SEPARATE OPINION OF JUDGE TOMKA Jurisdiction of the Court under Article XXXI of the Pact of Bogotá Interpretation of Article XXXI of the Pact of Bogotá The meaning and purpose of the phrase “so long as the present Treaty is in force” No temporal limitation of the Court’s jurisdiction under Article XXXI Requirement that the Pact of Bogotá be in force when the Application instituting proceedings is filed No new claim formulated by Nicaragua after the filing of the Application and the lapse of the title of jurisdiction. Nicaragua’s straight baselines Finding of the Court that they are not in conformity with international law No legal consequences drawn by the Court from this finding Obligation of Nicaragua to bring its straight baselines in the Caribbean Sea into conformity with UNCLOS. Although I have voted in favour of all the conclusions reached by the Court, there are two issues on which I wish to offer some observations. I. JURISDICTION 1. The first issue concerns the jurisdiction of the Court in this case. In its Judgment rendered on 17 March 2016, the Court found “that it has jurisdiction, on the basis of Article XXXI of the Pact of Bogotá, to adjudicate upon the dispute between the Republic of Nicaragua and the Republic of Colombia referred to in subparagraph 1 (b) above [i.e. the ‘dispute regarding the alleged violations by Colombia of Nicaragua’s rights in the maritime zones which, according to Nicaragua, the Court declared in its 2012 Judgment appertain to Nicaragua’]”1. 2. In the resumed proceedings on the merits, Colombia subsequently argued that “the Court lacks jurisdiction ratione temporis to consider any claims that are based on events that are alleged to have transpired after Colombia ceased to be bound by the provisions of the Pact”2, that is, after 26 November 2013. According to the Respondent, Article XXXI, read together with Article LVI of the Pact, provides for “a clear temporal limitation to Colombia’s consent to the Court’s jurisdiction over a dispute concerning the existence of any fact which, if established, could constitute the breach of an international obligation”3. Therefore, in Colombia’s view, “no jurisdictional basis exists for the Court to rule on any of the facts alleged to have occurred after the Pact ceased to be in effect for Colombia”4. 3. It has, however, to be emphasized that Colombia did not include this argument in its final submissions not in its Counter-Memorial or Rejoinder, nor at the end of the oral proceedings. The 1 Alleged Violations of Sovereign Rights and Maritime Spaces in the Caribbean Sea (Nicaragua v. Colombia), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2016, pp. 42-43, para. 111. 2 Counter-Memorial of the Republic of Colombia, para. 1.15. The argument has been further elaborated in paras. 4.19-4.21 of the Counter-Memorial, in paras. 3.6-3.36 of the Rejoinder of the Republic of Colombia and during the hearings (see CR 2021/15, pp. 14-18, paras. 31-46 (Bundy) and CR 2021/18, pp. 32-35, paras. 18-33 (Bundy)). 3 CR 2021/15, p. 15, para. 37 (Bundy). 4 Ibid., p. 15, para. 34 (emphasis in the original). - 2 - Court nevertheless considered it necessary to rule on this argument in the operative clause of the present Judgment (paragraph 261 (1)). 4. Article XXXI of the Pact has to be interpreted according to the customary rules on treaty interpretation which, as the Court has repeatedly stated, are reflected in Articles 31 and 32 of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties5. 5. Article XXXI of the Pact of Bogotá provides: “In conformity with Article 36, paragraph 2, of the Statute of the International Court of Justice, the High Contracting Parties declare that they recognize in relation to any other American State, the jurisdiction of the Court as compulsory ipso facto, without the necessity of any special agreement so long as the present Treaty is in force, in all disputes of a juridical nature that arise among them concerning: (a) The interpretation of a treaty; (b) Any question of international law; (c) The existence of any fact which, if established, would constitute the breach of an international obligation; (d) The nature or extent of the reparation to be made for the breach of an international obligation.” 6. Denunciation of the Pact of Bogotá is governed by Article LVI, which reads: “The present Treaty shall remain in force indefinitely, but may be denounced upon one year’s notice, at the end of which period it shall cease to be in force with respect to the State denouncing it, but shall continue in force for the remaining signatories. The denunciation shall be addressed to the Pan American Union, which shall transmit it to the other Contracting Parties. The denunciation shall have no effect with respect to pending procedures initiated prior to the transmission of the particular notification.” 7. Before interpreting Article XXXI of the Pact of Bogotá, it may be useful, as a preliminary matter, to make two observations. First, it is noteworthy that Article XXXI of the Pact is modelled on the text of Article 36, paragraph 2, of the Court’s Statute. One key difference between the two provisions is that instead of providing an acceptance of jurisdiction by each State party to the Statute individually by way of a declaration, Article XXXI creates jurisdiction between the American States which are parties to the Pact. As the Court has previously observed, Article XXXI of the Pact is an “autonomous” basis of jurisdiction, distinct from Article 36, paragraph 2, of the Court’s Statute6. It is a treaty provision conferring jurisdiction upon the Court in accordance with Article 36, paragraph 1, of the Statute. 5 Alleged Violations of Sovereign Rights and Maritime Spaces in the Caribbean Sea (Nicaragua v. Colombia), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2016 (I), p. 19, para. 35, referring to various past judgments of the Court. 6 Border and Transborder Armed Actions (Nicaragua v. Honduras), Jurisdiction and Admissibility, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1988, p. 85, para. 36. - 3 - 8. Second, an important conceptual distinction has to be made between the validity in time of a title of jurisdiction on the one hand, and on the other hand, the temporal scope of jurisdiction conferred by the title of jurisdiction, that is, a temporal limitation attached to the title excluding, for example, disputes arising prior to a certain date7. At risk of stating the obvious, there must exist a valid title of jurisdiction between the parties at the date of the institution of proceedings for the Court to have jurisdiction over a dispute in the first place8. The title invoked must be in force; this goes to the validity in time of a title of jurisdiction. The Court must then ascertain whether the title of jurisdiction provides for any temporal conditions, and if so whether the dispute comes within the temporal scope of the title. In this sense, temporal conditions are an element of the definition of the class of disputes to which consent extends9. They go to the Court’s jurisdiction itself; they do not go to the validity in time of the title of jurisdiction, which is a distinct, separate issue. 9. Once this distinction between validity in time of a title of jurisdiction and temporal conditions in the title of jurisdiction is appreciated, it becomes clear that Colombia’s interpretation cannot be accepted. Interpreting Article XXXI as a whole, in its context and in light of the object and purpose of the Pact, it must be concluded that Article XXXI does not contain any temporal condition or limitation. 10. The phrase “so long as the present Treaty is in force” does not, in its plain meaning, suggest any temporal condition as to the disputes over which the Court has jurisdiction. This is not the purpose of this phrase. The phrase simply concerns the validity in time of the title of jurisdiction. It specifies that a State party to the Pact recognizes the jurisdiction of the Court without the necessity of any special agreement so long as it remains a party to it. The consent of a State to the Court’s jurisdiction remains valid from the moment it becomes a party to the Pact of Bogotá until the moment it ceases to be a party thereto. Thus, a Contracting Party to the Pact may institute proceedings against any other Contracting Party “so long as the . . . Treaty is in force” between them. I do not share the Court’s view that the phrase “so long as the present Treaty is in force” in Article XXXI of the Pact of Bogotá “limits the period within which such a dispute must have arisen” (Judgment, paragraph 40). Certainly, a dispute must, according to the Court’s well-established jurisprudence, exist at the moment of filing the application instituting the proceedings and the applicant may validly institute proceedings only when the title of jurisdiction invoked is in force. But the phrase in question does not limit the period within which the dispute must have arisen, as the Court opines. In fact, a dispute may have arisen even before the Pact of Bogotá has entered into force in relations between the parties to a dispute. Such dispute may be brought before the Court if, subsequent to the dispute’s emergence, the Pact of Bogotá has entered into force as between the disputing parties10. 7 Malcolm N. Shaw, Rosenne’s Law and Practice of the International Court: 1920-2015, Vol. II, 5th ed., 2016, p. 934, para. 236. Many States in their declarations accepting the Court’s jurisdiction specify that they do so only in respect of disputes arising after the declaration is made or disputes arising out of facts and situations subsequent to the date of the declaration. However, if no such statement is contained in the declaration, the State recognizes the jurisdiction of the Court by such declaration with regard to disputes irrespective of when they have arisen or when the facts or situations which have given rise to a dispute occurred. 8 Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Croatia v. Serbia), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2008, p. 445, para. 95; see also Alleged Violations of Sovereign Rights and Maritime Spaces in the Caribbean Sea (Nicaragua v. Colombia), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2016 (I), p. 18, para. 33. 9 Hugh Thirlway, The Law and Procedure of the International Court of Justice: Fifty Years of Jurisprudence, Vol. I, 2013, p. 797. 10 The best example is a dispute brought before the Court by Bolivia on 24 April 2013 against Chile. Chile ratified the Pact of Bogotá on 15 April 1974 while Bolivia did so only on 9 June 2011. The dispute between them had arisen several decades earlier. See Obligation to Negotiate Access to the Pacific Ocean (Bolivia v. Chile), Preliminary Objection, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2015 (II), p. 601, para. 21, as well as the Judgment on the merits in the same case, I.C.J. Reports 2018, pp. 518-538, paras. 19-83. - 4 - 11. The phrases “[a]ny question of international law” and “[t]he existence of any fact which, if established, would constitute the breach of an international obligation” found in Article XXXI, subparagraphs (b) and (c), of the Pact do not point to a different conclusion. These phrases in their ordinary meaning do not intimate any temporal condition as to the disputes over which the Court has jurisdiction. I agree with the Court’s Judgment that the categories listed in Article XXXI concern the subject-matter of the disputes (Judgment, paragraph 40). This observation is consistent with the Court’s interpretation of Article XXXI of the Pact11. It merits repeating that the enumeration of subject-matters of disputes in Article XXXI of the Pact was taken from Article 36, paragraph 2, of the Statute of the Court, which itself tracked Article 36 of the Permanent Court of International Justice’s Statute, which in turn followed almost exactly the wording of Article 13, paragraph 2, of the Covenant of the League of Nations. This enumeration has a long legal pedigree. Yet never in more than one hundred years has the suggestion been made that the subjects listed therein constitute a temporal limitation, as Colombia now contends with respect to Article XXXI of the Pact. Colombia’s interpretation of Article XXXI runs counter to the terms of that Article. 