30 MARCH 2023
JUDGMENT
CERTAIN IRANIAN ASSETS (ISLAMIC REPUBLIC OF IRAN v. UNITED STATES OF AMERICA)
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CERTAINS ACTIFS IRANIENS (RÉPUBLIQUE ISLAMIQUE D’IRAN c. ÉTATS-UNIS D’AMÉRIQUE)
30 MARS 2023
ARRÊT
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Paragraphs
CHRONOLOGY OF THE PROCEDURE 1-20
I. FACTUAL BACKGROUND 21-32
II. QUESTIONS OF JURISDICTION AND ADMISSIBILITY 33-73
A. Objection to the Court’s jurisdiction ratione materiae: question whether Bank Markazi is a “company” within the meaning of the Treaty of Amity 34-54
B. Objection to admissibility based on the failure to exhaust local remedies 55-73
III. DEFENCES ON THE MERITS PUT FORWARD BY THE UNITED STATES 74-109
A. Defence based on the “clean hands” doctrine 76-84
B. Defence based on abuse of rights 85-93
C. Article XX, paragraph 1 (c) and (d), of the Treaty of Amity 94-109
1. Article XX, paragraph 1 (c) 99-103
2. Article XX, paragraph 1 (d) 104-109
IV. ALLEGED VIOLATIONS OF THE TREATY OF AMITY 110-223
A. Alleged violations of Article III, paragraph 1, and Article IV, paragraph 1 123-159
B. Alleged violations of Article III, paragraph 2 160-168
C. Alleged violations of Article IV, paragraph 2 169-192
D. Alleged violations of Article V, paragraph 1 193-201
E. Alleged violations of Article VII, paragraph 1 202-208
F. Alleged violations of Article X, paragraph 1 209-223
V. REMEDIES 224-235
A. Cessation of internationally wrongful acts 225-229
B. Compensation for the injury suffered 230-231
C. Satisfaction 232-233
OPERATIVE CLAUSE 236
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ABBREVIATIONS, ACRONYMS AND SHORT FORMS
Bank Markazi
Bank Markazi Jomhuri Islami Iran (the Central Bank of Iran)
Bank Melli
Bank Melli Iran
Bennett case
Bennett et al. v. The Islamic Republic of Iran et al. (a case brought before the United States District Court for the Northern District of California, the judgment of which was affirmed by the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit)
FSIA
Foreign Sovereign Immunities Act (a law of the United States of America)
ILC
International Law Commission
ILC Articles on State Responsibility
The International Law Commission’s Articles on Responsibility of States for Internationally Wrongful Acts
ITRSHRA
Iran Threat Reduction and Syria Human Rights Act (a law of the United States of America)
Peterson case
Deborah Peterson et al. v. Islamic Republic of Iran (a case brought before the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York, the judgment of which was affirmed by the United States Supreme Court)
TRIA
Terrorism Risk Insurance Act (a law of the United States of America)
Treaty of Amity
Treaty of Amity, Economic Relations, and Consular Rights between the United States of America and Iran, signed at Tehran on 15 August 1955
Weinstein case
Weinstein et al. v. Islamic Republic of Iran et al. (a case brought before the United States District Court for the Eastern District of New York, the judgment of which was affirmed by the United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit)
2019 Judgment
Certain Iranian Assets (Islamic Republic of Iran v. United States of America), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2019 (I), p. 7
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INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE
YEAR 2023
2023
30 March
General List
No. 164
30 March 2023
CERTAIN IRANIAN ASSETS
(ISLAMIC REPUBLIC OF IRAN v. UNITED STATES OF AMERICA)
Factual background Signature of the 1955 Treaty of Amity Cessation of diplomatic relations in 1980 Amendment of United States Foreign Sovereign Immunities Act (the “FSIA”) in 1996 Enactment of United States Terrorism Risk Insurance Act (“TRIA”) in 2002 Further amendment of the FSIA in 2008 Issuance of Executive Order 13599 in 2012 Assets of Iran and certain Iranian entities subject to enforcement proceedings Notice of termination of the Treaty of Amity in 2018.
*
Jurisdiction and admissibility.
Objection to the Court’s jurisdiction ratione materiae based on whether Bank Markazi is a “company” within the meaning of the Treaty of Amity Activities of Bank Markazi referred to by Iran not sufficient to establish that it engaged in activities of commercial character Bank Markazi cannot be characterized as a “company” within the meaning of the Treaty of Amity Objection to jurisdiction predicated on treatment accorded to Bank Markazi upheld The Court lacks jurisdiction over Iran’s claims in so far as they relate to treatment accorded to Bank Markazi.
Objection to admissibility based on failure to exhaust local remedies Claims by Iran both in its own right and on behalf of Iranian companies No effective means of redress for Iranian
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companies in United States legal system United States courts have concluded that there is no conflict between United States measures and Treaty of Amity More recent federal statute would prevail over Treaty under United States jurisprudence Iranian companies had no reasonable possibility of successfully asserting their rights in United States court proceedings Objection to admissibility based on failure to exhaust local remedies cannot be upheld.
*
Defences on the merits.
Defence based on “clean hands” doctrine Doctrine requires misconduct by applicant and nexus between this misconduct and claims made No sufficient connection between wrongful conduct imputed to Iran by United States and claims of Iran Defence cannot be upheld.
Defence based on abuse of rights Need to demonstrate that Iran seeks to exercise rights conferred on it by the Treaty of Amity for purposes other than those for which rights were established, to the detriment of United States United States has failed to make such a demonstration Defence cannot be upheld.
Defence based on Article XX (1) (c) and (d) of the Treaty of Amity Measures adopted under Executive Order 13599 do not regulate production of or traffic in arms within the meaning of Article XX (1) (c) Defence based on Article XX (1) (c) cannot be upheld Measures not necessary to protect essential security interests within the meaning of Article XX (1) (d) Defence based on Article XX (1) (d) cannot be upheld.
*
Alleged violations of the Treaty of Amity.
Section 201 (a) of TRIA Section 1610 (g) (1) of the FSIA Executive Order 13599.
Article III (1) and Article IV (1) Provisions closely related and addressed together Scope of obligation in Article III (1) to recognize juridical status of companies of other Contracting Party Legal existence of company as entity distinct from other natural or legal persons Question of separate juridical status under Article III (1) to be addressed in the context of examination of Iran’s claims under Article IV (1) First clause concerning “fair and equitable treatment” includes protection against a denial of justice Enactment of legislative provisions removing legal defences based on separate legal personality, and their application by courts, do not
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in themselves amount to denial of justice Second clause concerning “unreasonable or discriminatory measures” Meaning of the term “unreasonable” within the Treaty of Amity United States’ measures caused impairment of Iranian companies’ rights that was manifestly excessive Measures were unreasonable, in violation of Article IV (1) No need to examine separately whether United States’ measures were “discriminatory” The United States’ measures disregarded Iranian companies’ own legal personality The United States thus also violated Article III (1).
Article III (2) does not guarantee substantive or procedural rights of a company but only access to courts Rights of Iranian companies to appear before United States courts, make legal submissions and lodge appeals not curtailed Companies’ arguments on basis of the Treaty of Amity related to their substantive rights, not freedom of access No violation of Article III (2) established.
Article IV (2) Prohibition of taking of property, except for public purpose and with prompt payment of just compensation Element of illegality required for a taking to be established Section 201 (a) of TRIA and Section 1610 (g) (1) of the FSIA found unreasonable They did not constitute a lawful exercise of regulatory powers and amounted to a taking in violation of Article IV (2) Taking of property not established with respect to Executive Order 13599 Claim concerning most constant protection and security Failure to protect property from physical harm required No violation of Article IV (2) established as concerns most constant protection and security.
Article V (1) Rights of nationals and companies to lease, purchase, acquire and dispose of property Iran’s allegations predicated on same set of facts as its claims concerning expropriation under Article IV (2) Article V (1) not meant to apply to situations amounting to expropriation No property or interests in property specifically affected by Executive Order 13599, other than the assets of Bank Markazi over which the Court has no jurisdiction No violation of Article V (1) established.
Article VII (1) Prohibition of restriction on the making of payments, remittances and other transfers of funds is limited to exchange restrictions Iran’s claims not related to exchange restrictions No violation of Article VII (1) established.
Article X (1) Term “commerce” in Article X (1) refers to commercial exchanges in general Activities entirely conducted in the financial sector constitute commerce protected under Article X (1) Requirement that commerce is “between the territories of the United States and Iran” Intermediaries located in various countries are involved in financial transactions Executive Order 13599 constitutes an actual impediment to financial transaction or operation to be conducted by Iran or Iranian financial institutions in United States territory Judicial application of Section 1610 (g) (1) of the FSIA and Section 201 (a) of TRIA caused concrete interference with commerce Enforcement proceedings with respect to assets of Iranian Ministry of Defence and
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Iranian Navy do not amount to interference with commerce Enforcement proceedings with respect to contractual debts in the telecommunications industry and the credit card services sector constitute interference with commerce Violation of Article X (1) established.
*
Remedies.
Cessation of internationally wrongful acts Obligation regarding cessation exists only if violated substantive obligation still in force Treaty of Amity no longer in force Request relating to cessation rejected.
Compensation Iran entitled to compensation for injury caused by United States violations Relevant injury and amount of compensation may be assessed by the Court in a subsequent phase If Parties are unable to agree on amount of compensation within 24 months, the Court will, at the request of either Party, determine amount due.
Satisfaction Findings of wrongful acts committed by the United States constitute sufficient satisfaction.
JUDGMENT
Present: Vice-President GEVORGIAN, Acting President; Judges TOMKA, ABRAHAM, BENNOUNA, YUSUF, XUE, SEBUTINDE, BHANDARI, ROBINSON, SALAM, IWASAWA, NOLTE, CHARLESWORTH; Judges ad hoc BARKETT, MOMTAZ; Registrar GAUTIER.
In the case concerning certain Iranian assets,
between
the Islamic Republic of Iran,
represented by
Mr. Tavakol Habibzadeh, Head of the Center for International Legal Affairs of the Islamic Republic of Iran, Attorney at Law, Associate Professor of International Law at Imam Sadiq University,
as Agent, Counsel and Advocate;
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Mr. Mohammad H. Zahedin Labbaf, Agent of the Islamic Republic of Iran to the Iran-United States Claims Tribunal, Legal Adviser to the Center for International Legal Affairs of the Islamic Republic of Iran, The Hague,
as Co-Agent and Counsel;
H.E. Mr. Alireza Kazemi Abadi, Ambassador of the Islamic Republic of Iran to the Kingdom of the Netherlands,
Mr. Mohammad Saleh Attar, Director of the Center for International Legal Affairs of the Islamic Republic of Iran, The Hague,
as Senior National Authorities and Legal Advisers;
Mr. Vaughan Lowe, KC, member of the Bar of England and Wales, Essex Court Chambers, Emeritus Professor of International Law, University of Oxford, member of the Institut de droit international,
Mr. Alain Pellet, Professor Emeritus of the University Paris Nanterre, former Chairman of the International Law Commission, President of the Institut de droit international,
Mr. Jean-Marc Thouvenin, Professor at the University Paris Nanterre, Secretary-General of the Hague Academy of International Law, associate member of the Institut de droit international, member of the Paris Bar, Sygna Partners,
Mr. Samuel Wordsworth, KC, member of the Bar of England and Wales, member of the Paris Bar, Essex Court Chambers,
Mr. Sean Aughey, member of the Bar of England and Wales, Essex Court Chambers,
Mr. Hadi Azari, Legal Adviser to the Center for International Legal Affairs of the Islamic Republic of Iran, Associate Professor of Public International Law at Kharazmi University,
Mr. Luke Vidal, member of the Paris Bar, Sygna Partners,
as Counsel and Advocates;
Mr. Behzad Saberi Ansari, Director General for International Legal Affairs, Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Islamic Republic of Iran,
Mr. Ali Nasimfar, Assistant Director General for International Legal Affairs, Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Islamic Republic of Iran,
Mr. Yousef Nourikia, Counsellor, Embassy of the Islamic Republic of Iran in the Netherlands,
Mr. Mahdad Fallah-Assadi, Legal Expert, Department of International Legal Affairs, Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Islamic Republic of Iran,
as Senior Legal Advisers;
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Ms Tessa Barsac, Consultant in International Law, Master (University Paris Nanterre), LLM (Leiden University),
Ms Lefa Mondon, Master (University of Strasbourg), Sygna Partners,
as Counsel;
Mr. Ali Mokhberolsafa, Legal Adviser to the Center for International Legal Affairs of the Islamic Republic of Iran, The Hague,
Mr. S. Mohammad Asbaghi Namini, Legal Adviser to the Center for International Legal Affairs of the Islamic Republic of Iran,
Mr. Ahmad Reza Tohidi, Legal Adviser to the Center for International Legal Affairs of the Islamic Republic of Iran, Associate Professor of International Law at the University of Qom,
Mr. Sajad Askari, Legal Adviser to the Center for International Legal Affairs of the Islamic Republic of Iran, Assistant Professor at Shahid Bahonar University of Kerman,
Mr. Vahid Bazzar, Legal Adviser to the Center for International Legal Affairs of the Islamic Republic of Iran,
Mr. Alireza Ranjbar, Legal Adviser to the Center for International Legal Affairs of the Islamic Republic of Iran,
as Legal Advisers,
and
the United States of America,
represented by
Mr. Richard C. Visek, Acting Legal Adviser, United States Department of State,
as Agent, Counsel and Advocate;
Mr. Steven F. Fabry, Deputy Legal Adviser, United States Department of State,
as Co-Agent, Counsel and Advocate;
Ms Emily J. Kimball, Legal Counselor, Embassy of the United States of America in the Kingdom of the Netherlands,
Ms Jennifer E. Marcovitz, Deputy Legal Counselor, Embassy of the United States of America in the Kingdom of the Netherlands,
as Deputy Agents and Counsel;
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Sir Daniel Bethlehem, KC, member of the Bar of England and Wales, Twenty Essex Chambers, London,
Ms Laurence Boisson de Chazournes, Professor of International Law and International Organization, University of Geneva, member of the Institut de droit international,
Ms Lisa J. Grosh, Assistant Legal Adviser, United States Department of State,
Mr. John D. Daley, Deputy Assistant Legal Adviser, United States Department of State,
Mr. Nathaniel E. Jedrey, Attorney Adviser, United States Department of State,
as Counsel and Advocates;
Ms Kristina E. Beard, Attorney Adviser, United States Department of State,
Mr. David M. Bigge, Attorney Adviser, United States Department of State,
Ms Julia H. Brower, Attorney Adviser, United States Department of State,
Mr. Peter A. Gutherie, Attorney Adviser, United States Department of State,
Mr. Matthew S. Hackell, Attorney Adviser, United States Department of State,
Ms Melinda E. Kuritzky, Attorney Adviser, United States Department of State,
Ms Mary T. Muino, Attorney Adviser, United States Department of State,
Mr. Robert L. Nightingale, Attorney Adviser, United States Department of State,
Mr. Alvaro J. Peralta, Attorney Adviser, United States Department of State,
Mr. David J. Stute, Attorney Adviser, United States Department of State,
Mr. Isaac D. Webb, Attorney Adviser, United States Department of State,
as Counsel;
Mr. Guillaume Guez, PhD candidate at the University of Geneva and the University of Paris 1 Panthéon-Sorbonne, Research and Teaching Assistant, Faculty of Law, University of Geneva,
Ms Anjail Al-Uqdah, Paralegal, United States Department of State,
Ms Mariama N. Yilla, Paralegal, United States Department of State,
Ms Kelly A. Molloy, Administrative Assistant, United States Department of State,
as Assistants,
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THE COURT,
composed as above,
after deliberation,
delivers the following Judgment:
1. On 14 June 2016, the Islamic Republic of Iran (hereinafter “Iran”) filed in the Registry of the Court an Application instituting proceedings against the United States of America (hereinafter the “United States”) with regard to a dispute concerning alleged violations by the United States of the Treaty of Amity, Economic Relations, and Consular Rights, which was signed by the two States in Tehran on 15 August 1955 and entered into force on 16 June 1957 (hereinafter the “Treaty of Amity” or “Treaty”).
2. In its Application, Iran sought to found the Court’s jurisdiction on Article XXI, paragraph 2, of the Treaty of Amity, in conjunction with Article 36, paragraph 1, of the Statute of the Court.
3. In accordance with Article 40, paragraph 2, of the Statute of the Court, the Registrar immediately communicated the Application to the Government of the United States. He also notified the Secretary-General of the United Nations of the filing of the Application by Iran.
4. In addition, by letters dated 20 June 2016, the Registrar informed all Member States of the United Nations of the filing of the above-mentioned Application.
5. Pursuant to Article 40, paragraph 3, of the Statute, the Registrar subsequently notified the Members of the United Nations through the Secretary-General of the filing of the Application, by transmission of the printed bilingual text.
6. By letters dated 23 June 2016, the Registrar informed both Parties that the Member of the Court of United States nationality, referring to Article 24, paragraph 1, of the Statute, had notified the Court of her intention not to participate in the decision of the case. Pursuant to Article 31 of the Statute and Article 37, paragraph 1, of the Rules of Court, the United States chose Mr. David Caron to sit as judge ad hoc in the case. Judge Caron having passed away on 20 February 2018, the United States chose Mr. Charles Brower to sit as judge ad hoc in the case. Following the resignation of Judge Brower on 5 June 2022, the United States chose Ms Rosemary Barkett to sit as judge ad hoc.
7. Since the Court included upon the Bench no judge of Iranian nationality, Iran proceeded to exercise the right conferred upon it by Article 31, paragraph 3, of the Statute to choose a judge ad hoc to sit in the case; it chose Mr. Djamchid Momtaz.
8. By an Order dated 1 July 2016, the Court fixed 1 February 2017 and 1 September 2017 as the respective time-limits for the filing of a Memorial by Iran and a Counter-Memorial by the United States. The Memorial of Iran was filed within the time-limit thus fixed.
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9. By letter dated 30 March 2017, the United States, invoking Article 49 of the Statute and Articles 50 and 62 of the Rules, requested that the Court call upon Iran to produce, or arrange for the United States to have access to, “certain documents relevant to the claims Iran ha[d] asserted against the United States, which [had] not [been] included in the Annexes to Iran’s Memorial, and to which the United States lack[ed] access”, in particular pleadings and related documents that had been filed confidentially with the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York in the Deborah Peterson et al. v. Islamic Republic of Iran case (hereinafter the “Peterson case”). By a second letter dated 30 March 2017, the United States requested that the Court extend the time-limit for the filing of preliminary objections to 16 June 2017 or a date not less than 45 days after the United States obtained the documents from the Peterson case. By letter dated 12 April 2017, Iran objected to these two requests. By letters dated 19 April 2017, the Registrar informed the Parties that, at that stage of the proceedings, the Court had decided not to use its powers under Article 49 of the Statute of the Court to call upon Iran to produce the documents from the Peterson case, and that, consequently, it had also decided to reject the request for an extension of the time-limit for the filing of preliminary objections. By letter dated 1 May 2017, the United States informed the Court that it would petition the United States District Court seised of the Peterson proceedings for access to the documents in question and that it would seek to present to the Court any additional relevant material.
10. On 1 May 2017, within the time-limit prescribed by Article 79, paragraph 1, of the Rules of Court of 14 April 1978 as amended on 1 February 2001, the United States raised preliminary objections to the jurisdiction of the Court and the admissibility of the Application. Consequently, by an Order of 2 May 2017, the President of the Court noted that, by virtue of Article 79, paragraph 5, of the Rules of Court of 14 April 1978 as amended on 1 February 2001, the proceedings on the merits were suspended and, taking account of Practice Direction V, fixed 1 September 2017 as the time-limit within which Iran could present a written statement of its observations and submissions on the preliminary objections raised by the United States. Iran filed such a statement within the time-limit so prescribed, and the case thus became ready for hearing in respect of the preliminary objections.
11. By letter dated 24 August 2017, the United States informed the Court that the United States District Court seised of the Peterson proceedings had directed the parties to file public versions of the documents to which it had sought access (see paragraph 9 above), and announced its intention to file these public versions with the Court, adding that they would constitute publications “readily available” within the meaning of Article 56, paragraph 4, of the Rules. By letter dated 30 August 2017, Iran noted the content of the United States’ letter of 24 August 2017 and indicated that it wished to reserve all its rights, in particular its right “to respond to any application by the United States to introduce new evidence and/or written submissions commenting upon evidence, outside the timetable fixed by the Court”. On 19 September 2017, the United States filed certain documents from the Peterson case, which had been made public on 31 August 2017. In an accompanying letter, the United States indicated that these documents were available on the website of the federal court concerned and that they would also be published on the website of the United States Department of State. By letter dated 16 October 2017, Iran objected to the filing of the documents from the Peterson case, arguing that the United States had acted in violation of Article 79, paragraphs 3 to 8, of the Rules of Court and that these documents were not publicly available. By letter dated 3 November 2017, the United States confirmed that it had placed the documents from the Peterson case on the website of the United States Department of State.
12. Public hearings on the preliminary objections raised by the United States were held from 8 to 12 October 2018. In its Judgment of 13 February 2019 (hereinafter the “2019 Judgment”), the Court found that it had jurisdiction to rule on the Application filed by Iran, except with respect to
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Iran’s claims based on the alleged violation of rules of international law on sovereign immunities. With respect to the preliminary objection concerning its jurisdiction to entertain Iran’s claims of purported violations of Articles III, IV or V of the Treaty of Amity predicated on the treatment accorded to Bank Markazi Jomhuri Islami Iran (hereinafter “Bank Markazi”), the Court found that the objection did not possess an exclusively preliminary character. The Court also found that Iran’s Application was admissible.
13. By an Order of 13 February 2019, the Court fixed 13 September 2019 as the new time-limit for the filing of the Counter-Memorial of the United States. By an Order dated 15 August 2019, the President of the Court, at the request of the Respondent, extended that time-limit to 14 October 2019. The Counter-Memorial was filed within the time-limit thus extended.
14. By an Order dated 15 November 2019, the President of the Court authorized the submission of a Reply by Iran and a Rejoinder by the United States, and fixed 17 August 2020 and 17 May 2021 as the respective time-limits for the filing of those pleadings. The Reply and Rejoinder were filed within the time-limits thus fixed.
15. Pursuant to Article 53, paragraph 2, of the Rules of Court, the Court, after ascertaining the views of the Parties, decided that copies of the written pleadings and documents annexed would be made accessible to the public on the opening of the oral proceedings.
16. Public hearings were held on 19, 21, 22 and 23 September 2022, at which the Court heard the oral arguments and replies of:
For Iran: Mr. Tavakol Habibzadeh,
Mr. Vaughan Lowe,
Mr. Hadi Azari,
Mr. Luke Vidal,
Mr. Jean-Marc Thouvenin,
Mr. Samuel Wordsworth,
Mr. Sean Aughey,
Mr. Alain Pellet.
For the United States: Mr. Richard C. Visek,
Sir Daniel Bethlehem,
Ms Lisa Grosh,
Ms Laurence Boisson de Chazournes,
Mr. John Daley,
Mr. Nathaniel E. Jedrey,
Mr. Steven Fabry.
17. At the hearings, a Member of the Court put a question to Iran, to which a reply was given in writing, in accordance with Article 61, paragraph 4, of the Rules of Court. Pursuant to Article 72 of the Rules of Court, the United States submitted written comments on Iran’s reply.
*
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18. In the Application, the following claims were made by Iran:
“On the basis of the foregoing, and while reserving the right to supplement, amend or modify the present Application in the course of further proceedings in the case, Iran respectfully requests the Court to adjudge, order and declare as follows:
(a) That the Court has jurisdiction under the Treaty of Amity to entertain the dispute and to rule upon the claims submitted by Iran;
(b) That by its acts, including the acts referred to above and in particular its (a) failure to recognise the separate juridical status (including the separate legal personality) of all Iranian companies including Bank Markazi, and (b) unfair and discriminatory treatment of such entities, and their property, which impairs the legally acquired rights and interests of such entities including enforcement of their contractual rights, and (c) failure to accord to such entities and their property the most constant protection and security that is in no case less than that required by international law, (d) expropriation of the property of such entities, and (e) failure to accord to such entities freedom of access to the US courts, including the abrogation of the immunities to which Iran and Iranian State-owned companies, including Bank Markazi, and their property, are entitled under customary international law and as required by the Treaty of Amity, and (f) failure to respect the right of such entities to acquire and dispose of property, and (g) application of restrictions to such entities on the making of payments and other transfers of funds to or from the USA, and (h) interference with the freedom of commerce, the USA has breached its obligations to Iran, inter alia, under Articles III (1), III (2), IV (1), IV (2), V (1), VII (1) and X (1) of the Treaty of Amity;
(c) That the USA shall ensure that no steps shall be taken based on the executive, legislative and judicial acts (as referred to above) at issue in this case which are, to the extent determined by the Court, inconsistent with the obligations of the USA to Iran under the Treaty of Amity;
(d) That Iran and Iranian State-owned companies are entitled to immunity from the jurisdiction of the US courts and in respect of enforcement proceedings in the USA, and that such immunity must be respected by the USA (including US courts), to the extent established as a matter of customary international law and required by the Treaty of Amity;
(e) That the USA (including the US courts) is obliged to respect the juridical status (including the separate legal personality), and to ensure freedom of access to the US courts, of all Iranian companies, including State-owned companies such as Bank Markazi, and that no steps based on the executive, legislative and judicial acts (as referred to above), which involve or imply the recognition or enforcement of such acts shall be taken against the assets or interests of Iran or any Iranian entity or national;
(f) That the USA is under an obligation to make full reparations to Iran for the violation of its international legal obligations in an amount to be determined by the Court at a subsequent stage of the proceedings. Iran reserves the right to introduce and
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present to the Court in due course a precise evaluation of the reparations owed by the USA; and
(g) Any other remedy the Court may deem appropriate.”
19. In the written proceedings, the following submissions were presented by the Parties:
On behalf of the Government of Iran,
in the Memorial:
“On the basis of the foregoing, and reserving its right to supplement, amend or modify the present request for relief in the course of the proceedings in this case, Iran respectfully requests the Court to adjudge, order and declare:
(a) That the United States’ international responsibility is engaged as follows:
(i) That by its acts, including the acts referred to above and in particular its failure to recognise the separate juridical status (including the separate legal personality) of all Iranian companies including Bank Markazi, the United States has breached its obligations to Iran, inter alia, under Article III (1) of the Treaty of Amity;
(ii) That by its acts, including the acts referred to above and in particular its: (a) unfair and discriminatory treatment of such entities, and their property, which impairs the legally acquired rights and interests of such entities including enforcement of their contractual rights, and (b) failure to accord to such entities and their property the most constant protection and security that is in no case less than that required by international law, and (c) expropriation of the property of such entities, and its failure to accord to such entities freedom of access to the U.S. courts, including the abrogation of the immunities to which Iran and Iranian State-owned companies, including Bank Markazi, and their property, are entitled under customary international law and as required by the 1955 Treaty of Amity, and (d) failure to respect the right of such entities to acquire and dispose of property, the United States has breached its obligations to Iran, inter alia, under Articles III (2), IV (1), IV (2), V (1) and XI (4) of the Treaty of Amity;
(iii) That by its acts, including the acts referred to above and in particular its: (a) application of restrictions to such entities on the making of payments and other transfers of funds to or from the United States, and (b) interference with the freedom of commerce, the United States has breached its obligations to Iran, inter alia, under Articles VII (1) and X (1) of the Treaty of Amity;
(b) That the United States shall cease such conduct and provide Iran with an assurance that it will not repeat its unlawful acts;
(c) That the United States shall ensure that no steps shall be taken based on the executive, legislative and judicial acts (as referred to above) at issue in this case which are, to the extent determined by the Court, inconsistent with the obligations of the United States to Iran under the 1955 Treaty of Amity;
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(d) That the United States shall, by enacting appropriate legislation, or by resorting to other methods of its choosing, ensure that the decisions of its courts and those of other authorities infringing the rights, including respect for the juridical status of Iranian companies, and the entitlement to immunity which Iran and Iranian State-owned companies, including Bank Markazi, enjoy under the 1955 Treaty of Amity and international law cease to have effect;
(e) That Iran and Iranian State-owned companies are entitled to immunity from the jurisdiction of the U.S. courts and in respect of enforcement proceedings in the United States, and that such immunity must be respected by the United States (including the U.S. courts), to the extent required by the 1955 Treaty of Amity and international law;
(f) That the United States (including the U.S. courts) is obliged to respect the juridical status (including the separate legal personality), and to ensure freedom of access to the U.S. courts, of all Iranian companies, including State-owned companies such as Bank Markazi, and that no steps based on the executive, legislative and judicial acts (as referred to above), which involve or imply the recognition or enforcement of such acts shall be taken against the assets or interests of Iran or any Iranian companies[;]
(g) That the United States is under an obligation to make full reparation to Iran for the violation of its international legal obligations in a form and in an amount to be determined by the Court at a subsequent stage of the proceedings. Iran reserves its right to introduce and present to the Court in due course a precise evaluation of the reparations owed by the United States; and
(h) Any other remedy the Court may deem appropriate.”
in the Reply:
“On the basis of the foregoing, and reserving its right to supplement, amend or modify the present request for relief in the course of the proceedings in this case, Iran respectfully requests the Court to adjudge, order and declare:
(a) That the United States has violated its obligations under the Treaty of Amity, as follows:
(i) That by its acts, including the acts referred to above and in particular its failure to recognise the separate juridical status (including the separate legal personality) of all Iranian companies including Bank Markazi, the United States has breached its obligations to Iran, inter alia, under Article III (1) of the Treaty of Amity;
(ii) That by its acts, including the acts referred to above and in particular its (a) unfair and inequitable treatment of such companies and their property (including interests in property); and (b) unreasonable and discriminatory treatment of such companies, and their property, which impairs the legally acquired rights and interests; and (c) failure to assure that the lawful contractual rights of such companies are afforded effective means of enforcement, and (d) failure to accord to such companies and their property the most constant protection and security that is in no case less than that required
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by international law, and (e) expropriation of the property of such companies, and its failure to accord to such entities freedom of access to the U.S. courts to the end that justice be done, as required by the 1955 Treaty of Amity, and (f) failure to respect the right of such companies to acquire and dispose of property, the United States has breached its obligations to Iran, inter alia, under Articles III (2), IV (1), IV (2), and V (1) of the Treaty of Amity;
(iii) That by its acts, including the acts referred to above and in particular its (a) application of restrictions to such entities on the making of payments and other transfers of funds to or from the United States, and (b) interference with the freedom of commerce, the United States has breached its obligations to Iran, inter alia, under Articles VII (1) and X (1) of the Treaty of Amity;
(b) That the aforementioned violations of international law entail the international responsibility of the United States;
(c) That the United States is consequently obliged to put an end to the situation brought about by the aforementioned violations of international law, by (a) ceasing those acts and (b) making full reparation for the injury caused by those acts, in an amount to be determined in a later phase of these proceedings, and (c) offering a formal apology to the Islamic Republic of Iran for those wrongful acts and injuries;
(d) That the United States shall, by enacting appropriate legislation, or by resorting to other methods of its choosing, ensure that the measures adopted by its Legislature and its Executive, and the decisions of its courts and those of other authorities infringing the rights of Iran and of Iranian companies, cease to have effect in so far as they were each adopted or taken in violation of the obligations owed by the United States to Iran under the Treaty of Amity, and that no steps are taken against the assets or interests of Iran or any Iranian entity or national that involve or imply the recognition or enforcement of such acts;
(e) That Iran present to the Court, by a date to be fixed by the Court, a precise evaluation of the reparations due for injuries caused by the unlawful acts of the United States in breach of the Treaty of Amity;
(f) That the United States shall pay the costs incurred by Iran in the presentation of this case and the defence of its legal rights under the Treaty of Amity, with the details thereof to be presented by Iran to the Court, by a date to be fixed by the Court;
(g) Any other remedy the Court may deem appropriate.”
On behalf of the Government of the United States,
in the Counter-Memorial:
“On the basis of the facts and arguments set out above, the United States of America requests that the Court, in addition or in the alternative:
(1) Dismiss all claims brought under the Treaty of Amity on the basis that Iran comes to the Court with unclean hands.
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(2) Dismiss as outside the Court’s jurisdiction all claims brought under Articles III, IV, and V of the Treaty of Amity that are predicated on treatment accorded to Bank Markazi.
(3) Dismiss as outside the Court’s jurisdiction all claims brought under Articles III, IV, and V of the Treaty of Amity that are predicated on treatment accorded to companies that have failed to exhaust local remedies.
(4) Dismiss on the basis of Article XX (1) (c) and (d) of the Treaty of Amity all claims that U.S. measures that block or freeze assets of the Iranian government or Iranian financial institutions (as defined in Executive Order 13599) violate any provision of the Treaty.
(5) Dismiss all claims brought under Articles III, IV, V, VII, and X of the Treaty of Amity on the basis that the United States did not breach its obligations to Iran under any of those Articles.
(6) To the extent the Court concludes that Iran, notwithstanding the foregoing submissions, has established one or more of its claims brought under the Treaty of Amity, reject such claims on the basis that Iran’s invocation of its purported rights under the Treaty constitutes an abuse of right.”
in the Rejoinder:
“On the basis of the facts and arguments set out above, the United States of America requests that the Court, in addition or in the alternative:
(1) Dismiss all claims brought under the Treaty of Amity on the basis that Iran comes to the Court with unclean hands.
(2) Dismiss as outside the Court’s jurisdiction all claims brought under Articles III, IV, and V of the Treaty of Amity that are predicated on treatment accorded to Bank Markazi.
(3) Dismiss as outside the Court’s jurisdiction all claims brought under Articles III, IV, and V of the Treaty of Amity that are predicated on treatment accorded to companies that have failed to exhaust local remedies.
(4) Dismiss on the basis of Article XX (1) (c) and (d) of the Treaty of Amity all claims that U.S. measures that block or freeze assets of the Iranian government or Iranian financial institutions (as defined in Executive Order 13599) violate any provision of the Treaty.
(5) Dismiss all claims brought under Articles III, IV, V, VII, and X of the Treaty of Amity on the basis that the United States did not breach its obligations to Iran under any of those Articles.
(6) To the extent the Court concludes that Iran, notwithstanding the foregoing submissions, has established one or more of its claims brought under the Treaty of Amity, reject such claims on the basis that Iran’s invocation of its purported rights under the Treaty constitutes an abuse of right.”
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20. At the oral proceedings, the following submissions were presented by the Parties:
On behalf of the Government of Iran,
“On the basis of the foregoing, Iran respectfully requests the Court to adjudge, order and declare:
(a) First, that the United States has violated its obligations under the Treaty of Amity, as follows:
(i) That by its acts, in particular its failure to recognise the separate juridical status (including the separate legal personality) of all Iranian companies including Bank Markazi, the United States has breached its obligations to Iran, inter alia, under Article III (1) of the Treaty of Amity;
(ii) That by its acts, in particular its (a) unfair and inequitable treatment of such companies and their property (including interests in property); and (b) unreasonable and discriminatory treatment of such companies, and their property, which impairs the legally acquired rights and interests; and (c) failure to assure that the lawful contractual rights of such companies are afforded effective means of enforcement, and (d) failure to accord to such companies and their property the most constant protection and security that is in no case less than that required by international law, and (e) expropriation of the property of such companies, and its failure to accord to such entities freedom of access to the U.S. courts to the end that justice be done, as required by the 1955 Treaty of Amity, and (f) failure to respect the right of such companies to acquire and dispose of property, the United States has breached its obligations to Iran, inter alia, under Articles III (2), IV (1), IV (2), and V (1) of the Treaty of Amity;
(iii) That by its acts, and in particular its (a) application of restrictions to such entities on the making of payments and other transfers of funds to or from the United States, and (b) interference with the freedom of commerce, the United States has breached its obligations to Iran, inter alia, under Articles VII (1) and X (1) of the Treaty of Amity;
(b) Second, that the aforementioned violations of international law entail the international responsibility of the United States;
(c) Third, that the United States is consequently obliged to put an end to the situation brought about by the aforementioned violations of international law, by (a) ceasing those acts and (b) making full reparation for the injury caused by those acts, in an amount to be determined in a later phase of these proceedings, and (c) offering a formal apology to the Islamic Republic of Iran for those wrongful acts and injuries;
(d) Fourth, that the United States shall, by enacting appropriate legislation, or by resorting to other methods of its choosing, ensure that the measures adopted by its Legislature and its Executive, and the decisions of its courts and those of other
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authorities infringing the rights of Iran and of Iranian companies, cease to have effect in so far as they were each adopted or taken in violation of the obligations owed by the United States to Iran under the Treaty of Amity, and that no steps are taken against the assets or interests of Iran or any Iranian entity or national that involve or imply the recognition or enforcement of such acts;
(e) Fifth, that Iran presents to the Court, by a date to be fixed by the Court, a precise evaluation of the reparations due for injuries caused by the unlawful acts of the United States in breach of the Treaty of Amity;
(f) Sixth, that the United States shall pay the costs incurred by Iran in the presentation of this case and the defence of its legal rights under the Treaty of Amity, with the details thereof to be presented by Iran to the Court, by a date to be fixed by the Court;
(g) Seventh, any other remedy the Court may deem appropriate.”
On behalf of the Government of the United States,
“For the reasons explained during these hearings and in its written submissions and any other reasons the Court might deem appropriate, the United States of America requests that the Court:
(1) Dismiss all claims brought under the Treaty of Amity on the basis that Iran comes to the Court with unclean hands.
(2) Dismiss as outside the Court’s jurisdiction all claims brought under Articles III, IV, and V of the Treaty of Amity that are predicated on treatment accorded to Bank Markazi.
(3) Dismiss as outside the Court’s jurisdiction all claims brought under Articles III, IV, and V of the Treaty of Amity that are predicated on treatment accorded to companies that have failed to exhaust local remedies.
(4) Dismiss on the basis of Article XX (1) (c) and (d) of the Treaty of Amity all claims that U.S. measures that block or freeze assets of the Iranian government or Iranian financial institutions (as defined in Executive Order 13599) violate any provision of the Treaty.
(5) Dismiss all claims brought under Articles III, IV, V, VII, and X of the Treaty of Amity on the basis that the United States did not breach its obligations to Iran under any of those Articles.
(6) To the extent the Court concludes that Iran, notwithstanding the foregoing submissions, has established one or more of its claims brought under the Treaty of Amity, reject such claims on the basis that Iran’s invocation of its purported rights under the Treaty constitutes an abuse of right.”
*
* *
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I. FACTUAL BACKGROUND
21. The Court recalls that, on 15 August 1955, the Parties signed the Treaty of Amity, which entered into force on 16 June 1957 (see paragraph 1 above).
22. Iran and the United States ceased diplomatic relations in 1980, following the Iranian revolution in early 1979 and the seizure of the United States Embassy in Tehran on 4 November 1979.
23. In October 1983, the United States Marine Corps barracks in Beirut, Lebanon, were bombed, killing 241 United States service members who were part of a multinational peacekeeping force. The United States claims that Iran is responsible for this bombing and for subsequent acts of terrorism and violations of international law, including the bombing in 1996 of a housing complex in Saudi Arabia known as the Khobar Towers, which killed 19 United States service members. Iran rejects these allegations.
24. In 1984, in accordance with its domestic law, the United States designated Iran as a “State sponsor of terrorism”, a designation which it has maintained ever since.
25. In 1996, the United States amended its Foreign Sovereign Immunities Act (hereinafter the “FSIA”) so as to remove the immunity from suit before its courts of States designated as “State sponsors of terrorism” in certain cases involving allegations of torture, extrajudicial killing, aircraft sabotage, hostage taking, or the provision of material support for such acts (Section 1605 (a) (7) of the FSIA). It also provided exceptions to immunity from execution applicable in such cases (Sections 1610 (a) (7) and 1610 (b) (2) of the FSIA). Plaintiffs then began to bring actions against Iran before United States courts for damages arising from deaths and injuries caused by acts allegedly supported, including financially, by Iran. These actions gave rise to the Peterson case, concerning the bombing of the United States barracks in Beirut (see paragraph 23 above), among other cases concerning alleged acts of terrorism. Iran declined to appear in these lawsuits on the ground that the United States legislation was in violation of the international law on State immunities.
26. In 2002, the United States enacted the Terrorism Risk Insurance Act (hereinafter “TRIA”), which permitted certain enforcement measures for judgments entered pursuant to the 1996 amendment to the FSIA. In particular, Section 201 of TRIA provides that, in every case in which a person has obtained a judgment in respect of an act of terrorism or falling within the scope of Section 1605 (a) (7) of the FSIA, the assets of an entity designated a “terrorist party” under United States law (defined to include, among others, designated “State sponsors of terrorism”) previously blocked by the United States Government — “including the blocked assets of any agency or instrumentality of that terrorist party” — shall be subject to execution or attachment in aid of execution.
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27. In 2008, the United States further amended the FSIA, enlarging the categories of assets available for the satisfaction of judgment creditors, in particular to include all property of State-owned entities of those States having been designated “State sponsors of terrorism”, whether or not that property had previously been “blocked” by the United States Government (Section 1610 (g) of the FSIA).
28. In 2012, the President of the United States issued Executive Order 13599, which blocked all assets of the Government of Iran, including those of Bank Markazi and of other Iranian financial institutions, where such assets are within United States territory or “within the possession or control of any United States person, including any foreign branch”.
29. Also in 2012, the United States adopted the Iran Threat Reduction and Syria Human Rights Act (hereinafter the “ITRSHRA”), Section 502 of which, inter alia, made the assets of Bank Markazi subject to execution in order to satisfy debts under default judgments against Iran in the Peterson case. Bank Markazi challenged the validity of this provision before United States courts; the United States Supreme Court ultimately upheld its constitutionality (Bank Markazi v. Peterson et al., U.S. Supreme Court, 20 April 2016, Supreme Court Reporter, Vol. 136, p. 1310 (2016)).
30. Following the legislative and executive measures taken by the United States, many default judgments and substantial damages judgments have been entered by United States courts against the State of Iran and, in some cases, against Iranian State-owned entities. Further, the assets of Iran and certain Iranian entities, including Bank Markazi, are now subject to enforcement proceedings in various cases in the United States or abroad, or have already been distributed to judgment creditors.
31. On 14 June 2016, Iran instituted the current proceedings before the Court (see paragraph 1 above), arguing that, as a result of the United States’ executive, legislative and judicial acts, Iran and Iranian entities were suffering serious and ongoing harm.
32. By diplomatic Note dated 3 October 2018 addressed by the United States Department of State to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Iran, the United States, in accordance with Article XXIII, paragraph 3, of the Treaty of Amity, gave “one year’s written notice” of the termination of the Treaty.
II. QUESTIONS OF JURISDICTION AND ADMISSIBILITY
33. In its 2019 Judgment (see paragraph 12 above), the Court ruled on several objections to jurisdiction and admissibility that the United States had raised as a preliminary matter (Certain Iranian Assets (Islamic Republic of Iran v. United States of America), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2019 (I), p. 7). At the present stage of the proceedings, it falls to the Court to examine two objections raised by the Respondent: the first, relating to the Court’s jurisdiction ratione materiae, concerns the characterization of Bank Markazi; the second, relating to the admissibility of Iran’s claims, is based on the failure to exhaust local remedies.
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A. Objection to the Court’s jurisdiction ratione materiae: question whether Bank Markazi is a “company” within the meaning of the Treaty of Amity
34. The Court recalls that one of the preliminary objections raised by the United States sought to have the Court dismiss “as outside [its] jurisdiction all claims of purported violations of Articles III, IV, or V of the Treaty of Amity that are predicated on treatment accorded to the Government of Iran or Bank Markazi” (Certain Iranian Assets (Islamic Republic of Iran v. United States of America), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2019 (I), p. 35, para. 81). Having found that Iran’s claims based on Articles III, IV and V of the Treaty of Amity did not relate to the treatment of the Iranian State itself, and that consequently the objection at issue concerned only Bank Markazi (ibid., p. 36, para. 84), the Court considered that the decisive question was whether Bank Markazi was a “company” within the meaning of the Treaty of Amity. Indeed, the rights and protections guaranteed by Articles III, IV and V of the Treaty are for the benefit of “nationals” (a term used in the Treaty to describe natural persons) and “companies”.
35. There being a disagreement between the Parties as to whether Bank Markazi could be characterized as a “company”, the Court ruled, on the basis of the arguments exchanged before it and information provided to it, that
“it [did] not have before it all the facts necessary to determine whether Bank Markazi was carrying out, at the relevant time, activities of the nature of those which permit characterization as a ‘company’ within the meaning of the Treaty of Amity, and which would have been capable of being affected by the measures complained of by Iran by reference to Articles III, IV and V of the Treaty” (ibid., p. 40, para. 97).
It added that, “[s]ince those elements are largely of a factual nature and are, moreover, closely linked to the merits of the case, the Court considers that it will be able to rule on the third objection only after the Parties have presented their arguments in the following stage of the proceedings” (ibid.). This led the Court, in the operative part of its Judgment, to declare that the objection in question “[did] not possess, in the circumstances of the case, an exclusively preliminary character” (ibid., p. 45, para. 126, subpara. 3).
36. In its final submissions presented at the end of the hearings on the merits, the United States raised the same objection to jurisdiction, except that, in contrast to its preliminary objection, it now referred only to Bank Markazi (subparagraph (2) of the final submissions; see paragraph 20 above).
37. In order to demonstrate that Bank Markazi was carrying out, at the relevant time, activities permitting it to be characterized as a “company” within the meaning of the Treaty of Amity, Iran contends that not only was Bank Markazi able, under its statutes, to perform commercial activities, but it was also actually engaged in such activities.
As regards the first point, Iran refers to its Monetary and Banking Act of 1972. Iran argues that this Act not only confers on Bank Markazi the typical functions of a central bank, which the Applicant acknowledges are sovereign functions; according to Iran, it also authorizes the bank to perform other financial and banking activities that are typically commercial in nature, identical to those performed by any other private company doing business in a free and competitive market.
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As regards the second point, Iran cites certain investment activities and the management of securities belonging to Bank Markazi that were held on its behalf in a custody account with Citibank in New York. These assets, which are said to be worth around US$1.8 billion, were composed, according to Iran, of investments made in the form of purchases, between 2002 and 2007, of 22 security entitlements in dematerialized bonds issued on the United States financial market by governments, public enterprises and international institutions such as the World Bank. Iran points out that these investments generated profits, on which Bank Markazi was required to pay tax under Article 25 (a) (1) of Iran’s Monetary and Banking Act, and on account of which Bank Markazi did in fact pay a significant amount of tax during the period in question.
38. According to Iran, Bank Markazi’s purchase of the bonds in question and the management of its investment portfolio are by nature commercial activities that allow the bank to be characterized as a “company” within the meaning of the Treaty. Iran contends that, in its Judgment on preliminary objections, the Court found that, in order to determine whether an activity was commercial, it was necessary to focus on the nature of the said activity, and that the existence of a link between sovereign functions and a given activity was not a sufficient basis for depriving that activity of its commercial nature. In other words, according to Iran, “it is necessary to focus on the activity as such, and not on the function with which that activity has a link of some kind”. The Applicant adds that both the United States political authorities and courts deemed Bank Markazi’s investment activities to be commercial in nature, which is why they considered that the bank was not entitled to claim immunity against the measures aimed at freezing and attaching the assets concerned. Furthermore, the Applicant contends that there is extensive arbitral jurisprudence confirming that, in characterizing an activity as commercial, the focus should be on the nature of the activity as such, and not on the underlying purpose.
39. For the United States, the nature of the activities mentioned by Iran is not such that they would permit Bank Markazi to be characterized as a “company” within the meaning of the Treaty. According to the Respondent, Bank Markazi engaged in transactions falling within the traditional framework of the sovereign activities carried out by a central bank, and not in transactions of a commercial nature. Bank Markazi’s purchase of 22 security entitlements in dematerialized bonds issued by a number of foreign governments and international institutions was part of the management of Iran’s currency reserves, a sovereign function with no equivalent in the commercial sphere.
The Respondent emphasizes that, in United States court proceedings, in particular the Peterson case, Bank Markazi consistently presented the activities in question as falling within the exercise of its sovereign function as a central bank, and not as commercial operations. It relies, for example, on the bank’s statement that
“Bank Markazi is the Central Bank of Iran. Like other central banks, it holds foreign currency reserves to carry out monetary policies such as maintaining price stability. Like other central banks, it often maintains the reserves in bonds issued by foreign sovereigns or ‘supranationals’ like the European Investment Bank”,
and the assertion that,
“[p]lainly, central banking activities such as investing currency reserves are not remotely comparable to the ‘commercial, industrial, shipping or other business
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activities’ that Article XI, Section 4[, of the Treaty] is concerned with. Rather, central banking activities serve an important governmental purpose.”
The United States argues that the Court should rely on the assertions made by Bank Markazi itself.
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40. Although in its 2019 Judgment the Court refrained from ruling on the objection to jurisdiction now under consideration, on the ground that it did not possess, in the circumstances of the case, an exclusively preliminary character (see paragraph 35 above), that Judgment nevertheless contains, in its reasoning, a number of significant indications regarding the concept of “company” as it is used in Articles III, IV and V of the Treaty of Amity.
41. The Court began by recalling that, under the Treaty, first, an entity may only be characterized as a “company” if it has its own legal personality conferred on it by the law of the State in which it was created, and, second, an entity which is wholly or partly owned by a State may constitute a “company” within the meaning of the Treaty, since the definition of “company” provided by Article III, paragraph 1, makes no distinction between private and public enterprises (Certain Iranian Assets (Islamic Republic of Iran v. United States of America), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2019 (I), p. 37, para. 87). The Court concluded from this that Bank Markazi, which had its own legal personality conferred on it by Iranian law, and which the United States could not dispute, was not to be excluded from the category of “companies” solely because it was wholly owned by the Iranian State, which exercised a power of direction and close control over the bank’s activities (ibid., p. 38, para. 88).
42. The Court then rejected the interpretation put forward at the time by the Applicant, according to which the nature of the activities carried out by a particular entity was immaterial for the purpose of characterizing that entity as a “company”, and that it was therefore of no relevance whether the entity in question carried out functions of a sovereign nature, i.e. acts of sovereignty or public authority, or whether it engaged in activities of a commercial or industrial nature, or indeed a combination of both types of activity.
43. This interpretation, which the Court observed would lead to the conclusion that having a separate legal personality would be both a necessary and a sufficient condition for a given entity to be characterized as a “company” within the meaning of the Treaty, was rejected. In the view of the Court, such an interpretation would fail to take account of the context of the definition provided by Article III, paragraph 1, and the object and purpose of the Treaty of Amity. As the Court stated, the Treaty is aimed at “guaranteeing rights and affording protections to natural and legal persons engaging in activities of a commercial nature, even if this latter term is to be understood in a broad sense”. The Court thus concluded that
“an entity carrying out exclusively sovereign activities, linked to the sovereign functions of the State, cannot be characterized as a ‘company’ within the meaning of the Treaty
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and, consequently, may not claim the benefit of the rights and protections provided for in Articles III, IV and V” (Certain Iranian Assets (Islamic Republic of Iran v. United States of America), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2019 (I), p. 38, para. 91).
44. The Court went on to state that, “[h]owever, there is nothing to preclude, a priori, a single entity from engaging both in activities of a commercial nature (or, more broadly, business activities) and in sovereign activities”. It considered that,
“[i]n such a case, since it is the nature of the activity actually carried out which determines the characterization of the entity engaged in it, the legal person in question should be regarded as a ‘company’ within the meaning of the Treaty to the extent that it is engaged in activities of a commercial nature, even if they do not constitute its principal activities” (ibid., pp. 38-39, para. 92).
45. The Court concluded from all the foregoing that the question was whether Bank Markazi, “alongside the sovereign functions which [Iran] concede[d], . . . engage[d] in activities of a commercial nature”. The sovereign functions in question being those of Bank Markazi in its role as central bank, the Court asked itself whether Iran had demonstrated the existence of other activities that would permit the bank to be characterized as a “company” within the meaning of the Treaty (ibid., p. 39, para. 94). In this regard, it noted that, according to Iran, under Iranian law, Bank Markazi could carry out a number of activities, including commercial operations, but that “the Applicant ha[d] made little attempt to demonstrate” the existence of such activities during the relevant period, which could be explained by the fact that Iran’s principal argument at the time was that the nature of the activities performed was of no relevance when it came to characterizing the entity as a “company” within the meaning of the Treaty (ibid.).
46. In light of all the foregoing reasons, the Court considered that it did not have the elements necessary to determine whether Bank Markazi was carrying out, at the relevant time, activities of a nature which permit the characterization of an entity as a “company”. Since those elements were largely of a factual nature and linked to the merits of the case, the Court concluded that it could rule on the objection to jurisdiction at issue “only after the Parties ha[d] presented their arguments in the following stage of the proceedings” (ibid., p. 40, para. 97).
47. The Court, following the line of reasoning it adopted in its 2019 Judgment, is thus now called upon to determine whether the evidence presented to it by Iran throughout the entire proceedings, and at the merits stage in particular, shows that Bank Markazi was carrying out, at the relevant time, activities which could be categorized as commercial and which would therefore permit the bank to be characterized as a “company” within the meaning of the Treaty, regardless of whether or not those activities, should they be established, constituted its principal activities.
48. Before taking its analysis any further, the Court emphasizes that, to answer the question above, it is not required to rule on the international law on immunities. First, it recalls that, in its 2019 Judgment, in upholding the second preliminary objection to jurisdiction raised by the United States, it declared that, “in so far as Iran’s claims concern the alleged violation of rules of
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international law on sovereign immunities”, in particular to the detriment of Bank Markazi, “the Court does not have jurisdiction to consider them” (Certain Iranian Assets (Islamic Republic of Iran v. United States of America), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2019 (I), pp. 34-35, para. 80). Further, it notes that, in order to rule on the question whether the activities of Bank Markazi presented by Iran as being of a commercial character permit the bank to be characterized as a “company” within the meaning of the Treaty, it is not required to ascertain whether the entity in question could claim, with regard to those activities, immunity from jurisdiction or enforcement under customary international law. These are two separate questions. The rules on sovereign immunities and those laid down by the Treaty of Amity concerning the treatment of “companies” are two distinct sets of rules. In particular, the questions whether, under customary international law, a State enjoys immunity from jurisdiction in proceedings relating to a commercial transaction and, if so, which criteria should be applied to determine whether a transaction is commercial need not be addressed by the Court for the purpose of examining the objection to jurisdiction at issue.
49. The Court will thus confine itself, at present, to ascertaining whether Iran has established that Bank Markazi was carrying out, at the relevant time, activities of a nature such that the bank should be characterized as a “company” for the purposes of the Treaty of Amity.
The Court notes in this regard that the only activities on which Iran relies to found the characterization of Bank Markazi as a “company” consist in the purchase, between 2002 and 2007, of 22 security entitlements in dematerialized bonds issued on the United States financial market and in the management of proceeds deriving from those entitlements (see paragraph 37 above).
50. In the opinion of the Court, these operations are not sufficient to establish that Bank Markazi was engaged, at the relevant time, in activities of a commercial character. Indeed, the operations in question were carried out within the framework and for the purposes of Bank Markazi’s principal activity, from which they are inseparable. They are merely a way of exercising its sovereign function as a central bank, and not commercial activities performed by Bank Markazi “alongside [its] sovereign functions”, to use the words of the 2019 Judgment (see paragraph 45 above).
51. Contrary to Iran’s contentions (see paragraph 38 above), it does not follow from the 2019 Judgment that, in order to determine whether an activity is commercial, it is necessary only “to focus on the activity as such, and not on the function with which that activity has a link of some kind”. In its 2019 Judgment, the Court merely indicated that the decisive question was whether Bank Markazi was carrying out, alongside its sovereign activities, other activities, of a commercial nature. It did not state that, in determining whether particular activities were of a commercial nature, there was no need to take into account any link that they may have with a sovereign function. On the contrary, the Court considers this latter criterion to be relevant. Indeed, in establishing whether a given entity may be characterized as a “company”, consideration cannot be limited to a transaction — or series of transactions — “as such”, carried out by that entity. That transaction — or series of transactions — must be placed in its context, taking particular account of any links that it may have with the exercise of a sovereign function.
52. To reach the conclusion set out in paragraph 50 above, i.e. that the transactions performed by Bank Markazi are part of the usual activity of a central bank and inseparable from its sovereign
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function, the Court does not consider the statements made in United States court proceedings by counsel for Bank Markazi and relied on by the United States (see paragraph 39 above) to be decisive.
Such statements are not opposable to Iran, which, moreover, did not make them, and they can be explained by the fact that the bank was seeking, in that context, to obtain the immunity to which it believed it was entitled. Iran rightly notes that both the United States political authorities and courts rejected Bank Markazi’s claims at the time and declared instead that a number of its activities were of a commercial nature. As the Court recalled earlier, the question of immunity is not before it today.
The Court nevertheless considers that the assertions made by Bank Markazi in the judicial proceedings in the Peterson case, which are cited above, accurately reflect the reality of the bank’s activities.
53. The Parties cited before the Court various arbitral decisions in support of their opposing arguments regarding the commercial nature of Bank Markazi’s activities. The Court notes that none of the decisions cited is wholly relevant to the present proceedings. Iran relies on an arbitral decision rendered in the Československá Obchodní Banka, A.S. v. The Slovak Republic case (Decision of the Tribunal on Objections to Jurisdiction, 24 May 1999, ICSID Case No. ARB/97/4). In that case, however, the tribunal had to respond to the question whether a commercial bank should be considered as a national of the State by which it is owned or merely as an agency of that State, for the purposes of the applicable convention. The arbitral award in Sergei Paushok, CJSC Golden East Company and CJSC Vostokneftegaz Company v. The Government of Mongolia (Award on Jurisdiction and Liability, 28 April 2011), relied on by the United States, appears to be more similar to the present case. In that case, the tribunal had to determine whether certain contractual operations of the central bank of Mongolia were of a commercial nature or had been carried out de jure imperii; it found the latter to be the case, based on the purpose of the transactions at issue. However, what the tribunal had to decide was whether the actions of the central bank were attributable to the State of Mongolia itself for the purpose of invoking the international responsibility of the State, which is a different question from the one now before the Court. In sum, the decisions relied on are of little relevance.
54. For the reasons set out above, the Court concludes that Bank Markazi cannot be characterized as a “company” within the meaning of the Treaty of Amity. Consequently, the objection to jurisdiction raised by the United States with regard to Iran’s claims relating to alleged violations of Articles III, IV, and V of the Treaty of Amity predicated on treatment accorded to Bank Markazi must be upheld. The Court has no jurisdiction to consider those claims.
B. Objection to admissibility based on the failure to exhaust local remedies
55. In its final submissions, the United States asks the Court to “[d]ismiss as outside [its] jurisdiction all claims brought under Articles III, IV, and V of the Treaty of Amity that are predicated on treatment accorded to companies that have failed to exhaust local remedies”.
56. Although this claim is presented by the Respondent as an objection to jurisdiction, it is in fact an objection to admissibility: the Court has ruled that an objection based on the failure to exhaust
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local remedies, when proceedings are instituted on the basis of diplomatic protection, does not relate to its jurisdiction but to the admissibility of the application (Interhandel (Switzerland v. United States of America), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1959, p. 26).
57. The Court begins by noting that the United States first raised this objection in its Counter-Memorial, i.e. as part of the proceedings on the merits and after the Court had delivered its Judgment on preliminary objections on 13 February 2019. In that Judgment, the Court examined and dismissed several objections to admissibility raised by the United States (Certain Iranian Assets (Islamic Republic of Iran v. United States of America), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2019 (I), p. 45, para. 126, subpara. 4), and found the Application admissible (ibid., subpara. 5).
58. The Court notes that Iran does not invoke the 2019 Judgment to contest the admissibility of the objection concerned, but instead asks the Court to dismiss the objection as ill-founded on the ground that the rule requiring local remedies to be exhausted does not apply in this case and that, in any event, the remedies offered by the legal system of the United States were ineffective.
Under these circumstances, the Court will examine the United States’ objection to admissibility based on the failure to exhaust local remedies.
59. The United States contends that the rule requiring the nationals of an applicant State to have first exhausted local remedies is applicable in this case, because the claims before the Court are advanced by Iran on behalf of Iranian companies affected by the United States’ measures and not in its own right. Yet the legal system of the United States affords accessible and effective means of redress, which were not exhausted by the Iranian companies in question, except in two cases, the Bennett and Weinstein cases, which involved enforcement measures taken against Bank Melli. In all other cases, the failure to exhaust local remedies prevents the Court, in the view of the United States, from entertaining Iran’s claims.
60. Iran contends that the Court must dismiss the objection for two reasons. First, it asserts that its claims arise from injuries “to the State itself, which in part consist[] in, and [are] interdependent with, the injuries to its companies”, hence the requirement to exhaust local remedies does not apply. Second, the Applicant argues that “[t]he discriminatory scheme targeting Iran and its companies prevents U.S. courts from providing effective redress” in such a way that any proceedings Iran may have instituted — in addition to those attempted without success — would have been bound to fail from the outset.
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61. The Court recalls that, under customary international law, when a State brings an international claim on behalf of one or more of its nationals on the basis of diplomatic protection, local remedies must be exhausted before the claim may be examined (see most recently Application of the International Convention for the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism and of the
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International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (Ukraine v. Russian Federation), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2019 (II), pp. 605-606, para. 129; see also Interhandel (Switzerland v. United States of America), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1959, p. 27; Elettronica Sicula S.p.A. (ELSI) (United States of America v. Italy), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1989, p. 42, para. 50; Ahmadou Sadio Diallo (Republic of Guinea v. Democratic Republic of the Congo), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2007 (II), p. 599, para. 42).
The Court has previously stated that the definition of diplomatic protection given in Article 1 of the Articles on Diplomatic Protection of the International Law Commission (hereinafter the “ILC”), namely that
“diplomatic protection consists of the invocation by a State, through diplomatic action or other means of peaceful settlement, of the responsibility of another State for an injury caused by an internationally wrongful act of that State to a natural or legal person that is a national of the former State with a view to the implementation of such responsibility”,
reflects customary international law (Ahmadou Sadio Diallo (Republic of Guinea v. Democratic Republic of the Congo), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2007 (II), p. 599, para. 39).
62. The Court notes that the Applicant stated, in its Memorial, that it was “claim[ing] both in its own right and on behalf of the Iranian companies impacted by the U.S. measures at issue in this case” and, in its Reply, that its claims arose from injuries to Iran, “which in part consist[] in, and [are] interdependent with, the injuries to its companies” (see paragraph 60 above).
63. The Court found, in the case concerning Avena and Other Mexican Nationals (Mexico v. United States of America), that the obligation to exhaust local remedies did not apply to a claim by which a State alleged both that it had suffered a violation of its own rights and that there had been a violation of the individual rights conferred on its nationals, when there were “special circumstances of interdependence of the rights of the State and of individual rights” (Avena and Other Mexican Nationals (Mexico v. United States of America), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2004 (I), p. 36, para. 40). In that case, the “interdependence” noted by the Court resulted from the fact that the rights at issue were an arrested person’s right to request that the consular authorities of his or her State of nationality be notified of the arrest and the right to be informed of the possibility to make such a request, which rights are guaranteed by Article 36, paragraph 1 (b), of the Vienna Convention on Consular Relations of 24 April 1963.
64. The rights at issue in the above-mentioned Avena Judgment were particular in that the relationship between individuals and the authorities of their State of nationality was brought into play, so that the rights of the individual were inextricably linked to those of the State. As the Court observed, “violations of the rights of the individual under Article 36 may entail a violation of the rights of the sending State, and . . . violations of the rights of the latter may entail a violation of the rights of the individual” (ibid.).
65. There is not the same relationship of interdependence in respect of the rights that Iran alleges have been violated in this case.
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The Court thus sees no reason to refrain from applying the rule of exhaustion of local remedies by following a similar line of reasoning to that which it adopted in the Avena case.
66. Under Article 14, paragraph 3, of the ILC Articles on Diplomatic Protection, local remedies must be exhausted when the claim of a State is brought “preponderantly” on the basis of an injury to one of its nationals. This provision implies that, in the event of a mixed claim, which contains elements of both injury to the State and injury to its nationals, it is the “preponderance” criterion which may determine whether the local remedies rule is applicable or not (see the commentary on Article 14, Report of the ILC on the work of its fifty-eighth session, Yearbook of the International Law Commission, 2006, Vol. II, Part Two, p. 46, para. 11).
67. In this case, the Court does not consider that it is required to rule on the question whether Iran’s Application was submitted preponderantly in defence of its own rights or to protect those of Iranian companies, assuming that criterion to be relevant (see on this point Elettronica Sicula S.p.A. (ELSI) (United States of America v. Italy), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1989, p. 43, para. 52). Indeed, for the reasons set out below, the Court is persuaded that the companies in question did not have any effective means of redress, in the legal system of the United States, that they failed to pursue.
68. Under customary international law, the requirement that local remedies be exhausted is deemed to be satisfied when there are no available local remedies providing the injured persons with a reasonable possibility of obtaining redress (see Article 15, paragraph (a), of the ILC Articles on Diplomatic Protection and the numerous examples mentioned in the commentary, Yearbook of the International Law Commission, 2006, Vol. II, Part Two, pp. 47-48, paras. 3 and 4).
69. What characterizes the United States’ measures complained of by Iran in the present case is that they were established by legislative means, or by executive acts based on legislation, and that they were given effect by court decisions applying federal legislative provisions.
As recalled by counsel for Iran, “according to settled United States jurisprudence, where there is an explicit inconsistency between a treaty and a statute adopted later than that treaty, the statute is deemed to have abrogated the treaty in United States law”. The United States did not attempt to contest the validity of that assertion, which is corroborated by several decisions of United States courts included in the case file. It appears from those decisions that, each time an Iranian entity sought to have a federal legislative provision set aside by a court on the ground that it ran counter to the rights enjoyed by that entity under the Treaty of Amity, the court, after finding that the provision at issue was not contrary to the Treaty, referred to the jurisprudence whereby courts are, in any event, obliged to apply the federal statute when it was enacted after the treaty (which is the case for the provisions at issue in these proceedings).
70. For example, in the Weinstein case, Bank Melli argued before the District Court for the Eastern District of New York that TRIA violated Article III, paragraph 1, of the Treaty of Amity, because it allowed for the “lifting of the corporate veil”, thereby denying the bank, in its view, its separate legal personality. The court responded, first, that such was not the case and, second, that “[i]n any event, to the extent that TRIA § 201 (a) may conflict with Article III (1) of the Treaty
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of Amity, the TRIA would ‘trump’ the Treaty of Amity”. On the second point, the court referred to several Supreme Court precedents establishing that, in the event of a conflict between a treaty and a federal statute, it is the more recent of the two that prevails (Weinstein et al. v. Islamic Republic of Iran et al., United States District Court, Eastern District of New York, Order of 5 June 2009, Federal Supplement, Second Series, Vol. 624, p. 272, affirmed by United States Court of Appeals, Second Circuit, 15 June 2010, Federal Supplement, Third Series, Vol. 609, p. 43; see also Bennett et al. v. The Islamic Republic of Iran et al., United States Court of Appeals, Ninth Circuit, 22 February 2016, Federal Supplement, Third Series, Vol. 817, p. 1131, as amended on 14 June 2016, Federal Supplement, Third Series, Vol. 825, p. 949).
71. The Iranian companies that succeeded in having certain measures set aside by the courts were only able to do so by demonstrating either that the contested measures fell outside the scope of the statute on which they were said to be founded, or that they were contrary to the statute itself (see for example Rubin v. Islamic Republic of Iran, United States District Court, Northern District of Illinois, Memorandum and Order of 27 March 2014, Federal Supplement, Third Series, Vol. 33, p. 1003).
72. The effectiveness of local remedies must be assessed in light of the rights claimed by those concerned, in this case the rights guaranteed to Iranian companies by the Treaty of Amity. Given the combination of the legislative character of the contested measures and the primacy accorded to a more recent federal statute over the treaty in the jurisprudence of the United States, it appears to the Court that, in the circumstances of the present case, the companies in question had no reasonable possibility of successfully asserting their rights in United States court proceedings. The Court is not, by the above finding, making any judgment upon the judicial system of the United States, or on the distribution of powers between the legislative and judicial branches under United States law as regards the fulfilment of international obligations within the domestic legal system.
73. For the foregoing reasons, the Court concludes that the objection to admissibility based on the failure to exhaust local remedies cannot be upheld.
III. DEFENCES ON THE MERITS PUT FORWARD BY THE UNITED STATES
74. As the Court has stated on several occasions, it “retains its freedom to select the ground upon which it will base its judgment” (for example, Application of the Convention of 1902 Governing the Guardianship of Infants (Netherlands v. Sweden), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1958, p. 62). Therefore, in principle, it retains its freedom to choose the order in which it will deal with the questions submitted to it by the parties (for example, Oil Platforms (Islamic Republic of Iran v. United States of America), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2003, p. 180, para. 37).
75. In the present case, the Court considers it appropriate to deal first with the defences on the merits put forward by the United States before, if necessary, addressing the Applicant’s claims.
A. Defence based on the “clean hands” doctrine
76. In its preliminary objections, the United States contended that Iran’s Application was inadmissible because Iran came to the Court with “unclean hands”. It alleged, in particular, that Iran had “sponsored and supported international terrorism” and had “taken destabilizing
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actions in contravention of nuclear non-proliferation . . . obligations” (Certain Iranian Assets (Islamic Republic of Iran v. United States of America), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2019 (I), p. 43, para. 116).
