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35
SEPARATE OPINION OF JUDGE ROBINSON
1. I voted in favour of the provisional measures ordered by the Court.
In this opinion, I explain why I have supported the orders granted by the
Court, and in particular the order requiring Russia to suspend its military
operation in Ukraine.
2. The purpose of an indication of provisional measures is to preserve
the respective rights claimed by the parties, pending the Court’s decision
on the merits of the claim. The Court’s Order is wholly consistent with
the law relating to the indication of such measures. In view of the fundamental
importance attached to the purpose served by the indication of
provisional measures, the law has developed so as not to impose high
evidentiary requirements for the indication of such measures. To begin
with, it is settled that the provisions relied upon by the applicant must
appear, prima facie, to afford a basis on which the Court’s jurisdiction
may be founded, but the Court need not satisfy itself in a definitive manner
that it has jurisdiction as regards the merits of the case. It is also
established that the Court’s prima facie jurisdiction depends on a determination
that the claims appear to be capable of falling within the provisions
of the respective treaty 1. In relation to the plausibility of rights, the
Court’s case law is that, at this stage of the proceedings, it need not determine
definitively whether the rights for which protection is sought exist; it
need only decide whether the rights claimed on the merits are plausible.
Plausibility of a right depends on whether it is grounded in a possible
interpretation of the convention 2. Moreover, the more relaxed approach
to the evidentiary requirements in the indication of provisional measures
is evident from the frequent use of the word “appear” in provisional measures
orders made by the Court, including the Court’s Order in this case.
3. The central issues in this case are whether the Court has prima facie
jurisdiction over the dispute brought by Ukraine and whether the rights
for which Ukraine seeks protection are plausible.
The Court’s Prima Facie Jurisdiction
4. The identification and characterization of the dispute is of cardinal
importance in responding to Ukraine’s request for the indication of provisional
measures.
1 Immunities and Criminal Proceedings (Equatorial Guinea v. France), Provisional
Measures, Order of 7 December 2016, I.C.J. Reports 2016 (II), p. 1159, para. 47.
2 Questions relating to the Obligation to Prosecute or Extradite (Belgium v. Senegal),
Provisional Measures, Order of 28 May 2009, I.C.J. Reports 2009, p. 152, para. 60.
243 allegations of genocide (sep. op. robinson)
36
5. Case law of the International Court of Justice establishes three features
in the process of identifying and characterizing a dispute. First, the
Court examines how the parties themselves have identified and characterized
the dispute, but in doing so it has particular regard to the applicant’s
characterization of the dispute 3. However, and second, it is ultimately the
responsibility of the Court to determine on an objective basis the dispute
between the parties 4. Third, it does that by “isolat[ing] the real issue in
the case and . . . identify[ing] the object of the claim” 5. A party’s characterization
of the dispute is therefore only a starting-point, and a dispute,
properly characterized, may have more than one element, and indeed, a
case may have more than one dispute.
6. Ukraine sees the dispute as having two elements. In its first element,
Ukraine argues that a dispute exists as to whether, on the basis of Russia’s
allegations, Ukraine has breached its obligations under the Convention
on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide
(hereinafter the “Genocide Convention” or the “1948 Convention”). In
its second element, Ukraine sees the dispute as the question whether Russia
has the right under the Genocide Convention to engage in the military
action initiated against Ukraine on 24 February 2022. Russia, on the
other hand, argues that the dispute has nothing to do with the Genocide
Convention; rather, it maintains that the dispute relates to the use of
force under customary international law. More specifically, Russia maintains
that in carrying out a “special military operation” in Ukraine it is
exercising its right of self-defence
under Article 51 of the Charter of the
United Nations.
The First Element of the Dispute
7. There is an abundance of evidence showing that Russia alleged
breaches of the Genocide Convention by Ukraine and denials by Ukraine
of those allegations. These allegations were either made expressly or arose
by implication from the context in which they were made. Indeed, it is
settled that there is no need for parties to refer to a particular treaty in
order for a dispute to exist between them under that treaty, although it
must be clear to the respondent that there is a dispute relating to the
subject-matter
of the treaty 6.
8. The Investigative Committee of the Russian Federation is an official
Russian agency in charge of federal criminal prosecutions and reports
3 Fisheries Jurisdiction (Spain v. Canada), Jurisdiction of the Court, Judgment, I.C.J.
Reports 1998, p. 448, paras. 29-30.
4 Ibid., para. 30.
5 Nuclear Tests (New Zealand v. France), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1974, p. 466,
para. 30.
6 Application of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial
Discrimination (Georgia v. Russian Federation), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J.
Reports 2011 (I), p. 85, para. 30.
244 allegations of genocide (sep. op. robinson)
37
directly to the President of the Russian Federation. The Investigative
Committee opened an inquiry into “the genocide of the Russian‑speaking
population” living in the Luhansk and Donetsk oblasts. In September
2014, the Committee found that
“during the period from 12 April 2014 to the present, in violation of
the 1948 Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime
of Genocide, . . . the top political and military leadership of Ukraine,
the Armed Forces of Ukraine, the National Guard of Ukraine and
the ‘Right Sector’ gave orders to completely destroy specifically
Russian-speaking
population living on the territory of the Donetsk
and Luhansk republics”.
It may be observed that this finding has implications for the specific
requirement in the Genocide Convention of an intent “to destroy, in
whole . . ., a national, ethnic, racial or religious group” and obviously
indicates that Russia’s attention was focused on whether the purported
acts of Ukraine fell under the Genocide Convention. In January 2015, the
Committee found that acts carried out by the Ukrainian military constituted
crimes under the 1948 Convention. In September 2017, the Committee
announced criminal proceedings against 20 senior officials in
Ukraine’s Ministry of Defence in respect of orders that they issued to
soldiers in violation of the Genocide Convention.
9. In November 2021, President Putin adopted a decree in respect of
the territory in eastern Ukraine, which, according to the Russian Ambassador
to the Contact Group for the settlement of the situation in eastern
Ukraine, was a response to actions in Kyiv that “actually fall under the
United Nations Convention on the Prevention of Genocide”. On 18 February
2021, the Chairman of the Russian Parliament accused Ukraine of
committing in eastern Ukraine “acts prohibited based on international
accords”, observing: “[I]f this is not genocide, then what is?” On 21 February
2022, President Putin, in relation to his decision to recognize the
Republics of Donetsk and Luhansk, referred to this “horror and genocide,
which almost 4 million people are facing”. In an address on 24 February
2022, President Putin stated: “the purpose of this operation is to
protect people who, for eight years now, have been facing humiliation
and genocide perpetrated by the Kiev regime”. President Putin further
stated that Russia intends to “de-Nazify
Ukraine” and “bring to trial
those who perpetrated numerous bloody crimes against civilians”. On
25 February 2022, the Russian Foreign Minister stated that Russia’s military
actions “prevent[ed] the neo-Nazis and those who promote methods
of genocide from ruling this country”. Also on 25 February 2022, the
Russian Ambassador to the European Union remarked that “[w]e can
turn to the official term of genocide as coined in international law. If you
read the definition, it fits pretty well.” The three explicit statements by
Russian officials concerning the Genocide Convention in 2014 and 2015,
245 allegations of genocide (sep. op. robinson)
38
the beginning of the dispute between the two States, provide a basis for
the inference that, by the subsequent references in 2021 and 2022 to
“genocide”, Russian officials meant genocide under the Genocide Convention.
10. On 23 February 2022, the Russian Ambassador to the United
Nations, addressing Russia’s recognition of the Republics of Donetsk and
Luhansk, pointed to “the flagrant genocide . . . of the 4 million people in
the Donbass”.
In response, the Ukrainian Minister of Foreign Affairs
stated, “Russia’s accusations of Ukraine are absurd. Ukraine has never
threatened or attacked anyone. Ukraine has never planned and does not
plan any such action.”
11. On 26 February 2022, the Minister for Foreign Affairs of Ukraine
stated:
“Ukraine strongly denies Russia’s allegations of genocide and
denies any attempt to use such manipulative allegations as an excuse
for unlawful aggression. The crime of genocide is defined in the Genocide
Convention, and under that Convention, Russia’s claims are
baseless and absurd. Russia’s claims of genocide as justification for
its lawless conduct are an insult to the Genocide Convention, and to
the work of the international community in preventing and punishing
the world’s most serious crime.”
12. The above-mentioned
statements clearly reference a claim by
Russia
that Ukraine has committed acts that constitute genocide under
the 1948 Genocide Convention and a denial by Ukraine of that claim. In
its Application, Ukraine maintains that “[t]here is no factual basis for the
existence of genocide in the Luhansk and Donetsk oblasts” and asks the
Court to find that no acts of genocide as alleged by Russia were committed
by Ukraine.
Isolation of the real issue
13. In the circumstances of this case, it falls to the Court to determine
on an objective basis the dispute between the Parties by “isolat[ing] the
real issue in the case and . . . identify[ing] the object of the claim” 7. The
dispute between the Parties did not commence on 24 February 2022 when
Russia sent its forces into Ukraine. Although the dispute may be traced
to events before 2014 (including those following the break-up of the former
Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (“USSR”) and the emergence
into independence of several States that were formerly part of the USSR),
for the purposes of this case that date may serve as its origin. An objec-
7 Nuclear Tests (New Zealand v. France), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1974, p. 466,
para. 30.
246 allegations of genocide (sep. op. robinson)
39
tive examination of the statements of the Parties and their diplomatic
exchanges from that date show that the real issue in the case is not the use
of force, as argued by Russia. Rather, it is the allegation by Russia that
Ukraine was carrying out acts that constituted genocide under the
Genocide
Convention and Ukraine’s denial of that allegation. This conclusion
is supported by the several investigations carried out by the Russian
Investigative Committee in the period from 2014 to 2017 into alleged
acts of genocide committed by Ukrainian officials against the Russian-speaking
population in the Donetsk and Luhansk oblasts in breach of the
Genocide Convention. A very significant investigation is that of September
2014 which found that Ukraine gave orders to “completely destroy”
specifically Russian-speaking
populations, a finding that directly relates
to the intent requirement to establish genocide under Article II of the
Genocide Convention. In light of Russia’s assertion that it has the right
to exercise universal jurisdiction on the basis of the Genocide Convention,
the investigations carried out by the Investigative Committee led to
the institution of criminal proceedings by Russia against Ukrainian officials
for breaches of the Genocide Convention. It would be hard to have
more conclusive evidence of a dispute between Russia and Ukraine than
criminal proceedings initiated by Russia against Ukrainian officials for a
breach of the Genocide Convention.
14. Russia’s stated reliance on the right of self-defence
under the
Charter
by the President on 24 February 2022 does not serve to define the
dispute between the Parties as one relating to the use of force. The dispute
between the Parties was defined eight years before by the several investigations
carried out by Russia into alleged acts of genocide by Ukraine
under the 1948 Convention. That the dispute relates to Russia’s allegation
of genocide is confirmed by the Russian President’s statement that
the purpose of the special military operation is to “protect people who
have been subjected to abuse and genocide by the Kiev regime for eight
years”. Against the background of the criminal investigations, it is entirely
reasonable to understand President Putin’s reference to genocide as meaning
genocide under the Genocide Convention, to which both States are
parties. There is therefore evidence of a line of discourse between the Parties,
over a period of eight years, in which Russia alleges Ukraine’s breach
of the Genocide Convention and Ukraine denies that allegation. This
shows an opposition of views sufficient to constitute a dispute between
Ukraine and Russia as to whether Ukraine has committed acts of genocide
within the meaning of the Convention. In short, the dispute before
the Court does not, as alleged by Russia, relate to the question of the use
of force under customary international law.
