SEPARATE OPINION, PARTLY CONCURRING AND PARTLY DISSENTING, OF JUDGE AD HOC BARKETT
Abuse of rights — Iran seeking to exercise rights conferred on it by the Treaty “for purposes other than those for which the rights at issue were established”.
Exhaustion of local remedies — Exhaustion of local remedies not futile.
Article XX (1) (d) — United States demonstrated that Executive Order 13599 necessary to protect its essential security interests.
Article III (1) — Court conflates its analysis of Articles III (1) and IV (1) — Unreasonableness cannot be equated to non-recognition of juridical status — Article III (1) only requires that juridical status of companies be recognized, without implicating additional legal rights — United States courts recognized juridical status of Iranian companies — Article III (1) does not require recognition of “separateness”.
Article IV (1) — Court does not consider purpose of compensating victims of terrorist acts or explain why measures were allegedly manifestly excessive — Term “unreasonable” creates a high threshold, but Court has without explanation or support chosen lower threshold — United States statutes apply to specific subset of companies and are tailored precisely.
Article IV (2) — Attachment to obtain satisfaction of lawfully obtained money judgment does not amount to expropriation — Court’s understanding of judicial expropriation is unsupported — no violation of due process in domestic proceedings — Court’s only support for expropriation claim is finding of unreasonableness under Article IV (1).
Article X (1) — United States measures have no connection, or too tenuous a connection, with commercial relations between parties.
1. I agree with the Court’s determination that Bank Markazi cannot be considered a “company” under the Treaty of Amity (hereinafter the “Treaty”), and with the ultimate conclusion that the defence of “unclean hands” cannot be upheld in this case. I also agree that the defence under Article XX (1) (c) cannot be upheld, although I reach that conclusion on the ground that the challenged United States measures were not enacted for the purpose of regulating the production or trafficking of items “for the purpose of supplying a military establishment”1. I also agree with the Court’s partial dismissal of Iran’s claim under Article IV (2), as I believe that the term “most constant protection and security” only requires physical and not legal protection or security, and with the Court’s rejection of Iran’s claims under Articles V (1) and VII (1).
2. On the other hand, I believe the Court erred in denying the United States’ objection based on exhaustion of local remedies and its defences based on abuse of rights and Article XX (1) (d), as well as its resolution of Iran’s claims under Articles III (1), IV (1), IV (2) (as regards expropriation) and X (1). Accordingly, I dissent as to these issues for the reasons discussed below2.
1 See Treaty, Article XX (1) (c) (emphasis added).
2 Although I do not believe that Iran is entitled to any damages in this case, I voted in favour of paragraph 8 of the dispositif, as the Court has determined that some damages may be due. In that case, I agree that the Court has jurisdiction to consider those claims at a later time. My affirmative vote on paragraph 9 of the dispositif is based on the understanding that this paragraph refers to claims by Iran and not objections or defences of the United States.
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I. UNITED STATES DEFENCES
A. Abuse of rights
3. I agree with the Court that, although the United States’ defence of abuse of rights raises substantially “similar” arguments to those it made in its preliminary objections, the Court’s 2019 Judgment3 does not preclude the United States from invoking an abuse of rights defence on the merits (see paragraph 88 of the present Judgment). I disagree, however, with the Court’s finding that the United States has failed to demonstrate that Iran now seeks to exercise its rights under the Treaty for purposes other than those for which the rights at issue were established to the detriment of the United States.
4. In its present Judgment, the Court finds that it
“could only accept the abuse of rights defence . . . if it were demonstrated by the Respondent, on the basis of compelling evidence, that the Applicant seeks to exercise rights conferred on it by the Treaty of Amity for purposes other than those for which the rights at issue were established, and that it was doing so to the detriment of the Respondent”4.
I believe that this is precisely what the United States has demonstrated. Concluding that Iran is seeking to exercise rights under the Treaty for the purpose for which they were created is inconsistent with the facts of this case. As described below, the underlying circumstances of this case are so far removed from the object, purpose, context and provisions of the Treaty that Iran’s attempt to rely on and apply the Treaty to these circumstances constitutes an abuse of rights.
5. The Treaty’s preamble clearly states that its purpose is to “encourag[e] mutually beneficial trade and investments and closer economic intercourse generally between their peoples, and [to] regulat[e] consular relations”5. Accepting this purpose, the Court has expressly noted that the object and purpose of the Treaty are not to “regulate peaceful and friendly relations between the two States in a general sense”6, but to address “rules providing for freedom of trade and commerce”7.
6. However, none of the United States’ measures concern the preamble’s stated purpose of “encouraging mutually beneficial trade and investments and closer economic intercourse generally between their peoples, and of regulating consular relations”. The statutes in question were not concerned with giving advantages to American businesses, or stimulating foreign investments, or increasing trade between the two countries, or opening markets to successful industries, or adding jobs. Their one and only purpose was to assist United States citizens in recovering money damages as a result of injuries and deaths caused by terrorist acts proven in United States courts to have been perpetrated or sponsored by Iran, which Iran refused to pay. The United States did not act for reasons related to trade, commerce, investments or consular relations it acted for reasons related to
3 Certain Iranian Assets (Islamic Republic of Iran v. United States of America), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2019 (I), p. 7 (the “2019 Judgment” in the text of the opinion).
4 Judgment, para. 93.
5 Treaty, preamble; Certain Iranian Assets (Islamic Republic of Iran v. United States of America), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2019 (I), p. 28, para. 57.
6 Oil Platforms (Islamic Republic of Iran v. United States of America), Preliminary Objection, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1996 (II), p. 814, para. 28.
7 Alleged Violations of the 1955 Treaty of Amity, Economic Relations, and Consular Rights (Islamic Republic of Iran v. United States of America), Provisional Measures, Order of 3 October 2018, I.C.J. Reports 2018 (II), p. 635, para. 43.
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national security. The legislation and subsequent judicial decisions at issue were based on extensive investigations into and evidence of bombings, kidnappings and murders. Based on that evidence, the United States concluded that the direct perpetrators of those terrorist acts, Hezbollah and Hamas, were both acting as proxies for Iran
8. Although this Court is not called upon to rule on Iran’s culpability, the factual basis for the United States measures must be part of the Court’s analysis regarding whether the measures had any relation to the Treaty at all.
7. I believe the record demonstrates that the United States measures are unrelated to the Treaty’s purpose, and that Iran is indeed seeking to exercise rights conferred on it by the Treaty “for purposes other than those for which the rights at issue were established” to the detriment of the United States9. Accordingly, I believe the United States’ defence of abuse of rights should have been granted.
B. Exhaustion of local remedies
8. I first note that the Iranian companies that were given the opportunity to be heard in United States lawsuits seeking attachment of assets did not in any way respond to those lawsuits10 or otherwise respond in United States courts. It is unreasonable to say that the companies in question “had no reasonable possibility of successfully asserting their rights in United States court proceedings”11 when they did not even attempt to do so, and the record indicates that others had prevailed on factually similar claims. Thus, Iran cannot present a claim here in respect of those companies that did not exhaust all local remedies. The Court concludes, however, that exhaustion is not necessary based on Article 15 (a) of the International Law Commission’s (“ILC”) 2006 Draft Articles on Diplomatic Protection. Article 15 (a) provides an exception to the requirement of exhaustion if an injured party had no reasonable possibility of obtaining redress12. I believe the Court misunderstands the law of the United States and erroneously applies the Article 15 (a) exception to reach an incorrect conclusion on this issue.
8 These acts encompassed attacks against American, French, British, Swiss, German, Israeli and Argentine citizens. Specifically, these acts included suicide attacks on the United States’ embassy in Beirut, killing 63 people, including 17 Americans, and the bombing of United States Marine Corps barracks in Beirut, Lebanon, killing 241 United States Marines and injuring many others. A simultaneous attack killed 58 French soldiers in a neighbouring location. The results of investigations are summarized in the evidence presented to United States courts, including testimony from experts who studied Iran; senior officials of the Federal Bureau of Investigation and intelligence personnel; and fact witnesses who were either Iranian officials or actual participants in the terrorist attacks and testified that Iran was responsible for the acts committed by Hezbollah and Hamas. The United States submitted statements from Iranian officials and six participants in the Khobar Towers bombing, implicating Iran as having organized, funded, and supported the attack. See e.g. Peterson v. Islamic Republic of Iran, 264 F. Supp. 2d 46 (D.D.C. 2003); Holland v. Islamic Republic of Iran, 496 F. Supp. 2d 1 (D.D.C. 2005); Blais v. Islamic Republic of Iran, 459 F. Supp. 2d 40 (D.D.C. 2006); Heiser v. Islamic Republican of Iran, 466 F. Supp. 2d 229 (D.D.C. 2006). The United States also referenced the testimony obtained under oath by French investigators of individuals implicated in the assassination of an American citizen. This testimony was to the effect that the then Iranian Minister of Intelligence and Head of the Ministry of Intelligence and Security, Ayatollah Fallahian, was involved in ordering the killings of Iranian dissidents in Paris. Elahi v. Islamic Republic of Iran, 124 F. Supp. 2d 97 (D.D.C. 2000). Much other direct testimony of Iran’s responsibility for the terrorist attacks can be found in the various opinions of United States courts submitted by the parties in those cases. Iran never contested this evidence in United States courts.
9 Judgment, para. 93.
10 See Clerk’s Certificate of Default, Heiser v. Islamic Republic of Iran, 00-2329, 01-2104, (D.D.C. 20 August 2015), ECF No. 272; Order Granting Unopposed Motion for Judgment against Garnishees Bank of America, N.A. and Wells Fargo Bank, N.A. for Turnover of Funds, and for Interpleader Relief for Such Garnishees, Heiser v. Islamic Republic of Iran, 00-2329, 01-2104 (D.D.C. 9 June 2016), ECF No. 275.
11 Judgment, para. 72.
12 Judgment, para. 67; see also ILC, Draft Articles on Diplomatic Protection with Commentaries, Yearbook of the International Law Commission, 2006, Vol. II, Part Two, p. 47.
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9. The Court says that because later-enacted statutes such as the measures at issue here, take precedence over conflicting provisions of earlier-enacted treaties under United States law, Iranian companies had no reasonable possibility of obtaining redress from United States courts based on the provisions of the Treaty13. The first problem with this holding is the underlying and unwarranted assumption that Iranian companies had to be able to prevail in United States courts specifically under the provisions of the Treaty rather than under United States law. But there is no support for the Court’s apparent requirement that, under Article 15 (a), Iran must have been able to prevail on its claim under the Treaty alone, rather than on any other basis14. International law, as reflected in Article 15 (a), does not say the exception applies only where a specific remedy is unavailable. Rather, its language is far broader, providing an exception only where redress is impossible. That scenario is clearly inapplicable to Iranian companies here, where other Iranian parties had previously prevailed in United States courts under the very same factual circumstances.
10. For example, in Rubin v. Islamic Republic of Iran, the claimants argued that they were entitled to attach property of Iran in the possession of the University of Chicago pursuant to the same United States measures at issue here. The district court agreed with Iran that the property in question was not subject to attachment and execution based on the court’s interpretation of the relevant statutes. Notwithstanding this perfect example where Iran prevailed in United States courts, this Court, without explanation or support, nevertheless dismisses the relevance of Rubin because the district court’s decision was based on United States law rather than on the provisions of the Treaty15. As noted, there is no support for the proposition that Article 15 (a) requires that a company must be able to prevail on a particular theory.
11. Additionally, the Court should not conflate as it does here the legitimate consideration and failure of a specific claim with the impossibility of redress16. The Court cites to the examples in the commentary wherein the Article 15 (a) exception might apply17, but completely ignores the most relevant part of the commentary, which notes in no uncertain terms that proving the exception imposes a “heavy burden” and explains that,
“[i]n order to meet the requirements of paragraph [15] (a), it is not sufficient for the injured person to show that the possibility of success is low or that further appeals are difficult or costly. The test is not whether a successful outcome is likely or possible, but whether the municipal system of the respondent State is reasonably capable of providing effective relief.”18
13 Judgment, paras. 69 and 72.
14 Judgment, para. 71.
15 Rubin v. Islamic Republic of Iran, 33 F. Supp. 3d 1003 (N.D. Ill. 2014); Judgment, para. 71. See also Flatow v. Islamic Republic of Iran, 76 F. Supp. 2d 16 (D.D.C. 1999); Hegna v. Islamic Republic of Iran, 2003 WL 25952462 (N.D. Ill. 2003).
16 Judgment, para. 72.
17 Of the examples listed in the commentary, only one is relevant to this case. See ILC, Draft Articles on Diplomatic Protection with Commentaries, Yearbook of the International Law Commission, 2006, Vol. II, Part Two, p. 47 (“[T]he local court has no jurisdiction over the dispute in question; the national legislation justifying the acts of which the alien complains will not be reviewed by local courts; the local courts are notoriously lacking in independence; there is a consistent and well-established line of precedents adverse to the alien; the local courts do not have the competence to grant an appropriate and adequate remedy to the alien; or the respondent State does not have an adequate system of judicial protection.”). Only the reference to the existence of “a consistent and well-established line of precedents adverse to the alien” has any possible relevance here.
18 ILC, Draft Articles on Diplomatic Protection with Commentaries, Yearbook of the International Law Commission, 2006, Vol. II, Part Two, p. 48 (emphasis added).
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Notwithstanding the caution of the commentary, this Court improperly bases its conclusion on the possibility that success might be low or unlikely, rather than on whether the municipal legal system of the United States is reasonably capable of providing effective relief.
12. The second problem with the Court’s holding is that although the principle that later-enacted legislation supersedes any conflicting provisions of an earlier-enacted treaty is correctly stated, it does not support an excuse for failure to exhaust local remedies because none of the United States cases to which the majority refers held that there was a conflict between the Treaty and subsequent legislation.
13. The Court misreads the holding in Weinstein et al. v. Islamic Republic of Iran19, as the district court in Weinstein expressly held that TRIA did not conflict with the Treaty20. After specifically so holding, the court commented, without any analysis, that “[i]n any event, to the extent TRIA . . . may conflict with Article III (1) . . . TRIA would ‘trump’ the Treaty of Amity” (emphasis added)21. However, under United States law, that statement constitutes an obiter dictum and is not a precedent-setting holding. The holding in Weinstein is that there was no conflict with the Treaty, and thus did not concern the temporal relationship between United States legislation and the Treaty. Likewise, in Bennett v. Islamic Republic of Iran et al., the Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit held that “[t]here is no conflict between §1610 (g) and the 1955 Treaty of Amity between the United States and Iran”22. The Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit held in Peterson et al. v. Islamic Republic of Iran that 22 U.S.C. §8772 did not conflict with the Treaty23, while the district court had held in that case that “[t]he treaty is inapplicable”24. It is completely unwarranted to base a conclusion that Iran had no reasonable possibility of success in United States courts on obiter dicta in one or two cases, as such remarks do not constitute precedent.
14. Likewise, Iran’s assertion that the negative outcomes in the three cases of Peterson, Bennett and Weinstein constitute a “well-established line of precedent” precluding any reasonable possibility of success also plainly misunderstands the United States legal system. Three cases can hardly be considered a “consistent and well-established line of precedent” in a country containing numerous district courts and circuit courts of appeal that often reach differing conclusions on the very same issues. The United States Supreme Court itself can reverse a prior position and has done so. To fairly decide that there is a consistent and well-established line of precedent precluding any relief, a court would have to be certain that no alternative outcome could be reached, which could only be achieved after analysing the nature of the claim and all possible defences available to the parties. Certainly, that has not occurred here.
15. In short, the principle of United States law providing that the latest in time between a statute and a treaty prevails has no application here. Moreover, a fair reading of the totality of the commentary of the exception in Article 15 (a) indicates that it is meant to apply to an entire judicial
19 Judgment, para. 71.
20 Weinstein v. Islamic Republic of Iran, 624 F. Supp. 2d 272, 275 (E.D.N.Y. 2009).
21 Ibid.
22 Bennett v. Islamic Republic of Iran, 817 F.3d 1131, as amended 825 F.3d 949 (9th Cir. 2016).
23 Peterson v. Islamic Republic of Iran, 758 F.3d 185 (2nd Cir. 2014).
24 Peterson et al. v. Islamic Republic of Iran et al., 2013 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 40470 (S.D.N.Y. 2013). I note, however, that the Peterson litigation involved the question of a conflict between 28 U.S.C. §8772 and the Treaty. §8772 is no longer at issue in the current proceedings, since the Court held that it has no jurisdiction over Iran’s claims under Articles III, IV, and V of the Treaty to the extent they concern Bank Markazi.
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system and not to the result of a few cases
25. To conclude that there is no possibility of redress for Iranian companies in the United States based on the result of a few cases in which Iranian companies did not even appear to defend themselves (despite the success other Iranian companies had enjoyed before United States courts26) is, in my view, an erroneous reading of Article 15 (a).
16. Ultimately, the record indicates that Iranian companies have exhausted local remedies in only two cases, Bennett and Weinstein, in which only Banks Melli, Saderat and Sepah were involved27. Those cases were considered by United States district and appeals courts, before being appealed to the Supreme Court, but denied certiorari. For that reason, all claims relating to the remaining cases, in which local remedies were not exhausted, should be dismissed as inadmissible.
