PART VII (B): Reports

United Nations A/68/71
General Assembly Distr.: General
8 April 2013
Original: English
13-28388 (E) 210513
*1328388*
Agenda item 76 (a) of the preliminary list*
Oceans and the law of the sea
Oceans and the law of the sea
Report of the Secretary-General
Summary
The present report has been prepared pursuant to paragraph 272 of General
Assembly resolution 67/78, with a view to facilitating discussions on the topic of
focus at the fourteenth meeting of the United Nations Open-ended Informal
Consultative Process on Oceans and the Law of the Sea, on the theme entitled “The
impacts of ocean acidification on the marine environment”. It constitutes the first
part of the report of the Secretary-General on developments and issues relating to
ocean affairs and the law of the sea for consideration by the Assembly at its sixtyeighth
session. The report is also being submitted to the States Parties to the United
Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, pursuant to article 319 of the Convention.
In the light of the technical nature of the topic being covered and the page limitations
required by the General Assembly, the report does not purport to provide an
exhaustive synthesis of available information.
* A/68/50.
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Contents
Page
I. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
II. Ocean acidification and its impacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
A. Ocean acidification and its causes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
B. Impacts of ocean acidification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
III. Ocean acidification and the international legal and policy framework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
A. Binding instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
B. Non-binding instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
IV. Initiatives and activities related to the impacts of ocean acidification on the marine
environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
A. Research and monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
B. Mitigation initiatives and activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
C. Adaptation initiatives and activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
V. Challenges and opportunities in addressing the impacts of ocean acidification. . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
A. Addressing knowledge gaps. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
B. Mitigation and adaptation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
C. Assessing the potential impacts of mitigation methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
D. Implementing the applicable legal and policy framework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
E. Improving cooperation and coordination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
F. Capacity-building . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
VI. Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
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I. Introduction
1. In paragraph 261 of its resolution 67/78, the General Assembly decided that, in
its deliberations on the report of the Secretary-General on oceans and the law of the
sea, the United Nations Open-ended Informal Consultative Process on Oceans and
the Law of the Sea (“the Informal Consultative Process”) would focus its
discussions at its fourteenth meeting on the impacts of ocean acidification on the
marine environment. The present report addresses that topic.
2. The oceans play a critical role in the global carbon cycle, absorbing
approximately one quarter of the carbon dioxide (CO2) emitted to the atmosphere
from the burning of fossil fuels, deforestation and other human activities. As more
and more anthropogenic CO2 is emitted into the atmosphere, the oceans absorb
greater amounts at increasingly rapid rates. In the absence of this service by the
oceans, atmospheric CO2 levels would be significantly higher than at present and the
effects of global climate change more marked.1
3. The absorption of atmospheric CO2 has, however, resulted in changes to the
chemical balance of the oceans, causing them to become more acidic. Ocean acidity
has increased significantly, by 30 per cent, since the beginning of the Industrial
Revolution 250 years ago. It is predicted that, by 2050, ocean acidity could increase
by 150 per cent. This significant increase is 100 times faster than any change in
acidity experienced in the marine environment over the last 20 million years, giving
little time for evolutionary adaptation within biological systems.2
4. An emerging body of research suggests that many of the effects of ocean
acidification on marine organisms and ecosystems will be variable and complex,
impacting developmental and adult phases differently across species depending on
genetics, pre-adaptive mechanisms, and synergistic environmental factors.3 Ocean
acidification is also expected to have significant socioeconomic impacts,
particularly on communities and economic sectors dependent on the oceans and
their resources.4
5. In the light of the potentially dramatic consequences of ocean acidification for
marine ecosystems and the livelihood of people that depend on them, a wide range
of intergovernmental organizations and expert groups are considering this emerging
challenge.
6. Section II of the report provides information on ocean acidification and its
impacts on the marine environment, including related socioeconomic impacts.
Section III sets out information on the elements of the legal and policy framework
that could be considered as relevant to addressing ocean acidification. Sections IV
and V, respectively, attempt to identify developments at the global and regional
levels, as well as challenges and opportunities in addressing the impacts of ocean
acidification.
__________________
1 Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity, Scientific Synthesis of the Impacts of
Ocean Acidification on Marine Biodiversity, Technical Series No. 46 (Montreal, 2009).
2 Ibid.
3 Ibid.
4 Cherie Winner, “The socioeconomic costs of ocean acidification: seawater’s lower pH will affect
food supplies, pocketbooks, and lifestyles”, Oceanus (8 January 2010), available at
www.whoi.edu/oceanus/viewArticle.do?id=65266.
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7. The Secretary-General wishes to express his appreciation to the organizations
and bodies that contributed to the present report, namely, the European Union and
the secretariats of the Antarctic Treaty; the Commission for the Protection of the
Marine Environment of the North-East Atlantic (OSPAR Commission); the
Convention on Biological Diversity; the Convention on the Conservation of
Antarctic Marine Living Resources; the Food and Agriculture Organization of the
United Nations (FAO); the General Fisheries Commission for the Mediterranean;
the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission (IOC) of the United Nations
Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO); the International
Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA); the International Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI); the
International Maritime Organization (IMO); the International Union for
Conservation of Nature (IUCN); the North Atlantic Salmon Conservation
Organization (NASCO); the Organization for Economic Cooperation and
Development (OECD); the Pacific Islands Applied GeoScience Commission
(SOPAC); and the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP).5 The report
also draws on information from a number of academic sources, but does not purport
to provide an exhaustive synthesis of available information.
II. Ocean acidification and its impacts
8. Ocean acidification is the phenomenon of the oceans becoming progressively
less alkaline as a result of increased CO2 levels in the atmosphere dissolving in the
ocean. If allowed to continue unabated, this process may have significant impacts on
marine ecosystems and livelihoods worldwide, as well as the carbon cycle.
A. Ocean acidification and its causes
Carbon cycle
9. Carbon naturally exists in various chemical forms, including in fossil fuels,
within plants and animals, in organic matter, in CO2 and methane and in calcium
carbonate. The carbon cycle consists of series of processes describing the flow of
carbon throughout the environment, namely, plants and animals (biosphere), air
(atmosphere), soils (pedosphere), rocks (lithosphere), and water (hydrosphere),
including the movement and storage of carbon within a sphere, and the exchange of
carbon between spheres.6 The figure below illustrates the main elements of the
global carbon cycle.7
__________________
5 The contributions whose authors have authorized them to be posted online are available at
www.un.org/Depts/los/general_assembly/general_assembly_reports.htm.
6 Climate Change 2007 — The Physical Science Basis, Contribution of Working Group I to the
Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (Cambridge,
United Kingdom, and New York: Cambridge University Press, 2007).
7 Figure modified from The Future Oceans — Warming Up, Rising High, Turning Sour, German
Advisory Council on Global Change, Special Report (Berlin, 2006). Values of the average
carbon flux are shown in gigatons (Gt) per year of carbon; values for carbon reservoirs are
shown in Gt of carbon in bold; values for mean residence times are shown in years italics.
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10. The intermediate and deep oceans are the most significant reservoir of CO2 and
also the longest-term sink.8 The surface layer of the ocean, however, plays a critical
role in the carbon cycle, as CO2 is continuously exchanged across the air-sea
interface due to the difference in partial pressure of CO2. As more CO2 is emitted
into the atmosphere from anthropogenic activities, more CO2 is dissolved in the
surface layer of the ocean.9
11. The solubility and distribution of CO2 in the ocean depends on climatic
conditions, as well as a number of physical (e.g., water column mixing,
temperature), chemical (e.g., carbonate chemistry) and biological (e.g., biological
productivity) factors. Once CO2 is absorbed in the surface waters, it is transported
horizontally and vertically throughout the ocean by two basic mechanisms: the
“solubility pump” and the “biological pump”.
12. The solubility pump reflects the temperature dependence of the solubility of
CO2, which is more soluble in colder water, and the thermal stratification of the
ocean. Large-scale circulation of ocean water is driven by colder, saltier, denser
water sinking at high latitudes into deep ocean basins and transporting carbon to be
later released by wind and topography-driven upwelling. Depending on the location
and ocean currents, CO2 can be retained in deep waters for up to 1,000 years.
__________________
8 Ibid.
9 Since 1750, the concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere has risen from a relatively
stable range between 260 and 280 parts per million (ppm) to about 390 ppm in 2009.
6
~60
50 years
/ 122
Land
lants
Soils
1,500
5-10,000 years
60
1 Net destruction
of vegetation
Rivers
0.8
Atmosphere
800
3-7 years
+ 3 Gt C/a
92 90 ! l
Surface layer 900
lntermediate and deep ocean
Marine sediments 30 million
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13. The biological pump is driven by the primary production of marine
phytoplankton, which converts dissolved carbon and nutrients into organic matter
through photosynthesis. The uptake of CO2 through photosynthesis prompts the
absorption of additional CO2 from the atmosphere, fuels the flux of sinking
particulate organic carbon into the deep ocean as organisms die or are consumed,
and drives global marine food webs. Approximately, 30 per cent of the CO2 taken up
by phytoplankton sinks into the deeper waters before being converted back into CO2
by marine bacteria.10
Ocean acidification
14. Over recent decades, there has been a demonstrable increase in CO2
concentrations in the upper layer of the sea, which can be attributed to the
proportional rise of CO2 in the atmosphere.11 Between 1800 and 1995, oceans
absorbed approximately 118 gigatons (Gt) of carbon, which corresponds to about
29 per cent of the total CO2 emissions from burning fossil fuels, land use change and
cement production, among other activities.12 Oceans are currently absorbing
approximately 2 Gt of carbon per year, which represents about 25-30 per cent of the
annual anthropogenic CO2 emissions.13
15. This alteration of the carbon cycle has changed the chemistry of the oceans.
Although CO2 is chemically neutral in the atmosphere, it is active in the oceans.14
When CO2 dissolves in seawater, it produces a weak acid known as carbonic acid,
which is unstable and leads to an increase in hydrogen ions. These ions increase
ocean acidity, measured as lower pH, and reduce carbonate ion saturation which is
necessary for the formation of shells, skeletons and other hard surfaces in marine
organisms, such as corals, shellfish and marine plankton.15
16. Ocean acidification is thus the phenomenon of the oceans becoming
progressively less alkaline. The surface waters of the oceans are currently slightly
alkaline with a mean pH of approximately 8.1. This represents a 30 per cent increase
in acidity relative to the preindustrial value (pH 8.2)16 owing to the CO2 absorbed
by the oceans.17 This rate of acidification has not been experienced by marine
__________________
10 See note 1 above.
11 See notes 6 and 7 above.
12 See note 1 above.
13 Ocean Acidification Reference User Group, “Ocean acidification: the facts. A special
introductory guide for policy advisers and decision makers”, European Project on Ocean
Acidification, 2009.
14 See note 7 above.
15 pH units define the alkalinity/acidity of a solution and measure the hydrogen ion concentration.
A pH of 7 is neutral; higher numbers refer to alkaline, or basic solutions and lower numbers
refer to acidic solutions. UNEP, UNEP Emerging Issues, “Environmental consequences of ocean
acidification: a threat to food security”, 2010.
16 “Ocean acidification: a summary for policymakers from the Second Symposium on the Ocean in
a High-CO2 World”, available at www.ocean-acidification.net; J. C. Orr and others, “Research
priorities for ocean acidification”, report from the Second Symposium on the Ocean in a High-
CO2 World, Monaco, 6-9 October 2008 (2009), available at www.ocean-acidification.net.
17 See notes 1 and 15 above.
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organisms for many millions of years.18 Carbonate ion concentrations are now
lower than at any other time during the last 800,000 years.19
17. Ocean acidification is caused by increased levels of atmospheric CO2
dissolving in the ocean. This process is largely independent of climate change,
although increasing sea water temperature reduces the solubility of CO2. While
there remains a degree of uncertainty about the impacts that will arise as a result of
climate change, which is the consequence of a suite of greenhouse gases causing the
Earth to absorb more of the sun’s energy, the chemical changes that are occurring in
the oceans due to ocean acidification are considered to be certain and predictable.20
18. Across the range of emission scenarios, surface ocean pH is projected to
decrease by approximately 0.4 pH units, leading to a 150-185 per cent increase in
acidity by 2100, relative to preindustrial conditions.21 Such a major change in basic
ocean chemistry would have substantial implications for ocean life in the future.
19. Moreover, such changes appear long-lasting and difficult to reverse. Shoaling
and subsequent dissolution of sedimentary carbonates is one of the major long-term
buffering mechanisms by which the ocean’s pH will be restored. This process,
however, operates over millennial time scales and will be processed only as
anthropogenic CO2 reaches the saturation depths through ocean circulation.22
B. Impacts of ocean acidification23
20. Continued CO2 emissions are expected to pose a threat to the reproduction,
growth and survival at species level and could lead to loss of biodiversity and
profound ecological shifts. It is anticipated that ocean acidification will produce
changes in ocean chemistry that may affect the availability of nutrients and the
toxicity and speciation of trace elements to marine organisms. However, the extent
of the pH-induced changes is difficult to determine. Variation in the availability of
nutrients may have an indirect effect on cellular acquisition, the growth of
photosynthetic organisms, or the nutritional value of microorganisms to higher
orders of the food chain.24
21. Furthermore, as previously mentioned (see paras. 12 and 13 above), the uptake
of carbon by the oceans is determined both by the solubility of CO2 and transfer of
carbon to the deeper layers of the oceans by the biological carbon pump. Under
increased ocean acidification, the efficiency of the combined physical and biological
uptake will change although the net direction of the change is also unpredictable.25
__________________
18 Interacademy Panel on International Issues, “IAP statement on ocean acidification”, June 2009,
available at www.interacademies.net.
19 Ibid.
20 See note 13 above. It should be noted, however, that changes in ocean chemistry owing to ocean
acidification will be regionally variable with some regions affected more rapidly than others.
21 See note 16 above.
22 See note 1 above.
23 For further details, also see the contributions of the Commission for the Conservation of
Antarctic Marine Living Resources, the European Union, FAO, the General Fisheries
Commission for the Mediterranean, ICRI, IUCN, OECD and UNDP.
24 See note 1 above.
25 See European Science Foundation, Science Policy Briefing No. 37: “Impacts of ocean
acidification” available at www.ocean-acidification.net/OAdocs/ESF_SPB37_
OceanAcidification.pdf.
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22. Ocean acidification is likely to reduce the ability of oceans to absorb CO2 thus
leaving more CO2 in the atmosphere and worsening its impact on the climate,
making it more difficult to stabilize atmospheric CO2 concentrations.26 Predicted
possible temperature rises could result in a decrease of 9-14 per cent of carbon
dioxide uptake by the oceans by 2100.27 In order to accurately predict the
consequences of ocean acidification for marine biodiversity and ecosystems, these
ecological effects may need to be considered in relation to other environmental
changes associated with global climate change, and the interplay between the
complex biological and chemical feedbacks. The severity of these impacts will also
depend on the interaction of ocean acidification with other environmental stresses,
such as rising ocean temperatures, overfishing and land-based sources of pollution.
23. These stressors operate in synergy with increasing acidification to compromise
the health and continued function of many marine organisms. If pushed far enough,
ecosystems may exceed a tipping point and change rapidly into an alternative state
with reduced biodiversity, value and function.28 In this regard, it is estimated that
the cumulative impacts or interactive effects of multiple stressors will have more
significant consequences for biota than any single stressor.29
1. Affected species and habitats
24. To date, little is known about biological responses in the marine environment.
Since ocean acidification decreases the availability of carbonates in the ocean, it
makes it more difficult for many marine organisms, such as corals, shellfish and
marine plankton, to build their shells and skeletons. Many calcifiers provide habitat,
shelter, and/or food for various plants and animals. The combination of increased
acidity and decreased carbonate concentration also has implications for the
physiological functions of numerous marine organisms, as well as broader marine
ecosystems.30 For example, as the ocean becomes more acidic, sound absorption at
low frequencies decreases. This has generated concerns about possible impacts on
background noise levels in the oceans. Ocean acidification could thus affect ocean
noise and the ability of marine mammals to communicate.31
25. Calcification is the process that has been most thoroughly investigated. When
seawater is supersaturated with carbonate minerals, the formation of shells and
skeletons is favoured. The saturation horizon is the level in the oceans above which
calcification can occur and below which carbonates readily dissolve. Shoaling or
shallowing of the saturation horizon, which has already occurred in certain parts of
the ocean, reduces the habitat available for calcifying organisms reliant on the
carbonate minerals and has implications for ecosystem productivity, function and
the provision of services, especially for cold and deep-water species such as coldwater
corals.32
__________________
26 Fact sheet: “The ocean in a high CO2 world”, available at www.ocean-acidification.net.
27 Ibid.
28 See note 1 above.
29 Ibid.
30 There are three naturally occurring forms of calcium carbonate used by marine organisms to
build shells, plates or skeletons: calcite, aragonite and high-magnesium calcite. See notes 1 and
15 above.
31 See note 13 above.
32 See note 1 above.
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26. Marine organisms that use calcium carbonate to construct their shells or
skeletons, including corals, coccolithophores, mussels, snails, and sea urchins, are
the most vulnerable to ocean acidification. As carbonate becomes scarcer, these
organisms will find it increasingly difficult to form their skeletal material.33
Additionally, most multicellular marine organisms have evolved a regulatory system
to maintain the hydrogen ion balance of their internal fluids. An increase in
hydrogen ion concentration, known as acidosis, will lead to overall changes in the
organism’s morphology, metabolic state, physical activity and reproduction, as they
divert energy away from these processes to compensate for the imbalance.34
27. Experimental evidence has demonstrated that increased carbon dioxide
pressure (560 ppm) has a negative effect on calcification, causing a decrease in
calcification rates of between 5 to 60 per cent in corals, coccolithophores, and
foraminifera.35 As the world’s oceans become less saturated with carbonate minerals
over time, marine organisms are expected to build weaker skeletons and shells, and
experience slower growth rates which will make it increasingly difficult to retain a
competitive advantage over other marine organisms.36 Decreased calcification rates
will slow the growth of coral reefs and make them more fragile and vulnerable to
erosion.37
28. Some cold-water coral ecosystems could experience carbonate undersaturation
as early as 2020.38 By 2100, 70 per cent of cold-water corals, which provide habitat,
feeding grounds, and nursery areas for many deep-water organisms, including
commercial fish species, will be exposed to corrosive waters.39 In the case of
calcareous phytoplankton, some organisms likely to be affected by acidification are
important prey for those higher up the food chain, including commercially fished
species.40 Fish larvae may be particularly sensitive to acidification.
29. In terms of ecosystem impacts, many calcifying species are located at the
bottom or middle of global ocean food webs. Loss of calcifying organisms to ocean
acidification will, therefore, alter predator-prey relationships, the effects of which
will be transmitted throughout the ecosystem. For example, loss of calcified
macroalgae would result in the subsequent loss of important habitat for adult fishes
and invertebrates. The loss of key predators or grazing species from ecosystems
could lead to environmental phase shifts (e.g. coral to algal dominated reefs), or
favour the proliferation of non-food organisms, such as jellyfish. Non-calcifying
species could also be affected by ocean acidification through food web control and
pH-dependent metabolic processes.41
30. Given the complex and non-linear effects of ocean acidification, it is difficult
to predict how ecosystem communities will respond to decreased calcification rates.
In particular, it is not clear how impacts on individual organisms will propagate
__________________
33 Fact sheet: “The ocean in a high CO2 world”, available at www.ocean-acidification.net.
34 Ibid.
35 See note 1 above.
36 Ibid.
37 Ibid.
38 Ibid.
39 See note 16 above.
40 Ibid.
41 See note 1 above.
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through marine ecosystems, or if marine food webs can reorganize themselves to
make up for the loss of some key elements.42
31. The reduction and possibly regional cessation of calcification by organisms in
the oceans would strongly affect ecosystem regulation and the flow of organic
material to the sea floor, through the removal of calcium carbonate density and the
reduced efficiency of the biological pump to transfer carbon into the ocean. Any
reduction in total biomass production, either through reduced photosynthesis or
from greater energy demand to obtain critical nutrients, would also have significant
implications for global marine food webs.
32. The impacts of ocean acidification will also depend on the specific
physiological adaptation mechanisms of species, and the energetic costs of
maintaining these over the long term. The capacity of marine species to adapt to
increased levels of carbon dioxide concentration may be a function of species
generation time, with long-lived species, such as corals, being less able to
respond.43 The adaptability of most organisms to increasing acidity is currently
unknown. Although some marine organisms may also benefit from ocean
acidification, even positive effects on one species can have a disruptive impact on
food chains, community dynamics, biodiversity and ecosystem structure and
function.44 Evidence from naturally acidified locations confirms that, although
some species may benefit, biological communities under acidified seawater
conditions are less diverse and calcifying species absent.45
2. Related socioeconomic impacts
33. The oceans provide numerous ecosystem services that benefit humankind.
These services, for example in fisheries, coastal protection, tourism, carbon
sequestration and climate regulation contribute significantly to global employment
and economic activity. They could be strongly affected by ocean acidification.46
Many of the species most sensitive to ocean acidification are directly or indirectly
of great cultural, economic or ecological importance, such as warm-water corals that
reduce coastal erosion and provide habitat for many other species.47 Attempts to
quantify some of these services have produced estimates of many billions of
dollars.48
34. Although the impacts of ocean acidification on marine species and ecosystem
processes are still poorly understood, the predicted socioeconomic consequences are
profound.49 In particular, ocean acidification could alter species composition,
__________________
42 Ibid.
43 Ibid.
44 D. d’A Laffoley and J. M. Baxter (editors), “Ocean Acidification: The knowledge base 2012:
updating what we know about ocean acidification and key global challenges”, paper of the
European Project on Ocean Acidification, 2012.
45 See note 1 above.
46 Ibid.
47 See note 20 above.
48 See note 1 above.
49 Ibid. See also EUR-OCEANS, Fact Sheet 7: “Ocean acidification — the other half of the CO2
problem” (2007), available at www.eur-oceans.eu.http://www.eur-oceans.eu/?q=node/18117.
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disrupt marine food webs and ecosystems and potentially damage fishing, tourism
and other human activities connected to the seas.50
35. Ocean acidification could also affect the carbon cycle and the stabilization of
atmospheric carbon dioxide (see paras. 9-13 above). Thus, ocean acidification could
exacerbate anthropogenic climate change and its effects. According to one estimate,
ocean uptake of carbon dioxide represents an annual subsidy to the global economy
of US$ 40 to 400 billion, or 0.1 to 1 per cent of the gross world product. The
projected decrease in efficiency of the ocean carbon pump could thus represent an
annual loss of billions of dollars.51
Tropical coral reefs
36. Ocean acidification will make large areas of the oceans inhospitable to coral
reefs, and impact the continued provision of the goods and services that these reefs
provide to the world’s poorest people.52 Tropical coral reefs are estimated to
provide in excess of US$ 30 billion annually in global goods and services, such as
coastline protection, tourism, and food security, which are vital to human societies
and industries.53 Under the rapid economic growth global emissions scenario, the
annual economic damage of ocean acidification-induced coral reef loss could reach
$870 billion by 2100.54
Fisheries and aquaculture
37. The impacts of ocean acidification could also affect commercial fish stocks,
threatening food security, as well as fishing and shellfish industries.55 In particular,
ocean acidification could slow or reverse marine plant and animal carbonate shell
and skeleton growth, with a corresponding decrease in fishing revenues with
significant impacts for communities that depend on the resources for income and
livelihoods.56
38. While hard to predict, early estimates of the direct impacts of ocean
acidification on marine fishery production are in the order of US$ 10 billion per
year.57 A study estimated that the global and regional economic costs of production
loss of molluscs due to ocean acidification would be over US$ 100 billion by the
year 2100.58
39. In the long term, economic changes resulting from fishery losses on a local
scale could alter the dominant economic activities and demographics, and accelerate
the proportion of the population living below the poverty line in dependent
communities that have little economic resilience or few alternatives.59
__________________
50 Ibid.
51 See note 16 above.
52 See note 1 above.
53 In the tropics, coral reefs produce 10-12 per cent of the fish caught and 20-25 per cent of the
fish caught by developing nations. See note 1 above.
54 See note 1 above.
55 See note 16 above.
56 See note 1 above.
57 Ibid.
58 Daiju Narita and others, “Economic costs of ocean acidification: a look into the impacts on
global shellfish production”, Climatic Change, vol. 113, Issue 3-4, pp. 1049-1063.
59 See note 1 above.
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III. Ocean acidification and the international legal and
policy framework
40. Although the upcoming meeting of the Informal Consultative Process is
expected to focus on the scientific and technical aspects of ocean acidification, some
elements of the existing legal and policy framework for the oceans and seas may be
usefully highlighted as potentially relevant for addressing ocean acidification.
41. There is currently no global international instrument specifically dedicated to
addressing ocean acidification or its impacts on the marine environment.
Nevertheless, a number of existing international instruments, at the global and
regional levels, may contain relevant provisions. In addition, there are a number of
important non-binding instruments in which States have committed to meeting
objectives relevant to addressing the impacts of ocean acidification.
A. Binding instruments
42. The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea of 10 December 1982
sets out the legal framework within which all activities in the oceans and seas must
be carried out.60 In this regard, it provides the overarching legal framework for the
protection and preservation of the marine environment. The substantive obligations
to protect and preserve the marine environment and to take all measures necessary
to prevent, reduce and control pollution of the marine environment from any source
(arts. 192 and 194),61 as well as the related procedural obligations contained in Part
XII would thus seem particularly relevant in the context of ocean acidification. The
regime for marine scientific research and for the transfer of marine technology set
out, respectively, in Parts XIII and XIV of the Convention may also be of relevance.
43. The 1994 United Nations Agreement for the Implementation of the Provisions
of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea of 10 December 1982
relating to the Conservation and Management of Straddling Fish Stocks and Highly
Migratory Fish Stocks sets out principles for the conservation and management of
those fish stocks and establishes that such management must be based on the
precautionary approach and the best available scientific information. It requires
States parties to, inter alia, minimize pollution and protect biodiversity in the marine
environment.62
44. The Convention on Biological Diversity establishes a regime for the
conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity and the equitable sharing of
the benefits arising out of its utilization, which complements the United Nations
__________________
60 See General Assembly resolution 67/78, preamble.
61 Art. 1 (4) of the Convention defines pollution of the marine environment as “the introduction by
man, directly or indirectly, of substances or energy into the marine environment, including
estuaries, which results or is likely to result in such deleterious effects as harm to living
resources and marine life, hazards to human health, hindrance to marine activities, including
fishing and other legitimate uses of the seas, impairment of quality for use of sea water and
reduction of amenities”. There has been some discussion on whether the absorption of CO2 into
the marine environment can be considered pollution under the Convention. See, e.g., the
contribution of the European Union.
62 United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 2167, No. 37924, art. 5.
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Convention on the Law of the Sea in relation to marine biodiversity.63 Although the
Convention on Biological Diversity does not specifically address ocean
acidification, its Conference of the Parties has recognized the potential impacts of
ocean acidification on biodiversity and noted that it meets the requirements of a new
and emerging issue. In this regard, it has taken a number of decisions (see sect. IV
below), pursuant to the Jakarta Mandate.64 In particular, the Conference of the
Parties agreed to the Aichi Biodiversity Target 10, which provides that “[b]y 2015,
the multiple anthropogenic pressures on coral reefs, and other vulnerable
ecosystems impacted by climate change or ocean acidification are minimized, so as
to maintain their integrity and functioning”.65 The Conference of the Parties has
also taken a number of decisions with regard to ocean fertilization as a method to
sequester CO2.
45. The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and the Kyoto
Protocol establish a global regime for addressing anthropogenic climate change due
to the release into the environment of certain greenhouse gases, but do not deal
specifically with the phenomenon of ocean acidification. However, to the extent that
it regulates emissions of CO2 as a greenhouse gas, the legal framework established
by these instruments may also be relevant to addressing ocean acidification.
46. In 2011, parties to annex VI of the International Convention for the Prevention
of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL) agreed to adopt amendments to establish the
first-ever mandatory global greenhouse gas reduction regime for an international
industry sector (see para. 76 below). These amendments entered into force on
1 January 2013. IMO continues its discussions on market-based measures to address
greenhouse gas emissions from ships and on the assessment of the impacts of such
measures on developing countries. While this framework does not specifically
address ocean acidification, it may contribute to a reduction of CO2 emissions.
47. The Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes
and Other Matter (London Convention, 1972) and the 1996 Protocol to the
Convention (London Protocol) set up a legal regime to regulate the dumping of
wastes and other matter into the oceans. In this context, the Contracting Parties have
regulated the capture and sequestration of CO2 waste streams in sub-seabed
geological formations, for permanent isolation of CO2. The Contracting Parties have
also been considering marine geoengineering activities such as ocean fertilization,
with the aim of providing a global, transparent and effective control and regulatory
mechanism for ocean fertilization activities and other activities that fall within the
scope of the London Convention and the London Protocol and have the potential to
cause harm to the marine environment. Ocean fertilization potentially involves the
increased absorption of CO2 by the oceans (see para. 77 below).
48. A number of regional instruments, including regional seas conventions, may
also contain general provisions relevant to addressing ocean acidification.
__________________
63 United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 1760, No. 30619, art. 1.
64 See the contribution of the Convention on Biological Diversity.
65 See www.cbd.int/sp/targets/.
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B. Non-binding instruments
49. Member States have also expressed their commitments to addressing ocean
acidification and its impacts in a number of important non-binding instruments.
These instruments, in some cases, also set out principles applicable to the protection
of the marine environment, such as the precautionary and ecosystems approaches
and the polluter-pays principle. These include Agenda 21 and the Johannesburg Plan
of Implementation, as well as the outcome document of the United Nations
Conference on Sustainable Development, held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, in 2012.
Therein, States called for support to initiatives that address ocean acidification on
marine and coastal ecosystems and resources and reiterated the need to work
collectively to prevent further ocean acidification, as well as enhance the resilience
of marine ecosystems and of the communities whose livelihoods depend on them,
and to support marine scientific research, monitoring and observation of ocean
acidification and particularly vulnerable ecosystems, including through enhanced
international cooperation in this regard. They also stressed their concern about the
potential environmental impacts of ocean fertilization.66
50. The Global Programme of Action for the Protection of the Marine
Environment from Land-based Activities, which provides guidance to national
and/or regional authorities in devising and implementing sustained action to
prevent, reduce, control and/or eliminate marine degradation from land-based
activities, is also of relevance.
IV. Initiatives and activities related to the impacts of ocean
acidification on the marine environment
A. Research and monitoring
51. The importance of research into ocean acidification and its monitoring have
long been highlighted, including by the General Assembly, with the view to finding
ways to prevent or slow down the rising acidity of the oceans.
1. At the global level
52. Ocean acidification research and monitoring activities have been growing
rapidly to address the consequences of ocean acidification and associated impacts
on marine living resources, ecosystems and ecosystem services. Research is also
focusing on socioeconomic impacts. Some of these initiatives are described below.
Impacts on marine biodiversity and ecosystems
53. In 2007, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change included a variety of
references to ocean acidification in its Fourth Assessment Report.67 Subsequently,
in 2011, the Panel held a workshop on the theme “Impacts of ocean acidification on
__________________
66 Outcome of the United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development, entitled “The future
we want” (General Assembly resolution 66/288), annex, paras. 166 and 167.
67 See www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/publications_ipcc_fourth_assessment_report_
synthesis_report.htm.
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marine biology and ecosystems”.68 The workshop summarized the body of science
on ocean acidification and contributed to the Fifth Assessment Report, which will
include comprehensive coverage of ocean acidification and its impacts, including
potential feedbacks to the climate system.69
54. In 2010, the Conference of the Parties to the Convention on Biological
Diversity identified ocean acidification as a serious concern. In this regard, it
welcomed the study entitled Scientific Synthesis of the Impacts of Ocean
Acidification on Marine Biodiversity, which provided a synthesis of scientific
information on the impacts of ocean acidification and described possible ecological
scenarios and adverse impacts of ocean acidification on marine biodiversity.70
Currently, the Convention secretariat is collaborating with relevant organizations to
prepare a systematic review document on the impact of ocean acidification on
biodiversity and ecosystem function.71
55. In accordance with a request from the tenth meeting of the Conference of the
Parties, an expert meeting to develop a series of joint expert review processes to
monitor and assess the impacts of ocean acidification on marine and coastal
biodiversity was convened in 2011, in collaboration with IOC-UNESCO, FAO, the
Framework Convention, the UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Centre, ICRI,
the Ramsar Convention, the Antarctic Treaty and the Arctic Council. Its report
focused on the theme “Implications for Arctic and polar regions of the Convention
of Biological Diversity report on ocean acidification”.72 The eleventh meeting of
the Conference of the Parties, held in 2012, took note of the elements suggested by
the Expert Meeting as guidance to support the parties in the realization of practical
responses to ocean acidification impacts on marine and coastal biodiversity.73
Impacts on fisheries
56. IAEA has been developing activities with focus on the impact on fisheries and
fishery communities. In 2012, IAEA began a four-year coordinated research project
focused on key ocean ecosystems south of 30°N latitude. The overall objective of
the project is to evaluate potential biological and socioeconomic impacts of ocean
acidification, and the implications for sustainable food security for coastal society.
Currently six IAEA member States74 are participating in regional case studies of
potential ocean acidification impacts on fisheries and fisher communities.
Furthermore, at IAEA Marine Environment Laboratories, experiments are carried
out to assess direct and indirect impacts of ocean acidification on the marine
environment and its resources including impact on key species for fisheries and
aquaculture using radiological technologies.75
__________________
68 See http://ipcc-wg2.gov/meetings/workshops/OceanAcidification_WorkshopReport.pdf.
69 The Fifth Assessment Report is expected to be finalized in 2014.
70 Reproduced in UNEP/CBD/SBSTTA/14/INF/8, available at www.cbd.int/doc/meetings/sbstta/
sbstta-14/information/sbstta-14-inf-08-en.pdf.
71 Contribution of the Convention on Biological Diversity.
72 See http://arctic.ucalgary.ca/files/arctic/June2012-OceanAcidificationSummary.pdf.
73 See UNEP/CBD/SBSTTA/16/6, paras. 13-15.
74 Chile, Brazil, Ghana, Kenya, Kuwait and the Philippines.
75 Contribution of IAEA.
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Impacts on coral reefs
57. As a result of a recommendation adopted by ICRI on acidification and coral
reefs,76 a briefing paper on acidification and coral reefs by the International Society
of Reef Studies was published for the Eleventh International Coral Reef
Symposium, held in 2008.77 Additionally, in 2010, the Global Coral Reef
Monitoring Network, an operational network of ICRI, published a document entitled
“Climate change and coral reefs: consequences of inaction”, which introduced
available knowledge on the effects of acidification on reef systems.78 In 2012, the
Alliance of Small Island States Leaders issued a declaration reiterating alarm and
concern about, among others, ocean acidification’s impacts and coral bleaching. The
Leaders underscored their commitments to the establishment of an international
mechanism that would include a “solidarity fund” to provide compensation for
permanent loss and damage caused by slow onset impacts such as ocean
acidification.79
Research into socioeconomic impacts
58. In 2010, the IAEA Marine Environment Laboratories organized the first
International Workshop on the theme “Bridging the gap between ocean acidification
impacts and economic valuation”.80 The output of the meeting included a baseline
of scientific and economic information and recommendations concerning the
anticipated impacts to ecosystems from ocean acidification. Subsequently, in 2012,
the Second International Workshop, jointly hosted by IAEA and IOC-UNESCO,
focused on the impacts of ocean acidification on fisheries and aquaculture and the
resulting economic consequences.81
59. In addition, the Ocean Acidification International Coordination Centre was
established at the IAEA Environment Laboratories in Monaco in 2012.82 The goal
of the Centre is to facilitate and promote global activities on ocean acidification
including international observation, joint platforms and facilities, definition of best
practices, data management and capacity-building.
Inter-agency initiatives for ocean acidification research and monitoring
60. The report “Summary for decision makers: a blueprint for ocean and coastal
sustainability”,83 prepared as input into the 2012 United Nations Conference on
Sustainable Development, contained a number of proposals such as the launch of a
global interdisciplinary programme on ocean acidification risk assessment, the
integration of the ocean acidification dimension within the negotiation processes of
the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, and the
__________________
76 See http://02cbb49.netsolhost.com/library/Reco_acidification_2007.pdf.
77 See www.icriforum.org/sites/default/files/ISRS_BP_ocean_acid_final28jan2008.pdf.
78 See www.icriforum.org/sites/default/files/GCRMN_Climate_Change.pdf.
79 See http://aosis.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/10/2012-AOSIS-Leaders-Declaration.pdf.
80 See www.centrescientifique.mc/csmuk/informations/2011_12_recommendations.php.
81 See www.unesco.org/new/fileadmin/MULTIMEDIA/HQ/SC/pdf/pdf_Acidification_Monaco_
Workshop_2012_Objectives.pdf.
82 See www.iaea.org/newscenter/pressreleases/2012/prn201218.html; http://oa-coordination.org/
(centre website, forthcoming).
83 See www.unesco.org/new/fileadmin/MULTIMEDIA/HQ/SC/pdf/
summary_interagency_blue_paper_ocean_rioPlus20.pdf.
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coordination of international research to better understand the impacts of ocean
acidification on marine ecosystems.84
61. The International Ocean Carbon Coordination Project promotes a global
network of ocean carbon observation research and sharing of data on ocean
acidification. It is co-sponsored by IOC-UNESCO and the Scientific Committee on
Oceanic Research, and has links to the global ocean observing systems. The Project
convenes workshops and develops manuals on ocean carbon measurement methods
and systems which serve to improve ocean acidification investigations and the
intercomparability of ongoing experiments and studies worldwide. It has published
the “Guide to Best Practices for Oceanic CO2 Measurements” and organized the
International Workshop to Develop an Ocean Acidification Observing Network of
Ship Surveys, Moorings, Floats and Gliders in 2012.85 A joint Integrated Marine
Biogeochemistry and Ecosystem Research and Surface Ocean-Lower Atmosphere
Study Carbon Implementation Group was established, which focuses on carbon
inventories, fluxes and transports and sensitivities of carbon-relevant processes to
changes occurring in the ocean.86
62. The International Ocean Carbon Coordination Project held an international
time-series method workshop in 2012 which offered a platform to focus on timeseries
methods and data intercomparison.87 Time series are valuable tools for
oceanographers to observe trends, understand carbon fluxes and processes, and to
demonstrate the crucial role that the carbon cycle plays in climate regulation and
feedback. IOC-UNESCO is working on a new compilation of existing
biogeochemical time series. In total, 125 biogeochemical time series have been
compiled from around the world.88
2. At the regional level
63. Although ocean acidification is a global environmental problem that requires
concerted global action, some measures have also been taken at the regional level.
64. The Marine Strategy Framework Directive of the European Union came into
force on 15 June 2008. The Framework Directive allows the European Union to
tackle, through various management measures, a whole range of pressures and
impacts on marine ecosystems.89
65. In 2008, the European Project on Ocean Acidification was launched to
investigate ocean acidification and its consequences as a multinational effort that
included 32 laboratories located in 10 European States.90 The four-year research
project aimed to monitor ocean acidification and its effects on marine organisms and
ecosystems, to identify the risks of continued acidification and to understand how
these changes will affect the Earth system as a whole. The Mediterranean Sea
Acidification in a Changing Climate is assessing the chemical, climatic, ecological,
biological, and economical changes of the Mediterranean Sea driven by increases in
__________________
84 The Blueprint report is a collaboration between IOC-UNESCO, FAO, IMO and United Nations
Development Programme (UNDP).
85 See http://pmel.noaa.gov/co2/OA2012Workshop/WorkshopGoals.html.
86 See http://solas-int.org/solasimber-carbon-group.html.
87 See www.whoi.edu/website/TS-workshop/home.
88 Contribution of IOC-UNESCO.
89 Contribution of the European Union.
90 See www. epoca-project.eu/.
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CO2 and other greenhouse gases. In particular, it aims to identify where the impacts
of acidification in Mediterranean waters will be more significant.91
66. In the Bergen Statement of the Ministerial Meeting of the OSPAR Commission
held in 2010, States parties to the OSPAR Convention noted, in particular, that the
impacts of climate change and ocean acidification were predicted to profoundly
affect the productivity, biodiversity and socioeconomic value of marine ecosystems.
They emphasized that research into and considerations of these effects, as well as
the need for adaptation and mitigation, would have to be integrated in all aspects of
the Commission’s work, including through collaboration with international
organizations on investigating, monitoring and assessing the rate and extent of these
effects and considering appropriate responses. The Commission has taken steps
towards the inclusion of chemical ocean acidification in its Common Environmental
Monitoring Programme. In 2012, it decided to include in its work programme for
2013 the establishment of a joint study group on ocean acidification with the
International Council for the Exploration of the Sea.92
67. The Arctic Ocean Acidification Expert Group has begun work on an
assessment report of Arctic Ocean acidification covering the carbon dioxide system
in the ocean, biogeochemical processes, responses of organisms and ecosystems and
the economic costs of acidification in the Arctic Ocean. The Arctic Monitoring and
Assessment Programme, an international organization established in 1991 to
implement components of the Arctic Environmental Protection Strategy of the
Arctic Council, will conduct a full scientific assessment of Arctic Ocean
acidification for delivery in 2013.
68. The Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research was requested by the
Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting to produce a comprehensive report focusing
on both ecosystems and species responses to ocean acidification.93
69. The members of the Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine
Living Resources place a high level of importance on monitoring ecosystem health
in the Southern Ocean. Since the early 1980s Commission members have supported
a programme to monitor key components of the Antarctic marine ecosystem to
understand and distinguish between change arising from activities such as fishing
and change occurring as a result of environmental variability. Krill, which is the
critical component of the Antarctic ecosystem, has been the focus of this work,
which started in 1984 under the auspices of the Commission’s Environmental
Monitoring Programme. Commission scientists have recognized the potential effects
of a lowering of pH on crustacean exoskeleton calcification, which means that krill
embryonic development may be affected by ocean acidification while acid-base
regulation, in larvae and post-larvae, may compromise the somatic growth,
reproduction, fitness, and behaviour. Commission members are engaged in research
programmes to provide sustained observations of population and condition
parameters of krill in order to detect potential effects of ocean acidification as well
as to fill knowledge gaps in the biology and ecology of the Antarctic krill.94
__________________
91 Ibid.
92 Contribution of OSPAR.
93 Contribution of the secretariat of the Antarctic Treaty.
94 Contribution of the Commission.
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70. The Initiative for the Protection and Management of Coral Reefs in the Pacific
aims to develop a vision for the future of the unique ecosystems and the
communities that depend on them. In October 2009, the Initiative released a
scientific review on acidification and coral reefs to raise awareness among decision
makers. The conference report focuses on the consequences of ocean acidification
for the sustainability of coral structures.95
71. Through the secretariats and regional coordinating units of the Nairobi and
Abidjan conventions, signatories to the two conventions have, from 2008 to 2010,
accelerated efforts towards development and adoption of new protocols for
preventing, reducing, mitigating and controlling pollution emanating from landbased
sources and activities. It is expected that the enforcement of these protocols
will contribute towards restoring ecosystem resilience through activities that
address, for example, ocean acidification.96
B. Mitigation initiatives and activities
1. At the global level
72. In addition to research, immediate and coordinated action is required to reduce
and adapt to the impacts of ocean acidification.97
73. Stabilizing and reducing CO2 emissions in the atmosphere is considered as an
effective mitigation strategy for ocean acidification. IOC-UNESCO, IAEA, the
Scientific Committee on Oceanic Research and the International Geosphere-
Biosphere Programme organized a series of international symposiums on the theme
“The ocean in a high CO2 world”. The first two symposiums, in 2004 and 2008,
resulted, respectively, in the creation of an Ocean Acidification Network98 and in
the adoption in 2008 of the Monaco Declaration, which called for substantial
reductions in CO2 emissions to avoid widespread damage to marine ecosystems
caused by ocean acidification.99
74. The 2010 report, entitled “UNEP emerging issues: environmental consequences of
ocean acidification: a threat to food security”, suggested actions that are necessary to
mitigate the risk of effects of ocean acidification in view of its potential future impacts
on organisms, ecosystems and food providing products.100
75. The Aichi Biodiversity Target 10 of the Strategic Plan for Biodiversity
2011-2020, adopted by the Conference of the Parties to the Convention on
Biological Diversity, calls for minimizing the multiple anthropogenic pressures on
coral reefs and other vulnerable ecosystems impacted by climate change or ocean
acidification by 2015.101 In a resolution to implement Aichi Target 12, IUCN called
__________________
95 See www.icriforum.org/sites/default/files/C3B_Acidification.pdf.
96 Report of the Africa Regional Seas Programme, 2008-2010,
available at www.unep.org/roa/amcen/Amcen_Events/13th_Session/Docs/Report_
RegionalSeas2008_2010.pdf.
97 www.unesco.org/new/en/natural-sciences/ioc-oceans/priority-areas/rio-20-ocean/10-proposalsfor-
the-ocean/1a-ocean-acidification/.
98 www.ocean-acidification.net/.
99 www.iaea.org/newscenter/news/pdf/monacodecl061008.pdf.
100 www.unep.org/dewa/Portals/67/pdf/Ocean_Acidification.pdf.
101 www.cbd.int/sp/targets/.
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on the scientific community to conduct research on ocean acidification and to
develop practical management options to mitigate their impact on threatened
species.102
76. Under MARPOL and its modified Protocol, IMO has adopted a comprehensive
mandatory regime aimed at limiting or reducing greenhouse gas emissions from
ships which includes the adoption of both technical and operational measures. These
are designed to put in place best practices for fuel efficiency, in particular, an energy
efficiency design index for new vessels and an energy management plan for both
new and existing ships.
77. Since 2005, under the London Convention and London Protocol, progress was
achieved towards regulating CO2 sequestration in sub-seabed geological formations.
In 2012, the Meeting of Contracting Parties adopted a revised version of the
Specific Guidelines for Assessment of Carbon Dioxide Streams for Disposal into
Sub-seabed Geological Formations to take into account the transboundary migration
of carbon dioxide waste streams within sub-seabed geological formations. The
meeting further considered a draft text for the “Development and implementation of
arrangements or agreements for the export of CO2 streams for storage in sub-seabed
geological formation”. Discussions have also taken place regarding large-scale iron
fertilization of the oceans to sequester CO2 with the aim of drawing down an
additional amount of surplus CO2 from the atmosphere into the oceans. Currently,
the main focus is to amend the London Protocol with a view to regulating marine
geoengineering activities such as ocean fertilization activities, including a
mechanism for the future listing of other marine geoengineering activities.103
2. At the regional level
78. Under the OSPAR Convention, ocean acidification, as a process caused by the
indirect introduction of CO2 into the ocean, is likely to result in harm to maritime
ecosystems. Under article 2 of the OSPAR Convention, a wide-ranging obligation
engages States parties to take all possible steps to prevent and eliminate pollution
and to take the measures necessary to protect the maritime area against the adverse
effects of human activities. In 2007, amendments to annexes II and III to the
OSPAR Convention were adopted to allow carbon capture and sequestration in
geological formations under the seabed as a mitigation strategy. Additionally,
OSPAR Decision 2007/2 on the storage of carbon dioxide streams in geological
formations was adopted to ensure the environmentally safe storage of liquefied CO2
in geological formations pursuant to the OSPAR Guidelines for Risk Assessment
and Management. Mindful of the acidification impacts of CO2, OSPAR parties also
adopted decision 2007/1 to prohibit the placement of CO2 in the water column or on
the seabed.104
79. The Coral Triangle Initiative on Coral Reefs, Fisheries, and Food Security is a
multilateral partnership of six countries working together to sustain their marine and
coastal resources by addressing crucial issues such as food security, climate change
and marine biodiversity. Within the context of regional exchanges on the
__________________
102 http://portals.iucn.org/docs/iucnpolicy/2012-resolutions%5Cen/WCC-2012-Res-014-
EN%20Implementing%20Aichi%20Target%2012%20of%20the%20Strategic%20Plan%20for%
20Biodiversity%202011-2020.pdf.
103 Contribution of IMO.
104 Contribution of OSPAR.
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implementation of an ecosystem approach to fisheries management, in 2012, the
Initiative held its third workshop, which identified as a target the need to improve
understanding of the impacts of climate change and ocean acidification on nearshore
fisheries. The workshop developed the draft Coral Triangle Ecosystem Approach to
Fisheries Management Regional Guidelines. The countries agreed that the
ecosystem approach framework addresses in broad terms everything that concerns
fisheries management and therefore all the priority themes of the Initiative,
including climate change, ocean acidification, habitat protection through marine
protected areas, illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing and live reef fish trade,
even if these are not specifically referred to.105
80. The European Commission, in March 2011, issued four guidance documents to
support coherent implementation of the European Union Directive on the geological
storage of carbon dioxide. Additionally, the European Union Member States
submitted project proposals for renewable energy and clean technologies involving
innovative renewable energy and carbon capture and sequestration technologies.106
81. At the first regional conference on the theme “Climate change impacts,
adaptation and mitigation in the Western Indian Ocean region: solutions to the
crisis” (Mauritius), West Indian Ocean countries were encouraged to initiate
mitigation policies, including the development of ocean-based renewable energy;
the rehabilitation of critical coastal habitats and their components, including coastal
forest and seagrass habitats and enhancement of the reduction of greenhouse gas
emissions through forests by developing and implementing national and regional
blue carbon and reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation
(REDD)-plus programmes and strategies with a transboundary focus, as
appropriate.107
C. Adaptation initiatives and activities
82. Policies to limit marine pollution and curtail overfishing may have a positive
effect on the ability of marine ecosystems to adapt to acidifying conditions. They
may include limiting the vulnerability of marine ecosystems, expanding freshwater
aquaculture operations and supporting communities and countries facing economic
disruptions.108
83. In November 2012, IAEA and the Monaco Scientific Centre jointly hosted the
Second International Workshop on the theme “Bridging the gap between ocean
acidification impacts and economic valuation”.109 The Workshop focused on
fisheries and aquaculture, and regional aspects of species vulnerability and
socioeconomic adaptation. Its recommendations included the following: to
implement best practices and adaptive management of fisheries resources and
aquaculture operations by addressing overfishing, discouraging illegal, unregulated,
__________________
105 See www.coraltriangleinitiative.org/sites/default/files/resources/Third%20CTI%20Regional
%20Exchange%20on%20the%20Implementation%20of%20EAFM%20in%20CT%20Countries
%20May%202012.pdf.
106 Contribution of the European Union.
107 See www.wiomsa.net/images/stories/Climate%20Change%20Conference_Final%20Statement.pdf.
108 See www.sciencepolicyjournal.org/uploads/5/4/3/4/5434385/_ocean_acidification.pdf.
109 See www.unesco.org/new/fileadmin/MULTIMEDIA/HQ/SC/pdf/pdf_Acidification_Monaco_
Workshop_2012_Objectives.pdf.
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unreported fishing, and encouraging polyculture and selective breeding; and to
increase the adaptive capacity of fishing communities through education concerning
ocean acidification impacts on marine resources and training to diversify
livelihoods.110
84. In 2010, the OECD Fisheries Committee and the Government of the Republic
of Korea hosted a workshop on the economics of adapting fisheries to climate
change. The objective was to provide a forum for policymakers, economists,
biologists, international organizations, the private sector and non-governmental
organizations to examine the economic issues, policy challenges and institutional
frameworks and responses to adapting to climate change.111 The workshop
discussed acidification by providing an overview of the key challenges facing the
management of fisheries and aquaculture in a world increasingly characterized by a
changing climate induced primarily by the anthropogenic emissions of CO2.
85. Other initiatives focused on enhancing coral reef resilience to ocean
acidification. The World Meteorological Organization produced the report Climate,
Carbon and Coral Reefs, which summarized the CO2 threat to coral reefs, the
science supporting projections and the solutions that are needed to prevent the loss
of coral reefs.112
86. In addition, the Honolulu Declaration on Ocean Acidification and Reef
Management was produced as a result of a meeting on ocean acidification held in
2008 by the Nature Conservancy and IUCN.113 The Declaration introduced several
policy recommendations to enhance coral reef resilience to ocean acidification. The
IUCN Climate Change and Coral Reefs Marine Working Group works towards
limiting fossil fuel emissions and building the resilience of tropical marine
ecosystems and communities.
V. Challenges and opportunities in addressing the impacts
of ocean acidification
A. Addressing knowledge gaps
87. Although ocean acidification appears to be an observable and predictable
consequence of increasing atmospheric CO2, the precise scope of its impact on the
marine environment remains unclear. Over the past five years, there has been a
considerable increase in scientific resources dedicated to the study of this
phenomenon. However, the United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development
reiterated the need to support marine scientific research, monitoring and observation
of ocean acidification and particularly vulnerable ecosystems, including through
enhanced international cooperation. The General Assembly has encouraged States
and competent international organizations and other relevant institutions,
__________________
110 Contribution of FAO.
111 See OECD, The Economics of Adapting Fisheries to Climate Change (OECD Publishing, 2011),
available at www.oecd-ilibrary.org/agriculture-and-food/the-economics-of-adapting-fisheries-toclimate-
change_9789264090415-en.
112 See http://coralreef.noaa.gov/education/oa/resources/climate_carbon_coralreefs_un_report.pdf.
113 See http://coralreef.noaa.gov/aboutcrcp/strategy/reprioritization/wgroups/resources/climate/
resources/oa_honolulu.pdf.
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individually and in cooperation, to urgently pursue further research on ocean
acidification, especially programmes of observation and measurement.114
88. The resulting impacts of ocean acidification on marine species and ecosystem
processes are still poorly understood. In this regard, a number of specific knowledge
gaps have been identified,115 including at intergovernmental and expert
meetings.116 For example, many questions remain about the biological and
biogeochemical consequences of acidification, and the accurate determination of
subcritical levels, or “tipping points”, for global marine species, ecosystems and
services. Most understanding of biological impacts due to ocean acidification is
derived from studies of individual organism responses. There is therefore a critical
need for information on impacts at the ecosystem level, which would include the
interaction of multiple stressors, such as those related to climate change.117
Moreover, limited study has been conducted regarding how a number of other
variables, including carbonate concentration, light levels, temperature and nutrients,
would affect calcification processes.