In its Judgment, the Court stated that,
“[w]ithout having to take a position on the ‘clean hands’ doctrine, [it] consider[ed] that, even if it were shown that the Applicant’s conduct was not beyond reproach, this would not be sufficient per se to uphold the objection to admissibility raised by the Respondent on the basis of the ‘clean hands’ doctrine” (ibid., p. 44, para. 122).
It added that
“[s]uch a conclusion [was] however without prejudice to the question whether the allegations made by the United States, concerning notably Iran’s alleged sponsoring and support of international terrorism and its presumed actions in respect of nuclear non-proliferation and arms trafficking, could, eventually, provide a defence on the merits” (ibid., p. 44, para. 123).
In the operative part of the 2019 Judgment, all the preliminary objections to admissibility raised by the United States, including the objection based on the “clean hands” doctrine, were rejected (ibid., p. 45, para. 126, subpara. 4).
77. The United States repeats its arguments based on Iran’s “unclean hands” in support of its defence on the merits. In its final submissions, it requests that the Court “[d]ismiss all claims brought under the Treaty of Amity on the basis that Iran comes to the Court with unclean hands” (subparagraph 1 of the final submissions).
78. According to the Respondent, Iran has engaged in a concerted and consistent campaign to advance its own political interests through destabilizing acts, contrary to international law; terrorism is alleged to be a core component of that campaign, which has specifically targeted United States nationals. The Respondent maintains that such is the case of the 1983 Beirut Marine barracks bombing that caused the deaths of 241 United States service members. In the view of the United States, by invoking the Treaty of Amity, Iran seeks to avoid the payment of reparation that it owes to its victims. According to the Respondent, this provides the Court with a basis to apply the “clean hands” doctrine in this case and to reject Iran’s claims based on the Treaty of Amity, because the challenged measures have been taken by the United States in response to Iranian-supported terrorist acts directed at the United States and its nationals.
79. Iran notes that the United States overlooks the fact that the Court has already ruled on the same argument in its Judgment on preliminary objections. While accepting that “the matter is not res judicata in the technical sense”, Iran observes that the United States merely repeats the same line of argument in its defence on the merits, without any reference to the Court’s findings and arguments in its decision on the preliminary objections. In Iran’s opinion, much of the Court’s reasoning in its 2019 Judgment is equally valid for the merits and provides a basis for rejecting the defence now being examined. Iran further contends that, although the “clean hands” doctrine has often been invoked, it has never been applied by international courts and tribunals.
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80. The Court observes that while it rejected the objection to admissibility based on the “clean hands” doctrine in its Judgment on preliminary objections, it was careful to note that its decision was “without prejudice to the question whether the [Respondent’s] allegations . . . could . . . provide a defence on the merits” (see paragraph 76 above). Indeed, it is in principle open to a State to repeat in substance, in support of a defence on the merits, arguments it previously relied on unsuccessfully to support an objection to jurisdiction or admissibility. Neither the force of res judicata attached to the 2019 Judgment nor any other factor allows for the defence on the merits based on the “clean hands” doctrine, as invoked by the United States, to be declared inadmissible.
81. The Court notes that, though often invoked in international disputes, the argument based on the “clean hands” doctrine has only rarely been upheld by the bodies before which it has been raised. The Court itself has never held that the doctrine in question was part of customary international law or constituted a general principle of law. In its Judgment of 17 July 2019 in the Jadhav case, the Court stated that it “[did] not consider that an objection based on the ‘clean hands’ doctrine may by itself render an application based on a valid title of jurisdiction inadmissible” (Jadhav (India v. Pakistan), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2019 (II), p. 435, para. 61), thus confirming that such an argument could not be relied upon in support of an objection to admissibility.
As a defence on the merits, the Court has always treated the invocation of “unclean hands” with the utmost caution. In its 2019 Judgment in the present case, the Court stated that it did not have to “take a position on the ‘clean hands’ doctrine” (see paragraph 76 above), thus reserving its position on the legal status of the concept itself in international law. It notes, moreover, that the ILC declined to include the “clean hands” doctrine among the circumstances precluding wrongfulness in its Articles on the Responsibility of States for Internationally Wrongful Acts (hereinafter the “ILC Articles on State Responsibility”), on the ground that this “doctrine has been invoked principally in the context of the admissibility of claims before international courts and tribunals, though rarely applied” (see the commentary on Chapter V of Part One of the ILC Articles on State Responsibility, Yearbook of the International Law Commission, 2001, Vol. II, Part Two, p. 72, para. 9).
82. In any event, in the view of the Respondent itself, at least several conditions must be met for the “clean hands” doctrine to be applicable in a given case. Two of those conditions are that a wrong or misconduct has been committed by the applicant or on its behalf, and that there is “a nexus between the wrong or misconduct and the claims being made by the applicant State”. The United States adds that “[t]he level of connection between the misconduct or wrong and the applicant’s claim will depend on the circumstances of the case”.
83. In its Judgment on preliminary objections in the present case, the Court noted that “the United States has not argued that Iran, through its alleged conduct, has violated the Treaty of Amity, upon which its Application is based” (Certain Iranian Assets (Islamic Republic of Iran v. United States of America), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2019 (I), p. 44, para. 122). This observation is also relevant with regard to the “clean hands” doctrine relied on as a defence on the merits. In the view of the Court, there is, in any case, not a sufficient connection between the wrongful conduct imputed to Iran by the United States and the claims of Iran, which are based on the alleged violation of the “Treaty of Amity, Economic Relations, and Consular Rights”.
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84. For the above reasons, the defence on the merits based on the “clean hands” doctrine cannot be upheld.
B. Defence based on abuse of rights
85. According to the United States, Iran’s claims before the Court constitute an abuse of rights for two reasons. First, because Iran “seeks to extend its rights under the Treaty, a consular and commercial agreement, to circumstances that the Parties plainly never intended them to address”; and, second, because the Applicant invokes the Treaty for the sole purpose of circumventing its obligation to make reparation to United States victims of Iranian-sponsored terrorist acts.
86. Iran argues that the United States is merely relabelling as “abuse of rights” the “abuse of process” preliminary objection that the Court examined and rejected in its 2019 Judgment. According to Iran, the nature of the argument is the same and it is not enough to replace one term with another in order to submit the same question to the Court, without taking any account of the Court’s reasons for rejecting the “abuse of process” preliminary objection in its earlier Judgment. The Applicant observes that the so-called “abuse of rights” defence is being put forward in a dispute between the same Parties as those concerned in the 2019 Judgment; it is based on the same legal grounds as those on which the preliminary objection rejected by the Court was based; and it has the same object, namely to preclude Iran from exercising its rights under the Treaty.
87. Iran contends that the defence in question is founded neither in fact nor in law and notes that such a defence has never been upheld in an inter-State dispute. It adds that abuse of rights could only be successful in this case if there were clear evidence to overturn the presumption that Iran, like any applicant, is acting in good faith, and that there is no such evidence.
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88. The Court begins by observing that the fact that the United States has raised similar arguments in support of its “abuse of process” objection that was rejected by the 2019 Judgment on preliminary objections does not preclude examination of its “abuse of rights” defence. Since an objection to admissibility and a defence on the merits are by nature distinct, the force of res judicata attaching to the 2019 Judgment cannot preclude the invocation of any defence on the merits.
89. However, in examining the defence, the Court must take into account the reasons given in its earlier Judgment for rejecting the objection to admissibility based on similar arguments.
90. In this regard, the Court notes that, in arguing that Iran is committing an abuse of rights by seeking to apply the Treaty of Amity to measures that are unrelated to commerce, the United States is merely asserting, in another way, that Iran’s claims fall outside the scope ratione materiae of the
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Treaty. This question was addressed by the Court, in terms of its jurisdiction, in its 2019 Judgment; it will be referred to, in terms of the merits, in the following section of this Judgment, as part of the examination of Iran’s claims based on the alleged violation of various provisions of the Treaty.
91. With respect to the second limb of the United States’ argument, namely that Iran’s aim is to circumvent its obligation to make reparation to the victims of its acts (see paragraph 85 above), the Court begins by recalling the essential elements of its jurisprudence in this regard.
92. As early as 1926, the Permanent Court of International Justice held that an abuse of rights or a violation of the principle of good faith “cannot be presumed, and it rests with the party who states that there has been such [an abuse or violation] to prove his statement” (Certain German Interests in Polish Upper Silesia, Merits, Judgment No. 7, 1926, P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 7, p. 30). As the Court noted in its 2018 Judgment in the case concerning Immunities and Criminal Proceedings, “[o]n several occasions before the Permanent Court of International Justice, abuse of rights was pleaded and rejected at the merits phase for want of sufficient proof” (Immunities and Criminal Proceedings (Equatorial Guinea v. France), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2018 (I), pp. 335-336, para. 147).
93. The Court could only accept the abuse of rights defence in this instance if it were demonstrated by the Respondent, on the basis of compelling evidence, that the Applicant seeks to exercise rights conferred on it by the Treaty of Amity for purposes other than those for which the rights at issue were established, and that it was doing so to the detriment of the Respondent.
The Court considers that the United States has failed to make such a demonstration.
Consequently, the defence based on an alleged abuse of rights cannot be upheld.
C. Article XX, paragraph 1 (c) and (d), of the Treaty of Amity
94. The Court recalls that, in its preliminary objections, the United States invoked Article XX, paragraph 1 (c) and (d), of the Treaty of Amity to request that the Court dismiss as outside its jurisdiction all claims of Iran that the measures adopted by the United States under Executive Order 13599 violate the Treaty of Amity. The Court rejected this objection to its jurisdiction on the ground that the provisions relied on did not have the effect of restricting its jurisdiction but only afforded the Parties a possible defence on the merits to be used should the occasion arise (Certain Iranian Assets (Islamic Republic of Iran v. United States of America), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2019 (I), p. 25, para. 45, referring to Oil Platforms (Islamic Republic of Iran v. United States of America), Preliminary Objection, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1996 (II), p. 811, para. 20).
95. In its final submissions presented at the end of the proceedings on the merits, the United States invokes the same provisions again to request that the Court “[d]ismiss on the basis of Article XX (1) (c) and (d) of the Treaty of Amity all claims that U.S. measures that block or freeze assets of the Iranian government or Iranian financial institutions (as defined in Executive Order 13599) violate any provision of the Treaty”.
96. The provisions invoked read as follows:
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“1. The present Treaty shall not preclude the application of measures:
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
(c) regulating the production of or traffic in arms, ammunition and implements of war, or traffic in other materials carried on directly or indirectly for the purpose of supplying a military establishment; and
(d) necessary to fulfill the obligations of a High Contracting Party for the maintenance or restoration of international peace and security, or necessary to protect its essential security interests.”
97. It should be noted that, in its arguments before the Court regarding subparagraph (d), the Respondent relied on only the second limb of that subparagraph, namely that which refers to the “protect[ion of] its essential security interests”; the United States did not claim that the contested measures were “necessary to fulfill the obligations of a High Contracting Party for the maintenance or restoration of international peace and security”.
98. The Court will examine in turn the arguments of the Parties concerning the two provisions invoked as defences by the United States.
1. Article XX, paragraph 1 (c)
99. Executive Order 13599 was issued in 2012 with a view to blocking all assets of the Government of Iran and those of Iranian financial institutions, where such assets are within United States territory or “within the possession or control of any United States person, including any foreign branch” (see paragraph 28 above).
100. According to the United States, Executive Order 13599 falls within the scope of Article XX, paragraph 1 (c), in so far as it seeks to “contain, by rules and regulations, Iran’s international arms trafficking, ballistic missile production, and financial support for terrorism” by freezing the assets of Iranian governmental entities that are in the United States or in the control of a United States person. The United States adds that, contrary to what Iran maintains, Article XX, paragraph 1 (c), is not limited to measures by which each Party regulates its own production or its own export or import of arms; it addresses more broadly the “traffic in arms”, a term which refers to the international trade in munitions, including any transactions that enable or facilitate such trade, by promoting the proliferation of arms across borders to actors who may put them to dangerous use.
101. Iran argues that Executive Order 13599 is in no way intended to “‘regulate’ the production of or traffic in arms”, as would, for example, a prohibition on the export of United States arms to Iran. Moreover, it does not even contain the word “arms” and the aims it pursues are, according to its own terms, of a purely financial nature and have no direct link to the production of and traffic in arms.
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102. The Court cannot accept the United States’ broad interpretation of the provision concerned. The terms of Article XX, paragraph 1 (c), in their ordinary meaning and in light of the object and purpose of the Treaty, cannot bring within its scope any measures other than those that are intended, by a party to the Treaty, to regulate its own production of or its own traffic in arms, or to regulate the export of arms to the other party or the import of arms from the other party. In the view of the Court, Article XX, paragraph 1 (c), cannot be relied upon to justify measures taken by a party which might impair the rights afforded by the Treaty and which are solely intended to have an indirect effect on the production of and the traffic in arms by the other party or on the territory of the other party.
103. There is nothing in Executive Order 13599 that meets the criteria defined in the previous paragraph. Consequently, the United States’ defence based on Article XX, paragraph 1 (c), of the Treaty of Amity cannot be upheld.
2. Article XX, paragraph 1 (d)
104. According to the United States, Executive Order 13599 is a measure “necessary to protect its essential security interests”, within the meaning of Article XX, paragraph 1 (d), of the Treaty. The United States submits that the Executive Order enables it to protect its essential interests by addressing Iran’s support for arms trafficking, terrorism and the development of ballistic capabilities. The Respondent points out that the concept of essential security interests is broad, as the Court has previously held, referring in this regard to the 1986 Judgment in the case concerning Military and Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v. United States of America) (I.C.J. Reports 1986, p. 117, para. 224).
Furthermore, according to the Respondent, the judicial organ should afford substantial deference to the State invoking such a ground by relying on an exception provided for in the applicable treaty; this exception, it argues, “leaves each party, acting in good faith, a wide discretion to determine the measures necessary to protect its security interests”. In this regard, the Respondent refers to the Court’s Judgment in the case concerning Certain Questions of Mutual Assistance in Criminal Matters (Djibouti v. France) (I.C.J. Reports 2008, p. 229, para. 145).
Finally, the United States observes that the prevention of terrorism and of the financing of terrorism, and the halting of the ballistic missile programme of a hostile State indisputably constitute its essential security interests.
105. Iran submits that the United States has not shown, as is incumbent on it, that Executive Order 13599 was a measure necessary to protect its essential security interests.
The Applicant points out that it is not sufficient for a State to declare that a measure is warranted on the grounds set out in Article XX, paragraph 1 (d), for it to be justified, ipso facto, to invoke that provision. It falls to the Court to ascertain whether the “essential interests” invoked are real and the contested measure necessary. According to the Applicant, the criterion of necessity involves consideration of proportionality, which must be assessed in light of the damage inflicted by the measures concerned. Iran refers to the Court’s jurisprudence, in particular its Judgments in the cases concerning Military and Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v.
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United States of America) (I.C.J. Reports 1986, p. 117, para. 224, and p. 141, para. 282) and Oil Platforms (Islamic Republic of Iran v. United States of America) (I.C.J. Reports 2003, p. 183, para. 43).
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106. The Court has previously examined a defence based on Article XX, paragraph 1 (d), of the Treaty of Amity in its Judgment on the merits in the Oil Platforms case. Referring to the Judgment in the case concerning Military and Paramilitary Activities, mentioned above, in which it applied a provision of another treaty drafted in similar terms, the Court stated that “the measures taken must not merely be such as tend to protect the essential security interests of the party taking them, but must be ‘necessary’ for that purpose” and that “whether the measures taken were ‘necessary’ is ‘not purely a question for the subjective judgment of the party’ . . . and may thus be assessed by the Court” (Oil Platforms (Islamic Republic of Iran v. United States of America), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2003, p. 183, para. 43, citing Military and Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v. United States of America), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1986, p. 141, para. 282).
The Court can see no reason to depart from this jurisprudence in the present case.
107. It is true that in its Judgment in the Djibouti v. France case, to which the United States refers, the Court considered that the applicable treaty in that case — which enabled a party to invoke its “essential interests”, including “security” interests — provided a State invoking it with “a very considerable discretion” (Certain Questions of Mutual Assistance in Criminal Matters (Djibouti v. France), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2008, pp. 229-230, paras. 145-147). But the provision in question was drafted in terms significantly different from those used in Article XX, paragraph 1 (d). The Convention on Mutual Assistance between Djibouti and France provided that the requested State could refuse a request for mutual assistance if it “consider[ed] that execution of the request [was] likely to prejudice its sovereignty, its security, its ordre public or other of its essential interests” (ibid., p. 226, para. 135). The very language of this provision, in using the verb “consider”, provided the State concerned with a wide margin of discretion, greater than that afforded to the States parties by Article XX, paragraph 1 (d), of the Treaty of Amity.
108. Having regard to the foregoing considerations, the Court is of the view that it was for the United States to show that Executive Order 13599 was a measure necessary to protect its essential security interests, and that it has not convincingly demonstrated that this was so. Even accepting that the Respondent enjoys a certain margin of discretion, the Court cannot content itself with the latter’s assertions. It further notes that the reasons set out by the Executive Order itself to justify the specific measures it enacts relate to the financial practices of Iranian banks, deficiencies in Iran’s anti-money laundering régime and the ensuing risks for the international financial system; there is no mention of security considerations.
109. The Court therefore concludes that the defence based on Article XX, paragraph 1 (d), of the Treaty cannot be upheld.
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IV. ALLEGED VIOLATIONS OF THE TREATY OF AMITY
110. The Court will now examine the alleged violations by the United States of its obligations under the Treaty of Amity.
111. The claims of Iran concern a set of legislative, executive and judicial measures adopted by the United States since 2002. These measures include Section 201 (a) of TRIA and Section 1610 (g) (1) of the FSIA (see paragraphs 26-27 above), as well as the application of those provisions by United States courts.
112. Section 201 of TRIA is entitled “Satisfaction of judgments from blocked assets of terrorists, terrorist organizations, and State sponsors of terrorism”. Paragraph (a) of Section 201 reads:
“In General. Notwithstanding any other provision of law, and except as provided in subsection (b), in every case in which a person has obtained a judgment against a terrorist party on a claim based upon an act of terrorism, or for which a terrorist party is not immune under section 1605 (a) (7) of title 28, United States Code, the blocked assets of that terrorist party (including the blocked assets of any agency or instrumentality of that terrorist party) shall be subject to execution or attachment in aid of execution in order to satisfy such judgment to the extent of any compensatory damages for which such terrorist party has been adjudged liable.”
Section 1610 (g) (1) of the FSIA provides:
“(g) Property in Certain Actions.
(1) In general. Subject to paragraph (3), the property of a foreign state against which a judgment is entered under section 1605A, and the property of an agency or instrumentality of such a state, including property that is a separate juridical entity or is an interest held directly or indirectly in a separate juridical entity, is subject to attachment in aid of execution, and execution, upon that judgment as provided in this section, regardless of
(A) the level of economic control over the property by the government of the foreign state;
(B) whether the profits of the property go to that government;
(C) the degree to which officials of that government manage the property or otherwise control its daily affairs;
(D) whether that government is the sole beneficiary in interest of the property; or
(E) whether establishing the property as a separate entity would entitle the foreign state to benefits in United States courts while avoiding its obligations.”
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113. The judicial decisions of which Iran complains were rendered by United States courts in application of those legislative provisions. They ordered the attachment, execution, turnover or distribution of assets of certain Iranian companies.
114. Iran’s claims also concern Executive Order 13599 of 2012, which is entitled “Blocking Property of the Government of Iran and Iranian Financial Institutions”. Section 1 of Executive Order 13599 provides:
“(a) All property and interests in property of the Government of Iran, including the Central Bank of Iran, that are in the United States, that hereafter come within the United States, or that are or hereafter come within the possession or control of any United States person, including any foreign branch, are blocked and may not be transferred, paid, exported, withdrawn, or otherwise dealt in.
(b) All property and interests in property of any Iranian financial institution, including the Central Bank of Iran, that are in the United States, that hereafter come within the United States, or that are or hereafter come within the possession or control of any United States person, including any foreign branch, are blocked and may not be transferred, paid, exported, withdrawn, or otherwise dealt in.
(c) All property and interests in property that are in the United States, that hereafter come within the United States, or that are or hereafter come within the possession or control of any United States person, including any foreign branch, of the following persons are blocked and may not be transferred, paid, exported, withdrawn, or otherwise dealt in: any person determined by the Secretary of the Treasury, in consultation with the Secretary of State, to be owned or controlled by, or to have acted or purported to act for or on behalf of, directly or indirectly, any person whose property and interests in property are blocked pursuant to this order.”
115. The Parties agree that, as concerns the domestic cases challenged by Iran in these proceedings, the main effect of Executive Order 13599 was the blocking of Bank Markazi’s assets. Since the Court has found that it does not have jurisdiction under the Treaty of Amity to entertain claims relating to alleged violations of Articles III, IV and V predicated on treatment accorded to Bank Markazi (see paragraph 54 above), it will not consider Iran’s claims in respect of Executive Order 13599 in so far as they concern this entity. For the same reason, the Court will not consider Iran’s allegations with respect to the Peterson case and Section 502 of the ITRSHRA (see paragraph 29 above). The Court will, however, examine Iran’s other claims in respect of Executive Order 13599.
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116. Iran argues that, as a result of the measures described above, Iranian enterprises and Iran itself have been deprived of the rights they enjoyed under the Treaty of Amity. They have been stripped of their assets, and the freedom of commerce and navigation guaranteed by the Treaty has
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been severely curtailed. It asserts that the United States has established an exceptional legal régime, amending its laws and regulations to ensure that the assets of Iranian companies could be seized for the purpose of executing judgments against Iran, despite the fact that those companies have no relation to the judgments against Iran or to the allegations on which they are based. The Applicant adds that the legal defences which Iranian companies should have been able to enjoy under the Treaty of Amity have been “systematically neutralized” by the legislative provisions adopted by the United States and “systematically rejected” by the courts.
117. According to Iran, through these measures, the United States has disregarded the principle of separation of legal personalities and unlawfully blocked and seized property of certain Iranian companies and of Iran itself. It takes note of the United States’ assertion that it has adopted these measures as part of its “efforts to provide redress for victims of terrorism”. Yet, in Iran’s view, the United States has not explained how such efforts could justify its conduct towards Iranian enterprises engaged in commercial activities.
118. Iran consequently submits that the United States has violated its obligations under Article III, paragraphs 1 and 2, Article IV, paragraphs 1 and 2, Article V, paragraph 1, Article VII, paragraph 1, and Article X, paragraph 1, of the Treaty of Amity.
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119. The United States, for its part, considers that the dispute is inextricably linked to its domestic response aimed at holding accountable State sponsors of terrorism and providing redress for victims of terrorist acts. The Respondent contends that its measures enabling victims of terrorism to seek redress for their losses, which were taken progressively over a period of years, as well as the related judicial decisions, do not constitute violations of the Treaty of Amity.
120. The United States maintains that the relevant legislative provisions, which allow plaintiffs to enforce liability judgments against Iran upon the property of the State and its agencies and instrumentalities, are a reasonable and measured response to “the refusal of State sponsors of terrorism to reckon with the immense harm that they have caused”. It emphasizes that the measures apply equally to all designated State sponsors of terrorism and not solely to Iran, and that they were in place prior to the initiation of the enforcement proceedings at issue. As concerns those proceedings, the United States stresses that Iran has not alleged any procedural impropriety by the courts, which assess whether the statutory criteria are met and give interested parties the opportunity to be heard. It adds that the relevant orders are subject to appeal.
121. The Respondent argues that the measures at issue are outside the realm of the Treaty of Amity because they are not targeted at trade and transactions between the Parties. It rejects the argument that the Treaty requires corporate separateness in all circumstances, maintaining that Articles III, IV and V do not constrain the regulatory power of either Party to allow victims
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to use the judicial process to hold State sponsors of terrorism to account and seek compensation. It adds that Article VII, paragraph 1, and Article X, paragraph 1, do not apply to the type of measures at issue.
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122. The Court observes that the Parties have divergent views on the question to what extent the Treaty of Amity imposes limits on a State’s regulatory powers. In this respect, the Parties’ disagreements essentially relate to the alleged disregard of the separate legal personality of Iranian companies and to the attachment and execution of their assets to satisfy liability judgments against Iran. Their main arguments on these issues concern the interpretation of Article III, paragraph 1, and Article IV, paragraph 1, of the Treaty, and their application in the circumstances of the present case. Since the Parties’ arguments in respect of these provisions are closely related, the Court will address Iran’s claims based on Article III, paragraph 1, and Article IV, paragraph 1, together, before examining the remainder of its claims.
A. Alleged violations of Article III, paragraph 1, and Article IV, paragraph 1
123. Article III, paragraph 1, of the Treaty of Amity reads as follows:
“Companies constituted under the applicable laws and regulations of either High Contracting Party shall have their juridical status recognized within the territories of the other High Contracting Party. It is understood, however, that recognition of juridical status does not of itself confer rights upon companies to engage in the activities for which they are organized. As used in the present Treaty, ‘companies’ means corporations, partnerships, companies and other associations, whether or not with limited liability and whether or not for pecuniary profit.”
Article IV, paragraph 1, of the Treaty provides:
“Each High Contracting Party shall at all times accord fair and equitable treatment to nationals and companies of the other High Contracting Party, and to their property and enterprises; shall refrain from applying unreasonable or discriminatory measures that would impair their legally acquired rights and interests; and shall assure that their lawful contractual rights are afforded effective means of enforcement, in conformity with the applicable laws.”
124. Iran argues that, through the legislative, executive and judicial measures at issue, the United States has deprived Iranian companies of the independent legal personality conferred on them by their juridical status and conflated their assets with those of the Iranian State, in violation of Article III, paragraph 1, of the Treaty of Amity. Iran also argues that, by abrogating Iranian companies’ separate legal personality, removing a legal defence otherwise available to them, and making them liable for purportedly wrongful acts of Iran that were the subject of judgments in
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proceedings to which they were not parties, the United States has failed to afford Iranian companies the treatment prescribed by Article IV, paragraph 1, of the Treaty.
125. According to Iran, the juridical status of a company is established by the law of the State in which it was created, and it is this law that determines whether an entity has its own legal personality, as well as the specific elements of that legal personality. The United States is therefore obliged to give effect to the juridical status of Iranian companies as determined by Iranian law, including by recognizing that they have their own, separate legal personality. Iran contends that, under Article III, paragraph 1, of the Treaty of Amity, a company’s own legal personality must be recognized and its constituent elements, including its assets, must not be conflated with those of other legal persons. The Applicant considers that the interpretation of Article III, paragraph 1, put forward by the United States is not compatible with the Court’s jurisprudence.
126. As concerns Article IV, paragraph 1, of the Treaty of Amity, Iran contends that it contains three freestanding obligations of protection, all of which have been violated by the United States. Concerning the first obligation, Iran argues that the “fair and equitable treatment” standard in the Treaty is not tied to the minimum standard of treatment under customary international law. In its view, it is well established that, in considering whether the obligation to afford fair and equitable treatment has been breached, international tribunals will examine whether the conduct (a) is arbitrary, grossly unfair, unjust or idiosyncratic; (b) is discriminatory; (c) involves a lack of due process leading to an outcome which offends judicial propriety, including but not limited to a denial of justice; or (d) defeats the legitimate expectations of Iranian nationals and companies. It maintains that, even under the United States’ restrictive interpretation, there was a denial of justice because the companies could not rely on their separate juridical personality.
127. With regard to the second obligation under Article IV, paragraph 1, to refrain from applying unreasonable or discriminatory measures, Iran maintains that for a measure to be reasonable, there must be an appropriate correlation between the State’s public policy objective and the measure adopted to achieve it, noting that, in assessing reasonableness, tribunals also refer to the concept of proportionality. As regards the third obligation, to afford effective means of enforcement of lawful contractual rights, the Applicant contends that the United States has failed to do so in relation to certain Iranian companies, since the relevant enforcement proceedings involved funds representing contractual debts owed to Iranian companies by companies of the United States.
128. Iran contests the argument made by the United States in respect of both Article III, paragraph 1, and Article IV, paragraph 1, that “piercing the corporate veil” to provide compensation for victims was fair and reasonable. Iran argues that none of the instances considered by the Court in the case concerning Barcelona Traction, Light and Power Company, Limited (New Application: 1962) (Belgium v. Spain) is applicable in the current circumstances. It adds that the United States provides no evidence capable of justifying each “piercing”, and that it has adopted a collective measure, namely the “elimination of legal separateness” of companies.
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129. The United States rejects Iran’s claims under Article III, paragraph 1, and Article IV, paragraph 1, which it describes as “almost identical”.
130. The United States argues that the recognition of juridical status under Article III, paragraph 1, entails only the recognition of a company’s existence as a legal entity and not the recognition of its legal separateness. It contends that this provision does not confer any other rights upon a company. It maintains that the very fact that Iranian companies have appeared and participated in judicial proceedings demonstrates that their juridical status has been recognized.
131. According to the United States, the Court observed in the Barcelona Traction, Light and Power Company, Limited (New Application: 1962) (Belgium v. Spain) case and subsequent judgments that, in municipal law, the privilege of the corporate form is not treated as absolute and can be disregarded in extraordinary cases. The Respondent argues that its decision to enable victims of terrorism to obtain compensation through enforcement proceedings against Iran’s State-owned agencies and instrumentalities is one of those cases.
132. As concerns Article IV, paragraph 1, the United States contends that the phrase “fair and equitable treatment” reflects one of the components of the customary minimum standard of treatment of aliens, as understood at the time of the conclusion of the Treaty of Amity, namely protection against a denial of justice. It considers that the second and third clauses, concerning “unreasonable or discriminatory measures” and “effective means” respectively, do not establish independent obligations, but rather inform the interpretation of the fair and equitable treatment standard.
133. The United States maintains that, for a denial of justice to be established, the conduct related to the administration of justice must be notoriously unjust or egregious. It argues that, in this case, the aforementioned requirement is not met, because the Iranian companies were able to engage in the same legal process available to other litigants in the United States and its domestic courts ensured the protection of the companies’ rights even when Iran or Iranian entities chose not to participate in the proceedings. The Respondent further argues that there has been no denial of justice because “it was both reasonable and justified” to pierce the corporate veil and allow victims holding terrorism-related judgments against Iran to attach assets of Iran’s agencies and instrumentalities.
134. In the Respondent’s view, even under Iran’s proposed standards, the United States did not breach Article IV, paragraph 1, of the Treaty. The United States maintains that the challenged measures are part of a rational policy aimed at responding to the sustained support of terrorist acts and at satisfying valid judgments against Iran. It contends that the measures were reasonably related to this policy, authorizing the attachment only of assets wholly owned or majority-owned by Iran or its agencies and instrumentalities, and not private companies. It emphasizes that proportionality is not mentioned in Article IV, paragraph 1, but argues that the measures were in any case proportional. The United States further asserts that there was no lack of due process, since the measures did not prevent Iranian companies from examining witnesses, presenting evidence, hiring counsel or pursuing appeals. It also argues that, under customary international law, there is no doctrine of legitimate expectations and that, in any case, Iran has failed to establish that any companies had
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relevant expectations or that the United States made specific representations. The Respondent adds that there has been no discrimination, since the measures are applicable to all States designated as a sponsor of terrorism and are not limited to Iran. The United States submits that Iran’s claims regarding the denial of effective means of enforcing contractual rights should be dismissed, because the measures only authorized the attachment and execution of proceeds from certain contracts, and did not interfere with the contractual rights themselves or with the companies’ ability to enforce them before the courts.
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135. The Court begins by examining the scope of the obligation established by the first sentence of Article III, paragraph 1, of the Treaty, which provides that “[c]ompanies constituted under the applicable laws and regulations of either High Contracting Party shall have their juridical status recognized within the territories of the other High Contracting Party”. The Parties’ disagreement revolves around the meaning of the phrase “shall have their juridical status recognized”. According to Iran, this phrase entails the obligation to give effect to the juridical status of companies as determined by the State where they were created, including their separate legal personality. For the United States, this phrase refers to the recognition of a company’s legal existence, but not its legal separateness.
136. The Court recalls that, in its 2019 Judgment, it examined the definition of the term “company”, as reflected in the third sentence of Article III, paragraph 1, of the Treaty. Based on that definition, the Court considered that the following point is not in doubt:
“an entity may only be characterized as a ‘company’ within the meaning of the Treaty if it has its own legal personality, conferred on it by the law of the State where it was created, which establishes its legal status. In this regard, Article III, paragraph 1, begins by stating that ‘[c]ompanies constituted under the applicable laws and regulations of either High Contracting Party shall have their juridical status recognized within the territories of the other High Contracting Party’.” (Certain Iranian Assets (Islamic Republic of Iran v. United States of America), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2019 (I), p. 37, para. 87.)
Accordingly, the Court considers that the expression “juridical status” refers to the companies’ own legal personality. The recognition of a company’s own legal personality entails the legal existence of the company as an entity that is distinct from other natural or legal persons, including States.
137. It does not follow, however, that the legal situation of such an entity will always be the same as in the State in which it was constituted. In the case concerning Barcelona Traction, Light and Power Company, Limited (New Application: 1962) (Belgium v. Spain), the Court noted that international law recognizes the corporate entity as an institution created by States within their domestic jurisdiction, and it explained that the legal situation of such entities is determined by municipal law, which endows them with rights and obligations peculiar to themselves (Second Phase, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1970, pp. 33-34, paras. 38-41). The Court affirmed moreover that “the independent existence of the legal entity cannot be treated as an absolute” and observed that the process of disregarding the legal entity had been found justified in certain exceptional circumstances (ibid., pp. 38-39, paras. 56-58).
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138. In the present case, it is not disputed that the companies allegedly affected by the measures of the United States were constituted under Iranian law as separate legal entities with their own legal personality. The Parties disagree on whether the United States disregarded the legal personality of the companies through its legislative, executive and judicial measures and whether this was justified. In the Court’s view, the obligation under Article III, paragraph 1, to recognize the juridical status of companies of the other Contracting Party is not necessarily satisfied by the fact of their appearance at and participation in domestic judicial proceedings. The Court will examine all the relevant measures in order to determine whether the United States disregarded the legal personality of the Iranian companies and, if so, whether this was justified.
The Court will address these questions in the context of its examination of Iran’s claims under Article IV, paragraph 1, of the Treaty of Amity.
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139. With regard to Article IV, paragraph 1, the Court recalls that it is, as a whole, “aimed at the way in which the natural persons and legal entities in question are, in the exercise of their private or professional activities, to be treated by the State concerned” (Oil Platforms (Islamic Republic of Iran v. United States of America), Preliminary Objection, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1996 (II), p. 816, para. 36).
140. Article IV, paragraph 1, consists of three clauses separated by semicolons, and each clause starts with the word “shall” (see paragraph 123 above). Interpreted in good faith, in accordance with the ordinary meaning to be given to its terms in their context, it is clear that Article IV, paragraph 1, comprises three distinct obligations. The interpretation put forward by the United States according to which the second and third clauses of Article IV, paragraph 1, do not establish independent obligations has no basis in the text of the Treaty.
141. Article IV, paragraph 1, neither refers to the “customary minimum standard of treatment”, nor employs other formulations sometimes associated with that standard, such as “required by international law”. Accordingly, there is no need to examine the content of the customary minimum standard of treatment. The Court will focus on Article IV, paragraph 1, of the Treaty and apply it to the present case.
142. The first clause of Article IV, paragraph 1, provides that “[e]ach High Contracting Party shall at all times accord fair and equitable treatment to nationals and companies of the other High Contracting Party, and to their property and enterprises”. The Parties agree that the obligation to afford “fair and equitable treatment” includes protection against a denial of justice. Iran argues that for such a denial to occur, there must be an obstruction of access to courts or a failure to provide those guarantees generally considered indispensable in the proper administration of justice. It maintains that the legislative, executive and judicial acts at issue have resulted in a denial of justice. The United States, for its part, contends that there is a high threshold for demonstrating a denial of justice, requiring a notoriously unjust or egregious violation in the administration of justice which offends a sense of judicial propriety. In the Respondent’s view, there is nothing unjust or egregious about the measures in question.
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143. In the present case, the rights of Iranian companies to appear before the courts in the United States, to make legal submissions and to lodge appeals, have not been curtailed. The enactment of legislative provisions removing legal defences based on separate legal personality, and their application by the courts, do not in themselves constitute a serious failure in the administration of justice amounting to a denial of justice.
144. The second clause of Article IV, paragraph 1, provides that “[e]ach High Contracting Party . . . shall refrain from applying unreasonable or discriminatory measures that would impair [the] legally acquired rights and interests [of nationals and companies of the other High Contracting Party]”. Even though the first and second clauses of Article IV, paragraph 1, lay down two separate obligations, there is an overlap between the protection against “unreasonable or discriminatory measures” stipulated in the second clause and the broader standard of “fair and equitable treatment” provided for in the first clause, because fair and equitable treatment can encompass protection against unreasonable or discriminatory measures.
145. The Court notes that the second clause uses a disjunctive “or”, not a conjunctive “and”, to prescribe protection against “unreasonable or discriminatory measures”. In the case concerning Elettronica Sicula S.p.A. (ELSI) (United States of America v. Italy), the Court conducted separate examinations as to whether the measures concerned were either “discriminatory” or “arbitrary” (see Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1989, pp. 72-77, paras. 121-130). The Court considers that the terms “unreasonable” or “discriminatory” in the second clause of Article IV, paragraph 1, reflect two different standards against which the conduct of a State may be separately assessed.
146. The Court begins by examining whether the measures taken by the United States and challenged by Iran are “unreasonable”. In its ordinary meaning, the term “unreasonable” means lacking in justification based on rational grounds.
The Court has explained that in examining the “reasonableness” of a regulation, a court
“must recognize that the regulator . . . has the primary responsibility for assessing the need for regulation and for choosing, on the basis of its knowledge of the situation, the measure that it deems most appropriate to meet that need. It will not be enough in a challenge to a regulation simply to assert in a general way that it is unreasonable. Concrete and specific facts will be required to persuade a court to come to that conclusion.” (Dispute regarding Navigational and Related Rights (Costa Rica v. Nicaragua), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2009, p. 253, para. 101.)
Indeed, what is reasonable in any given case must depend on its particular circumstances (see Interpretation of the Agreement of 25 March 1951 between the WHO and Egypt, Advisory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports 1980, p. 96, para. 49; Continental Shelf (Tunisia/Libyan Arab Jamahiriya), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1982, p. 60, para. 72).
147. In the Court’s view, a measure is unreasonable within the meaning of the Treaty of Amity if it does not meet certain conditions.
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First, a measure is unreasonable if it does not pursue a legitimate public purpose. In the present case, the United States contends that the legislative provisions challenged by Iran, as well as the judicial decisions that applied those provisions, had the purpose of providing compensation to victims of “terrorist acts” for which Iran has been found liable by United States courts. As a general rule, providing effective remedies to plaintiffs who have been awarded damages can constitute a legitimate public purpose.
148. In addition, a measure is unreasonable if there is no appropriate relationship between the purpose pursued and the measure adopted. The attachment and execution of assets of a defendant that has been found liable by domestic courts can generally be considered as having an appropriate relationship with the purpose of providing compensation to plaintiffs.
149. Furthermore, a measure is unreasonable if its adverse impact is manifestly excessive in relation to the purpose pursued. In the case concerning the Dispute regarding Navigational and Related Rights (Costa Rica v. Nicaragua), the Court examined whether Nicaragua had the power to regulate the exercise by Costa Rica of its right to freedom of navigation under the Treaty of Limits of 1858. Pointing out that such power was not unlimited, the Court defined “unreasonable” as follows:
“A regulation . . . must not be unreasonable, which means that its negative impact on the exercise of the right in question must not be manifestly excessive when measured against the protection afforded to the purpose invoked.” (Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2009, pp. 249-250, para. 87.)
150. In the present case, Section 201 (a) of TRIA refers to “the blocked assets of any agency or instrumentality” (emphasis added). Section 1610 (g) (1) of the FSIA refers to “the property of an agency or instrumentality”, expressly including “property that is a separate juridical entity or is an interest held directly or indirectly in a separate juridical entity” (emphasis added). Both provisions employ very broad terms, which are capable of encompassing any legal entity, regardless of Iran’s type or degree of control over them. In addition, by dispensing with the requirement that the relevant assets were previously “blocked”, Section 1610 (g) (1) ensures that any assets of those legal entities are available for attachment and execution. Thus, by design, these legislative measures plainly disregarded the Iranian companies’ own legal personality, making it possible to impair their legally acquired rights and interests, namely those related to their ownership of, or interest in, the assets liable to attachment and execution.
151. Section 201 (a) of TRIA and Section 1610 (g) (1) of the FSIA have been applied by United States courts in several enforcement proceedings involving Iranian companies.
In the Weinstein and Bennett cases (see paragraph 70 above), the sole company involved was Bank Melli.
152. In respect of the Levin case (Levin et al. v. Bank of New York et al., United States District Court, Southern District of New York, Case No. 09-cv-5900, filed 26 June 2009), the United States,
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while not contesting that Iranian companies may have been involved in the enforcement proceedings, nonetheless pointed out that Iran has not identified those companies. It is true that certain judicial decisions and other court documents brought to the Court’s attention by both Parties are redacted or do not otherwise identify Iranian companies. However, the evidence in the case file shows that the enforcement proceedings in the Levin case involved assets which were owned by, or in which interests were held by, Bank Melli, Bank Saderat.
153. The Heiser cases involved the Telecommunication Infrastructure Company, Iranohind Shipping Company, Export Development Bank of Iran, Bank Saderat, Behran Oil Company, Iran Marine Industrial Company, Sediran Drilling Company, Iran Air and Bank Melli, all of which were affected by one or more decisions (Estate of Michael Heiser v. Islamic Republic of Iran, United States District Court, District of Columbia, Memorandum Opinion of 10 August 2011, Federal Supplement, Second Series, Vol. 807, p. 9; Estate of Michael Heiser et al. v. The Bank of Tokyo Mitsubishi UFJ, New York Branch, United States District Court, Southern District of New York, Memorandum and Order of 29 January 2013, Federal Supplement, Second Series, Vol. 919, p. 411; Estate of Michael Heiser v. Bank of Baroda, New York Branch, United States District Court, Southern District of New York, Case No. 11-cv-1602, Order of 19 February 2013.
154. Iran has argued that three other entities, IRISL Benelux NV, Bank Sepah International PLC and Bank Melli PLC U.K., were also affected by enforcement proceedings in the Heiser cases. The Court observes, however, that IRISL Benelux NV was constituted under the laws of Belgium, while Bank Melli PLC U.K. and Bank Sepah International PLC were constituted under the laws of the United Kingdom. Consequently, these three entities are not companies constituted under the applicable laws of either High Contracting Party, as required by Article III, paragraph 1, of the Treaty of Amity. Therefore, the Court will not consider Iran’s claims as they concern these three entities.
155. In the case concerning Barcelona Traction, Light and Power Company, Limited (New Application: 1962) (Belgium v. Spain), the Court noted that “the process of ‘lifting the corporate veil’ or ‘disregarding the legal entity’ has been found justified and equitable in certain circumstances or for certain purposes” (Second Phase, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1970, p. 39, para. 56). However, in the circumstances of the present case, the Iranian companies’ own legal personality has been set aside, under the conditions described above (see paragraph 150), in relation to liability judgments rendered in cases in which those companies could not participate and in relation to facts in which those companies do not appear to have been involved. The Court considers that disregarding the legal entity in such circumstances is not justified.
156. In light of the foregoing, the Court considers that, even assuming that the legislative provisions adopted by the United States and their application by United States courts pursued a legitimate public purpose, they caused an impairment of the Iranian companies’ rights that was manifestly excessive when measured against the protection afforded to the purpose invoked. The Court therefore concludes that the legislative and judicial measures were unreasonable, in violation of the obligation under Article IV, paragraph 1, of the Treaty of Amity.
157. With respect to Executive Order 13599, the Court recalls that this executive measure blocked all property and interests in property of Iran and Iranian financial institutions falling within its purview (see paragraph 114 above). The measure was adopted in 2012, several years
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after Section 1610 (g) (1) of the FSIA had dispensed with the requirement that assets had to be blocked in order for them to be available for attachment and execution. It is therefore apparent that Executive Order 13599 was not adopted for the purpose of providing compensation to plaintiffs who had been successful in their liability claims against Iran. Indeed, the United States’ contention is that Executive Order 13599 was adopted in response to Iran’s “sustained support of terrorist acts”. Because Executive Order 13599 encompasses “[a]ll property and interests in property of any Iranian financial institution”, it is manifestly excessive in relation to the purpose pursued. Accordingly, the Court concludes that Executive Order 13599 is also an unreasonable measure, in violation of the obligation under Article IV, paragraph 1.
158. As explained above (see paragraph 145), the second clause of Article IV, paragraph 1, of the Treaty of Amity uses the disjunctive “or” in providing for protection against “unreasonable” or “discriminatory” measures. Therefore, a measure will be in violation of the obligation under the second clause when it is not in conformity with either standard. Since the Court has concluded that the measures adopted by the United States are “unreasonable”, it is not necessary to examine separately whether they are “discriminatory”. Neither is it necessary to consider the other grounds on which Iran has relied to claim breaches of Article IV, paragraph 1, by the United States.
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159. On the basis of its finding that the measures taken by the United States were unreasonable (see paragraphs 156-157), the Court concludes that the United States has violated its obligation under Article IV, paragraph 1, of the Treaty of Amity.
In reaching this conclusion, the Court has determined that the measures of the United States disregarded the Iranian companies’ own legal personality, and that this was not justified. In light of all of the foregoing, the Court also concludes that the United States has violated its obligation to recognize the juridical status of Iranian companies under Article III, paragraph 1.
B. Alleged violations of Article III, paragraph 2
160. Article III, paragraph 2, of the Treaty of Amity provides:
“Nationals and companies of either High Contracting Party shall have freedom of access to the courts of justice and administrative agencies within the territories of the other High Contracting Party, in all degrees of jurisdiction, both in defense and pursuit of their rights, to the end that prompt and impartial justice be done. Such access shall be allowed, in any event, upon terms no less favorable than those applicable to nationals and companies of such other High Contracting Party or of any third country. It is understood that companies not engaged in activities within the country shall enjoy the right of such access without any requirement of registration or domestication.”
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161. Iran argues that Article III, paragraph 2, reflects the obligation of each Contracting Party to provide nationals and companies of the other Contracting Party with “meaningful” access to courts, such that they can properly defend their rights. It emphasizes that the phrase “to the end that prompt and impartial justice be done” should be given full effect, and it recalls that the context of this provision is the obligation to recognize companies’ juridical status under Article III, paragraph 1. It therefore contends that companies do not have freedom of access under paragraph 2 when they are not recognized as a separate juridical entity. According to the Applicant, the Court did not settle this question in its 2019 Judgment because its reasoning with respect to Article III, paragraph 2, was focused on the question of sovereign immunities.
162. Iran asserts that the United States’ measures have deprived Iranian companies of any possibility to have meaningful access to United States courts, by removing their right to recognition of separate juridical status and establishing their liability for judgments rendered against Iran in proceedings to which the companies were not parties. In its view, there could be no meaningful access when the outcome of enforcement proceedings was predetermined by the law. Iran argues that, as a matter of fact, Iranian companies are being treated in less favourable terms than companies of any third country.
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163. The United States, for its part, argues that Article III, paragraph 2, simply grants companies the right of access to the courts to pursue other rights they may claim to have, but does not itself guarantee any rights, procedural or substantive. In its view, this question of interpretation was settled by the Court in its 2019 Judgment. The Respondent rejects the alleged effect Iran ascribes to the phrase “to the end that prompt and impartial justice be done”.
164. The United States stresses that Iranian companies were at all times permitted to appear and present all their arguments before the courts in the United States. It considers that some companies’ active participation in judicial proceedings, where they were represented by counsel and made legal submissions, is a sufficient basis for rejecting Iran’s claims under this provision.
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165. In its 2019 Judgment, the Court referred to Article III, paragraph 2, of the Treaty of Amity in the following terms:
“The provision at issue does not seek to guarantee the substantive or even the procedural rights that a company of one Contracting Party might intend to pursue before the courts or authorities of the other Party, but only to protect the possibility for such a company to have access to those courts or authorities with a view to pursuing the (substantive or procedural) rights it claims to have. The wording of Article III,
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paragraph 2, does not point towards the broad interpretation suggested by Iran. The rights therein are guaranteed ‘to the end that prompt and impartial justice be done’. Access to a Contracting Party’s courts must be allowed ‘upon terms no less favorable’ than those applicable to the nationals and companies of the Party itself ‘or of any third country’.” (Certain Iranian Assets (Islamic Republic of Iran v. United States of America), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2019 (I), p. 32, para. 70.)
166. The Court made this statement while addressing Iran’s arguments on sovereign immunities. However, the Court’s assessment of Article III, paragraph 2, has a broader reach. There is a clear distinction between, on the one hand, freedom of access to the courts with a view to the assertion of rights and, on the other, the content of the substantive or procedural rights that may be invoked before the courts. As reflected in the passage cited above, when interpreting Article III, paragraph 2, the Court had already examined the phrase “to the end that prompt and impartial justice be done”. In the Court’s view, that phrase reflects the purpose for which the Contracting Parties of the Treaty recognized the freedom of access to the courts of justice and administrative agencies for their respective nationals and companies. It does not itself guarantee any procedural or substantive right, nor does it in any way enlarge the “freedom of access” established in Article III, paragraph 2.
167. The Court has noted above (see paragraph 143) that, in the circumstances of the present case, the rights of Iranian companies to appear before United States courts, make legal submissions and lodge appeals were not curtailed. Iran’s claims with respect to Article III, paragraph 2, are concerned with the rights that Iranian companies pursued before United States courts and with their likelihood of success. The application by United States courts of legislation that was unfavourable to the Iranian companies and the fact that the companies’ arguments on the basis of the Treaty of Amity were unsuccessful are matters related to the companies’ substantive rights. These matters do not call into question the “freedom of access” enjoyed by the companies or the aim of “prompt and impartial justice” within the meaning of Article III, paragraph 2, of the Treaty of Amity.
168. For these reasons, the Court concludes that Iran has not established a violation by the United States of its obligations under Article III, paragraph 2, of the Treaty of Amity.
C. Alleged violations of Article IV, paragraph 2
169. Article IV, paragraph 2, of the Treaty of Amity provides:
“Property of nationals and companies of either High Contracting Party, including interests in property, shall receive the most constant protection and security within the territories of the other High Contracting Party, in no case less than that required by international law. Such property shall not be taken except for a public purpose, nor shall it be taken without the prompt payment of just compensation. Such compensation shall be in an effectively realizable form and shall represent the full equivalent of the property taken; and adequate provision shall have been made at or prior to the time of taking for the determination and payment thereof.”
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170. Iran notes that, as a result of the measures adopted by the United States, the property of Iranian companies has been blocked, seized or disposed of. It contends that, in each instance, the property was taken without compensation and handed over to plaintiffs holding default liability judgments against Iran, which amounts to an unlawful expropriation and a failure to accord the most constant protection and security, in violation of Article IV, paragraph 2, of the Treaty of Amity. It stresses that both limbs of Article IV, paragraph 2, apply to property and “interests in property”, with the latter term including intangible interests in property.
171. With respect to the obligation to afford the most constant protection and security, Iran contends that it was breached by the same conduct of the United States as the obligation to afford fair and equitable treatment under Article IV, paragraph 1. In its view, the standard of the most constant protection and security entitles property and interests in property to a high level of both physical and legal protection. Thus, it asserts that the United States has violated this obligation by removing generally applicable legal defences otherwise available to Iranian companies and by making those companies liable for purportedly wrongful acts of Iran in proceedings to which they were not parties.
172. As concerns the second limb of Article IV, paragraph 2, Iran argues that the prohibition of takings except for a public purpose and with payment of just compensation is applicable to acts of any organ of the State. It contends that the United States has violated this provision through judicial decisions giving effect to legislative and executive acts which were themselves expropriatory in nature. The Applicant maintains that the design and effect of the measures, as implemented by the courts, was for the property to be taken and given to plaintiffs in cases against Iran. Thus, the combined effect of the series of legislative, executive and judicial acts amounted to a taking. It asserts that there is no need to prove an additional element of illegality in relation to the judicial decisions. Iran further asserts that the United States violated Article IV, paragraph 2, through the indirect taking of property of Iranian companies, due to the earlier “blocking” of their assets pursuant to Executive Order 13599, which radically deprived the owners of the economic use and enjoyment of their property as if the rights had ceased to exist.
173. In response to the United States’ invocation of the police powers doctrine, Iran notes that the doctrine is mentioned neither in the text of Article IV, paragraph 2, nor in the negotiating history of the Treaty. It argues that, in any event, the United States’ measures are not bona fide regulations aimed at the general welfare and adopted in a non-discriminatory manner. According to the Applicant, the valid exercise of police powers requires the regulations to be free from arbitrariness and unreasonableness. In its view, the doctrine requires an assessment of proportionality.
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174. The United States, for its part, argues that the obligation to provide the most constant protection and security is limited to protection from physical harm, and concerns the level of police protection required under customary international law against acts of physical harm to a person or property. It notes that there is no allegation in this case that the property of Iranian companies was subjected to invasion or other forms of physical harm, and thus maintains that the challenged measures do not violate this obligation. In the alternative, the Respondent argues that, even if the Court were to accept that the provision requires more than the protection of physical security, the authorities cited by Iran do not support the legal security standard it proposes, which would bar any executive or legislative measure formulated specifically to remove legal protections. In any case, the United States considers that Iran has not established a breach of the provision at issue.
175. With respect to Iran’s allegations in relation to takings, the United States contends that decisions of domestic courts acting in the role of neutral and independent arbiters of legal rights do not give rise to a claim for expropriation. In its view, even if it were possible to conclude that a judicial decision is expropriatory, this would require the identification of an additional element of illegality in either the conduct of the court making the decision or in the chain of events leading to the decision. The Respondent argues that its legislative and executive acts do not, standing alone, deprive Iranian nationals or companies of any property, but simply make them potentially subject to an enforcement action, or, as in the case of Executive Order 13599, are temporary measures which do not alter ownership of the blocked assets.
176. The United States further argues that the measures it has adopted do not constitute an expropriation because they are bona fide, non-discriminatory exercises of police power, which do not trigger a right to compensation. It denies that the police powers doctrine includes an assessment of proportionality.
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177. The Parties agree that Article IV, paragraph 2, contains two distinct rules. The first rule is reflected in the first sentence, which sets out the obligation of each Contracting Party to afford the most constant protection and security to the property and interests in property of the nationals and companies of the other Contracting Party. The second rule is set out in the second and third sentences of Article IV, paragraph 2. The second sentence of paragraph 2 prohibits the taking of such property and interests in property, except for a public purpose and with the prompt payment of just compensation. In English, the Parties have employed the terms “taking” and “expropriation” interchangeably. The third sentence establishes conditions in relation to the payment of compensation.
The Court will first examine Iran’s claims with respect to the second rule in Article IV, paragraph 2, which is concerned with takings or expropriations.
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178. It is not disputed by the Parties that United States courts, in application of Section 201 (a) of TRIA or Section 1610 (g) (1) of the FSIA, subjected to attachment and execution the property and interests in property of Iranian companies. It is also uncontroversial that the assets were turned over or distributed to plaintiffs who had succeeded in cases before United States courts in which Iran was found liable. Nor is it disputed that the Iranian companies concerned did not receive any payment.
179. Iran has identified property and interests in property which were affected in the context of several enforcement proceedings before United States courts. The United States has not contested the identification of those assets.
180. The Court will consider Iran’s claims in respect of the following assets, to the extent that they were owned by, or interests were held in them by, Iranian companies (see paragraphs 151-153 above): as concerns the enforcement proceedings in the Weinstein case, real property; with respect to the enforcement proceedings in the Heiser cases, funds related to a contractual debt owed by Sprint Communications Company, funds held by Bank of Tokyo Mitsubishi UFJ, proceeds of electronic fund transfers held by Bank of Baroda and funds held by Bank of America; in relation to the enforcement proceedings in the Levin case, funds held by JP Morgan Chase Bank related to contractual debts owed by Mastercard International Inc., and proceeds of electronic fund transfers held by JP Morgan Chase Bank or Citibank.
181. As concerns the Bennett case (see paragraph 70 above), Iran identifies funds related to contractual debts owed by Visa Inc. and Franklin Resources Inc., affected by the enforcement proceedings. The United States sought to disregard this claim of Iran on the basis that the assets in these enforcement proceedings were not distributed to the plaintiffs until after the termination of the Treaty of Amity. It is true that the distribution of assets in these proceedings was not ordered until 2020 (Bennett et al. v. The Islamic Republic of Iran et al., United States District Court, Northern District of California, Case No. 11-cv-5807, Order of 24 April 2020), after the termination of the Treaty of Amity took effect (see paragraph 32 above). However, this does not prevent the Court from considering Iran’s claims in relation to these funds, which were already affected by decisions issued in 2013 (Bennett et al. v. The Islamic Republic of Iran et al., United States District Court, Northern District of California, Order of 28 February 2013, Federal Supplement, Second Series, Vol. 927, p. 833) and 2016 (Bennett et al. v. The Islamic Republic of Iran et al., United States Court of Appeals, Ninth Circuit, Opinion and Order of 22 February 2016, Federal Supplement, Third Series, Vol. 817, p. 1131, as amended on 14 June 2016, Federal Supplement, Third Series, Vol. 825, p. 949).
182. Iran has also referred to certain funds held by Mashreqbank, PSC, affected by enforcement proceedings in one of the Heiser cases (Estate of Michael Heiser et al. v. Mashreqbank, United States District Court, Southern District of New York, Case No. 11-cv-1609, Order of 4 May 2012). However, Iran has not established that Iranian companies owned or had interests in those assets. Therefore, the Court will not consider this claim.
183. The Court must determine whether the attachment and execution of the property and interests in property listed above (see paragraphs 180-181) constitute takings contrary to Article IV, paragraph 2, of the Treaty.
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184. The Court considers that a judicial decision ordering the attachment and execution of property or interests in property does not per se constitute a taking or expropriation of that property. A specific element of illegality related to that decision is required to turn it into a compensable expropriation. Such an element of illegality is present, in certain situations, when a deprivation of property results from a denial of justice, or when a judicial organ applies legislative or executive measures that infringe international law and thereby causes a deprivation of property. Therefore, in order to determine whether there exists a specific element of illegality, it is necessary to examine the legislative, executive and judicial acts adopted by the United States as a whole.
185. The Court notes that the Parties disagree as to whether the “police powers” doctrine has any bearing on Article IV, paragraph 2, given that there is no mention of it in the text of the provisions concerned with expropriation. The Court considers that the Contracting Parties’ right to regulate is not undermined by the prohibition of takings provided for in Article IV, paragraph 2. It has long been recognized in international law that the bona fide non-discriminatory exercise of certain regulatory powers by the government aimed at the protection of legitimate public welfare is not deemed expropriatory or compensable (see for example Bischoff Case, German-Venezuelan Commission, Award, 1903, United Nations, Reports of International Arbitral Awards (RIAA), Vol. X, p. 420; Sedco, Inc. and Sediran Drilling Company v. National Iranian Oil Company, and the Islamic Republic of Iran, Interlocutory Award, No. ITL-55-129-3, 17 September 1985, para. 90; Saluka Investments B.V. v. Czech Republic, PCA Case No. 2001-4, Partial Award, 17 March 2006, para. 255). Governmental powers in this respect, however, are not unlimited.
186. The Court has already concluded that, in the circumstances of the present case, Section 201 (a) of TRIA and Section 1610 (g) (1) of the FSIA, as well as their application by United States courts, were unreasonable measures in violation of the obligation under Article IV, paragraph 1, of the Treaty of Amity (see paragraphs 155-156 above). Reasonableness is one of the considerations that limit the exercise of the governmental powers in this respect (see for example Bischoff Case, 1903, RIAA, Vol. X, p. 420). It follows from this element of unreasonableness, which is found in the legislative provisions and which extends to their judicial enforcement, that the measures adopted by the United States did not constitute a lawful exercise of regulatory powers and amounted to compensable expropriation.
187. For these reasons, the Court concludes that the application of Section 201 (a) of TRIA and Section 1610 (g) (1) of the FSIA by United States courts amounted to takings without compensation of the property and interests in property of Iranian companies, as identified above (see paragraphs 180-181), in violation of the obligations under Article IV, paragraph 2, of the Treaty.
188. The situation with respect to Executive Order 13599 is different. Iran has failed to identify the property or interests in property of Iranian companies that were specifically affected by Executive Order 13599. Indeed, it has accepted that the main effect of Executive Order 13599, as concerns the cases challenged in these proceedings, was the blocking of Bank Markazi’s assets, which is outside the Court’s jurisdiction (see paragraph 115 above). Accordingly, the Court concludes that, in respect of Executive Order 13599, Iran has not substantiated its allegations in relation to takings under Article IV, paragraph 2, of the Treaty.
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189. The Court turns now to Iran’s claims in relation to the obligation to afford the most constant protection and security under Article IV, paragraph 2, of the Treaty.
190. The Court considers that the core of the obligation to afford the most constant protection and security under the Treaty of Amity concerns the protection of property from physical harm. Each Contracting Party has an obligation to exercise due diligence in providing protection from physical harm to the property of nationals and companies of the other Contracting Party within its own territory. In its 2019 Judgment, the Court emphasized that Article IV, paragraph 2, “must be read in the context of Article IV as a whole” (Certain Iranian Assets (Islamic Republic of Iran v. United States of America), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2019 (I), p. 28, para. 58). The Treaty of Amity provides for fair and equitable treatment in Article IV, paragraph 1, and then for the most constant protection and security in Article IV, paragraph 2. Similarly, treaties on commerce and navigation and international investment agreements often provide for fair and equitable treatment and the most constant protection and security, consecutively or even in the same sentence. These two separate standards of protection will overlap significantly if the standard of the most constant protection and security is interpreted to include legal protection. The Court observes that the most constant protection and security standard is of particular practical significance and relevance in the form of protection of property from physical harm by third parties. It also recalls that, in any event, the standard of constant protection and security “cannot be construed as the giving of a warranty that property shall never in any circumstances be occupied or disturbed” (Elettronica Sicula S.p.A. (ELSI) (United States of America v. Italy), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1989, p. 65, para. 108).
191. In the present case, Iran does not assert that the United States has failed to protect the property of Iranian nationals and companies from physical harm. It argues that the United States has violated its obligation under Article IV, paragraph 2, to afford the most constant protection and security to the property of Iranian companies, because that obligation also includes the legal protection of property. As observed above, the standard of the most constant protection and security and the standard of fair and equitable treatment will overlap significantly if the former is interpreted to include legal protection. The Court has already concluded that the measures of the United States were in violation of its obligations under Article IV, paragraph 1. In the Court’s view, the provisions of Article IV, paragraph 2, as concerns the most constant protection and security, were not intended to apply to situations covered by the provisions of Article IV, paragraph 1. Accordingly, the Court concludes that Iran has not established a violation by the United States of its obligations under Article IV, paragraph 2, as concerns the most constant protection and security.
192. Based on its finding with respect to the measures of the United States (see paragraph 187 above), the Court concludes that the United States has violated its obligations under Article IV, paragraph 2, of the Treaty of Amity, as concerns the prohibition of takings except for a public purpose and with the prompt payment of just compensation.
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D. Alleged violations of Article V, paragraph 1
193. Article V, paragraph 1, of the Treaty of Amity reads:
“Nationals and companies of either High Contracting Party shall be permitted, within the territories of the other High Contracting Party: (a) to lease, for suitable periods of time, real property needed for their residence or for the conduct of activities pursuant to the present Treaty; (b) to purchase or otherwise acquire personal property of all kinds; and (c) to dispose of property of all kinds by sale, testament or otherwise. The treatment accorded in these respects shall in no event be less favorable than that accorded to nationals and companies of any third country.”
194. Iran contends that the measures adopted by the United States have deprived Iranian companies of the right to dispose of their property, within the meaning of subparagraph 1 (c) of Article V. It maintains that an act that confiscates property also violates prima facie the right to dispose freely of that property. In its view, the first sentence of Article V, paragraph 1, establishes a right to dispose of property which may be exercised at any time, while the second sentence concerning the most-favoured-nation treatment creates an independent obligation. The Applicant argues that the latter obligation has also been violated, since Iranian companies and property have manifestly been treated less favourably than nationals and companies of third countries.
195. The United States, for its part, contends that Article V, paragraph 1, is a permissive provision, which does not entail an obligation to facilitate an activity or leave it entirely unregulated or unencumbered and which is not violated by rules and procedures imposing burdens, obstacles or requirements on the transfer of property. It argues that the two sentences of Article V, paragraph 1, must be read together and impose a single obligation, with the most-favoured-nation provision supplying the standard to be applied in relation to the first sentence. The Respondent maintains that this provision simply does not apply to the type of measures of which Iran complains. In the view of the United States, Iran has not demonstrated that its companies have attempted to dispose of property or that any such attempt was prevented by the measures of the United States. The United States asserts that none of the measures challenged by Iran accords less favourable treatment to Iranian nationals in respect of the disposal of property. It stresses that Iran has not identified a similarly situated person or company that received more favourable treatment, which is a fundamental requirement of the most-favoured-nation test.
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196. The Court considers that the language of the first sentence of Article V, paragraph 1, which employs the expression “shall be permitted”, establishes rights for the nationals and companies of the Contracting Parties to lease property for their residence or for the conduct of their commercial activities, to purchase or otherwise acquire personal property, and to dispose of property.
197. The rights established in the first sentence do not entail an absolute obligation for the Contracting Parties. The Contracting Parties can exercise their regulatory powers in respect of such
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acts of lease, acquisition or disposal of property. This is exemplified in the first sentence itself, which refers to the lease of real property “for suitable periods of time”. The second sentence of Article V, paragraph 1, referring to the “treatment accorded in these respects”, also makes clear that the Contracting Parties can regulate these matters.
198. The Court considers that the rights established in the first sentence of Article V, paragraph 1, and the corresponding obligations of the Contracting Parties, are independent from the standard set out in the second sentence. The second sentence states that the treatment accorded shall “in no event be less favorable than that accorded nationals and companies of any third country” (emphasis added). The expression “in no event” suggests that the second sentence establishes a minimum standard. The second sentence contains the Contracting Parties’ commitment to improve the treatment of the nationals and companies of the other Contracting Party whenever they accord more favourable treatment to the nationals and companies of a third country in respect of the rights set out in the first sentence.
199. The Court notes that Iran’s allegations with respect to the right of Iranian companies to dispose of property under Article V, paragraph 1, are predicated on the same set of facts as its claims in relation to Article IV, paragraph 2. The Court has already concluded that the measures of the United States amounted to takings without compensation in violation of its obligations under Article IV, paragraph 2. In the Court’s view, measures that amount to takings without compensation are not the type of measures that fall within the scope of the Contracting Parties’ obligation to permit the disposal of property, under Article V, paragraph 1. The obligation to permit the disposal of property presupposes that the national or company concerned actually owns property over which it can exercise ownership rights. The Court considers that Article V, paragraph 1, was not meant to apply to situations amounting to expropriation, which are addressed in Article IV, paragraph 2.
200. As concerns Executive Order 13599, the Court notes that the property and interests in property blocked by this Executive Order “may not be transferred, paid, exported, withdrawn, or otherwise dealt in”. These terms reflect a general prohibition of the disposal of property. The Court recalls, however, that Iran has failed to identify the property or interests in property of Iranian companies that were specifically affected by the Executive Order, other than the assets of Bank Markazi. Indeed, all other property allegedly blocked by Executive Order 13599 that Iran has brought to the Court’s attention was blocked by other executive measures which have not been challenged in these proceedings. Such property was therefore not affected by Executive Order 13599.
201. In light of the foregoing, the Court concludes that Iran has not established a violation by the United States of the right to dispose of property under Article V, paragraph 1, of the Treaty of Amity.
E. Alleged violations of Article VII, paragraph 1
202. Article VII, paragraph 1, of the Treaty of Amity reads as follows:
“Neither High Contracting Party shall apply restrictions on the making of payments, remittances, and other transfers of funds to or from the territories of the other High Contracting Party, except (a) to the extent necessary to assure the availability
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of foreign exchange for payments for goods and services essential to the health and welfare of its people, or (b) in the case of a member of the International Monetary Fund, restrictions specifically approved by the Fund.”
203. Iran argues that Article VII, paragraph 1, reflects a general prohibition of restrictions on the making of payments and transfers of funds, providing for two exceptions concerned with restrictions on foreign exchange, which are not applicable in this case. It adds that paragraphs 2 and 3 merely contain arrangements for the application of those exceptions. Based on this interpretation, the Applicant contends that, by adopting legislative, executive and judicial measures through which it attached, blocked and confiscated funds belonging to Iranian entities and to Iran, the United States has applied restrictions on the making of payments, remittances and other transfers of funds, in violation of Article VII, paragraph 1.
204. The United States, for its part, argues that Article VII is an exchange control provision. In its view, the scope of the general prohibition in paragraph 1 is understood in light of its immediate context, namely the two exceptions in the same paragraph, and paragraphs 2 and 3, which are all concerned with exchange control restrictions. It maintains that this interpretation is confirmed by the Treaty’s negotiating history. In its view, even under Iran’s interpretation, Iran’s claim fails because measures enabling victims of terrorism to enforce judgments against the property of Iran’s agencies and instrumentalities do not constitute restrictions on payments, remittances or other transfers.
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205. The Parties’ disagreement on the interpretation of Article VII, paragraph 1, concerns the scope of the first part of the provision, in particular that of the term “restrictions”.
