SEPARATE OPINION OF JUDGE IWASAWA Where it is impossible to quantify the damage precisely, international courts and tribunals have applied equity infra legem in determining the amount of compensation In the present case, the Court adopts this line of reasoning and awards compensation “in the form of a global sum, within the range of possibilities indicated by the evidence and taking into account equitable considerations” The Court decides this case in accordance with international law and not ex aequo et bono Under the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, criminal investigation and prosecution are necessary remedies for violations of human rights protected by Articles 6 (right to life) and 7 (right not to be subjected to torture) The Court could have given this as an additional reason to reject the DRC’s request for satisfaction in the form of criminal investigation and prosecution. 1. I voted in favour of the Court’s decisions in the operative paragraph (paragraph 409 of the Judgment) and generally agree with the reasoning set out in the Judgment. The purpose of this opinion is to offer my views on certain aspects of the Judgment, namely its reliance on equitable considerations and its reference to criminal investigation and prosecution. I. Equitable considerations 2. The present case concerns one of the deadliest and most destructive armed conflicts ever to take place in Africa. In its 2005 Judgment, the Court found that Uganda had violated the principle of non-use of force in international relations and the principle of non-intervention, as well as its obligations under international human rights law and international humanitarian law1. Its actions resulted in extensive damage to persons, including loss of life, as well as damage to property and damage related to natural resources. The armed conflict was also highly complex. There were numerous actors present in the DRC during the relevant period, including the armed forces of a number of States and irregular forces which acted in collaboration with some of those States (paragraphs 64-65 of the Judgment). 3. The Court observes that, when mass violations have occurred in the context of armed conflict, judicial and other bodies have awarded compensation on the basis of the evidence at their disposal. They have adopted less rigorous standards of proof for the quantification of damage and have reduced the levels of compensation in order to balance the uncertainties stemming from the application of lower standards of proof. In particular, the Court refers to the Final Award on Eritrea’s Damages Claims rendered by the Eritrea-Ethiopia Claims Commission (the “EECC”) in 2009 (paragraphs 107 and 123 of the Judgment). 4. In view of the magnitude and complexity of the armed conflict in the territory of the DRC and given that a large amount of evidence has been destroyed or rendered inaccessible over the years, the Court decides to proceed in the same manner in the present case. It observes that the standard of proof required to establish responsibility is higher than in the reparation phase, which calls for some flexibility (paragraphs 108 and 124 of the Judgment). The Court thus awards compensation “in the form of a global sum, within the range of possibilities indicated by the evidence and taking into account equitable considerations” (paragraphs 106, 166, 181, 193, 206, 225, 258 and 365). The Court notes that such an approach may be called for “where the evidence leaves no doubt that an 1 Armed Activities on the Territory of the Congo (Democratic Republic of the Congo v. Uganda), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2005, p. 280, para. 345, subparas. (1) and (3). - 2 - internationally wrongful act has caused a substantiated injury, but does not allow a precise evaluation of the extent or scale of such injury” (paragraph 106). 5. It should be emphasized that, in adopting this approach, the Court does not decide this case ex aequo et bono (Article 38, paragraph 2, of the Statute of the Court), as the Parties have not authorized it to do so. It decides this dispute “in accordance with international law” (Article 38, paragraph 1), determining the global sum on the basis of the legal principles and rules applicable to the assessment of reparations. While the Court, as a court of law, is obligated to quantify the damage based on the evidence before it, it is equally justified in taking into account equitable considerations. 6. In Frontier Dispute (Burkina Faso/Republic of Mali), the Chamber of the Court acknowledged that it could not decide the case ex aequo et bono because the parties had not authorized it to do so. Nonetheless, it declared that it would have regard to “equity infra legem”, describing it as “that form of equity which constitutes a method of interpretation of the law in force, and is one of its attributes”2. Equity infra legem, or equity under the law, refers to the power of courts to select from among possible interpretations of the law the one which achieves the most equitable result. International courts have the inherent power to apply equity infra legem without the specific authorization of the parties. 7. In Frontier Dispute, the Chamber recalled, in support of its position, a passage from the Fisheries Jurisdiction Judgments, in which the Court, urging the parties to negotiate an “equitable apportionment” of the fishing resources, stated: “It is not a matter of finding simply an equitable solution, but an equitable solution derived from the applicable law.”3 8. In Fisheries Jurisdiction, the Court in turn referred to its Judgment in the North Sea Continental Shelf cases, in which it observed that rules of law on the delimitation of adjacent continental shelves were to be applied on a foundation of general precepts of justice and good faith, and stated that “it is not a question of applying equity simply as a matter of abstract justice, but of applying a rule of law which itself requires the application of equitable principles”4. It further stressed: “Whatever the legal reasoning of a court of justice, its decisions must by definition be just, and therefore in that sense equitable. Nevertheless, when mention is made of a court dispensing justice or declaring the law, what is meant is that the decision finds its objective justification in considerations lying not outside but within the rules, and in this field it is precisely a rule of law that calls for the application of equitable principles. There is consequently no question in this case of any decision ex aequo et bono”5. In Continental Shelf (Tunisia/Libyan Arab Jamahiriya), the Court further explained the function of equitable principles as follows: “[T]he legal concept of equity is a general principle directly applicable as law . . . [W]hen applying positive international law, a court may choose among several possible 2 Frontier Dispute (Burkina Faso/Republic of Mali), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1986, pp. 567-568, para. 28. 3 Fisheries Jurisdiction (United Kingdom v. Iceland; Federal Republic of Germany v. Iceland), Merits, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1974, p. 33, para. 78; p. 202, para. 69. 4 North Sea Continental Shelf (Federal Republic of Germany/Denmark; Federal Republic of Germany/Netherlands), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1969, pp. 46-47, para. 85. 5 Ibid., p. 48, para. 88. - 3 - interpretations of the law the one which appears, in the light of the circumstances of the case, to be closest to the requirements of justice. Application of equitable principles is to be distinguished from a decision ex aequo et bono . . . [The Court] is bound to apply equitable principles as part of international law” 6. As these cases demonstrate, the equitable principles used by the Court in the context of maritime delimitation are a form of equity infra legem7. 9. Similarly, having regard to equitable considerations in determining the amount of compensation, as the Court has done in the present case, is an application of equity infra legem, not a decision ex aequo et bono. This is also attested to by the Court’s Advisory Opinion in Judgments of the Administrative Tribunal of the ILO upon Complaints Made against UNESCO. In that case, the Executive Board of UNESCO alleged that the validity of the judgments of the ILO Administrative Tribunal was vitiated by excess of jurisdiction “on the ground that it awarded compensation ex aequo et bono”8. The ILO Tribunal had stated in its judgment “[t]hat redress [would] be ensured ex aequo et bono by the granting to the complainant of the sum set forth below”9. It was unfortunate that the Tribunal used the expression ex aequo et bono because it was in fact applying equity infra legem. The Court explained this point as follows: “It does not appear from the context of the judgment that the Tribunal thereby intended to depart from principles of law. The apparent intention was to say that, as the precise determination of the actual amount to be awarded could not be based on any specific rule of law, the Tribunal fixed what the Court, in other circumstances, has described as the true measure of compensation and the reasonable figure of such compensation”10. 