Dissenting Opinion by Judge Winiarski (translation)

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008-19500330-ADV-01-02-EN
Parent Document Number
008-19500330-ADV-01-00-EN
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Bilingual Document File

DISSENTING OPINION OF JUDGE \VINIARSKI

[Translation]
1was, and remain, profoundly convinced that the Court should
not have given the Opinion requested of it by the General Assem-

bly ; it is my duty to Say why.
I. From the very beginning of the activities of the Permanent
Court of International Justice, serious doubts and grave preoccu-
pations arose concerning its advisory functions which were an
innovation in the field of international jurisdiction introduced
by Article 14 of the Covenant of the League of Nations. The
important problem which the Court had to solve was to reconcile
its advisory functions with its character as a court of justice,
a judicial and independent organ of international law. Two
dangers were to be avoided : on the one hand if its opinions

were not invested with guarantees of thorough examination
and objectivity they would run the risk of being regarded as
mere legal utterances with no other authority than that of the
names of their authors ; and during the debate on the first Rules
of Court (1922), Judge J. B. Moore said, rightly : "If the opinions
are treated as mere utterances and freely discarded, they will
inevitably bring the Court into disrepute." On the other hand,
the danger existed of introducing compulsory jurisdiction through
the indirect channel of advisory opinions. Article 14 of the Covenant
gave the Court the power to give an advisory opinion upon any
dispute or question referred to it by the Council or by the
Assembly. In giving an advisory opinion on a legal question
relating to a dispute actually existing between States, the Court
would pronounce in fact, if not in law, upon the dispute itself
for which, however, the party had not accepted its jurisdiction.
Hence the Permanent Court, from the very beginning of its
activity, decided to ward off this double danger by investing
the exercise of its advisory functions with judicial forms and

guarantees. The famous case of Eastern Carelia (Opinion No. 5,
1923) permitted it to express in this connexion considerations
which led it to refuse to give the Opinion which the Council
had requested. The Permanent Court, which was then bound
neither by texts nor by precedents, thus showed that it did not
intend to be merely the adviser, ad nutum advocabilis, of the
Council or of the Assembly ; that it remained a court of justice,
even when examining a request for opinion, acting in a judicial
manner and respecting the principles of procedure, and above
all, having a clear vision of the prospects open to its advisory
action, of the advantages and dangers of this innovation. It felt
that it was bound by principles and by the high conception it
had of its Opinions.

28 DIÇSENTING OPINION OF JUDGE WINIARSKI go

Since then, the advisory procedure has developed in so far
as the texts which regulate it are concerned : the Rules as revised
in 1926 and 1927, the Statute as revised in 1929, and finally,
the Rules as revised in 1936, show the different stages in this
development, which al1 tend in the same direction : first cm-
vergence, then substantial assimilation of the two procedures ;
and the assimilation is alrnost complete in cases which refer to
disputes which have actually arisen between two or more States.
There is nothing arbitrary about this assimilation : the Committee
of Jurists which was entrusted in 1920 with the elaboration of
the Statute of the Permanent Court, clearly understood the

difference between a legal question considered in abstracto and
a dispute which might be settled by advisory procedure almost
as much as by contentious procedure. Later, disputes of this
kind were referred to the Court for advisory opinion by a political
organ upon the initiative of the parties, and use has even been
made of the term advisory arbitration, a new and interesting
form of peaceful settlement of international disputes. It is the
similarity in the two situations which determines the similarity
in the procedure.
The principles respected by the Permanent Court were of two
kinds ; first, principles of procedure : the rule audiatzcr et altera
$ars and the equality of parties before the judge. At the Conference
of 1929, a voice of authority (that of M. Fromageot, who later
in the same year was elected as a judge of the P.C.I.J.) gave
the following explanation of the revised Article 68 of the Statute :

"It would be quite useless to give an advisory opinion after hearing
only one side. For the opinion to be useful both parties must
be heard. It is therefore quite natural to lay down in the Statute
of the Court that, in regard to advisory opinions, the Court should
proceed in al1 respects in the same way as in contentious cases."
The. Conference did not fail to show that it attached great import-
ance to this explanation, and transmitted it to the Assembly.
Finally, and above the principles of judicial procedure, is the
principle of international law according to which "no State can,
without its consent, be compelled to submit its disputes with other
States either to mediation or to arbitration, or to any other kind
of pacific settlement" (Opinion No. 5) ; this is the principle of
the independence of States expressed in the adage of old Polish
law : nihil de nobis sine nobis. The attitude of the Permanent
Court found confirmation in the Final Act of the Conference of

States signatories to the Statute of the Permanent Court (1926),in
respect of the second part of the fifth reservation of the United
States of America, which was as follows : "The Court shall not,
without the consent of the United States, entertain any request
for an advisory opinion touching any dispute or question in which
the United States has or claims an interest." In reply, the Final
Act merely referred to the practice of the Court :"This jurispru-
dence, as formulated in Advisory Opinion No. 5 (Eastern Carelia),

29 DISSENTING OPINION OF JUDGE WINIARSKI 9I

given on 23rd July, 1923, seems to meet the desire of the United
States." There is nothing to show that the Permanent Court ever
departed from the principles laid down in Opinion No. 5.

The International Court of Justice cannot disregard the advisory
practice of the old Court, which was so firmly established and
accepted by international jurists as well-founded. The texts which
regulate its advisory functions show that its powers and duties
in this connexion have remained substantially the same; and if
Article 65 of the Statute, in accordance with Article 96 of the

Charter, has abandoned the distinction between "a question" and
"a dispute", and refers to "any legal question", the difference is
so much in the nature of things that Article 68 of the Statute has
not been modified and Article 82 of the Rules of Court, in its
new version, continues to point in the same direction :"The Court
shall above all consider whether the request for the advisory
opinion relates to a legal question actually pending between two
or more States", and, if so, will apply the provisions of the Statute
and of the Rules concerning contentious proceedings. It is tnie
tht the two texts add: "to the extent to which it recognizes
them to be applicable", but there is nothing arbitrary about
the Court's power in this matter; the critenon is objective: if
the Court considers that such is the case, it .must apply these
provisions.
Though assimilated to contentious procedure, advisory procedure

nevertheless maintains its own characteristics and cannot be
identified with the former. Thus the parties to the dispute which
has given rise to the Request for an Opinion, are regarded only
as interested States although they may be authorized to designate
judges ad hoc. Further, the Court is bound by the questions put
toit in the Request for an Opinion and is not bound by the submis-
sions of the parties, although these submissions lose none of their
importance in determining the position of the parties.
The Committee of the Permanent Court which prepared the
revision of the Rules in 1927 (application of Article 31 of the
Statute to advisory opinions) stated in its report :"The Court, in
the exercise of this power, deliberately and advisedly assimilated
its advisory procedure to its contentious procedure ; and the
results have abundantly justified its action. Such prestige as the

Court to-day enjoys as a judicial tribunal is largely due to the
amount of this advisory business and the judicial way in which it
has dealt with such business."
The doctrine of the Permanent Court is perfectly logical. Opinions
are not formallybinding on States nor on the organ which requests
them, they do not have the authority of res judicata ;but the Court
must, in view of its high mission, attribute to them great legal value
and a moral authority. This being the case and if tantum valet DISSENTIXG OPINION OF JEDGE WINIARSKI g2
auctoritas quantum valet ratio, the Court, as a judicial organ, will
surround itself with every guarantee to ensure thorough and
impartial examination of the question. For the same reason,
States see their rights, their political interests and sometimes their

moral position affected by an opinion of the Court, and their
disputes are in fact settled by the answer which is given to a ques-
tion relating to them, which may be a "key question" of the dispute.
This explains the interest States have in being heard in advisory
proceedings, in being represented and being permitted to designate
their national judges, which would be perfectly useless if advisory
opinions were mere utterances having no real importance in respect
of their rights and interests. This is also why the Permanent Court
did not hesitate to grant States the necessary guarantees, and, in
order to exclude any possibility of introducing compulsory jurisdic-
tion by the circuitous means of its advisory opinions, it deliberately
laid down in Opinion No. 5 the principle of the consent of the parties
(Article 36 of the Statute).