206. The first part of Article VII, paragraph 1, refers to “restrictions on the making of payments, remittances, and other transfers of funds”. While this phrase appears fairly broad on its face, it should not be interpreted in isolation but in its context. In addition to establishing the general rule, paragraph 1 contains two exceptions, for situations in which it is “necessary to assure the availability of foreign exchange” and for “restrictions specifically approved by the [International Monetary] Fund”. Paragraphs 2 and 3 of Article VII contain rules that each Contracting Party should follow whenever it applies exchange restrictions. Paragraph 3 in fine provides that, when applying exchange restrictions, a Contracting Party shall afford the other Party adequate opportunity for consultation “regarding the application of the present Article”. Thus, the context of Article VII, paragraph 1, suggests that the term “restrictions” in paragraph 1 is limited to “exchange restrictions”.
207. The Court also observes that the interpretation suggested by Iran would give the provision the character of a prohibition of any restriction on the movement of capital. Given the treaty practice of States regarding movement of capital more generally, it is difficult to conceive that the Parties intended to impose such a general prohibition, especially in the absence of any words making clear an intention to do so (see Elettronica Sicula S.p.A. (ELSI) (United States of America v. Italy),
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Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1989, p. 42, para. 50). Paragraph 3 of Article VII, which provides for the administration of exchange restrictions “in a manner not to influence disadvantageously the competitive position of the commerce, transport or investment of capital of the other High Contracting Party in comparison with the commerce, transport or investment of capital of any third country”, suggests that the Parties’ intention was to regulate the application of exchange restrictions so that they would not negatively affect bilateral commerce. Accordingly, the Court considers that Article VII, paragraph 1, is concerned with exchange restrictions.
208. Since Iran’s claims regarding Article VII, paragraph 1, are not related to exchange restrictions, they should be dismissed. The Court concludes that Iran has not established a violation by the United States of its obligations under Article VII, paragraph 1, of the Treaty of Amity.
F. Alleged violations of Article X, paragraph 1
209. Article X, paragraph 1, of the Treaty of Amity provides that “[b]etween the territories of the two High Contracting Parties there shall be freedom of commerce and navigation”.
210. Iran argues that the treatment afforded to Iran and to Iranian companies and financial institutions, as well as to their respective property, interferes with Iran’s right to freedom of commerce under Article X, paragraph 1, of the Treaty. It contends that “commerce” is a broad concept and that this provision includes protection against legislative or executive acts that result in the automatic blocking or seizure of property. In its view, in the case concerning Oil Platforms (Islamic Republic of Iran v. United States of America), the Court rejected the view that Article X, paragraph 1, is limited to maritime commerce or to trade in goods, while accepting that it encompasses modern financial operations. As to the territorial limitation included in Article X, paragraph 1, the Applicant argues that the Court did not make a general finding that only “direct trade” or “direct commerce” is covered by the provision. It maintains that there was commerce, albeit limited, between the territories of the Parties, and identifies several contractual rights in force, as well as debts owed by United States companies to Iranian companies.
211. The United States contends that Iran’s allegations fail for three reasons. First, it argues that the reference to “commerce” in Article X, paragraph 1, interpreted in context, means commerce related to navigation. To the extent that this interpretation conflicts with the Court’s approach in the Oil Platforms case, the United States requests the Court to revisit its ruling. In the alternative, it contends that “commerce” means trade in goods, including its ancillary activities. In this regard, it emphasizes that Iran has not identified any underlying trade in goods that was disrupted by the challenged measures.
Secondly, the United States argues that Iran disregards the territorial limitation in Article X, paragraph 1. In the view of the Respondent, Iran has failed to identify actual commerce taking place directly between the territories of Iran and the United States, which was impeded by the challenged measures. According to the United States, Iran has made a generic claim, of the type already rejected by the Court in the Oil Platforms case.
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Thirdly, the United States maintains that the type of “legal impediments” to commerce, such as rules governing enforcement of judgments in domestic courts, do not implicate Article X, paragraph 1, since they have too tenuous a connection, if any, to the commercial relations between the Parties.
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212. In its 2019 Judgment, the Court recalled that the word “commerce” in Article X, paragraph 1, of the Treaty of Amity, “refers not just to maritime commerce, but to commercial exchanges in general” and that “commercial treaties cover a wide range of matters ancillary to commerce”. It thus reiterated the interpretation, expressed in the Oil Platforms case, that the word “commerce” in Article X, paragraph 1, “includes commercial activities in general not merely the immediate act of purchase and sale, but also the ancillary activities integrally related to commerce” (Certain Iranian Assets (Islamic Republic of Iran v. United States of America), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2019 (I), p. 34, para. 78, citing Oil Platforms (Islamic Republic of Iran v. United States of America), Preliminary Objection, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1996 (II), pp. 818-819, paras. 45-46 and 49). The Court sees no reason to depart from its previous interpretation of the concept of “freedom of commerce” in Article X, paragraph 1, of the Treaty.
213. The Parties disagree on whether the Court’s interpretation of “freedom of commerce” requires that commerce and the ancillary activities related to it are limited to trade in goods.
214. The Court observes that the object and purpose of the Treaty of Amity, which is stated in its preamble, is to encourage “mutually beneficial trade and investments and closer economic intercourse generally”. It is true that in the Oil Platforms case the Court addressed matters related to trade in goods. However, it did not interpret “commerce” as being exclusively connected with such trade. In its reasoning, it noted, referring to its predecessor’s decision in the Oscar Chinn case, that “[t]he expression ‘freedom of trade’ was thus seen by the Permanent Court as contemplating not only the purchase and sale of goods, but also industry, and in particular the transport business” (Oil Platforms (Islamic Republic of Iran v. United States of America), Preliminary Objection, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1996 (II), p. 819, para. 48). The Court also cited the Dictionnaire de la terminologie du droit international of 1960, which explains that “international commerce” designates “all transactions of import and export, relationships of exchange, purchase, sale, transport, and financial operations between nations” and in some instances “all economic, political, intellectual relations between States and between their nationals” (ibid., p. 818, para. 45). The Court has specifically opined that the limitation of financial transactions is a type of measure capable of affecting rights under the Treaty of Amity (Alleged Violations of the 1955 Treaty of Amity, Economic Relations, and Consular Rights (Islamic Republic of Iran v. United States of America), Provisional Measures, Order of 3 October 2018, I.C.J. Reports 2018 (II), p. 643, para. 67).
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215. The Court thus considers that financial transactions or operations constitute ancillary activities integrally related to commerce. In the Court’s view, activities entirely conducted in the financial sector, such as trade in intangible assets, also constitute commerce protected under Article X, paragraph 1, of the Treaty.
216. As previously stated by the Court, in accordance with the text of Article X, paragraph 1, in order to enjoy its protection, the commerce concerned “is to be between the territories of the United States and Iran” (Oil Platforms (Islamic Republic of Iran v. United States of America), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2003, pp. 214-215, para. 119; emphasis in the original). In the Oil Platforms case, the Court examined whether the process of indirect commerce in oil constituted commerce between the territories of the two States for the purposes of the Treaty of Amity. The Court considered that “the nature of the successive commercial transactions relating to the oil” was determinative. It reached the conclusion that there was no commerce between the territories of the United States and Iran, noting that “[a]fter the completion of the first contract Iran had no ongoing financial interest in, or legal responsibility for, the goods transferred” (ibid., p. 207, para. 97). This conclusion was predicated on the nature of successive commercial transactions relating to oil. It does not follow that any form of commerce conducted through intermediaries is not commerce for the purposes of Article X, paragraph 1. Indeed, it is in the nature of financial transactions that intermediaries located in various countries are often involved in the operations.
217. The Court recalls that a party claiming a breach by the other party of Article X, paragraph 1, must show that “there was an actual impediment to commerce . . . between the territories of the two High Contracting Parties” (ibid., p. 217, para. 123; emphasis in the original). The United States contends that the measures challenged by Iran are indirect “legal impediments” to which Article X, paragraph 1, does not apply and that in any case Iran has not shown how the measures interfered with commerce.
218. The Court is aware that the strained relationship between the Parties has resulted in a progressive reduction of commerce between them. Nonetheless, there is no doubt that at the time when the measures challenged by Iran were adopted by the United States, commercial relations between the Parties were still active. There was trade in goods, as reported by the United States Census Bureau. There were also instances in which Iranian companies provided services in Iran to United States companies, as shown by the materials related to contractual debts in the telecommunications industry and in the credit card services sector, as well as a number of financial transactions performed by Iranian companies in the United States banking system (see paragraphs 180-181 above).
219. In the Oil Platforms case, the Court was concerned with physical interferences with freedom of commerce. However, the decision in that case does not prevent the Court from examining in the present case whether the measures adopted by the United States, which are of a legal nature, interfered with freedom of commerce between the Parties.
220. Executive Order 13599 comprehensively blocked the property and interests in property of Iran and Iranian financial institutions (see paragraph 114 above). By its own terms, this Executive Order constitutes an actual impediment to any financial transaction or operation to be conducted by Iran or Iranian financial institutions in the territory of the United States.
- 62 -
221. Pursuant to Section 1610 (g) (1) of the FSIA, any assets of any Iranian company in which the State holds any form of interest are subject to attachment and execution, even if they have not previously been blocked. By its own terms, this provision constitutes an actual impediment to the performance of commercial activities by those entities in the territory of the United States. Moreover, the judicial application of Section 1610 (g) (1) of the FSIA and Section 201 (a) of TRIA has caused concrete interference with commerce.
222. In the context of its claims under Article X, paragraph 1, Iran specifically mentioned the effects of certain enforcement proceedings with respect to assets of the Iranian Ministry of Defence and the Iranian Navy held by Wells Fargo bank. The Court notes that the first allegation concerns a sum deposited by the company Cubic Defense Systems which was owed to the Iranian Ministry of Defence as a result of arbitration proceedings relating to a failure fully to perform contractual obligations after the Iranian revolution in 1979. With respect to the assets of the Iranian Navy, the only information available is that they were held by Wells Fargo bank as “collateral for letter of credit”. In the Court’s view, the materials submitted to it do not demonstrate that the relevant assets were connected to commerce in such a way that the relevant judicial decisions can be considered instances of interference with commerce as a result of the application of TRIA and the FSIA.
However, the effects of the enforcement proceedings with respect to contractual debts in the telecommunications industry and in the credit card services sector mentioned above (see paragraphs 180-181) constitute clear examples of such concrete interference with commerce.
223. In light of the foregoing, the Court concludes that the United States has violated its obligations under Article X, paragraph 1, of the Treaty of Amity.
V. REMEDIES
224. In its final submissions, Iran requests that the Court, having placed on record the alleged violations of the Treaty of Amity, declare
“(c) . . . that the United States is consequently obliged to put an end to the situation brought about by the aforementioned violations of international law, by (a) ceasing those acts and (b) making full reparation for the injury caused by those acts, in an amount to be determined in a later phase of these proceedings, and (c) offering a formal apology to the Islamic Republic of Iran for those wrongful acts and injuries”.
A. Cessation of internationally wrongful acts
225. Iran sets out its claim relating to the cessation of the wrongful acts in the following terms:
“[T]he United States shall, by enacting appropriate legislation, or by resorting to other methods of its choosing, ensure that the measures adopted by its Legislature and its Executive, and the decisions of its courts and those of other authorities infringing the rights of Iran and of Iranian companies, cease to have effect in so far as they were each
- 63 -
adopted or taken in violation of the obligations owed by the United States to Iran under the Treaty of Amity, and that no steps are taken against the assets or interests of Iran or any Iranian entity or national that involve or imply the recognition or enforcement of such acts” (subparagraph (d) of the final submissions).
226. As provided in Article 30 of the ILC Articles on State Responsibility, which in this regard reflects customary international law: “The State responsible for the internationally wrongful act is under an obligation: (a) to cease that act, if it is continuing”.
227. Such an obligation exists only if the violated obligation is still in force (see, in this respect, the commentary of the ILC to Article 30, paragraphs (1) and (3); see also the arbitral award in the Rainbow Warrior case (Award of 30 April 1990, RIAA, Vol. XX, p. 270, para. 114)).
228. In the present case, this condition is not met, since the Treaty of Amity is no longer in force. The United States denounced the Treaty by giving notification of its denunciation to Iran on 3 October 2018, so that the Treaty ceased to have effect a year later in accordance with the provisions of Article XXIII, paragraph 3, thereof (see paragraph 32 above).
229. It follows that Iran’s request relating to the cessation of internationally wrongful acts must be rejected.
B. Compensation for the injury suffered
230. Iran states, in support of its claim for reparation for its injuries, that it will “present[] to the Court, by a date to be fixed by the Court, a precise evaluation of the reparations due for injuries caused by the unlawful acts of the United States in breach of the Treaty of Amity” (subparagraph (e) of the final submissions).
231. Iran is entitled to compensation for the injury caused by violations by the United States that have been ascertained by the Court. The relevant injury and the amount of compensation may be assessed by the Court only in a subsequent phase of the proceedings. If the Parties are unable to agree on the amount of compensation due to Iran within 24 months of the date of the present Judgment, the Court will, at the request of either Party, determine the amount due on the basis of further written pleadings limited to this issue.
C. Satisfaction
232. The offering of a formal apology by the State having committed the wrongful act may, in appropriate circumstances, constitute a form of satisfaction that the injured State is entitled to claim further to a finding of wrongfulness (on this point, see Article 37, paragraph 2, of the ILC Articles on State Responsibility).
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233. In the circumstances of this case, the Court considers that a finding, in the present Judgment, of wrongful acts committed by the United States is sufficient satisfaction for the Applicant.
*
234. In its final submissions, Iran also requested that the Court rule that “the United States shall pay the costs incurred by Iran in the presentation of this case and the defence of its legal rights under the Treaty of Amity”.
235. Article 64 of the Statute of the Court provides that “[u]nless otherwise decided by the Court, each party shall bear its own costs”. In the circumstances of this case, the Court can see no sufficient reason to direct the respondent Party to bear the costs of the proceedings (see, for example, Armed Activities on the Territory of the Congo (Democratic Republic of the Congo v. Uganda), Reparations, Judgment of 9 February 2022, para. 396; Certain Activities Carried Out by Nicaragua in the Border Area (Costa Rica v. Nicaragua) and Construction of a Road in Costa Rica along the San Juan River (Nicaragua v. Costa Rica), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2015 (II), p. 718, para. 144).
*
* *
236. For these reasons,
THE COURT,
(1) By ten votes to five,
Upholds the objection to jurisdiction raised by the United States of America relating to the claims of the Islamic Republic of Iran under Articles III, IV and V of the 1955 Treaty of Amity, Economic Relations, and Consular Rights, to the extent that they relate to treatment accorded to Bank Markazi and, accordingly, finds that it has no jurisdiction to consider those claims;
IN FAVOUR: Vice-President Gevorgian, Acting President; Judges Tomka, Abraham, Xue, Sebutinde, Bhandari, Iwasawa, Nolte, Charlesworth; Judge ad hoc Barkett;
AGAINST: Judges Bennouna, Yusuf, Robinson, Salam; Judge ad hoc Momtaz;
(2) By thirteen votes to two,
Rejects the objection to admissibility raised by the United States of America relating to the failure by Iranian companies to exhaust local remedies;
- 65 -
IN FAVOUR: Vice-President Gevorgian, Acting President; Judges Tomka, Abraham, Bennouna, Yusuf, Xue, Bhandari, Robinson, Salam, Iwasawa, Nolte, Charlesworth; Judge ad hoc Momtaz;
AGAINST: Judge Sebutinde; Judge ad hoc Barkett;
(3) By eight votes to seven,
Finds that the United States of America has violated its obligation under Article III, paragraph 1, of the 1955 Treaty of Amity, Economic Relations, and Consular Rights;
IN FAVOUR: Vice-President Gevorgian, Acting President; Judges Bennouna, Yusuf, Xue, Robinson, Salam, Charlesworth; Judge ad hoc Momtaz;
AGAINST: Judges Tomka, Abraham, Sebutinde, Bhandari, Iwasawa, Nolte; Judge ad hoc Barkett;
(4) By twelve votes to three,
Finds that the United States of America has violated its obligations under Article IV, paragraph 1, of the 1955 Treaty of Amity, Economic Relations, and Consular Rights;
IN FAVOUR: Vice-President Gevorgian, Acting President; Judges Tomka, Abraham, Bennouna, Yusuf, Xue, Robinson, Salam, Iwasawa, Nolte, Charlesworth; Judge ad hoc Momtaz;
AGAINST: Judges Sebutinde, Bhandari; Judge ad hoc Barkett;
(5) By eleven votes to four,
Finds that the United States of America has violated its obligation under Article IV, paragraph 2, of the 1955 Treaty of Amity, Economic Relations, and Consular Rights, namely that the property of nationals and companies of the Contracting Parties “shall not be taken except for a public purpose, nor shall it be taken without the prompt payment of just compensation”;
IN FAVOUR: Vice-President Gevorgian, Acting President; Judges Tomka, Abraham, Bennouna, Yusuf, Xue, Robinson, Salam, Iwasawa, Nolte; Judge ad hoc Momtaz;
AGAINST: Judges Sebutinde, Bhandari, Charlesworth; Judge ad hoc Barkett;
(6) By ten votes to five,
Finds that the United States of America has violated its obligations under Article X, paragraph 1, of the 1955 Treaty of Amity, Economic Relations, and Consular Rights;
IN FAVOUR: Vice-President Gevorgian, Acting President; Judges Abraham, Bennouna, Yusuf, Xue, Robinson, Salam, Iwasawa, Nolte; Judge ad hoc Momtaz;
AGAINST: Judges Tomka, Sebutinde, Bhandari, Charlesworth; Judge ad hoc Barkett;
- 66 -
(7) By thirteen votes to two,
Finds that the United States of America is under obligation to compensate the Islamic Republic of Iran for the injurious consequences of the violations of international obligations referred to in subparagraphs (3) to (6) above;
IN FAVOUR: Vice-President Gevorgian, Acting President; Judges Tomka, Abraham, Bennouna, Yusuf, Xue, Bhandari, Robinson, Salam, Iwasawa, Nolte, Charlesworth; Judge ad hoc Momtaz;
AGAINST: Judge Sebutinde; Judge ad hoc Barkett;
(8) By fourteen votes to one,
Decides that, failing agreement between the Parties on the question of compensation due to the Islamic Republic of Iran within 24 months from the date of the present Judgment, this matter will, at the request of either Party, be settled by the Court, and reserves for this purpose the subsequent procedure in the case;
IN FAVOUR: Vice-President Gevorgian, Acting President; Judges Tomka, Abraham, Bennouna, Yusuf, Xue, Bhandari, Robinson, Salam, Iwasawa, Nolte, Charlesworth; Judges ad hoc Barkett, Momtaz;
AGAINST: Judge Sebutinde;
(9) Unanimously,
Rejects all other submissions made by the Parties.
Done in English and in French, the English text being authoritative, at the Peace Palace, The Hague, this thirtieth day of March, two thousand and twenty-three, in three copies, one of which will be placed in the archives of the Court and the others transmitted to the Government of the Islamic Republic of Iran and the Government of the United States of America, respectively.
(Signed) Kirill GEVORGIAN,
Vice-President.
(Signed) Philippe GAUTIER,
Registrar.
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Judge TOMKA appends a separate opinion to the Judgment of the Court; Judge ABRAHAM appends a declaration to the Judgment of the Court; Judges BENNOUNA and YUSUF append separate opinions to the Judgment of the Court; Judge SEBUTINDE appends a dissenting opinion to the Judgment of the Court; Judge BHANDARI appends a declaration to the Judgment of the Court; Judge ROBINSON appends a separate opinion, partly concurring and partly dissenting, to the Judgment of the Court; Judge SALAM appends a declaration to the Judgment of the Court; Judges IWASAWA, NOLTE and CHARLESWORTH append separate opinions to the Judgment of the Court; Judge ad hoc BARKETT appends a separate opinion, partly concurring and partly dissenting, to the Judgment of the Court; Judge ad hoc MOMTAZ appends a separate opinion to the Judgment of the Court.
(Initialled) K.G.
(Initialled) Ph.G.
___________
COUR INTERNATIONALE DE JUSTICE
RECUEIL DES ARRÊTS,
AVIS CONSULTATIFS ET ORDONNANCES
CERTAINS ACTIFS IRANIENS
(RÉPUBLIQUE ISLAMIQUE D’IRAN c. ÉTATS-UNIS
D’AMÉRIQUE)
ARRÊT DU 30 MARS 2023
INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE
REPORTS OF JUDGMENTS,
ADVISORY OPINIONS AND ORDERS
CERTAIN IRANIAN ASSETS
(ISLAMIC REPUBLIC OF IRAN v. UNITED STATES
OF AMERICA)
JUDGMENT OF 30 MARCH 2023
2023
© 2024 ICJ/CIJ, United Nations/Nations Unies
All rights reserved/Tous droits réservés
printed in france/imprimé en france
ISSN 0074-4441
ISBN 978-92-1-003945-1
e-ISBN 978-92-1-106581-7
Mode officiel de citation :
Certains actifs iraniens (République islamique d’Iran c. États-Unis
d’Amérique), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2023, p. 51
Official citation:
Certain Iranian Assets (Islamic Republic of Iran v. United States
of America), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2023, p. 51
Sales number
No de vente : 1279
CERTAINS ACTIFS IRANIENS
(RÉPUBLIQUE ISLAMIQUE D’IRAN c. ÉTATS-UNIS
D’AMÉRIQUE)
CERTAIN IRANIAN ASSETS
(ISLAMIC REPUBLIC OF IRAN v. UNITED STATES
OF AMERICA)
30 MARS 2023
ARRÊT
30 MARCH 2023
JUDGMENT
51
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Paragraphs
Chronology of the Procedure 1-20
I. Factual Background 21-32
II. Questions of Jurisdiction and Admissibility 33-73
A. Objection to the Court’s jurisdiction ratione materiae:
question whether Bank Markazi is a “company” within the
meaning of the Treaty of Amity
B. Objection to admissibility based on the failure to exhaust
local remedies
34-54
55-73
III. Defences on the Merits Put Forward by the United States 74-109
A. Defence based on the “clean hands” doctrine
B. Defence based on abuse of rights
C. Article XX, paragraph 1 (c) and (d), of the Treaty of Amity
76-84
85-93
94-109
1. Article XX, paragraph 1 (c)
2. Article XX, paragraph 1 (d)
99-103
104-109
IV. Alleged Violations of the Treaty of Amity 110-223
A. Alleged violations of Article III, paragraph 1, and Article IV,
paragraph 1
B. Alleged violations of Article III, paragraph 2
C. Alleged violations of Article IV, paragraph 2
D. Alleged violations of Article V, paragraph 1
E. Alleged violations of Article VII, paragraph 1
F. Alleged violations of Article X, paragraph 1
123-159
160-168
169-192
193-201
202-208
209-223
V. Remedies 224-235
A. Cessation of internationally wrongful acts
B. Compensation for the injury suffered
C. Satisfaction
225-229
230-231
232-233
Operative Clause 236
51
TABLE DES MATIÈRES
Paragraphes
Qualités 1-20
I. Contexte factuel 21-32
II. Questions de compétence et de recevabilité 33-73
A. Exception d’incompétence ratione materiae : question de
savoir si la banque Markazi est une « société » au sens du
traité d’amitié
B. Exception d’irrecevabilité tirée du défaut d’épuisement des
voies de recours internes
34-54
55-73
III. Moyens de défense au fond invoqués par les États‑Unis 74-109
A. Moyen fondé sur la doctrine des « mains propres »
B. Moyen fondé sur l’abus de droit
C. Article XX, paragraphe 1, alinéas c) et d), du traité d’amitié
76-84
85-93
94-109
1. Alinéa c) du paragraphe 1 de l’article XX
2. Alinéa d) du paragraphe 1 de l’article XX
99-103
104-109
IV. Violations alléguées du traité d’amitié 110-223
A. Violations alléguées du paragraphe 1 de l’article III et du
paragraphe 1 de l’article IV
B. Violations alléguées du paragraphe 2 de l’article III
C. Violations alléguées du paragraphe 2 de l’article IV
D. Violations alléguées du paragraphe 1 de l’article V
E. Violations alléguées du paragraphe 1 de l’article VII
F. Violations alléguées du paragraphe 1 de l’article X
123-159
160-168
169-192
193-201
202-208
209-223
V. Remèdes 224-235
A. Cessation des faits internationalement illicites
B. Indemnisation pour les préjudices subis
C. Satisfaction
225-229
230-231
232-233
Dispositif 236
52
ABBREVIATIONS, ACRONYMS AND SHORT FORMS
Bank Markazi Bank Markazi Jomhuri Islami Iran (the Central Bank of
Iran)
Bank Melli Bank Melli Iran
Bennett case Bennett et al. v. The Islamic Republic of Iran et al. (a case
brought before the United States District Court for the
Northern District of California, the judgment of which was
affirmed by the United States Court of Appeals for the
Ninth Circuit)
FSIA Foreign Sovereign Immunities Act (a law of the United
States of America)
ILC International Law Commission
ILC Articles on State
Responsibility
The International Law Commission’s Articles on Responsibility
of States for Internationally Wrongful Acts
ITRSHRA Iran Threat Reduction and Syria Human Rights Act (a law
of the United States of America)
Peterson case Deborah Peterson et al. v. Islamic Republic of Iran (a case
brought before the United States District Court for the
Southern District of New York, the judgment of which was
affirmed by the United States Supreme Court)
TRIA Terrorism Risk Insurance Act (a law of the United States of
America)
Treaty of Amity Treaty of Amity, Economic Relations, and Consular
Rights
between the United States of America and Iran, signed at
Tehran on 15 August 1955
Weinstein case Weinstein et al. v. Islamic Republic of Iran et al.
(a case brought before the United States District Court for
the Eastern District of New York, the judgment of which
was affirmed by the United States Court of Appeals for the
Second Circuit)
2019 Judgment Certain Iranian Assets (Islamic Republic of Iran v. United
States of America), Preliminary Objections, Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 2019 (I), p. 7
52
ABRÉVIATIONS, ACRONYMES ET FORMULES SIMPLIFIÉES
Affaire Bennett Bennett et al. v. The Islamic Republic of Iran et al. (affaire
portée devant le tribunal fédéral du district nord de l’État de
Californie, dont le jugement a été confirmé par la cour
d’appel
fédérale du neuvième circuit)
Affaire Peterson Deborah Peterson et al. v. Islamic Republic of Iran (affaire
portée devant le tribunal fédéral du district sud de l’État de
New York, dont le jugement a été confirmé par la Cour
suprême des États‑Unis)
Affaire Weinstein Weinstein et al. v. Islamic Republic of Iran et al. (affaire
portée devant le tribunal fédéral du district est de l’État de
New York, dont le jugement a été confirmé par la cour
d’appel
fédérale du deuxième circuit)
Arrêt de 2019 Certains actifs iraniens (République islamique d’Iran
c. États‑Unis d’Amérique), exceptions préliminaires,
arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2019 (I), p. 7
Articles de la CDI
sur la responsabilité
de l’État
Articles de la Commission du droit international sur la
responsabilité de l’État pour fait internationalement
illicite
Banque Markazi Banque Markazi Jomhouri Islami Iran (la banque centrale
d’Iran)
Banque Melli Banque Melli Iran
CDI Commission du droit international
FSIA Foreign Sovereign Immunities Act ou loi sur l’immunité
des États étrangers (loi américaine)
ITRSHRA Iran Threat Reduction and Syria Human Rights Act ou loi
sur la réduction de la menace iranienne et les droits de
l’homme en Syrie (loi américaine)
Traité d’amitié Traité d’amitié, de commerce et de droits consulaires entre
les États‑Unis d’Amérique et l’Iran, signé à Téhéran le
15 août 1955
TRIA Terrorism Risk Insurance Act ou loi sur l’assurance contre
les risques associés au terrorisme (loi américaine)
53
INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE
YEAR 2023
30 March 2023
CERTAIN IRANIAN ASSETS
(ISLAMIC REPUBLIC OF IRAN v. UNITED STATES
OF AMERICA)
Factual background — Signature of the 1955 Treaty of Amity — Cessation
of diplomatic relations in 1980 — Amendment of United States Foreign
Sovereign Immunities Act (the “FSIA”) in 1996 — Enactment of United
States Terrorism Risk Insurance Act (“TRIA”) in 2002 — Further amendment
of the FSIA in 2008 — Issuance of Executive Order 13599 in
2012 — Assets of Iran and certain Iranian entities subject to enforcement
proceedings — Notice of termination of the Treaty of Amity in 2018.
*
Jurisdiction and admissibility.
Objection to the Court’s jurisdiction ratione materiae based on whether
Bank Markazi is a “company” within the meaning of the Treaty of
Amity — Activities of Bank Markazi referred to by Iran not sufficient to
establish that it engaged in activities of commercial character — Bank
Markazi cannot be characterized as a “company” within the meaning of
the Treaty of Amity — Objection to jurisdiction predicated on treatment
accorded to Bank Markazi upheld — The Court lacks jurisdiction over
Iran’s claims in so far as they relate to treatment accorded to Bank
Markazi.
Objection to admissibility based on failure to exhaust local remedies —
Claims by Iran both in its own right and on behalf of Iranian companies —
No effective means of redress for Iranian companies in United States legal
system — United States courts have concluded that there is no conflict
between United States measures and Treaty of Amity — More recent federal
statute would prevail over Treaty under United States jurisprudence —
2023
30 March
General List
No. 164
53
COUR INTERNATIONALE DE JUSTICE
ANNÉE 2023
30 mars 2023
CERTAINS ACTIFS IRANIENS
(RÉPUBLIQUE ISLAMIQUE D’IRAN c. ÉTATS‑UNIS
D’AMÉRIQUE)
Contexte factuel — Signature du traité d’amitié de 1955 — Cessation des
relations diplomatiques en 1980 — Modification de la loi américaine sur
l’immunité des États étrangers (Foreign Sovereign Immunities Act, « FSIA »)
en 1996 — Promulgation de la loi américaine sur l’assurance contre les
risques associés au terrorisme (Terrorism Risk Insurance Act, « TRIA ») en
2002 — Nouvelle modification de la FSIA en 2008 — Promulgation du
décret présidentiel no 13599 en 2012 — Actifs de l’Iran et de certaines entités
iraniennes faisant l’objet de procédures d’exécution — Notification de
dénonciation du traité d’amitié en 2018.
*
Compétence et recevabilité.
Exception d’incompétence ratione materiae de la Cour fondée sur la
question de savoir si la banque Markazi est une « société » au sens du traité
d’amitié — Activités de la banque Markazi mentionnées par l’Iran n’étant
pas suffisantes pour établir qu’elle se livrait à des activités de nature commerciale
— Banque Markazi ne pouvant être qualifiée de « société » au sens
du traité d’amitié — Exception d’incompétence tirée du traitement accordé
à la banque Markazi étant retenue — Cour n’ayant pas compétence à
l’égard des demandes de l’Iran dans la mesure où elles portent sur le traitement
réservé à la banque Markazi.
Exception d’irrecevabilité tirée du défaut d’épuisement des voies de
recours internes — Demandes présentées par l’Iran tant en son nom propre
qu’au nom de sociétés iraniennes — Absence de voies de recours efficaces
pour les sociétés iraniennes dans le système judiciaire américain —
Tribunaux américains ayant conclu à l’absence de conflit entre les mesures
américaines et le traité d’amitié — Primauté conférée à la loi fédérale plus
2023
30 mars
Rôle général
no 164
54 certain iranian assets (judgment)
Iranian companies had no reasonable possibility of successfully asserting
their rights in United States court proceedings — Objection to admissibility
based on failure to exhaust local remedies cannot be upheld.
*
Defences on the merits.
Defence based on “clean hands” doctrine — Doctrine requires misconduct
by applicant and nexus between this misconduct and claims made —
No sufficient connection between wrongful conduct imputed to Iran by
United States and claims of Iran — Defence cannot be upheld.
Defence based on abuse of rights — Need to demonstrate that Iran seeks
to exercise rights conferred on it by the Treaty of Amity for purposes other
than those for which rights were established, to the detriment of United
States — United States has failed to make such a demonstration — Defence
cannot be upheld.
Defence based on Article XX (1) (c) and (d) of the Treaty of Amity — Measures
adopted under Executive Order 13599 do not regulate production of or
traffic in arms within the meaning of Article XX (1) (c) — Defence based on
Article XX (1) (c) cannot be upheld — Measures not necessary to protect
essential security interests within the meaning of Article XX (1) (d) — Defence
based on Article XX (1) (d) cannot be upheld.
*
Alleged violations of the Treaty of Amity.
Section 201 (a) of TRIA — Section 1610 (g) (1) of the FSIA — Executive
Order 13599.
Article III (1) and Article IV (1) — Provisions closely related and
addressed together — Scope of obligation in Article III (1) to recognize
juridical status of companies of other Contracting Party — Legal existence
of company as entity distinct from other natural or legal persons — Question
of separate juridical status under Article III (1) to be addressed in
the context of examination of Iran’s claims under Article IV (1) — First
clause concerning “ fair and equitable treatment” includes protection
against a denial of justice — Enactment of legislative provisions removing
legal defences based on separate legal personality, and their application
by courts, do not in themselves amount to denial of justice — Second
clause concerning “unreasonable or discriminatory measures” — Meaning
of the term “unreasonable” within the Treaty of Amity — United States’
certains actifs iraniens (arrêt) 54
récente sur le traité par la jurisprudence américaine — Sociétés iraniennes
n’ayant pas eu de possibilité raisonnable de faire valoir avec succès leurs
droits dans les procédures judiciaires américaines — Exception d’irrecevabilité
tirée du défaut d’épuisement des voies de recours internes ne pouvant
être retenue.
*
Moyens de défense au fond.
Moyen fondé sur la doctrine des « mains propres » — Doctrine exigeant
un comportement illicite du demandeur et un lien entre ce comportement
et les demandes présentées — Lien entre le comportement illicite attribué
à l’Iran par les États‑Unis et les demandes de l’Iran étant insuffisant
— Moyen ne pouvant être retenu.
Moyen fondé sur l’abus de droit — Nécessité de démontrer que l’Iran
cherche à exercer des droits qui lui sont conférés par le traité d’amitié
à des fins différentes de celles pour lesquelles ces droits ont été établis, au
détriment des États‑Unis — États‑Unis n’en ayant pas fait la démonstration
— Moyen ne pouvant être retenu.
Moyen fondé sur les alinéas c) et d) du paragraphe 1 de l’article XX du
traité d’amitié — Mesures adoptées au titre du décret présidentiel no 13599
ne réglementant pas la production ou le commerce des armes au sens de
l’alinéa c) du paragraphe 1 de l’article XX — Moyen fondé sur l’alinéa c)
du paragraphe 1 de l’article XX ne pouvant être retenu — Mesures n’étant
pas nécessaires pour protéger des intérêts vitaux sur le plan de la sécurité
au sens de l’alinéa d) du paragraphe 1 de l’article XX — Moyen fondé sur
l’alinéa d) du paragraphe 1 de l’article XX ne pouvant être retenu.
*
Violations alléguées du traité d’amitié.
Paragraphe a) de l’article 201 de la TRIA — Alinéa 1 du paragraphe g) de
l’article 1610 de la FSIA — Décret présidentiel no 13599.
Paragraphe 1 de l’article III et paragraphe 1 de l’article IV — Dispositions
étroitement liées et traitées conjointement — Portée de l’obligation
faite au paragraphe 1 de l’article III de reconnaître le statut juridique des
sociétés de l’autre Partie contractante — Existence juridique de la société
en tant qu’entité distincte d’autres personnes physiques ou morales —
Question du statut juridique distinct au titre du paragraphe 1 de l’article III
devant être traitée dans le cadre de l’examen des demandes de l’Iran fondées
sur le paragraphe 1 de l’article IV — Première clause concernant le
« traitement juste et équitable » incluant une protection contre le déni de
justice — Promulgation de dispositions législatives supprimant certains
moyens de défense fondés sur la personnalité juridique distincte et leur
application par les tribunaux ne constituant pas en elles-mêmes un déni
55 certain iranian assets (judgment)
measures caused impairment of Iranian companies’ rights that was manifestly
excessive
— Measures were unreasonable, in violation of Article
IV (1) —No need to examine separately whether United States’ measures
were “
discriminatory” — The United States’ measures disregarded
Iranian companies’
own legal personality — The United States thus also
violated Article III (1).
Article III (2) does not guarantee substantive or procedural rights of a
company but only access to courts — Rights of Iranian companies to appear
before United States courts, make legal submissions and lodge appeals not
curtailed — Companies’ arguments on basis of the Treaty of Amity related to
their substantive rights, not freedom of access — No violation of Article III (2)
established.
Article IV (2) — Prohibition of taking of property, except for public purpose
and with prompt payment of just compensation — Element of illegality
required for a taking to be established — Section 201 (a) of TRIA and
Section 1610 (g) (1) of the FSIA found unreasonable — They did not constitute
a lawful exercise of regulatory powers and amounted to a taking in
violation of Article IV (2) — Taking of property not established with respect
to Executive Order 13599 — Claim concerning most constant protection
and security —Failure to protect property from physical harm required —
No violation of Article IV (2) established as concerns most constant
protection and security.
Article V (1) — Rights of nationals and companies to lease, purchase,
acquire and dispose of property — Iran’s allegations predicated on same
set of facts as its claims concerning expropriation under Article IV (2) —
Article V (1) not meant to apply to situations amounting to expropriation —
No property or interests in property specifically affected by Executive Order
13599, other than the assets of Bank Markazi over which the Court has no
jurisdiction — No violation of Article V (1) established.
Article VII (1) — Prohibition of restriction on the making of payments,
remittances and other transfers of funds is limited to exchange restrictions
— Iran’s claims not related to exchange restrictions — No violation of
Article VII (1) established.
Article X (1) — Term “commerce” in Article X (1) refers to commercial
exchanges in general — Activities entirely conducted in the financial sector
certains actifs iraniens (arrêt) 55
de justice — Deuxième clause concernant les « mesures déraisonnables
ou discriminatoires » — Sens du terme « déraisonnable » dans le traité
d’amitié — Mesures américaines ayant porté atteinte aux droits des sociétés
iraniennes de façon manifestement excessive — Mesures étant déraisonnables,
en violation du paragraphe 1 de l’article IV — Cour n’ayant pas à
rechercher séparément si les mesures américaines étaient « discriminatoires
» — Mesures américaines ayant méconnu la personnalité juridique
propre des sociétés iraniennes — États‑Unis ayant donc également violé
le paragraphe 1 de l’article III.
Paragraphe 2 de l’article III garantissant non pas les droits substantiels
ou procéduraux d’une société, mais uniquement l’accès aux tribunaux —
Droits des sociétés iraniennes de comparaître devant les tribunaux
américains, de présenter des moyens de droit et de former des recours n’étant
pas entravés — Arguments des sociétés fondés sur le traité d’amitié se
rapportant aux droits substantiels de celles-ci, et non à la liberté d’accès —
Aucune violation du paragraphe 2 de l’article III n’étant établie.
Paragraphe 2 de l’article IV — Interdiction des expropriations, hormis pour
cause d’utilité publique et moyennant le paiement rapide d’une juste indemnité
— Élément d’illicéité étant requis pour qu’une expropriation
soit établie — Paragraphe a) de l’article 201 de la TRIA et alinéa 1 du
paragraphe g) de l’article 1610 de la FSIA considérés comme déraisonnables
— Dispositions ne constituant pas un exercice licite de pouvoirs de
réglementation et étant assimilables à une expropriation en violation du paragraphe
2 de l’article IV — Expropriation n’étant pas établie s’agissant du
décret présidentiel no 13599 — Demande relative à la protection et à la sécurité
les plus constantes — Défaut de protection des biens contre les dommages
physiques étant requis — Aucune violation du paragraphe 2 de l’article IV
n’étant établie en ce qui concerne la protection et la sécurité les plus constantes.
Paragraphe 1 de l’article V — Droits des ressortissants et sociétés de
prendre à bail, d’acquérir, par voie d’achat ou par tout autre moyen, et
d’aliéner des biens — Allégations de l’Iran reposant sur le même ensemble
de faits que ses demandes concernant l’expropriation fondées sur le paragraphe
2 de l’article IV — Paragraphe 1 de l’article V n’étant pas censé
s’appliquer aux situations assimilables à une expropriation — Absence de
biens ou de participations dans des biens spécifiquement touchés par
le décret présidentiel no 13599, hormis les actifs de la banque Markazi qui
ne relèvent pas de la compétence de la Cour — Aucune violation du paragraphe
1 de l’article V n’étant établie.
Paragraphe 1 de l’article VII — Interdiction des restrictions en matière
de paiements, remises et autres transferts de fonds se limitant aux restrictions
en matière de change — Demandes de l’Iran ne se rapportant pas à
des restrictions en matière de change — Aucune violation du paragraphe 1
de l’article VII n’étant établie.
Paragraphe 1 de l’article X — Terme « commerce » employé au paragraphe 1
de l’article X faisant référence aux échanges commerciaux en général —
56 certain iranian assets (judgment)
constitute commerce protected under Article X (1) — Requirement that
commerce
is “between the territories of the United States and Iran” —
Intermediaries located in various countries are involved in financial
transactions
— Executive Order 13599 constitutes an actual impediment to
financial transaction or operation to be conducted by Iran or Iranian
financial institutions in United States territory — Judicial application of
Section 1610 (g) (1) of the FSIA and Section 201 (a) of TRIA caused concrete
interference with commerce — Enforcement proceedings with respect to
assets of Iranian Ministry of Defence and Iranian Navy do not amount to
interference with commerce — Enforcement proceedings with respect to
contractual debts in the telecommunications industry and the credit card
services sector constitute interference with commerce — Violation of
Article X (1) established.
*
Remedies.
Cessation of internationally wrongful acts — Obligation regarding cessation
exists only if violated substantive obligation still in force — Treaty of
Amity no longer in force — Request relating to cessation rejected.
Compensation — Iran entitled to compensation for injury caused by
United States violations — Relevant injury and amount of compensation
may be assessed by the Court in a subsequent phase — If Parties are unable
to agree on amount of compensation within 24 months, the Court will, at the
request of either Party, determine amount due.
Satisfaction — Findings of wrongful acts committed by the United States
constitute sufficient satisfaction.
JUDGMENT
Present: Vice-President Gevorgian, Acting President; Judges Tomka,
Abraham, Bennouna,
Yusuf, Xue, Sebutinde, Bhandari,
Robinson, Salam, Iwasawa, Nolte, Charlesworth;
Judges ad hoc Barkett, Momtaz; Registrar Gautier.
In the case concerning certain Iranian assets,
between
certains actifs iraniens (arrêt) 56
Activités entièrement menées dans le secteur financier constituant un
commerce protégé par le paragraphe 1 de l’article X — Exigence que le
commerce s’effectue « entre les territoires des États‑Unis et de l’Iran » —
Intermédiaires situés dans différents pays participant aux opérations
financières — Décret présidentiel no 13599 constituant une entrave effective
à toute transaction ou opération financière devant être réalisée par l’Iran
ou les institutions financières iraniennes sur le territoire des États‑Unis —
Application judiciaire de l’alinéa 1 du paragraphe g) de l’article
1610 de la
FSIA et du paragraphe a) de l’article 201 de la TRIA ayant concrètement
entravé le commerce — Procédures d’exécution concernant
les biens du
ministère iranien de la défense et de la marine iranienne
ne constituant pas
une entrave au commerce — Procédures d’exécution
concernant des dettes
contractuelles dans le secteur des télécommunications
et dans le secteur du
service des cartes de crédit constituant une entrave au commerce — Violation
du paragraphe 1 de l’article X étant établie.
*
Remèdes.
Cessation des faits internationalement illicites — Obligation relative à la
cessation n’existant que si l’obligation de fond violée est toujours en
vigueur — Traité d’amitié n’étant plus en vigueur — Demande relative à la
cessation étant rejetée.
Indemnisation — Iran étant fondé à recevoir indemnisation pour les préjudices
causés par les violations commises par les États‑Unis — Cour
pouvant évaluer les préjudices et le montant de l’indemnité dans le cadre
d’une phase ultérieure — En cas d’absence d’accord entre les Parties sur
l’indemnisation dans les 24 mois, Cour déterminant, à la demande de l’une
d’elles, le montant dû.
Satisfaction — Constat des faits illicites commis par les États‑Unis constituant
une satisfaction suffisante.
ARRÊT
Présents : M. Gevorgian, vice-président, faisant fonction de président en
l’affaire ; MM. Tomka, Abraham, Bennouna, Yusuf, Mmes Xue,
Sebutinde,
MM. Bhandari, Robinson, Salam, Iwasawa,
Nolte, Mme Charlesworth, juges ; Mme Barkett, M. Momtaz,
juges ad hoc ; M. Gautier, greffier.
En l’affaire relative à certains actifs iraniens,
entre
57 certain iranian assets (judgment)
the Islamic Republic of Iran,
represented by
Mr Tavakol Habibzadeh, Head of the Center for International Legal Affairs
of the Islamic Republic of Iran, Attorney at Law, Associate Professor of
International Law at Imam Sadiq University,
as Agent, Counsel and Advocate;
Mr Mohammad H. Zahedin Labbaf, Agent of the Islamic Republic of
Iran to the Iran-United States Claims Tribunal, Legal Adviser to the
Center for International Legal Affairs of the Islamic Republic of Iran,
The Hague,
as Co-Agent and Counsel;
HE Mr Alireza Kazemi Abadi, Ambassador of the Islamic Republic of
Iran to the Kingdom of the Netherlands,
Mr Mohammad Saleh Attar, Director of the Center for International Legal
Affairs of the Islamic Republic of Iran, The Hague,
as Senior National Authorities and Legal Advisers;
Mr Vaughan Lowe, KC, member of the Bar of England and Wales, Essex
Court Chambers, Emeritus Professor of International Law, University of
Oxford, member of the Institut de droit international,
Mr Alain Pellet, Professor Emeritus of the University Paris Nanterre, former
chairman of the International Law Commission, President of the
Institut de droit international,
Mr Jean-Marc Thouvenin, Professor at the University Paris Nanterre,
Secretary-General of the Hague Academy of International Law, associate
member of the Institut de droit international, member of the Paris
Bar, Sygna Partners,
Mr Samuel Wordsworth, KC, member of the Bar of England and Wales,
member of the Paris Bar, Essex Court Chambers,
Mr Sean Aughey, member of the Bar of England and Wales, Essex Court
Chambers,
Mr Hadi Azari, Legal Adviser to the Center for International Legal Affairs
of the Islamic Republic of Iran, Associate Professor of Public International
Law at Kharazmi University,
Mr Luke Vidal, member of the Paris Bar, Sygna Partners,
as Counsel and Advocates;
Mr Behzad Saberi Ansari, Director General for International Legal
Affairs, Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Islamic Republic of Iran,
Mr Ali Nasimfar, Assistant Director General for International Legal
Affairs, Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Islamic Republic of Iran,
Mr Yousef Nourikia, Counsellor, Embassy of the Islamic Republic of Iran
in the Netherlands,
certains actifs iraniens (arrêt) 57
la République islamique d’Iran,
représentée par
M. Tavakol Habibzadeh, président du centre des affaires juridiques internationales
de la République islamique d’Iran, avocat, professeur associé
de droit international à l’Université Imam Sadiq,
comme agent, conseil et avocat ;
M. Mohammad H. Zahedin Labbaf, agent de la République islamique
d’Iran auprès du Tribunal des réclamations irano-américaines, conseiller
juridique auprès du centre des affaires juridiques internationales de la
République islamique d’Iran, La Haye,
comme coagent et conseil ;
S. Exc. M. Alireza Kazemi Abadi, ambassadeur de la République islamique
d’Iran auprès du Royaume des Pays-Bas,
M. Mohammad Saleh Attar, directeur du centre des affaires juridiques
internationales de la République islamique d’Iran, La Haye,
comme hauts représentants de l’État et conseillers juridiques ;
M. Vaughan Lowe, KC, membre du barreau d’Angleterre et du pays de
Galles, Essex Court Chambers, professeur émérite de droit international
à l’Université d’Oxford, membre de l’Institut de droit international,
M. Alain Pellet, professeur émérite à l’Université Paris Nanterre, ancien
président de la Commission du droit international, président de l’Institut
de droit international,
M. Jean-Marc Thouvenin, professeur à l’Université Paris Nanterre, secrétaire
général de l’Académie de droit international de La Haye, membre
associé de l’Institut de droit international, membre du barreau de Paris,
Sygna Partners,
M. Samuel Wordsworth, KC, membre du barreau d’Angleterre et du pays
de Galles et du barreau de Paris, Essex Court Chambers,
M. Sean Aughey, membre du barreau d’Angleterre et du pays de Galles,
Essex Court Chambers,
M. Hadi Azari, conseiller juridique auprès du centre des affaires juridiques
internationales de la République islamique d’Iran, professeur
associé de droit international public à l’Université Kharazmi,
M. Luke Vidal, membre du barreau de Paris, Sygna Partners,
comme conseils et avocats ;
M. Behzad Saberi Ansari, directeur général chargé des affaires juridiques
internationales, ministère des affaires étrangères de la République islamique
d’Iran,
M. Ali Nasimfar, directeur adjoint chargé des affaires juridiques internationales,
ministère des affaires étrangères de la République islamique d’Iran,
M. Yousef Nourikia, conseiller à l’ambassade de la République islamique
d’Iran aux Pays-Bas,
58 certain iranian assets (judgment)
Mr Mahdad Fallah-Assadi, Legal Expert, Department of International
Legal Affairs, Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Islamic Republic of
Iran,
as Senior Legal Advisers;
Ms Tessa Barsac, Consultant in International Law, Master (University
Paris Nanterre), LLM (Leiden University),
Ms Lefa Mondon, Master (University of Strasbourg), Sygna Partners,
as Counsel;
Mr Ali Mokhberolsafa, Legal Adviser to the Center for International
Legal Affairs of the Islamic Republic of Iran, The Hague,
Mr S. Mohammad Asbaghi Namini, Legal Adviser to the Center for
International Legal Affairs of the Islamic Republic of Iran,
Mr Ahmad Reza Tohidi, Legal Adviser to the Center for International
Legal Affairs of the Islamic Republic of Iran, Associate Professor of
International Law at the University of Qom,
Mr Sajad Askari, Legal Adviser to the Center for International Legal
Affairs of the Islamic Republic of Iran, Assistant Professor at Shahid
Bahonar University of Kerman,
Mr Vahid Bazzar, Legal Adviser to the Center for International Legal
Affairs of the Islamic Republic of Iran,
Mr Alireza Ranjbar, Legal Adviser to the Center for International Legal
Affairs of the Islamic Republic of Iran,
as Legal Advisers,
and
the United States of America,
represented by
Mr Richard C. Visek, Acting Legal Adviser, United States Department of
State,
as Agent, Counsel and Advocate;
Mr Steven F. Fabry, Deputy Legal Adviser, United States Department of
State,
as Co-Agent, Counsel and Advocate;
Ms Emily J. Kimball, Legal Counselor, Embassy of the United States of
America in the Kingdom of the Netherlands,
Ms Jennifer E. Marcovitz, Deputy Legal Counselor, Embassy of the
United States of America in the Kingdom of the Netherlands,
as Deputy Agents and Counsel;
Sir Daniel Bethlehem, KC, member of the Bar of England and Wales,
Twenty Essex Chambers, London,
certains actifs iraniens (arrêt) 58
M. Mahdad Fallah-Assadi, expert juridique au département des affaires
juridiques internationales, ministère des affaires étrangères de la République
islamique d’Iran,
comme conseillers juridiques principaux ;
Mme Tessa Barsac, consultante en droit international, master (Université
Paris Nanterre), LLM (Université de Leyde),
Mme Lefa Mondon, master (Université de Strasbourg), Sygna Partners,
comme conseils ;
M. Ali Mokhberolsafa, conseiller juridique auprès du centre des affaires
juridiques internationales de la République islamique d’Iran, La Haye,
M. S. Mohammad Asbaghi Namini, conseiller juridique auprès du centre
des affaires juridiques internationales de la République islamique
d’Iran,
M. Ahmad Reza Tohidi, conseiller juridique auprès du centre des affaires
juridiques internationales de la République islamique d’Iran, professeur
associé de droit international à l’Université de Qom,
M. Sajad Askari, conseiller juridique auprès du centre des affaires juridiques
internationales de la République islamique d’Iran, professeur
adjoint à l’Université Shahid Bahonar de Kerman,
M. Vahid Bazzar, conseiller juridique auprès du centre des affaires juridiques
internationales de la République islamique d’Iran,
M. Alireza Ranjbar, conseiller juridique auprès du centre des affaires
juridiques
internationales de la République islamique d’Iran,
comme conseillers juridiques,
et
les États‑Unis d’Amérique,
représentés par
M. Richard C. Visek, conseiller juridique par intérim, département d’État
des États‑Unis d’Amérique,
comme agent, conseil et avocat ;
M. Steven F. Fabry, conseiller juridique adjoint, département d’État des
États‑Unis d’Amérique,
comme coagent, conseil et avocat ;
Mme Emily J. Kimball, conseillère juridique, ambassade des États‑Unis
d’Amérique aux Pays-Bas,
Mme Jennifer E. Marcovitz, conseillère juridique adjointe, ambassade des
États‑Unis d’Amérique aux Pays-Bas,
comme agentes adjointes et conseils ;
Sir Daniel Bethlehem, KC, membre du barreau d’Angleterre et du pays de
Galles, cabinet Twenty Essex, Londres,
59 certain iranian assets (judgment)
Ms Laurence Boisson de Chazournes, Professor of International Law and
International Organization, University of Geneva, member of the Institut
de droit international,
Ms Lisa J. Grosh, Assistant Legal Adviser, United States Department of
State,
Mr John D. Daley, Deputy Assistant Legal Adviser, United States Department
of State,
Mr Nathaniel E. Jedrey, Attorney Adviser, United States Department of
State,
as Counsel and Advocates;
Ms Kristina E. Beard, Attorney Adviser, United States Department of
State,
Mr David M. Bigge, Attorney Adviser, United States Department of State,
Ms Julia H. Brower, Attorney Adviser, United States Department of State,
Mr Peter A. Gutherie, Attorney Adviser, United States Department of
State,
Mr Matthew S. Hackell, Attorney Adviser, United States Department of
State,
Ms Melinda E. Kuritzky, Attorney Adviser, United States Department of
State,
Ms Mary T. Muino, Attorney Adviser, United States Department of State,
Mr Robert L. Nightingale, Attorney Adviser, United States Department of
State,
Mr Alvaro J. Peralta, Attorney Adviser, United States Department of
State,
Mr David J. Stute, Attorney Adviser, United States Department of State,
Mr Isaac D. Webb, Attorney Adviser, United States Department of State,
as Counsel;
Mr Guillaume Guez, PhD candidate at the University of Geneva and the
University of Paris 1 Panthéon-Sorbonne, Research and Teaching
Assistant, Faculty of Law, University of Geneva,
Ms Anjail Al-Uqdah, Paralegal, United States Department of State,
Ms Mariama N. Yilla, Paralegal, United States Department of State,
Ms Kelly A. Molloy, Administrative Assistant, United States Department
of State,
as Assistants,
certains actifs iraniens (arrêt) 59
Mme Laurence Boisson de Chazournes, professeure à l’Université de
Genève (droit international et organisation internationale), membre de
l’Institut de droit international,
Mme Lisa J. Grosh, conseillère juridique adjointe, département d’État des
États‑Unis d’Amérique,
M. John D. Daley, conseiller juridique adjoint de deuxième classe,
département d’État des États‑Unis d’Amérique,
M. Nathaniel E. Jedrey, avocat-conseil, département d’État des États‑Unis
d’Amérique,
comme conseils et avocats ;
Mme Kristina E. Beard, avocate-conseil, département d’État des États‑Unis
d’Amérique,
M. David M. Bigge, avocat-conseil, département d’État des États‑Unis
d’Amérique,
Mme Julia H. Brower, avocate-conseil, département d’État des États‑Unis
d’Amérique,
M. Peter A. Gutherie, avocat-conseil, département d’État des États‑Unis
d’Amérique,
M. Matthew S. Hackell, avocat-conseil, département d’État des États‑Unis
d’Amérique,
Mme Melinda E. Kuritzky, avocate-conseil, département d’État des
États‑Unis d’Amérique,
Mme Mary T. Muino, avocate-conseil, département d’État des États‑Unis
d’Amérique,
M. Robert L. Nightingale, avocat-conseil, département d’État des
États‑Unis d’Amérique,
M. Alvaro J. Peralta, avocat-conseil, département d’État des États‑Unis
d’Amérique,
M. David J. Stute, avocat-conseil, département d’État des États‑Unis
d’Amérique,
M. Isaac D. Webb, avocat-conseil, département d’État des États‑Unis
d’Amérique,
comme conseils ;
M. Guillaume Guez, doctorant à l’Université de Genève et à l’Université
Paris 1 Panthéon-Sorbonne, attaché d’enseignement et de recherches à
la faculté de droit de l’Université de Genève,
Mme Anjail Al-Uqdah, assistante juridique, département d’État des
États‑Unis d’Amérique,
Mme Mariama N. Yilla, assistante juridique, département d’État des
États‑Unis d’Amérique,
Mme Kelly A. Molloy, assistante administrative, département d’État des
États‑Unis d’Amérique,
comme assistants,
60 certain iranian assets (judgment)
The Court,
composed as above,
after deliberation,
delivers the following Judgment:
1. On 14 June 2016, the Islamic Republic of Iran (hereinafter “Iran”) filed
in the Registry of the Court an Application instituting proceedings against
the United States of America (hereinafter the “United States”) with regard
to a dispute concerning alleged violations by the United States of the Treaty
of Amity, Economic Relations, and Consular Rights, which was signed by
the two States in Tehran on 15 August 1955 and entered into force on 16 June
1957 (hereinafter the “Treaty of Amity” or “Treaty”).
2. In its Application, Iran sought to found the Court’s jurisdiction on Article
XXI, paragraph 2, of the Treaty of Amity, in conjunction with Article 36,
paragraph 1, of the Statute of the Court.
3. In accordance with Article 40, paragraph 2, of the Statute of the Court,
the Registrar immediately communicated the Application to the Government
of the United States. He also notified the Secretary-General of the
United Nations of the filing of the Application by Iran.
4. In addition, by letters dated 20 June 2016, the Registrar informed all
Member States of the United Nations of the filing of the above-mentioned
Application.
5. Pursuant to Article 40, paragraph 3, of the Statute, the Registrar subsequently
notified the Members of the United Nations through the
Secretary-General of the filing of the Application, by transmission of the
printed bilingual text.
6. By letters dated 23 June 2016, the Registrar informed both Parties
that the Member of the Court of United States nationality, referring to
Article 24, paragraph 1, of the Statute, had notified the Court of her intention
not to participate in the decision of the case. Pursuant to Article 31 of the
Statute and Article 37, paragraph 1, of the Rules of Court, the United States
chose Mr David Caron to sit as judge ad hoc in the case. Judge Caron having
passed away on 20 February 2018, the United States chose Mr Charles
Brower to sit as judge ad hoc in the case. Following the resignation of
Judge Brower on 5 June 2022, the United States chose Ms Rosemary Barkett
to sit as judge ad hoc.
7. Since the Court included upon the Bench no judge of Iranian nationality,
Iran proceeded to exercise the right conferred upon it by Article 31, paragraph
3, of the Statute to choose a judge ad hoc to sit in the case; it chose
Mr Djamchid Momtaz.
8. By an Order dated 1 July 2016, the Court fixed 1 February 2017 and
1 September 2017 as the respective time-limits for the filing of a Memorial
by Iran and a Counter-Memorial by the United States. The Memorial of Iran
was filed within the time-limit thus fixed.
certains actifs iraniens (arrêt) 60
La Cour,
ainsi composée,
après délibéré en chambre du conseil,
rend l’arrêt suivant :
1. Le 14 juin 2016, la République islamique d’Iran (ci-après l’« Iran ») a
déposé au Greffe de la Cour une requête introductive d’instance contre les
États‑Unis d’Amérique (ci-après les « États‑Unis ») au sujet d’un différend
concernant de prétendues violations par les États‑Unis du traité d’amitié, de
commerce et de droits consulaires signé par les deux États à Téhéran le
15 août 1955 et entré en vigueur le 16 juin 1957 (ci-après le « traité d’amitié »
ou le « traité »).
2. Dans sa requête, l’Iran entend fonder la compétence de la Cour sur le
paragraphe 2 de l’article XXI du traité d’amitié, lu conjointement avec le
paragraphe 1 de l’article 36 du Statut de la Cour.
3. Conformément au paragraphe 2 de l’article 40 du Statut, le greffier a
immédiatement communiqué la requête au Gouvernement des États‑Unis. Il
a en outre informé le Secrétaire général de l’Organisation des Nations Unies
du dépôt par l’Iran de cette requête.
4. De plus, par lettres en date du 20 juin 2016, le greffier a également
informé tous les États Membres de l’Organisation des Nations Unies du
dépôt de la requête susvisée.
5. Conformément au paragraphe 3 de l’article 40 du Statut, le greffier a par
la suite informé les Membres de l’Organisation des Nations Unies, par
l’entremise
du Secrétaire général, du dépôt de la requête en leur transmettant
le texte bilingue imprimé de celle-ci.
6. Par lettres en date du 23 juin 2016, le greffier a informé les deux Parties
que, se référant au paragraphe 1 de l’article 24 du Statut, le membre de la
Cour de nationalité américaine avait fait part à la Cour de son intention de ne
pas participer au jugement de l’affaire. Conformément à l’article 31 du Statut
et au paragraphe 1 de l’article 37 du Règlement de la Cour, les États‑Unis
ont désigné M. David Caron pour siéger en qualité de juge ad hoc en l’affaire.
M. le juge Caron étant décédé le 20 février 2018, les États‑Unis ont désigné
M. Charles Brower pour siéger en qualité de juge ad hoc en l’affaire. À la
suite de la démission du juge Brower le 5 juin 2022, les États‑Unis ont
désigné
Mme Rosemary Barkett pour siéger en qualité de juge ad hoc.
7. La Cour ne comptant sur le siège aucun juge de nationalité iranienne,
l’Iran s’est prévalu du droit que lui confère le paragraphe 3 de l’article 31 du
Statut de procéder à la désignation d’un juge ad hoc pour siéger en l’affaire ;
il a désigné M. Djamchid Momtaz.
8. Par ordonnance du 1er juillet 2016, la Cour a fixé au 1er février 2017 et au
1er septembre 2017, respectivement, les dates d’expiration du délai pour le
dépôt du mémoire de l’Iran et du contre-mémoire des États‑Unis. L’Iran a
déposé son mémoire dans le délai ainsi prescrit.
61 certain iranian assets (judgment)
9. By letter dated 30 March 2017, the United States, invoking Article 49 of
the Statute and Articles 50 and 62 of the Rules, requested that the Court call
upon Iran to produce, or arrange for the United States to have access to,
“certain documents relevant to the claims Iran ha[d] asserted against the
United States, which [had] not [been] included in the Annexes to Iran’s
Memorial, and to which the United States lack[ed] access”, in particular
pleadings and related documents that had been filed confidentially with the
United States District Court for the Southern District of New York in
the Deborah Peterson et al. v. Islamic Republic of Iran case (hereinafter the
“Peterson case”). By a second letter dated 30 March 2017, the United States
requested that the Court extend the time-limit for the filing of preliminary
objections to 16 June 2017 or a date not less than 45 days after the United States
obtained the documents from the Peterson case. By letter dated 12 April
2017, Iran objected to these two requests. By letters dated 19 April 2017, the
Registrar informed the Parties that, at that stage of the proceedings, the
Court had decided not to use its powers under Article 49 of the Statute of
the Court to call upon Iran to produce the documents from the Peterson case,
and that, consequently, it had also decided to reject the request for an extension
of the time-limit for the filing of preliminary objections. By letter dated
1 May 2017, the United States informed the Court that it would petition the
United States District Court seised of the Peterson proceedings for access to
the documents in question and that it would seek to present to the Court any
additional relevant material.
10. On 1 May 2017, within the time-limit prescribed by Article 79, paragraph
1, of the Rules of Court of 14 April 1978 as amended on 1 February
2001, the United States raised preliminary objections to the jurisdiction of
the Court and the admissibility of the Application. Consequently, by an
Order of 2 May 2017, the President of the Court noted that, by virtue of
Article
79, paragraph 5, of the Rules of Court of 14 April 1978 as amended
on 1 February 2001, the proceedings on the merits were suspended and,
taking
account of Practice Direction V, fixed 1 September 2017 as the timelimit
within which Iran could present a written statement of its observations
and submissions on the preliminary objections raised by the United States.
Iran filed such a statement within the time-limit so prescribed, and the case
thus became ready for hearing in respect of the preliminary objections.
11. By letter dated 24 August 2017, the United States informed the Court
that the United States District Court seised of the Peterson proceedings had
directed the parties to file public versions of the documents to which it
had sought access (see paragraph 9 above), and announced its intention to
file these public versions with the Court, adding that they would constitute
publications “readily available” within the meaning of Article 56, paragraph
4, of the Rules. By letter dated 30 August 2017, Iran noted the content
of the United States’ letter of 24 August 2017 and indicated that it wished
to reserve all its rights, in particular its right “to respond to any application
certains actifs iraniens (arrêt) 61
9. Par lettre du 30 mars 2017, les États‑Unis, invoquant l’article 49 du Statut
et les articles 50 et 62 du Règlement, ont prié la Cour d’ordonner à l’Iran de
produire ou de rendre accessibles « certains documents ayant trait aux allégations
qu’il a[vait] formulées à l’encontre des États‑Unis d’Amérique, qui ne
figur[ai]ent pas dans les annexes de son mémoire et que le défendeur ne p[ouvai]
t consulter », en particulier, les pièces de procédure et documents
y afférents qui avaient été déposés confidentiellement auprès du tribunal
fédéral
du district sud de l’État de New York en l’affaire Deborah Peterson et
al. v. Islamic Republic of Iran (ci-après l’« affaire Peterson »). Par une seconde
lettre du 30 mars 2017, les États‑Unis ont demandé à la Cour que la date d’expiration
du délai dans lequel il leur était permis de présenter des exceptions
préliminaires soit repoussée jusqu’au 16 juin 2017 ou jusqu’à une date d’au
moins 45 jours après l’obtention par eux des documents relatifs à l’affaire
Peterson. Par lettre du 12 avril 2017, l’Iran s’est opposé à ces deux demandes.
Par lettres du 19 avril 2017, le greffier a informé les Parties que, à ce stade de
la procédure, la Cour avait décidé de ne pas user des pouvoirs que lui confère
l’article 49 de son Statut de demander à l’Iran de produire les documents relatifs
à l’affaire Peterson et que, en conséquence, elle avait également
décidé de
rejeter la demande de prorogation du délai prévu pour le dépôt d’exceptions
préliminaires. Par lettre du 1er mai 2017, les États‑Unis ont informé la Cour
qu’ils entendaient engager une procédure auprès du tribunal
fédéral saisi de
l’affaire Peterson en vue d’obtenir l’accès aux documents en question et qu’ils
s’attacheraient à lui présenter tout autre document pertinent.
10. Le 1er mai 2017, dans le délai fixé au paragraphe 1 de l’article 79 du
Règlement de la Cour du 14 avril 1978 tel que modifié le 1er février 2001, les
États‑Unis ont présenté des exceptions préliminaires d’incompétence de la
Cour et d’irrecevabilité de la requête. En conséquence, par ordonnance du
2 mai 2017, le président de la Cour, constatant que, en vertu des dispositions
du paragraphe 5 de l’article 79 du Règlement de la Cour du 14 avril 1978 tel
que modifié le 1er février 2001, la procédure sur le fond était suspendue, et
compte tenu de l’instruction de procédure V, a fixé au 1er septembre 2017 la
date d’expiration du délai dans lequel l’Iran pouvait présenter un exposé écrit
contenant ses observations et conclusions sur les exceptions préliminaires
soulevées par les États‑Unis. L’Iran a déposé un tel exposé dans le délai ainsi
fixé, et l’affaire s’est alors trouvée en état pour ce qui est des exceptions
préliminaires.
11. Par lettre du 24 août 2017, les États‑Unis ont informé la Cour que le
tribunal fédéral saisi de l’affaire Peterson avait enjoint aux parties de soumettre
des versions publiques des documents auxquels ils avaient demandé
l’accès (voir le paragraphe 9 ci-dessus), et ont annoncé leur intention de
soumettre celles-ci à la Cour, ajoutant qu’elles constitueraient des publications
« facilement accessibles » au sens du paragraphe 4 de l’article 56 du
Règlement. Par lettre du 30 août 2017, l’Iran a pris acte de la teneur de la
lettre des États‑Unis en date du 24 août 2017 et indiqué qu’il entendait
réserver l’ensemble
de ses droits, en particulier celui « de répondre à toute
62 certain iranian assets (judgment)
by the United States to introduce new evidence and/or written submissions
commenting upon evidence, outside the timetable fixed by the Court”.
On 19 September 2017, the United States filed certain documents from the
Peterson case, which had been made public on 31 August 2017. In an accompanying
letter, the United States indicated that these documents were
available on the website of the federal court concerned and that they would
also be published on the website of the United States Department of State.
By letter dated 16 October 2017, Iran objected to the filing of the documents
from the Peterson case, arguing that the United States had acted in violation
of Article 79, paragraphs 3 to 8, of the Rules of Court and that these documents
were not publicly available. By letter dated 3 November 2017, the
United States confirmed that it had placed the documents from the Peterson
case on the website of the United States Department of State.