10. In many cases where it has been impossible to quantify the damage precisely, international tribunals have applied equity infra legem in determining the amount of compensation. They have done so when the treaty establishing the tribunal authorized it to decide in accordance with “equity” or to award “equitable compensation”11. However, even when they were not explicitly given 6 Continental Shelf (Tunisia/Libyan Arab Jamahiriya), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1982, p. 60, para. 71. 7 See also Delimitation of the Maritime Boundary in the Gulf of Maine Area (Canada/United States of America), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1984, p. 278, para. 59, p. 303, para. 123; Continental Shelf (Libyan Arab Jamahiriya/Malta), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1985, pp. 38-39, para. 45; Maritime Delimitation in the Area between Greenland and Jan Mayen (Denmark v. Norway), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1993, p. 62, para. 54; Delimitation of the Continental Shelf (United Kingdom/France), Decision of 30 June 1977, United Nations, Reports of International Arbitral Awards (RIAA), Vol. XVIII, pp. 45-46, para. 70, pp. 47-48, para. 75. 8 Judgments of the Administrative Tribunal of the ILO upon Complaints Made against UNESCO, Advisory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports 1956, p. 100. 9 Ibid. 10 Ibid., referring to Corfu Channel, fn. 18 below. 11 E.g. Affaire Yuille, Shortridge et Cie (Portugal contre Royaume-Uni), décision du 21 octobre 1861, in A. Lapradelle and N. Politis, Recueil des arbitrages internationaux, Vol. II (1855-1872), 1923, p. 108; Affaire des propriétés religieuses (France, Royaume-Uni, Espagne contre Portugal), décision du 2 septembre 1920, RIAA, Vol. I, p. 16; John Gill (Great Britain) v. United Mexican States, Decision of 19 May 1931, RIAA, Vol. V, p. 162, para. 12; Dennis J. and Daniel Spillane (Great Britain) v. United Mexican States, Decision of 3 August 1931, RIAA, Vol. V, p. 290, para. 7. Some tribunals used the expression ex aequo et bono in doing so, e.g. The Orinoco Steamship Company Case (United States of America/Venezuela), Decision of 25 October 1910, RIAA, Vol. XI, p. 240; Norwegian Shipowners’ Claims (Norway v. U.S.A.), Decision of 13 October 1922, RIAA, Vol. I, p. 339. - 4 - authority to decide in accordance with “equity”, they have not hesitated to apply equity infra legem in determining the amount of compensation 12. In the Loan Agreement between Italy and Costa Rica arbitration, the Arbitration Agreement provided that the arbitral tribunal should decide the dispute “in accordance with the relevant rules of international law”, pursuant to Article 33 of the Permanent Court of Arbitration Optional Rules for Arbitrating Disputes between Two States, which, in the tribunal’s words, “mirrors the well-known Article 38 of the Statute of the International Court of Justice on the sources of jus gentium”13. The tribunal relied on equity infra legem in determining the global sum of compensation in this case, noting that: “[t]he Arbitral Tribunal is called upon . . . to assess the global sum due . . . under the relevant rules of international law, and in particular the equitable principles deriving from the notion of justice, which govern international judicial and arbitral practice, taking account of all the circumstances”14. It emphasized that it was not deciding ex aequo et bono, stating that: “public international law is traditionally imbued with, or influenced by, equitable principles as modes of applying a rule infra legem, entailing the tangible adaptation of a norm to the particular circumstances of the case . . . It is important to avoid any confusion here between the role of equitable considerations within the system of applicable law and a decision ‘ex aequo et bono’, which ‘is something quite different’”15. 11. As concerns the EECC, Article 5, paragraph 13, of the 2000 Algiers Agreement, which established the Commission, provided: “In considering claims, the Commission shall apply relevant rules of international law. The Commission shall not have the power to make decisions ex aequo et bono.”16 In examining the compensation claims, the EECC recognized the difficulties associated with questions of proof, the evidence often being uncertain or ambiguous. Accordingly, it determined “the appropriate compensation for each . . . violation”, which “requir[ed] exercises of judgment and 12 E.g. Affaire de l’attaque de la caravane du Maharao de Cutch (Royaume-Uni contre Ethiopie), décision du 7 octobre 1927, RIAA, Vol. II, p. 826; Affaire Chevreau (France contre Royaume-Uni), décision du 9 juin 1931, RIAA, Vol. II, p. 1139; Trail Smelter Case (United States of America/Canada), Decision of 11 March 1941, RIAA, Vol. III, pp. 1938-1939; LIAMCO v. Libya, Decision of 12 April 1977, International Law Reports (ILR), Vol. 62, pp. 150-151. Some tribunals also used the expression ex aequo et bono in these cases, e.g. Affaire Lacaze (France contre Argentine), décision du 19 mars 1864, in Lapradelle and Politis, op. cit., p. 298; Sapphire International Petroleums Ltd. v. National Iranian Oil Company, décision du 15 mars 1963, ILR, Vol. 35, pp. 189-190. 13 Loan Agreement between Italy and Costa Rica (Dispute Arising under a Financial Agreement), Decision of 26 June 1998, RIAA, Vol. XXV, p. 56, para. 16. [This and all subsequent excerpts from the tribunal’s decision have been translated by the Registry.] 14 Ibid., pp. 74-75, para. 76. 15 Ibid., pp. 72-73, paras. 69-70, citing Judge Fitzmaurice, who stated that “[d]eciding a case on the basis of rules of equity . . . is something quite different from giving a decision ex aequo et bono”. Barcelona Traction, Light and Power Company, Limited (New Application: 1962), (Belgium v. Spain), Second Phase, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1970, separate opinion of Judge Sir Gerald Fitzmaurice, p. 85, para. 36 (emphasis in the original). The original French of this part of the tribunal’s decision reads as follows: “le droit international public est traditionnellement imprégné de, ou influencé par, des principes équitables comme modalités d’application infra legem de la règle, impliquant l’adaptation concrète d’une norme aux particularités de l’espèce . . . II convient d’éviter ici une confusion entre ce rôle des considérations équitables relevant du système de droit applicable, d’une part, et le cas de la décision ‘ex aequo et bono’, qui sont ‘deux choses entièrement différentes’”. 16 Agreement between the Government of the State of Eritrea and the Government of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, 12 Dec. 2000, UN doc. A/55/686–S/2000/1183, 13 Dec. 2000, Annex, Art. 5, para. 13. - 5 - approximation”. It “made the best estimates possible on the basis of the available evidence” 17. While not expressly referring to equitable considerations, it is clear that the EECC took account of them in determining the amount of compensation. 12. In Corfu Channel, in fixing the amount of compensation, the Court considered what would be the “true measure of compensation”, “reasonable” figures, and a “fair and accurate” estimate of the damage sustained18. This language indicates that the Court took account of equitable considerations in determining the amount of compensation. 13. In more recent compensation judgments, the Court has explicitly referred to equitable considerations. In Diallo, it stated that the “[q]uantification of compensation for non-material injury necessarily rests on equitable considerations” and noted that “[e]quitable considerations have guided” arbitral tribunals and regional human rights courts in “their quantification of compensation for non-material harm” 19. In particular, it quoted a judgment of the European Court of Human Rights which stated that, for determining damage, “[i]ts guiding principle is equity”20. It also quoted a judgment of the Inter-American Court of Human Rights which affirmed that the amount of compensation for non-pecuniary damages may be determined “in reasonable exercise of its judicial authority and on the basis of equity”21. As for the material injury suffered by Mr. Diallo, given the circumstances of the case, including the shortcomings in the evidence, the Court “consider[ed] it appropriate to award an amount of compensation based on equitable considerations”22. 14. In Certain Activities Carried Out by Nicaragua in the Border Area (Costa Rica v. Nicaragua), the Court observed that in the Diallo case it had “determined the amount of compensation due on the basis of equitable considerations”, recalling that “the absence of adequate evidence as to the extent of material damage will not, in all situations, preclude an award of compensation for that damage”23. It thus awarded “an amount that it consider[ed] approximately to reflect the value of the impairment or loss”24. 15. In the present case, the Court cites a decision of the ICC Trial Chamber in the Lubanga case which “reckon[ed] ex aequo et bono” the harm suffered by each child soldier at US$8,00025 (paragraph 205 of the Judgment). The Court refers to this decision merely as one example of the 17 EECC, Eritrea’s Damages Claims, Final Award, Decision of 17 August 2009, RIAA, Vol. XXVI, p. 528, para. 37; EECC, Ethiopia’s Damages Claims, Final Award, Decision of 17 August 2009, ibid., p. 655, para. 37. 18 Corfu Channel (United Kingdom v. Albania), Assessment of Amount of Compensation, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1949, p. 249. 