12. Article LVI likewise says nothing about the scope of the Court’s jurisdiction over a dispute brought to it on the basis of Article XXXI. That provision governs denunciation12. The Pact of Bogotá, once ratified or acceded to by an American State, continues in force indefinitely in relation to that State, and may be denounced only by giving one year’s notice, remaining in force during all that period. 13. Colombia’s interpretation, moreover, runs counter to the context of Article XXXI. Several provisions of the Pact are aimed at restricting the scope of the parties’ commitment, notably Article V, Article VI and Article VII. In addition, Article LV of the Pact of Bogotá allows the parties to make reservations to that instrument which “shall, with respect to the State that makes them, apply to all signatory States on the basis of reciprocity”. These provisions, taken together, tend to indicate that temporal limitations to the Court’s jurisdiction under the Pact can only be introduced by means of reservations to it. 14. As to the Pact’s object and purpose, the Court has stated that it is “quite clear from the Pact that the purpose of the American States in drafting it was to reinforce their mutual commitments with regard to judicial settlement”13. On Colombia’s interpretation, however, a respondent State would be able, by denouncing the Pact of Bogotá after the filing of an application against it, to prevent the Court from considering facts directly related to the dispute brought before it and occurring subsequent to the termination date, i.e. one year following the denunciation of the Pact. Such a solution is out of harmony with the Pact’s object and purpose. 15. The question to be addressed next is whether the Court may consider the incidents that occurred after the filing of the Application. In dealing with Colombia’s arguments, the Court refers to its jurisprudence on two distinct issues, namely on new facts and new claims. In my view, the Court’s jurisprudence on new claims is not pertinent to the present case, for the simple reason that Nicaragua has not formulated any new claim; it has merely referred to additional facts in support of its original claim. In other words, it has provided detailed particulars of further incidents 11 See Border and Transborder Armed Actions (Nicaragua v. Honduras), Jurisdiction and Admissibility, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1988, p. 84, para. 34. 12 Alleged Violations of Sovereign Rights and Maritime Spaces in the Caribbean Sea (Nicaragua v. Colombia), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2016, p. 23, para. 44. 13 Border and Transborder Armed Actions (Nicaragua v. Honduras), Jurisdiction and Admissibility, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1988, p. 89, para. 46. - 5 - substantiating its original claim. It suffices to look at Nicaragua’s submissions. Thus, in its Application, Nicaragua requested the Court to adjudge and declare that Colombia is in breach of “its obligation not to violate Nicaragua’s maritime zones as delimited in paragraph 251 of the ICJ Judgment of 19 November 2012 as well as Nicaragua’s sovereign rights and jurisdiction in these zones” (Application, p. 24, para. 22). 16. In its Memorial, it requested the Court to adjudge and declare that, “[by its conduct, the Republic of Colombia has breached] its obligation not to violate Nicaragua’s maritime zones as delimited in paragraph 251 of the Court Judgment of 19 November 2012 as well as Nicaragua’s sovereign rights and jurisdiction in these zones” (Memorial of Nicaragua, p. 107, para. 1 (a)). 17. And in its Reply, it asked the Court to adjudge and declare that, “[b]y its conduct, the Republic of Colombia has breached its international obligation to respect Nicaragua’s maritime zones as delimited in paragraph 251 of the Court Judgment of 19 November 2012 as well as Nicaragua’s sovereign rights and jurisdiction in these zones” (Reply of Nicaragua, p. 191, para. 1 (a)). 18. Finally, in its final submissions, Nicaragua requested the Court to adjudge and declare that “[b]y its conduct, the Republic of Colombia has breached its international obligation to respect Nicaragua’s maritime zones as delimited in paragraph 251 of the Court Judgment of 19 November 2012, as well as Nicaragua’s sovereign rights and jurisdiction in these zones” (CR 2021/17, p. 50, para. 1 (a) (Argüello Gómez)). 19. Nicaragua has not modified its original claim, which has remained virtually the same throughout the proceedings. Thus, the Court’s jurisprudence on new claims (whether based on facts subsequent to the application or not) is not pertinent in the present case. Rather, it must be asked whether reliance on detailed particulars of further incidents substantiating Nicaragua’s original claim “transform[s] the nature of the dispute”. In its Application, Nicaragua referred to some 13 incidents. By subsequently referring to 38 post-Application incidents, it has not, in my view, transformed the dispute or its character. 20. An applicant may provide additional particulars of incidents to further substantiate an original claim made in its application. This principle is in accordance with the Court’s Statute and the Rules of Court and is well illustrated by the Court’s Judgment in the Land and Maritime Boundary between Cameroon and Nigeria case14. In that case, the Court was called on to examine whether the applicant, Cameroon, could present additional facts and legal considerations in its Memorial in connection with a claim made in its application. In its application, Cameroon complained generally of “military activities” carried out by Nigeria’s troops across the frontier in violation of international law (without referring to particular incidents) and asked the Court to adjudge and declare that Nigeria had breached its obligations under international law15. In its 14 Land and Maritime Boundary between Cameroon and Nigeria (Cameroon v. Nigeria), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1998, p. 275. 15 Application instituting proceedings filed in the Registry of the Court on 29 March 1994 on behalf of the Government of the Republic of Cameroon, paras. 19 and 20. - 6 - Memorial, Cameroon made the same claim 16, but this time substantiated it by reference to specific incidents said to have occurred before and after the filing of the application17. Nigeria challenged Cameroon’s freedom to present further particulars to its original claim. 21. The Court rejected Nigeria’s preliminary objection. It found that Cameroon had the freedom to present additional facts and considerations on new incidents to substantiate the original claim formulated in its application and that it had not, in doing so, transformed the dispute brought before it into another dispute. The Court stated the following: “Article 38, paragraph 2, [does not] provide that the latitude of an applicant State, in developing what it has said in its application is strictly limited, as suggested by Nigeria. That conclusion cannot be inferred from the term ‘succinct’; nor can it be drawn from the Court’s pronouncements on the importance of the point of time of the submission of the application as the critical date for the determination of its admissibility; these pronouncements do not refer to the content of applications (Questions of Interpretation and Application of the 1971 Montreal Convention arising from the Aerial Incident at Lockerbie (Libyan Arab Jamahiriya v. United Kingdom), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1998, p. 26, para. 44; and Questions of Interpretation and Application of the 1971 Montreal Convention arising from the Aerial Incident at Lockerbie (Libyan Arab Jamahiriya v. United States of America), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1998, p. 130, para. 43). Nor would so narrow an interpretation correspond to the finding of the Court that, ‘whilst under Article 40 of its Statute the subject of a dispute brought before the Court shall be indicated, Article 32 (2) of the Rules of Court [today Article 38, paragraph 2] requires the Applicant “as far as possible” to do certain things. These words apply not only to specifying the provision on which the Applicant founds the jurisdiction of the Court, but also to stating the precise nature of the claim and giving a succinct statement of the facts and grounds on which the claim is based.’ (Northern Cameroons (Cameroon v. United Kingdom), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1963, p. 28.)”18 22. And the Court recalled that “it has become an established practice for States submitting an application to the Court to reserve the right to present additional facts and legal considerations. The limit of the freedom to present such facts and considerations is ‘that the result is not to transform the dispute brought before the Court by the application into another dispute which is different in character’ (Military and Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v. United States of America), Jurisdiction and Admissibility, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1984, p. 427, para. 80).”19 16 Memorial of the Republic of Cameroon, 16 March 1995, para. 9.1 (e). 17 Cameroon referred to incidents which occurred after the filing of Cameroon’s Application. See e.g., Memorial of Cameroon, p. 595, para. 6.108. The application instituting proceedings was filed on 29 March 1994. An additional application was filed on 6 June 1994. 18 Land and Maritime Boundary between Cameroon and Nigeria (Cameroon v. Nigeria), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1998, p. 318, para. 99. 19 Ibid., pp. 318-319, para. 99. - 7 - 23. The Court’s pronouncement is clear. An applicant may present additional facts and legal considerations in support of its original claim, provided that the dispute brought before the Court by the application is not transformed into another dispute which is different in character. 24. A similar issue arose in the Oil Platforms case, this time in respect of a counter-claim. The United States provided, subsequent to the presenting of its counter-claim with the Counter-Memorial, detailed particulars of further incidents substantiating, in its contention, its original claims. Iran objected, contending that the United States had broadened the subject-matter of its claim beyond the submissions set out in its counter-claim by, among other things, belatedly adding new examples of breaches of the freedom of maritime commerce in its Rejoinder20. The Court considered that the question raised by Iran was whether the United States was presenting “a new claim” or merely providing “additional evidence relating to the original claim”21. The Court went on to recall that the parties to a case cannot in the course of proceedings “transform the dispute brought before the Court into a dispute that would be of a different nature”22. The Court was of the view that “the United States ha[d] not, by [providing detailed particulars of further incidents substantiating its original claim], transformed the subject of the dispute originally submitted to the Court, nor ha[d] it modified the substance of its counter-claim, which remain[ed] the same, i.e., alleged attacks by Iran on shipping, laying of mines and other military actions said to be ‘dangerous and detrimental to maritime commerce’, thus breaching Iran’s obligations to the United States under Article X, paragraph 1, of the 1955 Treaty”23. 25. The basic principle identified here is the same as the one identified above in Land and Maritime Boundary. The respondent, just like the applicant with respect to its original claims formulated in its application, is at liberty to provide further particulars of incidents in support of its original counter-claim presented in its Counter-Memorial, provided that the result does not transform the dispute brought before the Court into a dispute of a different character. 26. In other words, disputes are not frozen in time at the moment the application is filed by the applicant, nor at the moment a counter-claim is formulated by the respondent. 