Separate opinion of Judge Cançado Trindade

Document Number
151-20110718-ORD-01-04-EN
Parent Document Number
151-20110718-ORD-01-00-EN
Document File
Bilingual Document File

566

SEPARATE OPINION OF JUDGE

CANÇADO TRINDADE

table of contents

Paragraphs

I. Introduction 1-2

II. The Passing of Time : The hiarosCuro of Law 3-7

III. The Density of Time 8-11

IV. The Temporal Dimension ffin International Law 12-17

V. The Search for Timelessffness 18-21

VI. From Timelessness to Tiffmeliness 22-24

VII. The Passing of Time : TheC hiarosCuro of Existence 25-30

VIII. Time, Legal Interpretation, and the Nature of Legal
Obligation 31-42

IX. From Time to Space : Territory and People Togffether 43-63

1. Cambodia’s first submissions 47-51

2. Thailand’s first submissions 52-55
3. Cambodia’s second submissions 56-57
4. Thailand’s second submissions 58-59

5. General assessment 60-63

X. The Effects of Provisionffal Measures of Protectiffon in the
Cas d’EspèCE 64-95

1. The protection of people in territory 66-70
2. The prohibition of use or threat of force 71-81

3. Space and time, and the protection of cultural and spiritual
world heritage 82-95

XI. Provisional Measures ffof Protection: Beyond the Strict

Territorialist Approacffh 96-100

XII. Final Considerations, sub spECiE aEtErnitatis 101-117

*

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I. Introduction

1. I have concurred, with my vote, for the adoption today, 18July 2011,
by the International Court of Justice (I.C.J.), of the present Order offf pro-
visional measures of protection in the case of the Request for Interpreta ‑
tion of the Judgment of 15 June 1962 in the Case concerning the Temple of

Preah Vihear (Cambodia v. Thailand) (Cambodia v. Thailand). Given the
great importance that I attribute to the issues dealt with in the present
Order, or else underlying it, I feel obliged to leave on the records of ffthis
transcendental case (as I perceive it) the foundations of my own persoffnal
position on them. I do so moved by a sense of duty in the exercise of the

international judicial function, even more so as some of the lessons I
extract from the present decision of the Court are not explicitly develoffped
and stated in the present Order. This appears to be, in my view, a uniquffe
case, lodged again with the Court after half a century ; it discloses, in my
view, a series of elements for reconsideration not only of the spatial, ffbut

also the temporal dimensions, which can hardly pass unnoticed.
2. This being so, I shall develop my reflections that follow pursuant to ff
the following sequence : (a) the passing of time and the chiaroscuro of
law ;(b) the density of time ; (c) the temporal dimension in international
law ; (d) the search for timelessness ; (e) from timelessness to timeliness ;

(f) the passing of time and the chiaroscuro of existence ; (g) time, legal
interpretation, and the nature of legal obligation; (h) from time to space:
territory and people together (in Cambodia’s and Thailand’s submiffs -
sions) ; (i) the effects of provisional measures of protection in the cas
d’espèce (encompassing the protection of people in territory ; the prohibi-

tion of use or threat of force ; and the protection of cultural and spiritual
world heritage) ; and (j) provisional measures of protection, beyond the
strict territorialist approach. The way will then be paved for the preseffnta-
tion of my final considerations, sub specie aeternitatis.

II. The Passing of Time : The C hiarosCuro of Law

3. The case of the Temple of Preah Vihear brings to the fore, now in

May 2011, as it did half a century ago, in 1961-1962, the multifaceted
relationship between time and law, an issue which discloses the chiar ‑
oscuro of international law as well as, ultimately, of existence itself
(cf. infra). One cannot assume a linear progress in the regulations of rela -
tions among States inter se, or among human beings inter se, or among

States and human beings. The present requests for provisional measures
and for interpretation in respect of the Judgment of this Court, of
15 June 1962, bear witness of the element of factual unpredictability of
endeavours of peaceful settlement, to guard us against any assumption asff
to definitive progress achieved in those relations among States or amongff

human beings, or among the former and the latter.

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4. In a public sitting before this Court of half a century ago, precisely
that of the morning of 5 March 1962, in the same case of the Temple of

Preah Vihear, the learned jurist Paul Reuter (who happened to be one of
the counsel for Cambodia), pondered that the passing of time is not
linear, nor is it always the same either; it contains variations. For example,
in his perception, “[a]t certain hours, in the splendour of the Meditfferra -

nean, time seems to 1ave stopped its flight and maybe things are down ffto
black and white” .
5. May I add, in this connection, that, to someone (like myself) from,
and in, the South Atlantic, for example, the chiaroscuro also exists, but

not so sharply distinguished as in the summer of the Mediterranean four ff
seasons. There, in the South Atlantic, in the two — the dry and the
rainy — seasons, the chiaroscuro evolves in greater grey shades. Yet, the
chiaroscuro falls thereupon as well. All regions of the world have their

own chiaroscuro, each one with its own characteristics, and the region of
the Temple of Preah Vihear is no exception to that. Ancient cultures, inff
distinct parts of the world, grasped the mystery of the passing of time ffin
distinct ways, as in the never-ending succession of the chiaroscuro.

6. The chiaroscuro of international law itself was, coincidentally,
referred to in the public sitting of 1 March 1962, in the same case of the
Temple of Preah Vihear ; in the opening of the sitting, the then President

of the Court, Judge B. Winiarski, recalled that, forty years earlier, pre -
cisely on 15 February 1922, the former Permanent Court of International
Justice held its first sitting ; ever since, and throughout four decades, “the
2
element of permanency” of international justice had taken shape , further
fostered by the acceptance by States of numerous compromissory clauses, ff
and the fact that the successor ICJ became “the principal judicial orffgan
of the United Nations”, while remaining, within the framework of the ff

UN, an independent judicial organ. And he added that :

“The function of the Court is to state the law as it is ; it contributes
to its development, but in the manner of a judicial body, for instance
when it analyses out a rule contained by implication in another, or
when, having to apply a rule to a specific instance, which is always

individualized and with its own clear-cut features, it gives precision
to the meaning of that rule, which is sometimes surrounded by (. . .)
the chiaroscuro of international law.” 3

7. There was only this brief reference to such chiaroscuro in Judge
Winiarski’s message in 1962 ; he did not elaborate on it, the reference was

sufficient. Thus, four decades of operation of international justice haffd not
removed the chiaroscuro of international law. Today, five other decades

1 I.C.J. Pleadings, Temple of Preah Vihear (Cambodia v. Thailand), Vol. II, p. 525.
2 Ibid., p. 121.
3 Ibid., p. 122.

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later, that chiaroscuro remains present, as disclosed by the case of the
Temple of Preah Vihear brought again before this Court. The chiaroscuro

of law appears enmeshed with the passing of time. This is one of the
aspects of the complex relationship between time and law, which, despiteff
much that has been written on it, keeps on challenging legal thinking in
our days.

III. The Density of Time

8. Turning attention to time and law, in his aforementioned plaidoirie
of 5 March 1962, in the case of the Temple of Preah Vihear, Paul Reuter
saw it fit to add :

“Time exercises a powerful influence over the establishment and
consolidation of legal situations . . . how does international law meas -

ure lapse of time? It is quite clear that in international law there exists
no time-limit such as national bodies of law recognize . . . There are
those who think that this situation constitutes an imperfection of
international law. We do not at all think so. On the contrary, we think ff

that this uncertainty gives to international law a flexibility thatenables
it to be adapted to the varying character of specific circumstances.”ff 4

9. Three such circumstances were identified by Reuter, namely :
the matters at issue, the “density” of time, and the dynamics of the rffela -
5
tions between the States concerned . In his view, “[i]n the first place the
length of the time-limit depends on the matters involved. There are mat -
ters in regard to which security and legal acts correspond to an imperatffive
requirement of society” 6 (e.g., territorial or maritime spaces). It is, how -

ever, in relation to the second circumstance — the “density” of time —
that Reuter devoted special attention, expressing his reflections in aff
language which disclosed a certain literary flair :

“In this adaptation of circumstances, this adaptation to concrete
circumstances of each species, a second element must be taken into

consideration which we would be tempted to call ‘the density’ of tffime.
The time of man is not the time of the stars. What constitutes the time ff
of men is the density of real events or of potential events which might ff
have taken place. And what makes up the density of human time

assessed on the legal level is the density, the multitude of legal acts
which did find or might have found room within that period.
In the life of nations, just like in the life of individuals, there are
light years, happy years, when nothing happens and nothing can hap -

4 I.C.J. Pleadings, Temple of Preah Vihear (Cambodia v. Thailand), Vol. II, p. 203.
5 Cf. ibid., pp. 203-204.
6 Ibid., p. 203.

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pen. However, there are also heavy years, years full of substance. If
we apply these considerations to the circumstances of this case we see
that there might be light years: 1908-1925; but also heavy years: 1925,

1934-1935, 1937, 1939-1940, 1946, 1949 and we w7uld consider there-
fore that this period is particularly dense.”

10. But as time does not cease to pass, and keeps on flowing, one could
now add, half a century later, as subsequent years of particular “denffsity”,
in respect of the present case of the Temple of Preah Vihear, those of

1961-1962, 2000, 2007-2008 and 2011. This can be confirmed by an exam -
ination of the dossier of the cas d’espèce and of the records of the recent
public sittings before this Court, of 30-31 May 2011 (concerning the Joint
Communiqué between Cambodia and Thailand of 14 June 2000 regarding

the demarcation of their land boundary, and, particularly — for the pur -
poses of the present provisional measures of the ICJ —, the events which
preceded and promptly followed the inscription of the Temple of Preah
Vihear in UNESCO’s World Heritage List on 7July 2008 — cf. infra). The

temporal dimension, in the present case of the Temple of Preah Vihear, can
be examined, in my understanding, from distinct angles.
11. In 1998, in the adjudication of the case Blake v. Guatemala by the
Inter-American Court of Human Rights (IACtHR — merits, judgment of

24 January 1998), I deemed it fit to retake Reuter’s point and to seek
to develop it further. I pondered therein, inter alia, that :

“The time of human beings certainly is not the time of the stars, in ff
more than one sense. The time of the stars — I would venture to add
— besides being an unfathomable mystery which has always accom -
panied human existence from the beginning until its end, is indifferent ff

to legal solutions devised by the human mind; and the time of human
beings, applied to their legal solutions as an element which integrates ff
them, not seldom leads to situations which defy their own legal logic
(. . .). One specific aspect, however, appears to suggest a sole point of

contact, or common denominator, between them: the time of the stars
is inexorable; the time of human beings, albeit only conventional, is,
like that of the stars, implacable.” (Para. 6.)

IV. The Temporal Dimension ffin International Law

12. The temporal dimension marks presence in the domain of humani -
ties in general, and of law in particular. The awareness of time, of the

7I.C.J. Pleadings, Temple of Preah Vihear (Cambodia v. Thailand), Vol. II, p. 203.
8It has for centuries attracted the attention of philosophers and thinkerffs (such as, inter
alia, Plato, Aristotle, Seneca, Saint Augustine, Plotino, Descartes, Pascal,ff Kant, Proust,
Spinoza, Newton, Husserl, Bergson, Ricœur, among others) ;it has, moreover, been present

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temporal dimension, is essential to the labour not only of those who seeffk
to secure the evolution of law, but also to those concerned with ascribiffng
to this latter foreseeability and juridical security. One is to be awareff of the

influence of the passage of time in the continuation of the rules of inter-
national law , as well as in the evolution of the rules of international law :
this is not a phenomenon external to law.

13. The temporal dimension is clearly inherent to the conception of the
“progressive development” of international law. By the same token,ff the
conscious search for new juridical solutions is to presuppose the solid

knowledge of solutions of the past and of the evolution of the applicablffe
law as an open and dynamic system, capable of responding to the chang -
ing needs of regulation 1. In effect, the temporal dimension underlies the

whole domain of law in general, and of public international law in par -
ticular .1
14. Time is inherent to law, to its interpretation and application, and

to all the situations and human relations regulated by it. One of the
ineluctable pitfalls of legal positivism (still very popular in the legffal pro -
fession in our days) lies in its vain attempt to conceive law in generaffl, and

international law in particular, independently of time. Legal positivism
and political “realism”, with their static vision of the world, foffcused on
the legal order or the “reality” of a given moment, have, not surpffrisingly,

been invariably subservient to the established order, to the relations of
domination and power. Neither the positivists, nor the “realists”,ff have
shown themselves capable of anticipating and understanding — and have

difficulties to accept — the profound transformations of contemporary
international law in the unending search for the realization of the impeffra -
tives of justice.

15. Startled by the changes occurred in the world, they have had to
move or jump from one historical moment to another, entirely distinct,
seeking to readjust themselves to the new empirical “reality”, andff then

in modern historiography, as disclosed by the writings on the matter of,ff e.g., Fernand
Braudel (Ecrits sur l’histoire, 1969), G. J. Whitrow (Time in History, 1988), Norbert Elias
(Über die Zeit, 1984), among others.
9 Cf. K. Doehring, “Die Wirkung des Zeitablaufs auf den Bestand völkerrechtlicher
Regeln”, Jahrbuch 1964 der Max‑Planck‑Gesellschaft, Heidelberg, 1964, pp. 70-89.
10
A. A. Cançado Trindade, “Reflections on International Law-Making : Customary
International Law and the Reconstruction of Jus Gentium”, International Law and Deve ‑
lopment/Le droit international et le développement (Proceedings of the 1986 Conference of
the Canadian Council on International Law/Travaux du Congrès de 1986 ffdu Conseil cana-
dien de droit international), Ottawa, 1986, pp. 78-81, and cf. pp. 63-81.
11 As to this latter, illustrations can be found in the work on the so-callffed “intertem -
poral law”, in the Sessions of Rome (1973) and Wiesbaden (1975) offf the Institut de droit
international. Cf., in particular, 5Annuaire de l’Institut de droit international (AIDI)

(1973), pp. 27, 33, 35-37, 48, 50, 86, 106 and 114-115 ;and 56 AIDI (1975), pp. 536-541. The
debates and work of the Institut disclosed an ambivalence, antinomy or tension between
the forces in favour of the evolution ortransformation of the legal order and those in
favour of the stability or legal security — and this was to be reflected in the cautious reso -
lution adopted by the Institut in Wiesbaden in 1975.

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trying to apply again to this latter the static scheme which they are meffn-
tally used to, once again projecting their illusion, of permanence and
“inevitability”, into the future, and, at times — almost in desperation —
also into the past. Their basic error has been their minimization of theff

principles, as well as of the temporal dimension of social facts. They can
only behold interests and advantages, and do not seem to believe in
human reason, in the recta ratio 12, nor in the human capacity to extract
lessons from the historical experience.

16. Time marks a noticeable presence in the whole domain of inter-
national procedural law. As to substantive law, the temporal dimension
permeates virtually all domains of public international law, such as — to
evoke a few examples — the law of treaties (regulation pro futuro), peace -

ful settlement of international disputes (settlement pro futuro), State suc -
cession, the international law of human rights (the notion of potentialff
victims), international environmental law (the preventive dimension),ff
among others. In the field of regulation of spaces (e.g., law of the seffa, law

of outer space), the temporal dimension stands out likewise. There is
nowadays greater awareness of the need to fulfill the interests of preseffnt
and future generations (with a handful of multilateral conventions in
force providing for that).

17. Evolving international law, attentive to secure an element of pre -
visibility in the conduction and regulation of the social relations subjected
thereto, is itself permeated by the major enigma which permeates the exiffs -

tence of all subjects of law : the passage of time. If one seeks for answers
to that enigma, I am afraid we can hardly find them in the domain of lawff,
or elsewhere. Instead, some consolation for the lack of answers to that
overwhelming enigma can perhaps be found in the domains of philoso -

phy or theology.

V. The Search for Timelessffness

18. The present case is, by the way, centred on the Temple of Preah
Vihear, which appears to resist the onslaught of time and to be endowed
with a touch of timelessness. The Temple of Preah Vihear, a monument of
Khmer art, dates back to the first half of the eleventh century, and is

located on a high promontory of the range of the Dangrek mountains (oneff
of religious significance, by the border between Cambodia and Thailand)ff.
The Temple of Preah Vihear is composed of a series of sanctuaries linkedff

12The recta ratio was well captured and conceptualized, throughout the centuries, by
Plato, Aristotle, Cicero, and Thomas Aquinas, and, subsequently, situatiffng it in the foun-
dations of jus gentium itself, by Vitoria, Suárez and Grotius.

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by a system of pavements and staircases over an axis 800 metres long, riffs -
ing up the mountain, and standing on the edge of a cliff 547 metres highff.

19. This millénaire masterpiece of Khmer art and architecture was
erected and used for religious purposes. It was dedicated to Shiva (oneff of
the Hindu divine triad of Vishnu, Shiva and Brahma — cf. infra). It was
intended to stand for time immemorial, to bring together the faithful offf

the region, to fulfill their spiritual needs. Temples and shrines, givinffg
expression to different religious faiths, have been erected in times pasfft in
distinct localities in all continents, in search of timelessness, to renffder
eternal the human faith, carved in stone to that end.

20. Writing in 1912, Max Scheler deemed it fit to point out that the
construction of temples, monasteries, cathedrals, shrines of the more diffs -
tant past, engaged generations of people who built them, within their
communities that were to survive them, thus giving them the feeling of

being inserted, in peace with themselves, into eternity, in the continuiffty of
human generations 13. Writing twelve years later, in 1924, Stefan Zweig
regretted that, in the modern world, human beings no longer erect such
temples or monuments, in an epoch of fast communications and precipi -

tated action, when they pursue objectives which appear usually quite
close. Ours is an epoch which has lost the idea of a durable image ; no
one, or no generation, would spend nowadays their whole life building a ff
shrine, a temple or a cathedral. Our modern world “counts the hours wffith

different measures, and life goes by with distinct velocities”. We haffve

“forgotten the art of expressing our essence in durable stones for thffe
years which do not finish. (. . .) We are quite aware to have lost the
aptitude for the infinite, (. . .) the aptitude to give shape so powerfully

in one work (obra) to the spirit of a whole people, to the genius of
an epoch.” 14
15
Hence the importance of preservation of such sanctuaries or temples , as
cultural and spiritual heritage of humankind (cf. infra).
21. Being itself the concrete expression of human inspiration, the Tem -

ple of Preah Vihear seems now faced with the threat of human resentment ff
(cf. infra). Recent developments (2007-2011) in the region of that part by
the border between Cambodia and Thailand suggest that the times of
human beings remain troubled and unpredictable, to a far greater extent ff

than the times of stars. The shrines of the Temple of Preah Vihear appeaffr
now surrounded by tension, hostilities and conflict, proper of the humffan
condition.

13
14M. Scheler, L’homme du ressentiment, op. cit. infra note 69, p. 41.
S. Zweig, Tiempo y Mundo — Impresiones y Ensayos (1904‑1940), Barcelona, Edit.
Juventud, 1998, pp. 147-148 [my translation].

15It has been pointed out that, in their art, there is “une jonction miffraculeuse entre
le temporel et l’intemporel” ; G. Duby, Le temps des cathédrales — L’art et la société,
980‑1420, Paris, Gallimard, 1979, p. 117.

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VI. From Timelessness to Tiffmeliness

22. What was meant to be a monument endowed with timelessness, is
now again the object of contention before this Court, raising before it,ff
inter alia, the issue of timeliness. The case of the Temple of Preah Vihear
is now, half a century after its adjudication by the Court on 15 June 1962,

brought again to the attention of the Court, by means of two requests
from Cambodia, one for interpretation of the 1962 Judgment, and the
other for provisional measures of protection.
23. In the first request, for interpretation, Cambodia draws attention to

its timeliness. In the public sitting of 30 May 2011 before the Court,
though conceding that the prolonged lapse of time, of half a century, siffnce
the Court’s Judgment of 15 June 1962, render “certain aspects” of the
present case “unusual”, it pointed out that Article 60 of the Court’s Stat -

ute (that it invoked as basis of jurisdiction of the Court in the cas d’espèce)
contains no time-limit for such a request for interpretation. In its view,
“the right to seek the assistance of the Court to resolve a dispute of that
kind is not subjected to any time-limit by Article 60 of the Statute” 1.

In sustaining the timeliness of its request for interpretation, Cambodiaff
referred to paragraphs 29-35 of the request itself, lodged with the Court
on 20 April 2011, wherein it referred to tensions, hostilities and incidents
occurred in the area of the Temple of Preah Vihear in 2008, 2009 and

2011 (paras. 33-35) ; Cambodia also invoked, in its request, Article 2 (3)
and Chapter VI of the UN Charter (para. 32).

24. Thailand, in turn, in the public sitting of 30 May 2011 before the
Court, stressed the consequence it beheld, of the passing of so much timffe,
for the Cambodian requests recently lodged with the Court. While con -
ceding that there is no time-limit in Article 60 of the Statute, it argued

that
“an interpretation goes back to the text of the Judgment ; whereas a

request for provisional measures relates to the future conduct of nor -
mally both parties. There is a tension between the two, which becomes
ever more acute as time passes.” 17

It added that the character of the Court’s “interpretation jurisdiction is

such that provisional measures will only be available in special cases, ff
especially when a lengthy period has elapsed since the first judgment”ff 18.
The fact that both Thailand and Cambodia — or, more precisely, those
who have served as counsel for one and the other, in the recent public

sittings before this Court — have felt compelled to address, each one in

16
ICJ, Compte rendu (CR) CR 2011/13, of 30 May 2011, p. 31. And, to the same effect,
CR 2011/15, of 31 May 2011, pp. 23-24.
17 CR 2011/16, of 31 May 2011, p. 18.
18 Ibid., p. 20. And, to the same effect, CR 2011/14, of 30 May 2011, pp. 32-33 and 26.

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its own way, the issue of timeliness in the circumstances of the cas
d’espèce, seemingly startled by it, renders the present case of the Temple

of Preah Vihear, in my view, indeed fascinating. It shows the human face
of an inter-State case before the World Court.