C. Article XX (1) (d)
17. I agree with the Court that the defence regarding Article XX (1) (c) is unavailing, albeit on a different basis. However, the resolution of the Article XX (1) (d) issue is a different matter. There, the Court finds that “it was for the United States to show that Executive Order 13599 was a measure necessary to protect its essential security interests, and that it has not convincingly demonstrated that this was so”28. The Court bases its conclusion only on its view that Executive Order (“EO”) 13599 focuses on financial matters rather than matters of national security29. The problem with the Court’s decision is that it has considered EO 13599 in a vacuum as a stand-alone measure, without considering the totality of the evidence and arguments presented by the United States.
18. First, the Court ignores the opening sentence of EO 13599, which specifically references and incorporates a prior executive order30, the historical purpose of which was to enact measures “necessary to protect [the United States’] essential security interests”. These measures begin with EO 12957 in 1995, which was enacted “in response to the actions and policies of the Government of Iran, including support for international terrorism, efforts to undermine the Middle East peace process, and the acquisition of weapons of mass destruction and the means to deliver them”31. In 2001, EO 13224 blocked property of and prohibited transactions with persons who commit, threaten to commit or support terrorism. In 2005, EO 13382 blocked the property of those who engage in or support the proliferation of weapons of mass destruction or their means of delivery. Thus, while these EOs may have had an impact on the financial sector, their purpose was firmly and explicitly rooted in ensuring United States national security, and, as EO 13599 itself states, it constituted an
25 See e.g. Chittharanjan F. Amerasinghe, Diplomatic Protection, pp. 153-154 (domestic courts lacking jurisdiction); Gerald Fitzmaurice, The Law and Procedure of the International Court of Justice, p. 692 (domestic judiciary notoriously under the influence of the executive).
26 See e.g. Rubin v. Islamic Republic of Iran, 33 F. Supp. 3d 1003 (N.D. Ill., 2014); Ministry of Defense and Support for the Armed Forces of the Islamic Republic of Iran v. Elahi, 129 S. Ct. 1732 (2009). See also Peterson v. Islamic Republic of Iran, 515 F. Supp. 2d 25, 44-45 (D.D.C. 2007) (some family members of the Marines and other servicemen who were killed in the 1983 terrorist bombing were barred from asserting intentional infliction of emotional distress claims, because they lacked standing under the applicable state tort law).
27 While Bank Markazi did litigate the constitutional separation of powers issue to the Supreme Court in the Peterson case, it has not exhausted all remedies, as the case was remanded to the district court. In addition, Bank Markazi is not a “company” within the meaning of the Treaty, as held by this Court.
28 Judgment, para. 108.
29 Ibid.
30 EO 13599, 77 Fed. Reg. 6659 (5 Feb. 2012).
31 President William J. Clinton, Message to the Congress on Iran, Weekly Compilation of Presidential Documents, Vol. 34, p. 447 (16 March 1998).
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“additional step[] with respect to the national emergency declared in Executive Order 12957 of March 15, 1995”.
19. Moreover, in 2008, the United Nations Security Council adopted resolution 1803 also ignored by the majority calling upon all States to “exercise vigilance” over all transactions with banks domiciled in Iran and their branches and subsidiaries abroad, “in order to avoid such activities contributing to the proliferation [of] sensitive nuclear activities, or to the development of nuclear weapon delivery systems”32.
20. On 22 November 2011, the United States Under Secretary of the Treasury for Terrorism and Financial Intelligence wrote that the “Treasury is calling out . . . the Central Bank of Iran, as posing terrorist financing, proliferation financing, and money laundering risks for the global financial system”33.
21. Given that this Court has acknowledged that “the concept of essential security interests certainly extends beyond the concept of an armed attack, and has been subject to very broad interpretations in the past”34, and in consideration of the totality of the evidence in this record in particular the preceding measures to which EO 13599 refers and of which it is an extension I believe the United States has adequately demonstrated that EO 13599 was necessary to protect its essential security interests in preventing the financing of terrorist activities by Iran. The United States’ defence based on Article XX (1) (d) of the Treaty should thus, in my view, have been granted.
II. ALLEGED VIOLATIONS OF THE TREATY
22. Although, as noted above, I do not believe that the Treaty applies to the challenged United States measures, I nevertheless address the Court’s decision with regard to specific articles below.
A. Article III (1)
23. The Court conflates its analysis of Articles III (1) and IV (1). It finds that because the challenged United States measures violated Article IV (1) as “manifestly excessive” and thus “unreasonable”, they automatically “also” violated Article III (1)35. But neither the language nor the context of Article III supports this conclusion. Article III (1) only calls for a simple recognition of juridical status, that is, legal existence enabling Iranian companies to operate within the territory of the United States. Why exactly unreasonableness is equated to non-recognition of juridical status is left entirely unexplained. And whether a measure is manifestly excessive has no bearing on whether its juridical status has been recognized.
24. Moreover, examining these claims under the rubric of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties requires first that the Court should accord the terms of a treaty their ordinary meaning.
32 United Nations Security Council res. 1803 (2008), UN doc. S/RES/1803, para. 10.
33 National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2012, Sec.1245 (a) (3).
34 See Military and Paramilitary Activities in Nicaragua (Nicaragua v. United States of America), Merits, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1986, p. 117, para. 224.
35 Judgment, paras. 156-157 and 163.
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The plain meaning of Article III (1), as noted above, suggests a simple acknowledgment that the juridical status of “companies” be recognized, without implicating additional legal rights. This is made clear by the provision’s explicit limitation that “recognition of juridical status does not of itself confer rights upon companies to engage in the activities for which they are organized”. Although the majority mentions this explicit limitation as part of the language of Article III (1), it treats that passage as inconsequential
36. Moreover, the Court ignores the Treaty’s negotiating history, to which we must turn in the absence of a definition in the Treaty itself. As noted by the United States on the second day of the hearing on 21 September 2022, the instructions to United States State Department negotiators at the time explained that Article III (1) “merely provides their [i.e. Iranian companies’] recognition as corporate entities principally in order [that] they may prosecute or defend their rights in court as corporate entities”. The instructions continue to state: “Corporate status should be recognized [to] assure [the] right [of] foreign corporate entities . . . [to] free access [to] courts [to] collect debts, protect patent rights, enforce contracts, etc.”37. Throughout, the United States has taken the position that the provision in Article III (1) requires each country to simply acknowledge that a corporation is existent and endowed with legal being.
25. These communications, which Iran did not challenge, were unambiguous and contradict any alleged requirement that Iranian companies be treated in all cases as entities separate from the Iranian state. Accordingly, they do not preclude the piercing of the corporate veil of these companies to reach assets of Iranian-owned companies.
26. The Court finds in regard to Article IV (1) that,
“[i]n the present case, the rights of Iranian companies to appear before the courts in the United States, to make legal submissions and to lodge appeals, have not been curtailed. The enactment of legislative provisions removing legal defences based on separate legal personality, and their application by the courts, do not in themselves constitute a serious failure in the administration of justice amounting to a denial of justice.”38
In other words, United States courts recognized the juridical status of Iranian companies, and they participated freely in the United States’ legal process. Yet, the Court finds — without support and in direct contradiction of its earlier statement that the requirement to recognize juridical status is not absolute — that recognition of juridical status means that Iranian companies must absolutely be treated as separate and independent legal entities, thereby precluding the ability of the United States to pierce the corporate veil in the interests of justice39. Nowhere does Article III (1) require the recognition of the companies’ legal “separateness”, and this alleged requirement, which was a critical point in dispute between the Parties, is neither explained by the majority nor supported by the language of Article III (1) or its negotiating history.
27. Because I believe the majority errs in failing to adequately consider the defences posed to an alleged breach of Article III (1), as well as in its conclusion with respect to Article III (1), I dissent.
36 Judgment, para. 124.
37 CR 2022/17, p. 60, para. 5 (Daley), citing Telegram No. 936 from the US Department of State to the US Embassy in Tehran, dated 9 November 1954.
38 Judgment, para. 143.
39 The possibility of piercing the corporate veil is recognized in international law. See Barcelona Traction, Light and Power Company, Limited (New Application: 1962) (Belgium v. Spain), Second Phase, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1970, pp. 38-39, para. 56.
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B. Article IV (1)
28. In addition to disagreeing with the Court’s erroneous conflation of Articles III (1) and IV (1), I also disagree with the Court’s holding that the United States breached Article IV (1).
29. The Court finds that Article IV (1) is comprised of three distinct obligations and discusses the first two. The first obligation requires each State to treat the Parties fairly and equitably, including protection against the denial of justice, which the Court correctly finds did not occur here40. The second obligation prohibits the application of “unreasonable or discriminatory measures”. Here, the majority finds the United States measures “unreasonable” and does not address whether the measures were discriminatory.
30. The Court’s finding that the United States measures were unreasonable is both convoluted and, I believe, incorrect. First, the Court says that “unreasonable” means “lacking in justification based on rational grounds”41. It then adds that “a measure is unreasonable within the meaning of the Treaty of Amity if it does not meet certain conditions”42. A measure is thus unreasonable where it (1) does not have “a legitimate public purpose”; (2) does not contain an “appropriate relationship between the purpose pursued and the measure adopted”; or (3) has an “adverse impact [that] is manifestly excessive in relation to the purpose pursued”43.
31. The Court’s treatment of “reasonableness” ultimately focuses exclusively on the third condition of its definition, finding that the alleged adverse impact of the United States measures was manifestly excessive in relation to the protection afforded to the purposes invoked and, consequently, unreasonable44. Presumably, the allegedly adverse impact of the measures was the attachment of assets that were in the possession of companies entirely or majority owned by Iran (the United States legislation in question applies only to companies in which Iran has full or a majority ownership), while the “purpose pursued” by the United States was enabling compensation for victims of terrorist acts. But the Court does not consider this purpose or explain why measures invoked for such a legitimate purpose were “manifestly excessive” in relation to the impact on Iranian companies that were wholly or primarily owned by Iran.
32. The catalysts for the United States measures were cases involving more than 1,300 individuals who were victims or family members of victims who had won legitimate judgments in separate cases against Iran for its role in several severe bombing incidents, including the 1983 Beirut barracks bombings and the 1996 Khobar Towers bombing, as well as in assassinations and kidnappings45. The Court does not answer the question of why discouraging or impeding these terrorist bombings, murders or kidnappings is manifestly excessive compared to the attachment of assets held by companies wholly or majority owned by Iran. The Court’s failure to engage in any comparison at all between the United States’ reasons for implementing the challenged measures and their impact on Iran and Iranian companies is itself unreasonable.
40 Judgment, paras. 142-143.
41 Judgment, para. 146.
42 Judgment, para. 147.
43 Judgment, paras. 147-149.
44 Judgment, paras. 156-157.
45 This is a normal and usual mechanism of federal courts to consolidate cases with the same issue to assist judicial efficiency.
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33. Reasonableness is typically not defined in freedom of commerce and navigation treaties or in investment protection treaties, but certain international tribunals have attempted to give more specific content to the term. The prevailing view is that no matter what the exact definition, the term creates a high threshold. In Glencore International A.G. and C.I. Prodeco S.A. v. Republic of Colombia, for example, the tribunal held by majority with respect to the term “unreasonable or discriminatory measures” in Article 4 (1) of the Colombia-Switzerland bilateral investment treaty that the threshold for showing that a measure is unreasonable is a high one46. It then added:
“Investment arbitration tribunals are not called to adjudicate appeals against measures adopted by States or their agencies. Their task is to establish whether the state’s conduct vis-à-vis protected foreign investors is tainted by prejudice, preference or bias or is so totally incompatible with reason that it constitutes an international wrong.”47
The Court, without any explanation or support, simply chooses a much lower threshold.
34. Finally, it is incorrect to say that both the FSIA and TRIA “employ very broad terms, which are capable of encompassing any legal entity, regardless of Iran’s type or degree of control over them”48. Rather, these statutes apply to a specific subset of companies and are tailored precisely. Section 201 of TRIA, for example, applies explicitly to “agencies and instrumentalities” of a terrorist party. The reference in the statute to “agencies and instrumentalities” is not an open-ended provision applying to any agency or company within a State’s jurisdiction, but is qualified by the phrase “of that terrorist party” and, most importantly, the fact that, by specific legislative definition (as explained further below), an entity must be owned in whole or in the majority by Iran in order to qualify as an agency or instrumentality of Iran.
35. In this connection, the majority also ignores or overlooks relevant provisions of the FSIA that limit its scope, including Section 1603 (b), which defines “agency or instrumentality of a foreign state” as any entity “which is an organ of a foreign state or political subdivision thereof, or a majority of whose shares or other ownership interest is owned by a foreign state or political subdivision thereof”. In the specific context of collecting a liability judgment against a State-sponsor of terrorism, enforcing that judgment against the assets of an agency or instrumentality, thus defined, is justified through the accepted doctrine of piercing the corporate veil. In addition, Section 1610 (g) (3) provides that, for third-party joint property holders,
“[n]othing in this subsection shall be construed to supersede the authority of a court to prevent appropriately the impairment of an interest held by a person who is not liable in the action giving rise to a judgment in property subject to attachment in aid of execution, or execution, upon such judgment”.
In other words, United States courts had the authority to prevent the impairment of interests held by Iranian companies not liable in a given action, that is, an Iranian company that is owned in whole or in the majority by a third party, or that is not an agency or instrumentality of Iran. Among other defences, Iranian companies could have sought such protection of available rights. These companies should not now be rewarded for their failure to appear in the enforcement proceedings brought against them, or for their failure to raise defences and exhaust local remedies.
46 Glencore International A.G. and C.I. Prodeco S.A. v. Republic of Colombia, ICSID Case No. ARB/16/6, Award, 27 August 2019, paras. 1455-1456.
47 Ibid., para. 1457.
48 Judgment, para. 150.
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36. For the foregoing reasons, I dissent.
C. Article IV (2)
37. While I agree with the Court’s conclusion that the most constant security and protection provision in Article IV (2) only requires physical and not legal protection and security, I disagree with its finding that the challenged executive, legislative or judicial acts in question constitute a taking, and are thereby expropriatory.
38. It is extremely difficult to see how attachment to obtain satisfaction of a money judgment, lawfully obtained, can amount to an expropriation. The Court’s observation that it is not “disputed that the Iranian companies concerned did not receive any payment”49, encapsulates the difficulty of finding expropriation in this case. Iran has never disputed in United States courts that it owed the money in question by virtue of liability judgments. Nor has it disputed, in the present proceedings, that the United States liability judgments created a debt. If the money was owed, it seems absurd to require the United States Government to pay it back. In that case, the United States would simply be compensating the victims itself for wrongs for which Iran is responsible. The money that was in the possession of the agencies and instrumentalities of Iran was essentially Iran’s money. Assets that were attached in legal proceedings exclusively against companies wholly or majority owned by Iran to pay Iran’s undisputed debt cannot constitute a taking by the State. Moreover, the effect of paying a judgment debt is economically neutral and legally required, not expropriatory50.
39. The Court correctly states in relation to judicial decisions ordering the attachment and execution of property that these do not by themselves amount to expropriations. It then says that a judicial decision does amount to an expropriation if it applies legislative or executive measures that infringe international law and thereby causes a deprivation of property51. I find no support for such a stark and extraordinarily broad pronouncement that recasts the notion of judicial expropriation. Recall that, in the Court’s own view, the rights of Iranian companies to appear before United States courts and make submissions or lodge appeals had not been curtailed. It also found specifically that enacting legislative provisions removing legal defences, and the United States courts’ application of these provisions, did not in themselves constitute a failure in the administration of justice amounting to a denial of justice52. Considering that there was also no violation of due process in these domestic proceedings, it is difficult to accept that a violation of international law occurred in this regard, even if the Court’s unusual and expansive definition of judicial expropriation were to be acceptable.
40. Again, the only rationale offered by the majority to demonstrate a violation of international law is that it has found, in relation to Iran’s Article IV (1) claim, that the United States measures were unreasonable53. How can the concept of unreasonableness, which appears only in that one provision, be read into two additional, yet totally different contexts? The Court applies unreasonableness, easily the most nebulous of the three standards under Article IV (1), to thereby find breaches of Article III (1) and now also Article IV (2). I cannot imagine that the parties to the Treaty would have intended for the entirely imprecise concept of “unreasonableness” to have such cascading effects, dispensing even with the requirement to apply the ordinary criteria of
49 Judgment, para. 178.
50 Counter-Memorial of the United States of America, para. 14.95.
51 Judgment, para. 184.
52 Judgment, para. 143.
53 Judgment, para. 186.
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expropriation. The relevant obligations under Articles III (1), IV (1) and IV (2) appear in separate Treaty provisions setting out separate rules that are subject to separate standards.
41. The United States measures constituted a bona fide, non-discriminatory use of the United States’ regulatory powers for the protection of a legitimate public interest: namely, compensating victims of terrorist acts with property owned by agencies and instrumentalities of the State of Iran, proven in United States courts of law to have caused the relevant harm. The effect of these measures simply made it possible to enforce liability judgments arising out of judicial determinations based on an impartial and due-process-based application of the law.
42. Likewise, the judicial application of these measures cannot amount to an expropriation of the assets of Iranian companies. Decisions by domestic courts, when they are lawfully acting as neutral and independent arbiters of legal rights, do not give rise to a claim for expropriation. I do not find the cases Iran cites to the contrary analogous. The majority of international tribunals have held that only egregious judicial misconduct, i.e. wrongfulness attaching to the judicial process itself, has been held by international tribunals in cases affecting property rights to constitute a judicial expropriation, such as a denial of justice or acting without jurisdiction54.