12. Public hearings on the preliminary objections raised by the
United States were held from 8 to 12 October 2018. In its Judgment of
13 February 2019 (hereinafter the “2019 Judgment”), the Court found that
it had jurisdiction to rule on the Application filed by Iran, except with respect
to Iran’s claims based on the alleged violation of rules of international
law on sovereign immunities. With respect to the preliminary objection concerning
its jurisdiction to entertain Iran’s claims of purported violations
of Articles III, IV or V of the Treaty of Amity predicated on the treatment
accorded to Bank Markazi Jomhuri Islami Iran (hereinafter “Bank
Markazi”),
the Court found that the objection did not possess an exclusively
preliminary character. The Court also found that Iran’s Application was
admissible.
13. By an Order of 13 February 2019, the Court fixed 13 September 2019
as the new time-limit for the filing of the Counter-Memorial of the
United States. By an Order dated 15 August 2019, the President of the Court,
at the request of the Respondent, extended that time-limit to 14 October
2019. The Counter-Memorial was filed within the time-limit thus extended.
14. By an Order dated 15 November 2019, the President of the Court
authorized the submission of a Reply by Iran and a Rejoinder by the
United States, and fixed 17 August 2020 and 17 May 2021 as the respective
time-limits for the filing of those pleadings. The Reply and Rejoinder were
filed within the time-limits thus fixed.
15. Pursuant to Article 53, paragraph 2, of the Rules of Court, the Court,
after ascertaining the views of the Parties, decided that copies of the written
pleadings and documents annexed would be made accessible to the public on
the opening of the oral proceedings.
16. Public hearings were held on 19, 21, 22 and 23 September 2022, at
which the Court heard the oral arguments and replies of:
For Iran: Mr Tavakol Habibzadeh,
Mr Vaughan Lowe,
Mr Hadi Azari,
certains actifs iraniens (arrêt) 62
demande des États‑Unis tendant à présenter de nouveaux éléments de preuve
ou de nouvelles écritures s’y rapportant en dehors du calendrier fixé par la
Cour ». Le 19 septembre 2017, les États‑Unis ont déposé certains documents
concernant l’affaire Peterson rendus publics le 31 août 2017. Dans une lettre
d’accompagnement, ils ont précisé que ces documents étaient disponibles
sur le site Internet du tribunal fédéral concerné et seraient également
publiés sur le site Internet du département d’État des États‑Unis. Par lettre
du 16 octobre 2017, l’Iran s’est opposé au dépôt des documents relatifs à
l’affaire Peterson, affirmant que les États‑Unis avaient agi en violation des
paragraphes 3 à 8 de l’article 79 du Règlement de la Cour et que ces documents
n’étaient pas accessibles au public. Par lettre du 3 novembre 2017, les
États‑Unis ont confirmé qu’ils avaient placé les documents relatifs à l’affaire
Peterson sur le site Internet de leur département d’État.
12. Des audiences publiques sur les exceptions préliminaires soulevées
par les États‑Unis se sont tenues du 8 au 12 octobre 2018. Dans l’arrêt qu’elle
a rendu le 13 février 2019 (ci-après l’« arrêt de 2019 »), la Cour a dit qu’elle
avait compétence pour se prononcer sur la requête déposée par l’Iran,
excepté à l’égard des demandes de celui-ci fondées sur la violation alléguée
des règles de droit international en matière d’immunités souveraines. S’agissant
de l’exception préliminaire relative à sa compétence pour connaître
des demandes de l’Iran qui se rapportent à des violations supposées des
articles III, IV et V du traité d’amitié reposant sur le traitement accordé à la
banque Markazi Jomhouri Islami Iran (ci-après la « banque Markazi »), la
Cour a considéré que cette exception n’avait pas un caractère exclusivement
préliminaire. Elle a également jugé que la requête de l’Iran était recevable.
13. Par ordonnance en date du 13 février 2019, la Cour a fixé au 13 septembre
2019 la nouvelle date d’expiration du délai pour le dépôt du contremémoire
des États‑Unis. Par ordonnance en date du 15 août 2019, le président
de la Cour a reporté, à la demande du défendeur, cette date au 14 octobre
2019. Le contre-mémoire a été déposé dans le délai ainsi prorogé.
14. Par ordonnance en date du 15 novembre 2019, le président de la Cour a
autorisé la présentation d’une réplique par l’Iran et d’une duplique par les
États‑Unis, et fixé au 17 août 2020 et au 17 mai 2021, respectivement, les
dates d’expiration des délais dans lesquels ces pièces devaient être déposées.
La réplique et la duplique ont été déposées dans les délais ainsi fixés.
15. Conformément au paragraphe 2 de l’article 53 du Règlement, la Cour,
après avoir consulté les Parties, a décidé que des exemplaires des pièces de
procédure et des documents y annexés seraient rendus accessibles au public
à l’ouverture de la procédure orale.
16. Des audiences publiques se sont tenues les 19, 21, 22 et 23 septembre
2022, au cours desquelles ont été entendus en leurs plaidoiries et réponses :
Pour l’Iran : M. Tavakol Habibzadeh,
M. Vaughan Lowe,
M. Hadi Azari,
63 certain iranian assets (judgment)
Mr Luke Vidal,
Mr Jean-Marc Thouvenin,
Mr Samuel Wordsworth,
Mr Sean Aughey,
Mr Alain Pellet.
For the United States: Mr Richard C. Visek,
Sir Daniel Bethlehem,
Ms Lisa Grosh,
Ms Laurence Boisson de Chazournes,
Mr John Daley,
Mr Nathaniel E. Jedrey,
Mr Steven Fabry.
17. At the hearings, a Member of the Court put a question to Iran, to
which a reply was given in writing, in accordance with Article 61, paragraph
4, of the Rules of Court. Pursuant to Article 72 of the Rules of Court,
the United States submitted written comments on Iran’s reply.
*
18. In the Application, the following claims were made by Iran:
“On the basis of the foregoing, and while reserving the right to supplement,
amend or modify the present Application in the course of
further proceedings in the case, Iran respectfully requests the Court to
adjudge, order and declare as follows:
(a) That the Court has jurisdiction under the Treaty of Amity to entertain
the dispute and to rule upon the claims submitted by Iran;
(b) That by its acts, including the acts referred to above and in particular
its (a) failure to recognize the separate juridical status (including
the separate legal personality) of all Iranian companies including
Bank Markazi, and (b) unfair and discriminatory treatment of such
entities, and their property, which impairs the legally acquired
rights and interests of such entities including enforcement of their
contractual rights, and (c) failure to accord to such entities and their
property the most constant protection and security that is in no case
less than that required by international law, (d) expropriation of the
property of such entities, and (e) failure to accord to such entities
freedom of access to the US courts, including the abrogation of the
immunities to which Iran and Iranian State-owned companies,
including Bank Markazi, and their property, are entitled under customary
international law and as required by the Treaty of Amity,
and (f) failure to respect the right of such entities to acquire and dispose
of property, and (g) application of restrictions to such entities
on the making of payments and other transfers of funds to or from
certains actifs iraniens (arrêt) 63
M. Luke Vidal,
M. Jean-Marc Thouvenin,
M. Samuel Wordsworth,
M. Sean Aughey,
M. Alain Pellet.
Pour les États‑Unis : M. Richard C. Visek,
Sir Daniel Bethlehem,
Mme Lisa Grosh,
Mme Laurence Boisson de Chazournes,
M. John Daley,
M. Nathaniel E. Jedrey,
M. Steven Fabry.
17. À l’audience, une question a été posée à l’Iran par un membre de la
Cour, à laquelle il a été répondu par écrit, conformément au paragraphe 4
de l’article 61 du Règlement. Les États‑Unis ont présenté des observations
sur la réponse écrite de l’Iran, conformément à l’article 72 du Règlement.
*
18. Dans la requête, les demandes ci-après ont été formulées par l’Iran :
« Sur la base de ce qui précède et tout en se réservant le droit de compléter,
modifier ou reviser la présente requête au cours de la suite de la
procédure en l’affaire, l’Iran prie respectueusement la Cour de dire,
prescrire et juger :
a) qu’elle a compétence, en vertu du traité d’amitié, pour connaître du
différend et statuer sur les demandes présentées par l’Iran ;
b) que, par leurs actes, notamment ceux exposés ci-dessus et en particulier
: a) la non-reconnaissance du statut juridique distinct (notamment
la personnalité juridique distincte) de toutes les sociétés iraniennes,
parmi lesquelles la banque Markazi, b) le traitement injuste et discriminatoire
de ces entités, ainsi que de leurs biens, lequel porte atteinte
aux droits ou aux intérêts légalement acquis par celles-ci, dont l’exécution
de leurs droits contractuels, c) le fait de ne pas assurer à ces
entités et à leurs biens, de la manière la plus constante, une protection
et une sécurité qui ne doivent en aucun cas être inférieures aux normes
fixées par le droit international, d) l’expropriation des biens de ces
entités, e) le fait de ne pas accorder à ces entités libre accès aux tribunaux
des États‑Unis, notamment en les privant des immunités que le
droit international coutumier et les dispositions du traité d’amitié
confèrent à l’Iran et aux sociétés lui appartenant, telle la banque
Markazi, ainsi qu’à leurs biens, f) le non-respect du droit de ces entités
d’acquérir et d’aliéner des biens, g) l’imposition à ces entités de
restrictions en matière de paiements
et autres transferts de fonds à
64 certain iranian assets (judgment)
the USA, and (h) interference with the freedom of commerce, the
USA has breached its obligations to Iran, inter alia, under
Articles III (1), III (2), IV (1), IV (2), V (1), VII (1) and X (1) of the
Treaty of Amity;
(c) That the USA shall ensure that no steps shall be taken based on the
executive, legislative and judicial acts (as referred to above) at issue
in this case which are, to the extent determined by the Court, inconsistent
with the obligations of the USA to Iran under the Treaty of
Amity;
(d) That Iran and Iranian State-owned companies are entitled to immunity
from the jurisdiction of the US courts and in respect of
enforcement proceedings in the USA, and that such immunity must
be respected by the USA (including US courts), to the extent established
as a matter of customary international law and required by
the Treaty of Amity;
(e) That the USA (including the US courts) is obliged to respect the
juridical status (including the separate legal personality), and to
ensure freedom of access to the US courts, of all Iranian companies,
including State-owned companies such as Bank Markazi, and that
no steps based on the executive, legislative and judicial acts (as
referred to above), which involve or imply the recognition or
enforcement of such acts shall be taken against the assets or interests
of Iran or any Iranian entity or national;
(f) That the USA is under an obligation to make full reparations to Iran
for the violation of its international legal obligations in an amount to
be determined by the Court at a subsequent stage of the proceedings.
Iran reserves the right to introduce and present to the Court in
due course a precise evaluation of the reparations owed by the USA;
and
(g) Any other remedy the Court may deem appropriate.”
19. In the written proceedings, the following submissions were presented
by the Parties:
On behalf of the Government of Iran,
in the Memorial:
“On the basis of the foregoing, and reserving its right to supplement,
amend or modify the present request for relief in the course of the proceedings
in this case, Iran respectfully requests the Court to adjudge,
order and declare:
(a) That the United States’ international responsibility is engaged as
follows:
certains actifs iraniens (arrêt) 64
destination ou en provenance des États‑Unis, h) l’entrave à la liberté
de commerce, les États‑Unis ont manqué à leurs obligations envers
l’Iran, notamment à celles que leur imposent les paragraphes 1 et 2
de l’article III, les paragraphes 1 et 2 de l’article IV, le paragraphe 1
de l’article V, le paragraphe 1 de l’article VII et le paragraphe 1 de
l’article X du traité d’amitié ;
c) que les États‑Unis doivent veiller à ce qu’aucune mesure ne soit prise
sur la base des actes administratifs, législatifs et judiciaires (dont il a
été fait état plus haut) en cause dans la présente affaire et dont la Cour
aura déterminé qu’ils sont incompatibles avec les obligations
qui leur
incombent envers l’Iran au titre du traité d’amitié ;
d) que l’Iran et les sociétés propriété de l’État iranien jouissent de l’immunité
de juridiction devant les tribunaux des États‑Unis et à l’égard
des procédures d’exécution dans ce pays, et que cette immunité
doit être respectée par celui-ci (notamment ses tribunaux), dans la
mesure établie par le droit international coutumier et exigée par le
traité d’amitié ;
e) que les États‑Unis (y compris leurs tribunaux) sont tenus de respecter
le statut juridique (y compris la personnalité juridique distincte)
de toutes les sociétés iraniennes, y compris celles qui appartiennent
à l’État, telle la banque Markazi, et de leur accorder libre accès à
leurs tribunaux, et qu’aucune mesure fondée sur les actes administratifs,
législatifs et judiciaires (dont il a été fait état plus haut), qui
emporte ou suppose la reconnaissance ou l’exécution desdits actes et
décisions de justice, ne sera prise contre les actifs ou les intérêts de
l’Iran, ni contre une entité ou un ressortissant iranien ;
f) que les États‑Unis, pour avoir enfreint leurs obligations internationales,
sont tenus de réparer intégralement le préjudice ainsi causé à
l’Iran, selon un montant à déterminer par la Cour à un stade ultérieur
de l’instance, l’Iran se réservant le droit d’introduire et de présenter
à cette dernière, en temps utile, une évaluation précise des réparations
dues par les États‑Unis ;
g) tout autre remède que la Cour jugerait approprié. »
19. Au cours de la procédure écrite, les conclusions ci-après ont été présentées
par les Parties :
Au nom du Gouvernement de l’Iran,
dans le mémoire :
« Sur la base de ce qui précède et tout en se réservant le droit de
compléter ou de modifier les présentes demandes au cours de la procédure
en l’affaire, l’Iran prie respectueusement la Cour de dire, prescrire
et juger :
a) que la responsabilité internationale des États‑Unis est engagée
comme suit :
65 certain iranian assets (judgment)
(i) That by its acts, including the acts referred to above and in
particular its failure to recognise the separate juridical status
(including the separate legal personality) of all Iranian companies
including Bank Markazi, the United States has breached
its obligations to Iran, inter alia, under Article III (1) of the
Treaty of Amity;
(ii) That by its acts, including the acts referred to above and in particular
its: (a) unfair and discriminatory treatment of such
entities, and their property, which impairs the legally acquired
rights and interests of such entities including enforcement of
their contractual rights, and (b) failure to accord to such entities
and their property the most constant protection and security
that is in no case less than that required by international law,
and (c) expropriation of the property of such entities, and its
failure to accord to such entities freedom of access to the U.S.
courts, including the abrogation of the immunities to which Iran
and Iranian State-owned companies, including Bank Markazi,
and their property, are entitled under customary international
law and as required by the 1955 Treaty of Amity, and (d) failure
to respect the right of such entities to acquire and dispose of
property, the United States has breached its obligations to Iran,
inter alia, under Articles III (2), IV (1), IV (2), V (1) and XI (4)
of the Treaty of Amity;
(iii) That by its acts, including the acts referred to above and in
particular
its: (a) application of restrictions to such entities on
the making of payments and other transfers of funds to or from
the United States, and (b) interference with the freedom of
commerce, the United States has breached its obligations to
Iran, inter alia, under Articles VII (1) and X (1) of the Treaty of
Amity;
(b) That the United States shall cease such conduct and provide Iran
with an assurance that it will not repeat its unlawful acts;
(c) That the United States shall ensure that no steps shall be taken based
on the executive, legislative and judicial acts (as referred to above)
at issue in this case which are, to the extent determined by the Court,
inconsistent with the obligations of the United States to Iran under
the 1955 Treaty of Amity;
(d) That the United States shall, by enacting appropriate legislation, or
by resorting to other methods of its choosing, ensure that the decisions
of its courts and those of other authorities infringing the rights,
including respect for the juridical status of Iranian companies, and
the entitlement to immunity which Iran and Iranian State-owned
certains actifs iraniens (arrêt) 65
i) par leurs actes, notamment ceux exposés ci-dessus et en particulier
la non-reconnaissance du statut juridique distinct (notamment
la personnalité juridique distincte) de toutes les sociétés
iraniennes, parmi lesquelles la banque Markazi, les États‑Unis
ont manqué à leurs obligations envers l’Iran, notamment à
celles que leur impose le paragraphe 1 de l’article III du traité
d’amitié ;
ii) par leurs actes, notamment ceux exposés ci-dessus et en particulier
: a) le traitement injuste et discriminatoire de ces entités ainsi
que de leurs biens, lequel porte atteinte aux droits ou aux intérêts
légalement acquis par celles-ci, dont l’exécution de leurs droits
contractuels, b) le fait de ne pas assurer à ces entités et à leurs
biens, de la manière la plus constante, une protection et une sécurité
qui ne doivent en aucun cas être inférieures aux normes
fixées par le droit international, c) le fait d’exproprier ces entités
de leurs biens et de ne pas leur accorder libre accès aux tribunaux
des États‑Unis, notamment en les privant des immunités que le
droit international coutumier et les dispositions du traité d’amitié
de 1955 confèrent à l’Iran et aux sociétés lui appartenant, parmi
lesquelles la banque Markazi, ainsi qu’à leurs biens, d) le nonrespect
du droit de ces entités d’acquérir et d’aliéner des biens, les
États‑Unis ont manqué à leurs obligations envers l’Iran, notamment
à celles que leur imposent le paragraphe 2 de l’article III, les
paragraphes 1 et 2 de l’article IV, le paragraphe 1 de l’article V et
le paragraphe 4 de l’article XI du traité d’amitié ;
iii) par leurs actes, notamment ceux exposés ci-dessus et en particulier
: a) l’imposition à ces entités de restrictions en matière de
paiements et autres transferts de fonds à destination ou en provenance
des États‑Unis, b) l’entrave à la liberté de commerce, les
États‑Unis ont manqué à leurs obligations envers l’Iran, notamment
à celles que leur imposent le paragraphe 1 de l’article VII et
le paragraphe 1 de l’article X du traité d’amitié ;
b) que les États‑Unis doivent mettre fin à un tel comportement et donner
à l’Iran l’assurance qu’ils ne répéteront pas leurs actes illicites ;
c) que les États‑Unis doivent veiller à ce qu’aucune mesure ne soit prise
sur la base des actes administratifs, législatifs et judiciaires (tels
qu’énumérés plus haut) en cause dans la présente affaire et dont la
Cour aura déterminé qu’ils sont incompatibles avec les obligations
qui leur incombent envers l’Iran au titre du traité d’amitié de 1955 ;
d) que les États‑Unis doivent, en adoptant la législation appropriée ou
en recourant à tout autre moyen de leur choix, veiller à ce que cessent
de produire effet les décisions de leurs tribunaux ou d’autres autorités
qui sont contraires, notamment, au droit des sociétés iraniennes au
respect de leur statut juridique et au droit à l’immunité dont jouissent
66 certain iranian assets (judgment)
companies, including Bank Markazi, enjoy under the 1955 Treaty of
Amity and international law cease to have effect;
(e) That Iran and Iranian State-owned companies are entitled to immunity
from the jurisdiction of the U.S. courts and in respect of
enforcement proceedings in the United States, and that such immunity
must be respected by the United States (including the U.S.
courts), to the extent required by the 1955 Treaty of Amity and
international law;
(f) That the United States (including the U.S. courts) is obliged to
respect the juridical status (including the separate legal personality),
and to ensure freedom of access to the U.S. courts, of all Iranian
companies, including State-owned companies such as Bank Markazi,
and that no steps based on the executive, legislative and judicial
acts (as referred to above), which involve or imply the recognition or
enforcement of such acts shall be taken against the assets or interests
of Iran or any Iranian companies[;]
(g) That the United States is under an obligation to make full reparation
to Iran for the violation of its international legal obligations in a
form and in an amount to be determined by the Court at a subsequent
stage of the proceedings. Iran reserves its right to introduce
and present to the Court in due course a precise evaluation of the
reparations owed by the United States; and
(h) Any other remedy the Court may deem appropriate.”
in the Reply:
“On the basis of the foregoing, and reserving its right to supplement,
amend or modify the present request for relief in the course of the
proceedings in this case, Iran respectfully requests the Court to
adjudge, order and declare:
(a) That the United States has violated its obligations under the Treaty
of Amity, as follows:
(i) That by its acts, including the acts referred to above and in particular
its failure to recognise the separate juridical status
(including the separate legal personality) of all Iranian companies
including Bank Markazi, the United States has breached
its obligations to Iran, inter alia, under Article III (1) of the
Treaty of Amity;
(ii) That by its acts, including the acts referred to above and in
particular its (a) unfair and inequitable treatment of such
companies and their property (including interests in property);
and (b) unreasonable and discriminatory treatment of such
companies, and their property, which impairs the legally acquired
certains actifs iraniens (arrêt) 66
en vertu du traité d’amitié de 1955 et du droit international l’Iran et
les sociétés lui appartenant, parmi lesquelles la banque Markazi ;
e) que l’Iran et les sociétés lui appartenant jouissent de l’immunité de
juridiction devant les tribunaux des États‑Unis et à l’égard des
procédures d’exécution dans ce pays, et que cette immunité doit être
respectée par les États‑Unis (y compris leurs tribunaux), dans la
mesure exigée par le traité d’amitié de 1955 et le droit international ;
f) que les États‑Unis (y compris leurs tribunaux) sont tenus de respecter
le statut juridique (notamment la personnalité juridique distincte) de
toutes les sociétés iraniennes, dont celles appartenant à l’État iranien,
telle la banque Markazi, et de leur accorder libre accès à leurs tribunaux,
et qu’aucune mesure fondée sur les actes administratifs,
législatifs et judiciaires (dont il a été fait état plus haut), qui emporte
ou suppose la reconnaissance ou l’exécution desdits actes et décisions
de justice, ne sera prise contre les actifs ou les intérêts de l’Iran
ou de toute société iranienne ;
g) que les États‑Unis, pour avoir enfreint leurs obligations internationales,
sont tenus de réparer intégralement le préjudice ainsi causé à
l’Iran, sous une forme et selon un montant à déterminer par la Cour
à un stade ultérieur de l’instance, l’Iran se réservant le droit d’introduire
et de présenter à cette dernière, en temps utile, une évaluation
précise des réparations dues par les États‑Unis ;
h) tout autre remède que la Cour jugerait approprié. »
dans la réplique :
« Sur la base de ce qui précède et tout en se réservant le droit de compléter,
modifier ou réviser la présente demande au cours de la procédure
en l’affaire, l’Iran prie respectueusement la Cour de dire, prescrire et
juger :
a) que les États‑Unis ont manqué aux obligations mises à leur charge
par le traité d’amitié, comme suit :
i) par leurs actes, notamment ceux exposés ci-dessus et en particulier
la non-reconnaissance du statut juridique distinct (en
ce compris la personnalité juridique distincte) de toutes les sociétés
iraniennes, parmi lesquelles la banque Markazi, les États‑Unis
ont manqué à leurs obligations envers l’Iran, notamment à
celles que leur impose le paragraphe 1 de l’article III du traité
d’amitié ;
ii) par leurs actes, notamment ceux exposés ci-dessus et en particulier
a) le traitement injuste et inéquitable qu’ils ont appliqué aux
sociétés susvisées et à leurs biens (y compris les participations
dans des biens), b) le traitement déraisonnable et discriminatoire
qu’ils ont appliqué à ces sociétés et à leurs biens, lequel porte
67 certain iranian assets (judgment)
rights and interests; and (c) failure to assure that the lawful
contractual rights of such companies are afforded effective
means of enforcement, and (d) failure to accord to such
companies and their property the most constant protection and
security that is in no case less than that required by international
law, and (e) expropriation of the property of such companies,
and its failure to accord to such entities freedom of access to the
U.S. courts to the end that justice be done, as required by the
1955 Treaty of Amity, and (f) failure to respect the right of such
companies to acquire and dispose of property, the United States
has breached its obligations to Iran, inter alia, under
Articles III (2), IV (1), IV (2), and V (1) of the Treaty of Amity;
(iii) That by its acts, including the acts referred to above and in particular
its (a) application of restrictions to such entities on the
making of payments and other transfers of funds to or from the
United States, and (b) interference with the freedom of
commerce, the United States has breached its obligations to
Iran, inter alia, under Articles VII (1) and X (1) of the Treaty of
Amity;
(b) That the aforementioned violations of international law entail the
international responsibility of the United States;
(c) That the United States is consequently obliged to put an end to the
situation brought about by the aforementioned violations of international
law, by (a) ceasing those acts and (b) making full reparation
for the injury caused by those acts, in an amount to be determined
in a later phase of these proceedings, and (c) offering a formal apology
to the Islamic Republic of Iran for those wrongful acts and
injuries;
(d) That the United States shall, by enacting appropriate legislation, or
by resorting to other methods of its choosing, ensure that the measures
adopted by its Legislature and its Executive, and the decisions
of its courts and those of other authorities infringing the rights of
Iran and of Iranian companies, cease to have effect in so far as they
were each adopted or taken in violation of the obligations owed by
the United States to Iran under the Treaty of Amity, and that no
steps are taken against the assets or interests of Iran or any Iranian
entity or national that involve or imply the recognition or enforcement
of such acts;
(e) That Iran present to the Court, by a date to be fixed by the Court,
a precise evaluation of the reparations due for injuries caused by
certains actifs iraniens (arrêt) 67
atteinte aux droits ou aux intérêts légalement acquis par lesdites
sociétés, c) le manquement à l’obligation d’assurer des voies
d’exécution efficaces aux droits contractuels de ces sociétés légitimement
nés, d) le manquement à l’obligation d’assurer à ces
sociétés et à leurs biens, de la manière la plus constante, une protection
et une sécurité qui ne doivent en aucun cas être inférieures
aux normes fixées par le droit international, e) l’expropriation des
biens de ces sociétés et le manquement à l’obligation d’accorder à
ces dernières libre accès aux tribunaux des États‑Unis en vue
d’assurer l’administration de la justice, qui découle du traité
d’amitié de 1955, ainsi que f) le non-respect du droit de ces sociétés
d’acquérir et d’aliéner des biens, les États‑Unis ont manqué à
leurs obligations envers l’Iran, notamment à celles que leur
imposent le paragraphe 2 de l’article III, les paragraphes 1 et 2 de
l’article IV et le paragraphe 1 de l’article V du traité d’amitié ;
iii) par leurs actes, notamment ceux exposés ci-dessus et en particulier
a) l’imposition aux entités susvisées de restrictions en matière
de paiements et autres transferts de fonds à destination ou en
provenance
des États‑Unis et b) les entraves à la liberté de commerce,
les États‑Unis ont manqué à leurs obligations envers
l’Iran, notamment à celles que leur imposent le paragraphe 1 de
l’article VII et le paragraphe 1 de l’article X du traité d’amitié ;
b) que les violations du droit international énoncées ci-dessus engagent
la responsabilité internationale des États‑Unis ;
c) que les États‑Unis sont par conséquent tenus de mettre un terme à la
situation née desdites violations du droit international a) par la cessation
des actes en cause, b) par la réparation intégrale des préjudices
causés par ces actes, réparation dont le quantum sera déterminé à un
stade ultérieur de la procédure, et c) par la présentation d’excuses
officielles à la République islamique d’Iran à raison des actes illicites
susmentionnés et des préjudices qu’ils ont causés ;
d) que les États‑Unis doivent, en adoptant une législation appropriée ou
en recourant à tout autre moyen de leur choix, veiller à ce que les
mesures adoptées par leur pouvoir législatif et leur pouvoir exécutif,
ainsi que les décisions de leurs tribunaux ou d’autres instances portant
atteinte aux droits de l’Iran et de sociétés iraniennes cessent de
produire leurs effets dans la mesure où chacune d’elles a été adoptée
en violation des obligations imposées aux États‑Unis envers l’Iran
par le traité d’amitié, et à ce que ne soit prise contre les actifs ou les
intérêts de l’Iran, d’entités iraniennes ou de ressortissants iraniens
aucune mesure emportant ou supposant la reconnaissance ou l’exécution
de ces actes ;
e) que l’Iran présentera à la Cour, dans un délai fixé par elle, une évaluation
précise des réparations qui lui sont dues pour les préjudices
68 certain iranian assets (judgment)
the unlawful acts of the United States in breach of the Treaty of
Amity;
(f) That the United States shall pay the costs incurred by Iran in the
presentation of this case and the defence of its legal rights under the
Treaty of Amity, with the details thereof to be presented by Iran to
the Court, by a date to be fixed by the Court;
(g) Any other remedy the Court may deem appropriate.”
On behalf of the Government of the United States,
in the Counter-Memorial:
“On the basis of the facts and arguments set out above, the United States
of America requests that the Court, in addition or in the alternative:
(1) Dismiss all claims brought under the Treaty of Amity on the basis
that Iran comes to the Court with unclean hands.
(2) Dismiss as outside the Court’s jurisdiction all claims brought under
Articles III, IV, and V of the Treaty of Amity that are predicated on
treatment accorded to Bank Markazi.
(3) Dismiss as outside the Court’s jurisdiction all claims brought under
Articles III, IV, and V of the Treaty of Amity that are predicated on
treatment accorded to companies that have failed to exhaust local
remedies.
(4) Dismiss on the basis of Article XX (1) (c) and (d) of the Treaty of
Amity all claims that U.S. measures that block or freeze assets of
the Iranian government or Iranian financial institutions (as defined
in Executive Order 13599) violate any provision of the Treaty.
(5) Dismiss all claims brought under Articles III, IV, V, VII, and X of
the Treaty of Amity on the basis that the United States did not
breach its obligations to Iran under any of those Articles.
(6) To the extent the Court concludes that Iran, notwithstanding the
foregoing submissions, has established one or more of its claims
brought under the Treaty of Amity, reject such claims on the basis
that Iran’s invocation of its purported rights under the Treaty constitutes
an abuse of right.”
in the Rejoinder:
“On the basis of the facts and arguments set out above, the United
States of America requests that the Court, in addition or in the alternative:
(1) Dismiss all claims brought under the Treaty of Amity on the basis
that Iran comes to the Court with unclean hands.
(2) Dismiss as outside the Court’s jurisdiction all claims brought under
Articles III, IV, and V of the Treaty of Amity that are predicated on
treatment accorded to Bank Markazi.
certains actifs iraniens (arrêt) 68
causés par les actes illicites que les États‑Unis ont commis en violation
du traité d’amitié ;
f) que les États‑Unis doivent prendre en charge les frais engagés par
l’Iran pour exposer sa thèse et défendre les droits qu’il tient du traité
d’amitié, dont il présentera le détail à la Cour dans un délai fixé par
elle ;
g) tout autre remède que la Cour jugerait approprié. »
Au nom du Gouvernement des États‑Unis,
dans le contre-mémoire :
« Sur la base des faits et arguments exposés ci-dessus, les États‑Unis
d’Amérique prient la Cour, à titre cumulatif ou subsidiaire :
1) de rejeter toutes les demandes fondées sur le traité d’amitié, au motif
que l’Iran se présente devant la Cour avec les mains sales ;
2) de rejeter comme échappant à sa compétence toutes les demandes
fondées sur les articles III, IV et V du traité d’amitié qui reposent sur
le traitement accordé à la banque Markazi ;
3) de rejeter comme échappant à sa compétence toutes les demandes
fondées sur les articles III, IV et V du traité d’amitié qui reposent sur
le traitement accordé aux sociétés n’ayant pas épuisé les voies de
recours internes ;
4) de rejeter, sur le fondement des alinéas c) et d) du paragraphe 1 de
l’article XX du traité d’amitié, toutes les demandes alléguant que les
mesures américaines qui ont pour effet de bloquer ou geler les actifs
du Gouvernement iranien ou des institutions financières iraniennes
(telles que définies dans le décret présidentiel no 13599) contreviennent
aux dispositions du traité ;
5) de rejeter toutes les demandes fondées sur les articles III, IV, V, VII
et X du traité d’amitié, au motif que les États‑Unis n’ont violé aucune
des obligations envers l’Iran que ces articles mettent à leur charge ;
6) au cas où la Cour conclurait que l’Iran, nonobstant les conclusions
qui précèdent, a établi le bien-fondé d’une ou plusieurs de ses
demandes
formulées au titre du traité d’amitié, de rejeter ces
demandes au motif que l’invocation par l’Iran des droits qu’il tiendrait
dudit instrument constitue un abus de droit. »
dans la duplique :
« Sur la base des faits et arguments exposés ci-dessus, les États‑Unis
d’Amérique prient la Cour, à titre cumulatif ou subsidiaire :
1) de rejeter toutes les demandes fondées sur le traité d’amitié, au motif
que l’Iran se présente devant la Cour avec les mains sales ;
2) de rejeter comme échappant à sa compétence toutes les demandes
fondées sur les articles III, IV et V du traité d’amitié qui reposent sur
le traitement accordé à la banque Markazi ;
69 certain iranian assets (judgment)
(3) Dismiss as outside the Court’s jurisdiction all claims brought under
Articles III, IV, and V of the Treaty of Amity that are predicated on
treatment accorded to companies that have failed to exhaust local
remedies.
(4) Dismiss on the basis of Article XX (1) (c) and (d) of the Treaty of
Amity all claims that U.S. measures that block or freeze assets of
the Iranian government or Iranian financial institutions (as defined
in Executive Order 13599) violate any provision of the Treaty.
(5) Dismiss all claims brought under Articles III, IV, V, VII, and X of
the Treaty of Amity on the basis that the United States did not
breach its obligations to Iran under any of those Articles.
(6) To the extent the Court concludes that Iran, notwithstanding the
foregoing submissions, has established one or more of its claims
brought under the Treaty of Amity, reject such claims on the basis
that Iran’s invocation of its purported rights under the Treaty constitutes
an abuse of right.”
20. At the oral proceedings, the following submissions were presented by
the Parties:
On behalf of the Government of Iran,
“On the basis of the foregoing, Iran respectfully requests the Court to
adjudge, order and declare:
(a) First, that the United States has violated its obligations under the
Treaty of Amity, as follows:
(i) That by its acts, in particular its failure to recognise the separate
juridical status (including the separate legal personality) of
all Iranian companies including Bank Markazi, the United
States has breached its obligations to Iran, inter alia, under Article
III (1) of the Treaty of Amity;
(ii) That by its acts, in particular its (a) unfair and inequitable
treatment of such companies and their property (including
interests in property); and (b) unreasonable and discriminatory
treatment of such companies, and their property, which impairs
the legally acquired rights and interests; and (c) failure to assure
that the lawful contractual rights of such companies are afforded
effective means of enforcement, and (d) failure to accord to
such companies and their property the most constant protection
and security that is in no case less than that required by
international law, and (e) expropriation of the property of such
companies, and its failure to accord to such entities freedom of
access to the U.S. courts to the end that justice be done, as
certains actifs iraniens (arrêt) 69
3) de rejeter comme échappant à sa compétence toutes les demandes
fondées sur les articles III, IV et V du traité d’amitié qui reposent sur
le traitement accordé aux sociétés n’ayant pas épuisé les voies de
recours internes ;
4) de rejeter, sur le fondement des alinéas c) et d) du paragraphe 1 de
l’article XX du traité d’amitié, toutes les demandes alléguant que les
mesures américaines qui ont pour effet de bloquer ou geler les actifs
du Gouvernement iranien ou des institutions financières iraniennes
(telles que définies dans le décret présidentiel no 13599) contreviennent
aux dispositions du traité ;
5) de rejeter toutes les demandes fondées sur les articles III, IV, V, VII
et X du traité d’amitié, au motif que les États‑Unis n’ont violé aucune
des obligations envers l’Iran que ces articles mettent à leur charge ;
6) au cas où la Cour conclurait que l’Iran, nonobstant les conclusions
qui précèdent, a établi le bien-fondé d’une ou plusieurs de ses
demandes formulées au titre du traité d’amitié, de rejeter ces
demandes au motif que l’invocation par l’Iran des droits qu’il tiendrait
dudit instrument constitue un abus de droit. »
20. Lors de la procédure orale, les conclusions ci-après ont été présentées
par les Parties :
Au nom du Gouvernement de l’Iran,
« Sur la base de ce qui précède, l’Iran prie respectueusement la Cour
de dire, prescrire et juger :
a) premièrement, que les États‑Unis ont manqué aux obligations mises
à leur charge par le traité d’amitié, comme suit :
i) par leurs actes, en particulier la non-reconnaissance du statut
juridique distinct (en ce compris la personnalité juridique distincte)
de toutes les sociétés iraniennes, parmi lesquelles la
banque Markazi, les États‑Unis ont manqué à leurs obligations
envers l’Iran, notamment à celles que leur impose le paragraphe 1
de l’article III du traité d’amitié ;
ii) par leurs actes, en particulier a) le traitement injuste et inéquitable
qu’ils ont appliqué aux sociétés susvisées et à leurs biens (y compris
les participations dans des biens), b) le traitement déraisonnable
et discriminatoire qu’ils ont appliqué à ces sociétés et à leurs biens,
lequel porte atteinte aux droits ou aux intérêts légalement acquis
par lesdites sociétés, c) le manquement à l’obligation d’assurer des
voies d’exécution efficaces aux droits contractuels de ces sociétés
légitimement nés, d) le manquement à l’obligation d’assurer à ces
sociétés et à leurs biens, de la manière la plus constante, une protection
et une sécurité qui ne doivent en aucun cas être inférieures
aux normes fixées par le droit international, e) l’expropriation des
biens de ces sociétés et le manquement à l’obligation d’accorder à
70 certain iranian assets (judgment)
required by the 1955 Treaty of Amity, and (f) failure to respect
the right of such companies to acquire and dispose of property,
the United States has breached its obligations to Iran, inter alia,
under Articles III (2), IV (1), IV (2), and V (1) of the Treaty of
Amity;
(iii) That by its acts, and in particular its (a) application of restrictions
to such entities on the making of payments and other transfers
of funds to or from the United States, and (b) interference with
the freedom of commerce, the United States has breached its
obligations to Iran, inter alia, under Articles VII (1) and X (1) of
the Treaty of Amity;
(b) Second, that the aforementioned violations of international law
entail the international responsibility of the United States;
(c) Third, that the United States is consequently obliged to put an end
to the situation brought about by the aforementioned violations of
international law, by (a) ceasing those acts and (b) making full
reparation for the injury caused by those acts, in an amount to be
determined in a later phase of these proceedings, and (c) offering a
formal apology to the Islamic Republic of Iran for those wrongful
acts and injuries;
(d) Fourth, that the United States shall, by enacting appropriate legislation,
or by resorting to other methods of its choosing, ensure that
the measures adopted by its Legislature and its Executive, and the
decisions of its courts and those of other authorities infringing the
rights of Iran and of Iranian companies, cease to have effect in so
far as they were each adopted or taken in violation of the obligations
owed by the United States to Iran under the Treaty of Amity, and
that no steps are taken against the assets or interests of Iran or any
Iranian entity or national that involve or imply the recognition or
enforcement of such acts;
(e) Fifth, that Iran presents to the Court, by a date to be fixed by the
Court, a precise evaluation of the reparations due for injuries caused
by the unlawful acts of the United States in breach of the Treaty of
Amity;
(f) Sixth, that the United States shall pay the costs incurred by Iran in
the presentation of this case and the defence of its legal rights under
the Treaty of Amity, with the details thereof to be presented by Iran
to the Court, by a date to be fixed by the Court;
(g) Seventh, any other remedy the Court may deem appropriate.”
certains actifs iraniens (arrêt) 70
ces dernières libre accès aux tribunaux des États‑Unis en vue d’assurer
l’administration de la justice, qui découle du traité d’amitié
de 1955, ainsi que f) le non-respect du droit de ces sociétés d’acquérir
et d’aliéner des biens, les États‑Unis ont manqué à leurs
obligations envers l’Iran, notamment à celles que leur imposent le
paragraphe 2 de l’article III, les paragraphes 1 et 2 de l’article IV
et le paragraphe
1 de l’article V du traité d’amitié ;
iii) par leurs actes, en particulier a) l’imposition aux entités susvisées
de restrictions en matière de paiements et autres transferts
de fonds à destination ou en provenance des États‑Unis et b) les
entraves à la liberté de commerce, les États‑Unis ont manqué à
leurs obligations envers l’Iran, notamment à celles que leur
imposent le paragraphe 1 de l’article VII et le paragraphe 1 de
l’article X du traité d’amitié ;
b) deuxièmement, que les violations du droit international énoncées
ci-dessus engagent la responsabilité internationale des États‑Unis ;
c) troisièmement, que les États‑Unis sont par conséquent tenus de
mettre un terme à la situation née desdites violations du droit international
a) par la cessation des actes en cause, b) par la réparation
intégrale des préjudices causés par ces actes, réparation dont le quantum
sera déterminé à un stade ultérieur de la procédure, et c) par la
présentation d’excuses officielles à la République islamique d’Iran à
raison des actes illicites susmentionnés et des préjudices qu’ils ont
causés ;
d) quatrièmement, que les États‑Unis doivent, en adoptant une législation
appropriée ou en recourant à tout autre moyen de leur choix,
veiller à ce que les mesures adoptées par leur pouvoir législatif et leur
pouvoir exécutif, ainsi que les décisions de leurs tribunaux ou d’autres
instances portant atteinte aux droits de l’Iran et de sociétés iraniennes
cessent de produire leurs effets dans la mesure où chacune d’elles a
été adoptée en violation des obligations imposées aux États‑Unis
envers l’Iran par le traité d’amitié, et à ce que ne soit prise contre les
actifs ou les intérêts de l’Iran, d’entités iraniennes ou de ressortissants
iraniens aucune mesure emportant ou supposant la reconnaissance ou
l’exécution de ces actes ;
e) cinquièmement, que l’Iran présentera à la Cour, dans un délai fixé par
elle, une évaluation précise des réparations qui lui sont dues pour les
préjudices causés par les actes illicites que les États‑Unis ont commis
en violation du traité d’amitié ;
f) sixièmement, que les États‑Unis doivent prendre en charge les frais
engagés par l’Iran pour exposer sa thèse et défendre les droits qu’il
tient du traité d’amitié, dont il présentera le détail à la Cour dans un
délai fixé par elle ;
g) septièmement, tout autre remède que la Cour jugerait approprié. »
71 certain iranian assets (judgment)
On behalf of the Government of the United States,
“For the reasons explained during these hearings and in its written
submissions and any other reasons the Court might deem appropriate,
the United States of America requests that the Court:
(1) Dismiss all claims brought under the Treaty of Amity on the basis
that Iran comes to the Court with unclean hands.
(2) Dismiss as outside the Court’s jurisdiction all claims brought under
Articles III, IV, and V of the Treaty of Amity that are predicated on
treatment accorded to Bank Markazi.
(3) Dismiss as outside the Court’s jurisdiction all claims brought under
Articles III, IV, and V of the Treaty of Amity that are predicated
on treatment accorded to companies that have failed to exhaust
local remedies.
(4) Dismiss on the basis of Article XX (1) (c) and (d) of the Treaty of
Amity all claims that U.S. measures that block or freeze assets of
the Iranian government or Iranian financial institutions (as defined
in Executive Order 13599) violate any provision of the Treaty.
(5) Dismiss all claims brought under Articles III, IV, V, VII, and X of
the Treaty of Amity on the basis that the United States did not
breach its obligations to Iran under any of those Articles.
(6) To the extent the Court concludes that Iran, notwithstanding the
foregoing submissions, has established one or more of its claims
brought under the Treaty of Amity, reject such claims on the basis
that Iran’s invocation of its purported rights under the Treaty constitutes
an abuse of right.”
* * *
I. Factual Background
21. The Court recalls that, on 15 August 1955, the Parties signed the Treaty
of Amity, which entered into force on 16 June 1957 (see paragraph 1 above).
22. Iran and the United States ceased diplomatic relations in 1980, following
the Iranian revolution in early 1979 and the seizure of the United States
Embassy in Tehran on 4 November 1979.
23. In October 1983, the United States Marine Corps barracks in Beirut,
Lebanon, were bombed, killing 241 United States service members who
were part of a multinational peacekeeping force. The United States claims
that Iran is responsible for this bombing and for subsequent acts of terrorism
and violations of international law, including the bombing in 1996 of a
certains actifs iraniens (arrêt) 71
Au nom du Gouvernement des États‑Unis,
« Pour les motifs exposés à l’audience et dans leurs écritures, et pour
tous autres motifs que la Cour pourrait retenir, les États‑Unis d’Amérique
prient la Cour :
1) de rejeter toutes les demandes fondées sur le traité d’amitié, au motif
que l’Iran se présente devant la Cour avec les mains sales ;
2) de rejeter comme échappant à sa compétence toutes les demandes
fondées sur les articles III, IV et V du traité d’amitié qui reposent sur
le traitement accordé à la banque Markazi ;
3) de rejeter comme échappant à sa compétence toutes les demandes
fondées sur les articles III, IV et V du traité d’amitié qui reposent sur
le traitement accordé aux sociétés n’ayant pas épuisé les voies de
recours internes ;
4) de rejeter, sur le fondement des alinéas c) et d) du paragraphe 1 de
l’article XX du traité d’amitié, toutes les demandes alléguant que les
mesures américaines qui ont pour effet de bloquer ou geler les actifs
du Gouvernement iranien ou des institutions financières iraniennes
(telles que définies dans le décret présidentiel no 13599) contreviennent
aux dispositions du traité ;
5) de rejeter toutes les demandes fondées sur les articles III, IV, V, VII
et X du traité d’amitié, au motif que les États‑Unis n’ont violé aucune
des obligations envers l’Iran que ces articles mettent à leur charge ;
6) au cas où la Cour conclurait que l’Iran, nonobstant les conclusions
qui précèdent, a établi le bien-fondé d’une ou plusieurs de ses
demandes formulées au titre du traité d’amitié, de rejeter ces
demandes au motif que l’invocation par l’Iran des droits qu’il tiendrait
dudit instrument constitue un abus de droit. »
* * *
I. Contexte factuel
21. La Cour rappelle que les Parties ont, le 15 août 1955, signé le traité
d’amitié qui est entré en vigueur le 16 juin 1957 (voir le paragraphe 1 cidessus).
22. L’Iran et les États‑Unis ont cessé d’entretenir des relations diplomatiques
en 1980, à la suite de la révolution iranienne du début 1979 et de la
prise de l’ambassade américaine à Téhéran le 4 novembre de la même année.
23. En octobre 1983, le casernement des marines américains à Beyrouth
(Liban) a été la cible d’un attentat à la bombe qui a tué 241 militaires américains
faisant partie d’une force multinationale de maintien de la paix. Les
États‑Unis soutiennent que l’Iran est responsable de cet attentat, ainsi que
d’actes de terrorisme et de violations du droit international commis par la
72 certain iranian assets (judgment)
housing complex in Saudi Arabia known as the Khobar Towers, which killed
19 United States service members. Iran rejects these allegations.
24. In 1984, in accordance with its domestic law, the United States designated
Iran as a “State sponsor of terrorism”, a designation which it has maintained
ever since.
25. In 1996, the United States amended its Foreign Sovereign Immunities
Act (hereinafter the “FSIA”) so as to remove the immunity from suit before
its courts of States designated as “State sponsors of terrorism” in certain
cases involving allegations of torture, extrajudicial killing, aircraft sabotage,
hostage taking, or the provision of material support for such acts
(Section 1605 (a) (7) of the FSIA). It also provided exceptions to immunity
from execution applicable in such cases (Sections 1610 (a) (7) and 1610 (b) (2)
of the FSIA). Plaintiffs then began to bring actions against Iran before
United States courts for damages arising from deaths and injuries caused by
acts allegedly supported, including financially, by Iran. These actions gave
rise to the Peterson case, concerning the bombing of the United States barracks
in Beirut (see paragraph 23 above), among other cases concerning
alleged acts of terrorism. Iran declined to appear in these lawsuits on the
ground that the United States legislation was in violation of the international
law on State immunities.
26. In 2002, the United States enacted the Terrorism Risk Insurance Act
(hereinafter “TRIA”), which permitted certain enforcement measures for
judgments entered pursuant to the 1996 amendment to the FSIA. In particular,
Section 201 of TRIA provides that, in every case in which a person
has obtained a judgment in respect of an act of terrorism or falling within
the scope of Section 1605 (a) (7) of the FSIA, the assets of an entity designated
a “terrorist party” under United States law (defined to include, among
others, designated “State sponsors of terrorism”) previously blocked by the
United States Government — “including the blocked assets of
any agency or instrumentality of that terrorist party” — shall be subject to
execution or attachment in aid of execution.
27. In 2008, the United States further amended the FSIA, enlarging the
categories of assets available for the satisfaction of judgment creditors, in
particular to include all property of State-owned entities of those States
having been designated “State sponsors of terrorism”, whether or not that
property had previously been “blocked” by the United States Government
(Section 1610 (g) of the FSIA).
28. In 2012, the President of the United States issued Executive
Order 13599, which blocked all assets of the Government of Iran, including
certains actifs iraniens (arrêt) 72
suite, y compris l’attentat à la bombe perpétré en 1996 contre un complexe
résidentiel en Arabie saoudite connu sous le nom de tours de Khobar, qui a
tué 19 militaires américains. L’Iran rejette ces allégations.
24. En 1984, conformément à leur droit interne, les États‑Unis ont désigné
l’Iran en tant qu’« État soutenant le terrorism », désignation qu’ils ont maintenue
jusqu’à ce jour.
25. En 1996, les États‑Unis ont modifié leur loi sur l’immunité des États
étrangers (Foreign Sovereign Immunities Act, ci-après la « FSIA ») afin de
priver les États désignés en tant qu’« États soutenant le terrorisme » d’immunité
devant les juridictions américaines dans certaines affaires concernant
des allégations de torture, d’exécution extrajudiciaire, de sabotage d’aéronef,
de prise d’otages ou d’appui matériel en vue de la commission de
tels actes (art. 1605, par. a), al. 7, de la FSIA). La nouvelle loi créait en
outre des exceptions à l’immunité d’exécution applicables dans ces situations
(art. 1610, par. a), al. 7, et art. 1610, par. b), al. 2, de la FSIA). Plusieurs actions
ont alors été engagées contre l’Iran devant des juridictions américaines, en
relation avec des dommages découlant de décès et de préjudices corporels
causés par des actes auxquels cet État aurait apporté son soutien, y compris
financier. Elles ont donné lieu à l’affaire Peterson, qui concernait l’attentat
contre le casernement américain à Beyrouth (voir le paragraphe 23 cidessus),
entre autres affaires ayant trait à des actes de terrorisme allégués.
L’Iran a refusé de comparaître dans ces procès, au motif que la loi américaine
constituait une violation du droit international sur les immunités de l’État.
26. En 2002, les États‑Unis ont promulgué la loi sur l’assurance contre les
risques associés au terrorisme (Terrorism Risk Insurance Act, ci-après la
« TRIA »), qui a permis certaines mesures d’exécution des décisions de justice
rendues en application de la modification de la FSIA intervenue en 1996.
En particulier, l’article 201 de la TRIA dispose, à titre de règle générale, que
tout demandeur ayant obtenu gain de cause dans une affaire concernant un
acte de terrorisme ou relevant du champ d’application de l’alinéa
7 du paragraphe
a) de l’article 1605 de la FSIA peut obtenir des mesures d’exécution
sur les actifs d’une entité désignée, par la législation américaine, comme une
« partie terroriste » (dont la définition englobe notamment les États désignés
en tant qu’« États soutenant le terrorisme ») qui ont été bloqués par le Gouvernement
américain « y compris ceux de tout établissement ou organisme de
[cette partie] » , ou procéder à leur saisie en vue de garantir l’exécution de
telles décisions (attachment in aid of execution).
27. En 2008, les États‑Unis ont de nouveau modifié la FSIA, en élargissant
entre autres les catégories d’actifs disponibles pour satisfaire les titulaires
d’une créance au titre d’une décision de justice ; y ont notamment été
inclus tous les biens des entités propriété des États désignés comme « États
soutenant le terrorisme », qu’ils aient ou non été « bloqués » par le Gouvernement
américain (art. 1610, par. g), de la FSIA).
28. En 2012, le président des États‑Unis a promulgué le décret présidentiel
no 13599, qui a bloqué tous les actifs de l’État iranien, y compris ceux de
73 certain iranian assets (judgment)
those of Bank Markazi and of other Iranian financial institutions, where such
assets are within United States territory or “within the possession or control
of any United States person, including any foreign branch”.
29. Also in 2012, the United States adopted the Iran Threat Reduction and
Syria Human Rights Act (hereinafter the “ITRSHRA”), Section 502 of
which, inter alia, made the assets of Bank Markazi subject to execution in
order to satisfy debts under default judgments against Iran in the Peterson
case. Bank Markazi challenged the validity of this provision before
United States courts; the United States Supreme Court ultimately upheld its
constitutionality (Bank Markazi v. Peterson et al., United States Supreme
Court, 20 April 2016, Supreme Court Reporter, Vol. 136, p. 1310 (2016)).
30. Following the legislative and executive measures taken by the
United States, many default judgments and substantial damages judgments
have been entered by United States courts against the State of Iran and, in
some cases, against Iranian State-owned entities. Further, the assets of Iran
and certain Iranian entities, including Bank Markazi, are now subject to
enforcement proceedings in various cases in the United States or abroad, or
have already been distributed to judgment creditors.
31. On 14 June 2016, Iran instituted the current proceedings before the
Court (see paragraph 1 above), arguing that, as a result of the United States’
executive, legislative and judicial acts, Iran and Iranian entities were suffering
serious and ongoing harm.
32. By diplomatic Note dated 3 October 2018 addressed by the United
States Department of State to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Iran, the
United States, in accordance with Article XXIII, paragraph 3, of the Treaty
of Amity, gave “one year’s written notice” of the termination of the
Treaty.
II. Questions of Jurisdiction and Admissibility
33. In its 2019 Judgment (see paragraph 12 above), the Court ruled on
several objections to jurisdiction and admissibility that the United States
had raised as a preliminary matter (Certain Iranian Assets (Islamic Republic
of Iran v. United States of America), Preliminary Objections, Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 2019 (I), p. 7). At the present stage of the proceedings, it falls
to the Court to examine two objections raised by the Respondent: the first,
relating to the Court’s jurisdiction ratione materiae, concerns the characterization
of Bank Markazi; the second, relating to the admissibility of Iran’s
claims, is based on the failure to exhaust local remedies.
certains actifs iraniens (arrêt) 73
la banque Markazi et d’autres institutions financières iraniennes, dès lors que
ces actifs se trouvent sur le territoire des États‑Unis ou « en la possession ou
sous le contrôle de toute personne des États‑Unis, y compris toute succursale
étrangère ».
29. En 2012 également, les États‑Unis ont adopté la loi sur la réduction
de la menace iranienne et les droits de l’homme en Syrie (Iran Threat
Reduction and Syria Human Rights Act ou ITRSHRA), dont l’article 502 a
notamment assujetti les actifs de la banque Markazi aux mesures d’exécution
ordonnées en règlement de dettes, en application de décisions prononcées
par défaut contre l’Iran en l’affaire Peterson. La banque Markazi a
contesté la validité de cette disposition devant les juridictions américaines ;
la Cour suprême des États‑Unis en a finalement confirmé la constitutionnalité
(Bank Markazi v. Peterson et al., United States Supreme Court,
20 April 2016, Supreme Court Reporter, vol. 136, p. 1310 (2016)).
30. À la suite des mesures législatives et administratives prises par les
États‑Unis, les juridictions américaines ont prononcé de nombreux jugements,
notamment par défaut, condamnant l’État iranien et, dans certains cas, des
entités détenues par lui, à d’importants dommages-intérêts. En outre, les
actifs de l’Iran et de certaines entités iraniennes, notamment la banque
Markazi, font actuellement l’objet de procédures d’exécution dans diverses
affaires, aux États‑Unis ou ailleurs, ou ont d’ores et déjà été alloués à des
créanciers ayant obtenu gain de cause par la voie judiciaire.
31. Le 14 juin 2016, l’Iran a introduit la présente instance devant la Cour
(voir le paragraphe 1 ci-dessus), soutenant que, par suite des actes administratifs,
législatifs et judiciaires des États‑Unis, lui-même et certaines entités
iraniennes subissaient un préjudice grave et continu.
32. Par note diplomatique en date du 3 octobre 2018 adressée au ministère
iranien des affaires étrangères par le département d’État américain, les
États‑Unis, conformément au paragraphe 3 de l’article XXIII du traité
d’amitié,
ont donné « par écrit … un préavis d’un an » afin de mettre fin au
traité.
II. Questions de compétence et de recevabilité
33. Dans son arrêt de 2019 (voir le paragraphe 12 ci-dessus), la Cour a
statué sur plusieurs exceptions d’incompétence et d’irrecevabilité que les
États‑Unis avaient soulevées à titre préliminaire (Certains actifs iraniens
(République islamique d’Iran c. États‑Unis d’Amérique), exceptions préliminaires,
arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2019 (I), p. 7). Il lui incombe, au stade actuel de la
procédure, d’examiner deux exceptions soulevées par le défendeur : la
première,
touchant à la compétence ratione materiae de la Cour, concerne la
qualification de la banque Markazi ; la seconde, relative à la recevabilité des
demandes de l’Iran, est tirée du défaut d’épuisement des voies de recours
internes.
74 certain iranian assets (judgment)
A. Objection to the Court’s Jurisdiction Ratione Materiae: Question whether
Bank Markazi Is a “Company” within the Meaning of the Treaty of Amity
34. The Court recalls that one of the preliminary objections raised by the
United States sought to have the Court dismiss “as outside [its] jurisdiction
all claims of purported violations of Articles III, IV, or V of the Treaty of
Amity that are predicated on treatment accorded to the Government of Iran
or Bank Markazi” (Certain Iranian Assets (Islamic Republic of Iran v.
United States of America), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports
2019 (I), p. 35, para. 81). Having found that Iran’s claims based on Articles III,
IV and V of the Treaty of Amity did not relate to the treatment of the Iranian
State itself, and that consequently the objection at issue concerned only
Bank Markazi (ibid., p. 36, para. 84), the Court considered that the decisive
question was whether Bank Markazi was a “company” within the meaning
of the Treaty of Amity. Indeed, the rights and protections guaranteed by
Articles III, IV and V of the Treaty are for the benefit of “nationals” (a term
used in the Treaty to describe natural persons) and “companies”.
35. There being a disagreement between the Parties as to whether Bank
Markazi could be characterized as a “company”, the Court ruled, on the
basis of the arguments exchanged before it and information provided to it,
that
“it [did] not have before it all the facts necessary to determine whether
Bank Markazi was carrying out, at the relevant time, activities of the
nature of those which permit characterization as a ‘company’ within the
meaning of the Treaty of Amity, and which would have been capable of
being affected by the measures complained of by Iran by reference to
Articles III, IV and V of the Treaty” (Certain Iranian Assets (Islamic
Republic of Iran v. United States of America), Preliminary Objections,
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2019 (I), p. 40, para. 97).
It added that, “[s]ince those elements are largely of a factual nature and are,
moreover, closely linked to the merits of the case, the Court considers that it
will be able to rule on the third objection only after the Parties have presented
their arguments in the following stage of the proceedings” (ibid.).
This led the Court, in the operative part of its Judgment, to declare that the
objection in question “[did] not possess, in the circumstances of the case, an
exclusively preliminary character” (ibid., p. 45, para. 126, subpara. 3).
36. In its final submissions presented at the end of the hearings on the
merits, the United States raised the same objection to jurisdiction, except
that, in contrast to its preliminary objection, it now referred only to Bank
Markazi (subparagraph (2) of the final submissions; see paragraph 20 above).
37. In order to demonstrate that Bank Markazi was carrying out, at the
relevant time, activities permitting it to be characterized as a “company”
certains actifs iraniens (arrêt) 74
A. Exception d’incompétence ratione materiae : question de savoir si
la banque Markazi est une « société » au sens du traité d’amitié
34. La Cour rappelle que, parmi les exceptions préliminaires soulevées
par les États‑Unis, l’une d’entre elles tendait à ce que la Cour rejette « comme
échappant à sa compétence toute demande se rapportant à des violations
alléguées des articles III, IV et V du traité d’amitié reposant sur le traitement
réservé à l’État iranien ou à la banque Markazi » (Certains actifs iraniens
(République islamique d’Iran c. États‑Unis d’Amérique), exceptions préliminaires,
arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2019 (I), p. 35, par. 81). Après avoir constaté que
les demandes de l’Iran fondées sur les articles III, IV et V du traité d’amitié
ne concernaient pas le traitement appliqué à l’État iranien lui-même, et que
par suite l’exception en cause ne concernait que la banque Markazi (ibid.,
p. 36, par. 84), la Cour a estimé que la question décisive était de déterminer
si la banque Markazi était une « société » au sens du traité d’amitié. En effet,
les droits et les protections garantis par les articles III, IV et V du traité ont
pour bénéficiaires les « ressortissants » (terme qui désigne, dans le traité, des
personnes physiques) et les « sociétés ».
35. Les Parties s’étant opposées sur la question de savoir si la banque
Markazi pouvait être qualifiée de « société », la Cour a estimé, sur la base des
arguments échangés devant elle et des éléments d’information qui lui avaient
été présentés, que
« elle ne dispos[ait] pas de tous les éléments nécessaires pour déterminer
si la banque Markazi exerçait, à l’époque pertinente, des activités de la
nature de celles qui permettent de caractériser une “société” au sens du
traité d’amitié, lesquelles auraient été susceptibles d’être affectées par les
mesures dont l’Iran tire grief au regard des articles III, IV et V du traité »
(Certains actifs iraniens (République islamique d’Iran c. États‑Unis
d’Amérique), exceptions préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2019 (I),
p. 40, par. 97).
Elle a ajouté que, « [c]es éléments étant en grande partie de nature factuelle
et étant par ailleurs étroitement liés au fond de l’affaire, la Cour estime qu’il
ne pourra être statué sur la troisième exception qu’après que les Parties
auront présenté leurs arguments dans la phase suivante de la procédure »
(ibid.). Cela l’a conduite, dans le dispositif de son arrêt, à déclarer que l’exception
en cause « n’a[vait] pas dans les circonstances de l’espèce un caractère
exclusivement préliminaire » (ibid., p. 45, par. 126, point 3).
36. Dans leurs conclusions finales présentées au terme des audiences sur
le fond, les États‑Unis ont repris la même exception d’incompétence, à ceci
près qu’elle ne mentionne plus, à la différence de leur exception préliminaire,
que la seule banque Markazi (point 2 des conclusions finales ; voir le paragraphe
20 ci-dessus).
37. En vue de démontrer que la banque Markazi exerçait, à l’époque pertinente,
des activités de nature à caractériser une « société » au sens du traité
75 certain iranian assets (judgment)
within the meaning of the Treaty of Amity, Iran contends that not only was
Bank Markazi able, under its statutes, to perform commercial activities, but
it was also actually engaged in such activities.
As regards the first point, Iran refers to its Monetary and Banking Act
of 1972. Iran argues that this Act not only confers on Bank Markazi the typical
functions of a central bank, which the Applicant acknowledges are
sovereign functions; according to Iran, it also authorizes the bank to perform
other financial and banking activities that are typically commercial in
nature, identical to those performed by any other private company doing
business in a free and competitive market.
As regards the second point, Iran cites certain investment activities and
the management of securities belonging to Bank Markazi that were held on
its behalf in a custody account with Citibank in New York. These assets,
which are said to be worth around US$1.8 billion, were composed, according
to Iran, of investments made in the form of purchases, between 2002 and
2007, of 22 security entitlements in dematerialized bonds issued on the
United States financial market by governments, public enterprises and
international institutions such as the World Bank. Iran points out that these
investments generated profits, on which Bank Markazi was required to pay
tax under Article 25 (a) (1) of Iran’s Monetary and Banking Act, and on
account of which Bank Markazi did in fact pay a significant amount of tax
during the period in question.
38. According to Iran, Bank Markazi’s purchase of the bonds in question
and the management of its investment portfolio are by nature commercial
activities that allow the bank to be characterized as a “company” within the
meaning of the Treaty. Iran contends that, in its Judgment on preliminary
objections, the Court found that, in order to determine whether an activity
was commercial, it was necessary to focus on the nature of the said activity,
and that the existence of a link between sovereign functions and a given
activity was not a sufficient basis for depriving that activity of its commercial
nature. In other words, according to Iran, “it is necessary to focus on the
activity as such, and not on the function with which that activity has a link
of some kind”. The Applicant adds that both the United States political
authorities and courts deemed Bank Markazi’s investment activities to be
commercial in nature, which is why they considered that the bank was not
entitled to claim immunity against the measures aimed at freezing and
attaching the assets concerned. Furthermore, the Applicant contends that
there is extensive arbitral jurisprudence confirming that, in characterizing
an activity as commercial, the focus should be on the nature of the activity
as such, and not on the underlying purpose.
39. For the United States, the nature of the activities mentioned by Iran is
not such that they would permit Bank Markazi to be characterized as a
“company” within the meaning of the Treaty. According to the Respondent,
certains actifs iraniens (arrêt) 75
d’amitié, l’Iran soutient que non seulement la banque Markazi pouvait,
d’après ses statuts, se livrer à des activités commerciales, mais aussi qu’elle
exerçait effectivement de telles activités.
Sur le premier point, l’Iran se réfère à sa loi monétaire et bancaire de
1972. Celle-ci ne se borne pas à confier à la banque Markazi les fonctions
classiques
d’une banque centrale, dont la demanderesse admet qu’il s’agit de
fonctions de souveraineté, mais elle l’habilite aussi, selon l’Iran, à mener
d’autres activités financières et bancaires de nature typiquement commerciale,
les mêmes que celles qu’effectue toute autre société privée intervenant
sur un marché libre et concurrentiel.
Sur le second point, l’Iran fait état de certaines activités d’investissement
et de gestion de titres appartenant à la banque Markazi, détenus en son nom
sur un compte-titre auprès de Citibank à New York. Les actifs en question,
qui seraient d’une valeur d’environ 1,8 milliard de dollars des États‑Unis,
auraient été constitués, selon l’Iran, par des placements réalisés sous forme
d’achats, entre 2002 et 2007, de 22 titres de créance consistant en des
droits sur des obligations dématérialisées offertes sur le marché financier
américain par des États, des entreprises publiques, ou des institutions
internationales telles que la Banque mondiale. L’Iran souligne que ces investissements
ont généré des profits, au titre desquels la banque Markazi est
assujettie à l’impôt en vertu de l’article 25 a) 1) de la loi monétaire et bancaire
iranienne, et à raison desquels elle a effectivement payé des impôts
d’un montant important au cours de la période considérée.
38. Selon l’Iran, l’achat par la banque Markazi des obligations en cause et
la gestion de son portefeuille d’investissement constituent par nature des
activités commerciales qui permettent de qualifier la banque de « société »
au sens du traité. L’Iran soutient que, dans son arrêt sur les exceptions
préliminaires, la Cour a estimé que, pour déterminer si une activité était
commerciale, il convenait de s’attacher à la nature de ladite activité, et que
l’existence d’un lien entre des fonctions souveraines et une activité donnée
n’était pas un critère suffisant pour priver ladite activité de sa nature commerciale.
En d’autres termes, selon l’Iran, « il convient de s’attacher à
l’activité en tant que telle, et non à la fonction avec laquelle cette activité
entretient un quelconque lien ». Le demandeur ajoute que tant les autorités
politiques que les tribunaux américains ont estimé que les activités d’investissement
de la banque Markazi avaient une nature commerciale, raison pour
laquelle ils ont considéré que la banque n’était pas fondée à invoquer son
immunité à l’encontre des mesures tendant au gel et à la saisie des avoirs en
cause. En outre, selon le demandeur, une abondante jurisprudence arbitrale
confirmerait que, pour qualifier une activité de commerciale, il conviendrait
de s’attacher à la nature de l’activité en tant que telle et non à l’objectif
sous-jacent.
39. Pour les États‑Unis, les activités dont fait état l’Iran ne sont pas d’une
nature telle qu’elles permettraient de qualifier la banque Markazi de
« société » au sens du traité. Selon le défendeur, la banque Markazi a effectué
76 certain iranian assets (judgment)
Bank Markazi engaged in transactions falling within the traditional
framework of the sovereign activities carried out by a central bank, and
not in transactions of a commercial nature. Bank Markazi’s purchase of
22 security entitlements in dematerialized bonds issued by a number of
foreign governments and international institutions was part of the management
of Iran’s currency reserves, a sovereign function with no equivalent in
the commercial sphere.
The Respondent emphasizes that, in United States court proceedings, in
particular the Peterson case, Bank Markazi consistently presented the
activities
in question as falling within the exercise of its sovereign function
as a central bank, and not as commercial operations. It relies, for example,
on the bank’s statement that
“Bank Markazi is the Central Bank of Iran. Like other central banks, it
holds foreign currency reserves to carry out monetary policies such as
maintaining price stability. Like other central banks, it often maintains
the reserves in bonds issued by foreign sovereigns or ‘supranationals’
like the European Investment Bank”,
and the assertion that,
“[p]lainly, central banking activities such as investing currency reserves
are not remotely comparable to the ‘commercial, industrial, shipping or
other business activities’ that Article XI, Section 4[, of the Treaty] is
concerned with. Rather, central banking activities serve an important
governmental purpose.”
The United States argues that the Court should rely on the assertions made
by Bank Markazi itself.
* *
40. Although in its 2019 Judgment the Court refrained from ruling on the
objection to jurisdiction now under consideration, on the ground that it
did not possess, in the circumstances of the case, an exclusively preliminary
character (see paragraph 35 above), that Judgment nevertheless contains, in
its reasoning, a number of significant indications regarding the concept of
“company” as it is used in Articles III, IV and V of the Treaty of Amity.