15. The acts that Russia alleges to have been carried out by Ukraine
include the killing of persons from the Russian-speaking
population
in the Donetsk and Luhansk oblasts, members of an ethnic group in
247 allegations of genocide (sep. op. robinson)
40
Ukraine. These acts appear to be capable of falling within the provisions
of Article II of the Genocide Convention, because that provision lists, as
one of the acts constituting genocide, killing members of an ethnic group
with intent to destroy in whole or in part that group.
16. In light of Russia’s allegation that Ukraine has committed genocide
against the Russian‑speaking population in the Donetsk and Luhansk
oblasts, in its Application, Ukraine requests the Court to find that it has
not committed genocide. More usually, in its practice, the Court is called
upon to exercise its jurisdiction in cases where the applicant maintains
that the respondent has committed a breach under the relevant treaty.
However, there is nothing in doctrine or practice that precludes the Court
from having jurisdiction to find that an applicant has not committed a
breach of a treaty, where that applicant has requested the Court to make
such a finding.
17. In light of the foregoing, the Court has prima facie jurisdiction to
entertain the dispute brought by Ukraine.
The Second Element of the Dispute
18. Ukraine argues that there is another aspect of the dispute that it
has brought before the Court. Ukraine submits that there is a legal dispute
between the Parties as to whether Russia may take military action in
and against Ukraine to punish and prevent alleged acts of genocide within
the meaning of Article I of the Convention. Russia maintains that the
“special military operation” it is carrying out in Ukraine has nothing to
do with the Genocide Convention; rather, it constitutes the exercise by a
State of its right of self-defence
under Article 51 of the Charter of the
United Nations.
19. Although President Putin stated that the military operation was initiated
“in accordance with Article 51 . . . of the Charter of the
United Nations”, he expressly noted that “[i]ts purpose is to protect people
who have been subjected to . . . genocide by the Kiev regime for eight
years”. This makes clear that, notwithstanding the possible defensive aims
of the special military operation, the operation has a clear protective aim;
more specifically, it aims to protect against alleged acts of genocide committed
by Ukraine which, as has already been shown, Russia considered to
be contrary to Ukraine’s obligations under the Genocide Convention. In
response to Russia’s claim, the Ukrainian Ministry of Foreign Affairs
issued a statement that Ukraine “strongly denies Russia’s allegations of
genocide and denies any attempt to use such manipulative allegations as
an excuse for Russia’s unlawful aggression”. There is undoubtedly a question
of the lawfulness of Russia’s use of force within the framework of the
United Nations Charter which arises in the context of a broader dispute
between the Parties, but this does not preclude the Court from assuming
jurisdiction with respect to the aspect of the dispute which properly falls
within its jurisdiction under the Genocide Convention.
248 allegations of genocide (sep. op. robinson)
41
20. In its 2021 Judgment in Alleged Violations of the 1955 Treaty of
Amity, Economic Relations, and Consular Rights (Islamic Republic of
Iran v. United States of America), the Court ruled that the fact that certain
acts committed by the United States may fall within the ambit of
more than one instrument, or may relate to the interpretation or application
of more than one treaty, did not preclude the Court from finding
that those acts related to the interpretation or application of the Treaty of
Amity to the extent that the measures adopted by the United States might
constitute breaches of that Treaty 8. In the circumstances of the present
case, although Russia’s “special military operation” may relate to the
prohibition of the use of force and the right of self-defence
provided for
in Articles 2 (4) and 51 of the United Nations Charter respectively, that
fact does not preclude the Court from finding that a dispute also arises
from the initiation of the “special military operation” with respect to the
Genocide Convention.
21. The difficulties attendant on situating cases involving the use of
force by a State on the territory of another State within the framework of
the Genocide Convention have previously arisen in the Court’s jurisprudence.
In the Legality of Use of Force cases, as in the present case, Yugoslavia
sought to found the jurisdiction of the Court on Article IX of the
1948 Genocide Convention. In the cases brought against Spain and the
United States, the Court concluded, with respect to its jurisdiction under
Article IX of the Genocide Convention, that
“Article IX of the Genocide Convention cannot found the jurisdiction
of the Court to entertain a dispute between Yugoslavia and
[the respondent] alleged to fall within its provisions . . . that Article
manifestly does not constitute a basis of jurisdiction in the present
case, even prima facie” 9.
The Court further observed that
“the Court manifestly lacks jurisdiction to entertain Yugoslavia’s
Application . . . it cannot therefore indicate any provisional measure
whatsoever in order to protect the rights invoked therein;
�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������
there is a fundamental distinction between the question of the acceptance
by a State of the Court’s jurisdiction and the compatibility of
particular acts with international law; the former requires consent;
the latter question can only be reached when the Court deals with the
8 Alleged Violations of the 1955 Treaty of Amity, Economic Relations, and Consular
Rights (Islamic Republic of Iran v. United States of America), Preliminary Objections,
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2021, p. 27, para. 56.
9 Legality of Use of Force (Yugoslavia v. Spain), Provisional Measures, Order of
2 June 1999, I.C.J. Reports 1999 (II), p. 772, para. 33.
249 allegations of genocide (sep. op. robinson)
42
merits after having established its jurisdiction and having heard full
legal arguments by both parties” 10.
22. For the purposes of the present case, it is critical to understand
that the Court’s finding that it manifestly lacked jurisdiction under Article
IX of the Genocide Convention was not at all related to the action
that formed the basis of the claims, that is, the use of force by the respondent
States. Having found that its Statute and Rules could not afford a
basis for jurisdiction, the Court examined Article IX of the Genocide
Convention as a basis for resolving the dispute between the States. It
found, however, that both Spain and the United States had made reservations
to Article IX, which had the effect of excluding the jurisdiction of
the Court in the cases before it 11. These cases are, therefore, distinguishable
from the present case because the Court does not manifestly lack
jurisdiction over Ukraine’s claims. Both Ukraine and Russia are parties
to the Genocide Convention and neither State has entered a reservation
to Article IX of the Convention. Thus, the Court is not facing a situation
of manifest lack of jurisdiction; rather, in determining its prima
facie jurisdiction,
the question before the Court is whether Ukraine’s
claims are capable of falling within the provisions of the Genocide
Convention.
23. In the cases brought against the other eight States, there being no
basis for a manifest lack of jurisdiction under Article IX of the Genocide
Convention, the Court went on to consider whether it had prima facie
jurisdiction under that provision to grant the measures requested by
Yugoslavia against each of those States.
24. In its Application, Yugoslavia defined the subject-matter
of the dispute
as “acts of [the respondent] by which it has violated its international
obligation banning the use of force against another State”, as well as
other norms of international humanitarian and international human
rights law, and “the obligation not to deliberately inflict conditions of life
calculated to cause the physical destruction of a national group” 12. Yugoslavia
requested that the Court adjudge and declare that each respondent
State “has acted . . . in breach of its obligation not to use force against
another State”, in breach of various standards of international humanitarian
and international human rights law, and “in breach of its obligation
not to deliberately inflict on a national group conditions of
life calculated to bring about its physical destruction, in whole or in
10 Legality of Use of Force (Yugoslavia v. Spain), Provisional Measures, Order of
2 June 1999, I.C.J. Reports 1999 (II), p. 773, paras. 35-36.
11 Ibid., p. 772, paras. 29, 32-33.
12 Legality of Use of Force (Yugoslavia v. Belgium), Provisional Measures, Order of
2 June 1999, I.C.J. Reports 1999 (I), p. 125, para. 1.
250 allegations of genocide (sep. op. robinson)
43
part” 13. In its Request for the indication of provisional measures, Yugoslavia
asked the Court to order that each State “shall cease immediately
the acts of use of force and shall refrain from any act or threat or use of
force against the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia” 14. With respect to its
jurisdiction under Article IX of the Genocide Convention, the Court
concluded
that it was not in a position to find, in the absence of evidence
as to an intention to destroy a national group, “that the acts imputed by
Yugoslavia to the Respondent are capable of coming within the provisions
of the Genocide Convention” 15. The Court found that “the threat
or use of force against a State cannot in itself constitute an act of
genocide
within the meaning of Article II of the Genocide Convention” 16.
In the present case, however, Ukraine has not put before the Court a
general question of the legality of Russia’s use of force. Instead, it has
asked the Court to “[a]djudge and declare that the ‘special military operation’
declared and carried out by the Russian Federation . . . is based on
a false claim of genocide and therefore has no basis in the Genocide
Convention”.
25. In justifying its “special military operation” in Ukraine, Russia
expressly stated that the purpose of the operation is “to stop . . . [the]
genocide of the millions of people” in the Donetsk and Luhansk oblasts,
and “to protect people who have been subjected to abuse and genocide by
the Kiev regime”. It is this express purpose which brings the dispute
within the terms of the Genocide Convention, and specifically Article I,
which imposes on States parties an obligation “to prevent and to punish”
genocide. There is, therefore, a live issue in the present case as to whether
Russia can use force to prevent and to punish alleged genocide. As such,
in describing the subject-matter
of the dispute, Ukraine submits that the
parties hold opposing views on “whether Article I of the Convention provides
a basis for Russia to use military force against Ukraine to ‘prevent
and to punish’ . . . alleged genocide”. The fact that the acts of which
Ukraine complains constitute a use of force by the Russian Federation
does not mean that those acts are incapable of amounting to breaches of
the Genocide Convention.
26. In using force, Russia has purported to act to prevent alleged genocide
by Ukraine. Ukraine, on the other hand, asserts that Russia “had no
right under the Convention to engage in the military action initiated on
13 Legality of Use of Force (Yugoslavia v. Belgium), Provisional Measures, Order of
2 June 1999, I.C.J. Reports 1999 (I), pp. 126‑127, para. 4.
14 Ibid., p. 131, para. 15.
15 Ibid., p. 138, para. 41.
16 Ibid., para. 40.
251 allegations of genocide (sep. op. robinson)
44
24 February 2022”. In doing so, Ukraine argues, Russia has acted contrary
to Article I of the Genocide Convention. There is, therefore, a dispute
between the States as to whether Russia could employ the use of
force in and against Ukraine to protect persons from alleged genocide.
However, while the breach of the Convention alleged by Ukraine need
not be established at this stage, it must be demonstrated that the acts
complained of appear to be “capable of falling within the provisions of
that instrument” 17.
27. Ukraine submits that the duty to prevent genocide provided for in
Article I of the Genocide Convention is limited in scope. More specifically,
it submits that Article VIII of the Convention “anchors the duty to
prevent and punish genocide in the principles of international law reflected
in the Charter of the United Nations”. In its judgment on the merits in
the Bosnia Genocide case, the Court found that Article I of the Genocide
Convention imposes an obligation on States parties to “employ all means
reasonably available to them, so as to prevent genocide so far as
possible” 18. It is reasonable to conclude that it was in the exercise of this
duty that the Russian Federation acted in initiating a military campaign
in Ukraine. The Court further noted that, in carrying out the duty to
prevent, a State party “may only act within the limits permitted by international
law” 19. Therefore, Article I of the Genocide Convention imposes
an obligation on Russia not only to act to prevent genocide, but to act
within the limits permitted by international law to prevent genocide.