89. There is also a need for more spatially distributed and temporally intensive
studies of ocean pH dynamics and their underlying causal mechanisms and
consequences, along with a focus on the adaptive capacities of marine organisms,
which will be crucial to forecasting how organisms and ecosystems will respond as
the world’s oceans warm and acidify.118 Experts have pointed to future priorities for
ocean acidification research, such as the need for long-term experiments,
meta-analysis of data, the use of advanced modelling, the development of global and
regional networks for ocean acidification observations and making a link to social
sciences and socioeconomic impacts.119 Additional research is also needed with
regard to the effectiveness and the overall impact of various possible adaptation
measures.
90. Understanding of the short-term impacts of ocean acidification on different
species of marine biota is building, and continuing scientific experimentation is
facilitating a growing understanding of its wider ecosystem and long-term
implications. In this regard, over the past few years there have been numerous
initiatives at all levels to increase and improve scientific research, with a view to
addressing knowledge gaps.120 Increased cooperation and coordination of scientists
through expert meetings, joint projects and information exchange mechanisms is
also expected to contribute to improving scientific understanding of the effects of
ocean acidification on the marine environment.121 The establishment of the
International Coordination Centre for Ocean Acidification, in Monaco, may be
instrumental in this regard (see para. 59 above).
__________________
114 Resolution 67/78, para. 143.
115 Contribution of the European Union.
116 See, e.g., report of the Expert Meeting to develop a series of joint expert review processes to
monitor and assess the impacts of ocean acidification on marine and coastal biodiversity
(UNEP/CBD/SBSTTA/16/INF/14), annex III.
117 See Convention on Biological Diversity Study, p. 10.
118 UNEP Convention on Biological Diversity issue paper No. 7, p. 3.
119 See UNEP/CBD/SBSTTA/16/INF/14, annex II.
120 See sect. III above.
121 Contributions of the Antarctic Treaty secretariat, the European Union, FAO, IAEA and IOCUNESCO.
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91. IUCN pointed out that the first global integrated assessment of the state of the
marine environment, including socioeconomic aspects could also provide
information on ocean acidification and its effects on the marine environment.122
Another important element of addressing knowledge gaps is improving the sciencepolicy
interface with regard to ocean acidification, by enhancing communication
between scientists and policymakers, as well as outreach efforts towards the media
and the public. It should be noted that the gaps in the current scientific knowledge
regarding the impacts of ocean acidification on the marine environment, particularly
at the ecosystem level, may hamper the implementation of the existing legal and
policy framework for oceans and seas. The inclusion of key stakeholders, including
fishers, in discussions relating to ocean acidification was also highlighted as an
important goal. Capacity-building measures designed to increase participation of
scientists from developing countries in ocean acidification research are also key to
addressing knowledge gaps.123
B. Mitigation and adaptation
Mitigation
92. As also noted in section II above, ocean uptake of CO2 will continue in
response to anthropogenic emissions. According to current scientific understanding,
ocean acidification may be irreversible on very long time frames, and is determined,
in the longer term, by physical mixing processes within the oceans that allow ocean
sediments to buffer the changes in ocean chemistry. Warming of the oceans as a
result of global climate change may reduce the rate of mixing with deeper waters,
and it is likely that the rapid increases in atmospheric CO2 concentrations could
eventually overwhelm the natural buffering mechanisms of the ocean, leading to a
reduced efficiency for carbon uptake by the oceans over the next two centuries.
Reduced buffering capacity of the oceans to take up CO2 will increase the fraction of
CO2 retained in the atmosphere, a negative feedback loop leading to further ocean
acidification.124
93. The primary means of avoiding the impacts of ocean acidification is to reduce
CO2 emissions through a transition to a low-carbon energy economy.125 Globalscale
reductions in CO2 emissions, along with local reductions in anthropogenic
sources of acidification,126 are also urgently needed. Atmospheric CO2 is already at
390 ppm and is increasing at about 2 ppm per year, and might peak well above 400
ppm in a scenario of continuing emissions in the next five years. The chemistry of
seawater is reversible, and it is believed that returning to 350-400 ppm would return
pH and carbonate saturation levels to approximately their current conditions.
However, some research has suggested that even current day conditions may be
deleterious for some organisms, and it is even less clear if future biological impacts
due to peak CO2 will be reversible. Even if CO2 emissions are stabilized,
atmospheric fossil fuel CO2 will continue to penetrate into the deep ocean for the
__________________
122 Contribution of IUCN.
123 See sect. V.F below.
124 See footnote 1 above.
125 Contributions of UNDP and FAO. See also the Monaco Declaration, issued at the Second
International Symposium on the Ocean in a High-CO2 World, Monaco, 6-9 October 2008.
126 Contribution of the European Union.
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next several centuries.127 It has therefore been argued that ocean acidification
cannot be sufficiently addressed by simply lowering CO2 emissions to the levels
currently required under the Kyoto Protocol.128
94. Some additional alternative ocean-based physical, biological, chemical, and
hybrid mitigation methods have therefore been proposed to sequester CO2. Physical
solutions include deep ocean or seafloor CO2 injection, biological solutions include
ocean fertilization and chemical solutions include alkalinity addition and enhanced
limestone weathering.129 However, thorough research into their potential effectiveness,
cost, safety and scale of application has yet to be undertaken (see sect. C below).
Moreover, many proposed geoengineering approaches attempt to provide
symptomatic relief from climate change without addressing the root cause of the
problem, namely excessive reliance on fossil fuels.130
95. Once CO2 has been absorbed by the oceans, there appears to be no practical
way at this stage to remove it from the oceans, nor is there any way to reverse its
widespread chemical and biological effects.131 It is therefore important to exercise
precaution and prevent further absorption of CO2 by the oceans. Managing marine
ecosystems for resilience is also critical.
Adaptation and managing for resilience
96. The impacts of ocean acidification are irreversible on short, human-scale, time
frames.132 Thus, in addition to significant reductions in CO2 emissions, ways to
manage for resilience and adaptation must be considered to respond to ocean
acidification.133
97. Selective breeding of one species of oyster shows that resistance to
acidification can be increased, suggesting that some level of adaptation may be
possible for some organisms. However, the adaptability of most organisms to
increasing acidity is unknown.134 There appears to be high variability in organism
and ecosystem responses, and organism acclimatization to ocean acidification will
be through gradual shifts. Transgenerational coping abilities and selection and
genetic adaptation are also factors of uncertainty in managing for resilience to ocean
acidification.135
__________________
127 “Ocean acidification — Studying ocean acidification’s effects on marine ecosystems and
biogeochemistry”, 24 September 2012, at www.whoi.edu/OCB-OA/page.do?pid=112161.
128 The Royal Society, Ocean Acidification Due to Increasing Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide, policy
document 12/05 (London, 2005). See also M. Mulhall, “Saving the rainforests of the sea: an
analysis of international efforts to conserve coral reefs”, Duke Environmental Law and Policy
Forum, Spring 2009. See also UNEP/CBD/SBSTTA/16/INF/14; and S. N. Longphuirt and
others, “Ocean acidification: an emerging threat to our marine environment”, Marine Foresight
Series No. 6, 2010.
129 For an overview of the main ocean carbon cycle geoengineering proposals, the concept behind
these ideas and current status of investigation, see C. Nellemann, E. Corcoran, C. M. Duarte,
L. Valdes, C. DeYoung, L. Fonseca, G. Grimsditch (Editors), Blue Carbon: A Rapid Response
Assessment (United Nations Environment Programme, GRID-Arendal, 2009).
130 “Ocean acidification — Studying ocean acidification’s effects on marine ecosystems and
biogeochemistry”, 24 September 2012.
131 Contribution of the European Union.
132 See note 1 above.
133 UNEP/CBD/SBSTTA/16/INF/14.
134 See note 1 above.
135 Contribution of FAO.
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98. The severity of the impacts of acidification is likely to depend, in part, on the
interaction of acidification with other environmental stresses, such as rising ocean
temperatures, overfishing and land-based sources of pollution.136 Improving
resilience of ocean ecosystems and species to the impacts of ocean acidification,
primarily by reducing other environmental pressures from marine pollution and
destructive fishing practices, including overfishing, is necessary.137
99. In that regard, a number of conventional management tools have been
suggested as potentially beneficial in maintaining and enhancing resilience of
marine ecosystems. These include: effective watershed and coastal management;138
reduction of local pollutants;139 implementation of an ecosystem approach,
including ecosystem-based fisheries management;140 exercising adaptive
management of fisheries resources and aquaculture operations;141 using
phytoremediation;142 restoring marine and coastal ecosystems;143 establishing and
effectively managing marine and coastal protected areas and networks thereof;144
and applying marine spatial planning.145
100. Maintenance of coastal habitats such as mangroves will also deliver adaptation
benefits by helping to protect coastal communities from the impacts of sea level rise
and storm surge.146 Reducing food and livelihood vulnerability of people via, inter
alia, diversification of livelihoods is also a critical element of adaptation.147
Involving indigenous and local communities in maintaining and restoring ecosystem
resilience, as well as in monitoring and in the design and implementation of
adaptation programmes is therefore important.148
101. While mitigation involves a global commitment, adaptation actions can be
adopted at the local and national levels as part of broader efforts to preserve and
maintain marine ecosystems.149 However, local-scale action is likely to have only
local-scale effects. Moreover, many national climate change mitigation and
adaptation strategies do not yet adequately integrate ocean acidification.150
__________________
136 See note 16 above, Second Symposium on the Ocean in a High-CO2 World.
137 Contribution of the European Union. See also UNEP/CBD/SBSTTA/16/INF/14.
138 UNEP/CBD/SBSTTA/16/INF/14.
139 Ibid.
140 Ibid. See also the contribution of FAO, based on the conclusions of an IAEA Marine Laboratoryled
international workshop on ocean acidification impacts on fisheries and aquaculture,
Oceanographic Museum of Monaco, 11-13 November 2012
141 Contribution of FAO.
142 Contribution of UNDP.
143 UNEP/CBD/SBSTTA/16/INF/14.
144 Contributions of the European Union and IAEA.
145 Contribution of FAO.
146 Contribution of UNDP.
147 Contribution of FAO.
148 UNEP/CBD/SBSTTA/16/INF/14.
149 Ibid.
150 Contributions of the European Union and IUCN.
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C. Assessing the potential impacts of mitigation methods
102. The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea requires States to
monitor and assess the effects of activities that may pollute the marine environment
(arts. 204 and 206).
103. As noted above, a number of physical, biological, chemical, and hybrid
mitigation methods have been proposed. However, current knowledge of the
efficiency of such mitigation methods and of the potential risks of these initiatives
differs significantly.151 Any increase in the amount of CO2 in the oceans, either
natural or human-induced, while potentially able to temporarily remove CO2 from
the atmosphere, is likely to exacerbate ocean acidification. This is of particular
relevance for geoengineering or macroengineering activities that deliberately
attempt to enhance CO2 absorption and sequestration in the oceans with a view to
reducing atmospheric CO2 concentrations to mitigate climate change.152 In addition,
the feasibility, effectiveness and cost of these methods has yet to be demonstrated
and their acceptability is likely to be problematic thereby making them unlikely
viable policy options.153
104. For example, questions have been raised about the efficiency of iron
fertilization in sequestering CO2 over long time scales and about the impacts of
large-scale iron additions on the marine ecosystem.154 Ocean fertilization bears a
high risk of changing ocean chemistry and pH, especially if carried out repeatedly
and at a large scale.155
105. Injection and subsequent dissolution of CO2 in the deep oceans may isolate
CO2 from the atmosphere for several centuries. However, over long time periods,
the equilibrium between the atmospheric and seawater CO2 concentrations would be
re-established.156 Storage of CO2 as a liquid or hydrate on the sea floor would only
be possible at water depths below 3,000 m owing to its greater density at this depth,
and this method may, as a result of the lack of a physical barrier, trigger a slow
dissolution of CO2 into the overlying water column. Chemical changes and
subsequent biological influences of this type of storage are likely to be significant in
light of the inability of deep sea organisms to adapt to rapid changes. Risks also
arise from out-gassing into the atmosphere by the possibility of large plumes rising
to the sea surface.157 Injection of CO2 into geological formations, such as deep
saline formations and oil and gas reservoirs, below the seafloor may also have
impacts on, inter alia, sub-seafloor microbial communities.158
__________________
151 C. Nellemann, E. Corcoran, C. M. Duarte, L. Valdes, C. DeYoung, L. Fonseca, G. Grimsditch
(Editors), Blue Carbon: A Rapid Response Assessment (United Nations Environment
Programme, GRID-Arendal, 2009).
152 See note 1 above.
153 Contribution of the European Union. See also C. Nellemann, E. Corcoran, C. M. Duarte,
L. Valdes, C. DeYoung, L. Fonseca, G. Grimsditch (Editors), Blue Carbon: A Rapid Response
Assessment (United Nations Environment Programme, GRID-Arendal, 2009).
154 S. N. Longphuirt, D. Stengel, C. O’Dowd and E. McGovern, “Ocean acidification: an emerging
threat to our marine environment”, 2010.
155 See note 1 above.
156 See note 127 above.
157 Ibid.
158 Ibid.
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106. Uncertainties also exist regarding the efficiency of adding vast amounts of
alkaline compounds, such as calcium hydroxide or magnesium hydroxide, in the
oceans. The impacts of such measures on the health of marine ecosystems locally,
regionally and globally is still largely unknown. Furthermore, the ecological damage
resulting from mining and transporting alkaline minerals in sufficient quantities, as
would be required for such approaches to effect changes in ocean pH, presents a
major concern.159 For example, it is estimated that over 13 billion tons of limestone
would need to be deposited in the oceans annually to counter the acidity impacts
from current emissions.160
D. Implementing the applicable legal and policy framework
107. Some of the main elements of the legal and policy framework potentially
relevant to addressing ocean acidification and its impacts on the marine
environment are set out in section III above. In this regard, some contributions to
the report of the Secretary-General raised some issues relating to the
implementation of the existing legal and policy framework for addressing the
impacts of ocean acidification on the marine environment.
108. For example, in the contribution of the European Union, the United Kingdom
expressed the view that a specific issue for consideration was “whether
anthropogenic CO2 uptake by the ocean and its subsequent acidification should be
considered as a ‘pollution of the marine environment’ under UNCLOS Article 1”.161
A clear understanding of how the provisions of existing international legal
instruments apply to ocean acidification could facilitate their effective
implementation.
109. Moreover, the question of the sufficiency of the existing legal and policy
framework to address ocean acidification has been raised. In the European Union
contribution, France expressed the view that one interesting issue for consideration
could be whether the current international legal framework is sufficient for
regulating CO2 removal methods and techniques. It was also stated that the absence
of a clear legal framework to establish marine protected areas in areas beyond
national jurisdiction represents an important regulatory gap that may hamper
responses to ocean acidification.162 The United Kingdom considered that “there
[was] urgent need for intergovernmental bodies, such as UNFCCC, to consider what
[ocean acidification] specific mitigation and adaptation measures needed to be
developed, alongside other mechanisms and efforts”.163 IUCN noted that the
General Assembly working groups could provide a venue to also consider the effects
of ocean acidification on marine biological diversity.164
__________________
159 See note 1 above.
160 Rachel Baird and others, “Ocean acidification: a litmus test for international law”, Carbon and
Climate Law Review (2009), pp. 459-471.
161 Contribution of the European Union.
162 Ibid.
163 Ibid.
164 Contribution of IUCN.
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E. Improving cooperation and coordination
110. The importance of cooperation and coordination is a common thread through
all the major ocean-related issues currently faced by the international community.
This trend results from the multiplication of actors and stakeholders which are
active at the national, regional and global levels as well as in the scientific, legal
and diplomatic circles, on the one hand, and from the fragmentation of applicable
regimes and the risk of gaps or duplication of efforts, on the other hand.
111. In the case of ocean acidification, these challenges are even greater for a
variety of reasons. The scale of ocean acidification implies that concerned
stakeholders need to work together at the global level in order to address knowledge
gaps, ensure a comprehensive approach to observation and research, standardize
research methodologies and develop, maintain and share relevant data. Furthermore,
ocean acidification poses an interdisciplinary research problem, thus covering a large
number of fields that go beyond science and involve ecological, social, economic
and legal disciplines.
112. In this regard, it is encouraging to note that there are a number of recent
initiatives focused, exclusively or not, on cooperation and coordination. They
illustrate how one of the challenges outlined above, namely the relatively recent
inclusion of ocean acidification in the agendas of ocean policymakers, can also
represent an opportunity. Such initiatives include the establishment of the Ocean
Acidification International Coordination Centre (see para. 59 above), the General
Assembly Regular Process for Global Reporting and Assessment of the State of the
Marine Environment, including Socioeconomic Aspects (Regular Process) and the
initiative of the Secretary-General, “Oceans Compact”.165
113. Regular Process. The task of the first cycle of the Regular Process, which is
expected to be completed by 2014, will be to produce the First Global Integrated
Marine Assessment of the world’s oceans and seas. Ocean acidification is included
in the outline among the topics to be covered by the First Global Integrated Marine
Assessment. Ocean acidification will be dealt with in connection with sea/air
interaction as well as ocean-sourced carbonate production. The Assessment will
contain an evaluation of the environmental, economic and social implications of
trends in ocean acidification, in recognition of its cross-sectoral nature and in
keeping with the mandate of the Regular Process.166
114. Oceans Compact. The initiative of the Secretary-General, “Oceans
Compact — Healthy Oceans for Prosperity”,167 is aimed at strengthening United
Nations system-wide coherence and fostering synergies in oceans matters towards
achieving the common goal of healthy oceans for prosperity. One of its objectives is
to strengthen ocean-related knowledge including through ocean observation
networks and with regard to ocean acidification.
__________________
165 See www.un.org/Depts/los/index.htm.
166 See www.worldoceanassessment.org/pdf/ApprovedOutlineApril2012.pdf.
167 See www.un.org/Depts/los/ocean_compact/oceans_compact.htm.
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F. Capacity-building
115. The United Nations Development Programme noted that “capacity is not a
passive state but part of a continuing process” and that “human resources are central
to capacity development”. As such, it progressively expands to address the needs that
emerge as developing countries face new challenges, such as ocean acidification.168
116. There is a strong need for capacity-building with regard to ocean acidification.
Ocean acidification is a relatively new field of study, thus requiring considerable
scientific and policy-oriented start-up work and investments. The development of
policies to address ocean acidification needs to be supported by sound, and costly,
scientific monitoring and assessment. Following their development, such policies have
to be adopted and implemented at the national, regional and global levels. In view of
the scientific and technical complexities of the problem of ocean acidification, both
policymaking and policy adoption and implementation can prove very challenging
for developing countries, in particular small island developing States.
117. The lack of financial resources, especially in the context of the current global
economic crisis, is one of the most common challenges to capacity-building. In this
context, it can be quite difficult for a new area of expertise such as ocean
acidification to establish its place on the list of activities requiring capacity-building
resources. In this regard, it may be important to take advantage of all available
sources of related capacity-building, such as that related to addressing climate
change and for the Regular Process, as well as increased sharing of resources and
know-how through North-South and South-South cooperation.
118. Despite these difficulties, several institutions seem to have included ocean
acidification among the areas on which to focus their capacity-building initiatives.
At this stage, however, many of these initiatives seem to focus on the need to build
capacity for raising awareness about the threats posed by ocean acidification. This is
the case, for instance, of the Convention on Biological Diversity, which encourages
its parties to support capacity-building and training for communication of ocean
acidification across key sectors and stakeholders (policymakers, research funders,
public and media).
119. Whereas the current scenario of financial constraints poses a fundamental
challenge to capacity-building, it also offers the international community with the
opportunity to fine-tune how financial resources are invested in capacity-building. A
precise identification of the needs of developing countries in the area of ocean
acidification, the selection of suitable partners locally, the careful design of short-,
mid-, and long-term indicators of achievement become imperative in this climate
but may lead to a more effective delivery of capacity-building.
120. The lack of coordination among capacity-building providers often counters
their beneficial effects. The coordination of capacity-building activities involving
oceans and the law of the sea, in particular within the United Nations system, has
__________________
168 UNDP — Management Development and Governance Division Bureau for Development Policy,
Capacity Assessment and Development in a Systems and Strategic Management Context —
Technical Advisory Paper No. 3, p. 5, available at http://mirror.undp.org/magnet/Docs/cap/
CAPTECH3.htm.
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been emphasized as a prerequisite to ensure a targeted approach and to prevent
fragmentation or duplication of effort.169
121. In this connection, it is important to note that one of the functions of the Ocean
Acidification International Coordination Centre (see para. 112 above) will also be to
coordinate capacity-building, for example, through short training courses, while also
promoting efficient linkages between national ocean acidification research
communities and the wide range of international and intergovernmental bodies with
interest in this problem.
VI. Conclusions
122. Considerable knowledge gaps remain regarding the biological and
biogeochemical consequences of ocean acidification for marine biodiversity and
ecosystems, and the impacts of these changes on marine ecosystems services,
including food security, coastal protection, tourism, carbon sequestration and
climate regulation. However, what is known is that ocean acidification operates in
synergy with other pressures on marine ecosystems to compromise the health and
continued functioning of those ecosystems.
123. While ocean acidification is often perceived as a symptom of climate change,
it is a significant, separate, problem which requires specific attention and measures.
Although increased emission of CO2 into the atmosphere contributes to both
phenomena, the processes and impacts of ocean acidification and climate change are
distinct. For example, greenhouse gases other than CO2 do not affect ocean
acidification. Moreover, the absorption of CO2 into the oceans may, at least in the
short-term, help to mitigate the effects of climate change, even though it exacerbates
ocean acidification.
124. The future magnitude of ocean acidification and its impacts on the marine
environment and related socioeconomic impacts are considered to be very closely
linked to the amount of CO2 released and accumulated in the atmosphere as a result
of human activities. Significant and rapid mitigation measures are therefore urgently
needed. Similarly, given the economic and social importance of the oceans to human
societies, governments at the local, national, and international levels are encouraged
to assess and implement adaptive approaches to acidification.
125. Activities to increase our knowledge of the ocean acidification process and its
impacts, as well as to address them, have increased over the past few years. However,
thus far, few measures have been taken to effectively mitigate or adapt to the
impacts of ocean acidification on the marine environment. In addition, these
activities and initiatives appear to be fragmented. In particular, greater efforts are
needed to coordinate research on ocean acidification in order to avoid gaps and
duplications. For example, further research is needed to understand the impacts of
mitigation methods as well as the degree to which acidification impacts can be
offset by reducing other environmental stresses and an optimal management of
marine ecosystems to counter these and other combined threats. With too many
unknown variables and current modelling limitations, assessment of the risks and
consequences of new proposals for mitigation of ocean acidification is a challenge.
In the light of the limited experience with alternative mitigation methods and scarce
__________________
169 See A/65/164, para. 52.
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impact assessments undertaken in their regard, it is therefore important to exercise
precaution and avoid mitigation strategies that may exacerbate ocean acidification.
126. The capacity to mitigate ocean acidification and adapt to its impacts, including
through the adoption of management measures to ensure or strengthen the resilience
of ecosystems is a critical element of addressing ocean acidification. In that regard,
greater emphasis should be put on capacity-building to promote the sharing of
knowledge and expertise as well as the development of infrastructure and domestic
policies related to ocean acidification. Capacity-building activities directed towards
developing countries whose communities are most affected by the impacts of ocean
acidification, owing to their dependency on organisms vulnerable to acidification, is
critical. For example, many of the small island nations have few economic
alternatives to fishing to supply both income and protein.
127. Given that ocean acidification is a global issue that requires a global approach
and an integrated response, there is an urgent need for intergovernmental bodies to
consider the challenges and opportunities for effectively addressing the ocean
acidification impacts on the marine environment, including through international
cooperation and coordination. For present and future generations, the cost of taking
the urgent and necessary steps to mitigate and adapt to ocean acidification is likely
to be lower than the cost of inaction.
United Nations A/70/112
General Assembly Distr.: General
22 July 2015
Original: English
15-09816 (E) 040815
*1509816*
Seventieth session
Item 80 (a) of the provisional agenda *
Oceans and the law of the sea
Letter of transmittal
Letter dated 7 July 2015 from the Co-Chairs of the Ad Hoc Working Group of
the Whole on the Regular Process for Global Reporting and Assessment of the
State of the Marine Environment, including Socioeconomic Aspects addressed to
the President of the General Assembly
We have the honour to transmit to you, pursuant to paragraph 267 of General
Assembly resolution 69/245 of 29 December 2014, the summary of the first global
integrated marine assessment to be issued as a document of the seventieth session of
the General Assembly for final approval and for consideration by the Ad Hoc
Working Group of the Whole on the Regular Process for Global Reporting and
Assessment of the State of the Marine Environment, including Socioeconomic
Aspects, at its sixth meeting, from 8 to 11 September 2015.
We kindly request that the present letter and the summary be circulated as a
document of the General Assembly under agenda item 80 (a).
(Signed) João Miguel Madureira
(Signed) Fernanda Millicay
* A/70/150. Please recycle@ ■
..
A/70/112
2/60 15-09816
Summary of the first global integrated marine assessment
Contents
Page
I. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
II. Background to the assessment: the ocean around us . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
III. Carrying out the assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
A. Organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
B. Structure of the assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Part I: summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Part II: context of the assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Part III: assessment of major ecosystem services from the marine environment (other
than provisioning services) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Part IV: assessment of the cross-cutting issues of food security and food safety . . . . . . . 9
Part V: assessment of other human activities and the marine environment . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Part VI: assessment of marine biological diversity and habitats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Part VII: overall assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
IV. Ten main themes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
V. Further details on the 10 main themes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
A. Impacts of climate change and related changes in the atmosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
B. Higher mortality and less successful reproduction of marine biotas. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
C. Food security and food safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
D. Patterns of biodiversity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
E. Increased use of ocean space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
F. Increasing inputs of harmful material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
G. Cumulative impacts of human activities on marine biodiversity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
H. Distribution of ocean benefits and disbenefits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
I. Integrated management of human activities affecting the ocean . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
J. Urgency of addressing threats to the ocean . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
VI. Knowledge gaps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
VII. Capacity-building gaps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
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I. Introduction1
1. Let us consider how dependent on the ocean we are. The ocean is vast: it
covers seven tenths of the planet, is on average about 4,000 metres deep and
contains 1.3 billion cubic kilometres of water (97 per cent of all the water on the
surface of the Earth). There are, however, 7 billion people on Earth. This means that
each one of us has just one fifth of a cubic kilometre of ocean as our portion to
provide us with all the services that we get from the ocean. That small, one fifth of a
cubic kilometre portion generates half of the annual production of the oxygen that
each of us breathes, and all of the sea fish and other seafood that each of us eats. It
is the ultimate source of all the freshwater that each of us will drink in our lifetimes.
2. The ocean is a highway for ships that carry the goods that we produce and
consume. The seabed and the strata beneath it hold minerals and oil and gas deposits
that we increasingly need to use. Submarine cables across the ocean floor carry
90 per cent of the electronic traffic of communications, financial transactions and
information exchange. Our energy supply will increasingly rely on sea -based wind
turbines and wave and tidal power from the ocean. Large numbers of us take our
holidays by the sea. The seabed is a rich repository for archaeology.
3. That one fifth of a cubic kilometre also suffers from the sewage, garbage,
spilled oil and industrial waste which we collectively allow to go int o the ocean
every day. Demands on the ocean continue to rise together with the world’s
population. By the year 2050, it is estimated that there will be 10 billion people on
Earth. Our portion, or our children’s portion, of the ocean will then have shrunk t o
one eighth of a cubic kilometre. That reduced portion will still have to provide each
of us with oxygen, food and water, while still suffering from the pollution and waste
that we allow to enter the ocean.
4. The ocean is also home to a rich diversity of animals, plants, seaweeds and
microbes, from the largest animal on the planet (the blue whale) to plankton and
bacteria that can only be seen with powerful microscopes. We use some of those
directly, and many more contribute indirectly to the benefits tha t we derive from the
ocean. Even those organisms without any apparent connection with humans are part
of the biodiversity whose value we have belatedly recognized. However, our
relationship with the ocean and its creatures works both ways. We intentionally
exploit many components of that rich biodiversity and increase the mortality of
other components, even though we are not deliberately harvesting them. Carelessly
(for example, through the input of waste material) or because of an initial lack of
knowledge (for example, through the ocean acidification from increased emissions
of carbon dioxide), we are altering the environment in which those organisms live.
All those actions are affecting their ability to thrive and, sometimes, even to
survive.
5. The impacts of humanity on the ocean are parts of our inheritance and future.
They have helped to shape our present and will shape not only the future of the
ocean and its biodiversity as an integral physical and biological system, but also the
ability of the ocean to provide the services that we use now, that we will
__________________
1 In the present summary, the chapters referred to in footnotes are chapters of parts II to VII of the
first global integrated marine assessment. When placed at the end of a paragraph, such footnotes
apply to all preceding paragraphs up to the previous such footnote.
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increasingly need to use in the future and that are vital to each of us and to human
well-being overall.
6. Managing our uses of the ocean is therefore vital. The successful management
of any activity, however, requires an adequate understanding of the activity and of
the context in which it takes place. Such an understanding is needed even more
when management tasks are split among many players: unless each knows how the
part they play fits into the o verall pattern, there are risks of confusion, contradictory
actions and failure to act. Managing the human uses of the ocean has inevitably to
be divided among many players. In the course of their activities, individuals and
commercial enterprises that use the ocean on a constant basis take decisions that
affect the human impacts on the oc ean.2
7. The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea 3 establishes the legal
framework within which all activities in the oceans and seas must be carried out.
National Governments and regional and global intergovernmental organizations all
have their parts to play in regulating those activities. However, each of those many
players tends to have a limited view of the ocean that is focused on their own
sectoral interests. Without a sound framework in which to work, they may well fail
to take into account the ways in which their decisions and actions interact with
those of others. Such failures can add to the complexity of the manifold problems
that exist.
8. It is therefore not surprising that, in 2002, the World Summit on Sustainable
Development recommended that there be a regular process for global reporting and
assessment of the state of the marine environment, including socioeconomic
aspects, or that the General Assembly accepted that recommendation. In its
resolution 64/71, the Assembly adopted the recommendation that the Regular
Process for Global Reporting and Assessment of the State of the Marine
Environment, including Socioeconomic Aspects should review the state of the
marine environment, including socioeconomic aspects, on a continual and
systematic basis by providing regular assessments at the global and supraregional
levels and an integrated view of environmental, economic and social aspects.
9. Those regular reviews of the state of the ocean, the way in which the many
dynamics of the ocean interact and the ways in which humans are using it should
enable the many people and institutions involved in human uses to position their
decisions more effectively in the overall context of the ocean. The first global
integrated marine assessment, also known as the first world ocean assessment, is the
first outcome of the Regular Process. It is divided into seven parts, which are
described in detail below. The present part (part I, the summary) provides: (a) a
summary of the organization of the Process and the assessment; (b) a short
description of the 10 main themes that have been identified; (c) a more detailed
description of each of those themes, based on the content of parts II to VII; and
(d) indications of the most serious gaps in our knowledge of the ocean and related
human activities, as well as in the capacities to engage in some activities and to
assess them all, drawing on the content of parts III to VII.4
__________________
2 See chaps. 1 and 3.
3 United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 1833, No. 31363.
4 See chaps. 1 and 2.
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II. Background to the assessment: the ocean around us
10. The starting point is the four main ocean basins of our planet: the Arctic Ocean,
the Atlantic Ocean, the Indian Ocean and the Pacific Ocean. 5 Even though they have
different names, they form one single interconnected ocean system. The basins have
been created over geological times by the movement of the tectonic plates across the
Earth’s mantle. The tectonic plates have differing forms at their edges, giving broad
or narrow continental shelves and varying profiles to the continental slopes leading
down to the continental rises and the abyssal plains. Geomorphic activity in the
abyssal plains between the continents gives rise to abyssal ridges, volcanic islands,
seamounts, guyots (plateau-like seamounts), rift-valley segments and trenches.
Erosion and sedimentation (either submarine or riverine, when the sea level was
lower during the ice ages) have created submarine canyons, glacial troughs, sills,
fans and escarpments. Around the ocean basins, there a re marginal seas, more or less
separated from the main ocean basins by islands, archipelagos or peninsulas, or
bounded by submarine ridges and formed by various processes.6
11. The water of the ocean mixes and circulates within those geological structures.
Although the proportion of the different chemical components dissolved in seawater
is essentially constant over time, that water is not uniform: there are very important
physical and chemical variations within the seawater. Salinity varies according to
the relative balance between inputs of freshwater and evaporation. Differences in
salinity and temperature of water masses can cause seawater to be stratified into
separate layers. Such stratification can lead to variations in the distribution of both
oxygen and nutrients, with an obvious variety of consequences in both cases for the
biotas sensitive to those factors. A further variation is in the penetration of light,
which controls where the photosynthesis on which nearly all ocean life depends can
take place. Below a few tens of metres at the coastal level or a few hundred meters
in the clearer open ocean, the ocean becomes dark and there is no photosynthesis.7
12. Superimposed on all this is a change in the acidity of the ocean. The ocean
absorbs annually about 26 per cent of the anthropogenic carbon dioxide emitted into
the atmosphere. That gas reacts with the seawater to form carbonic acid, which is
making the ocean more acid.
13. The ocean is strongly coupled with the atmosphere, mutually transferring
substances (mostly gases), heat and momentum at its surface, forming a single
coupled system. That system is influenced by the seasonal changes caused by the
Earth’s tilted rotation with respect to the sun. Variations in sea -surface temperature
among different parts of the ocean are important in creating winds, areas of high and
low air pressure and storms (including the highly damaging hurricanes, typhoons
and cyclones). In their turn, winds help to shape the surface currents of the ocean,
which transport heat from the tropics towards the poles. The ocean surface water
arriving in the cold polar regions partly freezes, rendering the remainder more saline
and thus heavier. That more saline water sinks to the bottom and flows towards the
equator, starting a return flow to the tropics: the meridional overturning circulation,
__________________
5 The Southern Ocean is formed by the southernmost parts of the Atlantic, Indian and Pacific
Ocean basins. The first world ocean assessment does not consider enclosed seas, such as the
Caspian Sea or the Dead Sea.
6 See chap. 1.
7 See chaps. 1 and 4.
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also called the thermohaline circulation. A further overall forcing factor is the
movements generated by the tidal system, predominantly driven by the gravitatio nal
effect of the moon and sun.8
14. The movements of seawater help to control the distribution of nutrients in the
ocean. The ocean enjoys both a steady (and, in some places, excessive) input from
land of inorganic nutrients needed for plant growth (especially nitrogen, phosphorus
and their compounds, but also lesser amounts of other vital nutrients) and a
continuous recycling of all the nutrients already in the ocean through
biogeochemical processes, including bacterial action. Areas of upwelling, where
nutrient-rich water is brought to the surface, are particularly important, because they
result in a high level of primary production from photosynthesis by phytoplankton
in the zone of light penetration, combining carbon from atmospheric carbon dioxide
with the other nutrients, and releasing oxygen back into the atmosphere. Whether in
the water column or when it sinks to the seabed, that primary production constitutes
the basis on which the oceanic food web is built, through each successive layer up
to the top predators (large fish, mar ine mammals, marine reptiles, seabirds and,
through capture fisheries, humans).9
15. The distribution of living marine resources around the world is the outcome of
that complex interplay of geological forms, ocean currents, nutrient fluxes, weather,
seasons and sunlight. Not surprisingly, the resulting distribution of living resources
reflects that complexity. Because some ocean areas have high levels of primary
production, the density of living marine resources in those areas and the contiguous
areas to which currents carry that production is also high. Some of those areas of
dense living marine resources are also areas of high biological diversity. The
general level of biological diversity in the ocean is also high. For example, just
under half of the world’s animal phyla are found only in the ocean, compared to one
single phylum found only on land.
16. Human uses of the ocean are shaped not only by the complex patterns of the
physical characteristics of the ocean, of its currents and of the distribut ion of marine
life, but also by the terrestrial conditions that have influenced the locations of
human settlements, by economic pressures and by the social rules that have
developed to control human activities — including national legislation, the law of
the sea, international agreements on particular human uses of the sea and broader
international agreements that apply to both land and sea.10
III. Carrying out the assessment
A. Organization
17. To carry out the complex task of assessing the environmental, social and
economic aspects of the ocean, the General Assembly has established arrangements
capable of bringing to bear the many different skills needed. After the holding of
two international workshops to consider modalities for the Regular Process , the
Assembly started the first phase in 2006, the assessment of assessments. This
__________________
8 See chaps. 1 and 5.
9 See chaps. 1 and 6.
10 See chaps. 33 and 34.
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examined more than 1,200 ocean assessments — some regional, others global, some
as thematically restricted as the status and trend of a single fish stock or pollutant in
a specific area, others as broad as integrated assessments of entire marine
ecosystems. The assessment of assessments resulted in conclusions on good practice
in that field and in recommendations on how the task of carrying out fully integrated
assessments might be approached.
18. The General Assembly set up an Ad Hoc Working Group of the Whole, which
examined those conclusions and recommendations and put proposals to the
Assembly. In 2009, the Assembly approved the framework for the Regular Process
developed in that way. The framework consists of: (a) the overall objective for the
Regular Process; (b) a description of the scope of the Regular Process; (c) a set of
principles to guide its establishment and operation; and (d) best practices on key
design features for the Regular Process, as identified in the assessment of
assessments. The framework also provided that capacity -building, the sharing of
data and information and the transfer of technology would be crucial elements.
19. Between 2009 and 2011, the General Assembly set up, on the recommendation
of the Ad Hoc Working Group of the Whole, the main institutional arrangements for
the Regular Process, namely:
(a) The Ad Hoc Working Group of the Whole of the General Assembly on
the Regular Process for Global Reporting and Assessment of the State of the Marine
Environment, including Socioeconomic Aspects, which has overseen and guided the
Process, meeting at least once a year. In 2011, the Working Group established a
Bureau to put its decisions into practice d uring intersessional periods;
(b) The Group of Experts of the Regular Process, which has the task of
carrying out assessments within the framework of the Regular Process at the request
of the Assembly and under the supervision of the Working Group. The Gr oup of
Experts is collectively responsible for its work on the assessment. It consists of
22 members, for a maximum possible membership of 25, who are appointed through
the regional groups within the Assembly. The work of the Group members has been
either voluntary or supported by their parent institutions;
(c) The Pool of Experts, which provides a pool of skilled support to assist
with the wide range of issues that an assessment of the ocean, integrated across
ecosystem components, sectors and environment al, social and economic aspects, has
to cover. The members of the Pool have been nominated by States through the chairs
of the regional groups within the Assembly and are allocated tasks by the Bureau on
the recommendations of the Group of Experts. The wor k of the Pool members has
been either voluntary or supported by their parent institutions;
(d) The secretariat of the Regular Process, which has been provided by the
Division for Ocean Affairs and the Law of the Sea of the United Nations. No
additional staff were recruited specifically for this work, as it was to be carried out
within the overall resource level of the Division;
(e) Technical and scientific support for the Regular Process, which has been
available, as a result of invitations from the Assembly, from the Intergovernmental
Oceanographic Commission of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and
Cultural Organization (UNESCO), the United Nations Environment Programme
(UNEP), the International Maritime Organization, the Food and Agriculture
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Organization of the United Nations (FAO), and the International Atomic Energy
Agency;
(f) Workshops, which have been held as forums where experts could make
an input to the planning and development of the assessment. Eight workshops have
been held around the world to consider the scope and methods of the assessment,
the information available in the region where each was held and capacity -building
needs in that region;
(g) A website (www.worldoceanassessment.org), which has been established
to make information about the assessment available and to provide a means of
communication among members of the Group of Experts and of the Pool of Experts.
20. In its resolution 68/70 adopted on 9 December 2013, the General Assembly
took note of the guidance to contributors adopted by the Bureau of the Ad Hoc
Working Group of the Whole (A/68/82 and Corr.1, annex II). In that guidance, it is
stated that contributors are expected to act in their personal capacity as independent
experts, and not as representatives of any Government or any other authority or
organization. They should neither seek no r accept instructions from outside the
Regular Process regarding their work on the preparation of the assessment, although
they are free to consult widely with other experts and with government officials, in
order to ensure that their contributions are cre dible, legitimate and relevant.
21. The Group of Experts proposed a draft outline for the first global integrated
assessment of the marine environment. After detailed dialogue, revision and
consideration by the Working Group, the outline was submitted in t he report on the
work of the Ad Hoc Working Group of the Whole (A/67/87, annex II)and adopted by
the General Assembly on 11 December 2012 in its resolution 67/78. On 29 December
2014, the Assembly took note in its resolution 69/245 of the updated outline
contained in annex II to A/69/77. The chapters have been prepared by writing teams
of one or more members. Conveners from the Gro up of Experts or the Pool of Experts
have led those teams. One or more lead members from the Group of Experts has
overseen the preparation of (or, in some cases, prepared) each draft chapter. In some
cases, the draft chapters have been reviewed by one or more commentators and, in all
cases, by the Group of Experts as a whole. Synthesis chapters (drawing together the
main points from each part) and the present summary have been prepared by
members of the Group of Experts.
22. Notwithstanding the generous sup port of the hosts of the workshops and other
support described in chapter 2, the production of the first world ocean assessment
has been constrained by lack of resources. Apart from the costs of the workshops
met by host States, support for the website fro m Australia and Norway and support
by Australia, Belgium, Canada, China, the Republic of Korea, the United Kingdom
of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and the United States of America for the
travel costs of the members of the Group of Experts from those countries, outgoings
have been met from a voluntary trust fund set up by the Secretary -General of the
United Nations. Donations to that trust fund from Belgium, China, Côte d’Ivoire,
Iceland, Ireland, Jamaica, New Zealand, Norway, Portugal, and the Republ ic of
Korea have amounted to $315,000. Generous support to the Regular Process has
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also been provided, financially and technically, by the European Union, the
Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission and UNEP .11
B. Structure of the assessment
23. The assessment is divided into the seven parts described below.
Part I: summary
24. The summary describes how the assessment has been carried out, the overall
assessment of the scale of human impact on the ocean, the overall value of the
ocean to humans and the main pressures on the marine environment and human
economic and social well-being. As guides for future action, it also sets out the gaps
(general or partial) in knowledge and in capacity -building.
Part II: context of the assessment
25. Chapter 1 is a broad, introductory survey of the role played by the ocean in the
life of the planet, the ways in which the ocean functions, and humans’ relationships
to the ocean. Chapter 2 explains in more detail the rationale for the assessment and
how it has been produced.
Part III: assessment of major ecosystem services from the marine environment
(other than provisioning services)
26. Ecosystem services are those processes, products and features of natural
ecosystems that support human well-being. Some (fish, hydrocarbons or minerals)
are part of the market economy. Others are not marketed. Part III looks at the
non-marketed ecosystem services that the ocean provides to the planet. It considers,
first, the scientific understanding of those ecosystem servic es and then the Earth’s
hydrological cycle, interactions between air and sea, primary production and ocean -
based carbonate production. Finally, it looks at aesthetic, cultural, religious and
spiritual ecosystem services (including some cultural objects tha t are in trade).
Where relevant, it draws heavily on the work of the Intergovernmental Panel on
Climate Change, with the aim of using the work of the Panel, not of duplicating or
challenging it.
Part IV: assessment of the cross-cutting issues of food security and food safety
27. Part IV, which covers the one cross-cutting theme selected for examination,
examines all aspects of the vital function of the ocean in providing food for humans.
It draws substantially on information collected by FAO. The econ omic significance
of employment in fisheries and aquaculture and the relationship those industries
have with coastal communities are addressed, including gaps in capacity -building
for developing countries.
Part V: assessment of other human activities and the marine environment
28. All other human activities that can impact on the ocean (other than those
relating to food production) are covered in part V of the assessment. To the extent
__________________
11 See chap. 2.
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that the available information allows, each chapter describes the location and scale
of the activity, the economic benefits, employment and social role, environmental
consequences (where appropriate), links to other activities and gaps in knowledge
and capacity-building.
Part VI: assessment of marine biological diversity and habitats
29. Part VI: (a) gives an overview of marine biological diversity and what is known
about it; (b) reviews the status and trends of, and pressures on, marine ecosystems,
species and habitats that have been scientifically identified as thr eatened, declining
or otherwise in need of special attention or protection; (c) examines the significant
environmental, economic and social aspects of the conservation of marine species
and habitats; and (d) identifies gaps in capacity to identify marine s pecies and
habitats that are recognized as threatened, declining or otherwise in need of special
attention or protection, and to assess the environmental, social and economic aspects
of the conservation of marine species and habitats.
Part VII: overall assessment
30. Finally, part VII considers the overall way in which the various human impacts
cumulatively affect the ocean, and the overall benefits t hat humans draw from the
ocean.12
IV. Ten main themes
31. Ten main themes emerge from the detailed e xamination set out in parts III to VI
of the first world ocean assessment. The order in which they are presented does not
reflect any assessment of the order of importance for action. The present assessment
has been prepared on the basis of the outline, in which it is stated that the first global
integrated marine assessment will not include any analysis of policies. In the light of
the dialogue in the Working Group, that limitation has been understood to include
the prioritization of actions or the making of recommendations (A/69/77, annex II).
Theme A
32. Climate change and related changes in the atmosphere have serious
implications for the ocean, including rises in sea level, higher levels of acidity in the
ocean, the reduced mixing of ocean water and increasing deoxygenation. There are
many uncertainties here, but the consensus is that increases in global temperature, in
the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere and in the radiation from the sun
that reaches the ocean have already had an impact on some aspects of the ocean and
will produce further significant incremental changes over time. The basic
mechanisms of change are understood but the ability to predict the detail of changes
is limited. In many cases, the direction of change is known, but uncertainty remains
about the timing and rate of change, as well as its magnitude and spatial pattern.13
__________________
12 See chap. 1.
13 See also paras. 44-72 below.
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Theme B
33. The exploitation of living marine resources has exceeded sustainable levels in
many regions. In some jurisdictions, various combinations of management measures,
positive incentives and changes to governance have allowed those historical trends to
be reversed, but they persist in others. Where fisheries have imposed levels of
mortality on fish stocks and wildlife populations above sustainable levels for some
considerable time, those stocks have become depleted. Overexploitation has also
brought about changes to ecosystems (for example, overfishing of herbivorous fish in
parts of the Caribbean has led to the smothering of corals by algae). Overexploitation
can also make fish stocks less productive by reducing the numbers of spawning fish,
with adverse effects often amplified by the removal of the larger, older fish, which
produce disproportionately more eggs of higher quality than younger, smaller
individuals. At the same time, reproductive success is also being reduced by
pollution, loss of habitat and other forms of disturbance, including climate change.
All those factors result, more generally, in declining biological resources with
important implications for food security and biodiversity.14
Theme C
34. With regard to the cross-cutting issue of food security and food safety (part IV),
fish products are the major source of animal protein for a significant fraction of the
world’s population, particularly in countries where hunger is widespread. Globally,
the current mix of the global capture fisheries is near the ocean’s productive capacity,
with catches on the order of 80 million tons. Ending overfishing (including illegal,
unreported and unregulated fishing) and rebuilding depleted resources co uld result in
a potential increase of as much as 20 per cent in yield, but this would require
addressing the transitional costs (especially the social and economic costs) of
rebuilding depleted stocks. In some areas, pollution and dead zones are also
depressing the production of food from the sea. Small -scale fisheries are often also a
critical source of livelihoods, as well as of food, for many poor residents in coastal
areas. Rebuilding the resources on which they depend and moving to sustainable
exploitation will potentially have important benefits for food security. The
contribution of aquaculture to food security is growing rapidly and has greater
potential for growth than capture fisheries, but it brings with it new or increased
pressures on marine ecosystems.15
Theme D
35. There are clear patterns in biodiversity around the world. The pressures on
marine biodiversity are increasing, particularly near large population centres and in
areas, such as the open ocean, that have so far suffered only limite d impacts. Crucial
areas for biodiversity, the so-called biodiversity hotspots, often overlap with the
areas critical for the provision of ecosystem services by the ocean. In some of those
hotspots, the ecosystem services create the conditions for high bio diversity, while in
others, both the rich biodiversity and the ecosystem services result independently
from the local physical and oceanographic conditions. In both cases, many of those
hotspots have become magnets for human uses, in order to take advantag e of the
__________________
14 See also paras. 73-87 below.
15 See also paras. 88-96 below.
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economic and social benefits that they offer. This creates enhanced poten tial for
conflicting pressures.16
Theme E
36. Increased use of ocean space, especially in coastal areas, create conflicting
demands for dedicated marine space. This arises both from the expansion of longstanding
uses of the ocean (such as fishing and shipping) and from newly
developing uses (such as hydrocarbon extraction, mining and the generation of
renewable energy conducted offshore). In most cases, those various activ ities are
increasing without any clear overarching management system or a thorough
evaluation of their cumulative impacts on the ocean environment, thus increasing
the potential for conflicting and cumulative pressures.17
Theme F
37. The current, and growing, levels of population and industrial and agricultural
production result in increasing inputs of harmful material and excess nutrients into
the ocean. Growing concentrations of population can impose, and in many areas are
imposing, levels of sewage discharge that are beyond the local carrying capacity and
which cause harm to human health. Even if discharges of industrial effluents and
emissions were restrained to the lowest levels in proportion to production that are
currently practicable, continuing growth in production would result in increased
inputs to the ocean. The growing use of plastics that degrade very slowly result in
increased quantities reaching the ocean and have many adverse effects, including
the creation of large quantities of marine de bris in the ocean, and negative impacts
on marine life and on the aesthetic aspects of many ocean areas, and thus
consequent socioeconomic effects.18
Theme G
38. Adverse impacts on marine ecosystems come from the cumulative impacts of a
number of human activities. Ecosystems, and their biodiversity, that might be
resilient to one form or intensity of impact can be much more severely affected by a
combination of impacts: the total impact of several pressures on the same ecosystem
often being much larger than the sum of the individual impacts. Where biodiversity
has been altered, the resilience of ecosystems to other impacts, including climate
change, is often reduced. Thus the cumulative impacts of activities that, in the past,
seemed to be sustainable are resulting in major changes to some ecosystems and in a
reduction in the ecosystem services that they provide.19
Theme H
39. The distribution around the world of the benefits drawn from the ocean is still
very uneven. In some fields, this unevenness is due to the natural distribution of
resources in areas under the jurisdiction of the various States (for example,
hydrocarbons, minerals and some fish stocks). The distribution of some benefits is
becoming less skewed: for example, the consumption of fish per capita in some
__________________
16 See also paras. 97-108 below.
17 See also paras. 109-122 below.
18 See also paras. 123-151 below.
19 See also paras. 152-166 below.
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developing countries is growing; the balance between cargoes loaded and unloaded
in the ports of developing co untries is moving closer to those in developed countries
in tonnage terms. In many fields, however, including some forms of tourism and the
general trade in fish, an imbalance remains between the developed and developing
parts of the world. Significant differences in capacities to manage sewage, pollution
and habitats also create inequities. Gaps in capacity -building hamper less developed
countries in taking advantage of what the ocean can offer them, as well as reduce
their capability to address the fa ctors that degrade the ocean.20
Theme I
40. The sustainable use of the ocean cannot be achieved unless the management of
all sectors of human activities affecting the ocean is coherent. Human impacts on
the sea are no longer minor in relation to the overall scale of the ocean. A coherent
overall approach is needed. This requires taking into account the effects on
ecosystems of each of the many pressures, what is being done in other sectors and
the way that they interact. As the brief summary above of the man y processes at
work in the ocean demonstrates, the ocean is a complex set of systems that are all
interconnected. In all sectors, albeit unevenly, there has been a progressive,
continuing development of management: from no regulation to the regulation of
specific impacts, to the regulation of sector -wide impacts and finally to regulation
taking account of aspects of all relevant sectors.
41. Such a coherent approach to management requires a wider range of knowledge
about the ocean. Many of the gaps in the knowledge that such an integrated
approach requires are identified in the present assessment. There are also
widespread gaps in the skills needed to assess the ocean with respect to some
aspects (for example, the integration of environmental, social and ec onomic
aspects). In many cases, there are gaps in the resources needed for the successful
application of such knowledge and skills. Gaps in capacity -building are identified
briefly at the end of the present summary, and in more detail in parts III t o VI.21
Theme J
42. There is the delay in implementing known solutions to problems that have
already been identified as threatening to degrade the ocean further. In many fields, it
has been shown that there are practicable, known measures to address many of th e
pressures described above. Such pressures are continuously degrading the ocean,
thereby causing social and economic problems. Delays in implementing such
measures, even if they are only partial and will leave more to be done, mean that we
are unnecessarily incurring those environmental, social and economic costs.22
Conclusion
43. The 10 themes are described in more detail in section V below. As explained
above, the order in which the themes are presented does not represent any
judgement on their priority. Elements in those themes overlap, and the same issue
may be relevant to more than one theme. The identification of knowledge gaps and
capacity-building gaps follows in the final two sections of the summary.
__________________
20 See also paras. 167-186 below.
21 See also paras. 187-196 below.
22 See also paras. 197-202 below.
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V. Further details on the 10 main themes
A. Impacts of climate change and related changes in the atmosphere
Changes
44. Major features of the ocean are changing significantly as a result of climate
change and related changes in the atmosphere. The work of the Intergovernmental
Panel on Climate Change has been used, where climate is concerned, as the basis of
the present assessment, as required in the outline ( A/69/77, annex II).