43. I thus dissent from the Court’s finding that the United States breached Article IV (2).
D. Article X (1)
44. While I agree with the Court’s finding that “commerce” in this provision is not limited to maritime commerce or to trade in goods and associated transactions55, I disagree with the Court’s holding that the United States measures limited Iranian companies’ freedom of commerce and navigation.
45. Article X (1) and the obligations it establishes are general and lack specificity. In its 2019 Judgment, in the context of its discussion concerning sovereign immunity, the Court confirmed its holding in Oil Platforms that the term referred to “commercial exchanges in general” and was “not limited to the mere acts of purchase and sale”56. Nonetheless, the Court added that “even if understood in this sense, freedom of commerce cannot cover matters that have no connection, or too tenuous a connection, with the commercial relations between the States Parties to the Treaty”57.
46. But this is precisely what the United States’ measures cover. They cover matters “that have no connection, or too tenuous a connection, with the commercial relations between the State Parties to the Treaty”. While a blocking order, the enforcement of a judgment, or a measure of constraint could conceivably have an effect on commerce, any government measure could if that approach is taken be regarded as having such an effect. I find it impossible to read Article X (1) as prohibiting
54 See e.g. OOO Manolium Processing v. Republic of Belarus, PCA Case No. 2018-06, Final Award, 22 June 2021, para. 591; Swisslion DOO Skopje v. The former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, ICSID Case No. ARB/09/16, Award, 6 July 2012, para. 314.
55 Judgment, paras. 212 and 214.
56 Certain Iranian Assets (Islamic Republic of Iran v. United States of America), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2019 (I), p. 34, para. 78, citing Oil Platforms (Islamic Republic of Iran v. United States of America), Preliminary Objection, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1996 (II), pp. 818-819, paras. 45-46.
57 Certain Iranian Assets (Islamic Republic of Iran v. United States of America), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2019 (I), p. 34, para. 79.
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any such measure whatsoever, and an interpretation that would result in a nearly limitless interpretation of the phrase “freedom of commerce” is not logical. I find no correlation between the United States’ measures and Article X (1), and no textual support for the view that the Parties intended to prohibit the payment of any judgment debt when they entered into the Treaty. “Commerce” has many features, and one of these features is commercial disputes. Litigation between commercial parties results in the creation of judgment debts with frequency. To say that this core aspect of commerce is prohibited under the Treaty on the basis that it impedes freedom of commerce the very thing of which it forms part is ironic.
47. More generally, the majority’s conclusion that commerce existed between the territories of the two Parties strikes me as peculiar for two reasons. First, in Oil Platforms, the Court referred to the “important territorial limitation” in Article X (1), stating that “[i]n order to enjoy the protection provided by that text, the commerce or the navigation is to be between the territories of the United States and Iran”58. Here, it is not clear that any affected “commerce” was “between the territories” of the two Parties, as all transactions occurred via intermediaries based outside of the United States. Second, there was and is very little commerce between these two States, and it is difficult to see how those low levels of commerce could have meaningfully been disrupted. For these reasons, I would also dismiss this claim.
(Signed) Rosemary BARKETT.
___________
58 Oil Platforms (Islamic Republic of Iran v. United States of America), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2003, pp. 214-215, para. 119 (emphasis in original).
236
SEPARATE OPINION, PARTLY CONCURRING AND PARTLY
DISSENTING, OF JUDGE AD HOC BARKETT
Abuse of rights — Iran seeking to exercise rights conferred on it by the
Treaty of Amity “ for purposes other than those for which the rights at issue
were established”.
Exhaustion of local remedies — Exhaustion of local remedies not futile.
Article XX (1) (d) — United States demonstrated that Executive Order
13599 necessary to protect its essential security interests.
Article III (1) — Court conflates its analysis of Articles III (1) and IV (1) —
Unreasonableness cannot be equated to non-recognition of juridical
status — Article III (1) only requires that juridical status of companies be
recognized, without implicating additional legal rights — United States
courts recognized juridical status of Iranian companies — Article III (1) does
not require recognition of “separateness”.
Article IV (1) — Court does not consider purpose of compensating victims
of terrorist acts or explain why measures were allegedly manifestly excessive
— Term “unreasonable” creates a high threshold, but Court has without
explanation or support chosen lower threshold — United States statutes
apply to specific subset of companies and are tailored precisely.
Article IV (2) — Attachment to obtain satisfaction of lawfully obtained
money judgment does not amount to expropriation — Court’s understanding
of judicial expropriation is unsupported — no violation of due process in
domestic proceedings — Court’s only support for expropriation claim is
finding of unreasonableness under Article IV (1).
Article X (1) — United States measures have no connection, or too tenuous
a connection, with commercial relations between Parties.
1. I agree with the Court’s determination that Bank Markazi cannot be
considered a “company” under the Treaty of Amity, Economic Relations, and
Consular Rights (hereinafter the “Treaty”), and with the ultimate conclusion
236
OPINION INDIVIDUELLE, EN PARTIE CONCORDANTE ET EN
PARTIE DISSIDENTE, DE Mme LA JUGE AD HOC BARKETT
[Traduction]
Abus de droit — Iran cherchant à exercer des droits qui lui sont conférés
par le traité « à des fins différentes de celles pour lesquelles les droits en
cause ont été établis ».
Épuisement des voies de recours internes — Exception de futilité n’étant
pas applicable à l’épuisement des voies de recours internes.
Alinéa d) du paragraphe 1 de l’article XX — États-Unis ayant démontré
que le décret présidentiel no 13599 était nécessaire aux fins de la protection
de leurs intérêts vitaux sur le plan de la sécurité.
Paragraphe 1 de l’article III — Amalgame de la Cour dans l’analyse du
paragraphe 1 de l’article III et du paragraphe 1 de l’article IV — Caractère
déraisonnable ne valant pas non-reconnaissance du statut juridique —
Paragraphe 1 de l’article III exigeant uniquement que le statut juridique des
sociétés soit reconnu, sans conférer nécessairement de droits supplémentaires
— Tribunaux américains ayant reconnu le statut juridique des sociétés
iraniennes — Paragraphe 1 de l’article III n’imposant pas de reconnaître le
caractère « distinct ».
Paragraphe 1 de l’article IV — Cour n’ayant pas examiné le but de l’indemnisation
des victimes d’attentats terroristes ni expliqué pourquoi les
mesures auraient été manifestement excessives — Niveau de preuve exigé
par le terme « déraisonnable » étant élevé, mais Cour ayant choisi, sans
fournir d’explications ou d’arguments à cet effet, d’appliquer un niveau de
preuve inférieur — Lois américaines s’appliquant à un sous-ensemble particulier
de sociétés et étant formulées précisément en ce sens.
Paragraphe 2 de l’article IV — Saisie visant l’exécution d’une condamnation
pécuniaire obtenue de manière licite n’étant pas constitutive
d’expropriation — Interprétation faite par la Cour de l’expropriation judiciaire
étant dépourvue de fondement — Absence de violation du droit à une
procédure régulière dans les procédures internes — Seul élément avancé
par la Cour à l’appui de la thèse de l’expropriation étant sa propre constatation
du caractère déraisonnable au sens du paragraphe 1 de l’article IV.
Paragraphe 1 de l’article X — Absence de lien ou lien trop ténu entre les
mesures américaines et les relations commerciales entre les Parties.
1. Je souscris à la conclusion de la Cour selon laquelle la banque Markazi
ne saurait être caractérisée comme une « société » au sens du traité d’amitié,
de commerce et de droits consulaires (ci-après le « traité »), ainsi qu’à la
237 certain iranian assets (sep. op. barkett)
that the defence of “unclean hands” cannot be upheld in this case. I also
agree that the defence under Article XX (1) (c) cannot be upheld, although
I reach that conclusion on the ground that the challenged United States
measures were not enacted for the purpose of regulating the production or
trafficking of items “for the purpose of supplying a military establishment”1.
I also agree with the Court’s partial dismissal of Iran’s claim under Article
IV (2), as I believe that the term “most constant protection and security”
only requires physical and not legal protection or security, and with the
Court’s rejection of Iran’s claims under Articles V (1) and VII (1).
2. On the other hand, I believe the Court erred in denying the United States’
objection based on exhaustion of local remedies and its defences based on
abuse of rights and Article XX (1) (d), as well as its resolution of Iran’s
claims under Articles III (1), IV (1), IV (2) (as regards expropriation)
and X (1). Accordingly, I dissent as to these issues for the reasons discussed
below2.
I. United States Defences
A. Abuse of Rights
3. I agree with the Court that, although the United States’ defence of abuse
of rights raises substantially “similar” arguments to those it made in its
preliminary objections, the Court’s 2019 Judgment3 does not preclude the
United States from invoking an abuse of rights defence on the merits (see
paragraph 88 of the present Judgment). I disagree, however, with the Court’s
finding that the United States has failed to demonstrate that Iran now seeks
to exercise its rights under the Treaty for purposes other than those for which
the rights at issue were established to the detriment of the United States.
1 See Treaty, Article XX (1) (c).
2 Although I do not believe that Iran is entitled to any damages in this case, I voted in favour
of paragraph 8 of the dispositif, as the Court has determined that some damages may be due.
In that case, I agree that the Court has jurisdiction to consider those claims at a later time. My
affirmative vote on paragraph 9 of the dispositif is based on the understanding that this paragraph
refers to claims by Iran and not objections or defences of the United States.
3 Certain Iranian Assets (Islamic Republic of Iran v. United States of America), Preliminary
Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2019 (I), p. 7 (the “2019 Judgment” in the text of the
opinion).
certains actifs iraniens (op. ind. barkett) 237
conclusion finale selon laquelle le moyen de défense tiré de la doctrine des
« mains propres » ne pouvait être accueilli en l’espèce. Je partage également
l’avis selon lequel le moyen de défense fondé sur l’alinéa c) du paragraphe 1
de l’article XX ne pouvait être retenu ; si je suis parvenue à cette conclusion,
c’est cependant parce que les mesures américaines contestées n’ont pas été
adoptées aux fins de la réglementation de la production ou du commerce
d’articles dans le « but … d’approvisionner des unités militaires »1. Je souscris
aussi au rejet partiel par la Cour de la demande de l’Iran fondée sur le
paragraphe 2 de l’article IV, car, selon moi, l’expression « protection
et … sécurité ... assurées de la manière la plus constante » s’étend uniquement
à la protection physique et non à la protection ou à la sécurité juridique,
ainsi qu’au rejet par la Cour des demandes présentées par l’Iran au titre du
paragraphe 1 de l’article V et du paragraphe 1 de l’article VII.
2. En revanche, j’estime que la Cour a commis une erreur en rejetant l’argument
des États-Unis fondé sur le défaut d’épuisement des voies de recours
internes et leurs moyens de défense tirés de l’abus de droit et de l’alinéa d) du
paragraphe 1 de l’article XX, et en se prononçant comme elle l’a fait sur les
demandes de l’Iran fondées sur le paragraphe 1 de l’article III, le paragraphe
1 de l’article IV, le paragraphe 2 de l’article IV (s’agissant de
l’expropriation) et le paragraphe 1 de l’article X. J’exposerai donc ci-après
les motifs de mon désaccord sur ces différents points2.
I. Moyens de défense des États-Unis
A. Abus de droit
3. Je partage l’avis de la Cour selon lequel, bien que les arguments avancés
par les États-Unis dans le cadre de leur moyen de défense tiré de l’abus de
droit soient en substance « similaires » à ceux qu’ils avaient présentés dans
leurs exceptions préliminaires, l’arrêt que la Cour a rendu en 20193 ne les
empêchait pas d’invoquer l’abus de droit comme moyen de défense au fond
(voir le paragraphe 88 du présent arrêt). Je suis toutefois en désaccord avec
la conclusion de la Cour selon laquelle les États-Unis n’ont pas démontré que
l’Iran revendiquait en l’espèce l’exercice des droits qui lui sont conférés par
le traité à des fins différentes de celles pour lesquelles les droits en cause ont
été établis, et ce, au détriment des États-Unis.
1 Voir l’alinéa c) du paragraphe 1 de l’article XX du traité.
2 Bien que j’estime que l’Iran n’est pas en droit de recevoir des dommages-intérêts en l’espèce,
j’ai voté en faveur du point 8 du dispositif parce que la Cour a conclu à la possibilité
d’une indemnisation et que, dans ce cas, je suis d’accord pour dire qu’elle a compétence pour
examiner les demandes à cet effet dans le cadre d’une phase ultérieure de la procédure. J’ai
voté en faveur du point 9 du dispositif, étant entendu que ce paragraphe fait référence aux
demandes de l’Iran et non aux exceptions ou moyens de défense des États-Unis.
3 Certains actifs iraniens (République islamique d’Iran c. États-Unis d’Amérique), exceptions
préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2019 (I), p. 7 (l’« arrêt de 2019 » dans le corps du
texte).
238 certain iranian assets (sep. op. barkett)
4. In its present Judgment, the Court finds that it
“could only accept the abuse of rights defence . . . if it were demonstrated
by the Respondent, on the basis of compelling evidence, that the
Applicant seeks to exercise rights conferred on it by the Treaty of Amity
for purposes other than those for which the rights at issue were established,
and that it was doing so to the detriment of the Respondent”4.
I believe that this is precisely what the United States has demonstrated.
Concluding that Iran is seeking to exercise rights under the Treaty for the
purpose for which they were created is inconsistent with the facts of this
case. As described below, the underlying circumstances of this case are so
far removed from the object, purpose, context and provisions of the Treaty
that Iran’s attempt to rely on and apply the Treaty to these circumstances
constitutes an abuse of rights.
5. The Treaty’s preamble clearly states that its purpose is to “encourag[e]
mutually beneficial trade and investments and closer economic intercourse
generally between their peoples, and [to] regulat[e] consular relations”5.
Accepting this purpose, the Court has expressly noted that the object and
purpose of the Treaty are not to “regulate peaceful and friendly relations
between the two States in a general sense”6, but to address “rules providing
for freedom of trade and commerce”7.
6. However, none of the United States’ measures concern the preamble’s
stated purpose of “encouraging mutually beneficial trade and investments
and closer economic intercourse generally between their peoples, and of
regulating consular relations”. The statutes in question were not concerned
with giving advantages to American businesses, or stimulating foreign
investments, or increasing trade between the two countries, or opening
markets to successful industries, or adding jobs. Their one and only purpose
was to assist United States citizens in recovering money damages as a
result o f i njuries and deaths c aused by t errorist a cts proven in United
States courts to have been perpetrated or sponsored by Iran, which Iran
refused to pay. The United States did not act for reasons related to trade,
commerce, investments or consular relations it acted for reasons related
to national security. The legislation and subsequent judicial decisions at issue
were based on extensive investigations into and evidence of bombings,
4 Judgment, para. 93.
5 Treaty, preamble; Certain Iranian Assets (Islamic Republic of Iran v. United States of
America), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2019 (I), p. 28, para. 57.
6 Oil Platforms (Islamic Republic of Iran v. United States of America), Preliminary Objection,
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1996 (II), p. 814, para. 28.
7 Alleged Violations of the 1955 Treaty of Amity, Economic Relations, and Consular Rights
(Islamic Republic of Iran v. United States of America), Provisional Measures, Order of 3 October
2018, I.C.J. Reports 2018 (II), p. 635, para. 43.
certains actifs iraniens (op. ind. barkett) 238
4. Dans le présent arrêt, la Cour a conclu qu’elle
« ne pourrait retenir … le moyen de défense au fond tiré de l’abus de
droit que s’il était démontré par le défendeur, sur la base de preuves
convaincantes, que le demandeur revendiqu[ait] l’exercice des droits qui
lui sont conférés par le traité d’amitié à des fins différentes de celles
pour lesquelles les droits en cause ont été établis, et ce, au détriment
du défendeur »4.
J’estime que c’est précisément ce que les États-Unis ont démontré. Conclure
que l’Iran revendiquait l’exercice de ses droits découlant du traité aux fins
pour lesquelles ils ont été établis était incompatible avec les faits de l’espèce.
Comme exposé ci-après, les circonstances de l’espèce étaient si éloignées de
l’objet, du but, du contexte et des dispositions du traité que la tentative de
l’Iran d’invoquer cet instrument et de l’appliquer auxdites circonstances
constituait un abus de droit.
5. Ainsi que cela est clairement indiqué dans son préambule, le traité a
pour but d’« encourager les échanges et les investissements mutuellement
profitables et l’établissement de relations économiques plus étroites entre
leurs peuples et de régler leurs relations consulaires »5. En le reconnaissant,
la Cour a expressément indiqué que l’objet et le but du traité étaient non pas
d’« organiser les relations pacifiques et amicales entre les deux États de
manière générale »6, mais de prévoir « des règles instaurant la liberté de
commerce et d’échanges »7.