41. The Court began by recalling that, under the Treaty, first, an entity may
only be characterized as a “company” if it has its own legal personality
conferred on it by the law of the State in which it was created, and, second,
an entity which is wholly or partly owned by a State may constitute a “company”
within the meaning of the Treaty, since the definition of “company”
provided by Article III, paragraph 1, makes no distinction between private
and public enterprises (Certain Iranian Assets (Islamic Republic of Iran v.
certains actifs iraniens (arrêt) 76
des transactions s’inscrivant dans le cadre classique des activités souveraines
conduites par une banque centrale, et non des transactions de nature
commerciale. En effet, l’achat par la banque Markazi de 22 titres de créance
consistant en des droits sur des obligations dématérialisées émises par
certains
gouvernements étrangers et institutions internationales était un
élément
de la gestion des réserves monétaires de l’Iran, une fonction souveraine
qui n’a pas d’équivalent commercial.
Le défendeur souligne que, dans les procédures judiciaires américaines,
notamment dans l’affaire Peterson, la banque Markazi a toujours présenté
les activités en cause comme une composante de l’exercice de sa fonction
souveraine de banque centrale, et non comme de nature commerciale. Il se
prévaut, par exemple, de la déclaration de la banque selon laquelle
« [l]a banque Markazi … est la banque centrale d’Iran. Comme d’autres
banques centrales, elle détient des réserves de change destinées à lui
permettre de mettre en oeuvre des politiques monétaires telles que le
maintien de la stabilité des prix. Comme d’autres banques centrales, elle
dispose souvent de réserves en obligations émises par des entités souveraines
étrangères ou “supranationales” comme la Banque européenne
d’investissement »,
ou encore celle selon laquelle,
« [d]e toute évidence, les activités des banques centrales telles que le
placement des réserves de change ne sont absolument pas comparables
aux “activité[s] commerciale[s] ou industrielle[s] de quelque nature que
ce soit, y compris le transport des marchandises” sur lesquelles porte le
paragraphe 4 de l’article XI [du traité] ; elles servent un objectif gouvernemental
important ».
Selon les États‑Unis, la Cour devrait s’en tenir aux affirmations de la
banque Markazi elle-même.
* *
40. Bien que dans son arrêt de 2019 la Cour se soit abstenue de statuer sur
l’exception d’incompétence présentement examinée, au motif qu’elle ne possédait
pas, dans les circonstances de l’espèce, un caractère exclusivement
préliminaire (voir le paragraphe 35 ci-dessus), cet arrêt comporte cependant,
dans sa motivation, plusieurs indications importantes concernant la notion de
« société » telle qu’elle est employée aux articles III, IV et V du traité d’amitié.
41. La Cour a d’abord rappelé que, selon le traité, d’une part, une entité ne
pouvait être qualifiée de « société » que si elle possédait une personnalité
juridique
propre qui lui était conférée par le droit de l’État où elle a été créée
et, d’autre part, une entité étant en tout ou en partie la propriété d’un État pouvait
constituer une « société » au sens du traité, puisque le paragraphe 1 de
l’article III ne faisait aucune différence, quant à la définition de la « société »,
entre entreprises privées et entreprises publiques (Certains actifs iraniens
77 certain iranian assets (judgment)
United States of America), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports
2019 (I), p. 37, para. 87). The Court concluded from this that Bank Markazi,
which had its own legal personality conferred on it by Iranian law, and
which the United States could not dispute, was not to be excluded from the
category of “companies” solely because it was wholly owned by the Iranian
State, which exercised a power of direction and close control over the bank’s
activities (ibid., p. 38, para. 88).
42. The Court then rejected the interpretation put forward at the time by
the Applicant, according to which the nature of the activities carried out by a
particular entity was immaterial for the purpose of characterizing that entity
as a “company”, and that it was therefore of no relevance whether the entity
in question carried out functions of a sovereign nature, i.e. acts of sovereignty
or public authority, or whether it engaged in activities of a commercial
or industrial nature, or indeed a combination of both types of activity.
43. This interpretation, which the Court observed would lead to the
conclusion that having a separate legal personality would be both a necessary
and a sufficient condition for a given entity to be characterized as a
“company” within the meaning of the Treaty, was rejected. In the view of
the Court, such an interpretation would fail to take account of the context of
the definition provided by Article III, paragraph 1, and the object and purpose
of the Treaty of Amity. As the Court stated, the Treaty is aimed at
“guaranteeing rights and affording protections to natural and legal persons
engaging in activities of a commercial nature, even if this latter term is to be
understood in a broad sense”. The Court thus concluded that
“an entity carrying out exclusively sovereign activities, linked to the
sovereign functions of the State, cannot be characterized as a ‘company’
within the meaning of the Treaty and, consequently, may not claim the
benefit of the rights and protections provided for in Articles III, IV
and V” (Certain Iranian Assets (Islamic Republic of Iran v. United
States of America), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports
2019 (I), p. 38, para. 91).
44. The Court went on to state that, “[h]owever, there is nothing to preclude,
a priori, a single entity from engaging both in activities of a
commercial nature (or, more broadly, business activities) and in sovereign
activities”. It considered that,
“[i]n such a case, since it is the nature of the activity actually carried out
which determines the characterization of the entity engaged in it, the
legal person in question should be regarded as a ‘company’ within the
meaning of the Treaty to the extent that it is engaged in activities of a
commercial nature, even if they do not constitute its principal activities”
(Certain Iranian Assets (Islamic Republic of Iran v. United States of
America), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2019 (I),
pp. 38-39, para. 92).
certains actifs iraniens (arrêt) 77
(République islamique d’Iran c. États‑Unis d’Amérique), exceptions préliminaires,
arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2019 (I), p. 37, par. 87). Elle en a conclu que la
banque Markazi, qui possédait une personnalité juridique propre que lui
conférait le droit iranien et que les États‑Unis ne pouvaient lui contester
, ne devait pas être exclue de la catégorie des « sociétés » pour la seule raison
qu’elle était intégralement la propriété de l’État iranien, lequel exerçait
un pouvoir de direction et un contrôle étroit sur les activités de la banque
(ibid., p. 38, par. 88).
42. La Cour a ensuite écarté l’interprétation que soutenait alors le demandeur,
selon laquelle la nature des activités exercées par une entité déterminée
était indifférente en vue de la qualification de ladite entité comme une
« société », et qu’il était, par suite, sans pertinence à cette fin que l’entité considérée
exerce des fonctions de caractère régalien, c’est-à-dire de souveraineté
ou de puissance publique, ou qu’elle exerce des activités de nature commerciale
ou industrielle, ou encore une combinaison des deux types d’activités.
43. Cette interprétation, dont la Cour a relevé qu’elle aboutirait à la conclusion
que la possession d’une personnalité juridique propre serait une
condition à la fois nécessaire et suffisante pour qualifier une entité donnée
de « société » au sens du traité, a été rejetée. Selon la Cour, une telle interprétation
manquerait de prendre en compte le contexte de la définition donnée
au paragraphe 1 de l’article III, ainsi que l’objet et le but du traité d’amitié.
Le traité vise, a indiqué la Cour, « à garantir des droits et à accorder des protections
aux personnes physiques et morales qui exercent des activités de
nature commerciale, même si ce dernier terme doit être compris dans un
sens large ». La Cour en a conclu que
« une entité qui exercerait exclusivement des activités de souveraineté,
liées aux fonctions régaliennes de l’État, ne saurait se voir attribuer la
qualification de “société” au sens du traité, et ne saurait par suite
prétendre au bénéfice des droits et protections prévus aux articles III,
IV et V » (Certains actifs iraniens (République islamique d’Iran
c. États‑Unis d’Amérique), exceptions préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil
2019 (I), p. 38, par. 91).
44. La Cour a poursuivi en affirmant que « [c]ependant rien ne permet[tait]
d’exclure a priori qu’une même entité exerce à la fois des activités de nature
commerciale (ou, plus largement, des activités d’affaires) et des activités
souveraines ». Elle a estimé que,
« [e]n pareil cas, puisque c’est la nature de l’activité effectivement exercée
qui détermine la qualification de l’entité qui l’exerce, la personne
morale dont il s’agit devrait être regardée comme une “société” au sens
du traité dans la mesure où elle exerce des activités de nature commerciale,
même si ce n’est pas à titre principal » (Certains actifs iraniens
(République islamique d’Iran c. États‑Unis d’Amérique), exceptions
préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2019 (I), p. 38-39, par. 92).
78 certain iranian assets (judgment)
45. The Court concluded from all the foregoing that the question was
whether Bank Markazi, “alongside the sovereign functions which [Iran]
concede[d], . . . engage[d] in activities of a commercial nature”. The sovereign
functions in question being those of Bank Markazi in its role as central
bank, the Court asked itself whether Iran had demonstrated the existence
of other activities that would permit the bank to be characterized as a “company”
within the meaning of the Treaty (Certain Iranian Assets (Islamic
Republic of Iran v. United States of America), Preliminary Objections,
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2019 (I), p. 39, para. 94). In this regard, it noted
that, according to Iran, under Iranian law, Bank Markazi could carry out a
number of activities, including commercial operations, but that “the Applicant
ha[d] made little attempt to demonstrate” the existence of such activities
during the relevant period, which could be explained by the fact that Iran’s
principal argument at the time was that the nature of the activities performed
was of no relevance when it came to characterizing the entity as a “company”
within the meaning of the Treaty (ibid.).
46. In light of all the foregoing reasons, the Court considered that it did not
have the elements necessary to determine whether Bank Markazi was
carrying out, at the relevant time, activities of a nature which permit the
characterization
of an entity as a “company”. Since those elements were
largely
of a factual nature and linked to the merits of the case, the Court
concluded that it could rule on the objection to jurisdiction at issue “only
after the Parties
ha[d] presented their arguments in the following stage of
the proceedings” (Certain Iranian Assets (Islamic Republic of Iran v. United
States of America), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports
2019 (I), p. 40, para. 97).
47. The Court, following the line of reasoning it adopted in its 2019 Judgment,
is thus now called upon to determine whether the evidence presented
to it by Iran throughout the entire proceedings, and at the merits stage in
particular,
shows that Bank Markazi was carrying out, at the relevant time,
activities which could be categorized as commercial and which would
therefore
permit the bank to be characterized as a “company” within the
meaning of the Treaty, regardless of whether or not those activities, should
they be established, constituted its principal activities.
48. Before taking its analysis any further, the Court emphasizes that, to
answer the question above, it is not required to rule on the international law
on immunities. First, it recalls that, in its 2019 Judgment, in upholding the
second preliminary objection to jurisdiction raised by the United States, it
declared that, “in so far as Iran’s claims concern the alleged violation of
rules of international law on sovereign immunities”, in particular to the detriment
of Bank Markazi, “the Court does not have jurisdiction to consider
them” (Certain Iranian Assets (Islamic Republic of Iran v. United States of
America),
Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2019 (I),
pp. 34-35, para. 80). Further, it notes that, in order to rule on the question
whether the activities of Bank Markazi presented by Iran as being of a
certains actifs iraniens (arrêt) 78
45. La Cour a conclu de tout ce qui précède que la question était de
savoir si la banque Markazi exerçait, « à côté de fonctions souveraines qu[e
l’Iran] admet[tait], des activités de nature commerciale ». Les fonctions souveraines
en question étant celles de la banque Markazi en sa qualité de
banque centrale, la Cour s’est demandé si l’Iran avait démontré l’existence
d’autres activités, permettant de qualifier la banque de « société» au sens du
traité (Certains actifs iraniens (République islamique d’Iran c. États‑Unis
d’Amérique), exceptions préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2019 (I), p. 39,
par. 94). À cet égard, elle a relevé que, selon l’Iran, la loi iranienne permettait
à la banque Markazi d’exercer certaines activités qui pouvaient inclure des
opérations commerciales, mais que « le demandeur ne s’[étai]t guère employé
à démontrer » l’existence de telles activités à l’époque pertinente, ce qui
pouvait s’expliquer par le fait qu’il soutenait alors à titre principal que la
nature des activités exercées était sans pertinence quant à la qualification de
« société » au sens du traité (ibid.).
46. C’est au vu de l’ensemble des motifs précédents que la Cour a estimé
qu’elle ne disposait pas des éléments nécessaires pour déterminer si la
banque Markazi exerçait, à l’époque pertinente, des activités de la nature de
celles qui permettent de caractériser une entité comme une « société ». Ces
éléments étant en grande partie de nature factuelle et liés au fond, la Cour a
conclu qu’elle ne pourrait statuer sur l’exception d’incompétence en cause
« qu’après que les Parties auront présenté leurs arguments dans la phase suivante
de la procédure » (Certains actifs iraniens (République islamique d’Iran
c. États‑Unis d’Amérique), exceptions préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil
2019 (I), p. 40, par. 97).
47. La Cour, se plaçant dans la continuité des motifs qu’elle a retenus dans
son arrêt de 2019, est donc appelée à présent à décider si les éléments qui lui
ont été présentés par l’Iran dans l’ensemble de la procédure, et notamment
dans la phase des débats sur le fond, font apparaître que la banque Markazi
exerçait, à l’époque pertinente, des activités pouvant être qualifiées de commerciales
et susceptibles, par suite, de la caractériser comme une « société »
au sens du traité, sans qu’il importe que de telles activités, à les supposer
établies, fussent exercées à titre principal ou non.
48. Avant d’aller plus loin dans son analyse, la Cour souligne qu’elle n’est
pas appelée, pour répondre à la question précédente, à se prononcer sur le
droit international des immunités. D’abord, elle rappelle que dans son arrêt de
2019, en accueillant la deuxième exception préliminaire d’incompétence soulevée
par les États‑Unis, elle a déclaré qu’elle « n’a[vait] pas compétence pour
examiner les demandes de l’Iran en ce qu’elles concernent la prétendue violation
des règles de droit international en matière d’immunités souveraines »,
notamment au détriment de la banque Markazi (Certains actifs iraniens
(République islamique d’Iran c. États‑Unis d’Amérique), exceptions préliminaires,
arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2019 (I), p. 34-35, par. 80). Ensuite, elle relève
que, pour se prononcer sur la question de savoir si les activités de la banque
79 certain iranian assets (judgment)
commercial
character permit the bank to be characterized as a “company”
within the meaning of the Treaty, it is not required to ascertain whether the
entity in question could claim, with regard to those activities, immunity
from jurisdiction or enforcement under customary international law. These
are two separate questions. The rules on sovereign immunities and those laid
down by the Treaty of Amity concerning the treatment of “companies” are
two distinct sets of rules. In particular, the questions whether, under customary
international law, a State enjoys immunity from jurisdiction in proceedings
relating to a commercial transaction and, if so, which criteria should
be applied to determine whether a transaction is commercial need not be
addressed by the Court for the purpose of examining the objection to
jurisdiction at issue.
49. The Court will thus confine itself, at present, to ascertaining whether
Iran has established that Bank Markazi was carrying out, at the relevant
time, activities of a nature such that the bank should be characterized as a
“company” for the purposes of the Treaty of Amity.
The Court notes in this regard that the only activities on which Iran relies
to found the characterization of Bank Markazi as a “company” consist in the
purchase, between 2002 and 2007, of 22 security entitlements in dematerialized
bonds issued on the United States financial market and in the
management of proceeds deriving from those entitlements (see paragraph 37
above).
50. In the opinion of the Court, these operations are not sufficient to establish
that Bank Markazi was engaged, at the relevant time, in activities of a
commercial character. Indeed, the operations in question were carried out
within the framework and for the purposes of Bank Markazi’s principal
activity, from which they are inseparable. They are merely a way of exercising
its sovereign function as a central bank, and not commercial activities
performed by Bank Markazi “alongside [its] sovereign functions”, to use
the words of the 2019 Judgment (see paragraph 45 above).
51. Contrary to Iran’s contentions (see paragraph 38 above), it does not follow
from the 2019 Judgment that, in order to determine whether an activity
is commercial, it is necessary only “to focus on the activity as such, and not
on the function with which that activity has a link of some kind”. In its 2019
Judgment, the Court merely indicated that the decisive question was whether
Bank Markazi was carrying out, alongside its sovereign activities, other
activities, of a commercial nature. It did not state that, in determining
whether particular activities were of a commercial nature, there was no need
to take into account any link that they may have with a sovereign function.
On the contrary, the Court considers this latter criterion to be relevant.
Indeed, in establishing whether a given entity may be characterized as a
“company”, consideration cannot be limited to a transaction — or series of
transactions — “as such”, carried out by that entity. That transaction — or
certains actifs iraniens (arrêt) 79
Markazi présentées par l’Iran comme ayant un caractère commercial permettent
de qualifier la banque de « société » au sens du traité, elle n’est pas
appelée à rechercher si l’entité en cause pouvait revendiquer, au titre desdites
activités, une immunité de juridiction ou d’exécution en vertu du droit international
coutumier. Ces deux questions sont séparées. Les règles relatives
aux immunités souveraines et celles que définit le traité d’amitié en ce qui
concerne le traitement applicable aux « sociétés » constituent deux corps de
règles distincts. En particulier, les questions de savoir si un État bénéficie,
selon le droit international coutumier, d’une immunité de juridiction dans
une procédure relative à une transaction commerciale et, dans l’affirmative,
quels critères il y aurait lieu d’appliquer pour déterminer si l’on est en présence
d’une telle transaction ne se trouvent pas devant la Cour pour les
besoins de l’examen de la présente exception d’incompétence.
49. La Cour va donc se borner à rechercher, à présent, si l’Iran a établi que
la banque Markazi exerçait à l’époque pertinente des activités d’une nature
telle qu’elle devait être qualifiée de « société » aux fins du traité d’amitié.
Elle relève, à cet égard, que les seules activités dont se prévaut l’Iran pour
fonder la qualification de « société » qui serait applicable, selon le demandeur,
à la banque Markazi consistent dans l’achat, entre 2002 et 2007, de
22 titres de créance consistant en des droits sur des obligations dématérialisées
offertes sur le marché financier américain et dans la gestion des
revenus découlant desdits titres (voir le paragraphe 37 ci-dessus).
50. De l’avis de la Cour, de telles opérations ne suffisent pas à établir que
la banque Markazi exerçait, à l’époque pertinente, des activités de caractère
commercial. En effet, les opérations en cause ont été réalisées dans le cadre
et pour les besoins de l’activité principale de la banque Markazi, dont elles
ne sont pas séparables. Elles ne constituent qu’une modalité d’exercice de sa
fonction souveraine en tant que banque centrale, et non des activités commerciales
que la banque Markazi aurait exercées « à côté de [ses] fonctions
souveraines », pour reprendre les termes de l’arrêt de 2019 (voir le paragraphe
45 ci-dessus).
51. Contrairement à ce que l’Iran a soutenu (voir le paragraphe 38 cidessus),
il ne résulte pas de l’arrêt de 2019 que pour déterminer si une activité
est commerciale il conviendrait seulement de « s’attacher à l’activité en
tant que telle, et non à la fonction avec laquelle cette activité entretient un
quelconque lien ». Dans l’arrêt de 2019, la Cour s’est bornée à indiquer que
ce qui était décisif était de savoir si la banque Markazi exerçait, à côté de ses
activités de nature souveraine, d’autres activités, de nature commerciale.
Elle n’a pas affirmé que pour déterminer si des activités données présentaient
un caractère commercial il ne fallait pas tenir compte de leur lien
éventuel avec une fonction souveraine. La Cour considère, au contraire, ce
dernier critère comme pertinent. En effet, afin de déterminer si une entité
donnée peut être qualifiée de « société », on ne saurait se borner à considérer
une transaction ou une série de transactions effectuée par elle, « en
80 certain iranian assets (judgment)
series of transactions — must be placed in its context, taking particular
account of any links that it may have with the exercise of a sovereign
function.
52. To reach the conclusion set out in paragraph 50 above, i.e. that the
transactions
performed by Bank Markazi are part of the usual activity of a
central bank and inseparable from its sovereign function, the Court does not
consider the statements made in United States court proceedings by counsel
for Bank Markazi and relied on by the United States (see paragraph 39
above) to be decisive.
Such statements are not opposable to Iran, which, moreover, did not make
them, and they can be explained by the fact that the bank was seeking, in that
context, to obtain the immunity to which it believed it was entitled. Iran
rightly notes that both the United States political authorities and courts
rejected
Bank Markazi’s claims at the time and declared instead that a number
of its activities were of a commercial nature. As the Court recalled
earlier, the question of immunity is not before it today.
The Court nevertheless considers that the assertions made by Bank
Markazi in the judicial proceedings in the Peterson case, which are cited
above, accurately reflect the reality of the bank’s activities.
53. The Parties cited before the Court various arbitral decisions in support
of their opposing arguments regarding the commercial nature of Bank
Markazi’s activities. The Court notes that none of the decisions cited is
wholly relevant to the present proceedings. Iran relies on an arbitral decision
rendered in the Československá Obchodní Banka, A.S. v. The Slovak
Republic
c ase ( Decision o f t he T ribunal o n O bjections t o J urisdiction,
24 May 1999, ICSID Case No. ARB/97/4). In that case, however, the tribunal
had to respond to the question whether a commercial bank should be
considered as a national of the State by which it is owned or merely as an
agency of that State, for the purposes of the applicable convention. The arbitral
award in Sergei Paushok, CJSC Golden East Company and CJSC
Vostokneftegaz Company v. The Government of Mongolia ( Award o n
Jurisdiction
and Liability, 28 April 2011), relied on by the United States,
appears to be more similar to the present case. In that case, the tribunal had
to determine whether certain contractual operations of the central bank of
Mongolia were of a commercial nature or had been carried out de jure
imperii;
it found the latter to be the case, based on the purpose of the
transactions
at issue. However, what the tribunal had to decide was whether
the actions of the central bank were attributable to the State of Mongolia
itself for the purpose of invoking the international responsibility of the
State, which is a different question from the one now before the Court. In
sum, the decisions relied on are of little relevance.
certains actifs iraniens (arrêt) 80
tant que telle » ; il est nécessaire de replacer cette transaction ou série de
transactions dans son contexte, en tenant compte notamment de ses liens
éventuels avec l’exercice d’une fonction souveraine.
52. Pour parvenir à la conclusion présentée au paragraphe 50 ci-dessus, à
savoir que les transactions réalisées par la banque Markazi s’inscrivent dans
le cadre de l’activité habituelle d’une banque centrale et ne sont pas dissociables
de sa fonction souveraine, la Cour n’attache pas une importance
décisive aux déclarations faites dans les procédures judiciaires américaines
par les conseils de la banque Markazi et dont les États‑Unis se sont prévalus
(voir le paragraphe 39 ci-dessus).
De telles déclarations ne sont pas opposables à l’Iran, qui n’en est d’ailleurs
pas l’auteur, et elles peuvent s’expliquer par le fait que la banque
cherchait, dans ce contexte, à obtenir l’immunité à laquelle elle estimait
avoir droit. L’Iran relève, à juste titre, que tant les autorités politiques que les
tribunaux des États‑Unis ont rejeté à l’époque les prétentions de la banque
Markazi et ont affirmé, à l’inverse, la nature commerciale de certaines de ses
activités. Comme la Cour l’a rappelé plus haut, la question de l’immunité
n’est pas aujourd’hui devant elle.
La Cour considère cependant que les déclarations faites par la banque
Markazi dans le cadre de la procédure judiciaire dans l’affaire Peterson,
citées plus haut, reflètent correctement la réalité des activités de la banque.
53. Les Parties se sont prévalues devant la Cour de diverses décisions
arbitrales
pour appuyer leurs conclusions opposées quant à la nature commerciale
des activités de la banque Markazi. La Cour relève qu’aucune des
décisions citées n’est parfaitement pertinente pour la présente affaire. L’Iran
invoque une décision arbitrale rendue dans l’affaire Československá
Obchodní
Banka, A.S. v. The Slovak Republic (décision du tribunal sur les
exceptions à la compétence, 24 mai 1999, affaire CIRDI no ARB/97/4). Dans
cette affaire, toutefois, le tribunal devait répondre à la question de savoir si
une banque commerciale devait être considérée comme un national de l’État
dont elle était la propriété ou comme une simple agence de cet État, aux fins
de la convention applicable. Plus proche de la présente affaire paraît être la
sentence arbitrale rendue dans l’affaire Sergei Paushok, CJSC Golden
East Company and CJSC Vostokneftegaz Company v. The Government of
Mongolia,
invoquée par les États‑Unis (sentence sur la compétence et la
responsabilité,
28 avril 2011). Dans cette affaire, le tribunal était appelé à
déterminer si certaines opérations contractuelles de la banque centrale de
Mongolie présentaient un caractère commercial ou avaient été réalisées de
jure imperii ; il a répondu dans ce dernier sens, en se fondant sur l’objectif
poursuivi par les opérations en cause. Mais il s’agissait pour le tribunal de
décider si les actions de la banque centrale étaient attribuables à l’État de
Mongolie lui-même aux fins de l’invocation de la responsabilité internationale
de l’État, ce qui est une autre question que celle qui est soumise présentement
à la Cour. Au total, les décisions citées ne sont guère pertinentes.
81 certain iranian assets (judgment)
54. For the reasons set out above, the Court concludes that Bank Markazi
cannot be characterized as a “company” within the meaning of the Treaty of
Amity. Consequently, the objection to jurisdiction raised by the United
States with regard to Iran’s claims relating to alleged violations of Articles III,
IV, and V of the Treaty of Amity predicated on treatment accorded to Bank
Markazi must be upheld. The Court has no jurisdiction to consider those
claims.
B. Objection to Admissibility Based on the Failure to Exhaust
Local Remedies
55. In its final submissions, the United States asks the Court to “[d]ismiss
as outside [its] jurisdiction all claims brought under Articles III, IV, and V of
the Treaty of Amity that are predicated on treatment accorded to companies
that have failed to exhaust local remedies”.
56. Although this claim is presented by the Respondent as an objection to
jurisdiction, it is in fact an objection to admissibility: the Court has ruled
that an objection based on the failure to exhaust local remedies, when
proceedings
are instituted on the basis of diplomatic protection, does
not relate to its jurisdiction but to the admissibility of the application
(Interhandel (Switzerland
v. United States of America), Preliminary Objections,
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1959, p. 26).
57. The Court begins by noting that the United States first raised this
objection in its Counter-Memorial, i.e. as part of the proceedings on the
merits and after the Court had delivered its Judgment on preliminary objections
on 13 February 2019. In that Judgment, the Court examined and
dismissed several objections to admissibility raised by the United States
(Certain Iranian Assets (Islamic Republic of Iran v. United States of
America),
Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2019 (I), p. 45,
para. 126, subpara. 4), and found the Application admissible (ibid.,
subpara. 5).
58. The Court notes that Iran does not invoke the 2019 Judgment to
contest the admissibility of the objection concerned, but instead asks the
Court to dismiss the objection as ill-founded on the ground that the rule
requiring local remedies to be exhausted does not apply in this case and
that, in any event, the remedies offered by the legal system of the
United States were ineffective.
Under these circumstances, the Court will examine the United States’
objection to admissibility based on the failure to exhaust local remedies.
59. The United States contends that the rule requiring the nationals of an
applicant State to have first exhausted local remedies is applicable in this
case, because the claims before the Court are advanced by Iran on behalf of
Iranian companies affected by the United States’ measures and not in its
own right. Yet the legal system of the United States affords accessible and
effective means of redress, which were not exhausted by the Iranian com-
certains actifs iraniens (arrêt) 81
54. Pour les motifs qui précèdent, la Cour conclut que la banque Markazi
ne saurait être caractérisée comme une « société » au sens du traité d’amitié.
En conséquence, l’exception d’incompétence soulevée par les États‑Unis
relativement aux demandes de l’Iran se rapportant à des violations alléguées
des articles III, IV et V du traité en raison du traitement réservé à la banque
Markazi doit être accueillie. La Cour n’est pas compétente pour connaître
des demandes en cause.
B. Exception d’irrecevabilité tirée du défaut d’épuisement
des voies de recours internes
55. Dans leurs conclusions finales, les États‑Unis demandent à la Cour « de
rejeter comme échappant à sa compétence toutes les demandes fondées sur
les articles III, IV et V du traité d’amitié qui reposent sur le traitement
accordé aux sociétés n’ayant pas épuisé les voies de recours internes ».
56. Bien que cette demande soit présentée par le défendeur comme une
exception d’incompétence, il s’agit en réalité d’une exception d’irrecevabilité
: la Cour a jugé qu’une exception tirée du défaut d’épuisement des
voies de recours internes, lorsqu’une instance est introduite au titre de la
protection diplomatique, ne concerne pas sa compétence mais la recevabilité
de la requête (Interhandel (Suisse c. États‑Unis d’Amérique), exceptions
préliminaires,
arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1959, p. 26).
57. La Cour relève d’abord que les États‑Unis ont soulevé ladite exception
pour la première fois dans leur contre-mémoire, c’est-à-dire dans le cadre de
la procédure au fond et après que la Cour eut rendu son arrêt sur les exceptions
préliminaires, le 13 février 2019. Dans cet arrêt, la Cour a examiné et
rejeté plusieurs exceptions d’irrecevabilité soulevées par les États‑Unis
(Certains actifs iraniens (République islamique d’Iran c. États‑Unis d’Amérique),
exceptions préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2019 (I), p. 45, par. 126,
point 4) et déclaré la requête recevable (ibid., point 5).
58. La Cour constate que l’Iran n’objecte pas à la recevabilité de l’exception
en cause, en se prévalant de l’arrêt de 2019, mais qu’il lui demande
plutôt de rejeter ladite exception comme mal fondée, au motif que la règle
de l’épuisement des voies de recours internes est inapplicable en l’espèce et
que, de toute façon, les recours offerts par le système judiciaire américain
étaient inefficaces.
Dans ces conditions, elle examinera l’exception d’irrecevabilité tirée par
les États‑Unis du défaut d’épuisement des voies de recours internes.
59. Selon les États‑Unis, la règle qui exige que les nationaux d’un
État demandeur aient préalablement épuisé les voies de recours internes s’applique
en l’espèce, puisque l’Iran présente ses demandes à la Cour au
nom des sociétés iraniennes qui ont été affectées par les mesures américaines,
et non pas en son nom propre. Or, le système judiciaire américain
offre des voies de recours accessibles et efficaces, qui n’ont pas été épuisées
82 certain iranian assets (judgment)
panies in question, except in two cases, the Bennett and Weinstein cases,
which involved enforcement measures taken against Bank Melli. In all
other cases, the failure to exhaust local remedies prevents the Court, in the
view of the United States, from entertaining Iran’s claims.
60. Iran contends that the Court must dismiss the objection for two reasons.
First, it asserts that its claims arise from injuries “to the State itself, which in
part consist[] in, and [are] interdependent with, the injuries to its companies”,
hence the requirement to exhaust local remedies does not apply.
Second, the Applicant argues that “[t]he discriminatory scheme targeting
Iran and its companies prevents U.S. courts from providing effective redress”
in such a way that any proceedings Iran may have instituted — in addition
to those attempted without success — would have been bound to fail from
the outset.
* *
61. The Court recalls that, under customary international law, when a
State brings an international claim on behalf of one or more of its nationals
on the basis of diplomatic protection, local remedies must be exhausted
before the claim may be examined (see most recently Application of the
International Convention for the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism
and of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of
Racial Discrimination (Ukraine v. Russian Federation), Preliminary
Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2019 (II), pp. 605-606, para. 129; see
also Interhandel (Switzerland v. United States of America), Preliminary
Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1959, p. 27; Elettronica Sicula S.p.A.
(ELSI) (United States of America v. Italy), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1989,
p. 42, para. 50; Ahmadou Sadio Diallo (Republic of Guinea v. Democratic
Republic of the Congo), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports
2007 (II), p. 599, para. 42).
The Court has previously stated that the definition of diplomatic protection
given in Article 1 of the Articles on Diplomatic Protection of the International
Law Commission (hereinafter the “ILC”), namely that
“diplomatic protection consists of the invocation by a State, through
diplomatic action or other means of peaceful settlement, of the responsibility
of another State for an injury caused by an internationally wrongful
act of that State to a natural or legal person that is a national of the former
State with a view to the implementation of such responsibility”,
reflects customary international law (Ahmadou Sadio Diallo (Republic of
Guinea v. Democratic Republic of the Congo), Preliminary Objections,
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2007 (II), p. 599, para. 39).
62. The Court notes that the Applicant stated, in its Memorial, that it was
“claim[ing] both in its own right and on behalf of the Iranian companies
certains actifs iraniens (arrêt) 82
par les sociétés iraniennes en cause, sauf dans deux cas, les affaires Bennett
et Weinstein, qui concernaient des mesures d’exécution prises à l’égard de la
banque Melli. Dans tous les autres cas, le défaut d’épuisement des voies de
recours internes empêche la Cour, selon les États‑Unis, d’examiner les
demandes de l’Iran.
60. L’Iran soutient que la Cour doit rejeter l’exception, pour deux raisons.
D’une part, il affirme que ses demandes découlent de préjudices « causés à
l’État lui-même, notamment à travers ceux portés aux sociétés lui appartenant,
les uns et les autres étant interdépendants », d’où il suivrait que
l’exigence de l’épuisement des voies de recours internes est inapplicable.
D’autre part, le demandeur affirme que « [l]e mécanisme discriminatoire à
l’égard de l’Iran et des sociétés lui appartenant empêche les tribunaux américains
d’accorder une réparation efficace », de telle sorte que toute action qui
aurait été introduite en plus de celles qui ont été tentées sans succès
aurait été par avance vouée à l’échec.
* *
61. La Cour rappelle que, en vertu du droit international coutumier,
lorsqu’un État fait valoir une réclamation internationale au nom d’un ou de
plusieurs de ses ressortissants au titre de la protection diplomatique, les
recours internes doivent avoir été épuisés pour que cette réclamation puisse
être examinée (voir en dernier lieu Application de la convention internationale
pour la répression du financement du terrorisme et de la convention
internationale sur l’élimination de toutes les formes de discrimination
raciale (Ukraine c. Fédération de Russie), exceptions préliminaires,
arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2019 (II), p. 605-606, par. 129 ; voir aussi Interhandel
(Suisse c. États‑Unis d’Amérique), exceptions préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J.
Recueil 1959, p. 27 ; Elettronica Sicula S.p.A. (ELSI) (États‑Unis d’Amérique
c. Italie),
arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1989, p. 42, par. 50 ; Ahmadou Sadio Diallo
(République de Guinée c. République démocratique du Congo), exceptions
préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2007 (II), p. 599, par. 42).
La Cour a déjà indiqué que la définition de la protection diplomatique donnée
à l’article premier des Articles de la Commission du droit international
(ci-après la « CDI ») sur la protection diplomatique, à savoir que celle-ci
« consiste en l’invocation par un État, par une action diplomatique ou
d’autres moyens de règlement pacifique, de la responsabilité d’un autre
État pour un préjudice causé par un fait internationalement illicite
dudit État à une personne physique ou morale ayant la nationalité du
premier État en vue de la mise en oeuvre de cette responsabilité »,
reflétait le droit international coutumier (Ahmadou Sadio Diallo (République
de Guinée c. République démocratique du Congo), exceptions
préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2007 (II), p. 599, par. 39).
62. La Cour relève que le demandeur a indiqué, dans son mémoire, qu’il
« soumet[tait] ses prétentions en son nom propre et en celui des sociétés ira83
certain iranian assets (judgment)
impacted by the U.S. measures at issue in this case” and, in its Reply, that
its claims arose from injuries to Iran, “which in part consist[] in, and [are]
interdependent with, the injuries to its companies” (see paragraph 60 above).
63. The Court found, in the case concerning Avena and Other Mexican
Nationals (Mexico v. United States of America), that the obligation to
exhaust local remedies did not apply to a claim by which a State alleged
both that it had suffered a violation of its own rights and that there had been
a violation of the individual rights conferred on its nationals, when there
were “special circumstances of interdependence of the rights of the State
and of individual rights” (Avena and Other Mexican Nationals (Mexico v.
United States of America), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2004 (I), p. 36,
para. 40). In that case, the “interdependence” noted by the Court resulted
from the fact that the rights at issue were an arrested person’s right to
request that the consular authorities of his or her State of nationality be
notified of the arrest and the right to be informed of the possibility to make
such a request, which rights are guaranteed by Article 36, paragraph 1 (b),
of the Vienna Convention on Consular Relations of 24 April 1963.
64. The rights at issue in the above-mentioned Avena Judgment were particular
in that the relationship between individuals and the authorities of
their State of nationality was brought into play, so that the rights of the individual
were inextricably linked to those of the State. As the Court observed,
“violations of the rights of the individual under Article 36 may entail a violation
of the rights of the sending State, and . . . violations of the rights of the
latter may entail a violation of the rights of the individual” (Avena and Other
Mexican Nationals (Mexico v. United States of America), Judgment, I.C.J.
Reports 2004 (I), p. 36, para. 40).
65. There is not the same relationship of interdependence in respect of the
rights that Iran alleges have been violated in this case.
The Court thus sees no reason to refrain from applying the rule of exhaustion
of local remedies by following a similar line of reasoning to that which
it adopted in the Avena case.
66. Under Article 14, paragraph 3, of the ILC Articles on Diplomatic Protection,
local remedies must be exhausted when the claim of a State is
brought “preponderantly” on the basis of an injury to one of its nationals.
This provision implies that, in the event of a mixed claim, which contains
elements of both injury to the State and injury to its nationals, it is the “preponderance”
criterion which may determine whether the local remedies rule
is applicable or not (see the commentary on Article 14, Report of the International
Law Commission on the Work of Its Fifty-Eighth Session, Yearbook
of the International Law Commission, 2006, Vol. II, Part Two, p. 46, para. 11).
certains actifs iraniens (arrêt) 83
niennes qui subissent les effets des mesures américaines en cause » et, dans
sa réplique, que ses demandes étaient présentées à raison des préjudices qui
lui avaient été causés « notamment à travers ceux portés aux sociétés lui
appartenant, les uns et les autres étant interdépendants » (voir le paragraphe
60 ci-dessus).
63. La Cour a estimé, dans l’affaire Avena et autres ressortissants
mexicains (Mexique c. États‑Unis d’Amérique), que l’obligation d’épuiser les
voies de recours internes ne s’appliquait pas à une demande par laquelle un
État faisait valoir à la fois la violation des droits propres dont il soutenait
avoir été victime et la violation des droits individuels conférés à ses ressortissants,
lorsqu’il existait « [des] circonstances toutes particulières
d’interdépendance des droits de l’État et des droits individuels » (Avena et
autres ressortissants mexicains (Mexique c. États‑Unis d’Amérique), arrêt,
C.I.J. Recueil 2004 (I), p. 36, par. 40). Dans cette affaire, l’« interdépendance
» constatée par la Cour résultait de ce que les droits en cause étaient
le droit pour une personne arrêtée de demander que l’autorité consulaire de
l’État dont elle est ressortissante soit avertie de son arrestation et celui d’être
informée de la possibilité de présenter une telle demande, droits garantis par
l’alinéa b) du paragraphe 1 de l’article 36 de la convention de Vienne sur les
relations consulaires du 24 avril 1963.
64. Les droits dont il était question dans l’arrêt Avena précité avaient pour
particularité de mettre en jeu les relations entre des individus et les autorités
de leur État de nationalité, de telle sorte qu’ils concernaient de manière
indissociable les droits des individus et ceux de l’État. Comme l’a observé la
Cour, « toute violation des droits que l’individu tient de l’article 36 risque
d’entraîner une violation des droits de l’État d’envoi et … toute violation des
droits de ce dernier risque de conduire à une violation des droits de l’individu
» (Avena et autres ressortissants mexicains (Mexique c. États‑Unis
d’Amérique), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2004 (I), p. 36, par. 40).
65. La même relation d’interdépendance ne se rencontre pas, en l’espèce,
dans le cas des droits dont l’Iran allègue la violation.
La Cour n’aperçoit donc aucune raison d’écarter l’application de la règle de
l’épuisement des voies de recours internes en suivant un raisonnement similaire
à celui qu’elle a adopté dans l’affaire Avena.
66. Selon l’article 14, paragraphe 3, des Articles de la CDI sur la protection
diplomatique, les recours internes doivent être épuisés lorsque la
réclamation d’un État est faite « principalement » en raison du préjudice
causé à l’un de ses nationaux. Cette disposition implique que, en cas de
réclamation qui mêle des éléments constitutifs de préjudice pour l’État et
des éléments constitutifs de préjudice pour ses nationaux, c’est le critère de
la « prépondérance » qui permet de déterminer si la règle de l’épuisement
des voies de recours internes est applicable ou non (voir le commentaire de
l’article 14, Rapport de la Commission du droit international sur les travaux
de sa cinquante-huitième
session, Annuaire de la Commission du droit international,
2006, vol. II, deuxième partie, p. 46, par. 11).
84 certain iranian assets (judgment)
67. In this case, the Court does not consider that it is required to rule on the
question whether Iran’s Application was submitted preponderantly in
defence of its own rights or to protect those of Iranian companies, assuming
that criterion to be relevant (see on this point Elettronica Sicula S.p.A.
(ELSI) (United States of America v. Italy), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1989,
p. 43, para. 52). Indeed, for the reasons set out below, the Court is persuaded
that the companies in question did not have any effective means of redress,
in the legal system of the United States, that they failed to pursue.
68. Under customary international law, the requirement that local remedies
be exhausted is deemed to be satisfied when there are no available
local remedies providing the injured persons with a reasonable possibility
of obtaining redress (see Article 15, paragraph (a), of the ILC Articles on
Diplomatic
Protection and the numerous examples mentioned in the
commentary,
Yearbook of the International Law Commission, 2006, Vol. II,
Part Two, pp. 47-48, paras. 3 and 4).
69. What characterizes the United States’ measures complained of by
Iran in the present case is that they were established by legislative means,
or by executive acts based on legislation, and that they were given effect by
court decisions applying federal legislative provisions.
As recalled by counsel for Iran, “according to settled United States jurisprudence,
where there is an explicit inconsistency between a treaty and a
statute adopted later than that treaty, the statute is deemed to have abrogated
the treaty in United States law”. The United States did not attempt to contest
the validity of that assertion, which is corroborated by several decisions of
United States courts included in the case file. It appears from those decisions
that, each time an Iranian entity sought to have a federal legislative provision
set aside by a court on the ground that it ran counter to the rights enjoyed
by that entity under the Treaty of Amity, the court, after finding that the
provision
at issue was not contrary to the Treaty, referred to the jurisprudence
whereby courts are, in any event, obliged to apply the federal statute
when it was enacted after the treaty (which is the case for the provisions at
issue in these proceedings).
70. For example, in the Weinstein case, Bank Melli argued before the
District
Court for the Eastern District of New York that TRIA violated
Article III, paragraph 1, of the Treaty of Amity, because it allowed for the
“lifting of the corporate veil”, thereby denying the bank, in its view, its separate
legal personality. The court responded, first, that such was not the case
and, second, that “[i]n any event, to the extent that TRIA § 201 (a) may
conflict with Article III (1) of the Treaty of Amity, the TRIA would ‘trump’
the Treaty of Amity”. On the second point, the court referred to several
Supreme Court precedents establishing that, in the event of a conflict
between a treaty and a federal statute, it is the more recent of the two that
prevails (Weinstein et al. v. Islamic Republic of Iran et al., United States
certains actifs iraniens (arrêt) 84
67. En l’espèce, la Cour n’estime pas devoir trancher la question de savoir
si la requête de l’Iran a été introduite principalement pour la défense de
ses propres droits ou pour la protection de ceux des sociétés iraniennes, à
supposer ce critère pertinent (voir sur ce point Elettronica Sicula S.p.A.
(ELSI) (États‑Unis d’Amérique c. Italie), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1989, p. 43,
par. 52). En effet, pour les raisons qui vont être exposées à présent, la Cour
est convaincue que les sociétés en cause ne disposaient, dans le système
judiciaire
américain, d’aucun recours efficace qu’elles se seraient abstenues
d’exercer.
68. Selon le droit international coutumier, l’exigence de l’épuisement des
voies de recours internes est réputée satisfaite lorsqu’il n’existe pas de
recours internes disponibles offrant aux personnes lésées une possibilité
raisonnable
d’obtenir réparation (voir l’article 15 a) des Articles de la CDI
sur la protection diplomatique et les nombreux exemples cités dans le
commentaire,
Annuaire de la Commission du droit international, 2006,
vol. II, deuxième partie, p. 47-48, par. 3-4).
69. Le caractère particulier des mesures américaines dont l’Iran tire grief
dans la présente affaire est qu’elles ont été décidées par la voie législative
ou par des actes administratifs eux-mêmes fondés sur une base législative, et
qu’elles ont été mises en oeuvre par des décisions de justice faisant application
de dispositions législatives fédérales.
Or, comme l’a rappelé le conseil de l’Iran, « selon une jurisprudence
constante américaine, en cas de contradiction explicite entre un traité et
une loi adoptée postérieurement à ce traité, la loi est réputée abroger le
traité dans l’ordre juridique américain ». Les États‑Unis n’ont pas cherché à
contester
le bien-fondé de cette affirmation, qui est corroborée par plusieurs
décisions de justice américaines versées au dossier. Il résulte de ces décisions
que, chaque fois qu’une entité iranienne a tenté d’obtenir d’un tribunal
qu’il écarte l’application d’une disposition législative fédérale au motif
qu’elle était contraire aux droits garantis par le traité d’amitié, le tribunal,
après avoir affirmé que la disposition en cause n’était pas contraire au traité,
s’est référé à la jurisprudence suivant laquelle les tribunaux sont, en tout état
de cause, tenus d’appliquer la loi fédérale quand elle est postérieure au traité
(ce qui est le cas des dispositions en cause en l’espèce).
70. Par exemple, la banque Melli, dans l’affaire Weinstein, a soutenu devant
le tribunal fédéral du district est de l’État de New York que la TRIA méconnaissait
l’article III, paragraphe 1, du traité d’amitié parce qu’elle permettait
la « levée du voile social », déniant ainsi à la banque, selon elle, sa personnalité
juridique propre. Le tribunal a répondu que, d’une part, tel n’était pas
le cas, et que, d’autre part, « [e]n tout état de cause, dans la mesure où le
paragraphe
a) de l’article 201 de la TRIA peut entrer en conflit avec le
paragraphe
1 de l’article III du traité d’amitié, ladite loi prévaudrait sur le
traité d’amitié ». Sur le second point, le tribunal s’est référé à plusieurs précédents
de la Cour suprême établissant que, en cas de conflit entre un traité et
une loi fédérale, c’est le plus récent des deux qui l’emporte (Weinstein et al.
85 certain iranian assets (judgment)
District
Court, Eastern District of New York, Order of 5 June 2009, Federal
Supplement, Second Series, Vol. 624, p. 272, affirmed by United States
Court of Appeals, Second Circuit, 15 June 2010, Federal Supplement, Third
Series, Vol. 609, p. 43; see also Bennett et al. v. The Islamic Republic of Iran
et al., United States Court of Appeals, Ninth Circuit, 22 February 2016,
Federal Supplement, Third Series, Vol. 817, p. 1131, as amended on 14 June
2016, Federal Supplement, Third Series, Vol. 825, p. 949).
71. The Iranian companies that succeeded in having certain measures set
aside by the courts were only able to do so by demonstrating either that the
contested measures fell outside the scope of the statute on which they were
said to be founded, or that they were contrary to the statute itself (see for
example
Rubin v. Islamic Republic of Iran, United States District Court,
Northern District of Illinois, Memorandum and Order of 27 March 2014,
Federal Supplement, Third Series, Vol. 33, p. 1003).
72. The effectiveness of local remedies must be assessed in light of the
rights claimed by those concerned, in this case the rights guaranteed to
Iranian
companies by the Treaty of Amity. Given the combination of the
legislative character of the contested measures and the primacy accorded to
a more recent federal statute over the treaty in the jurisprudence of the
United States, it appears to the Court that, in the circumstances of the present
case, the companies in question had no reasonable possibility of
successfully asserting their rights in United States court proceedings. The
Court is not, by the above finding, making any judgment upon the judicial
system of the United States, or on the distribution of powers between the
legislative and judicial branches under United States law as regards the
fulfilment
of international obligations within the domestic legal system.
73. For the foregoing reasons, the Court concludes that the objection to
admissibility based on the failure to exhaust local remedies cannot be
upheld.
III. Defences on the Merits Put Forward by the United States
74. As the Court has stated on several occasions, it “retains its freedom to
select the ground upon which it will base its judgment” (for example, Application
of the Convention of 1902 Governing the Guardianship of Infants
(Netherlands v. Sweden), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1958, p. 62). Therefore, in
principle, it retains its freedom to choose the order in which it will deal
with the questions submitted to it by the parties (for example, Oil Platforms
(
Islamic Republic of Iran v. United States of America), Judgment, I.C.J.
Reports 2003, p. 180, para. 37).
certains actifs iraniens (arrêt) 85
v. Islamic Republic of Iran et al., tribunal fédéral du district est de l’État de
New York, ordonnance du 5 juin 2009, Federal Supplement, deuxième série,
vol. 624, p. 272, confirmée par la cour d’appel fédérale du deuxième circuit,
décision du 15 juin 2010, Federal Supplement, troisième série, vol. 609,
p. 43 ; voir aussi Bennett et al. v. The Islamic Republic of Iran et al., cour
d’appel fédérale du neuvième circuit, décision du 22 février 2016, Federal
Supplement, troisième série, vol. 817, p. 1131, telle que modifiée le 14 juin
2016, Federal Supplement, troisième série, vol. 825, p. 949).
71. Les sociétés iraniennes qui sont parvenues à faire écarter par les tribunaux
certaines mesures n’ont pu le faire qu’en démontrant soit que les
mesures contestées se situaient hors du champ d’application de la loi sur
laquelle elles étaient supposées être fondées, soit qu’elles étaient contraires à
la loi elle-même (voir par exemple Rubin v. Islamic Republic of Iran, tribunal
fédéral du district nord de l’Illinois, Memorandum and Order du 27 mars
2014, Federal Supplement, troisième série, vol. 33, p. 1003).
72. L’efficacité des voies de recours internes doit s’apprécier au regard des
droits revendiqués par les personnes concernées, dans le cas d’espèce les
droits garantis aux sociétés iraniennes par le traité d’amitié. Étant donné la
combinaison entre le caractère législatif des mesures contestées et la
primauté
conférée à la loi fédérale plus récente sur le traité par la jurisprudence
américaine, il apparaît à la Cour que les sociétés en question, dans
les circonstances de la présente affaire, n’avaient aucune possibilité raisonnable
de faire valoir leurs droits avec succès dans les procédures judiciaires
américaines. La Cour ne porte, par le constat qui précède, aucun jugement
sur la qualité du système judiciaire américain, ni sur la répartition des
compétences
entre le pouvoir législatif et le pouvoir judiciaire, en droit
américain,
en ce qui concerne l’exécution des obligations internationales
dans l’ordre juridique interne.
73. Pour les motifs qui précèdent, la Cour conclut que l’exception d’irrecevabilité
tirée du défaut d’épuisement des voies de recours internes ne saurait
être accueillie.
III. Moyens de défense au fond invoqués par les États‑Unis
74. Comme la Cour l’a affirmé à plusieurs reprises, elle est « libre dans le
choix des motifs sur lesquels elle fondera son arrêt » (par exemple, Application
de la convention de 1902 pour régler la tutelle des mineurs (Pays-Bas
c. Suède), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1958, p. 62). Par suite, elle est en principe
libre de choisir l’ordre dans lequel elle examinera les questions qui lui sont
soumises par les parties (par exemple, Plates-formes pétrolières (
République
islamique d’Iran c. États‑Unis d’Amérique), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2003,
p. 180, par. 37).
86 certain iranian assets (judgment)
75. In the present case, the Court considers it appropriate to deal first with
the defences on the merits put forward by the United States before, if necessary,
addressing the Applicant’s claims.
A. Defence Based on the “Clean Hands” Doctrine
76. In its preliminary objections, the United States contended that Iran’s
Application was inadmissible because Iran came to the Court with “unclean
hands”. It alleged, in particular, that Iran had “sponsored and supported
international terrorism” and had “taken destabilizing actions in contravention
of nuclear non-proliferation . . . obligations” (Certain Iranian Assets
(Islamic Republic of Iran v. United States of America), Preliminary Objections,
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2019 (I), p. 43, para. 116).
In its Judgment, the Court stated that,
“[w]ithout having to take a position on the ‘clean hands’ doctrine, [it]
consider[ed] that, even if it were shown that the Applicant’s conduct was
not beyond reproach, this would not be sufficient per se to uphold the
objection to admissibility raised by the Respondent on the basis of the
‘clean hands’ doctrine” (ibid., p. 44, para. 122).
It added that
“[s]uch a conclusion [was] however without prejudice to the question
whether the allegations made by the United States, concerning notably
Iran’s alleged sponsoring and support of international terrorism and
its presumed actions in respect of nuclear non-proliferation and arms
trafficking,
could, eventually, provide a defence on the merits” (ibid.,
para. 123).
In the operative part of the 2019 Judgment, all the preliminary objections
to admissibility raised by the United States, including the objection based on
the “clean hands” doctrine, were rejected (ibid., p. 45, para. 126, subpara. 4).
77. The United States repeats its arguments based on Iran’s “unclean
hands” in support of its defence on the merits. In its final submissions, it
requests that the Court “[d]ismiss all claims brought under the Treaty of
Amity on the basis that Iran comes to the Court with unclean hands” (subparagraph
1 of the final submissions).
78. According to the Respondent, Iran has engaged in a concerted and
consistent campaign to advance its own political interests through destabilizing
acts, contrary to international law; terrorism is alleged to be a core
component of that campaign, which has specifically targeted United States
nationals. The Respondent maintains that such is the case of the 1983 Beirut
Marine barracks bombing that caused the deaths of 241 United States service
members. In the view of the United States, by invoking the Treaty of
certains actifs iraniens (arrêt) 86
75. Dans la présente affaire, elle estime approprié d’examiner d’abord les
moyens de défense au fond invoqués par les États‑Unis avant d’examiner,
si nécessaire, les griefs du demandeur.
A. Moyen fondé sur la doctrine des « mains propres »
76. Dans leurs exceptions préliminaires, les États‑Unis soutenaient que
la requête de l’Iran était irrecevable parce que l’Iran ne se présentait pas
devant la Cour avec les « mains propres ». Ils alléguaient en particulier que
l’Iran avait « parrainé et soutenu le terrorisme international » et s’était « livré
à des actions de déstabilisation en violation de ses obligations en matière de
non-prolifération nucléaire » (Certains actifs iraniens (République islamique
d’Iran c. États‑Unis d’Amérique), exceptions préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J.
Recueil 2019 (I), p. 43, par. 116).
Dans son arrêt, la Cour a indiqué que,
« [s]ans avoir à prendre position sur la doctrine des “mains propres”,
[elle] consid[érait] que, même s’il était démontré que le comportement
du demandeur n’était pas exempt de critique, cela ne suffirait pas pour
accueillir l’exception d’irrecevabilité soulevée par le défendeur sur le
fondement de la doctrine des “mains propres” » (ibid., p. 44, par. 122).
Elle a ajouté que
« [u]ne telle conclusion ne préjuge toutefois pas la question de savoir si
les allégations des États‑Unis, concernant notamment le parrainage et
le soutien que l’Iran apporterait au terrorisme international, ainsi que
ses activités présumées en matière de non-prolifération nucléaire et de
trafic d’armes, pourraient servir, le cas échéant, de défense au fond »
(ibid., par. 123).
Dans le dispositif de l’arrêt de 2019, l’ensemble des exceptions préliminaires
d’irrecevabilité soulevées par les États‑Unis, dont faisait partie
l’exception fondée sur la doctrine des « mains propres », ont été rejetées
(ibid., p. 45, par. 126, point 4).
77. Les États‑Unis reprennent leurs arguments fondés sur l’absence de
« mains propres » de l’Iran au soutien de leur défense au fond. Dans leurs
conclusions finales, ils demandent à la Cour « de rejeter toutes les demandes
fondées sur le traité d’amitié, au motif que l’Iran se présente devant la Cour
avec les mains sales » (point 1 des conclusions finales).
78. Selon le défendeur, l’Iran mènerait, en violation du droit international,
une campagne concertée et cohérente de défense de ses intérêts politiques
par des actes de déstabilisation, dont le terrorisme serait une composante
essentielle, et qui viseraient tout particulièrement les ressortissants américains.
Tel est le cas, selon le défendeur, de l’attentat à la bombe commis en
1983 contre un casernement de fusiliers marins à Beyrouth qui a causé la
mort de 241 militaires américains. L’Iran invoque le traité d’amitié, selon
87 certain iranian assets (judgment)
Amity, Iran seeks to avoid the payment of reparation that it owes to its
victims. According to the Respondent, this provides the Court with a basis
to apply the “clean hands” doctrine in this case and to reject Iran’s claims
based on the Treaty of Amity, because the challenged measures have been
taken by the United States in response to Iranian-supported terrorist acts
directed at the United States and its nationals.
79. Iran notes that the United States overlooks the fact that the Court has
already ruled on the same argument in its Judgment on preliminary objections.
While accepting that “the matter is not res judicata in the technical
sense”, Iran observes that the United States merely repeats the same line of
argument in its defence on the merits, without any reference to the Court’s
findings and arguments in its decision on the preliminary objections. In
Iran’s opinion, much of the Court’s reasoning in its 2019 Judgment is equally
valid for the merits and provides a basis for rejecting the defence now being
examined. Iran further contends that, although the “clean hands” doctrine
has often been invoked, it has never been applied by international courts and
tribunals.
* *
80. The Court observes that while it rejected the objection to admissibility
based on the “clean hands” doctrine in its Judgment on preliminary objections,
it was careful to note that its decision was “without prejudice to the
question whether the [Respondent’s] allegations . . . could . . . provide a
defence on the merits” (see paragraph 76 above). Indeed, it is in principle
open to a State to repeat in substance, in support of a defence on the merits,
arguments it previously relied on unsuccessfully to support an objection to
jurisdiction or admissibility. Neither the force of res judicata attached to the
2019 Judgment nor any other factor allows for the defence on the merits
based on the “clean hands” doctrine, as invoked by the United States, to be
declared inadmissible.
81. The Court notes that, though often invoked in international disputes,
the argument based on the “clean hands” doctrine has only rarely been
upheld by the bodies before which it has been raised. The Court itself has
never held that the doctrine in question was part of customary international
law or constituted a general principle of law. In its Judgment of 17 July 2019
in the Jadhav case, the Court stated that it “[did] not consider that an objection
based on the ‘clean hands’ doctrine may by itself render an application
based on a valid title of jurisdiction inadmissible” (Jadhav (India v. Pakistan),
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2019 (II), p. 435, para. 61), thus confirming
that such an argument could not be relied upon in support of an objection to
admissibility.
As a defence on the merits, the Court has always treated the invocation of
“unclean hands” with the utmost caution. In its 2019 Judgment in the present
case, the Court stated that it did not have to “take a position on the ‘clean
certains actifs iraniens (arrêt) 87
les États‑Unis, pour tenter de se soustraire au paiement des réparations qu’il
doit à ses victimes. Cela justifie, selon le défendeur, que la Cour applique en
l’espèce
la doctrine des « mains propres » et rejette les demandes de l’Iran
fondées sur le traité d’amitié, car les mesures américaines contestées ont été
prises en réaction aux actes de terrorisme commis contre les États‑Unis et
leurs ressortissants avec le soutien de l’Iran.
79. L’Iran relève que les États‑Unis méconnaissent le fait que la Cour s’est
déjà prononcée sur le même argument dans son arrêt sur les exceptions
préliminaires.
Tout en admettant que « la question n’est pas techniquement
revêtue de l’autorité de la chose jugée », l’Iran observe que les États‑Unis se
bornent à reprendre la même argumentation dans leur défense au fond, sans
faire aucune référence aux conclusions et arguments que la Cour a énoncés
dans son arrêt sur les exceptions préliminaires. De l’avis de l’Iran, une
grande partie du raisonnement suivi par la Cour dans son arrêt de 2019
s’applique
aussi bien au fond, et justifie le rejet du moyen de défense présentement
examiné. En outre, l’Iran soutient que la doctrine des « mains
propres » n’a jamais été appliquée par les cours et tribunaux internationaux
bien qu’elle ait été souvent invoquée.
* *
80. La Cour observe que si elle a rejeté, dans son arrêt sur les exceptions
préliminaires, l’exception d’irrecevabilité fondée sur la doctrine des « mains
propres », elle a pris soin de préciser que sa décision « ne préjuge[ait] … pas la
question de savoir si les allégations [du défendeur] … pourraient servir … de
défense au fond » (voir le paragraphe 76 ci-dessus). En effet, il est en principe
loisible à un État de reprendre en substance, au soutien d’une défense au fond,
des arguments qu’il a précédemment invoqués sans succès à l’appui d’une
exception d’incompétence ou d’irrecevabilité. Ni l’autorité de chose jugée qui
s’attache à l’arrêt de 2019 ni aucune autre considération ne permet donc de
déclarer irrecevable le moyen tiré de la doctrine des « mains propres » tel qu’il
est invoqué dans le cadre de la défense au fond des États‑Unis.
81. La Cour relève que l’argument tiré de la doctrine des « mains propres »,
quoique souvent invoqué dans le contentieux international, n’a été accueilli
que rarement par les organes devant lesquels il était invoqué. La Cour ellemême
n’a jamais affirmé que la doctrine en question faisait partie du droit
international coutumier ou constituait un principe général de droit. Elle a
indiqué, dans son arrêt du 17 juillet 2019 dans l’affaire Jadhav, qu’elle « ne
consid[érait] pas qu’une exception fondée sur la doctrine des “mains propres”
puisse en soi rendre irrecevable une requête reposant sur une base de compétence
valable » (Jadhav (Inde c. Pakistan), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2019 (II),
p. 435, par. 61), confirmant ainsi qu’un tel moyen ne pouvait pas être invoqué
au soutien d’une exception d’irrecevabilité.
En tant que moyen de défense au fond, la Cour a toujours traité avec la plus
grande circonspection l’invocation de l’absence de « mains propres ». Dans
son arrêt de 2019 rendu en la présente affaire, elle a précisé qu’elle n’avait pas
88 certain iranian assets (judgment)
hands’ doctrine” (see paragraph 76 above), thus reserving its position on the
legal status of the concept itself in international law. It notes, moreover, that
the ILC declined to include the “clean hands” doctrine among the circumstances
precluding wrongfulness in its Articles on the Responsibility of
States for Internationally Wrongful Acts (hereinafter the “ILC Articles on
State Responsibility”), on the ground that this “doctrine has been invoked
principally in the context of the admissibility of claims before international
courts and tribunals, though rarely applied” (see the commentary on Chapter
V of Part One of the ILC Articles on State Responsibility, Yearbook of the
International Law Commission, 2001, Vol. II, Part Two, p. 72, para. 9).
82. In any event, in the view of the Respondent itself, at least several
conditions must be met for the “clean hands” doctrine to be applicable in a
given case. Two of those conditions are that a wrong or misconduct has
been committed by the applicant or on its behalf, and that there is “a nexus
between the wrong or misconduct and the claims being made by the
applicant State”. The United States adds that “[t]he level of connection
between the misconduct or wrong and the applicant’s claim will depend on
the circumstances of the case”.
83. In its Judgment on preliminary objections in the present case, the
Court noted that “the United States has not argued that Iran, through its
alleged conduct, has violated the Treaty of Amity, upon which its Application
is based” (Certain Iranian Assets (Islamic Republic of Iran v. United States of
America), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2019 (I), p. 44,
para. 122). This observation is also relevant with regard to the “clean hands”
doctrine relied on as a defence on the merits. In the view of the Court, there
is, in any case, not a sufficient connection between the wrongful conduct
imputed to Iran by the United States and the claims of Iran, which are based
on the alleged violation of the “Treaty of Amity, Economic Relations, and
Consular Rights”.
84. For the above reasons, the defence on the merits based on the “clean
hands” doctrine cannot be upheld.
B. Defence Based on Abuse of Rights
85. According to the United States, Iran’s claims before the Court constitute
an abuse of rights for two reasons. First, because Iran “seeks to extend
its rights under the Treaty, a consular and commercial agreement, to
circumstances that the Parties plainly never intended them to address”; and,
second, because the Applicant invokes the Treaty for the sole purpose
of circumventing its obligation to make reparation to United States victims
of Iranian-sponsored terrorist acts.
certains actifs iraniens (arrêt) 88
« à prendre position sur la doctrine des “mains propres” » (voir le paragraphe
76 ci-dessus), réservant ainsi sa position sur le statut juridique de la
notion elle-même en droit international. Elle relève en outre que la CDI a
refusé d’inclure la doctrine des « mains propres » parmi les circonstances
excluant l’illicéité, dans ses Articles sur la responsabilité de l’État pour
faits internationalement illicites (ci-après les « Articles de la CDI sur la responsabilité
de l’État »), au motif que cette « théorie … a été principalement
invoquée à propos de la recevabilité de demandes devant des cours et tribunaux
internationaux, mais rarement appliquée » (voir le commentaire du
chapitre V de la première partie des Articles de la CDI sur la responsabilité
de l’État, Annuaire de la Commission du droit international, 2001, vol. II,
deuxième partie, p. 76, par. 9).
82. En tout état de cause, de l’avis même du défendeur, pour que la doctrine
des « mains propres » trouve à s’appliquer dans un cas déterminé, il faut
au moins que plusieurs conditions soient remplies. Deux d’entre elles seraient
qu’une faute ou un fait illicite ait été commis par le demandeur ou pour
son compte, et qu’il existe « un lien entre la faute ou le comportement illicite
et les demandes présentées par l’État demandeur ». Les États‑Unis précisent
que « le degré de connexité entre la faute ou le comportement illicite et la
prétention du demandeur dépend des circonstances de l’espèce ».
83. Dans son arrêt sur les exceptions préliminaires rendu en la présente
affaire, la Cour a relevé que « les États‑Unis n’ont pas soutenu que, par
son comportement, l’Iran aurait violé le traité d’amitié sur lequel il fonde sa
requête » (Certains actifs iraniens (République islamique d’Iran c. États‑Unis
d’Amérique), exceptions préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2019 (I), p. 44,
par. 122). Cette observation est également pertinente en ce qui concerne la
doctrine des « mains propres » invoquée comme moyen de défense au fond.
De l’avis de la Cour, il n’existe pas, en tout cas, de lien de connexité suffisant
entre le comportement illicite imputé à l’Iran par les États‑Unis et les
demandes de l’Iran, qui sont fondées sur la violation alléguée du « traité
d’amitié, de commerce et de droits consulaires ».
84. Pour les motifs qui précèdent, le moyen de défense au fond tiré de la
doctrine des « mains propres » ne saurait être accueilli.
B. Moyen fondé sur l’abus de droit
85. Selon les États‑Unis, les demandes de l’Iran devant la Cour constituent
un abus de droit pour deux raisons. En premier lieu, parce que l’Iran « prétend
étendre les droits que lui reconnaît le traité un accord consulaire et
commercial à des circonstances dont les Parties n’avaient manifestement
pas l’intention qu’elles soient couvertes par cet instrument » ; en second lieu,
parce que le demandeur invoque le traité à seule fin d’échapper à
son obligation d’indemniser les victimes américaines des actes de terrorisme
auxquels
il a apporté son soutien.
89 certain iranian assets (judgment)
86. Iran argues that the United States is merely relabelling as “abuse of
rights” the “abuse of process” preliminary objection that the Court examined
and rejected in its 2019 Judgment. According to Iran, the nature of the argument
is the same and it is not enough to replace one term with another in
order to submit the same question to the Court, without taking any account
of the Court’s reasons for rejecting the “abuse of process” preliminary
objection in its earlier Judgment. The Applicant observes that the so-called
“abuse of rights” defence is being put forward in a dispute between the same
Parties as those concerned in the 2019 Judgment; it is based on the same
legal grounds as those on which the preliminary objection rejected by the
Court was based; and it has the same object, namely to preclude Iran from
exercising its rights under the Treaty.
87. Iran contends that the defence in question is founded neither in fact
nor in law and notes that such a defence has never been upheld in an inter-
State dispute. It adds that abuse of rights could only be successful in this
case if there were clear evidence to overturn the presumption that Iran, like
any applicant, is acting in good faith, and that there is no such evidence.
* *
88. The Court begins by observing that the fact that the United States has
raised similar arguments in support of its “abuse of process” objection that
was rejected by the 2019 Judgment on preliminary objections does not preclude
examination of its “abuse of rights” defence. Since an objection to
admissibility and a defence on the merits are by nature distinct, the force of
res judicata attaching to the 2019 Judgment cannot preclude the invocation
of any defence on the merits.
89. However, in examining the defence, the Court must take into account
the reasons given in its earlier Judgment for rejecting the objection to admissibility
based on similar arguments.
90. In this regard, the Court notes that, in arguing that Iran is committing
an abuse of rights by seeking to apply the Treaty of Amity to measures that
are unrelated to commerce, the United States is merely asserting, in another
way, that Iran’s claims fall outside the scope ratione materiae of the Treaty.
This question was addressed by the Court, in terms of its jurisdiction, in its
2019 Judgment; it will be referred to, in terms of the merits, in the following
section of this Judgment, as part of the examination of Iran’s claims based
on the alleged violation of various provisions of the Treaty.
91. With respect to the second limb of the United States’ argument, namely
that Iran’s aim is to circumvent its obligation to make reparation to the
victims of its acts (see paragraph 85 above), the Court begins by recalling the
essential elements of its jurisprudence in this regard.
certains actifs iraniens (arrêt) 89
86. L’Iran soutient que les États‑Unis ne font que requalifier d’« abus de
droit » l’exception préliminaire fondée sur un « abus de procédure » que la
Cour a examinée et rejetée dans son arrêt de 2019. Selon l’Iran, la teneur de
l’argument est la même et il ne suffit pas de remplacer un terme par un autre
pour soumettre à la Cour la même question, sans tenir aucun compte des raisons
données par la Cour pour rejeter l’exception préliminaire d’« abus de
procédure » dans son arrêt antérieur. Le demandeur observe que le moyen de
défense fondé sur un prétendu « abus de droit » est présenté dans un différend
opposant les mêmes parties que celles entre lesquelles a été rendu l’arrêt de
2019 ; il s’appuie sur les mêmes motifs juridiques que ceux sur lesquels était
fondée l’exception préliminaire rejetée par la Cour ; il a le même objet, à
savoir empêcher l’Iran d’exercer ses droits découlant du traité.