19 Ahmadou Sadio Diallo (Republic of Guinea v. Democratic Republic of the Congo), Compensation, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2012 (I), pp. 334-335, para. 24. 20 ECtHR, Al-Jedda v. United Kingdom, Judgment of 7 July 2011 (Grand Chamber), Application No. 27021/08, para. 114. 21 IACtHR, Cantoral Benavides v. Peru, Judgment of 3 December 2001 (reparation and costs), Series C, No. 88, para. 53. 22 Ahmadou Sadio Diallo (Republic of Guinea v. Democratic Republic of the Congo), Compensation, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2012 (I), p. 337, para. 33. See also ibid., p. 338, para. 36. 23 Certain Activities Carried Out by Nicaragua in the Border Area (Costa Rica v. Nicaragua), Compensation, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2018 (I), pp. 26-27, para. 35. 24 Ibid., pp. 38-39, para. 86. 25 The Prosecutor v. Thomas Lubanga Dyilo, ICC-01/04-02/06, Trial Chamber II, Decision Setting the Size of the Reparation Award for which Thomas Lubanga Dyilo is Liable, 21 December 2017, para. 259. - 6 - methodologies for assigning a specific valuation of damage in respect of a child soldier. The Court does not decide this case, or any aspect thereof, ex aequo et bono. II. Criminal investigation and prosecution 16. In the present case, the DRC argues that compensation is not sufficient to remedy fully the damage caused, and asks that Uganda be required to give satisfaction in the form of criminal investigation and prosecution of UPDF officers and soldiers. The Court rejects this request, explaining that there is no need to order such a specific measure because Uganda already has an obligation to investigate, prosecute and punish those responsible for grave breaches of the Geneva Conventions, pursuant to Article 146 of the Fourth Geneva Convention and Article 85 of the First Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions (paragraph 390 of the Judgment). 17. In its 2005 Judgment, the Court found that the UPDF had committed not only “grave breaches of international humanitarian law” but also “massive human rights violations” on the territory of the DRC26. The Court found inter alia that Uganda had violated Article 6, paragraph 1 (right to life), and Article 7 (right not to be subjected to torture) of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (hereinafter the “ICCPR”)27. In light of this finding, in rejecting the DRC’s request for satisfaction, the Court could have given as an additional reason that Uganda already has an obligation to investigate, prosecute and punish those responsible for the violations of Articles 6 and 7 of the ICCPR, pursuant to Article 2, paragraph 3, of that instrument, read in conjunction with Articles 6 and 7. 18. Article 2, paragraph 3, of the ICCPR sets out the obligation of States parties to provide an effective remedy to the victims of human rights violations. In accordance with this clause, read in conjunction with Articles 6 and 7, criminal investigation and, where appropriate, prosecution are necessary remedies for violations of human rights protected by Articles 6 and 7. This interpretation of the ICCPR corresponds to the interpretation consistently maintained in the jurisprudence of the Human Rights Committee, the body established by the ICCPR to monitor its implementation28. (Signed) IWASAWA Yuji. ___________ 26 Armed Activities on the Territory of the Congo (Democratic Republic of the Congo v. Uganda), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2005, p. 239, para. 207. 27 Ibid., p. 244, para. 219. 28 E.g. Human Rights Committee, Sathasvam & Saraswathi v. Sri Lanka, 8 July 2008, Communication No. 1436/2005, para. 6.4; Amirov v. Russian Federation, 2 Apr. 2009, Communication No. 1447/2006, para. 11.2. See also General Comment No. 31: The Nature of the General Legal Obligation Imposed on States Parties to the Covenant, 29 Mar. 2004, paras. 16, 18; General Comment No. 36: Right to Life, 30 Oct. 2018, para. 27.
192
183
SEPARATE OPINION OF JUDGE IWASAWA
Where it is impossible to quantify the damage precisely, international courts and
tribunals have applied equity infra legem in determining the amount of
compensation — In the present case, the Court adopts this line of reasoning and
awards compensation “in the form of a global sum, within the range of possibilities
indicated by the evidence and taking into account equitable considerations” — The
Court decides this case in accordance with international law and not ex aequo et
bono — Under the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, criminal
investigation and prosecution are necessary remedies for violations of human rights
protected by Articles 6 (right to life) and 7 (right not to be subjected to torture) —
The Court could have given this as an additional reason to reject the DRC’s request
for satisfaction in the form of criminal investigation and prosecution.
1. I voted in favour of the Court’s decisions in the operative paragraph
(Judgment, para. 409) and generally agree with the reasoning set out in
the Judgment. The purpose of this opinion is to offer my views on certain
aspects of the Judgment, namely its reliance on equitable considerations
and its reference to criminal investigation and prosecution.
I. Equitable Considerations
2. The present case concerns one of the deadliest and most destructive
armed conflicts ever to take place in Africa. In its 2005 Judgment, the
Court found that Uganda had violated the principle of non‑use of force
in international relations and the principle of non‑intervention, as well as
its obligations under international human rights law and international
humanitarian law 1. Its actions resulted in extensive damage to persons,
including loss of life, as well as damage to property and damage related
to natural resources. The armed conflict was also highly complex. There
were numerous actors present in the DRC during the relevant period,
including the armed forces of a number of States and irregular forces
which acted in collaboration with some of those States (ibid., paras. 64‑65).
1 Armed Activities on the Territory of the Congo (Democratic Republic of the Congo v.
Uganda), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2005, p. 280, para. 345, subparas. (1) and (3).
192
183
OPINION INDIVIDUELLE DE M. LE JUGE IWASAWA
[Traduction]
Dans les cas où il est impossible de quantifier précisément les dommages, les
juridictions internationales ont appliqué l’équité infra legem pour déterminer le
montant de l’indemnité — Dans la présente affaire, la Cour adopte ce raisonnement
et octroie une indemnité « sous la forme d’une somme globale, dans la limite des
possibilités offertes par les éléments de preuve et compte tenu de considérations
d’équité » — La Cour statue en l’espèce conformément au droit international et
non ex aequo et bono — Le Pacte international relatif aux droits civils et
politiques impose la conduite d’enquêtes et l’engagement de poursuites pénales en
cas de violations de droits de l’homme protégés par l’article 6 (droit à la vie) ou
l’article 7 (droit à ne pas être soumis à la torture) — La Cour aurait pu donner ce
motif supplémentaire pour rejeter la demande de satisfaction sous la forme
d’enquêtes et de poursuites pénales présentée par la RDC.
1. J’ai voté en faveur des conclusions que la Cour énonce dans le dispositif
de son arrêt (par. 409) et je souscris de manière générale au raisonnement
explicité dans ce dernier. Dans la présente opinion, je me propose
d’exposer mes vues sur certains aspects de l’arrêt, à savoir lorsqu’il se
fonde sur des considérations d’équité et lorsqu’il fait référence aux
enquêtes et aux poursuites pénales.
I. Considérations d’équité
2. La présente affaire concerne l’un des conflits armés les plus meurtriers
et les plus destructeurs jamais survenus sur le continent africain.
Dans son arrêt de 2005, la Cour a conclu que l’Ouganda avait violé le
principe du non‑recours à la force dans les relations internationales et le
principe de non‑intervention. Elle a également déclaré que l’Ouganda
avait violé les obligations lui incombant en vertu du droit international
relatif aux droits de l’homme et du droit international humanitaire 1. Il en
est résulté d’importants dommages aux personnes, y compris des pertes
en vies humaines, ainsi que des dommages aux biens et des dommages
aux ressources naturelles. Le conflit armé était également très complexe.
De nombreux protagonistes étaient présents sur le territoire de la RDC
pendant cette période, notamment les forces armées de plusieurs Etats
ainsi que des forces irrégulières qui ont agi en collaboration avec certains
de ces Etats (arrêt, par. 64-65).
1 Activités armées sur le territoire du Congo (République démocratique du Congo
c. Ouganda), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2005, p. 280‑281, par. 345, points 1) et 3) du dispositif.
193 armed activities (sep. op. iwasawa)
184
3. The Court observes that, when mass violations have occurred in the
context of armed conflict, judicial and other bodies have awarded compensation
on the basis of the evidence at their disposal. They have adopted
less rigorous standards of proof for the quantification of damage and
have reduced the levels of compensation in order to balance the uncertainties
stemming from the application of lower standards of proof. In
particular, the Court refers to the Final Award on Eritrea’s Damages
Claims rendered by the Eritrea-Ethiopia
Claims Commission (the
“EECC”) in 2009 (Judgment, paras. 107 and 123).