The Court must, therefore, consider each request for opinion from
the point of view of principles from which as a judicial tribunal it
cannot depart : audiatur et alterapars, the equality of States before
the judge, the independence of States. It has no doubt the duty to
give the opinions which are requested of it, for this is one of the two

purposes for which it has been constituted ; but there may be impor-
tant legal grounds for not giving an opinion, for example, respect
for the principles which 1 have just recalled, or situations involving
facts which make it impossible for the Court to give an opinion ; in
such exceptional cases, the Court cannot deliver an opinion, and
the texts contemplate this possibility as has been pointed out in the
present Opinion.
1s the Court now confronted with such a case ?

2. First, do international disputes exist to which the present
Request for Opinion relates ? This has been proved and a. great
number of arguments have been marshalled in support of this con-
tention ;the Court is asked to say that such disputes exist, and that
they refer to the interpretation and execution of the Peace Treaties.
Only three of the eleven recitals of the Resolution of the General
Assembly of zznd October, 1949, mention human rights, eight
mention the Peace Treaties and the disputes which have ansen in
respect of these Treaties. It is stated under No. 3 of the conclusions
of the representative of the British Government that : "This dispute

relates pnncipally to the question whether the three Governments
are or are not in breach of the human nghts provisions of the rele-
vant Peace Treaties ...and the obligation to set up a Commission
under the Peace Treaty provisions for the settlement of disputes
...there is therefore a dispute about both the interpretation and the
execution of the Treaties." And, under No. 5 : "The United King- DISSENTING OPIXION OF JUDGE WINIARSKI 94

to carry out", this question refers to the merits of the dispute
concerning the execution of the arbitration clauses. The Assembly
asks the Court to Say whether the three States were right or
wrong to refuse.
It has been said that if the Court were called upon to appraise
the conduct of the three States, then the opinion would be equal
to a judgment and a judgment delivered without the consent
of the interested parties ; and in such a case, the Court should
not give its opinion. Actually, such a condemnation is involved
if the Court says that the States are wrong to refuse to designate
their representatives ; and could the Court have said that they
are right ?

To Say that they are obligated, whereas they denied that they
were under any legal obligation to do so, means that the Court

is pronouncing on the interpretation and application of the
jurisdictional clauses of the Peace Treaties, and this in the first
place is the prerogative of the high contracting parties themselves ;
the Court could not do so without their consent or, at least as
a general rule, without their participation. The Court heard the
interpretation and the conclusions of the United States and the
United Kingdom ;it did not hear statements by the three States.
Finally, the Court should not have ruled out the possibility
of the three States submitting a valid excuse for their conduct.
The fact is that they have refused to carry out the provisions
of the Peace Treaties which relate to arbitration. They do not
desire to carry them out. This refusa1has as its context determined
circumstances and conditions ; it is a concrete case of non-execution
of Treaties (which is half-way between violation and disregard).

How can the Court say that hic et nunc the three States are
obligated to carry out the provisions ?
The refusa1 to carry out a certain clause of a treaty does not,
unfortunately, arise here for the first time ; this happens too
often. There are also cases of legitimaterefusal. Pacta sunt servanda
constitutes the fundamental de of international law and the
basis of international relations ; "respect for the obligations
arising from treaties and other sources of international law"
constitutes the primary duty of any State in its relations with
other States. And yet, there are cases where it is necessary to
readjust, even unilaterally, the application of the letter of the
law to a new situation, just as the municipal judge may mitigate
the excessive hardships of contracts between individuals ; and
there are cases in which a State may reasonably rely upon certain

circumstances to justify, under international law, the non-execution
of certain provisions of a treaty. Such a possibility is expressed
by the clauszlla rebus sic stantibus, summing up the important
problem of strict law and good faith between States. DISSENTING OPINION OF JUDGE TVINIARSKI 95

The grounds given by the three States in the diplomatic
exchanges to justify their refusal may be without value ; but
could they not submit other grounds and what might be the legal
value of such grounds ? Of this the Court knows nothing. In the
circumstances, it seems to me that it is impossible for a court of
justice to establish or determine the obligations of these States.
It is not necessary to discuss the remark which has been made,
namely, that the three States have only to appoint their Commis-
sioners and that the Commissions would pronounce on whether
the charges preferred against them are well-founded. This is a
misunderstanding : Question II asks the Court to Say whether
they are justified in refusing to appoint their Commissioners.

3. It has been said that the Court possesses al1the facts in the

case inasmuch as the three Governments in their notes said a11
that the Court needs to know before pronouncing. 1 cannot accept
this argument. These notes have been put in by the opposite
side as information and have solely the value of information. But
the Court needs more than mere information, however complete
it may be. What the parties said or have to Say, must be said
before the Court in proceed.ings which, though not contentious,
do, nevertheless, cd for the presentation from both sides of
argument, declarations, objections, proof and submissions. Since
this is impossible for the simple reason that the three Governments
have refused to appear, the Court finds itself materially prevented
from giving an opinion under the conditions laid down in its
Statute and Rules.

If it is true that each case must be examined and decided

in view of its peculiar characteristics and circumstances, it is
equally true that, to individual cases, which may be infinitely
varied, the same general rules and principles must apply. Now,
in the present case, not only the provisions of the Statute and
the Rules, but also the rule of equality of parties before
the judge, as well as the rule audiatur et altera pars, that is to
Say, the fundamental principles of law and justice, would be
disregarded, if the Court gave an opinion in the present conditions.

It might be objected that the three Governments were perfectly
free to submit their arguments and evidence to the Court and that
if they did not do so it was because they did not choose to avail
themselves of the opportunity which was offered to them, and
that consequently, the principle of equality has been respected.

During the hearings, one of the representatives went so far as to
rely on Article 53 of the Statute, which provides that whenever
one of the parties does not appear before the Court, the other
party may call upon the Court to decide in favour of its claim.
However incredible this may appear to be, it was stated that the
34 DISSENTIKG OPIKION OF JUDCE WINIARSKT 96

Court can apply the rule of Article 53 tothe present case by analogy.
1Vhat is forgotten is that Article 53 refers to a case in which the
Court has been validly seized by virtue of consent previously
given by the party in default.
In the present case, the thrce States never gave their consent.
The Resolution of the General Assemblj~ of zznd October may
have constituted an offer : if this offer had been accepted by the
three Governments, we might have been confronted by a case
analogous to that of the jorzlm prorogaturn; but nothing of the
kind occurred. Thus, another fundamental principle of inter-
national law makes it impossible for the Court to give its opinion
in the present case :the principle of the independence of States.

A jurisdiction, in our case the jurisdiction of the Court, even though
it is exercising its advisory functions, cannot be imposed upon a
State if that State has not given its consent freely and beforehand.
In accordance with this principle, the authors of the Charter of
the United Nations rejected not only the compulsory jurisdiction
of the Court, but any jurisdiction whatever without the consent
of the interested States-and this applies to Members of the United
Nations. Nothing would be more alien or even contradictory to
this idea, which is one of the bases of the Charter, than to introduce
the compulsory jurisdiction of the Court under the guise of
advisory opinions. This possibility, however, was considered as
early as 1920 as a danger which might arise in a given case ; the
Permanent Court was deeply concerned with eliminating such a
danger.
The Permanent Court attached no importance to the form in
which consent to its jurisdiction was given ; this could be effected

merely fierfacta conclz~deiztia.But the three States have not
accepted the jurisdiction of the Court in any form. Even more :
the Peace Conference of 1946 had inserted a clause into the Peace
Treaties providing for the jurisdiction of the International Court
of Justice in the settlement of disputes concerning the interpretation
and application of these Treaties ; by a decision of the Foreign
Ministers of the Allied Powers, this clause was deleted and was
replaced by a clauseproviding for arbitration by Commissions to be
set up for this purpose. Thus the Court was deliberately ruled
out and its jurisdiction excluded, unless the high contracting
parties should decide in common agreement to refer a certain
case to it.
In respect of the interpretation and execution of the human
rights articles and the arbitration clause, the three Governments
may be at fault ;here, on the particular point of the Court's

jurisdiction, they are right.

