SEPARATE OPINION OF JUDGE BENNOUNA
[Original English text]
Objection to jurisdiction raised by the United States of America Bank Markazi as a “company” for the purposes of the 1955 Treaty of Amity Judgment of 13 February 2019 Nature of the activity.
1. I agree with all the decisions in this case, with the exception of the first one, whereby the Court upheld
“the objection to jurisdiction raised by the United States of America relating to the claims of the Islamic Republic of Iran under Articles III, IV and V of the 1955 Treaty of Amity, Economic Relations, and Consular Rights, to the extent that they relate to treatment accorded to Bank Markazi and, accordingly, [found] that it ha[d] no jurisdiction to consider those claims” (Judgment, para. 236 (1)).
To my regret, I had to vote against this first subparagraph of the operative clause of the Judgment, which has the effect of excluding the bulk of Iran’s claims in this case from the jurisdiction of the Court. Indeed, Iran’s claims relating to the injury suffered by Bank Markazi represent nearly US$1.9 billion, whereas its claims in respect of the other injuries invoked scarcely exceed US$25 million.
2. It should be borne in mind that, in its 13 February 2019 Judgment on the preliminary objections, the Court had already examined the objection raised by the United States in respect of which it requested that the Court decline to exercise jurisdiction to rule on “purported violations of Articles III, IV, or V of the Treaty of Amity that are predicated on treatment accorded to the Government of Iran or Bank Markazi”1. Indeed, in the view of the United States, “Bank Markazi is not a ‘company’ for the purposes of Articles III, IV and V of the Treaty of Amity, on the ground that, as the Central Bank of Iran, it carries out exclusively sovereign functions and is not engaged in activities of a commercial nature”2. Therefore, according to the Respondent, it is a bank that exercises functions that are “sovereign in nature”3. In 2019, the Court considered that “there is nothing to preclude, a priori, a single entity from engaging both in activities of a commercial nature (or, more broadly, business activities) and in sovereign activities”. It added:
“In such a case, since it is the nature of the activity actually carried out which determines the characterization of the entity engaged in it, the legal person in question should be regarded as a ‘company’ within the meaning of the Treaty to the extent that it is engaged in activities of a commercial nature, even if they do not constitute its principal activities.”4
1 Certain Iranian Assets (Islamic Republic of Iran v. United States of America), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2019 (I), p. 19, para. 17.
2 Ibid., p. 35, para. 82.
3 Rejoinder of the United States, paras. 5.13-5.23; Counter-Memorial of the United States, paras. 9.5-9.19.
4 Certain Iranian Assets (Islamic Republic of Iran v. United States of America), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2019 (I), pp. 38-39, para. 92.
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In light of this, the Court took the view that it did not have before it “all the facts necessary” to rule in that respect. Since those elements were “largely of a factual nature and [were], moreover, closely linked to the merits of the case”, the Court concluded that the United States’ third preliminary objection did not have, “in the circumstances of the case, an exclusively preliminary character”5.
3. Thus, in 2019, it was clear that the joining of that preliminary objection to the merits was motivated by the need, in the view of the Court, to reserve the possibility of being informed of all the facts relating to Bank Markazi’s activities. The question of law raised by the United States concerning whether that institution could carry out activities of a commercial nature, even if they did not constitute its principal activities, and whether it could therefore be characterized as a “company” within the meaning of the Treaty of Amity, was, for its part, clearly decided by the Court at the preliminary stage.
4. The Court thus ruled on this matter, with res judicata effect, by declaring that “the third preliminary objection to jurisdiction raised by the United States of America does not possess, in the circumstances of the case, an exclusively preliminary character”6. Indeed, “[t]he decision of the Court is contained in the operative clause of the judgment. However, in order to ascertain what is covered by res judicata, it may be necessary to determine the meaning of the operative clause by reference to the reasoning set out in the judgment in question.”7 If that were not the case, and if the Court had considered that, since Bank Markazi’s principal function is sovereign, it could not have a separate activity of a commercial nature that would permit it to be characterized as a “company” within the meaning of the Treaty of Amity, the Court would have upheld the United States’ preliminary objection as such outright.