VII. The Passing of Time : The C hiarosCuro of Existence

25. In effect, the present case of the Temple of Preah Vihear appears to
contain some lessons, not so easy to grasp. As already pointed out, it
enshrines the chiaroscuro not only of law (cf. supra), but also of existence
itself. It suggests that we, mortals, still have to learn to live withinff bound -

aries in space and in time, so as to live in peace (mainly of mind). Affs to
space, those boundaries which bring countries and their peoples togetherff,
rather than separate them. As to time, those which link day and night,

light and darkness, life and after-life. As I have already indicated, all cul -
tures, including the ancient ones, in distinct latitudes, grasped the mystery
of the passing of time, each one in its own way.

26. As I pondered in my separate opinion in the case of Bámaca
Velásquez v. Guatemala, resolved by the IACtHR (judgment on repara -
tions, of 22 February 2002) :

“Time keeps on being a great mystery surrounding human exist -

ence. Human knowledge of the extreme frontiers of life (birth and
death) continues to be limited, and such frontiers have become ‘more
mobile’ as a consequence of the cultural changes and the technologi -
cal development, what attributes an even greater responsibility to the

jurists, who ought to be attentive to the ethical codes and to the cul -
tural manifestations in evolution. (. . .) The very conscience of time
is ‘a very late product of human civilization’ (. . .). Despite all that
has been written on the subject, the very origin of the cultures still
19
continues without an answer ; and time and space, which they seek
to explain, appear ultimately as mental creations of the social con -
science, which allow to conceive a unified and coherent cosmos 20. Of
the essence of cultural life are ‘the perception and the awareness offf

time’, which, in turn, constitute component elements of ‘the solidarity
of human generations which succeeded each other and return, repeat -
ing each other as the stations’ 21. Time was even considered as in the
Confessions of Saint Augustine — as an essential aspect of the spiritual

19
20E. Cassirer, Essai sur l’homme, Paris, Ed. de Minuit, 1975, p. 47, and cf. p. 243.
A. Y. Gurevitch, “El Tiempo como Problema de Historia Cultural”, Las Culturas
y el Tiempo, Salamanca/Paris, Ed. Sígueme/UNESCO, 1979, pp. 260-261. In this way,
“converted into ruler of time”, the human being “is also dominaffted by it” (ibid.,p. 261).
21Ibid., pp. 280 and 264, and cf. p. 272.

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life of the individuals and groups, as an integral part of the social
22
conscience itself.” (Paras. 4-5.)

27. In fact, there is no social milieu wherein collective representations
pertaining to its origin and to its destiny are not found. There is a spiri -
tual legacy which is transmitted, with the passing of time, from genera -

tion to generation, conforming a “perfect spiritual continuity among ff
generations”; hence the relevance of the conscience of living in time, and
of the burial rites 2. Just as the living experience of a human community

develops with the continuous flux of thought and action of the individffu -
als who compose it, there is likewise a spiritual dimension which is traffns-
mitted from an individual to another, from a generation to another,
which precedes each human being and survives him, in time. The passing

of time, a source of desperation to some, in fact brings the living inelffuc -
tably closer to their dead, and binds them together, and the preservatioffn
of the spiritual legacy of our predecessors constitutes a means whereby ff

they can themselves communicate with the living, and vice-versa.
28. The living perceive time in distinct ways. Chronological time is not
the same as biological time. In a life-time, time seems different for each
age. Children seem to live in the moment, adults their day-to-day life, and

the elderly their epoch or personal history. Biological time is not the same
as psychological time. Time gives human beings, at first, innocence, graffd -
ually replaced, later, with the passing of years, by growing experience.ff

The time of human beings nourishes them, first, with hope, and, later,
with memory. The time of human beings is indeed implacable.
29. Time links the beginning and the end of human existence, rather than
separates them. Time impregnates human existence of memory, and enables

the search for the meaning of each moment of existence. Time appears to
invite the cultivation of the study of history, and shows the ephemerousff in
the search for supremacy and glory. It is arguable whether life-time canff be

invoked as an adequate measure to approach a legal situation extending iffn
time, and even less so to approach the nature of a legal obligation.
30. As to the relationship between the passing of time and human exis -
24
tence, in a couple of his many and célèbres Letters to Lucilius (124 in

22
Few persons, like Saint Augustine, felt with such intensity the inscrutaffble mystery of
time. In the insurmountable pages on the matter, of Book XI of his Confession(written
between the years 398 to 400), to the question “what is tim”, he answered : “if no one
asks me, I know it ; but if I want to explain it to whoever asks me, then I do not know it”ff
(para. 17). And he added, as to the “three times” (or “threeff moments in the spirit”, namely,
“expectation, attention and remembrance” — para. 37) : the three times — past, present
and future — “are in the mind and I do not see them elsewhere. The present offf the past is
memory. The present of the present is the vision. The present of the futffure is the expecta-
tion” (para. 26).

23E. Durkheim, Las formas Elementales de la Vida Religiosa, Madrid, Alianza Ed.,

19924(reed.), pp. 393, 419, 436, 443 and 686.
In particular, his Letters, Nos. XII, LXXVIII, CII and CXXII.

43

6 CIJ1023.indb 82 18/06/13 10:38 577 request for interpretffation (sep. op. cançado tffrindade)

number), Seneca warns us, in his wise stoicism, that just as we have tiffme,
time has us : in our brief life-time, a few of us try to gather knowledge,
while the majority tries to accumulate possessions, goods and wealth ; yet,
the passing of time dispossesses us of everything — Seneca lucidly con -
cludes — and we leave this world as helpless as we entered it. Life-tffime is

shorter than many continuing legal obligations.

VIII. Time, Legal Interpretafftion,
and the Nature of Legalff Obligation

31. This is an appropriate moment to turn attention to time, legal

interpretation and the nature of legal obligation. In this connection, in
the course of the proceedings before the Court concerning the request for
provisional measures of protection in the present case of the Temple of
Preah Vihear, Thailand, at a given moment of its pleadings of 30 May
2011, argued that :

“Even in the long history of the law of nations, 50 years is a con -
siderable time. The last two judges who participated in the Temple

case died in 1989 — Judge Morelli on his 89th birthday, Judge
Bustamante just after his 94th. Yet Cambodia would have the Court
speak in a continuous present, prescribing the withdrawal of forces
whose members were not born at the time, enjoining activities which,
25
if they have occurred at all, began long after the time.”

32. Even taking a life-time as a measure to approach a legal situation
which appears to subsist in time, are 50 years really a considerable timffe?
In my perception, a lapse of 50 years may be seen from different angles.ff
For a very young person, in the dawn of life-time, looking forward in

time, 50 years may appear far too long a time. For an elderly person,
approaching the twilight of life-time, looking back in time, 50 years maffy
appear to have passed by very fast, to have been not so long at all. The
impression I can hardly escape from, is that mere chronological time doeffs

not assist us much : it seems to conceal more than what it discloses.

33. In the long history of the law of nations, 50 years may appear a long,
or not so long a time, depending on how we see them, and on what period

of that history we have in mind. All will depend on the density of time
(cf. supra) of the period at issue — whether at that period much has hap -
pened, or nothing significant has taken place at all. In any case, the wffork

25
CR 2011/14, of 30 May 2011, p. 33.

44

6 CIJ1023.indb 84 18/06/13 10:38 578 request for interpretffation (sep. op. cançado tffrindade)

undertaken in the Court by the generation of Judges Morelli and Busta -

mante is linked to the work being undertaken in the Court by the present
generation of its Judges. Ours is a common mission, prolonged in time. Tffhe
present Order of provisional measures of protection, which the Court is
adopting today, 18 July 2011, half a century after its Judgment of

15 June 1962, in the case of the Temple of Preah Vihear, bears witness of this.
34. One cannot lose sight of the fact that time and space do not form
part of the empirical or real world, but are rather part of our “mentffal
26
constitution”, of our apparatus “to grasp the world” , to examine and
understand events that have occurred or occur and mark our lives. The
perception of time was gradually devised by human beings to help them,
at first, to overcome “the briefness and the unicity” of their livffes ; with

that, living in their social environment, human beings imagined they
could in a way “deceive death” itself 27. Cultures seek to explain time and
space, each one in its own way. It is widely reckoned today that cultureffs,

in their diversity, also assist human beings to relate themselves with tffhe
outside world, to strive to understand it.
35. In so far as human knowledge is concerned, there are no final

answers on law, nor on humanities, nor even on science. Law is not
self-sufficient, as legal positivists, in their characteristic arrogance (sffymp -
tomatic of short-sightedness), seem to assume. In my understanding, law
has much to learn from other branches of human knowledge, and

vice-versa. The limitations of human knowledge recommend a certain
modesty as to what we do. As to law, there is a continuing quest for the
realization of justice.

36. I have already drawn attention to the fact that both Thailand and
Cambodia, in the course of the very recent proceedings before the Court ffin
the case of the Temple of Preah Vihear, have shown their preoccupation with

how to approach properly, each one in its own way, the issue of timelineffss
in the circumstances of the cas d’espèce (cfs.upra). Underlying their concerns
are, first, the distinct theses they uphold of legal interpretation itself, and

secondly, the distinct theses that Cambodia and Thailand uphold of the exis -
tence of a continuing, or else an instantaneousobligation, respectively.
37. As to the first point, concerning legal interpretation, it should not
pass unnoticed that both Cambodia 28and Thailand 29evoked, in distinct

ways, obiter dicta of the Judgment No. 11 (of 16 December 1927) of the
old Permanent Court of International Justice (PCIJ) in the case of theff
factory at Chorzów — Interpretation of Judgments Nos. 7 and 8, in order

to seek to substantiate their submissions on the matter. In fact, with

26K. Popper, En Busca de un Mundo Mejor, Barcelona, Ed. Paidós, 1996, pp. 171-173.
27A. Y. Gurevitch, “El Tiempo como Problema de Historia Cultural”, op. citsupra
note 20, p. 263.
28CR 2011/13, of 30 May 2011, pp. 29, 34 and 36 ;CR 2011/15, of 31 May 2011, pp. 15,

22 29d 24-25.
CR 2011/14, of 30 May 2011, pp. 22-24 and 38-40.

45

6 CIJ1023.indb 86 18/06/13 10:38 579 request for interpretffation (sep. op. cançado tffrindade)

regard to legal interpretation, in my view some precision is here calledff
for, which I deem it fit to dwell upon in the present separate opinion. ffIn
an application for revision of a judgment (which is not the case here), the
facts to take into account are only those set forth in the original applffica-
tion, which formed the object of the corresponding judgment. There

could not be new or additional facts, which would fall outside the scopeff
of revision, and would call for a new application, a new case, if the appli -
cant State would wish to submit to the Court.
38. This is not the situation in an application for interpretation of a
judgment. In so far as interpretation is concerned, in my understanding,ff

one cannot make abstraction of subsequent facts, which gave rise to the ff
different views advanced by the contending parties. Even more so when
both parties rely upon, or refer to, such new or subsequent facts, in their
submissions to the Court, as they have done in this case of the Temple of

Preah Vihear. The Court can take such new facts into account, in order
to perform faithfully its judicial function and its duty to decide on thffe
request for interpretation lodged with it.
39. We have not yet reached this stage. We are presently taking cogni -
zance of provisional measures of protection. In this respect, the consider -

ations I have just made apply even more forcefully, in face of a situation
which appears to be endowed with the prerequisites of urgency and
gravity, an imminence of irreparable harm (cf. infra). I shall turn to this
point later ; for the moment, suffice it to point out that, in a request for

provisional measures of protection like the present one, the Court cannofft
simply decline to answer the points raised before it.
40. As to the second point, concerning the nature of legal obligation, in
its request for interpretation, of 20 April 2011, Cambodia saw it fit to
refer to a “permanent situation” and an obligation endowed with a “carac -

tère de permanence” (para. 37), and explained :
“The obligation incumbent upon Thailand to ‘withdraw any mili -

tary or police forces, or other guards or keepers, stationed by her at
the Temple, or in its vicinity on Cambodian territory’ (second para -
graph of the operative clause) is a particular consequence of the gen -
eral and continuing obligation to respect the integrity of the territoryff

of Cambodia (. . .).” (Application instituting proceedings, p. 37,
para. 45.)

41. The point was retaken by both Parties in their respective pleadings
before the Court, of 30-31 May 2011, concerning the Application for pro -
visional measures of 28 April 2011. In its submissions of 30 May 2011,
Thailand retorted that the applicant State was attempting to transform
into a “continuing obligation” what was “an immediate and instantaneous

obligation” deriving from paragraph 2 of the dispositif of the Court’s 30
Judgment of 1962 in the present case of the Temple of Preah Vihear .

30
CR 2011/14, of 30 May 2011, p. 25.

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6 CIJ1023.indb 88 18/06/13 10:38 580 request for interpretffation (sep. op. cançado tffrindade)

42. On the following day (public sitting of 31 May 2011), Cambodia

replied that the obligation at issue was not “immediate and instanta -
neous”, but rather “continuous and permanent”, because it was “the conse-
quence of the fact that a State should not violate the territorial soverffeignty
of another State”. To regard that obligation as “instantaneous”ff — Cam -

bodia concluded, convincingly in my view — would allow the respondentff
State “to withdraw its troops the day after the Judgment and move theffm
back in again a week later” 31. In the domain of inter-State relations, when

the fundamental principle of the prohibition of use or threat of force
(cf. infra) is at stake, the corresponding obligation is, in my understanding,
a continuing or permanent one, for the States concerned.

IX. From Time to Space :
Territory and People Togffether

43. It is time now to move from my considerations on time and law to
those pertaining to space and law. I can hardly develop my considerationffs

on space without relating it to the human element of statehood : the
population. In their recent submissions before the Court in the case of ff
the Temple of Preah Vihear, the contending Parties themselves, Cambodia
and Thailand, much to their credit, were attentive to territory together

with people. In the public sitting of 30 May 2011, Cambodia expressed its
concern with the fatal victims of, and those injured in, the armed hostiffli -
ties of 15 July 2008, 4 to 7 February 2011 , as well as with the “50000 per-

sonnes de la population civile de la région”, encompassing the “ffzone” of
the Temple of Preah Vihear, as well as the zones of the Temples of Ta
Moan and Ta Krabei, as a result of the hostilities of 22 April 2011 33. For
its part, Thailand, in its pleadings on the same day, conceded that “ff[d]es
34
dizaines de milliers d’habitants de la région frontière ont éffté déplacés” .

44. In its final submissions to the Court, in the public sitting of

31 May 2011, Cambodia stated :

“The rights which Cambodia is seeking to protect do indeed relate
to the area of the Temple and to the cultural and spiritual heritage
which the Temple represents, as well as the prejudice which Cambodia
might suffer through the infringements of its sovereignty and territo -
35
rial integrity and the threat to the lives of its population.”

45. Thailand, for its part, in its final submissions of the same day,
argued that “events at the Ta Kwai and Ta Muen Temples are of no

31 CR 2011/15, of 31 May 2011, p. 18.
32 CR 2011/13, of 30 May 2011, p. 20, and cf. pp. 44-45.
33 Cf. ibid., p. 22, and cf. p. 46.
34
35 CR 2011/14, of 30 May 2011, p. 16, and cf. p. 51.
CR 2011/15, of 31 May 2011, p. 15 [translation].

47

6 CIJ1023.indb 90 18/06/13 10:38 581 request for interpretffation (sep. op. cançado tffrindade)

relevance to the present proceedings”, and that there was “no riskff of
aggravation of the dispute due to Thailand’s behaviour”. It added ffthat:

“The picture is that of two neighbouring countries sharing a com -
mon border approximately 800 kilometres long where people engage
in peaceful activities every day throughout the year. This is the fact

between peoples of Thailand and Cambodia — the fact that has not
and will not change.” 36

46. In sum, neither of the contending Parties focused on territory only ;
both of them took duly into account the fate of the local population. This
having been so, at the end of the public sitting of the Court of 31 May 2011,

I deemed it fit to put the following questions to both Parties :

“Dans la demande en indication de mesures conservatoires objet
de la présente procédure, il est notamment indiqué que les inciffdents
qui se sont produits depuis le 22 avril 2011 dans ‘la zone du temple
de Préah Vihéar’ ainsi qu’en d’autres lieux situés le fflong de la frontière

entre les deux Etats parties au différend ont provoqué des ‘morffts,
blessés et évacuations de populations’.
Les Parties peuvent-elles donner à la Cour de plus amples informa -
tions concernant le déplacement de ces populations ? Combien

d’habitants ont été déplacés ? Ceux-ci ont-ils pu retourner en toute
sécurité et volontairement dans leurs foyers ? Où dans la région
sont-ils installés ? Y sont-ils installés depuis longtemps ? quel est
leur mode de vie ? quelle est la densité de population dans la

région ?
Pour préserver l’équilibre linguistique de la Cour, je me permeffts de
poser la même question aux Parties en anglais.

In the present request for the indication of provisional measures by

the Court, it is stated, inter alia, that, as a result of the incidents
occurred since 22 April 2011 in ‘the area of the Temple of Preah
Vihear’, as well as at other places along the boundary between the
two contending States, ‘fatalities, injuries and the displacement of ff

local inhabitants’ were caused.
What further information can be provided by the Parties to the
Court about such displaced local inhabitants? How many inhabitants
were displaced ? Have they safely and voluntarily returned to their

homes? Whereabouts do they live in the region ? Have they been set -
tled there for a long time ? What is their modus vivendi ? What is the
population density of the region ?” 37

36CR 2011/16, of 31 May 2011, pp. 26 and 28-29.
37Ibid., p. 32.

48

6 CIJ1023.indb 92 18/06/13 10:38 582 request for interpretffation (sep. op. cançado tffrindade)

1. Cambodia’s first Submissions

47. On 6 June 2011, Cambodia responded to my questions, including
seven annexes to its response . At the beginning of its response, Cambo-
dia explained that it understood my questions as referring to the displace -

ment of the local population from, on the one hand, the area of the
Temple of Preah Vihear, and, on the other hand, from other places along
the border between the two States. Cambodia submitted that, since that

there are no inhabitants living in the Temple itself, Cambodia understooffd
the expression the “area of the Temple”, from my questions, as theff area
indicated on map 5 attached to Cambodia’s request for interpretation
(and projected by Cambodia during the public hearing before the Court).

48. Cambodia further submitted that “the consequences of the inci -
dents in this area have affected the villages or dwellings in the immediffate
proximity” 40of the said area. It is further reiterated that, although the inc-i

dents are interconnected, Cambodia was only requesting the indication of
provisional measures in the area of the Temple itself. Cambodia also
explained that its response to my questions was limited to the most receffnt

events, even though some of the displacements of the local inhabitants
were sometimes “the result of incidents that took place before
22 April 2011” and that the “consequences of such displacements havebeen

prolonged beyond 22 April”. Cambodia submitted that the information
provided in its response covered the period of 22 April to 5 May 2011.
49. Cambodia further submitted that, during that period, more than
50,000 persons were placed in provisional camps and 10,000 inhabitants

were sheltered by their close entourage and friends in secured areas. Caffm -
bodia asserted that, during these “armed aggressions”, the Cambodiffan
Red Cross provided food supply and assisted in the reconstruction of

their dwellings; and that donations from various institutions and private
persons also provided assistance to the population.

50. As to the area of the Temple of Preah Vihear precisely, Cambodia
responded that a total of 9,412 persons were displaced from three villagffes
in the proximity 41of the area of the Temple. Cambodia added that the
inhabitants returned to their homes on 5 May 2011 and that the camps

were closed also on 5 May 2011. Yet, it further contended, the local
inhabitants who worked in the market at close proximity to the Temple
were not able to resume their activities because the market “was destffroyed

38
The seven annexes consist of photos of the Province of Ouddor Meanchey (ffbetween
22 April and 3 May 2011) referred to in Cambodia’s response, as well as a map of the arffea
of the Temple of Preah Vihear.
39Réponse du Royaume du Cambodge à la question posée aux Parties ffpar M. le juge
Cançado Trindade, of 7 June 2011, pp. 1-12.

40In the original French text “les conséquences des incidents dans cette zone ont
touché des village [sic] ou habitations à proximité immédiatffe de cette zone”.
41Cambodia referred in this regard to the map attached to its response (Affnnex 7).

49

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by the combats” 42. Cambodia contended, moreover, that 80 per cent of
the local population practises agriculture for a living, and that the poffpu -
2
lation density of the region is about 50 persons/km .
51. As to other areas in the region, Cambodia submitted that, in the

Province of Ouddor Meanchey, 52,538 persons, who come from various
villages along the border with Thailand near the Temples of Ta Moan
and Ta Krabei (that is, 150 kilometres west of the area of the Temple of

Preah Vihear), have been displaced. It further submitted that 52 housesff in
this region have been “partially or totally destroyed” 43and that 147 (out
of 194) schools have been closed, making it impossible for 39,873 studeffnts

to go to school. Cambodia added that local inhabitants have lived in disff -
tinct villages established a long time ago 44. In response to my question as
to whether they have returned safely and voluntarily to their homes,

Cambodia contended, moreover, that the local inhabitants have returned
to their homes on 5 May 2011 and that the camps have been closed also
on 5 May 2011. It added that 85 per cent of the displaced population
45
make their living from their agricultural production . Last but not least,
Cambodia submitted that the population density in this region is about
2
28-29 persons/km .

2. Thailand’s first Submissions

52. On 7 June 2011, Thailand submitted its response to my questions,
and included therewith one map illustrating the location of the provinceffs
46
and districts referred to in its response . Thailand began by addressing
the incidents near the Temples of Ta Muen and Ta Kwai (situated about
150 kilometres from the Temple of Preah Vihear 4). In respect of the inci-

dents that took place, from 22 April to 3 May 2011, in the Surin Province
(where Ta Muen and Ta Kwai Temples are situated), it submitted, in res-
ponse to my questions, first that Thai authorities evacuated 45,042 locaffl

inhabitants to “safe shelters” as of 22 April 2011, “[a]s a precautionary

42Cambodia further submitted that the local inhabitants live in the immediffate proxi -

mity of the Temple of Preah Vihear and that they have settled in the vilfflage of Sra Em since
its establishment in 1997, in Svay Chrum village since 1995 and in the vffillage of Samdech
Techo Hun Sen since 2009.
43Cambodia refers in this regard to the pictures attached to its response.ff
44Namely : 2,517 families, totalling 11,124 inhabitants, have been living in the Koffk
Morn village ;3,198 families, totalling 13,408 persons, have been living in the Ampil ffvillage ;
1,103 families, totalling 4,913 persons, have been living in the villageff of Kok;,934s1

families, totalling 9,651 people, have been living in the O’Smach vilfflage ; 1,493 families,
amounting to 6,809 persons, have been living in the Bansay Rak village ;990 families, total-
ling 4,913 persons, have been living in the Kaun Kriel village ;and 354 families, amounting
to 1,720 people, have been living in the Trapeang Prey village.
45And that 52,421 hectares have been contaminated by “unexploded ordnanffces
(UXOs)”, including 8,000 hectares of cultivated land from a total of 37,093 hectares.
46Reply of the Kingdom of Thailand to the question put to both Parties by Judge

Can47do Trindade, of 7 June 2011, pp. 1-4.
Thailand uses the denomination “Temple of Phra Viharn”.

