo’s right not to be subjected to inhuman and
degrading treatment and his right to the benefit of the provisions of the
1963 Vienna Convention on Consular Relations, both of which rights
were allegedly violated at the time of his arrest, detention and expulsion.
In the second category of rights which Guinea seeks to protect it places
the “direct rights” allegedly enjoyed by Mr. Diallo as a shareholder
(rights also sometimes called by Guinea “shareholder’s rights”) in Afri-
com-Zaire and Africontainers-Zaire, specifically his right to oversee, con-
trol and manage the companies.
30. Guinea further states in its Application that it is seeking to protect,
in addition to Mr. Diallo, “the companies which he founded and owns”.
In its Memorial on the merits, it makes clear that it seeks to exercise its
diplomatic protection on behalf of Mr. Diallo by “substitution” for Afri-
com-Zaire and Africontainers-Zaire. Guinea explains that by “substitu-
tion” or “protection by substitution” it means the right of a State to
exercise its diplomatic protection on behalf of nationals who are share-
holders in a foreign company whenever the company has been a victim of
wrongful acts committed by the State under whose law it has been incor-
porated. Thus Guinea does not confine itself to exercising protection of
Mr. Diallo in respect of the violations of his direct rights as shareholder
in Africom-Zaire and Africontainers-Zaire but seeks to protect him “in
respect of the injuries suffered by [these] companies [themselves]”.
31. In sum, Guinea seeks through its action to exercise its diplomatic
protection on behalf of Mr. Diallo for the violation, alleged to have
occurred at the time of his arrest, detention and expulsion, or to have
derived therefrom, of three categories of rights: his individual personal
rights, his direct rights as associé in Africom-Zaire and Africontainers-
Zaire and the rights of those companies, by “substitution”.
**
32. To establish the jurisdiction of the Court, Guinea relies on the dec-
larations made by the Parties under Article 36, paragraph 2, of the Stat-
ute. The DRC acknowledges that the declarations are sufficient to found
the jurisdiction of the Court in the present case. The DRC nevertheless
challenges the admissibility of Guinea’s Application and raises two pre-
liminary objections in doing so. First of all, according to the DRC,
Guinea lacks standing to act in the current proceedings since the rights
which it seeks to protect belong to Africom-Zaire and Africontainers-
Zaire, Congolese companies, not to Mr. Diallo. Guinea, it is argued, is
further precluded from exercising its diplomatic protection on the ground
that neither Mr. Diallo nor the companies have exhausted the remedies
18 AHMADOU SADIO DIALLO (JUDGMENT ) 597
available in the Congolese legal system to obtain reparation for the inju-
ries claimed by Guinea before the Court.
* * *
33. The Court will now examine the preliminary objections to admis-
sibility raised by the DRC, in respect of each of the various categories of
rights alleged by Guinea to have been violated in the present case.
**
34. The Court will first address the question of the admissibility of
Guinea’s Application in so far as it concerns protection of Mr. Diallo’s
rights as an individual.
35. According to the DRC, Guinea’s claims in respect of Mr. Diallo’s
rights as an individual are inadmissible because he “[has not] exhausted
the available and effective local remedies existing in Zaire, and subse-
quently in the Democratic Republic of the Congo”. While this objection,
presented by the DRC in its written pleadings and at the hearings, is very
broadly worded, in the course of the present proceedings the DRC elabo-
rated on only a single aspect of it: that concerning his expulsion from
Congolese territory.
36. On this subject the DRC maintains that its domestic legal system
provided for available, effective remedies which Mr. Diallo should have
exhausted before his cause could be espoused by Guinea. It first observes
that, contrary to Guinea’s contention, Mr. Diallo’s expulsion from the
territory was lawful. The DRC acknowledges that the notice signed by
the immigration officer “inadvertently” refers to “refusal of entry”
(refoulement) instead of “expulsion”. Further, it does not challenge
Guinea’s assertion that Congolese law provides that refusals of entry are
not appealable. The DRC nevertheless maintains that “despite this error,
it is indisputable...that this was indeed an expulsion and not a refusal
of entry”. According to the DRC, calling the action a refusal of entry was
therefore not intended to deprive Mr. Diallo of a remedy; on the con-
trary, “if Mr. Diallo had appealed to the Congolese authorities for per-
mission to return to the DRC, that appeal would have had some prospect
of success”. The DRC cites the general principle of Congolese law that
reconsideration of a decision can in all cases be requested from the
authority having taken it and, if necessary, from that authority’s sup-
erior. It maintains that Mr. Diallo never asked the competent authorities
to reconsider their position and to allow him to return to the DRC.
According to the DRC, such a request would have had a good chance of
success, especially after the change in régime in the country in 1997. The
effectiveness of requests for redress in respect of expulsion decisions in
the DRC is alleged to be confirmed moreover by a substantial practice,
the DRC citing in this regard two applications made by foreign nationals
19 AHMADOU SADIO DIALLO (JUDGMENT ) 598
appealing their removal from Zairean territory, each of which led to
withdrawal of the removal Order.
37. Guinea responds that “[a]fter eight years of proceedings the DRC
has shown itself to be incapable of invoking so much as a single real rem-
edy that would have been available to Mr. Diallo” in respect of the viola-
tion of his rights as an individual. On the subject of Mr. Diallo’s expul-
sion from the Congolese territory, Guinea states that there were no
effective remedies first in Zaire, nor in the later DRC, against this
measure, recalling in this regard that the expulsion Order against Mr. Diallo
was carried out by way of an action denominated “refusal of entry” and
that, “under Article 13 of the Legislative Order of 12 September 1983
concerning immigration control [in Zaire]; ‘[a] measure refusing entry
shall not be subject to appeal’”. Guinea adds that the possibility
Mr. Diallo had to approach the Zairean authority having issued the
expulsion Order “is not[, in any event,] a remedy within the meaning of
the local remedies rule”. It asserts that, on the contrary, this is merely an
“extra-legal procedure that may be characterized as an appeal to the
indulgence of the governmental authorities”. And, according to Guinea,
“[a]dministrative or other remedies which are neither judicial nor quasi-
judicial and are discretionary in nature are not... taken into account by
the local remedies rule”. Guinea observes moreover that the two instances
of remedies against expulsion cited by the DRC in support of its position
are not germane since one case involved expulsion on grounds of illegal
immigration, in respect of which a remedy of grace (recours gracieux) is
available, and the other involved a “decision on grounds of undesirabil-
ity” the reason for which is not specified in the Order revoking the deci-
sion.
38. Guinea further contends that, even though some remedies may in
theory have been available to Mr. Diallo in the Congolese legal system,
they would in any event have offered him no reasonable possibility of
protection at the time. Guinea thus notes that the objective in expelling
Mr. Diallo was precisely to prevent him from pursuing legal proceedings
and argues that
“if a State deliberately chooses to remove an alien from its
territory... because that alien is seeking local redress, that State can
no longer reasonably demand that the alien seek redress only through
legal avenues available in its territory”.
Lastly, it notes that any action taken by Mr. Diallo would have been
doomed to fail owing to the personal animosity towards him harboured
by certain members of the Congolese Government.
*
20 AHMADOU SADIO DIALLO (JUDGMENT ) 599
39. The Court will recall that under customary international law, as
reflected in Article 1 of the draft Articles on Diplomatic Protection of the
International Law Commission (hereinafter the “ILC”),
“diplomatic protection consists of the invocation by a State, through
diplomatic action or other means of peaceful settlement, of the
responsibility of another State for an injury caused by an interna-
tionally wrongful act of that State to a natural or legal person that is
a national of the former State with a view to the implementation of
such responsibility” (Article 1 of the draft Articles on Diplomatic
Protection adopted by the ILC at its Fifty-eighth Session (2006),
ILC Report, doc. A/61/10, p. 24).
Owing to the substantive development of international law over recent
decades in respect of the rights it accords to individuals, the scope ratione
materiae of diplomatic protection, originally limited to alleged violations
of the minimum standard of treatment of aliens, has subsequently
widened to include, inter alia, internationally guaranteed human rights.
40. In the present case Guinea seeks to exercise its diplomatic protec-
tion on behalf of Mr. Diallo in respect of the DRC’s alleged violation of
his rights as a result of his arrest, detention and expulsion, that violation
allegedly constituting an internationally wrongful act by the DRC giving
rise to its responsibility. It therefore falls to the Court to ascertain
whether the Applicant has met the requirements for the exercise of dip-
lomatic protection, that is to say whether Mr. Diallo is a national of
Guinea and whether he has exhausted the local remedies available in the
DRC.
41. To begin with, the Court observes that it is not disputed by the
DRC that Mr. Diallo’s sole nationality is that of Guinea and that he has
continuously held that nationality from the date of the alleged injury to
the date the proceedings were initiated. The Parties have however devoted
much argument to the issue of exhaustion of local remedies.
42. As the Court stated in the Interhandel (Switzerland v. United
States of America) case,
“[t]he rule that local remedies must be exhausted before interna-
tional proceedings may be instituted is a well-established rule of cus-
tomary international law; the rule has been generally observed in
cases in which a State has adopted the cause of its national whose
rights are claimed to have been disregarded in another State in viola-
tion of international law. Before resort may be had to an interna-
tional court in such a situation, it has been considered necessary that
the State where the violation occurred should have an opportunity
to redress it by its own means, within the framework of its own
domestic legal system.” (I.C.J. Reports 1959, p. 27.)
21 AHMADOU SADIO DIALLO (JUDGMENT ) 600
43. The Parties do not question the local remedies rule; they do how-
ever differ as to whether the Congolese legal system actually offered local
remedies which Mr. Diallo should have exhausted before his cause could
be espoused by Guinea before the Court.
44. In matters of diplomatic protection, it is incumbent on the appli-
cant to prove that local remedies were indeed exhausted or to establish
that exceptional circumstances relieved the allegedly injured person whom
the applicant seeks to protect of the obligation to exhaust available local
remedies (see Elettronica Sicula S.p.A. (ELSI) (United States of
America v. Italy), I.C.J. Reports 1989 , pp. 43-44, para. 53). It is for the
respondent to convince the Court that there were effective remedies in its
domestic legal system that were not exhausted (see ibid., p. 46, para. 59).
Thus, in the present case, Guinea must establish that Mr. Diallo exhausted
any available local remedies or, if not, must show that exceptional cir-
cumstances justified the fact that he did not do so; it is, on the other
hand, for the DRC to prove that there were available and effective rem-
edies in its domestic legal system against the decision to remove Mr. Diallo
from the territory and that he did not exhaust them.
45. The Court will recall at this stage that, in its Memorial on the mer-
its, Guinea described in detail the violations of international law allegedly
committed by the DRC against Mr. Diallo. Among those cited is the
claim that Mr. Diallo was arbitrarily arrested and detained on two occa-
sions, first in 1988 and then in 1995. It states that he suffered inhuman
and degrading treatment during those periods in detention and adds that
his rights under the 1963 Vienna Convention on Consular Relations were
not respected. The Court observes however that Guinea has not, in any
way, developed the question of the admissibility of the claims concerning
this inhuman and degrading treatment or relating to the 1963 Vienna
Convention on Consular Relations. As the Court has already noted (see
paragraph 36), the DRC has for its part endeavoured in the present pro-
ceedings to show that remedies to challenge the decision to remove
Mr. Diallo from Zaire are institutionally provided for in its domestic
legal system. By contrast, the DRC did not address the issue of exhaus-
tion of local remedies in respect of Mr. Diallo’s arrest, his detention or
the alleged violations of his other rights, as an individual, said to have
resulted from those measures, and from his expulsion, or to have accom-
panied them. In view of the above, the Court will address the question of
local remedies solely in respect of Mr. Diallo’s expulsion.
46. The Court notes that the expulsion was characterized as a “refusal
of entry” when it was carried out, as both Parties have acknowledged and
as is confirmed by the notice drawn up on 31 January 1996 by the
national immigration service of Zaire. It is apparent that refusals of entry
22 AHMADOU SADIO DIALLO (JUDGMENT ) 601
are not appealable under Congolese law. Article 13 of Legislative Order
No. 83-033 of 12 September 1983, concerning immigration control,
expressly states that the “measure [refusing entry] shall not be subject to
appeal”. The Court considers that the DRC cannot now rely on an error
allegedly made by its administrative agencies at the time Mr. Diallo was
“refused entry” to claim that he should have treated the measure as an
expulsion. Mr. Diallo, as the subject of the refusal of entry, was justified
in relying on the consequences of the legal characterization thus given by
the Zairean authorities, including for purposes of the local remedies rule.
47. The Court further observes that, even if this was a case of expul-
sion and not refusal of entry, as the DRC maintains, the DRC has also
failed to show that means of redress against expulsion decisions are avail-
able under its domestic law. The DRC did, it is true, cite the possibility of
requesting reconsideration by the competent administrative authority
(see paragraph 36 above). The Court nevertheless recalls that, while the
local remedies that must be exhausted include all remedies of a legal
nature, judicial redress as well as redress before administrative bodies,
administrative remedies can only be taken into consideration for pur-
poses of the local remedies rule if they are aimed at vindicating a right
and not at obtaining a favour, unless they constitute an essential prereq-
uisite for the admissibility of subsequent contentious proceedings. Thus,
the possibility open to Mr. Diallo of submitting a request for reconsid-
eration of the expulsion decision to the administrative authority having
taken it, that is to say the Prime Minister, in the hope that he would
retract his decision as a matter of grace cannot be deemed a local remedy
to be exhausted.
48. Having established that the DRC has not proved the existence in
its domestic legal system of available and effective remedies allowing
Mr. Diallo to challenge his expulsion, the Court concludes that the
DRC’s objection to admissibility based on the failure to exhaust local
remedies cannot be upheld in respect of that expulsion.
**
49. The Court now turns to the question of the admissibility of Guin-
ea’s Application in so far as it concerns protection of Mr. Diallo’s rights
as associé of the two companies Africom-Zaire and Africontainers-
Zaire. The DRC raises two objections to admissibility regarding this
aspect of the Application: it contests Guinea’s standing, and it sug-
gests that Mr. Diallo has not exhausted the local remedies that were
available to him in the DRC to assert his rights. The Court will deal
23 AHMADOU SADIO DIALLO (JUDGMENT ) 602
with these objections in turn, beginning with that relating to Guinea’s
standing.
*
50. The DRC accepts that under international law the State of nation-
ality has the right to exercise its diplomatic protection in favour of asso-
ciés or shareholders when there is an injury to their direct rights as such.
It nonetheless contends that “international law allows for [this]
protection...only under very limited conditions which are not fulfilled
in the present case”.
51. The DRC maintains first of all that Guinea is not seeking, in this
case, to protect the direct rights of Mr. Diallo as associé. It takes the view
that Guinea “identifies an attack on company rights, resulting in damage
to shareholders, with the violation of their direct rights” or, more specifi-
cally, that it identifies a violation of the rights of Africom-Zaire and Afri-
containers-Zaire with a violation of the rights of Mr. Diallo. The DRC
states as proof that “in several passages in its written pleadings, Guinea
considers claims held by Africom-Zaire and Africontainers-Zaire to be
claims held by Mr. Diallo”. Such confusion between the rights of the
companies and the rights of the shareholders is described by the DRC
not only as “contrary to positive international law” but also as “contrary
to the logic itself of the institution of diplomatic protection”; it is said to
have been expressly “rejected by the Court in the Barcelona Traction
case”.
52. The DRC further asserts that, in any event, action to protect the
direct rights of shareholders as such applies to only very limited cases.
Since shareholders “can claim to derive their shareholders rights [only
from the company]”, “by definition, what is envisaged here can only be
the rights of shareholders in their relations with the company”. Accord-
ing to the DRC:
“[t]his interpretation is confirmed by the list of examples provided by
the Court [in the Barcelona Traction case]: the right to dividends,
the right to attend and vote at general meetings, and the right to
share in the residual assets of the company on liquidation are rights
which by definition the shareholder can invoke only against the com-
pany, subject to certain conditions and in accordance with certain
procedures laid down in the company’s articles and in the commer-
cial law of the legal order concerned”.
The only acts capable of violating the direct rights of shareholders would
consequently be “acts of interference in relations between the company
and its shareholders”. For the DRC, therefore, the arrest, detention and
expulsion of Mr. Diallo could not constitute acts of interference on its
part in relations between the associé Mr. Diallo and the companies Afri-
com-Zaire and Africontainers-Zaire. As a result, they could not injure
Mr. Diallo’s direct rights.
24 AHMADOU SADIO DIALLO (JUDGMENT ) 603
53. The DRC agrees, as suggested by Guinea, that
“the rights listed in the 1970 Judgment [in the Barcelona Traction
case] are no more than examples, and that the rights in question
must be sought in the domestic legislation of the States concerned”.
The DRC also agrees with Guinea on the fact that, in terms of Congolese
law, the direct rights of associés are determined by the Decree of the
Independent State of Congo of 27 February 1887 on commercial corpo-
rations. The rights of Mr. Diallo as associé of the companies Africom-
Zaire and Africontainers-Zaire are therefore theoretically as follows:
“the right to dividends and to the proceeds of liquidation”, “the right to
be appointed manager (gérant)”, “the right of the associé manager
(gérant) not to be removed without cause”, “the right of the manager to
represent the company”, “the right of oversight [of the management]”
and “the right to participate in general meetings”. However, the DRC
notes that in practice, Mr. Diallo “was unable to exercise...the right of
oversight of the two companies” since “the statutory oversight is over-
sight of the management [(gérance)]” and “such oversight cannot be
entrusted to an individual who is already manager [(gérant)]”. The
DRC further maintains that, contrary to what is claimed by Guinea,
none of the other rights accorded to Mr. Diallo could have been affected
by his expulsion. Hence it points out that the right of “being paid divi-
dends and liquidation bonuses does not require as a condition of its
enjoyment that the holder live in the Congo”. Likewise, “the functional
rights [of the associé]...arenot such as to be essentially affected by the
physical absence of the holder from the headquarters of the company”.
Mr. Diallo could very well have exercised them from foreign territory. He
would have had every opportunity of “delegating executive tasks to local
administrators, including through the appointment of a new manager”.
The DRC also notes on this subject
“that Mr. Diallo himself continued to run Africontainers[-Zaire] and
pursued recovery of the debts owed to that company well after his
expulsion . . . [by appointing] representatives and lawyers to act on
his behalf and on his instructions”.
54. In support of its diplomatic protection claim on behalf of
Mr. Diallo as associé, Guinea refers to the Judgment in the Barcelona
Traction case, where, having ruled that “an act directed against and
infringing only the company’s rights does not involve responsibility
towards the shareholders, even if their interests are affected” (I.C.J.
Reports 1970, p. 36, para. 46), the Court added that “[t]he situation is
different if the act complained of is aimed at the direct rights of the share-
holder as such” (ibid., p. 36, para. 47). Guinea further claims that this
position of the Court was taken up in Article 12 of the ILC’s draft Arti-
cles on Diplomatic Protection, which provides that:
25 AHMADOU SADIO DIALLO (JUDGMENT ) 604
“To the extent that an internationally wrongful act of a State
causes direct injury to the rights of shareholders as such, as distinct
from those of the corporation itself, the State of nationality of any
such shareholders is entitled to exercise diplomatic protection in
respect of its nationals.”
55. According to Guinea, the direct rights of Mr. Diallo as a share-
holder of Africom-Zaire and Africontainers-Zaire are essentially deter-
mined by the Decree of 27 February 1887 on commercial corporations.
This text is said to confer on him firstly a series of “property rights”,
including the right to dividends from these companies, and secondly a
series of “functional rights”, including the right to control, supervise and
manage the companies. Guinea claims that the Congolese investment
code also affords Mr. Diallo certain additional rights as shareholder, for
example “the right to a share of the profits of his companies” and “a
right of ownership in his companies, in particular in respect of his
shares”. Guinea thus takes the view that it is confining itself, in its claim,
to the violation of the rights enjoyed by Mr. Diallo in respect of the com-
panies, including his rights of supervision, control and management, and
that it is therefore not confusing his rights with those of the company.
56. Guinea also points out that, in SPRLs, the parts sociales “are not
freely transferable”, which “considerably accentuates the intuitu personae
character of these companies, very different in this respect from public
limited companies”. It argues that this character is seen as even more
marked in the case of Africom-Zaire and Africontainers-Zaire, since
Mr. Diallo was their “sole manager (gérant) and sole associé (directly or
indirectly)”. According to Guinea, “in fact and in law it was virtually
impossible to distinguish Mr. Diallo from his companies”.
57. Guinea considers that the arrest, detention and expulsion of
Mr. Diallo not only had the effect “of preventing him from continuing to
administer, manage and control any of the operations of the companies
Africom-Zaire and Africontainers-Zaire”, but were specifically motivated
by the intent to prevent him from exercising these rights, from pursuing
the legal proceedings brought on behalf of the companies, and thereby
from recovering their debts. Such intent is said to emerge from the text of
the Order of 31 October 1995, which refers to “[Mr. Diallo,] whose pres-
ence and conduct have breached Zairean law and order, especially in the
economic, financial and monetary areas, and continue to do so”. These
measures, moreover, are said to have followed on from moves by the
Zairean authorities seeking a stay of execution on a judgment of the Tri-
bunal de Grande Instance of Kinshasa ordering Zaire Shell to pay com-
pensation to Africontainers-Zaire.
58. Finally, Guinea maintains that, contrary to what is claimed by the
DRC, Mr. Diallo could not validly exercise his direct rights as share-
holder from his country of origin. Consequently,
26 AHMADOU SADIO DIALLO (JUDGMENT ) 605
“[e]ven if he had been in a position to appoint a new ‘gérant’ and a
‘commissaire’ — and he was not, given his lack of funds — he was
still being deprived of the right to appoint the management of his
choice in violation of..te1887 Decree, and he could not be
expected to confer or abandon the management to some third party”.
Guinea adds that it is unrealistic to claim, as the DRC does, that
Mr. Diallo could have exercised, from abroad, his rights of supervision
and control, or indeed convoked, taken part in and voted at the general
meetings.
*
59. The Court begins by noting the existence of a disagreement between
the Parties on the circumstances surrounding the establishment of Afri-
com-Zaire and the conduct of its activities, on the continuation of those
activities after the 1980s, and on the consequences these questions may
have under Congolese law. It nonetheless takes the view that this dis-
agreement essentially relates to the merits and that it has no bearing on the
question of the admissibility of Guinea’s Application as challenged in the
Congo’s objections.
60. The Court notes that the Parties have referred frequently to the
case concerning the Barcelona Traction, Light and Power Company,
Limited (Belgium v. Spain). This involved a public limited company
whose capital was represented by shares. The present case concerns
SPRLs whose capital is composed of parts sociales (see paragraph 25
above).
61. As the Court recalled in the Barcelona Traction case, “[t]here is...
no need to investigate the many different forms of legal entity provided
for by the municipal laws of States” (I.C.J. Reports 1970, p. 34, para. 40).
What matters, from the point of view of international law, is to deter-
mine whether or not these have a legal personality independent of their
members. Conferring independent corporate personality on a company
implies granting it rights over its own property, rights which it alone is
capable of protecting. As a result, only the State of nationality may exer-
cise diplomatic protection on behalf of the company when its rights are
injured by a wrongful act of another State. In determining whether a
company possesses independent and distinct legal personality, interna-
tional law looks to the rules of the relevant domestic law.
62. The Court, in order to establish the precise legal nature of Afri-
com-Zaire and Africontainers-Zaire, must refer to the domestic law of
the DRC and, in particular, to the Decree of 27 February 1887 on com-
mercial corporations. This text states, in Article 1, that “commercial cor-
porations recognized by law in accordance with this Decree shall consti-
tute legal persons having a personality distinct from that of their
members”.
27 AHMADOU SADIO DIALLO (JUDGMENT ) 606
63. Congolese law accords an SPRL independent legal personality dis-
tinct from that of its associés, particularly in that the property of the
associés is completely separate from that of the company, and in that the
associés are responsible for the debts of the company only to the extent
of the resources they have subscribed. Consequently, the company’s
debts receivable from and owing to third parties relate to its respective
rights and obligations. As the Court pointed out in the Barcelona Trac-
tion case: “So long as the company is in existence the shareholder has no
right to the corporate assets.” (I.C.J. Reports 1970, p. 34, para. 41.) This
remains the fundamental rule in this respect, whether for a SPRL or for
a public limited company.
64. The exercise by a State of diplomatic protection on behalf of a
natural or legal person, who is associé or shareholder, having its nation-
ality, seeks to engage the responsibility of another State for an injury
caused to that person by an internationally wrongful act committed by
that State. Ultimately, this is no more than the diplomatic protection of
a natural or legal person as defined by Article 1 of the ILC draft Articles;
what amounts to the internationally wrongful act, in the case of associés
or shareholders, is the violation by the respondent State of their direct
rights in relation to a legal person, direct rights that are defined by the
domestic law of that State, as accepted by both Parties, moreover. On
this basis, diplomatic protection of the direct rights of associés of a SPRL
or shareholders of a public limited company is not to be regarded as an
exception to the general legal régime of diplomatic protection for natural
or legal persons, as derived from customary international law.
65. Having considered all of the arguments advanced by the Parties,
the Court finds that Guinea does indeed have standing in this case in so
far as its action involves a person of its nationality, Mr. Diallo, and is
directed against the allegedly unlawful acts of the DRC which are said to
have infringed his rights, particularly his direct rights as associé of the
two companies Africom-Zaire and Africontainers-Zaire.
66. The Court notes that Mr. Diallo, who was associé in Africom-
Zaire and Africontainers-Zaire, also held the position of gérant in each of
them. An associé of an SPRL holds parts sociales in its capital, while the
gérant is an organ of the company acting on its behalf. It is not for the
Court to determine, at this stage in the proceedings, which specific rights
appertain to the status of associé and which to the position of gérant of
an SPRL under Congolese law. It is at the merits stage, as appropriate,
that the Court will have to define the precise nature, content and limits of
these rights. It is also at that stage of the proceedings that it will be for
the Court, if need be, to assess the effects on these various rights of the
action against Mr. Diallo. There is no need for the Court to rule on these
substantive matters in order to be able to dispose of the preliminary
objections raised by the Respondent.
28 AHMADOU SADIO DIALLO (JUDGMENT ) 607
67. In view of the foregoing, the Court concludes that the objection of
inadmissibility raised by the DRC due to Guinea’s lack of standing to
protect Mr. Diallo cannot be upheld in so far as it concerns his direct
rights as associé of Africom-Zaire and Africontainers-Zaire.
*
68. The DRC further claims that Guinea cannot exercise its diplo-
matic protection for the violation of Mr. Diallo’s direct rights as associé
of Africom-Zaire and Africontainers-Zaire in so far as he has not
attempted to exhaust the local remedies available in Congolese law for
the alleged breach of those specific rights.
69. The DRC points out that Guinea
“does not dispute... that there are procedures and machinery for
redress, judicial or otherwise, within the legal system of the DRC
which would have enabled the companies in question or Mr. Diallo
himself to safeguard their rights”.
It adds that
“[i]n the circumstances of the present case, however, there is
nothing...t warrant the conclusion that it was impossible for
Mr. Diallo to avail himself of the machinery and procedures offered
by Congolese law which would have enabled him to safeguard his
rights”.
70. The DRC thus submits first that “Mr. Diallo’s absence from Con-
golese territory was not an obstacle [in Congolese law] to the proceedings
already initiated when Mr. Diallo was still in the Congo” or for him to
bring other proceedings. Mr. Diallo could also have “giv[en] one or more
representatives power of attorney to act in legal proceedings instituted”
or to “institute fresh proceedings in other disputes”. In that connection,
the DRC observes that in reality the
“proceedings already set in motion by Mr. Diallo on behalf of the
companies of which he was managing director were not interrupted
because of his removal from the national territory”.
It also notes that
“the alleged ‘extreme poverty’ of Mr. Diallo and his finding it ‘mat-
erially impossible to initiate further...proceedings’ [, as claimed by
Guinea]...are affirmations lacking in credibility and quite without
evidential value”.
In any event, poverty does not constitute “a new exception to the funda-
mental principle of the prior exhaustion of local remedies”.
29 AHMADOU SADIO DIALLO (JUDGMENT ) 608
71. The DRC also asserts that the existing remedies available in the
Congolese legal system are effective. It emphasizes in that respect the fact
that “the ‘effectiveness’ of a remedy in no way implies that the plaintiff
wins the case”, adding that
“there can clearly be no question of contesting the effectiveness of
local remedies simply because Mr. Diallo’s initial claims were not
upheld in full or were subsequently rejected”.
It also points out that in fact
“the local remedies available within the Congolese legal system have
been shown to be effective with respect to the disputes submitted to
the ordinary Congolese courts by the companies Africontainers-
Zaire and Africom-Zaire”
in which those companies obtained rulings in their favour. Moreover, the
DRC considers that, given “the particular situation in which the Demo-
cratic Republic of the Congo...found itself for some years”, it does not
appear that the duration of proceedings before its domestic courts was
unreasonable.
72. For its part, Guinea alleges that “the Congolese State deliberately
chose to deny access to its territory to Mr. Diallo because of the legal
proceedings that he had initiated on behalf of his companies”. It main-
tains that
“[i]n these circumstances, to accuse Mr. Diallo of not having
exhausted the remedies would not only be manifestly ‘unreasonable’
and ‘unfair’, but also an abuse of the rule regarding the exhaustion
of local remedies”.
Guinea adds that the circumstances of Mr. Diallo’s expulsion also pre-
cluded him from pursuing local remedies on his own behalf or on that of
his companies. It recalls that Mr. Diallo was first arrested and impris-
oned in 1988, then in 1995 and finally expelled from the territory of the
Congo for having “ventured...o t bring administrative and legal
claims”. The threat weighing on Mr. Diallo and his exclusion from Con-
golese territory constituted, according to Guinea, “a factual denial of
access to local remedies”. The expulsion of Mr. Diallo from Congolese
territory is also said to have put him in a financial position in which it
was “materially impossible for him to pursue any remedy whatsoever in
Zaire”. As for the possibility referred to by the DRC of appointing
another gérant or giving someone else power of attorney to pursue the
proceedings already initiated or institute fresh proceedings, Guinea points
out that, in the circumstances of the case, “no one could be called upon
to take over so dangerous a managerial post” and that “[t]he possible
successor... would have had good reason to think that he was ‘mani-
festly precluded from pursuing local remedies’”.
73. Guinea further emphasizes that the existing remedies in the Con-
30 AHMADOU SADIO DIALLO (JUDGMENT ) 609
golese legal system must, in any event, be regarded as ineffective in view,
inter alia, of the excessive delays of the Congolese judicial authorities in
the settlement of the cases brought before them and the “unlawful
administrative practices” allegedly inherent in the Congolese legal sys-
tem, particularly the obstacles placed by the Government authorities to
impede the enforcement of court rulings. Guinea notes in support of
these arguments that there has still been no final ruling in two of the cases
brought before the Congolese courts by Africom-Zaire and Africontain-
ers-Zaire 14 and 13 years ago respectively. According to Guinea such
“excessive lengths were general and probably not exceptional”; they
demonstrate, it is claimed, “the futility of the remedies which Mr. Dial-
lo’s companies, or indeed he himself, might have done their utmost to
seek”. Guinea also recalls that, irrespective of the duration of proceed-
ings before Congolese courts, “at the time of the events, the enforcement
of legal decisions depended solely on the government’s goodwill”. It illus-
trates its argument by referring to “the interference by the Zairean Gov-
ernment in the legal proceedings brought by Mr. Diallo’s companies”
and more particularly the repeated stays of execution on the ruling of the
Kinshasa Tribunal de Grande Instance in the case between Africontain-
ers-Zaire and Zaire Shell. According to Guinea,
“[t]he upshot of this is that any legal action that Mr. Diallo or his
companies might have brought against the government could only
result in a decision by that government based on political considera-
tions”.