Sea-surface temperature
45. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate C hange has reaffirmed in its fifth
report its conclusion that global sea-surface temperatures have increased since the
late nineteenth century. Upper-ocean temperature (and hence its heat content) varies
over multiple time scales, including seasonal, inter -annual (for example, those
associated with the El Niño-Southern Oscillation), decadal and centennial periods.
Depth-averaged ocean-temperature trends from 1971 to 2010 are positive (that is,
they show warming) over most of the globe. The warming is more pr ominent in the
northern hemisphere, especially in the North Atlantic. Zonally averaged upper -
ocean temperature trends show warming at nearly all latitudes and depths. However,
the greater volume of the ocean in the southern hemisphere increases the
contribution of its warming to the global heat content.
46. The ocean’s large mass and high heat capacity enable it to store huge amounts
of energy, more than 1,000 times than that found in the atmosphere for an equivalent
increase in temperature. The earth is ab sorbing more heat than it is emitting back
into space, and nearly all that excess heat is entering the ocean and being stored
there. The ocean has absorbed about 93 per cent of the combined extra heat stored
by warmed air, sea, land, and melted ice between 1971 and 2010. During the past
three decades, approximately 70 per cent of the world’s coastline has experienced
significant increases in sea-surface temperature. This has been accompanied by an
increase in the yearly number of extremely hot days along 38 per cent of the world’s
coastline. Warming has also been occurring at a significantly earlier date in the year
along approximately 36 per cent of the world’s temperate coastal areas (between
30° and 60° latitude in both hemispheres). That warming is resulting in an
increasingly poleward distribution of many marine species.23
Sea-level rise
47. It is very likely that extreme sea-level maxima have already increased globally
since the 1970s, mainly as a result of global mean sea -level rise. That rise is due in
part to anthropogenic warming, causing ocean thermal expansion and the melting of
glaciers and of the polar continental ice sheets. Globally averaged sea level has thus
risen by 3.2 mm a year for the past two decades, of which about a third is de rived
from thermal expansion. Some of the remainder is due to fluxes of freshwater from
the continents, which have increased as a result of the melting of continental
glaciers and ice sheets.
__________________
23 See chap. 5.
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48. Finally, regional and local sea-level changes are also influenced by natural
factors, such as regional variability in winds and ocean currents, vertical movements
of the land, isostatic adjustment of the levels of land in response to changes in
physical pressures on it and coastal erosion, combined with human pert urbations by
change in land use and coastal development. As a result, sea levels will rise more
than the global mean in some regions, and will actually fall in others. A 4°C warming
by 2100 (which is predicted in the high-end emissions scenario in the report of the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change) would lead, by the end of that period,
to a median sea-level rise of nearly 1 metre above the 1980 to 1999 levels.24
Ocean acidification
49. Rising concentrations of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere a re resulting in
increased uptake of that gas by the ocean. There is no doubt that the ocean is
absorbing more and more of it: about 26 per cent of the increasing emissions of
anthropogenic carbon dioxide is absorbed by the ocean, where it reacts with
seawater to form carbonic acid. The resulting acidification of the ocean is occurring
at different rates around the seas, but is generally decreasing the levels of calcium
carbonate dissolved in seawater, thus lowering the availability of carbonate ions,
which are needed for the formation by marine species of shells and skeletons. In
some areas, this could affect species that are important for capture fisheries.25
Salinity
50. Alongside broad-scale ocean warming, shifts in ocean salinity (salt content)
have also occurred. The variations in the salinity of the ocean around the world
result from differences in the balance between freshwater inflows (from rivers and
glacier and ice-cap melt), rainfall and evaporation, all of which are affected by
climate change. The shifts in salinity, which are calculated from a sparse historical
observing system, suggest that at the surface, high -salinity subtropical ocean
regions and the entire Atlantic basin have become more saline, while low-salinity
regions, such as the western Pacific Warm Pool, and high -latitude regions have
become even less saline. Since variations in salinity are one of the drivers of ocean
currents, those changes can have an effect on the circulation of seawater and on
stratification, as well as having a direct effect on the lives of plants and animals by
changing their environment.26
Stratification
51. Differences in salinity and temperature among different bodies of se awater
result in stratification, in which the seawater forms layers, with limited exchanges
between them. Increases in the degree of stratification have been noted around the
world, particularly in the North Pacific and, more generally, north of 40ºS.
Increased stratification brings with it a decrease in vertical mixing in the ocean
water column. This decreased mixing, in turn, reduces oxygen content and the
extent to which the ocean is able to absorb heat and carbon dioxide, because less
water from the lower layers is brought up to the surface, where such absorption
takes place. Reductions in vertical mixing also impact the amount of nutrients
__________________
24 See chap. 4.
25 See chaps. 5-7.
26 See chaps. 4 and 5.
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brought up from lower levels into the zone that sunlight penetrates, with consequent
reductions in ecosystem productivity.27
Ocean circulation
52. The intensified study of the ocean as part of the study of climate change has led
to a much clearer understanding of the mechanisms of ocean circulation and its
annual and decadal variations. As a result of changes in the heating of different parts
of the ocean, patterns of variation in heat distribution across the ocean (such as the
El Niño-Southern Oscillation) are also changing. Those changes in patterns result in
significant changes in weather patterns on land. Water masses are also moving
differently in areas over continental shelves, with consequent effects on the
distribution of species. There is evidence that the global circulation through the open
ocean may also be changing, which might lead, over time, to reductio ns in the
transfer of heat from the equatorial regions to the poles and into the ocean depths.
Storms and other extreme weather events
53. Increasing seawater temperatures provide more energy for storms that develop
at sea. The scientific consensus is that this will lead to fewer but more intense
tropical cyclones globally. Evidence exists that the observed expansion of the
tropics since approximately 1979 is accompanied by a pronounced poleward
migration of the latitude at which the maximum intensities of storms occur. This
will certainly affect coastal areas that have not been exposed previously to the
dangers caused by tropical cyclones.28
Ultraviolet radiation and the ozone layer
54. The ultraviolet (UV) radiation emitted by the sun in the UV -B range
(280-315 nanometres wavelength) has a wide range of potentially harmful effects,
including the inhibition of primary production by phytoplankton and cyanobacteria,
changes in the structure and function of plankton communities and alterations of the
nitrogen cycle. The ozone layer in the Earth’s stratosphere blocks most UV -B from
reaching the ocean’s surface. Consequently, stratospheric ozone depletion since the
1970s has been a concern. International action (under the Montreal Protocol on
Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer)29 to address that depletion has been taken,
and the situation appears to have stabilized, although with some variation from year
to year. Given those developments and the variations in the water depths to which
UV-B penetrates, a consensus on the magnitude of the ozone-depletion effect on net
primary production and nutrient cycling has yet to be reached. There is, however, a
potential effect of ultraviolet on nanop articles.30
Implications for human well-being and biodiversity
Changes in seasonal life cycles in the ocean
55. It has been predicted under some climate change scenarios that up to 60 per cent
of the current biomass in the ocean could be affected, either positively or negatively,
__________________
27 See chaps. 1 and 4-6.
28 See chap. 5.
29 United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 1522, No. 26369.
30 See theme F above and chap. 6.
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resulting in disruptions to many exi sting ecosystem services. For example, modelling
studies of species with strong temperature preferences, such as skipjack and bluefin
tuna, predict major changes in range and/or decreases in productivity.31
56. The effects are found in all regions. For example, in the North -West Atlantic,
the combination of changes in feeding patterns triggered by overfishing and changes
in climate formed the primary pressures thought to have brought about shifts in
species composition amounting to a full regime change, from one dominated by cod
to one dominated by crustacea. Even in the open ocean, climate warming will
increase ocean stratification in some broad areas, reduce primary production and/or
result in a shift in productivity to smaller species (from diatoms of 2 -200 microns to
picoplankton of 0.2-2 microns) of phytoplankton. This has the effect of changing the
efficiency of the transfer of energy to other parts of the food web, causing biotic
changes over major regions of the open ocean, such as the equatorial Pacific.32
Loss of sea ice in high latitudes and associated ecosystems
57. The high-latitude ice-covered ecosystems host globally significant arrays of
biodiversity, and the size and nature of those ecosystems ma ke them critically
important to the biological, chemical and physical balance of the biosphere.
Biodiversity in those systems has developed remarkable adaptations to survive both
extreme cold and highly variable climatic conditions.
58. High-latitude seas are relatively low in biological productivity, and ice algal
communities, unique to those latitudes, play a particularly important role in system
dynamics. Ice algae are estimated to contribute more than 50 per cent of the primary
production in the permanently ice-covered central Arctic. As sea-ice cover declines,
this productivity may decline and open water species may increase. The high -
latitude ecosystems are undergoing change at a rate more rapid than in other places
on earth. In the past 100 years, average Arctic temperatures have increased at almost
twice the average global rate. Reduced sea ice, especially a shift towards less
multi-year sea ice, will affect a wide range of species in those waters. For example,
owing to low reproductive rates and lo ng lifetimes, some iconic species (including
the polar bear) will be challenged to adapt to the current fast warming of the Arctic
and may be extirpated from portions of their r ange within the next 100 years.33
Plankton
59. Phytoplankton and marine bacteria carry out most of the primary production on
which food webs depend. The climate-driven increases in the temperature of the
upper ocean that had been predicted are now causing shifts in phytoplankton
communities. This may have profound effects on net p rimary production and nutrient
cycles over the next 100 years. In general, when smaller plankton account for most
net primary production, as is typically the case in oligotrophic open -ocean waters
(that is, areas where levels of nutrients are low), net pri mary production is lower and
the microbial food web dominates energy flows and nutrient cycles. Under such
conditions, the carrying capacity for currently harvestable fish stocks is lower and
exports of organic carbon, nitrogen and phosphorus to the deep s ea may be smaller.
__________________
31 See chaps. 42 and 52.
32 See chaps. 6 and 36A.
33 See chaps. 36G, 36H and 37.
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60. On the other hand, as the upper ocean warms, the geographic range of
nitrogen-fixing plankton (diazotrophs) will expand. This could enhance the fixation
of nitrogen by as much as 35-65 per cent by 2100. This would lead to an increas e in
net primary production, and therefore an increase in carbon uptake, and some
species of a higher trophic level may become more productive.
61. The balance between those two changes is unclear. A shift towards less
primary production would have serious implications for human food security and
the support of marine biodiversity.34
Fish stock distribution
62. As seawater temperatures increase, the distribution of many fish stocks and the
fisheries that depend upon them is shifting. While the broad patt ern is one of stocks
moving poleward and deeper in order to stay within waters that meet their
temperature preference, the picture is by no means uniform, nor are those shifts
happening in concert for the various species. Increasing water temperatures will also
increase metabolic rates and, in some cases, the range and productivity of some
stocks. The result is changes in ecosystems occurring at various rates ranging from
near zero to very rapid. Research on those effects is scattered, with diverse results,
but as ocean climate continues to change, those considerations are of increasing
concern for food production. Greater uncertainty for fisheries results in social,
economic and food security impacts, compl icating sustainable management.35
Seaweeds and seagrasses
63. Cold-water seaweeds, in particular kelps, have reproductive regimes that are
temperature-sensitive. Increase in seawater temperature affects their reproduction
and survival, which will consequently affect their population distribution and
harvest. Kelp die-offs have already been reported along the coasts of Europe, and
changes in species distribution have been noted in Northern Europe, Southern
Africa and Southern Australia, with warm-water-tolerant species replacing those
that are intolerant of warmer water. The diminished kelp harvest reduces what is
available for human food and the supply of substances derived from kelp that are
used in industry and pharmaceutical and food preparation.
64. Communities with kelp-based livelihoods and economies will be affected. For
seagrasses, increased seawater temperatures have been implicated in the occurrence
of a wasting disease that decimated seagrass meadows in the north -eastern and
north-western parts of the United States. Changes in species distribu tion and the
loss of kelp forest and seagrass beds have resulted in changes in the ways that those
two ecosystems provide food, habitats and nursery areas for fish and shellfish, with
repercussions on fishing yields and livelihoods. 36
Shellfish productivity
65. Because of the acidification of the ocean, impacts on the production by
shellfish of their calcium carbonate shells has already been observed periodically at
aquaculture facilities, hindering production. As acidification intensifies, this
__________________
34 See chap. 6.
35 See chaps. 36A-H and 52.
36 See chaps. 14 and 47.
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problem will become more widespread, and occur in wild, as well as in cultured,
stocks. However, like all other ocean properties, acidification is not evenly
distributed, so that the effects will not be uniform across areas and there will be
substantial variation over small spatial scales. In addition, temperature, salinity and
other changes will also change shellfish distributions and productivity, positively or
negatively in different areas. As with fishing, the course of those changes is highly
uncertain and may be disruptive to existing shellfish fisheries and aquaculture. 37
Low-lying coasts
66. Sea-level rise, due to ocean warming and the melting of land ice, poses a
significant threat to coastal systems and low-lying areas around the world, through
inundations, the erosion of coastlines and the contamination of freshwater reserves
and food crops. To a large extent, such effects are inevitable, as they are the
consequences of conditions already in place, but they could have devastating effects
if mitigation options are not pursued. Entire communities on low-lying islands
(including States such as Kiribati, Maldives and Tuvalu) have nowhere to retreat to
within their islands and have therefore no alternative but to abandon their homes
entirely, at a cost they are often ill-placed to bear. Coastal regions, particularly some
low-lying river deltas, have very high population densities. Over 150 million people
are estimated to live on land that is no more than 1 metre above today’s high -tide
levels, and 250 million at elevations within five metres of that level. Because of
their high population densities, coastal cities are particularly vulnerable to sea -level
rise in concert with other effects of climate change, such as changes in storm
patterns.38
Coral reefs
67. Corals are subject to “bleaching” when the seawater temperature is too high:
they lose the symbiotic algae that give coral its colour and part of its nutrients.
Coral bleaching was a relatively unknown phenomenon until the early 1980s, when
a series of local bleaching events occurred, principally in the eastern tropical Pacific
and Wider Caribbean regions. Severe, prolonged or repeated bleaching can lead to
the death of coral colonies. An increase of only 1°C to 2°C above the normal local
seasonal maximum can induce bleaching. Although most coral species are
susceptible to bleaching, their thermal tolerance varies. Many heat -stressed or
bleached corals subsequently die from coral diseases.
68. Rising temperatures have accelerated bleaching and mass mortalit y during the
past 25 years. The bleaching events in 1998 and 2005 caused high coral mortality at
many reefs, with little sign of recovery. Global analysis shows that this widespread
threat has significantly damaged most coral reefs around the world. Where recovery
has taken place, it has been strongest on reefs that were highly protected from
human pressures. However, a comparison of the recent and accelerating thermal
stress events with the slow recovery rate of most reefs suggests that temperature
increase is outpacing recovery.
69. Losses of coral reefs can have negative effects on fish production and
fisheries, coastal protection, ecotourism and other community uses of coral reefs.
Current scientific data and modelling predict that most of the world’s t ropical and
__________________
37 See chaps. 5, 11 and 52.
38 See chap. 4.
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subtropical coral reefs, particularly those in shallow waters, will suffer from annual
bleaching by 2050, and will eventually become functionally extinct as sources of
goods and services. This will have not only profound effects on small island
developing States and subsistence fishermen in low-latitude coastal areas, but also
locally significant effects even in major economies, such as that of the United
States.39
Submarine cables
70. Submarine cables have always been at risk of breaks from submarine
landslides, mainly at the edge of the continental shelf. As the pattern of cyclones,
hurricanes and typhoons changes, submarine areas that have so far been stable may
become less so and thus produce submarine landslides and consequent cable break s.
With the increasing dependence of world trade on the Internet, such breaks (in
addition to breaks from other causes, such as ship anchors and bottom trawling)
could delay or interrupt communications vital to that trade. 40
Eutrophication problems
71. Where there are narrow continental shelves, some wind conditions can bring
nutrient-rich, oxygen-poor water up into coastal waters, and produce hypoxic (low -
oxygen) or even anoxic conditions (the implications of which are described under
theme F). Changes in ocean circulation appear to be enhancing those effects.
Examples of this can be found on the western coasts of the American continent
immediately north and south of the equator, the western coast of sub -Saharan Africa
and the western coast of the Indian subcontinent.41
Opening of Arctic shipping routes
72. Although the number of ships transiting Arctic waters is currently low, it has
been escalating for the past decade, and the retreat of the polar sea ice as a result of
planetary warming means that there are increasing possibilities for shipping traffic
between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans around the north of the American and
Eurasian continents during the northern summer. The movement of species between
the Pacific and the Atlantic demonstrates th e scale of the potential impact. Those
routes are shorter and may be more economic, but shipping brings with it increased
risks of marine pollution both from acute disasters and chronic pollution and the
potential introduction of invasive non-native species. The very low rate at which
bacteria can break down spilled oil in polar conditions and the general low recovery
rate of polar ecosystems mean that damage from such pollution would be very
serious. Furthermore, the response and clear -up infrastructure found in other ocean
basins is largely lacking today around the Arctic Ocean. Those factors would make
such problems even worse. Over time, the increased commercial shipping traffic
through the Arctic Ocean and the noise disturbance it creates may also displ ace
marine mammals away from critical habitats. 42
__________________
39 See chaps. 34, 36D and 43.
40 See chap. 19.
41 See chaps. 6 and 20.
42 See chaps. 20 and 36G.
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B. Higher mortality and less successful reproduction of marine biotas
Captures of fish stocks at levels above maximum sustainable yield
73. Globally, the levels of capture fisheries are near the ocea n’s productive
capacity, with catches on the order of 80 million tons. Exploitation inevitably
reduces total population biomass through removals. As long as the fish stock can
compensate through increased productivity because the remaining individuals face
less competition for access to food and therefore grow faster and produce more
progeny, then fishing can be sustained. However, when the rate of exploitation
becomes faster than the stock can compensate through increasing growth and
reproduction, the remo val level becomes unsustainable and the stock declines.
74. The concept of “maximum sustainable yield”, entrenched in international legal
instruments such as the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea and the
Agreement for the Implementation of t he Provisions of the United Nations
Convention on the Law of the Sea of 10 December 1982 relating to the
Conservation and Management of Straddling Fish Stocks and Highly Migratory Fish
Stocks,43 is based on the inherent trade-off between increasing harvests and
decreasing the ability of a smaller resulting population to compensate for the
removals.
75. At present, about one quarter of all assessed fish stocks are being overfished
and more are still recovering from past overfishing. This is undermining the
contribution that they could make to food security. Ending overfishing is a
precondition for allowing stocks to rebuild. Other stocks may still be categorized as
“fully exploited” despite being on the borderline of overfishing. Those could
produce greater yields if effectively managed.
76. There are only a few means available to increase yields. Ending overfishing,
eliminating illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing, bringing all fishery yields
under effective management and rebuilding depleted resources may result in an
increase of as much as 20 per cent in potential yield, provided that the transitional
economic and social costs of rebuilding depleted stocks can be addressed.
77. Overfishing can also undermine the biodiversity needed to sustain marine
ecosystems. Without careful management, such impacts on biodiversity will
endanger some of the most vulnerable human populations and marine habitats
around the world, as well as threaten food security and other important
socioeconomic aspects (such as livelihoods).44
Impacts of changes in breeding and nursery areas
78. Changes in breeding and nursery areas are best documented for the larger
marine predators. For seabirds, globally, the greatest pressure is caused by invasive
species (mainly rats and other predators acting at breeding sites). That pressure
potentially affects 73 threatened seabird species — 75 per cent of the total and
nearly twice as many as any other single threat. The remaining most significant
pressures are fairly evenly divided betwee n those faced mainly at breeding sites,
namely problematic native species, human disturbance and the loss of historical
__________________
43 United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 2167, No. 37924.
44 See chaps. 10, 11 and 15.
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breeding and nursery sites to urban development (commercial, residential or
infrastructural), and those faced mainly at sea, particularl y by-catch in longlines,
gillnets and trawl fisheries, when birds are foraging or moulting, migrating or in
aggregations. The ingestion of marine plastic debris is also significant. For marine
reptiles, decades of overharvesting of marine turtle eggs on ne sting beaches have
driven the long-term decline of some breeding populations. In some areas, tourist
development has also affected reproductive success at historical turtle nesting
beaches. All this has rendered them more vulnerable to fishery by -catch and other
threats. Similar pressures apply to marine mammals. 45
Levels of by-catch (non-target fish, marine mammals, reptiles and seabirds),
discards and waste
79. Current estimates of the number of overfished stocks do not take into account
the broader effects of fishing on marine ecosystems and their productivity. In the
past, large numbers of dolphins drowned in fishing nets. This mortality greatly
reduced the abundance of several dolphin species in the latter half of the twentieth
century. Thanks to international efforts, fishing methods have changed and the by -
catch has been reduced significantly. Commercial fisheries are the most serious
pressure at sea that the world’s seabirds face, although there is evidence of some
reductions of by-catch in some key fisheries. Each year, incidental by-catch in
longline fisheries is estimated to kill at least 160,000 albatrosses and petrels, mainly
in the southern hemisphere. For marine reptiles, a threat assessment scored fishery
by-catch as the highest threat across marine turtle subpopulations, followed by
harvesting (that is, for human consumption) and coastal development.
80. The mitigation of those causes of mortality can be effective, even though the
lack of reliable data can hamper the targeting of mitigatio n measures. Depending on
the particular species and fishery methods, mitigation may include the use of
acoustic deterrents, gear modifications, time or area closures and gear switching (for
example, from gillnets to hooks and lines). In particular, the glo bal moratorium on
all large-scale pelagic drift-net fishing called for by the General Assembly in 1991
was a major step in limiting the by-catch of several marine mammal and seabird
species that were especially vulnerable to entanglement. 46
Impact of hazardous substances and eutrophication problems on reproduction
and survival
81. Each of the reviews of regional biodiversity in part VI of the present
assessment reported at least some instances of threats from hazardous substances.
To give some examples, in the South Pacific, localized declines in species densities,
assemblages and spatial distributions are being observed, particularly in areas close
to population centres where overfishing, pollution from terrestrial run -off and
sewage and damage from coastal developments are occurring. In the North Atlantic,
impacts on the benthos have been particularly well documented, although their
nature depends on the type, intensity and duration of the pollution or nutrient input.
Persistent pressures of that type ha ve been documented to alter greatly the species
composition and biomass of the benthos directly and indirectly, through processes
such as the formation of dead zones and hypoxic zones as a result of eutrophication
__________________
45 See chaps. 28 and 37-39.
46 See chaps. 11 and 37-39.
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problems and seawater circulation changes driven by climate change. Even in the
open ocean, evidence is increasing for chemical contamination of deep -pelagic
animals. Although the pathways for such contaminations are not well known, high
concentrations of heavy metals and persistent organic pollut ants have been
reported.47
Impacts of disturbance from noise
82. Anthropogenic noise in the ocean increased in the last half of the past century.
Commercial shipping is the main source, and the noise that it produces is often in
frequency bands used by many marine mammals for communication. Many other
types of marine biotas have also been shown to be affected by anthropogenic noise.
Other significant sources of noise are seismic exploration for the offshore
hydrocarbon industry and sonar. The impact of n oise can be both to disrupt
communication among animals and to displace them from their preferred breeding,
nursery or feeding grounds, with consequent potential effects on their breeding
success and survival.48
Impacts of recreational fishing
83. Recreational fishing is a popular activity in many industrialized countries, in
which up to 10 per cent of the adult population may participate. The impact of that
type of fishing is only sometimes taken into account in fishery management,
although the quantities caught can be significant for the management of stocks
experiencing overfishing. In several countries, there is a substantial industry
supporting the recreational catching of sport fish (including trophy fish, such as
marlins, swordfish and sailfish), but catch statistics are generally not available. 49
Implications for human well-being and biodiversity
Food resources
84. The overfishing of some fish stocks is reducing the yield realized from those
stocks. Such reductions in yield are likely to undermine food security. The role of
fisheries in food security is further considered below. 50
Species structure of highly productive sea areas
85. Many human activities have been documented to have impacts on marine life
living on the seabed (benthic communities). The adverse effects of mobile bottom -
contacting fishing gear on coastal and shelf benthic communities have been
documented essentially everywhere that such gear has been used. Bottom trawling
has caused the destruction of a number of long -lived cold-water coral and sponge
communities that are unlikely to recover before at least a century. Many reviews
show that, locally, the nature of those impacts and their duration depend on the type
of substrate and frequency of trawling. Those effects hav e been found in all the
regional assessments.51
__________________
47 See chaps. 36A-H.
48 See chaps. 17, 21 and 37.
49 See chaps. 28, 40 and 41.
50 See chap. 11.
51 See chaps. 36A-H, 42, 51 and 52.
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86. With regard to fish and pelagic invertebrate communities, much effort has
been devoted to teasing apart the influences of exploitation and of environmental
conditions as drivers of change in fish populatio ns and communities, but definitive
answers are elusive. Most studies devote attention to explaining variation among
coastal fish-community properties in terms of features of the physical and chemical
habitats (including temperature, salinity, oxygen and nu trient levels, clarity of, and
pollutants in, the water column) and of depth, sediment types, benthic communities,
contaminant levels, oxygen levels and disturbance of the sea floor. All of those
factors have been shown to influence fish -community composition and structure in
at least some coastal areas of each ocean basin.
87. The scale at which a fish-community structure is determined and its variation
is documented can be even more local, because some important drivers of change in
coastal fish communities are themselves very local in scale, such as coastal
infrastructure development. Other obvious patterns are recurrent, such as increasing
mortality rates (whether from exploitation or coastal pollution) leading both to fish
communities with fewer large fish and to an increase in species with naturally high
turnover rates. However, some highly publicized projections of the loss of all
commercial fisheries or of all large predatory fish by the middle of the current
century have not withstood critical revie w.52
C. Food security and food safety
88. Seafood products, including finfish, invertebrates and seaweeds, are a major
component of food security around the world. They are the major source of protein
for a significant fraction of the global population, in particular in countries where
hunger is widespread. Even in the most developed countries, the consumption of
fish is increasing both per capita and in absolute terms, with implications for both
global food security and trade.53
89. Fisheries and aquaculture are a major employer and source of livelihoods in
coastal States. Significant economic and social benefits result from those activities,
including the provision of a key source of subsistence food and much -needed cash
for many of the world’s poorest peoples. As a mainstay of many coastal
communities, fisheries and aquaculture play an important role in the social fabric of
many areas. Small-scale fisheries, particularly those that provide subsistence in
many poor communities, are often partic ularly important. Many such coastal
fisheries are under threat because of overexploitation, conflict with larger fishing
operations and a loss of productivity in coastal ecosystems caused by a variety of
other impacts. Those include habitat loss, pollution and climate change, as well as
the loss of access to space as coastal economies and uses of the sea diversify. 54
Capture fisheries
90. Globally, capture fisheries are near the ocean’s productive capacity, with
catches on the order of 80 million metric tons. Only a few means to increase yield
are available. Addressing sustainability concerns more effectively (including ending
overfishing, eliminating illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing, rebuilding
__________________
52 See chaps. 10, 11, 15, 34, 36A-H and 52.
53 See chap. 10.
54 See chap. 15.
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depleted resources and reducing the broader ecosystem impacts of fisheries and the
adverse impacts of pollution) is an important aspect of improving fishery yields and,
therefore, food security. For example, ending overfishing and rebuilding depleted
resources may result in an increase of as much as 20 p er cent in potential yield,
provided that the transitional costs of rebuilding depleted stocks can be addressed. 55
91. In 2012, more than one quarter of fish stocks worldwide were classified by the
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations as overfished. Although
those stocks will clearly benefit from rebuilding once overfishing has ended, other
stocks may still be categorized as fully exploited despite being on the borderline of
overfishing. Such stocks could yield more if effective governance mechanisms were
in place.
92. Current estimates of the number of overfished stocks do not take into account
the broader effects of fishing on marine ecosystems and their productivity. Those
impacts, including by-catch, habitat modification and effects on the food web,
significantly affect the ocean’s capacity to continue to produce food sustainably and
must be carefully managed. Fish stock propagation may provide a tool to help to
rebuild depleted fishery resources in some instances. 56
93. Fishing efforts are subsidized by many mechanisms around the world, and
many of those subsidies undermine the net economic benefits to States. Subsidies
that encourage overcapacity and overfishing result in losses for States, and those
losses are often borne by communitie s dependent on fishery resources for their
livelihood and food security.57
Aquaculture
94. Aquaculture production, including seaweed culture, is increasing more rapidly
than any other source of food production in the world. Such growth is expected to
continue. Aquaculture, not including the culture of seaweeds, now provides half of
the fish products covered in global statistics. Aquaculture and capture fisheries are
codependent in some ways, as feed for cultured fish is in part provided by capture
fisheries, but they are competitors for space in coastal areas, markets and,
potentially, other resources. Significant progress has been made in replacing feed
sources from capture fisheries with agricultural production. Aquaculture itself poses
some environmental challenges, including potential pollution, competition with wild
fishery resources, potential contamination of gene pools, disease problems and loss
of habitat. Examples of those challenges, and measures that can mitigate them, have
been observed worldwide.58
Social issues
95. In both capture fisheries and aquaculture, gender and other equity issues arise.
A significant number of women are employed in both types of activities, either
directly or in related activities along the value chain. Women are p articularly
prominent in product processing, but often their labour is not equitably compensated
and working conditions do not meet basic standards. Poor communities are often
__________________
55 See chaps. 11, 13, 36A-H and 52.
56 See chap. 13.
57 See chap. 15.
58 See chap. 12.
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subject to poorer market access, unsafe working conditions and other inequitable
practices.59
Food safety
96. Food safety is a key worldwide challenge for all food production and delivery
sectors, including all parts of the seafood industry, from capture or culture to retail
marketing. That challenge is of course also faced by subsistence fisheries. In the
food chain for fishery products, potential problems need to be assessed, managed
and communicated to ensure that they can be addressed. The goal of most food
safety systems is to avoid risk and prevent problems at the source. The risks come
from contamination from pathogens (particularly from discharges of untreated
sewage and animal waste) and toxins (often from algal blooms). The severity of the
risk also depends on individual health, consumption levels and susceptibility. Th ere
are international guidelines to address those risks but substantial resources are
required in order to continue to build the capacity to implement and monitor safety
protocols from the water to the consumer.
D. Patterns of biodiversity
97. A basic, but key, conclusion of the present assessment is that there are clear
patterns of biodiversity, both globally and regionally. A key question is whether
there are consistent large-scale patterns of biodiversity, governed by underlying
factors that constrain the distribution of the wide range of marine life across the
wide variety of habitats. Global-scale studies to explore this question began long
ago and have grown substantially in the past decade. The enormous amounts of data
collected and compiled by the Census of Marine Life enable exploration and the
mapping of patterns across more taxonomic groups than ever before, thus
facilitating an understanding of the consistency of patterns of biodiversity.
98. Perhaps the most common large-scale biodiversity pattern on the planet is the
“latitudinal gradient”, typically expressed as a decline in the variety of species from
the equator to the poles. Adherence to that pattern varies among marine taxa.
Although coastal species generally peak in abundance near the equator and decline
towards the poles, seals show the opposite pattern. Furthermore, strong longitudinal
gradients (east-west) complicate patterns, with hotspots of biodiversity across
multiple species groups in the coral triangle of the Indo -Pacific, in the Caribbean
and elsewhere.
99. Oceanic organisms, such as whales, differ in pattern entirely, with species
numbers consistently peaking at mid-latitudes between the equator and the poles.
This pattern defies the common equator -pole gradient, suggesting that different
factors are at play. Various processes may also control the difference in species
richness between the oceanic and coastal environments (for example, in terms of
dispersal, mobility or habitat structure), but general patterns appear to be rea sonably
consistent within each group.
100. However, across all groups studied, ocean temperature is consistently related
to species diversity, making the effects of climate change likely to be felt as a
restructuring factor of marine community diversity.
__________________
59 See chap. 15.
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101. Although the patterns above hold for the species studied, numerous groups and
regions have not yet been examined. For example, global -scale patterns of diversity
in the deep sea remain largely unknown. Knowledge of diversity and distribution is
biased towards large, charismatic species (for example, whales) or economically
valuable species (for example, tuna). Our knowledge of patterns in microbial
organisms remains particularly limited relative to the considerable biodiversity of
those species. Enormo us challenges remain even to measure this. Viruses remain
another critical part of the oceanic system of which we lack any global -scale
biodiversity knowledge.
102. Patterns of global marine biodiversity, other than species richness, are only
just beginning to be explored. For example, investigations suggest that, globally, the
higher the latitude at which a reef is located, the greater the evenness in the number
of individuals of each species tend to be in that reef. Such a pattern, in turn, affects
functional richness, which relates to the diversity of function in reef fish, a
potentially important component of ecosystem productivity, resilience and provision
of goods and services.60
Implications
Location of biodiversity hotspots and their relationsh ip to the location of high
levels of ecosystem services
103. Although marine life is found everywhere in the ocean, biodiversity hotspots
exist where the number of species and the concentration of biotas are consistently
high relative to adjacent areas. Some are subregional, such as the coral triangle in
the Indo-Pacific, the coral reefs in the Caribbean, the cold -water corals in the
Mediterranean and the Sargasso Sea. Some are more local and associated with
specific physical conditions, such as biodiversi ty-rich habitat types. Key drivers of
biodiversity are complex three-dimensional physical structures that create a
diversity of physical habitats (associated with rocky sea floors), dynamic
oceanographic conditions causing higher bottom-up productivity, effects of landbased
inputs extending far out to sea (such as the inputs from the River Amazon)
and special vegetation features creating unique and productive habitats near the
shore. Those complex habitats, however, are often highly vulnerable to disturban ce.
104. The high relative and absolute biodiversity of those hotspots often directly
supports the extractive benefits of fishing and other harvests, providing a direct link
between biodiversity and the provision of services by the ocean. The areas
supporting high relative and absolute levels of biodiversity not only harbour unique
species adapted to their special features, but also often serve as centres for essential
life-history stages of species with wider distributions. For example, essentially all
the biodiversity hotspots that have been identified have also been found to harbour
juvenile fish, which are important for fisheries in adjacent areas.
105. Hotspots for primary productivity are necessarily also hotspots for production
of oxygen as a direct result of photosynthesis. Furthermore, underlying the high
biodiversity is often a high structural complexity of the habitats that support it. That
structure often contributes other services, such as coastal protection and
regeneration. In addition, it is t he concentrated presence of iconic species in an area
__________________
60 See chaps. 34, 35 and 36A-H.
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which adds to aesthetic services (supporting tourism and recreation) and spiritual
and cultural services.61
Biodiversity and economic activity
106. Sometimes, because of the special physical features that contribute to high
biodiversity, and sometimes because of the concentration of biodiversity itself,
many societies and industries are most active in areas that are also biodiversity
hotspots. As on land, humanity has found the greatest social and eco nomic benefits
in the places in the ocean that are highly productive and structurally complex. For
example, 22 of the 32 largest cities in the world are located on estuaries; mangroves
and coral reefs support small-scale (artisanal) fisheries in developing countries.
Biodiversity hotspots tend to attract human uses and become socioeconomic
hotspots. Hence biodiversity-rich areas have a disproportionately high
representation of ports and coastal infrastructure, other intensive coastal land uses,
fishing activities and aquaculture. This is one of the major challenges to the
sustainable use of marine biodiversity. 62
107. Some marine features, such as seamounts, often found in areas beyond
national jurisdiction, have high levels of biodiversity, frequently charac terized by
the presence of many species not found elsewhere. Significant numbers of the
species mature late, and therefore reproduce slowly. High levels of fishing have
rapidly undermined the biodiversity of many such features, and risk continuing to
do so in the absence of careful management. 63
108. New forms of economic activity in the open ocean, such as seabed mining, and
the expansion of existing forms of activity, such as hydrocarbon extraction, have the
potential to have major impacts on its biodivers ity, which is to date poorly known.
Without careful management of those activities, there is a risk that the biodiversity
of areas affected could be destroyed before it is properly understood. 64
E. Increased use of ocean space
109. The world is seeing a greatly intensified use of ocean space. Since around the
middle of the nineteenth century, there has been a great growth in the range of
human activities in the ocean, each demanding its share of ocean space. At the same
time, and in consequence, the reg ulation of activities in the ocean has increased. In a
campaign to draw attention to this, the fishermen of the Netherlands coined the
slogan “Fishing on a postage stamp”, arguing that, by the time that all the other uses
of the exclusive economic zone of the Netherlands (shipping lanes, offshore oil and
gas extraction, sand and gravel extraction, dumping of dredged material, offshore
wind-power installations, submarine cables and pipelines, etc.) had been allocated
their spaces, not much space was left for their traditional fishing activities. Whether
or not their activities were actually restricted, their slogan drew attention to a
challenge faced all around the world as increasing demands are made for space for
ocean-based activities.
__________________
61 See chaps. 8, 34, 36A-H and 52.
62 See chaps. 26, 34 and 36A-H.
63 See chaps. 36F and 51.
64 See chaps. 21-23 and 36F.
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110. Not all the uses of ocean space within national jurisdictions have the same
implications. Some uses effectively exclude most other concurrent uses, for example
where fishing rights for benthic species (such as oysters) in areas of national
jurisdiction have been allocated to individual proprietors, where tourism would be
hampered by other developments or where “no -take” marine protected areas have
been created. Others may have a global distribution, but may have a lesser impact,
such as shipping lanes and submarine cables. Yet others have, at least so far, only
localized impacts, usually determined by the availability of some local resource.
Those are likely to be intensive, limiting other uses in the areas where they occur,
for example aquaculture, offshore oil and gas ex traction, sand and gravel extraction
and offshore wind-power installations.
111. Those differing implications of the developments in human uses of the ocean
are important for policy decisions on how, and at what level (national, regional,
global), activities should be best managed.65
Increased coastal population and urbanization (including tourism)
112. A large proportion of humans live in the coastal zone: 38 per cent of the
world’s population live within 100 km of the shore, 44 per cent within 150 km,
50 per cent within 200 km, and 67 per cent within 400 km. This proportion is
steadily increasing. Consequently, there are growing demands for land in the coastal
zone. Land reclamation has therefore been taking place on a large scale in many
countries, particularly by reclaiming salt marshes, intertidal flats and mangroves. At
the same time, where coastal land is threatened by erosion, large stretches of natural
coastline have been replaced by “armoured”, artificial coastal structures. Those can
significantly affect coastal currents and the ability of marine biotas to use the coast
as part of their habitat. Tourist developments have also significantly increased the
lengths of artificial coastline. Changes in river management, such as the
construction of dams, and the building of coastal infrastructures, such as ports, can
significantly change the sedimentation pattern along coasts. Such changes can
increase coastal erosion and promote other coastal changes, sometimes with the
effect that coastal land is lost for its current use, producing demands for
replacement space.66
Aquaculture and marine ranching
113. Increases in aquaculture, which is growing rapidly, and in marine ranching,
which has substantial growth potential, require extensive ocean space as well as
clean waters and, often, the dedicated use of an unpolluted seabed. Those
requirements can result in conflicts with other uses, including, in some cases, the
aesthetic or cultural values of sea areas. Similar demands for ocean space are also
made by industries concerned with the production of cultural goods, such as pearls.
Problems will result if management of such expansion is not integrated with that of
other sectors.
Shipping routes and ports
114. World shipping has been growing consistently for the past three decades.
Between 1980 and 2013, the annual tonnage carried in the five main shipping trades
__________________
65 See chaps. 12, 17, 19, 21-24 and 28.
66 See chaps. 18, 26, 28, 48 and 49.
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increased by 158 per cent. Although the use of ocean space by a ship is not
continuous, on the more densely trafficked routes, shipping lanes ca nnot be used
safely for other activities, even where those activities themselves are intermittent.
Some of the ranges of the largest populations of seabirds in the northern hemisphere
are intersected by major shipping routes, with consequent risk of distur bance to the
wildlife and mortality from chronic or catastrophic oil and other spills.
115. The fundamental change in general cargo shipping (from loose bulk to
containerized) has also produced a total change in the nature of the ports that act as
terminals for that traffic, as large areas of flat land are needed for handling
containers, both on departure and arrival. That land has, in many cases, been
provided by means of land reclamation. As shipping traffic continues to grow,
further substantial areas of land will be required. Dredging to create ports and to
maintain navigation channels produces large amounts of dredged material that has
to be disposed of. Most of that material is dumped at sea, where it smothers any
biota on the seabed.67
Submarine cables and pipelines
116. The vital role that submarine cables now play in all forms of communication
through the Internet — whether for academic, commercial, governmental or
recreational purposes — means that there will continue to be a demand for more
capacity, and hence for more submarine cables. Although submarine cables (and any
protective corridors around them) cover only very narrow strips of seabed, they
introduce a line break across the seabed that prevents other activities from spreading
across it. Submarine cables will therefore continue to neutralize increasing segments
of the seabed for any purpose that impinges on the seabed. Submarine pipelines are
unlikely ever to venture into the open -ocean areas where many submarine cables
have to be laid, but they have a growing role for transporting oil and gas through
coastal zones and between continents and their adjacent islands. In some ways,
therefore, their increased demand for seabed space is likely to be in areas where
there are demands from other uses.68
Offshore hydrocarbon industries
117. The growth of the offshore oil and gas industry has increased the demand by
that sector for access to ocean space within areas under national jurisdiction
(including space for pipelines to bring the hydrocar bon products ashore). More than
620,000 km² (almost 9 per cent) of the exclusive economic zone (EEZ) of Australia
is subject to oil and gas leases. In the United States, about 550,000 km ² of the whole
EEZ is subject to current oil and gas leases, including 470,000 km² in the Gulf of
Mexico, representing 66 per cent of the EEZ of the United States in that area. When
such significant proportions of the ocean areas under national jurisdiction are thus
subject to such prior claims, overlaps in sectoral interest s become inevitable.
Offshore mining
118. Offshore mining is currently confined to shallow -water coastal regions,
although growing exploration activity is focused on deep -sea minerals. About 75 per
cent of the world’s tin, 11 per cent of gold, and 13 p er cent of platinum are extracted
__________________
67 See chaps. 17 and 18.
68 See chap. 19.
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from the placer deposits near the surface of the coastal seabed, where they have
been concentrated by waves and currents. Diamonds are also an important mining
target. Aggregates (sand, coral, gravel and seashells) are als o important: the United
Kingdom, the world’s largest producer of marine aggregates, currently extracts
approximately 20 million tons of marine aggregate per year, meeting around 20 per
cent of its demand. Those activities are all concentrated in coastal wa ters, where
other demands for space are high. Deep -water deposits that have generated
continuing interest, but are not currently mined, include ferromanganese nodules
and crusts, polymetallic sulphides, phosphorites, and methane hydrates. Demands
for deep-sea space are likely to develop in the future. 69
Offshore renewable energy
119. Offshore renewable energy generation is still in its early stages, although
substantial offshore wind farms have been installed in some parts of the world. Most
forms of marine-based renewable energy require ocean space, and wind farms
already cover significant areas in the coastal North Sea. Wave and tidal energy will
make equal, if not larger, demands. The location of wind, wave and tidal
installations can have significant effects on marine biotas. Special care is needed in
siting installations that can affect migration routes or feeding, breeding or nursery
areas. This is therefore a field in which the requirements of the new energy sources
for ocean space could be important competitors with other, longer-established uses
or with the need to conserve marine biodiversity. 70
Fishery management areas
120. Capture fisheries have a very long history, predating newer ocean uses, such as
aquaculture, offshore energy infrastructu re, submarine cables, pipelines or tourism.
The fishermen exploiting those long-practised fisheries usually have a feeling of
“ownership”, even though they rarely have had any established legal rights to
exclude others from their customary fishing grounds. There is a growing trend,
however, as part of fishery management within national jurisdictions, for fishing
enterprises or fishing communities (including indigenous fishing communities) to be
recognized as having some form of rights to fish to a defined e xtent in a defined
area. Those benefiting from such rights frequently see constraints on fishing from
other activities in those defined areas as invasions of what they consider as
entitlements. This is the “front line” of conflicts in uses. If it is not di rectly
addressed, some ocean uses will find it difficult to thrive. 71
Marine protected areas
121. The Plan of Implementation of the World Summit on Sustainable Development
(Johannesburg Plan of Implementation), 72 adopted in 2002, called for the
implementation of marine protected areas. Although a marine protected area does
not necessarily imply an area in which all human activities are excluded, in many
cases it does imply that some, or most, such activities will be at least controlled or
__________________
69 See chap. 22.
70 See chap. 23.
71 See chaps. 11 and 15.
72 Report of the World Summit on Sustainable Development, Johannesburg, South Africa,
26 August-4 September 2002 (United Nations publication, Sales No. E.03.II.A.1 and
corrigendum), chap. I, resolution 2, annex, para. 32 (c).
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regulated. The commitment made by many States to a target for such protected areas
of at least 10 per cent of the areas under their jurisdiction 73 will be a factor in future
use of ocean space, given that, at present, marine protected areas represent a much
smaller part of the ocean area under national jurisdiction.
Implications of demands for ocean space
122. That long list of types of human activity shows there are simply too many
demands for all to be accommodated in a way that will not constrain some aspect of
their operation. The allocation of ocean space is a much more complex task than
that of land-use planning onshore. In the first place, the ocean is three -dimensional.
Some uses can be in the same area but vertically separated, thus ships, for example,
can pass over submarine cables without any problem, except in shallow water.
Secondly, some uses are transient: ships and fishing vessels in particular pass and
repass, and other uses may take place in the intervals between them. Thirdly, there
is no general tradition of permanent rights of private ownership, even in areas under
national jurisdiction. However, the more intense the shipping or fishing, the more
difficult it is for other uses to be accommodated. Developing effective ways of
organizing the allocation of ocean space is not an easy task, given the wide range of
interests that need to be considered and reconciled.
F. Increasing inputs of harmful material
Land-based inputs
123. The agricultural and industrial achievements of the past two centuries in
feeding, clothing and housing the world’s population have been at the price of
seriously degrading important parts of the planet, including much of the marine
environment, especially near the coast. Urban growth, unaccompanied in much of
the world by adequate disposal of human bodily wastes, has also imposed major
pressures on the ocean. Land-based inputs to the ocean have thus contributed much
to the degradation of the marine environment. The Global Programme of Action for
the Protection of the Marine Environment from Land -based Activities of 1995
highlighted the need for action to deal with sewage (including industrial wastes that
are mixed with human bodily wastes) in developing countries. Although much has
been done to implement national plans adopted under the Programme, particularly
in South America, the lack of sewage systems and wastewater treatment plants is
still a major threat to the ocean. This is particularly the case for very large urban
settlements.74
124. Several aspects have to be considered in relation to the increasing inputs of
harmful material from the land into the ocean.
Heavy metals and other hazardous substances
125. From the point of view of industrial development, many industrial processes
have brought with them serious environmental damage, especially when the
concentration of industries have led to intense levels of inputs to the sea of wastes
__________________
73 See United Nations Environment Programme , document UNEP/CBD/COP/10/27, annex,
decision X/2, sect. IV, target 11.
74 See chap. 20.
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which could not be assimilated. That damage is largely caused by heavy metals
(especially lead, mercury, copper and zinc). With the development of organic
chemistry, new substances have been created to provide important services in
managing electricity (for example, polychlorinated biphenyls) and as pesticides.
Chlorine has also been widely used in many industrial processes (such as pulp and
paper production), producing hazardous by-products. Many of those chemical
products and processes have proved to have a wide range of hazardous side -effects.
126. There are also problems from imperfectly controlled incineration, which can
produce polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and, where plastics are involved, dioxins
and furans. All those substances have adverse effects on the marine environment. As
well as the long-known hazardous substances, there is evidence that some
substances (often called endocrine disruptors), which do not reach the levels of
toxicity, persistence and bioaccumulatio n75 in the accepted definitions of hazardous
substances, can disrupt the endocrine systems of humans and animals, with adverse
effects on their reproductive success. Action is already being taken on several of
those, but more testing is needed to clarify whet her action is needed on others.
127. Over time, steps have been taken to reduce or, where possible, eliminate many
of the impacts of heavy metals and hazardous substances. In some parts of the
world, the efforts of the past 40 years have been successful, and concentrations in
the ocean of many of the most seriously damaging heavy metals and other
hazardous substances are now diminishing, for example in the North -East Atlantic,
even though problems persist in some local areas. New technologies and processes
have also been widely developed that have the ability to avoid those problems, but
there are gaps in the capacities to apply those newer processes, often because of the
costs involved.
128. The differential growth in industrial production between countrie s bordering
the North Atlantic, on the one hand, and those bordering the South Atlantic, the
Indian Ocean and the Pacific, on the other hand, means that much of that growth is
now taking place in parts of the world that had not previously had to deal with
industrial discharges on the current scale. In the past, industrial production had been
dominated by the countries around the North Atlantic basin and its adjacent seas, as
well as Japan. Over the past 25 years, the rapid growth of industries along the res t
of the western Pacific rim and around the Indian Ocean has dramatically changed
that situation. The world’s industrial production and the associated waste discharges
are rapidly growing in the South Atlantic, the Indian Ocean and the western Pacific.
Even if the best practicable means are used to deal with heavy metals and hazardous
substances in the waste streams from those growing industries, the growth in output
and consequent discharges will increase the inputs of heavy metals and other
hazardous substances into the ocean. It is therefore urgent to apply new
less-polluting technologies, where they exist, and means of removing heavy metals
and other hazardous substances from discharges, if the level of contamination of the
ocean, particularly in coastal areas, is not to increase.
129. Frameworks have also emerged at the international level for addressing some
of the problems caused by heavy metals and hazardous substances. In particular, the
Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants 76 and the Minamata
__________________
75 Bioaccumulation is the process whereby substances are ingested by animals and other organisms,
but not broken down or excreted, and thus build up in their bodies.
76 United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 2256, No. 40214.
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Convention on Mercury77 provide agreed international frameworks for the States
party to them to address the issues that they cover. Implementing them, however,
will require much capacity-building.78
Oil
130. Although pollution from oil and other hydrocarbons is most obviously linked
to offshore production and their maritime transport, substantial inputs of
hydrocarbons occur from land-based sources, particularly oil refineries. In some
parts of the world, it has proved possible to reduce such pr essures on the marine
environment substantially.79
Agricultural inputs
131. The agricultural revolution of the last part of the twentieth century, which has
largely enabled the world to feed its rapidly growing population, has also brought
with it problems for the ocean in the form of enhanced run -off of both agricultural
nutrients and pesticides, as well as the airborne and waterborne inputs of nutrients
from waste from agricultural stock. In the case of fertilizers, their use is rapidly
growing in parts of the world where only limited use had occurred in the past. That
growth has the potential to lead to increased nutrient run -off to the ocean if the
increased use of fertilizers is not managed well. There are therefore challenges in
educating farmers, promoting good husbandry practices that cause less nutrient run -
off and monitoring what is happening to agricultural run -off alongside sewage
discharges. In the case of pesticides, the issues are analogous to those of industrial
development. Newer pesticides are less polluting than older ones, but there are gaps
in the capacity to ensure that these less-polluting pesticides are used, in terms of
educating farmers, enabling them to afford the newer pesticides, supervising the
distribution systems and monitoring what is happening in the ocean.
Eutrophication
132. Eutrophication resulting from excess inputs of nutrients from both agriculture
and sewage causes algal blooms. Those can generate toxins that can make fish and
other seafood unfit for human consumption. Algal blooms can also lead to anoxic
areas (i.e. dead zones) and hypoxic zones. Such zones have serious consequences
from environmental, economic and social aspects. The anoxic and hypoxic zones
drive fish away and kill the benthic wildlife. Where those zones are seasonal, any
regeneration that happens is usually at a lower tr ophic level, and the ecosystems are
therefore degraded. This seriously affects the maritime economy, both for fishermen
and, where tourism depends on the attractiveness of the ecosystem (for example,
around coral reefs), for the tourist industry. Social co nsequences are then easy to
see, both through the economic effects on the fishing and tourist industries and in
depriving the local human populations of food. 80
__________________
77 United Nations Environment Programme, document UNEP(DTIE)/Hg/CONF/4, annex II.
78 See chap. 20.
79 See chap. 20.
80 See chap. 20.
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Radioactive substances
133. In the case of radioactive discharges into the ocean, there have been, in the
past, human activities that have given rise to concern, but responses to those
concerns, and the actions taken, have largely removed the underlying problems,
even though there is a continuing task to monitor what is happening to radioactivity
in the ocean. In particular, the ending of atmospheric tests of nuclear weapons and,
more recently, the improvements made in the controls on discharges from nuclear
reprocessing plants have ended or reduced the main sources of concern. What
remains is the risk voiced in the Global Programme of Action that public reaction to
concerns about marine radioactivity could result in the rejection of fish as a food
source, with consequent harm to countries that have a large fishery sector and
damage to the world’s ability to use the important food resources provided by the
marine environment.81
Solid waste disposal
134. The dumping of waste at sea was the first activity capable of causing marine
pollution to be brought under global regulation, in the form of the Convention on
the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter, 1972 82
(the London Convention), regulating the dumping of wastes and other matter at sea
from ships, aircraft and man-made structures. The controls under that agreement
have been progressively strengthened, particularly in the 1996 Protocol to the
Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other
Matter, 197283 which introduced the approach of a total ban on dumping, subject to
limited exemptions. If the Convention or the Protocol were effectively and
consistently implemented, that source of inputs of harmful substances would be
satisfactorily controlled. However, there are gaps in knowledge about their
implementation. Over half of the States p arty to the London Convention and the
Protocol thereto do not submit reports on dumping under their control. This may
mean that there is no such dumping, but it may also mean that the picture presented
by the reports that are submitted is incomplete. Some of the world’s largest
economies have not become party to either agreement, and nothing is known of
what is happening with respect to dumping under their control. The reported
dumping is very largely of dredged material, most of it from the creation or
maintenance of ports. Clear guidance under the London Convention lays down the
conditions under which that material may be dumped. To the extent that that
guidance is followed, there should be no significant impact on the marine
environment, except for the smothering of the seabed, and to the extent that the
dump sites are in areas with dynamic tidal activity, even that impact will be limited.