5. It follows that subparagraph 3 of the operative clause of the 2019 Judgment, relating to the not exclusively preliminary character of the objection, is binding on the Court in the present case, within the meaning given to that subparagraph by the reasoning set out in that Judgment.
6. However, far from “following” the line of reasoning adopted in its 2019 Judgment, as it claims in paragraph 47 of the Judgment on the merits of the case, the Court has chosen to make a clear departure from it in responding to the question of Bank Markazi’s characterization as a “company” within the meaning of the Treaty of Amity, by basing itself on a new criterion, that of the purpose of the activity, and not its nature.
7. As a result, in its decision on the merits, after recalling that
“the only activities on which Iran relies to found the characterization of Bank Markazi as a ‘company’ consist in the purchase, between 2002 and 2007, of 22 security entitlements in dematerialized bonds issued on the United States financial market and in the management of proceeds deriving from those entitlements” (Judgment, para. 49),
5 Certain Iranian Assets (Islamic Republic of Iran v. United States of America), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2019 (I), p. 40, para. 97.
6 Ibid., p. 45, para. 126 (3).
7 Question of the Delimitation of the Continental Shelf between Nicaragua and Colombia beyond 200 Nautical Miles from the Nicaraguan Coast (Nicaragua v. Colombia), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2016 (I), p. 126, para. 61.
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the Court concluded that
“these operations are not sufficient to establish that Bank Markazi was engaged, at the relevant time, in activities of a commercial character. Indeed, the operations in question were carried out within the framework and for the purposes of Bank Markazi’s principal activity, from which they are inseparable. They are merely a way of exercising its sovereign function as a central bank, and not commercial activities performed by Bank Markazi ‘alongside [its] sovereign functions’” (Judgment, para. 50).
8. Therefore, in complete contradiction with the 2019 Judgment, the Court considers that it is not possible to rely on the nature of the activity alone in order to characterize Bank Markazi as a “company” within the meaning of the Treaty of Amity, even when that bank purchases security entitlements on the financial market on the same terms as any other operator. The Court clearly decides instead that the bank’s sovereign function is a necessary and sufficient criterion for its characterization as a “company”. This principal activity thus prevails over all other subsidiary activities of a commercial nature.
9. The reference to the criterion of the commercial nature of the activity, for the purpose of characterizing a company, has therefore disappeared between the two successive Judgments of 2019 and 2023, without the Court justifying this on the basis of any new facts.
10. However, the use of that criterion to characterize a company was not invented by the Court in 2019; as in the Barcelona Traction8 case, it was informed by the approach of internal legal orders in determining the rights of shareholders of a limited liability company.
11. Furthermore, in support of its conclusion that Bank Markazi’s activities are inseparable from its sovereign function, the Court considers that “the assertions made by Bank Markazi in the judicial proceedings in the Peterson case . . . accurately reflect the reality of the bank’s activities” (para. 52). In this same paragraph, it nonetheless stated that Bank Markazi’s assertions “are not opposable to Iran, which, moreover, did not make them”, and that the United States courts rejected Bank Markazi’s claims at the time, declaring that a number of its activities were of a commercial nature. Thus, even though the question of immunity is not at issue in the present case, the Court took into account statements made in the context of domestic proceedings in the United States, which are not binding on the Respondent and which concern immunities, in concluding that Bank Markazi’s activities were not of a commercial nature. In short, Iran found itself confronted with the litigation strategy and arguments of an entity whose statements are not binding on it, employed in proceedings to which it was not a party.
12. It is therefore clear that there is no continuity between the reasoning of the 2019 Judgment on the preliminary objections and that of the Judgment on the merits in this case. Nevertheless, such continuity is indispensable for the credibility of the highest international judicial institution.
8 Barcelona Traction, Light and Power Company, Limited (New Application: 1962) (Belgium v. Spain), Second Phase, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1970, pp. 33-35, paras. 38-42, and pp. 38-39, para. 56.