*
74. The Court notes that the alleged violation of Mr. Diallo’s direct
rights as associé was dealt with by Guinea as a direct consequence of his
expulsion given the circumstances in which that expulsion occurred. The
Court has already found above (see paragraph 48), that the DRC has not
proved that there were effective remedies, under Congolese law, against
the expulsion Order against Mr. Diallo. The Court further observes that
at no time has the DRC argued that remedies distinct from those in
respect of Mr. Diallo’s expulsion existed in the Congolese legal system
against the alleged violations of his direct rights as associé and that he
should have exhausted them. The Parties have indeed devoted discussion
to the question of the effectiveness of local remedies in the DRC but have
confined themselves in it to examining remedies open to Africom-Zaire
and Africontainers-Zaire, without considering any which may have been
open to Mr. Diallo as associé in the companies. Inasmuch as it has not
been argued that there were remedies that Mr. Diallo should have
exhausted in respect of his direct rights as associé, the question of the
effectiveness of those remedies does not in any case arise.
31 AHMADOU SADIO DIALLO (JUDGMENT ) 610
75. The Court concludes from the foregoing that the objection as to
inadmissibility raised by the DRC on the ground of the failure to exhaust
the local remedies against the alleged violations of Mr. Diallo’s direct
rights as associé of the two companies Africom-Zaire and Africontainers-
Zaire cannot be upheld.
**
76. The Court will now consider the question of the admissibility of
Guinea’s Application as it relates to the exercise of diplomatic protection
with respect to Mr. Diallo “by substitution” for Africom-Zaire and Afri-
containers-Zaire and in defence of their rights. Here too the DRC raises
two objections to the admissibility of Guinea’s Application, derived
respectively from Guinea’s lack of standing and the failure to exhaust
local remedies. The Court will again address these issues in turn, begin-
ning with Guinea’s standing.
*
77. The DRC contends that Guinea cannot invoke, as it does in the
present case,
“‘considerations of equity’ in order to justify ‘the right to exercise its
diplomatic protection [in favour of Mr. Diallo and by substitution
for Africom-Zaire and Africontainers-Zaire] independently of the
violation of the direct rights [of Mr. Diallo]’”
on the ground that the State whose responsibility is at issue is also the
State of nationality of the companies concerned. It recalls that the insti-
tution of diplomatic protection is based on the premise “whereby any
violation of the rights of a foreign national is also a violation of the rights
of his State of nationality”. “It is this circumstance, and this circumstance
alone, which justifies recourse to diplomatic protection.” And the DRC
emphasizes that “[c]onversely, if no right of its nationals is violated then
no right of the State is violated and, in consequence, that State can in no
circumstances have standing”. The diplomatic protection “by substitu-
tion” proposed by Guinea is thus said to go “far beyond what positive
international law provides”.
78. The DRC adds that “contrary to what Guinea says, neither the
Court’s jurisprudence nor State practice recognizes the possibility of dip-
lomatic protection by substitution”. It explains that, although it touched
upon this possibility in the Barcelona Traction case, the Court neverthe-
less did not “conclude that such a possibility existed under positive inter-
national law”. On the contrary, the DRC contends that certain judges
were “fiercely opposed to it”. The DRC submits that
“Guinea vainly seeks acceptance of the notion of a customary basis
for such protection [by substitution] by relying in turn on: arbitral
32 AHMADOU SADIO DIALLO (JUDGMENT ) 611
awards; decisions of the European Commission of Human Rights;
the requirements of Article 25 of the Washington Convention; ICSID
jurisprudence; and bilateral treaties for the promotion and protec-
tion of investments”.
According to the DRC, the arbitral awards to which Guinea refers are of
no relevance, on the one hand, because of their age and, on the other,
because, in each of the cases concerned, the issue of the right to claim on
behalf of the shareholders had been settled in a convention enabling the
arbitrators to adjudicate without limiting themselves to the application of
general international law and which also contained a waiver by the
respondent State of any right to raise an objection preventing the tribu-
nal from ruling on the merits. The decisions of the European Commis-
sion of Human Rights, “given within a quite specific institutional and
conventional framework, applicable at regional level, [are said to be no
more]... relevant to the circumstances of the present case”. As for the
ICSID Convention, bilateral and multilateral treaties for the promotion
and protection of investments and, ICSID decisions, they are also said to
lack relevance, as they “do not constitute the direct application of the
principles and rules governing diplomatic protection”.
79. According to the DRC, Guinea is in reality asking the Court to
authorize it to exercise its diplomatic protection in a manner contrary to
international law. In this connection, the DRC referred to the Judgment
delivered by a Chamber of the Court in the case concerning Frontier Dis-
pute (Burkina Faso/Republic of Mali) , and observed that, since the
Parties had not, in the present case, requested a decision ex aequo et bono
under Article 38, paragraph 2, of the Statute, the Court must “also dis-
miss any possibility of resorting to equity contra legem”( I.C.J. Reports
1986, p. 567, para. 28). The DRC adds that none of the particular cir-
cumstances of the case warrants calling that conclusion into question.
80. The DRC further contends that, even supposing that the Court
agreed to take account of the considerations of equity relied on by
Guinea, Guinea has not demonstrated that protection of the shareholder
“in substitution” for the company which possesses the nationality of the
respondent State would be justified in the present case. In this connec-
tion, the DRC contends first that it has not been established that the
solution advocated by Guinea is equitable in principle. On the contrary,
the DRC suggests that such protection by substitution would in fact lead
to a discriminatory régime of protection, resulting as it would in the
unequal treatment of the shareholders. Some shareholders, such as
Mr. Diallo in this case, might enjoy the protection of their national State
by virtue of their alien status and of the good relations which they enjoy
with their national authorities, whereas the other shareholders, either
because they have the same nationality as the companies, or because their
country of origin does not wish to exercise diplomatic protection in
33 AHMADOU SADIO DIALLO (JUDGMENT ) 612
respect of them, could have recourse only to domestic law and domestic
courts to assert their rights. According to the DRC, such a difference in
treatment lacks any objective and reasonable basis and thus constitutes
true discrimination.
81. Lastly, the DRC maintains that “even assuming that ‘protection
by substitution’ were accepted as justified, application of this principle to
the case of Mr. Diallo would prove fundamentally inequitable”. Accord-
ing to the DRC, “Mr. Diallo’s personality and the conduct adopted by
him since the start of this case are far from irreproachable”. Moreover,
the DRC alleges that it was those “activities [of Mr. Diallo], fraudulent
and detrimental to public order, which motivated his removal from Zair-
ean territory”. It adds that Mr. Diallo’s refusal to exhaust the available
local remedies would also render diplomatic protection by substitution
inequitable in this case.
82. For its part, Guinea observes that it is not asking the Court to
resort to equity contra legem to decide the present case when invoking
Mr. Diallo’s protection by substitution for Africom-Zaire and Africon-
tainers-Zaire. Rather, Guinea contends that, in the Barcelona Traction
case, the Court referred, in a dictum, to the possibility of an exception,
founded on reasons of equity, to the general rule of the protection of a
company by its national State, “when the State whose responsibility is
invoked is the national State of the company”. In this connection, it
quotes the following passage from the Judgment, which it considers
apposite:
“On the other hand, the Court considers that, in the field of dip-
lomatic protection as in all other fields of international law, it is nec-
essary that the law be applied reasonably. It has been suggested that
if in a given case it is not possible to apply the general rule that the
right of diplomatic protection of a company belongs to its national
State, considerations of equity might call for the possibility of pro-
tection of the shareholders in question by their own national State.”
(I.C.J. Reports 1970, p. 48, para. 93.)
According to Guinea, the equity concerned in this case is equity infra
legem. The alleged purpose of such recourse is to permit “‘a reasonable
application’...oftherules relating to diplomatic protection”, in order
“not to deprive foreign shareholders in a company having the nationality
of the State responsible for the internationally wrongful act of all possi-
bility of protection”. Guinea recognizes that the Court did not defini-
tively settle the question of the existence of diplomatic protection by
substitution in the Barcelona Traction case. It nevertheless considers that
the text of the Judgment, read in the light of the opinions of the Members
of the Court appended to it, leads one “to believe that a majority of the
Judges regarded the exception as established in law”.
83. Guinea contends that the existence of the rule of protection by
substitution and its customary nature are confirmed by numerous arbi-
tral awards establishing
34 AHMADOU SADIO DIALLO (JUDGMENT ) 613
“that the shareholders of a company can enjoy the diplomatic pro-
tection of their own national State as regards the national State of
the company when that State is responsible for an internationally
wrongful act against it”.
Further, according to Guinea, “[s]ubsequent practice [following Barce-
lona Traction], conventional or jurisprudential...h s dispelled any
uncertainty...onthe positive nature of the ‘exception’”. Guinea thus
refers to certain decisions of the European Commission of Human Rights,
to the Washington Convention establishing the ICSID, to the latter’s
jurisprudence and to the jurisprudence of the Iran-United States Claims
Tribunal.
84. In Guinea’s view, the application of protection by substitution is
particularly appropriate in this case. Guinea again emphasizes that Afri-
com-Zaire and Africontainers-Zaire are SPRLs, which have a marked
intuitu personae character and which, moreover, are statutorily control-
led and managed by one and the same person. Further, it especially
points out that Mr. Diallo was bound, under Zairean legislation, and in
particular Article 1 of the Legislative Order of 7 June 1966 concerning
the registered office and the administrative seat of companies “whose
main centre of operations is situated in the Congo”, to incorporate the
companies in Zaire. In this regard, Guinea refers to Article 11, paragraph
(b), of the draft Articles on Diplomatic Protection adopted in 2006 by
the ILC, providing that the rule of protection by substitution applies spe-
cifically in situations where the shareholders in a company have been
required to form the company in the State having committed the alleged
violation of international law. Under Article 11, paragraph (b):
“A State of nationality of shareholders in a corporation shall not
be entitled to exercise diplomatic protection in respect of such share-
holders in the case of an injury to the corporation unless:
.............................
(b) the corporation had, at the date of injury, the nationality of the
State alleged to be responsible for causing the injury, and incor-
poration in that State was required by it as a precondition for
doing business there.”
85. Guinea also submits that the accusations made by the DRC against
Mr. Diallo are not supported by any facts. On the contrary, it describes
Mr. Diallo as “a shrewd and serious investor and businessman”, who
has never been accused of not honouring his own commitments to the
Zairean State and private companies, and who has rendered great
services to the economic development of Zaire by making substantial
investments there. Lastly, Guinea rejects as not only inaccurate but
also irrelevant in the present context the allegation that Mr. Diallo
refused to exhaust all the remedies available in the DRC, this being a
35 AHMADOU SADIO DIALLO (JUDGMENT ) 614
claim concerning a condition for admissibility different from that which
is here examined.
*
86. The Court recalls that, as regards diplomatic protection, the prin-
ciple as emphasized in the Barcelona Traction case, is that:
“Not a mere interest affected, but solely a right infringed involves
responsibility, so that an act directed against and infringing only the
company’s rights does not involve responsibility towards the share-
holders, even if their interests are affected.” (I.C.J. Reports 1970,
p. 36, para. 46.)
87. Since its dictum in the Barcelona Traction case (ibid.,p .,
para. 93) (see paragraph 82 above), the Court has not had occasion to
rule on whether, in international law, there is indeed an exception to the
general rule “that the right of diplomatic protection of a company
belongs to its national State” (ibid., p. 48, para. 93), which allows for
protection of the shareholders by their own national State “by substitu-
tion”, and on the reach of any such exception. It is true that in the case
concerning Elettronica Sicula S.p.A. (ELSI) (United States of Amer-
ica v. Italy), the Chamber of the Court allowed a claim by the United
States of America on behalf of two United States corporations (who held
100 per cent of the shares in an Italian company), in relation to alleged
acts by the Italian authorities injuring the rights of the latter company.
However, in doing so, the Chamber based itself not on customary inter-
national law but on a Treaty of Friendship, Commerce and Navigation
between the two countries directly granting to their nationals, corpora-
tions and associations certain rights in relation to their participation in
corporations and associations having the nationality of the other State.
The Court will now examine whether the exception invoked by Guinea is
part of customary international law, as claimed by the latter.
88. The Court is bound to note that, in contemporary international
law, the protection of the rights of companies and the rights of their
shareholders, and the settlement of the associated disputes, are essentially
governed by bilateral or multilateral agreements for the protection of for-
eign investments, such as the treaties for the promotion and protection of
foreign investments, and the Washington Convention of 18 March 1965
on the Settlement of Investment Disputes between States and Nationals
of Other States, which created an International Centre for Settlement of
Investment Disputes (ICSID), and also by contracts between States and
foreign investors. In that context, the role of diplomatic protection some-
what faded, as in practice recourse is only made to it in rare cases where
treaty régimes do not exist or have proved inoperative. It is in this par-
ticular and relatively limited context that the question of protection by
36 AHMADOU SADIO DIALLO (JUDGMENT ) 615
substitution might be raised. The theory of protection by substitution
seeks indeed to offer protection to the foreign shareholders of a company
who could not rely on the benefit of an international treaty and to whom
no other remedy is available, the allegedly unlawful acts having been
committed against the company by the State of its nationality. Protection
by “substitution” would therefore appear to constitute the very last resort
for the protection of foreign investments.
89. The Court, having carefully examined State practice and decisions
of international courts and tribunals in respect of diplomatic protection
of associés and shareholders, is of the opinion that these do not reveal —
at least at the present time — an exception in customary international
law allowing for protection by substitution, such as is relied on by
Guinea.
90. The fact invoked by Guinea that various international agreements,
such as agreements for the promotion and protection of foreign invest-
ments and the Washington Convention, have established special legal
régimes governing investment protection, or that provisions in this regard
are commonly included in contracts entered into directly between States
and foreign investors, is not sufficient to show that there has been a
change in the customary rules of diplomatic protection; it could equally
show the contrary. The arbitrations relied on by Guinea are also special
cases, whether based on specific international agreements between two or
more States, including the one responsible for the allegedly unlawful acts
regarding the companies concerned (see, for example, the special agree-
ment concluded between the American, British and Portuguese Govern-
ments in the Delagoa case or the one concluded between El Salvador and
the United States of America in the Salvador Commercial Company case)
or based on agreements concluded directly between a company and the
State allegedly responsible for the prejudice to it (see the Biloune v.
Ghana Investments Centre case).
91. It is a separate question whether customary international law con-
tains a more limited rule of protection by substitution, such as that set
out by the ILC in its draft Articles on Diplomatic Protection, which
would apply only where a company’s incorporation in the State having
committed the alleged violation of international law “was required by it
as a precondition for doing business there” (Art. 11, para. (b)).
92. However, this very special case does not seem to correspond to the
one the Court is dealing with here. It is a fact that Mr. Diallo, a Guinean
citizen, settled in Zaire in 1964, when he was 17 years of age, and that he
did not set up his first company, Africom-Zaire, until ten years later, in
1974. In addition, when, in 1979, Mr. Diallo took part in the creation of
Africontainers-Zaire, it was in fact only as manager (gérant) of Africom-
37 AHMADOU SADIO DIALLO JUDGMENT ) 616
Zaire, a company under Congolese law. When Africontainers-Zaire was
set up, 70 per cent of its capital was held by associés of Congolese nation-
ality, and only in 1980, one year later, did Mr. Diallo become an associé
in his own name of that company, holding 40 per cent of the capital, fol-
lowing the withdrawal of the other two associés, the company Africom-
Zaire holding the remaining parts sociales. It appears natural, against
this background, that Africom-Zaire and Africontainers-Zaire were cre-
ated in Zaire and entered in the Trade Register of the city of Kinshasa by
Mr. Diallo, who was already engaged in commercial activities. Further-
more, and above all it has not satisfactorily been established before the
Court that their incorporation in that country, as legal entities of Con-
golese nationality, would have been required of their founders to enable
the founders to operate in the economic sectors concerned.
93. The Court concludes on the facts before it that the companies,
Africom-Zaire and Africontainers-Zaire, were not incorporated in such a
way that they would fall within the scope of protection by substitution in
the sense of Article 11, paragraph (b), of the ILC draft Articles on Dip-
lomatic Protection referred to by Guinea. Therefore, the question of
whether or not this paragraph of Article 11 reflects customary interna-
tional law does not arise in this case.
94. In view of the foregoing, the Court cannot accept Guinea’s claim
to exercise diplomatic protection by substitution. It is therefore the nor-
mal rule of the nationality of the claims which governs the question of
the diplomatic protection of Africom-Zaire and Africontainers-Zaire.
The companies in question have Congolese nationality. The objection as
to inadmissibility raised by the DRC owing to Guinea’s lack of standing
to offer Mr. Diallo diplomatic protection as regards the alleged unlawful
acts of the DRC against the rights of the two companies Africom-Zaire
and Africontainers-Zaire is consequently well founded and must be
upheld.
*
95. Having concluded that Guinea is without standing to offer
Mr. Diallo diplomatic protection as regards the alleged unlawful acts of
the DRC against the rights of the companies Africom-Zaire and Afric-
ontainers-Zaire, the Court need not further consider the DRC’s objection
based on the non-exhaustion of local remedies.
**
96. In view of all the foregoing, the Court concludes that Guinea’s
Application is admissible in so far as it concerns protection of
Mr. Diallo’s rights as an individual and his direct rights as associé in
Africom-Zaire and Africontainers-Zaire.
* * *
38 AHMADOU SADIO DIALLO (JUDGMENT ) 617
97. In accordance with Article 79, paragraph 7, of the Rules of Court
as adopted on 14 April 1978, time-limits for the further proceedings shall
subsequently be fixed by Order of the Court.
*
* *
98. For these reasons,
T HE C OURT ,
(1) As regards the preliminary objection to admissibility raised by the
Democratic Republic of the Congo for lack of standing by the Republic
of Guinea to exercise diplomatic protection in the present case:
(a) unanimously,
Rejects the objection in so far as it concerns protection of Mr. Diallo’s
direct rights as associé in Africom-Zaire and Africontainers-Zaire;
(b) by fourteen votes to one,
Upholds the objection in so far as it concerns protection of Mr. Diallo
in respect of alleged violations of rights of Africom-Zaire and Africon-
tainers-Zaire;
IN FAVOUR : President Higgins; Vice-President Al-Khasawneh; Judges
Ranjeva, Shi, Koroma, Buergenthal, Owada, Simma, Tomka, Abraham,
Keith, Bennouna, Skotnikov; Judge ad hoc Mampuya;
AGAINST: Judge ad hoc Mahiou;
(2) As regards the preliminary objection to admissibility raised by the
Democratic Republic of the Congo on account of non-exhaustion by
Mr. Diallo of local remedies:
(a) unanimously,
Rejects the objection in so far as it concerns protection of Mr. Diallo’s
rights as an individual;
(b) by fourteen votes to one,
Rejects the objection in so far as it concerns protection of Mr. Diallo’s
direct rights as associé in Africom-Zaire and Africontainers-Zaire;
IN FAVOUR : President Higgins; Vice-President Al-Khasawneh; Judges
Ranjeva, Shi, Koroma, Buergenthal, Owada, Simma, Tomka, Abraham,
Keith, Bennouna, Skotnikov; Judge ad hoc Mahiou;
AGAINST: Judge ad hoc Mampuya;
(3) In consequence:
(a) unanimously,
Declares the Application of the Republic of Guinea to be admissible in
so far as it concerns protection of Mr. Diallo’s rights as an individual;
39 AHMADOU SADIO DIALLO (JUDGMENT ) 618
(b) by fourteen votes to one,
Declares the Application of the Republic of Guinea to be admissible in
so far as it concerns protection of Mr. Diallo’s direct rights as associé in
Africom-Zaire and Africontainers-Zaire;
IN FAVOUR : President Higgins; Vice-President Al-Khasawneh; Judges
Ranjeva, Shi, Koroma, Buergenthal, Owada, Simma, Tomka, Abraham,
Keith, Bennouna, Skotnikov; Judge ad hoc Mahiou;
AGAINST : Judge ad hoc Mampuya;
(c) by fourteen votes to one,
Declares the Application of the Republic of Guinea to be inadmissible
in so far as it concerns protection of Mr. Diallo in respect of alleged vio-
lations of rights of Africom-Zaire and Africontainers-Zaire.
IN FAVOUR : President Higgins; Vice-President Al-Khasawneh; Judges
Ranjeva, Shi, Koroma, Buergenthal, Owada, Simma, Tomka, Abraham,
Keith, Bennouna, Skotnikov; Judge ad hoc Mampuya;
AGAINST : Judge ad hoc Mahiou.
Done in French and in English, the French text being authoritative, at
the Peace Palace, The Hague, this twenty-fourth day of May, two thou-
sand and seven, in three copies, one of which will be placed in the
archives of the Court and the others transmitted to the Government of
the Republic of Guinea and the Government of the Democratic Republic
of the Congo, respectively.
(Signed) President. (Signed) Rosalyn H IGGINS,
President.
(Signed) Philippe C OUVREUR ,
Registrar.
Judge ad hoc M AHIOU appends a declaration to the Judgment of the
Court; Judge ad hoc M AMPUYA appends a separate opinion to the Judg-
ment of the Court.
(Initialled) R.H.
(Initialled) Ph.C.
40
COUR INTERNATIONALE DE JUSTICE
RECUEIL DES AR|TS,
AVIS CONSULTATIFS ET ORDONNANCES
AFFAIRE
AHMADOU SADIO DIALLO
(RuPUBLIQUE DE GUIuE.E uPUBLIQUE DuMOCRATIQUE
DU CONGO)
EXCEPTIONS PRuLIMINAIRES
ARRE|T DU 24 MAI 2007
2007
INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE
REPORTS OF JUDGMENTS,
ADVISORY OPINIONS AND ORDERS
CASE CONCERNING
AHMADOU SADIO DIALLO
(REPUBLIC OF GUINEA v. DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC
OF THE CONGO)
PRELIMINARY OBJECTIONS
JUDGMENT OF 24 MAY 2007 Mode officiel de citation:
Ahmadou Sadio Diallo
(République de Guinée c. République démocratique du Congo),
exceptions préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2007 ,p.582
Official citation:
Ahmadou Sadio Diallo
(Republic of Guinea v. Democratic Republic of the Congo),
Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2007 ,p.582
N de vente:
ISSN 0074-4441
Sales number 924
ISBN 978-92-1-071030-5 24 MAI 2007
ARRE|T
AHMADOU SADIO DIALLO
(RuPUBLIQUE DE GUINEuE.RE uPUBLIQUE DEuMOCRATIQUE
DU CONGO)
EXCEPTIONS PRuLIMINAIRES
AHMADOU SADIO DIALLO
(REPUBLIC OF GUINEA v. DEMOCATIC REPUBLIC
OF THE CONGO)
PRELIMINARY OBJECTIONS
24 MAY 2007
JUDGMENT 582
COUR INTERNATIONALE DE JUSTICE
2007 ANNÉE 2007
24 mai
Rôle général
no 103 24 mai 2007
AFFAIRE
AHMADOU SADIO DIALLO
(RuPUBLIQUE DE GUINE uEc.RE uPUBLIQUE DE uMOCRATIQUE
DU CONGO)
EXCEPTIONS PRE uLIMINAIRES
Faits à l’origine de l’affaire — Litiges opposant Africom-Zaïre et Africontai-
ners-Zaïre, deux sociétés privées à responsabilité limitée (SPRL) de droit zaï-
rois, à l’Etat zaïrois et à d’autres partenaires commerciaux — Arrestation,
détention et expulsion de M. Diallo, citoyen guinéen, associé et gérant desdites
sociétés, au motif que sa présence et sa conduite compromettaient l’ordre
public zaïrois — Désaccord entre les Parties sur les circonstances de l’arresta-
tion, de la détention et de l’expulsion de M. Diallo.
**
Objet de la requête — Protection diplomatique en faveur de M. Diallo à rai-
son de la violation de trois catégories de droits — Droits individuels de M. Diallo
en tant que personne — Droits propres de M. Diallo en tant qu’associé des
sociétés Africom-Zaïre et Africontainers-Zaïre — Droits desdites sociétés.
**
Base de compétence de la Cour — Déclarations faites par les Parties en vertu
du paragraphe 2 de l’article 36 du Statut.
**
Exceptions préliminaires à la recevabilité de la requête soulevées par la RDC
— Qualité de la Guinée pour agir — Non-épuisement des voies de recours
internes — Examen par la Cour pour chacune des trois différentes catégo-
ries de droits dont la Guinée allègue la violation.
*
4 582
INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE
YEAR 2007 2007
24 May
24 May 2007 General List
No. 103
CASE CONCERNING
AHMADOU SADIO DIALLO
(REPUBLIC OF GUINEA v. DEMOCRATIC
REPUBLIC OF THE CONGO)
PRELIMINARY OBJECTIONS
Facts underlying the case — Disputes between Africom-Zaire and Africon-
tainers-Zaire, two sociétés privées à responsabilité limitée (SPRLs) incorpo-
rated under Zairean law, on the one hand, and the Zairean State and other
business partners on the other — Arrest, detention and expulsion of Mr. Diallo,
a Guinean citizen, associé and gérant of the companies, on the ground that his
presence and conduct breached public order in Zaire — Disagreement between
the Parties on the circumstances of Mr. Diallo’s arrest, detention and expulsion.
**
Object of the Application — Diplomatic protection on behalf of Mr. Diallo
for the violation of three categories of rights — Mr. Diallo’s individual personal
rights — Mr. Diallo’s direct rights as associé in Africom-Zaire and Africon-
tainers-Zaire — Rights of the companies.
**
Basis of the Court’s jurisdiction — Declarations made by the Parties under
Article 36, paragraph 2, of the Statute.
**
Preliminary objections raised by the DRC to the admissibility of the Applica-
tion — Guinea’s standing — Non-exhaustion of local remedies — Examination
by the Court in respect of each of the three different categories of rights alleged
by Guinea to have been violated.
*
4583 AHMADOU SADIO DIALLO ARRÊT )
Droits individuels de M. Diallo en tant que personne.
Allégation de la RDC selon laquelle la requête guinéenne est irrecevable au
motif que les voies de recours internes n’ont pas été épuisées — Champ d’appli-
cation ratione materiae de la protection diplomatique — Conditions d’exercice
— Nationalité guinéenne de M. Diallo — Charge de la preuve en matière
d’épuisement des voies de recours internes — Guinée devant prouver l’épuise-
ment, par M. Diallo, des voies de recours internes disponibles en RDC ou l’exis-
tence de circonstances exceptionnelles justifiant leur non-épuisement — RDC
devant prouver l’existence de voies de recours disponibles et efficaces non épui-
sées — Examen de la Cour limité à la question des voies de recours internes
contre l’expulsion de M. Diallo — Expulsion qualifiée de «refoulement» lors de
son exécution — Mesures de refoulement non susceptibles de recours en droit
congolais — Erreur de dénomination inopposable — Demande de reconsidéra-
tion auprès de l’autorité administrative ayant pris la mesure ne constituant pas
une voie de recours interne à épuiser — Rejet de l’exception tirée du non-épui-
sement des voies de recours internes.
*
Protection des droits propres de M. Diallo en tant qu’associé des sociétés
Africom-Zaïre et Africontainers-Zaïre.
Allégation de la RDC selon laquelle la requête guinéenne est irrecevable pour
défaut de qualité pour agir, l’expulsion de M. Diallo n’ayant pas porté atteinte
aux droits propres de celui-ci en tant qu’associé — Allégation de la Guinée selon
laquelle l’expulsion de M. Diallo a eu pour effet et pour motif de l’empêcher
d’exercer ses droits propres d’associé et ses droits de gérant des sociétés Afri-
com-Zaïre et Africontainers-Zaïre — Nature juridique desdites sociétés régie
par le droit congolais — Personnalité juridique indépendante des SPRL, dis-
tincte de celle des associés — Etat national d’un associé en droit d’exercer la
protection diplomatique pour un préjudice causé à ses droits propres — Défini-
tion des droits s’attachant au statut d’associé et aux fonctions de gérant d’une
SPRL en droit congolais, et appréciation des effets sur ces droits des mesures
prises à l’encontre de M. Diallo, relevant du fond — Rejet de l’exception tirée
de l’absence de qualité pour agir de la Guinée.
Allégation de la RDC selon laquelle la requête guinéenne est irrecevable pour
non-épuisement des voies de recours internes — Violations alléguées des droits
propres de M. Diallo en tant qu’associé présentées par la Guinée comme une
conséquence directe de son expulsion — Cour ayant conclu que la RDC n’a pas
démontré l’existence, en droit congolais, de voies de recours efficaces contre
l’expulsion dont M. Diallo a fait l’objet — RDC n’ayant pas établi l’existence
de voies de recours distinctes contre les violations alléguées des droits propres de
M. Diallo en tant qu’associé — Rejet de l’exception d’irrecevabilité tirée du
non-épuisement des voies de recours internes.
*
Protection diplomatique en faveur de M. Diallo «par substitution» aux socié-
tés Africom-Zaïre et Africontainers-Zaïre.
Allégation de la RDC selon laquelle la requête guinéenne est irrecevable pour
défaut de qualité pour agir — Argument de la Guinée selon lequel le droit inter-
national coutumier en matière de protection diplomatique d’une société par son
Etat national fait l’objet d’une exception autorisant la protection diplomatique
5 AHMADOU SADIO DIALLO (JUDGMENT ) 583
Mr. Diallo’s individual personal rights.
DRC’s contention that Guinea’s Application is inadmissible on the ground
that local remedies have not been exhausted — Scope ratione materiae of dip-
lomatic protection — Conditions of exercise — Mr. Diallo’s Guinean national-
ity — Burden of proof as regards local remedies — Guinea required to prove
exhaustion by Mr. Diallo of local remedies available in the DRC or the exist-
ence of exceptional circumstances justifying the failure to exhaust them — DRC
required to prove existence and non-exhaustion of available and effective local
remedies — Examination by the Court confined to the question of local rem-
edies in respect of Mr. Diallo’s expulsion — Expulsion characterized as “refusal
of entry” (“refoulement”) when carried out — Refusals of entry not appealable
under Congolese law — DRC cannot rely on error in designation — Request for
reconsideration by the administrative authority having taken the decision not a
local remedy to be exhausted — Objection based on failure to exhaust local
remedies rejected.
*
Protection of Mr. Diallo’s direct rights as associé in Africom-Zaire and Afri-
containers-Zaire.
DRC’s contention that Guinea’s Application is inadmissible for lack of stand-
ing, Mr. Diallo’s expulsion not having injured his direct rights as associé —
Guinea’s contention that the effect of and motive for Mr. Diallo’s expulsion was
to prevent him from exercising his direct rights as associé in Africom-Zaire and
Africontainers-Zaire and his rights as their gérant — Legal nature of the com-
panies governed by Congolese law — Independent legal personality of SPRLs
distinct from that of their associés — National State of associés entitled to exer-
cise diplomatic protection in respect of infringements of their direct rights —
Definition of rights appertaining to the status of associé and to the position of
gérant of an SPRL under Congolese law and assessment of the effects on these
rights of the actions taken against Mr. Diallo, being substantive matters —
Objection based on Guinea’s lack of standing rejected.