There is also some evidence that illegal dumping is taking place, including that of
radioactive waste, but complete pr oof of this has not been obtained.84
Marine debris
135. Marine debris is present in all marine habitats, from densely populated regions
to remote points far from human activities, from beaches and shallow waters to the
__________________
81 See chap. 20.
82 United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 1046, No. 15749.
83 International Maritime Organization, document IMO/LC.2/Circ.380.
84 See chap. 24.
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deepest ocean trenches. It has been estimated that the average density of marine
debris varies between 13,000 and 18,000 pieces per square kilometre. However, data
on plastic accumulation in the North Atlantic and Caribbean from 1986 to 2008
showed that the highest concentrations (more tha n 200,000 pieces per square
kilometre) occurred in the convergence zones between two or more ocean currents.
Computer model simulations, based on data from about 12,000 satellite -tracked
floats deployed since the early 1990s as part of the Global Ocean Dri fter Program,
confirm that debris will be transported by ocean currents and will tend to
accumulate in a limited number of subtropical convergence zones or gyres.
136. Plastics are by far the most prevalent debris item recorded, contributing an
estimated 60 to 80 per cent of all marine debris. Plastic debris continues to
accumulate in the marine environment. The density of microplastics within the
North Pacific Central Gyre has increased by two orders of magnitude in the past
four decades. Marine debris commonly stems from shoreline and recreational
activities, commercial shipping and fishing, and dumping at sea. The majority of
marine debris (approximately 80 per cent) entering the sea is considered to originate
from land-based sources.85
137. Nanoparticles are a form of marine debris, the significance of which is
emerging only now. They are minuscule particles with dimensions of 1 to
100 nanometres (a nanometre is one millionth of a millimetre). A large proportion of
the nanoparticles found in the ocean are of natural origin. It is the anthropogenic
nanoparticles that are of concern. Those come from two sources: on the one hand,
from the use of nanoparticles created for use in various industrial processes and
cosmetics and, on the other hand, from the breakd own of plastics in marine debris,
from fragments of artificial fabrics discharged in urban wastewater, and from
leaching from land-based waste sites. Recent scientific research has highlighted the
potential environmental impacts of plastic nanoparticles: t hey appear to reduce the
primary production and the uptake of food by zooplankton and filter -feeders.
Nanoparticles of titanium dioxide, which is widely used in paints and metal coatings
and in cosmetics, are of particular concern. When nanoparticles of ti tanium dioxide
are exposed to ultraviolet radiation from the sun, they transform into a disinfectant
and have been shown to kill phytoplankton, which are the basis of primary
production. The scale of the threats from nanoparticles is unknown, and further
research is required.86
Shipping
138. Pollution from ships takes the form of both catastrophic events (shipwrecks,
collisions and groundings) and chronic pollution from regular operational
discharges. Good progress has been made over the past 40 years in reducing both.
There have been large increases in the global tonnage of cargo carried by sea and in
the distances over which those cargoes are carried. There have also been steady
increases in the number of passengers carried on cruise ships and ferries. In spite of
this, the absolute number of ship losses has steadily decreased. Between 2002 and
2013, the number of losses of ships of over 1,000 gross tonnage thus dropped by
45 per cent to 94. This is largely due to efforts under the three main internation al
maritime safety conventions: the International Convention on the Safety of Life at
__________________
85 See chap. 25.
86 See chaps. 6 and 25.
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Sea,87 dealing with ship construction and navigation, the International Convention
on Standards of Training, Certification and Watchkeeping for Seafarers, 1978, 88
dealing with crew, and the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution
from Ships (MARPOL).
139. Pollution from oil has been the most significant type of marine pollution from
ships. The number of spills exceeding 7 tons has dropped steadily, in spite of the
growth in the quantity carried and the length of voyages, from over 100 spills in
1974 to under five in 2012. The total quantity of oil released in those spills has also
been reduced by an even greater factor. Progress has also been made in improvin g
response capabilities, though much remains to be done, especially as coastal States
have to bear the capital cost of acquiring the necessary equipment. Reductions in oil
pollution have resulted from more effective enforcement of the MARPOL
requirements, particularly in western Europe. The changes in arrangements for
reparation for any damage caused by oil pollution from ships have improved the
economic position of those affected.
140. In spite of all that progress, oil discharges from ships remain an env ironmental
problem, for example, around the southern tip of Africa and in the North -West
Atlantic. Off the coast of Argentina, however, a solution to the impact of those
discharges on penguin colonies seems to have been found by rerouting coastal
shipping. The likely opening of shipping routes through the Arctic between the
Atlantic and the Pacific risks introducing that form of pollution into a sea area
where response infrastructure is lacking, oil recovery in freezing conditions is
difficult and the icy water temperature inhibits the microbial breakdown of the oil. 89
141. Pollution from cargoes of hazardous and noxious substances appears to be a
much smaller problem, even though there are clearly problems with misdescriptions
of the contents of containers. Losses of containers, however, appear to be relatively
small: in 2011, the losses were estimated at 650 containers out of about 100 million
carried in that year.
142. Sewage pollution from ships is mainly a problem with cruise ships: with up to
7,000 passengers and crew, they are the equivalent of a small town and can
contribute to local eutrophication problems. The local conditions around the ship are
significant for the impact of any sewage discharges. The increased requirements
under MARPOL on the discharges of ship sewage near the shore are likely to reduce
the problems, but the identification of the cases where ships have contributed to
eutrophication problems will remain difficult.
143. The dumping of garbage from ships is a serious element of the prob lem of
marine debris. In 2013, new, more stringent controls under MARPOL came into
force. Steps are being taken to improve the enforcement of those requirements. For
example, the World Bank has helped several small Caribbean States to set up port
waste-reception facilities, which has made it possible for the Wider Caribbean to be
declared a special area under annex V of the Convention, under which stricter
requirements apply. Other States (for example the Member States of the European
Union) have introduced requirements for the delivery of waste ashore before a ship
leaves port and have removed economic incentives to avoid doing so. It is, however,
__________________
87 United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 1184, No. 18961.
88 United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 1361, No. 23001.
89 See chap. 17.
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too early to judge how far those various developments have succeeded in reducing
the problem.90
Offshore hydrocarbon industries
144. Major disasters in the offshore oil and gas industry have a global, historical
recurrence of one about every 17 years. The most recent is the Deepwater Horizon
blowout of 2010, which spilled 4.4 million barrels (about 600,000 tons) of oil into
the Gulf of Mexico. The other main harmful inputs from that sector are drilling
cuttings (contaminated with drilling muds) resulting from the drilling of exploration
and production wells, “produced water” (the water contaminated with hydrocarb ons
that comes up from wells, either of natural origin or through having been injected to
enhance hydrocarbon recovery), and various chemicals that are used and discharged
offshore in the course of exploration and exploitation.
145. Those materials can be harmful to marine life under certain circumstances.
However, it is possible to take precautions to avoid such harm, for example by
prohibiting the use of the most harmful drilling muds, by limiting the proportion of
oil in the produced water that is disch arged or by controlling which chemicals can
be used offshore. Such regulation has been successfully introduced in a number of
jurisdictions. Nonetheless, given the growth in exploration and offshore production,
there is no doubt that those inputs are incre asing over time, even though exact
figures are not available globally. Produced water, in particular, increases in
quantity with the age of the field being exploited. 91
Offshore mining
146. The environmental impacts of near-shore mining are similar to those of
dredging operations. They include the destruction of the benthic environment,
increased turbidity, changes in hydrodynamic processes, underwater noise and the
potential for marine fauna to collide with vessels or become entangled in operating
gear.92
Implications for human well-being and biodiversity
Human health, food security and food safety
147. Marine biotas are under many different pressures from hazardous substances
on reproductive success. Dead zones and low-oxygen zones resulting from
eutrophication and climate change can lead to systematic changes in the species
structure at established fishing grounds. Either can reduce the extent to which fish
and other species used as seafood will continue to reproduce at their historical rates.
When those effects are combined with those of excessive fishing on specific stocks,
there are risks that the traditional levels of the provision of food from the sea will
not be maintained.
148. In addition, heavy metals and other hazardous substances repres ent a direct
threat to human health, particularly through the ingestion of contaminated food from
the sea. The episode of mercury poisoning at Minamata, in Japan, is probably the
most widely known event of that kind, and the reason why the global conventio n to
__________________
90 See chaps. 17 and 25.
91 See chap. 21.
92 See chap. 23.
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address such problems is named after the town. There are places around the world
where local action has been taken to prevent or discourage the consumption of
contaminated fish and other seafood. In other places, monitoring suggests that levels
of contamination dangerous for human health are being reached. In yet other places,
there are inadequate monitoring systems to check on risks of that kind. Ensuring
linkages between adequate systems for controlling the discharge and emissions of
hazardous substances and the systems for controlling the quality of fish and other
seafood available for human consumption is therefore an important issue. In the
case of subsistence fishing, the most effective approach is to ensure that
contamination does not occur in the first place.
149. The lack of proper management of wastewater and human bodily wastes
causes problems for human health, both directly through contact with water
containing pathogens and through bacteriological contamination of food from the
sea, and indirectly by creating the conditions in which algal blooms can produce
toxins that infect seafood. Those problems are particularly significant in and near
large and growing conurbations without proper sewage treatment systems, such as
found in many places in developing countries.93
Impacts on marine biodiversity
150. Part of the standard definition of hazardous substances in the context of
marine pollution is that they are bioaccumulative — that is, once they are taken into
an organism, they are not broken down or expelled, and continue to accumulate in
it. Because of that characteristic, they also are accumulated more in the higher
levels of the food web. As creatures at the lower levels are eaten by those at higher
levels, the hazardous substances in the former are retained and accumulated by the
latter. Some of those substances affect the reproductive success of the biota in which
they have accumulated. There are also some effects on immune systems, with the
result that individuals and populations become less resistant to outbreaks of disease.
The deaths of many seals in the North -East Atlantic in the 1990s from the phocine
distemper virus have thus been linked to impaired immune systems. Likewise,
improvements in a fish-health index in the same area in the 2000s have been
attributed to reductions in the local concentrations of various hazardous substances.
151. The combined effects of hazardous substances, marine debris, oil and
eutrophication (including the large and growing number of dead zones) resultin g
from the input of harmful material, waste and excessive amounts of nutrients into
the ocean therefore represent a significant pressure on marine biodiversity. 94
G. Cumulative impacts of human activities on marine biodiversity
152. When the many pressures described above, from fishing and other types of
marine harvesting to demand for ocean space and inputs of harmful materials, are
brought together, the result is a complex but dangerous mix of threats to marine
biodiversity. To those threats must be added several other significant factors. Those
arise from a number of separate sources, including noise from ships and seismic
exploration and the introduction of competing non -native species by aquaculture
__________________
93 See chaps. 4-6, 10-12, 15 and 20.
94 See chaps. 4-6, 20, 21, 25, 36A-H and 52.
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and long-distance shipping (and their further distribution by recreational boats).
Taken altogether, those factors represent a massive set of pressures on marine
biodiversity.95
Implications for marine biodiversity
153. Such cumulative impacts of human uses are reported in all the regional
biodiversity assessments in part VI of the present assessment. There are indeed
well-documented examples of cases where habitats, lower -trophic-level
productivity, benthic communities, fish communities and seabird or marine mammal
populations have been severely altered by pressures from a specific activity or
factors (such as overfishing, pollution, nutrient loading, physical disturbance or the
introduction of non-native species). However, many impacts on biodiversity,
particularly at larger scales, are the result of the cumulative and interactive effects
of multiple pressures from multiple drivers. It has repeatedly proved difficult to
disentangle the effects of the individual pressures, which impedes the ability to
address the individual causes.96
154. Even in the Arctic Ocean, where human settlements are relatively few and
small, the potentially synergistic effects of multiple stressors come together.
Furthermore, those stressors operate against a background of pressures from a
changing climate and increasing huma n maritime activity, primarily related to
hydrocarbon and mineral development and to the opening of shipping routes. Those
changes bring risks of direct mortality, displacement from critical habitats, noise
disturbance and increased exposure to hunting, wh ich are superimposed on high
levels of contaminants, notably organochlorines and heavy metals, as a result of the
presence of those substances in the Arctic food web. 97
155. In the open ocean (remote from land -based inputs), shifts in bottom-up forcing
(that is, primary productivity) and competitive or top -down forcing (that is, by large
predators) will also produce complex and indirect effects on ecosystem services.
The stress imposed by low oxygen, low pH (that is, higher acidity) or elevated
temperatures can reduce the resilience of individual species and ecosystems through
shifts in organism tolerance and community interactions. Where this happens, it
retards recovery from disturbances caused by human activities, such as oil spills,
trawling and (potentially in the future) seabed mining. Slower growth of carbonate
skeletons due to increased ocean acidification, delayed development under hypoxic
conditions and increased respiratory demands with declining food availability
illustrate how climate change could exacerbate anthropogenic impacts and
compromise deep-sea ecosystem structures and functions, and ultimately its benefits
to human welfare.98
156. Those multiple pressures interact in ways that are poorly understood but that
can amplify the effects expected from each pressure separately. The North Atlantic
has been, comparatively, the subject of much scientific research. It has many
long-term ocean-monitoring programmes and a scientific organization that has
functioned for over a century to promote and coord inate scientific and technical
cooperation among the countries around the North Atlantic. Even there, however,
__________________
95 See chaps. 11, 12, 17-23 and 25-27.
96 See chaps. 36A-H and 53.
97 See chap. 36G.
98 See chaps. 4-6, 11, 17, 20, 36F, 37-39 and 52.
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experts are commonly unable to disentangle consistently the causation of
unsustainable uses of, and impacts on, marine biodiversity. This may ini tially seem
to be discouraging. Nevertheless, well-documented examples exist of the benefits
that can follow from actions to address past unsustainable practices, even if other
perturbations are also occurring in the same area. 99
Marine mammals, marine reptiles, seabirds, sharks, tuna and billfish
157. Cumulative effects are comparatively well documented for species groups of
the top predators in the ocean, including marine mammals, seabirds and marine
reptiles. Many of those species tend to be highly mo bile and some migrate across
multiple ecosystems and even entire ocean basins, so that they can be exposed to
many threats in their annual cycle. Some of those species are the subject of direct
harvesting, particularly some pinnipeds (seals and related spe cies) and seabirds, and
by-catch in fisheries can be a significant mortality source for many species.
However, in addition to having to sustain the impact of those direct deaths, all of
those species suffer from varying levels of exposure to pollution from land-based
sources and increasing levels of noise in the ocean. Land -nesting seabirds, marine
turtles and pinnipeds also face habitat disturbance, such as through the introduction
of invasive predators on isolated breeding islands, the disturbance of beac hes where
eggs are laid or direct human disturbance from tourism, including ecotourism. 100
158. Some global measures have been helpful in addressing specific sources of
mortality, such as the global moratorium on all large -scale pelagic drift-net fishing
called for by the General Assembly in 1991, which was a major step in limiting the
by-catch of several marine mammal and seabird species that were especially
vulnerable to entanglement. However, for seabirds alone, at least 10 different
pressures have been identified that can affect a single population throughout its
annual cycle, with efforts to mitigate one pressure sometimes increasing
vulnerability to others. Because of the complexity of those issues, conservation and
management must therefore be approache d with care and alertness to the nature of
the interactions among the many human interests, the needs of the animals and their
role in marine ecosystems.101
Ecosystems and habitats identified for special attention
159. Just as species can face the effects of multiple pressures over their annual
cycle as they migrate (sometimes around an entire ocean basin), habitats can
integrate the effects of multiple pressures across the interacting species that use
them. Many cases are presented in the chapters on specialized habitats, which are
often sites of concentrated human activities. For example, warm -water corals face
major threats, such as extractive activities, sewage and other pollution,
sedimentation, physical destruction and the effects of anthropoge nic climate change,
including increased coral bleaching. Such stressors often interact synergistically
with one another and with natural stressors, such as storms. Likewise, cold -water
corals are often challenged by the synergistic effects of low oxygen an d increasing
acidification, as well as by physical damage from fishing practices. 102
__________________
99 See chap. 36A.
100 See chaps. 27, 37-39 and 52.
101 See chaps. 11 and 38.
102 See chaps. 42-51.
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160. All coastal habitats, including kelp forests, seagrass beds and mangroves, face
multiple interacting threats from land -based sources, species invasions and direct
anthropogenic pressures. For example, mangroves may face the aggregate effects of
coastal and urban development, sewage and other pollutants, solid waste disposal,
damage from extreme events, such as hurricanes, as well as conversion to
aquaculture or agriculture and climate change. Each of the chapters on specific
habitats presents similar lists of pressures, often present on the same sites. Although
protection from direct human uses of areas where habitats occur (such as bans on
converting mangroves to aquaculture or port facilities) can often produce immediate
benefits, pressures such as land-based runoff, diseases and invasive species require
coordinated efforts far beyond the specific habitats for which the protection is
intended.103
161. Considering specific types of important marine and coastal habitats, estuaries
and deltas are categorized globally as in poor overall condition, based on published
assessments of them for 101 regions. In 66 per cent of cases, their condition has
worsened in recent years. There are around 4,500 large estuaries and deltas
worldwide, of which about 10 per cent benefit from some level of environmental
protection. About 0.4 per cent is protected as strict nature reserves or wilderness
areas (categories Ia and Ib of the categories of protected areas as defined by the
International Union for Conservation of Nature). 104
162. Mangroves are being lost at the mean global rate of 1 -2 per cent a year,
although losses can be as high as 8 per cent a year in some countries. While the
primary threat to mangroves is overexploitation of resources and the conversion of
mangrove areas to other land uses, climate -change-induced sea-level rise is now
identified as a global threat to them, especially in areas of growing human
settlements and coastal development.105
163. Kelp and seagrass habitats are declining worldwide for different reasons. The
overfishing of dominant predators and climate change have reportedly caused
changes in kelp community structures and distribution over time. Kelp forests are
more affected by temperature changes owing to the narrow range in which their
sexual reproduction can occur. Seagrass meadows are more affected by
anthropogenic activities, such as siltation, pollution and reclamation. 106
164. Fishing on seamounts has targeted fish aggregations to depths of 1,500 m.
Aggregations on spatially limited topographic features are highly vulnerable, and
many target species are slow-growing and long-lived, therefore exhibiting little
resilience to disturbance. Furthermore, most fisheries u se bottom trawls, gear that is
highly destructive to benthic communities. Little recolonization is observed years
after closure to fishing. Most sites of deep -water bottom fisheries have been
overfished in the past, but there are now increased efforts to s eek to regulate their
use and to protect deep-water benthic habitats.107
__________________
103 See chaps. 43, 44 and 47-49.
104 See chap. 44.
105 See chap. 48.
106 See chap. 47.
107 See chaps. 36F and 51.
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Tourism and aesthetic, cultural, religious and spiritual marine ecosystem services
165. The changes in marine biodiversity can have consequential effects on the
ecosystem services that humans obtain from the ocean. Particularly important is the
link between the health of warm-water corals and tourism. Warm-water corals
represent a major component of the attractiveness of many tourist resorts in the
Caribbean, the Red Sea, the Indian Ocean and South-East Asia, and that
attractiveness will be seriously undermined if tourists can no longer enjoy the
corals. The same applies to other resorts (even in cold -water areas) where one of the
attractions is scuba-diving to enjoy the marine wildlife. A different linkage is that to
recreational fishing, where a significant industry relies on the availability of large
sport fish such as marlins, swordfish and sailfish. In that case, there is a lack of
information on which estimates of fish stocks and , consequently, judgements on the
sustainable scale of the activity can be based. 108
166. The disappearance or, more commonly, the reduction in numbers of iconic
species can likewise adversely affect traditional practices. For example, native
people on the North-East Pacific coast have seen their traditional whale -hunting
halted because of the past overharvesting of grey whales carried out by other
people. That hunting was an integral part of their cultural heritage and the affected
tribes consider the cultural loss to be very serious. Pollution can have similar
effects. For example, the Faroese authorities (Denmark) are taking measures to
control the traditional food obtained in the islands from pilot whales because of the
high levels of pollutants accumulate d in their tissues.109
H. Distribution of ocean benefits and disbenefits
167. In assessing the social and economic aspects of the ocean, it is necessary to
consider how different parts of the world, different States and different parts of
society are gaining benefits (or suffering disbenefits) as a result of the ways in
which human activities linked to the oceans are changing.
Changes in the universal ecosystem services from the ocean
168. The most obvious distributional effects of climate change relate to the rise in
sea level. Some small island States are predicted to become submerged completely
and some heavily populated deltas and other low-lying areas also risk inundation.
Another important distributional effect is the poleward extension of ma jor areas of
storms, which is likely to lead to cyclones, hurricanes and typhoons in areas
previously not seriously affected by them. Changes in patterns of variability of
oscillations (such as the El Niño-Southern Oscillation) will bring climatic changes
to many places and affect new areas, with consequent effects on agriculture and
agricultural earnings.110
169. The changes in ocean conditions will affect many other ecosystem services
indirectly. For example, some models predict that the warming ocean will increase
the fish biomass available for harvesting in higher latitudes and decrease it in
equatorial zones. This will shift provisioning services to benefit the middle and
__________________
108 See chaps. 27, 41 and 43.
109 See chaps. 8 and 20.
110 See chaps. 4 and 5.
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moderately high latitudes (which are often highly developed) at the expense of low
latitudes, where small-scale (subsistence) fishing is often important for food
security.111
Developments in fish and seafood consumption
170. The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) estimates
that total fish consumption, including all aquaculture and inland and marine capture
fisheries, has been rising from 9.9 kg per capita in the 1960s to 19.2 kg per capita in
2012 — an average increase of 3.2 per cent a year over half a century. The
distribution of consumption per capita varies considerably, from Africa and Latin
America and the Caribbean (9.7 kg) to Asia (21.6 kg), North America (21.8), Europe
(22.0 kg) and Oceania (25.4 kg). Marine capture fisheries represent 51 per cent and
marine aquaculture 13 per cent of the total producti on of fish (154 million tons), of
which 85 per cent is used for food.
171. The annual consumption of fishery products per capita has grown steadily in
developing regions (from 5.2 kg in 1961 to 17.0 kg in 2009) and low -income fooddeficit
countries (from 4.9 kg in 1961 to 10.1 kg in 2009). This is still considerably
lower than in more developed regions, even though the gap is narrowing. A sizeable
share of fish consumed in developed countries consists of imports and, owing to
steady demand and declining domestic fishery production (down 22 per cent in the
period 1992-2012), their dependence on imports, in particular from developing
countries, is projected to grow.
172. FAO estimates indicate that small-scale fisheries contribute about half of
global fish catches. When considering catches destined for direct human
consumption, the share contributed by the subsector increases, as small -scale
fisheries generally make broader direct and indirect contributions to food security
(through affordable fish) and employment for populations in developing countries.
As well as direct consumption, many small-scale fishermen sell or barter their catch.
It is doubtful that much of that trade is covered by official statistics. However,
studies have shown that selling or trading even a portion of their catch represents as
much as one third of the total income of subsistence fishermen in some low -income
countries. Thus an increase in imports of fish by more developed countries from less
developed countries has the potential to increase inequities in food security and
nutrition, unless those considerations are taken into account in global trade
arrangements.112
Developments in employment and income from fisheries and aquaculture
173. The global harvest of marine capture fisheries has expanded rapidly since the
early 1950s and is currently estimated to be about 80 million tons a year. That
harvest is estimated to have a first (gross) value on the order of 113 billion dollars.
Although it is difficult to produce accurate employment s tatistics, estimates using a
fairly narrow definition of employment have put the figure of those employed in
fisheries and aquaculture at 58.3 million people (4.4 per cent of the estimated total
of economically active people), of which 84 per cent are in A sia and 10 per cent in
Africa. Women are estimated to account for more than 15 per cent of people
employed in the fishery sector. Other estimates, probably taking into account a
__________________
111 See chaps. 11 and 15.
112 See chaps. 10, 11 and 15.
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wider definition of employment, suggest that capture fisheries provide direct and
indirect employment for at least 120 million persons worldwide.
174. Small-scale fisheries employ more than 90 per cent of the world’s capture
fishermen and fish workers, about half of whom are women. When all dependants of
those taking full- or part-time employment in the full value chain and support
industries (boatbuilding, gear construction, etc.) of fisheries and aquaculture are
included, one estimate concludes that between 660 and 820 million persons have
some economic or livelihood dependence on fish capture and culture and the
subsequent direct value chain. No sound information appears to be available on the
levels of death and injury of those engaged in capture fishing or aquaculture, but
capture fishing is commonly characterized as a dangerous occupation.
175. Over time, a striking shift has occurred in the operation and location of capture
fisheries. In the 1950s, capture fisheries were largely undertaken by developed
fishing States. Since then, developing countries have increased their share. As a
broad illustration, in the 1950s, the southern hemisphere accounted for no more than
8 per cent of landed values. By the last decade, the southern hemisphere’s share had
risen to 20 per cent. In 2012, international trade represented 37 per cent of th e total
fish production in value, with a total export value of 129 billion dollars, of which
70 billion dollars (58 per cent) was exports by developing countries. 113
176. Aquaculture is responsible for the bulk of the production of seaweeds.
Worldwide, reports show that 24.9 million tons was produced in 2012, valued at
about 6 billion dollars. In addition, about 1 million tons of wild seaweed were
harvested. Few data were found on international trade in seaweeds, but their culture
is concentrated in countries where consumption of seaweeds is high.114
Developments in maritime transport
177. All sectors of maritime transport (cargo trades, passenger and vehicle ferries
and cruise ships) are growing in line with the world economy. It is not possible to
estimate the earnings from those activities, as the structure of the companies owning
many of the ships involved is opaque. It seems likely that many of the major
cargo-carrying operators were making a loss in 2012, as a result of overcapacity
resulting from the general economic recession. On the other hand, cruise operators
reported profits. According to estimates by the United Nations Conference on Trade
and Development, owners from five countries (China, Germany, Greece, Japan and
the Republic of Korea) together accounted for 53 per cent of the world tonnage in
2013. It seems likely that profits and losses are broadly proportional to ownership.
Among the top 35 ship-owning countries and territories, 17 are in Asia, 14 in
Europe and 4 in the Americas.
178. Worldwide, there are just over 1.25 million seafarers, only about 2 per cent of
whom are women, mainly in the ferry and cruise -ship sectors. The crews are
predominantly from countries members of the Organization for Economic
Cooperation and Development and Easter n Europe (49 per cent of the officers and
34 per cent of the ratings) and from Eastern and Southern Asia (43 per cent of the
officers and 51 per cent of the ratings). Africa and Latin America are noticeably
underrepresented, providing only 8 per cent of th e officers and 15 per cent of the
__________________
113 See chaps. 11 and 15.
114 See chap. 14.
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ratings. Pay levels of officers differ noticeably according to their origin, with
masters and chief officers from Western Europe receiving on average a fifth or a
quarter, respectively, more than those from Eastern Europe or Asia, while pay levels
for engineer officers are more in line with one another. The recent entry into force
of the Maritime Labour Convention, 2006 should be noted in the context of the
social conditions of seafarers.
179. Statistics on the deaths of and injuries to seafarers are unreliable, and the
Secretary-General of the International Maritime Organization has called for efforts
to improve them. In general, it would appear that the levels of death and injury are
worse than for many land -based industries. Over the past three decades, piracy and
armed robbery have re-emerged as a serious risk to seafarers. Much attention has
been focused on such attacks on ships in waters off Eastern Africa, but reports show
that the problem is more widespread. In the p ast three years, action against attacks
off Eastern Africa appears to have had some success, but attacks elsewhere are also
of concern, especially in the South China Sea, the location of over half the incidents
reported in 2013, and West Africa.115
Developments in offshore energy businesses
180. Global offshore oil production in mid -2014 was about 28 million barrels per
day, which was worth about 3.2 billion dollars per day, and the industry directly
employs about 200,000 people globally, mostly in the Gulf of Mexico (where about
60 per cent of the industry is located) and the North Sea. In the same year, the
industry accounted for about 1.5 per cent of the gross domestic product (GDP) of
the United States, 3.5 per cent of the GDP of the United Kingdom, 21 per cent of the
GDP of Norway and 35 per cent of the GDP of Nigeria. The large majority of
offshore hydrocarbon production is in the hands of international corporations or
national companies usually working in partnership with them. This makes the
tracking of the distribution of benefits from this sector, other than direct
employment in extraction and processing, very difficult. 116
Developments in offshore mining
181. There is limited information about the value of the offshore mining industry
and the number of people it employs, but it is unlikely to be significant at present in
comparison with terrestrial mining. For example, in the United Kingdom, which is
the world’s largest producer of marine aggregates, the industry directly employs
approximately 400 people.117
Developments in tourism
182. Tourism has generally been increasing fairly steadily for the past 40 years
(with occasional setbacks or slowing down during global recessions). In 2012,
international tourism expenditure exceeded 1 billion dol lars for the first time. Total
expenditure on tourism, domestic as well as international, is several times that
amount. The direct turnover of tourism contributed 2.9 per cent of gross world
product in 2013, rising to 8.9 per cent when the multiplier effec t on the rest of the
economy is taken into account. The Middle East is the region where tourism plays
__________________
115 See chap. 17.
116 See chap. 21.
117 See chap. 23.
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the smallest part in the economy (6.4 per cent of GDP, including the multiplier
effect), and the Caribbean is the region where it plays the largest part ( 13.9 per cent
of GDP, including the multiplier effect).
183. Most reports of tourism revenues do not differentiate revenues from tourism
directly related to the sea and the coast from other types of tourism. Even where
tourism in the coastal zone can be separated from tourism inland, it may be
generated by the attractions of the sea and coast or its maritime history, as it may be
based on other attractions not linked to the marine environment. Consequently, the
value of ocean-related tourism is a matter of inference. However, coastal tourism is
a major component of tourism everywhere. In small island and coastal States,
coastal tourism is usually predominant because it can only take place in the coastal
zone in those countries. Particularly noteworthy is the way in which international
tourism is increasing in Asia and the Pacific, both in absolute terms and as a
proportion of world tourism. This implies that pressures from tourism are becoming
of significantly more concern in those regions.
184. Tourism is also a significant component of employment. Globally, it is
estimated that, in 2013, tourism provided 3.3 per cent of employment, when looking
at the number of people directly employed in the tourism industry, and 8.9 per cent
when the multiplier effect is taken into account. In the different regions, the
proportion of employment supported by tourism is approximately the same as the
share of GDP contributed by tourism, although, again, what proportion is based on
the attractions of the sea and coast is not we ll known.118
Use of marine genetic material
185. The commercial exploitation of marine genetic resources had very modest
beginnings in the twentieth century, particularly when measured against some
estimates of the potential of the great diversity of spe cies and biomolecules in the
sea. Since 2000, the first drugs derived from marine organisms have been put into
commerce (although, using the United States Food and Drug Administration
approvals as a measure, only seven have so far received that approval). There has
also been considerable growth in the use of marine natural products as food
supplements and for other non-medical purposes. Economic and social aspects of
the use of marine genetic material are therefore only just beginning to develop. 119
Satellite national accounts
186. Information on the distribution of economic benefits from the ocean is hard to
compile from current information sources. The work of the United Nations Statistics
Division in developing a System of Environmental -Economic Accounting and an
Experimental Ecosystem Accounting System seems likely to help to fill that
information gap. In the same way, national satellite accounts dealing with tourism
and fisheries should help to fill information gaps in those fields. 120
__________________
118 See chap. 27.
119 See chap. 29.
120 See chaps. 3 and 9.
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I. Integrated management of human activities affecting the ocean
187. The Regular Process is to provide an assessment of all the aspects of the
marine environment relevant to sustainable development: environmental, economic
and social. Even though the marine environment covers seven tenths of the planet, it
is still only one component of the overall Earth system. As far as environmental
aspects are concerned, major drivers of the pressures producing change in the ocean
are to be found outside the marine environment. In particular, most of the major
drivers of anthropogenic climate change are land-based. Likewise, the main drivers
of increased pressures on marine biodiversity and marine environmental quality
include the demand for food for terrestrial populations, international trade in
products from land-based agriculture and industries and coastal degradation from
land-based development and land-based sources.
188. Thus, as far as social and economic aspects of the marine environment are
concerned, many of the most significant drivers are outside the scope of the present
assessment. For example, the levels of cargo shipping are driven mainly by world
trade, which is determined by demand and supply for raw materials and finished
products. The extent of cruising and other types of tourism is determined by the
levels around the world of disposable income and leisure time. The patterns of trade
in fish and other seafood and in cultural goods from the ocean are set by the
location of supply and demand and the relative purchasing power of local markets
as compared with international ones, modified by national and international rules on
the exploitation of those resources. A wide range of factors outside the marine
environment are thus relevant to policymaking for the marine environment.
189. The present assessment of the marine environment cannot therefore reach
conclusions on some of the main drivers affecting the marine environment without
stepping well outside the marine environment and the competences of those carrying
out the assessment. It is essential to note, however, that the successful management of
human activities affecting the marine environment will require the consideration of
the full range of factors relating to human activities affecting the ocean.
190. Even within the scope of what has been requested, it has not prove d possible
to come to conclusions on one important aspect: a quantitative picture of the extent
of many of the non-marketed ecosystem services provided by the ocean.
Quantitative information is simply insufficient to enable an assessment of the way
in which different regions of the world benefit from those services. Nor do current
data-collection programmes appear to make robust regional assessments of ocean
ecosystem services likely in the near future, especially for the less developed parts
of the planet.121
191. The assessment of what is happening to aesthetic, cultural, religious and
spiritual values is also very difficult. In essentially every coastal or island culture,
the indigenous peoples have spiritual links to the sea. They often also have links
with species or places, or both, that have high iconic values. The spiritual
significance of those marine species and places may be part of their self -
identification and reflects their beliefs about the origins of their culture. That is
particularly true of island cultures, which are often intimately bound to the sea.
Expressions of loss of, or threats to, such cultures and identities are readily found,
__________________
121 See chaps. 54 and 55.
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but the marine component is not easily separated. Even populations that are
economically fully developed with largely urbanized lifestyles still look to the
ocean for spiritual and cultural benefits that have proven hard to value monetarily. 122
192. Nevertheless, there is an overall message that the world has reached the end of
the period when human impacts on the sea were minor in relation to the overall
scale of the ocean. Human activities now have so many and such great impacts on
the ocean that the limits of its carrying capacity are being (or, in some cases, have
been) reached. It is instructive to look at the ways in which this has happened in one
specific sector: fisheries. In the late nineteenth century, the regulation of fisheries
was regarded by many as unnecessary: Thomas Huxley, the great defender of
Charles Darwin’s theory of natural selection and a lea ding marine biologist,
speaking at the London Fisheries Exhibition, in 1883, said: “In relation to our
present modes of fishing, a number of the most important sea fisheries ... are
inexhaustible. … [The] multitude of those fishes is so inconceivably great that the
number that we catch is relatively insignificant; and secondly, … the magnitude of
the destructive agencies at work on them is so prodigious, that the destruction
effected by the fisherman cannot sensibly increase the death rate”.
193. In less than 50 years, his qualification “in relation to our present modes of
fishing” proved to be prophetic. Modes of fishing had changed to such an extent that
international efforts were under way to regulate individual fisheries. We now know
that those efforts were even then overdue. Furthermore, experience thereafter
showed that the successful management of fisheries required a much broader
approach. First to be acknowledged was the need for a multispecies approach: it was
necessary to regulate the fisheries no t only for each target species individually, but
also to take into account the species on which the target species preyed and the
species that preyed on it.
194. In the 1990s, it became clear that the effects of fisheries on other biotas made
an ecosystem approach to fishery management necessary, taking into account how a
fishery might directly kill other species through by -catches, alter habitats and
change relationships in the food web. Since then, the increasing use of the ocean has
shown how fisheries managers need to work with other sectors to manage their
effects on each other and, collectively, on the ocean that they share.
195. When various conclusions in parts III to VI of the present assessment are
linked together, they clearly show that a similar broadening of the context of
management decisions will produce similar benefits in and among other sectors of
human activities that affect the ocean. Examples of such interactions of pressures on
the environment include:
(a) The lack of adequate sewage treatment in many large coastal
conurbations, especially in developing countries, and other excessive inputs of
nutrients (especially nitrogen) are producing direct adverse impacts on human
health through microbial diseases as well as eutrophication problems. In many
cases, they are creating harmful algal blooms, which are not only disrupting
ecosystems, but also, as a consequence, damaging fisheries, especially small -scale
fisheries and the related livelihoods and, in some cases, poisoning humans through
algal toxins;123
__________________
122 See chap. 8.
123 See chap. 20.
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(b) Plastic marine debris results from the poor management of waste streams
on land and at sea. There is a clear impact of such debris in its original form on
megafauna (fish caught in “ghost” nets, seabirds with plastic bags around their
necks, etc.) and on the aesthetic appearance of coasts (with potential impacts on
tourism). Less obviously, impacts on zooplankton and filter -feeding species have
also been demonstrated from the nanoparticles into which those plastics break
down, with potentially serious effects all the way up the food web. Likewise,
nanoparticles from titanium dioxide (the base of white pigments found in many
waste streams) have been shown to react with the ultraviolet component of sunlight
and to kill phytoplankton;124
(c) Although much is being done to reduce pollution from ships, there is
scope for more attention to the routes that ships choose and the effects of those
routes in terms of noise, chronic oil pollution and operational discharges; 125
(d) The cumulative effects of excessive nutrient inputs from sewage and
agriculture and the removal of herbivorous fish by overfishing can lead to excessive
algal growth on coral reefs. Where coral reefs are a tourist attraction, such damage
can undermine the tourist business;126
(e) The ocean is acidifying rapidly and at an unprecedented rate in the
Earth’s history. The impact of ocean acidification on marine species and food webs
will affect major economic interests and could increasingly put food security at risk,
particularly in regions especially dependent on seafood protein. 127
196. Better integrated management of human activities affecting the ocean can, in
many cases, be achieved with existing knowledge. However, application of that
knowledge in many countries requires improvements in the skills of those involved.
The last section of the present summary deals with the gaps that have been
identified in capacity-building. Furthermore, in many cases, better information is
required. Significant knowledge gaps that would need to be fille d in order to
achieve more general improved and integrated management of human activities
affecting the ocean are set out in the penu ltimate section of the summary.
J. Urgency of addressing threats to the ocean
197. The greatest threat to the ocean comes from a failure to deal quickly with the
manifold problems that have been described above. Many parts of the ocean have
been seriously degraded. If the problems are not addressed, there is a major risk that
they will combine to produce a destructive cyc le of degradation in which the ocean
can no longer provide many of the benefits that humans currently enjoy from it.
198. In particular, the cumulative impact of many of the problems described in the
present assessment must be considered. As always, addres sing one aspect of a
challenge without considering the other factors involved risks undermining what
can be achieved. This means that addressing some challenges may require also
addressing the problems of fragmented data collection, which makes it difficul t to
__________________
124 See chaps. 6 and 25.
125 See chap. 17.
126 See chaps. 27 and 43.
127 See chaps. 4, 5, 10 and 52.
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obtain a clear picture of the overall problem, and uncoordinated action in different
fields (in either geographic or thematic terms).
199. On the other hand, the assessment contains many examples of efforts made to
address individual problems that ha ve resulted in improved ecosystems, economic
benefits and improved livelihoods, even though other pressures could not be
addressed at the same time. Feasible sectoral improvements do not need to be
delayed until the benefits of integrated planning and mana gement can be achieved.
They can even facilitate action to address other pressures, either by demonstrating
the gains from investing in improved management, or through bringing into clearer
focus the costs imposed by other pressures. 128
200. Some of the specific threats (such as the intensification of typhoons and
hurricanes and changes in the stratification of seawater) are inextricably bound with
the problems of climate change and acidification and can only be addressed as part
of those issues.
201. However, many other threats derive from problems that are more local and
constitute global problems simply because the same type of problem and threat
occurs in many places. For most of those problems, techniques have been developed
that can successfully address them. Implementing them successfully is then a
question of building the capacities in infrastructure resources, organizational
arrangements and technical skills.
202. Problems of that kind that can be addressed include:
(a) Reducing inputs of hazardous substances, waterborne pathogens and
nutrients;129
(b) Preventing maritime disasters due to the collision, foundering and
sinking of ships, and implementing and enforcing international agreements on
preventing adverse environmental impacts from ships; 130
(c) Improving fishery management;131
(d) Managing aquaculture;132
(e) Controlling tourism developments that will have adverse impacts on the
future of the tourism industry in the locality where they occur; 133
(f) Controlling solid waste disposal that can re ach and affect the marine
environment;134
(g) Improving the control of offshore hydrocarbon industries and offshore
mining;135
(h) Establishing and maintaining marine protected areas. 136
__________________
128 See, for example, chap. 36A.
129 See chap. 20.
130 See chap. 17.
131 See chap. 11.
132 See chap. 12.
133 See chap. 27.
134 See chaps. 24 and 25.
135 See chaps. 21 and 23.
136 See chap. 44.
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VI. Knowledge gaps
203. Humans have been exploring the three tenths o f the planet that is land for
millennia. Serious scientific examination of the land and its plants and animals has
been in progress for at least 500 years. Although humans have been using the ocean
for millennia, it is only in the past 120 years or so that serious exploration of the
seven tenths of the planet covered by the sea (other than charting coasts) has been in
progress. It is therefore not surprising that our knowledge of the ocean is much
more limited than our knowledge of the land. As the chapters of the present
assessment demonstrate, much is known about much of the ocean, but nowhere do
we have the detailed knowledge desirable for the effective future management of
human use of the ocean. In some parts of the world, we do not even have sufficient
knowledge to apply properly the techniques that have been successfully developed
elsewhere. We have a basic framework of understanding, but there are many gaps to
be filled in.
204. The information that we need to understand the ocean can be divided into four
main categories: (a) the physical structure of the ocean; (b) the composition and
movement of the ocean’s waters; (c) the biotas of the ocean; and (d) the ways in
which humans interact with the ocean. The identification of the gaps in that
knowledge is best based on a survey of the gaps revealed in the chapters of the
assessment. In general, we know least about the Arctic Ocean and the Indian Ocean.
The parts of the Atlantic Ocean and the Pacific Ocean in the northern hemisphere
are better studied than those in the southern hemisphere and, again in general, the
North Atlantic and its adjacent seas are probably the most thoroughly studied — and
even there major gaps remain.137
Physical structure of the ocean
205. Chapter 1 (Planet, ocean and life) of t he assessment includes a map
characterizing the geomorphic features of the ocean. The detail summarized in that
map has been greatly enriched over the past quarter century by local and global
studies. Although charting the oceans has been in progress for more than seven
centuries in coastal waters and for 250 years along the main routes across the open
ocean, many features still require more detailed examination. The designation of
exclusive economic zones (EEZs) has led many countries to carry out more det ailed
surveys as a basis for managing their activities in those zones. Ideally, all coastal
States would have such detailed surveys as a basis for their EEZ management.
206. Because of the significance of ocean acidification for carbonate formation,
better information on the formation and fate of reef islands and shell beaches is
desirable. It is possible to characterize the physical structure of the ocean in areas
beyond national jurisdictions, but the reliability and detail of such characterizations
varies considerably among different parts of the ocean: improvements in
information of that kind are highly desirable to understand the interaction between
the physical structure and the biotas, both in terms of conserving biodiversity and in
terms of managing living marine resources.138
__________________
137 See chap. 30.
138 See chap. 9.
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Waters of the ocean
207. Gaps persist in understanding sea temperature (both at the surface and at
depth), sea-level rise, salinity distribution, carbon dioxide absorption, and nutrient
distribution and cycling. The atmosphere and the ocean form a single linked system.
Much of the information needed to understand the ocean is therefore also needed to
understand climate change. Research promoted by the Intergovernmental Panel on
Climate Change will look at many of those questions. It will thus be important to
ensure that oceanic and atmospheric research is coordinated.
208. Ocean acidification is a consequence of carbon dioxide absorption, but
understanding the implications for the ocean requires more than just a genera l
understanding of how carbon dioxide is being absorbed, as the degree of
acidification varies locally. The causes and implications of those variations are
important for understanding the impact on the marine biotas.
209. In order to track primary producti on (on which the overwhelming majority of
the ocean food web relies), routine and sustained measurements are highly desirable
across all parts of the ocean of chlorophyll a (as an important marker of primary
production), dissolved nitrogen and biologically active dissolved phosphorus (as the
latter two are frequent limiting factors of primary production or causes of algal
blooms).139
Biotas of the ocean
210. The Census of Marine Life has been an essential tool for ocean research in
clarifying the biodiversity of the ocean and the number and distribution of species.
Like all censuses, its value will decrease as time passes until it becomes a snapshot
of a particular point in time, and less of an up -to-date picture of what is currently
happening. It will be important for the Census to be regularly updated and
improved. Improvement is particularly desirable for areas around and between
Africa and Central and South America, across the Indian Ocean and in the South
Pacific.140
211. Plankton are fundamental to life in the ocean. Information on their diversity
and abundance is important for many purposes. Such information has been collected
for over 70 years in some parts of the ocean (such as the North Atlantic) through
continuous plankton recorder surveys. Nine organizations currently collaborate in
extending such surveys, but the desirable comprehensive global coverage has not
yet been achieved.
212. As well as information on biodiversity in the ocean and the number and
distribution of the many marine species, information is also highly desirable on the
health and reproductive success of separate populations. Many species contain
separate populations that have limited interconnections. It is therefore important to
understand how the local influences specific to each population are affecting them.
As the regional surveys in part VI show, much is already known about the
population health and reproductive success of many species, but there are also large
gaps in knowledge, particularly in the southern hemisphere.141
__________________
139 See chap. 9.
140 See chap. 35.
141 See chaps. 36A-H.
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213. Fish stock assessments are essential to the proper management of fisheries.
A good proportion of the fish stocks fished in large -scale fisheries are the object of
regular stock assessments. However, many important fish sto cks of that kind are
still not regularly assessed. More significantly, stocks important for small -scale
fisheries are often not assessed, which has adverse effects in ensuring the continued
availability of fish for such fisheries. This is an important knowledge gap to fill.
Likewise, there are gaps in information about the interactions between large -scale
and small-scale fisheries for stocks over which their interests overlap, and between
recreational fishing and other fisheries for some species, such as so me trophy fish
(marlins, sailfish and others) and other smaller species. 142
214. The present assessment sets out the main specific issues for which there are
gaps in our knowledge of marine biotas, in particular of all the species and habitats
that have been scientifically identified as threatened, declining or otherwise in need
of special attention or protection. Those species include, with some indications of
important issues identified in part VI: marine mammals, sea turtles, seabirds
(particularly migration routes), sharks and other elasmobranchs (especially the
lesser-known species and certain tropical areas), tuna and billfish (particularly the
non-principally marketed species), cold-water corals (especially where they are
found in the Indian Ocean), warm-water corals (particularly at locations in deeper
water), estuaries and deltas (particularly integr ated assessments of them),
high-latitude ice, hydrothermal vents (especially the extent to which they are found
in the Indian Ocean), kelp forests and seag rass beds (especially the degree of loss of
kelp and the pathology of the diseases affecting them), mangroves (especially the
taxonomy of associated species and their interactions with salt marshes), salt
marshes (especially the ecosystem services that the y provide) and the Sargasso Sea
(especially the links with distant ecosystems). 143
Ways in which humans interact with the ocean
215. Some of the issues relating to the ocean and to the ocean biotas (for example,
ocean acidification and fish stock assessments) are linked to the way in which
humans affect some aspects of the ocean (for example, through carbon -dioxide
emissions or fisheries). However, there are many more areas in which we do not yet
know enough about human activities that affect or interact with the ocean to enable
us to manage those activities sustainably.
216. For shipping, much information is available about where ships go, their cargo
and the economics of their operations. However, important gaps remain in our
knowledge about how their routes and operations affect the marine environment.
Those issues include primarily the noise that they make, chronic discharges of oil
and the extent to which non-native invasive species are being transported. Other
information gaps relate to the social asp ects of shipping: in particular, little is
known about the levels of death and injury of seafarers, an issue recently raised by
the Secretary-General of the International Maritime Organization. 144
217. Land-based inputs to the ocean have serious implications for both human
health and the proper functioning of marine ecosystems. In some parts of the world,
those have been studied carefully for over 40 years. In others, little systematic
__________________
142 See chaps. 11 and 27.
143 See chaps. 42 to 51.
144 See chap. 17.
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information is found. There are two important gaps in current knowledge. T he first
is how to link different ways of measuring discharges and emissions. Much
information is available from local studies about inputs, but those are frequently
measured and analysed in different ways, thereby making comparison difficult or
impossible. There are sometimes good reasons for using different techniques, but
ways of improving the ability to achieve standardized results and to make
comparisons are essential to give a full global view. Secondly, different regions of
the world have developed different systems for assessing the overall quality of their
local waters. Again, good reasons for such differences almost certainly exist, but
knowledge of how to compare the different results would be helpful, particularly in
assessing priorities among different areas.145
218. Another area where there are important gaps in knowledge is the extent to
which people are suffering from diseases that are either the direct result of inputs of
waterborne pathogens or toxic substances, or the indirect result of toxin s from algal
blooms generated by excessive levels of nutrients. As well as gaps in information on
the effects of such health hazards, there are also large gaps in knowledge of their
economic effects.
219. The offshore hydrocarbon industries in some parts o f the world collect and
publish wide-ranging information on how their activities are affecting the local
marine environment. In other parts of the world, little or no such information is
found. Because the processes are very similar in most areas, filling the gaps in
knowledge in what is happening around the world would be helpful.
220. The existing offshore mining industries are very diverse and, consequently,
their impacts on the marine environment do not have much in common. Where they
occur in the coastal zone, it is important that those responsible for integrated coastal
zone management have good information on what is happening, particularly in
relation to discharges of tailings and other disturbances of the marine environment.
As offshore mining expands into deeper waters and areas beyond national
jurisdiction, it will be important to ensure that information about their impacts on
the marine environment is collected and published. 146
221. Information on the disposal of solid waste at sea (dumping) is ver y patchy.
Where reports under the London Convention and the Protocol thereto are not
submitted, it is not clear whether dumping does not occur or occurs but is not
reported. This represents an important gap in knowledge. The absence of
information on dumping, if any, in other jurisdictions also impedes the
understanding of the impact on the marine environment of that form of waste
disposal.147
222. Our knowledge of marine debris has many gaps. Unless we understand better
the sources, fates, and impacts of mar ine debris, we shall not be able to tackle the
problems that it raises. Although the monitoring of marine debris is currently carried
out in several countries around the world, the protocols used tend to be very
different, preventing comparisons and the harmonization of data. Because marine
debris is so mobile, the result is a significant gap in knowledge. There is also a gap
in information for evaluating the impacts of marine debris on coastal and marine
__________________
145 See chap. 20.
146 See chap. 23.
147 See chap. 24.
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species, habitats, economic well-being, human health and safety, and social values.
Because of their ability to enter into marine food chains, with a potential impact on
human health, more information on the origin, fate and effects of plastic
microparticles and nanoparticles is highly desirable. Likewise, because of their
potential effects on phytoplankton, there is a gap in knowledge about titanium
dioxide nanoparticles.148
223. Many aspects of integrated coastal zone management still present important
knowledge gaps. Those responsible for managing coastal a reas need information on,
at least, coastal erosion, land reclamation from the sea, changes in sedimentation as
a result of coastal works and changes in river regimes (such as damming rivers or
increased water abstraction), the ways in which the local port s are working and
dredging is taking place and the ways in which tourist activity is developing (and is
planned to develop), and the impacts that those developments and plans are likely to
have on the local marine ecosystem (and, for that matter, the local terrestrial
ecosystems). It will help the development and effectiveness of integrated coastal
management if recognized standards are set and followed for all such information,
so that systematic best practices can be developed. 149
224. The aesthetic, cultural, religious and spiritual ways in which humans relate to
the ocean are also linked to some gaps in our knowledge. Over the centuries, many
cultures have built up broad traditional knowledge of the ocean. Such knowledge is
often under pressure and will be lost if it is not recorded. For example, Polynesian
traditional navigational knowledge was disappearing fast and has been recorded
only just in time. Cultural practices (such as traditional Chinese and Iranian
boatbuilding) are also disappearing and risk being lost for future generations.150
225. Our knowledge of human interaction with the ocean is also very partial in
terms of the ways in which we benefit from it. As has been noted above, it is not yet
possible to place a value on the non-marketed ecosystem services derived from the
ocean. There are many gaps in the information needed for such an exercise.
Information on the effects of changes in the ways in which the planetary ecosystem
works needs to be collected and evaluated, in order to permit an econom ic valuation
of the choices for action that may have repercussions on non -marketed ecosystem
services. The areas where such information seems particularly closely related to
management decisions are integrated coastal zone management (including marine
spatial management), offshore hydrocarbon exploitation, offshore mining, shipping
routes, port development and waste disposal. 151
226. Even with market-related ecosystem services and human activities, there are
major information gaps. Such gaps include consisten t definitions of what the
ecosystem services and human activities cover, how to estimate the value of
services and activities that are on the margins of the markets and, even more, the
capture of the related data. Gaining a good understanding of the true o verall
economic situation of such activities as fishing, shipping and tourism would help to
improve decision-making in those fields.152
__________________
148 See chaps. 6 and 25.
149 See chaps. 4, 18 and 27.
150 See chap. 8.
151 See chap. 55.
152 See chaps. 3, 9 and 55.
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227. Closing those gaps in our knowledge would amount to an ambitious
programme of research. Research is already taking pl ace on many more issues on
which more information is desirable (for example, on how the genetic resources of
the ocean can be used and what the practical possibilities are for seabed mining).