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In exceptional circumstances, changes in the Court’s jurisprudence may certainly occur, but on the condition that they are for “compelling reasons”9.
(Signed) Mohamed BENNOUNA.
___________
9 Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Croatia v. Serbia), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2008, p. 429, para. 54.
144
SEPARATE OPINION OF JUDGE BENNOUNA
[Original English text]
Objection to jurisdiction raised by the United States of America — Bank
Markazi as a “company” for the purposes of the 1955 Treaty of Amity —
Judgment of 13 February 2019 — Nature of the activity.
1. I agree with all the decisions in this case, with the exception of the first
one, whereby the Court upheld
“the objection to jurisdiction raised by the United States of America
relating to the claims of the Islamic Republic of Iran under Articles III,
IV and V of the 1955 Treaty of Amity, Economic Relations, and Consular
Rights, to the extent that they relate to treatment accorded to Bank
Markazi and, accordingly, [found] that it ha[d] no jurisdiction to consider
those claims” (Judgment, para. 236 (1)).
To my regret, I had to vote against this first subparagraph of the operative
clause of the Judgment, which has the effect of excluding the bulk of Iran’s
claims in this case from the jurisdiction of the Court. Indeed, Iran’s claims
relating to the injury suffered by Bank Markazi represent nearly US$1.9 billion,
whereas its claims in respect of the other injuries invoked scarcely
exceed US$25 million.
2. It should be borne in mind that, in its 13 February 2019 Judgment on the
preliminary objections, the Court had already examined the objection raised
by the United States in respect of which it requested that the Court decline to
exercise jurisdiction to rule on “purported violations of Articles III, IV, or V
of the Treaty of Amity that are predicated on treatment accorded to the Government
of Iran or Bank Markazi”1. Indeed, in the view of the United States,
“Bank Markazi is not a ‘company’ for the purposes of Articles III, IV
and V of the Treaty of Amity, on the ground that, as the Central Bank of
Iran, it carries out exclusively sovereign functions and is not engaged in
activities of a commercial nature”2.
Therefore, according to the Respondent, it is a bank that exercises functions
that are “sovereign in nature”3. In 2019, the Court considered that “there is
1 Certain Iranian Assets (Islamic Republic of Iran v. United States of America), Preliminary
Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2019 (I), p. 19, para. 17.
2 Ibid., p. 35, para. 82.
3 Rejoinder of the United States, paras. 5.13-5.23; Counter-Memorial of the United States,
paras. 9.5-9.19.
144
OPINION INDIVIDUELLE DE M. LE JUGE BENNOUNA
[Texte original en français]
Exception d’incompétence soulevée par les États-Unis d’Amérique —
Banque Markazi en tant que « société » au sens du traité d’amitié de
1955 — Arrêt de la Cour du 13 février 2019 — Critère de la nature de
l’activité.
1. Je suis en accord avec toutes les décisions en cette affaire, à l’exception
de la première d’entre elles, par laquelle la Cour a décidé de retenir
« l’exception d’incompétence soulevée par les États-Unis d’Amérique
relative aux demandes présentées par la République islamique d’Iran au
titre des articles III, IV et V du traité d’amitié, de commerce et de droits
consulaires de 1955, dans la mesure où elles portent sur le traitement
réservé à la banque Markazi et, en conséquence, [de dire] qu’elle n’est pas
compétente pour connaître desdites demandes » (arrêt, par. 236, point 1).
À mon regret, j’ai dû voter contre ce premier point du dispositif de l’arrêt, qui
a pour effet d’écarter de la juridiction de la Cour l’essentiel des demandes de
l’Iran en l’espèce. En effet, ces demandes, au titre du préjudice subi par la
banque Markazi, représentent près de 1,9 milliard de dollars, alors que celles
relatives aux autres préjudices invoqués dépassent à peine les 25 millions de
dollars.