4. In view of the magnitude and complexity of the armed conflict in the
territory of the DRC and given that a large amount of evidence has been
destroyed or rendered inaccessible over the years, the Court decides to
proceed in the same manner in the present case. It observes that the standard
of proof required to establish responsibility is higher than in the
reparation phase, which calls for some flexibility (ibid., paras. 108
and 124). The Court thus awards compensation “in the form of a global
sum, within the range of possibilities indicated by the evidence and taking
into account equitable considerations” (ibid., paras. 106, 166, 181, 193,
206, 225, 258 and 365). The Court notes that such an approach may be
called for “where the evidence leaves no doubt that an internationally
wrongful act has caused a substantiated injury, but does not allow a precise
evaluation of the extent or scale of such injury” (ibid., para. 106).
5. It should be emphasized that, in adopting this approach, the Court
does not decide this case ex aequo et bono (Article 38, paragraph 2, of the
Statute of the Court), as the Parties have not authorized it to do so. It
decides this dispute “in accordance with international law” (Article 38,
paragraph 1, of the Statute of the Court), determining the global sum on
the basis of the legal principles and rules applicable to the assessment of
reparations. While the Court, as a court of law, is obligated to quantify
the damage based on the evidence before it, it is equally justified in taking
into account equitable considerations.
6. In Frontier Dispute (Burkina Faso/Republic of Mali), the Chamber
of the Court acknowledged that it could not decide the case ex aequo et
bono because the parties had not authorized it to do so. Nonetheless, it
declared that it would have regard to “equity infra legem”, describing it as
“that form of equity which constitutes a method of interpretation of the
law in force, and is one of its attributes” 2. Equity infra legem, or equity
under the law, refers to the power of courts to select from among possible
interpretations of the law the one which achieves the most equitable
result. International courts have the inherent power to apply equity infra
legem without the specific authorization of the parties.
2 Frontier Dispute (Burkina Faso/Republic of Mali), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1986,
pp. 567‑568, para. 28.
activités armées (op. ind. iwasawa) 193
184
3. La Cour fait observer que lorsque des violations massives se sont
produites dans des situations de conflit armé, les instances judiciaires et
autres ont octroyé une indemnité sur la base des éléments de preuve mis à
leur disposition. Elles ont adopté des critères d’établissement de la preuve
moins rigoureux aux fins de la quantification des dommages et réduit les
montants des indemnités accordées de manière à tenir compte des incertitudes
découlant de l’application de tels critères. La Cour fait notamment
référence à la sentence finale sur les réclamations de dommages de
l’Erythrée
rendue par la Commission des réclamations entre l’Erythrée
et l’Ethiopie (CREE) en 2009 (arrêt, par. 107 et 123).
4. Au vu de l’ampleur et de la complexité du conflit armé qui s’est
déroulé sur le territoire de la RDC et compte tenu du fait qu’un nombre
considérable de preuves ont été détruites ou rendues inaccessibles au fil des
années, la Cour décide de suivre la même approche en l’espèce. Elle estime
que, dans l’établissement de la responsabilité, le niveau de preuve exigé est
plus élevé qu’au stade des réparations, où une certaine flexibilité est nécessaire
(ibid., par. 108 et 124). Aussi adjuge‑t‑elle une indemnisation « sous la
forme d’une somme globale, dans la limite des possibilités offertes par les
éléments de preuve et compte tenu de considérations d’équité » (ibid.,
par. 106, 166, 181, 193, 206, 225, 258 et 365). La Cour relève qu’une telle
approche peut être justifiée « lorsque les éléments de preuve permettent de
conclure qu’un fait internationalement illicite a indubitablement causé un
préjudice avéré mais qu’ils ne permettent pas une évaluation précise de
l’étendue ou de l’ampleur de ce préjudice » (ibid., par. 106).
5. Il convient de souligner que, en adoptant cette approche, la Cour ne
statue pas ici ex aequo et bono (paragraphe 2 de l’article 38 du Statut), les
Parties ne l’ayant pas autorisée à le faire. Elle statue « conformément au
droit international » (paragraphe 1 de l’article 38 du Statut), déterminant
la somme globale à verser selon les principes et les règles juridiques applicables
à l’évaluation des réparations. Si la Cour a, en tant qu’instance
judiciaire, l’obligation de quantifier les dommages subis en se basant sur
les éléments de preuve dont elle dispose, elle est également fondée à tenir
compte de considérations d’équité.
6. La chambre de la Cour saisie de l’affaire du Différend frontalier
(Burkina Faso/République du Mali) a reconnu qu’elle ne pouvait statuer
ex aequo et bono, les parties ne l’y ayant pas autorisée. Elle a cependant
déclaré qu’elle prendrait en considération « l’équité telle qu’elle s’exprime
dans son aspect infra legem, c’est‑à‑dire cette forme d’équité qui constitue
une méthode d’interprétation du droit et en est l’une des qualités » 2.
L’équité infra legem, ou équité en droit, désigne la faculté qu’ont les tribunaux
de choisir, parmi les interprétations possibles du droit, celle qui
permet d’obtenir le résultat le plus équitable. Les tribunaux internationaux
sont par nature habilités à appliquer l’équité infra legem sans l’autorisation
explicite des parties.
2 Différend frontalier (Burkina Faso/République du Mali), C.I.J. Recueil 1986,
p. 567‑568, par. 28.
194 armed activities (sep. op. iwasawa)
185
7. In Frontier Dispute, the Chamber recalled, in support of its position,
a passage from the Fisheries Jurisdiction Judgments, in which the Court,
urging the parties to negotiate an “equitable apportionment” of the fishing
resources, stated: “It is not a matter of finding simply an equitable
solution, but an equitable solution derived from the applicable law.” 3
8. In Fisheries Jurisdiction, the Court in turn referred to its Judgment
in the North Sea Continental Shelf cases, in which it observed that rules of
law on the delimitation of adjacent continental shelves were to be applied
on a foundation of general precepts of justice and good faith, and stated
that “it is not a question of applying equity simply as a matter of abstract
justice, but of applying a rule of law which itself requires the application
of equitable principles” 4. It further stressed:
“Whatever the legal reasoning of a court of justice, its decisions
must by definition be just, and therefore in that sense equitable.
Nevertheless,
when mention is made of a court dispensing justice or
declaring the law, what is meant is that the decision finds its objective
justification in considerations lying not outside but within the rules,
and in this field it is precisely a rule of law that calls for the application
of equitable principles. There is consequently no question in this case
of any decision ex aequo et bono” 5.
In Continental Shelf (Tunisia/Libyan Arab Jamahiriya), the Court further
explained the function of equitable principles as follows:
“[T]he legal concept of equity is a general principle directly applicable
as law . . . [W]hen applying positive international law, a court
may choose among several possible interpretations of the law the one
which appears, in the light of the circumstances of the case, to be
closest to the requirements of justice. Application of equitable principles
is to be distinguished from a decision ex aequo et bono . . . [The
Court] is bound to apply equitable principles as part of international
law” 6.
As these cases demonstrate, the equitable principles used by the Court
in the context of maritime delimitation are a form of equity infra legem 7.
3 Fisheries Jurisdiction (United Kingdom v. Iceland), Merits, Judgment, I.C.J.
Reports 1974, p. 33, para. 78; Fisheries Jurisdiction (Federal Republic of Germany v.
Iceland), Merits, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1974, p. 202, para. 69.
4 North Sea Continental Shelf (Federal Republic of Germany/Denmark; Federal Republic
of Germany/Netherlands), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1969, pp. 46‑47, para. 85.
5 Ibid., p. 48, para. 88.
6 Continental Shelf (Tunisia/Libyan Arab Jamahiriya), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1982,
p. 60, para. 71.