Collaboration and sharing will be important for making the best uses of scarce
research resources.153
VII. Capacity-building gaps
228. The knowledge gaps identified in the present assessment all point to gaps in
the capacities needed to fill them and to apply the resulting knowledge. On the basis
of the information currently available, it is impossible to say what gaps currently
exist in arrangements to build such capacities. Conclusions on where the capacity -
building gaps exist could only be reached by conducting a survey, country by
country, of the capacity-building arrangements that currently exist and of how
suitable they are for each country’s needs. The preliminary inventory of capacity -
building for assessments154 compiled by the Division for Ocean Affairs and the Law
of the Sea as part of the Regular Process prov ides some initial information on which
to base such a survey, but it would take a much more detailed study than has been
possible in the first cycle of the Regular Process to match that information with the
needs of each country. The present section theref ore looks at the capacities that are
desirable, rather than the gaps in capacities for building them.
229. The outline for the first global integrated marine assessment requires that
capacities be identified to assess the status of the marine environment a nd to benefit
from the various human activities that take place in the marine environment.
230. Certain capacities are desirable for multiple purposes. The most obvious of
that kind of capacity is marine research vessels. Such vessels can provide
multipurpose platforms capable of supporting geological and biota surveys, habitat
mapping and similar tasks. The present assessment reviews the current distribution
of research vessels around the world. Such vessels may be run by Governments,
government institutes, universities, independent research institutes or commercial
enterprises. Shared use, for example at a regional level, may be feasible. 155
231. Turning from those points to the elements identified as knowledge gaps, the
following are the main desirable cap acity-building activities.
Physical structure of the ocean
232. Surveys of the physical structure of the ocean require both sea -going survey
capacities and the laboratory and technical staff capabilities to analyse and interpret
the resulting data. Both are essential to fill knowledge gaps about the physical
structure of the ocean within and beyond national jurisdictions.
__________________
153 See chap. 30.
154 See A/66/189, annex V, and A/67/87, annex V.
155 See chap. 30.
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Waters of the ocean
233. Understanding the water column requires capacities to sample, analyse and
interpret the ocean in terms of temperature, salinity, stratification, chemical
composition and acidity. Much of that can be gathered by autonomous floating
devices, such as the floats used by the Array for Real -time Geostrophic
Oceanography, which are described in the present assessment.
234. Understanding primary production and the implications of sea -level rise
requires information on sea levels and chlorophyll a. Such information is most
effectively gathered from satellite sensors. Much of it is already available through
the Internet, but the equipment and skills needed to access and interpret it are
needed to be able to investigate local situations.
Ocean biotas
235. Better understanding of the ocean biotas demands capacities to organize the
regular collection of sampling data on their number, distribution, health and
reproductive success, to compile such data into databases (at the national or regional
level), to analyse and interpret the data (for instance, taxonomic expertise is
required to identify species) and to carry out assessments based on that information.
Capacity to carry out marine scientific research is also highly desirable to improve
the scientific understanding on which such monitoring is based.
236. The capacity to manage fisheries effectively requires ships, e quipment and
skills to monitor and assess fish stocks. Based on those assessments, capacities are
then required to develop, apply and enforce appropriate fishery management
policies. Such capacities are likely to include fishery protection vessels to monit or
what is happening at sea, access to satellite data to monitor the movements of
fishing vessels through transponders, institutional structures to regulate markets in
fish and other seafood (including their freedom from contaminants and pathogens)
and the necessary enforcement mechanisms at all stages from ocean to table.
Ways in which humans interact with the ocean
237. Many human activities affecting the oceans are carried out by commercial
enterprises. Those can be expected to develop the capacities to generate the
knowledge and infrastructure that they need to run their businesses and to comply
with relevant regulations. For public authorities, however, capacities will be needed
to ensure that they can create appropriate regulations to safeguard soc ial and
environmental interests and that they can deal effectively with such commercial
enterprises (many of which are international companies). This may be particularly
difficult when the public authority concerned is relatively local.
238. In developing ecosystem-based approaches to the management of human
activities affecting the ocean (in parallel to those being developed for fisheries),
capacities are necessary to gather and process information relating to the activity
and to all the facets of the ocean ecosystems with which the activity in question
interacts. The precise information required will vary from activity to activity.
Examples of capacities likely to be needed in some specific human activities are
those required in order to:
(a) Identify when ship-routing measures are needed to protect the marine
environment, specify them and implement such measures;
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(b) Plan and implement emergency response plans for maritime disasters.
Such plans are likely to require significant capital investment in ship s, aircraft,
machinery and supplies;
(c) Develop and manage ports capable of handling international maritime
traffic. Currently, many such port developments are being carried out and managed
by commercial enterprises, in which case the proper regulation o f those
undertakings will be required;
(d) Ensure adequate port waste-reception facilities to enable ships to
discharge their waste without being delayed;
(e) Carry out port State inspections of vessels and follow up any
shortcomings detected;
(f) Sample, analyse and interpret land-based inputs to the ocean. Those
capabilities need to be able to cover liquid and semi -liquid discharges by pipelines
directly into the sea, discharges of liquids and suspended solids to rivers and the
water quality of rivers at their mouths, and emissions into the air that may reach and
affect the sea. In the case of emissions into the air, it is also desirable to be able to
distinguish anthropogenic inputs from natural emissions;
(g) Ensure that new, cleaner technologies are applied to chemical and other
production processes, so as to reduce the discharges and emissions of heavy metals
and other hazardous substances;
(h) Manage solid waste placed in landfills, so as to prevent the leaching of
heavy metals or other hazardous substances that can reach and affect the sea, and
manage the incineration of waste to minimize emissions of heavy metals and other
hazardous substances in the exhaust gases;
(i) Provide the necessary infrastructure and equipment for the proper
handling of land-based industrial discharges, emissions and sewage, so as to
minimize the content of heavy metals and other hazardous substances, to remove
waterborne pathogens where they could pollute bathing waters and contaminate
seafood and to prevent excessive nutrient discharges;
(j) Promote the proper handling of agricultural waste and slurry and the
proper use of agricultural fertilizers and pesticides;
(k) Deliver the organization, equipment and skills to monitor and control
other human activities that impact on the marine environment;
(l) Manage the coastal zone in an integrated way. Where tourism is
significant, those capacities need to include the ability to monitor and regulate
tourist developments and activities, so as to keep them within acceptable limits in
relation to the carrying capacities of the local ecosystems.
239. A general gap exists in capacities for an integrated assessment of the marine
environment. An integrated assessment needs to bring together: (a) environmental,
social and economic aspects; (b) all the relevant sectors of human activities; and
(c) all the components (fixed and living) of the relevant ecosystems. The idea of an
integrated assessment in that sense is relatively recent. It presents a challenging
requirement, which requires specialists in many different fields to work together.
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240. In building capacities for integrated assessments, it is necessary to think
further about the concept of an integrated marine assessment. The present
assessment is the first global integrate d assessment of the marine environment. The
Group of Experts who are collectively responsible for it are convinced that the
further development and refinement of techniques for making integrated
assessments are needed.
United Nations A/72/70
General Assembly Distr.: General
6 March 2017
Original: English
17-03665 (E) 270317
*1703665*
Seventy-second session
Item 78 (a) of the preliminary list*
Oceans and the law of the sea
Oceans and the law of the sea
Report of the Secretary-General
Summary
The present report was prepared pursuant to paragraph 351 of General
Assembly resolution 71/257 with a view to facilitating discussions on the topic of
focus at the eighteenth meeting of the United Nations Open -ended Informal
Consultative Process on Oceans and the Law of the Sea, on the theme “The effects of
climate change on oceans”. It constitutes the first part of the report of the Secretary -
General on developments and issues relating to ocean affairs and the law of the sea
for consideration by the Assembly at its seventy -second session. The report is also
being submitted to the States parties to the United Nations Convention on the Law of
the Sea, pursuant to article 319 of the Convention.
* A/72/50.
Please recycle@ ■.
._
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Contents
Page
I. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
II. Climate change and related changes in the atmosphere: key drivers affecting oceans . . . . . . . 4
III. Environmental, economic and social impacts of ocean warming and acidification . . . . . . . . . . 5
A. Ocean warming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
B. Ocean acidification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
C. Cumulative impacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
IV. Current action and further needs with regard to cooperation and coordination in addressing
the effects of climate change and related changes in the atmosphere on oceans . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
A. Legal and policy frameworks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
B. Science and data collection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
C. Ocean-based adaptation and mitigation action and climate -resilient sustainable
development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
D. Capacity-building, partnerships and financing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
E. Enhancing inter-agency coordination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
V. Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
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I. Introduction
1. In paragraph 339 of its resolution 71/257, the General Assembly decided that
the United Nations Open-ended Informal Consultative Process on Oceans and the
Law of the Sea would focus its discussions at its eighteenth meeting on the effects
of climate change on oceans.
2. To facilitate the discussions, the present report builds on the First Global
Integrated Marine Assessment1 and the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
(IPCC) Fifth Assessment Report,2 together with other reports and scientific,
technical and policy studies. In addition, the Secretary -General is grateful for
contributions submitted by States and rele vant organizations and bodies upon his
invitation.3 They detail action taken to address the effects of climate change and
related changes on oceans, in addition to further action necessary to prevent and
significantly reduce future effects. The full text o f the submissions should be
referred to for completeness.4
__________________
1 United Nations, “First Global Integrated Marine Assessment: World Ocean Assessment I ” (2016),
available from http://www.un.org/depts/los/global_reporting /WOA_RegProcess.htm.
2 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), Climate Change 2013: The Physical
Science Basis — Contribution of Working Group I to the Fifth Assessment Report of the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Chang e (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2013),
and Climate Change 2014: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability — Contribution of Working
Group II to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
(Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2014).
3 Contributions were received from the Governments of Azerbaijan, Bangladesh, Indonesia,
Monaco, Namibia, New Zealand, the Republic of Korea and the United States of America, as
well as from the European Union, which included the separate contributions of Estonia, France,
Italy and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. The Secretary -General also
expresses appreciation for the contributions submitted by the following intergovernmental
organizations: Baltic Marine Environment Protection Co mmission (Helsinki Commission),
Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources, secretariat of the
Convention on Biological Diversity, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
(FAO), Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission (IOC), International Atomic Energy
Agency, International Hydrographic Organization (IHO), International Maritime Organization
(IMO), International Seabed Authority, North Atlantic Salmon Conservation Organization,
North‐East Atlantic Fisheries Commission, North Pacific Anadromous Fish Commission, Pacific
Community (SPC), United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
(UNESCO), secretariat of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and
World Meteorological Organizat ion (WMO). The Department of Economic and Social Affairs of
the Secretariat, the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, the Office of
the High Representative for the Least Developed Countries, Landlocked Developing Countries
and Small Island Developing States, the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development,
the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) (including the Mediterranean Action Plan
(UNEP/MAP)) and the United Nations Human Settlements Programme (UN -Habitat) also made
contributions.
4 Contributions authorized by the authors to be posted online are available from
www.un.org/Depts/los/general_assembly/general_assembly_reports.htm. They are identified in
the footnotes with the name of the State or international organization that submitted them.
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II. Climate change and related changes in the atmosphere:
key drivers affecting oceans
3. It is now well understood that oceans and coastal systems are particularly
affected by two key drivers linked to climate change and related changes in the
atmosphere: ocean warming and ocean acidification.
4. Human-induced warming of the atmosphere and oceans is unequivocal.5 In fact,
most of the heat excess caused by increases in atmospheric greenhouse gases is
absorbed by oceans.6 Their large mass and high heat capacity allow them to store
huge amounts of energy. Oceans are estimated to have absorbed abo ut 93 per cent of
the combined extra heat stored by warmed air, sea, land and melted ice between
1971 and 2010.7
5. Although all ocean basins have warmed during the past decades, the increase
in heat content is not uniform across basins. 8 Warming is also not uniform
throughout the water column, with the strongest warming found closest to the
surface. Oceans are expected to continue to warm during the twenty -first century,
with the strongest warming being projected for the surface in tropical and northern
hemisphere subtropical regions.9
6. Increasing carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere cause both
anthropogenic climate change and anthropogenic ocean acidification. Oceans are a
major sink of carbon dioxide, having absorbed 30 per cent of anthropo genic carbon
dioxide emitted to the atmosphere.10 Such absorption has benefited humankind by
significantly reducing the greenhouse gas levels in the atmosphere and abating some
of the impacts of climate change. Nevertheless, oceans ’ uptake of carbon dioxide is
__________________
5 Secretariat of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change contribution.
6 United Nations, “World Ocean Assessment I”, chap. 5, sect. 2.3.
7 Ibid. See also IPCC, Climate Change 2013: The Physical Science Basis , p. 260; and Philip C.
Reid, “Ocean warming: setting the scene”, in D. Laffoley and J. M. Baxter, eds., Explaining
Ocean Warming: Causes, Scale, Effects and Conseq uences (Gland, Switzerland, International
Union for Conservation of Nature, 2016), p. 17.
8 For example, the increase in heat content in the Atlantic during the past four decades exceeds
that of the Pacific and Indian oceans combined (United Nations, “World Ocean Assessment I”,
chap. 5, sect. 2.3). In addition, in recent decades the Baltic Sea region has warmed up more
swiftly than the global average. This accelerated warming is continuing and is expected to do so
throughout the twenty-first century (Helsinki Commission contribution). The shallow waters of
the Mediterranean Sea have already warmed by almost 1°C since the 1980s (UNEP contribution).
The Republic of Korea reported an increase in sea surface water temperature of 2.5 times higher
than the global increase in mean sea surface temperature for the same period, mostly owing to
features in this semi-enclosed area, long-term changes to the Siberian High and the Pacific
Decadal Oscillation and the effect of the Tsushima Warm Current (Republic of Korea
contribution). Model studies indicate that the Southern Ocean and the subarctic seas of the Arctic
Ocean will become more stratified, which will result in fresher, warmer surface ocean waters in
the polar and subpolar regions, significantly altering their c hemistry and ecosystems (see United
Nations, “World Ocean Assessment I”, chap. 4, sect. 1; see also IPCC, Climate Change 2014:
Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability, pp. 1664-1672).
9 IPCC, “Summary for policymakers”, in Climate Change 2013: The Physical Science Basis; see
also pp. 263 and 278.
10 Ibid., sect. B.5.
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having a significant effect on the chemistry of seawater, which is becoming more
acidic, a process described as ocean acidification. 11
7. Oceans absorb atmospheric carbon dioxide mainly through two processes:
physical air-sea flux at the ocean surface12 and active biological uptake.13 As more
anthropogenic carbon dioxide is emitted, oceans absorb greater amounts, leading to
increasing ocean acidification.14 Seawater acidity has increased by an average of
30 per cent since the beginning of the industrial era and, if the current emissions
scenarios persist, a 170 per cent increase is projected by the end of the current
century.15 Consequently, the chemical capacity of oceans to take up more carbon
dioxide is diminishing, compromising their efficiency as carb on sinks.16
III. Environmental, economic and social impacts of ocean
warming and acidification
8. The aforementioned drivers have serious effects on oceans, including rising
sea levels, increased acidity and reduced mixing of ocean water and nutrients owing
to stratification and deoxygenation. The results of these effects include loss of life,
destruction of property, erosion of coastlines, migration of fish stocks , coral
bleaching and other ecosystem degradation. These impacts act as threat multiplier s
by combining with other anthropogenic impacts, thus exacerbating challenges
relating to food security, livelihoods and the development of communities. This in
turn undermines the ability of States, in particular least developed countries and
small island developing States, to achieve sustainable development and in some
cases threatens the viability and survival of communities and even nations, in
particular in low-lying coastal countries.
__________________
11 Ibid., box 3.2, p. 295; see also European Union and IOC contributions.
12 Colder water can take up carbon dioxide more than warm water and, if this cold, denser water
sinks to form intermediate, deep or bottom water, there is transport of carbon away from the
surface ocean and thus from the atmosphere into the interior of oceans . This “solubility pump”
helps to keep the surface waters of oceans on average lower in carbon dioxide than the deep
water, a condition that promotes the flux of the gas from the atmosphere into oceans (see United
Nations, “World Ocean Assessment I”, chap. 5, p. 16).
13 Phytoplankton take up carbon dioxide from the water in the process of photosynthesis, some of
which sinks to the bottom in the form of particles or is mixed into the deeper waters as dissolved
organic or inorganic carbon. Part of this carbon is permanently buried in the sediments and the
other part enters into the slower circulation of the deep ocean. This “biological pump” serves to
maintain the gradient in carbon dioxide concentration between the surface and deep waters
(see United Nations, “World Ocean Assessment I”, chap. 5, p. 16).
14 IPCC, “Carbon and other biogeochemical cycles”, in Climate Change 2013: The Physical
Science Basis.
15 Wendy Broadgate and others, “Ocean acidification: summary for policymakers — third symposium
on the ocean in a high-CO2 world” (Stockholm, International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme, IOC,
Scientific Committee on Oceanic Research, 2013). Available from www.igbp.net .
16 Currently, that capacity is only 70 per cent of what it was at the beginning of the industrial era,
and it may well be reduced to only 20 per cent by the end of the twenty -first century. See WMO
Greenhouse Gas Bulletin, No. 10 (September 2014); and Laffoley and Baxter, eds., Explaining
Ocean Warming, p. 17)
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A. Ocean warming
9. Ocean warming is expected to have a substantial impact on specific species 17
and a broader impact on ecosystems and biodiversity. 18 The clear attribution of the
impacts of climate change on biological systems is often difficult owing to a lack of
long-term data, a limited understanding of the combined effects of diverse chemical
and physical factors and the impact of other human drivers on aquatic systems.
Moreover, these impacts depend on the region and latitude. Nevertheless,
temperature-related changes in biological systems in all major ocea n systems have
been observed or are predicted.19
10. These changes are wide ranging and significant. They include changes in the
range, distribution and productivity of marine species, the loss or degradation of
coastal habitats and the loss of related eco system services, with corresponding
socioeconomic impacts, such as challenges to food security, livelihoods and
health.20
11. Projected rising temperatures are likely to result in changes in the distribution
of marine species and can significantly influenc e the reproductive cycles of fish,
including the speed at which they reach sexual maturity, the timing of spawning and
the size of the eggs that they lay.21 The distribution ranges of most marine species
will shift towards the poles and deeper water, resulting in the redistribution of catch
potential for fish and invertebrates. 22 This will shift provisioning services to benefit
the middle and moderately high latitudes (often highly developed) at the expense of
low latitudes, where small-scale (subsistence) fishing is important for food
security.23
12. The impacts of ocean warming on marine ecosystems, such as coral reefs and
coastal wetlands, are also expected to affect the productivity and resilience of
connected species. Coral bleaching has already significa ntly damaged most coral
reefs around the world and is projected to become more frequent and more severe
with climate change, threatening the many coral reef ecosystem services on which
hundreds of millions of coastal dwellers depend for fish production and fisheries,
coastal protection, ecotourism and other community uses of coral reefs. 24 In a
__________________
17 Ocean warming may have a wide range of impact s on marine species, including plankton,
shellfish, fish, seaweeds and seagrasses and corals. Marine organisms specialize in a limited
range of ambient temperatures that allows for optimal performance. Changes in ocean
temperatures beyond this range affect growth, body size, behaviour, immune defences, feeding
and reproductive success (see Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development
(OECD), The Ocean Economy in 2030 (Paris, OECD Publishing, 2016)).
18 FAO contribution.
19 Anika Seggel, Cassandra De Young and Doris Soto, Climate Change Implications for Fisheries
and Aquaculture: Summary of the Findings of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
Fifth Assessment Report, FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Circular, No. 1122 ( Rome, FAO, 2016).
20 FAO, IOC, International Seabed Authority, UNEP, UNESCO, secretariat of the United Nations
Framework Convention on Climate Change and WMO contributions.
21 FAO contribution.
22 IPCC, “Carbon and other biogeochemical cycles”, in Climate Change 2013: The Physical
Science Basis; see also FAO and IOC contributions.
23 See A/70/112, para. 169.
24 IOC contribution.
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business-as-usual scenario, severe bleaching will occur annually on 99 per cent of
the world’s coral reefs within the current century and for the majority of the reef s in
the world as early as the 2040s.25 The increased virulence of pathogens is also likely
to significantly affect marine species and ecosystems, including coral reefs, where
reduced reproduction and increased coral mortality will reduce habitat quality for
reef-dwelling species.26
13. The impacts of ocean warming on individual species and ecosystems are
having a cumulative effect on marine biodiversity, leading to global homogenization
as vulnerable species become extinct and alien species become establi shed across
the world’s oceans.27
14. Ocean warming is also predicted to reduce the mixing of atmospheric oxygen
(deoxygenation)28 into mid-depth and deep parts of oceans by increasing
stratification,29 decreasing vertical mixing and altering ocean circulati on patterns.30
Such warming could also release frozen methane hydrates stored in the sea floor at
water depths of 200-2,000 m (estimated at 2.5 Gt) into the ocean and ultimately into
the atmosphere.31
15. The above-mentioned effects have already begun to ha ve significant social,
cultural and economic impacts, including losses in coastal protection, fisheries,
tourism and recreation and decreased carbon storage being provided by coral reefs,
mangroves and coastal wetlands.32 The most significant and immediate
socioeconomic impacts of ocean warming will be felt by the people and industries
most directly dependent on living marine resources, including coastal communities
who depend on small-scale fisheries for protein and income, companies in the
fishery value chain and marine/coastal tourism, in particular in least developed
countries and small island developing States. 33 The sustainability of ocean-based
economies in coastal communities will be jeopardized, endangering livelihoods and
sustainable development opportunities. Fisheries and aquaculture-dependent
__________________
25 UNEP contribution.
26 Ibid.
27 Laffoley and Baxter, Explaining Ocean Warming.
28 Warmer water holds less oxygen, meaning that oxygen concentrations are declining even near the
surface of oceans. Increasing temperatures also increase the metabolic requirements of
organisms. Consequently, the need for oxygen is rising at the same time that a multitude of
processes that contribute to ocean deoxygenation reduces the supply (UNESCO contribution).
29 See A/70/12, para. 51.
30 See ibid., para. 52.
31 In fact, the heat and carbon dioxide accumulated in the ocean are not permanently locked away,
but can be released back to the atmosphere when the ocean surface is anomalously warm, giving
a positive rapid feedback to global warming (see Laffoley and Baxter, Explaining Ocean
Warming, pp. 10 and 17).
32 It is estimated that wetlands sequester carbon at a rate two to four times greater than mature
tropical forests and store three to five times more carbon per equivalent area than tropical forests
(see A/70/74, para. 70).
33 UNEP contribution.
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economies, coastal communities, fishers, fish farmers and workers along the value
chain are expected to experience the effects of climate change in various ways. 34
16. There are also signs that human health is being affected by the enhanced
survival and spread of tropical diseases with increasing ocean temperatures, in
particular pathogenic species of bacteria in the genus Vibrio (a cause of cholera) and
harmful algal bloom species that cause neurological illne sses. Human disease risk is
affected by changes in disease incidence for marine species that are part of our diet,
allowing for the direct transmission of the pathogen to humans or for infections of
wounds exposed during recreational activities. 35
Sea level rise
17. Between 1901 and 2010, global sea level rise accelerated and the recent rise
appears to have been the fastest in at least 2,800 years. 36 During the past four
decades, 75 per cent of the rise can be attributed to glacier mass loss and ocean
thermal expansion.37 Nevertheless, even if the global mean temperature is stabilized,
sea levels are projected to continue to rise for centuries, as the deep areas of oceans
slowly warm and the large ice sheets find a new surface mass balance. 38
18. Sea level rise leads to coastal erosion, inundations, storm-related floods, the
encroachment of tidal waters into estuaries and river systems, the contamination of
freshwater reserves and food crops, the loss of nesting beaches and the displacement
of coastal lowlands and wetlands.39 It has a particular adverse impact on mangroves,
seagrasses and intertidal areas and on the species that rely on them, many of which
are commercially valuable. It can affect endemic and habitat -forming benthic
species, given that they are highly vulnerable to water level changes and coastal
erosion.40
19. The impacts of sea level rise interact with and amplify other existing
anthropogenic or natural forms of pressure that affect coastal areas, including urban
development, fishing, aquaculture, tourism, damming, extraction of materials,
marine biological invasions, coastal subsidence and tectonic movements. 41
__________________
34 For example, changes such as a possible shift towards less primary production of plankton and
diminished cold-water seaweed harvest, in addition to changes in the distributions and
productivity of fish stocks and shellfish, would affect human food production and may have
serious implications for food security (see OECD, The Ocean Economy in 2030). Greater
uncertainty for fisheries results in social and economic impacts, complicating sustainable
management (see also United States, North Pacific Anadromous Fish Commission and SPC
contributions). As predicted by IPCC, vulnerability would be highest in developing tropical
countries involving a risk of reduced supplies, income and employment from marine fisheries
(see IPCC, Climate Change 2014: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability ).
35 Laffoley and Baxter, Explaining Ocean Warming.
36 Robert E. Kopp and others, “Temperature-driven global sea-level variability in the common era ”,
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, vol. 113, No. 11
(March 2016).
37 IPCC, “Summary for policy makers ”, in Climate Change 2013: The Physical Science Basis .
38 Ibid., “Technical summary”, in Climate Change 2013: The Physical Science Basis . See also
secretariat of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change contribution.
39 Helsinki Commission and UNEP contributions.
40 Laffoley and Baxter, Explaining Ocean Warming.
41 UNEP/MAP contribution.
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20. The impact of sea level rise is particularly significant on coastal regions and
communities, not only because they are physically most exposed to it but also
because they have very high population densities. 42 Slow-onset hazards, such sea
level rise and coastal erosion, will cause people to flee their homes. In particular,
sea level rise poses a significant risk to small island developing States43 and other
low-lying States and their efforts to achieve sustainable development and, for many,
represents the gravest of threats to their survival and viability, including through the
loss of territory for some.44 It is estimated that at least 11 to 15 per cent of the
population of small island developing States live on land with an elevation of 5 m or
lower,45 and that sea level rise of 0.5 m could displace 1.2 million people from low -
lying islands in the Caribbean Sea and the Indian and P acific oceans — that number
would almost double if the sea level were to rise by 2 m. 46 Low-lying islands
provide no possibility of retreat from sea level rise, leaving their populations with
no other alternative than moving elsewhere, threatening their sur vival and viability.
21. Sea level rise is also projected to have significant implications for
infrastructure and transportation, including ports, airports, railways and access roads
located in coastal areas, increasing management and repair costs. 47 In turn, this will
have an adverse impact on the sustainability of trade, food, energy and tourism 48 and
cause interruptions in the mobility of local communities and world trade. 49 The
potential costs associated with damage to harbours and ports stemming from sea
level rise could be as high as $111.6 billion by 2050 and $367.2 billion by the end
of the century.50
__________________
42 In 2005, 400 million people lived in 1 36 large coastal cities. Just accounting for the increase in
population, property and value of these cities, it is estimated that, in the coming 50 years,
damages relating to sea level rise could rise from $6 billion per year to $52 billion per year and
be as high as $1 trillion or more per year if flood defences are not upgraded. A European
initiative, on the projection of the economic impacts of climate change in sectors of the European
Union based on bottom-up analysis, estimates that the average annual costs from sea flood
damage will increase from €163 million to €903 million in the 2080s in the southern
Mediterranean alone (UNEP/MAP contribution).
43 Office of the High Representative for the Least Developed Countries, Landlocked Developing
Countries and Small Island Developing States contribution.
44 See resolution 66/288, annex.
45 UN-Habitat contribution.
46 Office of the High Representative for the Least Developed Countries, Landlocked Developing
Countries and Small Island Developing States contribution; see also Biliana Cicin -Sain and others,
“Toward a strategic action roadmap on oceans and climate: 2016 to 2021”, paper prepared for the
Global Ocean Forum, Washington, D.C., October 2016, p. 16; see also UN -Habitat, Urbanization
and Climate Change in Small Island Developing States (Nairobi, 2015). Available from
https://unhabitat.org/books/urbanization-and-climate-change-in-small-island-developing-states/.
47 United Nations Conference on Trade and Development contribution.
48 UNEP/MAP contribution. Nevertheless, the vulnerability of coastal tourism is difficult to assess
because the impact of sea level rise may lead to a redistribution, rather than a disappearance, of
tourist fluxes.
49 An estimated 80 per cent of the volume of such trade is carried by sea and enters the markets
through ports and coastal transport infrastructure (United Nations Conference on Trade and
Development contribution); see also http://unctad.org/en/Pages/DTL/TTL/Legal/Climate -
Change-and-Maritime-Transport.aspx.
50 Kevin J. Noone, Ussif Rashid Sumaila and Robert J. Diaz, eds., Managing Ocean Environments in
a Changing Climate: Sustainability and Economic Perspectives (Burlington, Massachusetts,
Elsevier Press, 2013). Available from http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/book/9780124076686 .
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Melting ice in polar regions
22. Ice shelves are melting at unprecedented rates also as a result of ocean
warming,51 and the contribution of melting continental ice sheets to sea level rise is
accelerating.52 These rates are projected to further increase in the coming years, 53
possibly at paces much greater than currently estimated, 54 given that ice
disappearance has a multiplier effect by reducing surfac e reflection that, in turn,
further increases surface melting.55 In addition, the previously underappreciated
processes of how atmospheric warming causes the hydrofracturing of buttressing ice
shelves and the structural collapse of ice cliffs is now underst ood to give Antarctica
alone the potential to contribute more than 1 m of sea level rise by 2100 and more
than 15 m by 2500.56
23. Given that the polar ice sheets of Greenland and Antarctica are the largest
reservoirs of freshwater on the planet, 57 their melting will not only dramatically
increase sea level rise globally, including its socioeconomic impacts, but also cause
severe effects, such as changes in the salinity of oceans, and possibly alter ocean
currents and their mitigating impact on the climate o f many countries.58
24. Reduced sea ice, especially a shift towards less multi -year sea ice, will affect a
wide range of species in those waters. 59 In the Arctic region, permafrost coasts have
been increasingly eroded, resulting in the release of nutrients and pollutants into
oceans. How the habitat of these areas and the ocean life of these regions are
exactly affected is yet to be understood. 60
25. The reduction of Arctic sea ice could open up new navigational routes in the
region, possibly making trans-Arctic shipping economically viable and oil and gas
extraction, mining and tourism more accessible. The potential economic and social
benefits of such activities notwithstanding, they would pose a threat to the highly
vulnerable Arctic ecosystem.61
__________________
51 Ala Khazendar and others, “Rapid submarine ice melting in the grounding zones of ice shelves in
West Antarctica”, Nature Communications 7, article No. 13243 (October 2016).
52 WMO contribution.
53 IPCC, “Technical summary”, in Climate Change 2013: The Physical Science Basis , p. 98.
54 Ibid., p. 89.
55 OECD, The Ocean Economy in 2030, p. 81.
56 Robert M. DeConto and David Pollard, “Contribution of Antarctica to past and future sea -level
rise”, Nature, vol. 531, No. 7596 (March 2016). Available from http://www.nature.com/articles/
nature17145.epdf.
57 United Nations, “World Ocean Assessment I”, chap. 4, p. 2.
58 DeConto and Pollard, “Contribution of Antarctica to past and future sea -level rise”.
59 United Nations, “World Ocean Assessment I”, summary. For example, owing to low reproductive
rates and long lifetimes, some iconic species, including the polar bear, will be challenged to
adapt to the current fast warming of the Arctic and may be extirpated from portions of their range
within the coming 100 years.
60 Joseph R. Fonseca, “Retreating Arctic coasts cause drastic changes ”, Marine Technology News,
4 January 2017. Available from http://www.marinetechnologynews.com/news/retreating-arcticcoasts-
cause-543334.
61 OECD, The Ocean Economy in 2030, p. 83.
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Extreme weather events
26. Ocean warming has been linked to extreme weather events as increasing
seawater temperatures provide more energy for storms that develop at sea, leading
to fewer but more intense tropical cyclones globally; changes in phenomena such a s
El Niño also result in significant changes in weather patterns on land. 62 This is
accompanied by a pronounced poleward movement of the latitude at which the
maximum intensities of storms occur, affecting coastal areas that have not
previously been exposed to the dangers caused by tropical cyclones. 63 Many coastal
areas will experience the effects of sea level rise described in paragraphs 18 -21
above.
27. Extreme weather events and their impacts on oceans severely affect coastal
communities through the widespread loss of life and the extensive destruction of
infrastructure, settlements and facilities that support their livelihoods and
existence.64 Exposure to climate change-related hazards will increase as coastal
populations and assets in coastal areas conti nue to grow, especially in highly
vulnerable urban communities living in informal settlements. 65 This may result in
huge numbers of displaced persons, who will also be immediately exposed to
shortages of food, water and fuel while the destruction of port fa cilities and the
creation of new navigational obstacles may impede adequate emergency response. 66
It has been reported that 21.5 million people, on average, have been forcibly
internally displaced by weather-related sudden onset hazards per year since 2008. 67
28. Tropical cyclones have a direct impact on coral reefs, mangroves, seagrasses
and intertidal areas through physical damage, the resuspension of sediments, pulses
of nutrient enrichment and freshwater inundation, altering their extent and structural
complexity and thus their benefit as fish habitats. 68
B. Ocean acidification
29. Ocean acidification is one of the largest threats to marine organisms and
ecosystems.69 There is high confidence that it will increase for centuries if carbon
dioxide emissions continue and will strongly affect marine ecosystems. 70
__________________
62 United Nations, “World Ocean Assessment I”, chap. 5.
63 Ibid.
64 IHO contribution.
65 UNEP contribution.
66 IHO contribution.
67 Alexandra Bilak and others, “Global report on internal displacement ” (Geneva, Internal
Displacement Monitoring Centre, 2016). Available from http://www.internal-displacement.org/
assets/publications/2016/2016-global-report-internal-displacement-IDMC.pdf.
68 The destruction of coral reefs through cyclones can also lead to increased algal blooms as a result
of the upheaval and damage. Changes in the density and biomass of fish species are common after
such events and may result in reductions in critical ecosystem functions, potentially leading to
regime shifts to less desirable benthic assemblage types (SPC contribution).
69 Nathalie Hilmi and others, eds., Bridging the Gap between Ocean Acidification Impacts and
Economic Valuation: Regional Impacts of Ocean Acidification on Fisheries and Aquaculture
(Gland, Switzerland, International Union for Conservation of Nature, 2015), p. 19.
70 IPCC, Climate Change 2013: The Physical Science Basis , p. 16.
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30. Ocean acidification affects calcifying organisms, such as corals, because their
ability to build shell or skeletal material depends on the acidity of the water. As
acidification intensifies, this problem will become more widespread and occur in
wild, as well as in cultured, stocks.71 Ocean acidification also affects other marine
biota, including by reducing survival, development and growth rates. 72 It therefore
directly affects important compone nts of the ocean food web, such as primary
producers (plankton), coral reefs, shellfish and crustaceans; marine species that are
important in capture fisheries and mariculture are also affected. 73 Coral reefs, in
particular, are very sensitive to ocean acid ification, with 60 per cent of reefs
currently threatened, a number that will rise to 90 per cent by 2030 and about
100 per cent by 2050.74
31. Socioeconomic impacts include impacts on food security and the livelihoods
of fishing and aquaculture communitie s. Many such communities are especially
vulnerable because they have fewer alternative livelihoods. 75 Other impacts,
described in a previous report of the Secretary -General on oceans and the law of the
sea to the General Assembly in connection with the meet ing of the Informal
Consultative Process focusing on the impacts of ocean acidification on the marine
environment, also remain valid.76
C. Cumulative impacts
32. The joint impacts of ocean warming and ocean acidification can be
significant.77 For example, ocean acidification affects the carbon cycle and the
stabilization of atmospheric carbon dioxide (see para. 6 above), hence potentially
exacerbating anthropogenic climate change and its socioeconomic impacts. 78 The
cumulative effects of these impacts may cause changes at a pace such that marine
ecosystems and species would not have sufficient time to adapt. 79 Moreover, these
impacts cumulate with other human-induced stresses, such as unsustainable coastal
development, overexploitation of living marin e resources, habitat alteration and
pollution.80 While ocean warming is arguably the most pervasive environmental
stressor associated with global climate change, it rarely operates independently of
other regional and local conditions.
33. Marine ecosystems and biodiversity that may be resilient to one form or
intensity of impact can be much more severely affected by a combination of
__________________
71 United Nations, “World Ocean Assessment I”, summary.
72 Ibid.
73 See A/68/159, para. 11; and SPC contribution for ocean acidification impacts on Pacific tuna and
other pelagic species.
74 Monaco contribution.
75 Hilmi and others, eds., Bridging the Gap between Ocean Acidification Impacts and Economic
Valuation, p. 3.
76 See A/68/71, paras. 33-39.
77 IPCC, Climate Change 2013: The Physical Science Basis , p. 67; see also Hilmi and others, eds.,
Bridging the Gap between Ocean Acidification Impacts and Economic Valuation , p. 3; see also
Monaco contribution.
78 See A/68/71, paras. 33-39.
79 See A/68/159, para. 10.
80 Monaco, European Union, UNEP and UNESCO contributions.
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impacts, with the total impact of several forms of pressure on the same ecosystem
often being much larger than the sum of the individual impacts. It has been observed
that, where biodiversity has been altered, the resilience of ecosystems to other
impacts, including climate change, is often reduced. 81 Building ecological resilience
will thus depend largely on addressing the cumula tive impacts of human activities
on the marine environment and the unique challenges faced by mutually reinforcing
stressors.
IV. Current action and further needs with regard to cooperation
and coordination in addressing the effects of climate change
and related changes in the atmosphere on oceans
34. The interlinkages between climate change and oceans, including associated
environmental and socioeconomic impacts (see sects. II and III), call for diverse and
cross-sectoral responses to address the effe cts of climate change and related changes
in the atmosphere on oceans. Cooperation and coordination and integrated
approaches at all levels are therefore essential in the planning and implementation
of successful action to tackle this global challenge.
35. Many organizations and bodies address aspects of climate change and its
effects on oceans, mainly from a sectoral perspective. The General Assembly is the
only global policymaking body that thus far has addressed the issue in an integrated
and non-sector-specific manner with a view to enhancing cooperation. 82 Cognizant
that awareness-raising among relevant sectors and stakeholders is key to facilitating
cooperation and coordination, the Assembly has recognized the importance of
raising awareness of the adverse impacts of climate change on the marine
environment and marine biodiversity, including in the context of the United Nations
Framework Convention on Climate Change (see also paras. 39 and 52 -53 below).
36. Set out in the present section is information on current action to tackle the
effects of climate change and related changes in the atmosphere on oceans, with a
particular focus on identifying areas in which coordination and cooperation could be
enhanced.
A. Legal and policy frameworks
37. Several international legal and policy instruments contain measures to tackle
the effects of climate change on oceans, including by providing for the enhancement
of marine ecosystems’ resilience, supporting adaptation and mitigation action or
providing frameworks to take on related challenges.
38. Under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, which contains
the legal framework within which all activities in oceans and seas must be carried
out, States are required to protect and preserve the marine environment, including
__________________
81 United Nations, “World Ocean Assessment I”.
82 See resolutions 61/222, 62/215, 63/111, 64/171, 65/37 A, 66/321, 67/78, 68/70, 69/245, 70/235
and 71/257.
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from pollution83 from or through the atmosphere.84 States are also required to
conserve and manage living marine resources, as also elaborated in the Agreement
for the Implementation of the Provisions of the United Nations Convention on the
Law of the Sea of 10 December 1982 relating to the Conservation and Management
of Straddling Fish Stocks and Highly Migratory Fish Stocks. 85 Similarly, under the
Convention on Biological Diversity, States are required to conserve and sustainably
use marine biodiversity, by establishing, among other things, a system of protected
areas or areas where special measures need to be taken, 86 thereby contributing to
enhancing ecosystem resilience.87
39. Set out in the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change is
the global legal regime to stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations at a level that
would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system to,
among other things, allow ecosystems to adapt naturally to climate change and to
ensure that food production is not t hreatened.88 Recognized in the Convention and
the Paris Agreement are the role of oceans in mitigating greenhouse gas emissions 89
and the importance of ensuring the integrity of all ecosystems, including oceans,
when taking action to tackle climate change. 90
40. Also of relevance in limiting ocean-based greenhouse gas emissions is annex
VI to the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships, 1973,
on the prevention of air pollution from ships and the related energy efficiency
measures adopted by the International Maritime Organization (IMO). This
comprehensive mandatory regime includes both technical and operational measures
designed to put in place best practices for fuel efficiency, as described in paragraph
72 below. A system for collecting data on ships’ fuel oil consumption will be
mandatory and apply globally at the beginning of 2019 and a comprehensive
strategy on the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions from ships will be developed,
with an initial strategy foreseen for adoption in 2018.91
41. Measures to regulate marine geoengineering (see also paras. 76 -78 below) in
the context of the Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of
Wastes and Other Matter, 1972 (London Convention), and the Protocol of 1996
thereto (London Protocol) are also relevant, given the potential impact of some
__________________
83 In article 1 of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, “pollution of the marine
environment” is defined as the “introduction by man, directly or indirectly, of substan ces or
energy into the marine environment which results or is likely to result in such deleterious effects
as harm to living resources and marine life, hazards to human health, hindrance to marine
activities, including fishing and other legitimate uses of the sea, impairment of quality for use of
sea water and reduction of amenities”.
84 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, articles 192, 194 and 212.
85 Ibid., articles 61 and 117.
86 Convention on Biological Diversity, article 8.
87 Other conventions addressing the conservation and sustainable use of specific ecosystems and/or
species are also relevant in this context, such as the Convention on Wetlands of International
Importance especially as Waterfowl Habitat and the Convention on the Co nservation of
Migratory Species of Wild Animals.
88 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, article 2. See also article 2 of the
Paris Agreement.
89 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, article 4 (1) (d).
90 Paris Agreement, fourteenth preambular paragraph.
91 IMO contribution.
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geoengineering methods aimed at mitigating the effects of climate change on the
marine environment.92 Amendments to the London Protocol to regulate carbon
dioxide sequestration in subseabed geological formations were adopted in 2006. 93
42. At the regional level, the resilience of marine ecosystems in the face of climate
change is promoted through various instruments that pertain to, among other things,
the development of integrated coastal zone management as a means to prevent
and/or reduce the effects of climate change 94 and the establishment of marine
protected areas.95
43. Since 2006, the General Assembly has drawn attention in its annual resolutions
on oceans and the law of the sea and on sustainable fisheries to the need to address
the impacts of climate change and ocean acidification on marine ecosystems,
including the impacts on the sustainability of fish stocks and the habitats that
support them.96 The work of its subsidiary bodies on ocean-related issues is also of
relevance in this context. For example, the First Global Integrated Marine
Assessment, the outcome of the first cycle of the Regular Process for Global
Reporting and Assessment of the State of the Marine Environment, incl uding
Socioeconomic Aspects, pertains to the impacts of climate change and related
changes in the atmosphere, based on the work of IPCC (see para. 64 below). The
impacts of climate change and ocean acidification are also of relevance to the work
of the Preparatory Committee established by General Assembly resolution 69/292:
Development of an international legally binding instrument under the United
Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea on the conservation an d sustainable use
of marine biological diversity of areas beyond national jurisdiction.
44. In its resolutions on sustainable fisheries, the General Assembly has expressed
concern over the current and projected adverse effects of climate change on food
security and the sustainability of fisheries and urged the intensification of efforts to
assess and address those impacts. In addition, at the resumed Review Conference on
the Agreement for the Implementation of the Provisions of the United Nations
Convention on the Law of the Sea of 10 December 1982 relating to the
Conservation and Management of Straddling Fish Stocks and Highly Migratory Fish
Stocks, in 2016, States emphasized that there was a need for close collaboration
among all relevant stakeholders in conducting research on the risks and impacts of
climate change on fish stocks. They also committed themselves to exploring ways to
incorporate the consideration of the adverse impacts of climate change and ocean
__________________
92 IMO, document LC 31/15, annex 5, resolution LP.3(4); and document LC 35/15, annex 4,
resolution LP.4(8).
93 IMO contribution.
94 See, for example, the Protocol on Integrated Coastal Zone Man agement in the Mediterranean to
the Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment and the Coastal Region of the
Mediterranean.
95 See, for example, the Protocol concerning Specially Protected Areas and Wildlife to the
Convention for the Protecti on and Development of the Marine Environment of the Wider
Caribbean Region; the Protocol concerning Specially Protected Areas and Biological Diversity in
the Mediterranean; the Protocol concerning Protected Areas and Wild Fauna and Flora in the
Eastern African Region; the Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living
Resources conservation measure 91 -04; and the Convention for the Protection of the Marine
Environment of the North-East Atlantic recommendation 2003/3.
96 See resolutions 71/257 and 71/123.
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acidification and related uncertainties regar ding fisheries into decision-making
processes for the adoption of conservation and management measures, in line with
the precautionary approach.97
45. The synergies between sustainable development, oceans, climate change and
ocean acidification are also prominent in a number of other policy instruments,
including the outcome document of the United Nations Conference on Sustainable
Development, entitled “The future we want”,98 the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable
Development99 and the SIDS Accelerated Modalities of Action (SAMOA) Pathway
(Samoa Pathway)100 at the global level and the Mediterranean Strategy for
Sustainable Development 2016-2025 at the regional level.101 These policy
documents contain recognition of the need to conserve and sustainably use oceans,
seas and marine resources and of the fact that sea level rise, ocean acidification and
other adverse impacts of climate change pose a significant risk to efforts to achieve
sustainable development, in particular for small island developing States and least
developed countries. The United Nations Conference to Support the Implementation
of Sustainable Development Goal 14: Conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas
and marine resources for sustainable development, to be held in New York from 5 to
9 June 2017, will provide an important opportunity to address ways to support the
implementation of Goal 14.
46. In relation to disaster management, the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk
Reduction 2015-2030 provides a global framework to guide decision makers
towards a more disaster-resilient future. In the Sendai Declaration, a call is made for
the mainstreaming of disaster risk assessment, mapping and management into rural
development planning and management of, among other things, coastal floodplain
areas, including by preserving ecosystem functions that help to reduce risks. 102
47. Many of the phenomena resulting from climate change, including the
increasing frequency of extreme weather events and natural disasters, rising sea
levels and floods, directly and indirectly threaten the full and effective enjoyment of
a range of human rights, including those to life, water and sanitation, food, health,
housing, self-determination, culture and development. 103
48. Given that mitigation and adaptation measures can also have human rights
impacts, all action relating to climate change must respect, protect, promote and
fulfil human rights standards and should be taken following a human rights -based
__________________
97 See A/CONF.210/2016/5, annex, sect. A.4 (b).
98 Resolution 66/288, annex.
99 Resolution 70/1; see also Department of Economic and Social Affairs contribution.
100 Resolution 69/15, paras. 31 and 44; see also Office of the High Representative for the Least
Developed Countries, Landlocked Developing Countries and Small Island Developing States
contribution.
101 UNEP/MAP, Mediterranean Strategy for Sustainable Development 2016 -2025, objective 4.
102 Resolution 69/283, annex I.
103 While no reference is made in the universal human rights treaties to a specific right to a safe and
healthy environment, the treaty bodies all recognize the intrinsic link between the environment
and the realization of a range of human rights, i.e. the Declaration of the United Nations
Conference on the Human Environment, principle 1; the Convention on the Rights of the Child,
article 24 (2) (c); and the Indi genous and Tribal Peoples Convention, 1989 (No. 169), of the
International Labour Organization. For additional detail, see A/HRC/10/61.
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approach.104 Human rights principles articulated in the Declaration on the Right to
Development call for such climate action to be both individual and collective and
for it to benefit the most vulnerable. 105
49. In view of the impacts on coastal communities generated by the effects of
climate change on the ocean (see paras. 20 and 27 above), applicable human rights
instruments are also relevant. To reduce the risk of displacement of communities
vulnerable to the effects of extreme weather disasters and climate change, the Office
of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees has develope d guidance for
States regarding how to plan for relocation. 106 The vast majority of affected people,
thus far, are displaced within their countries. States therefore have the primary duty
and responsibility to protect and assist those internally displaced pe rsons, in
accordance with their human rights obligations. The Guiding Principles on Internal
Displacement also provide a basis for legislation or policies on internal
displacement, including in disaster contexts. 107 When displaced persons cross
international borders, they are not normally considered refugees under the terms of
the 1951 Convention relating to the Status of Refugees. 108 The State-led Nansen
Initiative, which ran from 2012 to 2015, was established to fill that gap and resulted
in the endorsement of the Agenda for the Protection of Cross-Border Displaced
Persons in the Context of Disasters and Climate Change, 109 followed by the
Platform on Disaster Displacement.110
Challenges and opportunities in the implementation of existing agreements
50. Integrated and coherent approaches to tackle the effects of climate change and
ocean acidification on the oceans can be further developed only through enhanced
cooperation and coordination at all levels in the implementation of legal, policy and
management frameworks for both climate change and oceans.
51. Existing instruments provide, among other things, a framework to mitigate
greenhouse gas emissions, adapt to impacts and increase marine ecosystem
resilience, all of which are critical in responding to the eff ects of climate change on
oceans. The effective implementation of these instruments can therefore be mutually
reinforcing. For example, the effective implementation of the United Nations
Convention on the Law of the Sea and related instruments on the prote ction and
preservation of the marine environment and the conservation and management of
living marine resources contributes to enhancing the absorptive capacity of oceans
as carbon sinks and to reaching mitigation targets under the Paris Agreement, while
also ensuring that oceans are resilient to the impacts of climate change. Conversely,
reaching the mitigation and adaptation objectives set out in the United Nations
Framework Convention on Climate Change and the Paris Agreement is essential for
__________________
104 See http://www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/HRAndClimateChange/Pages/HRClimateChangeIndex.aspx .
105 Resolution 41/128.
106 See http://www.unhcr.org/protection/environment/562f798d9/planned -relocation-guidanceoctober-
2015.html.
107 E/CN.4/1998/53/Add.2. At the regional level, the African Union Convention for the Protection
and Assistance of Internally Displaced Persons in Africa provides legal protection for those
forced to flee their homes as a result of natural di sasters and other specified reasons.
108 Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees contribution.
109 See https://www.nanseninitiative.org/ .
110 See http://disasterdisplacement.org/ .
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the protection of food security and livelihoods, for the effectiveness of conservation
and management measures with regard to living marine resources, for efforts to
prevent, reduce and control pollution of the marine environment and for ensuring
that oceans continue to perform their role in climate regulation.
52. It is not yet clear what role oceans will have in the implementation of the Paris
Agreement. Current climate models and scenarios assume that oceans will remain a
carbon sink until 2100, yet they may become a source of greenhouse gases in the
future, releasing previously emitted carbon dioxide that they have stored (see
paras. 6-7 above).111 Parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on
Climate Change have identified key issues relating to oceans in t he context of
mitigation, adaptation and the pursuit of climate -resilient sustainable development,
including as part of their national adaptation and mitigation targets under their
intended nationally determined contributions. They include a need to enhanc e
observation, research and capacity-building, develop supportive institutional, legal
and policy frameworks and plan actions addressing emissions reductions, livelihood
diversification, conservation and risk management. 112
53. The implementation of the Warsaw International Mechanism for Loss and
Damage associated with Climate Change Impacts 113 will also be relevant in the
context of the impact of climate change on oceans, given that it pertains to related
socioeconomic effects, namely loss and damage as a res ult of sea level rise and
ocean acidification, in addition to other incremental impacts such as salinization,
land and forest degradation, loss of biodiversity, increasing temperatures and glacial
retreat.114
54. Neither the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea nor customary
international law addresses the impact of a total or partial loss of land territory that
may result from sea level rise on maritime limits. Specified in the Convention are
the maximum breadth of maritime zones and the sovereig nty, sovereign rights and
jurisdiction that coastal States can exercise therein. There is also an obligation
thereunder for a coastal State to deposit with the Secretary -General charts or lists of
geographical coordinates of its straight baselines, as well as outer limits and
delimitation lines of its maritime zones. As a consequence of sea level rise, the land
territory of coastal States may be dramatically diminished or, in extreme cases,
disappear. Baselines that may have been fixed and deposited with th e Secretary-
General, and the outer limits of maritime zones or delimitation lines measured
therefrom, may represent the configuration of the coastline before sea level rise.
With the exception of article 7 (2), concerning unstable coastlines caused by delt as
and other natural conditions, the Convention does not pertain to variations in coastal
geography.
__________________
111 Secretariat of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change contribution.
112 Ibid.
113 It was established to address loss and damage associated with the impacts of climate change,
including extreme events and slow-onset events, in developing countries that are particularly
vulnerable to the adverse effects of climate change. See decision 3/CP.19 of the Conference of
the Parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change.
114 Secretariat of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change contribution.
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B. Science and data collection
55. A scientific understanding of oceans is fundamental for the effective
management of human activities that affect the marine environment and to support
policymaking.115 Although scientific data and knowledge on oceans have increased
in recent decades, including through programmes such as Horizon 2020, the
European Union framework programme for research and innovation, 116 gaps remain,
in particular with regard to consistent coverage of data and the infrastructure to
collect and disseminate data and information. 117
56. Broadly, there are gaps in knowledge of coastal and ocean processes. 118 Gaps
persist in understanding sea temperature, sea level rise, salinity distribution, carbon
dioxide absorption and nutrient distribution and cycling. 119 There are gaps in
knowledge regarding the use of sea level data in models to determine changes in
coastal processes and changes in shorelines.120 To fully monitor the impacts of
climate change, more needs to be done at water depths below 2,000 m and on a
wider range of variables.121
57. Finer-resolution climate modelling would more accurately reflect the effects of
climate change.122 There has been a call for the development of indicators for
monitoring change and drivers of change and an increased use of novel observation
tools, in addition to mobile monitoring stations. 123 It has been noted that underwater
cultural heritage sites can provide strong e vidence of past climate change and serve
as indicator sites for changing currents, erosion and changing environmental
conditions.124
58. The development of a specific global framework for land/sea physical interaction
assessment needs has been suggested, including by improving the capacity of persons
who collect and analyse existing and new data at the local, regional and basin -wide
levels.125 In addition, support is needed for continuing in -situ measurements and for
__________________
115 United Nations, “World Ocean Assessment I”, chap. 30, pp. 1 and 9; see also A/66/70/Add.1,
paras. 275-276.