28. The preamble to the Genocide Convention states that “genocide is
a crime under international law, contrary to the spirit and aims of the
United Nations and condemned by the civilized world”. In that regard, it
is noted that Article 1 of the United Nations Charter describes the purposes
of the United Nations as including “bring[ing] about by peaceful
means, and in conformity with the principles of justice and international
law, adjustment or settlement of international disputes or situations
which might lead to a breach of the peace”. Reliance on the preamble to
the Genocide Convention is in order because, in terms of Article 31 of the
Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, the preamble is a part of the
context in which a treaty must be interpreted. The Genocide Convention
also provides, by its Article VIII, that it is open to States parties to call
upon the competent organs of the United Nations to take appropriate
17 Legality of Use of Force (Yugoslavia v. Belgium), Provisional Measures, Order of
2 June 1999, I.C.J. Reports 1999 (I), p. 137, para. 38.
18 Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of
Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Serbia and Montenegro), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports
2007 (I), p. 221, para. 430.
19 Ibid.
252 allegations of genocide (sep. op. robinson)
45
action to prevent and suppress genocide. Equally significant is Article IX
which provides that disputes relating to the interpretation, application or
fulfilment of the Convention are to be brought before the Court. These
are therefore means for the resolution of disputes that the Convention
provides. These means would of course have been open to Russia as
alternatives
to the military action that it commenced in Ukraine on
24 February
2022.
29. The Court, in its Nicaragua v. United States Judgment, noted that
the protection of human rights under international conventions “takes
the form of such arrangements for monitoring or ensuring respect for
human rights as are provided for in the conventions themselves” 20. Article
VIII therefore may be seen as an indication of the kind of action that
a Contracting Party may take for monitoring or ensuring respect for the
human rights provided for in the Genocide Convention. The Court also
expressed the view that “while the United States might form its own
appraisal of the situation as to respect for human rights in Nicaragua, the
use of force could not be the appropriate method to monitor or ensure
such respect” 21. By the same token, while Russia may form its own
appraisal as to the situation relating to the respect of the human rights of
persons of Russian ethnicity in the Donetsk and Luhansk oblasts, in light
of the object and purpose of the Genocide Convention and the circumstances
of its conclusion, the use of force would not appear to be the
appropriate method to monitor or ensure such respect. It is therefore possible
to interpret the duty under Article I to prevent and punish genocide
as precluding the force used by Russia in its “special military operation”
in Ukraine.
30. In view of the relatively low evidentiary threshold applicable at this
stage of the proceedings, it can be concluded that the breach of the Genocide
Convention alleged by Ukraine, that is, that Russia has acted contrary
to Article I of the Convention in initiating a military campaign with
the aim of preventing genocide, appears to be capable of falling within
the provisions of that instrument. As such, the dispute is one which the
Court has jurisdiction ratione materiae to entertain pursuant to Article IX
of the Convention.
Appropriateness of the Measures Requested
31. Since Ukraine’s right not to have force used against it by Russia as
a means of preventing the alleged genocide in Ukraine is grounded in a
possible interpretation of the Convention, that right is plausible. The evidence
before the Court shows that there have been numerous casualties
20 Military and Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v.
United States of America), Merits, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1986, p. 134, para. 267.
21 Ibid., para. 268.
253 allegations of genocide (sep. op. robinson)
46
resulting from the military intervention as well as bombing of numerous
cities across Ukraine, and that over one and a half million persons have
fled Ukraine to escape the atrocities. Consequently, given the patent
irreparable harm caused by the “special military operation” and the
urgent need for the measures, it is appropriate for the Court to grant
Ukraine’s request for an order requiring Russia to suspend its special
military operation in Ukraine until such time as the Court has determined
the merits of the case.
32. It is critical to note that the fact that the military operation by Russia
appears to be capable of falling within the Convention as being in
breach of Article I, has no implication for Russia’s claimed right of self-defence.
The right of self-defence
recognized in Article 51 is inherent in
every State and cannot be overridden by any pronouncement the Court
may make as to the consistency of Russia’s military operation with the
Genocide Convention.
33. Special comments are warranted in relation to the third and fourth
provisional measures requested by Ukraine. The third measure ordered
by the Court calls on both Parties to refrain from any action which might
aggravate or extend the dispute before the Court or make it more difficult
to resolve. In my view, there is no justification for directing this measure
to Ukraine. It should have been directed solely to the Russian Federation.
Nonetheless, the formulation of the measure called for an affirmative
vote in order to ensure that there would be a non-aggravation
measure that would be applicable to the Russian Federation. Ukraine
also requested as a fourth provisional measure that the Court should
order the Russian Federation to “provide a report to the Court on measures
taken to implement the Court’s Order on Provisional Measures one
week after such order and then on a regular basis to be fixed by the
Court”. The Court did not grant this request. In my view, this decision is
regrettable, since in light of the very grave situation in Ukraine caused by
the “special military operation”, it would have been advantageous for the
Court to examine periodic reports by Russia on its implementation of the
provisional measures and to make appropriate orders.
(Signed) Patrick L. Robinson.
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35
SEPARATE OPINION OF JUDGE ROBINSON
1. I voted in favour of the provisional measures ordered by the Court.
In this opinion, I explain why I have supported the orders granted by the
Court, and in particular the order requiring Russia to suspend its military
operation in Ukraine.
2. The purpose of an indication of provisional measures is to preserve
the respective rights claimed by the parties, pending the Court’s decision
on the merits of the claim. The Court’s Order is wholly consistent with
the law relating to the indication of such measures. In view of the fundamental
importance attached to the purpose served by the indication of
provisional measures, the law has developed so as not to impose high
evidentiary requirements for the indication of such measures. To begin
with, it is settled that the provisions relied upon by the applicant must
appear, prima facie, to afford a basis on which the Court’s jurisdiction
may be founded, but the Court need not satisfy itself in a definitive manner
that it has jurisdiction as regards the merits of the case. It is also
established that the Court’s prima facie jurisdiction depends on a determination
that the claims appear to be capable of falling within the provisions
of the respective treaty 1. In relation to the plausibility of rights, the
Court’s case law is that, at this stage of the proceedings, it need not determine
definitively whether the rights for which protection is sought exist; it
need only decide whether the rights claimed on the merits are plausible.
Plausibility of a right depends on whether it is grounded in a possible
interpretation of the convention 2. Moreover, the more relaxed approach
to the evidentiary requirements in the indication of provisional measures
is evident from the frequent use of the word “appear” in provisional measures
orders made by the Court, including the Court’s Order in this case.
3. The central issues in this case are whether the Court has prima facie
jurisdiction over the dispute brought by Ukraine and whether the rights
for which Ukraine seeks protection are plausible.
The Court’s Prima Facie Jurisdiction
4. The identification and characterization of the dispute is of cardinal
importance in responding to Ukraine’s request for the indication of provisional
measures.
1 Immunities and Criminal Proceedings (Equatorial Guinea v. France), Provisional
Measures, Order of 7 December 2016, I.C.J. Reports 2016 (II), p. 1159, para. 47.
2 Questions relating to the Obligation to Prosecute or Extradite (Belgium v. Senegal),
Provisional Measures, Order of 28 May 2009, I.C.J. Reports 2009, p. 152, para. 60.
242
35
OPINION INDIVIDUELLE DE M. LE JUGE ROBINSON
[Traduction]
1. J’ai voté en faveur des mesures conservatoires indiquées par la Cour.
Dans la présente opinion, j’explique pourquoi j’ai souscrit aux mesures
ainsi édictées, notamment à celle enjoignant à la Russie de suspendre son
opération militaire en Ukraine.
2. L’indication de mesures conservatoires vise à protéger les droits respectivement
revendiqués par chacune des parties, en attendant que la Cour
rende sa décision au fond. L’ordonnance de la Cour est tout à fait conforme
au droit régissant l’indication de telles mesures. Etant donné l’importance
fondamentale attachée à l’objectif poursuivi par l’indication de mesures
conservatoires, le droit applicable s’est développé de manière à ne pas imposer
d’exigences élevées en matière de preuve. Tout d’abord, il est établi que
les dispositions invoquées par le demandeur doivent sembler, prima facie,
constituer une base sur laquelle la compétence de la Cour pourrait être fondée,
mais celle-
ci n’a pas besoin de s’assurer de manière définitive qu’elle
peut connaître du fond de l’affaire. De même est-il admis que la compétence
prima facie de la Cour suppose que les allégations doivent sembler susceptibles
d’entrer dans les prévisions de l’instrument en cause 1. Quant à la plausibilité
des droits, selon sa jurisprudence pertinente, la Cour n’est pas tenue
à ce stade de la procédure d’établir de façon définitive l’existence des droits
dont la protection est sollicitée ; il lui suffit de se prononcer sur le caractère
plausible des droits qui font l’objet du litige au fond. La plausibilité d’un
droit découle de son fondement sur une interprétation possible de la convention
en jeu 2. De surcroît, l’emploi fréquent du terme « sembler » dans les
ordonnances en indication de mesures conservatoires rendues par la Cour, y
compris en la présente espèce, témoigne de la plus grande souplesse adoptée
à l’égard des exigences en matière de preuve à ce stade.
3. Dans l’affaire qui nous occupe, il s’agit avant tout de déterminer si la
Cour a compétence prima facie pour connaître du différend soulevé par
l’Ukraine et si les droits dont celle-
ci demande la protection sont plausibles.
La compétence prima facie de la Cour
4. Il est primordial de définir et de qualifier le différend pour répondre
à la demande en indication de mesures conservatoires présentée par
l’Ukraine.
1 Immunités et procédures pénales (Guinée équatoriale c. France), mesures conservatoires,
ordonnance du 7 décembre 2016, C.I.J. Recueil 2016 (II), p. 1159, par. 47.
2 Questions concernant l’obligation de poursuivre ou d’extrader (Belgique c. Sénégal),
mesures conservatoires, ordonnance du 28 mai 2009, C.I.J. Recueil 2009, p. 152, par. 60.
243 allegations of genocide (sep. op. robinson)
36
5. Case law of the International Court of Justice establishes three features
in the process of identifying and characterizing a dispute. First, the
Court examines how the parties themselves have identified and characterized
the dispute, but in doing so it has particular regard to the applicant’s
characterization of the dispute 3. However, and second, it is ultimately the
responsibility of the Court to determine on an objective basis the dispute
between the parties 4. Third, it does that by “isolat[ing] the real issue in
the case and . . . identify[ing] the object of the claim” 5. A party’s characterization
of the dispute is therefore only a starting-point, and a dispute,
properly characterized, may have more than one element, and indeed, a
case may have more than one dispute.
6. Ukraine sees the dispute as having two elements. In its first element,
Ukraine argues that a dispute exists as to whether, on the basis of Russia’s
allegations, Ukraine has breached its obligations under the Convention
on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide
(hereinafter the “Genocide Convention” or the “1948 Convention”). In
its second element, Ukraine sees the dispute as the question whether Russia
has the right under the Genocide Convention to engage in the military
action initiated against Ukraine on 24 February 2022. Russia, on the
other hand, argues that the dispute has nothing to do with the Genocide
Convention; rather, it maintains that the dispute relates to the use of
force under customary international law. More specifically, Russia maintains
that in carrying out a “special military operation” in Ukraine it is
exercising its right of self-defence
under Article 51 of the Charter of the
United Nations.
The First Element of the Dispute
7. There is an abundance of evidence showing that Russia alleged
breaches of the Genocide Convention by Ukraine and denials by Ukraine
of those allegations. These allegations were either made expressly or arose
by implication from the context in which they were made. Indeed, it is
settled that there is no need for parties to refer to a particular treaty in
order for a dispute to exist between them under that treaty, although it
must be clear to the respondent that there is a dispute relating to the
subject-matter
of the treaty 6.
8. The Investigative Committee of the Russian Federation is an official
Russian agency in charge of federal criminal prosecutions and reports
3 Fisheries Jurisdiction (Spain v. Canada), Jurisdiction of the Court, Judgment, I.C.J.
Reports 1998, p. 448, paras. 29-30.