7 See also Delimitation of the Maritime Boundary in the Gulf of Maine Area (Canada/
United States of America), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1984, p. 278, para. 59, p. 303, para. 123;
activités armées (op. ind. iwasawa) 194
185
7. Dans l’affaire du Différend frontalier, la chambre a cité, à l’appui de
sa position, un passage des arrêts rendus dans les affaires de la Compétence
en matière de pêcheries, dans lequel la Cour, priant instamment les
parties de conduire leurs négociations de manière à parvenir à une « répartition
équitable » des ressources halieutiques, déclarait : « Il ne s’agit pas
simplement d’arriver à une solution équitable, mais d’arriver à une solution
équitable qui repose sur le droit applicable. » 3
8. Dans les affaires de la Compétence en matière de pêcheries, la Cour
s’est référée à l’arrêt qu’elle avait rendu dans les affaires du Plateau continental
de la mer du Nord, où elle faisait observer que les règles de droit
relatives à la délimitation des plateaux continentaux limitrophes devaient
être appliquées sur la base de préceptes généraux de justice et de bonne
foi, ajoutant qu’« il ne s’agit pas d’appliquer l’équité simplement comme
une représentation de la justice abstraite, mais d’appliquer une règle de
droit prescrivant le recours à des principes équitables » 4. Et de souligner :
« Quel que soit le raisonnement juridique du juge, ses décisions
doivent par définition être justes, donc en ce sens équitables. Néanmoins,
lorsqu’on parle du juge qui rend la justice ou qui dit le droit,
il s’agit de [la] justification objective de ses décisions non pas au‑delà
des textes mais selon les textes et dans ce domaine c’est précisément
une règle de droit qui appelle l’application de principes équitables. Il
n’est par conséquent pas question en l’espèce d’une décision ex aequo
et bono ». 5
Dans l’affaire du Plateau continental (Tunisie/Jamahiriya arabe libyenne),
la Cour a explicité la fonction des principes équitables comme suit :
« [L]a notion juridique d’équité est un principe général directement
applicable en tant que droit… [E]n appliquant le droit international
positif, un tribunal peut choisir entre plusieurs interprétations possibles
celle qui lui paraît la plus conforme aux exigences de la justice
dans les circonstances de l’espèce. Il faut distinguer entre l’application
de principes équitables et le fait de rendre une décision ex aequo
et bono… [La Cour] doit appliquer les principes équitables comme
partie intégrante du droit international ». 6
Ainsi que le démontrent ces affaires, les principes équitables mis en
oeuvre par la Cour dans le contexte de la délimitation maritime constituent
une forme d’équité infra legem 7.
3 Compétence en matière de pêcheries (Royaume‑Uni c. Islande), fond, arrêt,
C.I.J. Recueil 1974, p. 33, par. 78 ; Compétence en matière de pêcheries (République fédérale
d’Allemagne c. Islande), fond, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1974, p. 202, par. 69.
4 Plateau continental de la mer du Nord (République fédérale d’Allemagne/Danemark ;
République fédérale d’Allemagne/Pays‑Bas), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1969, p. 46-47, par. 85.
5 Ibid., p. 48, par. 88.
6 Plateau continental (Tunisie/Jamahiriya arabe libyenne), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1982,
p. 60, par. 71.
7 Voir également Délimitation de la frontière maritime dans la région du golfe du Maine
(Canada/Etats‑Unis d’Amérique), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1984, p. 278, par. 59, p. 303,
195 armed activities (sep. op. iwasawa)
186
9. Similarly, having regard to equitable considerations in determining
the amount of compensation, as the Court has done in the present case,
is an application of equity infra legem, not a decision ex aequo et bono.
This is also attested to by the Court’s Advisory Opinion in Judgments of
the Administrative Tribunal of the ILO upon Complaints Made against
UNESCO. In that case, the Executive Board of UNESCO alleged that
the validity of the judgments of the ILO Administrative Tribunal
was vitiated
by excess of jurisdiction “on the ground that it awarded compensation
ex aequo et bono” 8. The ILO Tribunal had stated in its judgment
“[t]hat redress [would] be ensured ex aequo et bono by the granting
to the complainant of the sum set forth below” 9. It was unfortunate that
the Tribunal used the expression ex aequo et bono because it was in
fact applying equity infra legem. The Court explained this point as
follows:
“It does not appear from the context of the judgment that the Tribunal
thereby intended to depart from principles of law. The apparent
intention was to say that, as the precise determination of the actual
amount to be awarded could not be based on any specific rule of law,
the Tribunal fixed what the Court, in other circumstances, has
described as the true measure of compensation and the reasonable
figure of such compensation” 10.
10. In many cases where it has been impossible to quantify the damage
precisely, international tribunals have applied equity infra legem in determining
the amount of compensation. They have done so when the treaty
establishing the tribunal authorized it to decide in accordance with
“equity” or to award “equitable compensation” 11. However, even when
they were not explicitly given authority to decide in accordance with
Continental Shelf (Libyan Arab Jamahiriya/Malta), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1985, pp. 38‑39,
para. 45; Maritime Delimitation in the Area between Greenland and Jan Mayen (Denmark v.
Norway), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1993, p. 62, para. 54; Delimitation of the Continental Shelf
between the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, and the French Republic
(United Kingdom/France), Decision of 30 June 1977, United Nations, Reports of International
Arbitral Awards (RIAA), Vol. XVIII, pp. 45‑46, para. 70, pp. 47‑48, para. 75.
8 Judgments of the Administrative Tribunal of the ILO upon Complaints Made against
UNESCO, Advisory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports 1956, p. 100.
9 Ibid.
10 Ibid., referring to Corfu Channel, note 18 below.
11 E.g. Case of Yuille, Shortridge and Cie (Portugal v. Great Britain), Decision of
21 October 1861, in A. Lapradelle and N. Politis, Recueil des arbitrages internationaux,
Vol. II (1856‑1872), 1923, p. 108; Affaire des propriétés religieuses (France, United
Kingdom, Spain v. Portugal), Decision of 2 September 1920, RIAA, Vol. I, p. 16; John Gill
(Great Britain) v. United Mexican States, Decision of 19 May 1931, RIAA, Vol. V, p. 162,
para. 12; Dennis J. and Daniel Spillane (Great Britain) v. United Mexican States, Decision
of 3 August 1931, RIAA, Vol. V, p. 290, para. 7. Some tribunals used the expression
ex aequo et bono in doing so, e.g. The Orinoco Steamship Company Case (United States
of America, Venezuela), Decision of 25 October 1910, RIAA, Vol. XI, p. 240; Norwegian
Shipowners’ Claims (Norway v. USA), Decision of 13 October 1922, RIAA, Vol. I, p. 339.
activités armées (op. ind. iwasawa) 195
186
9. De même, la prise en compte de considérations d’équité pour déterminer
le montant de l’indemnité, comme l’a fait la Cour en l’espèce, est
une application de l’équité infra legem et ne revient pas à rendre une décision
ex aequo et bono. Cela est également attesté par l’avis consultatif de
la Cour sur l’affaire des Jugements du Tribunal administratif de l’OIT sur
requêtes contre l’UNESCO. Dans cette affaire, le Conseil exécutif de
l’UNESCO soutenait que la validité des jugements du Tribunal administratif
de l’OIT était viciée par un dépassement de compétence « du fait
qu’il a[vait] été accordé des indemnités ex aequo et bono » 8. Dans son
jugement, le Tribunal de l’OIT avait dit que « la réparation sera[it] assurée
ex aequo et bono par l’allocation au requérant du montant [indiqué] » 9. Il
est malheureux que le Tribunal ait employé l’expression « ex aequo
et bono » alors qu’il s’agissait en réalité d’une application de l’équité infra
legem. La Cour a explicité ce point de la façon suivante :
« [L]e contexte ne fait nullement apparaître que le Tribunal ait
entendu par là se départir des principes du droit. Il a voulu seulement
énoncer que, le calcul du montant de l’indemnité ne pouvant
pas être déduit de règles de droit posées à cet effet, il entendait fixer
ce que la Cour a, en d’autres circonstances, appelé la juste mesure de
la réparation, le chiffre raisonnable de celle‑ci ». 10
10. Dans de nombreuses affaires où il était impossible de quantifier les
dommages avec précision, les tribunaux internationaux ont appliqué
l’équité infra legem pour déterminer le montant de l’indemnité. Ils ont
procédé de la sorte dès lors que leur traité fondateur les autorisait à statuer
en « équité » ou à accorder une « indemnité équitable » 11. Cependant,
même lorsqu’ils n’étaient pas explicitement habilités à statuer en « équité »,
par. 123 ; Plateau continental (Jamahiriya arabe libyenne/Malte), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1985,
p. 38‑39, par. 45 ; Délimitation maritime dans la région située entre le Groenland et Jan
Mayen (Danemark c. Norvège), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1993, p. 62, par. 54 ; Délimitation
du plateau continental entre le Royaume-Uni de Grande-Bretagne
et d’Irlande du Nord
et la République française (Royaume‑Uni/France), décision du 30 juin 1977, Nations Unies,
Recueil des sentences arbitrales (RSA), vol. XVIII, p. 45‑46, par. 70, p. 47‑48, par. 75.