50

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measure to prevent loss of lives of the Thai population in the area
around Ta Kwai and Ta Muen Temples in Surin Province”. It added that
on 2 May 2011 “all [inhabitants] returned safely and voluntarily to their
homes” and have since then resumed their lives normally.

53. Moreover, Thailand submitted that the evacuated population came
from the Phanom Dong Rak, Prasat, Kabcheung and Sangkha districts
and that the majority of them were born in the region “and their famifflies

have lived there for many generations”. Thailand contended that the
majority of them are farmers; they cultivate rice, rubber trees, sweet pota -
toes, sugar cane and some of them also engage in silk worm breeding
industry. Regarding the population density of the region, Thailand
responds that, in the Phanom Dong Rak district, there are 116 persons/
2
km , with a total population accounting for 37,197 person;sin the district of
Prasat, the population of the subdistrict of Choke Na Sam is 139 personsff/
km 2and of Kok Sa-ard subdistrict is 203 persons/km , making the total
population of the Prasat district 11,423 persons ; in the Kabcheung
2
district, the population density is 105 persons/km , amounting to a total
of 60,421 persons ; and the Sangkha district has a population density of
126 persons/km 2, making the total population 127,592 persons.
54. Concerning the Buriram Province, which is adjacent to the Surin

Province, Thailand asserted that the incidents that took place since
22 April 2011 in the area around Ta Kwai and Ta Muen Temples
prompted the Thai authorities to evacuate the local population in the Baffn
Kruat district of the Buriram Province, which is situated about 10 kilo -
metres from the Ta Kwai and Ta Muen Temples. Thailand submits that,

“[a]s a precautionary measure to prevent loss of lives of the Thai poffpula -
tion in the area near the site of the clashes”, 7,396 local inhabitanffts were
evacuated by Thai authorities to “safe shelters” from 22 April 2011. Thai -
land further submits that on 2 May 2011 “all [inhabitants] returned safely

and voluntarily to their homes” and have since then resumed their livffes
normally.
55. It added that the local inhabitants live in the Ban Kruat district of
the Buriram Province and that the “majority of [them] were born thereff

and their families have lived in the region for many generations” ; the
majority of them “are farmers who cultivate rice, rubber trees, sweetff
potatoes, and sugar cane”. It further contended that the population dffen -
sity of the Ban Kruat district is 136 persons/km 2, the total population
amounting to 73,400 persons. Finally, as to the incident at Phu Makhua,

situated 2.5 kilometres from the Temple of Preah Vihear, Thailand sub -
mitted that no local inhabitants were displaced, as a result of the saidff
incident, which occurred on 26 April 2011.

3. Cambodia’s Second Submissions

56. On 13 June 2011, Cambodia submitted its comments to the
responses provided by Thailand to my questions put to both Parties

51

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(cf. supra). Cambodia first noted that Thailand provided very little infor -
mation concerning the area of the Temple of Preah Vihear itself and indiff -
cated that no population was displaced there from ; in its view, that

statement showed that, until recent incursions, the situation on the
ground complied with the Court’s 1962 Judgment concerning Cambo -
dia’s control and sovereignty over the area of the Temple. Cambodia
further submitted that Thailand’s response confirmed that there were ff

incidents in the area of the Temple and at other sites, at the time of tffhe
filing of the request for provisional measures, which were needed to preff -
serve the rights at stake and to prevent irreparable harm.

57. Moreover, Cambodia contended that, although calm had been
restored and the populations had returned to their homes since 2 May
2011, yet the calm was fragile and nothing could guarantee that armed
hostilities would not break out again, as they did in July 2008, Octo -

ber 2008, April 2009, February 2011 and April 2011. As to Thailand’s
account of displaced populations in an area 150 kilometres west of the
Temple, Cambodia reiterated its argument that “only the incidents in ffthe
area of the Temple of Preah Vihear should be taken into account”, and

that “the incidents in the area 150 kilometres away from the Temple of
Preah Vihear should not enter into consideration for the measures the
Court might pronounce” 48.

4. Thailand’s Second Submissions

58. On 14 June 2011, Thailand presented its comments to the responses
provided by Cambodia to my questions put to both Parties (cf. supra) 49.
Thailand first submitted that some information provided in Cambodia’sff

response was either of no relevance, or referred to incidents that occurffred
before 22 April 2011, thus falling outside the scope of my questions
(cf. supra). Referring to the villages of Sra Em, Svay Chrum and Samdech
Techo Hun Sen, Thailand submitted that the only incident outside the Ta

Muen and Ta Kwai Temples area occurred after 22 April 2011 at Phu
Makhua, on 26 April 2011. Thailand submits that this incident was a
minor one resulting from a misunderstanding. Thailand contended that
there was no link between the evacuation of the three villages referred ffto

in Cambodia’s response and the incident of 26 April 2011. Thailand thus
submits that the evacuation of these villagers could not be the conse -
quence of incidents that took place from 22 April 2011, as I inquired in
the question I put to the Parties (cf. supra).

48Observations du Royaume du Cambodge sur la réponse fournie par le Royffaume de
Thaïlande à la question posée aux Parties par M. le juge Cançffado Trindade, of 14 June
2011, pp. 1-2 ; Cambodia further dismissed Thailand’s claim of sovereignty over the
Temples of Ta Moan and Ta Krabei and argued that this stemmed from Thailffand’s unila-
teral interpretation regarding the border line in this area.

49Thailand enclosed one attachment to its comments.

52

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59. Thailand further argued that Cambodia did not specify when the

evacuation began or the reasons for the evacuation, and that Cambodia
herself admitted that the origin of the displacement could have been theff
incidents that took place before 22 April 2011. Thailand submits that this,

“together with the fact that no incident occurred anywhere within

150 kilometres of the Temple of Phra Viharn since 7 February 2011,
(. . .) leads to the only plausible conclusion that (. . .) the alleged
evacuation of the three villages was in fact undertaken as a result of
50
the incidents that occurred during February 2011” .

In Thailand’s view, this displacement fell outside the scope of the ques -
tions I posed to the Parties. Furthermore, Thailand argued that Cambo -
dia’s response concerning the establishment of the three villages confirmed

its argument — made during the hearings — that villagers were put in the
region only recently to serve political motives outside the scope of theff
current proceedings. As to Cambodia’s statement that some inhabitantsff

could not resume their work in the market, because of the latter’s deffstruc -
tion, Thailand retorted that the market was destroyed as a result of theff
incidents that occurred in April 2009, thus also outside the scope of the
51
questions I put to both Parties .

5. General Assessment

60. The two rounds of submissions and comments, provided by the
Parties in response to my questions (cf. supra), clarify some of the issues
underlying the present case of the Temple of Preah Vihear, lodged with
the Court. Yet, there remain still some points of difference between theff

Parties. Their submissions, at first, differ in respect of the motivatioffn or
reason for the evacuation of local inhabitants. While Cambodia asserts
that some of the evacuation was the consequence of incidents that took

place before 22 April 2011, Thailand claims that local inhabitants were
displaced as “a precautionary measure to prevent loss of lives of theff Thai
population” in the area near the site of the clashes 52. Secondly, while

Cambodia maintains that “only the incidents in the area of the Templeff of

50 Comments of the Kingdom of Thailand on the reply given by the Kingdom offf
Cambodia to the question put to both Parties by Judge Cançado Trindadffe, of 14 June
2011, p. 1, and cf. pp. 1-3.
51
As to the province of Ouddor Meanchey, Thailand argued that Cambodia’ffs refer-
ence to 52,421 hectares of land contaminated by “unexploded ordnancesff” (UXOs) was
irrelevant to both the question and the present proceedings, since, accoffrding to its under-
standing, any UXOs contaminated area found in Cambodia is “the resultff of past conflicts
in Cambodia that lasted until 1998” ;ibid., p. 2. Last but not least, Thailand questioned the
credibility of the photographs submitted by Cambodia, since no informatiffon was provided
as to the exact dates and locations where they were taken ; ibid.

52 Reply of the Kingdom of Thailand to the question put to both Parties by Judge
Cançado Trindade, of 7 June 2011, p. 2.

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Preah Vihear should be taken into account” 53 for the indication of provi-

sional measures, in its response Thailand does not focus on incidents inff
the area of the Temple of Preah Vihear, but concentrates rather on dis -
placements that took place in an area situated about 150 kilometres from
54
the Temple of Preah Vihear .
61. Thirdly, as to the displaced persons themselves, Cambodia refers to
9,412 persons displaced in the area of the Temple of Preah Vihear and

52,538 displaced persons in the Province of Ouddor Meanchey; Thailand,
for its part, submits that 45,042 local inhabitants were evacuated in thffe
Surin Province, 7,396 local inhabitants were displaced in the Buriram
Province and no inhabitants were displaced as a result of the incident offn

26 April 2011 at Phu Makhua (situated 2.5 kilometres from the Temple of
Preah Vihear). The Parties responses coincide, however, on the statemenfft
that the displaced population has returned safely and voluntarily to their

homes, even though Cambodia claims that their date of return is
5 May 2011 55, while Thailand claims that they returned on 2 May 2011 . 56
62. In sum and conclusion of the matter at issue, while the responses

provide some clarification and the situation seems to have progressed inff a
positive manner, with regard to the safe and voluntary return of local
inhabitants to their homes, the calm achieved remains fragile, and seemsff

to be provisional. The ceasefire is only verbal. There are no assurancesff
that the armed hostilities will not resume and that the population will ffnot
be displaced yet again. The ceasefire seems to be temporary, and nothingff
indicates that the conflict will not break out again. Accordingly, in ffmy

view, the situation in the present case requires the indication of proviff -
sional measures of protection to prevent or avoid the further aggravation
of the dispute or situation, given its current gravity, urgency, and theff

risks of irreparable harm.

63. May I just observe, in this connection, that it has become almost

commonplace today to evoke provisional measures of protection to pre -
vent or avoid the “aggravation” of the dispute or situation at issffue. Yet,
this sounds almost tautological, given the fact that a dispute or situatffion
which calls for provisional measures of protection is already — per defini ‑

53 Observations du Royaume du Cambodge sur la réponse fournie par le Royffaume de
Thaïlande à la question posée aux Parties par M. le juge Cançffado Trindade, of 14 June
2011, pp. 1-2.
54 Cf. Comments of the Kingdom of Thailand on the reply given by the Kingdom of

Cambodia to the question put to both Parties by Judge Cançado Trindadffe, of 14 June
20155 p. 1.
It is noted, however, that in its comments to Thailand’s responses, iffn a letter dated
13 June 2011, Cambodia claims that “calm was restored (and populations retuffrned) as
early as 2 May 2011” ;Observations du Royaume du Cambodge sur la réponse fournie par
le Royaume de Thaïlande à la question posée aux Parties par M. ffle juge Cançado Trin -
dade, of 14 June 2011, pp. 1-2.

56 Reply of the Kingdom of Thailand to the question put to both Parties by Judge
Cançado Trindade, of 7 June 2011, p. 2.

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tionem — endowed with gravity and urgency, given the probability or

imminence of irreparable harm. It would thus be more accurate to evoke
provisional measures of protection to prevent or avoid the “further aggra‑
vation” of the dispute or situation at issue.

X. The Effects of Provisionffal Measures of Protectiffon
in the C as d ’EspèCE

64. International law in a way endeavours to be anticipatory in the
regulation of social facts, so as to avoid disorder and chaos, as well affs

irreparable harm. What is anticipatory is law itself, and not the unwar -
ranted recourse to force. We are here before the raison d’être of provi -
sional measures of protection, to prevent and avoid irreparable harm in
situations of gravity and urgency. They are endowed with a preventive
character, being anticipatory in nature, looking forward in time. They

disclose the preventive dimension of the safeguard of rights. Here, again,
the time factor marks its presence in a notorious way.

65. As I pointed out in my lengthy dissenting opinion (105 paragraphs)
in the case concerning Questions relating to the Obligation to Prosecute or

Extradite (Belgium v. Senegal), Provisional Measures, Order of 28 May
2009, I.C.J. Reports 2009, pp. 165-200, provisional measures of protec -
tion, as evolved in recent years, have enabled contemporary international
tribunals to secure the protection of rights in a preventive way, and to
undertake a continuous monitoring (projected in time) of compliance with

them, on the part of the States concerned. Here, once again, further lesff -
sons can be extracted from this case of the Temple of Preah Vihear, also
in respect of : (a) the protection of people in territory ; (b) the prohibi -
tion of use or threat of force ; (c) the protection of cultural and spiritual
world heritage. Let me turn next to these particular points.

1. The Protection of People in Territory

66. There is epistemologically no impossibility or inadequacy for pro -
visional measures, of the kind of the ones indicated in the present Ordeffr,

not to extend protection also to human life, and to cultural and spirituffal
world heritage (cf. infra). quite on the contrary, the reassuring effects of
the provisional measures indicated in the present Order are that they do
extend protection not only to the territorial zone at issue, but also, bffy

asserting the prohibition of the use or threat of force — pursuant toff a
fundamental principle of international law (cf. infra) —, to the life and
personal integrity of human beings who live or happen to be in that zoneff
or near it, as well as to the Temple of Preah Vihear itself, situated in the
aforementioned zone, and all that the Temple represents.

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67. The present Order of provisional measures of protection has taken
due account of the concerns of both contending Parties with securing theff
protection of people in territory. In addition to the answers which bothff

Parties have given to the question I put to them at the end of the publiffc
sitting of the Court of 31 May 2011 (cf. supra), the Parties have made sure
to convey to the Court their concerns on the point at issue throughout tffhe
proceedings of the case. And the Court, in the Order it has just adoptedff,

has taken due account of those concerns.
68. Thus, the Court acknowledged, in the present Order, Cambodia’s
complaints of “serious armed incidents” occurred in the area of thffe Tem -
ple of Preah Vihear since 22 April 2011, that caused “fatalities, injuries

and the evacuation of local inhabitants” (para. 8), as well as Cambodia’s
warning as to the worsening of the situation, with “loss of life and ffhuman
suffering as a result of those armed clashes” (para. 9). Further on, the
Court again acknowledged Cambodia’s complaints of “numerous armed ff

incidents” that took place in the area of the Temple of Preah Vihear ffsince
15 July 2008, that caused “irreparable damage to the Temple itself”, part ff
of the cultural heritage of humankind, as well as “loss of human life,
bodily injuries and the displacement of local people” (para. 48) 57. And,

once again, it took note of Cambodia’s warning as to the worsening of
the situation, with “damage to the Temple of Preah Vihear, as well asff
human suffering and loss of life” (para. 50).

69. The Court, likewise, acknowledged, in the present Order, Thai -
land’s complaints of “numerous armed incidents” occurred in theff area of
the Temple of Preah Vihear which caused “loss of human life, bodily iffnju -

ries, the displacement of local people, and material damage” (para. 51).
Having considered the submissions of both Parties as to the facts, the
Court found that :

“since 15 July 2008, armed clashes have taken place and have contin -
ued to take place in that area, in particular between 4 and 7 Febru -

ary 2011, leading to fatalities, injuries and the displacement of local
inhabitants; (. . .) damage has been caused to the Temple and to the
property associated with it” (para. 53) 5.

70. Yet, the Court’s valuation or assessment of the prima facie evi -
dence (proper to provisional measures of protection) which the Partiesff
brought to its attention was not, in my view, satisfactory : the Court did

not extract all the consequences that it could, and should, from the facffts

57Cambodia further noted that those incidents led, on its initiative, to aff meeting of the
UN Security Council on 14 February 2011 (para. 48).
58The Court further noted that, “on 14 February 2011, the [UN] Security Council
called for a permanent ceasefire to be established between the two Parties and expressed its
support for ASEAN in seeking a solution to the conflict” (para. 53).

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6 CIJ1023.indb 108 18/06/13 10:38 590 request for interpretffation (sep. op. cançado tffrindade)

pertaining to the protection of people in territory. The Court’s main atten-
tion was focused on territory itself (one of the component elements of

statehood), and not so much of the people, which, in my perception, is the
most precious constituent element of statehood. I shall turn again to thffis
point later on (cf. items XI-XII, infra) in the present separate opinion.

2. The Prohibition of Use or Threat of force

71. On a distinct line of considerations, the Court, in its present Order,
indicated provisional measures to the effect that :

“Both Parties shall immediately withdraw their military personnel

currently present in the provisional demilitarized zone, as defined
in paragraph 62 of the present Order, and refrain from any military
presence within that zone and from any armed activity directed at
that zone ;

Thailand shall not obstruct Cambodia’s free access to the Temple
of Preah Vihear or Cambodia’s provision of fresh supplies to its
non-military personnel in the Temple ;

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ff . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Both Parties shall refrain from any action which might aggravate
or extend the dispute before the Court or make it more difficult to
59
resolve.”

72. Underlying the Court’s decision — informing and conforming it —
is the fundamental principle of the prohibition of the use or threat of ff
force. In fact, in the corresponding reasoning of the Court in the preseffnt
Order, it is clearly stated that :

“the Charter of the United Nations imposes an obligation on all

Member States of the United Nations to refrain in their international
relations from the threat or use of force against the territorial integrffity
or political independence of any State, or in any other manner incon -
sistent with the purposes of the United Nations; (. . .) United Nations

Member States are also obliged to settle their international disputes
by peaceful means in such a manner that international peace and
security, and justice, are not endangered ; and (. . .) both Parties are
obliged, by the Charter and general international law, to respect these ff
60
fundamental principles of international law” (para. 66).

59 Resolutory points B (1), (2) and (4) of the dispositif.
60 Or, in the other official language of the Court,
“la Charte des Nations Unies fait obligation à tous les Etats Membffres de l’O-ganisa

tion des Nations Unies de s’abstenir dans leurs relations internationffales de recourir
à la menace ou à l’emploi de la force, soit contre l’intéffgrité territoriale ou l’indépen
dance politique de tout Etat, soit de toute autre manière incompatible avec les buts
des Nations Unies ;(. . .) les Etats membres de l’Organisation sont également tenus de
régler leurs différends internationaux par des moyens pacifiques, ffde telle manière que

57

6 CIJ1023.indb 110 18/06/13 10:38 591 request for interpretffation (sep. op. cançado tffrindade)

73. Due attention is rightly given by the Court to compliance with the
fundamental principles of international law, as enshrined into the UN

Charter (Art. 2) and reckoned in general international law, in particular
that of the prohibition of use or threat of force (Art. 2 (4)), in addition to
that of the peaceful settlement of disputes (Art. 2 (3)). This has in fact
been a concern of the Court in recent years. Three relevant precedents

can be here recalled in this connection, namely, the case of the frontier
Dispute (Burkina faso/Republic of Mali) (1986), the case of the Land and
Maritime Boundary (Cameroon v. Nigeria) (1996), and the case of Armed
Activities on the Territory of the Congo (Democratic Republic of the Congo

v. Uganda) (2000).
74. In those previous three cases, the Court, in indicating provisional
measures of protection, most significantly went beyond the inter‑State
dimension, in expressing its concern also for the human persons (les per ‑

sonnes humaines) in situations of risk, or vulnerability and adversity.
Thus, in its Order of 10 January 1986 in the frontier Dispute (Burkina
faso/Republic of Mali) case, the Chamber of the Court asserted the
power, “independently of the requests submitted by the Parties”, tffo indi -

cate provisional measures “with a view to preventing the aggravation ffor
extension of the dispute whenever it considers that circumstances so
require” (I.C.J. Reports 1986, p. 9, para. 18) 61. It can exercise such power,
it added, even more so in case of “a resort to force which is irreconffcilable

with the principle of the peaceful settlement of international disputes”ff,
when it can adopt such provisional measures “as may conduce to the duffe
administration of justice” (ibid., p. 9, para. 19). It decided to indicate

those measures, comprising the withdrawal by the Parties of their armed ff
forces, as it was of the view that the facts at issue “expose the perffsons and
property in the disputed area, as well as the interests of both States wffithin
that area, to serious risk of irreparable damage” (ibid., p. 10, para. 21).

75. One decade later, in its Order of 15 March 1996 in the case of the
Land and Maritime Boundary between Cameroon and Nigeria (Cameroon
v. Nigeria), the Court pondered that :

“the rights at issue in these proceedings are sovereign rights which ffthe
Parties claim over territory, and (. . .) these rights also concern per -

sons; (. . .) independently of the requests for the indication of provi -
sional measures submitted by the Parties to preserve specific rights,

la paix et la sécurité internationales ainsi que la justice ne soiffent pas mises en danger ;
et (. . .) les deux Parties sont tenues, en vertu de la Charte et du droit inteffrnational
général, de respecter ces principes fondamentaux du droit internatffional”.
61
In a notorious precedent, that of the Court’s Order of 10 May 1984, in the case of
Military and Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua (Nicaragu▯a v. United States
of America), the Court determined that the circumstances of the case required it toff indi
cate provisional measures, as provided by Article 41 of its Statute, without prejudging the
question of its jurisdiction as to the merits (I.C.J. Reports 1984, p. 186, paras. 39-40).

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6 CIJ1023.indb 112 18/06/13 10:38 592 request for interpretffation (sep. op. cançado tffrindade)

the Court possesses by virtue of Article 41 of the Statute the power
to indicate provisional measures with a view to preventing the aggra-
vation or extension of the dispute whenever it considers that circum -
stances so require (. . .) ; (. . .) the events that have given rise to the
request, and more especially the killing of persons, have caused

irreparable damage to the rights that the Parties may have over the
Peninsula; (. . .) persons in the disputed area and, as a consequence,
the rights of the Parties within that area are exposed to serious risk offf
further irreparable damage” (I.C.J. Reports 1996 (I), pp. 22-23,
paras. 39 and 41-42).