27. There is, however, still one question to be answered, namely, whether the conclusion just reached is altered in any way by the fact that the incidents occurred after the date on which the Pact of Bogotá ceased to be in force for Colombia. Nicaragua has relied in support of its original claim as formulated in its Application on incidents that occurred not only after the filing of the Application but also the date on which the Pact of Bogotá ceased to be in force for Colombia. In this sense, the present case is unique and has no exact precedent in the past practice of the Court24. 20 Oil Platforms (Islamic Republic of Iran v. United States of America), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2003, p. 213, para. 116. 21 Ibid., para. 117. 22 Ibid. 23 Ibid., p. 214, para. 118. 24 Although it has to be mentioned that, in the present case, Colombia itself made its counter-claims in its Counter-Memorial filed on 17 November 2016, almost three years after the Pact of Bogotá had ceased to be in force for Colombia. See Alleged Violations of Sovereign Rights and Maritime Spaces in the Caribbean Sea (Nicaragua v. Colombia), Counter-Claims, Order of 15 November 2017, I.C.J. Reports 2017, p. 290, para. 6. - 8 - 28. It is a well-established principle that once the Court has established jurisdiction to entertain a case, the subsequent lapse of the title cannot deprive the Court of its jurisdiction. As the Court stated in the Nottebohm case, in the context of the lapse, after the filing of the application, of the respondent’s declaration of acceptance of the compulsory jurisdiction of the Court, “[a]n extrinsic fact such as the subsequent lapse of the Declaration, by reason of the expiry of the period or by denunciation, cannot deprive the Court of the jurisdiction already established”25. 29. This principle applies equally here. As observed above, a dispute is not frozen in time and the parties may rely in support of their original claims on facts that occurred during the course of the proceedings, i.e. those facts which occurred after the filing of the application and even those which occurred after the lapse of the title of jurisdiction, provided that they do not transform the dispute into another dispute which is different in character. The applicant’s freedom to present additional facts in support of its original claim is not dependent on the continued validity of the title of jurisdiction. Consequently, the fact that Colombia denounced the Pact of Bogotá, under Article LVI of the Pact, with the effect that it ceased to be in force between the Parties as of the termination date (i.e. after 26 November 2013), does not — and cannot — deprive the Court of its jurisdiction in the present case. II. NICARAGUA’S STRAIGHT BASELINES 30. The second issue concerns the Court’s finding on Nicaragua’s straight baselines and the legal consequences of this finding. The Court concluded that Nicaragua’s straight baselines established by Decree No. 33-2013, as amended by Decree No. 17-2018, are not in conformity with customary international law (Judgment, paragraph 261 (7)). The Court has not, however, articulated any legal consequence to be drawn from this finding. By contrast, in relation to Colombia’s Presidential Decree 1946, as amended by Decree No. 1119, by which Colombia’s “integral contiguous zone” was established, the Court, having found that such zone is not in conformity with customary international law (Judgment, paragraph 261 (5)), has gone on to draw a legal consequence from this finding. It decided that “the Republic of Colombia must, by means of its own choosing, bring into conformity with customary international law the provisions of Presidential Decree 1946 . . . as amended by Decree No. 1119 . . . in so far as they relate to maritime areas declared by the Court in its 2012 Judgment to appertain to the Republic of Nicaragua” (Judgment, paragraph 261 (6)). 31. This striking difference in the Court’s approach to drawing legal consequences from similar legal findings can only be explained by the fact that Colombia, in contrast with Nicaragua, has not formally requested the Court in its final submissions to draw any legal consequence from the Court’s finding on Nicaragua’s straight baselines. One is, however, puzzled as to why the Court considered it necessary to rule in the operative clause of its Judgment on Colombia’s argument, which was not presented as a formal final submission, that Nicaragua cannot rely on facts which occurred after the date when Colombia ceased to be bound by the Pact of Bogotá. There seems to be an apparent inconsistency in the Court’s approach. 32. In any case, there should be no doubt that Nicaragua must bring its straight baselines in the Caribbean Sea into conformity with the provisions of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea since Nicaragua is a party to that Convention and the lawfulness of Nicaragua’s straight 25 Nottebohm (Liechtenstein v. Guatemala), Preliminary Objection, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1953, p. 123. - 9 - baselines is not just a bilateral issue between the two Parties before the Court. Its baselines also affect the interests and rights of other States. (Signed) Peter TOMKA. ___________
372
110
SEPARATE OPINION OF JUDGE TOMKA
Jurisdiction of the Court under Article XXXI of the Pact of Bogotá —
Interpretation of Article XXXI of the Pact of Bogotá — The meaning and purpose
of the phrase “so long as the present Treaty is in force” — No temporal limitation
of the Court’s jurisdiction under Article XXXI — Requirement that the Pact of
Bogotá be in force when the Application instituting proceedings is filed — No new
claim formulated by Nicaragua after the filing of the Application and the lapse of
the title of jurisdiction.
Nicaragua’s straight baselines — Finding of the Court that they are not in
conformity with international law — No legal consequences drawn by the Court
from this finding — Obligation of Nicaragua to bring its straight baselines in the
Caribbean Sea into conformity with UNCLOS.
Although I have voted in favour of all the conclusions reached by
the Court, there are two issues on which I wish to offer some observations.
I. Jurisdiction
1. The first issue concerns the jurisdiction of the Court in this case. In
its Judgment rendered on 17 March 2016, the Court found
“that it has jurisdiction, on the basis of Article XXXI of the Pact of
Bogotá, to adjudicate upon the dispute between the Republic of Nicaragua
and the Republic of Colombia referred to in subparagraph 1 (b)
above [i.e. the ‘dispute regarding the alleged violations by Colombia of
Nicaragua’s rights in the maritime zones which, according to Nicaragua,
the Court declared in its 2012 Judgment appertain to Nicaragua’]” 1.
2. In the resumed proceedings on the merits, Colombia subsequently
argued that “the Court lacks jurisdiction ratione temporis to consider any
claims that are based on events that are alleged to have transpired after
Colombia ceased to be bound by the provisions of the Pact” 2, that is,
after 26 November 2013. According to the Respondent, Article XXXI,
1 Alleged Violations of Sovereign Rights and Maritime Spaces in the Caribbean Sea
(Nicaragua v. Colombia), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2016 (I),
pp. 42‑43, para. 111.
2 Counter‑Memorial of the Republic of Colombia, para. 1.15. The argument has
been further elaborated in paragraphs 4.19‑4.21 of the Counter‑Memorial, in paragraphs
3.6‑3.36 of the Rejoinder of the Republic of Colombia and during the hearings
(see CR 2021/15, pp. 14‑18, paras. 31‑46 (Bundy) and CR 2021/18, pp. 32‑35, paras. 18‑33
(Bundy)).
372
110
OPINION INDIVIDUELLE DE M. LE JUGE TOMKA
[Traduction]
Compétence de la Cour en vertu de l’article XXXI du pacte de Bogotá —
Interprétation de l’article XXXI du pacte de Bogotá — Sens et but du membre de
phrase « tant que le présent Traité restera en vigueur » — Absence de limitation
temporelle de la compétence de la Cour en vertu de l’article XXXI — Obligation
que le pacte de Bogotá soit en vigueur au moment du dépôt de la requête
introductive d’instance — Absence de nouvelle demande formulée par le Nicaragua
après le dépôt de la requête et l’extinction du titre de compétence.
Lignes de base droites du Nicaragua — Cour ayant conclu que ces lignes de base
droites ne sont pas conformes au droit international — Cour ne tirant pas de
conséquences juridiques de cette conclusion — Obligation faite au Nicaragua de mettre
ses lignes de base droites dans la mer des Caraïbes en conformité avec la CNUDM.
Bien qu’ayant voté en faveur de toutes les conclusions auxquelles est
parvenue la Cour, je souhaite formuler quelques observations sur deux
questions particulières.
I. Compétence
1. La première a trait à la compétence de la Cour en l’espèce. Dans son
arrêt du 17 mars 2016, la Cour dit
« qu’elle a compétence, sur la base de l’article XXXI du pacte de
Bogotá, pour statuer sur le différend entre la République du Nicaragua
et la République de Colombie auquel renvoie le point 1 b)
ci-
dessus
[à savoir le « différend relatif à de prétendues violations par
la Colombie des droits du Nicaragua dans des zones maritimes dont
celui-
ci affirme qu’elles lui ont été reconnues par l’arrêt de 2012 »] » 1.
2. Dans le cadre de la reprise de la procédure sur le fond, la Colombie
a par la suite soutenu que « [l]a Cour n’a[vait] donc pas compétence
ratione temporis pour connaître d’une quelconque demande fondée sur
des événements prétendument survenus alors que les dispositions du pacte
ne s’imposaient plus à la Colombie » 2, c’est-à-dire après le 26 novembre
1 Violations alléguées de droits souverains et d’espaces maritimes dans la mer des Caraïbes
(Nicaragua c. Colombie), exceptions préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2016 (I), p. 42‑43,
par. 111.
2 Contre‑mémoire de la République de Colombie, par. 1.15. Cet argument a été développé
plus avant aux paragraphes 4.19-4.21 du contre‑mémoire, aux paragraphes 3.6-3.36
de la duplique de la République de Colombie, ainsi que pendant les audiences (voir
CR 2021/15, p. 14‑18, par. 31‑46 (Bundy), et CR 2021/18, p. 32‑35, par. 18‑33 (Bundy)).
373 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (sep. op. tomka)
111
read together with Article LVI of the Pact, provides for “a clear temporal
limitation to Colombia’s consent to the Court’s jurisdiction over a dispute
concerning the existence of any fact which, if established, could constitute
the breach of an international obligation” 3. Therefore, in
Colombia’s view, “no jurisdictional basis exists for the Court to rule on
any of the facts alleged to have occurred after the Pact ceased to be in
effect for Colombia” 4.
3. It has, however, to be emphasized that Colombia did not include
this argument in its final submissions — not in its Counter‑Memorial or
Rejoinder, nor at the end of the oral proceedings. The Court nevertheless
considered it necessary to rule on this argument in the operative clause of
the present Judgment (para. 261 (1)).
4. Article XXXI of the Pact has to be interpreted according to the customary
rules on treaty interpretation which, as the Court has repeatedly
stated, are reflected in Articles 31 and 32 of the Vienna Convention on
the Law of Treaties 5.
5. Article XXXI of the Pact of Bogotá provides:
“In conformity with Article 36, paragraph 2, of the Statute of the
International Court of Justice, the High Contracting Parties declare
that they recognize in relation to any other American State, the
jurisdiction
of the Court as compulsory ipso facto, without the
necessity
of any special agreement so long as the present Treaty is in
force, in all disputes of a juridical nature that arise among them
concerning:
(a) The interpretation of a treaty;
(b) Any question of international law;
(c) The existence of any fact which, if established, would constitute
the breach of an international obligation;
(d) The nature or extent of the reparation to be made for the breach
of an international obligation.”
6. Denunciation of the Pact of Bogotá is governed by Article LVI,
which reads:
“The present Treaty shall remain in force indefinitely, but may be
denounced upon one year’s notice, at the end of which period it shall
cease to be in force with respect to the State denouncing it, but shall
continue in force for the remaining signatories. The denunciation
shall be addressed to the Pan American Union, which shall transmit
it to the other Contracting Parties.