4. During the oral proceedings, it was said that a State, however
directly interested it may be, cannot interfere with relations DISSENTING OPINION OF JUDGE WJXIARSKI 97
between organs of the United Nations and frustrate the desire of

the General Assembly to request an advisory opinion of the Court.
It sometimes happens in domestic law that the most certain and
indisputable subjective rights cannot obtain judicial protection
because a rule of procedure, for example, a rule providing the period
fixed for the exercise of some remedy has elapsed and the party is
in default. This is inevitable, for behind the rules of procedure is a
general interest of such importance that it overrides what may be
very legitimate and very important particular interests. The same
considerations apply to international procedure which is, however,
much less severe. But what we have here is a much simpler case. If
the opposition of a State can block the desire of the Assembly to
obtain an opinion from the Court, it is because this opposition is
grounded in law ;if, following the opposition of an interested State,
the Court recognizes that it cannot deliver an opinion, it is because

it has not the right to deliver it in such a case. In both cases, it is
not the arbitrary action of an interested State that makes it impos-
sible to deliver an opinion, but rather its will, which has the law on
its side, provided the Court recognizes it.
To my regret, 1 cannot agree that the advisory functions of the
Court are exercised between the Court on the one hand and the
Assembly, the Security Council and other authorized organs on the
other. In Our case it is for the Assembly to take action on behalf
of the Nations after having heard the opinion of the Court. The
Request for Opinion is made publicly, the Opinion is delivered in
public after proceedings which are public ;the Opinion is given to
the organ from which the Request emanated, but is addressed to
the parties, to the Organization, and to public opinion. The General

Assembly has its own sphere of action, which is political, and its
own responsibilities ;the Court too has its sphere of action which
is legal, and the limits of the field to which this action may be
applied, as well asthe method of application, are rigidly laid down ;
and the Court has its own responsibility which cannot disappear
behind that of the Assembly.

(Signed) B. WINIARSKI.

Bilingual Content

OPINION DISSIDENTE DE h'i. WINIARSKI

J'ai étéet je reste profondément convaincu que la Cour n'aurait
pas dn donner l'avis qui lui était demandé par l'Assembléegéné-
rale; j'ai le devoir de dire pourquoi.

I. Dès le début de l'activité de la Cour permanente de Justice
~nternationale, des doutes skieux et des préoccupations graves
se sont fait jour quant 5 sa fonction consultative, innovation
dans le domaine de la juridiction internationale, introduite par
l'article4 du Pacte de la Société des Nations. Legrand problème
à résoudre, pour la Cour, c'était de concilier sa fonction consi_il-
tativc avec son caractère de cour de justice, organe judiciaire
et indépendant du droit international. Deux danger5 étaient
éviter: d'un côté,ses avis, s'ils n'étaient pas entourés de garanties
d:~xamen approfondi et d'objectivité, risquaient d'êtreconsidérés
simplement comme des opinions juridiques sans autre autorité
que celle que leur donneraient les noms de leurs auteurs ; et

lors de la discussion du premier Règlenient (I~zz), le juge J. B.
Moore a pu dire avec raison : ccSi les avis sont traités comme
de simples opinions dont il est permis de ne tenir aucun compte,
il ne peut manquer d'en résulter du discrédit pour la Cour. 1)
D'un autre côté, le danger se dessinait d'introduire la juridiction
obligatoire par la voie détournéedes avis consultatifs. L'article 14
du Pacte attribuait à la Cour le pouvoir de donner des avis sur
tout différendou tout point dont la saisiraient leConseilou l'Assem-
blée. En donnant un avjs sur une question juridique relative
à i:n différend né entre Etats, la Cour se prononcerait, en fait,
sinon en droit, sur le différend même pour lequel les parties
n'avaient pourtant pas adinis sa juridiction.
Aussi, dès le début de son activité, la Cour permanente a-t-elle
décidé de parer à ce double danger en entourant l'exercice de sa
fonction coilsultative des formes et garanties judiciaires. Le cas

célèbrede la Carélieorientale (Avis no j, 1923) lui a permis de
formuler à cet égard des considérations qui l'ont amenée à refuser
de donner l'avis que le Conseil lui avait demandé. La Cour per-
manente, qui n'était encore liée ni par les textes ni par ça
jurisprudence, a niontré ainsi qu'elle n'entendait pas être le
simple conseil, ad nult~vzadvocahilis, du Conseil ou de YAssem-
blée ; qu'elle restâit une cour de justice, mGme quand elle
examinait une demônde d'avis, agissant dans les fornies judiciaires,
respectant les principes de procédure et surtout ayant une vision
claire des perspectives ouvertes à son action consultative, des
ava~itaçes et aussi des dangers de cette ilinovation. Elle se sentait
libe par les principes et par la conception élevée qu'elle avait
de ses avis.

28 DISSENTING OPINION OF JUDGE \VINIARSKI

[Translation]
1was, and remain, profoundly convinced that the Court should
not have given the Opinion requested of it by the General Assem-

bly ; it is my duty to Say why.
I. From the very beginning of the activities of the Permanent
Court of International Justice, serious doubts and grave preoccu-
pations arose concerning its advisory functions which were an
innovation in the field of international jurisdiction introduced
by Article 14 of the Covenant of the League of Nations. The
important problem which the Court had to solve was to reconcile
its advisory functions with its character as a court of justice,
a judicial and independent organ of international law. Two
dangers were to be avoided : on the one hand if its opinions

were not invested with guarantees of thorough examination
and objectivity they would run the risk of being regarded as
mere legal utterances with no other authority than that of the
names of their authors ; and during the debate on the first Rules
of Court (1922), Judge J. B. Moore said, rightly : "If the opinions
are treated as mere utterances and freely discarded, they will
inevitably bring the Court into disrepute." On the other hand,
the danger existed of introducing compulsory jurisdiction through
the indirect channel of advisory opinions. Article 14 of the Covenant
gave the Court the power to give an advisory opinion upon any
dispute or question referred to it by the Council or by the
Assembly. In giving an advisory opinion on a legal question
relating to a dispute actually existing between States, the Court
would pronounce in fact, if not in law, upon the dispute itself
for which, however, the party had not accepted its jurisdiction.
Hence the Permanent Court, from the very beginning of its
activity, decided to ward off this double danger by investing
the exercise of its advisory functions with judicial forms and

guarantees. The famous case of Eastern Carelia (Opinion No. 5,
1923) permitted it to express in this connexion considerations
which led it to refuse to give the Opinion which the Council
had requested. The Permanent Court, which was then bound
neither by texts nor by precedents, thus showed that it did not
intend to be merely the adviser, ad nutum advocabilis, of the
Council or of the Assembly ; that it remained a court of justice,
even when examining a request for opinion, acting in a judicial
manner and respecting the principles of procedure, and above
all, having a clear vision of the prospects open to its advisory
action, of the advantages and dangers of this innovation. It felt
that it was bound by principles and by the high conception it
had of its Opinions.