Accordingly, in the provisional measures it indicated, the Court deter -
mined, inter alia, that the Parties were to refrain from any action by their
armed forces, which might prejudice the rights of each other in respect of
whatever judgment the Court might render in the case, or which might
“aggravate or extend” the dispute before it 62.

76. Almost half a decade later, in its Order of 1 July 2000, in the case
of Armed Activities on the Territory of the Congo (Democratic Republic of
the Congo v. Uganda), the Court, once again, was attentive also to the
fate of persons. It pondered that, in the cas d’espèce, it was “not dis -
puted” that :

“grave and repeated violations of human rights and international

humanitarian law, including massacres and other atrocities, have
been committed on the territory of the Democratic Republic of the
Congo; (. . .) in the circumstances, the Court is of the opinion that
persons, assets and resources present on the territory of the Congo,
particularly in the area of the conflict, remain extremely vulnerable,ff

and that there is a serious risk that the rights at issue in this case (ff. . .)
may suffer irreparable prejudice” (I.C.J. Reports 2000, p. 128,
paras. 42-43).

77. This being so, the Court was of the view that “independently of the
requests” by the Parties for provisional measures, it was endowed, unffder
Article 41 of the Statute, with the power to indicate such measures with a

view to “preventing the aggravation or extension of the dispute” wffhen -
ever it considered that the circumstances so required. In the case opposing
the Democratic Republic of the Congo to Uganda, it was of the opinion
that there existed “a serious risk of events occurring which might agffgra -
vate or extend the dispute or make it more difficult to resolve” (ibid.,

para. 44). Accordingly, in the measures it indicated the Court determined
that the Parties must “prevent and refrain from any action, and in
particular any armed action”, which might “aggravate or extend theff
dispute”, and, furthermore : “Both Parties must, forthwith, take all mea -
sures necessary to ensure full respect within the zone of conflict forff

62
Paragraph 1 of the dispositif.

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fundamental human rights and for the applicable provisions of humani -
63
tarian law.”
78. It should not pass unnoticed here that, very recently, for less than
in the present case of the Temple of Preah Vihear, opposing Cambodia to
Thailand (wherein successive armed hostilities have occurred), the Couffrt

has indicated provisional measures of protection, in the case concerningff
Certain Activities Carried Out by Nicaragua in the Border Area, opposing
Costa Rica to Nicaragua (Order of 8 March 2011, I.C.J. Reports 2011 (I),

p. 6). In this case, competing claims between the contending Parties, and
Nicaragua’s intention to carry out activities in the border area, werffe
regarded by the Court as sufficient to conform “a real and present rffisk of
incidents liable to cause irremediable harm in the form of bodily injuryff or

death” (ibid., p. 24, para. 75), and for it, accordingly, to order provisional
measures of protection.
79. The fundamental principle of international law of the prohibition

of the use or threat of force has found expression on numerous occasionsff,
before and after its insertion into the UN Charter (Article 2 (4)) at the
1945 San Francisco Conference. After its assertion at the 1907 II Hague

Peace Conference, it became of nearly universal application under the
1928 General Treaty for the Renunciation of War as an Instrument of
National Policy (the Briand-Kellogg Pact) 64; following the UN Charter,
the fundamental principle at issue was restated by the 1970 UN Declara -

tion on Principles of International Law concerning Friendly Relations
and Co-operation among States in Accordance with the Charter of
the United Nations, the 1974 UN Definition of Aggression, and the 1987

UN Declaration on Enhancing the Effectiveness of the Principle of the
Non-Use of Force.

80. The over-all prohibition of the use or threat of force is a corner -
stone of contemporary international law. For its part, the 1997 UNESCO

Declaration on the Responsibilities of the Present Generations towards
the Future Generations stated (Article 9 (2)) that :

“The present generations should spare future generations the
scourge of war. To that end, they should avoid exposing future

63
Paragraphs 1 and 3 of the dispositif. May it be recalled, however, that, inse-s sub
quent Order of 10 July 2002, in the case of the Armed Activities on the Territory of the
Congo, opposing the Democratic Republic of the Congo to Rwanda, the Court didff not
indicate provisional measures, as it found itself without prima facie juffrisdiction to do so
(I.C.J. Reports 2002, p249, para. 89), though it expressed its deep concern with “the
deplorable human tragedy, loss of life, and enormous suffering” in thffe east of the Demo-
cratic Republic of the Congo resulting from “the continued fighting tffhere” (ibid., p. 240,
para. 54).
64Followed, in the American continent, by the 1933 Pact Saavedra Lamas, thffe 1938

Declaration of Principles adopted by the Inter-American Conference of Liffma, and the
1948 OAS Charter.

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generations to the harmful consequences of armed conflicts as well as ff

all other forms of aggression and use of weapons, contrary to human-
itarian principles.”

The corresponding obligation, not to resort to force, or to the threat of it,
is not a simple immediate or “instantaneous” obligation (whateverff that
may mean); it is, by definition, a continuing or permanent obligation.

81. Decisions ensuing from, and grounded on, the fundamental prin -

ciple of the prohibition of the use or threat of force, such as the pro-
visional measures of protection aforementioned, can nowadays be
approached, in my perception, from a humanist perspective, proper of theff
contemporary jus gentium: this is the case of the provisional measures of

protection just adopted by the Court in the present case of the Temple of
Preah Vihear, which took into account people and territory together,
comme il faut, in the circumstances of the case, keeping in mind the fun -
damental principles of international law of the prohibition of the use offr
the threat of force and of peaceful settlement of disputes. The Court

should, from now onwards, in such circumstances, embrace expressly and
more resolutely this approach (cf. items XI-XII, infra).

3. Space and Time, and the Protection of Cultural
and Spiritual World Heritage

82. My considerations on space and law seem likewise permeated by
time. This is also what ensues from an examination of the submissions by
the contending Parties with regard to the inscription of the Temple of

Preah Vihear in UNESCO’s World Cultural Heritage List on 7 July 2008.
In its request for interpretation (of 28 April 2011) of the Court’s Judg -
ment of 15 June 1962 in the case of the Temple of Preah Vihear, Cambo -
dia stated :

“It was therefore only from 2007, when steps were taken to
have the Temple of Preah Vihear declared a World Heritage site [by
UNESCO], that the issue of a territorial claim by Thailand emerged

(. . .).” (Application instituting proceedings, p. 15, para. 15.)

83. And Cambodia referred, in this connection, to the recent hostilities
which ensued there from :
“the recent period has been marked by a serious deterioration in rela-

tions between them, the origin of which may be found in the opening
of discussions within UNESCO to have the Temple declared a World
Heritage site.
The Temple was included on the List of World Heritage sites by
UNESCO on 7 July 2008, despite strong opposition from Thailand.

As from 15 July 2008, large numbers of Thai soldiers crossed the bor-

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der and occupied an area of Cambodian territory near the Temple,
on the site of the Keo Sikha Kiri Svara Pagoda (. . .). This Pagoda
was built by Cambodia in 1998 and had not previously given rise to

any protest from Thailand (. . .).” (Application instituting proceed -
ings, p. 13, paras. 13-14.)

84. Cambodia singled out, in particular, “the serious incidents of
15 July 2008” (ibid., p. 15, para. 16), and added that, “[i]n these various
incidents between 2008 and 2011, architectural features of the Temple
have been damaged, leading to inquiries and reports by the UNESCO

authorities (. . .)” (ibid., p. 29, para. 35). Furthermore, in its request for
provisional measures of 28 April 2011, Cambodia asked the Court to order
the withdrawal of troops and the prohibition of any military activities ffin
“the zone of the Temple of Preah Vihear”, given the urgency and thffe “grav -

ity of the situation” (ibid., pp. 9-11, paras. 7-9). Last but not least, Cambo-
dia stated, in its pleadings of 30 May 2011 before the Court, that “following
the designation of the Temple of Preah Vihear as a UNESCO World
Heritage Site on 7 July 2008, Thailand decided to dispute that designa -

tion by force of arms within a unilaterally defined area close to the Teffm-
ple”; hence the “armed incidents” which followed, on 15 July 2008, that
is, “immediately after the inscription of the Temple in the World Heritage
of UNESCO on 7 July 2008” 65.

85. For its part, Thailand addressed this particular issue in its plead -
ings before the Court, of 30-31 May 2011. Thailand began by admitting
clearly and frankly, in its pleadings of 30 May 2011, that it accepts the
Court’s Judgment of 15 June 1962 in the case of the Temple of Preah

Vihear :
“despite the fact that the Temple is a very important cultural and

historical symbol for its people. This explains why the Court’s deci -
sion provoked consternation and ill feeling in Thailand at all levels
of society, to the extent that for some it became a national trauma,
which is still manifesting itself today in various ways.” 66

86. In its following pleadings of 31 May 2011, turning to the inscrip -

tion of the “Temple of Preah Vihear” on UNESCO’s World Cultural
Heritage List, Thailand deemed it fit to add :

“The Temple requires a buffer zone as a World Heritage site, and
that can only be found in Thai territory. We understand that, and
have always been ready and willing to undertake a joint nomination
with Cambodia. It is Cambodia’s constant refusal of such joint under -

taking that is the root cause of the problems that have arisen over the ff
inscription.” 67

65CR 2011/13, of 30 May 2011, pp. 32, 39-40, para. 6. [Translation.]
66CR 2011/14, of 30 May 2011, p. 3, para. 3. [Translation.]
67CR 2011/16, of 31 May 2011, p. 26, para. 4.

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87. To Thailand, thus, the inscription of the Temple of Preah Vihear on the

World Cultural Heritage List of UNESCO, at the 32nd Session of the Worldff
Heritage Committee (quebec City, 2008), became a matter of concern regard -
ing its border with Cambodia in the area in the vicinity of the Temple. ffThe

Temple itself was in the middle of the controversy, which seems to have ffbeen
reignited by the Temple’s inscription in the aforementioned List of UffNESCO,
as a result of Cambodia’s Application. Thailand expressly admitted its resent -

ment, going back to the Court’s Judgment of 15 June 1962 (cf. supra).
88. Here we are faced with the time element again. Resentment flows
with the passing of time ; it may last for a short time, months or years, or
it may prolong for a much longer time, decades, passing on from one

generation to another, or even centuries. History is full of examples ilfflus -
trating such prolongation in time 68. Here, again, simple chronological
time does not help much in assessing each situation, as the “horizontffal”

approach of chronological time does not reveal the depth of the problem ff
of resentment in each historical situation 6. What is important here is to
be attentive to the complexities of the relationship between time and laffw,

in the settlement of international disputes.
89. It has recently been pointed out, rightly and with due sensitivity,
that :

“A travers la protection des biens culturels, ce ne sont donc pas
seulement des monuments et des objets que l’on cherche à protégffer,

c’est la mémoire des peuples, c’est leur conscience collective,ff c’est leur
identité, mais c’est aussi la mémoire, la conscience et l’idffentité de cha -
cun des individus qui les composent. Car en vérité, nous n’exisfftons pas

en dehors de notre famille et du corps social auquel nous appartenons.
Fermez les yeux et imaginez Paris sans Notre-Dame, Athènes sans
le Parthénon, Gizeh sans les Pyramides, Jérusalem sans le Dôme ffdu

Rocher, la Mosquée Al-Aqsa ni le Mur des Lamentations, l’Inde sansff
le Taj Mahal, Pékin sans la Cité interdite, New York sans la statuffe
de la Liberté. Ne serait-ce pas un peu de l’identité de chacun ffde nous
70
qui nous serait arrachée ?”

68
Cf., e.g., Marc Ferro, El Resentimiento en la Historia (Le ressentiment dans l’histoire,
20069, Madrid, Ed. Cátedra, 2009, pp. 9-187.
Cf. ibid., p. 185. Some decades ago, in his endeavours to elaborate a phenomenology
and sociology of resentment, Max Scheler identified factors which had to do with the struc-
ture of the society concerned, or else with the individuals within it, and the prevailing arti -
culation of values in it, at a given historical moment; M. Scheler, L’homme du ressentiment
(1912), Paris, Gallimard, 1933, p. 36, and cf. pp. 48, 55-57, 88-89 and 189-190.
70Or, in the other official language of the Court,

“by protecting cultural property, one is attempting to protect not onffly monuments
and objects, but a people’s memory, its collective consciousness and ffits identity,
and indeed the memory, consciousness and identity of all the individualsff who make
up that people. Ultimately, we do not exist outside of our families and ffthe social
frameworks to which we belong.
Close your eyes and imagine Paris without Notre Dame, Athens without the
Parthenon, Giza without the Pyramids, Jerusalem without the Dome of the ffRock,

63

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Other examples could be referred to the same effect, such as, inter alia,

e.g., Moscow without the Red Square and St. Basil’s Cathedral, Rio de
Janeiro without the Statue of Christ the Redeemer, Samarkand without
the Registan and the Gur Emir, Guatemala without Antigua and Tikal,

Rome without the Coliseum, Peru without Machu-Picchu, and so forth.
The examples abound, in every continent, all over the world.
90. The universal value of the Temple of Preah Vihear was brought before

the attention of the World Heritage Committee (2007-2008), established by
the 1972 UNESCO Convention concerning the Protection of the World Cul -
71
tural and Natural Heritage . The Temple of Preah Vihear was inscribed as
a UNESCO World Heritage Site on 7 July 2008, at the 32nd Session of the
World Heritage Committee, held inquebec City, Canada (2-10 July2008).
72
The nomination of the Temple had been before the World Heritage Com -
mittee also at its previous 31st Session, held in Christchurch, New Zealffand
(23 June to 2 July 2007), when it was evaluated 73.

91. The Temple of Preah Vihear was regarded as an outstanding
masterpiece of Khmer art and architecture, disclosing the highpoint of aff

significant stage in human history (in the first half of the eleventh cffentury),
and the capacity of the Khmer civilization to make use of that site — one
of difficult access — over a long period. Particularly impressive waffs con -

the Al-Aqsa Mosque and the Wailing Wall, India without the Taj Mahal, Peffking
without the Forbidden City, New York without the Statue of Liberty. Woulffd we not
all have lost part of our identities ?”

F. Bugnion, “La genèse de la protection juridique des biens culturels en cas de conflit
armé”, 86 Revue internationale de la Croix‑Rouge (2004), note 854, p. 322.
71 Article 8 (1). The 1972 Convention expresses its concern with the deterioration ffof the
cultural and natural heritage, “to be preserved as part of the world ffheritage of mankind
as a whole” (preamble, paras. 1-2 and 6). To that effect, it calls for the establishment
of “an effective system of collective protection of the cultural and ffnatural heritage of

outstanding universal value, organized on a permanent basis” (preambffle, para. 8). The
1972 Convention asserts the duty of co-operation of the international community as a
whole (Article 6 (1)). Moreover, each State party undertakes not to take any “delibfferate
measures” which “might damage directly or indirectly” the cultuffral and natural heritage
“on the territory of other States parties” (Art.(3)). The UNESCO Convention further
provides for the establishment of the World Heritage List (Art. 11 (2)), and, in addition,

of a list of World Heritage in Danger (as a result of various causes, iffncluding, inter alia,
“the outbreak or the threat of an armed conflict” — Art. 11 (4)). The World Heritage
Committee is also to consider requests for international assistance to property forming
part of cultural or natural heritage (Art. 13 (1)). The 1972 Convention further provides for
the creation of a World Heritage Fund (Art. 15).

72
Made by Cambodia, though Thailand had sought a joint nomination.

73 Cf. UNESCO/World Heritage, documents WHC-07/31.COM/8B-8B.1 (2007) ;
and WHC-07/31.COM/24 (2007). For the UNESCO guidelines for the inscriptionff on
the World Heritage List and the corresponding monitoring of the properties at issuffe,
cf. UNESCO, Operational Guidelines for the Implementation of the World Heritage Conv▯en‑

tion, document WHC.08/01, of January 2008, pp. 30-53, paras. 120-198.

64

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sidered the position of the Temple on a high cliff edge site, 547 metres
above the Cambodian Plain, close to the border with Thailand.
92. At the time I write this separate opinion, shortly before the adop -

tion of the present Order of provisional measures of protection of the
Court, there are 34 properties around the world that the World Heritage ff
Committee has decided to include on the List of World Heritage in Dan -
ger, in accordance with Article 11 (4) of the 1972 UNESCO Convention.

The fact that the Temple of Preah Vihear does not appear in this particuff -
lar List in no way can be construed as meaning that it does not have “ffan
outstanding universal value for purposes other than those resulting fromff
inclusion” therein, as warned by Article 12 of the 1972 Convention.

93. This provision appears interrelated with that of Article 4 of the
1972 Convention, on the obligation of each State party to secure the pro -
tection, conservation and transmission to future generations of the cul -
tural heritage situation in its territory. The prohibition of destructioffn of

cultural heritage of an outstanding universal value and74reat relevance fffor
humankind is arguably an obligation erga omnes .

94. The Temple, while being inscribed as a UNESCO World Heritage

Site, was seen as inextricably linked to its landscape — the cultural, the
spiritual and the natural dimensions appearing together. The three sur -
rounding peaks have been taken to reflect the Hindu divine triad of
Vishnu, Shiva and Brahma. The Temple of Preah Vihear was considered
to have an outstanding universal value, testifying to the Khmer genius fffor

domesticating the local territory, and adapting the construction on it tffo
the landscape.
95. UNESCO itself has been attentive to the recent hostilities in the
zone in the vicinity of the Temple of Preah Vihear. Its Special Envoy foffr

Preah Vihear (Mr. K. Matsuura) recently met Thai and Cambodian
authorities, to consider ways to safeguard the World Heritage Site of thffe
Temple of Preah Vihear, during his visits to Bangkok and Phnom Penh
between 27 February and 1 March 2011. The Special Envoy stressed the

need to set up a lasting dialogue between the two States so as to createff the
conditions necessary for the safeguarding of the Temple of Preah Vihear,ff
and for establishing long-term sustainable conservation of the Site 75.

XI. Provisional Measures ffof Protection :
Beyond the Strict Territfforialist Approach

96. As already pointed out, given the circumstances of the present case

of the Temple of Preah Vihear, the gravity of the situation, the probability

74Cf., to this effect, F. Francioni and F. Lenzerini, “The Destruction of the Buddhas
of Bamiyan and International Law”, 14 European Journal of International Law (2003),
pp. 634 and 638, and cf. p. 631.
75UNESCO, “UNESCO Special Envoy for Preah Vihear Meets Thai and Cambodian
Leaders”, Paris, UNESCO Press, 2 March 2011, p. 1.

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6 CIJ1023.indb 126 18/06/13 10:38 599 request for interpretffation (sep. op. cançado tffrindade)

or imminence of irreparable harm, and the resulting urgency, the Court
has rightly indicated provisional measures of protection. To that end, ifft
has established a provisional demilitarized zone, in the vicinity of theff
Temple of Preah Vihear. Yet, though the Court has taken the correct
decision in the present Order, it has done so pursuant to a reductionistff

reasoning. In laying the grounds for its decision to order the provisionffal
measures, the Court was attentive essentially to territory, although theff
case lodged with it goes well beyond it.
97. Despite the wealth of information placed before it by the Parties
concerning the fate and the need of protection of people in territory, the

Court repeatedly insisted on respect for “sovereignty” and “territorial
integrity” (Order, paras. 35, 39 and 42), and on protection of “rights to
sovereignty” (ibid., para. 44). Instead of bringing people and territory
together, expressly, for the purpose of protection, as in my view it should,

the Court has preferred to rely on its traditional outlook, utilizing thffe
conceptual framework and the language it is used to, and refusing to
behold, and give concrete expression to, any other factors beyond territffo -
rial integrity and sovereignty. This is certainly to be regretted, as the
Court should be prepared, in our days, to give proper weight to the human

factor.
98. On an earlier occasion, in the case of the Land and Maritime
Boundary between Cameroon and Nigeria (Cameroon v. Nigeria) (Order
of 15 March 1996, I.C.J. Reports 1996 (I)), as I have already pointed
76
out , the Court, faced with the victimization of human beings resulting
from armed conflicts of greater intensity, expressly conceded that theff
rights at issue concerned also persons (I.C.J. Reports 1996 (I), p. 22,
para. 39). I would say that, in those grave circumstances, they concerned,
for the purpose of provisional measures of protection, mainly persons,

human beings, who were killed.
99. In the present Order of provisional measures in the case of the
Temple of Preah Vihear, the traditional and unsatisfactory territorialist
outlook pursued by the Court leads it to state, e.g., that

“the rights which Cambodia claims to hold under the terms of the

1962 Judgment in the area of the Temple might suffer irreparable
prejudice resulting from the military activities in the area and, in parff
ticular, from the loss of life, bodily injuries and damage caused to theff
Temple and the property associated with it” (Order, para. 55).

Not everything can be subsumed under territorial sovereignty. The funda-
mental human right to life is not at all subsumed under State sovereigntffy.

The human right not to be forcefully displaced or evacuated from one’s
home is not to be equated with territorial sovereignty. The Court needs ffto
adjust its conceptual framework and its language to the new needs of

76
Cf. paragraph 73, supra.

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protection, when it decides to indicate or order the provisional measureffs
requested from it.

100. If we add, to the aforementioned, the protection of cultural and
spiritual world heritage (cf. supra), for the purposes of provisional mea -
sures, the resulting picture will appear even more complex, and the strict
territorialist approach even more unsatisfactory. The human factor is the

most prominent one here. It shows how multifaceted, in these circum -
stances, the protection provided by provisional measures can be. It goesff
well beyond State territorial sovereignty, bringing territory, people and
human values together.

XII. Final Considerations,ff s ub s pECiE a EtErnitatis

101. When we come to consider cultural and spiritual world heritage,
there is still one remaining aspect, which I deem it fit to dwell upon, ffhow -
ever briefly, in this separate opinion: I refer in particular to the protection
of the spiritual needs of human beings. Such protection is brought to the

fore by the safeguard of cultural and spiritual world heritage, as raiseffd,
inter alia, in the present case of the Temple of Preah Vihear. Here we
come back to timelessness (cf. supra), and we are led, ultimately, to con -
siderations from the perspective of eternity (sub specie aeternitatis).