2. Il convient d’avoir à l’esprit que la Cour, dans son arrêt du 13 février
2019 sur les exceptions préliminaires, avait déjà examiné l’exception soulevée
par les États-Unis lui demandant de se déclarer incompétente pour se
prononcer sur les « violations alléguées des articles III, IV et V du traité
d’amitié reposant sur le traitement réservé à l’État iranien ou à la banque
Markazi »1. Pour les États-Unis, en effet,
« la banque Markazi n’est pas une “société” aux fins des articles III, IV
et V du traité d’amitié, au motif que, en tant que banque centrale de
l’Iran, elle accomplit exclusivement des missions de nature régalienne et
ne se livre pas à des activités de nature commerciale »2.
Il s’agit ainsi, selon le défendeur, d’une banque qui exerce des fonctions « de
nature souveraine »3. La Cour a considéré, en 2019, que « rien ne permet
1 Certains actifs iraniens (République islamique d’Iran c. États-Unis d’Amérique), exceptions
préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2019 (I), p. 19, par. 17.
2 Ibid., p. 35, par. 82.
3 Duplique des États-Unis, par. 5.13-5.23 ; contre-mémoire des États-Unis, par. 9.5-9.19.
145
nothing to preclude, a priori, a single entity from engaging both in activities
of a commercial nature (or, more broadly, business activities) and in sovereign
activities”. It added:
“In such a case, since it is the nature of the activity actually carried out
which determines the characterization of the entity engaged in it, the legal
person in question should be regarded as a ‘company’ within the meaning
of the Treaty to the extent that it is engaged in activities of a commercial
nature, even if they do not constitute its principal activities.”4
In light of this, the Court took the view that it did not have before it “all the
facts necessary” to rule in that respect. Since those elements were “largely
of a factual nature and [were], moreover, closely linked to the merits of the
case”, the Court concluded that the United States’ third preliminary objection
did not have, “in the circumstances of the case, an exclusively preliminary
character”5.
3. Thus, in 2019, it was clear that the joining of that preliminary objection
to the merits was motivated by the need, in the view of the Court, to reserve
the possibility of being informed of all the facts relating to Bank Markazi’s
activities. The question of law raised by the United States concerning
whether that institution could carry out activities of a commercial nature,
even if they did not constitute its principal activities, and whether it could
therefore be characterized as a “company” within the meaning of the Treaty
of Amity, was, for its part, clearly decided by the Court at the preliminary
stage.
4. The Court thus ruled on this matter, with res judicata effect, by declaring
that “the third preliminary objection to jurisdiction raised by the
United States of America does not possess, in the circumstances of the case,
an exclusively preliminary character”6. Indeed,
“[t]he decision of the Court is contained in the operative clause of the
judgment. However, in order to ascertain what is covered by res judicata,
it may be necessary to determine the meaning of the operative clause by
reference to the reasoning set out in the judgment in question.”7
If that were not the case, and if the Court had considered that, since Bank
Markazi’s principal function is sovereign, it could not have a separate
activity
of a commercial nature that would permit it to be characterized as a
“company” within the meaning of the Treaty of Amity, the Court would
have upheld the United States’ preliminary objection as such outright.
4 Certain Iranian Assets (Islamic Republic of Iran v. United States of America), Preliminary
Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2019 (I), pp. 38-39, para. 92.
5 Ibid., p. 40, para. 97.
6 Ibid., p. 45, para. 126 (3).
7 Question of the Delimitation of the Continental Shelf between Nicaragua and Colombia
beyond 200 Nautical Miles from the Nicaraguan Coast (Nicaragua v. Colombia), Preliminary
Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2016 (I), p. 126, para. 61.
certain iranian assets (sep. op. bennouna)
145
d’exclure a priori qu’une même entité exerce à la fois des activités de nature
commerciale (ou, plus largement, des activités d’affaires) et des activités
souveraines ». Elle a ajouté :
« En pareil cas, puisque c’est la nature de l’activité effectivement exercée
qui détermine la qualification de l’entité qui l’exerce, la personne
morale dont il s’agit devrait être regardée comme une “société” au sens
du traité dans la mesure où elle exerce des activités de nature commerciale,
même si ce n’est pas à titre principal. »4
Cela étant, la Cour a estimé qu’elle ne disposait pas de « tous les éléments
[qui lui étaient] nécessaires » pour se prononcer à ce sujet. Ces éléments
« étant en grande partie de nature factuelle et étant par ailleurs étroitement
liés au fond de l’affaire », elle en a conclu que la troisième exception préliminaire
des États-Unis n’avait pas, « dans les circonstances de l’espèce, un
caractère exclusivement préliminaire »5.