DRC’s contention that Guinea’s Application is inadmissible for failure to
exhaust local remedies — Alleged violations of Mr. Diallo’s direct rights as
associé described by Guinea as a direct consequence of his expulsion — Court
having found that the DRC has not proved the existence under Congolese law of
effective remedies against Mr. Diallo’s expulsion — DRC not having shown the
existence of distinct remedies against the alleged violations of Mr. Diallo’s
direct rights as associé — Objection as to inadmissibility based on failure to
exhaust local remedies rejected.
*
Diplomatic protection with respect to Mr. Diallo “by substitution” for Afri-
com-Zaire and Africontainers-Zaire.
DRC’s contention that Guinea’s Application is inadmissible for lack of stand-
ing — Guinea’s argument that customary international law of diplomatic pro-
tection by a company by its State of nationality is subject to an exception
allowing for diplomatic protection of shareholders by their national State “by
5584 AHMADOU SADIO DIALLO (ARRÊT )
des actionnaires par leur Etat national «par substitution» à la société, lorsque
l’Etat dont la responsabilité est en cause est l’Etat national de celle-ci — Excep-
tion non établie, à l’heure actuelle, en droit international coutumier — Question
de savoir s’il existe en droit international coutumier une règle de protection «par
substitution» de portée plus limitée, telle que celle proposée par la Commission
du droit international (CDI) à l’article 11 b) de son projet d’articles sur la pro-
tection diplomatique — Question n’étant pas à trancher en l’espèce — Protec-
tion diplomatique à l’égard des sociétés Africom-Zaïre et Africontainers-Zaïre
régie par la règle normale de la nationalité des réclamations — Sociétés possé-
dant la nationalité congolaise — Exception tirée de l’absence de qualité pour
agir de la Guinée devant être retenue.
Exception soulevée par la RDC à raison de l’absence d’épuisement des voies
de recours internes sans objet.
**
Requête recevable en ce qu’elle a trait à la protection des droits de M. Diallo
en tant qu’individu et de ses droits propres en tant qu’associé des sociétés Afri-
com-Zaïre et Africontainers-Zaïre.
ARRE |T
me
Présents: M H IGGIN, président;.M L-K HASAWNEH , vice-président ;
MM. R ANJEVA,S HI,KOROMA ,B UERGENTHAL ,O WADA ,SIMMA ,TOMKA ,
A BRAHAM ,K EIT,B ENNOUNA ,S KOTNIKOV , juges; MM. M AHIOU,
M AMPUYA , juges ad hoc; M. COUVREUR , greffier.
En l’affaire Ahmadou Sadio Diallo,
entre
la République de Guinée,
représentée par
M. Mohamed Camara, chargé d’affaires par intérim de la République de
Guinée à Bruxelles,
comme agent;
M. Alain Pellet, professeur à l’Université de Paris X-Nanterre, membre et
ancien président de la Commission du droit international des Nations
Unies,
comme agent adjoint, conseil et avocat;
M. Mathias Forteau, professeur à l’Université Lille 2,
M. Jean-Marc Thouvenin, professeur à l’Université de Paris X-Nanterre,
avocat au barreau de Paris, cabinet Sygna Partners,
M. Samuel Wordsworth, membre du barreau d’Angleterre, Essex Court
Chambers,
comme conseils et avocats;
6 AHMADOU SADIO DIALLO (JUDGMENT ) 584
substitution” for the company when the State whose responsibility is at issue is
the national State of the company — Exception not, at present, established in
customary international law — Question whether customary international law
contains a more limited rule of protection “by substitution”, such as that pro-
posed by the International Law Commission (ILC) in Article 11 (b) of its draft
Articles on Diplomatic Protection — Does not arise for decision on present
facts — Diplomatic protection of Africom-Zaire and Africontainers-Zaire gov-
erned by the normal rule of the nationality of the claims — Congolese nation-
ality of the companies — Objection based on Guinea’s lack of standing upheld.
DRC’s objection based on failure to exhaust local remedies without object.
**
Application admissible in so far as it concerns protection of Mr. Diallo’s
rights as an individual and his direct rights as associé in Africom-Zaire and
Africontainers-Zaire.
JUDGMENT
Present: President H IGGIN; Vice-President AL-KHASAWNEH ; Judges RANJEVA,
S H,K OROMA ,B UERGENTHAL ,O WADA ,S IMMA ,T OMKA ,A BRAHAM ,
K EITH,B ENNOUNA ,S KOTNIKOV ; Judges ad hoc M AHIOU,M AMPUYA ;
Registrar COUVREUR .
In the case concerning Ahmadou Sadio Diallo,
between
the Republic of Guinea,
represented by
Mr. Mohamed Camara, Chargé d’affaires a.i. at the Embassy of the Repub-
lic of Guinea, Brussels,
as Agent;
Mr. Alain Pellet, Professor at the University of Paris X-Nanterre, Member
and former Chairman of the International Law Commission of the United
Nations,
as Deputy Agent, Counsel and Advocate;
Mr. Mathias Forteau, Professor at the University of Lille 2,
Mr. Jean-Marc Thouvenin, Professor at the University of Paris X-Nanterre,
member of the Paris Bar, Cabinet Sygna Partners,
Mr. Samuel Wordsworth, member of the English Bar, Essex Court Cham-
bers,
as Counsel and Advocates;
6585 AHMADOU SADIO DIALLO (ARRÊT )
M. Daniel Müller, chercheur au Centre de droit international de Nanterre
(CEDIN), Université de Paris X-Nanterre,
M. Luke Vidal, avocat au barreau de Paris, cabinet Sygna Partners,
comme conseillers,
et
la République démocratique du Congo,
représentée par
S. Exc. M. Pierre Ilunga M’Bundu wa Biloba, ministre de la justice et garde
des sceaux de la République démocratique du Congo,
comme chef de la délégation;
S. Exc. M. Jacques Masangu-a-Mwanza, ambassadeur extraordinaire et
plénipotentiaire de la République démocratique du Congo auprès du
Royaume des Pays-Bas,
comme agent;
e
M Tshibangu Kalala, député national au Parlement congolais, avocat aux
barreaux de Kinshasa et de Bruxelles, cabinet Tshibangu et associés,
comme coagent, conseil et avocat;
M. André Mazyambo Makengo Kisala, professeur de droit international à
l’Université de Kinshasa,
comme conseil et avocat;
M. Yenyi Olungu, premier avocat général de la République, directeur de
cabinet du ministre de la justice et garde des sceaux,
M. Victor Musompo Kasongo, secrétaire particulier du ministre de la justice
et garde des sceaux,
M. Nsingi-zi-Mayemba, ministre conseiller à l’ambassade de la République
démocratique du Congo aux Pays-Bas,
M. Bamana Kalonji Jerry, deuxième conseiller à l’ambassade de la Répu-
blique démocratique du Congo aux Pays-Bas,
M e Kikangala Ngoie, avocat au barreau de Bruxelles,
comme conseillers;
e
M Kadima Mukadi, avocat au barreau de Kinshasa, cabinet Tshibangu et
associés,
M Lufulwabo Tshimpangila, avocat au barreau de Bruxelles,
M Tshibwabwa Mbuyi, avocat au barreau de Bruxelles,
comme assistants de recherche;
M me Ngoya Tshibangu,
comme assistante,
L AC OUR ,
ainsi composée,
après délibéré en chambre du conseil,
rend l’arrêt suivant:
1. Le 28 décembre 1998, le Gouvernement de la République de Guinée
(dénommée ci-après la «Guinée») a déposé au Greffe de la Cour une requête
7 AHMADOU SADIO DIALLO (JUDGMENT ) 585
Mr. Daniel Müller, Researcher at the Centre de droit international de Nan-
terre (CEDIN), University of Paris X-Nanterre,
Mr. Luke Vidal, member of the Paris Bar, Cabinet Sygna Partners,
as Advisers,
and
the Democratic Republic of the Congo,
represented by
H.E. Mr. Pierre Ilunga M’Bundu wa Biloba, Minister of Justice and Keeper
of the Seals, Democratic Republic of the Congo,
as Head of Delegation;
H.E. Mr. Jacques Masangu-a-Mwanza, Ambassador Extraordinary and
Plenipotentiary of the Democratic Republic of the Congo to the Kingdom
of the Netherlands,
as Agent;
Maître Tshibangu Kalala, Deputy, Congolese Parliament, member of the
Kinshasa and Brussels Bars, Cabinet Tshibangu et Associés,
as Co-Agent, Counsel and Advocate;
Mr. André Mazyambo Makengo Kisala, Professor of International Law,
University of Kinshasa,
as Counsel and Advocate;
Mr. Yenyi Olungu, Principal Advocate-General of the Republic, Directeur
de cabinet of the Minister of Justice and Keeper of the Seals,
Mr. Victor Musompo Kasongo, Private Secretary to the Minister of Justice
and Keeper of the Seals,
Mr. Nsingi-zi-Mayemba, Minister-Counsellor, Embassy of the Democratic
Republic of the Congo in the Netherlands,
Mr. Bamana Kalonji Jerry, Second Counsellor, Embassy of the Democratic
Republic of the Congo in the Netherlands,
Maître Kikangala Ngoie, member of the Brussels Bar,
as Advisers;
Maître Kadima Mukadi, member of the Kinshasa Bar, Cabinet Tshibangu et
Associés,
Maître Lufulwabo Tshimpangila, member of the Brussels Bar,
Maître Tshibwabwa Mbuyi, member of the Brussels Bar,
as Research Assistants;
Ms Ngoya Tshibangu,
as Assistant,
T HE COURT ,
composed as above,
after deliberation,
delivers the following Judgment:
1. On 28 December 1998, the Government of the Republic of Guinea (here-
inafter “Guinea”) filed in the Registry of the Court an Application instituting
7586 AHMADOU SADIO DIALLO (ARRÊT )
introductive d’instance contre la République démocratique du Congo (dénom-
mée ci-après la «RDC») au sujet d’un différend relatif à de «graves violations
du droit international» qui auraient été commises «sur la personne d’un res-
sortissant guinéen». La requête était constituée de deux parties, chacune signée
par le ministre des affaires étrangères guinéen. La première partie, intitulée
«requête» (ci-après: «requête (première partie)»), contenait un exposé succinct
de l’objet du différend, du titre de compétence de la Cour et des moyens de
droits invoqués. La seconde partie, intitulée «mémoire de la Guinée» (ci-après:
«requête (seconde partie)»), spécifiait les faits à l’origine du différend, dévelop-
pait les moyens de droit soulevés par la Guinée et indiquait les demandes de
celle-ci. Dans la requête (première partie), la Guinée soutenait que
«M. Ahmadou Sadio Diallo, homme d’affaires de nationalité guinéenne,
a[vait] été, après trente-deux (32) ans passés en République démocratique
du Congo, injustement incarcéré par les autorités de cet Etat, spolié de ses
importants investissements, entreprises et avoirs mobiliers, immobiliers et
bancaires puis expulsé.»
La Guinée y ajoutait que
«[c]ette expulsion [était] intervenue à un moment où M. Ahmadou
Sadio Diallo poursuivait le recouvrement d’importantes créances détenues
par ses entreprises sur l’Etat et les sociétés pétrolières qu’il abrite et dont il
est actionnaire».
L’arrestation, la détention et l’expulsion de M. Diallo constitueraient, entre
autres, des violations
«[du] principe du traitement des étrangers selon «le standard minimum de
civilisation», [de] l’obligation de respect de la liberté et de la propriété des
étrangers, [et de] la reconnaissance aux étrangers incriminés du droit à un
jugement équitable et contradictoire rendu par une juridiction impartiale».
Dans sa requête (première partie), la Guinée invoquait, pour fonder la compé-
tence de la Cour, les déclarations par lesquelles les deux Etats ont accepté la
juridiction obligatoire de celle-ci au titre du paragraphe 2 de l’article 36 du Sta-
tut de la Cour.
2. Conformément au paragraphe 2 de l’article 40 du Statut, la requête a été
immédiatement communiquée au Gouvernement de la RDC par le greffier; et,
conformément au paragraphe 3 de cet article, tous les Etats admis à ester
devant la Cour ont été informés de la requête.
3. Par ordonnance du 25 novembre 1999, la Cour a fixé au 11 septembre
2000 la date d’expiration du délai pour le dépôt du mémoire de la Guinée et
au 11 septembre 2001 la date d’expiration du délai pour le dépôt du contre-
mémoire de la RDC. Par ordonnance du 8 septembre 2000, le président de la
Cour, à la demande de la Guinée, a reporté au 23 mars 2001 la date d’expira-
tion du délai pour le dépôt du mémoire; la date d’expiration du délai pour le
dépôt du contre-mémoire a été reportée, par la même ordonnance, au 4 octobre
2002. La Guinée a dûment déposé son mémoire dans le délai ainsi prorogé.
4. La Cour ne comptant sur le siège aucun juge de la nationalité des Parties,
chacune d’elles s’est prévalue du droit que lui confère le paragraphe 3 de l’ar-
ticle 31 du Statut de procéder à la désignation d’un juge ad hoc pour siéger en
l’affaire. La Guinée a désigné M. Mohammed Bedjaoui, et la RDC a désigné
M. Auguste Mampuya Kanunk’a-Tshiabo. Suite à la démission de M. Bedjaoui
le 10 septembre 2002, la Guinée a désigné M. Ahmed Mahiou.
8 AHMADOU SADIO DIALLO (JUDGMENT ) 586
proceedings against the Democratic Republic of the Congo (hereinafter the
“DRC”) in respect of a dispute concerning “serious violations of international
law” allegedly committed “upon the person of a Guinean national”. The Appli-
cation consisted of two parts, each signed by Guinea’s Minister for Foreign
Affairs. The first part, entitled “Application” (hereinafter the “Application
(Part One)”), contained a succinct statement of the subject of the dispute, the
basis of the Court’s jurisdiction and the legal grounds relied on. The second
part, entitled “Memorial of the Republic of Guinea” (hereinafter the “Applica-
tion (Part Two)”), set out the facts underlying the dispute, expanded on the
legal grounds put forward by Guinea and stated Guinea’s claims. In the Appli-
cation (Part One) Guinea maintained:
“Mr. Ahmadou Sadio Diallo, a businessman of Guinean nationality,
was unjustly imprisoned by the authorities of the Democratic Republic of
the Congo, after being resident in that State for thirty-two (32) years,
despoiled of his sizable investments, businesses, movable and immovable
property and bank accounts, and then expelled.”
Guinea added:
“[t]his expulsion came at a time when Mr. Ahmadou Sadio Diallo was
pursuing recovery of substantial debts owed to his businesses by the State
and by oil companies established in its territory and of which the State is
a shareholder”.
Mr. Diallo’s arrest, detention and expulsion are alleged to constitute,
inter alia, violations of
“the principle that aliens should be treated in accordance with ‘a minimum
standard of civilization’, [of] the obligation to respect the freedom and
property of aliens, [and of] the right of aliens accused of an offence to a
fair trial on adversarial principles by an impartial court”.
To found the jurisdiction of the Court, Guinea invoked in the Application
(Part One) the declarations whereby the two States have recognized the com-
pulsory jurisdiction of the Court under Article 36, paragraph 2, of the Statute
of the Court.
2. Pursuant to Article 40, paragraph 2, of the Statute, the Application was
immediately communicated to the Government of the DRC by the Registrar;
and, in accordance with paragraph 3 of that Article, all States entitled to
appear before the Court were notified of the Application.
3. By an Order of 25 November 1999, the Court fixed 11 September 2000 as
the time-limit for the filing of a Memorial by Guinea and 11 September 2001 as
the time-limit for the filing of a Counter-Memorial by the DRC. By an Order of
8 September 2000, the President of the Court, at Guinea’s request, extended the
time-limit for the filing of the Memorial to 23 March 2001; in the same Order
the time-limit for the filing of the Counter-Memorial was extended to 4 October
2002. Guinea duly filed its Memorial within the time-limit as thus extended.
4. Since the Court included upon the Bench no judge of the nationality of
either of the Parties, each of them availed itself of its right under Article 31,
paragraph 3, of the Statute to choose a judge ad hoc to sit in the case. Guinea
chose Mr. Mohammed Bedjaoui and the DRC Mr. Auguste Mampuya
Kanunk’a-Tshiabo. Following Mr. Bedjaoui’s resignation on 10 September
2002, Guinea chose Mr. Ahmed Mahiou.
8587 AHMADOU SADIO DIALLO (ARRÊT )
5. Le 3 octobre 2002, dans le délai prescrit au paragraphe 1 de l’article 79 du
Règlement de la Cour dans sa version adoptée le 14 avril 1978, la RDC a sou-
levé des exceptions préliminaires portant sur la recevabilité de la requête de la
Guinée. Conformément au paragraphe 3 de l’article 79 du Règlement, la pro-
cédure sur le fond a alors été suspendue. Par ordonnance du 7 novembre 2002,
la Cour, compte tenu des circonstances particulières de l’espèce et de l’accord
des Parties, a fixé au 7 juillet 2003 la date d’expiration du délai pour la présen-
tation par la Guinée d’un exposé écrit contenant ses observations et conclu-
sions sur les exceptions préliminaires soulevées par la RDC. La Guinée a
déposé un tel exposé dans le délai fixé, et l’affaire s’est ainsi trouvée en état
pour ce qui est des exceptions préliminaires.
6. Conformément au paragraphe 2 de l’article 53 de son Règlement, la Cour,
après s’être renseignée auprès des Parties, a décidé que des exemplaires des
pièces de procédure et des documents annexés seraient rendus accessibles au
public à l’ouverture de la procédure orale.
7. Des audiences publiques ont été tenues entre le 27 novembre 2006 et le
1 décembre 2006, au cours desquelles ont été entendus en leurs plaidoiries et
réponses:
Pour la RDC: S. exc. M. Jacques Masangu-a-Mwanza,
M Tshibangu Kalala,
M. André Mazyambo Makengo Kisala.
Pour la Guinée: M. Mohamed Camara,
M. Mathias Forteau,
M. Samuel Wordsworth,
M. Alain Pellet,
M. Jean-Marc Thouvenin.
8. A l’audience du 28 novembre 2006, un membre de la Cour a posé une
question, à laquelle les Parties ont répondu oralement conformément au para-
graphe 4 de l’article 61 du Règlement.
er
9. Par lettre en date du 1 décembre 2006, la Cour, agissant au titre du para-
graphe 1 de l’article 62 du Règlement, a demandé à la RDC de bien vouloir lui
communiquer certains documents additionnels.
*
10. Dans la requête (seconde partie), les demandes ci-après ont été formulées
par la Guinée:
«En la forme: Recevoir la présente requête.
Au fond: Ordonner aux autorités de la République démocratique du
Congo à présenter des excuses officielles et publiques à l’Etat de Guinée
pour les nombreux torts qu’elles lui ont causés en la personne de son res-
sortissant Ahmadou Sadio Diallo;
Constater le caractère certain, liquide et exigible des créances réclamées;
Constater que ces créances doivent être endossées par l’Etat congolais,
conformément aux principes de la responsabilité internationale et de la res-
ponsabilité civile;
Condamner l’Etat congolais à verser à l’Etat de Guinée, pour le compte
de son ressortissant Ahmadou Sadio Diallo, les sommes de
31334685888,45 dollars des Etats-Unis et 14207082872,7Z couvrant les
préjudices financiers subis par ledit ressortissant;
9 AHMADOU SADIO DIALLO JUDGMENT ) 587
5. On 3 October 2002, within the time-limit set in Article 79, paragraph 1, of
the Rules of Court as adopted on 14 April 1978, the DRC raised preliminary
objections in respect of the admissibility of Guinea’s Application. In accord-
ance with Article 79, paragraph 3, of the Rules of Court, the proceedings on
the merits were then suspended. By an Order of 7 November 2002, the Court,
taking account of the particular circumstances of the case and of the agreement
of the Parties, fixed 7 July 2003 as the time-limit for the presentation by Guinea
of a written statement of its observations and submissions on the preliminary
objections raised by the DRC. Guinea filed such a statement within the time-
limit fixed and the case thus became ready for hearing on the preliminary objec-
tions.
6. Pursuant to Article 53, paragraph 2, of the Rules of Court, the Court,
after ascertaining the views of the Parties, decided that copies of the pleadings
and documents annexed would be made accessible to the public on the opening
of the oral proceedings.
7. Public sittings were held from 27 November 2006 to 1 December 2006, at
which the Court heard the oral arguments and replies of:
For the DRC: H.E. Mr. Jacques Masangu-a-Mwanza,
Maître Tshibangu Kalala,
Mr. André Mazyambo Makengo Kisala.
For Guinea: Mr. Mohamed Camara,
Mr. Mathias Forteau,
Mr. Samuel Wordsworth,
Mr. Alain Pellet,
Mr. Jean-Marc Thouvenin.
8. A Member of the Court put a question at the hearing on 28 Novem-
ber 2006, which the Parties answered orally, in accordance with Article 61,
paragraph 4, of the Rules of Court.
9. By a letter dated 1 December 2006, the Court, acting pursuant to Arti-
cle 62, paragraph 1, of the Rules of Court, asked the DRC to furnish it with
certain additional documents.
*
10. In the Application (Part Two), the following requests were made by
Guinea:
“As to the form: To admit the present Application.
As to the merits: To order the authorities of the Democratic Republic of
the Congo to make an official public apology to the State of Guinea for
the numerous wrongs done to it in the person of its national Ahma-
dou Sadio Diallo;
To find that the sums claimed are certain, liquidated and legally due;
To find that the Congolese State must assume responsibility for the pay-
ment of these debts, in accordance with the principles of State responsibil-
ity and civil liability;
To order the Congolese State to pay to the State of Guinea on behalf of
its national Ahmadou Sadio Diallo the sums of US $31,334,685,888.45 and
Z 14,207,082,872.7 in respect of the financial loss suffered by him;
9588 AHMADOU SADIO DIALLO (ARRÊT )
Verser également à l’Etat de Guinée des dommages-intérêts à hauteur
de 15% de la condamnation principale, soit 4700202883,26 dollars et
2131062430,9Z;
Adjuger à l’Etat requérant les intérêts bancaires et moratoires aux taux
respectifs de 15% et 26% l’an courant de la fin de l’année 1995 jusqu’à la
date du parfait paiement;
Condamner également ledit Etat à restituer au requérant tous les biens
non valorisés répertoriés dans la rubrique des créances diverses;
Ordonner à la République démocratique du Congo de présenter dans un
délai d’un mois un échéancier acceptable de remboursement de ces mon-
tants;
A défaut de production de cet échéancier dans le délai indiqué ou en cas
d’irrespect de celui qui serait produit, autoriser l’Etat de Guinée à saisir les
biens de l’Etat congolais partout où ils se trouvent jusqu’à concurrence du
principal et de l’accessoire de la condamnation;
Mettre les frais et dépens de la présente procédure à la charge de l’Etat
congolais. » (Les italiques sont dans l’original.)
11. Dans la procédure écrite, les conclusions ci-après ont été présentées par
les Parties:
Au nom du Gouvernement de la Guinée,
dans le mémoire au fond:
«La République de Guinée a l’honneur de conclure à ce qu’il plaise à la
Cour internationale de Justice de dire et juger:
1) Que, en procédant à l’arrestation arbitraire et à l’expulsion de son res-
sortissant, M. Ahmadou Sadio Diallo, en ne respectant pas, à cette occa-
sion, son droit à bénéficier des dispositions de la convention de Vienne
de [1963] sur les relations consulaires, en le soumettant à un traitement
humiliant et dégradant, en le privant de l’exercice de ses droits de pro-
priété et de direction des sociétés qu’il a fondées en RDC, en l’empêchant
de poursuivre le recouvrement des nombreuses créances qui lui sont
dues, à lui-même et auxdites sociétés, tant par la RDC elle-même que par
d’autres co-contractants, en ne s’acquittant pas de ses propres dettes
envers lui et envers ses sociétés, la Réblique démocratique du Congo a
commis des faits internationalement illcites qui engagent sa responsabi-
lité envers la République de Guinée;
2) Que, de ce fait, la République démocratique du Congo est tenue à la
réparation intégrale du préjudice subi par la République de Guinée en
la personne de son ressortissant;
3) Que cette réparation doit prendre la forme d’une indemnisation cou-
vrant l’ensemble des dommages causés par les faits internationalement
illicites de la République démocratique du Congo, y compris le manque
à gagner, et comprendre des intérêts.
La République de Guinée prie en outre la Cour de bien vouloir l’auto-
riser à présenter une évaluation du montant de l’indemnité qui lui est due
à ce titre par la République démocratique du Congo dans une phase ulté-
rieure de la procédure au cas où les deux Parties ne pourraient s’accorder
sur son montant dans un délai de six mois suivant le prononcé de l’arrêt.»
10 AHMADOU SADIO DIALLO (JUDGMENT ) 588
To pay also to the State of Guinea damages equal to 15 per cent of the
principal award, that is to say US $4,700,202,883.26 and Z 2,131,062,430.9;
To award to the applicant State bank and moratory interest at respec-
tive annual rates of 15 per cent and 26 per cent from the end of the
year 1995 until the date of payment in full;
To order the said State to return to the Applicant all the unvalued assets
set out in the list of miscellaneous claims;
To order the Democratic Republic of the Congo to submit within one
month an acceptable schedule for the repayment of the above sums;
In the event that the said schedule is not produced by the date indicated or
is not respected, to authorize the State of Guinea to seize the assets of the
Congolese State wherever they may be found, up to an amount equal to the
principal sum due and such further amounts as the Court shall have ordered.
To order that the costs of the present proceedings be borne by the Con-
golese State.” (Emphasis in the original.)
11. In the written proceedings, the following submissions were presented by
the Parties:
On behalf of the Government of Guinea,
in the Memorial on the merits:
“The Republic of Guinea has the honour to request that it may please
the International Court of Justice to adjudge and declare:
(1) that, in arbitrarily arresting and expelling its national, Mr. Ahma-
dou Sadio Diallo; in not at that time respecting his right to the benefit
of the provisions of the [1963] Vienna Convention on Consular Rela-
tions; in subjecting him to humiliating and degrading treatment; in
depriving him of the exercise of his rights of ownership and manage-
ment in respect of the companies founded by him in the DRC; in pre-
venting him from pursuing recovery of the numerous debts owed to
him — to himself personally and to the said companies — both by the
DRC itself and by other contractual partners; in not paying its own
debts to him and to his companies, the Democratic Republic of the
Congo has committed internationally wrongful acts which engage its
responsibility to the Republic of Guinea;
(2) that the Democratic Republic of the Congo is accordingly bound to
make full reparation on account of the injury suffered by the Republic
of Guinea in the person of its national;
(3) that such reparation shall take the form of compensation covering the
totality of the injuries caused by the internationally wrongful acts of
the Democratic Republic of the Congo including loss of earnings, and
shall also include interest.
The Republic of Guinea further requests the Court kindly to authorize it
to submit an assessment of the amount of the compensation due to it on
this account from the Democratic Republic of the Congo in a subsequent
phase of the proceedings in the event that the two Parties should be unable
to agree on the amount thereof within a period of six months following
delivery of the Judgment.”
10589 AHMADOU SADIO DIALLO ARRÊT )
Au nom du Gouvernement de la RDC,
dans les exceptions préliminaires:
«La République démocratique du Congo prie respectueusement la Cour
de dire et juger que la requête de la République de Guinée est irrecevable,
1) en raison du fait que la République de Guinée n’a pas qualité pour
exercer la protection diplomatique en la présente instance, sa requête
visant essentiellement à obtenir réparation pour des dommages résul-
tant de la prétendue violation de droits de sociétés qui ne possèdent pas
sa nationalité;
2) en raison du fait que, en tout état de cause, ni les sociétés concernées ni
M. Diallo n’ont épuisé les voies de recours internes disponibles et effi-
caces qui existaient au Zaïre, puis en République démocratique du
Congo.»
Au nom du Gouvernement de la Guinée,
dans l’exposé écrit contenant ses observations et conclusions sur les exceptions
préliminaires soulevées par la RDC:
«Pour les motifs exposés ci-dessus, la République de Guinée prie la
Cour de bien vouloir:
1. Rejeter les exceptions préliminaires soulevées par la République
démocratique du Congo, et
2. Déclarer la requête de la République de Guinée recevable.»
12. Dans la procédure orale, les conclusions ci-après ont été présentées par
les Parties:
Au nom du Gouvernement de la RDC,
à l’audience du 29 novembre 2006:
«La République Démocratique du Congo prie respectueusement la Cour
de dire et juger que la requête de la République de Guinée est irrecevable,
1) en raison du fait que la République de Guinée n’a pas qualité pour
exercer la protection diplomatique en la présente instance, sa requête
visant essentiellement à obtenir la réparation pour des dommages résul-
tant de la violation de droits de sociétés qui ne possèdent pas sa natio-
nalité;
2) en raison du fait que, en tout état de cause, ni les sociétés concernées ni
M. Diallo n’ont épuisé les voies de recours internes existants, dispo-
nibles et efficaces en République démocratique du Congo.»
Au nom du Gouvernement de la Guinée,
à l’audience du 1 décembre 2006:
«Pour les motifs qui ont été exposés tant dans ses observations du
7 juillet 2003 que lors des plaidoiries orales, la République de Guinée prie
la Cour internationale de Justice de bien vouloir:
1) rejeter les exceptions préliminaires soulevées par la République démo-
cratique du Congo;
2) déclarer la requête de la République de Guinée recevable; et
11 AHMADOU SADIO DIALLO (JUDGMENT ) 589
On behalf of the Government of the DRC,
in the preliminary objections:
“The Democratic Republic of the Congo respectfully requests the Court
to adjudge and declare that the Application of the Republic of Guinea is
inadmissible,
(1) on the ground that the Republic of Guinea lacks standing to exercise
diplomatic protection in the present proceedings, since its Application
seeks essentially to secure reparation for injury suffered on account of
the alleged violation of rights of companies not possessing its nation-
ality;
(2) on the ground that, in any event, neither the companies in question
nor Mr. Diallo have exhausted the available and effective local rem-
edies existing in Zaire, and subsequently in the Democratic Republic
of the Congo.”
On behalf of the Government of Guinea,
in the written statement containing its observations and submissions on the
preliminary objections raised by the DRC:
“For the reasons set out above, the Republic of Guinea kindly requests
the Court to:
1. Reject the preliminary objections raised by the Democratic Republic
of the Congo, and
2. Declare the Application of the Republic of Guinea admissible.”
12. At the oral proceedings, the following submissions were presented by the
Parties:
On behalf of the Government of the DRC,
at the hearing of 29 November 2006:
“The Democratic Republic of the Congo respectfully requests the Court
to adjudge and declare that the Application of the Republic of Guinea is
inadmissible,
(1) on the ground that the Republic of Guinea lacks standing to exercise
diplomatic protection in the present proceedings, since its Application
seeks essentially to secure reparation for injury suffered on account of
the violation of rights of companies not possessing its nationality;
(2) on the ground that, in any event, neither the companies in question
nor Mr. Diallo have exhausted the available and effective local rem-
edies existing in the Democratic Republic of the Congo.”