4 Ibid., para. 30.
5 Nuclear Tests (New Zealand v. France), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1974, p. 466,
para. 30.
6 Application of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial
Discrimination (Georgia v. Russian Federation), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J.
Reports 2011 (I), p. 85, para. 30.
allégations de génocide (op. ind. robinson) 243
36
5. La jurisprudence de la Cour internationale de Justice distingue trois
volets dans le processus de définition et de qualification d’un différend.
En premier lieu, la Cour procède à l’examen de la manière dont les parties
elles-mêmes ont défini et qualifié le différend, tout en accordant une attention
particulière à la qualification qu’en donne le demandeur 3. Cependant,
et en deuxième lieu, c’est à la Cour qu’il appartient en fin de compte
de définir, sur une base objective, le différend qui oppose les parties 4. En
troisième lieu, elle s’y attelle en « circonscri[vant] le véritable problème en
cause et [en] précis[ant] l’objet de la demande » 5. La qualification du différend
par une partie ne constitue donc qu’un point de départ ; un différend,
après avoir été dûment qualifié, peut comporter plus d’un élément,
et une affaire peut assurément porter sur plus d’un différend.
6. L’Ukraine considère que, en l’espèce, le différend est composé de
deux éléments. Le premier, soutient-elle, pose la question de savoir si, eu
égard aux allégations russes, l’Ukraine a violé ses obligations au titre de
la convention de 1948 pour la prévention et la répression du crime de
génocide (ci-
après la « convention sur le génocide » ou la « convention
de 1948 »). Le second élément, ajoute-t-elle, revient à trancher la question
de savoir si la Russie est fondée à mener, en vertu de la convention sur le
génocide, l’action militaire engagée le 24 février 2022 contre l’Ukraine. La
Russie affirme, en revanche, que le différend n’est nullement lié à ladite
convention ; elle soutient qu’il porte plutôt sur l’emploi de la force selon
le droit international coutumier. La Russie avance plus précisément que,
en menant une « opération militaire spéciale » sur le sol ukrainien, elle
exerce le droit de légitime défense que lui reconnaît l’article 51 de la
Charte des Nations Unies.
Le premier élément du différend
7. Une profusion d’éléments de preuve montre que la Russie a formulé
contre l’Ukraine des allégations de violation de la convention sur le génocide
et que celle-
ci les a rejetées. Ces allégations ont été expressément
énoncées ou peuvent être déduites du contexte dans lequel elles ont été
émises. De fait, il est établi que les parties ne sont pas tenues de faire
référence à un instrument en particulier pour qu’un différend les oppose
au titre de celui-
ci, même si le défendeur doit pouvoir clairement saisir
qu’il existe un différend portant sur l’objet dudit instrument 6.
8. Le comité d’investigation de la Fédération de Russie est un organisme
officiel russe chargé des poursuites criminelles au niveau fédéral et
3 Compétence en matière de pêcheries (Espagne c. Canada), compétence de la Cour,
arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1998, p. 448, par. 29-30.
4 Ibid., par. 30.
5 Essais nucléaires (Nouvelle-Zélande
c. France), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1974, p. 466,
par. 30.
6 Application de la convention internationale sur l’élimination de toutes les formes de
discrimination raciale (Géorgie c. Fédération de Russie), exceptions préliminaires, arrêt,
C.I.J. Recueil 2011 (I), p. 85, par. 30.
244 allegations of genocide (sep. op. robinson)
37
directly to the President of the Russian Federation. The Investigative
Committee opened an inquiry into “the genocide of the Russian‑speaking
population” living in the Luhansk and Donetsk oblasts. In September
2014, the Committee found that
“during the period from 12 April 2014 to the present, in violation of
the 1948 Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime
of Genocide, . . . the top political and military leadership of Ukraine,
the Armed Forces of Ukraine, the National Guard of Ukraine and
the ‘Right Sector’ gave orders to completely destroy specifically
Russian-speaking
population living on the territory of the Donetsk
and Luhansk republics”.
It may be observed that this finding has implications for the specific
requirement in the Genocide Convention of an intent “to destroy, in
whole . . ., a national, ethnic, racial or religious group” and obviously
indicates that Russia’s attention was focused on whether the purported
acts of Ukraine fell under the Genocide Convention. In January 2015, the
Committee found that acts carried out by the Ukrainian military constituted
crimes under the 1948 Convention. In September 2017, the Committee
announced criminal proceedings against 20 senior officials in
Ukraine’s Ministry of Defence in respect of orders that they issued to
soldiers in violation of the Genocide Convention.
9. In November 2021, President Putin adopted a decree in respect of
the territory in eastern Ukraine, which, according to the Russian Ambassador
to the Contact Group for the settlement of the situation in eastern
Ukraine, was a response to actions in Kyiv that “actually fall under the
United Nations Convention on the Prevention of Genocide”. On 18 February
2021, the Chairman of the Russian Parliament accused Ukraine of
committing in eastern Ukraine “acts prohibited based on international
accords”, observing: “[I]f this is not genocide, then what is?” On 21 February
2022, President Putin, in relation to his decision to recognize the
Republics of Donetsk and Luhansk, referred to this “horror and genocide,
which almost 4 million people are facing”. In an address on 24 February
2022, President Putin stated: “the purpose of this operation is to
protect people who, for eight years now, have been facing humiliation
and genocide perpetrated by the Kiev regime”. President Putin further
stated that Russia intends to “de-Nazify
Ukraine” and “bring to trial
those who perpetrated numerous bloody crimes against civilians”. On
25 February 2022, the Russian Foreign Minister stated that Russia’s military
actions “prevent[ed] the neo-Nazis and those who promote methods
of genocide from ruling this country”. Also on 25 February 2022, the
Russian Ambassador to the European Union remarked that “[w]e can
turn to the official term of genocide as coined in international law. If you
read the definition, it fits pretty well.” The three explicit statements by
Russian officials concerning the Genocide Convention in 2014 and 2015,
allégations de génocide (op. ind. robinson) 244
37
directement placé sous l’autorité du président de la Fédération de Russie.
Ayant ouvert une enquête sur « le génocide de la population russophone »
vivant dans les oblasts de Louhansk et de Donetsk, cet organisme a considéré
en septembre 2014 que,
« au cours de la période allant du 12 avril 2014 à aujourd’hui, en
violation de la convention de 1948 pour la prévention et la répression
du crime de génocide, … les hauts dirigeants politiques et militaires
de l’Ukraine, des forces armées ukrainiennes, de la garde nationale
ukrainienne et du « Secteur droit » [avaie]nt donné l’ordre de détruire
complètement la population spécifiquement russophone vivant sur le
territoire des républiques de Donetsk et de Louhansk ».
Il est à observer que cette constatation est lourde de sens, eu égard à la
condition spécifique énoncée dans la convention sur le génocide, laquelle
requiert l’existence d’une intention « de détruire, en tout …, un groupe
national ethnique, racial ou religieux », et qu’elle montre de toute évidence
que la Russie s’intéressait tout particulièrement à la question de
savoir si les actes allégués de l’Ukraine tombaient sous le coup de cette
convention. En janvier 2015, le comité d’investigation a conclu que certains
actes commis par l’armée ukrainienne constituaient des crimes au
titre de la convention de 1948. En septembre 2017, il a annoncé l’ouverture
de procédures pénales contre 20 hauts responsables du ministère de
la défense de l’Ukraine à raison d’ordres qu’ils auraient donnés à des soldats
en violation de la convention sur le génocide.
9. En novembre 2021, le président Poutine a adopté un décret en rapport
avec le territoire de l’est de l’Ukraine qui, selon l’ambassadeur de Russie
auprès du groupe de contact pour le règlement de la situation dans cette
région, visait à répondre à des actions de Kiev « rel[eva]nt en fait de la
convention des Nations Unies pour la prévention du génocide ». Le 18 février
2021, le président du Parlement de Russie a accusé l’Ukraine de se livrer
dans la partie orientale de son territoire à « des actes que des accords internationaux
interdisent », faisant remarquer : « [S]i ce n’est pas un génocide,
alors qu’est-ce que c’est ? » Le 21 février 2022, le président Poutine a évoqué,
en rapport avec sa décision de reconnaître les républiques de Donetsk
et de Louhansk, « cette horreur et ce génocide, auxquels près de 4 millions
de personnes sont confrontées ». Dans l’allocution qu’il a prononcée le
24 février 2022, il a affirmé que cette opération avait pour « objectif … de
protéger ceux et celles qui, huit années durant, [avaie]nt subi les outrages du
régime de Kiev et le génocide orchestré par lui ». Il a en outre déclaré que
la Russie entendait « dénazifier l’Ukraine » et « traduire en justice les auteurs
des nombreux crimes sanglants perpétrés contre des civils ». Le 25 février
2022, le ministre russe des affaires étrangères a affirmé que les actions militaires
de la Russie « empêch[ai]ent les néo-nazis et les partisans des méthodes
génocidaires de gouverner ce pays ». Le même jour, l’ambassadeur de Russie
auprès de l’Union européenne a déclaré ceci : « Nous pouvons recourir
au terme officiel de génocide tel qu’il a été conçu en droit international. A
la lecture de sa définition, il se révèle bien adapté à la situation. » Les trois
245 allegations of genocide (sep. op. robinson)
38
the beginning of the dispute between the two States, provide a basis for
the inference that, by the subsequent references in 2021 and 2022 to
“genocide”, Russian officials meant genocide under the Genocide Convention.
10. On 23 February 2022, the Russian Ambassador to the United
Nations, addressing Russia’s recognition of the Republics of Donetsk and
Luhansk, pointed to “the flagrant genocide . . . of the 4 million people in
the Donbass”.
In response, the Ukrainian Minister of Foreign Affairs
stated, “Russia’s accusations of Ukraine are absurd. Ukraine has never
threatened or attacked anyone. Ukraine has never planned and does not
plan any such action.”
11. On 26 February 2022, the Minister for Foreign Affairs of Ukraine
stated:
“Ukraine strongly denies Russia’s allegations of genocide and
denies any attempt to use such manipulative allegations as an excuse
for unlawful aggression. The crime of genocide is defined in the Genocide
Convention, and under that Convention, Russia’s claims are
baseless and absurd. Russia’s claims of genocide as justification for
its lawless conduct are an insult to the Genocide Convention, and to
the work of the international community in preventing and punishing
the world’s most serious crime.”
12. The above-mentioned
statements clearly reference a claim by
Russia
that Ukraine has committed acts that constitute genocide under
the 1948 Genocide Convention and a denial by Ukraine of that claim. In
its Application, Ukraine maintains that “[t]here is no factual basis for the
existence of genocide in the Luhansk and Donetsk oblasts” and asks the
Court to find that no acts of genocide as alleged by Russia were committed
by Ukraine.
Isolation of the real issue
13. In the circumstances of this case, it falls to the Court to determine
on an objective basis the dispute between the Parties by “isolat[ing] the
real issue in the case and . . . identify[ing] the object of the claim” 7. The
dispute between the Parties did not commence on 24 February 2022 when
Russia sent its forces into Ukraine. Although the dispute may be traced
to events before 2014 (including those following the break-up of the former
Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (“USSR”) and the emergence
into independence of several States that were formerly part of the USSR),
for the purposes of this case that date may serve as its origin. An objec-
7 Nuclear Tests (New Zealand v. France), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1974, p. 466,
para. 30.
allégations de génocide (op. ind. robinson) 245
38
références explicites à la convention sur le génocide faites par des représentants
de l’Etat russe en 2014 et 2015, qui marquent le début du différend
entre les Parties, viennent au soutien de la déduction selon laquelle l’emploi
ultérieur, en 2021 et 2022, du terme « génocide » renvoyait à cette notion au
sens de la convention sur le génocide.