3. Ainsi, il était clair, dès 2019, que le renvoi au fond de cette exception
préliminaire était motivé par la nécessité, selon la Cour, de se réserver la
possibilité de connaître tous les faits relatifs aux activités de la banque
Markazi. Quant à la question de droit, soulevée par les États-Unis, sur le
point de savoir si cette institution pouvait exercer des activités de nature
commerciale, même si ce n’est pas à titre principal, et si elle pouvait être
qualifiée ainsi de « société » au sens du traité d’amitié, elle a été clairement
tranchée par la Cour à ce stade préliminaire.
4. La Cour s’est prononcée ainsi, avec l’autorité de la chose jugée, en décidant
que « la troisième exception préliminaire d’incompétence soulevée par
les États-Unis d’Amérique n’a pas dans les circonstances de l’espèce un
caractère exclusivement préliminaire »6. Il est établi que
« [l]a décision de la Cour est contenue dans le dispositif de l’arrêt.
Cependant, afin de préciser ce qui est couvert par l’autorité de la chose
jugée, il peut s’avérer nécessaire de déterminer le sens du dispositif par
référence aux motifs de l’arrêt en question. »7
S’il en était autrement, et si la Cour avait considéré que, de par sa fonction
souveraine principale, la banque Markazi ne pouvait exercer une activité de
nature commerciale distincte qui serait susceptible de la qualifier de « société »
au sens du traité d’amitié, elle aurait retenu, purement et simplement, l’exception
préliminaire des États-Unis en tant que telle, dès le stade préliminaire.
4 Certains actifs iraniens (République islamique d’Iran c. États-Unis d’Amérique), exceptions
préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2019 (I), p. 38-39, par. 92.
5 Ibid., p. 40, par. 97.
6 Ibid., p. 45, par. 126, point 3.
7 Question de la délimitation du plateau continental entre le Nicaragua et la Colombie
au-delà de 200 milles marins de la côte nicaraguayenne (Nicaragua c. Colombie), exceptions
préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2016 (I), p. 126, par. 61.
certains actifs iraniens (op. ind. bennouna)
146
certain iranian assets (sep. op. bennouna)
5. It follows that subparagraph 3 of the operative clause of the 2019
Judgment, relating to the not exclusively preliminary character of the objection,
is binding on the Court in the present case, within the meaning given to
that subparagraph by the reasoning set out in that Judgment.
6. However, far from “following” the line of reasoning adopted in its 2019
Judgment, as it claims in paragraph 47 of the Judgment on the merits of the
case, the Court has chosen to make a clear departure from it in responding
to the question of Bank Markazi’s characterization as a “company” within
the meaning of the Treaty of Amity, by basing itself on a new criterion, that
of the purpose of the activity, and not its nature.
7. As a result, in its decision on the merits, after recalling that
“the only activities on which Iran relies to found the characterization of
Bank Markazi as a ‘company’ consist in the purchase, between 2002 and
2007, of 22 security entitlements in dematerialized bonds issued on the
United States financial market and in the management of proceeds
deriving from those entitlements” (Judgment, para. 49),
the Court concluded that
“these operations are not sufficient to establish that Bank Markazi was
engaged, at the relevant time, in activities of a commercial character.
Indeed, the operations in question were carried out within the framework
and for the purposes of Bank Markazi’s principal activity, from
which they are inseparable. They are merely a way of exercising its sovereign
function as a central bank, and not commercial activities
performed by Bank Markazi ‘alongside [its] sovereign functions’” (ibid.,
para. 50).