102. In this respect, it may be recalled that the needs of protection of
people comprise all their needs, starting with the protection of the funffda -

mental right to life in its wide dimension (i.e., the right to live with dig -
nity, e.g., not to keep on being forcefully and suddenly evacuated from ff
one’s home), and also including their spiritual needs. In this connection,
may I further recall that the judgment of 15 June 2005 (merits and repa-

rations) of the IACtHR in the case of the Moiwana Community v. Suri ‑
name, in addressing the massacre of the N’djukas of the Moiwana village
and the drama of the forced displacement of the survivors, duly valued
the relationship of the N’djukas in Moiwana with their traditional laffnd as

being of “vital spiritual, cultural and material importance”, al77ff for the
preservation of the “integrity and identity” of their culture .

103. In my extensive separate opinion appended to that judgment, I
recalled what the surviving members of the Moiwana Community pointed
out before the IACtHR 78, namely, that the massacre at issue perpetrated
in Suriname in 1986, planned by the State, had “destroyed the culturaffl

tradition (. . .) of the Maroon communities in Moiwana” (para. 80). Ever

77
The Court warned that “[l]arger territorial land rights are vested inff the entire people,
according to N’djuka custom ; community members consider such rights to exist in perpe -
tuity and to be unalienable” (para. 86 (6)).
78In the public hearing of 9 September 2004.

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since this has tormented them, as they were unable to give a proper buriffal
to the mortal remains of their beloved ones (paras. 13-22). Their suffering
projected itself in time, for almost two decades (paras. 24-33). In their
culture, mortality had an inescapable relevance to the living, the surviffvors

(paras. 41-46), who had duties towards their dead (paras. 47-59). Duties
of the kind — I added in the same separate opinion (paras. 60-61) — were
present in the origins of the law of nations itself, as pointed out, in ffthe
seventeenth century, by Hugo Grotius in Chapter XIX of Book II of his
79
classic work De Jure Belli ac Pacis (1625) .

104. In the case of the Moiwana Community, I sustained in my afore -
mentioned separate opinion the configuration, beyond moral damage, of
a true spiritual damage (paras. 71-81), and, beyond the right to a project

of life, I dared to identify what I termed the right to a project of after‑life :

“The present case of the Moiwana Community, in my view, takes
us even further than the emerging right to the project of life. (. . .) I
can visualize, in the griefs of the N’djukas of the Moiwana village, ffa
claim to the right to the project of after‑life, taking into account the
living in the relations with their dead, altogether. International law iffn

general, and the international law of human rights in particular,
cannot remain indifferent to the spiritual manifestations of human
beings (. . .). There is no cogent reason to remain in the world exclu -
sively of the living. In the cas d’espèce, it appears to me that the

N’djukas are certainly well entitled to cherish their project of afteffr-
life, the encounter of each of them with their ancestors, the harmoni -
ous relationship between the living and their dead. Their outlook of
life and after-life embodies fundamental values (. . .).” (Paras. 67-70.)

105. I turned next to what I termed the spiritual damage, which I

sought to elaborate conceptually as :
“an aggravated form of moral damage, which has a direct bearing on

what is most intimate to the human person, namely, her inner self,
her beliefs in human destiny, her relations with their dead. This
spiritual damage would of course not give rise to pecuniary repara -
tions, but rather to other forms of reparation. The idea is launched

herein, for the first time ever, to the best of my knowledge. (. . .) This
new category of damage — as I perceive it — embodies the principle
of humanity in a temporal dimension, encompassing the living in their
relations with their dead, as well as the unborn, conforming the future ff

generations. (. . .) The principle of humanitas has, in fact, a long his -
torical projection, and owes much to ancient cultures (in particular

79Dedicated to the “right to burial”, inherent to all human beings, ffin conformity with a
precept of “virtue and humanity”; H. Grotius, Del Derecho de la Guerra y de la Paz [1625],
Vol. III (Books II and III), Madrid, Edit. Reus, 1925, pp. 39, 43 and 45, and cf. p. 55.

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6 CIJ1023.indb 132 18/06/13 10:38 602 request for interpretffation (sep. op. cançado tffrindade)

to that of the Greeks), having become associated in time with the very
80
moral and spiritual formation of human beings.” (Paras. 71-73.)

106. I further recalled, in my separate opinion, that the testimonial
evidence produced before the IACtHR in the cas d’espèce indicated that,

in the N’djukas cosmovision, in circumstances like those of the preseffnt
case, “the living and their dead suffer together, and this has an intffergen -

erational projection”. Unlike moral damages, in my view, the spirit‑
ual damage was not susceptible of “quantifications”, and could only
be repaired, and redress be secured, by means of obligations of doing

(obligaciones de hacer), in the form of satisfaction (e.g., honouring the
dead in the persons of the living) (para. 77) 81. In fact, the expert evidence
produced before the Court indeed referred expressly to “spiritually-cffaused
82
illnesses” . I then concluded, in my separate opinion, on this particular
point, that :

“All religions devote attention to human suffering, and attempt to
provide the needed transcendental support to the faithful; all religions

focus on the relations between life and death, and provide distinct
interpretations and explanations of human destiny and after-life 83.

Undue interferences in human beliefs — whatever religion they may
be attached to — cause harm to the faithful (. . .). [S]uch harm (. . .)

80 G. Radbruch, Introducción a la filosofía del Derecho, 3rd ed., Mexico/Buenos Aires,
Fondo de Cultura Económica, 1965, pp. 153-154.
81 It should be kept in mind — I proceeded — that, in the present case of the Moiwana
Community, as a result of the massacre of 1986,

“the whole community life in the Moiwana village was disrupted ;family life was like-
wise disrupted, displacements took place which last until now (almost tffwo decades
later). The fate of the mortal remains of the direct victims, the non-performance

of funerary rites and ceremonies, and the lack of a proper burial of theff deceased,
deeply disrupted the otherwise harmonious relations of the living N’dffjukas with
their dead. The grave damage caused to them, in my view, was not only psycho -
logical, it was more than that :it was a true spiritual damage, which seriously affected,
in their cosmovision, not only the living, but the living with their deaffd altogether.”
(Para. 78.)

Moreover,

“the resulting impunity, in the form of a generalized and sustained vffiolence (increased
by the sense of indifference of the public power to the fate of the victffims) (. . .), has
generated, in the members of theMoiwana Community, a sense of total defencelessness.
This has been accompanied by their loss of faith in human justice, the lffoss of faith in
law, the loss of faith in reason and conscience governing the world.”ff (Para. 79.)

82 Paragraphs 80 (e) and 86 (9) of the IACtHR judgment.
83 Cf., e.g., [Various Authors], Life after Death in World Religions, Maryknoll, N.Y.,

Orbis, 1997, pp. 1-124.

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6 CIJ1023.indb 134 18/06/13 10:38 603 request for interpretffation (sep. op. cançado tffrindade)

is to be duly taken into account, like other injuries, for the purpose
of redress. Spiritual damage, like the one undergone by the members

of the Moiwana Community, is a serious harm, requiring correspond-
ing reparation, of the (non-pecuniary) kind I have just indicated. (. . .)

The N’djukas had their right to the project of life, as well as their

right to the project of after‑life, violated, and continuously so, ever
since the State-planned massacre perpetrated in the Moiwana village
on 29 November 1986. They suffered material and immaterial dam -
ages, as well as spiritual damage. (. . .) In sum, the wide range of

reparations ordered by the Court in the present judgment in the Moi ‑
wana community case (. . .) has concentrated on, and enhanced the
centrality of, the position of the victims — as well as on devising aff
wide range of possible and adequate means of redress. In the cas

d’espèce, the collective memory of the Maroon N’djukas is hereby
duly preserved, against oblivion, honouring their dead, thus safe -
guarding their right to life lato sensu, encompassing the right to cul -
tural identity, which finds expression in their acknowledged links of

solidarity with their dead.” (Paras. 81 and 91-92.)

107. In my following separate opinion in the same case of the Moiwana
Community (interpretation of judgment, of 8 February 2006), I insisted
on the need of reconstruction and preservation of cultural identity
(paras. 17-24) of the members of the community, on which the project of

life and of post‑life of each member of the community much depended. In
fact, the understanding has been manifested within UNESCO to the effect ff
that the assertion and preservation of cultural identity (including thafft of
minorities) contributes to the “liberation of the peoples”; cultural identity

has thus been regarded as “a treasure which vitalizes mankind’s poffssibili -
ties for self-fulfillment by encouraging every people and every group to
seek nurture in the past, to welcome contributions from outside compat -
ible with their own characteristics, and so to continue the process of tffheir
84
own creation” . In this new separate opinion, I expressed my own under-
standing of the pressing need to redress the spiritual damage caused to the
N’djukas of the Moiwana Community, and to create the conditions for
the prompt reconstruction of their cultural tradition (para. 19) 85.

108. In the present case of the Temple of Preah Vihear before the ICJ, it
is indeed a pity that a temple that was built with inspiration in the fiffrst half
of the eleventh century, to assist in fulfilling the religious needs of ffhuman

84
J. Symonides, “UNESCO’s Contribution to the Progressive Developmenfft of Human
Rig85s”, 5 Max Planck Yearbook of United Nations Law (2001), p. 317.
To that end — I added —, the delimitation, demarcation, issuing of title and return
of their traditional land were essential. This was “a question of surffvival of the cultural
identity of the N’djukas, so that they may conserve their memory, at ffpersonal as well as
collective levels. Only thus one will be duly giving protection to theirff fundamental right to
life lato sensu, comprising their cultural identity.” (Para. 20.)

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beings, and which is nowadays — since the end of the first decade of ffthe
twenty-first century — regarded as integrating the world heritage of

humankind, becomes now part of the bone of contention between the two
bordering States concerned. This seems to display the worrisome frailty ffof

the human condition, anywhere in the world, in that individuals appear
prepared to fight each other and to kill each other in order to possess or
control what was erected in times past to help human beings to under -

stand their lives and their world, and to relate themselves to the cosmoffs.
109. Such relationship, by the way, is what is conveyed by the very
term religion (deriving from the Latin re‑ligare), assisting each human

being in attaining his connection with the cosmos he barely understands,ff
so as to find peace for himself. This leads to yet another aspect of theff
cas d’espèce, as I perceive it, to be referred to herein, in relation to the

context of the Order which the Court adopts today, 18 July 2011. Reli -
gions are a complex matter, deserving of close and respectful attention ; it
has been suggested some decades ago that, from a social perspective, theffy
86
are more complex than scientific knowledge .
110. The relationship, in its distinct aspects, between different religions

of the world and the law of nations (le droit des gens) itself, has been the
object of constant attention throughout the last nine decades 87. There
have been studies focused on the influence of theology in the evolution of
88
international legal doctrine . The interest on the relationship between
religions and the law of nations has remained alive lately. Some recent ff
essays look back in time, focusing on the relationship between inter-

86 Cf. Bertrand Russell, Science et religion (Religion and Science, 1935), Paris, Galli -
mard, 1957, p. 8.
87
As attested, e.g., by the thematic courses devoted to the subject by the Hague
Academy of International Law, with its universalist and pluralist outlooffk ; cf., e.g.,
A. Hobza, “questions de droit international concernant les religions”, 5 Recueil des cours
de l’Académie de droit international de La Haye (RCADI) (1924) pp. 371-420 ; G. Goyau,
“L’Eglise catholique et le droit des gens”, 6 RCADI (1925), pp. 127-236 ; M. Boegner,
“L’influence de la réforme sur le développement du droit iffnternational”, 6 RCADI (1925),
pp. 245-321 ; J. Muller-Azúa, “L’œuvre de toutes les confessions chrétiennes (Eglises)

pour la paix internationale”, 31 RCADI (1930), pp. 299-388; K. N. Jayatilleke, “The Prin-
ciples of International Law in Buddhist Doctrine”, 120 RCADI (1967), pp. 445-563 ;
H. de Riedmatten, “Le catholicisme et le développement du droit international”, 151 RCADI
(1976), pp. 121-158; P. Weil, “Le judaïsme et le développement du droit international”, ff151
RCADI (1976), pp. 259-335 ; P. H. Kooijmans, “Protestantism and the Development of
International Law”, 152 RCADI (1976), pp. 87-116 ; M. Charfi, “L’influence de la religion
dans le droit international privé des pays musulmans”, 203 RCADI (1987), pp. 329-454.

88
Cf., e.g., Association internationale Vitoria-Suárez, Vitoria et Suárez — Contribution
des théologiens au droit international moderne, Paris, Pedone, 1939, pp. 7-170 ; A. García y
García, “The Spanish School of the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries : A Precursor of
the Theory of Human Rights”, 10 Ratio Juris, University of Bologna (1997), pp. 27-29 ;
L. Getino (ed.), francisco de Vitoria, Sentencias de Doctrina Internacional. Antología,
Madrid, Ediciones FE, 1940, pp. 15-130 ; C. A. Stumpf, The Grotian Theology of Interna ‑

tional Law — Hugo Grotius and the Moral foundations of International Relations, Berlin,
W. de Gruyter, 2006, pp. 1-243.

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89
national law and religions in times past . Others look forward in time,
centering attention on the role of religions in the progressive developmffent
of international law 90. Still others concentrate on topical aspects of that
91
relationship .

111. Here we are taken back to timelessness again. In his inspiring
essay of 1948 titled Civilization on Trial, Arnold J. Toynbee pondered
that the works of artists and men of letters have outlived the deeds of ff

soldiers, businessmen and statesmen ; statues, poems and philosophical
works have counted for more than the texts of laws and treaties, and theff

teachings of religious prophets and saints (of distinct religions of thffe
world) have outlasted them all, as lasting benefactors of humankind 92.

112. Toynbee beheld a “unified world”, working its way towards “an

equilibrium between its diverse component cultures”, resulting from tffhe
“encounters” between them as well as the religions of the world 9. He was
attentive to what he wisely termed the encounters 94of civilizations (and

religions), and he recalled, as examples in this connection :

“Judaism and Zoroastrianism, which sprang from an encounter
between the Syrian and Babylonian civilizations ; Christianity and

Islam, which sprang from an encounter between the Syrian and Greek

89Cf., e.g., D. J. Bederman, “Religion and the Sources of International Law in Anti -

quity”, Religion and International Law (eds. M. W. Janis and C. Evans), Leiden, Nijhoff,
2004, pp. 1-26; V. P. Nanda, “International Law in Ancient Hindu India”, ibid., pp. 51-61;
H. McCoubrey, “Natural Law, Religion and the Development of International ffLaw”,
ibid., pp. 177-189.
90Cf., e.g., M. Veuthey, “Religions et droit international humanitaire : histoire et

actualité d’un dialogue nécessaire”, Religions et droit international humanitaire (Colloque
de Nice, June 2007 ; ed. A.-S. Millet-Devalle), Paris, Pedone, 2008, pp. 9-45 ; P. Tavernier,
“La protection de l’exercice des religions par le droit internatioffnal humanitaire”, ibid.,
pp. 105-118 ;M. C. W. Pinto, “Reflections on the Role of Religion in International Law”,
Liber Amicorum In Memoriam of Judge J. M. Ruda (eds. C. A. Armas Barea, J. A. Barberis
et alii), The Hague, Kluwer, 2000, pp. 25-42.
91
Cf., e.g., T. J. Gunn, “The Complexity of Religion and the Definition of ‘Religion’
in International Law”, Religion and Human Rights — Critical Concepts in Religious Studies
(ed. N. Ghanea), Vol. IV, London/N.Y., Routledge, 2010, pp. 159-187 ; T. van Boven,
“Advances and Obstacles in Building Understanding and Respect between People of
Diverse Religions and Beliefs”, bid., pp. 469-481 ; K. Hashemi, Religious Legal Traditions,

International Human Rights Law and Muslim States, Leiden, Nijhoff, 2008, pp. 135-265 (on
protection of religious minorities, and rights of the child) ;[Various Authors], The Religious
in Responses to Mass Atrocity (eds. T. Brudholm and T. Cushman), Cambridge University
Press, 2009, pp. 1-263.

92
93A. J. Toynbee,Civilization on Trial, Oxford University Press, 1948, .-5, 90 and 156.
Ibid., pp. 158-159.
94Rather than “clash”, as some post-moderns say in our hectic days, ffwithout giving
much thought to the matter, and with their characteristic and regrettablffe shallowness and
prejudice.

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6 CIJ1023.indb 140 18/06/13 10:38 606 request for interpretffation (sep. op. cançado tffrindade)

civilizations; the Mahayana form of Buddhism and Hinduism, which
sprang from an encounter between the Indian and Greek civiliza -
95
tions.”
Those were just a couple of examples of religions, in a long-term perspec -

tive, which appeared within the last 4000 years. Toynbee repeatedly
referred to the “historically illuminating” encounters between civiliza -
tions, to “the time-span” of such “encounters between civilizatffions”, with
their “long-term religious consequences”, seeking to bring improveffment
96
to “the conditions of human social life on Earth” .
113. Cultural and spiritual heritage appears more closely related to a
human context, rather than to the traditional State-centric context ; it
appears to transcend the purely inter-State dimension, that the Court is

used to. I have made this point also on other occasions, in the adjudicaff -
tion of distinct cases lodged with the Court. For example, two weeks agoff,
in the Court’s Order of 4 July 2011 in the case of the Jurisdictional Immu ‑

nities of the State (Germany v. Italy) (intervention of Greece), I sustained,
in my separate opinion, that rights of States and rights of individuals
evolve pari passu in contemporary jus gentium (I.C.J. Reports 2011 (II),
pp. 506-530, paras. 1-61), to a greater extent than one may prima facie

realize or assume.
114. In any case, beyond the States are the human beings who organize
themselves socially and compose them. The State is not, and has never
been, conceived as an end in itself, but rather as a means to regulate affnd

improve the living conditions of the societas gentium, keeping in mind the
basic principle of humanity, amongst other fundamental principles of the
law of nations, so as to achieve the common good. Beyond the States, the
ultimate titulaires of the right to the safeguard and preservation of their

cultural and spiritual heritage are the collectivities of human beings cffon -
cerned, or else humankind as a whole.
115. As it can be inferred from the present case of the Temple of Preah
Vihear, we are here in the domain of superior human values, the protection
97
of which is not unknown to the law of nations , although not sufficiently
worked upon in international case law and doctrine to date. It is beyond
doubt that the States, as promoters of the common good, are under the
duty of co-operation between themselves to that end of the safeguard andff

preservation of the cultural and spiritual heritage. I dare to nourish tffhe
hope that both Thailand and Cambodia, with their respectable, ancient
cultures, will know how to comply jointly with the provisional measures ffof

protection indicated by the Court in the Order it has just adopted todayff.
116. Half a century ago, the Court’s Judgment of 15 June 1962 in the
case of the Temple of Preah Vihear expressly stated, in its dispositif

95
96A. J. Toynbee, op. cit. supra note 92, p. 159.
Ibid., pp. 159, 215, 218-220 and 251.
97 Cf., over half a century ago, e.g., S. Glaser, “La protection internationale des valeurs
humaines”, 60 Revue générale de droit international public (1957), pp. 211-241.

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6 CIJ1023.indb 142 18/06/13 10:38 607 request for interpretffation (sep. op. cançado tffrindade)

(para. 2), that “Thailand is under an obligation to withdraw any military

or police forces, or other guards or keepers, stationed by her at the Tem -
ple, or in its vicinity on Cambodian territory”. The Temple is and reffmains
the reference to “its vicinity” (from Latin vicinitas). The zone set up by the
Court for the purpose of the provisional measures of protection indicateffd
in the present Order, of 18 July 2011, encompasses the territory neigh -

bouring (vicinus to) the Temple.

117. For the issue of the supervision of compliance by the States con -
cerned with the present provisional measures of protection, the Court’ffs
Order, with the demilitarized zone set forth herein, encompasses, in my

understanding, to the effect of protection, the people living in the saiffd
zone and its surroundings, the Temple of Preah Vihear itself, and all thffat
it represents, all that comes with it from time immemorial, nowadays
regarded by UNESCO as part of the cultural and spiritual world heri -
tage. Cultures, like human beings, are vulnerable, and need protection. ff

The universality of international law is erected upon respect for culturffal
diversity. It is reassuring that, for the first time in the history of tffhis
Court, provisional measures of protection indicated or ordered by it areff,
as I perceive them, so meaningfully endowed with a scope of this kind.
This is well in keeping with the jus gentium of our times.

(Signed) Antônio Augusto Cançado Trindade.