87. L’Iran soutient que le moyen de défense en cause n’est fondé ni en
fait ni en droit. Il relève qu’un tel moyen n’a jamais été retenu dans un différend
interétatique. Il ajoute que l’abus de droit ne pourrait être retenu en
l’espèce que si des preuves claires imposaient d’écarter la présomption de
bonne foi dont bénéficie l’Iran comme tout demandeur, et que de telles
preuves n’existent pas.
* *
88. La Cour commencera par observer que le fait que les États‑Unis aient
soulevé des arguments similaires au soutien de leur exception tirée de l’« abus
de procédure » rejetée par l’arrêt de 2019 sur les exceptions préliminaires ne
fait pas obstacle à l’examen de leur moyen de défense au fond tiré d’un « abus
de droit ». Une exception d’irrecevabilité et une défense au fond étant
distinctes par nature, l’autorité de chose jugée qui s’attache à l’arrêt de 2019
ne saurait faire obstacle à l’invocation de tout moyen de défense au fond.
89. Cependant la Cour doit tenir compte, dans l’examen du moyen, des
raisons qu’elle a données dans son arrêt antérieur pour justifier le rejet
de l’exception d’irrecevabilité fondé sur des arguments similaires.
90. À cet égard, la Cour relève que, en soutenant que l’Iran commet un
abus de droit en cherchant à appliquer le traité d’amitié à des mesures qui
sont sans rapport avec le commerce, les États‑Unis ne font qu’affirmer, d’une
autre manière, que les demandes de l’Iran se situent en dehors du champ
d’application ratione materiae du traité. Cette question a été abordée par la
Cour, sous l’angle de sa compétence, dans son arrêt de 2019 ; elle sera évoquée
dans la section suivante du présent arrêt, sous l’angle du fond, à propos
de l’examen des griefs de l’Iran tirés de la violation alléguée de diverses
dispositions
du traité.
91. En ce qui concerne la seconde branche de l’argumentation des
États‑Unis, à savoir que le but poursuivi par l’Iran est d’échapper à son
obligation d’indemniser les victimes de ses actes (voir le paragraphe 85
ci-dessus), la Cour commencera par rappeler les éléments essentiels de sa
jurisprudence en la matière.
90 certain iranian assets (judgment)
92. As early as 1926, the Permanent Court of International Justice held
that an abuse of rights or a violation of the principle of good faith “cannot be
presumed, and it rests with the party who states that there has been such
[an abuse or violation] to prove his statement” (Certain German Interests in
Polish Upper Silesia, Merits, Judgment No. 7, 1926, P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 7,
p. 30). As the Court noted in its 2018 Judgment in the case concerning
Immunities and Criminal Proceedings, “[o]n several occasions before the
Permanent Court of International Justice, abuse of rights was pleaded and
rejected at the merits phase for want of sufficient proof” (Immunities and
Criminal Proceedings (Equatorial Guinea v. France), Preliminary Objections,
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2018 (I), pp. 335-336, para. 147).
93. The Court could only accept the abuse of rights defence in this instance
if it were demonstrated by the Respondent, on the basis of compelling evidence,
that the Applicant seeks to exercise rights conferred on it by the Treaty
of Amity for purposes other than those for which the rights at issue were established,
and that it was doing so to the detriment of the Respondent.
The Court considers that the United States has failed to make such a
demonstration.
Consequently, the defence based on an alleged abuse of rights cannot be
upheld.
C. Article XX, Paragraph 1 (c) and (d), of the Treaty of Amity
94. The Court recalls that, in its preliminary objections, the United States
invoked Article XX, paragraph 1 (c) and (d), of the Treaty of Amity to
request that the Court dismiss as outside its jurisdiction all claims of Iran
that the measures adopted by the United States under Executive Order 13599
violate the Treaty of Amity. The Court rejected this objection to its jurisdiction
on the ground that the provisions relied on did not have the effect of
restricting its jurisdiction but only afforded the Parties a possible defence
on the merits to be used should the occasion arise (Certain Iranian Assets
(Islamic Republic of Iran v. United States of America), Preliminary Objections,
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2019 (I), p. 25, para. 45, referring to Oil
Platforms (Islamic Republic of Iran v. United States of America), Preliminary
Objection, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1996 (II), p. 811, para. 20).
95. In its final submissions presented at the end of the proceedings on the
merits, the United States invokes the same provisions again to request that
the Court
“[d]ismiss on the basis of Article XX (1) (c) and (d) of the Treaty of
Amity all claims that U.S. measures that block or freeze assets of the
Iranian government or Iranian financial institutions (as defined in
Executive Order 13599) violate any provision of the Treaty”.
certains actifs iraniens (arrêt) 90
92. Dès 1926, la Cour permanente de Justice internationale a affirmé
qu’un abus de droit ou un manquement au principe de la bonne foi « ne se
présume[nt] pas, mais [qu’]il incombe à celui qui [les] allègue de fournir la
preuve de son allégation » (Certains intérêts allemands en Haute-Silésie
polonaise, fond, arrêt no 7, 1926, C.P.J.I. série A no 7, p. 30). Comme la Cour
l’a noté dans son arrêt de 2018 en l’affaire des Immunités et procédures
pénales, sa devancière la Cour permanente « a, en plusieurs occasions,
rejeté des arguments concernant un abus de droit au stade du fond, faute
d’éléments de preuve suffisants » (Immunités et procédures pénales (Guinée
équatoriale c. France), exceptions préliminaires, C.I.J. Recueil 2018 (I),
p. 335-336, par. 147).
93. La Cour ne pourrait retenir en l’espèce le moyen de défense au fond tiré
de l’abus de droit que s’il était démontré par le défendeur, sur la base de
preuves convaincantes, que le demandeur revendique l’exercice des droits qui
lui sont conférés par le traité d’amitié à des fins différentes de celles pour lesquelles
les droits en cause ont été établis, et ce au détriment du défendeur.
La Cour est d’avis que les États‑Unis n’ont pas fait une telle démonstration.
En conséquence, le moyen de défense fondé sur un prétendu abus de droit
ne saurait être accueilli.
C. Article XX, paragraphe 1, alinéas c) et d), du traité d’amitié
94. La Cour rappelle que dans leurs exceptions préliminaires les États‑Unis
s’étaient prévalus des alinéas c) et d) du paragraphe 1 de l’article XX du
traité d’amitié pour demander à la Cour de rejeter comme échappant à sa
compétence toutes les demandes de l’Iran alléguant que les mesures adoptées
par les États‑Unis en vertu du décret présidentiel no 13599 contreviennent
au traité d’amitié. La Cour a rejeté cette exception d’incompétence au
motif que les dispositions invoquées n’ont pas pour effet de restreindre sa
compétence mais offrent seulement aux Parties une défense au fond qu’il
leur appartient, le cas échéant, de faire valoir le moment venu (Certains
actifs iraniens (République islamique d’Iran c. États‑Unis d’Amérique),
exceptions préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2019 (I), p. 25, par. 45, se
référant à Plates-formes pétrolières (République islamique d’Iran c.
États‑Unis d’Amérique), exception préliminaire, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil
1996 (II), p. 811, par. 20).
95. Dans leurs conclusions finales présentées au terme de la procédure au
fond, les États‑Unis se prévalent à nouveau des mêmes dispositions pour
demander à la Cour
« de rejeter, sur le fondement des alinéas c) et d) du paragraphe 1 de l’article
XX du traité d’amitié, toutes les demandes alléguant que les mesures
américaines qui ont pour effet de bloquer ou geler les actifs de l’État
iranien ou des institutions financières iraniennes (telles que définies dans
le décret présidentiel no 13599) contreviennent aux dispositions du traité ».
91 certain iranian assets (judgment)
96. The provisions invoked read as follows:
“1. The present Treaty shall not preclude the application of measures:
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
(c) regulating the production of or traffic in arms, ammunition and
implements of war, or traffic in other materials carried on directly or
indirectly for the purpose of supplying a military establishment;
and
(d) necessary to fulfill the obligations of a High Contracting Party for
the maintenance or restoration of international peace and security,
or necessary to protect its essential security interests.”
97. It should be noted that, in its arguments before the Court regarding
subparagraph (d), the Respondent relied on only the second limb of that
subparagraph, namely that which refers to the “protect[ion of] its essential
security interests”; the United States did not claim that the contested measures
were “necessary to fulfill the obligations of a High Contracting Party
for the maintenance or restoration of international peace and security”.
98. The Court will examine in turn the arguments of the Parties concerning
the two provisions invoked as defences by the United States.
1. Article XX, paragraph 1 (c)
99. Executive Order 13599 was issued in 2012 with a view to blocking all
assets of the Government of Iran and those of Iranian financial institutions,
where such assets are within United States territory or “within the possession
or control of any United States person, including any foreign branch”
(see paragraph 28 above).
100. According to the United States, Executive Order 13599 falls within
the scope of Article XX, paragraph 1 (c), in so far as it seeks to “contain, by
rules and regulations, Iran’s international arms trafficking, ballistic missile
production, and financial support for terrorism” by freezing the assets of
Iranian governmental entities that are in the United States or in the control
of a United States person. The United States adds that, contrary to what Iran
maintains, Article XX, paragraph 1 (c), is not limited to measures by which
each Party regulates its own production or its own export or import of arms;
it addresses more broadly the “traffic in arms”, a term which refers to the
international trade in munitions, including any transactions that enable or
facilitate such trade, by promoting the proliferation of arms across borders
to actors who may put them to dangerous use.
certains actifs iraniens (arrêt) 91
96. Les dispositions invoquées sont ainsi rédigées :
« 1. Le présent traité ne fera pas obstacle à l’application de mesures :
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
c) [r]églementant la production ou le commerce des armes, des munitions
et du matériel de guerre, ou le commerce d’autres produits
lorsqu’il a pour but direct ou indirect d’approvisionner des unités
militaires ;
d) [o]u nécessaires à l’exécution des obligations de l’une ou l’autre des
Hautes Parties contractantes relatives au maintien ou au rétablissement
de la paix et de la sécurité internationales ou à la protection des
intérêts vitaux de cette Haute Partie contractante sur le plan de la
sécurité. »
97. Il y a lieu de préciser que, dans l’argumentation qu’il a développée
devant la Cour concernant l’alinéa d), le défendeur ne s’est prévalu de cet
alinéa
que dans sa seconde branche, celle qui vise « la protection des intérêts
vitaux … sur le plan de la sécurité » ; il n’a pas allégué que les mesures
contestées seraient « nécessaires à l’exécution de ses obligations relatives au
maintien ou au rétablissement de la paix et de la sécurité internationales ».
98. La Cour examinera successivement les arguments des Parties concernant
les deux dispositions invoquées comme moyens de défense par les
États‑Unis.
1. Alinéa c) du paragraphe 1 de l’article XX
99. Le décret présidentiel no 13599, promulgué en 2012, a eu pour objet de
bloquer tous les actifs de l’État iranien, et ceux des institutions financières
iraniennes, dès lors que ces actifs se trouvent sur le territoire des États‑Unis
ou « en la possession ou sous le contrôle de toute personne des États‑Unis, y
compris toute succursale étrangère » (voir le paragraphe 28 ci-dessus).
100. Selon les États‑Unis, le décret no 13599 entre bien dans le champ de
l’alinéa c) du paragraphe 1 de l’article XX dès lors qu’il vise « à contenir par
la voie réglementaire le commerce international d’armes auquel se livre
l’Iran, sa production de missiles balistiques et son soutien financier au terrorisme
» par le gel des actifs d’entités publiques iraniennes qui se trouvent sur
le territoire américain ou sous le contrôle d’une personne américaine.
Les États‑Unis ajoutent que, contrairement à ce que prétend l’Iran, l’alinéa c)
du paragraphe 1 de l’article XX ne se limite pas aux mesures par lesquelles
chaque Partie réglementerait sa propre production ou ses propres exportations
ou importations d’armes ; il vise plus largement « le commerce des
armes », expression qui renvoie au commerce international d’armement, y
compris les transactions qui rendent possible ou facilitent ledit commerce,
en favorisant la prolifération des armes à travers les frontières au bénéfice
d’acteurs qui en feraient un usage dangereux.
92 certain iranian assets (judgment)
101. Iran argues that Executive Order 13599 is in no way intended to
“‘regulate’ the production of or traffic in arms”, as would, for example, a
prohibition on the export of United States arms to Iran. Moreover, it does not
even contain the word “arms” and the aims it pursues are, according to its
own terms, of a purely financial nature and have no direct link to the production
of and traffic in arms.
* *
102. The Court cannot accept the United States’ broad interpretation of
the provision concerned. The terms of Article XX, paragraph 1 (c), in their
ordinary meaning and in light of the object and purpose of the Treaty, cannot
bring within its scope any measures other than those that are intended, by
a party to the Treaty, to regulate its own production of or its own traffic in
arms, or to regulate the export of arms to the other party or the import of
arms from the other party. In the view of the Court, Article XX, paragraph
1 (c), cannot be relied upon to justify measures taken by a party which
might impair the rights afforded by the Treaty and which are solely intended
to have an indirect effect on the production of and the traffic in arms by the
other party or on the territory of the other party.
103. There is nothing in Executive Order 13599 that meets the criteria
defined in the previous paragraph. Consequently, the United States’ defence
based on Article XX, paragraph 1 (c), of the Treaty of Amity cannot be
upheld.
2. Article XX, paragraph 1 (d)
104. According to the United States, Executive Order 13599 is a measure
“necessary to protect its essential security interests”, within the meaning of
Article XX, paragraph 1 (d), of the Treaty. The United States submits that
the Executive Order enables it to protect its essential interests by addressing
Iran’s support for arms trafficking, terrorism and the development of ballistic
capabilities. The Respondent points out that the concept of essential
security interests is broad, as the Court has previously held, referring in this
regard to the 1986 Judgment in the case concerning Military and Paramilitary
Activities in and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v. United States of America)
(I.C.J. Reports 1986, p. 117, para. 224).
Furthermore, according to the Respondent, the judicial organ should afford
substantial deference to the State invoking such a ground by relying on an
exception provided for in the applicable treaty; this exception, it argues,
“leaves each party, acting in good faith, a wide discretion to determine
the measures necessary to protect its security interests”. In this regard, the
Respondent
refers to the Court’s Judgment in the case concerning Certain
certains actifs iraniens (arrêt) 92
101. L’Iran soutient que le décret no 13599 n’a aucunement pour objet de
« réglementer la production ou le commerce des armes », comme le ferait,
par exemple, une interdiction d’exporter des armes américaines vers l’Iran.
Il ne contient d’ailleurs même pas le mot « armes » et les objectifs qu’il poursuit,
selon ses propres termes, sont de nature purement financière et ne
présentent aucun lien direct avec la production et le commerce des armes.
* *
102. La Cour ne saurait souscrire à l’interprétation large que font les
États‑Unis de la disposition en cause. Les termes de l’alinéa c) du paragraphe
1 de l’article XX, pris dans leur sens ordinaire et considérés à la
lumière de l’objet et du but du traité, ne permettent pas de faire entrer dans
son champ d’application des mesures autres que celles qui visent, de la part
d’une partie au traité, à réglementer sa propre production ou son propre commerce
d’armes, ou à réglementer les exportations d’armes vers l’autre partie
ou les importations d’armes en provenance de l’autre partie. De l’avis de la
Cour, l’alinéa c) du paragraphe 1 de l’article XX ne saurait être invoqué pour
justifier des mesures prises par une partie, qui seraient susceptibles de porter
atteinte aux droits garantis par le traité et qui viseraient seulement à produire
un effet indirect sur la production et le commerce des armes par l’autre partie
ou sur le territoire de l’autre partie.
103. Rien dans le décret no 13599 ne répond aux critères définis au paragraphe
précédent. En conséquence, le moyen de défense des États‑Unis
fondé sur l’alinéa c) du paragraphe 1 de l’article XX du traité d’amitié ne
saurait
être accueilli.
2. Alinéa d) du paragraphe 1 de l’article XX
104. Selon les États‑Unis, le décret no 13599 constitue une mesure « nécessaire[]
… à la protection [de ses] intérêts vitaux … sur le plan de la sécurité »,
au sens de l’alinéa d) du paragraphe 1 de l’article X X du t raité. L es États‑
Unis exposent que le décret permet de protéger leurs intérêts vitaux en
luttant contre le soutien apporté par l’Iran au trafic d’armes, au terrorisme et au
développement de capacités balistiques. Le défendeur souligne que la notion
d’intérêts vitaux en matière de sécurité est large, comme la Cour l’a admis
dans sa jurisprudence antérieure ; il se réfère à cet égard à l’arrêt de 1986 en
l’affaire des Activités militaires et paramilitaires au Nicaragua et contre
celui-ci (Nicaragua c. États‑Unis d’Amérique) (C.I.J. Recueil 1986, p. 117,
par. 224).
En outre, selon le défendeur, l’organe judiciaire doit accorder une grande
déférence à l’État qui invoque un tel motif en s’appuyant sur une exception
prévue par le traité applicable ; une telle exception, soutient-il, « accorde à
chaque partie, agissant de bonne foi, un large pouvoir discrétionnaire de
décider quelles mesures sont nécessaires pour protéger ses intérêts de sécurité
». À cet égard, le défendeur se réfère à l’arrêt rendu par la Cour en l’affaire
93 certain iranian assets (judgment)
Questions of Mutual Assistance in Criminal Matters (Djibouti v. France)
(I.C.J. Reports 2008, p. 229, para. 145).
Finally, the United States observes that the prevention of terrorism and of
the financing of terrorism, and the halting of the ballistic missile programme
of a hostile State indisputably constitute its essential security interests.
105. Iran submits that the United States has not shown, as is incumbent on
it, that Executive Order 13599 was a measure necessary to protect its essential
security interests.
The Applicant points out that it is not sufficient for a State to declare that a
measure is warranted on the grounds set out in Article XX, paragraph 1 (d),
for it to be justified, ipso facto, to invoke that provision. It falls to the Court
to ascertain whether the “essential interests” invoked are real and the
contested measure necessary. According to the Applicant, the criterion of
necessity involves consideration of proportionality, which must be assessed
in light of the damage inflicted by the measures concerned. Iran refers to
the Court’s jurisprudence, in particular its Judgments in the cases concerning
Military and Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua
(Nicaragua v. United States of America) ( I.C.J. Reports 1986, p. 117,
para. 224, and p. 141, para. 282) and Oil Platforms (Islamic Republic of
Iran v. United States of America) (I.C.J. Reports 2003, p. 183, para. 43).
* *
106. The Court has previously examined a defence based on Article XX,
paragraph 1 (d), of the Treaty of Amity in its Judgment on the merits in the
Oil Platforms case. Referring to the Judgment in the case concerning
Military and Paramilitary Activities, mentioned above, in which it applied
a provision of another treaty drafted in similar terms, the Court stated
that “the measures taken must not merely be such as tend to protect the
essential security interests of the party taking them, but must be ‘necessary’
for that purpose” and that “whether [the] measure[s] taken [were] ‘necessary’
is ‘[not] purely a question for the subjective judgment of the party’ . . . and
may thus be assessed by the Court” (Oil Platforms (Islamic Republic of
Iran v. United States of America), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2003, p. 183,
para. 43, citing Military and Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua
(Nicaragua v. United States of America), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1986,
p. 141, para. 282).
The Court can see no reason to depart from this jurisprudence in the
present case.
107. It is true that in its Judgment in the Djibouti v. France case, to
which the United States refers, the Court considered that the applicable
treaty in that case — which enabled a party to invoke its “essential interests”,
including “security” interests — provided a State invoking it with “a very
certains actifs iraniens (arrêt) 93
relative à Certaines questions concernant l’entraide judiciaire en matière
pénale (Djibouti c. France) (C.I.J. Recueil 2008, p. 229, par. 145).
Enfin, les États‑Unis relèvent qu’il n’est pas contestable que la prévention
du terrorisme et du financement du terrorisme et l’interruption du programme
balistique d’un État hostile entrent bien dans le cadre de leurs
intérêts vitaux sur le plan de la sécurité.
105. L’Iran soutient que les États‑Unis n’ont pas fait la démonstration, qui
leur incombe, de ce que le décret no 13599 constituait une mesure nécessaire
à la protection de leurs intérêts vitaux en matière de sécurité.
Le demandeur souligne qu’il ne suffit pas qu’un État affirme qu’une mesure
est justifiée par le motif énoncé à l’alinéa d) du paragraphe 1 de l’article XX
pour qu’il soit fondé, ipso facto, à se prévaloir de cette disposition. Il appartient
à la Cour d’exercer un contrôle effectif sur la réalité des « intérêts
vitaux » invoqués et sur la nécessité de la mesure contestée. Le critère de
nécessité, selon le demandeur, implique un contrôle de proportionnalité,
celle-ci devant être appréciée au regard du dommage infligé par les mesures
concernées. L’Iran se réfère à la jurisprudence de la Cour, notamment ses
arrêts dans l’affaire des Activités militaires et paramilitaires au Nicaragua et
contre celui-ci (Nicaragua c. États‑Unis d’Amérique) (C.I.J. Recueil 1986,
p. 117, par. 224, et p. 141, par. 282) et dans celle des Plates-formes pétrolières
(République islamique d’Iran c. États‑Unis d’Amérique) (C.I.J.
Recueil 2003, p. 183, par. 43).
* *
106. La Cour a déjà examiné un moyen de défense tiré de l’alinéa d) du
paragraphe 1 de l’article XX du traité d’amitié dans son arrêt rendu sur le
fond en l’affaire des Plates-formes pétrolières. Se référant à l’arrêt rendu
en l’affaire des Activités militaires et paramilitaires, susmentionnée, dans
lequel elle avait fait application d’une disposition d’un autre traité rédigée
en termes similaires, la Cour a indiqué que « les mesures ne doivent pas
simplement tendre à protéger les intérêts vitaux de sécurité de la partie qui
les adopte ; elles doivent être “nécessaires” à cette fin » et que « la question
de savoir si une mesure … est “nécessaire” ne “relève pas de l’appréciation
subjective de la partie intéressée” … et peut donc être évaluée par la Cour »
(Plates-formes pétrolières (République islamique d’Iran c. États‑Unis
d’Amérique), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2003, p. 183, par. 43, citant Activités
militaires et paramilitaires au Nicaragua et contre celui-ci (Nicaragua
c. États‑Unis d’Amérique), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1986, p. 141, par. 282).
La Cour ne voit aucune raison de s’écarter de cette jurisprudence dans la
présente affaire.
107. Il est vrai que dans son arrêt rendu en l’affaire Djibouti c. France,
auquel les États‑Unis se sont référés, la Cour a considéré que le traité applicable
en l’espèce, qui permettait à une partie de se prévaloir de ses « intérêts
essentiels » notamment en matière de « sécurité », conférait « un très large
94 certain iranian assets (judgment)
considerable discretion” (Certain Questions of Mutual Assistance in Criminal
Matters (Djibouti v. France), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2008, p. 229-230,
paras. 145-147). But the provision in question was drafted in terms
significantly different from those used in Article XX, paragraph 1 (d). The
Convention on Mutual Assistance between Djibouti and France provided
that the requested State could refuse a request for mutual assistance if it
“consider[ed] that execution of the request [was] likely to prejudice
its
sovereignty, its security, its ordre public or other of its essential interests”
(ibid., p. 226, para. 135). The very language of this provision, in using the
verb “consider”, provided the State concerned with a wide margin of
discretion, greater than that afforded to the States parties by Article XX,
paragraph 1 (d), of the Treaty of Amity.
108. Having regard to the foregoing considerations, the Court is of the
view that it was for the United States to show that Executive Order 13599
was a measure necessary to protect its essential security interests, and that it
has not convincingly demonstrated that this was so. Even accepting that
the Respondent enjoys a certain margin of discretion, the Court cannot
content itself with the latter’s assertions. It further notes that the reasons
set out by the Executive Order itself to justify the specific measures it enacts
relate to the financial practices of Iranian banks, deficiencies in Iran’s
anti-money laundering régime and the ensuing risks for the international
financial system; there is no mention of security considerations.
109. The Court therefore concludes that the defence based on Article XX,
paragraph 1 (d), of the Treaty cannot be upheld.
IV. Alleged Violations of the Treaty of Amity
110. The Court will now examine the alleged violations by the United
States of its obligations under the Treaty of Amity.
111. The claims of Iran concern a set of legislative, executive and judicial
measures adopted by the United States since 2002. These measures include
Section 201 (a) of TRIA and Section 1610 (g) (1) of the FSIA (see paragraphs
26-27 above), as well as the application of those provisions by
United States courts.
112. Section 201 of TRIA is entitled “Satisfaction of judgments from
blocked assets of terrorists, terrorist organizations, and State sponsors of
terrorism”. Paragraph (a) of Section 201 reads:
“In General. Notwithstanding any other provision of law, and
except as provided in subsection (b), in every case in which a person has
obtained a judgment against a terrorist party on a claim based upon an
certains actifs iraniens (arrêt) 94
pouvoir discrétionnaire » à l’État qui l’invoquait (Certaines questions
concernant l’entraide judiciaire en matière pénale (Djibouti c. France),
arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2008, p. 229-230, par. 145-147). Mais la disposition en
cause était rédigée dans des termes significativement différents de ceux
employés à l’alinéa d) du paragraphe 1 de l’article XX. La convention d’entraide
judiciaire entre Djibouti et la France prévoyait que l’État requis
pourrait rejeter une demande d’entraide judiciaire s’il « estim[ait] que l’exécution
de la demande [étai]t de nature à porter atteinte à sa souveraineté, à sa
sécurité, à son ordre public ou à d’autres de ses intérêts essentiels » (ibid.,
p. 226, par. 135). Les termes mêmes de cette disposition conféraient à
l’État en cause, par l’emploi du verbe « estimer », une importante marge de
discrétion, supérieure à celle que l’alinéa d) du paragraphe 1 de l’article XX
du traité d’amitié accorde aux États parties.
108. En tenant compte des considérations qui précèdent, la Cour estime qu’il
appartenait aux États‑Unis de démontrer que le décret no 13599 constituait
une mesure nécessaire à la protection de leurs intérêts vitaux en matière de
sécurité, et qu’ils n’ont pas fait une telle démonstration de manière convaincante.
Elle ne saurait se satisfaire, même en acceptant que le défendeur
possède une certaine marge de discrétion, des affirmations de celui-ci.
Elle note en outre que les motifs que le décret lui-même énonce pour
justifier les mesures spécifiques qu’il met en vigueur se rapportent aux
pratiques financières des banques iraniennes, aux déficiences du régime
iranien de lutte contre le blanchiment et aux risques en résultant pour le
système financier international ; ils ne mentionnent pas de considérations de
sécurité.
109. En conséquence, la Cour conclut que le moyen de défense tiré de
l’alinéa
d) du paragraphe 1 de l’article XX du traité ne saurait être accueilli.
IV. Violations alléguées du traité d’amitié
110. La Cour examinera à présent les manquements allégués des États‑Unis
aux obligations que leur impose le traité d’amitié.
111. Les demandes de l’Iran se rapportent à un ensemble de mesures
législatives,
administratives et judiciaires prises par les États‑Unis depuis
2002. Ces mesures comprennent le paragraphe a) de l’article 201 de la TRIA
et l’alinéa 1 du paragraphe g) de l’article 1610 de la FSIA (voir les paragraphes
26-27 ci-dessus), ainsi que l’application de ces dispositions par les
tribunaux américains.
112. L’article 201 de la TRIA est intitulé « Exécution de jugements sur
des actifs bloqués de terroristes, d’organisations terroristes et d’États soutenant
le terrorisme ». Son paragraphe a) se lit comme suit :
« En général. — Nonobstant toute autre disposition de la loi, mais sous
réserve du paragraphe b), dans tous les cas où il a été fait droit à la
demande formée contre une partie terroriste et fondée sur un acte de
95 certain iranian assets (judgment)
act of terrorism, or for which a terrorist party is not immune under
section 1605 (a) (7) of title 28, United States Code, the blocked assets
of that terrorist party (including the blocked assets of any agency or
instrumentality of that terrorist party) shall be subject to execution or
attachment in aid of execution in order to satisfy such judgment to the
extent of any compensatory damages for which such terrorist party has
been adjudged liable.”
Section 1610 (g) (1) of the FSIA provides:
“(g) Property in Certain Actions.
(1) In general. Subject to paragraph (3), the property of a foreign
state against which a judgment is entered under section 1605A, and the
property of an agency or instrumentality of such a state, including property
that is a separate juridical entity or is an interest held directly or
indirectly in a separate juridical entity, is subject to attachment in aid
of execution, and execution, upon that judgment as provided in this
section, regardless of
(A) the level of economic control over the property by the government
of the foreign state;
(B) whether the profits of the property go to that government;
(C) the degree to which officials of that government manage the property
or otherwise control its daily affairs;
(D) whether that government is the sole beneficiary in interest of the property;
or
(E) whether establishing the property as a separate entity would entitle
the foreign state to benefits in United States courts while avoiding
its obligations.”
113. The judicial decisions of which Iran complains were rendered by
United States courts in application of those legislative provisions. They
ordered the attachment, execution, turnover or distribution of assets of
certain Iranian companies.
114. Iran’s claims also concern Executive Order 13599 of 2012, which is
entitled “Blocking Property of the Government of Iran and Iranian Financial
Institutions”. Section 1 of Executive Order 13599 provides:
“(a) All property and interests in property of the Government of Iran,
including the Central Bank of Iran, that are in the United States, that
hereafter come within the United States, or that are or hereafter
come within the possession or control of any United States person,
including any foreign branch, are blocked and may not be transferred,
paid, exported, withdrawn, or otherwise dealt in.
certains actifs iraniens (arrêt) 95
terrorisme, ou pour laquelle la partie terroriste est privée de l’immunité
par application de l’alinéa 7 du paragraphe a) de l’article 1605 du
titre 28 du code des États‑Unis, les actifs bloqués de cette partie terroriste
(y compris ceux de tout organisme ou agence de celle-ci) sont
saisissables en exécution dudit jugement à concurrence du montant des
dommages-intérêts
compensatoires au paiement desquels ladite partie
terroriste aura été condamnée. »
L’alinéa 1 du paragraphe g) de l’article 1610 de la FSIA est ainsi libellé :
« g) Biens dans certaines actions. —
1) En général. — Sous réserve du paragraphe 3, les biens de l’État
étranger contre lequel un jugement est rendu en application de l’article
1605A, ainsi que ceux des organismes et agences de cet État, y
compris les biens constituant une entité juridique distincte ou une
participation détenue directement ou indirectement dans une telle entité,
sont saisissables en exécution de ce jugement, conformément au présent
article, et ce, indépendamment —
A) du degré de contrôle économique exercé par le gouvernement de
l’État étranger sur les biens en question ;
B) de la question de savoir si les bénéfices tirés de ces biens reviennent
ou non à ce gouvernement ;
C) de la mesure dans laquelle les fonctionnaires de ce gouvernement
interviennent dans la gestion desdits biens ou les activités dont ils
font l’objet ;
D) de la question de savoir si ce gouvernement est, à l’égard des biens,
le seul titulaire de l’intérêt bénéficiaire ;
E) de la question de savoir si la constitution des biens en entité distincte
conférerait quelque avantage à l’État étranger devant les tribunaux
américains tout en l’exonérant de ses obligations. »
113. Les décisions de justice dont l’Iran tire grief ont été rendues par des
tribunaux américains en application de ces dispositions législatives. Elles
ont ordonné des mesures de saisie, d’exécution, de remise ou de distribution
d’actifs appartenant à certaines sociétés iraniennes.
114. Les demandes de l’Iran se rapportent également au décret
présidentiel no 13599 de 2012, intitulé « Blocage des biens de l’État iranien et
des institutions financières iraniennes ». L’article premier de ce décret
dispose ce qui suit :
« a) Tous les biens et participations dans des biens de l’État iranien, y
compris ceux de la banque centrale iranienne, se trouvant actuellement
ou à l’avenir sur le territoire des États‑Unis ou en la possession
ou sous le contrôle de toute personne des États‑Unis, y compris toute
succursale étrangère, sont bloqués et ne peuvent faire l’objet d’aucun
transfert, paiement, exportation, retrait ou autre opération.
96 certain iranian assets (judgment)
(b) All property and interests in property of any Iranian financial institution,
including the Central Bank of Iran, that are in the United
States, that hereafter come within the United States, or that are or
hereafter come within the possession or control of any United States
person, including any foreign branch, are blocked and may not be
transferred, paid, exported, withdrawn, or otherwise dealt in.
(c) All property and interests in property that are in the United States,
that hereafter come within the United States, or that are or hereafter
come within the possession or control of any United States person,
including any foreign branch, of the following persons are blocked
and may not be transferred, paid, exported, withdrawn, or otherwise
dealt in: any person determined by the Secretary of the Treasury, in
consultation with the Secretary of State, to be owned or controlled
by, or to have acted or purported to act for or on behalf of, directly
or indirectly, any person whose property and interests in property
are blocked pursuant to this order.”
115. The Parties agree that, as concerns the domestic cases challenged by
Iran in these proceedings, the main effect of Executive Order 13599 was
the blocking of Bank Markazi’s assets. Since the Court has found that it does
not have jurisdiction under the Treaty of Amity to entertain claims relating
to alleged violations of Articles III, IV and V predicated on treatment
accorded to Bank Markazi (see paragraph 54 above), it will not consider
Iran’s claims in respect of Executive Order 13599 in so far as they concern
this entity. For the same reason, the Court will not consider Iran’s allegations
with respect to the Peterson case and Section 502 of the ITRSHRA (see
paragraph 29 above). The Court will, however, examine Iran’s other claims
in respect of Executive Order 13599.
* *
116. Iran argues that, as a result of the measures described above, Iranian
enterprises and Iran itself have been deprived of the rights they enjoyed
under the Treaty of Amity. They have been stripped of their assets, and the
freedom of commerce and navigation guaranteed by the Treaty has been
severely curtailed. It asserts that the United States has established an
exceptional legal régime, amending its laws and regulations to ensure that
the assets of Iranian companies could be seized for the purpose of executing
judgments against Iran, despite the fact that those companies have no relation
to the judgments against Iran or to the allegations on which they are
based. The Applicant adds that the legal defences which Iranian companies
should have been able to enjoy under the Treaty of Amity have been “systemcertains
actifs iraniens (arrêt) 96
b) Tous les biens et participations dans des biens des institutions financières
iraniennes, y compris ceux de la banque centrale iranienne, se
trouvant actuellement ou à l’avenir sur le territoire des États‑Unis ou
en la possession ou sous le contrôle de toute personne des États‑Unis,
y compris toute succursale étrangère, sont bloqués et ne peuvent faire
l’objet d’aucun transfert, paiement, exportation, retrait ou autre
opération.
c) Tous les biens et participations dans des biens se trouvant actuellement
ou à l’avenir sur le territoire des États‑Unis ou en la possession
ou sous le contrôle de toute personne des États‑Unis, y compris toute
succursale étrangère, sont bloqués et ne peuvent faire l’objet d’aucun
transfert, paiement, exportation, retrait ou autre opération, dès lors
qu’ils appartiennent à l’une des personnes suivantes : toute personne
physique ou morale dont le secrétaire au trésor établit, en consultation
avec le secrétaire d’État, qu’elle est détenue ou contrôlée par une
personne
dont les biens et les participations dans des biens sont
bloqués
en application du présent décret, ou qu’elle a agi ou aurait
agi, directement ou indirectement, pour le compte d’une telle personne
ou en son nom. »
115. Les Parties conviennent que, s’agissant des procédures internes
contestées par l’Iran dans la présente instance, le décret présidentiel no 13599
a eu pour principal effet de bloquer les actifs de la banque Markazi. Ayant
conclu qu’elle n’avait pas compétence en vertu du traité d’amitié pour
connaître de demandes relatives à des violations alléguées des articles III,
IV et V fondées sur le traitement accordé à ladite banque (voir le paragraphe
54 ci-dessus), la Cour n’examinera pas les demandes de l’Iran concernant
le décret présidentiel no 13599 dans la mesure où elles se rapportent à cette
entité. Pour la même raison, elle ne s’intéressera pas non plus aux allégations
de l’Iran relatives à l’affaire Peterson et à l’article 502 de la ITRSHRA
(voir le paragraphe 29 ci-dessus). La Cour traitera en revanche les autres
demandes de l’Iran qui concernent le décret présidentiel no 13599.
* *
116. L’Iran fait valoir que, par suite des mesures rappelées ci-dessus, les
sociétés iraniennes et lui-même ont été privés des droits dont ils jouissaient
en vertu du traité d’amitié. Ils ont été dépossédés de leurs actifs, et la liberté
de commerce et de navigation garantie par le traité s’est trouvée gravement
entravée. L’Iran reproche aux États‑Unis d’avoir instauré un régime
juridique d’exception, modifiant leurs lois et règlements pour faire en
sorte que les actifs des sociétés iraniennes puissent être saisis aux fins de
l’exécution de jugements rendus contre lui, en dépit du fait que ces sociétés
n’ont aucun lien avec lesdits jugements ou avec les allégations sur lesquels
ils sont fondés. Le demandeur ajoute que les moyens de défense dont les
sociétés iraniennes auraient dû pouvoir bénéficier en vertu du traité d’amitié
97 certain iranian assets (judgment)
atically neutralized” by the legislative provisions adopted by the United
States and “systematically rejected” by the courts.
117. According to Iran, through these measures, the United States has
disregarded the principle of separation of legal personalities and unlawfully
blocked and seized property of certain Iranian companies and of Iran itself.
It takes note of the United States’ assertion that it has adopted these measures
as part of its “efforts to provide redress for victims of terrorism”. Yet,
in Iran’s view, the United States has not explained how such efforts could
justify its conduct towards Iranian enterprises engaged in commercial
activities.
118. Iran consequently submits that the United States has violated its obligations
under Article III, paragraphs 1 and 2, Article IV, paragraphs 1 and 2,
Article V, paragraph 1, Article VII, paragraph 1, and Article X, paragraph 1,
of the Treaty of Amity.
*
119. The United States, for its part, considers that the dispute is inextricably
linked to its domestic response aimed at holding accountable State
sponsors of terrorism and providing redress for victims of terrorist acts. The
Respondent contends that its measures enabling victims of terrorism to seek
redress for their losses, which were taken progressively over a period of
years, as well as the related judicial decisions, do not constitute violations of
the Treaty of Amity.
120. The United States maintains that the relevant legislative provisions,
which allow plaintiffs to enforce liability judgments against Iran upon the
property of the State and its agencies and instrumentalities, are a reasonable
and measured response to “the refusal of State sponsors of terrorism to
reckon
with the immense harm that they have caused”. It emphasizes that the
measures apply equally to all designated State sponsors of terrorism and
not solely to Iran, and that they were in place prior to the initiation of the
enforcement proceedings at issue. As concerns those proceedings, the
United States stresses that Iran has not alleged any procedural impropriety
by the courts, which assess whether the statutory criteria are met and give
interested parties the opportunity to be heard. It adds that the relevant orders
are subject to appeal.
121. The Respondent argues that the measures at issue are outside the
realm of the Treaty of Amity because they are not targeted at trade and transactions
between the Parties. It rejects the argument that the Treaty requires
corporate separateness in all circumstances, maintaining that Articles III,
IV and V do not constrain the regulatory power of either Party to allow
victims
to use the judicial process to hold State sponsors of terrorism to
certains actifs iraniens (arrêt) 97
ont été « systématiquement neutralis[és] » par les dispositions législatives
que les États‑Unis ont adoptées, et « systématiquement rejet[és] » par les
tribunaux.
117. L’Iran estime que, par ces mesures, les États‑Unis ont méconnu le
principe de la séparation des personnalités juridiques, et bloqué et saisi de
manière illicite des biens appartenant à certaines sociétés iraniennes et à
lui-même. Il prend note de l’assertion des États‑Unis selon laquelle ces derniers
ont adopté lesdites mesures dans le cadre de leurs « [i]nitiatives visant
à assurer réparation aux victimes d’actes de terrorisme ». Cependant, de son
point de vue, les États‑Unis n’ont pas expliqué en quoi ces initiatives pourraient
justifier leur comportement à l’égard de sociétés iraniennes se livrant
à des activités commerciales.
118. En conséquence, l’Iran soutient que les États‑Unis ont manqué aux
obligations que leur imposent les paragraphes 1 et 2 de l’article III, les paragraphes
1 et 2 de l’article IV, le paragraphe 1 de l’article V, le paragraphe 1
de l’article VII et le paragraphe 1 de l’article X du traité d’amitié.
*
119. Les États‑Unis, pour leur part, considèrent que le différend est indissociablement
lié à leur réponse nationale visant à amener les États soutenant le
terrorisme à rendre des comptes et à accorder réparation aux victimes d’actes
de terrorisme. Le défendeur affirme que les mesures qu’il a prises progressivement
sur une période de plusieurs années, afin de permettre auxdites
victimes de demander réparation des pertes qu’elles ont subies, ainsi que les
décisions de justice connexes, n’emportent pas violation du traité d’amitié.
120. Les États‑Unis soutiennent que les dispositions législatives en question,
qui permettent aux plaignants de faire exécuter des jugements en
responsabilité rendus contre l’Iran sur les biens de l’État et de ses organismes
et agences, constituent une réponse raisonnable et mesurée au « refus des
États soutenant le terrorisme d’assumer leur responsabilité pour les immenses
dommages qu’ils ont causés ». Le défendeur souligne que ces mesures
s’appliquent
de manière égale à tous les États désignés en tant qu’États
soutenant
le terrorisme, et non pas seulement à l’Iran, et qu’elles étaient en
vigueur avant l’engagement des procédures d’exécution en cause. S’agissant
de ces procédures, les États‑Unis relèvent que l’Iran n’a pas allégué la
moindre irrégularité procédurale de la part des tribunaux, qui déterminent
s’il est satisfait aux critères prévus par la loi et donnent aux parties intéressées
la possibilité d’être entendues. Ils ajoutent que les décisions concernées sont
susceptibles d’appel.
121. Le défendeur avance que les mesures en cause n’entrent pas dans les
prévisions du traité d’amitié car elles ne visent pas le commerce et les transactions
entre les parties. Il rejette l’argument selon lequel cet instrument
requiert l’existence d’une personnalité juridique distincte en toute circonstance,
soutenant que les articles III, IV et V ne limitent pas le pouvoir
réglementaire dont dispose chaque partie d’autoriser les victimes à agir en
98 certain iranian assets (judgment)
account and seek compensation. It adds that Article VII, paragraph 1, and
Article X, paragraph 1, do not apply to the type of measures at issue.
* *
122. The Court observes that the Parties have divergent views on the
question
to what extent the Treaty of Amity imposes limits on a State’s
regulatory powers. In this respect, the Parties’ disagreements essentially
relate to the alleged disregard of the separate legal personality of Iranian
companies and to the attachment and execution of their assets to satisfy
liability judgments against Iran. Their main arguments on these issues
concern the interpretation of Article III, paragraph 1, and Article IV, paragraph
1, of the Treaty, and their application in the circumstances of the
present case. Since the Parties’ arguments in respect of these provisions are
closely related, the Court will address Iran’s claims based on Article III,
paragraph 1, and Article IV, paragraph 1, together, before examining the
remainder of its claims.
A. Alleged Violations of Article III, Paragraph 1,
and Article IV, Paragraph 1
123. Article III, paragraph 1, of the Treaty of Amity reads as follows:
“Companies constituted under the applicable laws and regulations of
either High Contracting Party shall have their juridical status recognized
within the territories of the other High Contracting Party. It is
understood, however, that recognition of juridical status does not of
itself confer rights upon companies to engage in the activities for which
they are organized. As used in the present Treaty, ‘companies’ means
corporations, partnerships, companies and other associations, whether
or not with limited liability and whether or not for pecuniary profit.”
Article IV, paragraph 1, of the Treaty provides:
“Each High Contracting Party shall at all times accord fair and equitable
treatment to nationals and companies of the other High Contracting
Party, and to their property and enterprises; shall refrain from applying
unreasonable or discriminatory measures that would impair their legally
acquired rights and interests; and shall assure that their lawful contractual
rights are afforded effective means of enforcement, in conformity
with the applicable laws.”
124. Iran argues that, through the legislative, executive and judicial measures
at issue, the United States has deprived Iranian companies of the
certains actifs iraniens (arrêt) 98
justice pour contraindre les États soutenant le terrorisme à rendre des comptes
et à les indemniser. Il ajoute que le paragraphe 1 de l’article VII et le paragraphe
1 de l’article X ne s’appliquent pas au type de mesures en cause.
* *
122. La Cour observe que les Parties ont des vues divergentes sur la question
de savoir dans quelle mesure le traité d’amitié impose des limites aux
pouvoirs réglementaires d’un État. À cet égard, leurs désaccords ont trait,
pour l’essentiel, à la méconnaissance alléguée de la personnalité juridique
distincte des sociétés iraniennes, ainsi qu’à la saisie des actifs de celles-ci
en vue de l’exécution de jugements en responsabilité rendus contre l’Iran.
Leurs arguments principaux sur ces points concernent l’interprétation du
paragraphe 1 de l’article III et du paragraphe 1 de l’article IV du traité, ainsi
que leur application dans les circonstances de l’espèce. Les arguments des
Parties
relatifs à ces dispositions étant étroitement liés, la Cour traitera
ensemble les prétentions de l’Iran fondées sur le paragraphe 1 de l’article III
et le paragraphe 1 de l’article IV, avant d’examiner ses autres demandes.
A. Violations alléguées du paragraphe 1 de l’article III
et du paragraphe 1 de l’article IV
123. Le paragraphe 1 de l’article III du traité d’amitié se lit comme suit :
« Le statut juridique des sociétés constituées sous le régime des lois et
règlements de l’une des Hautes Parties contractantes applicables en la
matière sera reconnu dans les territoires de l’autre Haute Partie contractante.
Il est entendu toutefois qu’en elle-même la reconnaissance de
ce statut juridique ne donnera pas aux sociétés le droit de se livrer à
l’activité en vue de laquelle elles sont organisées. Au sens du présent
Traité, le terme “sociétés” doit s’entendre des sociétés de capitaux ou de
personnes, des compagnies et de toutes associations, qu’elles soient ou
non à responsabilité limitée et à but lucratif. » [Traduction du Secrétariat
de l’Organisation des Nations Unies.]
Le paragraphe 1 de l’article IV du traité est ainsi libellé :
« Chacune des Hautes Parties contractantes accordera en tout temps
un traitement juste et équitable aux ressortissants et aux sociétés de
l’autre Haute Partie contractante, ainsi qu’à leurs biens et à leurs entreprises
; elle ne prendra aucune mesure déraisonnable ou discriminatoire
pouvant porter atteinte à leurs droits ou à leurs intérêts légalement
acquis ; et en conformité des lois applicables en la matière, elle assurera
des voies d’exécution efficaces à leurs droits contractuels légitimement
nés. » [Traduction de la Cour.]
124. L’Iran fait valoir que, de par les mesures législatives, administratives
et judiciaires en cause, les États‑Unis ont privé les sociétés iraniennes de
99 certain iranian assets (judgment)
independent legal personality conferred on them by their juridical status
and conflated their assets with those of the Iranian State, in violation of
Article III, paragraph 1, of the Treaty of Amity. Iran also argues that, by
abrogating Iranian
companies’ separate legal personality, removing a legal
defence otherwise available to them, and making them liable for purportedly
wrongful acts of Iran that were the subject of judgments in proceedings
to which they were not parties, the United States has failed to afford Iranian
companies the treatment prescribed by Article IV, paragraph 1, of the Treaty.
125. According to Iran, the juridical status of a company is established
by the law of the State in which it was created, and it is this law that determines
whether an entity has its own legal personality, as well as the specific
elements of that legal personality. The United States is therefore obliged to
give effect to the juridical status of Iranian companies as determined by
Iranian law, including by recognizing that they have their own, separate
legal personality. Iran contends that, under Article III, paragraph 1, of the
Treaty of Amity, a company’s own legal personality must be recognized and
its constituent elements, including its assets, must not be conflated with
those of other legal persons. The Applicant considers that the interpretation
of Article III, paragraph 1, put forward by the United States is not compatible
with the Court’s jurisprudence.
126. As concerns Article IV, paragraph 1, of the Treaty of Amity, Iran
contends that it contains three freestanding obligations of protection, all of
which have been violated by the United States. Concerning the first obligation,
Iran argues that the “fair and equitable treatment” standard in the
Treaty is not tied to the minimum standard of treatment under customary
international law. In its view, it is well established that, in considering
whether the obligation to afford fair and equitable treatment has been
breached, international tribunals will examine whether the conduct (a) is
arbitrary, grossly unfair, unjust or idiosyncratic; (b) is discriminatory;
(c) involves a lack of due process leading to an outcome which offends
judicial propriety, including but not limited to a denial of justice; or (d) defeats
the legitimate expectations of Iranian nationals and companies. It maintains
that, even under the United States’ restrictive interpretation, there was a
denial of justice because the companies could not rely on their separate
juridical personality.
127. With regard to the second obligation under Article IV, paragraph 1, to
refrain from applying unreasonable or discriminatory measures, Iran maintains
that for a measure to be reasonable, there must be an appropriate
correlation between the State’s public policy objective and the measure
adopted to achieve it, noting that, in assessing reasonableness, tribunals also
refer to the concept of proportionality. As regards the third obligation, to
certains actifs iraniens (arrêt) 99
la personnalité juridique indépendante qu’elles tenaient de leur statut juridique
et assimilé leurs actifs à ceux de l’État iranien, en violation du
paragraphe 1 de l’article III du traité d’amitié. Il affirme également que, en
supprimant la personnalité juridique distincte des sociétés iraniennes, en les
privant d’un moyen de défense qui aurait autrement été à leur disposition et
en les rendant responsables d’actes prétendument illicites de l’Iran qui
avaient fait l’objet de jugements rendus dans des procédures auxquelles elles
n’étaient pas parties, les États‑Unis n’ont pas accordé aux sociétés iraniennes
le traitement prescrit par le paragraphe 1 de l’article IV du traité.
125. Selon l’Iran, le statut juridique d’une société est défini par le droit de
l’État dans lequel elle a été créée, et c’est ce droit qui détermine si une entité
possède une personnalité juridique propre, et quels en sont les éléments
spécifiques.
Les États‑Unis sont par conséquent tenus de donner effet au statut
juridique des sociétés iraniennes tel qu’il a été établi par le droit iranien,
notamment en reconnaissant que ces sociétés possèdent une personnalité
juridique distincte qui leur est propre. L’Iran soutient que, en application du
paragraphe 1 de l’article III du traité d’amitié, la personnalité juridique
propre à une société doit être reconnue, et que ses éléments constitutifs, y
compris ses actifs, ne sauraient être assimilés à ceux d’autres personnes
morales. Le demandeur estime que l’interprétation du paragraphe 1 de l’article
III avancée par les États‑Unis n’est pas compatible avec la jurisprudence
de la Cour.
126. En ce qui concerne le paragraphe 1 de l’article IV du traité d’amitié,
l’Iran soutient qu’il comporte trois obligations de protection autonomes,
lesquelles
ont toutes été violées par les États‑Unis. Pour ce qui est de la première
obligation, l’Iran allègue que le standard de « traitement juste et équitable
» prévu par le traité n’est pas lié au standard minimum de traitement
du droit international coutumier. Selon lui, il est bien établi que, pour
rechercher si l’obligation d’accorder un traitement juste et équitable a été
violée,
les juridictions internationales examinent si le comportement en
cause a) est arbitraire, manifestement inéquitable, injuste ou singulier ; b) est
discriminatoire ; c) se traduit par une absence de procédure régulière
conduisant à un résultat contraire à une bonne administration de la justice, y
compris, mais non exclusivement, un déni de justice ; ou d) est contraire aux
attentes légitimes des sociétés et ressortissants iraniens. L’Iran fait valoir
que, même selon l’interprétation restrictive faite par les États‑Unis, il y a eu
déni de justice, ses sociétés n’ayant pas pu se prévaloir de leur personnalité
juridique distincte.
127. S’agissant de la deuxième obligation énoncée au paragraphe 1 de
l’article
IV, qui interdit d’imposer des mesures déraisonnables ou discriminatoires,
l’Iran soutient que, pour qu’une mesure soit raisonnable, il doit exister
une corrélation adéquate entre l’objectif de politique publique poursuivi
par
l’État et la mesure adoptée pour y parvenir, relevant que, dans le cadre de
l’appréciation du caractère raisonnable, les juridictions se réfèrent également
100 certain iranian assets (judgment)
afford effective means of enforcement of lawful contractual rights, the Applicant
contends that the United States has failed to do so in relation to certain
Iranian companies, since the relevant enforcement proceedings involved
funds representing contractual debts owed to Iranian companies by companies
of the United States.
128. Iran contests the argument made by the United States in respect of
both Article III, paragraph 1, and Article IV, paragraph 1, that “piercing the
corporate veil” to provide compensation for victims was fair and reasonable.
Iran argues that none of the instances considered by the Court in the case
concerning Barcelona Traction, Light and Power Company, Limited (New
Application: 1962) (Belgium v. Spain) is applicable in the current circumstances.
It adds that the United States provides no evidence capable of justifying
each “piercing”, and that it has adopted a collective measure, namely
the “elimination of legal separateness” of companies.
*
129. The United States rejects Iran’s claims under Article III, paragraph 1,
and Article IV, paragraph 1, which it describes as “almost identical”.
130. The United States argues that the recognition of juridical status
under Article III, paragraph 1, entails only the recognition of a company’s
existence
as a legal entity and not the recognition of its legal separateness.
It contends that this provision does not confer any other rights upon a company.
It maintains that the very fact that Iranian companies have appeared
and participated in judicial proceedings demonstrates that their juridical
status
has been recognized.
131. According to the United States, the Court observed in the Barcelona
Traction, Light and Power Company, Limited (New Application: 1962)
(Belgium v. Spain) case and subsequent judgments that, in municipal law,
the privilege of the corporate form is not treated as absolute and can be
disregarded in extraordinary cases. The Respondent argues that its decision
to enable victims of terrorism to obtain compensation through enforcement
proceedings against Iran’s State-owned agencies and instrumentalities is
one of those cases.
132. As concerns Article IV, paragraph 1, the United States contends that
the phrase “fair and equitable treatment” reflects one of the components
of the customary minimum standard of treatment of aliens, as understood
at the time of the conclusion of the Treaty of Amity, namely protection
against a denial of justice. It considers that the second and third clauses, concerning
“unreasonable or discriminatory measures” and “effective means”
certains actifs iraniens (arrêt) 100
à la notion de proportionnalité. En ce qui concerne la troisième obligation,
celle qui consiste à accorder des voies d’exécution efficaces aux droits
contractuels légitimement nés, le demandeur affirme que les États‑Unis
ne l’ont pas fait vis-à-vis de certaines sociétés iraniennes, puisque les
procédures
d’exécution en question ont mis en jeu des fonds représentant des
dettes contractuelles dues à des sociétés iraniennes par des sociétés
américaines.
128. L’Iran conteste l’argument avancé par les États‑Unis, en ce qui
concerne tant le paragraphe 1 de l’article III que le paragraphe 1 de l’article IV,
selon lequel la « levée du voile social » aux fins de l’indemnisation des
victimes était juste et raisonnable. Il soutient qu’aucun des exemples examinés
par la Cour en l’affaire relative à la Barcelona Traction, Light and Power
Company, Limited (nouvelle requête : 1962) (Belgique c. Espagne) n’est
applicable dans les circonstances de la présente espèce. Le demandeur ajoute
que les États‑Unis ne produisent aucun élément de preuve susceptible de
justifier
chaque « levée », et qu’ils ont adopté une mesure collective, à savoir
l’« élimination de la personnalité juridique indépendante » des sociétés.
*
129. Les États‑Unis rejettent les demandes de l’Iran fondées sur le paragraphe
1 de l’article III et le paragraphe 1 de l’article IV, qu’ils qualifient de
« quasi identique[s] ».
130. Le défendeur allègue que la reconnaissance du statut juridique au sens
du paragraphe 1 de l’article III implique seulement de reconnaître l’existence
d’une société en tant qu’entité juridique et non de reconnaître sa personnalité
juridique distincte. Il avance que cette disposition ne confère aucun autre
droit à une société. Les États‑Unis soutiennent que le fait même que certaines
sociétés iraniennes aient comparu dans des procédures judiciaires et participé
à celles-ci démontre que leur statut juridique a été reconnu.
131. Selon les États‑Unis, la Cour a observé en l’affaire relative à la Barcelona
Traction, Light and Power Company, Limited (nouvelle requête : 1962)
(Belgique c. Espagne) et dans des arrêts ultérieurs que, en droit interne, le
privilège de la forme sociale n’était pas considéré comme absolu et qu’il
pouvait
en être fait abstraction dans des cas exceptionnels. Le défendeur
allègue que sa décision de permettre à des victimes d’actes de terrorisme
d’obtenir une indemnisation en engageant des procédures d’exécution contre
des organismes et agences appartenant à l’État iranien constitue l’un de ces
cas.
132. Pour ce qui est du paragraphe 1 de l’article IV, les États‑Unis affirment
que l’expression « traitement juste et équitable » reflète l’un des éléments
constitutifs du standard minimum de traitement des étrangers prévu par le
droit coutumier, tel qu’on l’entendait au moment de la conclusion du traité
d’amitié, à savoir la protection contre un déni de justice. Ils estiment que les
deuxième et troisième clauses, qui portent respectivement sur les « mesure[s]
101 certain iranian assets (judgment)
respectively, do not establish independent obligations, but rather inform the
interpretation of the fair and equitable treatment standard.
133. The United States maintains that, for a denial of justice to be established,
the conduct related to the administration of justice must be notoriously
unjust or egregious. It argues that, in this case, the aforementioned requirement
is not met, because the Iranian companies were able to engage in the
same legal process available to other litigants in the United States and its
domestic courts ensured the protection of the companies’ rights even when
Iran or Iranian entities chose not to participate in the proceedings. The
Respondent further argues that there has been no denial of justice because
“it was both reasonable and justified” to pierce the corporate veil and allow
victims holding terrorism-related judgments against Iran to attach assets of
Iran’s agencies and instrumentalities.
134. In the Respondent’s view, even under Iran’s proposed standards, the
United States did not breach Article IV, paragraph 1, of the Treaty. The
United States maintains that the challenged measures are part of a rational
policy aimed at responding to the sustained support of terrorist acts and at
satisfying valid judgments against Iran. It contends that the measures were
reasonably related to this policy, authorizing the attachment only of assets
wholly owned or majority-owned by Iran or its agencies and instrumentalities,
and not private companies. It emphasizes that proportionality is not
mentioned in Article IV, paragraph 1, but argues that the measures were in
any case proportional. The United States further asserts that there was no
lack of due process, since the measures did not prevent Iranian companies
from examining witnesses, presenting evidence, hiring counsel or pursuing
appeals. It also argues that, under customary international law, there is no
doctrine of legitimate expectations and that, in any case, Iran has failed to
establish that any companies had relevant expectations or that the United
States made specific representations. The Respondent adds that there has
been no discrimination, since the measures are applicable to all States
designated
as a sponsor of terrorism and are not limited to Iran. The United
States submits that Iran’s claims regarding the denial of effective means of
enforcing contractual rights should be dismissed, because the measures
only authorized the attachment and execution of proceeds from certain
contracts, and did not interfere with the contractual rights themselves or
with the companies’
ability to enforce them before the courts.
* *
135. The Court begins by examining the scope of the obligation established
by the first sentence of Article III, paragraph 1, of the Treaty, which
provides that “[c]ompanies constituted under the applicable laws and regulacertains
actifs iraniens (arrêt) 101
déraisonnable[s] ou discriminatoire[s] » et les « voies … efficaces », ne créent
pas des obligations indépendantes, mais éclairent l’interprétation du standard
de traitement juste et équitable.
133. Les États‑Unis soutiennent que, pour qu’un déni de justice soit établi,
le comportement relatif à l’administration de la justice doit être notoirement
injuste ou grave. Ils allèguent que, en la présente espèce, il n’est pas satisfait
au critère susmentionné parce que les sociétés iraniennes ont pu participer
aux mêmes procédures judiciaires que d’autres justiciables aux États‑Unis et
que leurs tribunaux nationaux ont veillé à protéger les droits des sociétés
même lorsque l’Iran ou des entités iraniennes avaient décidé de ne pas prendre
part aux procédures. Le défendeur fait en outre valoir qu’il n’y a pas eu déni
de justice car « il était à la fois raisonnable et justifié » de lever le voile social
et de permettre aux victimes bénéficiaires de jugements condamnant l’Iran du
chef de terrorisme de saisir les actifs des organismes et agences de cet État.
134. Les États‑Unis estiment que, même à l’aune des critères que propose
l’Iran, ils n’ont pas violé le paragraphe 1 de l’article IV du traité. Ils affirment
que les mesures contestées s’inscrivent dans une politique rationnelle visant
à répondre au soutien persistant apporté à des actes de terrorisme et à garantir
l’exécution de jugements valablement rendus contre l’Iran. Selon eux,
ces mesures présentaient un lien raisonnable avec cette politique, puisqu’elles
n’autorisaient que la saisie d’actifs détenus entièrement ou majoritairement
par l’Iran ou ses organismes et agences, et non par des sociétés privées.
Les États‑Unis soulignent qu’il n’est pas fait mention de la proportionnalité
au paragraphe 1 de l’article IV, mais allèguent que les mesures étaient, en tout
état de cause, proportionnelles. Ils font en outre valoir qu’il n’y a pas eu
absence de procédure régulière, les mesures en cause n’ayant pas empêché
les sociétés iraniennes d’interroger des témoins, de produire des éléments de
preuve, de désigner des conseils ou d’engager des procédures d’appel. Ils
avancent également que, en droit international coutumier, il n’existe pas
de doctrine des attentes légitimes, et que l’Iran n’a de toute façon pas démontré
qu’une quelconque société aurait eu des attentes pertinentes ou que les
États‑Unis auraient exprimé des positions particulières. Le défendeur ajoute
qu’il n’y a pas eu discrimination, les mesures étant applicables à tous les États
désignés comme des États soutenant le terrorisme et ne se limitant pas à
l’Iran. Les États‑Unis affirment que les demandes de l’Iran relatives au défaut
d’assurer des voies d’exécution efficaces à des droits contractuels devraient
être rejetées parce que les mesures n’ont permis que la saisie du produit de
certains contrats et l’application de mesures d’exécution à l’égard de celui-ci,
et qu’elles n’ont pas eu d’incidence sur les droits contractuels eux-mêmes ou
sur la capacité des sociétés de les faire appliquer devant les tribunaux.
* *
135. La Cour commencera par examiner la portée de l’obligation créée par
la première phrase du paragraphe 1 de l’article III du traité, qui se lit comme
suit : « Le statut juridique des sociétés constituées sous le régime des lois et
102 certain iranian assets (judgment)
tions of either High Contracting Party shall have their juridical status
recognized within the territories of the other High Contracting Party”. The
Parties’ disagreement revolves around the meaning of the phrase “shall have
their juridical status recognized”. According to Iran, this phrase entails the
obligation to give effect to the juridical status of companies as determined by
the State where they were created, including their separate legal personality.
For the United States, this phrase refers to the recognition of a company’s
legal existence, but not its legal separateness.
136. The Court recalls that, in its 2019 Judgment, it examined the definition
of the term “company”, as reflected in the third sentence of Article III,
paragraph 1, of the Treaty. Based on that definition, the Court considered
that the following point is not in doubt:
“an entity may only be characterized as a ‘company’ within the meaning
of the Treaty if it has its own legal personality, conferred on it by the
law of the State where it was created, which establishes its legal status.
In this regard, Article III, paragraph 1, begins by stating that
‘[c]ompanies constituted under the applicable laws and regulations of
either High Contracting Party shall have their juridical status recognized
within the territories of the other High Contracting Party’.”
(Certain Iranian Assets (Islamic Republic of Iran v. United States of
America), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2019 (I),
p. 37, para. 87.)
Accordingly, the Court considers that the expression “juridical status”
refers to the companies’ own legal personality. The recognition of a company’s
own legal personality entails the legal existence of the company as an
entity that is distinct from other natural or legal persons, including States.
137. It does not follow, however, that the legal situation of such an entity
will always be the same as in the State in which it was constituted. In the
case concerning Barcelona Traction, Light and Power Company, Limited
(New Application: 1962) (Belgium v. Spain), the Court noted that international
law recognizes the corporate entity as an institution created by States
within their domestic jurisdiction, and it explained that the legal situation of
such entities is determined by municipal law, which endows them with rights
and obligations peculiar to themselves (Second Phase, Judgment, I.C.J.
Reports 1970, pp. 33-34, paras. 38-41). The Court affirmed moreover that
“the independent existence of the legal entity cannot be treated as an absolute”
and observed that the process of disregarding the legal entity had been
found justified in certain exceptional circumstances (ibid., pp. 38-39,
paras. 56-58).
138. In the present case, it is not disputed that the companies allegedly
affected by the measures of the United States were constituted under Iranian
law as separate legal entities with their own legal personality. The Parties
certains actifs iraniens (arrêt) 102
règlements de l’une des Hautes Parties contractantes applicables en la
matière sera reconnu dans les territoires de l’autre Haute Partie contractante.
» Le désaccord entre les Parties porte sur le sens de l’expression « le
statut juridique … sera reconnu ». Selon l’Iran, cette expression emporte
l’obligation de donner effet au statut juridique des sociétés, tel qu’il a été
déterminé par l’État dans lequel elles ont été créées, y compris à leur personnalité
juridique distincte. Selon les États‑Unis, cette expression fait référence
à la reconnaissance de l’existence juridique d’une société, et non de sa
personnalité juridique distincte.
136. La Cour rappelle que, dans son arrêt de 2019, elle s’est penchée sur la
définition du terme « société », tel qu’il figure dans la troisième phrase du
paragraphe 1 de l’article III du traité. Sur le fondement de cette définition,
elle a estimé que le point suivant n’était pas douteux :
« Une entité ne peut être qualifiée de “société” au sens du traité que si
elle possède une personnalité juridique propre que lui confère le droit de
l’État où elle a été créée, lequel détermine son statut juridique. À cet
égard, le paragraphe 1 de l’article III précise à son début que “[l]e statut
juridique des sociétés constituées sous le régime des lois et règlements
de l’une des Hautes Parties contractantes applicables en la matière
sera reconnu dans les territoires de l’autre Haute Partie contractante”. »
(Certains actifs iraniens (République islamique d’Iran c. États‑Unis
d’Amérique), exceptions préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2019 (I),
p. 37, par. 87.)
En conséquence, la Cour estime que l’expression « statut juridique » fait
référence à la personnalité juridique propre des sociétés. La reconnaissance
de la personnalité juridique propre d’une société suppose l’existence juridique
de cette société en tant qu’entité distincte d’autres personnes physiques
ou morales, dont les États.
137. Il ne s’ensuit pas, toutefois, que la situation juridique d’une telle entité
sera toujours la même que dans l’État dans lequel cette dernière a été
constituée.
En l’affaire relative à la Barcelona Traction, Light and Power
Company, Limited (nouvelle requête : 1962) (Belgique c. Espagne), la Cour
a observé que le droit international reconnaissait la société comme une
institution créée par les États et relevant de leur compétence nationale, et
expliqué que la situation juridique de pareilles entités était déterminée par le
droit interne, qui leur conférait des droits et des obligations qui leur étaient
propres (deuxième phase, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1970, p. 33-34, par. 38-41). La
Cour a en outre affirmé que « l’existence indépendante de la personnalité
morale ne saurait être considérée comme un absolu » et observé que l’on
avait estimé justifié de faire abstraction de la personnalité juridique dans
certaines circonstances exceptionnelles (ibid., p. 38-39, par. 56-58).
138. En la présente espèce, il n’est pas contesté que les sociétés qui auraient
été touchées par les mesures des États‑Unis ont été constituées sous le régime
du droit iranien en tant que personnes morales distinctes dotées
103 certain iranian assets (judgment)
disagree on whether the United States disregarded the legal personality of
the companies through its legislative, executive and judicial measures and
whether this was justified. In the Court’s view, the obligation under
Article III, paragraph 1, to recognize the juridical status of companies of
the other Contracting Party is not necessarily satisfied by the fact of their
appearance
at and participation in domestic judicial proceedings. The Court
will examine all the relevant measures in order to determine whether the
United States disregarded the legal personality of the Iranian companies
and, if so, whether this was justified.
The Court will address these questions in the context of its examination of
Iran’s claims under Article IV, paragraph 1, of the Treaty of Amity.
*
139. With regard to Article IV, paragraph 1, the Court recalls that it is, as
a whole, “aimed at the way in which the natural persons and legal entities
in question are, in the exercise of their private or professional activities,
to be treated by the State concerned” (Oil Platforms (Islamic Republic of
Iran v. United States of America), Preliminary Objection, Judgment, I.C.J.
Reports 1996 (II), p. 816, para. 36).
140. Article IV, paragraph 1, consists of three clauses separated by semicolons,
and each clause starts with the word “shall” (see paragraph 123
above). Interpreted in good faith, in accordance with the ordinary meaning
to be given to its terms in their context, it is clear that Article IV, paragraph
1, comprises three distinct obligations. The interpretation put forward
by the United States according to which the second and third clauses of
Article IV, paragraph 1, do not establish independent obligations has no
basis in the text of the Treaty.