3 CR 2021/15, p. 15, para. 37 (Bundy).
4 Ibid., p. 15, para. 34 (emphasis in the original).
5 Alleged Violations of Sovereign Rights and Maritime Spaces in the Caribbean Sea
(Nicaragua v. Colombia), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2016 (I), p. 19,
para. 35, referring to various past judgments of the Court.
droits souverains et espaces maritimes (op. ind. tomka) 373
111
2013. Selon la défenderesse, l’article XXXI, lu conjointement avec l’article
LVI du pacte, « limit[e] clairement dans le temps l’acceptation par la
Colombie de la compétence de la Cour pour connaître de différends ayant
pour objet l’existence de tout fait qui, s’il était établi, pourrait constituer
une violation d’un engagement international » 3. Par conséquent, selon la
Colombie, « il n’existe aucune base de compétence permettant à la Cour
de se prononcer sur les faits qui seraient survenus après que le pacte eut
cessé de produire des effets à l’égard de la Colombie » 4.
3. Il convient toutefois de souligner que la Colombie n’a pas repris cet
argument dans ses conclusions finales — elle n’en fait pas non plus mention
dans son contre‑mémoire et sa duplique, et ne l’a pas présenté à la
clôture de la procédure orale. La Cour a néanmoins considéré qu’elle
devait se prononcer sur cet argument dans le dispositif du présent arrêt
(point 1 du dispositif).
4. L’article XXXI du pacte doit être interprété conformément aux
règles coutumières d’interprétation des traités, qui, ainsi que la Cour l’a
précisé à maintes reprises, trouvent leur expression aux articles 31 et 32 de
la convention de Vienne sur le droit des traités 5.
5. L’article XXXI du pacte dispose ce qui suit :
« Conformément au paragraphe 2 de l’article 36 du Statut de la
Cour internationale de Justice, les Hautes Parties Contractantes en
ce qui concerne tout autre Etat américain déclarent reconnaître
comme obligatoire de plein droit, et sans convention spéciale tant
que le présent Traité restera en vigueur, la juridiction de la Cour sur
tous les différends d’ordre juridique surgissant entre elles et ayant
pour objet :
a) L’interprétation d’un traité ;
b) Toute question de droit international ;
c) L’existence de tout fait qui, s’il était établi, constituerait la violation
d’un engagement international ;
d) La nature ou l’étendue de la réparation qui découle de la rupture
d’un engagement international. »
6. La dénonciation du pacte de Bogotá est régie par l’article LVI,
libellé comme suit :
« La durée du présent Traité sera indéfinie, mais il pourra être
dénoncé moyennant un préavis d’un an ; passé ce délai il cessera de
produire ses effets par rapport à la partie qui l’a dénoncé, et demeurera
en vigueur en ce qui concerne les autres signataires. L’avis de
dénonciation sera adressé à l’Union Panaméricaine qui le transmettra
aux autres Parties Contractantes.
3 CR 2021/15, p. 15, par. 37 (Bundy).
4 Ibid., p. 15, par. 34 (les italiques sont dans l’original).
5 Violations alléguées de droits souverains et d’espaces maritimes dans la mer des Caraïbes
(Nicaragua c. Colombie), exceptions préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2016 (I), p. 19,
par. 35, mentionnant divers arrêts antérieurs de la Cour.
374 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (sep. op. tomka)
112
The denunciation shall have no effect with respect to pending procedures
initiated prior to the transmission of the particular notification.”
7. Before interpreting Article XXXI of the Pact of Bogotá, it may be
useful, as a preliminary matter, to make two observations. First, it is
noteworthy that Article XXXI of the Pact is modelled on the text of Article
36, paragraph 2, of the Court’s Statute. One key difference between
the two provisions is that instead of providing an acceptance of jurisdiction
by each State party to the Statute individually by way of a declaration,
Article XXXI creates jurisdiction between the American States
which are parties to the Pact. As the Court has previously observed, Article
XXXI of the Pact is an “autonomous” basis of jurisdiction, distinct
from Article 36, paragraph 2, of the Court’s Statute 6. It is a treaty provision
conferring jurisdiction upon the Court in accordance with Article 36,
paragraph 1, of the Statute.
8. Second, an important conceptual distinction has to be made between
the validity in time of a title of jurisdiction on the one hand, and on the
other hand, the temporal scope of jurisdiction conferred by the title of
jurisdiction, that is, a temporal limitation attached to the title excluding,
for example, disputes arising prior to a certain date 7. At risk of stating
the obvious, there must exist a valid title of jurisdiction between the parties
at the date of the institution of proceedings for the Court to have
jurisdiction over a dispute in the first place 8. The title invoked must be in
force; this goes to the validity in time of a title of jurisdiction. The Court
must then ascertain whether the title of jurisdiction provides for any temporal
conditions, and if so whether the dispute comes within the temporal
scope of the title. In this sense, temporal conditions are an element of the
definition of the class of disputes to which consent extends 9. They go to
the Court’s jurisdiction itself; they do not go to the validity in time of the
title of jurisdiction, which is a distinct, separate issue.
6 Border and Transborder Armed Actions (Nicaragua v. Honduras), Jurisdiction and
Admissibility, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1988, p. 85, para. 36.
7 M. N. Shaw, Rosenne’s Law and Practice of the International Court: 1920-2015,
Vol. II, fifth ed., 2016, p. 934, para. 236. Many States in their declarations accepting the
Court’s jurisdiction specify that they do so only in respect of disputes arising after the
declaration is made or disputes arising out of facts and situations subsequent to the date
of the declaration. However, if no such statement is contained in the declaration, the State
recognizes the jurisdiction of the Court by such declaration with regard to disputes irrespective
of when they have arisen or when the facts or situations which have given rise to
a dispute occurred.
8 Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of
Genocide (Croatia v. Serbia), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2008,
p. 445, para. 95; see also Alleged Violations of Sovereign Rights and Maritime Spaces in
the Caribbean Sea (Nicaragua v. Colombia), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J.
Reports 2016 (I), p. 18, para. 33.
9 H. Thirlway, The Law and Procedure of the International Court of Justice: Fifty Years
of Jurisprudence, Vol. I, 2013, p. 797.
droits souverains et espaces maritimes (op. ind. tomka) 374
112
La dénonciation n’aura aucun effet sur les procédures en cours
entamées avant la transmission de l’avis en question. »
7. Avant d’interpréter l’article XXXI du pacte de Bogotá, il peut être utile,
à titre préliminaire, de faire deux observations. Premièrement, il y a lieu de
noter que le libellé de l’article XXXI du pacte s’inspire du paragraphe 2 de
l’article 36 du Statut de la Cour. Cela étant, alors que celui‑ci prévoit la
reconnaissance, par voie de déclaration individuelle, de la juridiction de la
Cour par chaque Etat partie au Statut, l’article XXXI s’en distingue notamment
en ce qu’il établit la juridiction de la Cour dans les relations entre les
Etats américains qui sont parties au pacte. Comme la Cour l’a fait observer
précédemment, l’article XXXI du pacte constitue une base de compétence
« autonome », distincte du paragraphe 2 de l’article 36 du Statut de la Cour 6.
Il s’agit d’une disposition conventionnelle qui confère compétence à la Cour
en application du paragraphe 1 de l’article 36 de son Statut.
8. Deuxièmement, il convient d’établir une distinction théorique importante
entre, d’une part, la validité dans le temps d’un titre de compétence
et, d’autre part, le champ d’application temporel de la compétence conférée
par ledit titre, à savoir l’existence d’une limite temporelle inhérente au
titre qui exclurait, par exemple, les différends se produisant avant une certaine
date 7. Au risque d’énoncer une évidence, rappelons qu’il doit tout
d’abord exister un titre de compétence valide entre les parties à la date de
l’introduction de l’instance pour que la Cour soit compétente pour
connaître d’un différend 8. Le titre invoqué doit être en vigueur, ce qui renvoie
à la validité dans le temps d’un titre de compétence. La Cour doit
ensuite déterminer si le titre de compétence prévoit d’éventuelles conditions
temporelles et, dans l’affirmative, si le différend relève du champ
d’application temporel du titre. En ce sens, les conditions temporelles
constituent un élément de la définition de la catégorie de différends auxquels
s’étend l’acceptation de la compétence 9. Elles touchent à la compétence
même de la Cour ; elles ne concernent pas la validité dans le temps
du titre de compétence, qui constitue une question distincte et séparée.
6 Actions armées frontalières et transfrontalières (Nicaragua c. Honduras), compétence
et recevabilité, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1988, p. 85, par. 36.
7 M. N. Shaw, Rosenne’s Law and Practice of the International Court: 1920-2015,
vol. II, 5e éd., 2016, p. 934, par. 236. De nombreux Etats, dans leurs déclarations portant
acceptation de la compétence de la Cour, précisent que celle-
ci n’est consentie qu’à l’égard
des différends surgissant après le dépôt de la déclaration ou des différends découlant de
faits et de situations postérieurs à la date de la déclaration. Toutefois, en l’absence d’une
telle mention, l’Etat reconnaît par sa déclaration la compétence de la Cour à l’égard des
différends indépendamment de la date à laquelle ils surgissent et de la date à laquelle les
faits ou situations dont découle un différend se produisent.
8 Application de la convention pour la prévention et la répression du crime de génocide
(Croatie c. Serbie), exceptions préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2008, p. 445, par. 95 ; voir
également Violations alléguées de droits souverains et d’espaces maritimes dans la mer des
Caraïbes (Nicaragua c. Colombie), exceptions préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2016 (I),
p. 18, par. 33.
9 H. Thirlway, The Law and Procedure of the International Court of Justice: Fifty Years
of Jurisprudence, vol. I, 2013, p. 797.
375 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (sep. op. tomka)
113
9. Once this distinction between validity in time of a title of jurisdiction
and temporal conditions in the title of jurisdiction is appreciated, it
becomes clear that Colombia’s interpretation cannot be accepted. Interpreting
Article XXXI as a whole, in its context and in light of the object
and purpose of the Pact, it must be concluded that Article XXXI does not
contain any temporal condition or limitation.
10. The phrase “so long as the present Treaty is in force” does not, in
its plain meaning, suggest any temporal condition as to the disputes over
which the Court has jurisdiction. This is not the purpose of this phrase.
The phrase simply concerns the validity in time of the title of jurisdiction.