8 Jugements du Tribunal administratif de l’OIT sur requêtes contre l’UNESCO, avis
consultatif, C.I.J. Recueil 1956, p. 100.
9 Ibid.
10 Ibid., faisant référence à l’affaire du Détroit de Corfou, note 18 ci‑dessous.
11 Voir, par exemple, Affaire Yuille, Shortridge et Cie (Portugal c. Grande-Bretagne),
décision du 21 octobre 1861, dans A. Lapradelle et N. Politis, Recueil des arbitrages internationaux,
vol. II (1856‑1872), 1923, p. 108 ; Affaire des propriétés religieuses (France,
Royaume‑Uni, Espagne c. Portugal), décision du 2 septembre 1920, RSA, vol. I, p. 16 ; John
Gill (Great Britain) v. United Mexican States, décision du 19 mai 1931, RSA, vol. V, p. 162,
par. 12 ; Dennis J. and Daniel Spillane (Great Britain) v. United Mexican States, décision
du 3 août 1931, RSA, vol. V, p. 290, par. 7. Dans ces affaires, certains tribunaux ont
utilisé l’expression « ex aequo et bono », notamment dans l’affaire The Orinoco Steamship
Company Case (United States of America, Venezuela), décision du 25 octobre 1910, RSA,
vol. XI, p. 240 ; Norwegian Shipowners’ Claims (Norway v. USA), décision du 13 octobre
1922, RSA, vol. I, p. 339.
196 armed activities (sep. op. iwasawa)
187
“equity”, they have not hesitated to apply equity infra legem in determining
the amount of compensation 12.
In the Loan Agreement between Italy and Costa Rica arbitration, the
Arbitration Agreement provided that the arbitral tribunal should decide
the dispute “in accordance with the relevant rules of international law”,
pursuant to Article 33 of the Permanent Court of Arbitration Optional
Rules for Arbitrating Disputes between Two States, which, in the tribunal’s
words, “mirrors the well‑known Article 38 of the Statute of the
International Court of Justice on the sources of jus gentium” 13. The tribunal
relied on equity infra legem in determining the global sum of compensation
in this case, noting that:
“[t]he Arbitral Tribunal is called upon . . . to assess the global sum
due . . . under the relevant rules of international law, and in particular
the equitable principles deriving from the notion of justice, which
govern international judicial and arbitral practice, taking account of
all the circumstances” 14.
It emphasized that it was not deciding ex aequo et bono, stating that:
“public international law is traditionally imbued with, or influenced
by, equitable principles as modes of applying a rule infra legem, entailing
the tangible adaptation of a norm to the particular circumstances
of the case . . . It is important to avoid any confusion here between
the role of equitable considerations within the system of applicable
law and a decision ‘ex aequo et bono’, which ‘is something quite different’”
15.
11. As concerns the EECC, Article 5, paragraph 13, of the 2000 Algiers
Agreement, which established the Commission, provided: “In considering
12 E.g. Affaire de l’attaque de la caravane du Maharao de Cutch (United Kingdom v.
Ethiopia), Decision of 7 October 1927, RIAA, Vol. II, p. 826; Affaire Chevreau (France v.
United Kingdom), Decision of 9 June 1931, RIAA, Vol. II, p. 1139; Trail Smelter case
(United States, Canada), Awards of 16 April 1938 and 11 March 1941, RIAA, Vol. III,
pp. 1938‑1939; LIAMCO v. Libya, Decision of 12 April 1977, International Law Reports
(ILR), Vol. 62, pp. 150‑151. Some tribunals also used the expression ex aequo et bono
in these cases, e.g. Affaire Lacaze (France v. Argentina), Decision of 19 March 1864,
in A. Lapradelle and N. Politis, op. cit., note 11, p. 298; Sapphire International Petroleums
Ltd. v. National Iranian Oil Company, Decision of 15 March 1963, ILR, Vol. 35,
pp. 189‑190.
13 Loan Agreement between Italy and Costa Rica (Dispute Arising under a Financing
Agreement), Decision of 26 June 1998, RIAA, Vol. XXV, p. 56, para. 16. [This and all
subsequent excerpts from the tribunal’s decision have been translated by the Registry.]
14 Ibid., pp. 74‑75, para. 76.
15 Ibid., pp. 72‑73, paras. 69-70, citing Judge Fitzmaurice, who stated that “[d]eciding a
case on the basis of rules of equity . . . is something quite different from giving a decision
ex aequo et bono”, Barcelona Traction, Light and Power Company, Limited (New Application:
1962) (Belgium v. Spain), Second Phase, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1970, separate
opinion of Judge Sir Gerald Fitzmaurice, p. 85, para. 36 (emphasis in the original).
activités armées (op. ind. iwasawa) 196
187
ils n’ont pas hésité à appliquer l’équité infra legem pour déterminer le
montant de l’indemnité en question 12.
Dans l’affaire du Contrat de prêt entre l’Italie et le Costa Rica, le compromis
d’arbitrage prévoyait que le tribunal arbitral statuerait sur le litige
« conformément aux règles pertinentes du droit international », en vertu
de l’article 33 du Règlement facultatif de la Cour permanente d’arbitrage
pour l’arbitrage des différends entre deux Etats, qui, selon les termes du
tribunal, « reflète l’article 38 bien connu du Statut de la Cour internationale
de Justice sur les sources du jus gentium » 13. Pour déterminer le montant
global de l’indemnité dans cette affaire, le tribunal s’est fondé sur
l’équité infra legem, relevant que :
« [le] Tribunal arbitral [était] appelé … à estimer le montant global
dû … selon les normes pertinentes du droit international et notamment
les principes équitables, découlant de l’idée de justice, qui
dominent la pratique judiciaire et arbitrale internationale, en tenant
compte de toutes les circonstances » 14.
Il a souligné qu’il ne statuait pas ex aequo et bono, déclarant ceci :
« [L]e droit international public est traditionnellement imprégné
de, ou influencé par, des principes équitables comme modalités d’application
infra legem de la règle, impliquant l’adaptation concrète
d’une norme aux particularités de l’espèce… II convient d’éviter ici
une confusion entre ce rôle des considérations équitables relevant du
système de droit applicable, d’une part, et le cas de la décision
« ex aequo et bono », qui sont « deux choses entièrement différentes
» » 15.
11. Le paragraphe 13 de l’article 5 de l’accord de paix entre l’Erythrée
et l’Ethiopie signé à Alger le 12 décembre 2000, lequel porte création de
12 Voir, par exemple, Affaire de l’attaque de la caravane du Maharao de Cutch
(Royaume‑Uni c. Ethiopie), décision du 7 octobre 1927, RSA, vol. II, p. 826 ; Affaire
Chevreau (France c. Royaume‑Uni), décision du 9 juin 1931, RSA, vol. II, p. 1139 ; Trail
Smelter case (United States, Canada), sentences des 16 avril 1938 et 11 mars 1941, RSA,
vol. III, p. 1938‑1939 ; LIAMCO v. Libya, décision du 12 avril 1977, International Law
Reports (ILR), vol. 62, p. 150‑151. Certains tribunaux ont également employé l’expression
« ex aequo et bono » dans d’autres affaires, notamment Affaire Lacaze (France c. Argentine),
décision du 19 mars 1864, dans A. Lapradelle et N. Politis, op. cit., note 11, p. 298 ; Sapphire
International Petroleums Ltd. v. National Iranian Oil Company, décision du 15 mars 1963,
ILR, vol. 35, p. 189‑190.
13 Contrat de prêt entre l’Italie et le Costa Rica (litige portant sur un recouvrement de
crédit), décision du 26 juin 1998, RSA, vol. XXV, p. 56, par. 16. [Cet extrait de la décision
du tribunal et les suivants ont été traduits par le Greffe.]