On behalf of the Government of Guinea,
at the hearing of 1 December 2006:
“For the reasons set out in its Observations of 7 July 2003 and in oral
argument, the Republic of Guinea kindly requests the International Court
of Justice:
(1) to reject the preliminary objections raised by the Democratic Republic
of the Congo;
(2) to declare the Application of the Republic of Guinea admissible; and
11590 AHMADOU SADIO DIALLO (ARRÊT )
3) fixer les délais relatifs à la suite de la procédure.»
* * *
13. La Cour commencera par décrire brièvement le contexte factuel
dans lequel s’inscrit la présente affaire.
14. Les Parties se sont accordées dans leurs écritures sur les faits sui-
vants. M. Ahmadou Sadio Diallo, citoyen guinéen, s’est installé en RDC
(dénommée «Congo» de 1960 à 1971, puis «Zaïre» de 1971 à 1997) en
1964. En 1974, il y a créé la société d’import/export Africom-Zaïre, une
société privée à responsabilité limitée (ci-après: «SPRL») de droit zaïrois,
enregistrée au registre du commerce de la ville de Kinshasa, et dont il
devint le gérant. En 1979, M. Diallo étendit ses activités en participant,
en tant que gérant de la société Africom-Zaïre et avec l’appui de deux
partenaires privés, à la création d’une nouvelle SPRL de droit zaïrois spé-
cialisée dans le transport de marchandises par conteneurs. Le capital de
cette nouvelle société, dénommée Africontainers-Zaïre, était détenu à
hauteur de 40% par M. Zala, de nationalité zaïroise, à hauteur de 30%
par M me Dewast, de nationalité française, et à hauteur de 30% par la
société Africom-Zaïre. Elle fut également enregistrée au registre du com-
merce de la ville de Kinshasa. En 1980, les deux associés de la société
Africom-Zaïre dans la société Africontainers-Zaïre se retirèrent de cette
dernière. Les parts sociales (voir paragraphe 25 ci-dessous) de la société
Africontainers-Zaïre furent dès lors réparties comme suit: 60% à la
société Africom-Zaïre et 40% à M. Diallo. M. Diallo devint à la même
époque le gérant de la société Africontainers-Zaïre. Vers la fin des
années quatre-vingt, les relations des sociétés Africom-Zaïre et Afri-
containers-Zaïre avec leurs partenaires commerciaux commencèrent à
se dégrader. Les deux sociétés entreprirent dès ce moment, par l’inter-
médiaire de leur gérant, M. Diallo, divers recours, y compris judiciaires,
pour tenter de recouvrer des créances alléguées. Les différents litiges
opposant Africom-Zaïre et Africontainers-Zaïre à leurs partenaires com-
merciaux se sont poursuivis tout au long des années quatre-vingt-dix et
restent pour l’essentiel non résolus à ce jour. La société Africom-Zaïre
réclame ainsi à la RDC l’apurement d’une dette (reconnue par la RDC)
issue du non-paiement de livraisons de papier-listing à l’Etat zaïrois entre
1983 et 1986. Un autre conflit, relatif à des arriérés ou trop-perçus de
loyer, oppose Africom-Zaïre à la société Plantation Lever au Zaïre
(«PLZ»). Quant à la société Africontainers-Zaïre, elle est en litige avec
les sociétés Zaïre Fina, Zaïre Shell et Zaïre Mobil Oil, ainsi qu’avec
l’Office national des transports («ONATRA») et la Générale des car-
rières et des mines («Gécamines»); ces litiges ont trait, pour l’essentiel, à
des violations alléguées de clauses contractuelles d’exclusivité, ainsi qu’au
chômage, à l’usage abusif et à la destruction ou la perte de conteneurs.
15. La Cour estime que les faits suivants sont également établis. Le
31 octobre 1995, le premier ministre zaïrois prit un décret d’expulsion à
l’encontre de M. Diallo. Aux termes dudit décret, l’expulsion était moti-
12 AHMADOU SADIO DIALLO (JUDGMENT ) 590
(3) to fix time-limits for the further proceedings.”
*
* *
13. The Court will begin with a brief description of the factual back-
ground to the present case.
14. As set out in their written pleadings, the Parties are in agreement
as to the following facts. Mr. Ahmadou Sadio Diallo, a Guinean citizen,
settled in the DRC (called “Congo” between 1960 and 1971 and “Zaire”
between 1971 and 1997) in 1964. There, in 1974, he founded an import-
export company, Africom-Zaire, a société privée à responsabilité limitée
(private limited liability company, hereinafter “SPRL”) incorporated
under Zairean law and entered in the Trade Register of the city of Kin-
shasa, and he became its gérant (manager). In 1979 Mr. Diallo expanded
his activities, taking part, as gérant of Africom-Zaire and with backing
from two private partners, in the founding of another Zairean SPRL,
specializing in the containerized transport of goods. The capital in the
new company, Africontainers-Zaire, was held as follows: 40 per cent by
Mr. Zala, a Zairean national; 30 per cent by Ms Dewast, a French
national; and 30 per cent by Africom-Zaire. It too was entered in the
Trade Register of the city of Kinshasa. In 1980 Africom-Zaire’s two part-
ners in Africontainers-Zaire withdrew. The parts sociales (see para-
graph 25 hereunder) in Africontainers-Zaire were then held as follows:
60 per cent by Africom-Zaire and 40 per cent by Mr. Diallo. At the same
time Mr. Diallo became the gérant of Africontainers-Zaire. Towards the
end of the 1980s, Africom-Zaire’s and Africontainers-Zaire’s relation-
ships with their business partners started to deteriorate. The two compa-
nies, acting through their gérant, Mr. Diallo, then initiated various steps,
including judicial ones, in an attempt to recover alleged debts. The vari-
ous disputes between Africom-Zaire or Africontainers-Zaire, on the one
hand, and their business partners, on the other, continued throughout the
1990s and for the most part remain unresolved today. Thus, Africom-
Zaire claims payment from the DRC of a debt (acknowledged by the
DRC) resulting from default in payment for deliveries of listing paper to
the Zairean State between 1983 and 1986. Africom-Zaire is involved in
another dispute, concerning arrears or overpayments of rent, with Plan-
tation Lever au Zaire (“PLZ”). Africontainers-Zaire is in dispute with the
companies Zaire Fina, Zaire Shell and Zaire Mobil Oil, as well as with
the Office National des Transports (“ONATRA”) and Générale des Car-
rières et des Mines (“Gécamines”). For the most part these differences
concern alleged violations of contractual exclusivity clauses and the lay-
up, improper use or destruction or loss of containers.
15. The Court considers the following facts also to be established. On
31 October 1995, the Prime Minister of Zaire issued an expulsion Order
against Mr. Diallo. The Order gave the following reason for the expul-
12591 AHMADOU SADIO DIALLO (ARRÊT )
vée par le fait que «la présence et la conduite [de M. Diallo] avaient com-
promis et continu[ai]ent de compromettre l’ordre public zaïrois, spéciale-
ment en matière économique, financière et monétaire». Le 31 janvier
1996, M. Diallo, qui avait fait l’objet d’une arrestation préalable, fut ren-
voyé du territoire zaïrois et reconduit en Guinée par la voie aérienne. Cet
éloignement du territoire zaïrois fut acté et notifié à M. Diallo sous la
forme d’un procès-verbal de refoulement pour «séjour irrégulier», établi
à l’aéroport de Kinshasa le même jour.
*
16. La Guinée et la RDC ont par ailleurs maintenu, tout au long de la
procédure, des points de vue divergents sur un certain nombre d’autres faits.
17. En ce qui concerne les circonstances particulières de l’arrestation,
de la détention et de l’expulsion de M. Diallo, la Guinée soutient que, le
5 novembre 1995, M. Diallo a été «mis clandestinement aux arrêts sans
aucune forme de procès ou même d’interrogatoire». Il serait resté enfermé
pendant une première période de deux mois, puis aurait été relâché le
10 janvier 1996, «[s]uite à l’intervention du président [zaïrois] lui-même»,
pour être ensuite «immédiatement repris et emprisonné durant deux
semaines [de plus]» avant d’être expulsé. M. Diallo aurait ainsi été détenu
pendant soixante-quinze jours au total. La Guinée ajoute qu’il a subi de
mauvais traitements en prison et qu’il «[a été] privé du bénéfice de la
convention de Vienne de 1963 sur les relations consulaires». Depuis son
expulsion, M. Diallo serait sans ressources et ne pourrait plus exercer ses
fonctions de dirigeant, ni ses droits liés à sa qualité d’actionnaire des
sociétés Africom-Zaïre et Africontainers-Zaïre.
18. La Guinée soutient encore que l’arrestation, la détention et l’expul-
sion de M. Diallo constituent l’aboutissement d’une politique de la RDC
visant à empêcher M. Diallo de recouvrer les créances dues à ses sociétés,
y compris celles reconnues par la justice. Selon la Guinée, avant d’arrêter
M. Diallo et de l’expulser en janvier 1996, les autorités congolaises
s’étaient, en effet, ingérées à de multiples reprises dans les affaires des
sociétés de M. Diallo. La Guinée souligne que M. Diallo avait déjà été
victime d’une première incarcération d’une durée d’une année, en 1988, à
la suite de sa tentative de recouvrement des créances dues par l’Etat zaï-
rois à la société Africom-Zaïre. La Guinée invoque également certaines
mesures prises par la RDC dans le courant de l’année 1995 pour «sus-
pendre arbitrairement les procédures internes d’exécution de décisions
rendues en faveur des sociétés de M. Diallo». Elle explique ainsi que
«l’exécution de l’arrêt rendu [par le tribunal de grande instance de
Kinshasa] dans l’affaire Africontainers[-Zaïre] c. Zaïre Shell [avait
été] suspendue, le 13 septembre [1995], sur ordre du [vice-]ministre de
la justice [zaïrois], sans aucune base juridique».
Après cette suspension, une saisie-exécution aurait bien eu lieu contre
Zaïre Shell mais, «le 13 octobre [1995], il [aurait été] procédé, en dehors
13 AHMADOU SADIO DIALLO (JUDGMENT ) 591
sion: Mr. Diallo’s “presence and conduct have breached public order in
Zaire, especially in the economic, financial and monetary areas, and con-
tinue to do so”. On 31 January 1996, Mr. Diallo, already under arrest,
was deported from Zaire and returned to Guinea by air. The removal
from Zaire was formalized and served on Mr. Diallo in the shape of a
notice of refusal of entry (refoulement) on account of “illegal residence”
(séjour irrégulier) that had been drawn up at the Kinshasa airport on the
same day.
*
16. Throughout the proceedings Guinea and the DRC have continued
to differ on a number of other facts.
17. In respect of the specific circumstances of Mr. Diallo’s arrest,
detention and expulsion, Guinea maintains that Mr. Diallo was “secretly
placed in detention, without any form of judicial process or even exami-
nation” on 5 November 1995. He allegedly remained imprisoned first for
two months, before being released on 10 January 1996, “further to inter-
vention by the [Zairean] President himself”, only then to be “immediately
rearrested and imprisoned for two [more] weeks” before being expelled.
Mr. Diallo is thus said to have been detained for 75 days in all. Guinea
adds that he was mistreated while in prison and was “deprived of the
benefit of the 1963 Vienna Convention on Consular Relations”. Accord-
ing to Guinea, Mr. Diallo has been without means of support since his
expulsion and he has been unable to fulfil his functions as executive
officer (dirigeant) of, or exercise his rights as shareholder in, Africom-
Zaire and Africontainers-Zaire.
18. Guinea further maintains that Mr. Diallo’s arrest, detention and
expulsion were the culmination of a DRC policy to prevent him from
recovering the debts owed to his companies, including judgment debts.
Guinea claims that, before arresting Mr. Diallo and expelling him in Janu-
ary 1996, the Congolese authorities repeatedly interfered in the affairs of
his companies. Guinea contends that Mr. Diallo had already suffered one
year of imprisonment, in 1988, after trying to recover debts owed to Afri-
com-Zaire by the Zairean State. Guinea also cites certain steps taken by
the DRC in the course of 1995 “arbitrarily to stay the domestic proceed-
ings for the enforcement of decisions handed down in favour of
Mr. Diallo’s companies”. It thus explains:
“Enforcement of the judgment [by the Kinshasa Tribunal de grande
instance]inthe Africontainers[-Zaire] v. Zaire Shell case was stayed,
on 13 September [1995], by order of the [Zairean Vice-] Minister of
Justice, without any legal basis.”
After the stay was lifted, property belonging to Zaire Shell was attached
but “the attachments were once again revoked on 13 October [1995], this
13592 AHMADOU SADIO DIALLO (ARRÊT )
de tout cadre légal, sur «instructions verbales» du ministre de la justice,
à une nouvelle mainlevée, cette fois-ci définitive, des saisies-exécutions».
La Guinée ajoute par ailleurs que l’arrestation, la détention et l’expulsion
de M. Diallo ont eu lieu alors même que les sociétés Zaïre Shell, d’une
part, et Zaïre Fina et Zaïre Mobil Oil, d’autre part, s’étaient adressées au
ministre de la justice zaïrois, par des lettres en date, respectivement, du
29 août 1995 et du 15 novembre 1995, afin de «sollicit[er] l’intervention
du gouvernement pour prévenir les cours et tribunaux des agissements de
M. Ahmadou Sadio Diallo dans son entreprise de déstabilisation des socié-
tés commerciales».
19. La RDC rejette ces allégations de la Guinée et affirme que la durée
et les conditions de la détention de M. Diallo dans le cadre de la procé-
dure d’expulsion ont été conformes au droit zaïrois. La durée de déten-
tion légale de huit jours au maximum n’aurait en particulier pas été
dépassée. La RDC ajoute que la mesure d’expulsion de M. Diallo était
justifiée par les revendications financières de plus en plus exorbitantes et
«manifestement dépourvu[e]s de fondement» que celui-ci avait formulées
à l’encontre d’entreprises publiques zaïroises et de sociétés privées opé-
rant au Zaïre, et par la campagne de désinformation qu’il y avait initiée
«à destination des plus hautes instances de l’Etat zaïrois, mais aussi de
très hautes personnalités étrangères». La RDC souligne que
«la somme totale que M. Diallo prétendait être due aux sociétés
dont il était le dirigeant se montait à plus de 36 milliards de dollars
des Etats-Unis ..., ce qui représente près de trois fois le montant de la
dette extérieure totale de la [RDC]».
Elle ajoute qu’«il est en outre apparu aux autorités zaïroises que M. Diallo
avait été impliqué dans certains trafics de devises, et s’était par ailleurs
rendu coupable de plusieurs tentatives de corruption». Les actions de
M. Diallo auraient donc risqué d’affecter gravement non seulement le
bon fonctionnement des entreprises concernées, mais aussi l’ordre public
zaïrois.
20. La RDC conteste par ailleurs s’être ingérée dans les affaires des
sociétés Africom-Zaïre et Africontainers-Zaïre et que l’expulsion de
M. Diallo ait eu pour but d’empêcher celles-ci de mener à terme les pro-
cédures judiciaires qu’elles avaient entamées pour recouvrer leurs
créances. La RDC ne nie pas que le ministre de la justice ait ordonné, en
septembre 1995, la suspension de l’exécution de l’arrêt rendu par le tribu-
nal de grande instance de Kinshasa dans l’affaireAfricontainers-Zaïre c.
Zaïre Shell. Elle explique cependant que, «lorsque l’exécution d’une déci-
sion judiciaire est susceptible ... d’entraîner des graves désordres publics»,
le droit zaïrois autorise le ministre de la justice à «suspendre son exécution
et [à] demander à l’Inspectorat général des services judiciaires d’en vérifier
la régularité». Elle ajoute que ce type de procédure, «[qui] se retrouve ...
dans plusieurs Etats africains», n’est «en rien contraire au principe de la
séparation des pouvoirs tel qu’il est conçu dans cette région du monde».
La RDC précise qu’en l’espèce la suspension de l’exécution de l’arrêt sus-
14 AHMADOU SADIO DIALLO (JUDGMENT ) 592
time permanently, on ‘oral instructions’ from the Minister of Justice and
outside the law”. Guinea adds that Mr. Diallo’s arrest, detention and
expulsion took place just as Zaire Shell, for its part, and Zaire Fina and
Zaire Mobil Oil, for theirs, approached Zaire’s Minister of Justice, by let-
ters dated 29 August 1995 and 15 November 1995, respectively, “seeking
the intervention of the Government to warn the courts and tribunals
about Mr. Ahmadou Sadio Diallo’s conduct in his campaign to destabilize
commercial companies”.
19. The DRC rejects these allegations by Guinea and argues that the
duration and conditions of Mr. Diallo’s detention during the expulsion
process were in conformity with Zairean law. In particular, it contends
that the statutory maximum of eight days’ detention was not exceeded.
The DRC adds that the decision expelling Mr. Diallo was justified by his
“manifestly groundless” and increasingly exaggerated financial claims
against Zairean public undertakings and private companies operating in
Zaire and by the disinformation campaign he had launched there “aimed
at the highest levels of the Zairean State, as well as very prominent fig-
ures abroad”. The DRC notes that
“the total sum claimed by Mr. Diallo as owed to the companies run
by him came to over 36 billion United States dollars...,which rep-
resents nearly three times the [DRC’s] total foreign debt”.
It adds: “the Zairean authorities also discovered that Mr. Diallo had
been involved in currency trafficking and that he was moreover guilty of
a number of attempts at bribery”. Mr. Diallo’s actions thus allegedly
threatened seriously to compromise not only the operation of the under-
takings concerned but also public order in Zaire.
20. The DRC further claims not to have interfered in the affairs of
Africom-Zaire and Africontainers-Zaire or to have expelled Mr. Diallo
with a view to preventing the companies from completing the legal pro-
ceedings they had brought to recover monies owed them. The DRC does
not deny that in September 1995 the Minister of Justice ordered a stay of
execution of the judgment rendered by the Kinshasa Tribunal de grande
instance in the Africontainers-Zaire v. Zaire Shell case. It nevertheless
explains that, “when the enforcement of a judicial decision is liable to...
lead to serious public disorder”, Zairean law allows the Minister of Jus-
tice to “stay its execution and request the Inspectorat général des services
judiciaires (Inspectorate-General of Courts) to review it for legality”. It
adds that procedures of this type, “found...n i a number of African
States”, are “in no way contrary to the principle of separation of powers,
as it is understood in that part of the world”. The DRC points out that
the stay of execution of the judgment in question “was of very short
14593 AHMADOU SADIO DIALLO (ARRÊT )
visé «a été de très courte durée», puisque quelques jours après celle-ci le
ministre de la justice a «invité le président de la Cour d’appel à «prendre
les dispositions utiles pour exécuter» l’arrêt ... [au motif qu’]«il n’y avait
aucun mal-jugé manifeste»». La RDC insiste au demeurant sur le fait que
l’on ne peut confondre M. Diallo avec les sociétés Africom-Zaïre et Afri-
containers-Zaïre, que celles-ci ont en effet des personnalités juridiques dis-
tinctes, et que les mesures prises à l’encontre de M. Diallo ne peuvent être
assimilées à des mesures contre les sociétés. Ces dernières seraient en par-
ticulier restées entièrement libres de poursuivre toutes les procédures judi-
ciaires qu’elles avaient entamées, après l’expulsion de M. Diallo, ce qu’elles
auraient fait en l’occurrence, selon la RDC.
21. A l’audience, la RDC a en outre fait état de divers problèmes qui se
poseraient en relation avec la société Africom-Zaïre. Ainsi, en réponse à la
question posée par le juge Bennouna à la fin du premier tour de plaidoiries,
tendant à obtenir des deux Parties une clarification sur le point de savoir
«si la législation de la République démocratique du Congo ou la
jurisprudence des tribunaux de ce pays autoris[ai]ent la création
d’une société privée à responsabilité limitée avec un actionnaire
unique et par une seule personne» (voir paragraphe 8 ci-dessus),
la RDC a exposé que «la législation congolaise en vigueur n’autoris[ait]
pas la création d’une société privée à responsabilité limitée par une seule
personne» et que M. Diallo ne pouvait, en conséquence, être, comme le
prétendait la Guinée, l’unique associé de la société Africom-Zaïre.
22. La RDC fit ensuite valoir, pour la première fois, que M. Diallo
n’était, en réalité, pas du tout associé de la société Africom-Zaïre. Elle
invoqua à l’appui de cette affirmation, et produisit à l’audience, les statuts
d’une société dénommée «Africom», qu’elle déclara n’avoir découverts
que quelques jours auparavant dans les archives du registre du commerce
de la ville de Kinshasa. Après la clôture de la procédure orale, la Cour,
agissant au titre de l’article 62 du Règlement, pria la RDC de lui faire
tenir les statuts de la société «Africom-Zaïre»; en réponse, la RDC fit
parvenir au Greffe, par lettre du 20 décembre 2006, un document identi-
que à celui qu’elle avait produit à l’audience, accompagné d’une note indi-
quant qu’elle n’avait pu trouver de référence, dans le registre du com-
merce de la ville de Kinshasa, à la société Africom-Zaïre. Après que la
Guinée eut présenté certaines observations sur cette correspondance et ses
annexes, la RDC communiqua à la Cour, par lettre du 31 janvier 2007,
certains commentaires en réponse, aux termes desquels elle reconnaissait
que la société Africom-Zaïre avait bien existé et avait été inscrite au re-
gistre du commerce de la ville de Kinshasa, mais expliquait que ladite socié-
té avait cessé toutes ses activités depuis le milieu des années quatre-vingt.
Et la RDC de préciser dans cette lettre que «selon le droit congolais, une
société commerciale qui se trouve dans une telle situation [d’inactivité] est
automatiquement radiée du registre du commerce pour cessation d’activi-
tés» si bien qu’il était «fort possible que [le] dossier [d’Africom-Zaïre] ait
été déclassé, égaré ou détruit par les services administratifs [congolais]».
15 AHMADOU SADIO DIALLO (JUDGMENT ) 593
duration”, because a few days after the stay took effect the Minister of
Justice “requested the president of the Court of Appeal to ‘take the nec-
essary measures to execute’ the judgment...[onthe ground that] ‘there
had been no manifest error’”. The DRC moreover stresses that Mr. Diallo
should not be confused with Africom-Zaire and Africontainers-Zaire,
that the companies are separate legal entities and that the actions taken
against Mr. Diallo cannot be equated with actions against the companies.
Specifically, the companies remained completely free, after Mr. Diallo’s
expulsion, to pursue any and all legal proceedings they had begun and
did in fact do so, according to the DRC.
21. At the hearings the DRC made reference to various problems said
to exist in connection with Africom-Zaire. Thus, in response to the ques-
tion put by Judge Bennouna at the end of the first round of oral argu-
ment, seeking clarification from both Parties as to
“whether the legislation of the Democratic Republic of the Congo or
the jurisprudence of the courts of the country authorizes the creation
of a sociéte privée à responsabilité limitée with a single shareholder
and by one person” (see paragraph 8 above),
the DRC explained that “Congolese legislation in force does not permit
the incorporation of a société privée à responsabilité limitée by just one
person” and that, contrary to Guinea’s contention, Mr. Diallo could not
therefore be the sole associé in Africom-Zaire.
22. The DRC next argued, for the first time, that in reality Mr. Diallo
was not an associé at all in Africom-Zaire. In support it cited, and pro-
duced at the hearing, the articles of incorporation of a company called
“Africom”, claiming to have discovered them just a few days earlier in
the files of the Trade Register of the city of Kinshasa. After the oral pro-
ceedings had closed, the Court, acting pursuant to Article 62 of the Rules
of Court, asked the DRC to provide it with the articles of incorporation
of “Africom-Zaire”. In response, the DRC, by a letter of 20 Decem-
ber 2006, transmitted to the Registry a document identical to the one it
had produced at the hearings, accompanied by a note stating that it had
been unable to find any reference to Africom-Zaire in the Trade Register
of the city of Kinshasa. After Guinea submitted observations on the let-
ter and its annexes, the DRC communicated to the Court, by a letter of
31 January 2007, comments in reply, in which it acknowledged that Afri-
com-Zaire had indeed existed and been registered in the Trade Register
of the city of Kinshasa but explained that the company had ceased all
activity in the mid-1980s. The DRC stated in that letter that “under Con-
golese law, a commercial company in such a situation [of inactivity] is
automatically struck off the Trade Register as having ceased trading”, so
that it was “highly possible that [the Africom-Zaire] file was removed
from the files, lost or destroyed by the [Congolese] administrative staff”.
15594 AHMADOU SADIO DIALLO (ARRÊT )
23. Tout en admettant que la législation congolaise n’autorise pas la
création d’une SPRL par une seule personne, la Guinée a pour sa part
rejeté, dans le cadre de sa réponse à la question posée par le juge Ben-
nouna (voir paragraphes 8 et 21 ci-dessus), l’argumentation de la RDC
selon laquelle M. Diallo ne pouvait pas être actionnaire unique de la
société Africom-Zaïre. Elle a soutenu que «le fait de ne pas pouvoir créer
une société unipersonnelle n’empêche nullement ... une société de devenir
unipersonnelle par la suite» et s’est référée à cet effet au décret du 6 mars
1951 instituant le registre du commerce du Zaïre, qui «ne mentionne pas
le cas ... de la société devenant unipersonnelle comme un cas dans lequel
il faudrait procéder à la radiation de l’immatriculation au registre du
commerce».
24. La Guinée a par ailleurs noté que le document mentionné par la
RDC à l’audience et communiqué à la Cour concerne une autre société,
qui «n’a[urait] aucun lien avec celle de M. Diallo». Elle en veut pour
preuve que les domiciles des sièges sociaux des deux sociétés, leurs
numéros respectifs d’immatriculation au registre du commerce ainsi que
leurs gérants ne sont pas les mêmes, et que leur objet social et leur date
de constitution sont également différents. La Guinée a fait valoir que
«l’existence même de [la] société [Africom-Zaïre] et de ses statuts n’[était]
pas contestable». Elle a souligné à cet égard que la validité du dépôt des
statuts de ladite société avait été confirmée par le ministère public
devant la Cour suprême de justice de la RDC, et elle a invoqué «[de]
nombreux documents officiels émanant d’autorités zaïroises» qui recon-
naissent que «M. Diallo est le gérant de la société Africom-Zaïre». La
Guinée a enfin soutenu que la RDC avait admis non seulement l’exis-
tence des deux sociétés en cause, mais aussi le fait que M. Diallo était
«devenu, dans les faits, le seul dirigeant de ces deux sociétés de droit
zaïrois».
**
25. La Cour relève, à titre liminaire, que les sociétés Africom-Zaïre et
Africontainers-Zaïre sont des sociétés privées à responsabilité limitée
(SPRL) de droit congolais, à savoir des sociétés
«que forment des personnes, n’engageant que leur apport, qui ne
[font] pas publiquement appel à l’épargne et dont les parts obliga-
toirement uniformes et nominatives ne sont pas librement transmis-
sibles» (article 36 du décret du 27 février 1887 sur les sociétés com-
merciales).
D’après la législation congolaise, les détenteurs des parts sociales des
SPRL, tels que M. Diallo, sont appelés des «associés» (voir par exemple
les articles 43, 44, 45 et 51 du décret du 27 février 1887). Dans leurs écri-
tures et à l’audience, les Parties ont cependant fréquemment usé du terme
générique «actionnaire» lorsqu’elles entendaient viser la qualité d’associé
de M. Diallo dans les deux sociétés susmentionnées. Compte tenu de ce
16 AHMADOU SADIO DIALLO (JUDGMENT ) 594
23. While admitting that Congolese legislation does not allow for the
incorporation of an SPRL by one person, Guinea, in answering the ques-
tion put by Judge Bennouna (see paragraphs 8 and 21 above), rejected
the DRC’s argument that Mr. Diallo could not be the sole shareholder in
Africom-Zaire. It maintained that “the fact of not being able to create a
one-person company in no way prevents...a company becoming uni-
personal subsequently” and in support cited the Decree of 6 March 1951
establishing Zaire’s trade register, which “does not mention a company’s
becoming unipersonal as a case necessitating the cancellation of its reg-
istration in the trade register”.
24. Guinea further stated that the document referred to by the DRC
at the hearing and provided to the Court concerns another company,
one “not connected with Mr. Diallo’s company”. As proof thereof, it
pointed out that the registered office addresses, registration numbers
in the Trade Register and gérants of the two companies are different,
as are their corporate purposes and dates of incorporation. Guinea
argued that “the existence of [the] company [Africom-Zaire] and its
articles of incorporation is beyond dispute”. In this connection it
pointed out that the validity of the filing of the company’s articles of
incorporation had been confirmed by the public prosecutor before the
Supreme Court of Justice of the DRC, and it cited “many official
documents issued by Zairean authorities” recognizing “Mr. Diallo to
be the gérant of Africom-Zaire”. Finally, Guinea maintained that the
DRC had acknowledged not only the existence of the two companies
in question but also the fact that Mr. Diallo had “become, in fact, the
sole executive officer of these two companies incorporated under the
laws of Zaire”.
**
25. The Court notes at the outset that Africom-Zaire and Africontain-
ers-Zaire are sociétés privées à responsabilité limitée (SPRLs) incorpo-
rated under Congolese law, i.e. companies
“which are formed by persons whose liability is limited to their capi-
tal contributions; which are not publicly held companies; and in
which the parts sociales (shares), required to be uniform and in reg-
istered form, are not freely transferable” (Article 36 of the Decree of
27 February 1887 on commercial companies).
Under Congolese law, holders of parts sociales (“not freely transferable”
shares) in SPRLs, like Mr. Diallo, are termed “associés” (see, for exam-
ple, Articles 43, 44, 45, and 51 of the Decree of 27 February 1887). In
their written pleadings and at the hearings, the Parties have however
often employed the generic term “shareholder” in referring to Mr.
Diallo’s status as associé in the two companies. In light of the foregoing,
16595 AHMADOU SADIO DIALLO (ARRÊT )
qui précède, la Cour utilisera de préférence, dans le présent arrêt, la déno-
mination «associé», sauf lorsqu’elle fera référence à l’argumentation des
Parties et que celles-ci auront, elles-mêmes, employé le mot «actionnaire»
de manière générique.
**
26. La Cour observe que le différend qui oppose la Guinée à la RDC
comporte de nombreux aspects et que les Parties ont plutôt mis l’accent
sur tel ou tel de ces aspects aux différents stades de la procédure.
27. Ainsi, la plus grande partie de la requête de la Guinée se rapporte
aux litiges opposant les sociétés Africom-Zaïre et Africontainers-Zaïre à
leurs partenaires commerciaux publics et privés. La Guinée y consacre en
particulier de longs développements à la description des créances qui
seraient dues à ces sociétés et à M. Diallo ainsi qu’aux motifs de droit
pour lesquels la RDC serait redevable de toutes ces créances en l’espèce.
Les demandes formulées par la Guinée dans sa requête (seconde partie)
visent elles aussi, essentiellement, le remboursement de ces créances (voir
paragraphe 10 ci-dessus).
28. La Guinée n’en précise pas moins également, dans sa requête,
qu’elle entend exercer sa protection diplomatique, en faveur de M. Diallo,
«dans le dessein de voir [la Cour] condamner la [RDC] pour les graves
violations du droit international qu’elle a commises sur [sa] personne».