2890 OPINION DISSIDENTE DE hl. WINIARSKI
Depuis, la procédure consultative a évoluéen ce qui coiîcerne

les textes qui la régissent : le Règlenîent revis6 en 19zG et 1927,
le Statut reviré eii 19-9, enfin lc Règlement revisé en 1936
marquent les étapes de cette évolution, invariablement dans le
mêxe sens :rapprochement d'abord, puis assimilation considérable
des deux procédures ;mais, en ce qui concerne les c3s des différends
actuellement nés entre deux ou plusieurs Etats, une assimilation
presque complète. Cette assimilation n'a rien d'arbitraire : déj8
le Comité de Juristes, appelé en 1920 à élaborer le Statut de la

Cour permanente, a clairement compris la différence entre un
point de droit considéréin abstracto et un différend qui pouvait
être tranché par voie consultative presque autant que par voie
contentieuse. Plus tard, on a vu tel différend déféré à la Cour
pour avis, par un organe politique, sur l'initiative des parties,
et on a pu parler de l'arbitrage consultatif, forme nouvelle et
intéressacte du règlement pacifique des différends internationaux.
C'est la similitude des situations qui a déterminé l'assimilatiori
des procédures.

Les principes auxquels a obéi la Cour permanente étaient de
deux ordres. D'abord lesprincipes de procédure : la règleaudz'aturet
alterapars et l'égalité desparties devant le juge. A la Conférence
de 1929, une voix autorisée (celle de M. Fromageot, qui plus tard,
en 1929, fut élu juge de la C. P. J. 1.)a donné cette explication
de l'article 68 revisé du Statut : Il serait parfaitement inutile et
vain de donner un avis consultatif après avoir entendu seulement

une seule voix. Pour que l'avis soit utile, il faut entendre les deux
parties. C'est pourquoi il est tout naturel deprévoir dans le Statut
de la Cour qu'en matière d'avis consultatif la Cour procède à
tous égards comme en matière contentieuse. 1)La Conférencen'a
pas manqué de montrer qu'elle attachait une grande importance
à cette explication, transmise par elle à l'Assemblée.
Ensuite, et au-dessus des principes de toute procédure judiciaire,
s,etrouve le principe du droit international, d'après lequel (aucun
Etat ne, saurait être obligé de soumettre ses différends avec les

autres Etats, soit à la médiation, soit à l'arbitrage, soit enfin à
n'importe quel procédé de solution pacifique, sans son consente-
ment ))(Avis no 5) ;c'est le principe de l'indépendance des Etats
exprimé dans une formule lapidaire de l'ancien droit polonais :
nihil de nobis sine nobis. L'attitude de la Cour permanente a trouvé
une confirmation dans l'Acte final de la Conférence des États
signataires du Statut de la Cour permanente (1926), à l'occasion
de la deuxième partie de la cinquième réserve des Étatsiunis

ainsi conçue :(La Cour ne pourra, sans le consentement des Etats-
Unis, donner suite à une demande d'avis consyltatif au sujet
d'un différend ou d'une question à laquelle les Etats-Unis sont
ou déclarent êtreintéressés. ))En réponse, l'Acte final se contente
de se référer à la jurisprudence de la Cour : (Cette jurisprudence, DIÇSENTING OPINION OF JUDGE WINIARSKI go

Since then, the advisory procedure has developed in so far
as the texts which regulate it are concerned : the Rules as revised
in 1926 and 1927, the Statute as revised in 1929, and finally,
the Rules as revised in 1936, show the different stages in this
development, which al1 tend in the same direction : first cm-
vergence, then substantial assimilation of the two procedures ;
and the assimilation is alrnost complete in cases which refer to
disputes which have actually arisen between two or more States.
There is nothing arbitrary about this assimilation : the Committee
of Jurists which was entrusted in 1920 with the elaboration of
the Statute of the Permanent Court, clearly understood the

difference between a legal question considered in abstracto and
a dispute which might be settled by advisory procedure almost
as much as by contentious procedure. Later, disputes of this
kind were referred to the Court for advisory opinion by a political
organ upon the initiative of the parties, and use has even been
made of the term advisory arbitration, a new and interesting
form of peaceful settlement of international disputes. It is the
similarity in the two situations which determines the similarity
in the procedure.
The principles respected by the Permanent Court were of two
kinds ; first, principles of procedure : the rule audiatzcr et altera
$ars and the equality of parties before the judge. At the Conference
of 1929, a voice of authority (that of M. Fromageot, who later
in the same year was elected as a judge of the P.C.I.J.) gave
the following explanation of the revised Article 68 of the Statute :

"It would be quite useless to give an advisory opinion after hearing
only one side. For the opinion to be useful both parties must
be heard. It is therefore quite natural to lay down in the Statute
of the Court that, in regard to advisory opinions, the Court should
proceed in al1 respects in the same way as in contentious cases."
The. Conference did not fail to show that it attached great import-
ance to this explanation, and transmitted it to the Assembly.
Finally, and above the principles of judicial procedure, is the
principle of international law according to which "no State can,
without its consent, be compelled to submit its disputes with other
States either to mediation or to arbitration, or to any other kind
of pacific settlement" (Opinion No. 5) ; this is the principle of
the independence of States expressed in the adage of old Polish
law : nihil de nobis sine nobis. The attitude of the Permanent
Court found confirmation in the Final Act of the Conference of

States signatories to the Statute of the Permanent Court (1926),in
respect of the second part of the fifth reservation of the United
States of America, which was as follows : "The Court shall not,
without the consent of the United States, entertain any request
for an advisory opinion touching any dispute or question in which
the United States has or claims an interest." In reply, the Final
Act merely referred to the practice of the Court :"This jurispru-
dence, as formulated in Advisory Opinion No. 5 (Eastern Carelia),

29 9I OPINION DISSIDENTE DE M. WINIARSKI

telle qu'elle est formulée dans l'Avis consultatif no 5 (Carélie
orientale), le 23 juillet 1923, paraît de nature à donner satisfaction
au désir des États-unis. 1)Rien ne permet de penser que la Cour
permanente se soit jamais départie des principes dont l'Avis no 5
était l'application.
La Cour internationale de Justice ne saurait méconnaître la

jurisprudence consultative de l'ancienne Cour, fortement établie
et acceptée comme bien fondéepar l'opinion des internationalistes.
Les textes qui régissent sa fonction consultative démontrent que
ses attributions et ses devoirs à cet égard sont en substance restés
les mêmes; et sil'article 65 du Statut, en conformitéavecl'article 96
de la Charte, a abandonné la distinction entre ccun point )et ccun
différend », et parle de ((toute question juridique », la différence
est à tel point dans la nature des choses que l'article 68 du Statut
est resté sans modification et l'article 82 du Règlement, dans sa

nouvelle version, pointe toujours dans la mêmedirection : (cLa
Cour recherche avant tout si la demande d'avis a trait ou non à
une question juridique actuellement pendante entre deux ou
plusieurs États 1)pour appliquer les dispositions du Statut et du
Règlement relatives à la procédure contentieuse. Il est vrai que
les deux textes ajoutent : ((dans la mesure où elle les reconnaîtra
applicables »,mais ce pouvoir de la Cour n'a rien d'arbitraire, le
critère est objectif : si la Cour trouve qu'il s'agit bien d'une telle
question, elle doit les appliquer.