141. Article IV, paragraph 1, neither refers to the “customary minimum
standard of treatment”, nor employs other formulations sometimes associated
with that standard, such as “required by international law”.
Accordingly, there is no need to examine the content of the customary minimum
standard of treatment. The Court will focus on Article IV, paragraph 1,
of the Treaty and apply it to the present case.
142. The first clause of Article IV, paragraph 1, provides that “[e]ach High
Contracting Party shall at all times accord fair and equitable treatment to
nationals and companies of the other High Contracting Party, and to their
property and enterprises”. The Parties agree that the obligation to afford
“fair and equitable treatment” includes protection against a denial of justice.
Iran argues that for such a denial to occur, there must be an obstruction of
access to courts or a failure to provide those guarantees generally considered
indispensable in the proper administration of justice. It maintains that the
legislative, executive and judicial acts at issue have resulted in a denial of
certains actifs iraniens (arrêt) 103
d’une personnalité juridique propre. Les Parties sont en désaccord sur les
points de savoir si les États‑Unis ont fait abstraction de la personnalité juridique
des sociétés par leurs mesures législatives, administratives et
judiciaires, et si cela était justifié. De l’avis de la Cour, le fait que les sociétés
aient comparu dans des procédures judiciaires nationales et participé à
celles-ci n’indique pas nécessairement qu’il a été satisfait à l’obligation,
imposée par le paragraphe 1 de l’article III, de reconnaître le statut juridique
des sociétés de l’autre Partie contractante. La Cour examinera toutes les
mesures en cause afin de déterminer si les États‑Unis ont écarté la personnalité
juridique des sociétés iraniennes et, dans l’affirmative, si cela était
justifié.
La Cour traitera ces questions dans le cadre de son examen des demandes
formulées par l’Iran au titre du paragraphe 1 de l’article IV du traité d’amitié.
*
139. En ce qui concerne le paragraphe 1 de l’article IV, la Cour rappelle que
cette disposition, dans son ensemble, « vise la manière dont les personnes
physiques et morales en cause doivent, dans l’exercice de leurs activités privées
ou professionnelles, être traitées par 1’État concerné » (Plates-formes
pétrolières (République islamique d’Iran c. États‑Unis d’Amérique), exception
préliminaire, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1996 (II), p. 816, par. 36).
140. Le paragraphe 1 de l’article IV se compose de trois clauses, séparées
par un point-virgule, qui contiennent chacune un verbe au futur valant impératif
(voir le paragraphe 123 ci-dessus). Si on l’interprète de bonne foi,
conformément au sens ordinaire à attribuer à ses termes dans leur contexte, il
apparaît clairement que cette disposition comprend trois obligations distinctes.
L’interprétation proposée par les États‑Unis selon laquelle les deuxième et
troisième clauses du paragraphe 1 de l’article IV ne créent pas d’obligations
indépendantes ne trouve aucun fondement dans le libellé du traité.
141. Le paragraphe 1 de l’article IV ne mentionne nullement le « standard
minimum de traitement du droit coutumier », pas plus qu’il n’emploie d’autres
formulations parfois associées à ce standard, telles que « normes fixées par
le droit international ». Point n’est donc besoin d’examiner la teneur du standard
minimum de traitement du droit coutumier. La Cour s’attachera au
paragraphe 1 de l’article IV du traité et l’appliquera à la présente espèce.
142. La première clause du paragraphe 1 de l’article IV dispose que
« [c]hacune des Hautes Parties contractantes accordera en tout temps un traitement
juste et équitable aux ressortissants et aux sociétés de l’autre Haute
Partie contractante, ainsi qu’à leurs biens et à leurs entreprises ». Les Parties
conviennent que l’obligation d’accorder un « traitement juste et équitable »
inclut une protection contre le déni de justice. L’Iran allègue que pareil déni
est constitué s’il y a entrave à l’accès aux tribunaux ou manquement à
l’obligation
de fournir les garanties généralement considérées comme indispensables
à la bonne administration de la justice. Il soutient que les actes
104 certain iranian assets (judgment)
justice. The United States, for its part, contends that there is a high threshold
for demonstrating a denial of justice, requiring a notoriously unjust or
egregious
violation in the administration of justice which offends a sense of
judicial propriety. In the Respondent’s view, there is nothing unjust or egregious
about the measures in question.
143. In the present case, the rights of Iranian companies to appear before
the courts in the United States, to make legal submissions and to lodge
appeals, have not been curtailed. The enactment of legislative provisions
removing legal defences based on separate legal personality, and their
application
by the courts, do not in themselves constitute a serious failure in
the administration of justice amounting to a denial of justice.
144. The second clause of Article IV, paragraph 1, provides that “[e]ach
High Contracting Party . . . shall refrain from applying unreasonable or
discriminatory measures that would impair [the] legally acquired rights and
interests [of nationals and companies of the other High Contracting Party]”.
Even though the first and second clauses of Article IV, paragraph 1, lay down
two separate obligations, there is an overlap between the protection against
“unreasonable or discriminatory measures” stipulated in the second clause
and the broader standard of “fair and equitable treatment” provided for in
the first clause, because fair and equitable treatment can encompass protection
against unreasonable or discriminatory measures.
145. The Court notes that the second clause uses a disjunctive “or”, not a
conjunctive “and”, to prescribe protection against “unreasonable or discriminatory
measures”. In the case concerning Elettronica Sicula S.p.A. (ELSI)
(United States of America v. Italy), the Court conducted separate examinations
as to whether the measures concerned were either “discriminatory” or
“arbitrary” (see Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1989, pp. 72-77, paras. 121-130).
The Court considers that the terms “unreasonable” or “discriminatory” in
the second clause of Article IV, paragraph 1, reflect two different standards
against which the conduct of a State may be separately assessed.
146. The Court begins by examining whether the measures taken by the
United States and challenged by Iran are “unreasonable”. In its ordinary
meaning, the term “unreasonable” means lacking in justification based on
rational grounds.
The Court has explained that in examining the “reasonableness” of a regulation,
a court
“must recognize that the regulator . . . has the primary responsibility for
assessing the need for regulation and for choosing, on the basis of its
knowledge of the situation, the measure that it deems most appropriate
to meet that need. It will not be enough in a challenge to a regulation
simply to assert in a general way that it is unreasonable. Concrete and
certains actifs iraniens (arrêt) 104
administratifs, législatifs et judiciaires en cause ont entraîné un déni de
justice.
Les États‑Unis, pour leur part, affirment que le niveau de preuve en
matière de déni de justice est élevé, puisqu’il convient de démontrer l’existence
d’une violation notoirement injuste ou grave dans l’administration de
la justice, qui soit contraire à la bonne règle judiciaire. Du point de vue du
défendeur, les mesures en question n’ont rien d’injuste ou de grave.
143. Dans la présente affaire, les droits des sociétés iraniennes de comparaître
devant les tribunaux américains, d’avancer des arguments juridiques
et de former des appels n’ont pas été entravés. La promulgation de dispositions
législatives supprimant certains moyens de défense fondés sur la
personnalité juridique distincte et leur application par les tribunaux ne
constituent pas en elles-mêmes un grave manquement dans l’administration
de la justice qui équivaille à un déni de justice.
144. La deuxième clause du paragraphe 1 de l’article IV dispose que
« [c]hacune des Hautes Parties contractantes … ne prendra aucune mesure
déraisonnable ou discriminatoire pouvant porter atteinte [aux] droits ou
[aux] intérêts légalement acquis [des ressortissants et des sociétés de l’autre
Haute Partie contractante] ». Bien que les deux premières clauses de ce
paragraphe
fixent deux obligations distinctes, il existe un chevauchement
entre la protection contre les « mesure[s] déraisonnable[s] ou discriminatoire[
s] » mentionnée dans la deuxième clause et le standard plus large de
« traitement juste et équitable » prévu dans la première, ledit traitement
pouvant
englober une protection contre pareilles mesures.
145. La Cour relève que la deuxième clause emploie une conjonction
disjonctive « ou », et non conjonctive « et », pour prescrire une protection
contre les « mesure[s] déraisonnable[s] ou discriminatoire[s] ». En l’affaire
de l’Elettronica Sicula S.p.A. (ELSI) (États‑Unis d’Amérique c. Italie), la
Cour s’est livrée à des examens distincts pour déterminer si les mesures en
cause étaient soit « discriminatoires » soit « arbitraires » (voir arrêt, C.I.J.
Recueil 1989, p. 72-77, par. 121-130). La Cour considère que les termes
« déraisonnable » et « discriminatoire » figurant dans la deuxième clause
du paragraphe 1 de l’article IV reflètent deux critères différents à l’aune
desquels
le comportement d’un État peut être apprécié séparément.
146. La Cour commencera par rechercher si les mesures prises par les
États‑Unis et contestées par l’Iran sont « déraisonnables ». Dans son sens
ordinaire, le mot « déraisonnable » signifie dénué de justification fondée sur
des motifs rationnels.
La Cour a expliqué que, pour examiner le « caractère raisonnable » d’une
réglementation, une juridiction
« d[eva]it reconnaître que c’est à l’autorité de réglementation … que
revient la responsabilité principale d’apprécier la nécessité de réglementer
et, en se fondant sur sa connaissance de la situation, de retenir à cette
fin la mesure qu’[elle] estime la plus appropriée. Il ne suffit pas, pour
contester une réglementation, d’affirmer en termes généraux qu’elle est
105 certain iranian assets (judgment)
specific facts will be required to persuade a court to come to that conclusion.”
(Dispute regarding Navigational and Related Rights (Costa Rica
v. Nicaragua), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2009, p. 253, para. 101.)
Indeed, what is reasonable in any given case must depend on its particular
circumstances (see Interpretation of the Agreement of 25 March 1951
between the WHO and Egypt, Advisory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports 1980, p. 96,
para. 49; Continental Shelf (Tunisia/Libyan Arab Jamahiriya), Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 1982, p. 60, para. 72).
147. In the Court’s view, a measure is unreasonable within the meaning of
the Treaty of Amity if it does not meet certain conditions.
First, a measure is unreasonable if it does not pursue a legitimate public
purpose. In the present case, the United States contends that the legislative
provisions challenged by Iran, as well as the judicial decisions that applied
those provisions, had the purpose of providing compensation to victims of
“terrorist acts” for which Iran has been found liable by United States courts.
As a general rule, providing effective remedies to plaintiffs who have been
awarded damages can constitute a legitimate public purpose.
148. In addition, a measure is unreasonable if there is no appropriate relationship
between the purpose pursued and the measure adopted. The
attachment and execution of assets of a defendant that has been found liable
by domestic courts can generally be considered as having an appropriate
relationship with the purpose of providing compensation to plaintiffs.
149. Furthermore, a measure is unreasonable if its adverse impact is manifestly
excessive in relation to the purpose pursued. In the case concerning
the Dispute regarding Navigational and Related Rights (Costa Rica v.
Nicaragua),
the Court examined whether Nicaragua had the power to regulate
the exercise by Costa Rica of its right to freedom of navigation under the
Treaty of Limits of 1858. Pointing out that such power was not unlimited, the
Court defined “unreasonable” as follows:
“A regulation . . . must not be unreasonable, which means that its
negative impact on the exercise of the right in question must not be
manifestly excessive when measured against the protection afforded to
the purpose invoked.” (Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2009, pp. 249-250,
para. 87.)
150. In the present case, Section 201 (a) of TRIA refers to “the blocked
assets of any agency or instrumentality” (emphasis added). Section 1610 (g) (1)
of the FSIA refers to “the property of an agency or instrumentality”,
expressly including “property that is a separate juridical entity or is an interest
held directly or indirectly in a separate juridical entity” (emphasis
added). Both provisions employ very broad terms, which are capable of
certains actifs iraniens (arrêt) 105
déraisonnable ; pour qu’une juridiction fasse droit à une telle contestation,
des faits concrets et spécifiques doivent lui être présentés. »
(Différend relatif à des droits de navigation et des droits connexes
(Costa Rica c. Nicaragua), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2009, p. 253, par. 101.)
En effet, ce qui est raisonnable dans un cas donné dépend nécessairement
des circonstances (voir Interprétation de l’accord du 25 mars 1951 entre
l’OMS et l’Égypte, avis consultatif, C.I.J. Recueil 1980, p. 96, par. 49 ;
Plateau
continental (Tunisie/Jamahiriya arabe libyenne), arrêt, C.I.J.
Recueil 1982, p. 60, par. 72).
147. De l’avis de la Cour, une mesure est déraisonnable au sens du traité
d’amitié si elle ne satisfait pas à certaines conditions.
Tout d’abord, une mesure est déraisonnable si elle ne vise pas un but d’utilité
publique légitime. En la présente espèce, les États‑Unis affirment que les
dispositions législatives contestées par l’Iran, ainsi que les décisions de justice
qui ont fait application de ces dispositions, avaient pour but de fournir
une indemnisation à des victimes d’« actes de terrorisme » dont l’Iran avait
été jugé responsable par des tribunaux américains. En règle générale, le fait
d’assurer des voies d’exécution efficaces à des plaignants qui se sont vu accorder
des dommages-intérêts peut constituer un but d’utilité publique légitime.
148. Ensuite, une mesure est déraisonnable s’il n’existe pas de lien adéquat
entre le but poursuivi et la mesure adoptée. Les mesures de saisie et d’exécution
prises à l’égard des actifs d’un défendeur qui a été jugé responsable par
des tribunaux nationaux peuvent en règle générale être considérées comme
présentant un lien adéquat avec le but consistant à fournir une indemnisation
à des plaignants.
149. Enfin, une mesure est déraisonnable si son incidence négative est
manifestement excessive par rapport au but poursuivi. En l’affaire du Différend
relatif à des droits de navigation et des droits connexes (Costa Rica
c. Nicaragua), la Cour a recherché si le Nicaragua avait le pouvoir de
réglementer l’exercice par le Costa Rica du droit de libre navigation qu’il
tenait du traité de limites de 1858. Soulignant que ce pouvoir n’était pas
illimité,
la Cour a défini le mot « déraisonnable » comme suit :
« [Une mesure de réglementation] ne doit pas être déraisonnable, ce
qui signifie que son incidence négative sur l’exercice du droit en
question ne doit pas être manifestement excessive par rapport au
bénéfice qu’elle présente pour atteindre le but recherché. » (Arrêt,
C.I.J. Recueil 2009, p. 249-250, par. 87.)
150. En la présente espèce, le paragraphe a) de l’article 201 de la TRIA fait
référence aux « actifs bloqués de … tout organisme ou agence » (les italiques
sont de la Cour). L’alinéa 1 du paragraphe g) de l’article 1610 de la FSIA
mentionne les « biens … des organismes et agences », incluant expressément
les « biens constituant une entité juridique distincte ou une participation
détenue directement ou indirectement dans une telle entité » (les italiques
106 certain iranian assets (judgment)
encompassing any legal entity, regardless of Iran’s type or degree of control
over them. In addition, by dispensing with the requirement that the relevant
assets were previously “blocked”, Section 1610 (g) (1) ensures that any assets
of those legal entities are available for attachment and execution. Thus, by
design, these legislative measures plainly disregarded the Iranian companies’
own legal personality, making it possible to impair their legally acquired
rights and interests, namely those related to their ownership of, or interest in,
the assets liable to attachment and execution.
151. Section 201 (a) of TRIA and Section 1610 (g) (1) of the FSIA have
been applied by United States courts in several enforcement proceedings
involving Iranian companies.
In the Weinstein and Bennett cases (see paragraph 70 above), the sole company
involved was Bank Melli.
152. In respect of the Levin case (Levin et al. v. Bank of New York et al.,
United States District Court, Southern District of New York, Case No. 09-cv-
5900, filed 26 June 2009), the United States, while not contesting that
Iranian companies may have been involved in the enforcement proceedings,
nonetheless pointed out that Iran has not identified those companies. It is
true that certain judicial decisions and other court documents brought to the
Court’s attention by both Parties are redacted or do not otherwise identify
Iranian companies. However, the evidence in the case file shows that the
enforcement proceedings in the Levin case involved assets which were
owned by, or in which interests were held by, Bank Melli, Bank Saderat.
153. The Heiser cases involved the Telecommunication Infrastructure
Company, Iranohind Shipping Company, Export Development Bank of
Iran, Bank Saderat, Behran Oil Company, Iran Marine Industrial Company,
Sediran Drilling Company, Iran Air and Bank Melli, all of which were
affected by one or more decisions (Estate of Michael Heiser v. Islamic Republic
of Iran, United States District Court, District of Columbia, Memorandum
Opinion of 10 August 2011, Federal Supplement, Second Series,
Vol. 807, p. 9; Estate of Michael Heiser et al. v. The Bank of Tokyo Mitsubishi
UFJ, New York Branch, United States District Court, Southern District of
New York, Memorandum and Order of 29 January 2013, Federal Supplement,
Second Series, Vol. 919, p. 411; Estate of Michael Heiser v. Bank
of Baroda, New York Branch, United States District Court, Southern District
of New York, Case No. 11-cv-1602, Order of 19 February 2013).
154. Iran has argued that three other entities, IRISL Benelux NV, Bank
Sepah International PLC and Bank Melli PLC U.K., were also affected by
enforcement proceedings in the Heiser cases. The Court observes, however,
certains actifs iraniens (arrêt) 106
sont de la Cour). Les deux dispositions emploient des termes très larges, qui
sont susceptibles d’englober toute personne morale, indépendamment du
type ou du degré de contrôle que l’Iran exerce sur elle. Qui plus est, en supprimant
l’exigence que les actifs concernés aient au préalable été « bloqués »,
l’alinéa 1 du paragraphe g) de l’article 1610 garantit que tous les actifs de ces
personnes morales peuvent faire l’objet de mesures de saisie et d’exécution.
Ces mesures législatives ont donc clairement écarté, à dessein, la personnalité
juridique propre des sociétés iraniennes, de sorte qu’il peut être porté
atteinte aux droits et intérêts légalement acquis par ces dernières, à savoir
ceux qui se rapportent à leur droit de propriété sur les actifs saisissables à des
fins d’exécution, ou à leur participation dans ces actifs.
151. Le paragraphe a) de l’article 201 de la TRIA et l’alinéa 1 du paragraphe
g) de l’article 1610 de la FSIA ont été appliqués par des tribunaux
américains dans plusieurs procédures d’exécution concernant des sociétés
iraniennes.
Dans les affaires Weinstein et Bennett (voir le paragraphe 70 ci-dessus), la
seule société en cause était la banque Melli.
152. Pour ce qui est de l’affaire Levin (Levin et al. v. Bank of New York et al.,
tribunal fédéral du district sud de l’État de New York, affaire no 09-cv-5900,
introduite le 26 juin 2009), les États‑Unis, s’ils n’ont pas contesté que des
sociétés iraniennes avaient pu participer aux procédures d’exécution, ont
néanmoins relevé que l’Iran ne les avait pas nommément désignées. Il est
vrai que certaines décisions de justice et autres documents judiciaires portés
à l’attention de la Cour par les deux Parties ont été expurgés ou ne mentionnent
par ailleurs aucune société iranienne, mais les éléments versés au
dossier montrent que les procédures d’exécution en l’affaire Levin portaient
sur des actifs qui étaient détenus par la banque Melli, la banque Saderat et la
National Iranian Oil Company ou dans lesquels ces entités avaient une
participation.
153. Les affaires Heiser concernaient la Telecommunication Infrastructure
Company, l’Iranohind Shipping Company, l’Export Development Bank
of Iran, la banque Saderat, la Behran Oil Company, l’Iran Marine Industrial
Company, la Sediran Drilling Company, Iran Air et la banque Melli, entités
qui ont toutes été touchées par une ou plusieurs décisions (Estate of Michael
Heiser v. Islamic Republic of Iran, tribunal fédéral du district de Columbia,
Memorandum Opinion du 10 août 2011, Federal Supplement, deuxième
série, vol. 807, p. 9 ; Estate of Michael Heiser et al. v. The Bank of Tokyo
Mitsubishi
UFJ, New York Branch, tribunal fédéral du district sud de
l’État de New York, Memorandum and Order du 29 janvier 2013, Federal
Supplement, deuxième série, vol. 919, p. 411 ; Estate of Michael Heiser v.
Bank of Baroda, New York Branch, tribunal fédéral du district sud de
l’État de New York, affaire no 11-cv-1602, ordonnance du 19 février 2013).
154. L’Iran a soutenu que trois autres entités, IRISL Benelux NV, Bank
Sepah International PLC et Bank Melli PLC U.K., avaient également été touchées
par des procédures d’exécution dans les affaires Heiser. La Cour fait
107 certain iranian assets (judgment)
that IRISL Benelux NV was constituted under the laws of Belgium, while
Bank Melli PLC U.K. and Bank Sepah International PLC were constituted
under the laws of the United Kingdom. Consequently, these three entities are
not companies constituted under the applicable laws of either High Contracting
Party, as required by Article III, paragraph 1, of the Treaty of Amity.
Therefore, the Court will not consider Iran’s claims as they concern these
three entities.
155. In the case concerning Barcelona Traction, Light and Power Company,
Limited (New Application: 1962) (Belgium v. Spain), the Court noted
that “the process of ‘lifting the corporate veil’ or ‘disregarding the legal
entity’ has been found justified and equitable in certain circumstances or for
certain purposes” (Second Phase, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1970, p. 39,
para. 56). However, in the circumstances of the present case, the Iranian
companies’ own legal personality has been set aside, under the conditions
described above (see paragraph 150), in relation to liability judgments rendered
in cases in which those companies could not participate and in relation
to facts in which those companies do not appear to have been involved. The
Court considers that disregarding the legal entity in such circumstances is
not justified.
156. In light of the foregoing, the Court considers that, even assuming that
the legislative provisions adopted by the United States and their application
by United States courts pursued a legitimate public purpose, they caused an
impairment of the Iranian companies’ rights that was manifestly excessive
when measured against the protection afforded to the purpose invoked. The
Court therefore concludes that the legislative and judicial measures were
unreasonable, in violation of the obligation under Article IV, paragraph 1, of
the Treaty of Amity.
157. With respect to Executive Order 13599, the Court recalls that this
executive measure blocked all property and interests in property of Iran
and Iranian financial institutions falling within its purview (see paragraph
114 above). The measure was adopted in 2012, several years after
Section 1610 (g) (1) of the FSIA had dispensed with the requirement that
assets had to be blocked in order for them to be available for attachment and
execution. It is therefore apparent that Executive Order 13599 was not
adopted for the purpose of providing compensation to plaintiffs who had
been successful in their liability claims against Iran. Indeed, the United
States’ contention is that Executive Order 13599 was adopted in response
to Iran’s “sustained support of terrorist acts”. Because Executive Order 13599
encompasses “[a]ll property and interests in property of any Iranian financial
institution”, it is manifestly excessive in relation to the purpose pursued.
Accordingly, the Court concludes that Executive Order 13599 is also an
unreasonable measure, in violation of the obligation under Article IV,
paragraph 1.
certains actifs iraniens (arrêt) 107
toutefois observer que IRISL Benelux NV a été constituée sous le régime du
droit belge, tandis que Bank Melli PLC U.K. et Bank Sepah International
PLC l’ont été sous celui du droit britannique. En conséquence, ces trois entités
ne sont pas des sociétés constituées sous le régime des lois de l’une ou l’autre
des Hautes Parties contractantes applicables en la matière, comme l’exige le
paragraphe 1 de l’article III du traité d’amitié. La Cour n’examinera donc pas
les demandes de l’Iran en ce qu’elles se rapportent à ces trois entités.
155. En l’affaire relative à la Barcelona Traction, Light and Power Company,
Limited (nouvelle requête : 1962) (Belgique c. Espagne), la Cour a
relevé que « l’on a[vait] estimé justifié et équitable de “lever le voile social” ou
de “faire abstraction de la personnalité juridique” dans certaines circonstances
ou à certaines fins » (deuxième phase, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1970, p. 39,
par. 56). Cependant, dans les circonstances de la présente espèce, la personnalité
juridique propre aux sociétés iraniennes a été écartée dans les
conditions décrites plus haut (voir le paragraphe 150), en relation avec des
jugements en matière de responsabilité rendus dans des affaires auxquelles
ces sociétés n’ont pas pu participer et avec des faits dans lesquels elles ne
semblent pas avoir été impliquées. La Cour considère qu’il n’est pas justifié
de faire abstraction de la personnalité juridique dans de telles circonstances.
156. À la lumière de ce qui précède, la Cour estime que, même à supposer
qu’elles aient visé un but d’utilité publique légitime, les dispositions législatives
adoptées par les États‑Unis et leur application par les tribunaux
américains ont porté atteinte aux droits des sociétés iraniennes de façon
manifestement excessive par rapport au bénéfice qu’elles présentaient pour
atteindre le but recherché. La Cour en conclut que les mesures législatives et
judiciaires étaient déraisonnables, ce qui emporte violation de l’obligation
découlant du paragraphe 1 de l’article IV du traité d’amitié.
157. S’agissant du décret présidentiel no 13599, la Cour rappelle que cette
mesure administrative a bloqué tous les biens et participations dans des
biens de l’Iran et des institutions financières iraniennes entrant dans son
champ d’application (voir le paragraphe 114 ci-dessus). La mesure en
question
a été adoptée en 2012, soit plusieurs années après que l’alinéa 1 du
paragraphe g) de l’article 1610 de la FSIA eut supprimé l’exigence selon
laquelle les actifs devaient déjà être bloqués pour pouvoir faire l’objet de
mesures de saisie et d’exécution. Il apparaît donc que le décret présidentiel
no 13599 n’a pas été pris aux fins de fournir une indemnisation aux
plaignants ayant obtenu gain de cause dans les procédures en responsabilité
qu’ils avaient engagées contre l’Iran. De fait, les États‑Unis affirment que
ce décret a été adopté en réponse au « soutien persistant » apporté par l’Iran
« à des actes de terrorisme ». Étant donné qu’il englobe « [t]ous les biens et
participations dans des biens des institutions financières iraniennes», le
décret présidentiel no 13599 est manifestement excessif au regard du but
poursuivi. La Cour en conclut que ce décret est aussi une mesure déraisonnable,
ce qui emporte violation de l’obligation découlant du paragraphe 1 de
l’article IV.
108 certain iranian assets (judgment)
158. As explained above (see paragraph 145), the second clause of
Article IV, paragraph 1, of the Treaty of Amity uses the disjunctive “or”
in providing for protection against “unreasonable” or “discriminatory”
measures. Therefore, a measure will be in violation of the obligation under
the second clause when it is not in conformity with either standard. Since
the Court has concluded that the measures adopted by the United States are
“unreasonable”, it is not necessary to examine separately whether they
are “discriminatory”. Neither is it necessary to consider the other grounds on
which Iran has relied to claim breaches of Article IV, paragraph 1, by the
United States.
*
159. On the basis of its finding that the measures taken by the United States
were unreasonable (see paragraphs 156-157), the Court concludes that the
United States has violated its obligation under Article IV, paragraph 1, of the
Treaty of Amity.
In reaching this conclusion, the Court has determined that the measures of
the United States disregarded the Iranian companies’ own legal personality,
and that this was not justified. In light of all of the foregoing, the Court also
concludes that the United States has violated its obligation to recognize the
juridical status of Iranian companies under Article III, paragraph 1.
B. Alleged Violations of Article III, Paragraph 2
160. Article III, paragraph 2, of the Treaty of Amity provides:
“Nationals and companies of either High Contracting Party shall have
freedom of access to the courts of justice and administrative agencies
within the territories of the other High Contracting Party, in all degrees
of jurisdiction, both in defense and pursuit of their rights, to the end that
prompt and impartial justice be done. Such access shall be allowed, in
any event, upon terms no less favorable than those applicable to nationals
and companies of such other High Contracting Party or of any
third country. It is understood that companies not engaged in activities
within the country shall enjoy the right of such access without any
requirement of registration or domestication.”
161. Iran argues that Article III, paragraph 2, reflects the obligation of
each Contracting Party to provide nationals and companies of the other
Contracting Party with “meaningful” access to courts, such that they can
properly defend their rights. It emphasizes that the phrase “to the end that
prompt and impartial justice be done” should be given full effect, and it
certains actifs iraniens (arrêt) 108
158. Comme cela a été précisé plus haut (voir le paragraphe 145), la deuxième
clause du paragraphe 1 de l’article IV du traité d’amitié emploie la
conjonction disjonctive « ou » pour assurer une protection contre les mesures
« déraisonnables » ou « discriminatoires ». En conséquence, une mesure
emportera manquement à l’obligation prévue par la deuxième clause si elle
n’est pas conforme à l’un ou à l’autre de ces critères. La Cour ayant conclu
que les mesures législatives et judiciaires adoptées par les États‑Unis sont
« déraisonnables », point n’est besoin de rechercher séparément si elles sont
« discriminatoires ». Il n’y a pas lieu non plus d’examiner les autres motifs
sur lesquels l’Iran s’est fondé pour invoquer des manquements des États‑Unis
au paragraphe 1 de l’article IV.
*
159. Ayant établi que les mesures prises par les États‑Unis étaient déraisonnables
(voir les paragraphes 156-157), la Cour conclut que le défendeur a
manqué à l’obligation mise à sa charge par le paragraphe 1 de l’article IV du
traité d’amitié.
En parvenant à cette conclusion, elle a déterminé que lesdites mesures
méconnaissaient la personnalité juridique propre des sociétés iraniennes, et
que cela n’était pas justifié. Au vu de l’ensemble des considérations qui
précèdent,
la Cour conclut également que les États‑Unis ont manqué à
l’obligation
de reconnaître le statut juridique des sociétés iraniennes que leur
impose le paragraphe 1 de l’article III.
B. Violations alléguées du paragraphe 2 de l’article III
160. Le paragraphe 2 de l’article III du traité d’amitié est ainsi libellé :
« En vue d’assurer une administration rapide et impartiale de la justice,
chacune des Hautes Parties contractantes accordera, dans ses territoires,
aux ressortissants et aux sociétés de l’autre Haute Partie contractante,
libre accès aux tribunaux judiciaires et aux organismes administratifs, à
tous les degrés de la juridiction, tant pour faire valoir que pour défendre
leurs droits. En toute circonstance, elle leur assurera cet accès dans des
conditions non moins favorables que celles qui sont applicables à ses
propres ressortissants et sociétés ou à ceux de tout pays tiers. Il est entendu
que la même latitude sera donnée aux sociétés n’exerçant aucune activité
dans le pays, sans qu’elles aient à se faire immatriculer ou à accomplir des
formalités ayant pour objet de les assimiler aux sociétés nationales. »
[Traduction du Secrétariat de l’Organisation des Nations Unies.]
161. L’Iran affirme que le paragraphe 2 de l’article III fait obligation à chacune
des Parties contractantes d’accorder aux ressortissants et aux sociétés
de l’autre Partie contractante un accès « réel » aux tribunaux pour leur permettre
de défendre dûment leurs droits. Il souligne qu’il convient de donner
plein effet à l’expression « [e]n vue d’assurer une administration rapide et
109 certain iranian assets (judgment)
recalls that the context of this provision is the obligation to recognize companies’
juridical status under Article III, paragraph 1. It therefore contends
that companies do not have freedom of access under paragraph 2 when they
are not recognized as a separate juridical entity. According to the Applicant,
the Court did not settle this question in its 2019 Judgment because
its reasoning with respect to Article III, paragraph 2, was focused on the
question of sovereign immunities.
162. Iran asserts that the United States’ measures have deprived Iranian
companies of any possibility to have meaningful access to United States
courts, by removing their right to recognition of separate juridical status and
establishing their liability for judgments rendered against Iran in proceedings
to which the companies were not parties. In its view, there could be no
meaningful access when the outcome of enforcement proceedings was
predetermined by the law. Iran argues that, as a matter of fact, Iranian companies
are being treated in less favourable terms than companies of any third
country.
*
163. The United States, for its part, argues that Article III, paragraph 2,
simply grants companies the right of access to the courts to pursue other
rights they may claim to have, but does not itself guarantee any rights, procedural
or substantive. In its view, this question of interpretation was settled
by the Court in its 2019 Judgment. The Respondent rejects the alleged effect
Iran ascribes to the phrase “to the end that prompt and impartial justice be
done”.
164. The United States stresses that Iranian companies were at all times
permitted to appear and present all their arguments before the courts in the
United States. It considers that some companies’ active participation in
judicial proceedings, where they were represented by counsel and made
legal submissions, is a sufficient basis for rejecting Iran’s claims under this
provision.
* *
165. In its 2019 Judgment, the Court referred to Article III, paragraph 2, of
the Treaty of Amity in the following terms:
“The provision at issue does not seek to guarantee the substantive or
even the procedural rights that a company of one Contracting Party
might intend to pursue before the courts or authorities of the other Party,
but only to protect the possibility for such a company to have access to
those courts or authorities with a view to pursuing the (substantive
or procedural) rights it claims to have. The wording of Article III,
certains actifs iraniens (arrêt) 109
impartiale de la justice » et rappelle que la disposition en cause s’inscrit dans
le cadre de l’obligation de reconnaître le statut juridique des sociétés qui est
énoncée au paragraphe 1 de l’article III. Le demandeur soutient que, par
conséquent, les sociétés n’ont pas libre accès aux tribunaux au sens du paragraphe
2 lorsqu’elles ne sont pas reconnues comme des entités juridiques
distinctes. Selon lui, la Cour n’a pas tranché cette question dans son arrêt
de 2019, son raisonnement relatif au paragraphe 2 de l’article III ayant porté
essentiellement sur la question des immunités souveraines.
162. L’Iran affirme que les mesures prises par les États‑Unis ont privé les
sociétés iraniennes de toute possibilité d’avoir un accès réel aux tribunaux
américains, en supprimant le droit de ces sociétés à la reconnaissance de
leur statut juridique distinct et en engageant leur responsabilité dans l’exécution
de décisions de justice rendues contre lui dans des procédures
auxquelles elles n’étaient pas parties. Selon le demandeur, il ne pouvait pas
y avoir d’accès réel dès lors que l’issue des actions en exécution de décisions
de justice avait été déterminée d’avance par la loi. L’Iran soutient que, de
fait, les sociétés iraniennes reçoivent un traitement moins favorable que
celui qui est appliqué aux sociétés de tout pays tiers.
*
163. Les États‑Unis, pour leur part, font valoir que le paragraphe 2 de
l’article III confère simplement aux sociétés le droit d’accéder aux tribunaux
pour faire valoir d’autres droits qu’elles prétendraient posséder et ne garantit
en soi aucun droit, procédural ou substantiel. Selon eux, la Cour a tranché
cette question d’interprétation dans son arrêt de 2019. Le défendeur rejette
l’effet que l’Iran attribue à l’expression « [e]n vue d’assurer une administration
rapide et impartiale de la justice ».
164. Les États‑Unis soulignent qu’il a toujours été permis aux sociétés iraniennes
de comparaître devant les juridictions américaines pour présenter
l’ensemble de leurs arguments. Selon eux, la participation active de certaines
sociétés iraniennes à des procédures judiciaires dans lesquelles elles étaient
représentées par des conseils et ont présenté des moyens de droit est un motif
suffisant pour rejeter les demandes de l’Iran fondées sur la disposition à
l’examen.
* *
165. Dans son arrêt de 2019, la Cour a mentionné le paragraphe 2 de l’article
III du traité d’amitié en ces termes :
« La disposition en cause ne vise pas à garantir des droits substantiels,
ni même des droits procéduraux qu’une société d’une partie contractante
entendrait faire valoir devant les tribunaux et autorités de l’autre
partie, mais seulement à protéger la possibilité pour une telle société
d’accéder à ces tribunaux ou autorités en vue de faire valoir les droits
(substantiels ou procéduraux) qu’elle prétend posséder. Le libellé du
110 certain iranian assets (judgment)
paragraph 2, does not point towards the broad interpretation suggested
by Iran. The rights therein are guaranteed ‘to the end that prompt and
impartial justice be done’. Access to a Contracting Party’s courts must
be allowed ‘upon terms no less favorable’ than those applicable to the
nationals and companies of the Party itself ‘or of any third country’.”
(Certain Iranian Assets (Islamic Republic of Iran v. United States of
America), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2019 (I),
p. 32, para. 70.)
166. The Court made this statement while addressing Iran’s arguments on
sovereign immunities. However, the Court’s assessment of Article III, paragraph
2, has a broader reach. There is a clear distinction between, on the one
hand, freedom of access to the courts with a view to the assertion of rights
and, on the other, the content of the substantive or procedural rights that may
be invoked before the courts. As reflected in the passage cited above, when
interpreting Article III, paragraph 2, the Court had already examined the
phrase “to the end that prompt and impartial justice be done”. In the Court’s
view, that phrase reflects the purpose for which the Contracting Parties of
the Treaty recognized the freedom of access to the courts of justice and
administrative agencies for their respective nationals and companies. It does
not itself guarantee any procedural or substantive right, nor does it in any
way enlarge the “freedom of access” established in Article III, paragraph 2.
167. The Court has noted above (see paragraph 143) that, in the circumstances
of the present case, the rights of Iranian companies to appear before
United States courts, make legal submissions and lodge appeals were not
curtailed. Iran’s claims with respect to Article III, paragraph 2, are concerned
with the rights that Iranian companies pursued before United States courts
and with their likelihood of success. The application by United States courts
of legislation that was unfavourable to the Iranian companies and the fact
that the companies’ arguments on the basis of the Treaty of Amity were
unsuccessful are matters related to the companies’ substantive rights. These
matters do not call into question the “freedom of access” enjoyed by the
companies or the aim of “prompt and impartial justice” within the meaning
of Article III, paragraph 2, of the Treaty of Amity.
168. For these reasons, the Court concludes that Iran has not established a
violation by the United States of its obligations under Article III, paragraph
2, of the Treaty of Amity.
C. Alleged Violations of Article IV, Paragraph 2
169. Article IV, paragraph 2, of the Treaty of Amity provides:
“Property of nationals and companies of either High Contracting
Party, including interests in property, shall receive the most constant
certains actifs iraniens (arrêt) 110
paragraphe 2 de l’article III n’oriente pas vers l’interprétation extensive
suggérée par l’Iran. Les droits qui y sont garantis le sont “[e]n vue d’assurer
une administration rapide et impartiale de la justice”. L’accès aux
tribunaux d’une partie contractante doit être assuré “dans des conditions
non moins favorables” que celles qui sont applicables aux ressortissants
et sociétés de cette partie elle-même, “ou à ceux de tout pays tiers”. »
(Certains actifs iraniens (République islamique d’Iran c. États‑Unis d’Amérique),
exceptions préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2019 (I), p. 32, par. 70.)
166. La Cour s’est exprimée ainsi dans le cadre de son examen des arguments
invoqués par l’Iran sur la question des immunités souveraines.
Cependant, la portée de cette appréciation du paragraphe 2 de l’article III est
plus large. Il existe une nette différence entre le libre accès aux tribunaux en
vue de faire valoir des droits et le contenu des droits substantiels ou procéduraux
susceptibles d’être invoqués devant les tribunaux. Ainsi que cela
ressort du passage précité, la Cour a déjà examiné l’expression « [e]n vue
d’assurer une administration rapide et impartiale de la justice » en interprétant
le paragraphe 2 de l’article III. Selon elle, cette expression exprime le
but dans lequel les parties au traité ont reconnu à leurs sociétés et ressortissants
respectifs le droit d’avoir libre accès aux tribunaux judiciaires et aux
organismes administratifs. Elle ne garantit en soi aucun droit procédural ou
substantiel ni n’élargit de quelque manière le « libre accès » établi au paragraphe
2 de l’article III.
167. La Cour a relevé plus haut (voir le paragraphe 143) que, au vu des circonstances
de la présente espèce, les droits des sociétés iraniennes de
comparaître devant les juridictions américaines, de présenter des moyens de
droit et de former des recours n’avaient fait l’objet d’aucune restriction. Les
demandes formulées par l’Iran au titre du paragraphe 2 de l’article III ont trait
aux droits que les sociétés iraniennes ont fait valoir devant les juridictions américaines
et aux chances de succès qui s’offraient à ces sociétés. L’application de
lois défavorables aux sociétés iraniennes par les juridictions américaines et le
fait que les moyens tirés du traité d’amitié par ces sociétés n’aient pas prospéré
sont des questions liées aux droits substantiels de celles-ci. Ces questions ne
remettent pas en cause le « libre accès » aux tribunaux dont bénéficiaient les
sociétés en question ni l’objectif d’assurer « une administration rapide et impartiale
de la justice » au sens du paragraphe 2 de l’article III du traité d’amitié.
168. Compte tenu de ce qui précède, la Cour conclut que l’Iran n’a pas
établi que les États‑Unis avaient manqué aux obligations que leur impose le
paragraphe 2 de l’article III du traité d’amitié.
C. Violations alléguées du paragraphe 2 de l’article IV
169. Le paragraphe 2 de l’article IV du traité d’amitié se lit comme suit :
« La protection et la sécurité des biens appartenant aux ressortissants
et aux sociétés de l’une des Hautes Parties contractantes, y compris les
111 certain iranian assets (judgment)
protection and security within the territories of the other High Contracting
Party, in no case less than that required by international law. Such
property shall not be taken except for a public purpose, nor shall it be
taken without the prompt payment of just compensation. Such compensation
shall be in an effectively realizable form and shall represent the
full equivalent of the property taken; and adequate provision shall have
been made at or prior to the time of taking for the determination and
payment thereof.”
170. Iran notes that, as a result of the measures adopted by the United States,
the property of Iranian companies has been blocked, seized or disposed of.
It contends that, in each instance, the property was taken without compensation
and handed over to plaintiffs holding default liability judgments against
Iran, which amounts to an unlawful expropriation and a failure to accord
the most constant protection and security, in violation of Article IV, paragraph
2, of the Treaty of Amity. It stresses that both limbs of Article IV,
paragraph 2, apply to property and “interests in property”, with the latter
term including intangible interests in property.
171. With respect to the obligation to afford the most constant protection
and security, Iran contends that it was breached by the same conduct of the
United States as the obligation to afford fair and equitable treatment under
Article IV, paragraph 1. In its view, the standard of the most constant protection
and security entitles property and interests in property to a high level of
both physical and legal protection. Thus, it asserts that the United States has
violated this obligation by removing generally applicable legal defences
otherwise available to Iranian companies and by making those companies
liable for purportedly wrongful acts of Iran in proceedings to which they
were not parties.
172. As concerns the second limb of Article IV, paragraph 2, Iran argues
that the prohibition of takings except for a public purpose and with payment
of just compensation is applicable to acts of any organ of the State. It contends
that the United States has violated this provision through judicial
decisions giving effect to legislative and executive acts which were themselves
expropriatory in nature. The Applicant maintains that the design and
effect of the measures, as implemented by the courts, was for the property to
be taken and given to plaintiffs in cases against Iran. Thus, the combined
effect of the series of legislative, executive and judicial acts amounted to a
taking. It asserts that there is no need to prove an additional element of illegality
in relation to the judicial decisions. Iran further asserts that the United
certains actifs iraniens (arrêt) 111
participations dans des biens, seront assurées de la manière la plus
constante dans les territoires de l’autre Haute Partie contractante, et ne
seront inférieures en aucun cas aux normes fixées par le droit international.
Lesdits biens ne pourront être expropriés que pour cause d’utilité
publique et moyennant le paiement rapide d’une juste indemnité. Cette
indemnité devra être fournie sous une forme aisément convertible en
espèces et correspondre à la valeur intégrale des biens expropriés. Des
dispositions adéquates devront être prises, au moment de la dépossession
ou avant cette date, en vue de la fixation et du règlement de
l’indemnité. » [Traduction du Secrétariat de l’Organisation des Nations
Unies.]
170. L’Iran relève que les mesures adoptées par les États‑Unis ont abouti
au blocage, à la saisie ou à l’aliénation de biens appartenant à des sociétés
iraniennes. Il soutient que, dans chaque cas, ces biens ont été expropriés sans
indemnisation et remis à des demandeurs bénéficiaires de jugements en responsabilité
rendus par défaut contre lui, ce qui constitue une expropriation
illicite et un manquement à l’obligation d’assurer la protection et la sécurité
des biens de la manière la plus constante, en violation du paragraphe 2 de
l’article IV du traité d’amitié. Le demandeur souligne que les deux branches
du paragraphe 2 de l’article IV s’appliquent aux biens et aux « participations
dans des biens », celles-ci incluant les participations incorporelles.
171. S’agissant de l’obligation d’assurer la protection et la sécurité de la
manière la plus constante, l’Iran affirme que les États‑Unis l’ont violée par le
même comportement qui caractérise leur manquement à l’obligation
d’accorder un traitement juste et équitable énoncée au paragraphe 1 de
l’article IV. Selon lui, le standard de la protection et de la sécurité les plus
constantes garantit aux biens et aux participations dans des biens un haut
niveau de protection à la fois physique et juridique. Le demandeur considère
donc que les États‑Unis ont manqué à l’obligation en cause en supprimant les
moyens de défense généralement applicables que les sociétés iraniennes
auraient pu invoquer et en tenant celles-ci pour responsables de ses actes
prétendument illicites dans le cadre de procédures auxquelles elles n’étaient
pas partie.
172. Pour ce qui est de la seconde branche du paragraphe 2 de l’article IV,
l’Iran fait valoir que l’interdiction frappant les expropriations, à l’exception
de celles qui sont faites pour cause d’utilité publique et moyennant le paiement
d’une juste indemnité, s’applique à tous les organes de l’État. Il soutient
que les États‑Unis ont violé cette disposition par des décisions de justice
donnant effet à des actes législatifs et administratifs qui constituaient
eux-mêmes des actes d’expropriation par nature. Selon lui, le but et l’effet
des mesures en cause, telles qu’elles ont été appliquées par les tribunaux,
étaient de saisir les biens et de les remettre aux demandeurs dans les procédures
engagées contre lui. Ainsi, les effets conjugués de la série d’actes
législatifs, administratifs et judiciaires dont il tire grief étaient assimilables à
112 certain iranian assets (judgment)
States violated Article IV, paragraph 2, through the indirect taking of property
of Iranian companies, due to the earlier “blocking” of their assets
pursuant to Executive Order 13599, which radically deprived the owners of
the economic use and enjoyment of their property as if the rights had ceased
to exist.
173. In response to the United States’ invocation of the police powers
doctrine,
Iran notes that the doctrine is mentioned neither in the text of Article
IV, paragraph 2, nor in the negotiating history of the Treaty. It argues
that, in any event, the United States’ measures are not bona fide regulations
aimed at the general welfare and adopted in a non-discriminatory manner.
According to the Applicant, the valid exercise of police powers requires the
regulations to be free from arbitrariness and unreasonableness. In its view,
the doctrine requires an assessment of proportionality.
*
174. The United States, for its part, argues that the obligation to provide
the most constant protection and security is limited to protection from
physical harm, and concerns the level of police protection required under
customary international law against acts of physical harm to a person or
property. It notes that there is no allegation in this case that the property of
Iranian companies was subjected to invasion or other forms of physical
harm, and thus maintains that the challenged measures do not violate this
obligation. In the alternative, the Respondent argues that, even if the Court
were to accept that the provision requires more than the protection of
physical security, the authorities cited by Iran do not support the legal security
standard it proposes, which would bar any executive or legislative
measure formulated specifically to remove legal protections. In any case, the
United States considers that Iran has not established a breach of the provision
at issue.
175. With respect to Iran’s allegations in relation to takings, the
United States contends that decisions of domestic courts acting in the role
of neutral and independent arbiters of legal rights do not give rise to a claim
for expropriation. In its view, even if it were possible to conclude that a
judicial decision is expropriatory, this would require the identification of an
additional element of illegality in either the conduct of the court making the
decision or in the chain of events leading to the decision. The Respondent
argues that its legislative and executive acts do not, standing alone, deprive
certains actifs iraniens (arrêt) 112
une expropriation. Le demandeur affirme qu’il n’est pas nécessaire d’établir
l’existence d’un élément d’illicéité supplémentaire lié aux décisions de justice
considérées. Il ajoute que les États‑Unis ont également violé le paragraphe 2
de l’article IV par l’expropriation indirecte de biens appartenant à des sociétés
iraniennes, en ce qu’ils avaient initialement procédé au « blocage » des
actifs de celles-ci en application du décret présidentiel no 13599 qui les a totalement
privées de l’usage économique et de la jouissance de leurs biens,
comme si les droits qui y étaient attachés avaient cessé d’exister.
173. En réponse au moyen tiré par les États‑Unis de la doctrine des pouvoirs
de police, l’Iran relève que cette doctrine n’est mentionnée ni dans le
texte du paragraphe 2 de l’article IV ni dans l’historique des négociations du
traité. Il fait valoir que, en tout état de cause, les mesures américaines contestées
ne constituent pas une réglementation adoptée de bonne foi et de
manière non discriminatoire en vue d’assurer le bien-être général. Selon lui,
l’exercice des pouvoirs de police n’est valide que si les réglementations qui
en résultent ne sont ni arbitraires ni déraisonnables. L’Iran estime que la
doctrine des pouvoirs de police nécessite d’apprécier la proportionnalité des
mesures en cause.
*
174. Les États‑Unis, quant à eux, font valoir que l’obligation d’assurer la
protection et la sécurité de la manière la plus constante se limite à la protection
contre les dommages physiques et concerne le respect du niveau de
protection contre les dommages physiques aux personnes ou aux biens qui
est requis en droit international coutumier. Ils relèvent que l’Iran n’allègue
nullement en l’espèce que les biens des sociétés iraniennes ont subi des
atteintes ou d’autres formes de dommages physiques et soutiennent, par voie
de conséquence, que les mesures contestées ne constituent en rien des manquements
à l’obligation considérée. À titre subsidiaire, les États‑Unis
affirment que, à supposer même que la Cour convienne que la disposition en
cause exige d’aller au-delà de la protection de la sécurité physique, les
sources citées par l’Iran ne confirment pas la validité du standard de sécurité
juridique que celui-ci propose, qui interdirait toute mesure administrative ou
législative spécialement conçue pour supprimer des protections d’ordre juridique.
En tout état de cause, ils estiment que l’Iran n’a pas établi qu’ils
avaient violé la disposition en cause.
175. En ce qui concerne les arguments de l’Iran relatifs aux expropriations,
les États‑Unis soutiennent que les décisions rendues par des tribunaux
nationaux agissant en tant qu’arbitres neutres et indépendants des droits ne
sauraient donner lieu à des allégations d’expropriation. Selon eux, à supposer
même qu’il soit possible de conclure qu’une décision de justice donnée
est constitutive d’expropriation, il faudrait pour ce faire avoir constaté la
présence d’un élément d’illicéité supplémentaire soit dans le comportement
du tribunal qui a rendu la décision, soit dans la suite d’événements ayant
113 certain iranian assets (judgment)
Iranian nationals or companies of any property, but simply make them potentially
subject to an enforcement action, or, as in the case of Executive
Order 13599, are temporary measures which do not alter ownership of the
blocked assets.
176. The United States further argues that the measures it has adopted
do not constitute an expropriation because they are bona fide, nondiscriminatory
exercises of police power, which do not trigger a right to
compensation. It denies that the police powers doctrine includes an assessment
of proportionality.
* *
177. The Parties agree that Article IV, paragraph 2, contains two distinct
rules. The first rule is reflected in the first sentence, which sets out the
obligation of each Contracting Party to afford the most constant protection
and security to the property and interests in property of the nationals and
companies of the other Contracting Party. The second rule is set out in the
second and third sentences of Article IV, paragraph 2. The second sentence
of paragraph 2 prohibits the taking of such property and interests in
property, except for a public purpose and with the prompt payment of just
compensation. In English, the Parties have employed the terms “taking” and
“expropriation” interchangeably. The third sentence establishes conditions
in relation to the payment of compensation.
The Court will first examine Iran’s claims with respect to the second rule in
Article IV, paragraph 2, which is concerned with takings or expropriations.
178. It is not disputed by the Parties that United States courts, in application
of Section 201 (a) of TRIA or Section 1610 (g) (1) of the FSIA, subjected
to attachment and execution the property and interests in property of Iranian
companies. It is also uncontroversial that the assets were turned over or
distributed to plaintiffs who had succeeded in cases before United States
courts in which Iran was found liable. Nor is it disputed that the Iranian
companies concerned did not receive any payment.
179. Iran has identified property and interests in property which were
affected in the context of several enforcement proceedings before United
States courts. The United States has not contested the identification of those
assets.
180. The Court will consider Iran’s claims in respect of the following
assets, to the extent that they were owned by, or interests were held in
them by, Iranian companies (see paragraphs 151-153 above): as concerns the
certains actifs iraniens (arrêt) 113
abouti à cette décision. Le défendeur fait en outre valoir que les actes législatifs
et administratifs en cause ne privent pas, à eux seuls, les sociétés ou les
ressortissants iraniens de leurs biens. Selon lui, ils se bornent à créer les
conditions requises pour que ces biens puissent, le cas échéant, faire l’objet
d’actions en exécution ou sont, comme dans le cas du décret présidentiel
no 13599, des mesures temporaires qui ne modifient pas la propriété des
actifs bloqués.
176. Les États‑Unis avancent également que les mesures qu’ils ont adoptées
ne constituent pas des actes d’expropriation en ce sens qu’il s’agit de
mesures non discriminatoires prises de bonne foi dans l’exercice de leurs
pouvoirs de police, qui n’ouvrent pas droit à indemnisation. Ils contestent
que la doctrine des pouvoirs de police prévoie l’appréciation de la proportionnalité
des mesures adoptées.
* *
177. Les Parties s’accordent à dire que le paragraphe 2 de l’article IV comprend
deux règles distinctes. La première règle est inscrite dans sa première
phrase, qui énonce l’obligation faite à chacune des Parties contractantes d’assurer
de la manière la plus constante la protection et la sécurité des biens et des
participations dans des biens appartenant aux ressortissants et aux sociétés de
l’autre Partie contractante. La seconde règle est énoncée dans les deuxième et
troisième phrases du paragraphe. La deuxième phrase interdit l’expropriation
de tels biens et participations dans des biens, hormis pour cause d’utilité
publique et moyennant le paiement rapide d’une juste indemnité. En anglais,
les Parties ont employé indifféremment les termes « taking » et « expropriation
» (« dépossession » et « expropriation »). La troisième phrase définit
certaines modalités d’application relatives au versement de l’indemnité.
La Cour commencera par examiner les demandes de l’Iran tirées de la
seconde règle, qui porte sur les expropriations.
178. Les Parties ne contestent pas que, en application du paragraphe a) de
l’article 201 de la TRIA ou de l’alinéa 1 du paragraphe g) de l’article 1610 de
la FSIA, des juridictions américaines ont ordonné que des biens et participations
dans des biens appartenant à des sociétés iraniennes fassent l’objet de
mesures de saisie et d’exécution. Il n’est pas non plus litigieux que ces actifs
ont été remis ou distribués à des demandeurs ayant obtenu gain de cause
dans des affaires portées devant les juridictions américaines en lesquelles la
responsabilité de l’Iran avait été retenue, ni que les sociétés iraniennes
concernées n’ont reçu aucune indemnité.
179. L’Iran a énuméré les biens et participations dans des biens qui avaient
été touchés dans le cadre de plusieurs actions en exécution intentées devant
les juridictions américaines. Les États‑Unis n’ont pas contesté cette
énumération.
180. La Cour examinera les demandes de l’Iran relatives aux actifs cités
ci-après, dans la mesure où des sociétés iraniennes en étaient propriétaires
ou y détenaient des intérêts (voir les paragraphes 151-153 ci-dessus) : en ce
114 certain iranian assets (judgment)
enforcement proceedings in the Weinstein case, real property; with respect
to the enforcement proceedings in the Heiser cases, funds related to a
contractual debt owed by Sprint Communications Company, funds held by
Bank of Tokyo Mitsubishi UFJ, proceeds of electronic fund transfers held
by Bank of Baroda and funds held by Bank of America; in relation to the
enforcement proceedings in the Levin case, funds held by JP Morgan Chase
Bank related to contractual debts owed by Mastercard International Inc., and
proceeds of electronic fund transfers held by JP Morgan Chase Bank or
Citibank.
181. As concerns the Bennett case (see paragraph 70 above), Iran identifies
funds related to contractual debts owed by Visa Inc. and Franklin Resources
Inc., affected by the enforcement proceedings. The United States sought to
disregard this claim of Iran on the basis that the assets in these enforcement
proceedings were not distributed to the plaintiffs until after the termination
of the Treaty of Amity. It is true that the distribution of assets in these proceedings
was not ordered until 2020 (Bennett et al. v. The Islamic Republic
of Iran et al., United States District Court, Northern District of California,
Case No. 11-cv-5807, Order of 24 April 2020), after the termination of the
Treaty of Amity took effect (see paragraph 32 above). However, this does not
prevent the Court from considering Iran’s claims in relation to these funds,
which were already affected by decisions issued in 2013 (Bennett et al. v.
The Islamic Republic of Iran et al., United States District Court, Northern
District of California, Order of 28 February 2013, Federal Supplement,
Second Series, Vol. 927, p. 833) and 2016 (Bennett et al. v. The Islamic Republic
of Iran et al., United States Court of Appeals, Ninth Circuit, Opinion
and Order of 22 February 2016, Federal Supplement, Third Series, Vol. 817,
p. 1131, as amended on 14 June 2016, Federal Supplement, Third Series,
Vol. 825, p. 949).
182. Iran has also referred to certain funds held by Mashreqbank, PSC,
affected by enforcement proceedings in one of the Heiser cases (Estate of
Michael Heiser et al. v. Mashreqbank, United States District Court, Southern
District of New York, Case No. 11-cv-1609, Order of 4 May 2012).
However, Iran has not established that Iranian companies owned or had interests
in those assets. Therefore, the Court will not consider this claim.
183. The Court must determine whether the attachment and execution of
the property and interests in property listed above (see paragraphs 180-181)
constitute takings contrary to Article IV, paragraph 2, of the Treaty.
184. The Court considers that a judicial decision ordering the attachment
and execution of property or interests in property does not per se constitute
a taking or expropriation of that property. A specific element of illegality
related to that decision is required to turn it into a compensable expropriation.
Such an element of illegality is present, in certain situations, when a
certains actifs iraniens (arrêt) 114
qui concerne la procédure d’exécution en l’affaire Weinstein, un bien immobilier
; en ce qui concerne les actions en exécution intentées dans les affaires
Heiser, des fonds liés à une dette contractuelle de la Sprint Communications
Company, des fonds placés auprès de Bank of Tokyo Mitsubishi UFJ, le
produit
de transferts électroniques de fonds placé auprès de Bank of Baroda
et des fonds placés auprès de Bank of America ; en ce qui concerne les
actions en exécution intentées en l’affaire Levin, des fonds placés auprès de
JP Morgan Chase Bank qui étaient liés à des dettes contractuelles de Mastercard
International Inc. et le produit de transferts électroniques de fonds placé
auprès de JP Morgan Chase Bank ou Citibank.
181. Pour ce qui est de l’affaire Bennett (voir le paragraphe 70 ci-dessus),
l’Iran mentionne des fonds liés à des dettes contractuelles de Visa Inc. et
Franklin Resources Inc. qui ont été touchés par des actions en exécution. Les
États‑Unis ont entendu écarter cette prétention de l’Iran, au motif que les
actifs en cause n’avaient été distribués aux demandeurs qu’après l’extinction
du traité d’amitié. Il est vrai que la distribution des actifs dans le cadre de
cette affaire n’a été ordonnée qu’en 2020 (Bennett et al. v. The Islamic
Republic
of Iran et al., tribunal fédéral du district nord de la Californie,
affaire no 11-cv-5807, ordonnance du 24 avril 2020), soit après la prise d’effet
de la dénonciation du traité d’amitié (voir le paragraphe 32 ci-dessus). Cela
ne fait toutefois pas obstacle à ce que la Cour examine les demandes de
l’Iran concernant les fonds en cause, lesquels avaient déjà été touchés par des
décisions rendues en 2013 (Bennett et al. v. The Islamic Republic of Iran et
al., tribunal fédéral du district nord de la Californie, ordonnance du
28 février 2013, Federal Supplement, deuxième série, vol. 927, p. 833) et
2016 (Bennett et al. v. The Islamic Republic of Iran et al., cour d’appel fédérale
du neuvième circuit, Opinion and Order du 22 février 2016, Federal
Supplement, troisième série, vol. 817, p. 1131, modifications du 14 juin 2016,
Federal Supplement,
troisième série, vol. 825, p. 949).
182. L’Iran a également évoqué certains fonds placés auprès de Mashreqbank,
PSC, qui ont été touchés par des actions en exécution dans l’une des
affaires Heiser (Estate of Michael Heiser et al. v. Mashreqbank, tribunal
fédéral du district sud de l’État de New York, affaire no 11-cv-1609, ordonnance
du 4 mai 2012). Il n’a cependant pas établi que des sociétés iraniennes
étaient propriétaires de ces actifs ou y détenaient des intérêts. En conséquence,
la Cour ne tiendra pas compte de la demande y afférente.
183. La Cour doit déterminer si les mesures de saisie et d’exécution dont
les biens et les participations dans des biens cités ci-dessus (voir les paragraphes
180-181) ont fait l’objet constituent des expropriations prohibées par
le paragraphe 2 de l’article IV du traité.
184. La Cour estime que des décisions de justice ordonnant que des biens
ou des participations dans des biens fassent l’objet de saisies et de mesures
d’exécution ne constituent pas par elles-mêmes des actes de dépossession ou
d’expropriation. Elles ne peuvent devenir des actes d’expropriation ouvrant
droit à indemnisation que si elles sont entachées d’un élément d’illicéité spé115
certain iranian assets (judgment)
deprivation of property results from a denial of justice, or when a judicial
organ applies legislative or executive measures that infringe international
law and thereby causes a deprivation of property. Therefore, in order to
determine whether there exists a specific element of illegality, it is necessary
to examine the legislative, executive and judicial acts adopted by the
United States as a whole.
185. The Court notes that the Parties disagree as to whether the “police
powers” doctrine has any bearing on Article IV, paragraph 2, given that
there is no mention of it in the text of the provisions concerned with
expropriation.
The Court considers that the Contracting Parties’ right to
regulate is not undermined by the prohibition of takings provided for in
Article IV, paragraph 2. It has long been recognized in international law
that the bona fide non-discriminatory exercise of certain regulatory powers
by the government aimed at the protection of legitimate public welfare is
not deemed expropriatory or compensable (see for example Bischoff Case,
German-Venezuelan
Commission, Award, 1903, United Nations, Reports of
International Arbitral Awards (RIAA), Vol. X, p. 420; Sedco, Inc. and Sediran
Drilling Company v. National Iranian Oil Company, and the Islamic
Republic of Iran, Interlocutory Award, No. ITL-55-129-3, 17 September
1985, para. 90; Saluka Investments B.V. v. Czech Republic, PCA Case
No. 2001-4, Partial Award of 17 March 2006, para. 255). Governmental
powers in this respect, however, are not unlimited.
186. The Court has already concluded that, in the circumstances of the
present case, Section 201 (a) of TRIA and Section 1610 (g) (1) of the FSIA,
as well as their application by United States courts, were unreasonable
measures
in violation of the obligation under Article IV, paragraph 1, of the
Treaty of Amity (see paragraphs 155-156 above). Reasonableness is one of
the considerations that limit the exercise of the governmental powers in this
respect (see for example Bischoff Case, German-Venezuelan
Commission,
Award, 1903, RIAA, Vol. X, p. 420). It follows
from this element of unreasonableness,
which is found in the legislative provisions
and which extends to
their judicial enforcement, that the measures adopted by the United States
did not constitute a lawful exercise of regulatory powers and amounted to
compensable expropriation.
187. For these reasons, the Court concludes that the application of
Section
201 (a) of TRIA and Section 1610 (g) (1) of the FSIA by United
States courts amounted to takings without compensation of the property
and interests in property of Iranian companies, as identified above (see
paragraphs 180-181), in violation of the obligations under Article IV, paragraph
2, of the Treaty.
certains actifs iraniens (arrêt) 115
cifique. Un tel élément est présent, dans certains cas, lorsqu’une dépossession
de biens résulte d’un déni de justice, ou lorsqu’un organe judiciaire applique
des mesures administratives ou législatives contraires au droit international
et, ce faisant, entraîne une dépossession de biens. Pour déterminer s’il existe
un élément d’illicéité spécifique, il est par conséquent nécessaire d’examiner
dans leur ensemble les mesures législatives, administratives et judiciaires
prises par les États‑Unis.
185. La Cour relève que les Parties sont en désaccord sur le point de savoir
si la doctrine des « pouvoirs de police » a un quelconque lien avec le paragraphe
2 de l’article IV, celle-ci n’étant pas visée dans le texte des dispositions
relatives à l’expropriation. Elle considère que l’interdiction frappant les
expropriations qui est énoncée au paragraphe 2 de l’article IV n’entame pas
le droit de réglementation dont jouissent les Parties contractantes. Il est
reconnu de longue date en droit international que l’exercice par un État de
certains pouvoirs de réglementation, de bonne foi et de façon non discriminatoire,
en vue de protéger un intérêt public légitime n’est pas considéré
comme constitutif d’expropriation ni comme ouvrant droit à indemnisation
(voir par exemple Bischoff Case, German-Venezuelan Commission, Award,
1903, Nations Unies, Recueil des sentences arbitrales (RSA), vol. X, p. 420 ;
Sedco, Inc. and Sediran Drilling Company v. National Iranian Oil Company,
and the Islamic Republic of Iran, Interlocutory Award, No. ITL-55-129-3,
17 September 1985, par. 90 ; Saluka Investments B.V. v. Czech Republic,
PCA Case No. 2001-4, Partial Award of 17 March 2006, par. 255). Les pouvoirs
dont l’État dispose à cet égard ne sont cependant pas illimités.
186. La Cour a déjà conclu que, dans les circonstances de la présente
espèce, le paragraphe a) de l’article 201 de la TRIA et l’alinéa 1 du paragraphe
g) de l’article 1610 de la FSIA, ainsi que leur application par les
juridictions américaines, étaient des mesures déraisonnables contraires à
l’obligation énoncée au paragraphe 1 de l’article IV du traité d’amitié (voir
les paragraphes 155-156 ci-dessus). Le caractère raisonnable ou déraisonnable
est l’une des considérations qui limitent l’exercice des pouvoirs de
l’État en cette matière (voir par exemple Bischoff Case, German-Venezuelan
Commission, Award, 1903, RSA, vol. X, p. 420). Il découle du caractère
déraisonnable constaté dans les dispositions législatives en cause et qui
s’étend à leur mise en application par la voie judiciaire que les mesures adoptées
par les États‑Unis ne constituaient pas un exercice licite de leurs
pouvoirs de réglementation et étaient assimilables à une expropriation
ouvrant droit à indemnisation.
187. Compte tenu de ce qui précède, la Cour conclut que l’application du
paragraphe a) de l’article 201 de la TRIA et de l’alinéa 1 du paragraphe g) de
l’article 1610 de la FSIA par les juridictions américaines constituait un acte
d’expropriation sans indemnisation des biens et participations dans des biens
de sociétés iraniennes cités ci-dessus (voir les paragraphes 180-181), qui
a été accompli en violation des obligations énoncées au paragraphe 2 de
l’article
IV du traité.
116 certain iranian assets (judgment)
188. The situation with respect to Executive Order 13599 is different. Iran
has failed to identify the property or interests in property of Iranian companies
that were specifically affected by Executive Order 13599. Indeed, it
has accepted that the main effect of Executive Order 13599, as concerns the
cases challenged in these proceedings, was the blocking of Bank Markazi’s
assets, which is outside the Court’s jurisdiction (see paragraph 115 above).
Accordingly, the Court concludes that, in respect of Executive Order 13599,
Iran has not substantiated its allegations in relation to takings under
Article IV, paragraph 2, of the Treaty.
189. The Court turns now to Iran’s claims in relation to the obligation to
afford the most constant protection and security under Article IV, paragraph
2, of the Treaty.
190. The Court considers that the core of the obligation to afford the most
constant protection and security under the Treaty of Amity concerns the protection
of property from physical harm. Each Contracting Party has an
obligation to exercise due diligence in providing protection from physical
harm to the property of nationals and companies of the other Contracting
Party within its own territory. In its 2019 Judgment, the Court emphasized
that Article IV, paragraph 2, “must be read in the context of Article IV as a
whole” (Certain Iranian Assets (Islamic Republic of Iran v. United States of
America), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2019 (I), p. 28,
para. 58). The Treaty of Amity provides for fair and equitable treatment in
Article IV, paragraph 1, and then for the most constant protection and security
in Article IV, paragraph 2. Similarly, treaties on commerce and
navigation and international investment agreements often provide for fair
and equitable treatment and the most constant protection and security,
consecutively or even in the same sentence. These two separate standards of
protection will overlap significantly if the standard of the most constant protection
and security is interpreted to include legal protection. The Court
observes that the most constant protection and security standard is of particular
practical significance and relevance in the form of protection of property
from physical harm by third parties. It also recalls that, in any event,
the standard of constant protection and security “cannot be construed as the
giving of a warranty that property shall never in any circumstances be occupied
or disturbed” (Elettronica Sicula S.p.A. (ELSI) (United States of
America v. Italy), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1989, p. 65, para. 108).