74

6 CIJ1023.indb 144 18/06/13 10:38

Bilingual Content

566

SEPARATE OPINION OF JUDGE

CANÇADO TRINDADE

table of contents

Paragraphs

I. Introduction 1-2

II. The Passing of Time : The hiarosCuro of Law 3-7

III. The Density of Time 8-11

IV. The Temporal Dimension ffin International Law 12-17

V. The Search for Timelessffness 18-21

VI. From Timelessness to Tiffmeliness 22-24

VII. The Passing of Time : TheC hiarosCuro of Existence 25-30

VIII. Time, Legal Interpretation, and the Nature of Legal
Obligation 31-42

IX. From Time to Space : Territory and People Togffether 43-63

1. Cambodia’s first submissions 47-51

2. Thailand’s first submissions 52-55
3. Cambodia’s second submissions 56-57
4. Thailand’s second submissions 58-59

5. General assessment 60-63

X. The Effects of Provisionffal Measures of Protectiffon in the
Cas d’EspèCE 64-95

1. The protection of people in territory 66-70
2. The prohibition of use or threat of force 71-81

3. Space and time, and the protection of cultural and spiritual
world heritage 82-95

XI. Provisional Measures ffof Protection: Beyond the Strict

Territorialist Approacffh 96-100

XII. Final Considerations, sub spECiE aEtErnitatis 101-117

*

33

6 CIJ1023.indb 62 18/06/13 10:38 566

OPINION INDIVIDUELLE DE M. LE JUGE
CANÇADO TRINDADE

[Traduction]

table des matières

Paragraphes

I. Introduction 1-2

II. Le passage du temps : le clair-obscur du droit 3-7

III. La densité du temps 8-11

IV. La dimension temporelffle en droit internatiffonal 12-17

V. La recherche de l’intffemporalité 18-21

VI. De l’intemporalité auff cadre temporel 22-24

VII. Le passage du temps : le clair-obscur de l’existencffe 25-30

VIII. Le temps, l’interprétafftion juridique et la ffnature de l’obli-

gation juridique 31-42

IX. De la dimension temporffelle à la dimension sffpatial:eindis-
sociabilité du terrifftoire et de sa populatffion 43-63

1. Première communication du Cambodge 47-51
2. Première communication de la Thaïlande 52-55
3. Seconde communication du Cambodge 56-57

4. Seconde communication de la Thaïlande 58-59
5. Appréciation générale 60-63

X. Les effets des mesuresff conservatoires dansff le cas d’espèce 64-95

1. La protection de la population locale 66-70
2. L’interdiction du recours à la menace ou à l’emploi de la foffr71-81

3. L’espace et le temps, et la protection du patrimoine culturel
et spirituel mondial 82-95

XI. Les mesures conservatffoires, au-delà d’une conceptioffn stric-
tement axée sur le teffrritoire 96-100

XII. Considérations finales, sub spECiE aEtErnitatis 101-117

*

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6 CIJ1023.indb 63 18/06/13 10:38 567 request for interpretffation (sep. op. cançado tffrindade)

I. Introduction

1. I have concurred, with my vote, for the adoption today, 18July 2011,
by the International Court of Justice (I.C.J.), of the present Order offf pro-
visional measures of protection in the case of the Request for Interpreta ‑
tion of the Judgment of 15 June 1962 in the Case concerning the Temple of

Preah Vihear (Cambodia v. Thailand) (Cambodia v. Thailand). Given the
great importance that I attribute to the issues dealt with in the present
Order, or else underlying it, I feel obliged to leave on the records of ffthis
transcendental case (as I perceive it) the foundations of my own persoffnal
position on them. I do so moved by a sense of duty in the exercise of the

international judicial function, even more so as some of the lessons I
extract from the present decision of the Court are not explicitly develoffped
and stated in the present Order. This appears to be, in my view, a uniquffe
case, lodged again with the Court after half a century ; it discloses, in my
view, a series of elements for reconsideration not only of the spatial, ffbut

also the temporal dimensions, which can hardly pass unnoticed.
2. This being so, I shall develop my reflections that follow pursuant to ff
the following sequence : (a) the passing of time and the chiaroscuro of
law ;(b) the density of time ; (c) the temporal dimension in international
law ; (d) the search for timelessness ; (e) from timelessness to timeliness ;

(f) the passing of time and the chiaroscuro of existence ; (g) time, legal
interpretation, and the nature of legal obligation; (h) from time to space:
territory and people together (in Cambodia’s and Thailand’s submiffs -
sions) ; (i) the effects of provisional measures of protection in the cas
d’espèce (encompassing the protection of people in territory ; the prohibi-

tion of use or threat of force ; and the protection of cultural and spiritual
world heritage) ; and (j) provisional measures of protection, beyond the
strict territorialist approach. The way will then be paved for the preseffnta-
tion of my final considerations, sub specie aeternitatis.

II. The Passing of Time : The C hiarosCuro of Law

3. The case of the Temple of Preah Vihear brings to the fore, now in

May 2011, as it did half a century ago, in 1961-1962, the multifaceted
relationship between time and law, an issue which discloses the chiar ‑
oscuro of international law as well as, ultimately, of existence itself
(cf. infra). One cannot assume a linear progress in the regulations of rela -
tions among States inter se, or among human beings inter se, or among

States and human beings. The present requests for provisional measures
and for interpretation in respect of the Judgment of this Court, of
15 June 1962, bear witness of the element of factual unpredictability of
endeavours of peaceful settlement, to guard us against any assumption asff
to definitive progress achieved in those relations among States or amongff

human beings, or among the former and the latter.

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6 CIJ1023.indb 64 18/06/13 10:38 demande en interprétffation (op. ind. cançado fftrindade) 567

I. Introduction

1. J’ai souscrit, par mon vote, à l’ordonnance en indication de meffsures
conservatoires rendue ce jour, 18 juillet 2011, par la Cour internationale de
Justice en l’affaire de la Demande en interprétation de l’arrêt du 15 juin 1962
en l’affaire du Temple de Préah Vihéar (Cambodge c. Thaïlande) (Cam ‑
bodge c. Thaïlande). Etant donné la grande importance que j’attache aux

questions traitées dans cette ordonnance, ou que celle-ci met en jeu, je
crois devoir expliquer les positions que j’ai prises à leur sujet ffdans le cadre
de la présente affaire, que je qualifierai de « transcendantale». Je le fais
animé par le sens du devoir inhérent à l’exercice de la foncfftion judiciaire
internationale, d’autant que certains des enseignements que je tire dffe cette
ordonnance de la Cour ne s’y trouvent pas exprimés et développéffs expres -

sément. Il s’agit ici, me semble-t-il, d’une affaire unique, portée derechef
devant la Cour après un demi-siècle; d’une affaire qui, à mon sens, met en
évidence une série d’éléments qui en commandent le réexamen dans sa
dimension non seulement spatiale, mais également temporelle.
2. Cela étant posé, j’articulerai ma réflexion sur les thèffmes suivants :

a) le passage du temps et le clair-obscur du droit ; b) la densité du temps ;
c) la dimension temporelle en droit international ; d) la recherche de
l’intemporalité ; e) de l’intemporalité au cadre temporel ; f) le passage du
temps: le clair-obscur de l’existence; g) le temps, l’interprétation juridique
et la nature de l’obligation juridique ; h) de la dimension temporelle à la

dimension spatiale: indissociabilité du territoire et de sa population (dans
le contexte des exposés du Cambodge et de la Thaïlande) ; i) les effets des
mesures conservatoires dans le cas d’espèce (visant notamment la ffprotec-
tion de la population locale, l’interdiction du recours à la menacffe ou à
l’emploi de la force, et la protection du patrimoine culturel et spirffituel
mondial) ; et j) les mesures conservatoires, au-delà d’une conception

strictement axée sur le territoire. Viendra enfin le moment d’expoffser mes
considérations finales, sub specie aeternitatis.

II. Le passage du temps : le clair-obscur du droit

3. La présente affaire met aujourd’hui en évidence, tout comme en ff
1961-1962, voici un demi-siècle, les multiples aspects des rapports entre le
temps et le droit, rapports illustrant le clair-obscur du droit international
et, en fait, de l’existence elle-même (cf. infra). Il faut se garder de postuler

qu’il y a une progression linéaire de la réglementation des relations entre
Etats, entre êtres humains, ou entre Etats et êtres humains. Les présentes
demandes en indication de mesures conservatoires et en interprétationff de
l’arrêt rendu par la Cour le 15 juin 1962 témoignent du caractère factuel -
lement imprévisible des tentatives de règlement pacifique, ce qui ffdevrait
nous dissuader de tenir pour acquis tout progrès réalisé dans cffes relations

entre Etats, entre êtres humains, ou entre ceux-ci et ceux-là.

34

6 CIJ1023.indb 65 18/06/13 10:38 568 request for interpretffation (sep. op. cançado tffrindade)

4. In a public sitting before this Court of half a century ago, precisely
that of the morning of 5 March 1962, in the same case of the Temple of

Preah Vihear, the learned jurist Paul Reuter (who happened to be one of
the counsel for Cambodia), pondered that the passing of time is not
linear, nor is it always the same either; it contains variations. For example,
in his perception, “[a]t certain hours, in the splendour of the Meditfferra -

nean, time seems to 1ave stopped its flight and maybe things are down ffto
black and white” .
5. May I add, in this connection, that, to someone (like myself) from,
and in, the South Atlantic, for example, the chiaroscuro also exists, but

not so sharply distinguished as in the summer of the Mediterranean four ff
seasons. There, in the South Atlantic, in the two — the dry and the
rainy — seasons, the chiaroscuro evolves in greater grey shades. Yet, the
chiaroscuro falls thereupon as well. All regions of the world have their

own chiaroscuro, each one with its own characteristics, and the region of
the Temple of Preah Vihear is no exception to that. Ancient cultures, inff
distinct parts of the world, grasped the mystery of the passing of time ffin
distinct ways, as in the never-ending succession of the chiaroscuro.

6. The chiaroscuro of international law itself was, coincidentally,
referred to in the public sitting of 1 March 1962, in the same case of the
Temple of Preah Vihear ; in the opening of the sitting, the then President

of the Court, Judge B. Winiarski, recalled that, forty years earlier, pre -
cisely on 15 February 1922, the former Permanent Court of International
Justice held its first sitting ; ever since, and throughout four decades, “the
2
element of permanency” of international justice had taken shape , further
fostered by the acceptance by States of numerous compromissory clauses, ff
and the fact that the successor ICJ became “the principal judicial orffgan
of the United Nations”, while remaining, within the framework of the ff

UN, an independent judicial organ. And he added that :

“The function of the Court is to state the law as it is ; it contributes
to its development, but in the manner of a judicial body, for instance
when it analyses out a rule contained by implication in another, or
when, having to apply a rule to a specific instance, which is always

individualized and with its own clear-cut features, it gives precision
to the meaning of that rule, which is sometimes surrounded by (. . .)
the chiaroscuro of international law.” 3

7. There was only this brief reference to such chiaroscuro in Judge
Winiarski’s message in 1962 ; he did not elaborate on it, the reference was

sufficient. Thus, four decades of operation of international justice haffd not
removed the chiaroscuro of international law. Today, five other decades

1 I.C.J. Pleadings, Temple of Preah Vihear (Cambodia v. Thailand), Vol. II, p. 525.
2 Ibid., p. 121.
3 Ibid., p. 122.

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6 CIJ1023.indb 66 18/06/13 10:38 demande en interprétffation (op. ind. cançado fftrindade) 568

4. Lors d’une audience publique de la Cour tenue il y a un demi-siècle
— le 5 mars 1962 au matin pour être précis — en cette affaire du Temple

de Préah Vihéar, l’éminent juriste Paul Reuter (qui se trouvait être l’un
des conseils du Cambodge) releva que le temps ne s’écoulait pas dffe
manière linéaire, et pas toujours avec la même densité non pfflus; il consti-
tuait ainsi une dimension variable. Par exemple, selon Paul Reuter, «ff [à]

certaines heures, dans la splendeur de l’été méditerranéeffn, le temp1 semble
suspendu, peut-être alors n’y a-t-il que du noir et du blanc » .
5. J’ajouterai que, pour un natif et habitant (comme moi) d’un paysff
riverain de l’Atlantique Sud, le clair-obscur existe également, mais sans

les contrastes si tranchés de l’été des quatre saisons méffditerranéennes.
Là-bas, dans les pays riverains de l’Atlantique Sud, au cours des deux
saisons — la saison sèche et la saison des pluies —, le clair-obscur se
décline dans une palette plus riche de gris. Pourtant, il s’y retrffouve aussi.

Toutes les régions du monde ont leur clair-obscur, chacun avec ses carac -
téristiques propres, et la région du temple de Préah Vihéar ne fait pas
exception. Les cultures anciennes, dans différentes parties du monde,ff
appréhendaient de différentes façons le temps qui passe et ses ffmystères,

tel l’éternel retour du clair-obscur.
6. Il se trouve que le clair-obscur du droit international fut évoqué lors
de l’audience publique du 1 ermars 1962, dans cette même affaire du
Temple de Préah Vihéar ; à l’ouverture de l’audience, le juge B. Winiarski,

alors président de la Cour, rappela que, quarante ans plus tôt (le
15 février 1922 exactement), la Cour permanente de Justice internationale
avait tenu sa première séance ; depuis lors, et quatre décennies durant, la

justice inte2nationale avait progressivement acquis un « élément de per -
manence » , d’autant plus que les Etats avaient accepté de nombreuses
clauses compromissoires, et que la nouvelle Cour était devenue « l’organe
judiciaire principal des Nations Unies » tout en restant, dans le cadre

de l’Organisation, un organe judiciaire indépendant. Le juge Winiarski
ajouta :

«La Cour a pour mission de dire le droit tel qu’il est ; elle contri-
bue à son développement, mais à la manière judiciaire, par effxemple
quand elle dégage une règle implicitement contenue dans une autre ff
ou quand, ayant à appliquer une règle à un cas d’espèce —ff qui est

toujours individualisé, à contours définis —, elle précise le sens de
cette règle, quelquefois baignée dans … le chiaroscuro du droit inter -
national. » 3

7. Ce fut là la seule référence que le juge Winiarski fit brièvement au
chiaroscuro dans son intervention de 1962 ; il n’alla pas plus loin, la réfé -

rence suffisait. Ainsi, quarante années d’exercice de la justice internatio -
nale n’avaient pas ôté au droit international sa dimension claiffre-obscure.

1 C.I.J. Mémoires, Temple de Préah Vihéar (Cambodge c. Thaïlande), vol. II, p. 525.
2 Ibid., p. 121.
3 Ibid., p. 122.

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6 CIJ1023.indb 67 18/06/13 10:38 569 request for interpretffation (sep. op. cançado tffrindade)

later, that chiaroscuro remains present, as disclosed by the case of the
Temple of Preah Vihear brought again before this Court. The chiaroscuro

of law appears enmeshed with the passing of time. This is one of the
aspects of the complex relationship between time and law, which, despiteff
much that has been written on it, keeps on challenging legal thinking in
our days.

III. The Density of Time

8. Turning attention to time and law, in his aforementioned plaidoirie
of 5 March 1962, in the case of the Temple of Preah Vihear, Paul Reuter
saw it fit to add :

“Time exercises a powerful influence over the establishment and
consolidation of legal situations . . . how does international law meas -

ure lapse of time? It is quite clear that in international law there exists
no time-limit such as national bodies of law recognize . . . There are
those who think that this situation constitutes an imperfection of
international law. We do not at all think so. On the contrary, we think ff

that this uncertainty gives to international law a flexibility thatenables
it to be adapted to the varying character of specific circumstances.”ff 4

9. Three such circumstances were identified by Reuter, namely :
the matters at issue, the “density” of time, and the dynamics of the rffela -
5
tions between the States concerned . In his view, “[i]n the first place the
length of the time-limit depends on the matters involved. There are mat -
ters in regard to which security and legal acts correspond to an imperatffive
requirement of society” 6 (e.g., territorial or maritime spaces). It is, how -

ever, in relation to the second circumstance — the “density” of time —
that Reuter devoted special attention, expressing his reflections in aff
language which disclosed a certain literary flair :

“In this adaptation of circumstances, this adaptation to concrete
circumstances of each species, a second element must be taken into

consideration which we would be tempted to call ‘the density’ of tffime.
The time of man is not the time of the stars. What constitutes the time ff
of men is the density of real events or of potential events which might ff
have taken place. And what makes up the density of human time

assessed on the legal level is the density, the multitude of legal acts
which did find or might have found room within that period.
In the life of nations, just like in the life of individuals, there are
light years, happy years, when nothing happens and nothing can hap -

4 I.C.J. Pleadings, Temple of Preah Vihear (Cambodia v. Thailand), Vol. II, p. 203.
5 Cf. ibid., pp. 203-204.
6 Ibid., p. 203.

36

6 CIJ1023.indb 68 18/06/13 10:38 demande en interprétffation (op. ind. cançado fftrindade) 569

Aujourd’hui, cinquante ans plus tard, le clair-obscur persiste, comme le
révèle l’affaire du Temple de Préah Vihéar, dont la Cour se trouve à nou -

veau saisie. Le clair-obscur du droit semble inextricablement lié à l’écou -
lement du temps. C’est l’un des aspects de la relation complexe enfftre le
temps et le droit, laquelle, en dépit de toute l’encre qu’elle ffa pu faire cou -
ler, continue de défier la pensée juridique à notre époque.

III. La densité du temps

8. S’intéressant ensuite au rapport du droit au temps, dans sa plaidoffi -
rie susmentionnée du 5 mars 1962 en l’affaire du Temple de Préah Vihéar,
Paul Reuter estima nécessaire d’ajouter :

«Le temps exerce en effet une influence puissante sur l’établisseff -
ment et la consolidation des situations juridiques… [C]omment le

droit international mesure-t-il l’écoulement du temps ? Il est bien
évident qu’il n’existe en droit international aucun délai fiffxe, comme
en connaissent les droits nationaux… Certains ont cru voir dans
cette situation une imperfection du droit international. Nous n’en

pensons rien, et nous pensons, au contraire, que cette incertitude
donne au droit international une flexibilité qui lui permet de s’adap -
ter à la variété des circonstances concrètes. » 4

9. Reuter distingua trois de ces circonstances : les questions en jeu, la
«densité» du temps et la dynamique des relations entre les Etats concer -
5
nés . Selon lui, « [d’]abord la longueur du délai dépend des matières. Il y
a des matières où la sécurité des actes juridiques est l’ffobjet d’une exigence
sociale impérieuse » 6 (pour les espaces terrestres ou maritimes, par
exemple). C’est toutefois à la deuxième circonstance — la « densité» du

temps — qu’il s’intéressa particulièrement, livrant ses réflffexions dans un
langage non dénué d’élégance :

«Pour réaliser [l’]adaptation aux circonstances concrètes de chaffque
espèce, un deuxième élément doit être pris en considérffation, nous

serions tentés de l’appeler « la densité » du temps. Le temps des
hommes n’est pas le temps des astres. Ce qui fait le temps des hommesff,
c’est la densité des événements réels ou des événements éventuels qui
auraient pu y trouver place. Et ce qui fait la densité du temps humaiffn

apprécié sur le plan juridique, c’est la densité, la multituffde des actes
juridiques qui y ont trouvé ou qui auraient pu y trouver place.
Dans la vie des nations comme dans la vie des individus, il y a des
années légères, des années heureuses où il n’arrive riffen et où il ne

4 C.I.J. Mémoires, Temple de Préah Vihéar (Cambodge c. Thaïlande), vol. II, p. 203.
5 Ibid., p. 203-204.
6 Ibid., p. 203.

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6 CIJ1023.indb 69 18/06/13 10:38 570 request for interpretffation (sep. op. cançado tffrindade)

pen. However, there are also heavy years, years full of substance. If
we apply these considerations to the circumstances of this case we see
that there might be light years: 1908-1925; but also heavy years: 1925,

1934-1935, 1937, 1939-1940, 1946, 1949 and we w7uld consider there-
fore that this period is particularly dense.”

10. But as time does not cease to pass, and keeps on flowing, one could
now add, half a century later, as subsequent years of particular “denffsity”,
in respect of the present case of the Temple of Preah Vihear, those of

1961-1962, 2000, 2007-2008 and 2011. This can be confirmed by an exam -
ination of the dossier of the cas d’espèce and of the records of the recent
public sittings before this Court, of 30-31 May 2011 (concerning the Joint
Communiqué between Cambodia and Thailand of 14 June 2000 regarding

the demarcation of their land boundary, and, particularly — for the pur -
poses of the present provisional measures of the ICJ —, the events which
preceded and promptly followed the inscription of the Temple of Preah
Vihear in UNESCO’s World Heritage List on 7July 2008 — cf. infra). The

temporal dimension, in the present case of the Temple of Preah Vihear, can
be examined, in my understanding, from distinct angles.
11. In 1998, in the adjudication of the case Blake v. Guatemala by the
Inter-American Court of Human Rights (IACtHR — merits, judgment of

24 January 1998), I deemed it fit to retake Reuter’s point and to seek
to develop it further. I pondered therein, inter alia, that :

“The time of human beings certainly is not the time of the stars, in ff
more than one sense. The time of the stars — I would venture to add
— besides being an unfathomable mystery which has always accom -
panied human existence from the beginning until its end, is indifferent ff

to legal solutions devised by the human mind; and the time of human
beings, applied to their legal solutions as an element which integrates ff
them, not seldom leads to situations which defy their own legal logic
(. . .). One specific aspect, however, appears to suggest a sole point of

contact, or common denominator, between them: the time of the stars
is inexorable; the time of human beings, albeit only conventional, is,
like that of the stars, implacable.” (Para. 6.)

IV. The Temporal Dimension ffin International Law

12. The temporal dimension marks presence in the domain of humani -
ties in general, and of law in particular. The awareness of time, of the

7I.C.J. Pleadings, Temple of Preah Vihear (Cambodia v. Thailand), Vol. II, p. 203.
8It has for centuries attracted the attention of philosophers and thinkerffs (such as, inter
alia, Plato, Aristotle, Seneca, Saint Augustine, Plotino, Descartes, Pascal,ff Kant, Proust,
Spinoza, Newton, Husserl, Bergson, Ricœur, among others) ;it has, moreover, been present

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6 CIJ1023.indb 70 18/06/13 10:38 demande en interprétffation (op. ind. cançado fftrindade) 570

peut rien arriver. Mais il y a aussi des années lourdes, pleines de
substance. Si nous appliquons cette considération aux circonstances
de l’espèce, nous voyons qu’il y a peut-être des années légères : 1908

à 1925, mais il y a des années bien lourdes : 1925, 1934-1935, 1937,
1939-1940, 1946, 1949; il nous semble que l’ensemble de cette période
est donc extrêmement dense. » 7

10. Le temps n’ayant pas suspendu son vol, mais poursuivant inexora -
blement son cours, l’on pourrait ajouter à présent, un demi-siècle plus
tard, à la liste des années particulièrement « denses» du point de vue de la

présente affaire, les années 1961-1962, 2000, 2007-2008 et 2011. C’est ce
que confirme l’examen du dossier de la présente affaire et des comffptes
rendus des audiences publiques des 30 et 31 mai derniers (concernant le
communiqué conjoint du 14 juin 2000 publié par le Cambodge et la Thaï -

lande au sujet de la démarcation de leur frontière terrestre, et, ffen particu-
lier — aux fins des mesures conservatoires indiquées par la Cour —, les
événements qui ont précédé et immédiatement suivi l’ffinscription par
l’UNESCO, le 7 juillet 2008, du temple de Préah Vihéar sur la liste du

patrimoine mondial — cf. infra). La dimension temporelle, dans la pré -
sente affaire, peut à mon sens s’apprécier sous différents affngles.
11. En 1998, lorsque la Cour interaméricaine des droits de l’homme
s’est prononcée en l’affaire Blake c. Guatemala (fond, arrêt du 24 jan -

vier 1998), j’ai jugé utile de reprendre l’observation de Paul Reutffer pour
tenter de pousser son analyse. J’observai notamment que :

«Le temps des êtres humains n’est assurément pas celui des astreffs,
à plus d’un titre. Le temps des astres — oserai-je ajouter — ne consti -
tue pas seulement un mystère insondable qui a toujours accompagné ff
l’existence humaine du début à la fin; les solutions juridiques conçues

par l’esprit humain n’ont aucune prise sur lui. Il n’est d’affilleurs pas
rare que le temps des êtres humains, appliqué à leurs solutionsff juri -
diques dont il fait partie intégrante, donne lieu à des situationsff
défiant la logique juridique même de l’homme… Un aspect spéffci -

fique paraît cependant suggérer un point unique de convergence, ouff
dénominateur commun, entre les deux : le temps des astres est inexo -
rable: celui des êtres humains, bien qu’il ne soit que conventionnel,
est, comme celui des astres, implacable. » (Par. 6.)