8. Therefore, in complete contradiction with the 2019 Judgment, the
Court considers that it is not possible to rely on the nature of the activity
alone in order to characterize Bank Markazi as a “company” within the
meaning of the Treaty of Amity, even when that bank purchases security
entitlements on the financial market on the same terms as any other operator.
The Court clearly decides instead that the bank’s sovereign function is a
necessary and sufficient criterion for its characterization as a “company”.
This principal activity thus prevails over all other subsidiary activities of a
commercial nature.
9. The reference to the criterion of the commercial nature of the activity,
for the purpose of characterizing a company, has therefore disappeared
between the two successive Judgments of 2019 and 2023, without the Court
justifying this on the basis of any new facts.
10. However, the use of that criterion to characterize a company
was not invented by the Court in 2019; as in the Barcelona Traccertains
actifs iraniens (op. ind. bennouna) 146
5. Il en résulte que le sens du point 3 du dispositif de l’arrêt de 2019,
relatif au caractère non exclusivement préliminaire de l’exception et tel qu’il
découle des motifs de cette décision, s’impose à la Cour, en l’espèce.
6. Or, loin de se placer dans la continuité des motifs qu’elle a retenus dans
son arrêt de 2019, comme elle le prétend au paragraphe 47 de l’arrêt au
fond de l’affaire, la Cour a choisi de s’en écarter nettement, en se fondant —
pour répondre à la question de la qualification de la banque Markazi en
tant que « société » au sens du traité d’amitié — sur un nouveau critère,
celui de l’objectif poursuivi au travers de l’activité, et non sur la nature de
celle-ci.
7. C’est ainsi que la Cour, dans son arrêt au fond, après avoir rappelé
que
« les seules activités dont se prévaut l’Iran pour fonder la qualification de
“société” qui serait applicable, selon le demandeur, à la banque Markazi
consistent dans l’achat, entre 2002 et 2007, de 22 titres de créance
consistant en des droits sur des obligations dématérialisées offertes sur
le marché financier américain et dans la gestion des produits financiers
découlant desdits titres » (arrêt, par. 49),
en a conclu que
« de telles opérations ne suffisent pas à établir que la banque Markazi
exerçait, à l’époque pertinente, des activités de caractère commercial.
En effet, les opérations en cause ont été réalisées dans le cadre et pour
les besoins de l’activité principale de la banque Markazi, dont elles ne
sont pas séparables. Elles ne constituent qu’une modalité d’exercice de
sa fonction souveraine en tant que banque centrale, et non des activités
commerciales que la banque Markazi aurait exercées “à côté de [ses]
fonctions souveraines” » (ibid., par. 50).
8. Dès lors, la Cour considère, en pleine contradiction avec l’arrêt de 2019,
qu’il n’est pas possible, en fin de compte, de s’en tenir à la nature de l’activité
pour qualifier la banque Markazi de « société » au sens du traité d’amitié,
même quand cette dernière se livre à l’achat de titres de créance sur le
marché
financier dans les mêmes conditions que n’importe quel autre opérateur.
La Cour opte clairement en faveur de la fonction souveraine de la
banque, en tant que critère nécessaire et suffisant pour sa qualification en
tant que « société ». Cette activité principale prévaut ainsi sur toutes les
autres activités, subsidiaires, de nature commerciale.
9. La référence au critère de la nature commerciale de l’activité, pour
qualifier
une société, a donc disparu entre les deux arrêts successifs de 2019
et de 2023, sans que la Cour ne l’ait justifié par quelque fait nouveau que ce
soit.
10. Or, le critère de la nature commerciale, pour servir à la qualification
de la société, n’a pas été inventé par la Cour en 2019 ; elle a procédé, comme
147 certain iranian assets (sep. op. bennouna)
tion8 case, it was informed by the approach of internal legal orders in determining
the rights of shareholders of a limited liability company.