10. Le 23 février 2022, s’exprimant sur la reconnaissance par la Russie
des républiques de Donetsk et de Louhansk, l’ambassadeur de Russie
auprès des Nations Unies a mis en exergue « le génocide flagrant … des
4 millions de personnes dans le Donbass ». En réaction à ces propos, le
ministre des affaires étrangères de l’Ukraine a déclaré : « Les accusations
de la Russie à l’égard de l’Ukraine sont absurdes. L’Ukraine n’a jamais
menacé ou attaqué qui que ce soit. L’Ukraine n’a jamais planifié et ne
planifie pas une telle action. »
11. Le 26 février 2022, le chef de la diplomatie ukrainienne a
déclaré :
« L’Ukraine dément fermement les allégations de génocide de la
Russie et rejette toute tentative d’utiliser ces allégations manipulatrices
comme excuse pour une agression illégale. Le crime de génocide
est défini dans la convention sur le génocide et, selon cette
convention, les allégations de la Russie sont sans fondement et
absurdes. Les allégations de génocide de la Russie pour justifier sa
conduite illégale sont une insulte à la convention sur le génocide et
au travail de la communauté internationale pour prévenir et punir le
crime le plus grave au monde. »
12. Les déclarations susmentionnées renvoient clairement à une allégation
de la Russie selon laquelle l’Ukraine aurait perpétré des actes constitutifs
d’un génocide au sens de la convention sur le génocide de 1948 et au rejet
par l’Ukraine de cette allégation. Dans sa requête, l’Ukraine soutient qu’« [i]l
n’existe aucun fondement factuel attestant l’existence d’un génocide dans les
oblasts de Louhansk et de Donetsk » et prie la Cour de conclure qu’aucun
acte de génocide, tel qu’allégué par la Russie, n’a été commis par l’Ukraine.
La délimitation du véritable problème en cause
13. Dans les circonstances de l’espèce, il appartient à la Cour de définir,
sur une base objective, le différend qui oppose les Parties « [en] circonscri[
vant] le véritable problème en cause et [en] précis[ant] l’objet de la
demande » 7. Le différend entre les Parties n’est pas né le 24 février 2022
avec l’envoi par la Russie de ses forces armées en Ukraine. Même s’il est
possible de faire remonter le différend à des événements antérieurs (faisant
notamment suite à la dissolution de l’ancienne Union des Républiques
socialistes soviétiques (l’« URSS ») et à l’accession à l’indépendance de plusieurs
Etats qui faisaient auparavant partie de l’URSS), l’année 2014 peut
7 Essais nucléaires (Nouvelle-Zélande
c. France), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1974, p. 466,
par. 30.
246 allegations of genocide (sep. op. robinson)
39
tive examination of the statements of the Parties and their diplomatic
exchanges from that date show that the real issue in the case is not the use
of force, as argued by Russia. Rather, it is the allegation by Russia that
Ukraine was carrying out acts that constituted genocide under the
Genocide
Convention and Ukraine’s denial of that allegation. This conclusion
is supported by the several investigations carried out by the Russian
Investigative Committee in the period from 2014 to 2017 into alleged
acts of genocide committed by Ukrainian officials against the Russian-speaking
population in the Donetsk and Luhansk oblasts in breach of the
Genocide Convention. A very significant investigation is that of September
2014 which found that Ukraine gave orders to “completely destroy”
specifically Russian-speaking
populations, a finding that directly relates
to the intent requirement to establish genocide under Article II of the
Genocide Convention. In light of Russia’s assertion that it has the right
to exercise universal jurisdiction on the basis of the Genocide Convention,
the investigations carried out by the Investigative Committee led to
the institution of criminal proceedings by Russia against Ukrainian officials
for breaches of the Genocide Convention. It would be hard to have
more conclusive evidence of a dispute between Russia and Ukraine than
criminal proceedings initiated by Russia against Ukrainian officials for a
breach of the Genocide Convention.
14. Russia’s stated reliance on the right of self-defence
under the
Charter
by the President on 24 February 2022 does not serve to define the
dispute between the Parties as one relating to the use of force. The dispute
between the Parties was defined eight years before by the several investigations
carried out by Russia into alleged acts of genocide by Ukraine
under the 1948 Convention. That the dispute relates to Russia’s allegation
of genocide is confirmed by the Russian President’s statement that
the purpose of the special military operation is to “protect people who
have been subjected to abuse and genocide by the Kiev regime for eight
years”. Against the background of the criminal investigations, it is entirely
reasonable to understand President Putin’s reference to genocide as meaning
genocide under the Genocide Convention, to which both States are
parties. There is therefore evidence of a line of discourse between the Parties,
over a period of eight years, in which Russia alleges Ukraine’s breach
of the Genocide Convention and Ukraine denies that allegation. This
shows an opposition of views sufficient to constitute a dispute between
Ukraine and Russia as to whether Ukraine has committed acts of genocide
within the meaning of the Convention. In short, the dispute before
the Court does not, as alleged by Russia, relate to the question of the use
of force under customary international law.
15. The acts that Russia alleges to have been carried out by Ukraine
include the killing of persons from the Russian-speaking
population
in the Donetsk and Luhansk oblasts, members of an ethnic group in
allégations de génocide (op. ind. robinson) 246
39
en marquer l’origine aux fins de la présente affaire. Une analyse objective
des déclarations des Parties et de leurs échanges diplomatiques à partir de
cette année-là montre que, en l’espèce, le véritable problème en cause n’est
pas tant l’emploi de la force, comme le fait valoir la Russie, mais l’allégation
russe attribuant à l’Ukraine la perpétration d’actes constitutifs de
génocide au sens de la convention sur le génocide et le rejet par l’Ukraine
de cette allégation. Cette conclusion est étayée par plusieurs enquêtes
conduites entre 2014 et 2017 par le comité d’investigation russe au sujet
d’actes de génocide qui auraient été commis par des responsables ukrainiens,
au mépris de la convention sur le génocide, contre la population
russophone des oblasts de Donetsk et de Louhansk. Une enquête cruciale,
qui date de septembre 2014, conclut que les autorités ukrainiennes ont
donné l’ordre de « détruire complètement » les populations spécifiquement
russophones, ce qui touche directement à l’intention spécifique requise
pour établir le crime de génocide tel que défini à l’article II de la convention.
A la lumière de la revendication par la Russie du droit d’exercer une
compétence universelle sur la base de la convention en cause, les enquêtes
menées par le comité d’investigation russe ont abouti à l’engagement de
poursuites pénales contre des responsables ukrainiens pour violations des
termes de la convention. Il serait malaisé d’obtenir des preuves plus éclatantes
de l’existence d’un différend entre la Russie et l’Ukraine que l’ouverture
par la Russie de procédures pénales contre des responsables ukrainiens
pour méconnaissance de la convention sur le génocide.
14. Si la Russie, par la voix de son président, a invoqué ouvertement le
24 février 2022 le droit de légitime défense que lui reconnaît la Charte des
Nations Unies, le différend opposant les Parties ne saurait pour autant être
défini comme ayant trait à l’emploi de la force. Ce différend a été circonscrit
il y a huit ans par les différentes enquêtes que la Russie a menées sur des actes
de génocide reprochés à l’Ukraine au titre de la convention de 1948. Le fait
que le différend se rapporte à l’allégation russe de génocide est conforté par
les déclarations du président russe selon lesquelles l’opération militaire spéciale
a pour objectif de « protéger ceux et celles qui, huit années durant, ont
subi les outrages du régime de Kiev et le génocide orchestré par lui ». Compte
tenu de ces enquêtes criminelles, il est tout à fait raisonnable de penser que
le président Poutine faisait là référence à la notion de génocide au sens de la
convention sur le génocide, à laquelle les deux Etats sont parties. Des éléments
de preuve attestent donc que cela fait plus de huit ans que, dans les
échanges entre les Parties, la Russie déplore la violation par l’Ukraine de
ladite convention, tandis que cette dernière rejette les allégations russes.
L’opposition de vues qui se manifeste permet de considérer qu’il existe entre
les Parties un différend portant sur le point de savoir si l’Ukraine a ou non
commis des actes de génocide au sens de la convention. En bref, le différend
dont la Cour est saisie ne concerne pas, comme le prétend la Russie, la question
de l’emploi de la force en droit international coutumier.
15. Les actes que la Russie attribue à l’Ukraine incluent notamment le
meurtre de personnes issues de la population russophone dans les oblasts de
Donetsk et de Louhansk, soit les membres d’un groupe ethnique en territoire
247 allegations of genocide (sep. op. robinson)
40
Ukraine. These acts appear to be capable of falling within the provisions
of Article II of the Genocide Convention, because that provision lists, as
one of the acts constituting genocide, killing members of an ethnic group
with intent to destroy in whole or in part that group.
16. In light of Russia’s allegation that Ukraine has committed genocide
against the Russian‑speaking population in the Donetsk and Luhansk
oblasts, in its Application, Ukraine requests the Court to find that it has
not committed genocide. More usually, in its practice, the Court is called
upon to exercise its jurisdiction in cases where the applicant maintains
that the respondent has committed a breach under the relevant treaty.
However, there is nothing in doctrine or practice that precludes the Court
from having jurisdiction to find that an applicant has not committed a
breach of a treaty, where that applicant has requested the Court to make
such a finding.
17. In light of the foregoing, the Court has prima facie jurisdiction to
entertain the dispute brought by Ukraine.
The Second Element of the Dispute
18. Ukraine argues that there is another aspect of the dispute that it
has brought before the Court. Ukraine submits that there is a legal dispute
between the Parties as to whether Russia may take military action in
and against Ukraine to punish and prevent alleged acts of genocide within
the meaning of Article I of the Convention. Russia maintains that the
“special military operation” it is carrying out in Ukraine has nothing to
do with the Genocide Convention; rather, it constitutes the exercise by a
State of its right of self-defence
under Article 51 of the Charter of the
United Nations.
19. Although President Putin stated that the military operation was initiated
“in accordance with Article 51 . . . of the Charter of the
United Nations”, he expressly noted that “[i]ts purpose is to protect people
who have been subjected to . . . genocide by the Kiev regime for eight
years”. This makes clear that, notwithstanding the possible defensive aims
of the special military operation, the operation has a clear protective aim;
more specifically, it aims to protect against alleged acts of genocide committed
by Ukraine which, as has already been shown, Russia considered to
be contrary to Ukraine’s obligations under the Genocide Convention. In
response to Russia’s claim, the Ukrainian Ministry of Foreign Affairs
issued a statement that Ukraine “strongly denies Russia’s allegations of
genocide and denies any attempt to use such manipulative allegations as
an excuse for Russia’s unlawful aggression”. There is undoubtedly a question
of the lawfulness of Russia’s use of force within the framework of the
United Nations Charter which arises in the context of a broader dispute
between the Parties, but this does not preclude the Court from assuming
jurisdiction with respect to the aspect of the dispute which properly falls
within its jurisdiction under the Genocide Convention.
allégations de génocide (op. ind. robinson) 247
40
ukrainien. Ces actes semblent susceptibles de relever du champ d’application
de l’article II de la convention sur le génocide, lequel dispose que les actes
constitutifs de génocide recouvrent, notamment, le meurtre de membres d’un
groupe ethnique dans l’intention d’entraîner sa destruction totale ou partielle.