191. In the present case, Iran does not assert that the United States has
failed to protect the property of Iranian nationals and companies from
physical
harm. It argues that the United States has violated its obligation
under Article IV, paragraph 2, to afford the most constant protection and
security to the property of Iranian companies, because that obligation also
includes the legal protection of property. As observed above, the standard of
the most constant protection and security and the standard of fair and
certains actifs iraniens (arrêt) 116
188. Il n’en va pas de même pour le décret présidentiel no 13599. L’Iran n’a
pas indiqué quels étaient les biens ou participations dans des biens de
sociétés iraniennes qui avaient été spécifiquement touchés par le décret présidentiel
no 13599. De fait, il a reconnu que le principal effet que ce dernier
avait eu dans le cadre des affaires dont il tire grief en l’espèce était le blocage
des actifs de la banque Markazi, qui échappe à la compétence de la Cour
(voir le paragraphe 115 ci-dessus). La Cour en conclut que, en ce qui concerne
le décret présidentiel no 13599, l’Iran n’a pas étayé ses allégations d’expropriation
fondées sur le paragraphe 2 de l’article IV du traité.
189. La Cour en vient maintenant aux demandes de l’Iran relatives à l’obligation
d’assurer la protection et la sécurité de la manière la plus constante en
application du paragraphe 2 de l’article IV du traité.
190. Selon la Cour, l’élément essentiel de l’obligation d’assurer la protection
et la sécurité de la manière la plus constante prévue par le traité d’amitié
réside dans la protection des biens contre les dommages physiques. Chacune
des Parties contractantes est tenue de faire preuve de la diligence due pour
assurer la protection des biens des ressortissants et des sociétés de l’autre Partie
contractante contre les dommages physiques sur son territoire. Dans son
arrêt de 2019, la Cour a souligné que le paragraphe 2 de l’article IV « [devait]
être replacé[] dans le contexte de l’article IV dans son ensemble » (Certains
actifs iraniens (République islamique d’Iran c. États‑Unis d’Amérique),
exceptions préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2019 (I), p. 28, par. 58). Le
traité d’amitié prévoit un traitement juste et équitable au paragraphe 1 de l’article
IV, puis la protection et la sécurité les plus constantes au paragraphe 2.
De même, les traités de commerce et de navigation et les accords internationaux
d’investissement prévoient souvent un traitement juste et équitable ainsi
que la protection et la sécurité les plus constantes dans des phrases consécutives,
voire dans la même phrase. Ces deux standards de protection distincts
se recouperont dans une large mesure si l’on interprète celui de la protection
et de la sécurité les plus constantes comme incluant la protection juridique.
La Cour observe que le standard de la protection et de la sécurité les plus
constantes revêt une importance et une pertinence pratiques particulières en
ce qu’il garantit la protection des biens contre les dommages physiques susceptibles
d’être causés par des tiers. Elle rappelle que, en tout état de cause,
« [i]l n’est pas possible de voir dans [ce standard] la garantie qu’un bien
ne sera jamais, en quelque circonstance que ce soit, l’objet d’une occupation
ou de troubles de jouissance » (Elettronica Sicula S.p.A. (ELSI) (États‑Unis
d’Amérique c. Italie), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1989, p. 65, par. 108).
191. En la présente espèce, l’Iran n’allègue pas que les États‑Unis ont omis
de protéger les biens de sociétés et de ressortissants iraniens contre des
dommages
physiques, mais qu’ils ont manqué à l’obligation d’assurer la
protection
et la sécurité des biens de sociétés iraniennes de la manière la plus
constante que leur imposait le paragraphe 2 de l’article IV, car le champ
d’application
de cette obligation inclut la protection juridique des biens.
Ainsi que cela a été relevé ci-dessus, le standard de la protection et de la
117 certain iranian assets (judgment)
equitable treatment will overlap significantly if the former is interpreted to
include legal protection. The Court has already concluded that the measures
of the United States were in violation of its obligations under Article IV,
paragraph 1. In the Court’s view, the provisions of Article IV, paragraph 2,
as concerns the most constant protection and security, were not intended to
apply to situations covered by the provisions of Article IV, paragraph 1.
Accordingly, the Court concludes that Iran has not established a violation by
the United States of its obligations under Article IV, paragraph 2, as concerns
the most constant protection and security.
192. Based on its finding with respect to the measures of the United States
(see paragraph 187 above), the Court concludes that the United States has
violated its obligations under Article IV, paragraph 2, of the Treaty of Amity,
as concerns the prohibition of takings except for a public purpose and with
the prompt payment of just compensation.
D. Alleged Violations of Article V, Paragraph 1
193. Article V, paragraph 1, of the Treaty of Amity reads:
“Nationals and companies of either High Contracting Party shall be
permitted, within the territories of the other High Contracting Party:
(a) to lease, for suitable periods of time, real property needed for their
residence or for the conduct of activities pursuant to the present Treaty;
(b) to purchase or otherwise acquire personal property of all kinds; and
(c) to dispose of property of all kinds by sale, testament or otherwise.
The treatment accorded in these respects shall in no event be less favorable
than that accorded to nationals and companies of any third country.”
194. Iran contends that the measures adopted by the United States have
deprived Iranian companies of the right to dispose of their property, within
the meaning of subparagraph 1 (c) of Article V. It maintains that an act that
confiscates property also violates prima facie the right to dispose freely of
that property. In its view, the first sentence of Article V, paragraph 1, establishes
a right to dispose of property which may be exercised at any time,
while the second sentence concerning the most-favoured-nation treatment
creates an independent obligation. The Applicant argues that the latter obligation
has also been violated, since Iranian companies and property have
manifestly been treated less favourably than nationals and companies of
third countries.
certains actifs iraniens (arrêt) 117
sécurité les plus constantes et le standard de traitement juste et équitable se
recouperont dans une large mesure si le premier est interprété comme
incluant la protection juridique. La Cour a déjà conclu que les mesures prises
par les États‑Unis emportaient violation des obligations incombant à ces
derniers
au regard du paragraphe 1 de l’article IV. Selon elle, les dispositions
du paragraphe 2 de l’article IV, en ce qu’elles concernent la protection et la
sécurité les plus constantes, n’étaient pas censées s’appliquer à des situations
régies par les dispositions du paragraphe 1 de l’article IV. Par conséquent, la
Cour conclut que l’Iran n’a pas établi de violation, par les États‑Unis, des
obligations que leur impose le paragraphe 2 de l’article IV, en ce qui concerne
la protection et la sécurité les plus constantes.
192. Se fondant sur sa constatation concernant les mesures américaines en
cause (voir le paragraphe 187 ci-dessus), la Cour conclut que les États‑Unis
ont manqué aux obligations que leur impose le paragraphe 2 de l’article IV
du traité d’amitié en ce qui concerne l’interdiction des expropriations hormis
pour cause d’utilité publique et moyennant le paiement rapide d’une juste
indemnité.
D. Violations alléguées du paragraphe 1 de l’article V
193. Le paragraphe 1 de l’article V du traité d’amitié se lit comme suit :
« Les ressortissants et les sociétés de l’une des Hautes Parties contractantes
pourront, dans les territoires de l’autre Haute Partie contractante :
a) prendre à bail, pour des durées appropriées, les biens immeubles dont
ils ont besoin à des fins de résidence ou qui sont nécessaires à la bonne
marche des activités prévues par le présent Traité ; b) acquérir, par voie
d’achat ou par tout autre moyen, des biens mobiliers de toute nature et
c) aliéner des biens de toute nature par voie de vente, de testament ou par
tout autre moyen. Le traitement dont ils bénéficient en ces matières ne
sera, en aucun cas, moins favorable que celui qui est accordé aux ressortissants
et aux sociétés de tout pays tiers. » [Traduction du Secrétariat
de l’Organisation des Nations Unies.]
194. L’Iran affirme que les mesures adoptées par les États‑Unis ont privé
des sociétés iraniennes du droit d’aliéner leurs biens au sens du point c) du
paragraphe 1 de l’article V. Il soutient que tout acte consistant à confisquer
des biens constitue aussi prima facie une violation du droit de les aliéner
librement. Selon lui, la première phrase du paragraphe 1 de l’article V établit
un droit d’aliéner des biens qui peut être exercé en toute circonstance, tandis
que la seconde, qui porte sur le traitement de la nation la plus favorisée, crée
une obligation autonome. Le demandeur fait valoir que cette dernière a elle
aussi été violée, les sociétés iraniennes et leurs biens ayant manifestement
reçu un traitement moins favorable que celui appliqué aux ressortissants et
aux sociétés de pays tiers.
118 certain iranian assets (judgment)
195. The United States, for its part, contends that Article V, paragraph 1, is
a permissive provision, which does not entail an obligation to facilitate an
activity or leave it entirely unregulated or unencumbered and which is not
violated by rules and procedures imposing burdens, obstacles or requirements
on the transfer of property. It argues that the two sentences of Article V,
paragraph 1, must be read together and impose a single obligation, with the
most-favoured-nation provision supplying the standard to be applied in
relation
to the first sentence. The Respondent maintains that this provision
simply does not apply to the type of measures of which Iran complains.
In the view of the United States, Iran has not demonstrated that its companies
have attempted to dispose of property or that any such attempt was
prevented by the measures of the United States. The United States asserts
that none of the measures challenged by Iran accords less favourable treatment
to Iranian nationals in respect of the disposal of property. It stresses
that Iran has not identified a similarly situated person or company that
received more favourable treatment, which is a fundamental requirement of
the most-favoured-nation test.
* *
196. The Court considers that the language of the first sentence of
Article V, paragraph 1, which employs the expression “shall be permitted”,
establishes rights for the nationals and companies of the Contracting Parties
to lease property for their residence or for the conduct of their commercial
activities, to purchase or otherwise acquire personal property, and to dispose
of property.
197. The rights established in the first sentence do not entail an absolute
obligation for the Contracting Parties. The Contracting Parties can exercise
their regulatory powers in respect of such acts of lease, acquisition or disposal
of property. This is exemplified in the first sentence itself, which refers
to the lease of real property “for suitable periods of time”. The second sentence
of Article V, paragraph 1, referring to the “treatment accorded in these
respects”,
also makes clear that the Contracting Parties can regulate these
matters.
198. The Court considers that the rights established in the first sentence of
Article V, paragraph 1, and the corresponding obligations of the Contracting
Parties, are independent from the standard set out in the second sentence.
The second sentence states that the treatment accorded shall “in no event be
less favorable than that accorded nationals and companies of any third
country” (emphasis added). The expression “in no event” suggests that the
second sentence establishes a minimum standard. The second sentence
contains the Contracting Parties’ commitment to improve the treatment of
the nationals and companies of the other Contracting Party whenever they
certains actifs iraniens (arrêt) 118
195. Les États‑Unis, pour leur part, soutiennent que le paragraphe 1 de
l’article V est une disposition permissive qui ne fait pas obligation de faciliter
des activités ni de s’interdire totalement de les réglementer ou de les
restreindre, et qu’il ne saurait y avoir violation de cette disposition lorsque
des règles et procédures relatives au transfert de biens imposent des charges,
des obstacles ou des conditions. Ils avancent que les deux phrases dudit
paragraphe doivent être lues conjointement et qu’elles imposent une seule et
même obligation, la clause relative au traitement de la nation la plus favorisée
fournissant le standard à appliquer dans le cadre de la première phrase.
Ils soutiennent également que cette disposition ne s’applique pas du tout au
type de mesures dont l’Iran tire grief. Selon eux, l’Iran n’a pas établi que ses
sociétés avaient tenté d’aliéner des biens ni que les mesures américaines en
cause les avaient empêchées de le faire. De plus, les États‑Unis affirment
qu’aucune des mesures contestées par l’Iran n’accorde aux ressortissants iraniens
un traitement moins favorable en matière d’aliénation de biens. Ils
soulignent que l’Iran n’a cité aucune personne ni aucune société se trouvant
dans une situation analogue qui aurait bénéficié d’un traitement plus favorable,
ce qui est une condition fondamentale pour que soit appliqué le critère
de la nation la plus favorisée.
* *
196. La Cour considère que le libellé de la première phrase du paragraphe
1 de l’article V, qui emploie le terme « pourront », confère aux
ressortissants et aux sociétés des Parties contractantes le droit de prendre à
bail les biens dont ils ont besoin à des fins de résidence ou qui sont nécessaires
à la bonne marche de leurs activités, celui d’acquérir, par voie d’achat
ou par tout autre moyen, des biens mobiliers et celui d’aliéner des biens.
197. Les droits établis à la première phrase ne font naître aucune obligation
absolue pour les Parties contractantes. Celles-ci peuvent en effet exercer
leurs pouvoirs de réglementation à l’égard des actes de prise à bail, d’acquisition
et d’aliénation de biens susvisés, comme l’illustre la phrase en question
elle-même, qui mentionne la prise à bail d’immeubles « pour des durées
appropriées ». La seconde phrase du paragraphe 1 de l’article V, qui fait
référence
au « traitement dont [les ressortissants et les sociétés] bénéficient
en ces matières », indique aussi clairement que les Parties contractantes
peuvent réglementer lesdites matières.
198. La Cour estime que les droits établis à la première phrase du paragraphe
1 de l’article V et l’obligation correspondante mise à la charge des
Parties contractantes sont indépendants du standard énoncé dans la seconde
phrase. Aux termes de celle-ci, le traitement appliqué ne sera, « en aucun
cas, moins favorable que celui qui est accordé aux ressortissants et aux
sociétés de tout pays tiers » (les italiques sont de la Cour). L’emploi de
l’expression
« en aucun cas » donne à penser que la seconde phrase établit un
standard minimum. Cette phrase énonce l’engagement des Parties contractantes
à améliorer le traitement dont bénéficient les ressortissants et les
119 certain iranian assets (judgment)
accord more favourable treatment to the nationals and companies of a third
country in respect of the rights set out in the first sentence.
199. The Court notes that Iran’s allegations with respect to the right of
Iranian companies to dispose of property under Article V, paragraph 1, are
predicated on the same set of facts as its claims in relation to Article IV,
paragraph 2. The Court has already concluded that the measures of the
United States amounted to takings without compensation in violation of its
obligations under Article IV, paragraph 2. In the Court’s view, measures that
amount to takings without compensation are not the type of measures that
fall within the scope of the Contracting Parties’ obligation to permit the disposal
of property, under Article V, paragraph 1. The obligation to permit the
disposal of property presupposes that the national or company concerned
actually owns property over which it can exercise ownership rights. The
Court considers that Article V, paragraph 1, was not meant to apply to situations
amounting to expropriation, which are addressed in Article IV,
paragraph 2.
200. As concerns Executive Order 13599, the Court notes that the property
and interests in property blocked by this Executive Order “may not be
transferred,
paid, exported, withdrawn, or otherwise dealt in”. These terms
reflect a general prohibition of the disposal of property. The Court recalls,
however, that Iran has failed to identify the property or interests in property
of Iranian companies that were specifically affected by the Executive Order,
other than the assets of Bank Markazi. Indeed, all other property allegedly
blocked by Executive Order 13599 that Iran has brought to the Court’s
attention
was blocked by other executive measures which have not been
challenged in these proceedings. Such property was therefore not affected by
Executive Order 13599.
201. In light of the foregoing, the Court concludes that Iran has not established
a violation by the United States of the right to dispose of property
under Article V, paragraph 1, of the Treaty of Amity.
E. Alleged Violations of Article VII, Paragraph 1
202. Article VII, paragraph 1, of the Treaty of Amity reads as follows:
“Neither High Contracting Party shall apply restrictions on the
making of payments, remittances, and other transfers of funds to or
from the territories of the other High Contracting Party, except (a) to the
extent necessary to assure the availability of foreign exchange for
payments
for goods and services essential to the health and welfare of
its people, or (b) in the case of a member of the International Monetary
Fund, restrictions specifically approved by the Fund.”
certains actifs iraniens (arrêt) 119
sociétés de l’autre Partie contractante chaque fois qu’elles accordent un traitement
plus favorable aux ressortissants et aux sociétés de tout pays tiers à
l’égard des droits établis dans la première phrase.
199. La Cour relève que les allégations formulées par l’Iran au sujet du
droit d’aliéner des biens que les sociétés iraniennes tiennent du paragraphe 1
de l’article V reposent sur la même série de faits que les prétentions du
demandeur
au titre du paragraphe 2 de l’article IV. La Cour a déjà conclu
que les mesures adoptées par les États‑Unis constituaient des actes d’expropriation
sans indemnisation accomplis en violation des obligations mises à
leur charge par le paragraphe 2 de l’article IV. Selon elle, les mesures constitutives
d’expropriation sans indemnisation ne font pas partie de celles qui
entrent dans le champ d’application de l’obligation de permettre l’aliénation
de biens que le paragraphe 1 de l’article V impose aux Parties contractantes.
Cette obligation suppose que les ressortissants ou les sociétés concernés
soient effectivement propriétaires de biens sur lesquels ils peuvent exercer
des droits de propriété. La Cour considère que le paragraphe 1 de l’article V
n’était pas censé s’appliquer aux situations constitutives d’expropriation, qui
sont visées par le paragraphe 2 de l’article IV.
200. En ce qui concerne le décret présidentiel no 13599, la Cour observe que
les biens et les participations dans des biens qu’il bloque « ne peuvent faire
l’objet d’aucun transfert, paiement, exportation, retrait ou autre opération ».
Ces termes expriment une interdiction générale d’aliéner les biens en question.
La Cour rappelle cependant que l’Iran n’a pas indiqué quels biens ou participations
dans des biens de sociétés iraniennes autres que les biens de la banque
Markazi avaient été précisément touchés par le décret présidentiel
no 13599.
De fait, tous les autres biens portés à l’attention de la Cour par l’Iran dont le
blocage a été imputé à ce décret avaient été bloqués par d’autres mesures
administratives qui n’ont pas été contestées en la présente instance. Il s’ensuit
que ces biens n’ont pas été touchés par le décret présidentiel no 13599.
201. À la lumière de ce qui précède, la Cour conclut que l’Iran n’a pas établi
que les États‑Unis avaient violé le droit d’aliéner des biens énoncé au
paragraphe 1 de l’article V du traité d’amitié.
E. Violations alléguées du paragraphe 1 de l’article VII
202. Le paragraphe 1 de l’article VII du traité d’amitié se lit comme suit :
« Aucune des Hautes Parties contractantes n’imposera de restrictions
en matière de paiements, remises et autres transferts de fonds à destination
ou en provenance des territoires de l’autre Haute Partie contractante
sauf : a) dans la mesure nécessaire afin que les ressources en devises
étrangères soient suffisantes pour régler le prix des marchandises et des
services indispensables à la santé et au bien-être de sa population ; et
b) dans le cas d’un membre du Fonds monétaire international, s’il s’agit
de restrictions expressément approuvées par le Fonds. » [Traduction de
la Cour.]
120 certain iranian assets (judgment)
203. Iran argues that Article VII, paragraph 1, reflects a general prohibition
of restrictions on the making of payments and transfers of funds,
providing for two exceptions concerned with restrictions on foreign
exchange, which are not applicable in this case. It adds that paragraphs 2
and 3 merely contain arrangements for the application of those exceptions.
Based on this interpretation, the Applicant contends that, by adopting legislative,
executive and judicial measures through which it attached, blocked
and confiscated funds belonging to Iranian entities and to Iran, the
United States has applied restrictions on the making of payments, remittances
and other transfers of funds, in violation of Article VII, paragraph 1.
204. The United States, for its part, argues that Article VII is an exchange
control provision. In its view, the scope of the general prohibition in
paragraph
1 is understood in light of its immediate context, namely the two
exceptions in the same paragraph, and paragraphs 2 and 3, which are all
concerned with exchange control restrictions. It maintains that this interpretation
is confirmed by the Treaty’s negotiating history. In its view, even
under Iran’s interpretation, Iran’s claim fails because measures enabling
victims
of terrorism to enforce judgments against the property of Iran’s
agencies and instrumentalities do not constitute restrictions on payments,
remittances or other transfers.
* *
205. The Parties’ disagreement on the interpretation of Article VII, paragraph
1, concerns the scope of the first part of the provision, in particular
that of the term “restrictions”.
206. The first part of Article VII, paragraph 1, refers to “restrictions on
the making of payments, remittances, and other transfers of funds”. While
this phrase appears fairly broad on its face, it should not be interpreted in
isolation but in its context. In addition to establishing the general rule,
paragraph 1 contains two exceptions, for situations in which it is “necessary
to assure the availability of foreign exchange” and for “restrictions specifically
approved by the [International Monetary] Fund”. Paragraphs 2 and 3
of Article VII contain rules that each Contracting Party should follow
whenever it applies exchange restrictions. Paragraph 3 in fine provides that,
when applying exchange restrictions, a Contracting Party shall afford the
other Party adequate opportunity for consultation “regarding the application
of the present Article”. Thus, the context of Article VII, paragraph 1,
suggests that the term “restrictions” in paragraph 1 is limited to “exchange
restrictions”.
207. The Court also observes that the interpretation suggested by Iran
would give the provision the character of a prohibition of any restriction on
certains actifs iraniens (arrêt) 120
203. L’Iran affirme que le paragraphe 1 de l’article VII établit une interdiction
générale des restrictions en matière de paiements et de transferts de
fonds, tout en prévoyant deux exceptions en ce qui concerne les devises
étrangères, qui ne sont pas applicables en la présente espèce. Il ajoute que
les paragraphes 2 et 3 énoncent simplement des arrangements relatifs à
l’application de ces exceptions. Sur la base de cette interprétation, le demandeur
soutient que, par les mesures législatives, administratives et judiciaires
par lesquelles ils ont saisi, bloqué et confisqué des fonds appartenant à des
entités iraniennes et à l’Iran, les États‑Unis ont appliqué des restrictions en
matière de paiements, remises et autres transferts de fonds, en violation du
paragraphe 1 de l’article VII.
204. Les États‑Unis, pour leur part, font valoir que l’article VII est une
disposition
régissant le contrôle des changes. Selon eux, la portée de l’interdiction
générale contenue au paragraphe 1 doit être appréhendée à la lumière
de son contexte immédiat, à savoir les deux exceptions figurant dans le
même paragraphe,
ainsi que les paragraphes 2 et 3, qui traitent tous des
restrictions
en matière de change. Le défendeur soutient que cette interprétation
est confirmée par l’historique des négociations du traité. Les États‑Unis
estiment que, même suivant l’interprétation de l’Iran, la demande de celui-ci
ne tient pas puisque les mesures permettant aux victimes d’actes de terrorisme
de faire exécuter des décisions de justice sur les biens des organismes
et agences de l’Iran ne constituent pas des restrictions en matière de paiements,
remises et autres transferts.
* *
205. Le désaccord des Parties concernant l’interprétation du paragraphe 1
de l’article VII a trait à la portée du premier volet de cette disposition et, en
particulier, à celle du terme « restrictions ».
206. Le premier volet du paragraphe 1 de l’article VII mentionne les « restrictions
en matière de paiements, remises et autres transferts de fonds ».
Bien qu’il semble assez large à première vue, ce membre de phrase ne devrait
pas être interprété isolément mais dans son contexte. Outre qu’il établit une
règle générale, le paragraphe 1 énonce deux exceptions, destinées aux cas où
des restrictions sont « nécessaire[s] afin que les ressources en devises étrangères
soient suffisantes » et aux « restrictions expressément approuvées par
le Fonds [monétaire international] ». Les paragraphes 2 et 3 de l’article VII
contiennent des règles que les Parties contractantes doivent observer chaque
fois qu’elles appliquent des restrictions en matière de change. Le paragraphe
3, in fine, prévoit qu’une Partie contractante qui imposera pareilles
restrictions devra donner à l’autre partie la possibilité de discuter avec elle
« l’application des dispositions du présent article ». Le contexte du paragraphe
1 de l’article VII donne donc à penser que le terme « restrictions » qui
y est employé est limité aux « restrictions en matière de change ».
207. La Cour observe également que l’interprétation avancée par l’Iran
donnerait à la disposition à l’examen la nature d’une interdiction de toute
121 certain iranian assets (judgment)
the movement of capital. Given the treaty practice of States regarding
movement
of capital more generally, it is difficult to conceive that the
Parties intended to impose such a general prohibition, especially in the
absence of any words making clear an intention to do so (see Elettronica
Sicula S.p.A. (ELSI) (United States of America v. Italy), Judgment, I.C.J.
Reports 1989, p. 42, para. 50). Paragraph 3 of Article VII, which provides for
the administration of exchange restrictions “in a manner not to influence
disadvantageously the competitive position of the commerce, transport or
investment of capital of the other High Contracting Party in comparison
with the commerce, transport or investment of capital of any third country”,
suggests that the Parties’ intention was to regulate the application of
exchange restrictions so that they would not negatively affect bilateral commerce.
Accordingly, the Court considers that Article VII, paragraph 1, is
concerned with exchange restrictions.
208. Since Iran’s claims regarding Article VII, paragraph 1, are not related
to exchange restrictions, they should be dismissed. The Court concludes that
Iran has not established a violation by the United States of its obligations
under Article VII, paragraph 1, of the Treaty of Amity.
F. Alleged Violations of Article X, Paragraph 1
209. Article X, paragraph 1, of the Treaty of Amity provides that “[b]etween
the territories of the two High Contracting Parties there shall be freedom of
commerce and navigation”.
210. Iran argues that the treatment afforded to Iran and to Iranian companies
and financial institutions, as well as to their respective property,
interferes with Iran’s right to freedom of commerce under Article X, paragraph
1, of the Treaty. It contends that “commerce” is a broad concept and
that this provision includes protection against legislative or executive acts
that result in the automatic blocking or seizure of property. In its view, in the
case concerning Oil Platforms (Islamic Republic of Iran v. United States of
America), the Court rejected the view that Article X, paragraph 1, is limited
to maritime commerce or to trade in goods, while accepting that it encompasses
modern financial operations. As to the territorial limitation included
in Article X, paragraph 1, the Applicant argues that the Court did not make
a general finding that only “direct trade” or “direct commerce” is covered by
the provision. It maintains that there was commerce, albeit limited, between
the territories of the Parties, and identifies several contractual rights in force,
as well as debts owed by United States companies to Iranian companies.
certains actifs iraniens (arrêt) 121
restriction concernant les mouvements de capitaux. Compte tenu de la
pratique conventionnelle des États en ce qui concerne les mouvements
de capitaux de manière plus générale, il est difficile de concevoir que les
Parties aient entendu imposer une interdiction aussi absolue, surtout sans
l’indiquer expressément (voir Elettronica Sicula S.p.A. (ELSI) (États-Unis
d’Amérique c. Italie), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1989, p. 42, par. 50). Le paragraphe
3 de l’article VII, qui prévoit que les restrictions en matière de change
soient appliquées « de manière à ne pas porter préjudice au commerce, aux
transports et aux investissements de l’autre Haute Partie contractante sur le
marché par rapport au commerce, aux transports ou aux investissements
d’un pays tiers », donne à penser que l’intention des Parties était de réglementer
l’application de restrictions en matière de change de sorte qu’elles
ne nuisent pas au commerce bilatéral. En conséquence, la Cour estime
que le paragraphe 1 de l’article VII a trait aux restrictions en matière de
change.
208. Étant donné qu’elles ne portent pas sur des restrictions en matière de
change, les demandes de l’Iran au titre du paragraphe 1 de l’article VII
doivent être rejetées. La Cour conclut que l’Iran n’a pas établi de violation,
par les États‑Unis, des obligations qui leur incombent au regard du paragraphe
1 de l’article VII du traité d’amitié.
F. Violations alléguées du paragraphe 1 de l’article X
209. Le paragraphe 1 de l’article X du traité d’amitié dispose qu’« [i]l y
aura liberté de commerce et de navigation entre les territoires des deux
Hautes Parties contractantes » [traduction du Secrétariat de l’Organisation
des Nations Unies].
210. Le demandeur affirme que le traitement réservé à l’Iran et aux sociétés
et institutions financières iraniennes, ainsi qu’à leurs biens respectifs,
constitue une entrave à la liberté de commerce que lui confère le paragraphe
1 de l’article X du traité. Il soutient que le « commerce » est une
notion large et que cette disposition inclut une protection contre les actes
législatifs ou administratifs donnant lieu au blocage ou à la saisie automatiques
de biens. Selon lui, dans l’affaire des Plates-formes pétrolières
(République islamique d’Iran c. États‑Unis d’Amérique), la Cour a rejeté
l’idée selon laquelle le paragraphe 1 de l’article X serait limité au commerce
maritime ou au commerce de marchandises, tout en reconnaissant que cette
disposition englobe les opérations financières modernes. En ce qui concerne
la limite territoriale prévue au paragraphe 1 de l’article X, le demandeur fait
valoir que la Cour n’a pas conclu de manière générale que seuls les « échanges
directs » ou le « commerce direct » étaient visés par cette disposition. Il soutient
qu’il existait un commerce, quoique limité, entre les territoires des
Parties, et recense plusieurs droits contractuels en vigueur, ainsi que des
dettes de sociétés américaines envers des sociétés iraniennes.
122 certain iranian assets (judgment)
211. The United States contends that Iran’s allegations fail for three
reasons. First, it argues that the reference to “commerce” in Article X, paragraph
1, interpreted in context, means commerce related to navigation. To
the extent that this interpretation conflicts with the Court’s approach in the
Oil Platforms case, the United States requests the Court to revisit its ruling.
In the alternative, it contends that “commerce” means trade in goods,
including its ancillary activities. In this regard, it emphasizes that Iran has
not identified any underlying trade in goods that was disrupted by the
challenged measures.
Secondly, the United States argues that Iran disregards the territorial limitation
in Article X, paragraph 1. In the view of the Respondent, Iran has
failed to identify actual commerce taking place directly between the territories
of Iran and the United States, which was impeded by the challenged
measures. According to the United States, Iran has made a generic claim, of
the type already rejected by the Court in the Oil Platforms case.
Thirdly, the United States maintains that the type of “legal impediments”
to commerce, such as rules governing enforcement of judgments in domestic
courts, do not implicate Article X, paragraph 1, since they have too tenuous
a connection, if any, to the commercial relations between the Parties.
* *
212. In its 2019 Judgment, the Court recalled that the word “commerce” in
Article X, paragraph 1, of the Treaty of Amity, “refers not just to maritime
commerce, but to commercial exchanges in general” and that “commercial
treaties cover a wide range of matters ancillary to commerce”. It thus
reiterated the interpretation, expressed in the Oil Platforms case, that the
word “commerce” in Article X, paragraph 1, “includes commercial activities
in general not merely the immediate act of purchase and sale, but also the
ancillary activities integrally related to commerce” (Certain Iranian Assets
(Islamic Republic of Iran v. United States of America), Preliminary Objections,
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2019 (I), p. 34, para. 78, citing Oil Platforms
(Islamic Republic of Iran v. United States of America), Preliminary Objection,
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1996 (II), pp. 818-819, paras. 45-46 and 49).
The Court sees no reason to depart from its previous interpretation of
the concept of “freedom of commerce” in Article X, paragraph 1, of the
Treaty.
213. The Parties disagree on whether the Court’s interpretation of “freedom
of commerce” requires that commerce and the ancillary activities
related to it are limited to trade in goods.
certains actifs iraniens (arrêt) 122
211. Les États‑Unis considèrent que les allégations de l’Iran sont erronées
pour trois raisons. Premièrement, ils affirment que le terme « commerce »
figurant au paragraphe 1 de l’article X, interprété dans son contexte, désigne
le commerce relatif à la navigation. Dans la mesure où cette interprétation
est en contradiction avec l’approche de la Cour dans l’affaire des Platesformes
pétrolières, ils prient la Cour de réexaminer sa décision. À titre
subsidiaire, ils soutiennent que le terme « commerce » désigne le commerce
de marchandises, y compris les activités accessoires qui y sont liées. À cet
égard, les États‑Unis soulignent que l’Iran ne mentionne aucun échange de
marchandises sous-jacent qui aurait été perturbé par les mesures contestées.
Deuxièmement, les États‑Unis affirment que l’Iran ne tient pas compte
de la limite territoriale énoncée au paragraphe 1 de l’article X. Selon le
défendeur, l’Iran n’a pas donné d’exemple concret d’échange commercial
s’effectuant directement entre son territoire et celui des États‑Unis qui aurait
été entravé par les mesures contestées. Les États‑Unis estiment que l’Iran a
formulé une demande de caractère général du type de celle que la Cour avait
déjà rejetée dans l’affaire des Plates-formes pétrolières.
Troisièmement, les États‑Unis soutiennent que les « entraves juridiques »
au commerce telles que les règles régissant l’exécution de jugements rendus
par des juridictions internes n’entrent pas dans les prévisions du paragraphe
1 de l’article X car elles n’ont qu’un rapport ténu, si tant est qu’elles
en aient un, avec les relations commerciales entre les Parties.
* *
212. Dans son arrêt de 2019, la Cour a rappelé que le mot « commerce »
figurant au paragraphe 1 de l’article X du traité d’amitié « ne vise pas seulement
le commerce maritime, mais les échanges commerciaux en général »,
et que « les traités de commerce règlent une grande variété de questions
accessoires liées au commerce ». Elle a ainsi réitéré l’interprétation, énoncée
dans l’affaire des Plates-formes pétrolières, selon laquelle le mot « commerce
» contenu au paragraphe 1 de l’article X « inclu[t] des activités
commerciales en général — non seulement les activités mêmes d’achat et de
vente, mais également les activités accessoires qui sont intrinsèquement
liées au commerce » (Certains actifs iraniens (République islamique
d’Iran c. États‑Unis d’Amérique), exceptions préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J.
Recueil 2019 (I), p. 34, par. 78, citant Plates-formes pétrolières (République
islamique d’Iran c. États‑Unis d’Amérique), exception préliminaire,
arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1996 (II), p. 818-819, par. 45-46 et 49). La Cour ne voit
aucune raison de s’écarter de son interprétation antérieure de la notion de
« liberté de commerce » au sens du paragraphe 1 de l’article X du traité.
213. Les Parties sont en désaccord sur le point de savoir si l’interprétation
par la Cour de la notion de « liberté de commerce » exige que le commerce et
ses activités accessoires soient limités à des échanges de marchandises.
123 certain iranian assets (judgment)
214. The Court observes that the object and purpose of the Treaty of
Amity, which is stated in its preamble, is to encourage “mutually beneficial
trade and investments and closer economic intercourse generally”. It is true
that in the Oil Platforms case the Court addressed matters related to trade in
goods. However, it did not interpret “commerce” as being exclusively
connected with such trade. In its reasoning, it noted, referring to its predecessor’s
decision in the Oscar Chinn case, that “[t]he expression ‘freedom
of trade’ was thus seen by the Permanent Court as contemplating not only
the purchase and sale of goods, but also industry, and in particular the
transport business” (Oil Platforms (Islamic Republic of Iran v. United States
of America), Preliminary Objection, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1996 (II),
p. 819, para. 48). The Court also cited the Dictionnaire de la terminologie du
droit international of 1960, which explains that “international commerce”
designates “all transactions of import and export, relationships of exchange,
purchase, sale, transport, and financial operations between nations” and
in some instances “all economic, political, intellectual relations between
States and between their nationals” (ibid., p. 818, para. 45). The Court has
specifically opined that the limitation of financial transactions is a type of
measure capable of affecting rights under the Treaty of Amity (Alleged
Violations of the 1955 Treaty of Amity, Economic Relations, and Consular
Rights (Islamic Republic of Iran v. United States of America), Provisional
Measures, Order of 3 October 2018, I.C.J. Reports 2018 (II), p. 643, para. 67).
215. The Court thus considers that financial transactions or operations
constitute ancillary activities integrally related to commerce. In the Court’s
view, activities entirely conducted in the financial sector, such as trade in
intangible assets, also constitute commerce protected under Article X, paragraph
1, of the Treaty.
216. As previously stated by the Court, in accordance with the text of
Article X, paragraph 1, in order to enjoy its protection, the commerce
concerned “is to be between the territories of the United States and Iran”
(Oil Platforms (Islamic Republic of Iran v. United States of America), Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 2003, pp. 214-215, para. 119; emphasis in the original).
In the Oil Platforms case, the Court examined whether the process of indirect
commerce in oil constituted commerce between the territories of the two
States for the purposes of the Treaty of Amity. The Court considered that
“the nature of the successive commercial transactions relating to the oil”
was determinative. It reached the conclusion that there was no commerce
between the territories of the United States and Iran, noting that “[a]fter the
completion of the first contract Iran had no ongoing financial interest in,
or legal responsibility for, the goods transferred” (ibid., p. 207, para. 97).
This conclusion was predicated on the nature of successive commercial
certains actifs iraniens (arrêt) 123
214. La Cour observe que, comme cela est indiqué dans son préambule, le
traité d’amitié a pour objet et pour but d’encourager « les échanges et les
investissements mutuellement profitables et l’établissement de relations
économiques
plus étroites ». S’il est vrai que, dans l’affaire des Plates-formes
pétrolières, elle examinait des questions ayant trait au commerce de marchandises,
la Cour n’a cependant pas interprété le mot « commerce » comme
portant exclusivement sur ce type d’échanges. Dans l’exposé de ses motifs,
elle a relevé, se référant à la décision rendue par sa devancière dans l’affaire
Oscar Chinn, qu’« [a]insi la liberté du commerce a été entendue par la Cour
permanente comme ne visant pas seulement des activités d’achat et de vente
de biens, mais encore l’industrie et notamment l’industrie des transports »
(Plates-formes pétrolières (République islamique d’Iran c. États‑Unis
d’Amérique), exception préliminaire, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1996 (II), p. 819,
par. 48). La Cour a également cité le Dictionnaire de la terminologie du droit
international de 1960, qui précise que l’expression « commerce international
» désigne « l’ensemble des transactions à l’importation et à l’exportation,
des rapports d’échange, d’achat, de vente, de transport, des opérations
financières,
entre nations » et, parfois, « l’ensemble des rapports économiques,
politiques, intellectuels entre États et entre leurs ressortissants »
(ibid., p. 818, par. 45). Par ailleurs, la Cour a expressément indiqué que les
restrictions
imposées aux opérations financières étaient un type de mesure
susceptible d’avoir une incidence sur certains droits prévus par le traité
d’amitié (Violations alléguées du traité d’amitié, de commerce et de
droits consulaires de 1955 (République islamique d’Iran c. États‑Unis
d’Amérique), mesures conservatoires, ordonnance du 3 octobre 2018, C.I.J.
Recueil 2018 (II), p. 643, par. 67).
215. La Cour estime par conséquent que les transactions ou opérations
financières constituent des activités accessoires qui sont intrinsèquement
liées au commerce. Selon elle, les activités intégralement menées dans le
secteur financier, telles que les échanges d’actifs incorporels, constituent
également un commerce protégé par le paragraphe 1 de l’article X du traité.
216. Ainsi que la Cour l’a déjà précisé, pour bénéficier de la protection
prévue par le paragraphe 1 de l’article X, le commerce en cause « doi[t]
s’effectuer entre les territoires des États‑Unis et de l’Iran » (Plates-formes
pétrolières (République islamique d’Iran c. États‑Unis d’Amérique), arrêt,
C.I.J. Recueil 2003, p. 214-215, par. 119 ; les italiques sont dans l’original).
Dans l’affaire des Plates-formes pétrolières, la Cour a examiné la question
de savoir si le commerce indirect de pétrole constituait un commerce
entre les territoires des deux États aux fins du traité d’amitié. À cet égard,
elle a jugé que « la nature des transactions commerciales successives liées au
pétrole » était déterminante. Elle est ainsi parvenue à la conclusion selon
laquelle il n’existait pas de commerce entre les territoires des États‑Unis et
de l’Iran, relevant que, « [u]ne fois le premier contrat exécuté, l’Iran n’avait
plus aucun intérêt financier dans les biens cédés, ou n’était plus juridiquement
responsable de ceux-ci » (ibid., p. 207, par. 97). Cette conclusion
124 certain iranian assets (judgment)
transactions relating to oil. It does not follow that any form of commerce
conducted through intermediaries is not commerce for the purposes of
Article X, paragraph
1. Indeed, it is in the nature of financial transactions
that intermediaries located in various countries are often involved in the
operations.
217. The Court recalls that a party claiming a breach by the other party of
Article X, paragraph 1, must show that “there was an actual impediment to
commerce . . . between the territories of the two High Contracting Parties”
(Oil Platforms (Islamic Republic of Iran v. United States of America), Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 2003, p. 217, para. 123; emphasis in the original). The
United States contends that the measures challenged by Iran are indirect
“legal impediments” to which Article X, paragraph 1, does not apply and
that in any case Iran has not shown how the measures interfered with
commerce.
218. The Court is aware that the strained relationship between the Parties
has resulted in a progressive reduction of commerce between them. Nonetheless,
there is no doubt that at the time when the measures challenged by
Iran were adopted by the United States, commercial relations between the
Parties were still active. There was trade in goods, as reported by the
United States Census Bureau. There were also instances in which Iranian
companies provided services in Iran to United States companies, as shown
by the materials related to contractual debts in the telecommunications
industry and in the credit card services sector, as well as a number of
financial transactions performed by Iranian companies in the United States
banking system (see paragraphs 180-181 above).
219. In the Oil Platforms case, the Court was concerned with physical
interferences with freedom of commerce. However, the decision in that case
does not prevent the Court from examining in the present case whether the
measures adopted by the United States, which are of a legal nature, interfered
with freedom of commerce between the Parties.
220. Executive Order 13599 comprehensively blocked the property and
interests in property of Iran and Iranian financial institutions (see paragraph
114 above). By its own terms, this Executive Order constitutes an
actual impediment to any financial transaction or operation to be conducted
by Iran or Iranian financial institutions in the territory of the United States.
221. Pursuant to Section 1610 (g) (1) of the FSIA, any assets of any Iranian
company in which the State holds any form of interest are subject to
attachment
and execution, even if they have not previously been blocked.
By its own terms, this provision constitutes an actual impediment to the
performance
of commercial activities by those entities in the territory of
the United States. Moreover, the judicial application of Section 1610 (g) (1)
of the FSIA and Section 201 (a) of TRIA has caused concrete interference
with commerce.
certains actifs iraniens (arrêt) 124
reposait sur la nature de transactions commerciales successives liées au
pétrole. Il ne s’ensuit pas qu’aucune forme de commerce mené par des intermédiaires
ne constitue un commerce aux fins du paragraphe 1 de l’article X.
De fait, il est dans la nature des transactions financières que des intermédiaires
situés dans différents pays participent souvent aux opérations.
217. La Cour rappelle que la partie alléguant que l’autre partie a violé le
paragraphe 1 de l’article X doit démontrer qu’« il y a eu une entrave effective
au commerce … entre les territoires des deux hautes parties contractantes »
(Plates-formes pétrolières (République islamique d’Iran c. États‑Unis
d’Amérique), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2003, p. 217, par. 123 ; les italiques sont
dans l’original). Les États‑Unis font valoir que les mesures contestées par
l’Iran sont des « entraves juridiques » indirectes auxquelles la disposition
précitée ne s’applique pas et que, en tout état de cause, l’Iran n’a pas montré
de quelle manière lesdites mesures auraient entravé le commerce.
218. La Cour n’ignore pas que les relations tendues entre les Parties ont
entraîné une réduction progressive de leur commerce bilatéral. Toutefois, il
ne fait aucun doute que, lorsque les États‑Unis ont adopté les mesures que
l’Iran conteste, les Parties entretenaient encore des relations commerciales.
Ainsi que le rapporte le Bureau du recensement des États‑Unis, il existait
un commerce de marchandises. Certaines sociétés iraniennes fournissaient
également des services aux sociétés américaines en Iran, comme le montrent
les documents ayant trait aux dettes contractuelles dans le secteur des
télécommunications et dans le secteur du service des cartes de crédit,
ainsi qu’un certain nombre de transactions financières effectuées par des
sociétés iraniennes dans le système bancaire des États‑Unis (voir les paragraphes
180-181 ci-dessus).
219. Dans l’affaire des Plates-formes pétrolières, la Cour s’intéressait à des
entraves physiques à la liberté de commerce. La décision qu’elle a rendue
dans cette affaire ne l’empêche cependant pas de rechercher, en la présente
espèce, si les mesures adoptées par les États‑Unis, qui sont de nature juridique,
ont entravé la liberté de commerce entre les Parties.
220. Le décret présidentiel no 13599 a bloqué tous les biens et intérêts dans
des biens de l’Iran et des institutions financières iraniennes (voir le paragraphe
114 ci-dessus). De par ses termes mêmes, ce décret constitue une entrave
effective à toute transaction ou opération financière réalisée par l’Iran ou
les institutions financières iraniennes sur le territoire des États‑Unis.
221. Aux termes de l’alinéa 1 du paragraphe g) de l’article 1610 de la FSIA,
tout actif détenu par toute société iranienne, à l’égard duquel l’État iranien
détient quelque intérêt que ce soit, peut faire l’objet de mesures de saisie et
d’exécution, même s’il n’a pas été préalablement bloqué. De par ses termes
mêmes, cette disposition constitue une entrave effective à la réalisation
d’activités
commerciales par ces entités sur le territoire des États‑Unis. De
plus, l’application judiciaire de l’alinéa 1 du paragraphe g) de l’article 1610
de la FSIA et du paragraphe a) de l’article 201 de la TRIA a concrètement
entravé le commerce.
125 certain iranian assets (judgment)
222. In the context of its claims under Article X, paragraph 1, Iran specifically
mentioned the effects of certain enforcement proceedings with respect
to assets of the Iranian Ministry of Defence and the Iranian Navy held by
Wells Fargo bank. The Court notes that the first allegation concerns a sum
deposited by the company Cubic Defense Systems which was owed to the
Iranian Ministry of Defence as a result of arbitration proceedings relating
to
a failure fully to perform contractual obligations after the Iranian revolution
in 1979. With respect to the assets of the Iranian Navy, the only information
available is that they were held by Wells Fargo bank as “collateral for letter
of credit”. In the Court’s view, the materials submitted to it do not demonstrate
that the relevant assets were connected to commerce in such a way that
the relevant judicial decisions can be considered instances of interference
with commerce as a result of the application of TRIA and the FSIA.
However, the effects of the enforcement proceedings with respect to
contractual debts in the telecommunications industry and in the credit card
services sector mentioned above (see paragraphs 180-181) constitute clear
examples of such concrete interference with commerce.
223. In light of the foregoing, the Court concludes that the United States
has violated its obligations under Article X, paragraph 1, of the Treaty of
Amity.
V. Remedies
224. In its final submissions, Iran requests that the Court, having placed
on record the alleged violations of the Treaty of Amity, declare
“(c) [. . . ] that the United States is consequently obliged to put an end to
the situation brought about by the aforementioned violations of
international law, by (a) ceasing those acts and (b) making full
reparation for the injury caused by those acts, in an amount to be
determined in a later phase of these proceedings, and (c) offering a
formal apology to the Islamic Republic of Iran for those wrongful
acts and injuries”.
A. Cessation of Internationally Wrongful Acts
225. Iran sets out its claim relating to the cessation of the wrongful acts in
the following terms:
“[T]he United States shall, by enacting appropriate legislation, or by
resorting to other methods of its choosing, ensure that the measures
adopted by its Legislature and its Executive, and the decisions of its
courts and those of other authorities infringing the rights of Iran and
of Iranian companies, cease to have effect in so far as they were each
certains actifs iraniens (arrêt) 125
222. Dans le cadre des demandes qu’il a formulées au titre du paragraphe 1
de l’article X, l’Iran a spécifiquement mentionné les effets de certaines procédures
d’exécution relatives aux actifs du ministère iranien de la défense et
de la marine iranienne détenus par la banque Wells Fargo. La Cour note que
la première allégation concerne une somme déposée par la société Cubic
Defense Systems qui était due au ministère iranien de la défense par suite
d’une procédure d’arbitrage relative au fait que certaines obligations contractuelles
n’avaient pas été pleinement exécutées après la révolution iranienne
de 1979. S’agissant des actifs de la marine iranienne, la seule information
disponible est qu’ils étaient détenus par la banque Wells Fargo en tant que
« garantie d’une lettre de crédit ». Selon la Cour, les éléments qui lui ont été
présentés ne démontrent pas que les actifs en question aient été liés au commerce
de telle sorte que les décisions de justice pertinentes puissent être
considérées comme des cas d’entrave au commerce résultant de l’application
de la TRIA et de la FSIA.
En revanche, les effets des procédures d’exécution relatives à des dettes
contractuelles dans le secteur des télécommunications et dans le secteur du
service des cartes de crédit mentionnés ci-dessus (voir les paragraphes 180-
181) constituent des exemples manifestes de pareilles entraves.
223. À la lumière de ce qui précède, la Cour conclut que les États‑Unis ont
violé les obligations que leur impose le paragraphe 1 de l’article X du traité
d’amitié.
V. Remèdes
224. Dans ses conclusions finales, l’Iran demande à la Cour, après avoir
constaté les violations du traité d’amitié qu’il allègue, de dire
« c) … que les États‑Unis sont par conséquent tenus de mettre un terme à
la situation née desdites violations du droit international a) par la cessation
des actes en cause, b) par la réparation intégrale des préjudices
causés par ces actes, réparation dont le quantum sera déterminé à un
stade ultérieur de la procédure, et c) par la présentation d’excuses
officielles à la République islamique d’Iran à raison des actes illicites
susmentionnés et des préjudices qu’ils ont causés ».
A. Cessation des faits internationalement illicites
225. L’Iran précise sa demande relative à la cessation des faits illicites
dans les termes suivants :
« [L]es États‑Unis doivent, en adoptant une législation appropriée ou
en recourant à tout autre moyen de leur choix, veiller à ce que les
mesures adoptées par leur pouvoir législatif et leur pouvoir exécutif,
ainsi que les décisions de leurs tribunaux ou d’autres instances portant
atteinte aux droits de l’Iran et de sociétés iraniennes cessent de produire
126 certain iranian assets (judgment)
adopted or taken in violation of the obligations owed by the United
States to Iran under the Treaty of Amity, and that no steps are taken
against the assets or interests of Iran or any Iranian entity or national
that involve or imply the recognition or enforcement of such acts”
(subparagraph (d) of the final submissions).
226. As provided in Article 30 of the ILC Articles on State Responsibility,
which in this regard reflects customary international law: “The State responsible
for the internationally wrongful act is under an obligation: (a) to cease
that act, if it is continuing”.
227. Such an obligation exists only if the violated obligation is still in force
(see, in this respect, the commentary of the ILC to Article 30, paragraphs (1)
and (3); see also the arbitral award in the Rainbow Warrior case (Award of
30 April 1990, RIAA, Vol. XX, p. 270, para. 114)).
228. In the present case, this condition is not met, since the Treaty of
Amity is no longer in force. The United States denounced the Treaty by
giving notification of its denunciation to Iran on 3 October 2018, so that the
Treaty ceased to have effect a year later in accordance with the provisions
of Article XXIII, paragraph 3, thereof (see paragraph 32 above).
229. It follows that Iran’s request relating to the cessation of internationally
wrongful acts must be rejected.
B. Compensation for the Injury Suffered
230. Iran states, in support of its claim for reparation for its injuries, that it
will “present[] to the Court, by a date to be fixed by the Court, a precise
evaluation
of the reparations due for injuries caused by the unlawful acts of
the United States in breach of the Treaty of Amity” (subparagraph (e) of the
final submissions).
231. Iran is entitled to compensation for the injury caused by violations by
the United States that have been ascertained by the Court. The relevant
injury and the amount of compensation may be assessed by the Court only
in a subsequent phase of the proceedings. If the Parties are unable to agree
on the amount of compensation due to Iran within 24 months of the date of
the present Judgment, the Court will, at the request of either Party, determine
the amount due on the basis of further written pleadings limited to this
issue.
C. Satisfaction
232. The offering of a formal apology by the State having committed
the wrongful act may, in appropriate circumstances, constitute a form of
satisfaction that the injured State is entitled to claim further to a finding of
wrongfulness (on this point, see Article 37, paragraph 2, of the ILC Articles
on State Responsibility).
certains actifs iraniens (arrêt) 126
leurs effets dans la mesure où chacune d’elles a été adoptée en violation
des obligations imposées aux États‑Unis envers l’Iran par le traité
d’amitié,
et à ce que ne soit prise contre les actifs ou les intérêts de
l’Iran, d’entités iraniennes ou de ressortissants iraniens aucune mesure
emportant ou supposant la reconnaissance ou l’exécution de ces actes. »
(Conclusions finales, point d).)
226. Comme l’indique l’article 30 des Articles de la CDI sur la responsabilité
de l’État, qui reflète à cet égard le droit international coutumier : « L’État
responsable du fait internationalement illicite a l’obligation : a) [d]’y mettre
fin si ce fait continue ».
227. Une telle obligation n’existe que si l’obligation violée est toujours en
vigueur (voir en ce sens le commentaire par la CDI de l’article 30, paragraphes
1 et 3 ; voir aussi la sentence arbitrale dans l’affaire du Rainbow
Warrior (sentence du 30 avril 1990, RSA, vol. XX, p. 270, par. 114)).
228. En l’espèce, cette condition n’est pas remplie. En effet, le traité d’amitié
n’est plus en vigueur. Les États‑Unis l’ont dénoncé en donnant notification
de cette dénonciation à l’Iran le 3 octobre 2018, de telle sorte que le traité a
cessé de produire effet un an plus tard conformément aux dispositions du
paragraphe 3 de son article XXIII (voir le paragraphe 32 ci-dessus).
229. Il suit de là que la demande de l’Iran relative à la cessation des faits
internationalement illicites doit être rejetée.
B. Indemnisation pour les préjudices subis
230. L’Iran précise, au soutien de sa demande de réparation des préjudices,
qu’il « présentera à la Cour, dans un délai fixé par elle, une évaluation précise
des réparations qui lui sont dues pour les préjudices causés par les actes illicites
que les États‑Unis ont commis en violation du traité d’amitié »
(conclusions finales, point e)).
231. L’Iran est fondé à recevoir indemnisation pour les préjudices causés
par les violations dont la Cour a constaté la commission par les États‑Unis.
La Cour ne pourrait procéder à l’évaluation de ces préjudices et du montant
de l’indemnité que dans le cadre d’une phase ultérieure de la procédure.
Dans le cas où les Parties ne parviendraient pas à s’entendre sur le montant
de l’indemnité due à l’Iran dans un délai de 24 mois à partir de la date du
présent arrêt, la Cour déterminera ce montant, à la demande de l’une d’entre
elles, sur la base de pièces écrites additionnelles limitées à cet objet.
C. Satisfaction
232. La présentation d’excuses formelles de la part de l’État ayant commis
le fait illicite peut constituer, dans des cas appropriés, une modalité de la
satisfaction que l’État lésé est en droit de réclamer, à la suite du constat de
l’illicéité (sur ce point, voir article 37, paragraphe 2, des Articles de la CDI
sur la responsabilité de l’État).
127 certain iranian assets (judgment)
233. In the circumstances of this case, the Court considers that a finding,
in the present Judgment, of wrongful acts committed by the United States is
sufficient satisfaction for the Applicant.
*
234. In its final submissions, Iran also requested that the Court rule that
“the United States shall pay the costs incurred by Iran in the presentation
of this case and the defence of its legal rights under the Treaty of Amity”.
235. Article 64 of the Statute of the Court provides that “[u]nless otherwise
decided by the Court, each party shall bear its own costs”. In the
circumstances of this case, the Court can see no sufficient reason to direct
the respondent Party to bear the costs of the proceedings (see, for example,
Armed Activities on the Territory of the Congo (Democratic Republic of the
Congo v. Uganda), Reparations, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2022 (I), p. 134,
para. 396; Certain Activities Carried Out by Nicaragua in the Border Area
(Costa Rica v. Nicaragua) and Construction of a Road in Costa Rica along
the San Juan River (Nicaragua v. Costa Rica), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports
2015 (II), p. 718, para. 144).
* * *
236. For these reasons,
The Court,
(1) By ten votes to five,
Upholds the objection to jurisdiction raised by the United States of America
relating to the claims of the Islamic Republic of Iran under Articles III,
IV and V of the 1955 Treaty of Amity, Economic Relations, and Consular
Rights, to the extent that they relate to treatment accorded to Bank Markazi
and, accordingly, finds that it has no jurisdiction to consider those claims;
in favour: Vice-President Gevorgian, Acting President; Judges Tomka,
Abraham, Xue, Sebutinde, Bhandari, Iwasawa, Nolte, Charlesworth;
Judge ad hoc Barkett;
against: Judges Bennouna, Yusuf, Robinson, Salam; Judge ad hoc Momtaz;
(2) By thirteen votes to two,
Rejects the objection to admissibility raised by the United States of
America
relating to the failure by Iranian companies to exhaust local
remedies;
certains actifs iraniens (arrêt) 127
233. Dans les circonstances de l’espèce, la Cour estime que le constat, par
le présent arrêt, des faits illicites dont les États‑Unis ont été les auteurs
constitue pour le demandeur une satisfaction suffisante.
*
234. L’Iran a également demandé, dans ses conclusions finales, que la
Cour décide que « les États‑Unis doivent prendre en charge les frais engagés
par l’Iran pour exposer sa thèse et défendre les droits qu’il tient du traité
d’amitié ».
235. L’article 64 du Statut de la Cour dispose que « [s’]il n’en est autrement
décidé par la Cour, chaque partie supporte ses frais de procédure ». Dans les
circonstances de l’espèce, la Cour n’aperçoit aucune raison suffisante de
mettre les frais de procédure à la charge de la partie défenderesse (voir
par exemple Activités armées sur le territoire du Congo (République démocratique
du Congo c. Ouganda), réparations, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2022 (I),
p. 134, par. 396 ; Certaines activités menées par le Nicaragua dans la région
frontalière (Costa Rica c. Nicaragua) et Construction d’une route au
Costa Rica le long du fleuve San Juan (Nicaragua c. Costa Rica), arrêt,
C.I.J. Recueil 2015 (II), p. 718, par. 144).
* * *
236. Par ces motifs,
La Cour,
1) Par dix voix contre cinq,
Retient l’exception d’incompétence soulevée par les États‑Unis d’Amérique
relative aux demandes présentées par la République islamique d’Iran
au titre des articles III, IV et V du traité d’amitié, de commerce et de droits
consulaires de 1955, dans la mesure où elles portent sur le traitement réservé
à la banque Markazi et, en conséquence, dit qu’elle n’est pas compétente
pour connaître desdites demandes ;
pour : M. Gevorgian, vice-président, faisant fonction de président en
l’affaire
; MM. Tomka, Abraham, Mmes Xue, Sebutinde, MM. Bhandari,
Iwasawa, Nolte, Mme Charlesworth, juges ; Mme Barkett, juge ad hoc ;
contre : MM. Bennouna, Yusuf, Robinson, Salam, juges ; M. Momtaz,
juge ad hoc ;
2) Par treize voix contre deux,
Rejette l’exception d’irrecevabilité soulevée par les États‑Unis d’Amérique
se rapportant au défaut d’épuisement des voies de recours internes par les
sociétés iraniennes ;
128 certain iranian assets (judgment)
in favour: Vice-President Gevorgian, Acting President; Judges Tomka,
Abraham, Bennouna, Yusuf, Xue, Bhandari, Robinson, Salam, Iwasawa,
Nolte, Charlesworth; Judge ad hoc Momtaz;
against: Judge Sebutinde; Judge ad hoc Barkett;
(3) By eight votes to seven,
Finds that the United States of America has violated its obligation under
Article III, paragraph 1, of the 1955 Treaty of Amity, Economic Relations,
and Consular Rights;
in favour: Vice-President Gevorgian, Acting President; Judges Bennouna,
Yusuf, Xue, Robinson, Salam, Charlesworth; Judge ad hoc Momtaz;
against: Judges Tomka, Abraham, Sebutinde, Bhandari, Iwasawa, Nolte;
Judge ad hoc Barkett;
(4) By twelve votes to three,
Finds that the United States of America has violated its obligations under
Article IV, paragraph 1, of the 1955 Treaty of Amity, Economic Relations,
and Consular Rights;
in favour: Vice-President Gevorgian, Acting President; Judges Tomka,
Abraham, Bennouna, Yusuf, Xue, Robinson, Salam, Iwasawa, Nolte,
Charlesworth; Judge ad hoc Momtaz;
against: Judges Sebutinde, Bhandari; Judge ad hoc Barkett;
(5) By eleven votes to four,
Finds that the United States of America has violated its obligation under
Article IV, paragraph 2, of the 1955 Treaty of Amity, Economic Relations,
and Consular Rights, namely that the property of nationals and companies of
the Contracting Parties “shall not be taken except for a public purpose, nor
shall it be taken without the prompt payment of just compensation”;
in favour: Vice-President Gevorgian, Acting President; Judges Tomka,
Abraham, Bennouna, Yusuf, Xue, Robinson, Salam, Iwasawa, Nolte;
Judge ad hoc Momtaz;
against: Judges Sebutinde, Bhandari, Charlesworth; Judge ad hoc Barkett;
(6) By ten votes to five,
Finds that the United States of America has violated its obligations under
Article X, paragraph 1, of the 1955 Treaty of Amity, Economic Relations,
and Consular Rights;
certains actifs iraniens (arrêt) 128
pour : M. Gevorgian, vice-président, faisant fonction de président
en l’affaire ; MM. Tomka, Abraham, Bennouna, Yusuf, Mme Xue,
MM. Bhandari, Robinson, Salam, Iwasawa, Nolte, Mme Charlesworth,
juges ; M. Momtaz, juge ad hoc ;
contre : Mme Sebutinde, juge ; Mme Barkett, juge ad hoc ;
3) Par huit voix contre sept,
Dit que les États‑Unis d’Amérique ont violé l’obligation que leur impose le
paragraphe 1 de l’article III du traité d’amitié, de commerce et de droits
consulaires de 1955 ;
pour : M. Gevorgian, vice-président, faisant fonction de président en
l’affaire ; MM. Bennouna, Yusuf, Mme Xue, MM. Robinson, Salam,
Mme Charlesworth, juges ; M. Momtaz, juge ad hoc ;
contre : MM. Tomka, Abraham, Mme Sebutinde, MM. Bhandari, Iwasawa,
Nolte, juges ; Mme Barkett, juge ad hoc ;
4) Par douze voix contre trois,
Dit que les États‑Unis d’Amérique ont violé les obligations que leur impose
le paragraphe 1 de l’article IV du traité d’amitié, de commerce et de droits
consulaires de 1955 ;
pour : M. Gevorgian, vice-président, faisant fonction de président
en l’affaire ; MM. Tomka, Abraham, Bennouna, Yusuf, Mme Xue,
MM. Robinson, Salam, Iwasawa, Nolte, Mme Charlesworth, juges ;
M. Momtaz, juge ad hoc ;
contre : Mme Sebutinde, M. Bhandari, juges ; Mme Barkett, juge ad hoc ;
5) Par onze voix contre quatre,
Dit que les États‑Unis d’Amérique ont violé l’obligation que leur impose le
paragraphe 2 de l’article IV du traité d’amitié, de commerce et de droits
consulaires de 1955, à savoir que les biens appartenant aux ressortissants et
aux sociétés des Parties contractantes « ne pourront être expropriés que pour
cause d’utilité publique et moyennant le paiement rapide d’une juste
indemnité » ;
pour : M. Gevorgian, vice-président, faisant fonction de président
en l’affaire ; MM. Tomka, Abraham, Bennouna, Yusuf, Mme Xue,
MM. Robinson, Salam, Iwasawa, Nolte, juges ; M. Momtaz, juge ad hoc ;
contre : Mme Sebutinde, M. Bhandari, Mme Charlesworth, juges ;
Mme Barkett, juge ad hoc ;
6) Par dix voix contre cinq,
Dit que les États‑Unis d’Amérique ont violé les obligations que leur impose
le paragraphe 1 de l’article X du traité d’amitié, de commerce et de droits
consulaires de 1955 ;
129 certain iranian assets (judgment)
in favour: Vice-President Gevorgian, Acting President; Judges Abraham,
Bennouna, Yusuf, Xue, Robinson, Salam, Iwasawa, Nolte;
Judge ad hoc Momtaz;
against: Judges Tomka, Sebutinde, Bhandari, Charlesworth; Judge ad hoc
Barkett;
(7) By thirteen votes to two,
Finds that the United States of America is under obligation to compensate
the Islamic Republic of Iran for the injurious consequences of the violations
of international obligations referred to in subparagraphs (3) to (6) above;
in favour: Vice-President Gevorgian, Acting President; Judges Tomka,
Abraham, Bennouna, Yusuf, Xue, Bhandari, Robinson, Salam, Iwasawa,
Nolte, Charlesworth; Judge ad hoc Momtaz;
against: Judge Sebutinde; Judge ad hoc Barkett;
(8) By fourteen votes to one,
Decides that, failing agreement between the Parties on the question of
compensation due to the Islamic Republic of Iran within 24 months from the
date of the present Judgment, this matter will, at the request of either Party,
be settled by the Court, and reserves for this purpose the subsequent procedure
in the case;
in favour: Vice-President Gevorgian, Acting President; Judges Tomka,
Abraham, Bennouna, Yusuf, Xue, Bhandari, Robinson, Salam, Iwasawa,
Nolte, Charlesworth; Judges ad hoc Barkett, Momtaz;
against: Judge Sebutinde;
(9) Unanimously,
Rejects all other submissions made by the Parties.
Done in English and in French, the English text being authoritative, at the
Peace Palace, The Hague, this thirtieth day of March, two thousand and
twenty-three, in three copies, one of which will be placed in the archives of
the Court and the others transmitted to the Government of the Islamic Republic
of Iran and the Government of the United States of America, respectively.
(Signed) Kirill Gevorgian,
Vice-President.
(Signed) Philippe Gautier,
Registrar.
certains actifs iraniens (arrêt) 129
pour : M. Gevorgian, vice-président, faisant fonction de président en
l’affaire ; MM. Abraham, Bennouna, Yusuf, Mme Xue, MM. Robinson,
Salam, Iwasawa, Nolte, juges ; M. Momtaz, juge ad hoc ;
contre : M. Tomka, Mme Sebutinde, M. Bhandari, Mme Charlesworth,
juges ; Mme Barkett, juge ad hoc ;
7) Par treize voix contre deux,
Dit que les États‑Unis d’Amérique ont l’obligation d’indemniser la République
islamique d’Iran pour les conséquences préjudiciables découlant des
violations des obligations internationales visées aux points 3 à 6 ci-dessus ;
pour : M. Gevorgian, vice-président, faisant fonction de président
en l’affaire ; MM. Tomka, Abraham, Bennouna, Yusuf, Mme Xue,
MM. Bhandari, Robinson, Salam, Iwasawa, Nolte, Mme Charlesworth,
juges ; M. Momtaz, juge ad hoc ;
contre : Mme Sebutinde, juge ; Mme Barkett, juge ad hoc ;
8) Par quatorze voix contre une,
Dit que, au cas où les Parties ne pourraient se mettre d’accord sur la question
de l’indemnisation due à la République islamique d’Iran dans un délai
de 24 mois à compter de la date du présent arrêt, cette question sera, à la
demande de l’une ou l’autre Partie, réglée par la Cour, et réserve à cet effet
la suite de la procédure ;
pour : M. Gevorgian, vice-président, faisant fonction de président
en l’affaire ; MM. Tomka, Abraham, Bennouna, Yusuf, Mme Xue,
MM. Bhandari, Robinson, Salam, Iwasawa, Nolte, Mme Charlesworth,
juges ; Mme Barkett, M. Momtaz, juges ad hoc ;
contre : Mme Sebutinde, juge ;
9) À l’unanimité,
Rejette le surplus des conclusions soumises par les Parties.
Fait en anglais et en français, le texte anglais faisant foi, au Palais de la
Paix, à La Haye, le trente mars deux mille vingt-trois, en trois exemplaires,
dont l’un restera déposé aux archives de la Cour et les autres seront transmis
respectivement au Gouvernement de la République islamique d’Iran et
au Gouvernement des États‑Unis d’Amérique.
Le vice-président,
(Signé) Kirill Gevorgian.
Le greffier,
(Signé) Philippe Gautier.
130 certain iranian assets (judgment)
Judge Tomka appends a separate opinion to the Judgment of the Court;
Judge Abraham appends a declaration to the Judgment of the Court; Judges
Bennouna and Yusuf append separate opinions to the Judgment of the
Court; Judge Sebutinde appends a dissenting opinion to the Judgment of
the Court; Judge Bhandari appends a declaration to the Judgment of the
Court; Judge Robinson appends a separate opinion, partly concurring and
partly dissenting, to the Judgment of the Court; Judge Salam appends a
declaration to the Judgment of the Court; Judges Iwasawa, Nolte and
Charlesworth append separate opinions to the Judgment of the Court;
Judge ad hoc Barkett appends a separate opinion, partly concurring and
partly dissenting, to the Judgment of the Court; Judge ad hoc Momtaz
appends a separate opinion to the Judgment of the Court.
(Initialled) K.G.
(Initialled) Ph.G.
certains actifs iraniens (arrêt) 130
M. le juge Tomka joint à l’arrêt l’exposé de son opinion individuelle ;
M. le juge Abraham joint une déclaration à l’arrêt ; MM. les juges Bennouna
et Yusuf joignent à l’arrêt les exposés de leur opinion individuelle ;
Mme la juge Sebutinde joint à l’arrêt l’exposé de son opinion dissidente ;
M. le juge Bhandari joint une déclaration à l’arrêt ; M. le juge Robinson
joint à l’arrêt l’exposé de son opinion individuelle, en partie concordante
et en partie dissidente ; M. le juge Salam joint une déclaration à l’arrêt ;
MM. les juges Iwasawa et Nolte et Mme la juge Charlesworth joignent à
l’arrêt les exposés de leur opinion individuelle ; Mme la juge ad hoc Barkett
joint à l’arrêt l’exposé de son opinion individuelle, en partie concordante et
en partie dissidente ; M. le juge ad hoc Momtaz joint à l’arrêt l’exposé de son
opinion individuelle.
(Paraphé) K.G.
(Paraphé) Ph.G.
Judgment of 30 March 2023