It specifies that a State party to the Pact recognizes the jurisdiction of the
Court without the necessity of any special agreement so long as it remains
a party to it. The consent of a State to the Court’s jurisdiction remains
valid from the moment it becomes a party to the Pact of Bogotá until the
moment it ceases to be a party thereto. Thus, a Contracting Party to the
Pact may institute proceedings against any other Contracting Party “so
long as the . . . Treaty is in force” between them. I do not share the
Court’s view that the phrase “so long as the present Treaty is in force” in
Article XXXI of the Pact of Bogotá “limits the period within which such
a dispute must have arisen” (Judgment, para. 40). Certainly, a dispute
must, according to the Court’s well‑established jurisprudence, exist at
the moment of filing the application instituting the proceedings and the
applicant may validly institute proceedings only when the title of jurisdiction
invoked is in force. But the phrase in question does not limit
the period within which the dispute must have arisen, as the Court opines.
In fact, a dispute may have arisen even before the Pact of Bogotá has
entered into force in relations between the parties to a dispute. Such dispute
may be brought before the Court if, subsequent to the dispute’s
emergence, the Pact of Bogotá has entered into force as between the disputing
parties 10.
11. The phrases “[a]ny question of international law” and “[t]he
existence
of any fact which, if established, would constitute the breach
of an international obligation” found in Article XXXI, subparagraphs (b)
and (c), of the Pact do not point to a different conclusion. These phrases
in their ordinary meaning do not intimate any temporal condition as
to the disputes over which the Court has jurisdiction. I agree with
the Court’s Judgment that the categories listed in Article XXXI concern
the subject‑matter of the disputes (ibid., para. 40). This observation is
consistent with the Court’s interpretation of Article XXXI of the
10 The best example is a dispute brought before the Court by Bolivia on 24 April 2013
against Chile. Chile ratified the Pact of Bogotá on 15 April 1974 while Bolivia did so only
on 9 June 2011. The dispute between them had arisen several decades earlier. See Obligation
to Negotiate Access to the Pacific Ocean (Bolivia v. Chile), Preliminary Objection,
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2015 (II), p. 601, para. 21, as well as the Judgment on the merits
in the same case, I.C.J. Reports 2018 (II), pp. 518‑538, paras. 19‑83.
droits souverains et espaces maritimes (op. ind. tomka) 375
113
9. Dès lors que cette distinction entre la validité dans le temps d’un titre
de compétence et les conditions temporelles attachées audit titre est comprise,
il apparaît clairement que l’interprétation de la Colombie ne peut être
accueillie. Si l’on interprète l’article XXXI dans son intégralité, dans son
contexte et à la lumière de l’objet et du but du pacte, la seule conclusion que
l’on peut en tirer est qu’il ne contient aucune condition ou limite temporelle.
10. Le membre de phrase « tant que le présent Traité restera en
vigueur », suivant le sens ordinaire à attribuer à ses termes, ne suggère pas
l’existence d’une quelconque condition temporelle en ce qui concerne les
différends à l’égard desquels la Cour a compétence. Tel n’est pas son but.
Le membre de phrase porte simplement sur la validité dans le temps du
titre de compétence. Il précise qu’un Etat partie au pacte reconnaît la
compétence de la Cour, sans convention spéciale, tant qu’il est partie au
pacte. L’acceptation de la compétence de la Cour par un Etat vaut dès le
moment où celui-
ci devient partie au pacte de Bogotá et reste valide
jusqu’au moment où il cesse d’y être partie. Ainsi, une partie contractante
au pacte peut introduire une instance contre toute autre partie contractante
« tant que le … Traité rest[e] en vigueur » entre elles. Je ne partage
pas l’avis de la Cour, selon qui le membre de phrase « tant que le présent
Traité restera en vigueur » figurant à l’article XXXI du pacte de Bogotá
« limite la période dans laquelle un tel différend doit survenir » (arrêt,
par. 40). Certes, selon la jurisprudence bien établie de la Cour, un différend
doit exister à la date du dépôt de la requête introductive d’instance,
laquelle peut être validement introduite uniquement quand le titre de
compétence invoqué est en vigueur. Toutefois, le membre de phrase considéré
ne limite pas la période pendant laquelle le différend doit s’être produit,
ainsi que l’estime la Cour. En fait, un différend peut avoir surgi
avant même l’entrée en vigueur du pacte de Bogotá dans les relations
entre les parties qu’il oppose. Un tel différend pourra être soumis à la
Cour si, à une date postérieure à sa naissance, le pacte de Bogotá est entré
en vigueur entre les parties en litige 10.
11. Les membres de phrase « [t]oute question de droit international » et
« [l]’existence de tout fait qui, s’il était établi, constituerait la violation d’un
engagement international » figurant aux alinéas b) et c) de l’article XXXI
du pacte ne disent pas autre chose. Suivant le sens ordinaire à leur attribuer,
ces membres de phrase ne prescrivent aucune condition temporelle
en ce qui concerne les différends à l’égard desquels la Cour a compétence.
Je souscris à l’avis exprimé dans son arrêt par la Cour, selon qui les catégories
dont la liste figure à l’article XXXI font référence à l’objet des différends
(ibid., par. 40). Cette observation concorde avec l’interprétation que
10 C’est ce qu’illustre parfaitement le différend que la Bolivie a soumis à la Cour
le 24 avril 2013 et qui l’opposait au Chili. Le Chili a ratifié le pacte de Bogotá le
15 avril 1974, alors que la ratification de la Bolivie n’est intervenue que le 9 juin 2011.
Le différend qui les opposait avait surgi plusieurs décennies plus tôt. Voir Obligation
de négocier un accès à l’océan Pacifique (Bolivie c. Chili), exception préliminaire, arrêt,
C.I.J. Recueil 2015 (II), p. 601, par. 21, ainsi que l’arrêt sur le fond rendu dans la même
affaire, C.I.J. Recueil 2018 (II), p. 518‑538, par. 19‑83.
376 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (sep. op. tomka)
114
Pact 11. It merits repeating that the enumeration of subject‑matters of disputes
in Article XXXI of the Pact was taken from Article 36, paragraph 2,
of the Statute of the Court, which itself tracked Article 36 of the Permanent
Court of International Justice’s Statute, which in turn followed
almost exactly the wording of Article 13, paragraph 2, of the Covenant of
the League of Nations. This enumeration has a long legal pedigree. Yet
never in more than one hundred years has the suggestion been made that
the subjects listed therein constitute a temporal limitation, as Colombia
now contends with respect to Article XXXI of the Pact. Colombia’s interpretation
of Article XXXI runs counter to the terms of that Article.
12. Article LVI likewise says nothing about the scope of the Court’s
jurisdiction over a dispute brought to it on the basis of Article XXXI.
That provision governs denunciation 12. The Pact of Bogotá, once ratified
or acceded to by an American State, continues in force indefinitely in
relation to that State, and may be denounced only by giving one year’s
notice, remaining in force during all that period.
13. Colombia’s interpretation, moreover, runs counter to the context
of Article XXXI. Several provisions of the Pact are aimed at restricting
the scope of the parties’ commitment, notably Article V, Article VI and
Article VII. In addition, Article LV of the Pact of Bogotá allows the parties
to make reservations to that instrument which “shall, with respect to
the State that makes them, apply to all signatory States on the basis of
reciprocity”. These provisions, taken together, tend to indicate that temporal
limitations to the Court’s jurisdiction under the Pact can only be
introduced by means of reservations to it.
14. As to the Pact’s object and purpose, the Court has stated that it is
“quite clear from the Pact that the purpose of the American States in drafting
it was to reinforce their mutual commitments with regard to judicial
settlement” 13. On Colombia’s interpretation, however, a respondent State
would be able, by denouncing the Pact of Bogotá after the filing of an
application against it, to prevent the Court from considering facts directly
related to the dispute brought before it and occurring subsequent to the
termination date, i.e. one year following the denunciation of the Pact. Such
a solution is out of harmony with the Pact’s object and purpose.
15. The question to be addressed next is whether the Court may consider
the incidents that occurred after the filing of the Application. In
dealing with Colombia’s arguments, the Court refers to its jurisprudence
on two distinct issues, namely on new facts and new claims. In my view,
11 See Border and Transborder Armed Actions (Nicaragua v. Honduras), Jurisdiction
and Admissibility, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1988, p. 84, para. 34.
12 Alleged Violations of Sovereign Rights and Maritime Spaces in the Caribbean Sea
(Nicaragua v. Colombia), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2016 (I), p. 23,
para. 44.
13 Border and Transborder Armed Actions (Nicaragua v. Honduras), Jurisdiction and
Admissibility, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1988, p. 89, para. 46.
droits souverains et espaces maritimes (op. ind. tomka) 376
114
fait la Cour de l’article XXXI du pacte 11. Il est bon de rappeler que l’énumération
des différents objets visés à l’article XXXI du pacte est extraite
du paragraphe 2 de l’article 36 du Statut de la Cour, qui renvoie lui‑même
à l’article 36 du Statut de la Cour permanente de Justice internationale,
dont le libellé reprend quasiment mot pour mot le paragraphe 2 de l’article
13 du Pacte de la Société des Nations. Cette énumération est donc
l’héritière d’une longue lignée juridique. Pourtant, en plus d’un siècle,
jamais auparavant il n’avait été suggéré que les objets ainsi énumérés établissaient
une limite temporelle, comme le fait aujourd’hui la Colombie à
propos de l’article XXXI du pacte. L’interprétation que donne la Colombie
de l’article XXXI va à l’encontre des termes mêmes de cet article.
12. De même, l’article LVI ne dit rien de l’étendue de la compétence de
la Cour pour connaître d’un différend qui lui serait soumis sur le fondement
de l’article XXXI. Cette disposition régit les modalités de dénonciation
du pacte 12. Une fois qu’un Etat américain l’a ratifié ou y a adhéré, le
pacte de Bogotá reste en vigueur pour une durée indéfinie à l’égard de cet
Etat et ne peut être dénoncé qu’au terme d’un préavis d’un an pendant
lequel il demeure en vigueur.
13. L’interprétation de la Colombie est, de surcroît, contraire au
contexte de l’article XXXI. Plusieurs dispositions du pacte visent à restreindre
la portée de l’engagement des parties, notamment les articles V,
VI et VII. En outre, l’article LV du pacte de Bogotá autorise les parties à
faire des réserves au traité, « ces réserves, à titre de réciprocité, s’appliqu[
a]nt à tous les Etats signataires en ce qui concerne l’Etat qui les a
faites ». Prises ensemble, ces dispositions tendent à indiquer que les
réserves au traité sont le seul moyen d’introduire des limites temporelles à
la compétence de la Cour en vertu du pacte.