16. Compte tenu de l’allégation de la Russie lui reprochant un génocide
contre la population russophone des oblasts de Donetsk et de Louhansk,
l’Ukraine, dans sa requête, prie la Cour de conclure qu’elle n’a pas
perpétré de tels actes. La Cour, dans sa pratique, est plus couramment
amenée à exercer sa compétence dans des affaires où la partie demanderesse
soutient que la partie défenderesse a commis une violation des dispositions
de l’instrument en cause. Toutefois, rien dans la doctrine ou la
pratique judiciaire n’empêche la Cour de conclure qu’une partie demanderesse
n’a pas commis de violation d’un instrument donné, dès lors que
celle-
ci lui présente une requête à cet effet.
17. Au vu de ce qui précède, la Cour a compétence prima facie pour
connaître du différend porté devant elle par l’Ukraine.
Le second élément du différend
18. L’Ukraine fait valoir que le différend qu’elle soumet à la Cour
comporte un autre aspect. Elle indique qu’un différend d’ordre juridique
oppose les Parties quant à la question de savoir si la Russie est en droit
d’engager une action militaire contre l’Etat ukrainien et sur son territoire
pour prévenir et punir des actes allégués de génocide au sens de l’article
premier de la convention. La Russie soutient que l’« opération militaire
spéciale » qu’elle a lancée en Ukraine est sans lien avec la convention sur
le génocide et qu’elle relève plutôt de l’exercice par un Etat du droit de
légitime défense prévu à l’article 51 de la Charte des Nations Unies.
19. S’il a déclaré que l’opération militaire avait été engagée « en application
de l’article 51 de la Charte des Nations Unies », le président Poutine a
aussi expressément indiqué que « [son] objectif [étai]t de protéger ceux et
celles qui, huit années durant, [avaie]nt subi … le génocide orchestré par [le
régime de Kiev] ». Il en ressort clairement que, nonobstant ses éventuelles
visées défensives, cette opération poursuit à l’évidence un objectif de protection
; elle cherche, plus précisément, à prémunir la population concernée
contre les actes allégués de génocide que commettrait l’Ukraine et que la
Russie estime, comme il a été exposé plus haut, contraires aux obligations
ukrainiennes au titre de la convention sur le génocide. En réponse aux prétentions
russes, le ministère ukrainien des affaires étrangères a publié une
déclaration indiquant que l’Ukraine « dément[ait] fermement les allégations
de génocide de la Russie et rejet[ait] toute tentative d’utiliser ces allégations
manipulatrices comme excuse pour une agression illégale ». La question de
la licéité de l’emploi de la force par la Russie dans le cadre de la Charte des
Nations Unies se pose sans nul doute dans le contexte d’un différend plus
large entre les Parties, mais cela n’empêche pas la Cour de se déclarer compétente
à l’égard de l’aspect du différend qui relève dûment de sa compétence
en vertu de la convention sur le génocide.
248 allegations of genocide (sep. op. robinson)
41
20. In its 2021 Judgment in Alleged Violations of the 1955 Treaty of
Amity, Economic Relations, and Consular Rights (Islamic Republic of
Iran v. United States of America), the Court ruled that the fact that certain
acts committed by the United States may fall within the ambit of
more than one instrument, or may relate to the interpretation or application
of more than one treaty, did not preclude the Court from finding
that those acts related to the interpretation or application of the Treaty of
Amity to the extent that the measures adopted by the United States might
constitute breaches of that Treaty 8. In the circumstances of the present
case, although Russia’s “special military operation” may relate to the
prohibition of the use of force and the right of self-defence
provided for
in Articles 2 (4) and 51 of the United Nations Charter respectively, that
fact does not preclude the Court from finding that a dispute also arises
from the initiation of the “special military operation” with respect to the
Genocide Convention.
21. The difficulties attendant on situating cases involving the use of
force by a State on the territory of another State within the framework of
the Genocide Convention have previously arisen in the Court’s jurisprudence.
In the Legality of Use of Force cases, as in the present case, Yugoslavia
sought to found the jurisdiction of the Court on Article IX of the
1948 Genocide Convention. In the cases brought against Spain and the
United States, the Court concluded, with respect to its jurisdiction under
Article IX of the Genocide Convention, that
“Article IX of the Genocide Convention cannot found the jurisdiction
of the Court to entertain a dispute between Yugoslavia and
[the respondent] alleged to fall within its provisions . . . that Article
manifestly does not constitute a basis of jurisdiction in the present
case, even prima facie” 9.
The Court further observed that
“the Court manifestly lacks jurisdiction to entertain Yugoslavia’s
Application . . . it cannot therefore indicate any provisional measure
whatsoever in order to protect the rights invoked therein;
�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������
there is a fundamental distinction between the question of the acceptance
by a State of the Court’s jurisdiction and the compatibility of
particular acts with international law; the former requires consent;
the latter question can only be reached when the Court deals with the
8 Alleged Violations of the 1955 Treaty of Amity, Economic Relations, and Consular
Rights (Islamic Republic of Iran v. United States of America), Preliminary Objections,
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2021, p. 27, para. 56.
9 Legality of Use of Force (Yugoslavia v. Spain), Provisional Measures, Order of
2 June 1999, I.C.J. Reports 1999 (II), p. 772, para. 33.
allégations de génocide (op. ind. robinson) 248
41
20. Dans l’arrêt qu’elle a rendu en 2021 dans l’affaire relative à des
Violations alléguées du traité d’amitié, de commerce et de droits consulaires
de 1955 (République islamique d’Iran c. Etats‑Unis d’Amérique), la Cour a
jugé que le fait que certains actes commis par les Etats‑Unis pouvaient
entrer dans le champ de plusieurs instruments ou pouvaient avoir trait à
l’interprétation ou à l’application de plusieurs instruments ne l’empêchait
pas de conclure que, pour autant que les mesures adoptées par les
Etats‑Unis pussent constituer des manquements au traité d’amitié, ces
actes se rapportaient à l’interprétation ou à l’application de ce traité 8.
Dans les circonstances de l’espèce, même si l’« opération militaire spéciale
» de la Russie peut avoir trait à l’interdiction de l’emploi de la force
et au droit de légitime défense prévus respectivement au paragraphe 4 de
l’article 2 et à l’article 51 de la Charte des Nations Unies, cela n’empêche
pas la Cour de conclure que le lancement de cette opération a aussi engendré
un différend au titre de la convention sur le génocide.
21. La Cour, dans sa jurisprudence, s’est déjà penchée sur les difficultés
suscitées par la qualification d’une affaire marquée par l’emploi de la
force par un Etat sur le territoire d’un autre Etat, dans le cadre de la
convention sur le génocide. Dans les affaires relatives à la Licéité de l’emploi
de la force, comme en la présente espèce, la Yougoslavie a cherché à
fonder la compétence de la Cour sur l’article IX de la convention sur le
génocide de 1948. S’agissant des instances introduites contre l’Espagne et
les Etats-Unis, la Cour a conclu, à propos de sa compétence en vertu
dudit article, que
« l’article IX de la convention sur le génocide ne saurait … fonder la
compétence de la Cour pour connaître d’un différend entre la Yougoslavie
et [la partie défenderesse] qui entrerait dans ses prévisions ; et
que cette disposition ne constitu[ait] manifestement pas une base de
compétence dans [cette] affaire, même prima facie » 9.
La Cour a relevé en outre ceci :
« [L]a Cour n’a manifestement pas compétence pour connaître de
la requête de la Yougoslavie ; … elle ne saurait dès lors indiquer
quelque mesure conservatoire que ce soit à l’effet de protéger les
droits qui y sont invoqués ;
�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������
il existe une distinction fondamentale entre la question de l’acceptation
par un Etat de la juridiction de la Cour et la compatibilité de
certains actes avec le droit international ; la compétence exige le
consentement ; la compatibilité ne peut être appréciée que quand la
8 Violations alléguées du traité d’amitié, de commerce et de droits consulaires de 1955
(République islamique d’Iran c. Etats-Unis d’Amérique), exceptions préliminaires, arrêt,
C.I.J. Recueil 2021, p. 27, par. 56.
9 Licéité de l’emploi de la force (Yougoslavie c. Espagne), mesures conservatoires, ordonnance
du 2 juin 1999, C.I.J. Recueil 1999 (II), p. 772, par. 33.
249 allegations of genocide (sep. op. robinson)
42
merits after having established its jurisdiction and having heard full
legal arguments by both parties” 10.
22. For the purposes of the present case, it is critical to understand
that the Court’s finding that it manifestly lacked jurisdiction under Article
IX of the Genocide Convention was not at all related to the action
that formed the basis of the claims, that is, the use of force by the respondent
States. Having found that its Statute and Rules could not afford a
basis for jurisdiction, the Court examined Article IX of the Genocide
Convention as a basis for resolving the dispute between the States. It
found, however, that both Spain and the United States had made reservations
to Article IX, which had the effect of excluding the jurisdiction of
the Court in the cases before it 11. These cases are, therefore, distinguishable
from the present case because the Court does not manifestly lack
jurisdiction over Ukraine’s claims. Both Ukraine and Russia are parties
to the Genocide Convention and neither State has entered a reservation
to Article IX of the Convention. Thus, the Court is not facing a situation
of manifest lack of jurisdiction; rather, in determining its prima
facie jurisdiction,
the question before the Court is whether Ukraine’s
claims are capable of falling within the provisions of the Genocide
Convention.
23. In the cases brought against the other eight States, there being no
basis for a manifest lack of jurisdiction under Article IX of the Genocide
Convention, the Court went on to consider whether it had prima facie
jurisdiction under that provision to grant the measures requested by
Yugoslavia against each of those States.
24. In its Application, Yugoslavia defined the subject-matter
of the dispute
as “acts of [the respondent] by which it has violated its international
obligation banning the use of force against another State”, as well as
other norms of international humanitarian and international human
rights law, and “the obligation not to deliberately inflict conditions of life
calculated to cause the physical destruction of a national group” 12. Yugoslavia
requested that the Court adjudge and declare that each respondent
State “has acted . . . in breach of its obligation not to use force against
another State”, in breach of various standards of international humanitarian
and international human rights law, and “in breach of its obligation
not to deliberately inflict on a national group conditions of
life calculated to bring about its physical destruction, in whole or in
10 Legality of Use of Force (Yugoslavia v. Spain), Provisional Measures, Order of
2 June 1999, I.C.J. Reports 1999 (II), p. 773, paras. 35-36.
11 Ibid., p. 772, paras. 29, 32-33.
12 Legality of Use of Force (Yugoslavia v. Belgium), Provisional Measures, Order of
2 June 1999, I.C.J. Reports 1999 (I), p. 125, para. 1.
allégations de génocide (op. ind. robinson) 249
42
Cour examine le fond, après avoir établi sa compétence et entendu
les deux parties faire pleinement valoir leurs moyens en droit » 10.
22. Il est capital, aux fins de la présente espèce, de comprendre que la
conclusion de la Cour quant à son défaut manifeste de compétence en
vertu de l’article IX de la convention sur le génocide ne se rapportait
aucunement à l’action qui était à l’origine des prétentions, à savoir l’emploi
de la force par les Etats défendeurs. Ayant statué que son Statut et
son Règlement ne pouvaient fonder sa compétence dans ces affaires, la
Cour a recherché si l’article IX de la convention sur le génocide pouvait
servir de base au règlement du différend interétatique en cause. Elle a
conclu toutefois que l’Espagne et les Etats-Unis avaient tous deux formulé
des réserves audit article, lesquelles avaient pour effet d’exclure sa
compétence dans les affaires concernées 11. La présente affaire se distingue
donc de celles susmentionnées en ce que la Cour n’est pas manifestement
dépourvue de compétence pour connaître des demandes ukrainiennes.