6. Or, aucune des mesures adoptées par les États-Unis ne concernait le but
énoncé dans le préambule, à savoir « encourager les échanges et les investissements
mutuellement profitables et l’établissement de relations économiques
plus étroites entre leurs peuples et … régler leurs relations consulaires ». Les
éléments en cause ne visaient ni à conférer un avantage aux sociétés américaines,
ni à stimuler les investissements étrangers, ni à accroître les échanges
entre les deux pays, ni à ouvrir des marchés aux industries florissantes, ni à
créer des emplois. Leur seul et unique but était d’aider des citoyens américains
à recouvrer des dommages-intérêts à raison des préjudices corporels et
des décès causés par des attentats terroristes dont il avait été prouvé devant
les juridictions américaines qu’ils avaient été perpétrés ou soutenus par
l’Iran, dommages-intérêts dont ce dernier refusait de s’acquitter. Les États-
Unis n’ont pas agi pour des raisons liées aux échanges, au commerce, aux
investissements ou aux relations consulaires — ils ont agi pour motif de
4 Arrêt, par. 93.
5 Préambule du traité ; Certains actifs iraniens (République islamique d’Iran c. États-Unis
d’Amérique), exceptions préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2019 (I), p. 28, par. 57.
6 Plates-formes pétrolières (République islamique d’Iran c. États-Unis d’Amérique), exception
préliminaire, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1996 (II), p. 814, par. 28.
7 Violations alléguées du traité d’amitié, de commerce et de droits consulaires de 1955
(République islamique d’Iran c. États-Unis d’Amérique), mesures conservatoires, ordonnance
du 3 octobre 2018, C.I.J. Recueil 2018 (II), p. 635, par. 43.
239 certain iranian assets (sep. op. barkett)
kidnappings and murders. Based on that evidence, the United States concluded
that the direct perpetrators of those terrorist acts, Hezbollah and
Hamas, were both acting as proxies for Iran8. Although this Court is not
called upon to rule on Iran’s culpability, the factual basis for the United States
measures must be part of the Court’s analysis regarding whether the measures
had any relation to the Treaty at all.
7. I believe the record demonstrates that the United States measures are
unrelated to the Treaty’s purpose, and that Iran is indeed seeking to exercise
rights conferred on it by the Treaty “for purposes other than those for which
the rights at issue were established” to the detriment of the United States9.
Accordingly, I believe the United States’ defence of abuse of rights should
have been granted.
B. Exhaustion of Local Remedies
8. I first note that the Iranian companies that were given the opportunity to
be heard in United States lawsuits seeking attachment of assets did not
8 These acts encompassed attacks against American, Argentine, British, French, German,
Israeli and Swiss citizens. Specifically, these acts included suicide attacks on the United States
Embassy in Beirut, killing 63 people, including 17 Americans, and the bombing of United
States Marine Corps barracks in Beirut, Lebanon, killing 241 United States Marines and
injuring many others. A simultaneous attack killed 58 French soldiers in a neighbouring location.
The results of investigations are summarized in the evidence presented to United States
courts, including testimony from experts who studied Iran; senior officials of the Federal
Bureau of Investigation and intelligence personnel; and fact witnesses who were either Iranian
officials or actual participants in the terrorist attacks and testified that Iran was responsible for
the acts committed by Hezbollah and Hamas. The United States submitted statements from
Iranian officials and six participants in the Khobar Towers bombing, implicating Iran as
having organized, funded, and supported the attack. See e.g. Peterson v. Islamic Republic of
Iran, 264 F. Supp. 2d 46 (D.D.C., 2003); Holland v. Islamic Republic of Iran, 496 F. Supp. 2d 1
(D.D.C., 2005); Blais v. Islamic Republic of Iran, 459 F. Supp. 2d 40 (D.D.C., 2006); Heiser v.
Islamic Republican of Iran, 466 F. Supp. 2d 229 (D.D.C., 2006). The United States also referenced
the testimony obtained under oath by French investigators of individuals implicated in
the assassination of an American citizen. This testimony was to the effect that the then Iranian
Minister of Intelligence and Head of the Ministry of Intelligence and Security, Ayatollah
Fallahian, was involved in ordering the killings of Iranian dissidents in Paris. Elahi v. Islamic
Republic of Iran, 124 F. Supp. 2d 97 (D.D.C., 2000). Much other direct testimony of Iran’s
responsibility for the terrorist attacks can be found in the various opinions of United States
courts submitted by the parties in those cases. Iran never contested this evidence in United
States courts.
9 Judgment, para. 93.
certains actifs iraniens (op. ind. barkett) 239
sécurité nationale. Les lois et les décisions de justice ultérieures qui étaient
en cause en la présente espèce ont été adoptées sur la base d’enquêtes
approfondies et d’un vaste corpus de preuves concernant des attentats à la
bombe, des enlèvements et des assassinats. Se fondant sur ces preuves, les
États-Unis ont conclu que les auteurs directs de ces attentats terroristes, le
Hezbollah et le Hamas, avaient tous deux agi pour le compte de l’Iran8.
Même si elle n’avait pas à se prononcer sur la culpabilité de l’Iran, la Cour
aurait dû, dans son analyse visant à déterminer s’il existait un quelconque
lien entre les mesures et le traité, prendre en compte les éléments factuels
sous-tendant les mesures américaines.
7. Selon moi, le dossier de l’affaire démontre que les mesures américaines
étaient sans rapport avec le but du traité et que l’Iran a effectivement cherché
à exercer des droits qui lui sont conférés par le traité « à des fins différentes
de celles pour lesquelles les droits en cause ont été établis », au détriment des
États-Unis9. Par conséquent, j’estime que le moyen de défense des États-
Unis tiré de l’abus de droit aurait dû être retenu.
B. Épuisement des voies de recours internes
8. Je relèverai tout d’abord que les sociétés iraniennes qui ont eu la possibilité
d’être entendues dans des procédures tendant à obtenir la saisie d’actifs,
8 Les faits en cause comprennent des attentats perpétrés contre des citoyens allemands,
américains, argentins, britanniques, français, israéliens et suisses. Il s’agit en particulier des
attentats-suicides contre l’ambassade des États-Unis à Beyrouth, qui ont fait 63 morts, dont
17 Américains, et de l’attentat à la bombe commis contre le casernement des marines
américains à Beyrouth (Liban), qui a fait 241 morts et de nombreux blessés parmi les militaires
américains. Un attentat simultané perpétré à proximité a tué 58 soldats français. Les résultats
des enquêtes sont résumés dans les éléments de preuve soumis aux juridictions américaines,
incluant le témoignage de spécialistes de l’Iran ; de hauts fonctionnaires du Federal Bureau of
Investigation et d’agents du renseignement ; ainsi que de témoins des faits, qui étaient soit des
fonctionnaires iraniens, soit des personnes ayant participé effectivement aux attentats terroristes
et qui ont indiqué que l’Iran était responsable des faits commis par le Hezbollah et le
Hamas. Les États-Unis ont soumis des déclarations de responsables iraniens et de six
personnes ayant participé à l’attentat à la bombe contre les tours de Khobar, mettant en cause
l’Iran en tant qu’organisateur, bailleur de fonds et soutien de l’attentat. Voir, par exemple,
Peterson v. Islamic Republic of Iran, 264 F. Supp. 2d 46 (tribunal fédéral du district de Columbia
[D.D.C.], 2003) ; Holland v. Islamic Republic of Iran, 496 F. Supp. 2d 1 (D.D.C., 2005) ;
Blais v. Islamic Republic of Iran, 459 F. Supp. 2d 40 (D.D.C., 2006) ; Heiser v. Islamic Republican
of Iran, 466 F. Supp. 2d 229 (D.D.C., 2006). Les États-Unis ont aussi versé au dossier la
déposition faite sous serment par des enquêteurs français qui avaient enquêté sur des individus
mis en cause dans l’assassinat d’un citoyen américain. Ce témoignage indique que le ministre
iranien du renseignement et directeur général du ministère du renseignement et de la sécurité
de l’époque, l’ayatollah Fallahian, était impliqué en tant que commanditaire de l’assassinat de
dissidents iraniens à Paris. Elahi v. Islamic Republic of Iran, 124 F. Supp. 2d 97 (D.D.C.,
2000). De nombreux autres témoignages directs faisant état de la responsabilité de l’Iran dans
les attentats terroristes figurent dans les différentes décisions de tribunaux américains qui ont
été soumises par les parties dans ces affaires. L’Iran n’a jamais contesté ces éléments de preuve
devant les juridictions américaines.
9 Arrêt, par. 93.
240 certain iranian assets (sep. op. barkett)
in any way respond to those lawsuits10 or otherwise respond in United States
courts. It is unreasonable to say that the companies in question “had no
reasonable possibility of successfully asserting their rights in United States
court proceedings”11 when they did not even attempt to do so, and the record
indicates that others had prevailed on factually similar claims. Thus, Iran
cannot present a claim here in respect of those companies that did not exhaust
all local remedies. The Court concludes, however, that exhaustion is not
necessary based on Article 15 (a) of the International Law Commission’s
(“ILC”) 2006 Draft Articles on Diplomatic Protection. Article 15 (a)
provides an exception to the requirement of exhaustion if an injured party
had no reasonable possibility of obtaining redress12. I believe the Court
misunderstands the law of the United States and erroneously applies the
Article 15 (a) exception to reach an incorrect conclusion on this issue.
9. The Court says that because later-enacted statutes such as the measures
at issue here, take precedence over conflicting provisions of earlierenacted
treaties under United States law, Iranian companies had no
reasonable
possibility
of obtaining redress from United States courts
based on the provisions
of the Treaty13. The first problem with this holding
is the underlying and unwarranted assumption that Iranian companies had
to be able to prevail in United States courts specifically under the provisions
of the Treaty rather than under United States law. But there is no
support for the Court’s apparent requirement that, under Article 15 (a),
Iran must have been able to prevail on its claim under the Treaty alone,
rather than on any other basis14. International law, as reflected in
Article
15 (a), does not say the exception applies only where a specific remedy
is unavailable. Rather, its language is far broader, providing an
exception only where redress is impossible. That scenario is clearly
inapplicable
to Iranian companies here, where other Iranian parties had
10 See Clerk’s Certificate of Default, Heiser v. Islamic Republic of Iran, 00-2329, 01-2104,
(D.D.C., 20 August 2015), Electronic Case Filing (ECF) No. 272; Order Granting Unopposed
Motion for Judgment against Garnishees Bank of America, N.A. and Wells Fargo Bank, N.A.
for Turnover of Funds, and for Interpleader Relief for Such Garnishees, Heiser v. Islamic
Republic of Iran, 00-2329, 01-2104 (D.D.C., 9 June 2016), ECF No. 275.
11 Judgment, para. 72.
12 Ibid., para. 67; see also ILC, Draft Articles on Diplomatic Protection with Commentaries,
Yearbook of the International Law Commission, 2006, Vol. II, Part Two, p. 47.
13 Judgment, paras. 69 and 72.
14 Ibid., para. 71.
certains actifs iraniens (op. ind. barkett) 240
qui ont été engagées aux États-Unis, n’ont en aucune manière cherché à se
défendre10 ni à faire entendre leur cause devant d’autres juridictions américaines.
Il est inexact de dire que les sociétés en question « n’avaient aucune
possibilité raisonnable de faire valoir leurs droits avec succès dans les procédures
judiciaires américaines »11 alors que ces sociétés n’ont fait aucune
tentative en ce sens et que, comme il ressort du dossier de l’affaire, d’autres
sociétés avaient obtenu gain de cause face à des demandes reposant sur des
faits similaires. L’Iran ne pouvait donc pas présenter de demande pour les
sociétés qui n’avaient pas épuisé toutes les voies de recours internes. Or, la
Cour a conclu que l’épuisement des voies de recours internes n’était pas
nécessaire, s’appuyant sur l’alinéa a) de l’article 15 du projet d’articles sur la
protection diplomatique de la Commission du droit international (ci-après la
« CDI ») (2006). Cette disposition prévoit une exception à la règle de
l’épuisement,
qui s’applique si la partie lésée n’avait aucune possibilité raisonnable
d’obtenir réparation12. J’estime que la Cour a fait une interprétation
erronée du droit américain et qu’elle a appliqué à tort l’exception prévue à
l’alinéa a) de l’article 15 pour aboutir à une conclusion incorrecte sur ce
point.
9. La Cour a jugé que, étant donné qu’en droit américain les lois postérieures,
telles que les mesures en cause en l’espèce, prévalent sur les
dispositions contraires d’instruments antérieurs, les sociétés iraniennes
n’avaient aucune possibilité raisonnable d’obtenir réparation devant les juridictions
américaines sur le fondement des dispositions du traité13. Le premier
problème que soulève cette conclusion est qu’elle repose sur l’hypothèse
erronée
selon laquelle les sociétés iraniennes devaient avoir la possibilité
d’obtenir gain de cause devant les juridictions américaines en invoquant
spécifiquement
les dispositions du traité et non en se fondant sur le droit
américain.
Or, rien ne vient étayer le fait que l’alinéa a) de l’article 15 exige,
comme semble l’indiquer la Cour, que l’Iran puisse faire reconnaître ses
demandes sur la seule base du traité, à l’exclusion de tout autre fondement14.
Le droit international, tel que reflété à l’alinéa a) de l’article 15, ne prévoit pas
que l’exception s’applique uniquement lorsqu’une voie de recours spécifique
n’est pas disponible. En réalité, son libellé est bien plus large, l’exception
10 Voir « Clerk’s Certificate of Default » [attestation de non-comparution établie par le
greffier],
Heiser v. Islamic Republic of Iran, 00-2329, 01-2104, (D.D.C., 20 août 2015), dépôt
électronique [Electronic Case Filing (ECF)] no 272 ; ordonnance faisant droit à la demande non
contestée de jugement contre Bank of America, N.A. et Wells Fargo Bank, N.A. (tiers saisis)
pour qu’ils remettent les fonds en cause, et de recours en intervention forcée par voie
d’«interpleader» pour ces tiers saisis, Heiser v. Islamic Republic of Iran, affaire nos 00-2329
et 01-2104 (D.D.C., 9 juin 2016), ECF no 275.
11 Arrêt, par. 72.
12 Ibid., par. 67 ; voir également CDI, Projet d’articles sur la protection diplomatique et
commentaires y relatifs, Annuaire de la Commission du droit international, 2006, vol. II,
deuxième partie, p. 47.
13 Arrêt, par. 69 et 72.
14 Ibid., par. 71.
241 certain iranian assets (sep. op. barkett)
previously prevailed
in United States courts under the very same factual
circumstances.
10. For example, in Rubin v. Islamic Republic of Iran, the claimants argued
that they were entitled to attach property of Iran in the possession of the
University
of Chicago pursuant to the same United States measures at issue
here. The District Court agreed with Iran that the property in question was
not subject to attachment and execution based on the court’s interpretation
of the relevant statutes. Notwithstanding this perfect example where Iran
prevailed in United States courts, this Court, without explanation or support,
nevertheless dismisses the relevance of Rubin because the District Court’s
decision was based on United States law rather than on the provisions of the
Treaty15. As noted, there is no support for the proposition that Article 15 (a)
requires that a company must be able to prevail on a particular theory.
11. Additionally, the Court should not conflate as it does here the
legitimate consideration and failure of a specific claim with the impossibility
of redress16. The Court cites to the examples in the commentary wherein the
Article 15 (a) exception might apply 17, but completely ignores the most relevant
part of the commentary, which notes in no uncertain terms that proving
the exception imposes a “heavy burden” and explains that,
“[i]n order to meet the requirements of paragraph [15] (a), it is not sufficient
for the injured person to show that the possibility of success is
low or that further appeals are difficult or costly. The test is not whether
a successful outcome is likely or possible, but whether the municipal
system
of the respondent State is reasonably capable of providing
effective relief.” 18
15 Rubin v. Islamic Republic of Iran, 33 F. Supp. 3d 1003 (N.D. Ill. 2014); Judgment, para. 71.
See also Flatow v. Islamic Republic of Iran, 76 F. Supp. 2d 16 (D.D.C., 1999); Hegna v. Islamic
Republic of Iran, 2003 WL 25952462 (N.D. Ill. 2003).
16 Judgment, para. 72.
17 Of the examples listed in the commentary, only one is relevant to this case. See ILC, Draft
Articles on Diplomatic Protection with Commentaries, Yearbook of the International Law
Commission, 2006, Vol. II, Part Two, p. 47 (“[T]he local court has no jurisdiction over the
dispute in question; the national legislation justifying the acts of which the alien complains
will not be reviewed by local courts; the local courts are notoriously lacking in independence;
there is a consistent and well-established line of precedents adverse to the alien; the local
courts do not have the competence to grant an appropriate and adequate remedy to the alien;
or the respondent State does not have an adequate system of judicial protection.”). Only the
reference to the existence of “a consistent and well-established line of precedents adverse to
the alien” has any possible relevance here.
18 ILC, Draft Articles on Diplomatic Protection with Commentaries, Yearbook of the International
Law Commission, 2006, Vol. II, Part Two, p. 48 (emphasis added).
certains actifs iraniens (op. ind. barkett) 241
n’étant applicable qu’en cas d’impossibilité d’obtenir réparation. Ce scénario
ne saurait manifestement être retenu pour les sociétés iraniennes en l’espèce,
puisque d’autres parties iraniennes avaient précédemment obtenu gain de
cause devant des juridictions américaines dans des circonstances factuelles
très similaires.