Ainsi assimilée à la procédure contentieuse, la procédure consul-
tative conserve néanmoins ses caractères propres et ne saurait
êtreidentifiéeavec la première. C'est ainsi que les parties au diffé-
rend qui a provoqué une demande d'avis ne sont cciisidéréesque
comme États intéressés, bien qu'ellespuissent mêmeêtreautorisées
à nommer des juges ad hoc. C'est ainsi encore que la Cour est liée
par la question poséedans la demande d'avis et non par les conclu-
sions des parties, bien que ces conclusions gardent toute leur

importance pour la détermination des positions des parties.
Le Comitéde la Cour permanente qui a préparéla revision du
Règlement de 1927 (application aux avis consultatifs de l'article 31
du Statut) a constaté dans son rapport : (La Cour, dans l'exercice
de ses pouvoirs, a délibérémentet intentionnellement assimilé
la procédure consultatite à la procédure contentieuse, et les résul-
tats obtenus ont abondamment justifié c'etteattitude. Le prestige
dont peut jouir la Cour actuellement, en tant que tribunal judi-
ciaire, est dans une large mesure dû à l'importance de son activité

consultative et à la façon judiciaire dont elle a réglécette activité. »
La doctrine ktablie par la Cour permanente est parfaitement
logique. Les avis ne lient formellement iii les etats ni l'organe
qui les a demandés, ils n'ont pas l'autorité de la chose jugée ;
mais la Cour doit à sa haute mission de leur attribuer une grande
valeur juridique et une autorité morale. S'il ers est ainsi, et si

30 DISSENTING OPINION OF JUDGE WINIARSKI 9I

given on 23rd July, 1923, seems to meet the desire of the United
States." There is nothing to show that the Permanent Court ever
departed from the principles laid down in Opinion No. 5.

The International Court of Justice cannot disregard the advisory
practice of the old Court, which was so firmly established and
accepted by international jurists as well-founded. The texts which
regulate its advisory functions show that its powers and duties
in this connexion have remained substantially the same; and if
Article 65 of the Statute, in accordance with Article 96 of the

Charter, has abandoned the distinction between "a question" and
"a dispute", and refers to "any legal question", the difference is
so much in the nature of things that Article 68 of the Statute has
not been modified and Article 82 of the Rules of Court, in its
new version, continues to point in the same direction :"The Court
shall above all consider whether the request for the advisory
opinion relates to a legal question actually pending between two
or more States", and, if so, will apply the provisions of the Statute
and of the Rules concerning contentious proceedings. It is tnie
tht the two texts add: "to the extent to which it recognizes
them to be applicable", but there is nothing arbitrary about
the Court's power in this matter; the critenon is objective: if
the Court considers that such is the case, it .must apply these
provisions.
Though assimilated to contentious procedure, advisory procedure

nevertheless maintains its own characteristics and cannot be
identified with the former. Thus the parties to the dispute which
has given rise to the Request for an Opinion, are regarded only
as interested States although they may be authorized to designate
judges ad hoc. Further, the Court is bound by the questions put
toit in the Request for an Opinion and is not bound by the submis-
sions of the parties, although these submissions lose none of their
importance in determining the position of the parties.
The Committee of the Permanent Court which prepared the
revision of the Rules in 1927 (application of Article 31 of the
Statute to advisory opinions) stated in its report :"The Court, in
the exercise of this power, deliberately and advisedly assimilated
its advisory procedure to its contentious procedure ; and the
results have abundantly justified its action. Such prestige as the

Court to-day enjoys as a judicial tribunal is largely due to the
amount of this advisory business and the judicial way in which it
has dealt with such business."
The doctrine of the Permanent Court is perfectly logical. Opinions
are not formallybinding on States nor on the organ which requests
them, they do not have the authority of res judicata ;but the Court
must, in view of its high mission, attribute to them great legal value
and a moral authority. This being the case and if tantum valetg2 OPINION DISSIDENTE DE M. WINIARSKI

tantum valetauctoritasquantumvaletratio,la Cour, organe judiciaire,
s'entoure, dans l'exercice de cette fonction, de toutes les garanties
pour examiner la question d'une manière approfondie et impartiale.
Pour la même raison, les États intéressé,^voient leurs droits,
leurs intérêtspolitiques et quelquefois leur position morale affectés
par un avis de la Cour, leurs différends en fait tranchés par la
réponse donnée à une question qui s'y rapporte et qui peut
constituer une «question-clef » du différend.Cela explique l'intérêt
qu'ont les États à se faire entendre dans iine procédure consul-
tative, à y être représentés et à pouvoir nommer leurs juges
nationaux, ce qui serait parfaitement inutile si les avis n'étaient
que de simples opinions, sans importance réellepour leurs droits
et leurs intérêts.C'est aussi la raison pour laquelle la Cour per-
manente n'a pas hésitéà accorder aux États les garanties néces-

saires, et, pour exclure toute possibilité d'introduire la juridiction
obligatoire par la voie détournée deses avis, elle a délibérément
consacré, dans son Avis no 5, le principe du consentement des
parties (article 36 du Statut).
La Cour doit donc considérer chaque demande d'avis du point
de vue des principes dont, tribunal judiciaire, elle ne saurait
se départir : audiatur et altera +ars, égalitédes États devant le
juge, indépendance des États. Sans doute a-t-elle le devoir de
donner des avis qui lui sont demandés, car c'est une des deux
tâches en vue desquelles eile a étéconstituée ; mais il peut y
avoir des raisons juridiques importantes qui s'y opposent, par
exemple le respect des principes que je viens de rappeler, ou
des situations de fait qui le rendent inipossible ; dans ces cas
exceptionnels elle ne peut se prononcer, et les textes prévoient
cette éventualité, comme l'a constaté le présent avis.

La Cour est-elle en présence d'un de ces cas ?

2.Et d'abord : existe-'t-ildes différendsinternationaux auxquels
la présente demande d'avis peut avoir trait ? On l'a prouvé avec
force arguments à l'appui; on demande à la Cour de dire que
ces différends existent et qu'ils portent sur l'interprétation et
l'application des traités de paix. Sur onze considérants de la
résolution de l'Assemblée générale du 22 octobre 1949, trois
seulement parlent des droits de l'homme, huit des traités de
paix et des différends nés de ces traités. Les conclusions du
représentant du Gouvernement britannique disent sous le no 3 :
ccCette contestation a trait principalement au point de savoir
si les trois Gouvernements ont ou non violé les dispositions des
traités de paix relatives aux droits de l'homme ...et l'obligation
d'établir une con~mission en vertu des dispositions du traité de
paix relatives au règlement des diffSrends ...Il existe par consé-
quent un différend qui vise à la fois l'interprétation et l'exécution

des traités. » Et sous le no 5 : cLe Royaume-Uni affirme ses DISSENTIXG OPINION OF JEDGE WINIARSKI g2
auctoritas quantum valet ratio, the Court, as a judicial organ, will
surround itself with every guarantee to ensure thorough and
impartial examination of the question. For the same reason,
States see their rights, their political interests and sometimes their

moral position affected by an opinion of the Court, and their
disputes are in fact settled by the answer which is given to a ques-
tion relating to them, which may be a "key question" of the dispute.
This explains the interest States have in being heard in advisory
proceedings, in being represented and being permitted to designate
their national judges, which would be perfectly useless if advisory
opinions were mere utterances having no real importance in respect
of their rights and interests. This is also why the Permanent Court
did not hesitate to grant States the necessary guarantees, and, in
order to exclude any possibility of introducing compulsory jurisdic-
tion by the circuitous means of its advisory opinions, it deliberately
laid down in Opinion No. 5 the principle of the consent of the parties
(Article 36 of the Statute).

The Court must, therefore, consider each request for opinion from
the point of view of principles from which as a judicial tribunal it
cannot depart : audiatur et alterapars, the equality of States before
the judge, the independence of States. It has no doubt the duty to
give the opinions which are requested of it, for this is one of the two

purposes for which it has been constituted ; but there may be impor-
tant legal grounds for not giving an opinion, for example, respect
for the principles which 1 have just recalled, or situations involving
facts which make it impossible for the Court to give an opinion ; in
such exceptional cases, the Court cannot deliver an opinion, and
the texts contemplate this possibility as has been pointed out in the
present Opinion.
1s the Court now confronted with such a case ?