L’Ukraine et la Russie sont toutes deux parties à la convention sur le
génocide, et ni l’une ni l’autre n’a émis de réserve à l’article IX de la
convention. Il s’ensuit que la Cour ne se trouve pas dans une situation de
défaut manifeste de compétence ; en revanche, pour se prononcer sur sa
compétence prima facie, la Cour doit trancher la question de savoir si les
demandes ukrainiennes sont susceptibles d’entrer dans les prévisions de la
convention sur le génocide.
23. Dans les affaires intentées contre les huit autres Etats, comme il n’y
avait pas lieu de conclure à son incompétence manifeste au titre de l’article
IX de la convention sur le génocide, la Cour s’est ensuite attachée à
déterminer si elle avait compétence prima facie au titre de cette disposition
pour accorder les mesures sollicitées par la Yougoslavie contre chacun
de ces Etats.
24. Dans sa requête, la Yougoslavie avait défini l’objet du différend
comme étant les « actes commis par [la partie défenderesse] en violation
de son obligation internationale de ne pas recourir à l’emploi de la force
contre un autre Etat », ainsi que d’autres normes du droit international
humanitaire et du droit international relatif aux droits de l’homme et de
« l’obligation de ne pas soumettre intentionnellement un groupe national
à des conditions d’existence devant entraîner sa destruction physique » 12.
La Yougoslavie avait prié la Cour de dire et juger que chaque Etat défendeur
« a[vait] agi … en violation de son obligation de ne pas recourir à
l’emploi de la force contre un autre Etat », au mépris de diverses normes
du droit international humanitaire et du droit international relatif aux
droits de l’homme et « en violation de son obligation de ne pas soumettre
10 Licéité de l’emploi de la force (Yougoslavie c. Espagne), mesures conservatoires,
ordonnance du 2 juin 1999, C.I.J. Recueil 1999 (II), p. 773, par. 35-36.
11 Ibid., p. 772, par. 29 et 32-33.
12 Licéité de l’emploi de la force (Yougoslavie c. Belgique), mesures conservatoires,
ordonnance du 2 juin 1999, C.I.J. Recueil 1999 (I), p. 125, par. 1.
250 allegations of genocide (sep. op. robinson)
43
part” 13. In its Request for the indication of provisional measures, Yugoslavia
asked the Court to order that each State “shall cease immediately
the acts of use of force and shall refrain from any act or threat or use of
force against the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia” 14. With respect to its
jurisdiction under Article IX of the Genocide Convention, the Court
concluded
that it was not in a position to find, in the absence of evidence
as to an intention to destroy a national group, “that the acts imputed by
Yugoslavia to the Respondent are capable of coming within the provisions
of the Genocide Convention” 15. The Court found that “the threat
or use of force against a State cannot in itself constitute an act of
genocide
within the meaning of Article II of the Genocide Convention” 16.
In the present case, however, Ukraine has not put before the Court a
general question of the legality of Russia’s use of force. Instead, it has
asked the Court to “[a]djudge and declare that the ‘special military operation’
declared and carried out by the Russian Federation . . . is based on
a false claim of genocide and therefore has no basis in the Genocide
Convention”.
25. In justifying its “special military operation” in Ukraine, Russia
expressly stated that the purpose of the operation is “to stop . . . [the]
genocide of the millions of people” in the Donetsk and Luhansk oblasts,
and “to protect people who have been subjected to abuse and genocide by
the Kiev regime”. It is this express purpose which brings the dispute
within the terms of the Genocide Convention, and specifically Article I,
which imposes on States parties an obligation “to prevent and to punish”
genocide. There is, therefore, a live issue in the present case as to whether
Russia can use force to prevent and to punish alleged genocide. As such,
in describing the subject-matter
of the dispute, Ukraine submits that the
parties hold opposing views on “whether Article I of the Convention provides
a basis for Russia to use military force against Ukraine to ‘prevent
and to punish’ . . . alleged genocide”. The fact that the acts of which
Ukraine complains constitute a use of force by the Russian Federation
does not mean that those acts are incapable of amounting to breaches of
the Genocide Convention.
26. In using force, Russia has purported to act to prevent alleged genocide
by Ukraine. Ukraine, on the other hand, asserts that Russia “had no
right under the Convention to engage in the military action initiated on
13 Legality of Use of Force (Yugoslavia v. Belgium), Provisional Measures, Order of
2 June 1999, I.C.J. Reports 1999 (I), pp. 126‑127, para. 4.
14 Ibid., p. 131, para. 15.
15 Ibid., p. 138, para. 41.
16 Ibid., para. 40.
allégations de génocide (op. ind. robinson) 250
43
intentionnellement un groupe national à des conditions d’existence devant
entraîner sa destruction physique totale ou partielle » 13. Dans sa demande
en indication de mesures provisoires, la Yougoslavie avait prié la Cour
d’enjoindre à chaque Etat en cause de « cesser immédiatement de recourir
à l’emploi de la force et [de] s’abstenir de tout acte constituant une menace
de recours ou un recours à l’emploi de la force contre la République fédérale
de Yougoslavie » 14. Concernant sa compétence au titre de l’article IX
de la convention sur le génocide, la Cour a jugé qu’elle n’était pas en
mesure de conclure, en l’absence de preuves d’une intention de détruire
un groupe national, « que les actes que la Yougoslavie imput[ait] [à la
partie défenderesse] seraient susceptibles d’entrer dans les prévisions de la
convention sur le génocide » 15. La Cour a estimé que « le recours ou la
menace de recours à l’emploi de la force contre un Etat ne sauraient en
soi constituer un acte de génocide au sens de l’article II de la convention
sur le génocide » 16. Cependant, en la présente espèce, l’Ukraine n’a pas
saisi la Cour d’une question générale portant sur la licéité de l’emploi de
la force par la Russie ; elle l’a priée de « dire et juger que l’« opération
militaire spéciale » annoncée et mise en oeuvre par la Fédération de Russie
… [étai]t fondée sur une allégation mensongère de génocide et ne trouv[
ait] donc aucune justification dans la convention sur le génocide ».
25. Pour justifier son « opération militaire spéciale » en Ukraine, la
Russie a expressément déclaré que le but de cette opération était « de faire
cesser … [le] génocide de[] millions de personnes » dans les oblasts de
Donetsk et de Louhansk et « de protéger ceux et celles qui … [avaie]nt
subi les outrages du régime de Kiev et le génocide orchestré par lui ».
C’est ce but exprès qui fait entrer le différend dans le champ d’application
de la convention sur le génocide, et plus précisément de son article premier,
lequel fait obligation aux Etats parties « [de] prévenir et [de] punir »
les actes de génocide. La question brûlante qui se pose donc en l’espèce
est de savoir si la Russie peut user de la force pour prévenir et punir un
génocide allégué. En l’occurrence, lorsqu’elle décrit l’objet du différend,
l’Ukraine fait valoir que les parties ont des vues divergentes sur la question
de savoir « si l’article premier de la convention peut fonder l’emploi
de la force armée par la Russie contre l’Ukraine pour « prévenir et
punir » [un] génocide allégué ». Le fait que les actes dont l’Ukraine tire
grief sont constitutifs d’un emploi de la force par la Fédération de Russie
ne signifie pas que ces actes ne sont pas susceptibles d’équivaloir à des
violations de la convention sur le génocide.
26. Par son emploi de la force, la Russie a déclaré agir pour prévenir la
perpétration par l’Ukraine d’un génocide allégué. Cette dernière affirme,
pour sa part, que la Russie « n’avait … strictement aucun droit, en vertu
13 Licéité de l’emploi de la force (Yougoslavie c. Belgique), mesures conservatoires,
ordonnance du 2 juin 1999, C.I.J. Recueil 1999 (I), p. 126‑127, par. 4.
14 Ibid., p. 131, par. 15.
15 Ibid., p. 138, par. 41.
16 Ibid., par. 40.
251 allegations of genocide (sep. op. robinson)
44
24 February 2022”. In doing so, Ukraine argues, Russia has acted contrary
to Article I of the Genocide Convention. There is, therefore, a dispute
between the States as to whether Russia could employ the use of
force in and against Ukraine to protect persons from alleged genocide.
However, while the breach of the Convention alleged by Ukraine need
not be established at this stage, it must be demonstrated that the acts
complained of appear to be “capable of falling within the provisions of
that instrument” 17.
27. Ukraine submits that the duty to prevent genocide provided for in
Article I of the Genocide Convention is limited in scope. More specifically,
it submits that Article VIII of the Convention “anchors the duty to
prevent and punish genocide in the principles of international law reflected
in the Charter of the United Nations”. In its judgment on the merits in
the Bosnia Genocide case, the Court found that Article I of the Genocide
Convention imposes an obligation on States parties to “employ all means
reasonably available to them, so as to prevent genocide so far as
possible” 18. It is reasonable to conclude that it was in the exercise of this
duty that the Russian Federation acted in initiating a military campaign
in Ukraine. The Court further noted that, in carrying out the duty to
prevent, a State party “may only act within the limits permitted by international
law” 19. Therefore, Article I of the Genocide Convention imposes
an obligation on Russia not only to act to prevent genocide, but to act
within the limits permitted by international law to prevent genocide.
28. The preamble to the Genocide Convention states that “genocide is
a crime under international law, contrary to the spirit and aims of the
United Nations and condemned by the civilized world”. In that regard, it
is noted that Article 1 of the United Nations Charter describes the purposes
of the United Nations as including “bring[ing] about by peaceful
means, and in conformity with the principles of justice and international
law, adjustment or settlement of international disputes or situations
which might lead to a breach of the peace”. Reliance on the preamble to
the Genocide Convention is in order because, in terms of Article 31 of the
Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, the preamble is a part of the
context in which a treaty must be interpreted. The Genocide Convention
also provides, by its Article VIII, that it is open to States parties to call
upon the competent organs of the United Nations to take appropriate
17 Legality of Use of Force (Yugoslavia v. Belgium), Provisional Measures, Order of
2 June 1999, I.C.J. Reports 1999 (I), p. 137, para. 38.
18 Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of
Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Serbia and Montenegro), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports
2007 (I), p. 221, para. 430.
19 Ibid.
allégations de génocide (op. ind. robinson) 251
44
de la convention, d’engager l’action militaire débutée le 24 février 2022 ».
Ce faisant, la Russie a, selon l’Ukraine, porté atteinte à l’article premier
de cette convention. Il en ressort donc qu’un différend oppose ces Etats
quant à la question de savoir si la Russie était en droit de recourir à l’emploi
de la force contre l’Etat ukrainien et sur son territoire pour protéger
certaines personnes d’un génocide allégué. Toutefois, s’il n’est pas nécessaire
d’établir à ce stade le manquement à la convention que l’Ukraine
allègue, il convient de démontrer que les actes dont il est tiré grief semblent
« susceptibles d’entrer dans les prévisions de cet instrument » 17.
27. L’Ukraine fait valoir que l’obligation de prévenir le génocide énoncée
à l’article premier de la convention est de portée limitée. Elle soutient,
en particulier, que l’article VIII de la convention « ancre le devoir de prévenir
et de punir le génocide dans les principes du droit international
reflétés dans la Charte des Nations Unies ». Dans son arrêt au fond en
l’affaire du Génocide en Bosnie, la Cour avait conclu que l’article premier
de la convention sur le génocide impose aux Etats parties l’obligation de
« mettre en oeuvre tous les moyens qui sont raisonnablement à leur disposition
en vue d’empêcher, dans la mesure du possible, le génocide » 18. Il
est raisonnable de considérer que c’est dans l’exercice de cette obligation
que la Fédération de Russie a entrepris de lancer une campagne militaire
en Ukraine. La Cour avait en outre remarqué que, en remplissant son
obligation de prévention, un Etat partie « ne peut déployer son action que
dans les limites de ce que lui permet la légalité internationale » 19. En
conséquence, l’article premier de la convention sur le génocide met la
Russie dans l’obligation d’agir pour prévenir la commission d’un génocide,
tout en l’astreignant à le faire dans les limites fixées par la légalité
internationale.