116 One major contribution made through Horizon 2020 to climate -related ocean observations is
through the AtlantOS project, for which the European Union has invested more than €20 million.
Regarding the impact of climate change on fisheries and aquaculture, other projects funded under
Horizon 2020 (CERES and ClimeFish) address the threats and opportunities that the aquatic
primary production sector is facing and develop adaptation strategies. Climate -related marine
research has also been central under the seventh f ramework programme for research and
technological development, with several projects such as MedSeA, VECTORS and MEECE
addressing issues including the effects of climate change on marine ecosystems and human
activities in the Mediterranean Sea, the Atlanti c Ocean, the Baltic Sea and the Black Sea. See
European Union contribution.
117 See UNEP(DEPI)/MED WG.421/Inf.19.
118 Secretariat of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change contribution.
119 United Nations, “World Ocean Assessment I”, chap. 9.
120 Ibid., chap. 26, sect. 6.
121 Secretariat of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change contribution.
122 Indonesia and secretariat of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
contributions; see also FCCC/CP/2015/7, para. 296.
123 Helsinki Commission contribution.
124 UNESCO contribution.
125 United Nations, “World Ocean Assessment I”, chap. 26, sect. 6.
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the re-establishment of discontinued data collection programmes, as well as for
initiating new studies, given that forecasting ocean processes is a required capability
for addressing climate change and sea level rise. 126 There is an observed shortage of
the data and local expertise required to assess risks relating to sea level rise, in
particular for small island developing States. Traditional knowledge could be an
additional resource in support of adaptation. 127
59. Understanding and forecasting the impacts of climate change on oceans, as
well as detection of changes and validation models, will require collaborative efforts
to gather and analyse observational data over a lengthy period. 128 To this end,
collaborative projects and programmes are being conducted for science and data
collection with regard to climate change and oceans.129 Nevertheless, attaining and
sustaining global observation coverage has been identified as the most significant
challenge facing oceanic climate observation systems. 130
60. With regard to the sharing of data, States have contin ued to work in
collaboration with international organizations to expand the pool of data and
knowledge.131 A need to enhance the sharing of data has been recognized, and many
systems are already in place: of particular note are the Ocean Biogeographic
Information System132 and the world’s largest collection of publically available
oceanographic information managed by the National Centers for Environmental
Information.133 The Joint Group of Experts on the Scientific Aspects of Marine
Environmental Protection (GESAMP) is also engaged in coordinated activities
relating to climate change (see para. 78 below). 134
61. Nevertheless, the systematic sharing of data by Governments, universities and
other institutions is not universal and calls have been made to enhance this form of
cooperation,135 including by increasing capacity to gain access to the information
currently available.136 General gaps have been observed in techniques for combining
__________________
126 Ibid.
127 Ibid., chap. 4, sect. 2; see also Indonesia contribution.
128 United Nations, “World Ocean Assessment I”, chap. 30, p. 9; see also Helsinki Commission
contribution.
129 In particular, the Global Ocean Observing System provides observed information on oceans, and
the World Climate Research Programme conducts a wide range of related scientific research
activities. See IOC contribution.
130 Secretariat of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change contribution.
131 Indonesia, Namibia, New Zealand, Rep ublic of Korea, United States, European Union,
International Atomic Energy Agency, IHO, International Seabed Authority, North Atlantic
Salmon Conservation Organization, SPC and UN-Habitat contributions.
132 This is an integration of more than 1,900 databases, which is particularly useful for tracking
climate change impacts on marine biodiversity (IOC contribution).
133 United States contribution.
134 The Joint Group of Experts on the Scientific Aspects of Marine Environmental Protection
(GESAMP) has established relevant working groups, such as working group 41 on marine
geoengineering and working group 38 on the atmospheric input of chemicals in oceans, and also
works through a correspondence group on the issue of the massive arrival of pelagic sargas sum.
See GESAMP, Report of the Forty-second Session of GESAMP, reports and studies No. 92 (Paris,
IOC, 2015). See also WMO contribution.
135 See A/66/70/Add.1, paras. 363-364; UNEP(DEPI)/MED WG.421/Inf.19; Helsinki Commission
contribution.
136 See A/69/71/Add.1, para. 120.
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information on the various aspects of oceans to give an overall picture. 137 More
transdisciplinary research and sharing of knowledge among appropriate institutions is
needed in order to better understand the impacts of climate -related geoengineering on
biodiversity and ecosystem functions and services, socioeconomic, cultural and
ethical issues and regulatory options.138
62. The importance of a robust institutional mechanism for the collection of
relevant scientific data that may contribute to the specific climate -resilient
sustainable development of oceans and seas has been noted. 139 A call has also been
made for the establishment of a specific United Nations body to coordinate and
strengthen data collection, technology application and knowledge management. 140
63. The General Assembly has encouraged collaboration in scientific activity to
better understand the effects of climate change and ocean acidification on the
marine environment and marine biodiversity, as well as to develop ways and means
of adaptation.141
64. The Regular Process will have an essential role in strengthening the science -
policy interface.142 The General Assembly143 decided that the second cycle of the
Regular Process would produce a second world ocean assessment or assessments
and support other ocean-related intergovernmental processes, including through the
preparation of technical abstracts specifically tailored to the requests and needs of
such processes. One of the abstracts is focused on oceans and climate change,
supporting the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change process
and the eighteenth meeting of the Informal Consultative Process.144 IPCC is
preparing a special report on climate change and oceans and the cryosphere, which
will become available in 2019.145
C. Ocean-based adaptation and mitigation action and climateresilient
sustainable development
65. While the scientific knowledge base continues to increase, such information
and related assessments of associated socioeconomic impacts and vulnerabilities
have only recently begun to be used for the identification of ocean -based adaptation
and mitigation options and climate-resilient sustainable development action.
Similarly, even though marine species are adapting to climate change through
__________________
137 United Nations, “World Ocean Assessment I”, chap. 54, sect. 2.2.
138 Decision XIII/14 of the Conference of the Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity, on
climate-related geoengineering.
139 Bangladesh contribution.
140 Indonesia contribution.
141 Resolution 71/257, paras. 185 and 191.
142 United Nations, “World Ocean Assessment I”, chap. 26, sect. 6.
143 Resolution 71/257, para. 296.
144 The General Assembly has also underlined the importance of ensuring that assessments, such as
those included in the Global Sustainable Development Report and those prepared by IPCC, the
Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services and the
Regular Process, support one another and avoid unnecessary duplication (see resolution 71/257,
para. 293).
145 See IPCC decision IPCC/XLIII-6. See also secretariat of the United Nations Framework
Convention on Climate Change and IOC contributions.
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shifting distributions and timing of biological events (see para. 11 above), ocean -
based adaptation146 action and the evaluation of outcomes remain at an initial stage
for social systems.147 At the regional level, action has been taken to increase the
resilience of ecological and socioeconomic systems to the impacts of climate
change.148 For example, the Pacific Community is supporting the implementation of
integrated coastal management projects that take holistic approaches to addressing
local development and resilience in a changing climate. 149 In their contributions, a
few States also reported on the incorporation of climate change considerations into
coastal management.150 Going forward, holistic, coordinated and integrated
approaches at all levels require enhancement through, for example, integrated
coastal zone management and/or in the context of marine spatial planni ng.
66. Strategies to enhance the adaptation and resilience of both ecological and
socioeconomic systems are necessary to tackle the current and future unavoidable
effects of climate change. Given that climate change poses a severe threat to
sustainable development, including through increases in coastal vulnerability, 151
development trajectories need to combine adaptation and mitigation to realize the
goals of sustainable development, while maintaining climate resilience. 152 This is
particularly challenging for small island developing States, owing to their
vulnerabilities linked to their relative remoteness and territorial size and relatively
narrow resource base.153
67. Regional risk management platforms could be established to foster
collaborative action to coordinate the management of weather-related risks and
build risk prevention and management capabilities. 154
68. Ecosystem-based adaptation is emerging as a viable option for Governments to
increase resilience to the impacts of climate change. It promotes ec osystem health,
allowing local populations to benefit from the environmental services provided,
such as the provision of clean water, improved habitat for fish supplies and, more
notably, protection from extreme weather and sea level events. Healthy ecosys tems
__________________
146 Adaptation refers to the adjustments in ecological, social or economic systems in res ponse to
actual or expected climatic stimuli and their effects or impacts. It also refers to changes in
processes, practices and structures to moderate potential damage or to benefit from opportunities
associated with climate change.
147 Nippon Foundation, University of British Columbia, Nereus Program, working paper, 2016
(forthcoming).
148 Azerbaijan and UNEP/MAP contributions.
149 SPC contribution.
150 Azerbaijan, Indonesia and Unites States contributions; the secretariat of the United Nations
Framework Convention on Climate Change in its contribution noted that 54 countries had
outlined action for coastal protection in their intended nationally determined contributions.
151 F. Denton and others, “Climate-resilient pathways: adaptation, mitigation, and su stainable
development”, in IPCC, Climate Change 2014: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability .
152 Climate resilience refers to the ability of social and ecological systems to anticipate, reduce,
accommodate or recover from the effects of climate change in a timely and efficient manner.
153 Office of the High Representative for the Least Developed Countries, Landlocked Developing
Countries and Small Island Developing States contribution.
154 UNEP contribution.
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can also serve as carbon sinks and thus provide the added benefit of mitigating local
greenhouse gases.155 Marine protected areas are an important tool in this context. 156
69. Enhanced activities are needed to assist stakeholders at all levels to develop
tools to plan for the impacts of climate change. It will be important to raise
awareness of how natural solutions can support adaptation. Local information also
requires enhancement to foster adaptation planning at the community and national
levels.157 The development of alternative incomes and livelihoods needs to be
considered along with the introduction of more advanced forms of technology for
the fish and marine industries.158
70. Parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change have
addressed ocean-related action in the adaptation components of their intended
nationally determined contributions, in particular in relation to fisheries
management.159 Several United Nations system entities are supporting States in the
development and implementation of national adaptation plans and access to
financial resources for the implementation of field projects addressing the
vulnerabilities identified.160 The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United
Nations (FAO), for example, is developing guide lines on the use of spatial
technology, such as satellite remote sensing for disaster assessment and emergency
preparedness for aquaculture.161 Regional fisheries management organizations are
considering the use of fishery forecasts and enhanced understandin gs on linkages
between climate variables and fish stock conditions in the development of
conservation measures.162
71. The response of the International Hydrographic Organization to disasters is
aimed at ensuring the immediate assessment of damage and its effect on the safety
of navigation, informing mariners and other interested parties of relevant damage
and any dangers, in particular with regard to navigational hazards, re -establishing
__________________
155 Indonesia, UN-Habitat and UNEP contributions.
156 The secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity reported that the parties to the
Convention emphasized the importance of establishing marine protected areas, coastal resource
management and marine spatial planning in building the resilience of marine and costal
ecosystems and encouraged the use of ecosystem-based approaches to climate change adaptation,
mitigation and disaster risk reduction. UNEP is providing support to countries in applying
ecosystem-based adaptation and pilot activities have been implemented in several small island
developing States (secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity contribution). UNEP is
also enhancing current knowledge on future bleaching to enhance reef management and on
carbon storage and sequestration and ecosystem services provided by blue forest ecosystems,
namely mangroves, seagrass and salt marshes, with the aim of contributing to ocean -based
adaptation and mitigation (UNEP contribution). IOC is working with States to enhance
knowledge of their adaptive capacities. Entry points are integrated coastal area management,
through coastal adaptation handbooks, ocean governance and marine assessments such as the
Transboundary Waters Assessment Programme (IOC contribution). See also Helsinki
Commission contribution.
157 FAO contribution.
158 For example, in storage, packaging and other aspects of the production chain (Indonesia
contribution).
159 Secretariat of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change contribution.
160 See relevant contributions.
161 FAO contribution.
162 North Atlantic Salmon Conservation Organization, North ‐East Atlantic Fisheries Commission,
North Pacific Anadromous Fish Commission and SPC contributions.
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the basic key maritime transportation routes and ensuring that charts of and other
hydrographic information pertaining to affected areas are updated as soon as
possible.163
72. In terms of mitigation, given that the main drivers of climate change include
emissions emanating from carbon-based fuels, ocean-based mitigation action is
focused on the reduction of such emissions from ships and reducing dependency on
carbon-based energy by promoting marine renewable sources of energy. With the
adoption of the Energy Efficiency Design Index and the Ship Energy Efficiency
Management Plan in 2011, IMO has moved decisively to reduce carbon dioxide
emissions by promoting the use of energy-efficient equipment and engines. It has
also actively addressed air pollution from vessels (see para. 40 above), which is
particularly relevant to global mitigation efforts, given that ships emit more
particulate matter and black carbon per unit of fuel consumed than other combustion
sources owing to the quality of the fuel used. 164
73. The energy sector, which accounts for some two thirds of global greenh ouse
gas emissions,165 has an essential role in any mitigation effort. Annual global
investment in renewables-based power generation technologies already exceeds
investment in other types of power plants thanks to widespread policy support and
the falling costs.166 These technologies will be an increasingly essential element in
decarbonizing the energy sector.167 Marine renewable energy168 in particular offers
the potential to meet the increasing global energy demand while reducing long -term
carbon emissions.169
74. Many of the technologies are at a nascent or developing stage. Offshore wind
energy appears to have the greatest immediate potential for energy production, grid
integration and climate change mitigation. 170 Nevertheless, the potential for other
sources to provide multiple mitigation effects cannot be overlooked. For example,
algae grown for biofuels can also provide a sink for carbon dioxide. 171
75. Mitigation actions also include those aimed at ensuring that oceanic systems
maintain their capacity as carbon sinks. Such actions would include the
implementation of ecosystem-based management, sustainable use, conservation and
restoration, including enhancing carbon sequestration by managing sinks and
reservoirs and carbon stocks, and reducing and minimizing con version and
greenhouse gas emissions.172
__________________
163 IHO contribution.
164 D. A. Lack and J. J. Corbett, “Black carbon from ships: a review of the effects of ship speed, fuel
quality and exhaust gas scrubbing”, in Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics, vol. 12, No. 9
(May 2012).
165 OECD and International Energy Agency, “Energy and climate change”, World Energy Outlook
Special Report (Paris, International Energy Agency, 2015), p. 20.
166 Ibid., p. 109.
167 Ibid.
168 For example, through offshore wind power, ocean wave energy, tidal power, ocean current
energy, ocean thermal conversion and osmotic power and marine biomass energy.
169 United Nations, “World Ocean Assessment I”, chap. 22.
170 Ibid.
171 Ibid.
172 See FCCC/SBSTA/2014/INF.1.
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76. The use of geoengineering techniques to mitigate climate change and its
effects, including solar radiation management, ocean fertilization and carbon
dioxide removal, has been approached carefully by the internat ional community
(see para. 41 above).173 Proposals to directly or indirectly sequester carbon dioxide
into oceans include the use of ocean fertilization techniques by nutrient addition, the
direct storage of biomass in the deep ocean, the addition of alkalin ity for the buildup
of dissolved inorganic carbon and the direct injection of carbon dioxide into the
deep ocean.174 While acknowledging that the knowledge of the implementation of
these forms of technology and associated risks is insufficient, IPCC has not ed with
high confidence that comparative assessments suggest that the main ocean -related
geoengineering approaches are extremely costly and have large environmental
footprints.175
77. The absence of science-based, global, transparent and effective control a nd
regulatory mechanisms for geoengineering and the need for a precautionary
approach in relation to ocean fertilization have been reaffirmed by the parties to the
Convention on Biological Diversity in several decisions, including a decision that
no climate-related geoengineering activities that may affect biodiversity may take
place until there is an adequate scientific basis on which to justify such activities
and appropriate consideration has been given to associated environmental, social,
economic and cultural impacts, with the exception of small -scale scientific research
studies conducted in controlled settings. 176
78. A new GESAMP working group177 was tasked with assessing a wide range of
marine geoengineering approaches for their potential environmental and
socioeconomic impacts on the marine environment and their potential scientific
practicality and efficacy for climate mitigation purposes. The final peer -reviewed
report is intended to assist the parties to the London Convention and the London
Protocol to determine which marine geoengineering activities may be listed in
annex 4 to the Protocol and consequently regulated. 178
D. Capacity-building, partnerships and financing
79. Capacity-building is an essential component of the global response to clima te
change. Associated with the need to support capacity -building in developing
countries has been the idea that developed countries, being those historically
responsible for greenhouse gas emission levels, have a duty to help to finance the
costs of climate change responses in the most vulnerable countries. 179
80. The two issues are inextricably linked, given that the building of institutional
and human capacity, without adequate climate finance, would not in and of itself
assist developing States, which are bearing disproportionate impacts, in
__________________
173 IPCC, Climate Change 2014: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability , p. 454.
174 Ibid.
175 Ibid.
176 Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity contribution.
177 The GESAMP working group is under the lead of IMO, with support from IOC, and co -chaired
by independent experts.
178 WMO contribution.
179 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, article 4 (4) .
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implementing solutions to the impacts of climate change. In addition, without
proper capacity, developing States find it difficult to even gain access to climate
finance, or to use it effectively to implement solutions . Indeed, articles 9 and 11 of
the Paris Agreement, on climate finance and capacity -building, respectively, pertain
to the link between the concepts.
81. Various partnerships and organizations are focused on building the capacity of
States to pursue climate-resilient development. These include the African Package
for Climate-Resilient Ocean Economies,180 the Global Strategic Action Initiative on
Oceans and Climate,181 the Ocean Acidification International Coordination Centre
and Global Ocean Acidification Obser ving Network,182 the FAO strategy for
fisheries, aquaculture and climate change for the period 2017 -2020183 and the Global
Coral Reef Partnership with regional seas programmes.
82. Capacity-building activities have also been focused on disaster risk reduction
in the face of climate change. For example, FAO completed fisheries and
aquaculture emergency response guidance184 and the World Meteorological
Organization launched a dedicated programme to help small, vulnerable islands to
use weather, marine and climate services, which will assist them in coping with
extreme weather.185 The International Hydrographic Organization capacity -building
programme includes workshops and training courses on establishing maritime
spatial data infrastructure, tidal observations and t sunami inundation mapping;186 the
Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission Small Island Developing States
Action Plan and Implementation Strategy builds actions among those States relating
to tsunami early warning systems187 and International Atomic Energy Agency
projects support capacity-building to use nuclear techniques to monitor and mitigate
the effects of climate change on oceans. 188 The Sustainable Ocean Initiative, under
the Convention on Biological Diversity, is identifying opportunities to address
capacity needs to achieve the Aichi Biodiversity Targets, including the effects of
climate change on marine biodiversity. 189
83. The Pacific Community is involved with partners in capacity development and
training activities, including by developing and streng thening the skills of staff at
the national and subnational levels in monitoring, control, surveillance and
__________________
180 The African Package for Climate-Resilient Ocean Economies aims to mobilize $3.5 billion in the
period 2017-2020 (UNEP contribution).
181 The Global Strategic Action Initiative on Oceans and Climate develope d a road map for the
period 2016-2021 that addresses six interrelated ocean and climate issue areas. See
https://globaloceanforumdotcom.files.wordpress.com/2013/03/strategic -action-roadmap-onoceans-
and-climate-november-2016.pdf.
182 The Global Ocean Acidification Observing Network supports the building of scientific capacity
of developing countries. See http://goa-on.org/.
183 FAO, the World Bank and the African Development Bank recently announced the African
Package. See FAO contribution.
184 FAO contribution.
185 WMO contribution.
186 IHO contribution.
187 The Action Plan and Impleme ntation Strategy were adopted by the IOC member States in 2016 in
response to the Samoa Pathway (IOC contribution).
188 International Atomic Energy Agency contribution.
189 Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity contribution.
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enforcement in support of the sustainable management of coastal marine
resources.190
84. States and intergovernmental organizations are also engaging in awarenessraising
activities on the impacts of climate change on oceans, including through the
organization of conferences191 and the release of policy briefs and knowledge
products intended for both the general public and policymakers and providing an
overview of climate change implications and vulnerabilities, as well as potential
adaptation and mitigation options.192
85. In terms of financing, donor States are providing development assistance to
strengthen resilience. For example, New Zealand and the Un ited States of
America193 are supporting Pacific small island developing States, including through
financial assistance and capacity-building, to manage the impacts of climate change
and ocean acidification in the region. 194
86. On the climate finance side, the international community has established
multilateral funds to serve as vehicles for the provision of financial resources to
assist developing countries in the implementation of their commitments under the
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate C hange.195 The Green Climate
Fund Readiness and Preparatory Support Programme was established to strengthen
and build enabling environments to allow developing countries to gain access to
Fund resources. Beyond readiness, the Fund can consider further support for
capacity-building under its current thematic windows where such activities are
identified by countries as their priority areas. 196 The Special Climate Change Fund
supports adaptation activities in various areas, including the protection of fragile
ecosystems and the promotion of integrated coastal management. 197
87. Other important funds include the Climate Investment Funds, which host a
pilot programme for climate resilience and are administered by the World Bank and
use the multilateral development bank s for programme and project implementation.
__________________
190 SPC contribution.
191 The following conferences are among those that specifically addressed issues relating to the
effects of climate change on oceans: the World Ocean Conference, held in Bali, Indonesia, on
14 May 2009, and the Our Ocean, One Future conferenc es, held in Washington, D.C., on 16 and
17 June 2014 and 15 and 16 September 2016 and in Valparaiso, Chile, in October 2015.
192 Azerbaijan, Indonesia, Namibia, New Zealand, United States, secretariat of the Convention on
Biological Diversity, FAO and UNEP contributions.
193 The United States reported pledging some $40 million to capacity -building programmes to foster
the climate-resilient sustainable development of oceans and coastal communities in the Pacific.
See United States contribution.
194 New Zealand and United States contributions.
195 These include the two operating entities of the financial mechanism of the United Nations
Framework Convention on Climate Change — the Global Environment Facility and, more recently,
the Green Climate Fund — as well as three special purpose funds: the Adaptation Fund, the Special
Climate Change Fund and the Least Developed Countries Fund. See UNEP(DEPI)/MED IG. 22/
Inf.11.
196 See FCCC/CP/2016/7/Rev.1.
197 See GEF, “Programming to implement the guidance for the Special Climate Change Fund
adopted by the Conference of the Parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on
Climate Change at its ninth session”, document GEF/C.24/12. Available from
http://www.thegef.org/sites/default/files/council -meeting-documents/C.24.12_5.pdf.
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Another growing funding mechanism is the issuance of green bonds, which grew
from $11 billion in 2013 to $36.6 billion in 2014. 198
88. Greater emphasis should be placed on galvanizing multi -stakeholder
partnerships to tackle the impacts of climate change on oceans. 199 Private
partnerships, such as the Global Resilience Partnership, and the private sector are
also playing an important role.200
89. Given that sustained funding to support ocean -related activities remains a
challenge, the availability of climate finance and capacity -building mechanisms
could be further explored to support coordinated, integrated and coherent
mechanisms and frameworks aimed at promoting the sustainable development of
oceans and seas and ocean-based adaptation and mitigation objectives.
E. Enhancing inter-agency coordination
90. Global and regional organizations have been undertaking activities to enhance
cooperation and coordination in relation to the effects of climate change and
acidification on oceans.201
91. As the inter-agency coordination mechanism on ocean and coastal issues
within the United Nations system, UN -Oceans has developed an inventory of
mandates and activities by its members 202 with the objective of sharing information
on current and planned activities by participating organizations and identifying
possible areas for collaboration and synergy. The inventory contains a list of
activities by its members relating to, among other issues, climate change. Under the
work programme for 2016-2017, UN-Oceans, supported by the inventory, will
continue to identify possible areas for collaboration and synergy. 203 Furthermore, the
members of UN-Oceans have already been engaged in joint activities highlighting
the important role of oceans in regulating the climate and the impacts of climate
change and ocean acidification on the marine environment. 204
__________________
198 Ibid.
199 For example, during the climate change conference held in Marra kech, Morocco, from 7 to
18 November 2016, an “ocean day” was convened as part of the Marrakech Partnership for
Global Climate Action. The day brought together representatives of Governments, civil society,
the private sector, the scientific community and dedicated international organizations to discuss
successful multi-stakeholder initiatives on oceans and climate change, exchange learning
experiences and best practices and set priorities for future collaboration and coordination.
200 The Global Resilience Partnership aims to help millions of vulnerable people in the Sahel, the Horn
of Africa and South and South-East Asia to better adapt to shocks and chronic stresses and invest in a
more resilient future. Currently, it is working on novel solutions to floo ding, including in coastal and
riverine communities in South-East Asia. See http://www.globalresiliencepartnership.org/aboutus/.
201 Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity, Commission for the Conservation of
Antarctic Marine Living Resources, FAO, IOC, North ‐East Atlantic Fisheries Commission,
UNEP, secretariat of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and WMO
contributions.
202 See http://www.unoceans.org/inventory/en.
203 See http://www.unoceans.org/fileadmin/user_upload/unoceans/docs/UN -Oceans_statement_to_
ICP17_biennial_Work_Programme_2016_2017.pdf .
204 Ibid.
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V. Conclusions
92. The most notable effects of climate change and related changes in the
atmosphere on the oceans are ocean warming, ocean acidification and consequent
impacts, such as changes in ecosystems and biodiversity loss, sea level rise, extreme
weather events and the loss of polar ice. In addition to other anthropogenic impacts,
such as land-based pollution, unsustainable fishing practices and coastal
development, there are serious cumulative effects, which are diverse, widespread
and profound, not only affecting the ecology of the oceans, but also producing
significant socioeconomic consequences for all States. These i nclude loss of life,
displacement of communities, loss of territory, destruction of property, decline of
and regional shifts in fish stocks, coral bleaching and other ecosystem degradation.
Accordingly, food security, livelihoods and sustainable developmen t in developing
States, especially in least developed countries and small island developing States,
are increasingly affected and their vulnerabilities accentuated.
93. These impacts are progressive and expected to worsen, even under low -
emission scenarios. There is an urgent need for additional integrated research and
assessments to better understand their nature, scale, interactions and future trends.
Such information would support the planning and implementation of successful
action to tackle these global challenges in regional, national and local contexts.
Urgently required action includes strengthening strategies to enhance the adaptation
and resilience of both ecosystems and societies in order to address the current and
future unavoidable effects of climate change, as well as substantial and sustained
reductions of greenhouse gas emissions, including by assessing the extent to which
oceans can continue to act as carbon sinks in the future.
94. To this end, concerted efforts are needed to promote the de velopment of
integrated, cross-sectoral and coherent approaches to address the effects of climate
change and acidification on oceans. This can be achieved only through enhanced
cooperation and coordination at all levels and effective partnerships among all
stakeholders.
95. In particular, ways to enhance coordination in the implementation of relevant
and mutually reinforcing legal and policy instruments require further consideration.
Principally, the effective implementation of the United Nations Convention on the
Law of the Sea and related instruments will contribute to building resilience and
enhancing ocean-based mitigation, including the absorptive capacity of oceans as
carbon sinks, which will in turn support efforts to reach adaptation and mitigation
targets under the Paris Agreement. Conversely, reaching such targets is essential for
the protection of ocean-based food security and livelihoods, for the effectiveness of
conservation and management measures with regard to living marine resources and
efforts to protect and preserve the marine environment. Accordingly, the role of the
Paris Agreement in supporting the sustainable development of the oceans would
also need to be considered by the parties to the Agreement within the framework of
the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. Enhancing these
synergies would also support efforts to attain the Sustainable Development Goals
and targets, including Goal 14.
96. Similarly, coordination among ocean and climate -related management
objectives can be enhanced by mainstreaming adaptation and mitigation objectives
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in the development of integrated and ecosystem-based coastal management. This
will promote ecosystem health and climate resilience and allow local communities
to benefit from ecosystem services, such as improved habitats for living marine
resources and protection from extreme weather and sea level rise, as well as
conserve coastal habitats as carbon sinks. Marine spatial planning and marine
protected areas are important tools in achieving these objectives.
97. Having sustained funding to support ocean -related activities remains a
challenge. Opportunities to use capacity-building and funding mechanisms,
including climate finance, to promote both the sustainable development of oceans
and seas and ocean-based adaptation and mitigation objectives should be further
explored.
United Nations A/75/70
General Assembly Distr.: General
16 March 2020
Original: English
20-04070 (E) 080420
*2004070*
Seventy-fifth session
Item 76 (a) of the preliminary list *
Oceans and the law of the sea
Oceans and the law of the sea
Report of the Secretary-General
Summary
In paragraph 352 of its resolution 74/19, the General Assembly decided that the
United Nations Open-ended Informal Consultative Process on Oceans and the Law of
the Sea would focus its discussions at its twenty-first meeting on the theme “Sea-level
rise and its impacts”. The present report was prepared pursuant to paragraph 364 of
resolution 74/19 with a view to facilitating discussions on the topic of focus. It is being
submitted to the Assembly for consideration at its seventy -fifth session and to the
States parties to the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, pursuant to
article 319 of the Convention.
* A/75/50. ~[-!]--■~
Please recycle@ [!].. • ~
A/75/70
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I. Introduction
1. The General Assembly has consistently recognized that the adverse impacts of
climate change, including those related to sea -level rise, 1 are one of the greatest
challenges at the present time and undermine the ability of all countries to eradicate
poverty and food insecurity, as well as to achieve sustainable development
(e.g., resolution 74/234, preamble). In addition, the Assembly has expressed deep
concern that sea-level rise jeopardizes the integrity of cultural and natural heritage
(resolution 74/230, para. 16) and represents the grave st of threats to the survival and
viability of many low-lying coastal countries and small island developing States
(resolutions 69/15, paras. 11 and 31, and 74/234, preamble). As noted in paragraph 14
of resolution 70/1, entitled “Transforming our world: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable
Development”, sea-level rise and climate change impacts are seriously affecting
coastal areas and low-lying coastal countries, including many least developed
countries and small island developing States.
2. In recognition of the critical importance of this issue of global concern, th e
General Assembly decided, in paragraph 352 of its resolution 74/19, that the United
Nations Open-ended Informal Consultative Process on Oceans and the Law of the Sea
would, at its twenty-first meeting, focus its discussions on the theme “Sea-level rise
and its impacts”.
3. To facilitate the discussions of the Informal Consultative Process, the present
report draws significantly upon the contributions submitted by States and relevant
organizations and bodies at the invitation of the Secretary-General,2 as well as upon
the Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing Climate , issued by
the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change in 2019, together with other reports
and scientific, technical and policy studies.
II. Sea-level rise: understanding the issue, its causes
and impacts
A. Nature and causes of sea-level rise
4. As indicated in the Special Report, sea-level rise is a key feature of climate
change, and changes in sea level over at least the past 1,500 years have been positively
related to global mean temperatures. Human activities are estimated to have caused
approximately 1.0°C of global warming above pre -industrial levels3 and, according
to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Ch ange, it is virtually certain that the
ocean has warmed unabatedly since 1970 and that 90 per cent of the increase in energy
in the climate system has been stored in the ocean. It is also stated in the Special
Report that there is high confidence that anth ropogenic forcing (human-induced
impacts) is very likely the dominant cause of observed global mean sea -level rise
__________________
1 The term “sea-level rise” is used in the present report in accordance with the mea ning given in
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), IPCC Special Report on the Ocean and
Cryosphere in a Changing Climate (2019), pp. 330 and 696–697 (“Glossary”).
2 The full text of the contributions is available from the website of the Divis ion for Ocean Affairs
and the Law of the Sea from www.un.org/Depts/los/consultative_process/contribution21.html .
3 Valérie Masson-Delmotte and others, eds., Global Warming of 1.5°C: An IPCC Special Report on
the Impacts of Global Warming of 1.5°C Above Pre -Industrial Levels and Related Global
Greenhouse Gas Emission Pathways, in the Context of Strengthening the Global Response to the
Threat of Climate Change, Sustainable Development, and Efforts to Eradicate Poverty (IPCC,
2018), p. 4.
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since 1970 and that the majority of the global sea -level rise is attributable to
anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions.
5. In general, according to the Special Report, increasing water temperature causes
thermal expansion by lowering water density, contributing to a higher sea level even
at a constant ocean mass. Thermal expansion of ocean water and ocean mass gain,
primarily owing to a decrease in land ice mass from melting glaciers and ice sheets,
are considered the main causes of climate change -induced global mean sea-level rise.
6. In respect of climate change-induced global mean sea-level rise, the global mean
sea level rises if water is added to the ocean from other reservoirs in the climate
system. It is stated in the Special Report that, as the climate warms, snow cover and
the extent and thickness of Arctic sea ice decrease, and glaciers and ice sheets lose
mass and contribute to sea-level rise. It is very likely that the rate of the loss of mass
from the Greenland ice sheet has substantially increased over the period from 1992
to 2011 and likely that it has increased for the Antarctic ice sheet between 2002 and
2011.4 The ice sheets on Greenland and Antarctica contain most of the fresh water on
the Earth’s surface and their melting has the greatest potential to cause changes in sea
level. However, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change states that the
melting of glaciers outside of these ice sheets also remains an important contributor
to sea-level change and, over the past century, has added more mass to the ocean than
those two ice sheets combined. There is very high confidence that, together, glacier
and ice sheet contributions are now the dominant source of global mean sea-level rise.
7. Other factors contributing to sea -level rise, as indicated in the Special Report,
include changes in the shape of the ocean basins, changes in the Earth’s gravitational
and rotational fields and local subsidence or uplift of the land (vertical downward or
upward land movement). Regional patterns in sea -level change are also modified from
the global average by water temperature and salinity variations, as well as changes in
oceanic and atmospheric dynamics, including trends in ocean currents, the
redistribution of temperature and salinity and sea water density, buoyancy and
atmospheric pressure.
8. According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, it is virtually
certain that the global mean sea level is rising and there is also high confidence that
the rates of the rise are accelerating. The average rate of global mean sea -level rise
since 1993 has been 3.2 mm/year; from 2007 to 2016, it was 4 mm per year; and from
2014 to 2019, it amounted to 5 mm per year, a rate substantially higher than the
average rate since 1993.5 Even if the rise in global temperature slows or reverses, the
global mean sea level would continue to rise owing to the effect of lags caused by the
long timescale on which such processes operate, as stated in the Special Report. In
fact, under all emissions scenarios in that report, the global mean sea level is projected
to continue to rise beyond 2100. In a high greenhouse gas emissions scenario, the rise
is projected to be more than several cm per year, while in a low emissions scenario,
it could be limited to around 1 m in 2300. Rising global mean sea levels will also
contribute to higher extreme sea levels (caused by storm surges). The
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Changes projects with high confidence that
extreme sea levels that are historically rare will become common by 2100 under all
emissions scenarios, with many low-lying cities and small islands at low latitudes
experiencing such events annually by 2050.
__________________
4 Rajendra K. Pachauri and others, eds., Climate Change 2014: Synthesis Report – Contribution of
Working Groups I, II and III to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernme ntal Panel on
Climate Change (Geneva, IPCC, 2014), p. 42.
5 Contribution from World Meteorological Organization (WMO).
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9. However, neither sea-level rise nor its rate has been or is likely to be
geographically uniform.6 Regional differences in sea-level rise show variability of
+/- 30 per cent of the global mean sea-level rise. According to the Special Report,
differences from the global mean can be even greater in areas of rapid vertical land
movement, including from local anthropogenic factors. Global sea -level changes are
affected by changes in terrestrial reservoirs of liquid water as a result of both climate
variability, such as the El Niño Southern Oscillation, and direct human interventions,
such as the withdrawal of groundwater or dam construction. Overall, it is stated in the
Special Report that direct human intervention has reduced land water storage during
the past decade, increasing the rate of sea-level rise by 0.15 to 0.24 mm per year.
10. Non-climatic anthropogenic drivers, including recent and historical
demographic and settlement trends and anthropogenic subsidence, have played an
important role in increasing the exposure and vulnerability of several low-lying
communities to sea-level rise and extreme sea-level events, according to the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.
B. Observed and projected environmental, social and economic
impacts of sea-level rise at the global, regional and national levels
Observed impacts of sea-level rise
11. It is widely accepted that coastal ecosystems are already affected by the
combination of sea-level rise, other climate-related ocean changes and adverse effects
of human activities on ocean and land. According to the Special Report of the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, attributing specific impacts to sea -level
rise remains challenging owing to the influence of other climate -related and
non-climatic drivers, such as infrastructure development and human -induced habitat
degradation. Similarly, because coastal sea-level change is often small compared with
other processes, such as demographic, resource and land use changes and
anthropogenic subsidence, it is difficult to isolate and attribute specific observed
coastal changes and associated impacts to sea-level rise.
12. However, new literature has shown that extreme water levels at the coast are
rising because of mean sea-level rise and that this is having observable impacts on
chronic flooding in some regions. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate C hange
reports that there are also emerging signs of direct adverse consequences of rising sea
levels on shoreline behaviour and on the salinity levels of estuaries. Arctic
communities have also been experiencing frequent flooding events, which can be
associated with sea-level rise. In addition, a number of States have highlighted
observable patterns of irreversible coastal erosion and inundations that they attribute
to sea-level rise, as a central cause or exacerbating factor. 7
Projected impacts of sea-level rise
13. According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, rising sea levels
are having, and are projected to entail, wide -ranging and significant environmental,
economic and social impacts. On the environmental side, rising mean and higher
extreme sea levels are projected to increasingly threaten coastal zones through a range
of coastal hazards, including the following: permanent submergence of land by higher
mean sea levels or mean high tides; more frequent or intense coastal flooding;
enhanced recession of shorelines and coastal wetlands through coastal erosion; loss
and change of coastal ecosystems; salinization of soils, ground and surface fresh
__________________
6 IPCC, Pachauri and others, eds., Climate Change 2014: Synthesis Report, p. 42.
7 Contributions from Gabon, Togo, European Union and its member States.
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water; and impeded drainage. Sea-level rise and its physical impacts, such as flooding
and salinization, also increase the vulnerability of ecosystems and decrease their
ability to support livelihoods and provide services such as coastal protection. In
addition, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change not only estimates, with
high confidence, that rising sea levels will cause the frequency of extreme sea -level
events at most locations to increase, but also, with very high confidence, that the
frequency, severity and duration of hazards and related impacts caused by sea -level
rise will increase.
14. These environmental impacts of sea-level rise are likely to result in adverse
social, cultural and economic ramifications for various communities. For example,
according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, sea -level rise is
projected to affect the availability and quality of drinking water through changes to
water table heights, the salinization of surface water and aquifers, contamination of
freshwater reserves and disruption of treatment facilities during floods, 8 posing
threats to water security, in particular in regions already vulnerable to water scarcity. 9
Extreme sea-level events can have both short-term and long-term effects on human
health, including drowning, injuries, increased disease transmission and health
problems associated with the deterioration of water quality and quantity. 10 Concerns
have also been raised about the negative impacts of sea -level rise on food security,
which may be aggravated through weaker food production and reduced crop yields,
as well as loss of livelihoods and food price shocks, which may decrease market
access to food. 11 Sea-level rise is projected by the Intergovernmental Panel on
Climate Change to affect agriculture mainly through land submergence, the
salinization of soil and fresh groundwater reso urces and land loss owing to permanent
coastal erosion. It is also expected to have an indirect effect on fisheries and
aquaculture through adverse impacts on habitats, facilities and infrastructure. 12
15. With a quarter of the world’s population estimated to be residing within 100 km
distance and 100 m elevation of the coastline, it is projected that losses in land owing
to enhanced coastal erosion associated with sea-level rise could lead to the significant
displacement of people and loss of life. 13 The projected number of people affected by
sea-level rise ranges greatly; estimates differ on account of the different types of data
__________________
8 IPCC, Pachauri and others, eds., Climate Change 2014: Synthesis Report, pp. 14 and 69; and
IPCC, IPCC Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere .
9 Contribution from Barcelona Convention secretariat.
10 Christopher B. Field and others, eds., Climate Change 2014: Impacts, Adaptation, and
Vulnerability – Part B: Regional Aspects – Working Group II Contribution to the Fifth
Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (New York, Cambridge
University Press, 2014), p. 1624.
11 IPCC, IPCC Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere; Fields and others, eds., Climate
Change 2014: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability , p. 763; Valérie Masson-Delmotte and
others, eds., Climate Change and Land: An IPCC Special Report on Climate Change,
Desertification, Land Degradation, Sustainable Land Management, Food Security, and
Greenhouse Gas Fluxes in Terrestrial Ecosystems (IPCC, 2019), pp. 443 and 514. See also
contributions from Singapore and Commonwealth secretariat.
12 Contribution from Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO).
13 IPCC, IPCC Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere. See also International Organization
for Migration (IOM), IOM Outlook on Migration, Environment and Climate Change (Geneva,
2014), p. 38; and contribution from Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for
Refugees (UNHCR).
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used to estimate the number of people who live on land below projected tide
increases.14
16. The inundation of coastal settlements and relevant adaptation strategies could
also significantly affect cultural systems and the ways of life of many coastal
communities through, for instance, loss of cultural heritage, cultural ties to the coast
and unique cultural and spiritual sites, as we ll as disruptions to sense of place and
identity, rights to ancestral lands and cultural practices. 15 According to the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, research is also emerging on the adverse
risks of sea-level rise to social values, such as feelings of safety, self-esteem, selfactualization
and belongingness.
17. Sea-level rise is projected to negatively affect various economic sectors,
including by damaging electrical and telecommunication support facilities and
transport infrastructure, and potentially exposing air and sea port infrastructure, 16 as
well as their connecting coastal transport networks, to significant damage and
disruptions.17 It is also likely to have significant impacts on a whole range of site -
dependent and coastal industries, su ch as tourism and recreational industries. 18 These
impacts could contribute to extensive economic and trade -related losses.19
18. As indicated in the Special Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change, sea-level rise and responses may affect Sta tes and communities in ways that
are not evenly distributed, which can compound vulnerability and inequity. Low -lying
islands, coasts and communities are expected, according to the report, to be
particularly heavily affected by the direct effects of sea -level rise, as well as by the
associated damage and adaptation costs. Small island developing States are expected
to face very high impacts, including a higher exposure to the risk of death, injury and
disruption to livelihoods, food supplies and drinking wa ter.20 For a number of delta
regions, high population densities and the removal of natural vegetation buffers
contribute to high exposure rates to incidents such as coastal flooding, erosion and
salinization. According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Clim ate Change, sea-level
rise, for instance, increases the risk of saline intrusion, which is already a major
problem for traditional agriculture and water quality in deltas, and can trigger land
use changes towards brackish or saline aquaculture, such as shr imp or rice-shrimp
systems, with impacts on the environment, livelihoods and income stability. In
addition, a number of Arctic communities are located on low-lying barrier islands that
__________________
14 For example, in a recent study it was found that approximately 190 million people currently
occupy global land below projected high tide lines for 2100 under a low-carbon emissions
scenario, while up to 630 million people live on land below projected annual flood levels for
2100 under a high emissions scenario. The estimate of people affected for the low -carbon
emissions scenario is three times higher than estimates based on different types of analysis. For
more information, see Scott A. Kulp and Benjamin H. Strauss, “New elevation data triple
estimates of global vulnerability to sea -level rise and coastal flooding”, Nature Communications,
vol. 10, No. 4844 (2019).
15 IPCC, IPCC Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere; see also resolution 74/230, para. 16;
and contribution from Office of the High Representative for the Least Developed Countries ,
Landlocked Developing Countries and Small Island Developing States.
16 See contribution from Bahrain, which estimated that a sea -level rise of 5 m would completely
inundate its airport.
17 IPCC, IPCC Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere; United Nations Conference on Trade
and Development (UNCTAD), Climate Change Impacts on Coastal Transportation
Infrastructure in the Caribbean: Enhancing the Adaptive Capacity of Small Island Developing
States (SIDS) – Saint Lucia: A Case Study (2017); and UNCTAD, Port Industry Survey on
Climate Change Impacts and Adaptation, UNCTAD Research Paper, No. 18 (2018).
18 IPCC, IPCC Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere; UNCTAD, Climate Change Impacts
on Coastal Transportation Infrastructure in the Caribbean , pp. 38, 97 and 102.
19 Contribution from UNCTAD.
20 Fields and others, eds., Climate Change 2014: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability .
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are highly susceptible to sea-level rise and its associated coastal haz ards. Arctic sealevel
rise has the potential to substantially contribute to already accelerating
permafrost thaw in the Arctic and could, as a result, exacerbate permafrost thaw -
induced impacts on overlying urban and rural communication and transportation
infrastructure in the Arctic and in high mountain areas.
III. Sustainable development, security, legal, capacity and
financial challenges
A. Sustainable development challenges
19. Sea-level rise and related extreme events, such as high tides, storm surges and
flooding, and reductions in polar ice have the potential to significantly disrupt efforts
to achieve sustainable development in its three dimensions, in particular in low -lying
coastal areas, small island developing States and other vulnerable communities,
including Arctic communities. In particular, sea -level rise represents for many small
island developing States the gravest of threats to their survival, viability and prospect s
for growth, including, for some, through the loss of territory (see resolution 69/15,
paras. 11, 23 and 31). More generally, however, failure to adapt to sea -level rise will,
as stated in the Special Report, jeopardize the achievement of the Sustainable
Development Goals under the 2030 Agenda.
20. The various impacts of sea-level rise directly and adversely affect the
implementation of a number of the Goals and their targets. For example, permanent
submergence and flooding can put increasing pressure on coastal areas, 21 which will
hamper efforts to make coastal cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient
and sustainable (Goal 11). Moreover, coastal erosion and coral degradation may,
according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, significantly affect
policies to promote sustainable tourism (Goals 8, 12 and 14).
21. It is stated in the Special Report that coastal flooding and impeded drainage can
exacerbate the spread of waterborne diseases, which may upset efforts to end
epidemics and substantially reduce the number of deaths and illnesses from water
pollution and contamination (Goal 3). It is also likely to test the resilience of coastal
infrastructure (Goal 9), such as ports, roads an d railways.22 Storm surges, as well as
the encroachment of tidal waters into estuaries and river systems, may infringe upon
the conservation and sustainable use of marine resources (Goal 14) by bringing land -
based pollutants into marine and freshwater systems or by cha nging the regional
distribution of fish stocks.23
22. The salinization of soils, groundwater and surface water can pose practical
challenges to achieving universal and equitable access to safe and affordable drinking
__________________
21 IPCC, IPCC Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere. See also contributions from European
Union, Gabon, Bahrain, Togo, Morocco, Office of the High Representative for the Least
Developed Countries, Landlocked Developing Countries and Small Island Developing States and
Barcelona Convention secretariat.
22 Contribution from UNCTAD; UNCTAD, Port Industry Survey, pp. 10–11. See also contributions
from European Union, Gabon, FAO and Office of the High Representative for the Least
Developed Countries, Landlocked Developing Countries and Small Island Developing States.
23 FAO, FAO’s Work on Climate Change: Fisheries and Aquacultu re 2019 (Rome, 2019), pp. 14 and
46; contribution from FAO. See also contributions from North Pacific Anadromous Fish
Commission and Morocco.
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water and adequate and equitable sanitation and hygiene for all (Goal 6). 24
Salinization is already affecting agricultural and aquaculture productivity and
production in many areas and will cause further problems for the promotion of
sustainable agriculture (Goal 2). 25 Moreover, the loss and change of coastal
ecosystems will adversely affect the ambition to protect, restore and promote
sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems, sustainably manage forests, halt and reverse
land degradation and halt biodiversity loss (Goal 15). 26
23. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change states that, cumulatively, the
physical impacts of sea-level rise may increase the exposure of the poor and those in
vulnerable situations to climate -related extreme events and related economic, social
and environmental shocks and disasters (Goal 1), as well as the inequality within and
among countries (Goal 10). Moreover, since there is agreement that women face more
barriers to adapting to environmental changes than men, sea -level rise is expected to
impinge upon efforts to achieve gender equality and to empower women and girls
(Goal 5).
24. Finally, in view of the potential indirect effects among interconnected social,
governance, economic, ecological and physical systems (see E/2019/68, para. 89), the
impacts of sea-level rise could indirectly impede the achievement of other Goals as
well.
B. Security challenges
25. Sea-level rise is a threat multiplier that exacerbates challenges related to basic
human needs, including water, food, health and livelihoods, with consequential
implications for human security.27
26. Displacement resulting from sea-level rise may occur both within States and
across borders, as people move away from coastlines towards higher ground within
national boundaries and to continental countries. 28 Such displacement may be
voluntary or forced, and temporary or permanent in nature. 29 Displacement has
already been shown to contribute to negative effects on housing, economic and health
outcomes, transforming initial vulnerabilities into chronic insecurity. 30
27. Greater competition for scarce resources may galvanize existing security
dilemmas and ignite new ones, especially when combined with increasing population
__________________
24 IPCC, IPCC Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere; United Nations Children’s Fund,
Thirsting for a Future: Water and Children in a Changing Climate (New York, 2017), p. 10. See
also contributions from European Union, Bahrain, Office of the High Representative for the
Least Developed Countries, Landlocked Developing Countries and Small Island Developing
States and Barcelona Convention secretariat.
25 IPCC, IPCC Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere. See also contributions from European
Union, Singapore, Togo and Senegal.
26 IPCC, IPCC Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere. See also contributions from European
Union, Gabon, Bahrain, Indonesia, Senegal, Morocco, Commonwealth secretariat, Office of the
High Representative for the Least Developed Countries, Landlocked Developing Countries and
Small Island Developing States and Barcelona Convention secretariat.
27 See, generally, IPCC, IPCC Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere ; and resolution 66/290,
para. 3 (a). See also contributions from Morocco and European Union.
28 Contributions from UNHCR, Office of the High Representative for the Least Developed
Countries, Landlocked Developing Countries and Small Island Developing States and
Commonwealth secretariat.
29 Contributions from UNHCR, Commonwealth secretariat, meeting paper entitle d “Legal
implications of rising sea levels”.
30 IPCC, IPCC Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere ; and IOM, Migration and Climate
Change, IOM Migration and Research Series, No. 31 (Geneva, 2008), p. 34.
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density, potentially leading to threats to human s ecurity, as well as to international
peace and security.31
C. International law challenges
28. Several international law instruments, including the United Nations Convention
on the Law of the Sea, the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
Change, the Paris Agreement, the Convention on Biological Diversity, other relevant
biodiversity, marine pollution and sustainable fisheries instruments and regional
instruments, contain provisions relevant to various aspects of sea -level rise and its
impacts more generally (see A/72/70, paras. 37–49). Challenges arise in ensuring
complementarity and coordination in the implementation of these global and regional
frameworks in an effort to implement mutually suppor tive action and responses to
sea-level rise and more generally to achieve the Sustainable Development Goals. 32
29. Sea-level rise may infringe upon the land territory of coastal States, including
island States, contributing to their reduction in size or, in extreme cases, to their
disappearance altogether (ibid, para. 54). This may have implications with regard to
several areas of international law, including the law of the sea, statehood and
protection of persons (see A/73/10, annex B, para. 12), matters that are currently
under consideration by the International Law Commission (see A/73/10, annex B).
30. The Convention contains provisions on the establishment of mari time zones
over which coastal States may exercise sovereignty, sovereign rights or jurisdiction, 33
the baselines from which those maritime zones are measured, with the normal
baseline being the low-water line along the coast as marked on large-scale charts
officially recognized by the coastal State, 34 and on the delimitation of maritime
boundaries.35 Coastal States are required to give due publicity to, and deposit with the
Secretary-General, charts or lists of geographical coordinates of points concerning
certain baselines and the outer limits of maritime zones, 36 as well as lines of
delimitation.37 However, these lines and limits, as well as associated deposits of such
information, may reflect the configuration of a coastline prior to sea -level rise (see
A/72/70, para. 54).
31. Neither the Convention nor customary international law addresses the impact
on baselines or maritime limits of loss of land territory resulting from sea -level rise.
The Convention contains no provisions dealing with variations in coastal geography,
except for providing that straight baselines on highly unstable coastlines should
remain effective until changed by the coastal States (see A/72/70, para. 54).38 Shifting
of the low-water line landward and variations of other features used to draw baselines
could affect the area over which States have maritime entitlements, as well as the
__________________
31 IPCC, IPCC Special Report on the Ocean and Cry osphere; IOM, Migration and Climate Change ,
p. 33; and contribution from Gabon. See also António Guterres, Secretary -General of the United
Nations, remarks at the Pacific Islands Forum, 14 May 2019.
32 Contribution from United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change secretariat.
33 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, arts. 3, 33, 57 and 76.
34 Ibid., art. 5. See also arts. 6, 7, 9, 10, 11, 13 and 47; Commonwealth secretariat, “Legal
implications of rising sea levels”.
35 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, arts. 15, 74 and 83.
36 Ibid., arts. 16, 75 and 84. The obligation concerning due publicity and depositing also relates to
archipelagic baselines, see art. 47 (8) –(9).
37 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, arts. 16, 75 and 84.
38 Ibid., art. 7 (2).
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basis on which existing maritime boundaries were delimited. 39 This has potential
consequences for coastal States’ sovereign rights and jurisdiction in those areas,
including sovereign rights to explore, exploit and conserve living and non -living
resources, as well as on the rights and freedoms of other States therein (see A/73/10,
annex B, para. 15). In that regard, there has been some practice by States in the Pacific
region aimed at establishing permanent baselines. 40
32. The hypothetical scenario in which a State’s territory is completely covered by
the sea or becomes uninhabitable because of sea-level rise raises legal questions
regarding the continuity or potential loss of statehood, whether States could retain
maritime entitlements and what actions may be taken by such States to preserve
territory and statehood (see A/73/10, annex B, para. 16).41
33. In terms of the protection of persons, sea -level rise is anticipated, through the
submergence of territory, to make certain areas uninhabitable (see A/73/10, annex B,
para. 3) 42 and to result in widespread forced displacement or relocation. 43 These
consequences raise legal questions regarding assistance for populations in situ, the
relocation and migration of displaced persons, the application of human right s
protections to affected populations and, in the potential case of loss of statehood, the need
to avoid statelessness (see A/73/10, annex B, para. 17; and CCPR/C/127/D/2728/2016).