14. Quant à l’objet et au but du pacte, la Cour a dit qu’« il ressort nettement
du pacte que les Etats américains, en élaborant cet instrument, ont
entendu renforcer leurs engagements mutuels en matière de règlement
judiciaire » 13. Or, selon l’interprétation de la Colombie, un Etat défendeur
serait en mesure, en dénonçant le pacte de Bogotá après le dépôt d’une
requête le visant, d’empêcher la Cour d’examiner les faits directement liés
au différend qui lui est soumis et se produisant après la date d’extinction,
soit un an après la dénonciation du pacte. Un tel conséquent est en dissonance
avec l’objet et le but du pacte.
15. La question qui se pose ensuite est celle de savoir si la Cour peut
prendre en considération les incidents postérieurs au dépôt de la requête.
Dans son examen des arguments de la Colombie, la Cour fait référence à sa
propre jurisprudence pour ce qui concerne deux questions distinctes : les
11 Voir Actions armées frontalières et transfrontalières (Nicaragua c. Honduras), compétence
et recevabilité, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1988, p. 84, par. 34.
12 Violations alléguées de droits souverains et d’espaces maritimes dans la mer des
Caraïbes (Nicaragua c. Colombie), exceptions préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2016 (I),
p. 23, par. 44.
13 Actions armées frontalières et transfrontalières (Nicaragua c. Honduras), compétence
et recevabilité, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1988, p. 89, par. 46.
377 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (sep. op. tomka)
115
the Court’s jurisprudence on new claims is not pertinent to the present
case, for the simple reason that Nicaragua has not formulated any new
claim; it has merely referred to additional facts in support of its original
claim. In other words, it has provided detailed particulars of further
incidents
substantiating its original claim. It suffices to look at Nicaragua’s
submissions. Thus, in its Application, Nicaragua requested the
Court to adjudge and declare that Colombia is in breach of “its obligation
not to violate Nicaragua’s maritime zones as delimited in paragraph
251 of the ICJ Judgment of 19 November 2012 as well as
Nicaragua’s sovereign rights and jurisdiction in these zones” (Application,
p. 24, para. 22).
16. In its Memorial, it requested the Court to adjudge and declare that,
“[by its conduct, the Republic of Colombia has breached] its obligation
not to violate Nicaragua’s maritime zones as delimited in paragraph
251 of the Court Judgment of 19 November 2012 as well as
Nicaragua’s sovereign rights and jurisdiction in these zones” (Memorial
of Nicaragua, p. 107, para. 1 (a)).
17. And in its Reply, it asked the Court to adjudge and declare that,
“[b]y its conduct, the Republic of Colombia has breached its international
obligation to respect Nicaragua’s maritime zones as delimited
in paragraph 251 of the Court Judgment of 19 November 2012
as well as Nicaragua’s sovereign rights and jurisdiction in these zones”
(Reply of Nicaragua, p. 191, para. 1 (a)).
18. Finally, in its final submissions, Nicaragua requested the Court to
adjudge and declare that
“[b]y its conduct, the Republic of Colombia has breached its international
obligation to respect Nicaragua’s maritime zones as delimited
in paragraph 251 of the Court Judgment of 19 November 2012, as
well as Nicaragua’s sovereign rights and jurisdiction in these zones”
(CR 2021/17, p. 50, para. 1 (a) (Argüello Gómez)).
19. Nicaragua has not modified its original claim, which has remained
virtually the same throughout the proceedings. Thus, the Court’s jurisprudence
on new claims (whether based on facts subsequent to the application
or not) is not pertinent in the present case. Rather, it must be
asked whether reliance on detailed particulars of further incidents substantiating
Nicaragua’s original claim “transform[s] the nature of the dispute”.
In its Application, Nicaragua referred to some 13 incidents. By
subsequently referring to 38 post‑Application incidents, it has not, in my
view, transformed the dispute or its character.
droits souverains et espaces maritimes (op. ind. tomka) 377
115
nouveaux éléments de fait et les nouvelles demandes. A mon sens, la jurisprudence
de la Cour relative aux nouvelles demandes n’est pas pertinente en
l’espèce, pour la simple raison que le Nicaragua n’a formulé aucune nouvelle
demande : il s’est contenté de faire référence à des éléments de fait supplémentaires
pour étayer sa demande initiale. En d’autres termes, le Nicaragua
a fourni des descriptions détaillées d’autres incidents pour établir le bienfondé
de sa demande initiale. Il suffit ici d’examiner ses demandes. Dans sa
requête, le Nicaragua prie la Cour de dire et juger que la Colombie manque
à « l’obligation qui lui incombe de ne pas violer les espaces maritimes du
Nicaragua tels que délimités au paragraphe 251 de l’arrêt rendu par la Cour
le 19 novembre 2012, ainsi que les droits souverains et la juridiction du
Nicaragua dans lesdits espaces » (requête, p. 25, par. 22).
16. Dans son mémoire, le Nicaragua prie la Cour de dire et juger que,
« [par sa conduite, la République de Colombie] a manqué à l’obligation
lui incombant de ne pas violer les espaces maritimes du Nicaragua
tels que délimités au paragraphe 251 de l’arrêt rendu par la Cour
le 19 novembre 2012, ainsi que les droits souverains et la juridiction
du Nicaragua sur lesdits espaces » (mémoire du Nicaragua, p. 107,
par. 1 a)).
17. En outre, dans sa réplique, le Nicaragua prie la Cour de dire et
juger que,
« par sa conduite, la République de Colombie a violé son obligation
internationale de respecter les zones maritimes du Nicaragua telles
qu’elles sont délimitées au paragraphe 251 de l’arrêt de la Cour rendu le
19 novembre 2012, ainsi que les droits souverains et la juridiction du
Nicaragua dans lesdites zones » (réplique du Nicaragua, p. 191, par. 1 a)).
18. Enfin, dans ses conclusions finales, le Nicaragua prie la Cour de
dire et juger que,
« par sa conduite, la République de Colombie a manqué à l’obligation
internationale qui lui incombait de respecter les espaces maritimes
du Nicaragua tels qu’ils sont délimités au paragraphe 251 de
l’arrêt que la Cour a rendu le 19 novembre 2012, ainsi que les droits
souverains et la juridiction du Nicaragua dans lesdits espaces »
(CR 2021/17, p. 50, par. 1 a) (Argüello Gómez)).
19. Le Nicaragua n’a pas modifié sa demande initiale, qui est restée
quasiment inchangée tout au long de la procédure. Par conséquent, la
jurisprudence de la Cour relative aux nouvelles demandes (qu’elles soient
ou non fondées sur des faits postérieurs au dépôt de la requête) n’est pas
pertinente en l’espèce. Il convient plutôt de se demander si le recours à des
descriptions détaillées d’autres incidents étayant la demande initiale du
Nicaragua a pour effet de « transformer la nature du différend ». Dans sa
requête, le Nicaragua a mentionné quelque 13 incidents. Le fait qu’il ait
par la suite invoqué 38 incidents survenus après le dépôt de la requête n’a
pas, à mon sens, transformé le différend ou son caractère.
378 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (sep. op. tomka)
116
20. An applicant may provide additional particulars of incidents to
further substantiate an original claim made in its application. This principle
is in accordance with the Court’s Statute and the Rules of Court and
is well illustrated by the Court’s Judgment in the Land and Maritime
Boundary between Cameroon and Nigeria case 14. In that case, the Court
was called on to examine whether the Applicant, Cameroon, could present
additional facts and legal considerations in its Memorial in connection
with a claim made in its Application. In its Application, Cameroon
complained generally of “military activities” carried out by Nigeria’s
troops across the frontier in violation of international law (without referring
to particular incidents) and asked the Court to adjudge and declare
that Nigeria had breached its obligations under international law 15. In its
Memorial, Cameroon made the same claim 16, but this time substantiated
it by reference to specific incidents said to have occurred before and after
the filing of the Application 17. Nigeria challenged Cameroon’s freedom to
present further particulars to its original claim.
21. The Court rejected Nigeria’s preliminary objection. It found that
Cameroon had the freedom to present additional facts and considerations
on new incidents to substantiate the original claim formulated
in its Application and that it had not, in doing so, transformed the
dispute
brought before it into another dispute. The Court stated the
following:
“Article 38, paragraph 2, [does not] provide that the latitude of an
applicant State, in developing what it has said in its application is
strictly limited, as suggested by Nigeria. That conclusion cannot be
inferred from the term ‘succinct’; nor can it be drawn from the Court’s
pronouncements on the importance of the point of time of the submission
of the application as the critical date for the determination
of its admissibility; these pronouncements do not refer to the content
of applications (Questions of Interpretation and Application of the
1971 Montreal Convention arising from the Aerial Incident at Lockerbie
(Libyan Arab Jamahiriya v. United Kingdom), Preliminary Objections,
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1998, p. 26, para. 44; and Questions of
Interpretation and Application of the 1971 Montreal Convention arising
from the Aerial Incident at Lockerbie (Libyan Arab Jamahiriya v.
United States of America), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J.
14 Land and Maritime Boundary between Cameroon and Nigeria (Cameroon v. Nigeria),
Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1998, p. 275.
15 Application instituting proceedings filed in the Registry of the Court on 29 March 1994
on behalf of the Government of the Republic of Cameroon, paras. 19 and 20.
16 Memorial of the Republic of Cameroon, 16 March 1995, para. 9.1 (e).
17 Cameroon referred to incidents which occurred after the filing of Cameroon’s
Application. See e.g., Memorial of Cameroon, p. 595, para. 6.108. The Application instituting
proceedings was filed on 29 March 1994. An additional Application was filed on
6 June 1994.
droits souverains et espaces maritimes (op. ind. tomka) 378
116
20. Un demandeur peut apporter des précisions sur des incidents afin
d’étayer plus avant une demande initiale formulée dans sa requête. Ce
principe est conforme au Statut et au Règlement de la Cour et trouve une
illustration claire dans l’arrêt rendu par la Cour en l’affaire de la Frontière
terrestre et maritime entre le Cameroun et le Nigéria 14. Dans cette affaire,
la Cour a été amenée à déterminer si le demandeur, le Cameroun, pouvait
présenter dans son mémoire des éléments de fait et de droit supplémentaires
concernant une demande formulée dans sa requête. Dans sa requête,
le Cameroun a fait grief en termes généraux d’« activités militaires » menées
par les troupes du Nigéria en territoire camerounais en violation du droit
international (sans faire mention d’incidents particuliers) et a prié la Cour
de dire et juger que le Nigéria avait manqué aux obligations qui lui incombaient
en vertu du droit international 15. Dans son mémoire, il a réitéré sa
demande 16, mais, pour en prouver le bien‑fondé, il a cette fois invoqué des
incidents particuliers qui se seraient produits avant et après le dépôt de la
requête 17. Le Nigéria a alors contesté le droit du Cameroun de présenter
de nouveaux détails à l’appui de sa demande initiale.