Elle expose que la RDC a violé
«le principe du traitement des étrangers selon «le standard minimum
de civilisation», l’obligation de respect de la liberté et de la propriété
des étrangers, [et] la reconnaissance aux étrangers incriminés du
droit à un jugement équitable et contradictoire rendu par une juri-
diction impartiale».
A l’appui de ces réclamations, la Guinée invoque «[les] multiples conven-
tions internationales relatives à la condition des étrangers et à la libre
circulation des biens et des personnes», et en particulier la déclaration
universelle des droits de l’homme du 10 décembre 1948 et le pacte inter-
national relatif aux droits civils et politiques du 19 décembre 1966. Elle
précise «que ces différentes violations des droits de l’homme s’analysent
comme des atteintes aux normes du jus cogens ».
29. Dans son mémoire au fond, la Guinée évoque encore dans une
large mesure la question des créances qui seraient dues aux sociétés Afri-
com-Zaïre et Africontainers-Zaïre et à M. Diallo. Elle y met néanmoins
un accent nouveau sur l’exercice de sa protection diplomatique en faveur
de M. Diallo et précise qu’elle
«prend fait et cause pour l’un de ses nationaux, et agit pour faire
respecter les droits propres de celui-ci en tant que personne et en tant
qu’actionnaire et dirigeant des sociétés qu’il a fondées ... et dont il
est l’unique ou le principal propriétaire, à l’exclusion des droits dis-
tincts que pourraient détenir ces sociétés à l’encontre de la RDC».
17 AHMADOU SADIO DIALLO (JUDGMENT ) 595
“associé” will be the term primarily used by the Court in the present
Judgment, except where it is referring to the Parties’ arguments and when
they themselves used the generic term “shareholder”.
**
26. The Court observes that the dispute between Guinea and the DRC
comprises many aspects and that the Parties have focused on the one or
the other of these at different stages in the proceedings.
27. Thus, the greater part of Guinea’s Application concerns the dis-
putes between Africom-Zaire and Africontainers-Zaire, on the one hand,
and their public and private business partners, on the other. Specifically,
Guinea devotes a lengthy part of its Application to describing the debts
allegedly owed to the companies and Mr. Diallo, as well as to expound-
ing the legal grounds on which the DRC is alleged to be liable for all
these debts. The claims put forward by Guinea in its Application (Part
Two) are also aimed for the most part at obtaining payment of the debts
(see paragraph 10 above).
28. Guinea nevertheless also states in its Application that it seeks to
exercise its diplomatic protection on behalf of Mr. Diallo “with a view to
obtaining [from the Court] a finding that the [DRC] is guilty of serious
violations of international law committed upon [his] person”. It asserts
that the DRC has violated
“the principle that aliens should be treated in accordance with ‘a
minimum standard of civilization’, the obligation to respect the free-
dom and property of aliens, [and] the right of aliens accused of an
offence to a fair trial on adversarial principles by an impartial
court”.
In support of these claims, Guinea cites “numerous international agree-
ments concerning the treatment of aliens and the free movement of goods
and persons”, including in particular the Universal Declaration of Human
Rights of 10 December 1948 and the International Covenant on Civil and
Political Rights of 19 December 1966. It states that “these various viola-
tions of human rights must be construed as breaches of norms of jus
cogens”.
29. In its Memorial on the merits, Guinea continues to devote consid-
erable attention to the issue of the debts allegedly owed to Africom-Zaire
and Africontainers-Zaire and to Mr. Diallo. But Guinea also places
renewed emphasis on the exercise of its diplomatic protection on behalf
of Mr. Diallo and states that it
“is taking up the cause of one of its nationals, and is acting to
enforce his direct rights as an individual and as shareholder and
executive officer of companies which he founded...andof which he
is the sole or principal owner, to the exclusion of distinct rights
which these companies may have against the DRC”.
17596 AHMADOU SADIO DIALLO (ARRÊT )
La Guinée classe les droits de M. Diallo dont elle cherche à exercer la
protection en deux catégories distinctes, selon leur nature. Dans la pre-
mière, elle regroupe les droits de M. Diallo en tant qu’individu, parmi
lesquels, outre ceux mentionnés dans la requête, le droit de M. Diallo de
ne pas faire l’objet d’un traitement inhumain et dégradant et son droit de
bénéficier des dispositions de la convention de Vienne de 1963 sur les
relations consulaires, droits qui auraient tous deux été violés lors de son
arrestation, de sa détention et de son expulsion. La Guinée place dans la
seconde catégorie de droits qu’elle entend protéger les droits propres dont
M. Diallo jouirait en tant qu’actionnaire des sociétés Africom-Zaïre et
Africontainers-Zaïre (droits parfois également qualifiés par la Guinée de
«droits d’actionnaire»), et en particulier son droit de surveiller, de contrô-
ler et de gérer ces sociétés.
30. La Guinée affirme également dans sa requête qu’elle cherche à
protéger, outre M. Diallo, «les sociétés qu’il a créées et qui lui appar-
tiennent». Dans son mémoire au fond, elle précise qu’elle entend exercer
sa protection diplomatique en faveur de M. Diallo par «substitution» aux
sociétés Africom-Zaïre et Africontainers-Zaïre. La Guinée explique que,
par les termes «substitution» ou «protection par substitution», elle vise
le droit d’un Etat d’exercer sa protection diplomatique en faveur de ses
nationaux, actionnaires d’une société étrangère, lorsque cette société a été
victime d’actes illicites commis par l’Etat en vertu de la législation duquel
elle a été constituée. Ainsi, la Guinée ne se limiterait plus à exercer la pro-
tection de M. Diallo pour les atteintes à ses droits propres en tant
qu’actionnaire des sociétés Africom-Zaïre et Africontainers-Zaïre, mais
viserait plutôt à protéger ce dernier «à raison des préjudices subis par
[ces] sociétés [elles-mêmes]».
31. En définitive, la Guinée entend, par son action, exercer sa protec-
tion diplomatique en faveur de M. Diallo à raison de la violation de trois
catégories de droits qui aurait accompagné son arrestation, sa détention
et son expulsion, ou en découlerait: ses droits individuels en tant que
personne, ses droits propres d’associé des sociétés Africom-Zaïre et Afri-
containers-Zaïre, et les droits desdites sociétés, par «substitution».
**
32. Pour établir la compétence de la Cour, la Guinée invoque les
déclarations faites par les Parties en vertu du paragraphe 2 de l’article 36
du Statut. La RDC reconnaît que ces déclarations sont suffisantes pour
fonder la compétence de la Cour dans la présente instance. La RDC
conteste néanmoins la recevabilité de la requête guinéenne et soulève à
cette fin deux exceptions préliminaires. Selon la RDC, la Guinée n’aurait
tout d’abord pas qualité pour agir en l’espèce dans la mesure où les droits
dont elle cherche à assurer la protection seraient des droits appartenant
aux sociétés Africom-Zaïre et Africontainers-Zaïre, de nationalité congo-
laise, et non à M. Diallo. La Guinée ne pourrait, ensuite, pas non plus
exercer sa protection diplomatique au motif que ni M. Diallo, ni lesdites
18 AHMADOU SADIO DIALLO (JUDGMENT ) 596
It divides Mr. Diallo’s rights which it seeks to protect into two separate
categories, according to their nature. In the first, it places Mr. Diallo’s
rights as an individual, including, in addition to those referred to in the
Application, Mr. Diallo’s right not to be subjected to inhuman and
degrading treatment and his right to the benefit of the provisions of the
1963 Vienna Convention on Consular Relations, both of which rights
were allegedly violated at the time of his arrest, detention and expulsion.
In the second category of rights which Guinea seeks to protect it places
the “direct rights” allegedly enjoyed by Mr. Diallo as a shareholder
(rights also sometimes called by Guinea “shareholder’s rights”) in Afri-
com-Zaire and Africontainers-Zaire, specifically his right to oversee, con-
trol and manage the companies.
30. Guinea further states in its Application that it is seeking to protect,
in addition to Mr. Diallo, “the companies which he founded and owns”.
In its Memorial on the merits, it makes clear that it seeks to exercise its
diplomatic protection on behalf of Mr. Diallo by “substitution” for Afri-
com-Zaire and Africontainers-Zaire. Guinea explains that by “substitu-
tion” or “protection by substitution” it means the right of a State to
exercise its diplomatic protection on behalf of nationals who are share-
holders in a foreign company whenever the company has been a victim of
wrongful acts committed by the State under whose law it has been incor-
porated. Thus Guinea does not confine itself to exercising protection of
Mr. Diallo in respect of the violations of his direct rights as shareholder
in Africom-Zaire and Africontainers-Zaire but seeks to protect him “in
respect of the injuries suffered by [these] companies [themselves]”.
31. In sum, Guinea seeks through its action to exercise its diplomatic
protection on behalf of Mr. Diallo for the violation, alleged to have
occurred at the time of his arrest, detention and expulsion, or to have
derived therefrom, of three categories of rights: his individual personal
rights, his direct rights as associé in Africom-Zaire and Africontainers-
Zaire and the rights of those companies, by “substitution”.
**
32. To establish the jurisdiction of the Court, Guinea relies on the dec-
larations made by the Parties under Article 36, paragraph 2, of the Stat-
ute. The DRC acknowledges that the declarations are sufficient to found
the jurisdiction of the Court in the present case. The DRC nevertheless
challenges the admissibility of Guinea’s Application and raises two pre-
liminary objections in doing so. First of all, according to the DRC,
Guinea lacks standing to act in the current proceedings since the rights
which it seeks to protect belong to Africom-Zaire and Africontainers-
Zaire, Congolese companies, not to Mr. Diallo. Guinea, it is argued, is
further precluded from exercising its diplomatic protection on the ground
that neither Mr. Diallo nor the companies have exhausted the remedies
18597 AHMADOU SADIO DIALLO (ARRÊT )
sociétés n’auraient épuisé les voies de recours ouvertes dans l’ordre juri-
dique interne congolais afin d’obtenir réparation des préjudices dont la
Guinée fait état devant la Cour.
* * *
33. La Cour examinera maintenant les exceptions préliminaires d’irre-
cevabilité soulevées par la RDC pour chacune des différentes catégories
de droits dont la Guinée allègue la violation en l’espèce.
**
34. La Cour se penchera d’abord sur la question de la recevabilité de
la requête de la Guinée en ce qu’elle a trait à la protection des droits de
M. Diallo en tant qu’individu.
35. Selon la RDC, les demandes de la Guinée relatives aux droits de
M. Diallo en tant qu’individu ne sont pas recevables car celui-ci «n’[a
pas] épuisé les voies de recours internes disponibles et efficaces qui exis-
taient au Zaïre, puis en République démocratique du Congo». Si cette
exception présentée par la RDC dans ses écritures et à l’audience est
formulée de façon très générale, la RDC n’en a cependant développé
qu’un seul aspect au cours de la présente procédure: celui de l’expulsion
du territoire congolais dont il a fait l’objet.
36. A cet égard, la RDC soutient qu’il y avait dans son ordre juridique
interne des voies de recours disponibles et efficaces que M. Diallo aurait
dû épuiser avant de voir sa cause endossée par la Guinée. Elle relève tout
d’abord que, contrairement à ce que prétend la Guinée, l’expulsion de
M. Diallo du territoire a été régulière. La RDC reconnaît que le procès-
verbal signé par le fonctionnaire du service d’immigration utilise «malen-
contreusement» le terme «refoulement» au lieu d’«expulsion». Elle ne
conteste pas davantage l’affirmation de la Guinée selon laquelle le droit
congolais prévoit que les mesures de refoulement ne sont pas susceptibles
de recours. La RDC souligne cependant que, «en dépit de cette erreur, il
est incontestable ... qu’il s’agi[ssait] bien d’une expulsion et non de refou-
lement». La qualification de refoulement n’aurait dès lors pas été destinée
à priver M. Diallo de recours. Bien au contraire, selon la RDC, «si
M. Diallo avait introduit un recours auprès des autorités congolaises
pour obtenir l’autorisation de revenir en RDC, ce recours [n’aurait] pas
[été] dépourvu de toute chance de succès». La RDC invoque un principe
général de droit congolais selon lequel une demande de reconsidération
d’une décision pourrait toujours être adressée à l’autorité qui a pris la
mesure concernée et, le cas échéant, à l’autorité hiérarchiquement supé-
rieure. Elle soutient que M. Diallo n’a jamais prié les autorités compé-
tentes de reconsidérer leur position afin de lui permettre de retourner sur
le territoire congolais. D’après la RDC, une telle démarche aurait eu des
chances d’aboutir, tout particulièrement après le changement de régime
qui s’est produit dans le pays en 1997. L’efficacité des recours introduits
19 AHMADOU SADIO DIALLO (JUDGMENT ) 597
available in the Congolese legal system to obtain reparation for the inju-
ries claimed by Guinea before the Court.
* * *
33. The Court will now examine the preliminary objections to admis-
sibility raised by the DRC, in respect of each of the various categories of
rights alleged by Guinea to have been violated in the present case.
**
34. The Court will first address the question of the admissibility of
Guinea’s Application in so far as it concerns protection of Mr. Diallo’s
rights as an individual.
35. According to the DRC, Guinea’s claims in respect of Mr. Diallo’s
rights as an individual are inadmissible because he “[has not] exhausted
the available and effective local remedies existing in Zaire, and subse-
quently in the Democratic Republic of the Congo”. While this objection,
presented by the DRC in its written pleadings and at the hearings, is very
broadly worded, in the course of the present proceedings the DRC elabo-
rated on only a single aspect of it: that concerning his expulsion from
Congolese territory.
36. On this subject the DRC maintains that its domestic legal system
provided for available, effective remedies which Mr. Diallo should have
exhausted before his cause could be espoused by Guinea. It first observes
that, contrary to Guinea’s contention, Mr. Diallo’s expulsion from the
territory was lawful. The DRC acknowledges that the notice signed by
the immigration officer “inadvertently” refers to “refusal of entry”
(refoulement) instead of “expulsion”. Further, it does not challenge
Guinea’s assertion that Congolese law provides that refusals of entry are
not appealable. The DRC nevertheless maintains that “despite this error,
it is indisputable...that this was indeed an expulsion and not a refusal
of entry”. According to the DRC, calling the action a refusal of entry was
therefore not intended to deprive Mr. Diallo of a remedy; on the con-
trary, “if Mr. Diallo had appealed to the Congolese authorities for per-
mission to return to the DRC, that appeal would have had some prospect
of success”. The DRC cites the general principle of Congolese law that
reconsideration of a decision can in all cases be requested from the
authority having taken it and, if necessary, from that authority’s sup-
erior. It maintains that Mr. Diallo never asked the competent authorities
to reconsider their position and to allow him to return to the DRC.
According to the DRC, such a request would have had a good chance of
success, especially after the change in régime in the country in 1997. The
effectiveness of requests for redress in respect of expulsion decisions in
the DRC is alleged to be confirmed moreover by a substantial practice,
the DRC citing in this regard two applications made by foreign nationals
19598 AHMADOU SADIO DIALLO (ARRÊT )
contre des mesures d’expulsion en RDC serait en outre confirmée par une
pratique abondante, la RDC se référant à cette fin à deux exemples
de recours formés par des ressortissants étrangers contre une mesure
d’éloignement du territoire zaïrois, qui ont mené à la levée de la mesure
concernée.
37. La Guinée rétorque que, «[a]près huit ans de procédure, la RDC
s’est montrée incapable ne serait-ce que d’évoquer une véritable voie de
recours, qui aurait été disponible pour M. Diallo», en ce qui concerne la
violation de ses droits en tant qu’individu. S’agissant de l’expulsion du
territoire congolais dont M. Diallo a été la victime, elle explique qu’il
n’existait de voies de recours efficaces ni au Zaïre, ni, plus tard, en RDC,
à l’encontre de cette mesure. Elle rappelle à cet égard que le décret
d’expulsion qui frappait M. Diallo a été exécuté par le biais d’une mesure
qualifiée de refoulement et que «selon l’article 13 de l’ordonnance-loi du
12 septembre 1983 relative à la police des étrangers [au Zaïre]: «[la]
mesure de refoulement est sans recours»». La Guinée ajoute que la pos-
sibilité pour M. Diallo de s’adresser à l’autorité zaïroise auteur de la
mesure d’expulsion ne constitue «pas[, en toute hypothèse,] un recours au
sens de la règle de l’épuisement des voies de recours internes». Elle pré-
cise que, au contraire, il ne s’agit là que d’une «procédure extralégale qui
se qualifie comme un appel à la mansuétude des autorités gouvernemen-
tales». Or, selon la Guinée, «[l]es recours administratifs ou autres qui ne
sont ni judiciaires ni quasi judiciaires et ont un caractère discrétionnaire
ne sont ... pas pris en compte par la règle de l’épuisement des recours
internes». La Guinée observe au surplus que les deux exemples de recours
contre des expulsions invoqués par la RDC à l’appui de sa position ne
sont pas pertinents, étant donné qu’il s’agissait, dans l’un des cas, d’une
expulsion pour motif d’immigration illégale, susceptible d’un recours
gracieux, et dans l’autre d’une «mesure d’indésirabilité» dont le décret
portant levée ne précise pas la motivation.
38. La Guinée soutient encore que, quand bien même certaines voies
de recours auraient en théorie été ouvertes à M. Diallo dans l’ordre juri-
dique congolais, celles-ci ne lui auraient en tout état de cause offert, à
l’époque des faits, aucune possibilité raisonnable de protection. La Gui-
née relève ainsi que l’expulsion de M. Diallo avait précisément eu pour
but de l’empêcher d’exercer des recours en justice et fait valoir que
«si un Etat choisit délibérément de placer un étranger en dehors de
son territoire ... parce que cet étranger exerce des recours internes,
cet Etat ne peut alors plus raisonnablement exiger de cet étranger
qu’il recoure aux seules voies de droit disponibles sur son territoire».
Elle note enfin que toute démarche de M. Diallo aurait été vouée à
l’échec du fait de l’animosité personnelle de certains membres du Gou-
vernement congolais envers M. Diallo.
*
20 AHMADOU SADIO DIALLO (JUDGMENT ) 598
appealing their removal from Zairean territory, each of which led to
withdrawal of the removal Order.
37. Guinea responds that “[a]fter eight years of proceedings the DRC
has shown itself to be incapable of invoking so much as a single real rem-
edy that would have been available to Mr. Diallo” in respect of the viola-
tion of his rights as an individual. On the subject of Mr. Diallo’s expul-
sion from the Congolese territory, Guinea states that there were no
effective remedies first in Zaire, nor in the later DRC, against this
measure, recalling in this regard that the expulsion Order against Mr. Diallo
was carried out by way of an action denominated “refusal of entry” and
that, “under Article 13 of the Legislative Order of 12 September 1983
concerning immigration control [in Zaire]; ‘[a] measure refusing entry
shall not be subject to appeal’”. Guinea adds that the possibility
Mr. Diallo had to approach the Zairean authority having issued the
expulsion Order “is not[, in any event,] a remedy within the meaning of
the local remedies rule”. It asserts that, on the contrary, this is merely an
“extra-legal procedure that may be characterized as an appeal to the
indulgence of the governmental authorities”. And, according to Guinea,
“[a]dministrative or other remedies which are neither judicial nor quasi-
judicial and are discretionary in nature are not... taken into account by
the local remedies rule”. Guinea observes moreover that the two instances
of remedies against expulsion cited by the DRC in support of its position
are not germane since one case involved expulsion on grounds of illegal
immigration, in respect of which a remedy of grace (recours gracieux) is
available, and the other involved a “decision on grounds of undesirabil-
ity” the reason for which is not specified in the Order revoking the deci-
sion.
38. Guinea further contends that, even though some remedies may in
theory have been available to Mr. Diallo in the Congolese legal system,
they would in any event have offered him no reasonable possibility of
protection at the time. Guinea thus notes that the objective in expelling
Mr. Diallo was precisely to prevent him from pursuing legal proceedings
and argues that
“if a State deliberately chooses to remove an alien from its
territory... because that alien is seeking local redress, that State can
no longer reasonably demand that the alien seek redress only through
legal avenues available in its territory”.
Lastly, it notes that any action taken by Mr. Diallo would have been
doomed to fail owing to the personal animosity towards him harboured
by certain members of the Congolese Government.
*
20599 AHMADOU SADIO DIALLO (ARRÊT )
39. La Cour rappellera que, selon le droit international coutumier, tel
que reflété à l’article premier du projet d’articles de la Commission du
droit international (ci-après: la «CDI») sur la protection diplomatique,
celle-ci
«consiste en l’invocation par un Etat, par une action diplomatique
ou d’autres moyens de règlement pacifique, de la responsabilité d’un
autre Etat pour un préjudice causé par un fait internationalement
illicite dudit Etat à une personne physique ou morale ayant la natio-
nalité du premier Etat en vue de la mise en Œuvre de cette respon-
sabilité» (article premier du projet d’articles sur la protection diplo-
matique adopté par la CDI à sa cinquante-huitième session (2006),
rapport de la CDI, doc. A/61/10, p. 24).
En raison de l’évolution matérielle du droit international, au cours de ces
dernières décennies, dans le domaine des droits reconnus aux personnes,
le champ d’application ratione materiae de la protection diplomatique, à
l’origine limité aux violations alléguées du standard minimum de traite-
ment des étrangers, s’est étendu par la suite pour inclure notamment les
droits de l’homme internationalement garantis.
40. En l’espèce, la Guinée prétend exercer sa protection diplomatique
en faveur de M. Diallo en raison de la violation des droits de celui-ci que
la RDC aurait commise du fait de son arrestation, de sa détention et de
son expulsion, violation qui aurait constitué un acte internationalement
illicite de cet Etat mettant en cause sa responsabilité. Il appartient donc à
la Cour d’examiner si le demandeur satisfait aux conditions de l’exercice
de la protection diplomatique, à savoir si M. Diallo a la nationalité de la
Guinée et s’il a épuisé les voies de recours internes disponibles en RDC.
41. La Cour relèvera pour commencer qu’il n’est pas contesté par la
RDC que M. Diallo a seulement la nationalité guinéenne et qu’il a pos-
sédé celle-ci de manière continue de la date du préjudice allégué jusqu’à la
date d’introduction de l’instance. Les Parties ont en revanche consacré
de longs échanges à la question de l’épuisement des voies de recours
internes.
42. Comme la Cour l’a indiqué dans l’affaire de l’Interhandel (Suisse
c. Etats-Unis d’Amérique) ,
«[l]a règle selon laquelle les recours internes doivent être épuisés
avant qu’une procédure internationale puisse être engagée est une
règle bien établie du droit international coutumier; elle a été géné-
ralement observée dans les cas où un Etat prend fait et cause pour
son ressortissant dont les droits auraient été lésés dans un autre Etat
en violation du droit international. Avant de recourir à la juridiction
internationale, il a été considéré en pareil cas nécessaire que l’Etat où
la lésion a été commise puisse y remédier par ses propres moyens,
dans le cadre de son ordre juridique interne.» (C.I.J. Recueil 1959,
p. 27.)
21 AHMADOU SADIO DIALLO (JUDGMENT ) 599
39. The Court will recall that under customary international law, as
reflected in Article 1 of the draft Articles on Diplomatic Protection of the
International Law Commission (hereinafter the “ILC”),
“diplomatic protection consists of the invocation by a State, through
diplomatic action or other means of peaceful settlement, of the
responsibility of another State for an injury caused by an interna-
tionally wrongful act of that State to a natural or legal person that is
a national of the former State with a view to the implementation of
such responsibility” (Article 1 of the draft Articles on Diplomatic
Protection adopted by the ILC at its Fifty-eighth Session (2006),
ILC Report, doc. A/61/10, p. 24).
Owing to the substantive development of international law over recent
decades in respect of the rights it accords to individuals, the scope ratione
materiae of diplomatic protection, originally limited to alleged violations
of the minimum standard of treatment of aliens, has subsequently
widened to include, inter alia, internationally guaranteed human rights.
40. In the present case Guinea seeks to exercise its diplomatic protec-
tion on behalf of Mr. Diallo in respect of the DRC’s alleged violation of
his rights as a result of his arrest, detention and expulsion, that violation
allegedly constituting an internationally wrongful act by the DRC giving
rise to its responsibility. It therefore falls to the Court to ascertain
whether the Applicant has met the requirements for the exercise of dip-
lomatic protection, that is to say whether Mr. Diallo is a national of
Guinea and whether he has exhausted the local remedies available in the
DRC.
41. To begin with, the Court observes that it is not disputed by the
DRC that Mr. Diallo’s sole nationality is that of Guinea and that he has
continuously held that nationality from the date of the alleged injury to
the date the proceedings were initiated. The Parties have however devoted
much argument to the issue of exhaustion of local remedies.
42. As the Court stated in the Interhandel (Switzerland v. United
States of America) case,
“[t]he rule that local remedies must be exhausted before interna-
tional proceedings may be instituted is a well-established rule of cus-
tomary international law; the rule has been generally observed in
cases in which a State has adopted the cause of its national whose
rights are claimed to have been disregarded in another State in viola-
tion of international law. Before resort may be had to an interna-
tional court in such a situation, it has been considered necessary that
the State where the violation occurred should have an opportunity
to redress it by its own means, within the framework of its own
domestic legal system.” (I.C.J. Reports 1959, p. 27.)
21600 AHMADOU SADIO DIALLO (ARRÊT )
43. Les Parties ne remettent pas en cause la règle de l’épuisement des
voies de recours internes; elles sont en revanche en désaccord sur la ques-
tion de savoir s’il existait effectivement des recours internes, dans le sys-
tème juridique congolais, que M. Diallo aurait dû épuiser avant que sa
cause ne puisse être endossée par la Guinée devant la Cour.
44. En matière de protection diplomatique, c’est au demandeur qu’il
incombe de prouver que les voies de recours internes ont bien été épuisées
ou d’établir que des circonstances exceptionnelles dispensaient la per-
sonne prétendument lésée et dont il entend assurer la protection d’épuiser
les recours internes disponibles (cf. Elettronica Sicula S.p.A. (ELSI)
(Etats-Unis d’Amérique c. Italie), C.I.J. Recueil 1989 , p. 43-44, par. 53).
Quant au défendeur, il lui appartient de convaincre la Cour qu’il existait
dans son ordre juridique interne des recours efficaces qui n’ont pas été
épuisés (cf. ibid., p. 46, par. 59). En l’espèce, il revient donc à la Guinée
d’établir que M. Diallo a épuisé les voies de recours internes disponibles
ou, le cas échéant, de démontrer que des circonstances exceptionnelles
ont justifié qu’il ne l’ait pas fait; il incombe en revanche à la RDC de
prouver l’existence, dans son ordre juridique interne, de voies de recours
disponibles et efficaces contre la mesure d’éloignement du territoire dont
M. Diallo a fait l’objet et qui n’auraient pas été épuisées par ce dernier.
45. La Cour rappellera à ce stade que, dans son mémoire au fond, la
Guinée a exposé en détail les violations du droit international que la
RDC aurait commises à l’égard de M. Diallo. Elle y invoque ainsi, entre
autres, le fait que M. Diallo aurait été arrêté et détenu de manière arbi-
traire à deux reprises, en 1988 d’abord, et en 1995 ensuite. Elle précise
que, lors de ces détentions, il aurait subi des traitements inhumains et
dégradants, et ajoute que les droits qu’il tire de la convention de Vienne
de 1963 sur les relations consulaires n’auraient pas été respectés. La Cour
observe cependant que la Guinée n’a consacré aucun développement à la
question de la recevabilité de ses demandes relatives à des traitements
inhumains et dégradants ou à la convention de Vienne de 1963 sur les
relations consulaires. Comme la Cour a déjà eu l’occasion de le noter
(voir paragraphe 36), la RDC s’est pour sa part attachée, au cours de la
présente instance, à démontrer, sur le plan institutionnel, l’existence dans
son ordre juridique interne de recours contre la mesure d’éloignement qui
a frappé M. Diallo. La RDC s’est abstenue, en revanche, de traiter de la
question de l’épuisement des voies de recours internes en ce qui concerne
l’arrestation de M. Diallo, sa détention ou encore les violations alléguées
de ses autres droits, en tant qu’individu, qui auraient découlé de ces
mesures ainsi que de son expulsion, ou les auraient accompagnées. A la
lumière des considérations qui précèdent, la Cour n’abordera la question
des voies de recours internes qu’en ce qui concerne l’expulsion de
M. Diallo.
46. La Cour rappelle à cet égard que, comme cela a été reconnu par les
deux Parties et comme le confirme le procès-verbal établi le 31 janvier
1996 par l’agence nationale d’immigration du Zaïre, cette expulsion, au
moment de son exécution, a été qualifiée de mesure de «refoulement».
22 AHMADOU SADIO DIALLO (JUDGMENT ) 600
43. The Parties do not question the local remedies rule; they do how-
ever differ as to whether the Congolese legal system actually offered local
remedies which Mr. Diallo should have exhausted before his cause could
be espoused by Guinea before the Court.
44. In matters of diplomatic protection, it is incumbent on the appli-
cant to prove that local remedies were indeed exhausted or to establish
that exceptional circumstances relieved the allegedly injured person whom
the applicant seeks to protect of the obligation to exhaust available local
remedies (see Elettronica Sicula S.p.A. (ELSI) (United States of
America v. Italy), I.C.J. Reports 1989 , pp. 43-44, para. 53). It is for the
respondent to convince the Court that there were effective remedies in its
domestic legal system that were not exhausted (see ibid., p. 46, para. 59).
Thus, in the present case, Guinea must establish that Mr. Diallo exhausted
any available local remedies or, if not, must show that exceptional cir-
cumstances justified the fact that he did not do so; it is, on the other
hand, for the DRC to prove that there were available and effective rem-
edies in its domestic legal system against the decision to remove Mr. Diallo
from the territory and that he did not exhaust them.
45. The Court will recall at this stage that, in its Memorial on the mer-
its, Guinea described in detail the violations of international law allegedly
committed by the DRC against Mr. Diallo. Among those cited is the
claim that Mr. Diallo was arbitrarily arrested and detained on two occa-
sions, first in 1988 and then in 1995. It states that he suffered inhuman
and degrading treatment during those periods in detention and adds that
his rights under the 1963 Vienna Convention on Consular Relations were
not respected. The Court observes however that Guinea has not, in any
way, developed the question of the admissibility of the claims concerning
this inhuman and degrading treatment or relating to the 1963 Vienna
Convention on Consular Relations. As the Court has already noted (see
paragraph 36), the DRC has for its part endeavoured in the present pro-
ceedings to show that remedies to challenge the decision to remove
Mr. Diallo from Zaire are institutionally provided for in its domestic
legal system. By contrast, the DRC did not address the issue of exhaus-
tion of local remedies in respect of Mr. Diallo’s arrest, his detention or
the alleged violations of his other rights, as an individual, said to have
resulted from those measures, and from his expulsion, or to have accom-
panied them. In view of the above, the Court will address the question of
local remedies solely in respect of Mr. Diallo’s expulsion.