10. Dans l’affaire Rubin v. Islamic Republic of Iran, par exemple, les
demandeurs réclamaient le droit de saisir des biens de l’Iran se trouvant en
la possession de l’Université de Chicago, en application des mesures américaines
en cause en l’espèce. Le tribunal de district, souscrivant à la thèse de
l’Iran, a indiqué que les biens en question, selon son interprétation des lois
pertinentes, n’étaient ni saisissables ni susceptibles de mesures d’exécution.
Nonobstant ce parfait exemple de succès de l’Iran devant les juridictions
américaines, la Cour, sans fournir d’explications ou d’arguments à cet effet,
a jugé que l’affaire Rubin était dénuée de pertinence, car la décision du tribunal
de district était fondée sur le droit américain et non sur les dispositions
du traité15. Comme indiqué plus haut, rien ne vient étayer la thèse selon
laquelle l’alinéa a) de l’article 15 exigerait qu’une société puisse obtenir gain
de cause sur la base d’une argumentation particulière.
11. En outre, la Cour n’aurait pas dû — comme elle l’a fait en l’espèce —
confondre l’examen et le rejet légitimes d’une demande particulière avec
l’impossibilité d’obtenir réparation16. Bien que s’étant référée aux exemples
donnés dans le commentaire concernant l’applicabilité de l’exception prévue
à l’alinéa a) de l’article 1517, elle n’a fait aucun cas de la partie la plus pertinente
dudit commentaire, qui indique sans équivoque que le fait de prouver
l’applicabilité de l’exception impose une « lourde charge » et précise que,
« [p]our satisfaire les conditions énoncées à l’alinéa a) [de l’article 15], il
ne suffit pas que la personne lésée établisse que la probabilité d’obtenir
gain de cause est faible ou qu’il serait difficile ou coûteux d’interjeter
appel. Il ne s’agit pas de savoir si un résultat favorable est probable ou
possible mais si l’ordre juridique interne de l’État défendeur est raisonnablement
en mesure d’offrir une réparation efficace. »18
15 Rubin v. Islamic Republic of Iran, 33 F. Supp. 3d 1003 (district nord de l’Illinois [N.D. Ill.],
2014) ; arrêt, par. 71. Voir également Flatow v. Islamic Republic of Iran, 76 F. Supp. 2d 16
(D.D.C., 1999) ; Hegna v. Islamic Republic of Iran, 2003 WL 25952462 (N.D. Ill., 2003).
16 Arrêt, par. 72.
17 Parmi les cas de figure recensés dans le commentaire, un seul est pertinent en l’espèce. Voir
CDI, Projet d’articles sur la protection diplomatique et commentaires y relatifs, Annuaire de la
Commission du droit international, 2006, vol. II, deuxième partie, p. 47-48 (« [L]e tribunal
interne est incompétent à l’égard du différend considéré ; … les tribunaux ne peuvent pas
connaître de la législation interne justifiant les actes attaqués par l’étranger ; … les tribunaux
internes manquent notoirement d’indépendance ; … une jurisprudence constante et bien établie
est défavorable à l’étranger ; … les tribunaux internes n’ouvrent pas à l’étranger un recours
approprié et suffisant ; ou encore … l’État défendeur n’a pas de système adéquat de protection
judiciaire »). Seule la référence à l’existence d’« une jurisprudence constante et bien
établie … défavorable à l’étranger » pourrait éventuellement revêtir une pertinence en l’espèce.
18 CDI, Projet d’articles sur la protection diplomatique et commentaires y relatifs, Annuaire de la
Commission du droit international, 2006, vol. II, deuxième partie, p. 48 (les italiques sont de moi).
242 certain iranian assets (sep. op. barkett)
Notwithstanding the caution of the commentary, this Court improperly
bases its conclusion on the possibility that success might be low or unlikely,
rather than on whether the municipal legal system of the United States is
reasonably
capable of providing effective relief.
12. The second problem with the Court’s holding is that although the
principle
that later-enacted legislation supersedes any conflicting provisions
of an earlier-enacted treaty is correctly stated, it does not support an excuse
for failure to exhaust local remedies because none of the United States cases
to which the majority refers held that there was a conflict between the Treaty
and subsequent legislation.
13. The Court misreads the holding in Weinstein et al. v. Islamic Republic
of Iran et al.19, as the District Court in Weinstein expressly held that
TRIA did not conflict with the Treaty20. After specifically so holding, the
court commented, without any analysis, that “[i]n any event, to the extent
TRIA . . . may conflict with Article III (1) . . . TRIA would ‘trump’ the
Treaty of Amity” (emphasis added)21. However, under United States law,
that statement
constitutes an obiter dictum and is not a precedent-setting
holding. The holding
in Weinstein i s t hat t here w as n o c onflict w ith t he
Treaty, and thus did not concern the temporal relationship between United
States legislation and the Treaty. Likewise, in Bennett et al. v. Islamic
Republic of Iran et al., the Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit held that
“[t]here is no conflict between Section 1610 (g) and the 1955 Treaty of
Amity between the United States and Iran”22. The Court of Appeals for the
Second Circuit held in Peterson et al. v. Islamic Republic of Iran that
22 U.S.C. Section 8772 did not conflict with the Treaty23, while the District
Court had held in that case that “[t]he treaty is inapplicable”24. It is completely
unwarranted to base a conclusion that Iran had no reasonable
possibility of success in United States courts on obiter dicta in one or two
cases, as such remarks do not constitute precedent.
19 Judgment, para. 71.
20 Weinstein v. Islamic Republic of Iran, 624 F. Supp. 2d 272, 275 (United States District
Court, Eastern District of New York, 2009).
21 Ibid.
22 Bennett v. Islamic Republic of Iran, 817 F.3d 1131, as amended 825 F.3d 949 (9th Cir.
2016).
23 Peterson v. Islamic Republic of Iran, 758 F.3d 185 (2nd Cir. 2014).
24 Peterson et al. v. Islamic Republic of Iran et al., 2013 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 40470 (United
States District Court, Southern District of New York, 2013). I note, however, that the Peterson
litigation involved the question of a conflict between 28 U.S.C. Section 8772 and the Treaty.
Section 8772 is no longer at issue in the current proceedings, since the Court held that it has no
jurisdiction over Iran’s claims under Articles III, IV, and V of the Treaty to the extent they
concern Bank Markazi.
certains actifs iraniens (op. ind. barkett) 242
En dépit de cette précision, la Cour a fondé à tort sa conclusion sur la faible
possibilité ou l’improbabilité d’un résultat favorable, plutôt que sur la question
de savoir si l’ordre juridique interne des États-Unis était raisonnablement
en mesure d’offrir une réparation efficace.
12. Le deuxième problème que pose la conclusion de la Cour est que, bien
que le principe de prééminence des lois postérieures sur les dispositions
contraires d’un traité antérieur soit correctement énoncé, il ne justifie aucunement
que la règle de l’épuisement des voies de recours internes ne soit pas
appliquée, car, dans aucune des affaires portées devant le système judiciaire
américain auxquelles s’est référée la majorité, il n’a été conclu qu’il y avait
conflit entre le traité et la législation postérieure.
13. La Cour a fait une lecture erronée de la conclusion à laquelle est parvenu
le tribunal de district dans l’affaire Weinstein et al. v. Islamic Republic
of Iran et al. 19, puisque ce dernier a indiqué expressément qu’il n’y avait pas
conflit entre la TRIA et le traité20. Après avoir formulé cette conclusion particulière,
le tribunal a estimé, sans aucune forme d’analyse, que, « [e]n tout
état de cause, dans la mesure où … la TRIA pourrait entrer en conflit avec le
paragraphe 1 de l’article III … ladite loi prévaudrait sur le traité d’amitié »
(les italiques sont de moi)21. En droit américain, cette affirmation constitue
toutefois un obiter dictum et ne fait pas jurisprudence. Le tribunal a conclu,
en l’affaire Weinstein, qu’il n’y avait pas de conflit avec le traité, sa décision
ne se rapportant donc pas à la relation temporelle entre la législation américaine
et cet instrument. De même, dans l’affaire Bennett et al. v. Islamic
Republic of Iran et al., la cour d’appel du neuvième circuit a jugé qu’« [i]l n’y
a[vait] pas de conflit entre le paragraphe g) de l’article 1610 et le traité d’amitié
de 1955 entre les États-Unis et l’Iran »22. Dans l’affaire Peterson et al. v.
Islamic Republic
of Iran, la cour d’appel du deuxième circuit a conclu que
l’article 8772 du titre 22 du code des États-Unis n’entrait pas en conflit avec
le traité23, le tribunal
de district ayant, dans cette même affaire, considéré que
« [l]e traité [étai]t inapplicable »24. Il est totalement injustifié d’invoquer, pour
étayer la conclusion selon laquelle l’Iran n’aurait eu aucune possibilité raisonnable
d’obtenir gain de cause devant les juridictions américaines, des obiter
dicta prononcés dans une ou deux affaires, étant donné que ces observations
n’ont pas valeur de précédent.
19 Arrêt, par. 71.
20 Weinstein v. Islamic Republic of Iran, 624 F. Supp. 2d 272, 275 (district est de l’État de
New York, 2009).
21 Ibid.
22 Bennett v. Islamic Republic of Iran, 817 F.3d 1131, tel que modifié par 825 F.3d 949 (9e cir.,
2016).
23 Peterson v. Islamic Republic of Iran, 758 F.3d 185 (2e cir., 2014).
24 Peterson et al. v. Islamic Republic of Iran et al., 2013 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 40470 (district sud
de l’État de New York, 2013). Je relève toutefois que l’affaire Peterson posait la question
de savoir s’il existait un conflit entre l’article 8772 du titre 28 du code des États-Unis et le
traité. L’article 8772 n’est plus en cause en l’espèce, puisque la Cour s’est déclarée incompétente
pour connaître des demandes de l’Iran fondées sur les articles III, IV et V du traité, dans
la mesure où elles se rapportaient à la banque Markazi.
243 certain iranian assets (sep. op. barkett)
14. Likewise, Iran’s assertion that the negative outcomes in the three cases
of Peterson, Bennett and Weinstein constitute a “well-established line of
precedent” precluding any reasonable possibility of success also plainly misunderstands
the United States legal system. Three cases can hardly be
considered a “consistent and well-established line of precedent” in a country
containing numerous district courts and circuit courts of appeal that often
reach differing conclusions on the very same issues. The United States
Supreme Court itself can reverse a prior position and has done so. To fairly
decide that there is a consistent and well-established line of precedent precluding
any relief, a court would have to be certain that no alternative
outcome could be reached, which could only be achieved after analysing the
nature of the claim and all possible defences available to the parties. Certainly,
that has not occurred here.
15. In short, the principle of United States law providing that the latest in
time between a statute and a treaty prevails has no application here. Moreover,
a fair reading of the totality of the commentary of the exception in
Article 15 (a) indicates that it is meant to apply to an entire judicial system
and not to the result of a few cases25. To conclude that there is no possibility
of redress for Iranian companies in the United States based on the result of a
few cases in which Iranian companies did not even appear to defend
themselves (despite the success other Iranian companies had enjoyed
before United States courts26) is, in my view, an erroneous reading of
Article 15 (a).
16. Ultimately, the record indicates that Iranian companies have exhausted
local remedies in only two cases, Bennett and Weinstein, in which only
Banks Melli, Saderat and Sepah were involved27. Those cases were considered
by United States district and appeals courts, before being appealed to
the Supreme Court, but denied certiorari. For that reason, all claims relating
25 See e.g. Chittharanjan F. Amerasinghe, Diplomatic Protection, pp. 153-154 (domestic
courts lacking jurisdiction); Gerald Fitzmaurice, The Law and Procedure of the International
Court of Justice, p. 692 (domestic judiciary notoriously under the influence of the executive).
26 See e.g. Rubin v. Islamic Republic of Iran, 33 F. Supp. 3d 1003 (N.D. Ill., 2014); Ministry
of Defense and Support for the Armed Forces of the Islamic Republic of Iran v. Elahi,
129 S. Ct. 1732 (2009). See also Peterson v. Islamic Republic of Iran, 515 F. Supp. 2d 25,
44-45 (D.D.C., 2007) (some family members of the Marines and other servicemen who were
killed in the 1983 terrorist bombing were barred from asserting intentional infliction of
emotional distress claims, because they lacked standing under the applicable State tort law).
27 While Bank Markazi did litigate the constitutional separation of powers issue to the
Supreme Court in the Peterson case, it has not exhausted all remedies, as the case was
remanded to the district court. In addition, Bank Markazi is not a “company” within the meaning
of the Treaty, as held by this Court.
certains actifs iraniens (op. ind. barkett) 243
14. De la même façon, l’affirmation de l’Iran selon laquelle l’issue
défavorable
des affaires Peterson, Bennett et Weinstein constitue une « jurisprudence
… bien établie » excluant toute possibilité raisonnable d’obtenir
gain de cause dans d’autres affaires ne fait que traduire une incompréhension
du système judiciaire américain. Avec trois affaires, on peut difficilement
parler de « jurisprudence constante et bien établie » dans un pays où l’on
compte un grand nombre de tribunaux de district et de cours d’appel de circuit,
qui, sur des questions identiques, parviennent souvent à des conclusions
divergentes. La Cour suprême des États-Unis elle-même a la possibilité de
revenir sur une position antérieure, et elle l’a déjà fait. Pour estimer qu’il
existe réellement une jurisprudence constante et bien établie excluant toute
réparation, une juridiction devrait acquérir la certitude qu’aucune autre issue
n’est possible, ce qu’elle ne pourrait faire qu’après avoir analysé la nature de
la demande et tous les moyens de défense possibles dont les parties pourraient
se prévaloir. À l’évidence, tel n’était pas le cas en l’espèce.
15. En résumé, le principe de primauté du texte le plus récent en cas de
conflit entre une loi et un traité en droit américain n’était pas applicable en
l’espèce. De plus, il ressort d’une lecture attentive de l’intégralité du commentaire
relatif à l’exception prévue à l’alinéa a) de l’article 15 que cette
disposition est destinée à s’appliquer au système judiciaire dans son ensemble
et non à l’issue d’une poignée d’affaires25. Conclure qu’aucune possibilité de
réparation n’existait pour les sociétés iraniennes aux États-Unis en se fondant
sur l’issue d’un petit nombre d’affaires dans lesquelles les sociétés
iraniennes ne se sont même pas présentées pour faire entendre leur cause
(alors même que d’autres sociétés iraniennes l’avaient fait et avaient obtenu
gain de cause devant des juridictions américaines26) est, à mon sens, le résultat
d’une lecture erronée de l’alinéa a) de l’article 15.
16. Enfin, il ressort du dossier de l’affaire que les voies de recours internes
n’ont été épuisées par les sociétés iraniennes que dans deux affaires, Bennett
et Weinstein, qui ne mettaient en cause que les banques Melli, Saderat et
Sepah27. Ces affaires ont été examinées par des tribunaux de district et des
cours d’appel des États-Unis, dont les décisions ont ensuite été contestées
25 Voir, par exemple, Chittharanjan F. Amerasinghe, Diplomatic Protection, p. 153-154
(incompétence des tribunaux internes) ; Gerald Fitzmaurice, The Law and Procedure of the
International Court of Justice, p. 692 (influence notoire de l’exécutif sur le pouvoir judiciaire
interne).
26 Voir, par exemple, Rubin v. Islamic Republic of Iran, 33 F. Supp. 3d 1003 (N.D. Ill., 2014) ;
Ministry of Defense and Support for the Armed Forces of the Islamic Republic of Iran v. Elahi,
129 S. Ct. 1732 (2009). Voir également Peterson v. Islamic Republic of Iran, 515 F. Supp. 2d
25, 44-45 (D.D.C., 2007) (certains membres des familles des marines et d’autres militaires qui
avaient été tués dans l’attentat terroriste à la bombe de 1983 n’ont pas été autorisés à solliciter
la reconnaissance du caractère intentionnel du préjudice moral causé, car ils n’avaient pas
qualité pour ce faire conformément au droit de la responsabilité civile des États applicable).
27 Bien que la banque Markazi ait porté la question de la séparation constitutionnelle des
pouvoirs devant la Cour suprême dans l’affaire Peterson, elle n’a pas épuisé toutes les voies de
recours internes, puisque l’affaire a été renvoyée au tribunal du district. En outre, la banque
Markazi n’est pas une « société » au sens du traité, ainsi que l’a indiqué la Cour.
244 certain iranian assets (sep. op. barkett)
to the remaining cases, in which local remedies were not exhausted, should
be dismissed as inadmissible.
C. Article XX (1) (d)
17. I agree with the Court that the defence regarding Article XX (1) (c)
is unavailing, albeit on a different basis. However, the resolution of the
Article
XX (1) (d) issue is a different matter. There, the Court finds that “it
was for the United States to show that Executive Order 13599 was a measure
necessary to protect its essential security interests, and that it has not convincingly
demonstrated that this was so”28. The Court bases its conclusion
only on its view that Executive Order 13599 focuses on financial matters
rather than matters of national security29. The problem with the Court’s
decision
is that it has considered Executive Order 13599 in a vacuum as a
stand-alone measure, without considering the totality of the evidence and
arguments presented by the United States.