International refugee law may also be relevant where displaced persons engage the
requirements for international legal protection. 44
D. Capacity and financial challenges
34. Sea-level rise presents unique capacity challe nges. Low-lying communities,
such as those in coral reef environments, urban atoll islands and deltas, including in
small island developing States and the least developed countries, as well as Arctic
communities, are particularly vulnerable to the conseque nces of sea-level rise, yet
often have the lowest capacity to adapt. 45 Rural and poorer areas in particular may
lack the resources and expertise for effective coastal protection, 46 with barriers to
adaptation including a lack of human resources, technical expertise, technology,
research and governance.47 As stated in the Special Report of the Intergovernmental
Panel on Climate Change, sea levels continue to rise, economic, financial and social
__________________
39 See A/73/10, annex B, para. 15; Davor Vidas, David Freestone and Jane McAdam, eds.,
International Law and Sea Level Rise: Report of the International Law Association Committee
on International Law and Sea Level Rise (Brill, 2018), pp. 16–18, 20 and 33–41 (International
Law Association report); contributions from Commonwealth secretariat, “Legal implications of
rising sea levels”, Indonesia, Gabon and Office of the High Representative for the Least
Developed Countries, Landlocked Developing Countries and Small Island Developing States.
40 Contributions from Commonwealth secretariat, “Legal implications of rising sea levels”, and
International Law Association report, pp. 2 –30.
41 International Law Association report, pp. 18 and 41 –42; and contribution from Commonwealth
secretariat, “Legal implications of rising sea levels”.
42 Contribution from UNHCR.
43 Contributions from UNHCR, Indonesia and Commonwealth secreta riat, “Legal implications of
rising sea levels”.
44 Contribution from UNHCR. See also CCPR/C/127/D/2728/2016; and contribution from
Commonwealth secretariat, “Legal implications of rising sea levels”.
45 IPCC, IPCC Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere ; contributions from UNCTAD and
Commonwealth secretariat.
46 IPCC, IPCC Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere , pp. 27, 31, and 376–377.
47 IPCC, IPCC Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere; Pachauri and others, eds., Climate
Change 2014: Synthesis Report, p. 19. See also contribution from United Nations Framework
Convention on Climate Change secretariat.
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limits to adaptation, rather than technical limits, may pose the greatest challenges to
coastal protection.
35. Moreover, longer temporal scales of climate change impacts, including sea -level
rise, and the uncertainty of their consequences, chal lenge the ability of societies to
adequately prepare for, and respond to, long -term changes, including shifts in the
frequency and intensity of extreme events. The complexity and pace of sea -level rise,
according to the Special Report, may exceed the capacities of local governments and
communities to adequately understand and respond to its impacts, requiring increased
coordination across administrative boundaries and sectors.
36. Differences in capacity to respond or adapt to sea -level rise between societal
groups may exacerbate social vulnerabilities and inequalities. Similarly, according to
the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, disagreements about policy
priorities, including trade-offs between public and private interests, short-term and
long-term concerns and security and conservation goals, are likely to contribute to
social conflict that may place stress on the institutional and legal capacities of
communities to respond to them.
37. The relative costs and benefits of coastal adaptation are al so distributed
unevenly across countries and regions. By some estimates, the annual costs of
protecting existing development and infrastructure from a 1 m rise in sea levels could
reach 20 per cent of the total gross national product for some countries. 48 The
increased costs of reconstruction, rehabilitation and maintenance, as well as costs
associated with adaptation, could be debilitating for many small island and low -lying
developing States.49
38. A major challenge results from the limited financial assist ance available for
small island developing States and the least developed countries to build their
capacities to understand the impacts of sea-level rise and develop response measures,
including adaptation plans.50 Improving access to sufficient and afforda ble climate
finance and strengthening innovative financing instruments and mechanisms, long -
term climate finance, blended finance approaches and microfinancing is a challenge
that must be met to assist those States in building resilience. 51
IV. Opportunities in responding to identified challenges,
including through cooperation and coordination at all levels
39. Problems of ocean space, including sea-level rise, are closely interrelated and
need to be considered as a whole, through integrated, interdisci plinary and
intersectoral approaches.52
40. With many stakeholders, organizations and bodies addressing aspects of sea -
level rise, opportunities exist for effective cooperation, collaboration and
coordination, including through partnerships and synergies am ong existing initiatives.
__________________
48 IPCC, IPCC Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere ; Fields and others, eds., Climate
Change 2014: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability , pp. 16 and 68.
49 UNCTAD, Port Industry Survey, p. 82.
50 Contribution from Office of the High Representative for the Least Developed Countries,
Landlocked Developing Countries and Small Is land Developing States.
51 Contributions from the Office of the High Representative for the Least Developed Countries,
Landlocked Developing Countries and Small Island Developing States and United Nations
Framework Convention on Climate Change secretariat.
52 Resolution 74/19, preamble; A/74/350, para. 89. See also United Nations Convention on the Law
of the Sea, preamble.
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A. Legal, policy and management frameworks
41. The impacts of sea-level rise necessitate effective and integrated legal and
policy frameworks underpinning the implementation of adequate mitigation,
resilience-building and adaptation responses.53 Issues of climate change, including
sea-level rise, must be mainstreamed into efforts aimed at conserving and sustainably
using the oceans, seas and marine resources at all levels (national, regional and
global) and vice versa.54 Complementarity and coordination of work under relevant
global and regional instruments and frameworks is increasingly being addressed,
including under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, the United
Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, the Paris Agreement, the 2030
Agenda, the Convention on Biological Diversity and other relevant biodiversity
instruments, relevant instruments addressing sustainable fisheries and the various
regional seas conventions and action plans.55 UN-Oceans has and will continue to
support the work of States in that regard.
42. The General Assembly, as the global body with a comprehensive, cross -sectoral
overview of oceans and the law of the sea (see A/74/70, para. 79), is playing an
important role through its establishment and oversight of various processes and
opportunities for discussion. These include the Regular Process for Global Reporting
and Assessment of the State of the Marine Environme nt, including Socioeconomic
Aspects (resolution 57/141, para. 45), which is aimed at enhancing the scientific basis
for policymaking,56 and has considered questions of climate change, including sea -
level rise; 57 the International Law Commission (resolution 174(II)), which is
currently considering the legal implications of sea -level rise in various fields of
international law; the 2017 and 2020 United Nations Conferences to Support the
Implementation of Sustainable Development Goal 14 to support the conservation and
sustainable use of the oceans, seas and marine resources, including consideration of
climate change-related issues (see para. 44; see resolutions 70/226 and 73/292); the
United Nations Decade of Ocean Science for Sustainable Development to stimulate
cooperation in ocean science, including in the context of climate change (see
para. 50); and the twenty-first meeting of the Informal Consultative Process
(resolution 54/33, para. 2).
43. Under the Paris Agreement, the process of preparing, communicating,
maintaining and adjusting nationally determined cont ributions provides parties with
an opportunity to highlight challenges, including in relation to sea -level rise, and to
identify response plans, including through cooperative approaches. The national
adaptation plan process similarly allows parties to iden tify adaptation needs, develop
and implement strategies to address those needs and achieve coherence in their
actions to implement the Paris Agreement and other global, regional and national
frameworks related to oceans and seas. 58
44. Recognizing the importance of linking issues of climate change, including sea -
level rise, and the ocean,59 the twenty-fifth session of the Conference of the Parties to
the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, held in Madrid from
2 to 13 December 2019, highlighted the importance of the ocean as an integral part
__________________
53 See contributions from UNCTAD, Barcelona Convention secretariat and United Nations
Framework Convention on Climate Change secretariat.
54 Contribution from United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change secretariat.
55 See also ibid.
56 See https://www.un.org/depts/los/global_reporting/Background_to_the_Regular_Process.pdf .
57 See Group of Experts of the Regular Process, The First Global Integrated Marine Assessment:
World Ocean Assessment I (2016), pp. 16 and 18.
58 Contribution from United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change secretariat.
59 Ibid.
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of the Earth’s climate system and of ensuring the integrity of ocean and coastal
ecosystems in the context of climate change. As a result, a dialogue on the ocean and
climate change will be held at the fifty-second session of the Subsidiary Body for
Scientific and Technological Advice in June 2020 to consider how to strengthen
mitigation and adaptation action in this context. 60
45. The 2030 Agenda, and the Sustainable Development Goals thereunder, reflect a
global policy commitment to strengthen resilience and adaptive capacity to climate -
related hazards, including sea-level rise (see target 13.1). The 2020 United Nations
Conference to Support the Implementation of Sustainable Developmen t Goal 14 will
provide an opportunity to address the integration of climate change impacts into
discussions on the implementation of Goal 14, with one of the interactive dialogues
focusing on the theme “Minimizing and addressing ocean acidification, deoxyg enation
and ocean warming” and another on the theme “Leveraging interlinkages between
Goal 14 and other Goals towards the implementation of the 2030 Agenda”.
46. Through various multilateral processes, such as the Programme of Action for
the Sustainable Development of Small Island Developing States (1994), the Mauritius
Strategy for the Further Implementation of the Programme of Action for the
Sustainable Development of Small Island Developing States (2005) and the SIDS
Accelerated Modalities of Action (SAMOA) Pathway (2014), States have reiterated
that sea-level rise poses significant threats to small island developing States and have
laid out programmes of international, regional and national action and measures,
including to enhance their resilience and a daptive capacity.61 The high-level meeting
to review progress made in addressing the priorities of such States through the
implementation of the SAMOA Pathway, held in 2019, resulted in, inter alia, a call
for urgent action to address the adverse impacts of climate change, including those
related to sea-level rise and extreme weather events (General Assembly resolution
74/3, para. 30 (u)).
47. According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, intensi fying
cooperation and coordination among institutional frameworks across regions,
jurisdictions, sectors, policy domains and planning horizons can enable effective
responses to sea-level rise. At the regional level, actions have been taken to create
coastal buffer zones and introduce integrated coastal zone management and marine
spatial planning as responses to current challenges, 62 as well as to integrate
vulnerabilities into the environmental impact assessment process. 63 Regional
mechanisms have been created with the mandate to cooperate to address the negative
impacts of climate change, including sea-level rise,64 as well as research projects into
climate change impacts.65
48. In other forums, the Commonwealth Blue Charter, adopted by Commonwealth
leaders in 2018, allows members to work together to translate high -level
commitments into on-the-water actions to collectively increase action towards
achieving Goal 14, 66 while the Office of the High Representative for the Least
Developed Countries, Landlocked Develo ping Countries and Small Island
Developing States has provided support for the Alliance of Small Island States in
__________________
60 Ibid.
61 Contribution from Office of the High Representative for the Least Developed Countries,
Landlocked Developing Countries and Small Island Developing States; A/CONF.167/9, pp. 10–13;
A/CONF.207/11, paras. 16–20; and resolution 69/15, paras. 31–46.
62 Contributions from Barcelona Convention secretariat and China.
63 Contribution from UNCTAD.
64 Contribution from Indonesia.
65 Contribution from European Union.
66 Contribution from Commonwealth secretariat.
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advocating and raising awareness regarding the need to address climate change and
sea-level rise.67
49. At the national level, various projects address the impacts of sea-level rise and
possible adaptation responses.68 Recognition has been given to the need to strengthen
cooperation and coordination between government agencies, policy areas and
planning levels, 69 including to implement international commitments at the local
level.70 In that regard, national bodies and strategies have been set up to respond to
sea-level rise.71
B. Scientific, technical and technological measures
50. To address rising sea levels, States need to adopt, adapt and imp lement a range
of mitigation and adaptation responses based on the best available science, as well as
technical and technological solutions. This will entail enhancing domestic capacities
and improving access to finance and technology, taking into account national and
local circumstances and needs.72
51. In that regard, in 2017, the General Assembly proclaimed the United Nations
Decade of Ocean Science for Sustainable Development (2021 –2030) and mandated
the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission of the United Nations
Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization to prepare an implementation plan
in consultation with Member States, United Nations partners and other relevant
stakeholders (resolution 72/73, para. 292). The preliminary objectives of the Decade
are, inter alia, to stimulate international cooperation regarding marine science
requirements needed to support implementation of the 2030 Agenda and to share
knowledge and enhance interdisciplinary marine research capacities, contributing to
benefits for all Member States, in particular small island developing States and the
least developed countries. 73 The Decade provides an opportunity to address gaps,
design innovative strategies and partnerships a nd strengthen the science-policy
interface, including in relation to ocean science and observation in the context of
climate change.74
52. The Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission, through its Global Sea
Level Observing System programme, has developed a global network of tide gauges
to serve the needs of client scientists and geodesists, with the programme also
supporting, inter alia, satellite altimetry. 75 The programme is a component of the
Global Ocean Observing System, which itself falls under the G lobal Climate
Observing System co-sponsored by the Commission, the World Meteorological
__________________
67 Contribution from Office of the High Representative for the Least Developed Countries,
Landlocked Developing Countries and Small Island Developing States.
68 See contributions from Bahrain, European Union, Togo, Singapore, Morocco and Seneg al.
69 Contribution from China.
70 Contribution from Barcelona Convention secretariat.
71 See contributions from UNCTAD, United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
secretariat, European Union, Singapore, Gabon, Togo and Bahrain.
72 Masson-Delmotte and others, eds., Global Warming of 1.5°C, p. 23; contributions from China,
Togo, Indonesia and Gabon.
73 Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission -United Nations Educational, Scientific and
Cultural Organization (UNESCO) resolution XXIX-1.
74 Contributions from Office of the High Representative for the Least Developed Countries,
Landlocked Developing Countries and Small Island Developing States and Barcelona
Convention secretariat. See also A/74/119.
75 Contributions from Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission -United Nations Educational,
Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO); United Nations Framework Convention on
Climate Change secretariat and WMO. See generally, on tide gauges, IPCC, IPCC Special Report
on the Ocean and Cryosphere .
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Organization (WMO), the United Nations Environment Programme and the
International Science Council and is used to support observations that underpin
climate services and adaptation measures, including in relation to sea -level rise.76
53. WMO maintains the Global Cryosphere Watch, which provides inputs for
estimating projected rates of sea-level rise and resulting impacts. Through its Coastal
Inundation Forecasting Demonstration Project, WMO has also, since 2013, facilitated
the development of early warning systems to protect against coastal inundation. In
addition, WMO and the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission have, through
the Joint Technical Commission for Ocean ography and Marine Meteorology and its
Observations Programme Support Centre, combined their expertise and technological
capabilities to monitor, coordinate and integrate global marine meteorological and
oceanographic observations. WMO engages in additiona l research activities relevant
to sea-level rise under the World Climate Research Programme, including through the
research effort known as the grand challenge on regional sea -level change and coastal
impacts. In 2019, it engaged in a joint symposium with the International Maritime
Organization, which identified, among other issues, the need for further information
concerning the impacts of weather on infrastructure and vessels at berth in relation to
ports and harbours, especially in the face of a changing climate with rising sea
levels.77
54. The International Atomic Energy Agency has the technical expertise and
instrumentation to measure naturally occurring radioisotopes, which can contribute
to assessments of sea-level rise and its impacts by measuring th e exchange of fresh
water and seawater, as well as establishing sea -level rise baselines from which
associated coastal vulnerability projections can be drawn. 78
55. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change processes are
supported with research and systematic observation by its Subsidiary Body for
Scientific and Technological Advice, which uses the Global Climate Observing
System as the basis for collecting long -term data sets. The Convention’s secretariat
also promotes cooperation through regula r research dialogues and through its Nairobi
work programme on impacts, vulnerability and adaptation to climate change. 79 The
Warsaw International Mechanism for Loss and Damage Associated with Climate
Change Impacts assists countries in implementing approac hes to avert, minimize and
address the risks associated with sea-level rise, including by encouraging
coordination among relevant stakeholders. 80 In the past year, the Executive
Committee of the Mechanism and the Technology Executive Committee of the
Convention collaborated on an expert dialogue on technologies for averting,
minimizing and addressing loss and damage in coastal zones. 81
C. Financial measures
56. States, in particular small island developing States, the least developed countries
and other developing States, face many barriers to adapting to the effects of sea -level
rise, among them financial challenges (see paras. 34 –38).
57. However, there are a number of existing opportunities to access international
financing. At the global level, pursuant to the Paris Agreement, developed country
__________________
76 Contribution from WMO.
77 Ibid.
78 Contribution from International Atomic Energy Agency.
79 Contribution from United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change secretariat.
80 Ibid.; and Conference of the Parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
Change decision 2/CP.19.
81 Contribution from United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change secretariat.
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parties are required to provide financial resources to assist developing country
parties.82 At the twenty-fifth session of the Conference of the Parties to the United
Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, parties invited the Green
Climate Fund to continue to provide financial resources for activities relevant to
averting, minimizing and addressing loss and damage in developing country parties,
with a view to enabling them to have better access to f inance the implementation of
relevant approaches taking into account the strategic workstreams of the Warsaw
International Mechanism, one of which is slow -onset events.83
58. Funds established under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
Change, including the Green Climate Fund and the Adaptation Fund, support a wide
range of mitigation and adaptation projects, including those related to sea -level rise.84
The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) supports several
adaptation projects financed through such funds and provides direct assistance to
States through its Technical Cooperation Programme and projects funded from the
regular programme.85 Other funds may, for instance, be available through the World
Bank Group, 86 multi-stakeholder collaborations and national agencies. 87 The
Commonwealth Climate Finance Access Hub helps small and other climate -
vulnerable States in the Commonwealth to have access to international climate
finance funds, enabling them to integrate climate change concerns into national
institutional architecture and enact and implement environmental laws. 88
59. Opportunities to channel private finance for climate change mi tigation and
adaptation, in line with the objectives of the Paris Agreement, are also increasingly
recognized. 89 For example, at the Climate Action Summit, Governments and the
private sector made encouraging pledges to decarbonize investment portfolios and
systematically include environmental impacts in investment decision -making.90 More
generally, consideration should be given to generating innovative and sustainable
financial flows and value chains, including through collective organizations and
citizen-led innovations in the sustainable agriculture, aquaculture, fisheries and
ecotourism sectors, creating jobs and diversifying the economy. 91
D. Capacity-building
60. The magnitude of sea-level rise is dependent on future greenhouse gas
emissions.92 As a result, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change states that
an immediate and ambitious reduction in greenhouse gas emissions is necessary to
__________________
82 Paris Agreement, art. 9. See also United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, art. 4 (3).
83 Contribution from United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change secretariat.
84 See https://unfccc.int/topics/climate-finance/the-big-picture/introduction-to-climate-finance;
https://unfccc.int/Adaptation-Fund; www.greenclimate.fund/. See also contribution from Morocco.
85 Contribution from FAO.
86 See https://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/climatefinance#2 .
87 See contribution from European Union.
88 Contribution from Commonwealth secretariat.
89 Ottmar Edenhofer and others, eds., Climate Change 2014: Mitigation of Climate Change – Contribution
of Working Group III to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change (New York, Cambridge University Press, 2014), pp. 1214 –1215 and 1223–1236; United
Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, FCCC/TP/2008/7, pp. 5–6, 61–68 and 104–107;
and United Nations Environment Programme, The Adaptation Gap Report (Nairobi, 2018), pp. 24–27.
90 United Nations, “Report of the Secretary -General on the 2019 Climate Action Summit and the
way forward in 2020” (11 December 2019), p. 6.
91 Contributions from Barcelona Convention secretariat and Office of the High Representative for
the Least Developed Countries, Landlocked Developing Countries and Small Island Developing
States.
92 Pachauri and others, eds., Climate Change 2014: Synthesis Report, p. 16.
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contain the rate and magnitude of sea -level rise and, consequently, adaptation
prospects. In that regard, strengthening the capacities for climate action of national
and subnational authorities, civil society, the private sector, indigenous peoples and
local communities can support the implementation of ambitious mitigation actions. 93
Enhanced support for adaptation is also urgently required to build resilience to sea -
level rise. 94 The General Assembly has called for enhanced efforts to address the
challenges of sea-level rise and emphasized the need for building the capacity of
States to benefit from the sustainable development of the oceans and seas (resolution
74/19, paras. 11 and 202).
61. Recognition is being given to the importance of improving knowledge of sea -
level rise and adaption responses, 95 with investments in education and capacitybuilding
at various levels and scales facilitating social learning and long -term
capability for context-specific responses to reduce risk and enhance resilience. 96
62. A number of capacity-building initiatives have been taken at th e global, regional
and national levels with the objective of assisting developing States in designing and
implementing responses to sea-level rise.
63. For example, the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
secretariat established the Paris Committee on Capacity-building in 2015 to identify
and address capacity gaps, needs and potential solutions, including enhancing the
coherence and coordination of climate change -related capacity-building efforts. The
Committee fosters collaboration at all levels and, through its platform for capacity -
building guidance and its communication tools, facilitates access to information and
knowledge for enhancing climate action in developing countries and for measuring
progress on capacity-building. The Convention secretariat also facilitated the sharing
of best practices in legislation, including that addressing sea -level rise, while the
Santiago Network for Averting, Minimizing and Addressing Loss and Damage is to
be launched in 2020 to facilitate the provision of technical assistance to developing
countries, including in addressing loss and damage through sea -level rise.97
64. The law and climate change toolkit, currently under development through a
partnership involving the United Nations Framework Convention o n Climate Change
secretariat, the United Nations Environment Programme, the Commonwealth
secretariat and partner countries, organizations and research institutions, is an online
database aimed at assisting countries with the legal frameworks necessary for
effective implementation of the Paris Agreement and nationally determined
contributions. The Commonwealth secretariat’s ocean governance and natural
resources programme assists member countries in the management of ocean
resources, including in the development of legal and regulatory frameworks, such as
ocean policies and strategies, and with regard to maritime boundaries. 98
65. FAO initiatives include its climate -smart agriculture programme, climate action
for sustainable development initiative and water sc arcity and management
programme, as well as a range of country -specific programmes to promote the
economic empowerment of rural women and enhance climate change resilience, many
in line with proposed actions under the Paris Committee on Capacity -Building and
the gender action plan of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
Change. FAO has also developed an adaptation toolbox to identify adaptation
__________________
93 Masson-Delmotte and others, eds., Global Warming of 1.5°C, p. 23.
94 Contribution from United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change secretariat.
95 See contribution from China.
96 IPCC, IPCC Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere .
97 Contribution from United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change secret ariat.
98 Contribution from Commonwealth secretariat.
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responses and supports the implementation of such responses, together with partners,
at the global, regional and country levels.99
66. The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees provides technical advice
to support States in planned relocation due to sea -level rise, as well as with the
protection and assistance needs of displaced persons. It has, w ith partners, developed
guidelines on planned relocation and a toolbox for States. It is also, inter alia, a
member of the Task Force on Displacement of the United Nations Framework
Convention on Climate Change, which has developed recommendations to avert ,
minimize and address disaster displacement. 100
67. The United Nations Conference on Trade and Development recently published
a compilation of policies and practices of relevance to sea -level rise and adaptation
for coastal transport infrastructure 101 to assist in the development of effective
adaptation policies and response measures. 102 Other standards and policies include
International Organization for Standardization (ISO) standard 14090 (adaptation to
climate change: principles, requirements and guidelines, 2019), which provides a
framework to enable organizations to prioritize and develop effective, efficient and
deliverable adaptation tailored to the specific climate change challenges that they
face, including sea-level rise.103
68. The Division for Ocean Affairs and the Law of the Sea provides information,
advice and assistance to States, intergovernmental organizations and other
stakeholders on the uniform and consistent application of the United Nations
Convention on the Law of the Sea and related instrumen ts. The various capacitybuilding
programmes implemented by the Division, including the United Nations -
Nippon Foundation and Hamilton Shirley Amerasinghe fellowship programmes,
assist States in developing their capacity, in particular human capacity, to es tablish or
enhance integrated and cross-sectoral ocean governance frameworks, such as by
raising awareness of the need for coordinated action in addressing ocean and climate
challenges, including those related to sea-level rise.
V. Conclusions
69. Sea-level rise is a global challenge affecting a significant portion of the
international community, with potential consequences for both present and future
generations. In view of the long timescale on which this physical process operates
and its relationship with anthropogenic climate change, sea-level rise and its impacts
are projected to continue beyond 2100, at a scale proportional to various greenhouse
gas emission scenarios.
70. As a threat multiplier, sea level rise is projected, in combination with other
climate-related ocean changes, extreme events and adverse effects from human
activities on ocean and land, to have significant environmental, economic and social
ramifications. In particular, it is projected to cause the displacement of coastal
communities within and across countries, exacerbate existing vulnerabilities
regarding water, food, health and livelihoods and potentially fuel social and
international conflict. Low-lying communities, including those in coral reef
environments, urban atoll islands and deltas, and Arctic communities, as well as small
__________________
99 Contribution from FAO.
100 Contribution from UNHCR.
101 Climate Change Impacts and Adaptation for Coastal Transport Infrastructure: A Compilation of
Policies and Practices (United Nations publication, Sales No. E.20.II.D.10).
102 Contribution from UNCTAD.
103 Ibid.
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island developing States and the least developed countries, are particularly
vulnerable, with some facing threats to their ve ry survival.
71. These impacts will, directly or indirectly, impede the timely and effective
achievement of all the Sustainable Development Goals. They are also projected to
pose significant challenges for security and the stability of international legal
frameworks, as well as in terms of the capacity of communities, in particular the most
vulnerable, to adapt.
72. Current frameworks and processes do, however, provide opportunities for
concerted and coordinated action to minimize the projected impacts of s ea-level rise.
73. An effective response to sea-level rise requires the planning and implementation
of successful legal, policy and management responses at the regional, national and
local levels. With ambitious emissions reductions and extensive adaptatio n initiatives
deemed essential,104 the international climate change regime reflected in the United
Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and the Paris Agreement offers
significant opportunities for States to act in a coordinated fashion to tackle th is global
challenge.
74. Charting climate-resilient development pathways depends on how well such
measures can be combined with other sustainable development efforts, including by
taking account of synergies between the Goals. 105 It is essential not only to
mainstream climate change considerations into ocean -related processes and vice
versa, but also to ensure that actions taken under these processes are mutually
supportive and effectively address coordinated goals. The 2020 United Nations
Conference to Support the Implementation of Sustainable Development Goal 14 and
other oceans processes led by the General Assembly provide an opportunity to address
these issues on a global scale. In addition, lessons may be learned from activities
already under way to address policy solutions in an integrated fashion across various
governance levels, with a view to enhancing coordination in the implementation of
relevant and mutually reinforcing legal and policy instruments.
75. Additional integrated research, observation an d assessments, including through
the use of multiple sources of data to inform real -time and projected information, are
necessary to better understand the impacts of sea -level rise. Assessments of technical
solutions, responses and capacity limitations must be addressed through scientific,
technical and technological cooperation and collaboration. The United Nations
Decade of Ocean Science for Sustainable Development (2021 –2030) will provide
many opportunities to that end.
76. As communities in low-lying areas, in particular small island developing States
and the least developed countries, face significant capacity challenges in responding
to the impacts of sea-level rise, cooperation across relevant capacity -building
programmes needs to be enhanced to ensur e that those programmes are implemented
and strengthened in mutually supportive and coordinated ways. This includes
ensuring access to sustained funding to support ocean -related activities. Opportunities
to use capacity-building and funding mechanisms, inc luding climate finance, to
promote both the sustainable development of oceans and seas and ocean -based
adaptation and mitigation objectives should be further explored.
__________________
104 IPCC, IPCC Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere .
105 Ibid.; and E/2019/68, para. 84.
United Nations A/75/232/Rev.1*
General Assembly Distr.: General
4 November 2020
Original: English
20-14673* (E) 041220
*2014673*
Seventy-fifth session
Agenda item 76
Oceans and the law of the sea
Letter of transmittal
Letter dated 13 October 2020 from the Co-Chairs of the Ad Hoc Working
Group of the Whole on the Regular Process for Global Reporting and
Assessment of the State of the Marine Environment, including Socioeconomic
Aspects, addressed to the President of the General Assembly
We have the honour to transmit to you, pursuant to paragraph 327 of General
Assembly resolution 74/19 of 10 December 2019, the summary of the second World
Ocean Assessment to be issued as a document of the Assembly at its seventy -fifth
session for final approval and for consideration by the Ad Hoc Working Group of the
Whole on the Regular Process for Global Reporting and Assessment of the State of
the Marine Environment, including Socioeconomic Aspects, at its fourteenth meeting,
on 6 November 2020.
We kindly request that the present letter and the summary be circulated as a
document of the General Assembly, under agenda item 76.
(Signed) Gert Auväärt
(Signed) Juliette Babb-Riley
* Reissued for technical reasons on 4 December 2020. ~
Pleaserecycle@ ~~~
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2/34 20-14673
Summary of the second World Ocean Assessment
Contents
Page
Overall summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Keynote points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2. Drivers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
3. Cleaning up the ocean . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
3.1. Linkages with the Sustainable Development Goals and the United Nations Decade of
Ocean Science for Sustainable Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
3.2. Nutrient pollution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
3.3. Hazardous substances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
3.4. Solid waste. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
3.5. Noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
3.6. Key knowledge and capacity-building gaps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
4. Protecting marine ecosystems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
4.1. Linkages with the Sustainable Development Goals and the United Nations Decade of
Ocean Science for Sustainable Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
4.2. Coastal ecosystems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
4.3. Open ocean and deep-sea ecosystems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
4.4. Key knowledge and capacity-building gaps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
5. Understanding of the ocean for sustainable management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
5.1. Linkages with the Sustainable Development Goals and the United Nations Decade of
Ocean Science for Sustainable Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
5.2. Global scientific understanding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
5.3. Sustainable management. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
5.4. Key knowledge and capacity-building gaps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
6. Promoting safety from the ocean . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
6.1. Linkages with the Sustainable Development Goals and the United Nations Decade of
Ocean Science for Sustainable Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
6.2. Hazards from the ocean . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
6.3. Key knowledge and capacity-building gaps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
7. Sustainable food from the ocean . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
7.1. Linkages with the Sustainable Development Goals and the United Nations Decade of
Ocean Science for Sustainable Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
7.2. Marine capture fisheries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
7.3. Aquaculture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
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7.4. Seaweed production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
7.5. Key knowledge and capacity-building gaps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
8. Sustainable economic use of the ocean . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
8.1. Linkages with the Sustainable Development Goals and the United Nations Decade of
Ocean Science for Sustainable Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
8.2. Seabed mining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
8.3. Extraction of offshore hydrocarbons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
8.4. Maritime transport. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
8.5. Tourism and recreation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
8.6. Marine genetic resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
8.7. Marine renewable energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
8.8. Key knowledge and capacity-building gaps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
9. Effective implementation of international law as reflected in the United Nations Convention
on the Law of the Sea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
9.1. Linkages with the Sustainable Development Goals and the United Nations Decade of
Ocean Science for Sustainable Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
9.2. Implementation of international law as reflected in the United Nations Convention on
the Law of the Sea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
9.3. Implementation and regulatory gaps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Table 1. Contribution made by other Sustainable Development Goals to achieving Goal 14 . . 23
Table 2. Contribution made by Sustainable Development Goal 14 to achieving other Goals . . 28
Landscape of subgoals under Sustainable Development Goal 14 and relevant chapters . . . . . . 34
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Overall summary
Contributors: Maria João Bebianno, Hilconida Calumpong, Sanae Chiba, Karen
Evans, Carlos Garcia-Soto, Osman Keh Kamara, Enrique Marschoff, Essam Yassin
Mohammed, Henn Ojaveer, Chul Park, Ylenia Randrianarisoa, Renison Ruwa (lead
member), Jörn Schmidt, Alan Simcock (lead member), Anastasia Strati, Joshua
Tuhumwire, Ca Thanh Vu, Juying Wang and Tymon Zielinski (Group of Experts of
the Regular Process for Global Reporting and Assessment of the State of the Marine
Environment, including Socioeconomic Aspects).
Keynote points
• Understanding of the ocean continues to improve. Innovations in sensors and
autonomous observation platforms have substantially increased observations of
the ocean. Regional observation programmes have expanded, with better
coordination and integration
• Some responses for mitigating or reducing pressures and their associated
impacts on the ocean have improved since the first World Ocean Assessment.1
They include the expansion and implementation of management frameworks for
conserving the marine environment, including the establishment of marine
protected areas and, in some regions, improved m anagement of pollution and
fisheries. However, many pressures from human activities continue to degrade
the ocean, including important habitats, such as mangroves and coral reefs.
Pressures include those associated with climate change; unsustainable fishin g,
including illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing; the introduction of
invasive species; atmospheric pollution causing acidification and
eutrophication; excessive inputs of nutrients and hazardous substances,
including plastics, microplastics and na noplastics; increasing amounts of
anthropogenic noise; and ill-managed coastal development and extraction of
natural resources
• There continues to be a lack of quantification of the impacts of pressures and
their cumulative effects. A general failure to achieve the integrated management
of human uses of coasts and the ocean is increasing risks to the benefits that
people draw from the ocean, including in terms of food safety and security,
material provision, human health and well-being, coastal safety and the
maintenance of key ecosystem services
• Improving the management of human uses of the ocean to ensure sustainability
will require improved coordination and cooperation to provide capacity -
building in regions where it is lacking, innovations in marine technology, the
integration of multidisciplinary observation systems, the implementation of
integrated management and planning and improved access to, and exchange of,
ocean knowledge and technologies
• The coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic is having a major effect on
many human activities carried out in the ocean. The full implications of the
pandemic on human interactions with the ocean are still to be fully assessed
__________________
1 United Nations, The First Global Integrated Marine Assessment: World Ocean Assessment I
(Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2017).
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1. Introduction
The ocean covers more than 70 per cent of the surface of the planet and forms
95 per cent of the biosphere. Changes in the ocean drive weather systems that
influence both land and marine ecosystems. The ocean and its ecosystems also
provide significant benefits to the global community, including clima te regulation,
coastal protection, food, employment, recreation and cultural well -being. Those
benefits depend, to a great extent, on the maintenance of ocean processes, marine
biological diversity and related ecosystem services.
Concerned by the declining state of the ocean, States Members of the United
Nations, through the General Assembly, established the Regular Process for Global
Reporting and Assessment of the State of the Marine Environment, including
Socioeconomic Aspects. The aim of the Regular Pr ocess is to provide an evaluation
of the state of the global ocean, the services that it provides and the human activities
that influence its state. The first World Ocean Assessment was completed in 2015. It
concluded that many parts of the ocean had been seriously degraded and that, if the
problems that it described were not addressed, they would produce a destructive cycle
of degradation in which the ocean could no longer provide many of the benefits on
which humans rely. As part of the work identified fo r the second cycle of the Regular
Process, three process-specific technical abstracts were produced, summarizing the
content of the first World Ocean Assessment in relation to climate change, biodiversity
in areas beyond national jurisdiction and Sustainab le Development Goal 14, on life
below water (see General Assembly resolution 70/1).
The second World Ocean Assessment provides an update to the first Assessment,
taking into account developments and changes known to have occurred since 2015,
and complements it by describing further human interactions with the ocean. Most of
the text of the second Assessment was written b efore the outbreak of the COVID-19
pandemic, and it will take time for the full implications of the pandemic to become
apparent. Where appropriate, the second Assessment provides an evaluation of how
the developments and changes since the first World Ocean Assessment contribute to
the achievement of relevant Sustainable Development Goals. Developments and
changes relevant to the societal goals of the United Nations Decade of Ocean Science
for Sustainable Development (see resolution 72/73) are also indicated.
2. Drivers
In the second World Ocean Assessment, drivers are characterized as social,
demographic and economic developments in societies, including changes in lifestyles
and associated consumption and production patterns that apply pressures to the ocean
(chap. 4).2 Relationships between drivers and pressures (and their impacts) are
complex and dynamic, with interlinkages leading to cumulative interactions. The
drivers identified in chapter 4 are:
(a) Population growth and demographic changes. The world’s population
continues to grow, although the rate of growth has slowed from the rates observed in
the late 1960s, with rates of international migration also increasing. The extent to
which an increasing global population places pressure on the marine environment
varies, depending on a range of factors, including where and how people live, their
consumption patterns and technologies used to produce energy, food and materials,
provide transport and manage waste;
__________________
2 All references to chapters in the present document are references to chapters of the second World
Ocean Assessment.
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(b) Economic activity. Economies continue to grow globally, although at a
slower pace than reported in the first World Ocean Assessment as a result of weaker
manufacturing and trade. As the global population has grown, demand for goods and
services has increased, with associated increases in energy consumption and resource
use. Many countries have developed, or are developing, strategies for growing ocean -
based economies (the blue economy). However, an important constraint on the growth
of ocean economies is the current declining health of the ocean and the pressures
being placed on it;
(c) Technological advances. Advances in technology continue to increase
efficiency, expand markets and enhance economic growth. Innovations have enabled
outcomes for the marine environment that are both positive (such as increasing
efficiencies in energy generation) and negative (such as overcapacity in fisheries);
(d) Changing governance structures and geopolitical instability . At both
the international and national levels, improved methods of cooperation and
implementation of effective policies across some regions have contributed to reducing
some pressures on the ocean. However, in regions where there is conflict over access
to resources and maritime boundarie s, policies and agreements focused on
sustainability can be undermined;
(e) Climate change. Anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions have
continued to rise, causing further long-term climate changes, with widespread effects
throughout the ocean that will persist for centuries and affect the ocean. The impacts
of climate change have been recognized by the Conference of the Parties to the United
Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change in its decision 1/CP.21, by which
it adopted the Paris Agreement,3 aimed at strengthening the global response to threats
from climate change.
The global influence of the five drivers is not uniformly distributed. Human
populations are not evenly dispersed, and population growth varies among countries
and regions. Geographical disparities in economic growth have been increasing since
the 1980s. Associated differences in technological advances mean that some countries
can extract resources from previously inaccessible areas, with the probability of
increased pressures in those regions. Many regions, in particular those with least
developed countries, still lack access to technologies that can assist in using marine
resources sustainably.4 Regional disputes and geopolitical instabilities may impede
the implementation of global and regional treaties and agreements, thereby affecting
economic growth, the transfer of technologies and the implementation of frameworks
for managing ocean use. The effects of climate change are also not uniform, with
some regions, including the Arctic Ocean, warming at higher rates than the global
average (chap. 5).
3. Cleaning up the ocean
The lack of appropriate wastewater treatment and the release of pollutants from
the manufacturing industry, agriculture, tourism, fisheries and shipping con tinue to
put pressure on the ocean, with a negative impact on food security, food safety and
marine biodiversity. Marine litter, ranging from nanomaterials to macromaterials, is
a further problem, given that, in addition to the damage caused by its presenc e, it can
also carry pollutants and non-indigenous species over long distances (chaps. 10 –12).
__________________
3 See FCCC/CP/2015/10/Add.1, decision 1/CP.21, annex.
4 Unless otherwise indicated, “sustainable” and “sustainability” are used with reference to all
aspects – environmental, social and economic.
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3.1. Linkages with the Sustainable Development Goals and the United Nations
Decade of Ocean Science for Sustainable Development
Sustainable Development Goal target 14.1
By 2025, prevent and significantly reduce marine pollution of all kinds, in
particular from land-based activities, including marine debris and nutrient pollution
Decade of Ocean Science outcome
A clean ocean where sources of pollution are identified and reduced or removed
Concentrations of some pollutants (such as persistent organic pollutants and
metals) in some regions are declining, but information on concentrations is not
spatially uniform. Knowledge gaps remain with regard to not only recognized but also
emerging pollutants. In several regions, capacity gaps remain in applying consistent,
coherent policies and related enforcement to prevent and control inputs of pollutants
into the ocean (chaps. 10–12 and 20).
The particular ways in which progress towards other Sustai nable Development
Goals will assist in the achievement of target 14.1 are set out in table 1, and the
particular ways in which the achievement of that target will assist with progress
towards other Goals are set out in table 2.
3.2. Nutrient pollution
Anthropogenic inputs of nitrogen and phosphorus into coastal ecosystems from
direct discharges, land run-off, rivers and the atmosphere have generally continued to
rise, even though better control of their release is reducing inputs into some bodies of
water. Owing to excessive inputs of such nutrients, eutrophication is an increasing
problem, and the number of hypoxic zones (sometimes called “dead zones”) has
increased from more than 400 globally in 2008 to approximately 700 in 2019. The
ecosystems most affected include the northern part of the Gulf of Mexico, the Baltic
Sea, the North Sea, the Bay of Bengal, the South China Sea and the East China Sea.
It is estimated that coastal anthropogenic nitrogen inputs will double during the first
half of the twenty-first century. In addition, deoxygenation is projected to worsen
through increases in ocean temperatures and changes in stratification and ocean
currents driven by climate change (chap. 5), in particular in coastal regions of Africa,
South America, South and South-East Asia and Oceania (chap. 10).
3.3. Hazardous substances
Industrial development and the intensity of agriculture have continued to
increase, resulting in both ongoing and new inputs of hazardous substances into the
ocean. New types of input include pharmaceuticals, personal care products and
nanomaterials that cannot be removed by wastewater treatment in many parts of the
world. The detection of pharmaceuticals and personal care products is increasing
across the ocean, including in the Arctic Ocean and the Southern Ocean. A number of
such products have been observed to cause harm to plants and animals, but the scale
of the impact on marine organisms is unknown, largely because they are generally not
monitored (chap. 11).
Although the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants 5 has
generally had a positive effect on global concentrations, persistent organic pollutants
__________________
5 United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 2256, No. 40214.
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continue to be detected in marine areas and in marine species far from their sources
of production and use. Even low concentrations have been shown to reduce
reproductive success in marine species, including Arctic seals. In most ocean regions,
information on trends is lacking (chap. 11).
The Minamata Convention on Mercury 6 has generally reduced global mercury
concentrations, with evidence, in most regions, that mercury concentrations in the
ocean are levelling off. However, a slight increase in concentrations of some metals
in higher trophic organisms has been reported. To better assess metal concentration
trends, expanded coastal time-series analyses are needed globally, including of levels
of metal nanomaterials in the ocean (chap. 11).
Concentrations of most radioactive substances continue to decrease through the
decay of historical inputs. There have been no major nuclear accidents since 2011,
and discharges from nuclear reprocessing plants in Europe continue to decrease
substantially. Smaller amounts of radionuclides continue to be released by nuclear
power reactors in 30 countries (chap. 11).
Globally, the number of shipping accidents has continued to decrease: an annual
average of 88 ships of more than 100 gross tonnage were lost between 2014 and 2018,
compared with 120 in the preceding five years. Progress is being made in reducing
air pollution form ships. The number of oil spills has remained low: an annual average
of 6 spills of more than seven tons from oil tankers occurred between 2010 and 2018,
compared with an annual average of 18 spills in the previous decade . Offshore oil and
gas installations also release hydrocarbons into the marine environment, but the long -
term impacts of such releases remain unknown (chaps. 11 and 19).
3.4. Solid waste
Inputs of solid waste into the ocean (including marine litter) f rom unintentional
releases and the intentional dumping of waste are largely unquantified around the
world. Plastics represent up to 80 per cent of marine litter, with annual inputs into the
ocean from rivers estimated at 1.15 –2.41 million tons. The presence of plastics has
been recorded in more than 1,400 marine species. Less is known about the effects of
microplastics (pieces of less than 5 mm) and nanoplastics (pieces of less than 100 nm),
although nanoplastics have been observed to enter the cells of org anisms. Those two
groups of plastics are derived from both the breakdown of macroplastics and
deliberate manufacture (for example, as ingredients in personal care products). The
dumping of sewage sludge and organic and inorganic waste remains limited, with the
dumping of sewage sludge continuing to decline as a result of the implementation of
the Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and
Other Matter of 1972 (the London Convention) 7 and the 1996 Protocol thereto8 and
many regional conventions. However, insufficient reporting under those agreements
remain, resulting in uncertainties in the extent of the dumping of waste. Munitions
dumped at sea continue to present low risks to the marine ecosystem and (when caught
in nets) to fishers. Recent research, however, suggests that the release of compounds
from munitions might have sublethal genetic and metabolic effects in marine
organisms (chap. 12).
3.5. Noise
Anthropogenic noise affecting the oceans comes from many sources
(e.g., vessels, oil and gas exploration and extraction, industrial activities and sonar)
__________________
6 UNEP(DTIE)/Hg/CONF/4, annex II. The Convention entered into force on 16 Aug ust 2017.
7 United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 1046, No. 15749.
8 The London Protocol entered into force on 24 March 2006.
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and varies across space and time. The regions most affected are those characterized
by heavy industrial use, such as the Gulf of Mexico, the North Sea and the Atlantic
Ocean. Unlike many other sources of marine pollution, noise does not persist once
the sound source has been removed from the environment. Understanding the impacts
of anthropogenic noise on marine biodiversity has increased over the past two
decades, with a range of direct and indirect impacts observed across a number of taxa,
from zooplankton to marine mammals. Understanding of those impacts has improved
in parallel with increasing recognition of the need to monitor noise entering the
marine environment and to identify and reduce its impacts. While some efforts are
being made to reduce noise created by a variety of sources, increasing use of the ocean
is likely to offset those efforts (chap. 20).
3.6. Key knowledge and capacity-building gaps
Methods for standardizing the monitoring of pollutants, including noise, and
data sets are needed urgently, so that both spatial and temporal differences in
pollutants can be evaluated and priorities established. Capacity -building is needed to
reduce the input of pollutants into the ocean, in particular through the introduction of
cleaner production, quieter technologies and cheaper and readily deployable
wastewater-processing technologies. To reduce the duplication of efforts, the creation
of a general database on hazardous substances and a baseline of ambient noise would
be desirable to support risk assessment and modelling. As the extent of transboundary
marine pollution is poorly understood in many parts of the world, in particular with
regard to airborne pollutants, more accurate data on their emissions and transport are
needed. Lastly, it is necessary to gain a much better understanding of the effects of
pollutants, including anthropogenic noise, on the marine environment (chaps. 10 –12
and 20).
4. Protecting marine ecosystems
The main threats to marine ecosystems come from human activities, such as
fishing, aquaculture, shipping, sand and mineral extraction, oil and gas exploitation,
the building of renewable energy infrastructure, coastal infras tructure development
and pollution, including the release of greenhouse gases.
4.1. Linkages with the Sustainable Development Goals and the United Nations
Decade of Ocean Science for Sustainable Development
Sustainable Development Goal target 14.2
By 2020, sustainably manage and protect marine and coastal ecosystems to
avoid significant adverse impacts, including by strengthening their resilience, and
take action for their restoration in order to achieve healthy and productive oceans
Sustainable Development Goal target 14.5
By 2020, conserve at least 10 per cent of coastal and marine areas, consistent
with national and international law and based on the best available scientific
information
Decade of Ocean Science outcome
A healthy and resilient ocean where marine ecosystems are understood,
protected, restored and managed
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Many marine species and habitats continue to be adversely affected by
increasing anthropogenic pressures (chaps. 6A–G and 7A–Q; see also sect. 5 below).
Understanding of the distribution and status of species and habitats and how they are
being affected by anthropogenic pressures is improving. In 2020, marine protected
areas covered 18 per cent of the ocean within national jurisdic tions, representing
approximately 8 per cent of the entire ocean, while about 1 per cent of marine areas
beyond national jurisdiction had been protected (chap. 27).
The particular ways in which progress towards other Sustainable Development
Goals will assist in the achievement of targets 14.2 and 14.5 are set out in table 1, and
the particular ways in which the achievement of those targets will assist with progress
towards other Goals are set out in table 2.
The protection of marine ecosystems is embedded in various international
agreements, such as the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea 9 and the
Convention on Biological Diversity,10 as well as in regional conventions and national
legislation. Notwithstanding the objectives of such agreements and conventions, the
status of many marine species and habitats continues to decline globally, thereby
putting the functioning of ecosystems at risk. In addition, climate change is resulting
in ocean warming, acidification, changes in circulation, dissolv ed oxygen
concentrations and water cycle amplification. As a result, the transfer of nutrients
associated with primary productivity from surface waters to the deep sea is declining.
Globally, about 2,000 marine species have been introduced outside their na tural range
as a result of human activities (chaps. 5, 6A–G, 7A–Q and 22).
Many management frameworks for protecting marine ecosystems have a
sectoral focus and can therefore have differing objectives for the protection of the
marine environment across sectors. Management tools can be area-based (such as
marine protected areas and fishery closures) or non -area-based (such as global
emission controls, catch and effort controls and technical restrictions). Management
approaches are increasingly moving away f rom being focused on sectoral use towards
including diverse links between ecological and social, economic and cultural aspects.
The ecosystem approach integrates environmental, social and economic aspects at the
global, regional, national or local level. Cultural information is becoming an integral
part of management frameworks, both in the context of community -based
management and for safeguarding the cultural dimension of the marine environment.
Such information can be diverse and intangible, such as trad itional marine resource
use, sea routes, ancient navigational skills, maritime identities, legends, rituals,
beliefs and practices, aesthetic and inspirational qualities, cultural heritage and places
of spiritual, sacred and religious importance (chap. 27) .
In some areas, in particular in South -East Asia, “blue infrastructure
development”, as well as such approaches as nature -based solutions, are being
introduced in an attempt to harmonize coastal development and protection with
habitat and ecological protection (chaps. 8A, 13 and 14).
4.2. Coastal ecosystems
Notwithstanding increases in marine protected areas and the expansion of
Ramsar Sites,11 mangroves (except in the Red Sea) and seagrass meadows (in
particular in South-East Asia) continue to decline, with 19 per cent of mangroves and
21 per cent of seagrass species identified as near-threatened. The combined effects of
ocean warming and human activities are increasingly affecting tropical and
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9 United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 1833, No. 31363.
10 Ibid., vol. 1760, No. 30619.
11 See Convention on Wetlands of International Importance especially as Waterfowl Habitat
(United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 996, No. 14583).
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subtropical coral reefs and kelp forests globally. In re cent years, coral reefs have
undergone mass bleaching on an annual basis, while kelp forests have been affected
by marine heatwaves (chap. 9), resulting in rapid losses (chaps. 6G, 7D and 7H).
Overall, about 6 per cent of known fish species and nearly 30 per cent of
elasmobranch species are listed as near-threatened or vulnerable. Globally, the status
of marine mammals varies, with 75 per cent of species in some groups (sirenians,
freshwater dolphins, polar bears and otters) being classified as vulnerable,
endangered or critically endangered. Many large whale species are now recovering
from past harvesting as a result of prohibitions on and the regulation of commercial
catches and national recovery plans. The conservation status of marine reptiles has
varied greatly: protection in certain regions has increased some populations, while
those in other areas are declining because of continuing or increasing threats. The
global conservation status of seabirds has worsened, with over 30 per cent of species
now listed as vulnerable, endangered or critically endangered (chaps. 6C –F).
4.3. Open ocean and deep-sea ecosystems12
The open ocean continues to be affected by ocean warming, acidification,
deoxygenation and marine pollution. Nutrient inputs derived from the Amazon River
and brought up by upwelling off the coast of West Africa appear to have fuelled a
massive seaweed bloom of floating sargassum: the 20 -million-ton bloom began to
develop in 2011 in the equatorial Atlantic Ocean and, by 2018, had extended 8,850 km
across that area (chaps. 7N, 10 and 12).
Understanding of the distribution of cold -water corals has increased, and they
are known to occur along continental margins, mid -ocean ridges and seamounts
worldwide. They and other deep-sea features (seamounts, pinnacles, ridges, trenches,
hydrothermal vents and cold seeps) remain under threat from fishing, offshore oil
drilling, deep-sea mining and pollution, including plastic waste, and, to a lesser
extent, climate change. Some efforts to curb deep -water bottom trawling and establish
marine protected areas where cold-water corals occur have partially restored some
damaged cold-water coral communities. However, such habitats can take decades or
even centuries to recover, making it difficult to identify trends of improvement
(chaps. 7E, 7L, 7O and 7P).
4.4. Key knowledge and capacity-building gaps
Since 2015, on average, one new species of fish has been described per week,
highlighting how much remains to be discovered. Although knowledge of ecosystem
composition and functioning has improved since the issuance of the first Assessment,
gaps remain, in particular with regard to deep-sea ecosystems and open-ocean
planktonic and benthic species. Gaps also remain in understanding the biology and
ecology of coastal species, in particular in the territorial waters of developing
countries. There is no well-organized structure to study the approximately 2,000
non-indigenous species that have spread to new areas as a result of human activities
and their impacts on natural ecosystems. The conservation status of less than 1 per
cent of macroalgal species has been assessed (chaps. 6A –C, 6G, 7N and 22).
While the ecosystem approach has been widely acknowledged as an effective
framework for managing human impacts, further research and capacity -building are
needed to realize its full potential across the world’s oceans. In many regions, there
is a lack of information needed to establish links between ecological causes and
effects in order to balance them against socioeconomic priorities, in decision -making.
Enhanced collaboration in monitoring will help in sharing capacity across sectors and
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12 See chap. 2, sect. 4, for a definition of the terms “open ocean” and “deep sea”.
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institutions and provide more efficient monitoring, data and information. Increased
capacity in understanding management approaches and implementing them will
support Governments and other stakeholders in understanding options for the
management and governance of marine areas (chap. 27).
5. Understanding of the ocean for sustainable management
The sustainable use of the ocean cannot be achieved before acquiring a deep
understanding of ocean processes and its functioning, as well as coherent knowle dge
of the impacts of human activities on the ocean (chaps. 8A and 27).