46. The Court notes that the expulsion was characterized as a “refusal
of entry” when it was carried out, as both Parties have acknowledged and
as is confirmed by the notice drawn up on 31 January 1996 by the
national immigration service of Zaire. It is apparent that refusals of entry
22601 AHMADOU SADIO DIALLO (ARRÊT )
Or, il apparaît que les mesures de refoulement ne sont pas susceptibles de
o
recours en droit congolais. L’article 13 de l’ordonnance-loi n 83-033 du
12 septembre 1983, relative à la police des étrangers, spécifie en effet
expressément que la «mesure [de refoulement] est sans recours». La Cour
estime que la RDC ne saurait aujourd’hui se prévaloir du fait qu’une
erreur aurait été commise par ses services administratifs au moment du
«refoulement» de M. Diallo pour prétendre que celui-ci aurait dû traiter
cette mesure comme une expulsion. M. Diallo, en tant que destinataire de
la mesure de refoulement, était autorisé à tirer les conséquences de la
qualification juridique ainsi donnée par les autorités zaïroises, et ce y
compris au regard de la règle de l’épuisement des voies de recours
internes.
47. La Cour observe en outre que, quand bien même il se serait agi en
l’occurrence d’une expulsion et non d’un refoulement comme le prétend
la RDC, cette dernière n’a pas davantage démontré l’existence dans son
droit interne de voies de recours ouvertes contre les mesures d’expulsion.
La RDC a bien invoqué la possibilité d’une demande de reconsidération
auprès de l’autorité administrative compétente (voir paragraphe 36 ci-
dessus). La Cour rappellera néanmoins que si les recours internes qui
doivent être épuisés comprennent tous les recours de nature juridique,
aussi bien les recours judiciaires que les recours devant des instances admi-
nistratives, les recours administratifs ne peuvent être pris en considération
aux fins de la règle de l’épuisement des voies de recours internes que dans
la mesure où ils visent à faire valoir un droit et non à obtenir une faveur,
à moins qu’ils ne soient une condition préalable essentielle à la recevabi-
lité de la procédure contentieuse ultérieure. En l’espèce, la possibilité
pour M. Diallo d’introduire une demande de reconsidération de la mesure
d’expulsion auprès de l’autorité administrative qui l’avait prise, c’est-à-
dire le premier ministre, dans l’espoir que celle-ci revienne sur sa décision
à titre gracieux, ne saurait donc être considérée comme constituant une
voie de recours interne à épuiser.
48. Ayant établi que la RDC n’a pas démontré qu’il existait dans son
ordre juridique interne des voies de recours disponibles et efficaces qui
auraient permis à M. Diallo de contester son expulsion, la Cour conclut
que l’exception d’irrecevabilité soulevée par la RDC à raison du non-
épuisement des voies de recours internes ne saurait être accueillie en ce
qui concerne cette expulsion.
**
49. La Cour en vient maintenant à la question de la recevabilité de la
requête de la Guinée en ce qu’elle a trait à la protection des droits propres
de M. Diallo en tant qu’associé des deux sociétés Africom-Zaïre et Afri-
containers-Zaïre. La RDC soulève deux exceptions d’irrecevabilité au
regard de ce volet de la requête: elle conteste la qualité pour agir de la
Guinée, et elle avance que M. Diallo n’a pas épuisé les voies de recours
internes qui lui étaient ouvertes en RDC pour faire valoir ces droits. La
23 AHMADOU SADIO DIALLO (JUDGMENT ) 601
are not appealable under Congolese law. Article 13 of Legislative Order
No. 83-033 of 12 September 1983, concerning immigration control,
expressly states that the “measure [refusing entry] shall not be subject to
appeal”. The Court considers that the DRC cannot now rely on an error
allegedly made by its administrative agencies at the time Mr. Diallo was
“refused entry” to claim that he should have treated the measure as an
expulsion. Mr. Diallo, as the subject of the refusal of entry, was justified
in relying on the consequences of the legal characterization thus given by
the Zairean authorities, including for purposes of the local remedies rule.
47. The Court further observes that, even if this was a case of expul-
sion and not refusal of entry, as the DRC maintains, the DRC has also
failed to show that means of redress against expulsion decisions are avail-
able under its domestic law. The DRC did, it is true, cite the possibility of
requesting reconsideration by the competent administrative authority
(see paragraph 36 above). The Court nevertheless recalls that, while the
local remedies that must be exhausted include all remedies of a legal
nature, judicial redress as well as redress before administrative bodies,
administrative remedies can only be taken into consideration for pur-
poses of the local remedies rule if they are aimed at vindicating a right
and not at obtaining a favour, unless they constitute an essential prereq-
uisite for the admissibility of subsequent contentious proceedings. Thus,
the possibility open to Mr. Diallo of submitting a request for reconsid-
eration of the expulsion decision to the administrative authority having
taken it, that is to say the Prime Minister, in the hope that he would
retract his decision as a matter of grace cannot be deemed a local remedy
to be exhausted.
48. Having established that the DRC has not proved the existence in
its domestic legal system of available and effective remedies allowing
Mr. Diallo to challenge his expulsion, the Court concludes that the
DRC’s objection to admissibility based on the failure to exhaust local
remedies cannot be upheld in respect of that expulsion.
**
49. The Court now turns to the question of the admissibility of Guin-
ea’s Application in so far as it concerns protection of Mr. Diallo’s rights
as associé of the two companies Africom-Zaire and Africontainers-
Zaire. The DRC raises two objections to admissibility regarding this
aspect of the Application: it contests Guinea’s standing, and it sug-
gests that Mr. Diallo has not exhausted the local remedies that were
available to him in the DRC to assert his rights. The Court will deal
23602 AHMADOU SADIO DIALLO (ARRÊT )
Cour traitera de ces exceptions tour à tour en commençant par celle rela-
tive à la qualité pour agir de la Guinée.
*
50. La RDC reconnaît l’existence, en droit international, d’un droit de
l’Etat national des associés ou des actionnaires d’une société d’exercer, en
leur faveur, une action en protection diplomatique lorsqu’ilyau ne
atteinte à leurs droits propres en tant que tels. Elle soutient néanmoins
que «le droit international n’admet [cette] protection ... que dans des
conditions très restrictives qui ne sont pas rencontrées dans l’espèce».
51. La RDC soutient tout d’abord que la Guinée ne cherche pas, en
l’instance, à protéger les droits propres de M. Diallo en tant qu’associé.
Elle estime, en effet, que la Guinée «assimile une atteinte aux droits de la
société, entraînant un préjudice pour les actionnaires, à la violation de
leurs droits propres», ou plus spécifiquement qu’elle assimile une viola-
tion des droits des sociétés Africom-Zaïre et Africontainers-Zaïre à une
violation des droits de M. Diallo. La RDC en veut pour preuve que,
«dans plusieurs passages de ses écritures, la Guinée considère les créances
des sociétés Africom-Zaïre et Africontainers-Zaïre comme des créances
de M. Diallo». Une telle confusion entre les droits des sociétés et les
droits des actionnaires est, selon la RDC, non seulement «contraire au
droit international positif», mais également «contraire à la logique même
de l’institution de la protection diplomatique»; elle aurait été expressé-
ment «écartée par la Cour dans l’affaire de la Barcelona Traction ».
52. La RDC fait valoir ensuite que, de toutes les façons, l’action en
protection des droits propres des actionnaires en tant que tels ne vise que
des hypothèses très limitées. Dans la mesure où les actionnaires «ne
peuvent prétendre tirer leurs droits d’actionnaires [que de la société]»,
«[o]n ne [pourrait] donc, par définition, envisager ici que les droits des
actionnaires dans leurs relations avec la société». Selon la RDC,
«[c]ette interprétation est confirmée par la liste des exemples qui est
fournie par la Cour [dans l’affaire de la Barcelona Traction]: le droit
aux dividendes déclarés, le droit de prendre part aux assemblées
générales et d’y voter, le droit à une partie du reliquat d’actif de la
société lors de la liquidation sont des droits que l’actionnaire ne
peut, par définition, invoquer que vis-à-vis de la société, dans cer-
taines conditions et selon certaines modalités précises indiquées dans
les statuts et dans le droit commercial de l’ordre juridique concerné».
Les seuls actes susceptibles de violer les droits propres des actionnaires
seraient en conséquence «des actes d’ingérence dans les relations entre la
société et ses actionnaires». Or, pour la RDC, l’arrestation, la détention
et l’expulsion de M. Diallo n’ont pu constituer des actes d’ingérence de sa
part dans les relations entre l’associé Diallo et les sociétés Africom-Zaïre
et Africontainers-Zaïre. Elles n’ont pu, en conséquence, porter atteinte
aux droits propres de M. Diallo.
24 AHMADOU SADIO DIALLO (JUDGMENT ) 602
with these objections in turn, beginning with that relating to Guinea’s
standing.
*
50. The DRC accepts that under international law the State of nation-
ality has the right to exercise its diplomatic protection in favour of asso-
ciés or shareholders when there is an injury to their direct rights as such.
It nonetheless contends that “international law allows for [this]
protection...only under very limited conditions which are not fulfilled
in the present case”.
51. The DRC maintains first of all that Guinea is not seeking, in this
case, to protect the direct rights of Mr. Diallo as associé. It takes the view
that Guinea “identifies an attack on company rights, resulting in damage
to shareholders, with the violation of their direct rights” or, more specifi-
cally, that it identifies a violation of the rights of Africom-Zaire and Afri-
containers-Zaire with a violation of the rights of Mr. Diallo. The DRC
states as proof that “in several passages in its written pleadings, Guinea
considers claims held by Africom-Zaire and Africontainers-Zaire to be
claims held by Mr. Diallo”. Such confusion between the rights of the
companies and the rights of the shareholders is described by the DRC
not only as “contrary to positive international law” but also as “contrary
to the logic itself of the institution of diplomatic protection”; it is said to
have been expressly “rejected by the Court in the Barcelona Traction
case”.
52. The DRC further asserts that, in any event, action to protect the
direct rights of shareholders as such applies to only very limited cases.
Since shareholders “can claim to derive their shareholders rights [only
from the company]”, “by definition, what is envisaged here can only be
the rights of shareholders in their relations with the company”. Accord-
ing to the DRC:
“[t]his interpretation is confirmed by the list of examples provided by
the Court [in the Barcelona Traction case]: the right to dividends,
the right to attend and vote at general meetings, and the right to
share in the residual assets of the company on liquidation are rights
which by definition the shareholder can invoke only against the com-
pany, subject to certain conditions and in accordance with certain
procedures laid down in the company’s articles and in the commer-
cial law of the legal order concerned”.
The only acts capable of violating the direct rights of shareholders would
consequently be “acts of interference in relations between the company
and its shareholders”. For the DRC, therefore, the arrest, detention and
expulsion of Mr. Diallo could not constitute acts of interference on its
part in relations between the associé Mr. Diallo and the companies Afri-
com-Zaire and Africontainers-Zaire. As a result, they could not injure
Mr. Diallo’s direct rights.
24603 AHMADOU SADIO DIALLO (ARRÊT )
53. La RDC accepte, comme l’avance la Guinée, que
«la liste des droits donnée par l’arrêt de 1970 [dans l’affaire de la
Barcelona Traction] n’est qu’exemplative et que les droits concer-
nés doivent être recherchés dans la législation interne des Etats
concernés».
La RDC s’accorde également avec la Guinée sur le fait que, s’agissant du
droit congolais, les droits propres de l’associé sont déterminés par le
décret de l’Etat indépendant du Congo, en date du 27 février 1887, sur les
sociétés commerciales. Les droits de M. Diallo en tant qu’associé des
sociétés Africom-Zaïre et Africontainers-Zaïre seraient donc théorique-
ment les suivants: «le droit aux dividendes et aux produits de la liquida-
tion», «le droit d’être nommé gérant», «le droit de l’associé gérant à ne
pas être révoqué sans motif», «le droit du gérant à représenter la société»,
«le droit de surveillance [de la gérance]» et «le droit de participer aux
assemblées générales». La RDC note toutefois qu’en pratique M. Diallo
«[n’aurait pu] exercer ... le droit de surveillance sur les deux sociétés»
dans la mesure où «la surveillance qui est prévue dans la loi [est] la sur-
veillance de la gérance» et que celle-ci «ne [pouvait] pas être confiée à une
personne qui est déjà gérante». La RDC soutient par ailleurs que, contrai-
rement à ce que prétend la Guinée, aucun des autres droits reconnus à
M. Diallo n’aurait pu être affecté par son expulsion. Elle explique ainsi
que le droit de «toucher les dividendes et le boni de liquidation n’exige
pas, pour sa jouissance, que son titulaire vive au Congo». De même, «les
droits fonctionnels [de l’associé] ... ne [seraient] pas de nature à être tou-
chés dans leur essence par l’éloignement du bénéficiaire du siège social de
la société». M. Diallo aurait très bien pu les exercer à partir d’un terri-
toire étranger. Il aurait eu tout loisir «de déléguer des tâches d’exécution
à des administrateurs locaux, y compris par la nomination d’un nouveau
gérant». La RDC relève d’ailleurs à ce sujet
«que M. Diallo a lui-même continué à diriger la société Africontai-
ners[-Zaïre] et a poursuivi le recouvrement de créances de cette
société bien après son expulsion ... [en] engage[ant] [à cet effet] des
représentants et des avocats chargés d’agir en son nom et sur ses
instructions».
54. A l’appui de sa demande en protection diplomatique de M. Diallo
en tant qu’associé, la Guinée se réfère à l’arrêt dans l’affaire de la Bar-
celona Traction où, après avoir statué que «des actes qui ne visent et
n’atteignent que les droits de la société n’impliquent aucune responsabi-
lité à l’égard des actionnaires même si leurs intérêts en souffrent»
(C.I.J. Recueil 1970, p. 36, par. 46), la Cour a ajouté que «[l]a situation
est différente si les actes incriminés sont dirigés contre les droits propres
des actionnaires en tant que tels» (ibid., p. 36, par. 47). Elle souligne, en
outre, que cette position de la Cour a été reprise à l’article 12 du projet
d’articles de la CDI sur la protection diplomatique, qui prévoit que:
25 AHMADOU SADIO DIALLO (JUDGMENT ) 603
53. The DRC agrees, as suggested by Guinea, that
“the rights listed in the 1970 Judgment [in the Barcelona Traction
case] are no more than examples, and that the rights in question
must be sought in the domestic legislation of the States concerned”.
The DRC also agrees with Guinea on the fact that, in terms of Congolese
law, the direct rights of associés are determined by the Decree of the
Independent State of Congo of 27 February 1887 on commercial corpo-
rations. The rights of Mr. Diallo as associé of the companies Africom-
Zaire and Africontainers-Zaire are therefore theoretically as follows:
“the right to dividends and to the proceeds of liquidation”, “the right to
be appointed manager (gérant)”, “the right of the associé manager
(gérant) not to be removed without cause”, “the right of the manager to
represent the company”, “the right of oversight [of the management]”
and “the right to participate in general meetings”. However, the DRC
notes that in practice, Mr. Diallo “was unable to exercise...the right of
oversight of the two companies” since “the statutory oversight is over-
sight of the management [(gérance)]” and “such oversight cannot be
entrusted to an individual who is already manager [(gérant)]”. The
DRC further maintains that, contrary to what is claimed by Guinea,
none of the other rights accorded to Mr. Diallo could have been affected
by his expulsion. Hence it points out that the right of “being paid divi-
dends and liquidation bonuses does not require as a condition of its
enjoyment that the holder live in the Congo”. Likewise, “the functional
rights [of the associé]...arenot such as to be essentially affected by the
physical absence of the holder from the headquarters of the company”.
Mr. Diallo could very well have exercised them from foreign territory. He
would have had every opportunity of “delegating executive tasks to local
administrators, including through the appointment of a new manager”.
The DRC also notes on this subject
“that Mr. Diallo himself continued to run Africontainers[-Zaire] and
pursued recovery of the debts owed to that company well after his
expulsion . . . [by appointing] representatives and lawyers to act on
his behalf and on his instructions”.
54. In support of its diplomatic protection claim on behalf of
Mr. Diallo as associé, Guinea refers to the Judgment in the Barcelona
Traction case, where, having ruled that “an act directed against and
infringing only the company’s rights does not involve responsibility
towards the shareholders, even if their interests are affected” (I.C.J.
Reports 1970, p. 36, para. 46), the Court added that “[t]he situation is
different if the act complained of is aimed at the direct rights of the share-
holder as such” (ibid., p. 36, para. 47). Guinea further claims that this
position of the Court was taken up in Article 12 of the ILC’s draft Arti-
cles on Diplomatic Protection, which provides that:
25604 AHMADOU SADIO DIALLO (ARRÊT )
«Dans la mesure où un fait internationalement illicite d’un Etat
porte directement atteinte aux droits des actionnaires en tant que
tels, droits qui sont distincts de ceux de la société, l’Etat de nationa-
lité desdits actionnaires est en droit d’exercer sa protection diplo-
matique à leur profit.»
55. Selon la Guinée, les droits propres de M. Diallo en tant qu’action-
naire des sociétés Africom-Zaïre et Africontainers-Zaïre seraient pour
l’essentiel déterminés par le décret du 27 février 1887 sur les sociétés com-
merciales. Cette législation lui reconnaîtrait d’une part une série de
«droits patrimoniaux», parmi lesquels le droit aux dividendes de ces
sociétés, et d’autre part une série de «droits fonctionnels», parmi lesquels
le droit de contrôler, de surveiller et de gérer lesdites sociétés. La Guinée
prétend que le code des investissements congolais attribue par ailleurs
certains droits supplémentaires à M. Diallo en tant qu’actionnaire, et
notamment «le droit à une part des bénéfices de ses sociétés» et «le droit
de propriété dans ses sociétés, en particulier à l’égard de ses actions». La
Guinée estime dès lors qu’elle s’en tient, dans sa demande, à la violation
des droits dont jouit M. Diallo vis-à-vis des sociétés, y compris ses droits
de surveillance, de contrôle et de gestion, et qu’elle ne confond pas, en
conséquence, les droits de celui-ci avec ceux de la société.
56. La Guinée fait également remarquer que, dans les SPRL, les parts
sociales «ne sont pas librement transmissibles», ce qui «accentue consi-
dérablement le caractère intuitu personae de ces sociétés, très différentes à
cet égard des sociétés anonymes». Ce caractère aurait été encore plus
marqué pour les sociétés Africom-Zaïre et Africontainers-Zaïre dans la
mesure où M. Diallo se serait retrouvé être «[l’]unique gérant et [le] seul
associé (directement et indirectement)» de celles-ci. Selon la Guinée, «en
fait comme en droit, il était à peu près impossible de distinguer M. Diallo
de ses sociétés».
57. La Guinée estime que l’arrestation, la détention et l’expulsion de
M. Diallo ont non seulement eu pour effet «de l’empêcher de continuer à
administrer, à gérer et à contrôler toutes les opérations des sociétés Afri-
com-[Zaïre] et Africontainers-[Zaïre]», mais ont précisément été motivées
par la volonté de l’empêcher d’exercer ces droits, de poursuivre les
actions en justice initiées pour lesdites sociétés et de récupérer, ce faisant,
leurs créances. Une telle motivation transparaîtrait dans le texte du
décret du 31 octobre 1995 qui vise: «[M. Diallo,] dont la présence et la
conduite ont compromis et continuent à compromettre l’ordre public zaï-
rois, spécialement en matière économique, financière et monétaire». Ces
mesures seraient, au surplus, intervenues à la suite d’initiatives des auto-
rités zaïroises visant la suspension de l’exécution d’un jugement du tribu-
nal de grande instance de Kinshasa condamnant la société Zaïre Shell à
verser une indemnité à la société Africontainers-Zaïre.
58. La Guinée soutient enfin que, contrairement à ce que prétend la
RDC, M. Diallo ne pouvait exercer ses droits propres d’actionnaire asso-
cié valablement depuis son pays d’origine. Ainsi,
26 AHMADOU SADIO DIALLO (JUDGMENT ) 604
“To the extent that an internationally wrongful act of a State
causes direct injury to the rights of shareholders as such, as distinct
from those of the corporation itself, the State of nationality of any
such shareholders is entitled to exercise diplomatic protection in
respect of its nationals.”
55. According to Guinea, the direct rights of Mr. Diallo as a share-
holder of Africom-Zaire and Africontainers-Zaire are essentially deter-
mined by the Decree of 27 February 1887 on commercial corporations.
This text is said to confer on him firstly a series of “property rights”,
including the right to dividends from these companies, and secondly a
series of “functional rights”, including the right to control, supervise and
manage the companies. Guinea claims that the Congolese investment
code also affords Mr. Diallo certain additional rights as shareholder, for
example “the right to a share of the profits of his companies” and “a
right of ownership in his companies, in particular in respect of his
shares”. Guinea thus takes the view that it is confining itself, in its claim,
to the violation of the rights enjoyed by Mr. Diallo in respect of the com-
panies, including his rights of supervision, control and management, and
that it is therefore not confusing his rights with those of the company.
56. Guinea also points out that, in SPRLs, the parts sociales “are not
freely transferable”, which “considerably accentuates the intuitu personae
character of these companies, very different in this respect from public
limited companies”. It argues that this character is seen as even more
marked in the case of Africom-Zaire and Africontainers-Zaire, since
Mr. Diallo was their “sole manager (gérant) and sole associé (directly or
indirectly)”. According to Guinea, “in fact and in law it was virtually
impossible to distinguish Mr. Diallo from his companies”.
57. Guinea considers that the arrest, detention and expulsion of
Mr. Diallo not only had the effect “of preventing him from continuing to
administer, manage and control any of the operations of the companies
Africom-Zaire and Africontainers-Zaire”, but were specifically motivated
by the intent to prevent him from exercising these rights, from pursuing
the legal proceedings brought on behalf of the companies, and thereby
from recovering their debts. Such intent is said to emerge from the text of
the Order of 31 October 1995, which refers to “[Mr. Diallo,] whose pres-
ence and conduct have breached Zairean law and order, especially in the
economic, financial and monetary areas, and continue to do so”. These
measures, moreover, are said to have followed on from moves by the
Zairean authorities seeking a stay of execution on a judgment of the Tri-
bunal de Grande Instance of Kinshasa ordering Zaire Shell to pay com-
pensation to Africontainers-Zaire.
58. Finally, Guinea maintains that, contrary to what is claimed by the
DRC, Mr. Diallo could not validly exercise his direct rights as share-
holder from his country of origin. Consequently,
26605 AHMADOU SADIO DIALLO (ARRÊT )
«même s’il avait été en mesure de nommer un nouveau «gérant» et
un «commissaire» — or, il ne l’était pas, du fait qu’il manquait de
moyens financiers —, il était toutefois privé du droit de nommer
celui de son choix, en violation ... du décret de 1887, et on ne pouvait
attendre de lui qu’il remette ou abandonne la gestion de ses sociétés
à quelque tierce partie».
La Guinée ajoute qu’il n’est pas réaliste de prétendre, comme le fait la
RDC, que M. Diallo aurait pu exercer, depuis l’étranger, son droit de
surveillance et de contrôle, ou encore convoquer des assemblées géné-
rales, y prendre part et y voter.
*
59. La Cour commencera par noter l’existence d’un désaccord entre les
Parties quant aux circonstances ayant entouré la création d’Africom-
Zaïre et l’exercice de ses activités ainsi que la poursuite de ces activités
après les années quatre-vingt, et quant aux conséquences qui pourraient
en être tirées en droit congolais. Elle estime néanmoins que ce désaccord
relève essentiellement du fond et qu’il est sans incidence sur la question
de la recevabilité de la requête de la Guinée telle que mise en cause par les
exceptions congolaises.
60. La Cour constate que les Parties se sont fréquemment référées à
l’affaire de la Barcelona Traction, Light and Power Company, Limited
(Belgique c. Espagne). Il s’agissait là d’une société anonyme dont le capi-
tal était représenté par des actions. Dans la présente affaire, il est ques-
tion de SPRL dont le capital est composé de parts sociales (voir para-
graphe 25 ci-dessus).
61. Comme la Cour l’a rappelé dans l’affaire de la Barcelona Traction,
«il est ... inutile d’examiner les multiples formes que prennent les diffé-
rentes entités juridiques dans le droit interne» (C.I.J. Recueil 1970,p.34,
par. 40). Ce qui importe, du point de vue du droit international, c’est de
déterminer si celles-ci sont ou non dotées d’une personnalité juridique
indépendante de leurs membres. L’attribution à la société d’une person-
nalité morale indépendante entraîne la reconnaissance à son profit de
droits sur son patrimoine propre qu’elle est seule à même de protéger. En
conséquence, seul l’Etat national peut exercer la protection diplomatique
de la société lorsque ses droits sont atteints du fait d’un acte illicite d’un
autre Etat. Afin de déterminer si une société possède une personnalité
juridique indépendante et distincte, le droit international renvoie aux
règles du droit interne en la matière.
62. La Cour, afin de préciser la nature juridique des sociétés Africom-
Zaïre et Africontainers-Zaïre, doit se référer au droit interne de la RDC
et, en particulier, au décret du 27 février 1887 sur les sociétés commer-
ciales. Ce texte dispose, en son article premier, que «[l]es sociétés com-
merciales légalement reconnues conformément au présent décret consti-
tueront des individualités juridiques distinctes de celles des associés».
27 AHMADOU SADIO DIALLO (JUDGMENT ) 605
“[e]ven if he had been in a position to appoint a new ‘gérant’ and a
‘commissaire’ — and he was not, given his lack of funds — he was
still being deprived of the right to appoint the management of his
choice in violation of..te1887 Decree, and he could not be
expected to confer or abandon the management to some third party”.
Guinea adds that it is unrealistic to claim, as the DRC does, that
Mr. Diallo could have exercised, from abroad, his rights of supervision
and control, or indeed convoked, taken part in and voted at the general
meetings.
*
59. The Court begins by noting the existence of a disagreement between
the Parties on the circumstances surrounding the establishment of Afri-
com-Zaire and the conduct of its activities, on the continuation of those
activities after the 1980s, and on the consequences these questions may
have under Congolese law. It nonetheless takes the view that this dis-
agreement essentially relates to the merits and that it has no bearing on the
question of the admissibility of Guinea’s Application as challenged in the
Congo’s objections.
60. The Court notes that the Parties have referred frequently to the
case concerning the Barcelona Traction, Light and Power Company,
Limited (Belgium v. Spain). This involved a public limited company
whose capital was represented by shares. The present case concerns
SPRLs whose capital is composed of parts sociales (see paragraph 25
above).
61. As the Court recalled in the Barcelona Traction case, “[t]here is...
no need to investigate the many different forms of legal entity provided
for by the municipal laws of States” (I.C.J. Reports 1970, p. 34, para. 40).
What matters, from the point of view of international law, is to deter-
mine whether or not these have a legal personality independent of their
members. Conferring independent corporate personality on a company
implies granting it rights over its own property, rights which it alone is
capable of protecting. As a result, only the State of nationality may exer-
cise diplomatic protection on behalf of the company when its rights are
injured by a wrongful act of another State. In determining whether a
company possesses independent and distinct legal personality, interna-
tional law looks to the rules of the relevant domestic law.
62. The Court, in order to establish the precise legal nature of Afri-
com-Zaire and Africontainers-Zaire, must refer to the domestic law of
the DRC and, in particular, to the Decree of 27 February 1887 on com-
mercial corporations. This text states, in Article 1, that “commercial cor-
porations recognized by law in accordance with this Decree shall consti-
tute legal persons having a personality distinct from that of their
members”.
27606 AHMADOU SADIO DIALLO (ARRÊT )
63. Le droit congolais attribue à la SPRL une personnalité juridique
indépendante et distincte de celle des associés, notamment en ce que le
patrimoine des associés est complètement séparé de celui de la société, et
que ceux-ci ne sont responsables des dettes de la société qu’à hauteur de
leur apport à celle-ci. Il en découle que les créances et les dettes de la
société à l’égard des tiers relèvent respectivement des droits et des obli-
gations de celle-ci. Ainsi que l’a souligné la Cour dans l’affaire de la Bar-
celona Traction : «Tant que la société subsiste, l’actionnaire n’a aucun
droit à l’actif social.» (C.I.J. Recueil 1970, p. 34, par. 41.) Cela demeure
la règle fondamentale en la matière, qu’il s’agisse d’une SPRL ou d’une
société anonyme.
64. L’exercice par un Etat de la protection diplomatique d’une per-
sonne physique ou morale de sa nationalité, qui est associé ou actionnaire,
vise à mettre en cause la responsabilité d’un autre Etat pour un préjudice
causé à cette personne par un acte internationalement illicite dudit Etat. Il
ne s’agit là, en fin de compte, que de la protection diplomatique de la per-
sonne physique ou morale telle que définie à l’article premier du projet
d’articles de la CDI; l’acte internationalement illicite revient, dans le cas
de l’associé ou de l’actionnaire, à la violation par l’Etat défendeur des
droits propres de celui-ci dans sa relation avec la personne morale, droits
propres qui sont définis par le droit interne de cet Etat, ainsi que l’ad-
mettent d’ailleurs les deux Parties. Ainsi entendue, la protection diploma-
tique des droits propres des associés d’une SPRL ou des actionnaires
d’une société anonyme ne doit pas être considérée comme une exception
au régime juridique général de la protection diplomatique des personnes
physiques ou morales, tel qu’il découle du droit international coutumier.
65. La Cour, ayant examiné l’ensemble des arguments présentés par
les Parties, constate qu’en l’espèce la Guinée a bien qualité pour agir dans
la mesure où son action concerne une personne ayant sa nationalité,
M. Diallo, et qu’elle est dirigée contre des actes prétendument illicites de
la RDC qui auraient porté atteinte aux droits de cette personne, en par-
ticulier ses droits propres en tant qu’associé des deux sociétés Africom-
Zaïre et Africontainers-Zaïre.
66. La Cour relève que M. Diallo, qui avait la qualité d’associé des
deux sociétés Africom-Zaïre et Africontainers-Zaïre, exerçait également
les fonctions de gérant pour chacune d’entre elles. L’associé d’une SPRL
est le détenteur de parts sociales dans le capital de celle-ci; le gérant est,
quant à lui, un organe de la société, qui agit en son nom. La Cour n’a pas
à déterminer, à ce stade de la procédure, quels sont les droits spécifiques
qui s’attachent au statut d’associé et quels sont ceux qui s’attachent aux
fonctions de gérant d’une SPRL, en droit congolais. C’est, le cas échéant,
au stade du fond qu’elle aura à définir la nature et le contenu précis de ces
droits, ainsi que leurs limites. C’est à ce stade de la procédure encore qu’il
reviendra, le cas échéant, à la Cour d’apprécier les effets sur ces divers
droits des mesures prises à l’encontre de M. Diallo. Point n’est besoin
pour la Cour de trancher ces questions de fond pour pouvoir se pronon-
cer sur les exceptions préliminaires soulevées par le défendeur.
28 AHMADOU SADIO DIALLO (JUDGMENT ) 606
63. Congolese law accords an SPRL independent legal personality dis-
tinct from that of its associés, particularly in that the property of the
associés is completely separate from that of the company, and in that the
associés are responsible for the debts of the company only to the extent
of the resources they have subscribed. Consequently, the company’s
debts receivable from and owing to third parties relate to its respective
rights and obligations. As the Court pointed out in the Barcelona Trac-
tion case: “So long as the company is in existence the shareholder has no
right to the corporate assets.” (I.C.J. Reports 1970, p. 34, para. 41.) This
remains the fundamental rule in this respect, whether for a SPRL or for
a public limited company.