18. First, the Court ignores the opening sentence of Executive Order 13599,
which specifically references and incorporates a prior executive order 30, the
historical purpose of which was to enact measures “necessary to protect
[the United States’] essential security interests”. These measures begin with
Executive Order 12957 in 1995, which was enacted “in response to the
actions and policies of the Government of Iran, including support for international
terrorism, efforts to undermine the Middle East peace process, and
the acquisition of weapons of mass destruction and the means to deliver
them”31. In 2001, Executive Order 13224 blocked property of and prohibited
transactions with persons who commit, threaten to commit or support terrorism.
In 2005, Executive Order 13382 blocked the property of those who
engage in or support the proliferation of weapons of mass destruction or
their means of delivery. Thus, while these Executive Orders may have had
an impact on the financial sector, their purpose was firmly and explicitly
rooted in ensuring United States national security, and, as Executive
Order 13599 itself states, it constituted an “additional step[] with respect to
the national emergency declared in Executive Order 12957 of March 15,
1995”.
28 Judgment, para. 108.
29 Ibid.
30 Executive Order 13599, 77 Fed. Reg. 6659 (5 February 2012).
31 President William J. Clinton, Message to the Congress on Iran, Weekly Compilation of
Presidential Documents, Vol. 34, p. 447 (16 March 1998).
certains actifs iraniens (op. ind. barkett) 244
devant la Cour suprême, qui a refusé de se prononcer par voie de certiorari.
Pour cette raison, toutes les demandes portant sur les autres affaires, dans
lesquelles les voies de recours internes n’ont pas été épuisées, devraient être
jugées irrecevables.
C. Alinéa d) du paragraphe 1 de l’article XX
17. Je partage l’avis de la Cour sur le caractère inopérant du moyen de
défense tiré de l’alinéa c) du paragraphe 1 de l’article XX, quoique pour des
raisons différentes. En revanche, je ne peux en dire de même de la question
de l’alinéa d) du paragraphe 1 de l’article XX. Sur ce point, la Cour a conclu
qu’« il appartenait aux États-Unis de démontrer que le décret no 13599 constituait
une mesure nécessaire à la protection de leurs intérêts vitaux en matière
de sécurité, et qu’ils n’[avaie]nt pas fait une telle démonstration de manière
convaincante »28. Elle a fondé sa conclusion exclusivement sur le fait que,
selon elle, le décret présidentiel no 13599 se rapportait à des questions financières
et non à des questions de sécurité nationale29. Ce qui pose problème
dans la décision de la Cour, c’est qu’elle a examiné ce décret hors contexte
comme s’il s’agissait d’une mesure indépendante, sans prendre en compte la
totalité des preuves et des moyens présentés par les États-Unis.
18. Premièrement, la Cour a fait fi de la première phrase du décret, qui
mentionne et incorpore expressément un décret présidentiel antérieur30, dont
le but historique était l’adoption de mesures « nécessaires à la protection des
intérêts vitaux [des États-Unis] sur le plan de la sécurité ». La première de
ces mesures, adoptée en 1995, est le décret présidentiel no 12957, promulgué
« [en] réponse aux actions et politiques de l’État iranien, et notamment son
soutien au terrorisme international, ses efforts pour compromettre le processus
de paix au Moyen-Orient, et l’acquisition d’armes de destruction massive
et de leurs vecteurs »31. En 2001, le décret présidentiel no 13224 a eu pour
effet de bloquer les biens des personnes commettant ou menaçant de commettre
des actes de terrorisme, ou soutenant le terrorisme, et d’interdire les
transactions avec ces personnes. En 2005, le décret présidentiel no 13382 a
été adopté pour bloquer les biens des personnes se livrant à des activités de
prolifération d’armes de destruction massive ou de leurs vecteurs, ou soutenant
ces activités. Ainsi, bien que ces décrets présidentiels aient pu avoir une
incidence sur le secteur financier, leur but exprès et catégorique était de
garantir la sécurité nationale des États-Unis et, ainsi qu’il est indiqué dans le
décret présidentiel no 13599 lui-même, celui-ci constituait une « étape supplémentaire
au regard de l’urgence nationale déclarée par la voie du décret
présidentiel no 12957 en date du 15 mars 1995 ».
28 Arrêt, par. 108.
29 Ibid.
30 Décret présidentiel no 13599, 77 Fed. Reg. 6659 (5 février 2012).
31 Président William J. Clinton, message adressé au Congrès concernant l’Iran, Weekly
Compilation of Presidential Documents, vol. 34, p. 447 (16 mars 1998).
245 certain iranian assets (sep. op. barkett)
19. Moreover, in 2008, the United Nations Security Council adopted resolution
1803 also ignored by the majority calling upon all States to
“exercise vigilance” over all transactions with banks domiciled in Iran and
their branches and subsidiaries abroad, “in order to avoid such activities contributing
to the proliferation [of] sensitive nuclear activities, or to the
development of nuclear weapon delivery systems”32.
20. On 22 November 2011, the United States Under Secretary of the Treasury
for Terrorism and Financial Intelligence wrote that the “Treasury is
calling out . . . the Central Bank of Iran, as posing terrorist financing, proliferation
financing, and money laundering risks for the global financial
system”33.
21. Given that this Court has acknowledged that “the concept of essential
security interests certainly extends beyond the concept of an armed attack,
and has been subject to very broad interpretations in the past”34, and in
consideration
of the totality of the evidence in this record — in particular the
preceding measures to which Executive Order 13599 refers and of which it is
an extension — I believe the United States has adequately demonstrated that
Executive Order 13599 was necessary to protect its essential security
interests in preventing the financing of terrorist activities by Iran. The
United States’ defence based on Article XX (1) (d) of the Treaty should thus,
in my view, have been granted.
II. Alleged Violations of the Treaty
22. Although, as noted above, I do not believe that the Treaty applies to the
challenged United States measures, I nevertheless address the Court’s decision
with regard to specific articles below.
A. Article III (1)
23. The Court conflates its analysis of Articles III (1) and IV (1). It finds
that because the challenged United States measures violated Article IV (1)
as “manifestly excessive” and thus “unreasonable”, they automatically
“also” violated Article III (1)35. But neither the language nor the context of
Article III supports this conclusion. Article III (1) only calls for a simple
recognition
of juridical status, that is, legal existence enabling Iranian companies
to operate within the territory of the United States. Why exactly
unreasonableness is equated to non-recognition of juridical status is left
32 United Nations Security Council resolutions 1803 (2008), UN doc. S/RES/1803, para. 10.
33 National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2012, Sec. 1245 (a) (3).
34 See Military and Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v. United
States of America), Merits, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1986, p. 117, para. 224.
35 Judgment, paras. 156-157 and 163.
certains actifs iraniens (op. ind. barkett) 245
19. De plus, en 2008, le Conseil de sécurité des Nations Unies a adopté la
résolution 1803 — que la majorité a aussi choisi d’ignorer — appelant tous les
États à « faire preuve de vigilance » concernant l’ensemble des transactions
avec les banques domiciliées en Iran et leurs succursales et agences à l’étranger,
« afin d’éviter que ces activités concourent à des [actions] posant un
risque de prolifération, ou à la mise au point de vecteurs d’armes nucléaires »32.
20. Le 22 novembre 2011, le sous-secrétaire américain au Trésor pour le
terrorisme et le renseignement financier écrivait ceci : « Le Trésor déclare
publiquement que … la banque centrale iranienne expose le système financier
mondial à des risques de financement du terrorisme, de financement de
la prolifération et de blanchiment de capitaux. »33
21. Étant donné que la Cour a reconnu que « la notion d’intérêts vitaux en
matière de sécurité débord[ait] certainement la notion d’agression armée et
a[vait] reçu dans l’histoire des interprétations fort extensives »34, et à la
lumière de l’intégralité des preuves versées au dossier — en particulier les
mesures susmentionnées auxquelles le décret présidentiel no 13599 fait référence
et dont il est le prolongement —, j’estime que les États-Unis avaient
démontré à suffisance que le décret présidentiel no 13599 était nécessaire à la
protection de leurs intérêts vitaux sur le plan de la sécurité, en ce qu’il visait
à prévenir le financement d’activités terroristes par l’Iran. Le moyen de
défense tiré par les États-Unis de l’alinéa d) du paragraphe 1 de l’article XX
du traité devait donc, à mon sens, être accueilli.
II. Violations alléguées du traité
22. Bien que, comme indiqué ci-dessus, je considère que le traité n’est pas
applicable aux mesures américaines contestées, j’examinerai ci-après les
décisions prises par la Cour en ce qui concerne les différentes dispositions.
A. Paragraphe 1 de l’article III
23. Dans son analyse, la Cour a fait l’amalgame entre le paragraphe 1 de
l’article III et le paragraphe 1 de l’article IV. Elle a conclu que, étant donné
qu’elles emportaient violation du paragraphe 1 de l’article IV en ce qu’elles
étaient « manifestement excessive[s] » et donc « déraisonnables », les mesures
américaines contestées emportaient automatiquement « aussi » violation du
paragraphe 1 de l’article III35. Or, ni les termes ni le contexte de l’article III
ne viennent étayer cette conclusion. Le paragraphe 1 de l’article III ne prescrit
qu’une simple reconnaissance du statut juridique, à savoir l’existence
32 Résolution 1803 du Conseil de sécurité des Nations Unies (2008), doc. S/RES/1803,
par. 10.
33 Loi sur le budget de la défense nationale pour l’exercice 2012, art. 1245, al. a), point 3.
34 Voir Activités militaires et paramilitaires au Nicaragua et contre celui-ci (Nicaragua
c. États-Unis d’Amérique), fond, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1986, p. 117, par. 224.
35 Arrêt, par. 156-157 et 163.
246 certain iranian assets (sep. op. barkett)
entirely unexplained. And whether a measure is manifestly excessive has no
bearing on whether its juridical status has been recognized.
24. Moreover, examining these claims under the rubric of the Vienna
Convention on the Law of Treaties requires first that the Court should
accord the terms of a treaty their ordinary meaning. The plain meaning of
Article III (1), as noted above, suggests a simple acknowledgment that the
juridical status of “companies” be recognized, without implicating additional
legal rights. This is made clear by the provision’s explicit limitation
that “recognition of juridical status does not of itself confer rights upon
companies to engage in the activities for which they are organized”.
Although the majority mentions this explicit limitation as part of the language
of Article III (1), it treats that passage as inconsequential36. Moreover,
the Court ignores the Treaty’s negotiating history, to which we must turn in
the absence of a definition in the Treaty itself. As noted by the United States
on the second day of the hearing on 21 September 2022, the instructions to
United States State Department negotiators at the time explained that Article
III (1) “merely provides their [i.e. Iranian companies’] recognition as
corporate entities principally in order [that] they may prosecute or defend
their rights in court as corporate entities”. The instructions continue to
state: “Corporate status should be recognized [to] assure [the] right [of] foreign
corporate entities . . . [to] free access [to] courts [to] collect debts,
protect patent rights, enforce contracts, etc.”37. Throughout, the United States
has taken the position that the provision in Article III (1) requires each
country to simply acknowledge that a corporation is existent and endowed
with legal being.
25. These communications, which Iran did not challenge, were unambiguous
and contradict any alleged requirement that Iranian companies be treated
in all cases as entities separate from the Iranian State. Accordingly, they do
not preclude the piercing of the corporate veil of these companies to reach
assets of Iranian-owned companies.
26. The Court finds in regard to Article IV (1) that,
36 Ibid., para. 124.
37 CR 2022/17, p. 60, para. 5 (Daley), citing Telegram No. 936 from the US Department of
State to the US Embassy in Tehran, dated 9 November 1954.
certains actifs iraniens (op. ind. barkett) 246
juridique permettant aux sociétés iraniennes de mener des activités dans le
territoire américain. La raison exacte pour laquelle le caractère déraisonnable
est assimilé en l’espèce à une non-reconnaissance du statut juridique
n’est nullement expliquée. Quant à la question de savoir si une mesure est
manifestement excessive, elle n’a aucune incidence sur la reconnaissance ou
non du statut juridique.
24. Qui plus est, la convention de Vienne sur le droit des traités imposait à
la Cour, pour examiner ces demandes, de commencer par attribuer aux
termes de l’instrument à l’examen leur sens ordinaire. Dans son sens ordinaire,
le paragraphe 1 de l’article III, comme indiqué ci-dessus, semble
prévoir une simple reconnaissance du statut juridique des « sociétés », sans
que cela implique que leur soient conférés des droits juridiques supplémentaires.
C’est ce qui ressort clairement de la disposition en cause puisqu’elle
contient une réserve expresse selon laquelle « en elle-même la reconnaissance
de ce statut juridique ne donnera pas aux sociétés le droit de se livrer
à l’activité en vue de laquelle elles sont organisées ». Bien qu’elle ait mentionné
cette réserve expresse contenue dans le paragraphe 1 de l’article III,
la majorité en a fait peu de cas36. De plus, la Cour n’a pas tenu compte de
l’historique de négociation du traité, auquel il convient de se référer en l’absence
de définition dans le traité lui-même. Ainsi que l’ont relevé les
États-Unis au deuxième jour d’audience le 21 septembre 2022, dans les instructions
données à l’époque aux négociateurs du département d’État, il était
précisé que le paragraphe 1 de l’article III « ne fai[sai]t que garantir leur
reconnaissance [celle des sociétés iraniennes] en tant que personnes morales,
principalement pour qu’elles puissent faire valoir ou défendre leurs droits en
justice en tant que personnes morales ». Les instructions se poursuivaient
ainsi : « Le statut de personne morale doit être reconnu afin de garantir le
droit des personnes morales étrangères … d’avoir libre accès aux tribunaux
pour recouvrer des créances, protéger des droits attachés à des brevets, faire
exécuter des contrats, etc. »37. À toutes les étapes de la procédure, les États-
Unis ont fait valoir que le paragraphe 1 de l’article III imposait à chaque État
de simplement reconnaître qu’une société existait effectivement et qu’elle
était dotée de la personnalité juridique.
25. Ces communications, que l’Iran n’a pas contestées, étaient sans équivoque,
et elles contredisent l’idée selon laquelle il existerait une obligation
de traiter dans toutes les affaires les sociétés iraniennes en tant qu’entités
distinctes de l’État iranien. En conséquence, elles n’empêchaient pas la levée
du voile social pour atteindre le patrimoine des sociétés propriété de l’État
iranien.
26. S’agissant du paragraphe 1 de l’article IV, la Cour a jugé que,
36 Ibid., par. 124.
37 CR 2022/17, p. 60, par. 5 (Daley), citant le télégramme no 936 en date du 9 novembre 1954
adressé à l’ambassade des États-Unis à Téhéran par le département d’État américain.
247 certain iranian assets (sep. op. barkett)
“[i]n the present case, the rights of Iranian companies to appear before
the courts in the United States, to make legal submissions and to lodge
appeals, have not been curtailed. The enactment of legislative provisions
removing legal defences based on separate legal personality, and their
application by the courts, do not in themselves constitute a serious failure
in the administration of justice amounting to a denial of justice.”38
In other words, United States courts recognized the juridical status of Iranian
companies, and they participated freely in the United States’ legal
process. Yet, the Court finds — without support and in direct contradiction
of its earlier statement that the requirement to recognize juridical status is
not absolute — that recognition of juridical status means that Iranian companies
must absolutely be treated as separate and independent legal entities,
thereby precluding the ability of the United States to pierce the corporate
veil in the interests of justice39. Nowhere does Article III (1) require the
recognition
of the companies’ legal “separateness”, and this alleged requirement,
which was a critical point in dispute between the Parties, is neither
explained by the majority nor supported by the language of Article III (1) or
its negotiating history.
27. Because I believe the majority errs in failing to adequately consider the
defences posed to an alleged breach of Article III (1), as well as in its conclusion
with respect to Article III (1), I dissent.
B. Article IV (1)
28. In addition to disagreeing with the Court’s erroneous conflation of
Articles III (1) and IV (1), I also disagree with the Court’s holding that the
United States breached Article IV (1).
29. The Court finds that Article IV (1) is comprised of three distinct obligations
and discusses the first two. The first obligation requires each State to
treat the Parties fairly and equitably, including protection against the denial
of justice, which the Court correctly finds did not occur here40. The second
obligation prohibits the application of “unreasonable or discriminatory measures”.
Here, the majority finds the United States measures “unreasonable”
and does not address whether the measures were discriminatory.
38 Judgment, para. 143.
39 The possibility of piercing the corporate veil is recognized in international law. See
Barcelona Traction, Light and Power Company, Limited (New Application: 1962) (Belgium v.
Spain), Second Phase, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1970, pp. 38-39, para. 56.
40 Judgment, paras. 142-143.
certains actifs iraniens (op. ind. barkett) 247
« [d]ans la présente affaire, les droits des sociétés iraniennes de comparaître
devant les tribunaux américains, d’avancer des arguments
juridiques et de former des appels n’ont pas été entravés. La promulgation
de dispositions législatives supprimant certains moyens de défense
fondés sur la personnalité juridique distincte et leur application par les
tribunaux ne constituent pas en elles-mêmes un grave manquement dans
l’administration de la justice qui équivaille à un déni de justice. »38
Autrement dit, les juridictions américaines ont reconnu le statut juridique des
sociétés iraniennes et ces dernières ont participé librement aux procédures
judiciaires américaines. Pourtant, la Cour a conclu sans l’étayer et alors
que cela contredisait directement ce qu’elle avait affirmé antérieurement, à
savoir que l’obligation de reconnaître le statut juridique n’était pas un absolu
que cette reconnaissance créait l’obligation absolue de traiter les sociétés iraniennes
en tant qu’entités juridiques distinctes et indépendantes, excluant
ainsi la possibilité pour les États-Unis de lever le voile social dans l’intérêt de
la justice39. Or, rien dans le paragraphe 1 de l’article III n’impose la reconnaissance
d’une existence juridique « distincte » des sociétés, et cette prétendue
obligation, qui constituait une question critique en litige entre les Parties, n’a
pas été expliquée par la majorité, son existence n’étant étayée ni par le libellé
de la disposition en question ni par l’historique de sa négociation.