IV. La dimension temporelffle en droit internatiffonal

12. La dimension temporelle a sa place dans le domaine des humani -
tés en général, et dans celui du droit en particulier. La conscience ffdu

7 C.I.J. Mémoires, Temple de Préah Vihéar (Cambodge c. Thaïlande), vol. II, p. 203.
8 Elle suscite depuis des siècles l’intérêt des philosophes etff des penseurs (Platon, Aris -
tote, Sénèque, saint Augustin, Plotin, Descartes, Pascal, Kant, Prffoust, Spinoza, Newton,
Husserl, Bergson, Ricœur, pour ne nommer qu’eux) ; elle se retrouve en outre dans l’his

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6 CIJ1023.indb 71 18/06/13 10:38 571 request for interpretffation (sep. op. cançado tffrindade)

temporal dimension, is essential to the labour not only of those who seeffk
to secure the evolution of law, but also to those concerned with ascribiffng
to this latter foreseeability and juridical security. One is to be awareff of the

influence of the passage of time in the continuation of the rules of inter-
national law , as well as in the evolution of the rules of international law :
this is not a phenomenon external to law.

13. The temporal dimension is clearly inherent to the conception of the
“progressive development” of international law. By the same token,ff the
conscious search for new juridical solutions is to presuppose the solid

knowledge of solutions of the past and of the evolution of the applicablffe
law as an open and dynamic system, capable of responding to the chang -
ing needs of regulation 1. In effect, the temporal dimension underlies the

whole domain of law in general, and of public international law in par -
ticular .1
14. Time is inherent to law, to its interpretation and application, and

to all the situations and human relations regulated by it. One of the
ineluctable pitfalls of legal positivism (still very popular in the legffal pro -
fession in our days) lies in its vain attempt to conceive law in generaffl, and

international law in particular, independently of time. Legal positivism
and political “realism”, with their static vision of the world, foffcused on
the legal order or the “reality” of a given moment, have, not surpffrisingly,

been invariably subservient to the established order, to the relations of
domination and power. Neither the positivists, nor the “realists”,ff have
shown themselves capable of anticipating and understanding — and have

difficulties to accept — the profound transformations of contemporary
international law in the unending search for the realization of the impeffra -
tives of justice.

15. Startled by the changes occurred in the world, they have had to
move or jump from one historical moment to another, entirely distinct,
seeking to readjust themselves to the new empirical “reality”, andff then

in modern historiography, as disclosed by the writings on the matter of,ff e.g., Fernand
Braudel (Ecrits sur l’histoire, 1969), G. J. Whitrow (Time in History, 1988), Norbert Elias
(Über die Zeit, 1984), among others.
9 Cf. K. Doehring, “Die Wirkung des Zeitablaufs auf den Bestand völkerrechtlicher
Regeln”, Jahrbuch 1964 der Max‑Planck‑Gesellschaft, Heidelberg, 1964, pp. 70-89.
10
A. A. Cançado Trindade, “Reflections on International Law-Making : Customary
International Law and the Reconstruction of Jus Gentium”, International Law and Deve ‑
lopment/Le droit international et le développement (Proceedings of the 1986 Conference of
the Canadian Council on International Law/Travaux du Congrès de 1986 ffdu Conseil cana-
dien de droit international), Ottawa, 1986, pp. 78-81, and cf. pp. 63-81.
11 As to this latter, illustrations can be found in the work on the so-callffed “intertem -
poral law”, in the Sessions of Rome (1973) and Wiesbaden (1975) offf the Institut de droit
international. Cf., in particular, 5Annuaire de l’Institut de droit international (AIDI)

(1973), pp. 27, 33, 35-37, 48, 50, 86, 106 and 114-115 ;and 56 AIDI (1975), pp. 536-541. The
debates and work of the Institut disclosed an ambivalence, antinomy or tension between
the forces in favour of the evolution ortransformation of the legal order and those in
favour of the stability or legal security — and this was to be reflected in the cautious reso -
lution adopted by the Institut in Wiesbaden in 1975.

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6 CIJ1023.indb 72 18/06/13 10:38 demande en interprétffation (op. ind. cançado fftrindade) 571

temps, de la dimension temporelle, est essentielle pour les travaux non ff
seulement de ceux qui cherchent à faire évoluer le droit, mais aussi de
ceux qui veulent lui imprimer un caractère prévisible et instaurerff une cer-

taine sécurité juridique. Le temps qui9passe a une incidence sur le maintien
des règles de droit international ainsi que sur leur évolution, et il faut en
avoir conscience: il ne s’agit pas d’un phénomène étranger au droit.

13. La dimension temporelle est de toute évidence intrinsèquement liéffe
à la notion de « développement progressif » du droit international. De
même, la recherche consciente de nouvelles solutions juridiques impliffque
une solide connaissance des solutions retenues dans le passé et de

l’évolution du droit applicable en tant que système ouvert et dffynamique,
capable de répondre à des besoins de réglementation changeants 10. De
fait, la dimension temporelle sous-tend tout l’édifice du droit en général,
11
et du droit international public en particulier .
14. Le temps est un élément constitutif du droit, de son interprétation et
de son application, et de toutes les situations et relations humaines quffe celui-ci

régit. L’un des écueils auxquels mène inéluctablement le ffpositivisme juridique
(encore très en vogue chez les juristes contemporains) tient à cffe qu’il prétend
appréhender le droit en général, et le droit international en particulier,hors

du temps.Le positivisme juridique et le « réalisme» politique, avec leur vision
statique du monde, qui privilégie l’ordre juridique ou la « réalité» d’un
moment donné, ont toujours été assujettis à l’ordre étffabli, tributaire des rap -

ports de domination et de pouvoir, ce qui n’a rien d’étonnant. ffNi les posit-
ivistes ni les « réalistes» ne se sont montrés capables d’anticiper et de
comprendre les transformations profondes que le droit international modeffrne

a subies dans le cadre de la quête perpétuelle visant à réalffiser l’impératif de
justice, et ils ont du mal à admettre ces transformations.
15. Déconcertés par les changements intervenus dans le monde, ils ont ff

dû passer ou sauter d’un moment historique à un autre, tout àff fait dis -
tinct, en tentant de se réadapter à la nouvelle « réalité» empirique et de lui

toriographie moderne, notamment chez Fernand Braudel (Ecrits sur l’histoire, 1969),
G. J. Whitrow (Time in History, 1988) et Norbert Elias (Über die Zeit, 1984).

9
Voir K. Doehring, « Die Wirkung des Zeitablaufs auf den Bestand völkerrechtlicher
Regeln »,Jahrbuch 1964 der Max‑Planck‑Gesellschaft, Heidelberg, 1964, p. 70-89.
10A. A. Cançado Trindade, « Reflections on International Law-Making : Customary
International Law and the Reconstruction of Jus Gentium », Le droit international et le
développement (travaux du congrès de 1986 du Conseil canadien de droit internatioffnal),
Ottawa, 1986, p. 78-81 ; voir aussi p. 63-81.

11S’agissant de ce dernier, des exemples peuvent être trouvés dans les travaux consacrés

à ce qu’il est convenu d’appeler le « droit intertemporel » lors des sessions de Rome (1973)
et de Wiesbaden (1975) de l’Institut de droit international. Voir, en particulier, Annuaire
de l’Institut de droit international (AIDI), vol. 55 (1973), p. 27, 33, 35-37, 48, 50, 86, 106
et 114-115 ; AIDI, vol. 56 (1975), p. 536-541. Les débats et les travaux de l’Institut font
apparaître une ambivalence, voire une antinomie ou une tension, entre les éléments qui
militent en faveur de l’évolution ou de la transformation de l’ffordre juridique et ceux qui
privilégient la stabilité ou la sécurité juridique — ce qui se retrouve dans le texte, soigneu -
sement pesé, de la résolution adoptée par l’Institut à Wiffesbaden en 1975.

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6 CIJ1023.indb 73 18/06/13 10:38 572 request for interpretffation (sep. op. cançado tffrindade)

trying to apply again to this latter the static scheme which they are meffn-
tally used to, once again projecting their illusion, of permanence and
“inevitability”, into the future, and, at times — almost in desperation —
also into the past. Their basic error has been their minimization of theff

principles, as well as of the temporal dimension of social facts. They can
only behold interests and advantages, and do not seem to believe in
human reason, in the recta ratio 12, nor in the human capacity to extract
lessons from the historical experience.

16. Time marks a noticeable presence in the whole domain of inter-
national procedural law. As to substantive law, the temporal dimension
permeates virtually all domains of public international law, such as — to
evoke a few examples — the law of treaties (regulation pro futuro), peace -

ful settlement of international disputes (settlement pro futuro), State suc -
cession, the international law of human rights (the notion of potentialff
victims), international environmental law (the preventive dimension),ff
among others. In the field of regulation of spaces (e.g., law of the seffa, law

of outer space), the temporal dimension stands out likewise. There is
nowadays greater awareness of the need to fulfill the interests of preseffnt
and future generations (with a handful of multilateral conventions in
force providing for that).

17. Evolving international law, attentive to secure an element of pre -
visibility in the conduction and regulation of the social relations subjected
thereto, is itself permeated by the major enigma which permeates the exiffs -

tence of all subjects of law : the passage of time. If one seeks for answers
to that enigma, I am afraid we can hardly find them in the domain of lawff,
or elsewhere. Instead, some consolation for the lack of answers to that
overwhelming enigma can perhaps be found in the domains of philoso -

phy or theology.

V. The Search for Timelessffness

18. The present case is, by the way, centred on the Temple of Preah
Vihear, which appears to resist the onslaught of time and to be endowed
with a touch of timelessness. The Temple of Preah Vihear, a monument of
Khmer art, dates back to the first half of the eleventh century, and is

located on a high promontory of the range of the Dangrek mountains (oneff
of religious significance, by the border between Cambodia and Thailand)ff.
The Temple of Preah Vihear is composed of a series of sanctuaries linkedff

12The recta ratio was well captured and conceptualized, throughout the centuries, by
Plato, Aristotle, Cicero, and Thomas Aquinas, and, subsequently, situatiffng it in the foun-
dations of jus gentium itself, by Vitoria, Suárez and Grotius.

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6 CIJ1023.indb 74 18/06/13 10:38 demande en interprétffation (op. ind. cançado fftrindade) 572

réappliquer ensuite le modèle statique auquel ils sont mentalementff habi-
tués, projetant là encore dans l’avenir, et parfois même —ff presque par
désespoir — dans le passé également, leur vision illusoire de la perma -
nence et de l’« inévitabilité». Leur erreur fondamentale tient à ce qu’ils

sous-estiment l’importance des principes, ainsi que de la dimension tem -
porelle des faits de société. Ils ne voient que les intérêtsff et les avantages en
jeu, et ne semblent pas avoir foi dans la raison humaine, dans la recta
ratio 1, ni dans la capacité de l’homme de tirer les enseignements de l’his -

toire.
16. La notion de temps est manifestement très présente dans tout le
droit international procédural. En droit matériel, la dimension temporelle
se retrouve dans quasiment toutes les branches du droit international
public, comme — pour ne citer que quelques exemples — le droit des

traités (réglementationpro futuro), le règlement pacifique des différends
internationaux (règlementpro futuro), la succession d’Etats, le droit
international relatif aux droits de l’homme (notion de victimes poteffn -
tielles) ou encore le droit international de l’environnement (dimenffsion

préventive). Dans le domaine de la réglementation des espaces (droit de la
mer ou droit de l’espace extra-atmosphérique, par exemple), la dimension
temporelle est également très présente. La nécessité (àff laquelle pourvoient
plusieurs conventions multilatérales en vigueur) de répondre aux ffbesoins

des générations tant actuelles que futures s’impose aujourd’ffhui avec plus
de force.
17. En pleine mutation, le droit international, qui vise à assurer une
certaine prévisibilité dans la conduite et la réglementation deffs relations
sociales régies par lui, est lui-même marqué par la grande énigme qui

imprègne l’existence de tous les sujets de droit : le passage du temps. Je
doute fort que la clé de cette énigme réside dans le droit, ou puisse d’ail -
leurs être trouvée dans tout autre domaine. Peut-être convient-il plutôt de
se tourner vers la philosophie ou la théologie pour se consoler de l’ffimpé -

nétrabilité de cette énigme écrasante.

V. La recherche de l’intffemporalité

18. Il se trouve que la présente affaire porte sur un monument, le temple
de Préah Vihéar, qui semble avoir résisté à l’épreuve du temps ffet être
empreint d’une certaine intemporalité. Monument de l’art khmer,ff le temple
date de la première moitié du XI esiècle, et il est situé sur un haut promon-

toire de la chaîne des Dangrek (qui revêt une importance religieuffse, et se
trouve à la frontière entre le Cambodge et la Thaïlande). Le tffemple de
Préah Vihéar se compose d’une série de sanctuaires reliés par un rfféseau de

12La recta ratio a été bien saisie et théorisée, au fil des siècles, par ffPlaton, Aristote,
Cicéron et Thomas d’Aquin, ainsi que, à une époque ultérieure, par Vitoria, Suárez et
Grotius, qui l’ont placée au cœur du jus gentium lui-même.

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6 CIJ1023.indb 75 18/06/13 10:38 573 request for interpretffation (sep. op. cançado tffrindade)

by a system of pavements and staircases over an axis 800 metres long, riffs -
ing up the mountain, and standing on the edge of a cliff 547 metres highff.

19. This millénaire masterpiece of Khmer art and architecture was
erected and used for religious purposes. It was dedicated to Shiva (oneff of
the Hindu divine triad of Vishnu, Shiva and Brahma — cf. infra). It was
intended to stand for time immemorial, to bring together the faithful offf

the region, to fulfill their spiritual needs. Temples and shrines, givinffg
expression to different religious faiths, have been erected in times pasfft in
distinct localities in all continents, in search of timelessness, to renffder
eternal the human faith, carved in stone to that end.

20. Writing in 1912, Max Scheler deemed it fit to point out that the
construction of temples, monasteries, cathedrals, shrines of the more diffs -
tant past, engaged generations of people who built them, within their
communities that were to survive them, thus giving them the feeling of

being inserted, in peace with themselves, into eternity, in the continuiffty of
human generations 13. Writing twelve years later, in 1924, Stefan Zweig
regretted that, in the modern world, human beings no longer erect such
temples or monuments, in an epoch of fast communications and precipi -

tated action, when they pursue objectives which appear usually quite
close. Ours is an epoch which has lost the idea of a durable image ; no
one, or no generation, would spend nowadays their whole life building a ff
shrine, a temple or a cathedral. Our modern world “counts the hours wffith

different measures, and life goes by with distinct velocities”. We haffve

“forgotten the art of expressing our essence in durable stones for thffe
years which do not finish. (. . .) We are quite aware to have lost the
aptitude for the infinite, (. . .) the aptitude to give shape so powerfully

in one work (obra) to the spirit of a whole people, to the genius of
an epoch.” 14
15
Hence the importance of preservation of such sanctuaries or temples , as
cultural and spiritual heritage of humankind (cf. infra).
21. Being itself the concrete expression of human inspiration, the Tem -

ple of Preah Vihear seems now faced with the threat of human resentment ff
(cf. infra). Recent developments (2007-2011) in the region of that part by
the border between Cambodia and Thailand suggest that the times of
human beings remain troubled and unpredictable, to a far greater extent ff

than the times of stars. The shrines of the Temple of Preah Vihear appeaffr
now surrounded by tension, hostilities and conflict, proper of the humffan
condition.

13
14M. Scheler, L’homme du ressentiment, op. cit. infra note 69, p. 41.
S. Zweig, Tiempo y Mundo — Impresiones y Ensayos (1904‑1940), Barcelona, Edit.
Juventud, 1998, pp. 147-148 [my translation].

15It has been pointed out that, in their art, there is “une jonction miffraculeuse entre
le temporel et l’intemporel” ; G. Duby, Le temps des cathédrales — L’art et la société,
980‑1420, Paris, Gallimard, 1979, p. 117.

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6 CIJ1023.indb 76 18/06/13 10:38 demande en interprétffation (op. ind. cançado fftrindade) 573

chaussées et d’escaliers disposés de part et d’autre d’unff axe de 800mètres,
d’aval en amont, et se dresse au bord d’une falaise haute de 547 mètres.

19. Ce chef-d’œuvre millénaire de l’art et de l’architecture ffkhmers a été
édifié et utilisé à des fins religieuses. Dédié à Sffhiva (l’une des trois divinités
de la triade hindoue, avec Vishnu et Brahma —cf. infra), le temple a été bâti

pour traverser les siècles, pour rassembler les fidèles de la région et pour
répondre à leurs aspirations spirituelles. Temples et lieux saintsff, expressions
de la foi dans les différentes religions, ont été érigés ffjadis en divers lieux et
sur tous les continents, marquant une aspiration à l’intemporalité, la volonffté

de rendre éternelle la foi humaine en la gravant dans la pierre.
20. En 1912, Max Scheler jugea utile de rappeler que, dans un passé
lointain, la construction des temples, monastères, cathédrales et ffautres
lieux saints occupait toute une suite de générations qui, au sein ffdes com -

munautés qui devaient leur survivre, avaient le sentiment d’êtrffe ancrées
dans l’éternité, en paix avec elles-mêmes, dans la continuité des généra -
tions humaines 13. Douze ans plus tard, en 1924, Stefan Zweig regretta

que de tels temples ou monuments ne soient plus érigés dans le monffde
moderne, qui est placé sous le signe des communications accélérffées et de
l’action précipitée, de la poursuite d’objectifs générffalement perçus comme
plus immédiats. A notre époque, l’idée d’une représentffation durable

n’existe plus; personne, ni aucune génération, ne consacrerait aujourd’hui
sa vie entière à la construction d’un lieu saint, d’un templffe ou d’une
cathédrale. Notre monde moderne « compte les heures avec différentes
unités de mesure, et la vie s’écoule à des vitesses difféffrentes». Nous avons

«oublié l’art d’exprimer notre essence en la gravant dans la pieffrre

pour les années qui ne finissent pas… Nous avons bien conscience
d’avoir perdu notre aptitude à tendre vers l’infini, … à donner
expression avec tant de puissance dans une œuvre (obra) à l’esprit de
tout un peuple, au génie d’une époque. » 14

Voilà pourquoi il importe de préserver ces sanctuaires et ces tempffles 1,

qui font partie du patrimoine culturel et spirituel de l’humanité ff(cf. infra).
21. Le temple de Préah Vihéar, qui est lui-même l’expression concrète
de l’inspiration humaine, se trouve à présent menacé par le ffressentiment
humain (cf. infra). Les récents événements (2007-2011) qui se sont pro -

duits dans la région, à ce niveau de la frontière entre le Cambodge et la
Thaïlande, donnent à penser que le temps des êtres humains demeure
tourmenté et imprévisible, à la différence du temps des astrffes. Le temple

de Préah Vihéar, lieu saint s’il en est, semble aujourd’hui sous l’emffpire de
tensions, d’hostilités et d’un conflit qui procèdent de laff condition humaine.

13 M. Scheler, L’homme du ressentiment, op. cit. infra note 69, p. 41.
14S. Zweig, Tiempo y Mundo — Impresiones y Ensayos (1904‑1940), Barcelone,

éd. Juventud, 1998, p. 147-148 [traduction française établie par le Greffe à partir de la
tra15ction anglaise réalisée par le juge Cançado Trindade].
Il a été dit que, à travers cet art, s’opérait «une jonction miraculeuse entre le temporel
et l’intemporel » ; G.Duby, Le temps des cathédrales — L’art et la société, 980‑1420, Paris,
Gallimard, 1979, p. 117.

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6 CIJ1023.indb 77 18/06/13 10:38 574 request for interpretffation (sep. op. cançado tffrindade)

VI. From Timelessness to Tiffmeliness

22. What was meant to be a monument endowed with timelessness, is
now again the object of contention before this Court, raising before it,ff
inter alia, the issue of timeliness. The case of the Temple of Preah Vihear
is now, half a century after its adjudication by the Court on 15 June 1962,

brought again to the attention of the Court, by means of two requests
from Cambodia, one for interpretation of the 1962 Judgment, and the
other for provisional measures of protection.
23. In the first request, for interpretation, Cambodia draws attention to

its timeliness. In the public sitting of 30 May 2011 before the Court,
though conceding that the prolonged lapse of time, of half a century, siffnce
the Court’s Judgment of 15 June 1962, render “certain aspects” of the
present case “unusual”, it pointed out that Article 60 of the Court’s Stat -

ute (that it invoked as basis of jurisdiction of the Court in the cas d’espèce)
contains no time-limit for such a request for interpretation. In its view,
“the right to seek the assistance of the Court to resolve a dispute of that
kind is not subjected to any time-limit by Article 60 of the Statute” 1.

In sustaining the timeliness of its request for interpretation, Cambodiaff
referred to paragraphs 29-35 of the request itself, lodged with the Court
on 20 April 2011, wherein it referred to tensions, hostilities and incidents
occurred in the area of the Temple of Preah Vihear in 2008, 2009 and

2011 (paras. 33-35) ; Cambodia also invoked, in its request, Article 2 (3)
and Chapter VI of the UN Charter (para. 32).

24. Thailand, in turn, in the public sitting of 30 May 2011 before the
Court, stressed the consequence it beheld, of the passing of so much timffe,
for the Cambodian requests recently lodged with the Court. While con -
ceding that there is no time-limit in Article 60 of the Statute, it argued

that
“an interpretation goes back to the text of the Judgment ; whereas a

request for provisional measures relates to the future conduct of nor -
mally both parties. There is a tension between the two, which becomes
ever more acute as time passes.” 17

It added that the character of the Court’s “interpretation jurisdiction is

such that provisional measures will only be available in special cases, ff
especially when a lengthy period has elapsed since the first judgment”ff 18.
The fact that both Thailand and Cambodia — or, more precisely, those
who have served as counsel for one and the other, in the recent public

sittings before this Court — have felt compelled to address, each one in

16
ICJ, Compte rendu (CR) CR 2011/13, of 30 May 2011, p. 31. And, to the same effect,
CR 2011/15, of 31 May 2011, pp. 23-24.
17 CR 2011/16, of 31 May 2011, p. 18.
18 Ibid., p. 20. And, to the same effect, CR 2011/14, of 30 May 2011, pp. 32-33 and 26.