21. La Cour a rejeté l’exception préliminaire du Nigéria. Elle a estimé
que le Cameroun jouissait de la liberté de présenter des éléments de fait et
de droit supplémentaires relatifs à de nouveaux incidents pour étayer la
demande initiale formulée dans sa requête et que, ce faisant, il n’avait pas
transformé le différend qui lui avait été soumis en un autre différend. La
Cour a affirmé ce qui suit :
« Il ne découle pas … du paragraphe 2 de l’article 38 que la latitude
dont dispose 1’Etat demandeur pour développer ce qu’il a
exposé dans sa requête soit strictement limitée, comme le suggère le
Nigéria. Une telle conclusion ne saurait être tirée du terme « succinct
» ; elle ne saurait non plus être tirée des prononcés de la Cour
selon lesquels la date pertinente pour apprécier la recevabilité d’une
requête est la date de son dépôt ; en effet, ces prononcés ne se réfèrent
pas au contenu des requêtes (Questions d’interprétation et d’application
de la convention de Montréal de 1971 résultant de l’incident aérien
de Lockerbie (Jamahiriya arabe libyenne c. Royaume-Uni), exceptions
préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1998, p. 26, par. 44, et Questions
d’interprétation et d’application de la convention de Montréal
de 1971 résultant de l’incident aérien de Lockerbie (Jamahiriya arabe
libyenne c. Etats-Unis d’Amérique), exceptions préliminaires, arrêt,
14 Frontière terrestre et maritime entre le Cameroun et le Nigéria (Cameroun c. Nigéria),
exceptions préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1998, p. 275.
15 Requête introductive d’instance déposée auprès du Greffe de la Cour le 29 mars 1994
au nom du Gouvernement de la République du Cameroun, par. 19 et 20.
16 Mémoire de la République du Cameroun, 16 mars 1995, par. 9.1 e).
17 Le Cameroun a fait référence à des incidents postérieurs au dépôt de sa requête. Voir,
par exemple, le mémoire de la République du Cameroun, p. 595, par. 6.108. La requête
introductive d’instance a été déposée le 29 mars 1994. Une requête additionnelle a été introduite
le 6 juin 1994.
379 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (sep. op. tomka)
117
Reports 1998, p. 130, para. 43). Nor would so narrow an interpretation
correspond to the finding of the Court that,
‘whilst under Article 40 of its Statute the subject of a dispute
brought before the Court shall be indicated, Article 32 (2) of the
Rules of Court [today Article 38, paragraph 2] requires the Applicant
‘as far as possible’ to do certain things. These words apply
not only to specifying the provision on which the Applicant
founds the jurisdiction of the Court, but also to stating the precise
nature of the claim and giving a succinct statement of the facts
and grounds on which the claim is based.’ (Northern Cameroons
(Cameroon v. United Kingdom), Preliminary Objections, Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 1963, p. 28.)” 18
22. And the Court recalled that
“it has become an established practice for States submitting an application
to the Court to reserve the right to present additional facts and
legal considerations. The limit of the freedom to present such facts
and considerations is ‘that the result is not to transform the dispute
brought before the Court by the application into another dispute
which is different in character’ (Military and Paramilitary Activities
in and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v. United States of America),
Jurisdiction and Admissibility, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1984, p. 427,
para. 80).” 19
23. The Court’s pronouncement is clear. An applicant may present
additional facts and legal considerations in support of its original claim,
provided that the dispute brought before the Court by the application is
not transformed into another dispute which is different in character.
24. A similar issue arose in the Oil Platforms case, this time in respect
of a counter‑claim. The United States provided, subsequent to the presenting
of its counter‑claim with the Counter‑Memorial, detailed particulars
of further incidents substantiating, in its contention, its original
claims. Iran objected, contending that the United States had broadened
the subject‑matter of its claim beyond the submissions set out in its counter‑claim
by, among other things, belatedly adding new examples of
breaches of the freedom of maritime commerce in its Rejoinder 20. The
Court considered that the question raised by Iran was whether the
United States was presenting “a new claim” or merely providing “addi-
18 Land and Maritime Boundary between Cameroon and Nigeria (Cameroon v. Nigeria),
Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1998, p. 318, para. 99.
19 Ibid., pp. 318‑319, para. 99.
20 Oil Platforms (Islamic Republic of Iran v. United States of America), Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 2003, p. 213, para. 116.
droits souverains et espaces maritimes (op. ind. tomka) 379
117
C.I.J. Recueil 1998, p. 130, par. 43). Une interprétation aussi restrictive
ne correspondrait pas davantage aux conclusions de la Cour
selon lesquelles
« si, en vertu de l’article 40 du Statut, l’objet d’un différend porté
devant la Cour doit être indiqué, l’article 32, paragraphe 2, du
Règlement de la Cour [aujourd’hui l’article 38, paragraphe 2]
impose au demandeur de se conformer « autant que possible » à
certaines prescriptions. Cette expression s’applique non seulement
à la mention de la disposition par laquelle le requérant prétend
établir la compétence de la Cour mais aussi à l’indication précise
de l’objet de la demande et à l’exposé succinct des faits et des
motifs par lesquels la demande est prétendue justifiée. » (Cameroun
septentrional (Cameroun c. Royaume-Uni), exceptions préliminaires,
arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1963, p. 28.) » 18
22. En outre, la Cour a rappelé ce qui suit :
« selon une pratique établie, les Etats qui déposent une requête à la
Cour se réservent le droit de présenter ultérieurement des éléments de
fait et de droit supplémentaires. Cette liberté de présenter de tels éléments
trouve sa limite dans l’exigence que « le différend porté devant
la Cour par requête ne se trouve pas transformé en un autre différend
dont le caractère ne serait pas le même » (Activités militaires et paramilitaires
au Nicaragua et contre celui-
ci (Nicaragua c. Etats-Unis
d’Amérique), compétence et recevabilité, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1984,
p. 427, par. 80). » 19
23. L’avis rendu par la Cour est clair. Un demandeur a le droit de présenter
des éléments de fait et de droit supplémentaires pour étayer sa
demande initiale, à la condition que le différend porté devant la Cour par
requête ne s’en trouve pas transformé en un autre différend dont le caractère
ne serait pas le même.
24. Une question similaire s’est posée dans l’affaire des Plates‑formes
pétrolières, au sujet cette fois d’une demande reconventionnelle. Les Etats-
Unis ont présenté, après avoir soumis leur demande reconventionnelle dans
leur contre-mémoire,
des descriptions détaillées d’autres incidents étayant,
selon leur thèse, leurs demandes initiales. L’Iran s’y est dit opposé, soutenant
que les Etats‑Unis avaient élargi l’objet de leur demande au-
delà des
conclusions qui figuraient dans leur demande reconventionnelle, notamment
en ajoutant tardivement, dans leur duplique, de nouveaux exemples
de violation de la liberté de commerce maritime 20. La Cour a considéré que
la question que soulevait l’Iran était celle de savoir si les Etats-Unis avaient
18 Frontière terrestre et maritime entre le Cameroun et le Nigéria (Cameroun c. Nigéria),
exceptions préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1998, p. 318, par. 99.
19 Ibid., p. 318‑319, par. 99.
20 Plates-formes
pétrolières (République islamique d’Iran c. Etats-Unis d’Amérique),
arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2003, p. 213, par. 116.
380 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (sep. op. tomka)
118
tional evidence relating to the original claim” 21. The Court went on to
recall that the parties to a case cannot in the course of proceedings “transform
the dispute brought before the Court into a dispute that would be of
a different nature” 22. The Court was of the view that
“the United States ha[d] not, by [providing detailed particulars of
further incidents substantiating its original claim], transformed the
subject of the dispute originally submitted to the Court, nor ha[d] it
modified the substance of its counter‑claim, which remain[ed] the
same, i.e., alleged attacks by Iran on shipping, laying of mines and
other military actions said to be ‘dangerous and detrimental to maritime
commerce’, thus breaching Iran’s obligations to the United States
under Article X, paragraph 1, of the 1955 Treaty” 23.
25. The basic principle identified here is the same as the one identified
above in Land and Maritime Boundary between Cameroon and Nigeria.
The respondent, just like the applicant with respect to its original claims
formulated in its application, is at liberty to provide further particulars of
incidents in support of its original counter‑claim presented in its Counter‑Memorial,
provided that the result does not transform the dispute brought
before the Court into a dispute of a different character.
26. In other words, disputes are not frozen in time at the moment the
application is filed by the applicant, nor at the moment a counter‑claim is
formulated by the respondent.
27. There is, however, still one question to be answered, namely,
whether the conclusion just reached is altered in any way by the fact that
the incidents occurred after the date on which the Pact of Bogotá ceased
to be in force for Colombia. Nicaragua has relied in support of its original
claim as formulated in its Application on incidents that occurred not
only after the filing of the Application but also the date on which the Pact
of Bogotá ceased to be in force for Colombia. In this sense, the present
case is unique and has no exact precedent in the past practice of the
Court 24.
28. It is a well‑established principle that once the Court has established
jurisdiction to entertain a case, the subsequent lapse of the title cannot
21 Oil Platforms (Islamic Republic of Iran v. United States of America), Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 2003, p. 213, para. 117.
22 Ibid.
23 Ibid., p. 214, para. 118.
24 Although it has to be mentioned that, in the present case, Colombia itself made its
counter-claims
in its Counter‑Memorial filed on 17 November 2016, almost three years
after the Pact of Bogotá had ceased to be in force for Colombia. See Alleged Violations
of Sovereign Rights and Maritime Spaces in the Caribbean Sea (Nicaragua v. Colombia),
Counter-Claims,
Order of 15 November 2017, I.C.J. Reports 2017, p. 290, para. 6.
droits souverains et espaces maritimes (op. ind. tomka) 380
118
présenté une « demande nouvelle » ou s’ils avaient produit des « éléments de
preuve additionnels relatifs à la demande originelle » 21. La Cour a ensuite
rappelé que les parties à une affaire ne pouvaient en cours d’instance
« transformer le différend porté devant la Cour en un différend dont le
caractère ne serait pas le même » 22. De l’avis de la Cour,
« les Etats-Unis n’[avaie]nt pas, [en fournissant des descriptions
détaillées d’autres incidents étayant, selon eux, leurs demandes initiales],
transformé l’objet du différend initialement porté devant la
Cour, ni modifié la substance de leur demande reconventionnelle, qui
demeur[ait] la même, à savoir que l’Iran se serait livré à des attaques
contre le transport maritime, au mouillage de mines et à d’autres
activités militaires qui seraient « dangereuses et nuisibles pour le
commerce maritime », violant ainsi ses obligations vis-
à-vis des Etats-
Unis au regard du paragraphe 1 de l’article X du traité de 1955 » 23.