27. Étant donné que j’estime que la majorité n’a pas examiné comme il
convenait les moyens de défense opposés à l’allégation de violation du paragraphe
1 de l’article III, et a adopté une conclusion erronée en ce qui concerne
le paragraphe 1 de l’article III, je me suis dissociée de l’arrêt sur ces points.
B. Paragraphe 1 de l’article IV
28. Outre que je ne puis souscrire à l’amalgame fait à tort par la Cour entre
le paragraphe 1 de l’article III et le paragraphe 1 de l’article IV, je ne suis pas
non plus d’accord avec la conclusion de celle-ci selon laquelle les États-Unis
ont violé le paragraphe 1 de l’article IV.
29. La Cour a considéré que le paragraphe 1 de l’article IV se composait de
trois obligations distinctes et a examiné les deux premières. La première fait
obligation à chaque État de traiter les ressortissants et sociétés de l’autre partie
de manière juste et équitable, y compris en leur offrant une protection
contre le déni de justice, grave manquement qui, ainsi que la Cour l’a conclu
à juste titre, ne s’est pas produit en la présente espèce40. La deuxième interdit
l’application de « mesures déraisonnables ou discriminatoires ». À cet égard,
la majorité a conclu que les mesures des États-Unis étaient « déraisonnables »
et n’a pas cherché à déterminer si elles étaient discriminatoires.
38 Arrêt, par. 143.
39 La possibilité de lever le voile social est reconnue en droit international. Voir Barcelona
Traction, Light and Power Company, Limited (nouvelle requête : 1962) (Belgique c. Espagne),
deuxième phase, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1970, p. 38-39, par. 56.
40 Arrêt, par. 142-143.
248 certain iranian assets (sep. op. barkett)
30. The Court’s finding that the United States measures were unreasonable
is both convoluted and, I believe, incorrect. First, the Court says that
“unreasonable” means “lacking in justification based on rational grounds”41.
It then adds that “a measure is unreasonable within the meaning of the Treaty
of Amity if it does not meet certain conditions”42. A measure is thus unreasonable
where it (1) does not have “a legitimate public purpose”; (2) does not
contain an “appropriate relationship between the purpose pursued and the
measure adopted”; or (3) has an “adverse impact [that] is manifestly excessive
in relation to the purpose pursued”43.
31. The Court’s treatment of “reasonableness” ultimately focuses exclusively
on the third condition of its definition, finding that the alleged adverse
impact of the United States measures was manifestly excessive in relation to
the protection afforded to the purposes invoked and, consequently, unreasonable44.
Presumably, the allegedly adverse impact of the measures was the
attachment of assets that were in the possession of companies entirely or
majority owned by Iran (the United States legislation in question applies
only to companies in which Iran has full or a majority ownership), while the
“purpose pursued” by the United States was enabling compensation for victims
of terrorist acts. But the Court does not consider this purpose or explain
why measures invoked for such a legitimate purpose were “manifestly excessive”
in relation to the impact on Iranian companies that were wholly or
primarily owned by Iran.
32. The catalysts for the United States measures were cases involving
more than 1,300 individuals who were victims or family members of victims
who had won legitimate judgments in separate cases against Iran for its role
in several severe bombing incidents, including the 1983 Beirut barracks
bombings and the 1996 Khobar Towers bombing, as well as in assassinations
and kidnappings45. The Court does not answer the question of why discouraging
or impeding these terrorist bombings, murders or kidnappings is
manifestly excessive compared to the attachment of assets held by companies
wholly or majority owned by Iran. The Court’s failure to engage in any
comparison at all between the United States’ reasons for implementing the
challenged measures and their impact on Iran and Iranian companies is itself
unreasonable.
33. Reasonableness is typically not defined in freedom of commerce
and navigation treaties or in investment protection treaties, but certain
41 Ibid., para. 146.
42 Ibid., para. 147.
43 Ibid., paras. 147-149.
44 Ibid., paras. 156-157.
45 This is a normal and usual mechanism of federal courts to consolidate cases with the same
issue to assist judicial efficiency.
certains actifs iraniens (op. ind. barkett) 248
30. La conclusion de la Cour selon laquelle les mesures américaines étaient
déraisonnables est à la fois alambiquée et, selon moi, incorrecte. D’abord, la
Cour a indiqué que le mot « déraisonnable » signifiait « dénué de justification
fondée sur des motifs rationnels »41. Elle a ajouté ensuite qu’« une mesure
[étai]t déraisonnable au sens du traité d’amitié si elle ne satisfai[sai]t pas à
certaines conditions »42. Une mesure est donc déraisonnable 1) si elle ne vise
pas « un but d’utilité publique légitime » ; 2) s’il n’existe pas de « lien adéquat
entre le but poursuivi et la mesure adoptée » ; ou 3) si son « incidence négative
est manifestement excessive par rapport au but poursuivi »43.
31. Dans son examen de ce qui est ou non « raisonnable », la Cour s’est, en
définitive, limitée à la troisième condition énoncée dans sa définition,
concluant que l’incidence prétendument négative des mesures américaines
était manifestement excessive par rapport à la protection qu’elles étaient
censées apporter aux buts invoqués, et que ces mesures étaient par conséquent
déraisonnables44. On peut supposer que l’incidence prétendument
négative des mesures résidait dans la saisie d’actifs qui étaient en possession
de sociétés détenues entièrement ou majoritairement par l’Iran (la législation
américaine en question s’applique uniquement aux sociétés dont l’Iran
est seul propriétaire ou actionnaire majoritaire), tandis que le « but poursuivi
» par les États-Unis était de permettre l’indemnisation des victimes
d’attentats terroristes. Mais la Cour n’a pas examiné le but poursuivi et n’a
pas expliqué en quoi les mesures invoquées pour atteindre un tel but légitime
étaient « manifestement excessive[s] » s’agissant de leur incidence sur les
sociétés iraniennes détenues entièrement ou principalement par l’Iran.
32. L’élément catalyseur des mesures adoptées par les États-Unis est à
rechercher dans les décisions de justice obtenues par plus de 1 300 victimes
ou proches de victimes dans des affaires distinctes ayant été intentées contre
l’Iran en raison de son rôle dans plusieurs graves attentats à la bombe, dont
celui contre le casernement des marines à Beyrouth en 1983 et celui de 1996
contre les tours Khobar, ainsi que dans des assassinats et enlèvements45. La
Cour n’a pas répondu à la question de savoir en quoi le fait de contrarier ou
d’empêcher pareils attentats terroristes à la bombe, assassinats ou enlèvements
était manifestement excessif par rapport à la saisie d’actifs appartenant
à des sociétés détenues entièrement ou majoritairement par l’Iran. Le fait
qu’elle n’ait procédé à aucune comparaison entre les raisons ayant motivé
l’application par les États-Unis des mesures contestées et leur incidence sur
l’Iran et les sociétés iraniennes est en soi déraisonnable.
33. Ce que l’on entend par « raisonnable » n’est généralement pas défini
dans les traités sur la liberté de commerce et de navigation ou dans les traités
41 Ibid., par. 146.
42 Ibid., par. 147.
43 Ibid., par. 147-149.
44 Ibid., par. 156-157.
45 Il est normal et habituel que les tribunaux fédéraux groupent des procédures ayant pour
objet la même question afin de contribuer à l’efficacité de la justice.
249 certain iranian assets (sep. op. barkett)
international
tribunals have attempted to give more specific content to
the term. The prevailing view is that no matter what the exact definition, the
term creates a high threshold. In Glencore International A.G. and C.I. Prodeco
S.A. v. Republic of Colombia, for example, the tribunal held by majority
with respect to the term “unreasonable or discriminatory measures” in
Article 4 (1) of the Colombia-Switzerland bilateral investment treaty that the
threshold for showing that a measure is unreasonable is a high one46. It then
added:
“Investment arbitration tribunals are not called to adjudicate appeals
against measures adopted by States or their agencies. Their task is to
establish whether the state’s conduct vis-à-vis protected foreign investors
is tainted by prejudice, preference or bias or is so totally incompatible
with reason that it constitutes an international wrong.”47
The Court, without any explanation or support, simply chooses a much lower
threshold.
34. Finally, it is incorrect to say that both the FSIA and TRIA “employ
very broad terms, which are capable of encompassing any legal entity,
regardless of Iran’s type or degree of control over them”48. Rather, these statutes
apply to a specific subset of companies and are tailored precisely.
Section 201 of TRIA, for example, applies explicitly to “agencies and instrumentalities”
of a terrorist party. The reference in the statute to “agencies and
instrumentalities” is not an open-ended provision applying to any agency or
company within a State’s jurisdiction, but is qualified by the phrase “of that
terrorist party” and, most importantly, the fact that, by specific legislative
definition (as explained further below), an entity must be owned in whole or
in the majority by Iran in order to qualify as an agency or instrumentality of
Iran.
35. In this connection, the majority also ignores or overlooks relevant
provisions
of the FSIA that limit its scope, including Section 1603 (b), which
defines “agency or instrumentality of a foreign state” as any entity “which is
an organ of a foreign state or political subdivision thereof, or a majority of
whose shares or other ownership interest is owned by a foreign state or political
subdivision thereof”. In the specific context of collecting a liability
judgment against a State-sponsor of terrorism, enforcing that judgment
46 Glencore International A.G. and C.I. Prodeco S.A. v. Republic of Colombia, ICSID Case
No. ARB/16/6, Award of 27 August 2019, paras. 1455-1456.
47 Ibid., para. 1457.
48 Ibid., para. 150.
certains actifs iraniens (op. ind. barkett) 249
sur la protection des investissements, mais certaines juridictions internationales
ont tenté de préciser ce que renferme le terme. L’opinion qui prévaut
est que, quelle que soit la définition exacte qui en est donnée, ce terme exige
un niveau de preuve élevé. Dans l’affaire Glencore International A.G. and
C.I. Prodeco S.A. v. Republic of Colombia, par exemple, le tribunal a décidé
à la majorité que, s’agissant de l’expression « mesures déraisonnables ou discriminatoires
» figurant au paragraphe 1 de l’article 4 du traité bilatéral
d’investissement entre la Colombie et la Suisse, le niveau de preuve exigé
pour démontrer le caractère déraisonnable d’une mesure était élevé46. Le tribunal
a ensuite ajouté :
« Les tribunaux arbitraux constitués pour connaître de différends
relatifs aux investissements n’ont pas vocation à connaître d’appels
contre des mesures adoptées par des États ou leurs organismes. Leur
mission est d’établir si le comportement d’un État à l’égard d’investisseurs
étrangers protégés est entaché de préjugé, de préférence ou de
partialité ou est à ce point incompatible avec la raison qu’il constitue un
fait internationalement illicite. »47
La Cour, sans aucune forme d’explication ni argument à l’appui, a simplement
opté pour un niveau de preuve bien inférieur.
34. Enfin, il est faux de dire qu’aussi bien la FSIA que la TRIA « emploient
des termes très larges, qui sont susceptibles d’englober toute personne
morale, indépendamment du type ou du degré de contrôle que l’Iran exerce
sur elle »48. En réalité, ces lois s’appliquent à un sous-ensemble particulier
de sociétés et sont formulées en ce sens avec précision. L’article 201 de la
TRIA, par exemple, s’applique expressément aux « organismes et agences »
d’une partie terroriste. La référence faite aux « organismes et agences »
dans la loi ne crée pas une disposition ouverte qui s’appliquerait à tout organisme
ou société relevant de la juridiction d’un État, puisque son sens est
restreint par l’expression « de la partie terroriste » et, plus important encore,
par le fait que, conformément à la définition spécifique qui en est donnée
dans la loi (comme expliqué ci-après), une entité doit être détenue entièrement
ou majoritairement par l’Iran pour être considérée comme un organisme
ou une agence de celui-ci.
35. À cet égard, la majorité a également fait fi ou a fait peu de cas des
dispositions
pertinentes de la FSIA qui en limitent la portée, notamment le
paragraphe b) de l’article 1603, qui définit l’expression « organisme ou agence
d’un État étranger » comme désignant toute entité « qui est un organe d’un
État étranger ou d’une subdivision politique de celui-ci, ou dont la majorité
des actions ou autres titres de participation appartient à un État étranger ou
à une subdivision politique de celui-ci ». Dans le contexte particulier du
46 Glencore International A.G. and C.I. Prodeco S.A. v. Republic of Colombia, affaire
CIRDI no ARB/16/6, sentence du 27 août 2019, par. 1455-1456.
47 Ibid., par. 1457.
48 Ibid., par. 150.
250 certain iranian assets (sep. op. barkett)
against the assets of an agency or instrumentality, thus defined, is justified
through the accepted doctrine of piercing the corporate veil. In addition,
Section 1610 (g) (3) provides that, for third-party joint property holders,
“[n]othing in this subsection shall be construed to supersede the authority
of a court to prevent appropriately the impairment of an interest held
by a person who is not liable in the action giving rise to a judgment in
property subject to attachment in aid of execution, or execution, upon
such judgment”.
In other words, United States courts had the authority to prevent the impairment
of interests held by Iranian companies not liable in a given action, that
is, an Iranian company that is owned in whole or in the majority by a third
party, or that is not an agency or instrumentality of Iran. Among other
defences, Iranian companies could have sought such protection of available
rights. These companies should not now be rewarded for their failure to
appear in the enforcement proceedings brought against them, or for their
failure to raise defences and exhaust local remedies.
36. For the foregoing reasons, I dissent.
C. Article IV (2)
37. While I agree with the Court’s conclusion that the most constant security
and protection provision in Article IV (2) only requires physical and not
legal protection and security, I disagree with its finding that the challenged
executive, legislative or judicial acts in question constitute a taking, and are
thereby expropriatory.
38. It is extremely difficult to see how attachment to obtain satisfaction of
a money judgment, lawfully obtained, can amount to an expropriation. The
Court’s observation that it is not “disputed that the Iranian companies concerned
did not receive any payment”49, encapsulates the difficulty of finding
expropriation in this case. Iran has never disputed in United States courts
that it owed the money in question by virtue of liability judgments. Nor has
it disputed, in the present proceedings, that the United States liability judgments
created a debt. If the money was owed, it seems absurd to require the
49 Ibid., para. 178.
certains actifs iraniens (op. ind. barkett) 250
recouvrement de créances judiciaires en exécution de décisions établissant la
responsabilité d’un État soutenant le terrorisme, l’exécution d’un jugement
contre les actifs d’un organisme ou d’une agence, ainsi définis, est justifiée
par la doctrine bien reconnue de la levée du voile social. En outre, l’alinéa 3
du paragraphe g) de l’article 1610 dispose que, s’agissant des tiers détenteurs
conjoints,
« [r]ien dans cet alinéa ne saurait être interprété comme supplantant l’autorité
dont dispose une juridiction pour empêcher, par les moyens
appropriés, toute atteinte à participation détenue par une personne dont
la responsabilité n’est pas engagée à raison de l’acte faisant l’objet d’un
jugement dans un bien susceptible d’être saisi en vue d’exécuter ledit
jugement ou de garantir son exécution ».
Autrement dit, les juridictions américaines disposaient de l’autorité nécessaire
pour empêcher toute atteinte aux participations détenues par des
sociétés iraniennes dont la responsabilité n’était pas engagée à raison d’un
acte donné, à savoir des sociétés iraniennes détenues entièrement ou majoritairement
par un tiers ou qui n’étaient pas un organisme ou une agence de
l’Iran. Entre autres moyens de défense, les sociétés iraniennes auraient pu
revendiquer la protection des droits auxquels elles pouvaient prétendre. Ces
sociétés ne devraient pas être récompensées aujourd’hui pour avoir refusé de
comparaître dans les procédures en exécution engagées contre elles ou pour
n’avoir pas soumis de moyens de défense et n’avoir pas épuisé les voies de
recours internes.
36. Pour les raisons qui précèdent, je me suis dissociée de l’arrêt sur ce
point.
C. Paragraphe 2 de l’article IV
37. Bien que je souscrive à la conclusion de la Cour selon laquelle l’obligation
d’assurer la sécurité et la protection de la manière la plus constante
prévue au paragraphe 2 de l’article IV est d’ordre exclusivement physique et
ne s’étend pas à la protection et à la sécurité juridiques, je suis en désaccord
avec la Cour quand elle considère que les mesures exécutives, législatives
ou judiciaires contestées équivalaient à une dépossession et étaient donc
constitutives d’expropriation.