28. Le préambule de la convention sur le génocide indique que « le
génocide est un crime du droit des gens, en contradiction avec l’esprit et
les fins des Nations Unies et que le monde civilisé condamne ». Il convient
de noter à cet égard que l’article premier de la Charte des Nations Unies
définit les buts des Nations Unies comme incluant celui de « réaliser, par
des moyens pacifiques, conformément aux principes de la justice et du
droit international, l’ajustement ou le règlement de différends ou de situations,
de caractère international, susceptibles de mener à une rupture de
la paix ». Il est opportun de s’appuyer sur le préambule de la convention
sur le génocide puisque, selon l’article 31 de la convention de Vienne sur
le droit des traités, le préambule fait partie du contexte dans lequel doit
s’inscrire l’interprétation de l’instrument. La convention sur le génocide
prévoit aussi, en son article VIII, la possibilité pour les Etats parties de
17 Licéité de l’emploi de la force (Yougoslavie c. Belgique), mesures conservatoires,
ordonnance du 2 juin 1999, C.I.J. Recueil 1999 (I), p. 137, par. 38.
18 Application de la convention pour la prévention et la répression du crime de génocide
(Bosnie-Herzégovine
c. Serbie-et-Monténégro),
arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2007 (I), p. 221,
par. 430.
19 Ibid.
252 allegations of genocide (sep. op. robinson)
45
action to prevent and suppress genocide. Equally significant is Article IX
which provides that disputes relating to the interpretation, application or
fulfilment of the Convention are to be brought before the Court. These
are therefore means for the resolution of disputes that the Convention
provides. These means would of course have been open to Russia as
alternatives
to the military action that it commenced in Ukraine on
24 February
2022.
29. The Court, in its Nicaragua v. United States Judgment, noted that
the protection of human rights under international conventions “takes
the form of such arrangements for monitoring or ensuring respect for
human rights as are provided for in the conventions themselves” 20. Article
VIII therefore may be seen as an indication of the kind of action that
a Contracting Party may take for monitoring or ensuring respect for the
human rights provided for in the Genocide Convention. The Court also
expressed the view that “while the United States might form its own
appraisal of the situation as to respect for human rights in Nicaragua, the
use of force could not be the appropriate method to monitor or ensure
such respect” 21. By the same token, while Russia may form its own
appraisal as to the situation relating to the respect of the human rights of
persons of Russian ethnicity in the Donetsk and Luhansk oblasts, in light
of the object and purpose of the Genocide Convention and the circumstances
of its conclusion, the use of force would not appear to be the
appropriate method to monitor or ensure such respect. It is therefore possible
to interpret the duty under Article I to prevent and punish genocide
as precluding the force used by Russia in its “special military operation”
in Ukraine.
30. In view of the relatively low evidentiary threshold applicable at this
stage of the proceedings, it can be concluded that the breach of the Genocide
Convention alleged by Ukraine, that is, that Russia has acted contrary
to Article I of the Convention in initiating a military campaign with
the aim of preventing genocide, appears to be capable of falling within
the provisions of that instrument. As such, the dispute is one which the
Court has jurisdiction ratione materiae to entertain pursuant to Article IX
of the Convention.
Appropriateness of the Measures Requested
31. Since Ukraine’s right not to have force used against it by Russia as
a means of preventing the alleged genocide in Ukraine is grounded in a
possible interpretation of the Convention, that right is plausible. The evidence
before the Court shows that there have been numerous casualties
20 Military and Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v.
United States of America), Merits, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1986, p. 134, para. 267.
21 Ibid., para. 268.
allégations de génocide (op. ind. robinson) 252
45
saisir les organes compétents de l’Organisation des Nations Unies afin
que ceux-
ci prennent toutes mesures appropriées pour la prévention et la
répression des actes de génocide. L’article IX, qui est tout aussi essentiel,
dispose que les différends relatifs à l’interprétation, l’application ou l’exécution
de la convention doivent être portés devant la Cour. Il s’agit là des
modes de règlement des différends prévus par cet instrument. La Russie
aurait bien évidemment pu y recourir, au lieu d’opter pour l’intervention
militaire qu’elle a lancée le 24 février 2022 en Ukraine.
29. La Cour a fait observer, dans son arrêt en l’affaire Nicaragua
c. Etats-Unis d’Amérique, que la protection des droits de l’homme « se traduit
par des dispositions prévues dans le texte des conventions elles-mêmes
et qui sont destinées à vérifier ou à assurer le respect de ces droits » 20.
L’article VIII peut donc être lu comme prévoyant le type de mesures
qu’une partie contractante peut envisager de prendre à ces fins, conformément
aux dispositions de la convention sur le génocide. La Cour a aussi
estimé que, « si les Etats-Unis p[ouvai]ent certes porter leur propre appréciation
sur la situation des droits de l’homme au Nicaragua, l’emploi de la
force ne saurait être la méthode appropriée pour vérifier et assurer le respect
de ces droits » 21. De même, la Russie peut jauger, à la lumière de
l’objet et du but de la convention sur le génocide et des circonstances de sa
conclusion, la situation relative aux droits de l’homme des personnes d’origine
ethnique russe dans les oblasts de Donetsk et de Louhansk, mais elle
ne saurait considérer l’emploi de la force comme la méthode appropriée
pour vérifier ou assurer le respect de ces droits. Il est donc possible d’interpréter
l’obligation de prévention et de répression du génocide énoncée à
l’article premier comme excluant tout recours à la force, tel que l’« opération
militaire spéciale » engagée par la Russie en Ukraine.
30. Compte tenu des exigences en matière de preuve relativement
faibles auxquelles il doit être satisfait à ce stade de la procédure, on peut
conclure que la violation de la convention sur le génocide alléguée par
l’Ukraine, qui reproche à la Russie d’avoir agi au mépris de l’article premier
en lançant une campagne militaire dans le but de prévenir un génocide,
semble susceptible d’entrer dans les prévisions de cet instrument.
Aussi le différend en cause est-il de ceux dont la Cour est compétente
pour connaître ratione materiae, en vertu de l’article IX de la convention.
L’opportunité des mesures sollicitées
31. Dans la mesure où il est fondé sur une interprétation possible de la
convention, le droit de l’Ukraine à ne pas subir l’exercice de la force par
la Russie, en tant que moyen de prévention d’un génocide qui se déroulerait
sur son territoire, est plausible. Les éléments de preuve présentés à la
20 Activités militaires et paramilitaires au Nicaragua et contre celui-
ci (Nicaragua
c. Etats-Unis d’Amérique), fond, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1986, p. 134, par. 267.
21 Ibid., par. 268.
253 allegations of genocide (sep. op. robinson)
46
resulting from the military intervention as well as bombing of numerous
cities across Ukraine, and that over one and a half million persons have
fled Ukraine to escape the atrocities. Consequently, given the patent
irreparable harm caused by the “special military operation” and the
urgent need for the measures, it is appropriate for the Court to grant
Ukraine’s request for an order requiring Russia to suspend its special
military operation in Ukraine until such time as the Court has determined
the merits of the case.
32. It is critical to note that the fact that the military operation by Russia
appears to be capable of falling within the Convention as being in
breach of Article I, has no implication for Russia’s claimed right of self-defence.
The right of self-defence
recognized in Article 51 is inherent in
every State and cannot be overridden by any pronouncement the Court
may make as to the consistency of Russia’s military operation with the
Genocide Convention.
33. Special comments are warranted in relation to the third and fourth
provisional measures requested by Ukraine. The third measure ordered
by the Court calls on both Parties to refrain from any action which might
aggravate or extend the dispute before the Court or make it more difficult
to resolve. In my view, there is no justification for directing this measure
to Ukraine. It should have been directed solely to the Russian Federation.
Nonetheless, the formulation of the measure called for an affirmative
vote in order to ensure that there would be a non-aggravation
measure that would be applicable to the Russian Federation. Ukraine
also requested as a fourth provisional measure that the Court should
order the Russian Federation to “provide a report to the Court on measures
taken to implement the Court’s Order on Provisional Measures one
week after such order and then on a regular basis to be fixed by the
Court”. The Court did not grant this request. In my view, this decision is
regrettable, since in light of the very grave situation in Ukraine caused by
the “special military operation”, it would have been advantageous for the
Court to examine periodic reports by Russia on its implementation of the
provisional measures and to make appropriate orders.
(Signed) Patrick L. Robinson.
allégations de génocide (op. ind. robinson) 253
46
Cour montrent que l’intervention militaire a fait de nombreuses victimes
et entraîné le bombardement de nombreuses villes sur l’ensemble du territoire
ukrainien, et que plus d’un million et demi de personnes ont quitté
le pays pour fuir les atrocités. Par voie de conséquence, au vu du préjudice
irréparable et manifeste causé par l’« opération militaire spéciale » et
de l’urgence à appliquer les mesures sollicitées, il est opportun que la
Cour fasse droit à la demande de l’Ukraine tendant à ce qu’il soit ordonné
à la Russie de suspendre son « opération militaire spéciale » sur le sol
ukrainien jusqu’à ce que la Cour ait statué au fond de l’affaire.
32. Il importe de noter que le fait que l’opération militaire russe semble
susceptible de tomber sous le coup de la convention, en ce qu’elle viole
son article premier, n’a aucune incidence sur le droit de légitime défense
invoqué par la Russie. Ce droit, consacré à l’article 51 [de la Charte], est
un droit naturel dont peut se prévaloir tout Etat, et aucune décision que
la Cour pourrait être amenée à rendre sur la conformité de l’opération
militaire russe avec la convention sur le génocide ne saurait l’emporter sur
ce droit.
33. Quelques commentaires particuliers s’imposent concernant les troisième
et quatrième mesures conservatoires sollicitées par l’Ukraine. Dans la
troisième mesure qu’elle a indiquée, la Cour a enjoint aux deux Parties de
s’abstenir de tout acte qui risquerait d’aggraver ou d’étendre le différend
dont elle est saisie ou d’en rendre le règlement plus difficile. J’estime pour
ma part que rien ne justifiait d’adresser cette injonction à l’Ukraine et qu’il
aurait fallu l’adresser uniquement à la Fédération de Russie. J’ai néanmoins
voté en faveur de la mesure telle que libellée afin de garantir l’adoption
d’une mesure de non-aggravation
applicable à la Fédération de Russie.
L’Ukraine a aussi prié la Cour d’indiquer une quatrième mesure conservatoire
consistant à ordonner à la Fédération de Russie de « rendre compte à
la Cour des mesures prises pour exécuter l’ordonnance en indication de
mesures conservatoires dans un délai d’une semaine à compter de la date de
celle-
ci, puis à intervalles réguliers, dans les délais qui seront fixés par la
Cour ». Il n’a pas été fait droit à cette demande. Cette décision m’apparaît
regrettable, car, étant donné la gravité extrême de la situation dans laquelle
l’« opération militaire spéciale » a plongé l’Ukraine, il aurait été utile à la
Cour de disposer de rapports périodiques dans lesquels la Russie aurait
rendu compte de la mise en oeuvre des mesures conservatoires indiquées, et
de rendre, à cet égard, les ordonnances nécessaires.
(Signé) Patrick L. Robinson.
Separate opinion of Judge Robinson