14 Ibid., p. 74‑75, par. 76.
15 Ibid., p. 72‑73, par. 69‑70, citant le juge Fitzmaurice, selon lequel « [s]tatuer sur une
affaire selon des règles d’equity … et rendre une décision ex aequo et bono sont deux choses
entièrement différentes », Barcelona Traction, Light and Power Company, Limited (nouvelle
requête : 1962) (Belgique c. Espagne), deuxième phase, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1970, opinion
individuelle de sir Gerald Fitzmaurice, p. 85, par. 36 (les italiques sont dans l’original).
197 armed activities (sep. op. iwasawa)
188
claims, the Commission shall apply relevant rules of international law.
The Commission shall not have the power to make decisions ex aequo
et bono.” 16 In examining the compensation claims, the EECC recognized
the difficulties associated with questions of proof, the evidence often being
uncertain or ambiguous. Accordingly, it determined “the appropriate
compensation for each . . . violation”, which “requir[ed] exercises of judgment
and approximation”. It “made the best estimates possible on the
basis of the available evidence” 17. While not expressly referring to equitable
considerations, it is clear that the EECC took account of them in
determining the amount of compensation.
12. In Corfu Channel, in fixing the amount of compensation, the Court
considered what would be the “true measure of compensation”, “reasonable”
figures, and a “fair and accurate” estimate of the damage sustained
18. This language indicates that the Court took account of equitable
considerations in determining the amount of compensation.
13. In more recent compensation judgments, the Court has explicitly
referred to equitable considerations. In Diallo, it stated that the “[q]uantification
of compensation for non-material
injury necessarily rests on
equitable considerations” and noted that “[e]quitable considerations have
guided” arbitral tribunals and regional human rights courts in “their
quantification of compensation for non-material
harm” 19. In particular,
it quoted a judgment of the European Court of Human Rights which
stated that, for determining damage, “[i]ts guiding principle is equity” 20.
It also quoted a judgment of the Inter-American
Court of Human Rights
which affirmed that the amount of compensation for non-pecuniary
damages
may be determined “in reasonable exercise of its judicial
authority
and on the basis of equity” 21. As for the material injury
suffered
by Mr. Diallo, given the circumstances of the case, including
the shortcomings
in the evidence, the Court “consider[ed] it appropri-
16 Agreement between the Government of the State of Eritrea and the Government
of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, 12 December 2000, UN doc. A/55/686-
S/2000/1183, 13 December 2000, Annex, Art. 5, para. 13.
17 EECC, Final Award, Eritrea’s Damages Claims, Decision of 17 August 2009, RIAA,
Vol. XXVI, p. 528, para. 37; EECC, Final Award, Ethiopia’s Damages Claims, Decision of
17 August 2009, ibid., p. 655, para. 37.
18 Corfu Channel (United Kingdom v. Albania), Assessment of Amount of Compensation,
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1949, p. 249.
19 Ahmadou Sadio Diallo (Republic of Guinea v. Democratic Republic of the Congo),
Compensation, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2012 (I), pp. 334‑335, para. 24.
20 ECtHR, Al-Jedda v. United Kingdom, Judgment of 7 July 2011 (Grand Chamber),
Application No. 27021/08, para. 114.
21 IACtHR, Cantoral-Benavides v. Peru, Judgment of 3 December 2001 (Reparation
and Costs), Series C, No. 88, para. 53.
activités armées (op. ind. iwasawa) 197
188
la Commission des réclamations entre l’Erythrée et l’Ethiopie (CREE),
dispose ce qui suit : « Lorsqu’elle examinera les demandes d’indemnisation,
la Commission appliquera les règles de droit international
pertinentes.
Elle ne sera pas habilitée à statuer ex aequo et bono. » 16 Lors
de l’examen des demandes d’indemnisation, la CREE a reconnu les
difficultés
liées aux questions relatives à la preuve, les éléments de preuve
étant souvent incertains ou ambigus. En conséquence, la CREE a
déterminé
« la juste indemnité due à raison de chaque manquement », ce
qui « exige[ait] de faire preuve de bon sens et de procéder à des estimations
approximatives ». Elle a « réalisé les meilleures estimations possible
sur la base des éléments de preuve disponibles » 17. Sans qu’il y soit fait
expressément référence, il est évident que la CREE a tenu compte de
considérations d’équité pour déterminer le montant de l’indemnité
à verser.
12. Dans l’affaire du Détroit de Corfou, la Cour, pour fixer le montant
des réparations, a examiné ce qui constituerait la « juste mesure de la
réparation », un chiffre « raisonnable » et une estimation « juste et équitable
» des dommages subis 18. Ce langage indique que la Cour a tenu
compte de considérations d’équité pour déterminer le montant de l’indemnité
à verser.
13. Dans des arrêts plus récents sur la question, la Cour a explicitement
mentionné des considérations d’équité. Dans l’affaire Diallo, elle a
déclaré que « [l]a détermination du montant de l’indemnité due à raison
d’un préjudice immatériel repos[ait] nécessairement sur des considérations
d’équité » et indiqué que des tribunaux arbitraux et des juridictions régionales
garantes des droits de l’homme s’étaient fondés « sur des considérations
d’équité pour chiffrer l’indemnité due au titre du préjudice
immatériel » 19. Elle a notamment cité un arrêt de la Cour européenne des
droits de l’homme, qui, pour quantifier le préjudice, s’était dite « guidée
par le principe de l’équité » 20. Elle a également rappelé un arrêt de la Cour
interaméricaine des droits de l’homme, dans lequel cette dernière affirmait
que le montant de l’indemnité à verser au titre de dommages immatériels
pouvait être déterminé « dans l’exercice raisonnable de son pouvoir juridictionnel
et sur la base de l’équité » 21. Concernant le préjudice matériel
16 Accord entre le Gouvernement de l’Etat d’Erythrée et le Gouvernement de la
République fédérale démocratique d’Ethiopie, 12 décembre 2000, Nations Unies,
doc. A/55/686‑S/2000/1183, 13 décembre 2000, annexe, art. 5, par. 13.
17 CREE, Sentence finale, Réclamations de l’Erythrée, décision du 17 août 2009, RSA,
vol. XXVI, p. 528, par. 37 ; CREE, Sentence finale, Réclamations de l’Ethiopie, décision du
17 août 2009, ibid., p. 655, par. 37.
18 Détroit de Corfou (Royaume‑Uni c. Albanie), fixation du montant des réparations,
arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1949, p. 249.
19 Ahmadou Sadio Diallo (République de Guinée c. République démocratique du Congo),
indemnisation, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2012 (I), p. 334‑335, par. 24.
20 CEDH, Al‑Jedda c. Royaume-Uni, arrêt du 7 juillet 2011 (Grande Chambre), requête
no 27021/08, par. 114.
21 CIADH, Cantoral‑Benavides c. Pérou, arrêt du 3 décembre 2001 (réparation et frais
de justice), série C, no 88, par. 53.
198 armed activities (sep. op. iwasawa)
189
ate to award an amount of compensation based on equitable
considerations” 22.
14. In Certain Activities Carried Out by Nicaragua in the Border Area
(Costa Rica v. Nicaragua), the Court observed that in the Diallo case it
had “determined the amount of compensation due on the basis of equitable
considerations”, recalling that “the absence of adequate evidence as
to the extent of material damage will not, in all situations, preclude an
award of compensation for that damage” 23. It thus awarded “an amount
that it consider[ed] approximately to reflect the value of the impairment
or loss” 24.
15. In the present case, the Court cites a decision of the ICC Trial
Chamber in the Lubanga case which “reckon[ed] ex aequo et bono” the
harm suffered by each child soldier at US$8,000 25 (Judgment, para. 205).
The Court refers to this decision merely as one example of the methodologies
for assigning a specific valuation of damage in respect of a child
soldier. The Court does not decide this case, or any aspect thereof, ex
aequo et bono.
II. Criminal Investigation and Prosecution
16. In the present case, the DRC argues that compensation is not
sufficient
to remedy fully the damage caused, and asks that Uganda
be required to give satisfaction in the form of criminal investigation
and prosecution of UPDF officers and soldiers. The Court rejects this
request, explaining that there is no need to order such a specific measure
because Uganda already has an obligation to investigate, prosecute and
punish those responsible for grave breaches of the Geneva Conventions,
pursuant to Article 146 of the Fourth Geneva Convention and Article 85
of the First Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions (Judgment,
para. 390).