11. Furthermore, in support of its conclusion that Bank Markazi’s activities
are inseparable from its sovereign function, the Court considers that
“the assertions made by Bank Markazi in the judicial proceedings in the
Peterson case . . . accurately reflect the reality of the bank’s activities” (Judgment,
para. 52). In this same paragraph, it nonetheless stated that Bank
Markazi’s assertions “are not opposable to Iran, which, moreover, did not
make them”, and that the United States courts rejected Bank Markazi’s
claims at the time, declaring that a number of its activities were of a commercial
nature. Thus, even though the question of immunity is not at issue in
the present case, the Court took into account statements made in the context
of domestic proceedings in the United States, which are not binding on the
Respondent and which concern immunities, in concluding that Bank Markazi’s
activities were not of a commercial nature. In short, Iran found itself
confronted with the litigation strategy and arguments of an entity whose
statements are not binding on it, employed in proceedings to which it was not
a party.
12. It is therefore clear that there is no continuity between the reasoning of
the 2019 Judgment on the preliminary objections and that of the Judgment
on the merits in this case. Nevertheless, such continuity is indispensable for
the credibility of the highest international judicial institution. In exceptional
circumstances, changes in the Court’s jurisprudence may certainly occur,
but on the condition that they are for “compelling reasons”9.
(Signed) Mohammed Bennouna.
8 Barcelona Traction, Light and Power Company, Limited (New Application: 1962)
(Belgium v. Spain), Second Phase, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1970, pp. 33-35, paras. 38-42, and
pp. 38-39, para. 56.
9 Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide
(Croatia v. Serbia), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2008, p. 429,
para. 54.
certains actifs iraniens (op. ind. bennouna) 147
dans l’affaire de la Barcelona Traction8, en s’inspirant des ordres juridiques
internes, lorsqu’il s’agissait de déterminer les droits des actionnaires d’une
société anonyme.
11. En outre, à l’appui de sa conclusion selon laquelle les activités de la
banque Markazi ne sont pas dissociables de sa fonction souveraine, la Cour
considère que « les déclarations faites par la banque Markazi dans le cadre
de la procédure judiciaire dans l’affaire Peterson … reflètent correctement la
réalité des activités de la banque » (arrêt, par. 52). Elle a cependant affirmé,
au sein de ce même paragraphe, que les déclarations de la banque Markazi
« ne sont pas opposables à l’Iran, qui n’en est d’ailleurs pas l’auteur », et que
les tribunaux des États-Unis avaient rejeté à l’époque les prétentions de la
banque Markazi, en affirmant la nature commerciale de certaines de ses activités.
La question de l’immunité n’est pas en jeu en la présente espèce. Or, la
Cour a tenu compte des déclarations faites dans le cadre d’une procédure
interne américaine, non opposable au défendeur, et portant sur les immunités,
pour étayer sa conclusion relative à la nature non commerciale des
activités de la banque Markazi. De la sorte, l’Iran s’est vu opposer la stratégie
contentieuse et les arguments d’une entité dont les déclarations ne
sauraient l’engager et dans le cadre d’une procédure à laquelle il n’était pas
partie.
12. Il est clair par conséquent qu’il n’y a aucune continuité de motifs entre
l’arrêt de 2019 sur les exceptions préliminaires et l’arrêt au fond dans cette
affaire. Une telle continuité est pourtant indispensable à la crédibilité de la
plus haute institution judiciaire internationale. Certes, à titre exceptionnel,
des revirements de la jurisprudence de la Cour peuvent intervenir, mais à la
condition que ce soit pour des « raisons impérieuses »9.
(Signé) Mohammed Bennouna.
8 Barcelona Traction, Light and Power Company, Limited (nouvelle requête : 1962)
(Belgique c. Espagne), deuxième phase, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1970, p. 33-35, par. 38-42, et
p. 38-39, par. 56.
9 Application de la convention pour la prévention et la répression du crime de génocide
(Croatie c. Serbie), exceptions préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2008, p. 429, par. 54.
Separate opinion of Judge Bennouna