2. First, do international disputes exist to which the present
Request for Opinion relates ? This has been proved and a. great
number of arguments have been marshalled in support of this con-
tention ;the Court is asked to say that such disputes exist, and that
they refer to the interpretation and execution of the Peace Treaties.
Only three of the eleven recitals of the Resolution of the General
Assembly of zznd October, 1949, mention human rights, eight
mention the Peace Treaties and the disputes which have ansen in
respect of these Treaties. It is stated under No. 3 of the conclusions
of the representative of the British Government that : "This dispute

relates pnncipally to the question whether the three Governments
are or are not in breach of the human nghts provisions of the rele-
vant Peace Treaties ...and the obligation to set up a Commission
under the Peace Treaty provisions for the settlement of disputes
...there is therefore a dispute about both the interpretation and the
execution of the Treaties." And, under No. 5 : "The United King-93 OPINION DISSIDENTE DE RI. WINIARSKI

propres droits en vertu des traités de paix et demande l'exécution
à son profit des articles du traité. » Donc, il y a plus qu'une
question juridique actuellen~ent pendante entre deux ou plusieurs
États, car il existe de véritables différends. C'est évident, et je
ne trouve aucune difficulté à répondre affirmativement à la
première partie de la question 1. Toutefois, s'il en est ainsi, il
est également évident que l'avis qui est demandé à la Cour, non
seulement a trait à ces différends: il porte sur l'essence même
des différends. L'Assemblée a pu discuter une « situation)) qui
existe en Bulgarie, en Hongrie et en Roumanie, relativement
aux droits de l'homme, et elle l'a, en fait, discutée pendant sa
Troisième Session ; depuis, la discussion a porté sur !es traités

de paix ; la correspondance diplomatique entre les Etats-Gnis
et le Royaume-Uni d'un côté, la Bulgarie, la Hongrie et la Rou-
manie de l'autre, portait ésalement sur les traités de paix. Les
quatre questions posées à la Cour ont toutes pour objet les traités
de paix. A la question de savoir s'il s'agit des différends pour
lesquels les clauses d'arbitrage des traités de paix prévoient une
procédure de règlement, je n'hésiterais pas à répondre affirma-
tivement ; mais ici la Cour entre sur le terrain de l'interprétation
des traités et, à mon avis, elle doit s'abstenir de répondre. A
une question très simple, à laquelle tout juriste répondrait sans
difficulté, la Cour ne doit pas répondre, parce qu'elle ne pourrait
le faire que dans des conditions qui ne sont pas réaliséesici.

Je prends la question II au sens restreint, conformément à
l'interprétation limitative donnée par l'avis. Que demande-t-on
à la Cour ? La question poséene se réfèrepas aux articles relatifs
aux droits de l'homme. Un nouveau différend, plus limité, a surgi
entre les États contractants, portant sur l'interprétation et l'appli-
cation des clauses d'arbitrage. On a dit qu'il ne s'agit que d'une ques-
tion préalable ou préliminaire ou d'une question de procédure. Pour
l'Assemblée générale, si elle envisage une action ultérieure de
sa part, action politique fondéesur la réponse de la Cour, la ques-
tion II peut signifier une question préalable ou préliminaire, mais
ce n'est pas une acception juridique ou technique de ce terme.
Ce n'est pas non plus une question de procédure, bien qu'elle

vise le mode prévu de règlement des différends relatifs à l'inter-
prétation et à l'exécution des traités de paix. C'est une question
de fond ; non pas par rapport aux droits de l'homme, mais par
rapport aux clauses d'arbitrage.
La question II n'est pas posée in abstracto,en prévision d'une
situation qui pourrait se produire un jo-u; elle est sortie de longues
discussions. Le fait est que les trois Etats ont refusé de désigner
leurs représentants aux commissions prévues par les traités de
paix, et cela malgré les sommations de leurs CO-contractants. Ce
refus a étédiscuté par l'Assemblée généraleet consigné dans le
neuvième considérant («ont refusé ....alléguant qu'ils n'étaient
pas juridiquement tenus de le faire 1))Si l'Assemblée générale94 OPINION DISSIDEKTE DE M. WINIARSKI
demande à la Cour : (sont-ils tenus d'exécuter », cette question
vise le fond du différend sur l'exécution ces clauses d'arbitrage.
Elle demande à la Cour de dire si les trois Etats ont tort ou raison

de refuser.
S'il s'agissait d'apprécier, a-t-on dit, la conduite des trois États,
de constater des manquements alléguésaux clauses des traités
de paix, l'avis serait égal à un jugement prononcé sans le conrente-
ment des parties intéresséeset, dans ce cas, la Cour ne devrait
pas donner cet avis. En réalité,il s'agit bien d'une telle condam-
nation, si la Cour dit que les trois Etats ont tort de refuser de
nommer leurs représentants ; et aurait-elle pu dire qii'ils ont
raison ?

Dire s'ils sont tenus de le faire, tandis qu'ils niaient l'obligation
juridique de le faire, signifie en réalité pour la Cour : se prononcer

sur l'interprétation et l'application des clauses juridictionnelles
des traités de paix, et cela appartient, en premier lieu, aux pa.rties
contractantes elles-mêmes ; c'est ce que la Cour ne saurait faire
sans leur consentement et, du moins en règle générale,sans leur
participation. Or, la Cour a entendu l'interprétation et les conclu-
sions des Etats-Pnis et du Royaume-Uni ;elle n'a pas entendu la
voix des trois Etats.
Enfin, la Cour n'aurait pas dû tenir pour impossible une hypo-
thèse dans laquelle les trois États pourraient présenter une excuse
valable de leur conduite. Le fait est qu'ils ont refusé d'exécuter
les dispositions de la clause des traités de paix relatives à l'arbi-
trage. Ils ne désirent pas l'exécuter. Ce refus a son contexte :les
circonstances, les conditions déterminées ; c'est un cas concret de

non-exécution des traités (tenant le milieu entre la violation et
la méconnaissance, disregah). Comment la Cour peut-elle dire
que, hic et nunc, les trois États sont tenus d'exécuter ces clauses ?
Un refus d'exécuter telle ou telle clause d'un traité ne se présente
malheureusement pas pour la première fois; cela n'arrive que
trop souvent. Il existe aussi des cas de refus légitime. Pacta sunt
servanda constitue la règle fondamentale du droit international
et la base des relations internationales ; «le respect des obligations
nées des traités et autres sources du droit international » est le
premier devoir de tout État dans ses rapports avec les autres États.
Et pourtant il y a des cas où il est nécessaire de rajuster, même
unilatéralement, l'application de la lettre à la situation changée,
comme le juge national peut mitiger les rigueurs excessives des

contrats entre particuliers ; où l'État obligé peut raisonnable-
ment invoquer des circonstances dans lesquelles la non-exécution
de telie ou telle disposition du traité peut êtrejustifiée du point de
vue du droit international. Une de ces possibilités est exprimée
par la clause rebus sic stantibus qui résume le grand problème du
droit strict et de la bonne foi entre États. DISSENTING OPIXION OF JUDGE WINIARSKI 94

to carry out", this question refers to the merits of the dispute
concerning the execution of the arbitration clauses. The Assembly
asks the Court to Say whether the three States were right or
wrong to refuse.
It has been said that if the Court were called upon to appraise
the conduct of the three States, then the opinion would be equal
to a judgment and a judgment delivered without the consent
of the interested parties ; and in such a case, the Court should
not give its opinion. Actually, such a condemnation is involved
if the Court says that the States are wrong to refuse to designate
their representatives ; and could the Court have said that they
are right ?

To Say that they are obligated, whereas they denied that they
were under any legal obligation to do so, means that the Court

is pronouncing on the interpretation and application of the
jurisdictional clauses of the Peace Treaties, and this in the first
place is the prerogative of the high contracting parties themselves ;
the Court could not do so without their consent or, at least as
a general rule, without their participation. The Court heard the
interpretation and the conclusions of the United States and the
United Kingdom ;it did not hear statements by the three States.
Finally, the Court should not have ruled out the possibility
of the three States submitting a valid excuse for their conduct.
The fact is that they have refused to carry out the provisions
of the Peace Treaties which relate to arbitration. They do not
desire to carry them out. This refusa1has as its context determined
circumstances and conditions ; it is a concrete case of non-execution
of Treaties (which is half-way between violation and disregard).