17. In its 2005 Judgment, the Court found that the UPDF had
committed
not only “grave breaches of international humanitarian
law” but also “massive human rights violations” on the territory of the
22 Ahmadou Sadio Diallo (Republic of Guinea v. Democratic Republic of the Congo),
Compensation, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2012 (I), p. 337, para. 33. See also ibid., p. 338,
para. 36.
23 Certain Activities Carried Out by Nicaragua in the Border Area (Costa Rica v. Nicaragua),
Compensation, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2018 (I), pp. 26‑27, para. 35.
24 Ibid., pp. 38‑39, para. 86.
25 The Prosecutor v. Thomas Lubanga Dyilo, ICC-01/04-01/06, Trial Chamber II,
“Decision Setting the Size of the Reparations Award for which Thomas Lubanga Dyilo Is
Liable”, 21 December 2017, para. 259.
activités armées (op. ind. iwasawa) 198
189
subi par M. Diallo, étant donné les circonstances de l’affaire, notamment
les failles du dossier, la Cour « [a] estim[é] approprié d’accorder une
indemnité … calculée sur la base de considérations d’équité » 22.
14. Dans l’affaire relative à Certaines activités menées par le Nicaragua
dans la région frontalière (Costa Rica c. Nicaragua), la Cour a fait observer
que, dans l’affaire Ahmadou Sadio Diallo, elle avait « déterminé le
montant de l’indemnité due sur la base de considérations d’équité », rappelant
que « l’absence d’éléments de preuve suffisants quant à l’étendue
des dommages matériels n’exclu[ai]t pas dans tous les cas l’octroi d’une
indemnisation pour ces derniers » 23. Elle a donc octroyé « une somme qui,
selon elle, refl[é]t[ait] approximativement la valeur de la dégradation ou
de la perte » 24.
15. En la présente espèce, la Cour cite une décision rendue par une
chambre de première instance de la Cour pénale internationale (CPI) qui,
dans l’affaire Lubanga, « [a] évalu[é] ex aequo et bono » à 8000 dollars des
Etats‑Unis le préjudice subi par chaque enfant‑soldat 25 (arrêt, par. 205).
La Cour mentionne cette décision comme un simple exemple des méthodes
utilisées pour chiffrer précisément les dommages infligés aux enfants‑soldats.
La Cour ne statue pas ici ex aequo et bono, qu’il s’agisse de l’affaire
dans son ensemble ou de l’un quelconque des aspects de celle‑ci.
II. Enquêtes et poursuites pénales
16. En la présente espèce, la RDC a fait valoir qu’une indemnisation
ne suffirait pas à remédier complètement aux dommages causés, et
demandé que l’Ouganda fût tenu de donner satisfaction par le biais de la
conduite d’enquêtes et l’engagement de poursuites pénales à l’encontre
des officiers et des soldats des UPDF. La Cour rejette cette demande au
motif qu’il n’y a pas lieu d’ordonner une telle mesure puisque l’Ouganda,
en vertu de l’article 146 de la quatrième convention de Genève et de l’article
85 du premier protocole additionnel aux conventions de Genève, a
déjà l’obligation de conduire des enquêtes, d’engager des poursuites et
d’appliquer des sanctions à l’encontre des personnes responsables d’infractions
graves aux conventions de Genève (arrêt, par. 390).
17. Dans son arrêt de 2005, la Cour a conclu que les UPDF avaient
commis non seulement « de graves manquements au droit international
humanitaire » mais également « des violations massives des droits de
22 Ahmadou Sadio Diallo (République de Guinée c. République démocratique du Congo),
indemnisation, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2012 (I), p. 337, par. 33. Voir aussi ibid., p. 338,
par. 36.
23 Certaines activités menées par le Nicaragua dans la région frontalière (Costa Rica
c. Nicaragua), indemnisation, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2018 (I), p. 26‑27, par. 35.
24 Ibid., p. 38‑39, par. 86.
25 CPI, Le Procureur c. Thomas Lubanga Dyilo, ICC‑01/04‑01/06, chambre de première
instance II, « Décision fixant le montant des réparations auxquelles Thomas Lubanga
Dyilo est tenu », 21 décembre 2017, par. 259.
199 armed activities (sep. op. iwasawa)
190
DRC 26. The Court found inter alia that Uganda had violated Article 6,
paragraph 1 (right to life), and Article 7 (right not to be subjected to torture)
of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (hereinafter
the “ICCPR”) 27. In light of this finding, in rejecting the DRC’s
request for satisfaction, the Court could have given as an additional reason
that Uganda already has an obligation to investigate, prosecute and
punish those responsible for the violations of Articles 6 and 7 of the
ICCPR, pursuant to Article 2, paragraph 3, of that instrument, read in
conjunction with Articles 6 and 7.
18. Article 2, paragraph 3, of the ICCPR sets out the obligation of
States parties to provide an effective remedy to the victims of human
rights violations. In accordance with this clause, read in conjunction with
Articles 6 and 7, criminal investigation and, where appropriate, prosecution
are necessary remedies for violations of human rights protected by
Articles 6 and 7. This interpretation of the ICCPR corresponds to the
interpretation consistently maintained in the jurisprudence of the Human
Rights Committee, the body established by the ICCPR to monitor its
implementation 28.
(Signed) Iwasawa Yuji.
26 Armed Activities on the Territory of the Congo (Democratic Republic of the Congo v.
Uganda), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2005, p. 239, para. 207.
27 Ibid., p. 244, para. 219.
28 E.g. Human Rights Committee, Sathasivam and Saraswathi v. Sri Lanka, 8 July 2008,
Communication No. 1436/2005, para. 6.4; Amirov v. Russian Federation, 2 April 2009,
Communication No. 1447/2006, para. 11.2. See also General Comment No. 31: The Nature
of the General Legal Obligation Imposed on States Parties to the Covenant, 29 March 2004,
paras. 16 and 18; General Comment No. 36: Right to Life, 30 October 2018, para. 27.
activités armées (op. ind. iwasawa) 199
190
l’homme » sur le territoire de la RDC 26. Elle a conclu, entre autres, que
l’Ouganda avait violé le paragraphe 1 de l’article 6 (droit à la vie) et l’article
7 (droit à ne pas être soumis à la torture) du Pacte international
relatif aux droits civils et politiques (ci‑après le « Pacte ») 27. A la lumière
de cette conclusion, la Cour, en rejetant la demande de satisfaction présentée
par la RDC, aurait pu donner comme motif supplémentaire que
l’Ouganda a déjà l’obligation de conduire des enquêtes, d’engager des
poursuites et d’appliquer des sanctions à l’encontre des responsables de
violations des articles 6 et 7 du Pacte, en vertu du paragraphe 3 de l’article
2 de cet instrument, lu conjointement avec ses articles 6 et 7.
18. Le paragraphe 3 de l’article 2 du Pacte énonce l’obligation pour les
Etats parties d’offrir un recours utile aux victimes de violations des droits
de l’homme. Selon cette clause, lue conjointement avec les articles 6 et 7,
la conduite d’enquêtes et, le cas échéant, l’engagement de poursuites
pénales sont des recours nécessaires en cas de violations de droits de
l’homme protégés par les articles 6 et 7. Cette interprétation du Pacte correspond
à celle défendue avec constance dans la jurisprudence du Comité
des droits de l’homme, l’organe institué par le Pacte aux fins de surveiller
sa mise en oeuvre 28.
(Signé) Iwasawa Yuji.
26 Activités armées sur le territoire du Congo (République démocratique du Congo
c. Ouganda), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2005, p. 239, par. 207.
27 Ibid., p. 244, par. 219.
28 Par exemple, Comité des droits de l’homme, Sathasivam et Saraswathi c. Sri Lanka,
8 juillet 2008, communication no 1436/2005, par. 6.4 ; Amirov c. Fédération de Russie,
2 avril 2009, communication no 1447/2006, par. 11.2. Voir aussi Observation générale no 31 :
La nature de l’obligation juridique générale imposée aux Etats parties au Pacte, 29 mars
2004, par. 16 et 18 ; Observation générale no 36 : Le droit à la vie, 30 octobre 2018, par. 27.
Separate opinion of Judge Iwasawa