64. The exercise by a State of diplomatic protection on behalf of a
natural or legal person, who is associé or shareholder, having its nation-
ality, seeks to engage the responsibility of another State for an injury
caused to that person by an internationally wrongful act committed by
that State. Ultimately, this is no more than the diplomatic protection of
a natural or legal person as defined by Article 1 of the ILC draft Articles;
what amounts to the internationally wrongful act, in the case of associés
or shareholders, is the violation by the respondent State of their direct
rights in relation to a legal person, direct rights that are defined by the
domestic law of that State, as accepted by both Parties, moreover. On
this basis, diplomatic protection of the direct rights of associés of a SPRL
or shareholders of a public limited company is not to be regarded as an
exception to the general legal régime of diplomatic protection for natural
or legal persons, as derived from customary international law.
65. Having considered all of the arguments advanced by the Parties,
the Court finds that Guinea does indeed have standing in this case in so
far as its action involves a person of its nationality, Mr. Diallo, and is
directed against the allegedly unlawful acts of the DRC which are said to
have infringed his rights, particularly his direct rights as associé of the
two companies Africom-Zaire and Africontainers-Zaire.
66. The Court notes that Mr. Diallo, who was associé in Africom-
Zaire and Africontainers-Zaire, also held the position of gérant in each of
them. An associé of an SPRL holds parts sociales in its capital, while the
gérant is an organ of the company acting on its behalf. It is not for the
Court to determine, at this stage in the proceedings, which specific rights
appertain to the status of associé and which to the position of gérant of
an SPRL under Congolese law. It is at the merits stage, as appropriate,
that the Court will have to define the precise nature, content and limits of
these rights. It is also at that stage of the proceedings that it will be for
the Court, if need be, to assess the effects on these various rights of the
action against Mr. Diallo. There is no need for the Court to rule on these
substantive matters in order to be able to dispose of the preliminary
objections raised by the Respondent.
28607 AHMADOU SADIO DIALLO (ARRÊT )
67. En conséquence de ce qui précède, la Cour conclut que l’exception
d’irrecevabilité soulevée par la RDC à raison de l’absence de qualité de la
Guinée pour agir en protection de M. Diallo ne saurait être accueillie en
ce qu’elle a trait aux droits propres de celui-ci en tant qu’associé des
sociétés Africom-Zaïre et Africontainers-Zaïre.
*
68. La RDC prétend en outre que la Guinée ne peut exercer sa protec-
tion diplomatique pour la violation des droits propres de M. Diallo en
tant qu’associé des sociétés Africom-Zaïre et Africontainers-Zaïre dans la
mesure où celui-ci n’a pas tenté d’épuiser les voies de recours internes
disponibles en droit congolais contre la violation alléguée de ces droits
spécifiques.
69. La RDC relève que la Guinée
«ne conteste pas l’existence dans l’ordre juridique de la RDC de pro-
cédures et mécanismes de recours, judiciaires ou autres, qui auraient
permis aux sociétés en cause ou à M. Diallo lui-même d’assurer la
préservation de leurs droits».
Elle ajoute que
«dans les circonstances de la présente espèce, rien ... ne permet de
conclure à l’impossibilité, pour M. Diallo, de mettre en Œuvre les
mécanismes et procédures offerts par le droit congolais, qui lui
auraient permis d’assurer la protection de ses droits».
70. La RDC soutient ainsi tout d’abord que «l’absence de M. Diallo
du territoire congolais ne constituait pas un obstacle [en droit congolais]
à la poursuite des procédures déjà entamées quand il était ... au Congo»,
ou au déclenchement de nouvelles procédures. M. Diallo aurait égale-
ment pu «mandat[er] un ou plusieurs représentants pour participer aux
procédures judiciaires engagées», ou pour «déclencher de nouvelles pro-
cédures judiciaires dans le cadre d’autres litiges». La RDC fait remarquer
à cet égard que, dans les faits, les
«procédures déjà mises en Œuvre par M. Diallo pour le compte des
sociétés dont il assure la direction n’ont pas été interrompues en rai-
son de son éloignement du territoire national».
Elle note au surplus que la prétendue
«extrême pauvreté» de M. Diallo et son «impossibilité matérielle
d’intenter des nouveaux recours» [, invoquées par la Guinée,] ...
constituent des affirmations non crédibles et dépourvues de tout élé-
ment de preuve».
La pauvreté ne constituerait en tout état de cause pas «une nouvelle
exception au principe fondamental de l’épuisement préalable des voies de
recours internes».
29 AHMADOU SADIO DIALLO (JUDGMENT ) 607
67. In view of the foregoing, the Court concludes that the objection of
inadmissibility raised by the DRC due to Guinea’s lack of standing to
protect Mr. Diallo cannot be upheld in so far as it concerns his direct
rights as associé of Africom-Zaire and Africontainers-Zaire.
*
68. The DRC further claims that Guinea cannot exercise its diplo-
matic protection for the violation of Mr. Diallo’s direct rights as associé
of Africom-Zaire and Africontainers-Zaire in so far as he has not
attempted to exhaust the local remedies available in Congolese law for
the alleged breach of those specific rights.
69. The DRC points out that Guinea
“does not dispute... that there are procedures and machinery for
redress, judicial or otherwise, within the legal system of the DRC
which would have enabled the companies in question or Mr. Diallo
himself to safeguard their rights”.
It adds that
“[i]n the circumstances of the present case, however, there is
nothing...t warrant the conclusion that it was impossible for
Mr. Diallo to avail himself of the machinery and procedures offered
by Congolese law which would have enabled him to safeguard his
rights”.
70. The DRC thus submits first that “Mr. Diallo’s absence from Con-
golese territory was not an obstacle [in Congolese law] to the proceedings
already initiated when Mr. Diallo was still in the Congo” or for him to
bring other proceedings. Mr. Diallo could also have “giv[en] one or more
representatives power of attorney to act in legal proceedings instituted”
or to “institute fresh proceedings in other disputes”. In that connection,
the DRC observes that in reality the
“proceedings already set in motion by Mr. Diallo on behalf of the
companies of which he was managing director were not interrupted
because of his removal from the national territory”.
It also notes that
“the alleged ‘extreme poverty’ of Mr. Diallo and his finding it ‘mat-
erially impossible to initiate further...proceedings’ [, as claimed by
Guinea]...are affirmations lacking in credibility and quite without
evidential value”.
In any event, poverty does not constitute “a new exception to the funda-
mental principle of the prior exhaustion of local remedies”.
29608 AHMADOU SADIO DIALLO (ARRÊT )
71. La RDC soutient également que les voies de recours existantes
dans l’ordre juridique congolais sont efficaces. Elle insiste à ce propos sur
le fait que «l’«efficacité» d’un recours n’implique nullement que le plai-
gnant obtienne gain de cause». Et la RDC d’ajouter qu’il
«ne pourrait pas être question de remettre en cause l’efficacité de
voies de recours internes du simple fait que les prétentions initiales
de M. Diallo n’[auraient] pas été accueillies dans leur intégralité ou
[auraient] été écartées par la suite».
Elle rappelle par ailleurs que, de facto,
«les voies de recours internes existants au sein de l’ordre juridique
congolais se sont avérées efficaces au regard des litiges qui ont été
soumis aux tribunaux congolais par les sociétés Africontainers-
[Zaïre] et Africom-Zaïre»
et dans lesquels ces sociétés ont obtenu gain de cause. La RDC estime par
ailleurs que, au vu «de la situation particulière dans laquelle [elle s’est
trouvée pendant] plusieurs années», il n’apparaît pas que la durée des
procédures devant ses juridictions internes présente un caractère dérai-
sonnable.
72. La Guinée allègue, pour sa part, que «l’Etat congolais a délibéré-
ment choisi de refuser l’accès à son territoire à M. Diallo en raison des
actions en justice qu’il y avait engagées au nom de ses sociétés». Elle
maintient que,
«[d]ans ce contexte, reprocher à M. Diallo de ne pas avoir épuisé les
recours serait non seulement manifestement «déraisonnable» et
«injuste», mais aussi un détournement de la règle de l’épuisement
des recours internes».
La Guinée ajoute que les conditions de l’expulsion de M. Diallo ont éga-
lement empêché ce dernier d’exercer des recours internes pour son compte
ou pour ses sociétés. Elle rappelle ainsi que M. Diallo fut arrêté et empri-
sonné d’abord en 1988, puis en 1995, et fut enfin expulsé du territoire
congolais pour avoir «osé ... élever des réclamations administratives et
judiciaires». La menace qui aurait pesé sur M. Diallo et son interdiction
du territoire congolais constitueraient selon la Guinée «un déni factuel
d’accès aux recours internes». L’expulsion du territoire de M. Diallo
aurait par ailleurs mis celui-ci dans une situation financière telle qu’il
aurait été dans l’«impossibilité ... matérielle d’exercer quelque recours que
ce soit au Zaïre». Quant à la possibilité, invoquée par la RDC, de nom-
mer un autre gérant ou de mandater une autre personne pour poursuivre
des recours existants ou introduire des nouveaux recours, la Guinée fait
remarquer que, dans les circonstances de l’espèce, «il ne saurait être requis
de quiconque de prendre la succession d’une gérance aussi dangereuse» et
que «[l]e successeur éventuel ... aurait eu de bonnes raisons de penser qu’il
était «manifestement empêché d’exercer des recours internes»».
73. Au surplus, la Guinée insiste sur le fait que les recours existants
30 AHMADOU SADIO DIALLO (JUDGMENT ) 608
71. The DRC also asserts that the existing remedies available in the
Congolese legal system are effective. It emphasizes in that respect the fact
that “the ‘effectiveness’ of a remedy in no way implies that the plaintiff
wins the case”, adding that
“there can clearly be no question of contesting the effectiveness of
local remedies simply because Mr. Diallo’s initial claims were not
upheld in full or were subsequently rejected”.
It also points out that in fact
“the local remedies available within the Congolese legal system have
been shown to be effective with respect to the disputes submitted to
the ordinary Congolese courts by the companies Africontainers-
Zaire and Africom-Zaire”
in which those companies obtained rulings in their favour. Moreover, the
DRC considers that, given “the particular situation in which the Demo-
cratic Republic of the Congo...found itself for some years”, it does not
appear that the duration of proceedings before its domestic courts was
unreasonable.
72. For its part, Guinea alleges that “the Congolese State deliberately
chose to deny access to its territory to Mr. Diallo because of the legal
proceedings that he had initiated on behalf of his companies”. It main-
tains that
“[i]n these circumstances, to accuse Mr. Diallo of not having
exhausted the remedies would not only be manifestly ‘unreasonable’
and ‘unfair’, but also an abuse of the rule regarding the exhaustion
of local remedies”.
Guinea adds that the circumstances of Mr. Diallo’s expulsion also pre-
cluded him from pursuing local remedies on his own behalf or on that of
his companies. It recalls that Mr. Diallo was first arrested and impris-
oned in 1988, then in 1995 and finally expelled from the territory of the
Congo for having “ventured...o t bring administrative and legal
claims”. The threat weighing on Mr. Diallo and his exclusion from Con-
golese territory constituted, according to Guinea, “a factual denial of
access to local remedies”. The expulsion of Mr. Diallo from Congolese
territory is also said to have put him in a financial position in which it
was “materially impossible for him to pursue any remedy whatsoever in
Zaire”. As for the possibility referred to by the DRC of appointing
another gérant or giving someone else power of attorney to pursue the
proceedings already initiated or institute fresh proceedings, Guinea points
out that, in the circumstances of the case, “no one could be called upon
to take over so dangerous a managerial post” and that “[t]he possible
successor... would have had good reason to think that he was ‘mani-
festly precluded from pursuing local remedies’”.
73. Guinea further emphasizes that the existing remedies in the Con-
30609 AHMADOU SADIO DIALLO (ARRÊT )
dans l’ordre juridique congolais doivent, en tout état de cause, être consi-
dérés comme inefficaces en raison, notamment, des délais abusifs dans
lesquels les autorités judiciaires congolaises jugent des affaires qui leur
sont soumises et de «pratiques administratives illicites» qui sont inhé-
rentes au système juridique congolais, en particulier les entraves mises par
l’autorité gouvernementale à l’exécution forcée des décisions de justice.
La Guinée rappelle, à l’appui de ces affirmations, que deux des affaires
introduites devant les juridictions congolaises par les sociétés Africom-
Zaïre et Africontainers-Zaïre, il y a respectivement quatorze et treize ans,
n’ont toujours pas été décidées de manière définitive. Selon la Guinée, de
telles «durées excessives [seraient] généralisées et [ne seraient] sans doute
pas exceptionnelles»; elles démontreraient «la futilité des recours que les
sociétés de M. Diallo, ou lui-même, auraient pu s’acharner à exercer». La
Guinée rappelle également que, quelle que soit la durée des recours
devant les juridictions congolaises, «l’exécution des décisions de justice
dépendait [à l’époque des faits] exclusivement du bon vouloir du gouver-
nement». Elle illustre son propos en invoquant les «ingérences du Gou-
vernement zaïrois dans les affaires judiciaires engagées par les sociétés de
M. Diallo» et plus précisément les suspensions successives de l’exécution
du jugement du tribunal de grande instance de Kinshasa dans l’affaire
opposant Africontainers-Zaïre à Zaïre Shell. Selon la Guinée,
«[i]l en découle que tout recours juridictionnel que les sociétés ou
M. Diallo auraient pu engager à l’encontre du gouvernement ne
pouvait aboutir qu’à une décision du même gouvernement, fondée
sur des appréciations politiques».
*
74. La Cour note que la violation alléguée des droits propres de
M. Diallo en tant qu’associé a été traitée par la Guinée comme une
conséquence directe de son expulsion, étant donné les circonstances dans
lesquelles cette expulsion est intervenue. Or, la Cour a déjà constaté ci-
dessus (voir paragraphe 48) que la RDC n’a pas démontré qu’il existait,
en droit congolais, des voies de recours efficaces contre la mesure d’expul-
sion dont M. Diallo a fait l’objet. La Cour relève par ailleurs que, à
aucun moment, la RDC n’a indiqué qu’il existait dans l’ordre juridique
congolais des voies de recours contre les violations alléguées des droits
propres de M. Diallo en tant qu’associé, qui auraient été distinctes de
celles relatives à son expulsion, et qu’il aurait dû épuiser. Les Parties ont
bien consacré certains développements à la question de l’efficacité des
recours internes en RDC, mais elles se sont limitées, ce faisant, à l’exa-
men des recours ouverts aux sociétés Africom-Zaïre et Africontainers-
Zaïre, sans aborder ceux éventuellement ouverts à M. Diallo en tant
qu’associé de ces sociétés. Dans la mesure où il n’a pas été avancé qu’il
existait des voies de recours internes que M. Diallo aurait dû épuiser en
ce qui concerne ses droits propres en tant qu’associé, la question de l’effi-
cacité de ces voies de recours, en tout état de cause, ne se pose pas.
31 AHMADOU SADIO DIALLO (JUDGMENT ) 609
golese legal system must, in any event, be regarded as ineffective in view,
inter alia, of the excessive delays of the Congolese judicial authorities in
the settlement of the cases brought before them and the “unlawful
administrative practices” allegedly inherent in the Congolese legal sys-
tem, particularly the obstacles placed by the Government authorities to
impede the enforcement of court rulings. Guinea notes in support of
these arguments that there has still been no final ruling in two of the cases
brought before the Congolese courts by Africom-Zaire and Africontain-
ers-Zaire 14 and 13 years ago respectively. According to Guinea such
“excessive lengths were general and probably not exceptional”; they
demonstrate, it is claimed, “the futility of the remedies which Mr. Dial-
lo’s companies, or indeed he himself, might have done their utmost to
seek”. Guinea also recalls that, irrespective of the duration of proceed-
ings before Congolese courts, “at the time of the events, the enforcement
of legal decisions depended solely on the government’s goodwill”. It illus-
trates its argument by referring to “the interference by the Zairean Gov-
ernment in the legal proceedings brought by Mr. Diallo’s companies”
and more particularly the repeated stays of execution on the ruling of the
Kinshasa Tribunal de Grande Instance in the case between Africontain-
ers-Zaire and Zaire Shell. According to Guinea,
“[t]he upshot of this is that any legal action that Mr. Diallo or his
companies might have brought against the government could only
result in a decision by that government based on political considera-
tions”.
*
74. The Court notes that the alleged violation of Mr. Diallo’s direct
rights as associé was dealt with by Guinea as a direct consequence of his
expulsion given the circumstances in which that expulsion occurred. The
Court has already found above (see paragraph 48), that the DRC has not
proved that there were effective remedies, under Congolese law, against
the expulsion Order against Mr. Diallo. The Court further observes that
at no time has the DRC argued that remedies distinct from those in
respect of Mr. Diallo’s expulsion existed in the Congolese legal system
against the alleged violations of his direct rights as associé and that he
should have exhausted them. The Parties have indeed devoted discussion
to the question of the effectiveness of local remedies in the DRC but have
confined themselves in it to examining remedies open to Africom-Zaire
and Africontainers-Zaire, without considering any which may have been
open to Mr. Diallo as associé in the companies. Inasmuch as it has not
been argued that there were remedies that Mr. Diallo should have
exhausted in respect of his direct rights as associé, the question of the
effectiveness of those remedies does not in any case arise.
31610 AHMADOU SADIO DIALLO (ARRÊT )
75. La Cour conclut de ce qui précède que l’exception d’irrecevabilité
soulevée par la RDC à raison du non-épuisement des recours internes
contre les atteintes alléguées aux droits propres de M. Diallo en tant
qu’associé des deux sociétés Africom-Zaïre et Africontainers-Zaïre ne
saurait être accueillie.
**
76. La Cour examinera à présent la question de la recevabilité de la
requête de la Guinée en ce qu’elle vise l’exercice de la protection diplo-
matique en faveur de M. Diallo «par substitution» aux sociétés Africom-
Zaïre et Africontainers-Zaïre et en défense des droits de celles-ci. La
RDC soulève, ici encore, deux exceptions à la recevabilité de la requête
de la Guinée, tirées respectivement de l’absence de qualité pour agir de la
Guinée et du non-épuisement des voies de recours internes. La Cour trai-
tera à nouveau de ces questions l’une après l’autre, en commençant par
celle de la qualité pour agir de la Guinée.
*
77. La RDC soutient que la Guinée ne peut invoquer, comme elle le
fait en l’instance,
«des «considérations d’équité» pour justifier «le droit d’exercer sa
protection diplomatique [au profit de M. Diallo, et par substitution
aux sociétés Africom-Zaïre et Africontainers-Zaïre,] indépendam-
ment de la violation des droits propres [de M. Diallo]»»,
au motif que l’Etat dont la responsabilité est en cause serait l’Etat natio-
nal desdites sociétés. Elle rappelle que l’institution de la protection diplo-
matique repose sur le postulat «selon [lequel], en violant les droits d’un
ressortissant étranger, on viole aussi les droits de l’Etat dont il possède la
nationalité». «C’est cette circonstance, et cette circonstance seule, qui
justifie[rait] la mise en Œuvre de la protection diplomatique». Et la RDC
de souligner que, «[a] contrario, si aucun droit de ses ressortissants n’est
violé, aucun droit de l’Etat n’est violé et, par conséquent, cet Etat ne peut
en aucun cas avoir qualité pour agir». La protection diplomatique «par
substitution» plaidée par la Guinée irait donc «bien au-delà de ce que
prévoit le droit international positif».
78. La RDC ajoute que, «contrairement à ce que dit la Guinée, ni la
jurisprudence de la Cour, ni la pratique des Etats ne consacrent l’hypo-
thèse de la protection diplomatique par substitution». Elle explique que,
si la Cour a mentionné cette hypothèse dans l’affaire de la Barcelona
Traction, elle n’a néanmoins pas «constaté l’existence [de celle-ci] en
droit international positif». Au contraire, certains juges lui auraient été
«farouchement opposés». La RDC soutient que
«[c]’est en vain que la Guinée ... tente de faire accréditer la thèse du
caractère coutumier de cette protection [par substitution] en invo-
32 AHMADOU SADIO DIALLO (JUDGMENT ) 610
75. The Court concludes from the foregoing that the objection as to
inadmissibility raised by the DRC on the ground of the failure to exhaust
the local remedies against the alleged violations of Mr. Diallo’s direct
rights as associé of the two companies Africom-Zaire and Africontainers-
Zaire cannot be upheld.
**
76. The Court will now consider the question of the admissibility of
Guinea’s Application as it relates to the exercise of diplomatic protection
with respect to Mr. Diallo “by substitution” for Africom-Zaire and Afri-
containers-Zaire and in defence of their rights. Here too the DRC raises
two objections to the admissibility of Guinea’s Application, derived
respectively from Guinea’s lack of standing and the failure to exhaust
local remedies. The Court will again address these issues in turn, begin-
ning with Guinea’s standing.
*
77. The DRC contends that Guinea cannot invoke, as it does in the
present case,
“‘considerations of equity’ in order to justify ‘the right to exercise its
diplomatic protection [in favour of Mr. Diallo and by substitution
for Africom-Zaire and Africontainers-Zaire] independently of the
violation of the direct rights [of Mr. Diallo]’”
on the ground that the State whose responsibility is at issue is also the
State of nationality of the companies concerned. It recalls that the insti-
tution of diplomatic protection is based on the premise “whereby any
violation of the rights of a foreign national is also a violation of the rights
of his State of nationality”. “It is this circumstance, and this circumstance
alone, which justifies recourse to diplomatic protection.” And the DRC
emphasizes that “[c]onversely, if no right of its nationals is violated then
no right of the State is violated and, in consequence, that State can in no
circumstances have standing”. The diplomatic protection “by substitu-
tion” proposed by Guinea is thus said to go “far beyond what positive
international law provides”.
78. The DRC adds that “contrary to what Guinea says, neither the
Court’s jurisprudence nor State practice recognizes the possibility of dip-
lomatic protection by substitution”. It explains that, although it touched
upon this possibility in the Barcelona Traction case, the Court neverthe-
less did not “conclude that such a possibility existed under positive inter-
national law”. On the contrary, the DRC contends that certain judges
were “fiercely opposed to it”. The DRC submits that
“Guinea vainly seeks acceptance of the notion of a customary basis
for such protection [by substitution] by relying in turn on: arbitral
32611 AHMADOU SADIO DIALLO (ARRÊT )
quant successivement: des sentences arbitrales; les décisions de la
Commission européenne des droits de l’homme; le prescrit de l’ar-
ticle 25 de la convention de Washington; la jurisprudence du CIRDI;
des traités bilatéraux pour la promotion et la protection des inves-
tissements».
Selon la RDC, les décisions arbitrales auxquelles la Guinée se réfère ne
sont pas pertinentes, d’une part, à cause de leur ancienneté et, d’autre part,
du fait que, dans chacune des affaires concernées, la question du droit de
réclamation au profit des actionnaires était réglée dans un instrument
conventionnel qui permettait à l’arbitre de juger sans se limiter à l’appli-
cation du droit international général et qui contenait une renonciation de
l’Etat défendeur à invoquer une exception empêchant l’arbitre de se pro-
noncer au fond. Les décisions de la Commission européenne des droits de
l’homme, «élaborées dans un cadre conventionnel et institutionnel régio-
nal très particulier, ne [seraient pas davantage] pertinente[s] pour appré-
cier les circonstances de la présente espèce». Quant à la convention du
CIRDI, aux traités bilatéraux et multilatéraux pour la promotion et la
protection des investissements et à la jurisprudence du CIRDI, ils «man-
que[raient également] de pertinence» puisqu’ils «ne constitue[raie]nt pas
l’application directe des principes et règles régissant la protection diplo-
matique».
79. Selon la RDC, la Guinée demanderait en réalité à la Cour de
l’autoriser à exercer sa protection diplomatique de manière contraire au
droit international. La RDC s’est référée à cet égard à l’arrêt rendu par
une chambre de la Cour en l’affaire du Différend frontalier (Burkina Faso/
République du Mali) ; elle a fait observer que les Parties ne l’ayant pas
priée en la présente affaire de statuer ex aequo et bono en vertu du para-
graphe 2 de l’article 38 du Statut, la Cour devrait «également écarter ...
tout recours à l’équité contra legem »( C.I.J. Recueil 1986, p. 567, par. 28).
La RDC ajoute qu’aucune des circonstances particulières de l’espèce ne
justifie la remise en cause de cette conclusion.
80. La RDC fait valoir pour le surplus que, à supposer même que la
Cour accepte de prendre en compte les considérations d’équité invoquées
par la Guinée, celle-ci n’a pas démontré qu’une protection de l’action-
naire «par substitution» à la société qui possède la nationalité de l’Etat
défendeur se justifierait en l’espèce. A cet égard, la RDC soutient tout
d’abord qu’il n’a pas été établi que la solution préconisée par la Guinée
soit équitable dans son principe. La RDC avance au contraire qu’une
telle protection par substitution mènerait en fait à un régime de protec-
tion discriminatoire, car elle aboutirait à une inégalité de traitement des
actionnaires. Certains actionnaires, comme en l’espèce M. Diallo, pour-
raient bénéficier de la protection de leur Etat national en raison de leur
qualité d’étranger et des bonnes relations qu’ils entretiennent avec leurs
autorités nationales, tandis que les autres actionnaires, soit qu’ils soient
de la même nationalité que les sociétés, soit que leur pays d’origine ne
souhaite pas exercer sa protection diplomatique en leur faveur, ne pour-
33 AHMADOU SADIO DIALLO (JUDGMENT ) 611
awards; decisions of the European Commission of Human Rights;
the requirements of Article 25 of the Washington Convention; ICSID
jurisprudence; and bilateral treaties for the promotion and protec-
tion of investments”.
According to the DRC, the arbitral awards to which Guinea refers are of
no relevance, on the one hand, because of their age and, on the other,
because, in each of the cases concerned, the issue of the right to claim on
behalf of the shareholders had been settled in a convention enabling the
arbitrators to adjudicate without limiting themselves to the application of
general international law and which also contained a waiver by the
respondent State of any right to raise an objection preventing the tribu-
nal from ruling on the merits. The decisions of the European Commis-
sion of Human Rights, “given within a quite specific institutional and
conventional framework, applicable at regional level, [are said to be no
more]... relevant to the circumstances of the present case”. As for the
ICSID Convention, bilateral and multilateral treaties for the promotion
and protection of investments and, ICSID decisions, they are also said to
lack relevance, as they “do not constitute the direct application of the
principles and rules governing diplomatic protection”.
79. According to the DRC, Guinea is in reality asking the Court to
authorize it to exercise its diplomatic protection in a manner contrary to
international law. In this connection, the DRC referred to the Judgment
delivered by a Chamber of the Court in the case concerning Frontier Dis-
pute (Burkina Faso/Republic of Mali) , and observed that, since the
Parties had not, in the present case, requested a decision ex aequo et bono
under Article 38, paragraph 2, of the Statute, the Court must “also dis-
miss any possibility of resorting to equity contra legem”( I.C.J. Reports
1986, p. 567, para. 28). The DRC adds that none of the particular cir-
cumstances of the case warrants calling that conclusion into question.
80. The DRC further contends that, even supposing that the Court
agreed to take account of the considerations of equity relied on by
Guinea, Guinea has not demonstrated that protection of the shareholder
“in substitution” for the company which possesses the nationality of the
respondent State would be justified in the present case. In this connec-
tion, the DRC contends first that it has not been established that the
solution advocated by Guinea is equitable in principle. On the contrary,
the DRC suggests that such protection by substitution would in fact lead
to a discriminatory régime of protection, resulting as it would in the
unequal treatment of the shareholders. Some shareholders, such as
Mr. Diallo in this case, might enjoy the protection of their national State
by virtue of their alien status and of the good relations which they enjoy
with their national authorities, whereas the other shareholders, either
because they have the same nationality as the companies, or because their
country of origin does not wish to exercise diplomatic protection in
33612 AHMADOU SADIO DIALLO (ARRÊT )
raient avoir recours qu’au droit interne et aux juridictions nationales
pour faire valoir leurs droits. Selon la RDC, une telle différence de trai-
tement manque de base objective et raisonnable et constitue donc une
véritable discrimination.
81. La RDC soutient enfin que, «à supposer même que l’on accepte
qu’une «protection par substitution se justifie», l’application de ce prin-
cipe au cas de M. Diallo se révélerait fondamentalement inéquitable».
Selon la RDC, «la personnalité de M. Diallo et le comportement qu’il a
adopté depuis le début de cette affaire sont loin d’être irréprochables».
La RDC allègue d’ailleurs que ce sont les «activités frauduleuses et atten-
tatoires à l’ordre public [de M. Diallo] qui ont motivé son éloignement du
territoire national». Elle ajoute que le refus de M. Diallo d’épuiser les
voies de recours internes disponibles rendrait, lui aussi, inéquitable une
protection diplomatique par substitution en l’espèce.
82. La Guinée fait observer, pour sa part, qu’elle ne demande pas à la
Cour de recourir à l’équité contra legem pour décider la présente affaire
quand elle invoque la protection de M. Diallo par substitution aux socié-
tés Africom-Zaïre et Africontainers-Zaïre. La Guinée soutient plutôt que,
dans l’affaire de la Barcelona Traction, la Cour a évoqué dans un dictum
la possibilité d’une exception, fondée sur des raisons d’équité, à la règle
générale de la protection d’une société par l’Etat national de celle-ci,
«lorsque l’Etat dont la responsabilité est en cause est l’Etat national de la
société». Elle cite à cet égard le passage suivant de l’arrêt, qu’elle consi-
dère pertinent:
«En revanche, la Cour estime que, dans le domaine de la protec-
tion diplomatique comme dans tous les autres domaines, le droit
international exige une application raisonnable. Il a été suggéré que,
si l’on ne peut appliquer dans un cas d’espèce la règle générale selon
laquelle le droit de protection diplomatique d’une société revient à
son Etat national, il pourrait être indiqué, pour des raisons d’équité,
que la protection des actionnaires en cause soit assurée par leur
propre Etat national.» (C.I.J. Recueil 1970, p. 48, par. 93.)
Selon la Guinée, l’équité dont il s’agit en l’espèce est une équité infra
legem. Le recours à celle-ci aurait pour but de permettre ««une applica-
tion raisonnable» ... des règles relatives à la protection diplomatique»,
afin «de ne pas priver les actionnaires étrangers d’une société ayant la
nationalité de l’Etat auteur du fait internationalement illicite de toute
possibilité de protection». La Guinée reconnaît que la Cour n’a pas tran-
ché définitivement la question de l’existence de la protection diplo-
matique par substitution dans l’affaire de la Barcelona Traction. Elle
estime néanmoins que le texte de l’arrêt, lu à la lumière des opinions des
membres de la Cour qui y sont jointes, conduit «à penser que la majo-
rité des juges considéraient [cette] exception comme établie en droit».
83. La Guinée fait valoir que l’existence de la règle de la protection par
substitution et son caractère coutumier sont confirmés par de nombreuses
sentences arbitrales
34 AHMADOU SADIO DIALLO (JUDGMENT ) 612
respect of them, could have recourse only to domestic law and domestic
courts to assert their rights. According to the DRC, such a difference in
treatment lacks any objective and reasonable basis and thus constitutes
true discrimination.