How can the Court say that hic et nunc the three States are
obligated to carry out the provisions ?
The refusa1 to carry out a certain clause of a treaty does not,
unfortunately, arise here for the first time ; this happens too
often. There are also cases of legitimaterefusal. Pacta sunt servanda
constitutes the fundamental de of international law and the
basis of international relations ; "respect for the obligations
arising from treaties and other sources of international law"
constitutes the primary duty of any State in its relations with
other States. And yet, there are cases where it is necessary to
readjust, even unilaterally, the application of the letter of the
law to a new situation, just as the municipal judge may mitigate
the excessive hardships of contracts between individuals ; and
there are cases in which a State may reasonably rely upon certain

circumstances to justify, under international law, the non-execution
of certain provisions of a treaty. Such a possibility is expressed
by the clauszlla rebus sic stantibus, summing up the important
problem of strict law and good faith between States.95 OPINION DISSIDENTE DE M. WINIARSKI

Les raisons que les trois États donnent dans la correspondance
diplomatique, pour motiver leur refus, peuvent êtresans valeur;
mais n'en pourraient-ils pas produire d'autres, et de quelle valeur
juridique ? La Cour n'en sait rien. Dans ces conditions, établir,
déterminer les obligations de ces Etats me paraît impossible
pour une cour de justice.
Il n'est ,pas nécessaire de discuter l'assertion d'après laquelle
les trois Etats n'auraient qu'à nommer leurs commissaires, et
les commissions diraient si les accusations portées contre eux

sont fondées. C'est un malentendu : la question II demande à
la Cour de dire s'ils sont fondés dans leur refus de nommer les
commissaires.

3. On a fait valoir que la Cour est en possession de toutes les
données du problème, car les trois Gouvernements ont dit, dans
leurs notes, tout ce que la Cour a besoin de savoir pour se prononcer.
Je ne puis admettre cet argument. Ces notes ont étéversées au
débat par la partie adverse, à titre d'information, et n'ont que
cette valeur. Mais la Cour a besoin de quelque chose de plus
que d'un simple matériel d'information, si complet soit-il. Ce
que les parties ont dit ou ont à dire, elles doivent le dire devant
la Cour, dans une procédure qui, tout en n'étant pas contentieuse,
n'en est pas moins contradictoire, comportant déclarations,

contestations, preuves, conclusions. Ceci ne pouvant avoir lieu,
pour la siniple raison que les trois Gouvernements ont refusé
de comparaître, la Cour est dans l'impossibilité matérielle de
donner un avis dans les conditions prévues par son Statut et
son Règlement.
S'il est vrai que chaque cas doit êtreexaminé et décidécompte
tenu de ses caractéristiques et des particularités qui lui sont
propres, il n'en est pas moins vrai qu'aux cas individuels, qui
varient à l'infini, doivent être appliqués les mêmes règles et
principes généraux. Or, dans notre cas, ce sont non seulement
les dispositions du Statut et du Règlement, mais encore la règle
de l'égalité desparties devant le juge et la règleaudiatur et altera
pars qui seraient méconnues, c'est-à-dire les principes fonda-
mentaux de droit et de justice, si la Cour devait donner son avis
dans les conditions que nous connaissons.

On pourrait objecter que les trois Gouvernements ont eu
amplement la faculté de soumettre à la Cour leurs arguments et
leurs pièces justificatives et que, s'ils ne l'ont pas fait, c'est qu'ils
n'ont pas voulu profiter de l'occasion qui leur était offerte; donc
le principe de l'égalitéest sauf. Au cours de la procédure orale,
on a mêmeétéjusqu'à invoquer l'article 53 du Statut, qui stipule
que lorsqu'une partie ne se présente pas, l'autre peut demander
à la Cour de lui adjuger ses conclusions. Si incroyable que cela
puisse paraître, on a affirméque la Cour peut appliquer la règle
de l'article 53 au cas présent par yoie d'analogie. On a oublié DISSENTING OPINION OF JUDGE TVINIARSKI 95

The grounds given by the three States in the diplomatic
exchanges to justify their refusal may be without value ; but
could they not submit other grounds and what might be the legal
value of such grounds ? Of this the Court knows nothing. In the
circumstances, it seems to me that it is impossible for a court of
justice to establish or determine the obligations of these States.
It is not necessary to discuss the remark which has been made,
namely, that the three States have only to appoint their Commis-
sioners and that the Commissions would pronounce on whether
the charges preferred against them are well-founded. This is a
misunderstanding : Question II asks the Court to Say whether
they are justified in refusing to appoint their Commissioners.

3. It has been said that the Court possesses al1the facts in the

case inasmuch as the three Governments in their notes said a11
that the Court needs to know before pronouncing. 1 cannot accept
this argument. These notes have been put in by the opposite
side as information and have solely the value of information. But
the Court needs more than mere information, however complete
it may be. What the parties said or have to Say, must be said
before the Court in proceed.ings which, though not contentious,
do, nevertheless, cd for the presentation from both sides of
argument, declarations, objections, proof and submissions. Since
this is impossible for the simple reason that the three Governments
have refused to appear, the Court finds itself materially prevented
from giving an opinion under the conditions laid down in its
Statute and Rules.

If it is true that each case must be examined and decided

in view of its peculiar characteristics and circumstances, it is
equally true that, to individual cases, which may be infinitely
varied, the same general rules and principles must apply. Now,
in the present case, not only the provisions of the Statute and
the Rules, but also the rule of equality of parties before
the judge, as well as the rule audiatur et altera pars, that is to
Say, the fundamental principles of law and justice, would be
disregarded, if the Court gave an opinion in the present conditions.

It might be objected that the three Governments were perfectly
free to submit their arguments and evidence to the Court and that
if they did not do so it was because they did not choose to avail
themselves of the opportunity which was offered to them, and
that consequently, the principle of equality has been respected.

During the hearings, one of the representatives went so far as to
rely on Article 53 of the Statute, which provides that whenever
one of the parties does not appear before the Court, the other
party may call upon the Court to decide in favour of its claim.
However incredible this may appear to be, it was stated that the
3496 OPINION DISSIDENTE DE M. WINIARSKI

que l'article 53 prévoit le cas où la Cour a étévalablement saisie
en vertu du consentement préalablement donné par la partie
défaillante.

Or, dans notre cas, le consentement des trois États n'a jamais
été donné. La résolution de l'.ilssemblée générale, en date du
22 octobre, peut avoir constitué une offre : si elle avait étéacceptée
par les trois Gouvernements, nous aurions pu être en présence
d'un cas analogue à celui du forum firorogatum ; mais il n'en fut
rien. C'est ainsi qu'un autre principe fondamental du droit inter-
national s'oppose, lui aussi, à ce que la Cour puisse donner un

avis bans le cas présent :le principe de l'indépendance des États.
Un Etat ne saurait se voir imposer une juridiction, dans notre
cas la juridiction de la Cour, mêmeexerçant sa fonction consul-
tative, dans une hypothèse dont il n'aurait pas ét) librement
et par avance convenu. D'accord avec ce principe, les auteurs
de la Charte des Nations Unies ont écarté, non seulement la
juridiction obligatoire de la Cour, mais une juridiction quelconque
sans le consentement des Etats en cause - et ceci pour les Membres
des Nations Unies. Rien ne serait plus étranger, voire même
contraire à cette idée qui constitue une des bases de la Charte,
que de vouloir introduire la juridiction obligatoire de la Cour
par la porte des avis. Et pourtant cette possibilité a étéconsi-
dérée, depuis 1920, comme un danger qqi pourrait devenir
réel dans un cas donné ; la grande préoccupation de la Cour

permanente était d'éliminer ce danger.
La Cour permanente n'attachait pas d'importance à la forme
dans laquelle le consentement à sa juridiction avait étédonné ;
cela pouvait se faire simplement per facta concludentia. Mais les
trois États n'ont accepté la juridiction de la Cour sous aucune
forme. Il y a mêmeplus :la Conférencede la Paix de 1946 avait
insérédans les traités de paix une clause qui prévoyait la juridic-
tion de 1s Cour internationale de Justice pour la solution des
différends portant sur l'interprétation et l'application desdits
traités; par décision des ministres des Affaires étrangères des
Puissances alliées, cette clause a étésupprimée et remplacée par
une clause prévoyant l'arbitrage de commissions à instituer à cet
effet. Ainsi, la Cour a étédélibérémentécartéeet sa juridiction
exclue, à moins que les parties contractantes ne décident d'un
commun accord de lui soumettre tel ou tel cas déterminé.