38. Il est extrêmement difficile de concevoir comment une saisie pratiquée
en vue de l’exécution d’une condamnation pécuniaire, obtenue de manière
licite, peut être constitutive d’expropriation. L’observation de la Cour selon
laquelle il n’est pas « litigieux … que les sociétés iraniennes concernées
n’ont reçu aucune indemnité »49 illustre bien la difficulté qu’il y avait en l’espèce
à conclure à une expropriation. L’Iran n’a jamais contesté devant les
juridictions américaines qu’il était, en application de jugements en responsabilité,
redevable des sommes en question. Pas plus qu’il n’a contesté, dans la
49 Ibid., par. 178.
251 certain iranian assets (sep. op. barkett)
United States Government to pay it back. In that case, the United States
would simply be compensating the victims itself for wrongs for which Iran
is responsible. The money that was in the possession of the agencies and
instrumentalities of Iran was essentially Iran’s money. Assets that were
attached in legal proceedings exclusively against companies wholly or
majority owned by Iran to pay Iran’s undisputed debt cannot constitute a
taking by the State. Moreover, the effect of paying a judgment debt is economically
neutral and legally required, not expropriatory50.
39. The Court correctly states in relation to judicial decisions ordering the
attachment and execution of property that these do not by themselves amount
to expropriations. It then says that a judicial decision does amount to an
expropriation if it applies legislative or executive measures that infringe
international law and thereby causes a deprivation of property51. I find no
support for such a stark and extraordinarily broad pronouncement that
recasts the notion of judicial expropriation. Recall that, in the Court’s own
view, the rights of Iranian companies to appear before United States courts
and make submissions or lodge appeals had not been curtailed. It also found
specifically that enacting legislative provisions removing legal defences, and
the United States courts’ application of these provisions, did not in themselves
constitute a failure in the administration of justice amounting to a
denial of justice52. Considering that there was also no violation of due process
in these domestic proceedings, it is difficult to accept that a violation of
international law occurred in this regard, even if the Court’s unusual and
expansive definition of judicial expropriation were to be acceptable.
40. Again, the only rationale offered by the majority to demonstrate a
violation of international law is that it has found, in relation to Iran’s Article
IV (1) claim, that the United States measures were unreasonable53. How
can the concept of unreasonableness, which appears only in that one provision,
be read into two additional, yet totally different contexts? The Court
applies unreasonableness, easily the most nebulous of the three standards
under Article IV (1), to thereby find breaches of Article III (1) and now also
Article IV (2). I cannot imagine that the parties to the Treaty would have
intended for the entirely imprecise concept of “unreasonableness” to have
50 Counter-Memorial of the United States of America, para. 14.95.
51 Judgment, para. 184.
52 Ibid., para. 143.
53 Ibid., para. 186.
certains actifs iraniens (op. ind. barkett) 251
présente procédure, que les jugements en responsabilité rendus par les juridictions
américaines avaient créé une dette. Si ces sommes étaient dues, il
semble absurde d’exiger que le Gouvernement américain les rembourse. En
pareil cas, les États-Unis ne feraient rien d’autre qu’indemniser eux-mêmes
les victimes à raison de faits illicites dont l’Iran est responsable. L’argent qui
était en la possession des organismes et agences de l’Iran appartenait, pour
l’essentiel, à l’Iran. La saisie d’actifs dans le cadre de procédures judiciaires
engagées exclusivement contre des sociétés détenues entièrement ou majoritairement
par l’Iran en vue du règlement de la dette non contestée de l’Iran
ne saurait être constitutive d’expropriation par l’État. En outre, l’effet du
règlement d’une dette judiciaire est neutre sur le plan économique et obligatoire
sur le plan juridique ; il n’est pas constitutif d’expropriation50.
39. La Cour a eu raison d’indiquer que les décisions de justice ordonnant
que des biens fassent l’objet de saisies et de mesures d’exécution ne constituaient
pas en tant que telles des actes d’expropriation. Elle a ensuite précisé
qu’une décision de justice devenait un acte d’expropriation lorsqu’elle était
prise en application de mesures législatives ou exécutives contraires au droit
international et, ce faisant, entraînait une dépossession de biens51. Selon moi,
rien ne permet d’étayer cette conclusion très tranchée et extrêmement large
qui redéfinit la notion d’expropriation judiciaire. On rappellera que, selon
l’avis même de la Cour, les droits des sociétés iraniennes de comparaître
devant les tribunaux américains, d’avancer des arguments juridiques et de
former des appels n’avaient pas été entravés. Plus particulièrement, la Cour
a également conclu que la promulgation de dispositions législatives supprimant
certains moyens de défense et leur application par les tribunaux
américains ne constituaient pas en elles-mêmes un manquement dans l’administration
de la justice équivalant à un déni de justice52. Étant donné qu’il
n’y a pas eu non plus violation du principe de régularité de la procédure dans
ces procédures internes, il est difficile d’admettre qu’une violation du droit
international ait pu se produire à cet égard, même à supposer que l’on puisse
accepter la définition inhabituelle et extensive que donne la Cour de l’expropriation
judiciaire.
40. Là encore, la seule raison avancée par la majorité pour démontrer qu’il
y a eu violation du droit international est qu’elle a elle-même conclu, à propos
de la demande de l’Iran fondée sur le paragraphe 1 de l’article IV, que les
mesures américaines étaient déraisonnables53. Comment est-il possible que
cette notion de « mesures déraisonnables », qui n’apparaît que dans cette
seule disposition, soit appliquée dans deux autres contextes, de surcroît totalement
différents ? La Cour a appliqué la notion de « mesures déraisonnables »,
assurément le plus nébuleux des trois standards énoncés au paragraphe 1 de
l’article IV, pour conclure qu’il y avait eu violation du paragraphe 1 de
50 Contre-mémoire des États-Unis d’Amérique, par. 14.95.
51 Arrêt, par. 184.
52 Ibid., par. 143.
53 Ibid., par. 186.
252 certain iranian assets (sep. op. barkett)
such cascading effects, dispensing even with the requirement to apply the
ordinary criteria of expropriation. The relevant obligations under Articles
III (1), IV (1) and IV (2) appear in separate Treaty provisions setting out
separate rules that are subject to separate standards.
41. The United States measures constituted a bona fide, non-discriminatory
use of the United States’ regulatory powers for the protection of a
legitimate public interest: namely, compensating victims of terrorist acts
with property owned by agencies and instrumentalities of the State of Iran,
proven in United States courts of law to have caused the relevant harm. The
effect of these measures simply made it possible to enforce liability judgments
arising out of judicial determinations based on an impartial and
due-process-based application of the law.
42. Likewise, the judicial application of these measures cannot amount to
an expropriation of the assets of Iranian companies. Decisions by domestic
courts, when they are lawfully acting as neutral and independent arbiters of
legal rights, do not give rise to a claim for expropriation. I do not find the
cases Iran cites to the contrary analogous. The majority of international tribunals
have held that only egregious judicial misconduct, i.e. wrongfulness
attaching to the judicial process itself, has been held by international tribunals
in cases affecting property rights to constitute a judicial expropriation,
such as a denial of justice or acting without jurisdiction54.
43. I thus dissent from the Court’s finding that the United States breached
Article IV (2).
D. Article X (1)
44. While I agree with the Court’s finding that “commerce” in this
provision
is not limited to maritime commerce or to trade in goods and associated
transactions55, I disagree with the Court’s holding that the United
States measures limited Iranian companies’ freedom of commerce and
navigation.
54 See e.g. OOO Manolium Processing v. Republic of Belarus, PCA Case No. 2018-06, Final
Award of 22 June 2021, para. 591; Swisslion DOO Skopje v. the former Yugoslav Republic of
Macedonia, ICSID Case No. ARB/09/16, Award of 6 July 2012, para. 314.
55 Judgment, paras. 212 and 214.
certains actifs iraniens (op. ind. barkett) 252
l’article
III et aussi du paragraphe 2 de l’article IV. Je ne puis imaginer que
les parties au traité aient eu l’intention, à partir de la notion totalement
imprécise de « mesures déraisonnables », de produire de tels effets en cascade,
au point même de rendre superflue l’exigence d’appliquer les critères
ordinaires en matière d’expropriation. Les obligations pertinentes énoncées
au paragraphe 1 de l’article III, au paragraphe 1 de l’article IV et au paragraphe
2 de l’article IV figurent dans des dispositions distinctes du traité, qui
énoncent des règles distinctes régies par l’application de critères distincts.
41. Les mesures américaines constituaient un exercice non discriminatoire
et de bonne foi, par les États-Unis, de leurs pouvoirs de réglementation aux
fins de la protection d’un intérêt public légitime, à savoir l’indemnisation des
victimes d’actes de terrorisme au moyen de biens appartenant aux organismes
et agences de l’État iranien, actes dont il a été démontré devant les
juridictions américaines qu’ils avaient causé les préjudices invoqués. Ces
mesures ont simplement eu pour effet de rendre possible l’exécution de jugements
en responsabilité découlant de constatations judiciaires fondées sur
une application impartiale du droit, dans le respect de la régularité de la
procédure.
42. De la même façon, l’application judiciaire de ces mesures ne saurait
constituer une expropriation des biens des sociétés iraniennes. Les décisions
rendues par des juridictions internes, dès lors que celles-ci agissent de
manière licite et en tant qu’arbitres neutres et indépendants, ne sauraient
donner lieu à des allégations d’expropriation. Selon moi, les affaires citées
par l’Iran pour faire la démonstration inverse ne sont pas analogues. La
majorité des juridictions internationales qui se sont prononcées dans des
affaires mettant en jeu des droits de propriété ont estimé que seul un comportement
illicite flagrant, lorsqu’un élément d’illicéité — tel qu’un déni de
justice ou un défaut de compétence du tribunal ayant rendu la décision à
l’examen — entache le processus judiciaire lui-même, pouvait être constitutif
d’expropriation judiciaire54.
43. Je suis donc en désaccord avec la conclusion de la Cour selon laquelle
les États-Unis ont violé le paragraphe 2 de l’article IV.
D. Paragraphe 1 de l’article X
44. Bien que je souscrive à la conclusion de la Cour selon laquelle le mot
« commerce » figurant dans cette disposition ne vise pas seulement le commerce
maritime ou le commerce de marchandises et les transactions qui s’y
rapportent55, je ne suis pas d’accord pour dire que les mesures américaines
ont entravé la liberté de commerce et de navigation des sociétés iraniennes.
54 Voir, par exemple, OOO Manolium Processing v. Republic of Belarus, affaire CPA no 2018-
06, sentence finale du 22 juin 2021, par. 591 ; Swisslion DOO Skopje v. the former Yugoslav
Republic of Macedonia, affaire CIRDI no ARB/09/16, sentence du 6 juillet 2012, par. 314.
55 Arrêt, par. 212 et 214.
253 certain iranian assets (sep. op. barkett)
45. Article X (1) and the obligations it establishes are general and lack
specificity. In its 2019 Judgment, in the context of its discussion concerning
sovereign immunity, the Court confirmed its holding in Oil Platforms
that the term referred to “commercial exchanges in general” and was “not
limited to the mere acts of purchase and sale”56. Nonetheless, the Court
added that “even if understood in this sense, freedom of commerce cannot
cover matters
that have no connection, or too tenuous a connection, with the
commercial relations between the States Parties to the Treaty”57.
46. But this is precisely what the United States’ measures cover. They
cover matters “that have no connection, or too tenuous a connection, with
the commercial relations between the State Parties to the Treaty”. While a
blocking order, the enforcement of a judgment, or a measure of constraint
could conceivably have an effect on commerce, any government measure
could if that approach is taken be regarded as having such an effect. I find it
impossible to read Article X (1) as prohibiting any such measure whatsoever,
and an interpretation that would result in a nearly limitless interpretation of
the phrase “freedom of commerce” is not logical. I find no correlation
between the United States’ measures and Article X (1), and no textual support
for the view that the Parties intended to prohibit the payment of any
judgment debt when they entered into the Treaty. “Commerce” has many
features, and one of these features is commercial disputes. Litigation
between commercial parties results in the creation of judgment debts with
frequency. To say that this core aspect of commerce is prohibited under the
Treaty on the basis that it impedes freedom of commerce the very thing
of which it forms part is ironic.
47. More generally, the majority’s conclusion that commerce existed
between the territories of the two Parties strikes me as peculiar for two reasons.
First, in Oil Platforms, the Court referred to the “important territorial
limitation” in Article X (1), stating that “[i]n order to enjoy the protection
provided by that text, the commerce or the navigation is to be between the
territories o f t he U nited States a nd I ran”58. Here, it is not clear that any
affected “commerce” was “between the territories” of the two Parties, as all
56 Certain Iranian Assets (Islamic Republic of Iran v. United States of America), Preliminary
Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2019 (I), p. 34, para. 78, citing Oil Platforms
(Islamic Republic of Iran v. United States of America), Preliminary Objection, Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 1996 (II), pp. 818-819, paras. 45-46.
57 Certain Iranian Assets (Islamic Republic of Iran v. United States of America), Preliminary
Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2019 (I), p. 34, para. 79.
58 Oil Platforms (Islamic Republic of Iran v. United States of America), Judgment, I.C.J.
Reports 2003, pp. 214-215, para. 119 (emphasis in original).
certains actifs iraniens (op. ind. barkett) 253
45. Le paragraphe 1 de l’article X et les obligations qu’il établit ont un
caractère général et non spécifique. Dans l’arrêt qu’elle a rendu en 2019, la
Cour, lorsqu’elle a examiné la question de l’immunité souveraine, a confirmé
ce qu’elle avait indiqué dans l’affaire des Plates-formes pétrolières, à savoir
que le mot « commerce » désignait « les échanges commerciaux en général »
et « ne se limit[ait] pas aux seules activités d’achat et de vente »56. Elle a
cependant ajouté que, « même ainsi comprise, la liberté de commerce ne
saurait couvrir des questions qui ne présentent aucun lien, ou qui présentent
un lien trop ténu, avec les relations commerciales entre les États parties au
traité »57.
46. Or, c’est précisément ce que couvrent les mesures américaines. Elles
couvrent des questions « qui ne présentent aucun lien, ou qui présentent un
lien trop ténu, avec les relations commerciales entre les États parties au
traité ». Bien que l’on puisse concevoir qu’une décision de blocage ou l’exécution
d’un jugement ou encore une mesure de contrainte ait un effet sur le
commerce, toute mesure adoptée par un État pourrait, de ce point de vue,
être considérée comme produisant un tel effet. On ne saurait, selon moi,
considérer que le paragraphe 1 de l’article X interdit toute mesure de ce type,
et il n’est pas logique de retenir une interprétation qui elle-même ouvrirait la
voie à une interprétation presque sans limites de l’expression « liberté de
commerce ». À mon sens, il n’existe aucune corrélation entre les mesures
américaines et le paragraphe 1 de l’article X, et aucun élément textuel ne
vient étayer la thèse selon laquelle les Parties, lorsqu’elles ont conclu le traité
d’amitié, auraient eu l’intention d’interdire tout règlement de dettes judiciaires.
Le « commerce » recouvre de nombreux éléments, dont les différends
à caractère commercial. Les procédures judiciaires dans le domaine commercial
sont souvent à l’origine de dettes judiciaires. Affirmer que cet aspect
central du commerce est interdit par le traité au motif qu’il entrave la liberté
de commerce — dont il constitue pourtant une partie intégrante — n’est pas
sans ironie.
47. De manière plus générale, le fait que la majorité ait conclu à l’existence
d’un commerce entre les territoires des deux Parties me paraît étrange pour
deux raisons. Premièrement, dans l’affaire des Plates-formes pétrolières, la
Cour s’est référée à la « limitation territoriale importante » contenue au paragraphe
1 de l’article X, à savoir que, « [p]our bénéficier de la protection
prévue par ce texte, le commerce ou la navigation doivent s’effectuer entre les
territoires des États-Unis et de l’Iran »58. En l’espèce, il n’est pas clair qu’il
56 Certains actifs iraniens (République islamique d’Iran c. États-Unis d’Amérique),
exceptions préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2019 (I), p. 34, par. 78, citant Plates-formes
pétrolières (République islamique d’Iran c. États-Unis d’Amérique), exception préliminaire,
arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1996 (II), p. 818-819, par. 45-46.
57 Certains actifs iraniens (République islamique d’Iran c. États-Unis d’Amérique), exceptions
préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2019 (I), p. 34, par. 79.
58 Plates-formes pétrolières (République islamique d’Iran c. États-Unis d’Amérique), arrêt,
C.I.J. Recueil 2003, p. 214-215, par. 119 (les italiques sont dans l’original).
254 certain iranian assets (sep. op. barkett)
transactions occurred via intermediaries based outside of the United States.
Second, there was and is very little commerce between these two States, and
it is difficult to see how those low levels of commerce could have meaningfully
been disrupted. For these reasons, I would also dismiss this claim.
(Signed) Rosemary Barkett.
254
certains actifs iraniens (op. ind. barkett)
ait existé un quelconque « commerce » entravé « entre les territoires » des deux
Parties, puisque toutes les transactions se sont déroulées par le biais
d’intermédiaires se situant en dehors des États-Unis. Deuxièmement, il y avait
et il y a très peu de commerce entre ces deux États, et on voit difficilement
comment ces faibles volumes commerciaux pourraient avoir été sérieusement
perturbés. Pour ces raisons, j’aurais également rejeté cette demande.
(Signé) Rosemary Barkett.
Separate opinion, partly concurring and partly dissenting of Judge ad hoc Barkett