81. Lastly, the DRC maintains that “even assuming that ‘protection
by substitution’ were accepted as justified, application of this principle to
the case of Mr. Diallo would prove fundamentally inequitable”. Accord-
ing to the DRC, “Mr. Diallo’s personality and the conduct adopted by
him since the start of this case are far from irreproachable”. Moreover,
the DRC alleges that it was those “activities [of Mr. Diallo], fraudulent
and detrimental to public order, which motivated his removal from Zair-
ean territory”. It adds that Mr. Diallo’s refusal to exhaust the available
local remedies would also render diplomatic protection by substitution
inequitable in this case.
82. For its part, Guinea observes that it is not asking the Court to
resort to equity contra legem to decide the present case when invoking
Mr. Diallo’s protection by substitution for Africom-Zaire and Africon-
tainers-Zaire. Rather, Guinea contends that, in the Barcelona Traction
case, the Court referred, in a dictum, to the possibility of an exception,
founded on reasons of equity, to the general rule of the protection of a
company by its national State, “when the State whose responsibility is
invoked is the national State of the company”. In this connection, it
quotes the following passage from the Judgment, which it considers
apposite:
“On the other hand, the Court considers that, in the field of dip-
lomatic protection as in all other fields of international law, it is nec-
essary that the law be applied reasonably. It has been suggested that
if in a given case it is not possible to apply the general rule that the
right of diplomatic protection of a company belongs to its national
State, considerations of equity might call for the possibility of pro-
tection of the shareholders in question by their own national State.”
(I.C.J. Reports 1970, p. 48, para. 93.)
According to Guinea, the equity concerned in this case is equity infra
legem. The alleged purpose of such recourse is to permit “‘a reasonable
application’...oftherules relating to diplomatic protection”, in order
“not to deprive foreign shareholders in a company having the nationality
of the State responsible for the internationally wrongful act of all possi-
bility of protection”. Guinea recognizes that the Court did not defini-
tively settle the question of the existence of diplomatic protection by
substitution in the Barcelona Traction case. It nevertheless considers that
the text of the Judgment, read in the light of the opinions of the Members
of the Court appended to it, leads one “to believe that a majority of the
Judges regarded the exception as established in law”.
83. Guinea contends that the existence of the rule of protection by
substitution and its customary nature are confirmed by numerous arbi-
tral awards establishing
34613 AHMADOU SADIO DIALLO (ARRÊT )
«établi[ssant] que les actionnaires d’une société peuvent bénéficier de
la protection diplomatique de leur propre Etat national à l’égard de
l’Etat dont la société a la nationalité lorsque celui-ci est responsable
d’un fait internationalement illicite à son égard».
En outre, la «pratique ultérieure [à l’arrêt de la Barcelona Traction],
conventionnelle ou jurisprudentielle ... [aurait] dissipé toute incertitude ...
sur la positivité de l’«exception»». La Guinée se réfère ainsi à certaines
décisions de la Commission européenne des droits de l’homme, à la
convention de Washington instituant le CIRDI, à la jurisprudence de
celui-ci ou encore à la jurisprudence du Tribunal des réclamations Iran-
Etats-Unis.
84. De l’avis de la Guinée, l’application de la protection par substitu-
tion s’imposerait tout spécialement dans le cas d’espèce. La Guinée sou-
ligne, une fois encore, que les sociétés Africom-Zaïre et Africontainers-
Zaïre sont des SPRL qui présentent un caractère intuitu personae marqué
et qui sont, pour le surplus, statutairement contrôlées et dirigées par une
seule et unique personne. Elle relève par ailleurs et surtout que M. Diallo
était tenu, en vertu de la législation zaïroise et en particulier de l’article
premier de l’ordonnance-loi du 7 juin 1966 «relative au siège social et au
siège administratif des sociétés dont le principal siège d’exploitation est
situé au Congo», de constituer les sociétés au Zaïre. La Guinée se réfère
à ce propos à l’article 11, paragraphe b), du projet d’articles sur la pro-
tection diplomatique tel qu’adopté en 2006 par la CDI, qui prévoit que la
règle de la protection par substitution trouve à s’appliquer précisément
lorsque les actionnaires d’une société ont été contraints à constituer
celle-ci dans l’Etat auteur de la violation du droit international allé-
guée. Aux termes de l’article 11, paragraphe b),
«[u]n Etat de nationalité des actionnaires d’une société ne peut exer-
cer sa protection diplomatique à l’égard desdits actionnaires lors-
qu’un préjudice est causé à la société que:
.............................
b) si la société avait, à la date du préjudice, la nationalité de l’Etat
qui est réputé en être responsable et si sa constitution dans cet
Etat était une condition exigée par ce dernier pour qu’elle puisse
exercer ses activités dans le même Etat».
85. La Guinée fait encore valoir que les accusations portées par la
RDC contre M. Diallo ne sont étayées par aucun fait. Elle décrit au
contraire M. Diallo comme «un investisseur et un homme d’affaires avisé
et sérieux» qui n’a jamais fait l’objet de reproches quant à l’exécution de
ses propres engagements à l’égard de l’Etat zaïrois et des sociétés privées,
et qui a rendu de grands services au développement économique du Zaïre
en y réalisant des investissements considérables. Enfin, la Guinée rejette
non seulement comme erronée mais aussi comme non pertinente dans le
présent contexte l’allégation selon laquelle M. Diallo aurait refusé d’épui-
35 AHMADOU SADIO DIALLO (JUDGMENT ) 613
“that the shareholders of a company can enjoy the diplomatic pro-
tection of their own national State as regards the national State of
the company when that State is responsible for an internationally
wrongful act against it”.
Further, according to Guinea, “[s]ubsequent practice [following Barce-
lona Traction], conventional or jurisprudential...h s dispelled any
uncertainty...onthe positive nature of the ‘exception’”. Guinea thus
refers to certain decisions of the European Commission of Human Rights,
to the Washington Convention establishing the ICSID, to the latter’s
jurisprudence and to the jurisprudence of the Iran-United States Claims
Tribunal.
84. In Guinea’s view, the application of protection by substitution is
particularly appropriate in this case. Guinea again emphasizes that Afri-
com-Zaire and Africontainers-Zaire are SPRLs, which have a marked
intuitu personae character and which, moreover, are statutorily control-
led and managed by one and the same person. Further, it especially
points out that Mr. Diallo was bound, under Zairean legislation, and in
particular Article 1 of the Legislative Order of 7 June 1966 concerning
the registered office and the administrative seat of companies “whose
main centre of operations is situated in the Congo”, to incorporate the
companies in Zaire. In this regard, Guinea refers to Article 11, paragraph
(b), of the draft Articles on Diplomatic Protection adopted in 2006 by
the ILC, providing that the rule of protection by substitution applies spe-
cifically in situations where the shareholders in a company have been
required to form the company in the State having committed the alleged
violation of international law. Under Article 11, paragraph (b):
“A State of nationality of shareholders in a corporation shall not
be entitled to exercise diplomatic protection in respect of such share-
holders in the case of an injury to the corporation unless:
.............................
(b) the corporation had, at the date of injury, the nationality of the
State alleged to be responsible for causing the injury, and incor-
poration in that State was required by it as a precondition for
doing business there.”
85. Guinea also submits that the accusations made by the DRC against
Mr. Diallo are not supported by any facts. On the contrary, it describes
Mr. Diallo as “a shrewd and serious investor and businessman”, who
has never been accused of not honouring his own commitments to the
Zairean State and private companies, and who has rendered great
services to the economic development of Zaire by making substantial
investments there. Lastly, Guinea rejects as not only inaccurate but
also irrelevant in the present context the allegation that Mr. Diallo
refused to exhaust all the remedies available in the DRC, this being a
35614 AHMADOU SADIO DIALLO (ARRÊT )
ser toutes les voies de recours disponibles en RDC, cette allégation ayant
trait à une condition de recevabilité différente de celle examinée ici.
*
86. La Cour rappelle qu’en matière de protection diplomatique le
principe, tel qu’il a été souligné dans l’affaire de la Barcelona Traction,
est que:
«La responsabilité n’est pas engagée si un simple intérêt est tou-
ché; elle ne l’est que si un droit est violé, de sorte que des actes qui ne
visent et n’atteignent que les droits de la société n’impliquent aucune
responsabilité à l’égard des actionnaires même si leurs intérêts en
souffrent.» (C.I.J. Recueil 1970, p. 36, par. 46.)
87. Depuis son dictum dans l’affaire de la Barcelona Traction (ibid.,
p. 48, par. 93) (voir paragraphe 82 ci-dessus), la Cour n’a pas eu l’occa-
sion de se prononcer sur la question de savoir s’il existe bien, en droit
international, une exception à la règle générale «selon laquelle le droit de
protection diplomatique d’une société revient à son Etat national» (ibid.,
p. 48, par. 93), exception qui autoriserait une protection des actionnaires
par leur propre Etat national «par substitution», et quelle en serait la
portée. Certes, dans l’affaire de l’Elettronica Sicula S.p.A. (ELSI) (Etats-
Unis d’Amérique c. Italie) , la Chambre de la Cour a admis un recours
des Etats-Unis en faveur de deux sociétés américaines détenant cent pour
cent des actions d’une société italienne, relativement à des actes attribués
aux autorités italiennes et dont il était prétendu qu’ils avaient porté
atteinte aux droits de ladite société. Cependant, la Chambre s’est fondée
à cet effet non sur le droit international coutumier, mais sur un traité
d’amitié, de commerce et de navigation entre les deux pays, qui octroyait
directement à leurs ressortissants, sociétés et associations certains droits
relatifs à la participation de ceux-ci dans des sociétés et associations de la
nationalité de l’autre Etat. La Cour examinera à présent si l’exception
invoquée par la Guinée est consacrée en droit international coutumier,
comme celle-ci le prétend.
88. La Cour ne peut manquer de noter que, en droit international
contemporain, la protection des droits des sociétés et des droits de leurs
actionnaires, et le règlement des différends y afférents sont essentielle-
ment régis par des accords bilatéraux ou multilatéraux en matière de pro-
tection des investissements étrangers, tels les accords sur la promotion et
la protection des investissements étrangers, et la convention de Washing-
ton du 18 mars 1965 sur le règlement des différends relatifs aux investis-
sements entre Etats et ressortissants d’autres Etats investisseurs, qui a
créé un Centre international de règlement des différends relatifs aux inves-
tissements (CIRDI), ainsi que par des contrats entre les Etats et les inves-
tisseurs étrangers. Dans ce contexte, le rôle de la protection diplomatique
s’est estompé, celle-ci n’étant en pratique appelée à intervenir que dans
les rares cas où les régimes conventionnels n’existent pas ou se sont révé-
36 AHMADOU SADIO DIALLO (JUDGMENT ) 614
claim concerning a condition for admissibility different from that which
is here examined.
*
86. The Court recalls that, as regards diplomatic protection, the prin-
ciple as emphasized in the Barcelona Traction case, is that:
“Not a mere interest affected, but solely a right infringed involves
responsibility, so that an act directed against and infringing only the
company’s rights does not involve responsibility towards the share-
holders, even if their interests are affected.” (I.C.J. Reports 1970,
p. 36, para. 46.)
87. Since its dictum in the Barcelona Traction case (ibid.,p .,
para. 93) (see paragraph 82 above), the Court has not had occasion to
rule on whether, in international law, there is indeed an exception to the
general rule “that the right of diplomatic protection of a company
belongs to its national State” (ibid., p. 48, para. 93), which allows for
protection of the shareholders by their own national State “by substitu-
tion”, and on the reach of any such exception. It is true that in the case
concerning Elettronica Sicula S.p.A. (ELSI) (United States of Amer-
ica v. Italy), the Chamber of the Court allowed a claim by the United
States of America on behalf of two United States corporations (who held
100 per cent of the shares in an Italian company), in relation to alleged
acts by the Italian authorities injuring the rights of the latter company.
However, in doing so, the Chamber based itself not on customary inter-
national law but on a Treaty of Friendship, Commerce and Navigation
between the two countries directly granting to their nationals, corpora-
tions and associations certain rights in relation to their participation in
corporations and associations having the nationality of the other State.
The Court will now examine whether the exception invoked by Guinea is
part of customary international law, as claimed by the latter.
88. The Court is bound to note that, in contemporary international
law, the protection of the rights of companies and the rights of their
shareholders, and the settlement of the associated disputes, are essentially
governed by bilateral or multilateral agreements for the protection of for-
eign investments, such as the treaties for the promotion and protection of
foreign investments, and the Washington Convention of 18 March 1965
on the Settlement of Investment Disputes between States and Nationals
of Other States, which created an International Centre for Settlement of
Investment Disputes (ICSID), and also by contracts between States and
foreign investors. In that context, the role of diplomatic protection some-
what faded, as in practice recourse is only made to it in rare cases where
treaty régimes do not exist or have proved inoperative. It is in this par-
ticular and relatively limited context that the question of protection by
36615 AHMADOU SADIO DIALLO (ARRÊT )
lés inopérants. C’est dans ce cadre particulier et relativement limité que la
question de la protection par substitution pourrait être soulevée. La théo-
rie de la protection par substitution vise en effet à offrir une protection
aux actionnaires étrangers d’une société qui ne pourraient pas invoquer le
bénéfice d’un accord international, et auxquels aucun autre recours ne
serait ouvert, dans la mesure où les actes prétendument illicites auraient
été commis à l’encontre de la société par l’Etat de la nationalité de celle-
ci. La protection «par substitution» constituerait donc le tout dernier
recours pour la protection des investissements étrangers.
89. La Cour, ayant examiné avec soin la pratique des Etats et les déci-
sions des cours et tribunaux internationaux en matière de protection
diplomatique des associés et des actionnaires, est d’avis qu’elles ne
révèlent pas — du moins à l’heure actuelle — l’existence en droit inter-
national coutumier d’une exception permettant une protection par sub-
stitution telle qu’invoquée par la Guinée.
90. Le fait, dont se prévaut la Guinée, que différents accords interna-
tionaux tels les accords sur la promotion et la protection des investisse-
ments étrangers et la convention de Washington aient institué des ré-
gimes juridiques spécifiques en matière de protection des investissements,
ou encore qu’il soit courant d’inclure des dispositions à cet effet dans les
contrats conclus directement entre Etats et investisseurs étrangers, ne suf-
fit pas à démontrer que les règles coutumières de protection diplomatique
auraient changé; il pourrait tout aussi bien se comprendre dans le sens
contraire. Les arbitrages qui ont été invoqués par la Guinée relèvent eux
aussi de régimes particuliers, qu’ils aient été fondés sur des accords inter-
nationaux spécifiques entre deux ou plusieurs Etats dont celui respon-
sable des actes prétendument illicites à l’égard des sociétés concernées
(voir par exemple le compromis conclu entre les Gouvernements amé-
ricain, britannique et portugais dans l’affaire Delagoa ou celui conclu
entre El Salvador et les Etats-Unis d’Amérique dans l’affaire de la
Salvador Commercial Company ) ou sur des accords passés directement
entre une société et l’Etat prétendument responsable du préjudice causé à
celle-ci (voir l’affaire Biloune v. Ghana Investments Centre ).
91. Une question distincte est celle de savoir s’il existe en droit inter-
national coutumier une règle de protection par substitution de portée
plus limitée, telle que celle formulée par la CDI dans son projet d’articles
sur la protection diplomatique, qui ne trouverait à s’appliquer que
lorsque la constitution d’une société dans l’Etat auteur de la violation
alléguée du droit international «était une condition exigée par ce
dernier pour qu’elle puisse exercer ses activités dans le même Etat»
(art. 11, par. b)).
92. Ce cas de figure bien particulier ne semble cependant pas corres-
pondre à celui auquel la Cour a affaire dans le cas d’espèce. Il est de fait
que M. Diallo, citoyen guinéen, s’est installé au Zaïre dès 1964, soit à
l’âge de dix-sept ans, et qu’il n’a créé sa première société Africom-Zaïre
que dix ans plus tard, en 1974. De même, lorsque, en 1979, M. Diallo a
participé à la création de la société Africontainers-Zaïre, ce n’était en réa-
37 AHMADOU SADIO DIALLO (JUDGMENT ) 615
substitution might be raised. The theory of protection by substitution
seeks indeed to offer protection to the foreign shareholders of a company
who could not rely on the benefit of an international treaty and to whom
no other remedy is available, the allegedly unlawful acts having been
committed against the company by the State of its nationality. Protection
by “substitution” would therefore appear to constitute the very last resort
for the protection of foreign investments.
89. The Court, having carefully examined State practice and decisions
of international courts and tribunals in respect of diplomatic protection
of associés and shareholders, is of the opinion that these do not reveal —
at least at the present time — an exception in customary international
law allowing for protection by substitution, such as is relied on by
Guinea.
90. The fact invoked by Guinea that various international agreements,
such as agreements for the promotion and protection of foreign invest-
ments and the Washington Convention, have established special legal
régimes governing investment protection, or that provisions in this regard
are commonly included in contracts entered into directly between States
and foreign investors, is not sufficient to show that there has been a
change in the customary rules of diplomatic protection; it could equally
show the contrary. The arbitrations relied on by Guinea are also special
cases, whether based on specific international agreements between two or
more States, including the one responsible for the allegedly unlawful acts
regarding the companies concerned (see, for example, the special agree-
ment concluded between the American, British and Portuguese Govern-
ments in the Delagoa case or the one concluded between El Salvador and
the United States of America in the Salvador Commercial Company case)
or based on agreements concluded directly between a company and the
State allegedly responsible for the prejudice to it (see the Biloune v.
Ghana Investments Centre case).
91. It is a separate question whether customary international law con-
tains a more limited rule of protection by substitution, such as that set
out by the ILC in its draft Articles on Diplomatic Protection, which
would apply only where a company’s incorporation in the State having
committed the alleged violation of international law “was required by it
as a precondition for doing business there” (Art. 11, para. (b)).
92. However, this very special case does not seem to correspond to the
one the Court is dealing with here. It is a fact that Mr. Diallo, a Guinean
citizen, settled in Zaire in 1964, when he was 17 years of age, and that he
did not set up his first company, Africom-Zaire, until ten years later, in
1974. In addition, when, in 1979, Mr. Diallo took part in the creation of
Africontainers-Zaire, it was in fact only as manager (gérant) of Africom-
37616 AHMADOU SADIO DIALLO (ARRÊT )
lité qu’en tant que gérant de la société Africom-Zaïre, une société de droit
congolais. Le capital de la société Africontainers-Zaïre elle-même, au
moment de sa création, était détenu à 70% par des associés de nationalité
congolaise, et ce n’est qu’en 1980, un an plus tard, que M. Diallo est
devenu associé en son nom propre de cette société à concurrence de 40%
du capital, suite au retrait de deux autres associés, la société Africom-
Zaïre détenant le reste des parts sociales. Dans ces conditions, il apparaît
que les sociétés Africom-Zaïre et Africontainers-Zaïre ont été créées
naturellement au Zaïre et inscrites au registre du commerce de la ville de
Kinshasa par M. Diallo, qui y exerçait déjà des activités commerciales.
De surcroît et surtout, il n’a pas été établi à suffisance devant la Cour que
leur constitution dans ce pays, en tant que personnes morales de natio-
nalité congolaise, aurait été exigée de leurs fondateurs pour que ceux-ci
puissent opérer dans les secteurs économiques concernés.
93. La Cour conclut, à l’examen des faits, que les sociétés Africom-
Zaïre et Africontainers-Zaïre n’ont pas été constituées de manière telle
qu’elles rentreraient dans le champ d’application d’une protection par
substitution au sens de l’article 11, paragraphe b), du projet d’articles de
la CDI sur la protection diplomatique auquel la Guinée s’est référée. Dès
lors, la question de savoir si ce paragraphe de l’article 11 reflète ou non le
droit international coutumier ne se pose pas en l’espèce.
94. Au vu de ce qui précède, la Cour ne saurait accepter la prétention
de la Guinée à exercer une protection diplomatique par substitution.
C’est donc la règle normale de la nationalité des réclamations qui régit la
question de la protection diplomatique à l’égard des sociétés Africom-
Zaïre et Africontainers-Zaïre. Or ces sociétés possèdent la nationalité
congolaise. L’exception d’irrecevabilité soulevée par la RDC à raison de
l’absence de qualité de la Guinée pour agir en protection diplomatique de
M. Diallo pour les prétendus actes illicites de la RDC dirigés contre les
droits des sociétés Africom-Zaïre et Africontainers-Zaïre est par consé-
quent fondée et doit être retenue.
*
95. Ayant conclu que la Guinée n’avait pas qualité pour agir en protec-
tion diplomatique de M. Diallo pour les prétendus actes illicites de la
RDC dirigés contre les droits des sociétés Africom-Zaïre et Africontai-
ners-Zaïre, la Cour n’a pas à examiner plus avant l’exception soulevée par
la RDC à raison de l’absence d’épuisement des voies de recours internes.
**
96. Au vu de tout ce qui précède, la Cour conclut que la requête de la
Guinée est recevable en ce qu’elle a trait à la protection des droits de
M. Diallo en tant qu’individu et de ses droits propres en tant qu’associé
des sociétés Africom-Zaïre et Africontainers-Zaïre.
* * *
38 AHMADOU SADIO DIALLO JUDGMENT ) 616
Zaire, a company under Congolese law. When Africontainers-Zaire was
set up, 70 per cent of its capital was held by associés of Congolese nation-
ality, and only in 1980, one year later, did Mr. Diallo become an associé
in his own name of that company, holding 40 per cent of the capital, fol-
lowing the withdrawal of the other two associés, the company Africom-
Zaire holding the remaining parts sociales. It appears natural, against
this background, that Africom-Zaire and Africontainers-Zaire were cre-
ated in Zaire and entered in the Trade Register of the city of Kinshasa by
Mr. Diallo, who was already engaged in commercial activities. Further-
more, and above all it has not satisfactorily been established before the
Court that their incorporation in that country, as legal entities of Con-
golese nationality, would have been required of their founders to enable
the founders to operate in the economic sectors concerned.
93. The Court concludes on the facts before it that the companies,
Africom-Zaire and Africontainers-Zaire, were not incorporated in such a
way that they would fall within the scope of protection by substitution in
the sense of Article 11, paragraph (b), of the ILC draft Articles on Dip-
lomatic Protection referred to by Guinea. Therefore, the question of
whether or not this paragraph of Article 11 reflects customary interna-
tional law does not arise in this case.
94. In view of the foregoing, the Court cannot accept Guinea’s claim
to exercise diplomatic protection by substitution. It is therefore the nor-
mal rule of the nationality of the claims which governs the question of
the diplomatic protection of Africom-Zaire and Africontainers-Zaire.
The companies in question have Congolese nationality. The objection as
to inadmissibility raised by the DRC owing to Guinea’s lack of standing
to offer Mr. Diallo diplomatic protection as regards the alleged unlawful
acts of the DRC against the rights of the two companies Africom-Zaire
and Africontainers-Zaire is consequently well founded and must be
upheld.
*
95. Having concluded that Guinea is without standing to offer
Mr. Diallo diplomatic protection as regards the alleged unlawful acts of
the DRC against the rights of the companies Africom-Zaire and Afric-
ontainers-Zaire, the Court need not further consider the DRC’s objection
based on the non-exhaustion of local remedies.
**
96. In view of all the foregoing, the Court concludes that Guinea’s
Application is admissible in so far as it concerns protection of
Mr. Diallo’s rights as an individual and his direct rights as associé in
Africom-Zaire and Africontainers-Zaire.
* * *
38617 AHMADOU SADIO DIALLO ARRÊT )
97. Conformément au paragraphe 7 de l’article 79 du Règlement dans
sa version adoptée le 14 avril 1978, les délais pour la suite de la procédure
seront fixés ultérieurement par la Cour par voie d’ordonnance.
*
* *
98. Par ces motifs,
L A C OUR ,
1) Quant à l’exception préliminaire d’irrecevabilité soulevée par la
République démocratique du Congo à raison de l’absence de qualité de la
République de Guinée pour agir en protection diplomatique en l’espèce:
a) à l’unanimité,
Rejette ladite exception en ce qu’elle a trait à la protection des droits
propres de M. Diallo en tant qu’associé des sociétés Africom-Zaïre et
Africontainers-Zaïre;
b) par quatorze voix contre une,
Retient ladite exception en ce qu’elle a trait à la protection de M. Diallo
pour les atteintes alléguées aux droits des sociétés Africom-Zaïre et Afri-
containers-Zaïre;
POUR : MmeHiggins,président; M. Al-Khasawneh,vice-président; MM. Ranjeva,
Shi, Koroma, Buergenthal, Owada, Simma, Tomka, Abraham, Keith,
Bennouna, Skotnikov, juges; M. Mampuya, juge ad hoc;
CONTRE : M. Mahiou, juge ad hoc;
2) Quant à l’exception préliminaire d’irrecevabilité soulevée par la
République démocratique du Congo à raison du non-épuisement par
M. Diallo des voies de recours internes:
a) à l’unanimité,
Rejette ladite exception en ce qu’elle a trait à la protection des droits de
M. Diallo en tant qu’individu;
b) par quatorze voix contre une,
Rejette ladite exception en ce qu’elle a trait à la protection des droits
propres de M. Diallo en tant qu’associé des sociétés Africom-Zaïre et
Africontainers-Zaïre;
me
POUR : M Higgins,président; M. Al-Khasawneh,vice-président; MM. Ranjeva,
Shi, Koroma, Buergenthal, Owada, Simma, Tomka, Abraham, Keith,
Bennouna, Skotnikov, juges; M. Mahiou, juge ad hoc;
CONTRE : M. Mampuya, juge ad hoc;
3) En conséquence:
a) à l’unanimité,
Déclare la requête de la République de Guinée recevable en ce qu’elle
a trait à la protection des droits de M. Diallo en tant qu’individu;
39 AHMADOU SADIO DIALLO (JUDGMENT ) 617
97. In accordance with Article 79, paragraph 7, of the Rules of Court
as adopted on 14 April 1978, time-limits for the further proceedings shall
subsequently be fixed by Order of the Court.
*
* *
98. For these reasons,
T HE C OURT ,
(1) As regards the preliminary objection to admissibility raised by the
Democratic Republic of the Congo for lack of standing by the Republic
of Guinea to exercise diplomatic protection in the present case:
(a) unanimously,
Rejects the objection in so far as it concerns protection of Mr. Diallo’s
direct rights as associé in Africom-Zaire and Africontainers-Zaire;
(b) by fourteen votes to one,
Upholds the objection in so far as it concerns protection of Mr. Diallo
in respect of alleged violations of rights of Africom-Zaire and Africon-
tainers-Zaire;
IN FAVOUR : President Higgins; Vice-President Al-Khasawneh; Judges
Ranjeva, Shi, Koroma, Buergenthal, Owada, Simma, Tomka, Abraham,
Keith, Bennouna, Skotnikov; Judge ad hoc Mampuya;
AGAINST: Judge ad hoc Mahiou;
(2) As regards the preliminary objection to admissibility raised by the
Democratic Republic of the Congo on account of non-exhaustion by
Mr. Diallo of local remedies:
(a) unanimously,
Rejects the objection in so far as it concerns protection of Mr. Diallo’s
rights as an individual;
(b) by fourteen votes to one,
Rejects the objection in so far as it concerns protection of Mr. Diallo’s
direct rights as associé in Africom-Zaire and Africontainers-Zaire;
IN FAVOUR : President Higgins; Vice-President Al-Khasawneh; Judges
Ranjeva, Shi, Koroma, Buergenthal, Owada, Simma, Tomka, Abraham,
Keith, Bennouna, Skotnikov; Judge ad hoc Mahiou;
AGAINST: Judge ad hoc Mampuya;
(3) In consequence:
(a) unanimously,
Declares the Application of the Republic of Guinea to be admissible in
so far as it concerns protection of Mr. Diallo’s rights as an individual;
39618 AHMADOU SADIO DIALLO (ARRÊT )
b) par quatorze voix contre une,
Déclare la requête de la République de Guinée recevable en ce qu’elle
a trait à la protection des droits propres de M. Diallo en tant qu’associé
des sociétés Africom-Zaïre et Africontainers-Zaïre;
me
POUR : M Higgins,président; M. Al-Khasawneh,vice-président; MM. Ranjeva,
Shi, Koroma, Buergenthal, Owada, Simma, Tomka, Abraham, Keith,
Bennouna, Skotnikov, juges; M. Mahiou, juge ad hoc;
CONTRE : M. Mampuya, juge ad hoc;
c) par quatorze voix contre une,
Déclare la requête de la République de Guinée irrecevable en ce qu’elle
a trait à la protection de M. Diallo pour les atteintes alléguées aux droits
des sociétés Africom-Zaïre et Africontainers-Zaïre.
me
POUR : M Higgins,président; M. Al-Khasawneh,vice-président; MM. Ranjeva,
Shi, Koroma, Buergenthal, Owada, Simma, Tomka, Abraham, Keith,
Bennouna, Skotnikov, juges; M. Mampuya, juge ad hoc;
CONTRE : M. Mahiou, juge ad hoc.
Fait en français et en anglais, le texte français faisant foi, au Palais de
la Paix, à La Haye, le vingt-quatre mai deux mille sept, en trois exem-
plaires, dont l’un restera déposé aux archives de la Cour et les autres
seront transmis respectivement au Gouvernement de la République de
Guinée et au Gouvernement de la République démocratique du Congo.
Le président,
(Signé) Rosalyn H IGGINS .
Le greffier,
(Signé) Philippe C OUVREUR .
M. le juge ad hoc M AHIOU joint une déclaration à l’arrêt; M. le juge
ad hoc M AMPUYA joint à l’arrêt l’exposé de son opinion individuelle.
(Paraphé) R.H.
(Paraphé) Ph.C.
40 AHMADOU SADIO DIALLO (JUDGMENT ) 618
(b) by fourteen votes to one,
Declares the Application of the Republic of Guinea to be admissible in
so far as it concerns protection of Mr. Diallo’s direct rights as associé in
Africom-Zaire and Africontainers-Zaire;
IN FAVOUR : President Higgins; Vice-President Al-Khasawneh; Judges
Ranjeva, Shi, Koroma, Buergenthal, Owada, Simma, Tomka, Abraham,
Keith, Bennouna, Skotnikov; Judge ad hoc Mahiou;
AGAINST : Judge ad hoc Mampuya;
(c) by fourteen votes to one,
Declares the Application of the Republic of Guinea to be inadmissible
in so far as it concerns protection of Mr. Diallo in respect of alleged vio-
lations of rights of Africom-Zaire and Africontainers-Zaire.
IN FAVOUR : President Higgins; Vice-President Al-Khasawneh; Judges
Ranjeva, Shi, Koroma, Buergenthal, Owada, Simma, Tomka, Abraham,
Keith, Bennouna, Skotnikov; Judge ad hoc Mampuya;
AGAINST : Judge ad hoc Mahiou.
Done in French and in English, the French text being authoritative, at
the Peace Palace, The Hague, this twenty-fourth day of May, two thou-
sand and seven, in three copies, one of which will be placed in the
archives of the Court and the others transmitted to the Government of
the Republic of Guinea and the Government of the Democratic Republic
of the Congo, respectively.
(Signed) President. (Signed) Rosalyn H IGGINS,
President.
(Signed) Philippe C OUVREUR ,
Registrar.
Judge ad hoc M AHIOU appends a declaration to the Judgment of the
Court; Judge ad hoc M AMPUYA appends a separate opinion to the Judg-
ment of the Court.
(Initialled) R.H.
(Initialled) Ph.C.
40
Preliminary Objections
Judgment of 24 May 2007