5.1. Linkages with the Sustainable Development Goals and the United Nations
Decade of Ocean Science for Sustainable Development
Sustainable Development Goal target 14.3
Minimize and address the impacts of ocean acidification, including through
enhanced scientific cooperation at all levels
Sustainable Development Goal target 14.a
Increase scientific knowledge, develop research capacity and transfer marine
technology, taking into account the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission
Criteria and Guidelines on the Transfer of Marine Technology, in order to improve
ocean health and to enhance the contribution of marine biodiversity to the
development of developing countries, in particular small island developing States and
least developed countries
Decade of Ocean Science outcome
A predicted ocean where society understands and can respond to changing ocean
conditions
Decade of Ocean Science outcome
An accessible ocean with open and equitable access to data, information and
technology and innovation
Decade of Ocean Science outcome
An inspiring and engaging ocean where society understands and values the
ocean in relation to human well-being and sustainable development
The input of carbon dioxide into the ocean is continuing, albeit in an irregular
manner, resulting in acidification of the ocean. Compounded with other pressures, it
has a negative impact on a wide range of organisms, in particular those that form
calcium carbonate shells, with the potential to alter biodiversity and ecosystem
structure. Ocean acidification, combined with rising temperatures, sea level rise,
deoxygenation and increasing extreme climate events, further threatens the goods and
services provided by coastal ecosystems (chaps. 5 and 9).
Scientific understanding of the ocean, its functioning and the impacts on it
grows ever faster. However, in many parts of the ocean, knowledge and capacity -
building gaps remain, in particular in areas beyond nat ional jurisdiction.
Quantification of the cumulative effects of pressures on the ocean is nascent, as is the
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quantification of comprehensive and standardized indicators of ocean health. The
capacity to enable people to have access to and use scientific und erstanding remains
a requirement for applying integrated approaches to the management of human
impacts on the ocean (chaps. 3, 25 and 27).
The particular ways in which progress towards other Sustainable Development
Goals will assist in the achievement of targets 14.3 and 14.a are set out in table 1, and
the particular ways in which the achievement of those targets will assist with progress
towards other Goals are set out in table 2.
5.2. Global scientific understanding
Innovations in technology and engineering related to sensors and autonomous
observation platforms have allowed for ocean data collection at finer temporal and
spatial resolutions and expanded those observations into remote areas. Cost -effective
and user-friendly sensors, along with mobile applications, the enhanced participation
of citizens and the deployment of sensors on non -scientific ships, are also facilitating
the expanded collection of ocean observations. Such developments have increased
understanding of physical and biogeochemica l systems in the ocean and how the
ocean is changing in response to climate change, as well as enhanced ocean modelling
capabilities on the global and regional scales (chaps. 3 and 5).
The promotion of networking and the coordination of regional observati on
programmes have contributed to the further development of global ocean observations
within an integrated system. The standardization and harmonization of observation
methods are also being pursued through international initiatives. Platforms to share
best practices in ocean observation, data-sharing and community dialogues have also
been established, with the aim of improving the effective use of ocean data for the
benefit of society (chap. 3).
5.3. Sustainable management
Over the past two decades, many frameworks for assessing interactions between
human activities and natural events (“cumulative effects”) have been developed using
different approaches and terminologies and applied on differing scales. Along with
other assessments of the environment, they include environmental impact
assessments and strategic environmental assessments and are useful tools for
informing marine spatial planning and resource management (chaps. 25 –27).
Both marine spatial planning and management frameworks compr ise a spectrum
of processes but have unified objectives of identifying users of the marine
environment, planning the activities of those users and effecting some form of
regulation of that use to ensure sustainability. In general, marine spatial planning h as
been most effectively developed with the involvement of all relevant authorities and
stakeholders and has included economic, environmental and social perspectives.
Social perspectives and social and cultural values are increasingly recognized in
management frameworks, but reconciling a multiplicity of heterogenous values is a
challenge. Addressing multiple values is best done by engaging with affected
communities, hence the need to recognize community -based management that is
sensitive to the cultural dimensions of the sea within ecosystem approaches to
management. Increased understanding of the rights, tenures and traditional and
indigenous customary uses of inshore marine environments has catalysed recognition
of the strengths of community-based management. Culture is potentially powerful, as
both a factor to be managed and monitored and the foundation upon which
management-incorporating ecosystem approaches may be developed in the context of
sustainable development (chaps. 26 and 27).
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5.4. Key knowledge and capacity-building gaps
Globally, disparities remain in knowledge to support ecosystem -based
management. Most research and information available (based on the number of
publications) relates to the North Atlantic Ocean, the North Pacific Ocean an d the
Arctic Ocean. Disparities in infrastructure and professional capacities limit ocean
research, resulting in regional and national disparities in scientific understanding. To
better monitor significant changes in physical and biogeochemical environment s and
their impacts on ecosystems and society, further integration of multidisciplinary
observation systems and improved models are needed. Innovation in funding
strategies is also required to sustain such systems (chap. 3).
Most assessments of cumulative effects tend to be focused on existing and past
activities in the marine environment. Similarly, much marine spatial planning has
been carried out in areas where activities are ongoing, and many management
frameworks are applied to existing activities wit h regard to resource extraction and
use, making them retrospective in nature. Assessments that allow for “foresighting”
are needed to inform planning of future activities and support management that is
adaptive to future conditions and sustains ecosystems and human well-being.
Developing such approaches is not straightforward and will require substantial effort.
Increased capacity in transboundary cooperation, the strengthening of science -policy
capacity, greater coordination between social and natural scie nces and between
science and civil society, including industry, and the recognition of traditional
knowledge, culture and social history are needed to support holistic management
(chaps. 25–27).
6. Promoting safety from the ocean
A wide range of events in and on the ocean threaten those who live near or work
on the ocean or rely on it for food. Examples of such events are tsunamis, storm
surges, rogue waves, cyclones, hurricanes and typhoons, coastal flooding, erosion,
marine heatwaves and harmful algal blooms. The ocean plays an important role in
driving hydrological variability, such as droughts and pluvials over land, on
intraseasonal to interannual (and longer) timescales (chap. 9). Such events, together
with various effects of hazardous substance s and excessive nutrients, have the
potential to threaten food security and hamper sustainable economic development.
6.1. Linkages with the Sustainable Development Goals and the United Nations
Decade of Ocean Science for Sustainable Development
Sustainable Development Goal target 14.1
By 2025, prevent and significantly reduce marine pollution of all kinds, in
particular from land-based activities, including marine debris and nutrient pollution
Sustainable Development Goal target 14.3
Minimize and address the impacts of ocean acidification, including through
enhanced scientific cooperation at all levels
Decade of Ocean Science outcome
A safe ocean where life and livelihoods are protected from ocean -related hazards
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Marine heatwaves and tropical cyclones, hurricanes and typhoons are increasing
in frequency and severity as a result of climate change, but such increases can be
reduced by climate change mitigation efforts. As indicated above, the ocean also
drives hydrological variability over land. The construction of dams and reservoirs is,
in some areas, reducing sediment supply to the coast by more than 50 per cent, leading
to the erosion of deltas and adjacent coasts. As a result of nutrient pollution, harmful
algal blooms are becoming more frequent. The number of pollutants in the ocean
continues to increase, and therefore the mixtures to which biotas are exposed and that
are integrated into food systems are becoming more complex (chaps. 9 –11 and 13).
The particular ways in which progress towards other Sustainable Development
Goals will assist in the achievement of targets 14.1 and 14.3 are set out in table 1, and
the particular ways in which the achievement of those targets will assist with progress
towards other Goals are set out in table 2.
6.2. Hazards from the ocean
In addition to continuing threats such as tsunamis, climate change is
increasingly affecting areas and their associated communities not previously exposed
to rising sea levels. Such rises can also exacerbate coastal erosion. Precipitation,
winds and extreme sea level events associated with tropical cyclones have increased
in recent decades, as has the annual global proportion of category 4 or 5 tropical
cyclones. There are increasing risks to locations that had historically not been exposed
to storms, owing to unprecedented storm trajectories. The management of risks from
changing storm trajectories and storm intensity proves challenging because of the
difficulties of early warning and the reluc tance of affected populations to respond
(chaps. 9 and 13).
Over the past two decades, marine heatwaves have had negative impacts on
marine organisms and ecosystems in all ocean basins. Such events are projected to
increase in frequency, duration, spatial extent and intensity under future global
warming, thus pushing some marine organisms, fisheries and ecosystems beyond the
limits of their resilience, with cascading impacts on economies and societies. Coastal
erosion, driven by, for example, decreased flu vial sediment supply to the coast owing
to changed river management, coastal sand mining and longshore impoundment by
coastal structures, is increasingly causing problems. Changes in the coastal profile
following the destruction of mangroves, salt marshes and barrier islands add to such
problems. Inputs of nitrogen and phosphorus to coastal ecosystems through river run -
off and atmospheric deposition have increased owing to the use of synthetic
fertilizers, the combustion of fossil fuels and the direct input of municipal waste. That
is leading to an increase in harmful algal blooms, including toxic algal events, which,
inter alia, can lead to shellfish and fish becoming poisonous, thus causing paralysis
and other illnesses in humans (chaps. 9, 10 and 13).
6.3. Key knowledge and capacity-building gaps
Improved understanding of the ocean and its interrelation with the atmosphere
is essential to improving human safety in extreme weather events. Similarly, better
understanding of the scale, progress and distr ibution of pollution and of coastal
dynamics is needed. The need to strengthen and harmonize warning systems for
reducing the risks associated with ocean hazards is identified in the Sendai
Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015 –2030.13 Progress is needed on
forecasting systems for hazards, emergency planning and warnings should be
expanded and preparation frameworks should be implemented to ensure a rapid
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13 General Assembly resolution 69/283, annex II.
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response for affected communities. Integrated systems that allow for forecasting,
detection and response to multiple hazards are required (chaps. 9 –14).
7. Sustainable food from the ocean
Animal protein from the seas provides about 17 per cent of all animal protein
consumed by humans and supports about 12 per cent of human livelihoods. It is
largely derived from wild fisheries, although the contribution of aquaculture to food
security is growing rapidly and has greater potential for growth than capture fisheries.
Fishing practices place multiple stressors on the marine environment in many region s,
and the expansion of aquaculture brings new or increased pressures on marine
ecosystems, in particular in coastal areas (chaps. 15 –17).
7.1. Linkages with the Sustainable Development Goals and the United Nations
Decade of Ocean Science for Sustainable Development
Sustainable Development Goal target 14.4
By 2020, effectively regulate harvesting and end overfishing, illegal, unreported
and unregulated fishing and destructive fishing practices and implement science -
based management plans, in order to restore fish stocks in the shortest time feasible,
at least to levels that can produce maximum sustainable yield as determined by their
biological characteristics
Sustainable Development Goal target 14.6
By 2020, prohibit certain forms of fisheries subsidies which contribute to
overcapacity and overfishing, eliminate subsidies that contribute to illegal, unreported
and unregulated fishing and refrain from introducing new such subsidies, recognizing
that appropriate and effective sp ecial and differential treatment for developing and
least developed countries should be an integral part of the World Trade Organization
fisheries subsidies negotiation a
Sustainable Development Goal target 14.7
By 2030, increase the economic benef its to small island developing States and
least developed countries from the sustainable use of marine resources, including
through sustainable management of fisheries, aquaculture and tourism
Sustainable Development Goal target 14.b
Provide access for small-scale artisanal fishers to marine resources and markets
Decade of Ocean Science outcome
A productive ocean supporting sustainable food supply and a sustainable ocean
economy
a Taking into account ongoing World Trade Organization negotiations, the Doha Development
Agenda and the Hong Kong ministerial mandate.
The particular ways in which progress towards other Sustainable Development
Goals will assist in the achievement of targets 14.4, 14.6, 14.7 and 14.b are set out in
table 1, and the particular ways in which the achievement of those targets will assist
with progress towards other Goals are set out in table 2.
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7.2. Marine capture fisheries
Estimated global landings of marine capture fisheries increased by 3 per cent to
80.6 million tons, valued at $127 billion (at 2017 prices), between 2012 and 2017.
About 33 per cent of the world’s fish stocks, especially at higher trophic levels, are
classified as being fished at biologically unsust ainable levels, with close to 60 per
cent maximally sustainably fished.14 The sustainability of many of the world’s capture
fisheries continues to be hampered by overexploitation, overcapacity, ineffective
management, harmful subsidies, by-catch, in particular of threatened, endangered and
protected species, and illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing, with ongoing
habitat degradation and loss of gear creating further pressures on the marine
environment. Overfishing is estimated to have led to an annual loss of $88.9 billion
in net benefits. Fish markets continue to exhibit fast -paced globalization, thus
increasing the vulnerability of small-scale fisheries to the depletion of locally
important stocks. Negotiations under the auspices of the World Trade O rganization
on reducing harmful fishery subsidies have continued, although no firm agreement
has yet been reached. Less than 40 per cent of States have signed the Agreement on
Port State Measures to Prevent, Deter and Eliminate Illegal, Unreported and
Unregulated Fishing15 of 2009. The application of information technology to help to
expand the opportunities of small-scale fisheries in areas such as safety, the sharing
of local knowledge, capacity-building and governance have been outlined by the Food
and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations in its Voluntary Guidelines for
Securing Sustainable Small-Scale Fisheries in the Context of Food Security and
Poverty Eradication, and the growing use of human rights approaches is providing
opportunities for the empowerment of such fisheries (chap. 15).
Promisingly, scientific stock assessments and management have been shown to
lead to more sustainable outcomes across a number of regions. New approaches to
identifying illegal, unreported and unregulated fishi ng are now being applied in some
regions. Recent research has shown that, with appropriate governance, the median
time required to rebuild overfished stocks could be less than 10 years, and, if reforms
were to be implemented, 98 per cent of overfished stoc ks could be considered healthy
by the middle of the twenty-first century.
The impacts of climate change are expected to include increases in the intensity
of natural hazards and their frequency, thus affecting the local distribution and
abundance of fish populations. Fishery-dependent developing States may be affected
most severely and, because of expected changes in species distributions and
consequent expected increases in transboundary migrations of stocks, future
international governance may need to ac count for such redistributions (chap. 15).
7.3. Aquaculture
Aquaculture continues to grow faster than other major food production sectors,
although its growth has slowed over the past decade. The sector was valued at
$249.6 billion in 2017. It supports the livelihoods of 540 million people, 19 per cent
of whom were women in 2014. The importance of that form of food production lies
in its high content of proteins and essential micronutrients and fatty acids. The
reliance of aquaculture on fish meal decreased from 4.20 million tons in 2005 to
3.35 million tons in 2015. Aquaculture sustainability is more likely to be closely
linked with the sustained supply of terrestrial animal and plant proteins, oils and
carbohydrate sources for aquafeeds. Diseases continue to pose a challenge to global
aquaculture and are among the primary deterrents to aquaculture development for
__________________
14 “Maximally sustainably fished” is used here in the sense explained in chapter 15.
15 Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, document C 2009/REP and Corr.1 –3,
appendix E.
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many species. In general, the environmental performance of aquaculture has
improved significantly over the past decade. Challenges to be met in expanding
aquaculture production include reducing impacts on v aluable coastal ecosystems such
as mangroves, the sustainable provision of external feed, the management of fish
diseases and the effects of escaped fish on native species (chap. 16).
7.4. Seaweed production
Seaweed for direct human consumption amount to 80 per cent of total seaweed
harvesting. Since 2012, global harvesting of seaweed has risen at a rate of about
2.6 per cent a year, mostly from aquaculture, to 32 million tons in 2017, with an
estimated value of $12 billion. In addition to being used as food, seaweed is used
increasingly in industrial applications, such as cosmetics, pharmaceuticals and
nutraceuticals, and as feed for livestock. Macroalga cultivation amounts to 96 per cent
of total aquaculture production. Benefits from production include the provision of
high-quality food and the creation of new jobs and increased incomes for coastal
inhabitants. In addition, such production supports carbon sequestration and oxygen
production and reduces eutrophication (chap. 17).
7.5. Key knowledge and capacity-building gaps
There is limited understanding of the extent to which changing conditions could
contribute to shifts in marine ecosystem structures and functioning and the subsequent
impacts on marine productivity. There have been improvements in approaches to
assessing fisheries and accounting for their contributions in data -poor environments,
but further work is needed to fill capacity -building gaps for coastal fisheries in
developing regions. The science of fish stock propagation is still in it s early stages,
but shows some potential for increasing fishery yield beyond what is achievable
through the exploitation of wild stocks alone. However, understanding of ecological
consequences is lacking. Capacity -building gaps in the management of fisheri es
include those associated with identifying impacts on target species and incorporating
the effects on other species into management frameworks. Ongoing capacity -building
gaps in developing countries also hinder their ability to take part in regional and
international negotiations for reaching consensus on management practices for
sustaining healthy fish stocks.
To boost sustainable aquaculture development, improved extension services are
needed. The training of extension services providers needs to incor porate information
delivery methods, as well as practical farming techniques, to help them to better assist
farmers in improving production practices. Information technology and media,
farmers’ associations, development agencies, private sector suppliers a nd others will
need to come together to enhance sectoral training. The establishment of offshore
aquaculture and mariculture will need to be supported by sufficient marine services
to ensure the sustainability and safety of operations. Many knowledge gaps remain
with regard to the large-scale production of seaweed and the likely impacts of climate
change. Some efforts to address the knowledge and capacity -building gaps are under
way. The biology of many seaweed species is still unknown, even for those speci es
currently harvested or farmed (chaps. 15 –17).
8. Sustainable economic use of the ocean
The ocean supports a wide range of economic activities, including maritime
transport as part of world trade, tourism and recreation, extraction of natural resources
such as hydrocarbons and other minerals, provision of renewable energy, and the use
of marine genetic resources.
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8.1. Linkages with the Sustainable Development Goals and the United Nations
Decade of Ocean Science for Sustainable Development
Sustainable Development Goal target 14.2
By 2020, sustainably manage and protect marine and coastal ecosystems to
avoid significant adverse impacts, including by strengthening their resilience, and
take action for their restoration in order to achieve healthy and productive oceans
Sustainable Development Goal target 14.7
By 2030, increase the economic benefits to small island developing States and
least developed countries from the sustainable use of marine resources, including
through sustainable management of fisheries, aquaculture and tourism
Sustainable Development Goal target 14.c
Enhance the conservation and sustainable use of oceans and their resources by
implementing international law as reflected in the United Nations Convention on the
Law of the Sea, which provides the legal framework for the conservation and
sustainable use of oceans and their resources, as recalled in paragraph 158 of “The
future we want”
Economic use of the ocean has increased globally. Many countries are
developing or have developed strategies for increasing such maritime activities as
renewable ocean energy, aquaculture, marine biotechnology, coastal tourism and
seabed mining (growth sectors of the “blue economy” – a term that can include
environmentally sustainable shipping and fisheries). The distribution around the
world of the economic benefits drawn from the ocean, however, is still very uneven
(chaps. 4, 8A, 18 and 28).
The particular ways in which progress towards other Sustainable Development
Goals will assist with the achievement of targets 14.2, 14.7 and 14.c, among others,
are set out in table 1, and the particular ways in which the achievement of those targets
will assist with progress towards other Goals are set out in table 2.
8.2. Seabed mining
Seabed mining for sand and gravel within national jurisdiction has increased to
supplement diminished land-based sources. The scale of extraction can have
significant effects on the local marine environment and cause coastal erosion. The
scale of other major mining activities (such as for diamonds, phosphate, iron ore and
tin) remains more or less stable. Deep seabed mining in areas beyond national
jurisdiction is closer to becoming a commercial reality; however, exploiting many
mineral resources requires advanced technology and is thus largely limited to those
able to access such technology (chap. 18).
8.3. Extraction of offshore hydrocarbons
The offshore oil and gas sector is expanding at the global level into deep and
ultradeep waters. Over the next decade, growth is likely to be focused in such areas
as the eastern Mediterranean Sea and areas off the coast of Guyana and the west coast
of Africa. Mature areas such as the North Sea and the Gulf of Mexico are seeing the
exhaustion of some resources and the resulting increased decommissioning of
offshore installations, although some may be used for producing renewable marine
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energy. Extraction techniques continue to evolve to reduce their impact on the marine
environment (chap. 19).
8.4. Maritime transport
The increase in tonnage of cargo carried by international shipping has mirrored
the growth in world trade, following the recovery of the wo rld’s economy after 2012.
Such growth, however, has occurred against a weak competitive background. A large
proportion of the world’s tonnage continues to be associated with a relatively small
number of registries, and ownership and control of shipping rem ain concentrated in
the hands of firms in a relatively small number of countries. This concentration has
significant implications for future port development, as it may result in fewer and
larger main ports serving as distribution hubs for intercontinental trade. There was a
slight decline in the total number of attempted and actual cases of piracy and armed
robbery against ships between 2015 and 2019 (chap. 8A).
8.5. Tourism and recreation
International travel and associated tourism are economically im portant in many
parts of the world, in particular in the “sun, sea and sand” type of tourism, which is
concentrated in coastal marine regions. In all touristic areas, the major impact on the
marine environment comes from coastal development, including the proportion of
land covered by constructions, such as hotels, restaurants, retail shops and transport
infrastructure, including airports and train terminals, and the need for “armoured”
coastal defences, street lighting and sewerage. Snorkelling, diving and wildlife
viewing continue to be significant elements in coastal tourism (chap. 8A).
8.6. Marine genetic resources
Marine genetic resources continue to be the focus of an expanding range of
commercial and non-commercial applications. Rapidly shrinking costs of gene
sequencing and synthesis, as well as rapid advances in metabolic engineering and
synthetic biology, have reduced dependency on the acquisition of physical samples
from the ocean. Sponges and algae continue to attract significant interest for the
bioactive properties of their natural compounds (chap. 23).
8.7. Marine renewable energy
The marine renewable energy sector (offshore wind energy, tidal and ocean
current energy, wave energy, ocean thermal energy and osmotic power and marine
biomass energy) is evolving and developing at different rates. Of those power sources,
offshore wind technology is mature and technically advanced. Although in 2018 it
represented only 1 per cent of total renewable energy sources, it is growing rapidly:
between 2017 and 2018, it accounted for 4 per cent of all growth in renewable energy.
From 2017 to 2018, it grew by 59 per cent in Asia and by 17 per cent in Europe. In
the next decade, Asia and the United States of America could be major drivers of
offshore wind power development and installation. Tidal energy converters have
reached the commercial stage, while other marine renewable energy technologies are
currently under development. Among emerging marine renewable energy sources,
offshore solar energy is the most promising, as components of the relevant technology
are well developed (chap. 21).
8.8. Key knowledge and capacity-building gaps
All maritime industries are highly dependent on technology to operate safely
and without damaging the marine environment. With regard to marine genetic
resources, capacity-building remains an issue, as most work in this field is carried out
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in a small number of countries. There is a need to build skills in many countries to
plan and develop their blue economy sustainably and to manage the related human
activities (chaps. 8A, 14, 18, 19, 21, 23, 25 and 27).
9. Effective implementation of international law as reflected in
the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea
Effective implementation of international law as reflected in the United Nations
Convention on the Law of the Sea (which sets out the legal framework within which
all activities in the oceans and seas must be carried out), is essential for the
conservation and sustainable use of the ocean and its resources and for safeguarding
the many ecosystem services that the ocean provides, both for current and future
generations.
9.1. Linkages with the Sustainable Development Goals and the United Nations
Decade of Ocean Science for Sustainable Development
Sustainable Development Goal target 14.c
Enhance the conservation and sustainable use of oceans and their resources by
implementing international law as reflected in the United Nations Convention on the
Law of the Sea, which provides the legal framework for the conservation and
sustainable use of oceans and their resources, as recalled in paragraph 158 of “The
future we want”
Steps have already been taken at all levels to strengthen the implementation of
international law as reflected in the United Nations Convention on the Law of the
Sea, including by increasing the level of participation of States in the numerous global
and regional treaties that supplement its provisions. Examples at the global level
include international conventions such as the London Convention and the London
Protocol, the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Sh ips,
1973, as modified by the Protocol of 1978 relating thereto and by the Protocol of
199716 (including its annex VI on the reduction in sulfur emissions from ships, which
entered into force in 2020), and the Agreement on Port State Measures to Prevent,
Deter and Eliminate Illegal, Unreported and Unregulated Fishing of FAO, which
entered into force in 2016 (chaps. 8A, 11, 12, 15 and 28).
There are still major challenges to ensuring participation in international
instruments, addressing resource and capaci ty constraints, strengthening intersectoral
cooperation, ensuring coordination and information-sharing at all levels and developing
new instruments to address emerging challenges in a timely fashion (chap. 28).
The particular ways in which progress toward s other Sustainable Development
Goals will assist in the achievement of target 14.c are set out in table 1, and the
particular ways in which achievement of that target will assist with progress towards
other Goals are set out in table 2.
__________________
16 See www.imo.org/en/About/Conventions/ListOfConventions/Pages/International -Conventionfor-
the-Prevention-of-Pollution-from-Ships-(MARPOL).aspx.
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9.2. Implementation of international law as reflected in the United Nations
Convention on the Law of the Sea
The integration of environmental, social and economic dimensions is at the core
of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea. The Convention establishes
a delicate balance between the need for economic and social development through the
use of the ocean and its resources and the need to conserve and manage those
resources in a sustainable manner and to protect and preserve the marine environmen t.
The integrated approach to ocean management as reflected in the Convention is
essential for promoting sustainable development, as sectoral and fragmented
approaches lack coherence and may lead to solutions that are of limited benefit to the
conservation and sustainable use of the ocean and its resources.
The Convention is, in many fields, supplemented by more specific, sectoral
instruments. In addition to its two implementing agreements, 17 there are numerous
global and regional legal instruments coverin g many aspects of ocean use. Effective
conservation and sustainable use of the ocean and its resources will only be achieved
through the full and effective implementation of this body of international law.
Actions and efforts should focus primarily on impl ementation gaps or any regulatory
gaps, especially in areas beyond national jurisdiction.
9.3. Implementation and regulatory gaps
Resource capacity, including financial capacity, remains a significant constraint
for the protection and preservation of t he marine environment and marine scientific
research, while technological constraints are often an impediment to the effective
implementation of a State’s obligations. Gaps also exist with regard to the material
scope (e.g., no comprehensive rules on plast ics and microplastics) or geographical
scope of application of relevant instruments (e.g., geographical coverage by the
regional fisheries management organizations and arrangements) (chaps. 27 and 28).
Many small island developing States and least develope d countries lack access to the
detailed knowledge and skilled human resources needed for ocean management, and
resources for managing the large marine areas under their jurisdiction are often
limited. Filling these gaps will ensure that economic benefits c an be maximized in an
environmentally sustainable manner. Specific challenges exist in the enforcement of
management measures in areas beyond national jurisdiction, owing to regulatory gaps
and a lack of cross-sectoral coordination. These issues are curren tly being discussed
at the United Nations in the context of the intergovernmental negotiations on the
development of an international legally binding instrument under the United Nations
Convention on the Law of the Sea on the conservation and sustainable u se of marine
biological diversity of areas beyond national jurisdiction (chaps. 27 and 28).
__________________
17 Agreement relating to the implementation of Part XI of the United Nations Convention on the
Law of the Sea of 10 December 1982; and Agreement for the Implementation of the Provisions
of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea of 10 December 1982 relating to the
Conservation and Management of Straddling Fish Stocks and Highly Migratory Fish Stocks.
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Table 1
Contribution made by other Sustainable Development Goals to achieving Goal 14
Targets under Sustainable Development Goal 14
Sustainable Development Goals contributing to
the achievement of Goal 14 Mechanism
Cleaning up the ocean
Target 14.1: By 2025, prevent and
significantly reduce marine pollution
of all kinds, in particular from
land-based activities, including
marine debris and nutrient pollution
Goal 6: Ensure availability and
sustainable management of water
and sanitation for all
Improved wastewater management
Goal 7: Ensure access to
affordable, reliable, sustainable and
modern energy for all
Improved sources and efficiencies
in energy and associated reduction
in emissions
Goal 11: Make cities and human
settlements inclusive, safe, resilient
and sustainable
Sustainable urbanization and
reduction in the environmental
impact of cities
Goal 12: Ensure sustainable
consumption and production
patterns
Environmentally sound
management of chemicals and all
wastes, including by reducing
waste generation
Goal 17: Strengthen the means of
implementation and revitalize the
Global Partnership for Sustainable
Development
Improved access to science,
technology and innovation,
enhanced knowledge-sharing and
transfer of technology, and
capacity-building
Protecting marine ecosystems
Target 14.2: By 2020, sustainably
manage and protect marine and
coastal ecosystems to avoid
significant adverse impacts,
including by strengthening their
resilience, and take action for their
restoration in order to achieve
healthy and productive oceans
Target 14.5: By 2020, conserve at
least 10 per cent of coastal and
marine areas, consistent with
national and international law and
based on the best available scientific
information
Goal 6: Ensure availability and
sustainable management of water
and sanitation for all
Improved wastewater management
and protection and restoration of
wetlands
Goal 7: Ensure access to
affordable, reliable, sustainable and
modern energy for all
Improved sources and efficiencies
in energy and associated reduction
in emissions
Goal 9: Build resilient
infrastructure, promote inclusive
and sustainable industrialization
and foster innovation
Use of clean technologies and
associated reduction in emissions
Goal 11: Make cities and human
settlements inclusive, safe, resilient
and sustainable
Sustainable urbanization and
reduction in the environmental
impact of cities
Goal 12: Ensure sustainable
consumption and production
patterns
Sustainable management and use of
natural resources and reduction in
waste along supply chains
Goal 13: Take urgent action to
combat climate change and its
impactsa
Implementation of climate change
mitigation, adaptation and impact
reduction measures
Goal 15: Protect, restore and
promote sustainable use of
Reduction in the degradation of
natural habitats and loss of
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Targets under Sustainable Development Goal 14
Sustainable Development Goals contributing to
the achievement of Goal 14 Mechanism
terrestrial ecosystems, sustainably
manage forests, combat
desertification, and halt and reverse
land degradation and halt
biodiversity loss
biodiversity, and prevention of the
extinction of species
Goal 17: Strengthen the means of
implementation and revitalize the
Global Partnership for Sustainable
Development
Improved access to science,
technology and innovation,
enhanced knowledge-sharing and
transfer of technology, and
capacity-building
Understanding of the ocean for sustainable management
Target 14.3: Minimize and address
the impacts of ocean acidification,
including through enhanced
scientific cooperation at all levels
Target 14.a: Increase scientific
knowledge, develop research
capacity and transfer marine
technology, taking into account the
Intergovernmental Oceanographic
Commission Criteria and Guidelines
on the Transfer of Marine
Technology, in order to improve
ocean health and to enhance the
contribution of marine biodiversity
to the development of developing
countries, in particular small island
developing States and least
developed countries
Goal 9: Build resilient
infrastructure, promote inclusive
and sustainable industrialization
and foster innovation
Enhancement of scientific research,
upgrade of the technological
capabilities of industrial sectors in
all countries, in particular
developing countries, and
encouragement of innovation
Goal 13: Take urgent action to
combat climate change and its
impactsa
Implementation of climate change
mitigation, adaptation and impact
reduction measures
Goal 17: Strengthen the means of
implementation and revitalize the
Global Partnership for Sustainable
Development
Improved access to science,
technology and innovation,
enhanced knowledge-sharing and
transfer of technology, and
capacity-building
Promoting safety from the ocean
Target 14.1: By 2025, prevent and
significantly reduce marine pollution
of all kinds, in particular from land -
based activities, including marine
debris and nutrient pollution
Goal 1: End poverty in all its forms
everywhere
Reduction in exposure and
vulnerability to climate-induced
extreme events and building of
resilience to environmental shocks
and disasters
Goal 2: End hunger, achieve food
security and improved nutrition and
promote sustainable agriculture
Strengthening of capacity to adapt
to climate change, extreme weather
and other disasters
Goal 6: Ensure availability and
sustainable management of water
and sanitation for all
Reduction in pollution, improved
wastewater management and
protection and restoration of waterrelated
ecosystems
Goal 11: Make cities and human
settlements inclusive, safe, resilient
and sustainable
Reduction in the number of people
affected by disasters, strengthening
of national and regional
development planning and
implementation of integrated
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Targets under Sustainable Development Goal 14
Sustainable Development Goals contributing to
the achievement of Goal 14 Mechanism
policies and plans for mitigation
and adaptation to climate change,
resilience to disasters and the
development and implementation of
holistic disaster risk management
Goal 12: Ensure sustainable
consumption and production
patterns
Environmentally sound
management of chemicals and all
waste
Goal 13: Take urgent action to
combat climate change and its
impactsa
Strengthening of resilience and
adaptive capacity to climate-related
and other natural disasters and
support for impact reduction and
early warning
Goal 15: Protect, restore and
promote sustainable use of
terrestrial ecosystems, sustainably
manage forests, combat
desertification, and halt and reverse
land degradation and halt
biodiversity loss
Conservation, restoration and
sustainable use of terrestrial and
inland freshwater ecosystems, and
reduction in the degradation of
habitats
Sustainable food from the ocean
Target 14.4: By 2020, effectively
regulate harvesting and end
overfishing, illegal, unreported and
unregulated fishing and destructive
fishing practices and implement
science-based management plans, in
order to restore fish stocks in the
shortest time feasible, at least to
levels that can produce maximum
sustainable yield as determined by
their biological characteristics
Target 14.6: By 2020, prohibit
certain forms of fisheries subsidies
which contribute to overcapacity and
overfishing, eliminate subsidies that
contribute to illegal, unreported and
unregulated fishing and refrain from
introducing new such subsidies,
recognizing that appropriate and
effective special and differential
treatment for developing and le ast
developed countries should be an
integral part of the World Trade
Organization fisheries subsidies
negotiationb
Target 14.7: By 2030, increase the
economic benefits to small island
Goal 2: End hunger, achieve food
security and improved nutrition and
promote sustainable agriculture
Increase in agricultural
productivity (including aquaculture
and mariculture), ensuring
sustainable food production and
maintaining ecosystems and the
genetic diversity of wild species
Goal 8: Promote sustained,
inclusive and sustainable economic
growth, full and productive
employment and decent work for all
Improved resource efficiency in
consumption and production
Goal 9: Build resilient
infrastructure, promote inclusive
and sustainable industrialization
and foster innovation
Enhancement of scientific research
and technological development,
research and innovation in
developing countries
Goal 12: Ensure sustainable
consumption and production
patterns
Sustainable management and
efficient use of natural resources,
reduction in food losses along
production and supply chains,
including post-harvest losses,
strengthening of scientific and
technological capacity to move
towards more sustainable patterns
of consumption and production,
implementation of methods to
ensure that tourism remains
sustainable, creates jobs and
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Targets under Sustainable Development Goal 14
Sustainable Development Goals contributing to
the achievement of Goal 14 Mechanism
developing States and least
developed countries from the
sustainable use of marine resources,
including through sustainable
management of fisheries, aquaculture
and tourism
Target 14.b: Provide access for
small-scale artisanal fishers to
marine resources and markets
promotes local products, and
phasing out of harmful subsidies,
where they exist, to reflect their
environmental impacts
Goal 13: Take urgent action to
combat climate change and its
impactsa
Implementation of climate change
mitigation, adaptation and impact
reduction measures
Goal 17: Strengthen the means of
implementation and revitalize the
Global Partnership for Sustainable
Development
Improved access to science,
technology and innovation,
enhanced knowledge-sharing and
transfer of technology, and
capacity-building
Sustainable economic use of the ocean
Target 14.2: By 2020, sustainably
manage and protect marine and
coastal ecosystems to avoid
significant adverse impacts,
including by strengthening their
resilience, and take action for their
restoration in order to achieve
healthy and productive oceans
Target 14.7: By 2030, increase the
economic benefits to small island
developing States and least
developed countries from the
sustainable use of marine resources,
including through sustainable
management of fisheries, aquaculture
and tourism
Target 14.c: Enhance the
conservation and sustainable use of
oceans and their resources by
implementing international law as
reflected in the United Nations
Convention on the Law of the Sea,
which provides the legal framework
for the conservation and sustainable
use of oceans and their resources, as
recalled in paragraph 158 of “The
future we want”
Goal 6: Ensure availability and
sustainable management of water
and sanitation for all
Improved wastewater management
and protection and restoration of
wetlands
Goal 7: Ensure access to
affordable, reliable, sustainable and
modern energy for all
Improved sources and efficiencies
in energy and associated reduction
in emissions
Goal 11: Make cities and human
settlements inclusive, safe, resilient
and sustainable
Sustainable urbanization and
reduction in the environmental
impact of cities
Goal 12: Ensure sustainable
consumption and production
patterns
Sustainable management and use of
natural resources
Goal 13: Take urgent action to
combat climate change and its
impactsa
Implementation of climate change
mitigation, adaptation and impact
reduction measures
Goal 15: Protect, restore and
promote sustainable use of
terrestrial ecosystems, sustainably
manage forests, combat
desertification, and halt and reverse
land degradation and halt
biodiversity loss
Reduction in the degradation of
natural habitats and loss of
biodiversity, and prevention of the
extinction of species
Goal 16: Promote peaceful and
inclusive societies for sustainable
development, provide access to
justice for all and build effective,
accountable and inclusive
institutions at all levels
Promotion of the rule of law at the
national and international levels
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Targets under Sustainable Development Goal 14
Sustainable Development Goals contributing to
the achievement of Goal 14 Mechanism
Goal 17: Strengthen the means of
implementation and revitalize the
Global Partnership for Sustainable
Development
Improved access to science,
technology and innovation,
enhanced knowledge-sharing and
transfer of technology, and
capacity-building
Effective implementation of international law as reflected in the United Nations Convention on the Law of
the Sea
Target 14.c: Enhance the
conservation and sustainable use of
oceans and their resources by
implementing international law as
reflected in the United Nations
Convention on the Law of the Sea,
which provides the legal framework
for the conservation and sustainable
use of oceans and their resources, as
recalled in paragraph 158 of “The
future we want”
Goal 2: End hunger, achieve food
security and improved nutrition and
promote sustainable agriculture
Ensuring of sustainable food
production systems, maintenance
of ecosystems and strengthening of
capacity to adapt to climate change,
extreme weather, drought, flooding
and other disasters
Goal 3: Ensure healthy lives and
promote well-being for all at all
ages
Reduction in hazardous chemicals,
pollution and contamination
Goal 6: Ensure availability and
sustainable management of water
and sanitation for all
Reduction in pollution, improved
wastewater management and
protection and restoration of waterrelated
ecosystems
Goal 11: Make cities and human
settlements inclusive, safe, resilient
and sustainable
Protection and safeguarding of
cultural and natural heritage
Goal 12: Ensure sustainable
consumption and production
patterns
Environmentally sound
management of chemicals and all
wastes throughout their life cycle,
within agreed international
frameworks
Goal 13: Take urgent action to
combat climate change and its
impactsa
Integration of climate change
measures into national policies,
strategies and planning
Goal 17: Strengthen the means of
implementation and revitalize the
Global Partnership for Sustainable
Development
Enhancement of policy coherence
for sustainable development
a Acknowledging that the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change is the primary international,
intergovernmental forum for negotiating the global response to climate change.
b Taking into account ongoing World Trade Organization negotiations, the Doha Development Agenda and the Hong Kong
ministerial mandate.
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Table 2
Contribution made by Sustainable Development Goal 14 to achieving other Goals
Targets under Sustainable Development Goal 14
Sustainable Development Goals contributed to by
the achievement of Goal 14 Mechanism
Target 14.1: By 2025, prevent and
significantly reduce marine pollution
of all kinds, in particular from land -
based activities, including marine
debris and nutrient pollution
Goal 3: Ensure healthy lives and
promote well-being for all at all
ages
Reduction in hazardous chemicals,
pollution and contamination
Goal 6: Ensure availability and
sustainable management of water
and sanitation for all
Reduction in pollution and the
release of hazardous chemicals and
materials and wastewater
Goal 11: Make cities and human
settlements inclusive, safe, resilient
and sustainable
Sustainable urbanization and
reduction in the environmental
impact of cities
Goal 12: Ensure sustainable
consumption and production
patterns
Environmentally sound
management of chemicals and all
wastes, including by reducing
waste generation
Goal 17: Strengthen the means of
implementation and revitalize the
Global Partnership for Sustainable
Development
Improved access to science,
technology and innovation,
enhanced knowledge-sharing and
transfer of technology, and
capacity-building
Target 14.2: By 2020, sustainably
manage and protect marine and
coastal ecosystems to avoid
significant adverse impacts,
including by strengthening their
resilience, and take action for their
restoration in order to achieve
healthy and productive oceans
Goal 1: End poverty in all its forms
everywhere
Reduction in exposure and
vulnerability to climate-induced
extreme events and building of
resilience to environmental shocks
and disasters
Goal 2: End hunger, achieve food
security and improved nutrition and
promote sustainable agriculture
Increase in agricultural
productivity (including aquaculture
and mariculture), ensuring
sustainable food production and
maintaining ecosystems and the
genetic diversity of wild species
Goal 8: Promote sustained,
inclusive and sustainable economic
growth, full and productive
employment and decent work for all
Provision of opportunities for
sustained economic growth and
sustainable tourism
Goal 11: Make cities and human
settlements inclusive, safe, resilient
and sustainable
Preservation of and support for
those ecosystems that afford
protection from disasters to coastal
communities
Goal 13: Take urgent action to
combat climate change and its
impactsa
Contribution to resilience to
climate-related hazards
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Targets under Sustainable Development Goal 14
Sustainable Development Goals contributed to by
the achievement of Goal 14 Mechanism
Target 14.3: Minimize and address
the impacts of ocean acidification,
including through enhanced
scientific cooperation at all levels
Goal 1: End poverty in all its forms
everywhere
Reduction in exposure and building
of resilience to environmental
shocks and disasters
Goal 2: End hunger, achieve food
security and improved nutrition and
promote sustainable agriculture
Ensuring of sustainable food
production systems, maintenance of
ecosystems, strengthening of
capacity to adapt to climate change
and enhancement of cooperation in
research and technological
development
Goal 12: Ensure sustainable
consumption and production
patterns
Support for developing countries in
strengthening their scientific and
technological capacity
Goal 13: Take urgent action to
combat climate change and its
impactsa
Implementation of climate change
mitigation, adaptation and impact
reduction measures
Goal 17: Strengthen the means of
implementation and revitalize the
Global Partnership for Sustainable
Development
Improved access to science,
technology and innovation,
enhanced knowledge-sharing and
transfer of technology, and
capacity-building
Target 14.4: By 2020, effectively
regulate harvesting and end
overfishing, illegal, unreported and
unregulated fishing and destructive
fishing practices and implement
science-based management plans, in
order to restore fish stocks in the
shortest time feasible, at least to
levels that can produce maximum
sustainable yield as determined by
their biological characteristics
Goal 2: End hunger, achieve food
security and improved nutrition and
promote sustainable agriculture
Increase in agricultural
productivity (including aquaculture
and mariculture), ensuring
sustainable food production and
maintaining ecosystems and the
genetic diversity of wild species
Goal 8: Promote sustained,
inclusive and sustainable economic
growth, full and productive
employment and decent work for all
Support for productive activities
Goal 12: Ensure sustainable
consumption and production
patterns
Achievement of sustainable
management and efficient use of
natural resources, reduction in food
losses along production and supply
chains, including post-harvest
losses, strengthening of scientific
and technological capacity to move
towards more sustainable patterns
of consumption and production,
and phasing out of harmful
subsidies
Goal 17: Strengthen the means of
implementation and revitalize the
Global Partnership for Sustainable
Development
Enhancement of partnerships for
sustainable development
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Targets under Sustainable Development Goal 14
Sustainable Development Goals contributed to by
the achievement of Goal 14 Mechanism
Target 14.5: By 2020, conserve at
least 10 per cent of coastal and
marine areas, consistent with
national and international law and
based on the best available scientific
information
Goal 2: End hunger, achieve food
security and improved nutrition and
promote sustainable agriculture
Maintenance of ecosystems,
strengthening of capacity to adapt
to climate change, and enhancement
of cooperation in research and
technological development
Goal 11: Make cities and human
settlements inclusive, safe, resilient
and sustainable
Preservation of and support for
those ecosystems that afford
protection from disasters to coastal
communities
Goal 15: Protect, restore and
promote sustainable use of
terrestrial ecosystems, sustainably
manage forests, combat
desertification, and halt and reverse
land degradation and halt
biodiversity loss
Reduction in the degradation of
natural habitats and loss of
biodiversity, and prevention of the
extinction of species
Goal 17: Strengthen the means of
implementation and revitalize the
Global Partnership for Sustainable
Development
Improved access to science,
technology and innovation,
enhanced knowledge-sharing and
transfer of technology, and
capacity-building
Target 14.6: By 2020, prohibit
certain forms of fisheries subsidies
which contribute to overcapacity and
overfishing, eliminate subsidies that
contribute to illegal, unreported and
unregulated fishing and refrain from
introducing new such subsidies,
recognizing that appropriate and
effective special and differential
treatment for developing and least
developed countries should be an
integral part of the World Trade
Organization fisheries subsidies
negotiationb
Goal 8: Promote sustained,
inclusive and sustainable economic
growth, full and productive
employment and decent work for all
Support for productive activities
Goal 12: Ensure sustainable
consumption and production
patterns
Achievement of sustainable
management and efficient use of
natural resources, reduction in food
losses along production and supply
chains, including post-harvest
losses, strengthening of scientific
and technological capacity to move
towards more sustainable patterns
of consumption and production,
and phasing out of harmful
subsidies
Goal 17: Strengthen the means of
implementation and revitalize the
Global Partnership for Sustainable
Development
Enhancement of partnerships for
sustainable development
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Targets under Sustainable Development Goal 14
Sustainable Development Goals contributed to by
the achievement of Goal 14 Mechanism
Target 14.7: By 2030, increase the
economic benefits to small island
developing States and least
developed countries from the
sustainable use of marine resources,
including through sustainable
management of fisheries, aquaculture
and tourism
Goal 1: End poverty in all its forms
everywhere
Reduction in exposure and building
of resilience to environmental
shocks and disasters
Goal 2: End hunger, achieve food
security and improved nutrition and
promote sustainable agriculture
Increase in agricultural
productivity (including aquaculture
and mariculture), ensuring
sustainable food production and
maintaining ecosystems and the
genetic diversity of wild species
Goal 8: Promote sustained,
inclusive and sustainable economic
growth, full and productive
employment and decent work for all
Provision of opportunities for
sustained economic growth and
sustainable tourism
Goal 9: Build resilient
infrastructure, promote inclusive
and sustainable industrialization
and foster innovation
Enhancement of scientific research,
upgrade of the technological
capabilities of industrial sectors in
all countries, in particular
developing countries, and
encouragement of innovation
Goal 12: Ensure sustainable
consumption and production
patterns
Achievement of sustainable
management and efficient use of
natural resources, and
strengthening of scientific and
technological capacity
Goal 13: Take urgent action to
combat climate change and its
impactsa
Implementation of climate change
mitigation, adaptation and impact
reduction measures
Goal 17: Strengthen the means of
implementation and revitalize the
Global Partnership for Sustainable
Development
Improved access to science,
technology and innovation,
enhanced knowledge-sharing and
transfer of technology, and
capacity-building
Target 14.a: Increase scientific
knowledge, develop research
capacity and transfer marine
technology, taking into account the
Intergovernmental Oceanographic
Commission Criteria and Guidelines
on the Transfer of Marine
Technology, in order to improve
ocean health and to enhance the
contribution of marine biodiversity
to the development of developing
countries, in particular small island
developing States and least
developed countries
Goal 9: Build resilient
infrastructure, promote inclusive
and sustainable industrialization
and foster innovation
Enhancement of scientific research,
upgrade of the technological
capabilities of industrial sectors in
all countries, in particular
developing countries, and
encouragement of innovation
Goal 12: Ensure sustainable
consumption and production
patterns
Achievement of sustainable
management and efficient use of
natural resources, and
strengthening of scientific and
technological capacity
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Targets under Sustainable Development Goal 14
Sustainable Development Goals contributed to by
the achievement of Goal 14 Mechanism
Goal 17: Strengthen the means of
implementation and revitalize the
Global Partnership for Sustainable
Development
Improved access to science,
technology and innovation,
enhanced knowledge-sharing and
transfer of technology, and
capacity-building
Target 14.b: Provide access for
small-scale artisanal fishers to
marine resources and markets
Goal 2: End hunger, achieve food
security and improved nutrition and
promote sustainable agriculture
Increase in agricultural
productivity (including aquaculture
and mariculture), ensuring
sustainable food production and
maintaining ecosystems and the
genetic diversity of wild species
Goal 8: Promote sustained,
inclusive and sustainable economic
growth, full and productive
employment and decent work for all
Improved resource efficiency in
consumption and production
Goal 9: Build resilient
infrastructure, promote inclusive
and sustainable industrialization
and foster innovation
Enhancement of scientific research
and technological development,
research and innovation in
developing countries
Goal 12: Ensure sustainable
consumption and production
patterns
Sustainable management and
efficient use of natural resources,
and implementation of tools for
monitoring sustainable
development impacts for
sustainable tourism that creates
jobs and promotes local culture and
products
Goal 17: Strengthen the means of
implementation and revitalize the
Global Partnership for Sustainable
Development
Improved access to science,
technology and innovation,
enhanced knowledge-sharing and
transfer of technology, and
capacity-building
Target 14.c: Enhance the
conservation and sustainable use of
oceans and their resources by
implementing international law as
reflected in the United Nations
Convention on the Law of the Sea,
which provides the legal framework
for the conservation and sustainable
use of oceans and their resources, as
recalled in paragraph 158 of “The
future we want”
Goal 2: End hunger, achieve food
security and improved nutrition and
promote sustainable agriculture
Ensuring of sustainable food
production systems, maintenance of
ecosystems and strengthening of
capacity to adapt to climate change,
extreme weather, drought, flooding
and other disasters
Goal 3: Ensure healthy lives and
promote well-being for all at all
ages
Reduction in hazardous chemicals,
pollution and contamination
Goal 6: Ensure availability and
sustainable management of water
and sanitation for all
Reduction in pollution, improved
wastewater management and
protection and restoration of waterrelated
ecosystems
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Targets under Sustainable Development Goal 14
Sustainable Development Goals contributed to by
the achievement of Goal 14 Mechanism
Goal 7: Ensure access to
affordable, reliable, sustainable and
modern energy for all
Improved sources and efficiencies
in energy and associated reduction
in emissions
Goal 11: Make cities and human
settlements inclusive, safe, resilient
and sustainable
Sustainable urbanization and
reduction in the environmental
impact of cities, and protection and
safeguarding of cultural and natural
heritage
Goal 12: Ensure sustainable
consumption and production
patterns
Sustainable management and use of
natural resources, environmentally
sound management of chemicals
and all wastes throughout their life
cycle, within agreed international
frameworks
Goal 13: Take urgent action to
combat climate change and its
impactsa
Implementation of climate change
mitigation, adaptation and impact
reduction measures, and integration
of climate change measures into
national policies, strategies and
planning
Goal 15: Protect, restore and
promote sustainable use of
terrestrial ecosystems, sustainably
manage forests, combat
desertification, and halt and reverse
land degradation and halt
biodiversity loss
Reduction in the degradation of
natural habitats and loss of
biodiversity, and prevention of the
extinction of species
Goal 16: Promote peaceful and
inclusive societies for sustainable
development, provide access to
justice for all and build effective,
accountable and inclusive
institutions at all levels
Promotion of the rule of law at the
national and international levels
Goal 17: Strengthen the means of
implementation and revitalize the
Global Partnership for Sustainable
Development
Enhancement of policy coherence
for sustainable development
a Acknowledging that the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change is the primary international,
intergovernmental forum for negotiating the global response to climate change.
b Taking into account ongoing World Trade Organization negotiations, the Doha Development Ag enda and the Hong Kong
ministerial mandate.
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Landscape of subgoals under Sustainable Development Goal 14 and relevant chapters
Chap. 4 Drivers
Promoting safety from the ocean
!TARGET 14 ·11 Chap. 1 O Nutrient pollution 19 Chap. 11 Hazardous substances
Chap. 12 Solid waste
Chap. 5 Physical and chemical state
Chap. 9 Climate change
• Chap. 20 Noise
1~~ARINE
Chap. 8 Human society
Chap. 14 Marine infrastructure
Chap. 18 Seabed mining
Chap. 19 Hydrocarbon
Chap. 21 Renewable energy
Chap. 22 Invasive species
Chap. 23 Marine genetic resources
Chap. 24 Marine hydrates
Chap. 25 Cumulative effects
Chap. 6 Biodiversity
Chap. 7 Habitats
Chap. 10 Nutrient pollution
Chap. 13 Erosion and sedimentation
Chap. 15 Capture fisheries
Chap. 16 Aquaculture
Chap. 17 Seaweed harvesting
ITARGET 14-41
!TARGET 14·71 Pressure Il
Il INCREASE THE
ECONOMIC BENEFITS
FROM SUSTAINABLE
USE OF MARINE
RESOURCES
ITARGET 14-A i I! INCREASE SCIENTIFIC
KNOWI..EDGE,
RESEA.RCHAND
TECHNOI..OGY FOO
OCEANI-EALTH
Chap. 3 Scientific understanding
Chap. 5 Physical and chemical state
Chap. 9 Climate change
Understanding the
ocean
PROTECT AND RESTORE
ECOSYSTEMS
State
Protecting marine ecosystems
CONSERVE COAST AL
AND MARINE AREAS
!TARGET 14'81 Il
Management
Chap. 26 Marine spatial planning
Cha p. 27 Management approaches
Chap. 28 Overall benefits
ISUSTAINABLEFISHING 1
Sustainable food
(and economic use)
IMPLEMENT AND
HFOROE
INTERNATIONAL SEA
LAW
Chap. 28 Overall benefits
International law
of the sea