25. Le principe fondamental relevé ici est identique à celui mis en évidence
plus haut dans l’affaire de la Frontière terrestre et maritime entre le
Cameroun et le Nigéria. Le défendeur, tout comme le demandeur s’agissant
des demandes initiales qu’il a soumises dans sa requête, a le droit de
donner des descriptions détaillées d’incidents étayant la demande reconventionnelle
qu’il présente dans son contre-mémoire,
à condition que le
différend porté devant la Cour ne s’en trouve pas transformé en un différend
dont le caractère ne serait pas le même.
26. En d’autres termes, les différends ne se trouvent pas figés dans le
temps au moment où la requête est déposée par le demandeur, ni au
moment où une demande reconventionnelle est formulée par le défendeur.
27. Il reste toutefois à déterminer si la conclusion à laquelle nous
venons de parvenir est modifiée de quelque façon que ce soit par le fait
que les incidents se soient produits après la date à laquelle le pacte de
Bogotá a cessé de produire des effets à l’égard de la Colombie. Pour
étayer sa demande initiale, telle que formulée dans sa requête, le Nicaragua
a invoqué des incidents postérieurs non seulement au dépôt de la
requête, mais aussi à la date à laquelle le pacte de Bogotá a cessé d’être en
vigueur à l’égard de la Colombie. En ce sens, la présente affaire est unique
et il n’en existe aucun précédent dans la pratique passée de la Cour 24.
28. Selon un principe bien établi, une fois que la Cour s’est déclarée
compétente pour connaître d’une affaire, la caducité ultérieure du titre
21 Plates-formes
pétrolières (République islamique d’Iran c. Etats-Unis d’Amérique),
arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2003, p. 213, par. 117.
22 Ibid.
23 Ibid., p. 214, par. 118.
24 Il faut toutefois mentionner que, en l’espèce, la Colombie elle-même a présenté ses
demandes reconventionnelles dans son contre‑mémoire déposé le 17 novembre 2016, près
de trois ans après que le pacte de Bogotá eut cessé de produire ses effets pour elle. Voir
Violations alléguées de droits souverains et d’espaces maritimes dans la mer des Caraïbes
(Nicaragua c. Colombie), demandes reconventionnelles, ordonnance du 15 novembre 2017,
C.I.J. Recueil 2017, p. 290, par. 6.
381 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (sep. op. tomka)
119
deprive the Court of its jurisdiction. As the Court stated in the Nottebohm
case, in the context of the lapse, after the filing of the application, of the
respondent’s declaration of acceptance of the compulsory jurisdiction of
the Court, “[a]n extrinsic fact such as the subsequent lapse of the Declaration,
by reason of the expiry of the period or by denunciation, cannot
deprive the Court of the jurisdiction already established” 25.
29. This principle applies equally here. As observed above, a dispute is
not frozen in time and the parties may rely in support of their original
claims on facts that occurred during the course of the proceedings, i.e.
those facts which occurred after the filing of the application and even
those which occurred after the lapse of the title of jurisdiction, provided
that they do not transform the dispute into another dispute which is different
in character. The applicant’s freedom to present additional facts in
support of its original claim is not dependent on the continued validity of
the title of jurisdiction. Consequently, the fact that Colombia denounced
the Pact of Bogotá, under Article LVI of the Pact, with the effect that it
ceased to be in force between the Parties as of the termination date (i.e.
after 26 November 2013), does not — and cannot — deprive the Court of
its jurisdiction in the present case.
II. Nicaragua’s Straight Baselines
30. The second issue concerns the Court’s finding on Nicaragua’s
straight baselines and the legal consequences of this finding. The Court
concluded that Nicaragua’s straight baselines established by Decree
No. 33‑2013, as amended by Decree No. 17‑2018, are not in conformity
with customary international law (Judgment, para. 261 (7)). The Court
has not, however, articulated any legal consequence to be drawn from
this finding. By contrast, in relation to Colombia’s Presidential
Decree 1946, as amended by Decree No. 1119, by which Colombia’s
“integral contiguous zone” was established, the Court, having found that
such zone is not in conformity with customary international law (ibid.,
para. 261 (5)), has gone on to draw a legal consequence from this finding.
It decided that
“the Republic of Colombia must, by means of its own choosing, bring
into conformity with customary international law the provisions of
Presidential Decree 1946 . . . as amended by Decree No. 1119 . . . in
so far as they relate to maritime areas declared by the Court in its
2012 Judgment to appertain to the Republic of Nicaragua” (ibid.,
para. 261 (6)).
25 Nottebohm (Liechtenstein v. Guatemala), Preliminary Objection, Judgment, I.C.J.
Reports 1953, p. 123.
droits souverains et espaces maritimes (op. ind. tomka) 381
119
qui lui a conféré cette compétence ne peut l’en priver. Comme la Cour l’a
affirmé en l’affaire Nottebohm, pour ce qui concerne l’extinction, après le
dépôt de la requête, de la déclaration du défendeur portant acceptation de
la juridiction obligatoire de la Cour, « [u]n fait extérieur tel que la caducité
ultérieure de la déclaration par échéance du terme ou par dénonciation
ne saurait retirer à la Cour une compétence déjà établie » 25.
29. Ce principe s’applique de la même façon en l’espèce. Comme indiqué
plus haut, un différend n’est pas figé dans le temps et les parties
peuvent, pour étayer leurs demandes initiales, s’appuyer sur des faits survenus
en cours d’instance, à savoir des faits postérieurs au dépôt de la
requête ou même ceux qui se sont produits après l’extinction du titre de
compétence, à la condition que le différend ne s’en trouve pas transformé
en un autre différend dont le caractère ne serait pas le même. La liberté du
demandeur de présenter des éléments de fait supplémentaires étayant sa
demande initiale n’est pas subordonnée au maintien en vigueur du titre de
compétence. Par conséquent, le fait que la Colombie ait dénoncé le pacte
de Bogotá en vertu de son article LVI, avec pour effet que celui-
ci a cessé
d’être en vigueur entre les parties à la date d’extinction de son application
(à savoir après le 26 novembre 2013), ne prive pas la Cour — et ne peut
la priver — de sa compétence en l’espèce.
II. Lignes de base droites du Nicaragua
30. La seconde question a trait à la conclusion à laquelle parvient la
Cour en ce qui concerne les lignes de base droites du Nicaragua et aux
conséquences juridiques qu’elle en tire. La Cour dit que les lignes de base
droites du Nicaragua établies par le décret no 33‑2013, tel que modifié par
le décret no 17‑2018, ne sont pas conformes au droit international coutumier
(arrêt, point 7 du dispositif). Elle ne précise toutefois pas les conséquences
juridiques qu’elle est susceptible de tirer de cette conclusion. A
l’inverse, pour ce qui est du décret présidentiel 1946, tel que modifié par
le décret 1119, par lequel la Colombie institue sa « zone contiguë unique »,
la Cour, ayant conclu que ladite zone n’était pas conforme au droit international
coutumier (ibid., point 5 du dispositif), précise ensuite la conséquence
juridique qu’elle tire de cette conclusion. Elle dit ainsi que
« la République de Colombie doit, par les moyens de son choix,
mettre les dispositions du décret présidentiel 1946 … tel que modifié
par le décret 1119 … en conformité avec le droit international coutumier,
en tant qu’elles ont trait aux espaces maritimes que la Cour a
reconnus à la République du Nicaragua dans son arrêt de 2012 »
(ibid., point 6 du dispositif).
25 Nottebohm (Liechtenstein c. Guatemala), exception préliminaire, arrêt, C.I.J.
Recueil 1953, p. 123.
382 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (sep. op. tomka)
120
31. This striking difference in the Court’s approach to drawing legal
consequences from similar legal findings can only be explained by the fact
that Colombia, in contrast with Nicaragua, has not formally requested
the Court in its final submissions to draw any legal consequence from the
Court’s finding on Nicaragua’s straight baselines. One is, however, puzzled
as to why the Court considered it necessary to rule in the operative
clause of its Judgment on Colombia’s argument, which was not presented
as a formal final submission, that Nicaragua cannot rely on facts which
occurred after the date when Colombia ceased to be bound by the Pact of
Bogotá. There seems to be an apparent inconsistency in the Court’s
approach.
32. In any case, there should be no doubt that Nicaragua must bring
its straight baselines in the Caribbean Sea into conformity with the provisions
of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea since
Nicaragua is a party to that Convention and the lawfulness of Nicaragua’s
straight baselines is not just a bilateral issue between the two Parties
before the Court. Its baselines also affect the interests and rights of other
States.
(Signed) Peter Tomka.
droits souverains et espaces maritimes (op. ind. tomka) 382
120
31. Si la Cour traite aussi différemment les conséquences juridiques à
tirer en présence de conclusions juridiques similaires, ce ne peut être que
parce que, dans ses conclusions finales, la Colombie, contrairement au
Nicaragua, ne l’a pas formellement priée de tirer une quelconque conséquence
juridique de sa conclusion sur les lignes de base droites du Nicaragua.
On reste toutefois perplexe quant aux raisons pourquoi la Cour a
estimé nécessaire de se prononcer, dans le dispositif de son arrêt, sur l’argument
de la Colombie, qui, sans l’avoir formellement exprimé sous forme de
conclusion finale, prétend que le Nicaragua ne peut invoquer des faits survenus
alors qu’elle n’était plus liée par les dispositions du pacte de Bogotá.
Il semble que la Cour ait ici fait preuve d’une certaine incohérence.
32. En tout état de cause, il ne devrait y avoir aucun doute que le Nicaragua
est tenu de mettre ses lignes de base droites dans la mer des Caraïbes
en conformité avec les dispositions de la convention des Nations Unies
sur le droit de la mer, puisqu’il est partie à ladite convention et que la
licéité de ses lignes de base droites n’est pas qu’une question bilatérale
intéressant les deux Parties comparaissant devant la Cour. Ces lignes de
base ont aussi une incidence sur les droits et intérêts d’autres Etats.
(Signé) Peter Tomka.
Separate opinion of Judge Tomka