En ce qui concerne l'interprétation et l'application des articles
relatifs aux droits de l'homme et de la clause d'arbitrage, les trois
Gouvernements peuvent avoir tort ; ici, sur ce point particulier
de la juridiction de la Cour, ils ont raison.

4. On a dit, au cours des débats oraux, qu'un État, fût-il directe-
ment intéressé,ne peut s'ingérer dans les relations entre organes DISSENTIKG OPIKION OF JUDCE WINIARSKT 96

Court can apply the rule of Article 53 tothe present case by analogy.
1Vhat is forgotten is that Article 53 refers to a case in which the
Court has been validly seized by virtue of consent previously
given by the party in default.
In the present case, the thrce States never gave their consent.
The Resolution of the General Assemblj~ of zznd October may
have constituted an offer : if this offer had been accepted by the
three Governments, we might have been confronted by a case
analogous to that of the jorzlm prorogaturn; but nothing of the
kind occurred. Thus, another fundamental principle of inter-
national law makes it impossible for the Court to give its opinion
in the present case :the principle of the independence of States.

A jurisdiction, in our case the jurisdiction of the Court, even though
it is exercising its advisory functions, cannot be imposed upon a
State if that State has not given its consent freely and beforehand.
In accordance with this principle, the authors of the Charter of
the United Nations rejected not only the compulsory jurisdiction
of the Court, but any jurisdiction whatever without the consent
of the interested States-and this applies to Members of the United
Nations. Nothing would be more alien or even contradictory to
this idea, which is one of the bases of the Charter, than to introduce
the compulsory jurisdiction of the Court under the guise of
advisory opinions. This possibility, however, was considered as
early as 1920 as a danger which might arise in a given case ; the
Permanent Court was deeply concerned with eliminating such a
danger.
The Permanent Court attached no importance to the form in
which consent to its jurisdiction was given ; this could be effected

merely fierfacta conclz~deiztia.But the three States have not
accepted the jurisdiction of the Court in any form. Even more :
the Peace Conference of 1946 had inserted a clause into the Peace
Treaties providing for the jurisdiction of the International Court
of Justice in the settlement of disputes concerning the interpretation
and application of these Treaties ; by a decision of the Foreign
Ministers of the Allied Powers, this clause was deleted and was
replaced by a clauseproviding for arbitration by Commissions to be
set up for this purpose. Thus the Court was deliberately ruled
out and its jurisdiction excluded, unless the high contracting
parties should decide in common agreement to refer a certain
case to it.
In respect of the interpretation and execution of the human
rights articles and the arbitration clause, the three Governments
may be at fault ;here, on the particular point of the Court's

jurisdiction, they are right.

4. During the oral proceedings, it was said that a State, however
directly interested it may be, cannot interfere with relations97 OPINION DISSIDENTE DE M. WINIARSKI
des Nations Unies et mettre en échec le désirde l'Assemblée de
consulter .la Cour.
Dans le domaine national. il arrive ~arfois aue les droits subiec-
tifs les plus sûrs, les plus incontestables, ne peuvent pas obtenir
la protectioil judiciaire parce qu'une règle de procédure, par
exemple prévoyant la forclusion, s'y oppose. C'est inévitable, car

derrière les règles de procédure se trouve un intérêt général d'une
telle importance qu'il prime les intérêtsparticuliers très légitimes
et très importants. Les mêmesconsidérations valent pour la procé-
dure internationale, qui pourtant est bien moins rigoureyse. Mais
ici il s'agit d'un cas plus simple. Si l'opposition d'un Etat peut
mettre en échec le désir de l'Assemblée d'obtenir un avis de la
Cour, c'est que cette opposition est fondéeen droit ; si la Cour, à
la suite d'une opposition de l'État intéressé, reconnaît qu'elle ne
peut pas donner un avis, c'est qu'elle ne juge pas avoir le droit
de le donner dans cette hypothèse. Dans ce cas, ce qui empêche
l'avis d'être donné, ce n'est pas l'arbitraire d'un État intéressé,
mais sa volonté, qui a pour elle le droit, pourvu que la Cour le
reconnaisse.

Enfin, je regrette ne pouvoir me rallier à l'opinion d'après
laquelle la fonction consultative de la Cour s'exercerait entre
la Cour d'un côté, l'Assemblée,le Conseil de Sécuritéet les autres
organes autorisés de l'autre ; dans notre cas, c'est l'Assemblée
qui doit extérioriser l'action des Nations Unies, à la suite de l'avis
de la Cour. Pourtant, la demande d'avis se fait publiquement,
l'avis est prononcé en public, après une procédure publique ; il
est donné à l'organe qui en a fait la demande, mais il s'adresse
aux parties, à l'organisation, à l'opinion publique. L'Assemblée
générale asa sphère d'action - action politique - et ses responsa-
bilités; la Cour a, elle aussi, sa sphère d'action - action juridique
dont le champ d'application et les modalités sont rigoureusement

définis - et sa propre responsabilité, qui ne saurait disparaître
derrière celle de l'Assemblée.

(Signé) B. WINIARSKI. DISSENTING OPINION OF JUDGE WJXIARSKI 97
between organs of the United Nations and frustrate the desire of

the General Assembly to request an advisory opinion of the Court.
It sometimes happens in domestic law that the most certain and
indisputable subjective rights cannot obtain judicial protection
because a rule of procedure, for example, a rule providing the period
fixed for the exercise of some remedy has elapsed and the party is
in default. This is inevitable, for behind the rules of procedure is a
general interest of such importance that it overrides what may be
very legitimate and very important particular interests. The same
considerations apply to international procedure which is, however,
much less severe. But what we have here is a much simpler case. If
the opposition of a State can block the desire of the Assembly to
obtain an opinion from the Court, it is because this opposition is
grounded in law ;if, following the opposition of an interested State,
the Court recognizes that it cannot deliver an opinion, it is because

it has not the right to deliver it in such a case. In both cases, it is
not the arbitrary action of an interested State that makes it impos-
sible to deliver an opinion, but rather its will, which has the law on
its side, provided the Court recognizes it.
To my regret, 1 cannot agree that the advisory functions of the
Court are exercised between the Court on the one hand and the
Assembly, the Security Council and other authorized organs on the
other. In Our case it is for the Assembly to take action on behalf
of the Nations after having heard the opinion of the Court. The
Request for Opinion is made publicly, the Opinion is delivered in
public after proceedings which are public ;the Opinion is given to
the organ from which the Request emanated, but is addressed to
the parties, to the Organization, and to public opinion. The General

Assembly has its own sphere of action, which is political, and its
own responsibilities ;the Court too has its sphere of action which
is legal, and the limits of the field to which this action may be
applied, as well asthe method of application, are rigidly laid down ;
and the Court has its own responsibility which cannot disappear
behind that of the Assembly.

(Signed) B. WINIARSKI.

Document file FR
Document Long Title

Dissenting Opinion by Judge Winiarski (translation)

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