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VI. De l’intemporalité auff cadre temporel

22. Un monument qui devait être un symbole d’intemporalité est à
nouveau l’objet d’un litige porté devant la Cour, soulevant, enfftre autres,
la question du cadre temporel. L’affaire du Temple de Préah Vihéar se
trouve à présent, un demi-siècle après avoir été tranchée par la Cour le

15 juin 1962, portée derechef à son attention par deux demandes du Cam -
bodge, dont l’une en interprétation de l’arrêt de 1962 et l’autre en indica -
tion de mesures conservatoires.
23. Dans sa demande en interprétation, le Cambodge affirme que celle-

ci n’intervient pas hors délai. Lors de l’audience publique du 30 mai 2011,
il a certes concédé que la longue période écoulée (un deffmi-siècle) depuis
l’arrêt du 15 juin 1962 conférait à « certains aspects» de la présente affaire
un caractère « inhabituel», mais a fait valoir que l’article 60 du Statut de

la Cour (invoqué comme base de compétence en l’espèce) ne prescrivait
aucun délai pour la présentation d’une demande en interprétafftion. Selon
lui, « le droit de demander l’aide de la Cour pour régler un différendff de
cette nature n’est soumis à aucun délai au titre de l’articlffe 60 du Statu»t 1.

Pour démontrer que sa demande en interprétation n’était pas ffhors
délai, le Cambodge s’est référé aux paragraphe 29 à 35 de la requête
elle-même, présentée à la Cour le 20 avril 2011, dans laquelle il faisait état
de tensions, d’hostilités et d’incidents intervenus dans la zonffe du temple

de Préah Vihéar en 2008, en 2009 et en 2011 (par. 33-35) ; le Cambodge
invoquait également, dans sa requête, le paragraphe 3 de l’article 2 et le
Chapitre VI de la Charte des Nations Unies (par. 32).

24. La Thaïlande, de son côté, à l’audience publique du 30 mai 2011, a
insisté sur ce que signifiaient, selon elle, toutes ces années éffcoulées pour
les demandes récemment portées devant la Cour par le Cambodge.
Reconnaissant qu’aucun délai n’était prévu à l’artiffcle 60 du Statut, elle a

cependant fait valoir que
«une interprétation renvoie au texte d’un arrêt, alors qu’uneff de -

mande en indication de mesures conservatoires est tournée vers l’ave-
nir et le comportement des — normalement — deux parties. Il existe
une tension entre les deux, qui s’exacerbe davantage encore avec le
temps. » 17

Elle a ajouté que la « compétence en matière d’interprétation étant ce

qu’elle est, de telles mesures [conservatoires] ne peuvent être prffescrites
que dans des cas particuliers, surtout quand de longues périodes se sffont
écoulées depuis le prononcé de l’arrêt initial » 1. Le fait que la Thaïlande
et le Cambodge — ou, plus précisément, les conseils qui ont respective -

ment plaidé pour eux lors des récentes audiences publiques — ont tous

16
C.I.J., compte rendu (CR) CR 2011/13 du 30 mai 2011, p. 31. Voir, dans le même
sens, le CR 2011/15 du 31 mai 2011, p. 23-24.
17CR 2011/16 du 31 mai 2011, p. 18.
18Ibid., p. 20. Voir, dans le même sens, le CR 2011/14 du 30 mai 2011, p. 32-33 et 26.

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6 CIJ1023.indb 79 18/06/13 10:38 575 request for interpretffation (sep. op. cançado tffrindade)

its own way, the issue of timeliness in the circumstances of the cas
d’espèce, seemingly startled by it, renders the present case of the Temple

of Preah Vihear, in my view, indeed fascinating. It shows the human face
of an inter-State case before the World Court.

VII. The Passing of Time : The C hiarosCuro of Existence

25. In effect, the present case of the Temple of Preah Vihear appears to
contain some lessons, not so easy to grasp. As already pointed out, it
enshrines the chiaroscuro not only of law (cf. supra), but also of existence
itself. It suggests that we, mortals, still have to learn to live withinff bound -

aries in space and in time, so as to live in peace (mainly of mind). Affs to
space, those boundaries which bring countries and their peoples togetherff,
rather than separate them. As to time, those which link day and night,

light and darkness, life and after-life. As I have already indicated, all cul -
tures, including the ancient ones, in distinct latitudes, grasped the mystery
of the passing of time, each one in its own way.

26. As I pondered in my separate opinion in the case of Bámaca
Velásquez v. Guatemala, resolved by the IACtHR (judgment on repara -
tions, of 22 February 2002) :

“Time keeps on being a great mystery surrounding human exist -

ence. Human knowledge of the extreme frontiers of life (birth and
death) continues to be limited, and such frontiers have become ‘more
mobile’ as a consequence of the cultural changes and the technologi -
cal development, what attributes an even greater responsibility to the

jurists, who ought to be attentive to the ethical codes and to the cul -
tural manifestations in evolution. (. . .) The very conscience of time
is ‘a very late product of human civilization’ (. . .). Despite all that
has been written on the subject, the very origin of the cultures still
19
continues without an answer ; and time and space, which they seek
to explain, appear ultimately as mental creations of the social con -
science, which allow to conceive a unified and coherent cosmos 20. Of
the essence of cultural life are ‘the perception and the awareness offf

time’, which, in turn, constitute component elements of ‘the solidarity
of human generations which succeeded each other and return, repeat -
ing each other as the stations’ 21. Time was even considered as in the
Confessions of Saint Augustine — as an essential aspect of the spiritual

19
20E. Cassirer, Essai sur l’homme, Paris, Ed. de Minuit, 1975, p. 47, and cf. p. 243.
A. Y. Gurevitch, “El Tiempo como Problema de Historia Cultural”, Las Culturas
y el Tiempo, Salamanca/Paris, Ed. Sígueme/UNESCO, 1979, pp. 260-261. In this way,
“converted into ruler of time”, the human being “is also dominaffted by it” (ibid.,p. 261).
21Ibid., pp. 280 and 264, and cf. p. 272.

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6 CIJ1023.indb 80 18/06/13 10:38 demande en interprétffation (op. ind. cançado fftrindade) 575

deux jugé bon d’examiner, chacun à sa façon, la question —ff qui paraît les
avoir vivement intéressés — du cadre temporel dans les circonstances de

la présente instance rend selon moi cette affaire réellement fasciffnante. Elle
montre le visage humain d’une affaire interétatique portée devaffnt la Cour.

VII. Le passage du temps : le clair-obscur de l’existencffe

25. De fait, la présente affaire du Temple de Préah Vihéar semble contenir
quelques enseignements qui ne sont pas forcément aisés à appréffhender.
Comme on l’a vu plus haut, elle illustre le clair-obscur non seulement du
droit (cf. supra), mais aussi de l’existence elle-même. Elle révèle que nous,

simples mortels, devons toujours apprendre à composer avec certaines ffli-
mites spatiales et temporelles afin de pouvoir vivre dans la paix (de l’esprit,
surtout). Par limites spatiales, j’entends les frontières censéffes être non pas

une barrière, mais un trait d’union entre les pays et leurs peupleffs. Par limites
temporelles, j’entends celles qui marquent le passage du jour à laff nuit, de la
lumière à l’obscurité, de la vie à l’au-delà. Comme je l’ai déjà indiqué, toutes
les cultures, même les plus anciennes, sous les latitudes les plus diffverses, ont

appréhendé, chacune à sa façon, le mystère du temps qui pffasse.
26. Pour reprendre un passage de mon opinion individuelle en l’affaire
Bámaca Velásquez c. Guatemala, tranchée par la Cour interaméricaine des
droits de l’homme (arrêt sur les réparations du 22 février 2002) :

«Le temps reste le grand mystère de l’existence humaine. Les

connaissances de l’homme demeurent limitées à l’égard des frontières
extrêmes de l’existence (la naissance et la mort), qui sont devenues
plus « mouvantes» sous l’effet de l’évolution culturelle et des avan -
cées technologiques, ce qui confère aux juristes une responsabilitffé

d’autant plus grande, car ils doivent rester attentifs aux codes
éthiques et aux manifestations culturelles en pleine évolution…ff La
conscience même du temps est « un produit très tardif de la civilisa -
tion humaine»… En dépit de tout ce qui a été écrit sur le sujet, lff’ori‑

gine même 19s cultures constitue toujours une question sans
réponse ; le temps et l’espace, que celles-ci cherchent à expliquer, se
révèlent finalement être des créations mentales de la conscience
sociale, laissant entrevoir un cosmos unifié et cohérent 2. Un trait

fondamental de la vie culturelle tient à « la perception et à la
conscience du temps », lesquelles font elles-mêmes partie intégrante
de « la solidarité des générations humaines qui se succèdent et sffe
répètent, telles les saisons» 2. Le temps a même été considéré — dans

19
20 E. Cassirer, Essai sur l’homme, Paris, Ed. de Minuit, 1975, p. 47 ;voir aussi p. 243.
A. Y. Gourevitch, « Le temps comme problème de l’histoire culturelle », Les cultures
et le temps, Salamanque/Paris, Ed. Sígueme/UNESCO, 1979, p. 260-261. Ainsi, transformé
en maître du temps, l’être humain se trouve également dominéff par lui (ibid., p. 261).
21 Ibid., p. 280 et 264 ; voir aussi p. 272.

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6 CIJ1023.indb 81 18/06/13 10:38 576 request for interpretffation (sep. op. cançado tffrindade)

life of the individuals and groups, as an integral part of the social
22
conscience itself.” (Paras. 4-5.)

27. In fact, there is no social milieu wherein collective representations
pertaining to its origin and to its destiny are not found. There is a spiri -
tual legacy which is transmitted, with the passing of time, from genera -

tion to generation, conforming a “perfect spiritual continuity among ff
generations”; hence the relevance of the conscience of living in time, and
of the burial rites 2. Just as the living experience of a human community

develops with the continuous flux of thought and action of the individffu -
als who compose it, there is likewise a spiritual dimension which is traffns-
mitted from an individual to another, from a generation to another,
which precedes each human being and survives him, in time. The passing

of time, a source of desperation to some, in fact brings the living inelffuc -
tably closer to their dead, and binds them together, and the preservatioffn
of the spiritual legacy of our predecessors constitutes a means whereby ff

they can themselves communicate with the living, and vice-versa.
28. The living perceive time in distinct ways. Chronological time is not
the same as biological time. In a life-time, time seems different for each
age. Children seem to live in the moment, adults their day-to-day life, and

the elderly their epoch or personal history. Biological time is not the same
as psychological time. Time gives human beings, at first, innocence, graffd -
ually replaced, later, with the passing of years, by growing experience.ff

The time of human beings nourishes them, first, with hope, and, later,
with memory. The time of human beings is indeed implacable.
29. Time links the beginning and the end of human existence, rather than
separates them. Time impregnates human existence of memory, and enables

the search for the meaning of each moment of existence. Time appears to
invite the cultivation of the study of history, and shows the ephemerousff in
the search for supremacy and glory. It is arguable whether life-time canff be

invoked as an adequate measure to approach a legal situation extending iffn
time, and even less so to approach the nature of a legal obligation.
30. As to the relationship between the passing of time and human exis -
24
tence, in a couple of his many and célèbres Letters to Lucilius (124 in

22
Few persons, like Saint Augustine, felt with such intensity the inscrutaffble mystery of
time. In the insurmountable pages on the matter, of Book XI of his Confession(written
between the years 398 to 400), to the question “what is tim”, he answered : “if no one
asks me, I know it ; but if I want to explain it to whoever asks me, then I do not know it”ff
(para. 17). And he added, as to the “three times” (or “threeff moments in the spirit”, namely,
“expectation, attention and remembrance” — para. 37) : the three times — past, present
and future — “are in the mind and I do not see them elsewhere. The present offf the past is
memory. The present of the present is the vision. The present of the futffure is the expecta-
tion” (para. 26).

23E. Durkheim, Las formas Elementales de la Vida Religiosa, Madrid, Alianza Ed.,

19924(reed.), pp. 393, 419, 436, 443 and 686.
In particular, his Letters, Nos. XII, LXXVIII, CII and CXXII.

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6 CIJ1023.indb 82 18/06/13 10:38 demande en interprétffation (op. ind. cançado fftrindade) 576

les Confessions de saint Augustin, par exemple — comme un aspect
essentiel de la vie spirituelle des individus et des groupes, et comme
une partie intégrante de la conscience sociale elle-même.» 22 (Par. 4-5.)

27. En fait, il n’est aucun groupe social qui ne dispose de représentaff -

tions collectives renvoyant à son origine et à son destin. Un legsff spirituel
est transmis au fil du temps, de génération en génération, cffonstituant un
«parfait continuum spirituel entre les générations »; d’où l’importance de
la conscience de vivre dans le temps, et celle des rites funéraires 23. De

même que l’expérience d’une communauté humaine s’enricffhit grâce à
l’apport continu des pensées et actions de ses membres, une dimension
spirituelle se transmet d’une personne à l’autre, d’une géffnération à l’autre,

précédant chaque être humain et lui survivant dans le temps. Le temps qui
passe — source de désespoir pour certains — rapproche en réalité inéluc -
tablement les vivants de leurs morts, les rattachant les uns aux autres,ff et

la préservation de l’héritage spirituel de nos prédécesseffurs constitue pour
ceux-ci une manière de communiquer avec les vivants, et vice versa.

28. Le temps peut être perçu de différentes manières. Le temps cffhrono -
logique n’est assurément pas le temps biologique. Dans une vie, leff temps
paraît différent à chaque âge. Les enfants semblent vivre dans l’instant,

les adultes dans le présent de leur quotidien, les aînés dans lffeur époque ou
leur histoire personnelle. Le temps biologique n’est certainement pasff non
plus le temps psychologique. Le temps vécu par les êtres humains leur

apporte d’abord l’innocence et l’espoir, puis l’expériencffe et le souvenir.
Le temps des êtres humains est réellement implacable.
29. Le temps ne dissocie pas, mais relie, le début et la fin de l’exisfftence

humaine. Il imprègne la mémoire humaine, et permet de chercher un ffsens
à chaque moment de l’existence. Comme une invitation à continueffr d’étu -
dier l’histoire, le temps révèle le caractère éphémère de la quête de la

suprématie et de la gloire. Je doute que la durée d’une vie puisse être
l’aune appropriée pour apprécier une situation juridique qui seff prolonge
dans le temps, et encore moins la nature d’une obligation juridique.
30. S’agissant de la relation entre le temps qui passe et l’existence ff
24
humaine, Sénèque, dans quelques-unes de ses célèbres Lettres à Lucilius

22Rares sont ceux qui, comme saint Augustin, ont ressenti avec une telle iffntensité
le mystère insondable du temps. Dans son passage incontournable sur la question, qui
figure dans le livre onzième de ses Confessions (rédigées entre 398 et 400), à la question
«qu’est-ce donc que le temps ? », saint Augustin répondit : « Si personne ne m’interroge,
je le sais ; si je veux répondre à cette demande, je l’ignore » (p. 416-417). Il ajouta, au sujet

des « trois temps » (« dans l’esprit, … il se rencontre trois tel’attente, l’attention et
le souvenir », p. 438-439) : les trois temps — passé, présent et avenir — « exist[ent] dans
l’esprit ; je ne le[s] vois pas ailleurs. Le présent du passé, c’est la méffmoire ; le présent du
présent, c’est l’attention actuelle ; le présent de l’avenir, c’est son attente » (p. 425) [traduc-
tion de L. Moreau, éd. Debécourt (1840), Paris].
23E. Durkheim, Les formes élémentaires de la vie religieuse, Paris, PUF, 1912, livre III.

24En particulier ses Lettres nXII, LXXVIII, CII et CXXII.

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6 CIJ1023.indb 83 18/06/13 10:38 577 request for interpretffation (sep. op. cançado tffrindade)

number), Seneca warns us, in his wise stoicism, that just as we have tiffme,
time has us : in our brief life-time, a few of us try to gather knowledge,
while the majority tries to accumulate possessions, goods and wealth ; yet,
the passing of time dispossesses us of everything — Seneca lucidly con -
cludes — and we leave this world as helpless as we entered it. Life-tffime is

shorter than many continuing legal obligations.

VIII. Time, Legal Interpretafftion,
and the Nature of Legalff Obligation

31. This is an appropriate moment to turn attention to time, legal

interpretation and the nature of legal obligation. In this connection, in
the course of the proceedings before the Court concerning the request for
provisional measures of protection in the present case of the Temple of
Preah Vihear, Thailand, at a given moment of its pleadings of 30 May
2011, argued that :

“Even in the long history of the law of nations, 50 years is a con -
siderable time. The last two judges who participated in the Temple

case died in 1989 — Judge Morelli on his 89th birthday, Judge
Bustamante just after his 94th. Yet Cambodia would have the Court
speak in a continuous present, prescribing the withdrawal of forces
whose members were not born at the time, enjoining activities which,
25
if they have occurred at all, began long after the time.”

32. Even taking a life-time as a measure to approach a legal situation
which appears to subsist in time, are 50 years really a considerable timffe?
In my perception, a lapse of 50 years may be seen from different angles.ff
For a very young person, in the dawn of life-time, looking forward in

time, 50 years may appear far too long a time. For an elderly person,
approaching the twilight of life-time, looking back in time, 50 years maffy
appear to have passed by very fast, to have been not so long at all. The
impression I can hardly escape from, is that mere chronological time doeffs

not assist us much : it seems to conceal more than what it discloses.

33. In the long history of the law of nations, 50 years may appear a long,
or not so long a time, depending on how we see them, and on what period

of that history we have in mind. All will depend on the density of time
(cf. supra) of the period at issue — whether at that period much has hap -
pened, or nothing significant has taken place at all. In any case, the wffork

25
CR 2011/14, of 30 May 2011, p. 33.

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6 CIJ1023.indb 84 18/06/13 10:38 demande en interprétffation (op. ind. cançado fftrindade) 577

(au nombre de 124), nous avertit, dans sa sagesse stoïcienne, que le temps
nous possède autant que nous le possédons : dans notre courte vie,
quelques-uns d’entre nous tâchent d’engranger des connaissances, tandis ff
que la majorité tente d’amasser des possessions, des biens et des ffrichesses ;

pourtant, dans sa course le temps nous dépouille de tout — conclut
Sénèque avec lucidité — et nous quittons ce monde aussi démunis que
nous y sommes entrés. La vie est plus fugace que nombre d’obligatiffons
juridiques, qui revêtent un caractère continu.

VIII. Le temps, l’interprétafftion juridique
et la nature de l’oblffigation juridique

31. Le moment est venu de s’intéresser au temps dans son rapport à
l’interprétation juridique et à la nature de l’obligation juffridique. Sur ce
chapitre, au cours de la procédure consacrée à la demande en inffdication
de mesures conservatoires en l’instance, la Thaïlande a, dans ses ffplaido -

iries du 30 mai 2011, soutenu que,

«[m]ême au regard de la fort longue histoire du droit des gens, un
demi-siècle est une période d’une durée considérable. Les deuxff der -
niers juges qui ont pris part à l’affaire du Temple sont morts en 1989 :
le juge Morelli, le jour de son 89 e anniversaire, et le juge Bustamante,
e
peu après son 94 anniversaire. Et pourtant, le Cambodge souhaite -
rait que la Cour s’exprime au présent continu, exigeant le retraitff de
forces dont les membres n’étaient pas nés à l’époque efft interdisant
certaines activités qui, si tant est qu’elles aient effectivement ffété
25
menées, ont débuté bien plus tard. »
32. Même si l’on retient comme aune la durée d’une vie pour apprffécier

une situation juridique qui semble perdurer, cinquante années repréff -
sentent-elles réellement un temps considérable ? Pour moi, tout est ques -
tion de point de vue. Pour une personne très jeune, qui est à l’ffaube de son
existence et qui a l’avenir devant elle, un demi-siècle peut paraître une

éternité. Pour une personne âgée, qui touche au crépusculffe de son exis -
tence, la même période peut, rétrospectivement, sembler s’êfftre écoulée
très vite, n’avoir pas tellement duré. Je peine à me dépaffrtir de l’impres -
sion que considérer le temps, pris dans sa dimension purement chronolo -
gique, ne nous aidera pas beaucoup : le faire me semble obscurcir plutôt

qu’éclairer la question.
33. Dans la longue histoire du droit des gens, un demi-siècle peut
paraître plus ou moins long, selon la manière dont nous le percevrons, et
aussi la tranche de cette histoire qu’il représente. Tout dépenffd de la den -

sité du temps (cf. supra) durant la période considérée — qui peut avoir été
riche en événements ou tout à fait creuse. En tout état de cffause, les tra -

25C.I.J., compte rendu CR 2011/14 du 30 mai 2011, p. 33.

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6 CIJ1023.indb 85 18/06/13 10:38 578 request for interpretffation (sep. op. cançado tffrindade)

undertaken in the Court by the generation of Judges Morelli and Busta -

mante is linked to the work being undertaken in the Court by the present
generation of its Judges. Ours is a common mission, prolonged in time. Tffhe
present Order of provisional measures of protection, which the Court is
adopting today, 18 July 2011, half a century after its Judgment of

15 June 1962, in the case of the Temple of Preah Vihear, bears witness of this.
34. One cannot lose sight of the fact that time and space do not form
part of the empirical or real world, but are rather part of our “mentffal
26
constitution”, of our apparatus “to grasp the world” , to examine and
understand events that have occurred or occur and mark our lives. The
perception of time was gradually devised by human beings to help them,
at first, to overcome “the briefness and the unicity” of their livffes ; with

that, living in their social environment, human beings imagined they
could in a way “deceive death” itself 27. Cultures seek to explain time and
space, each one in its own way. It is widely reckoned today that cultureffs,

in their diversity, also assist human beings to relate themselves with tffhe
outside world, to strive to understand it.
35. In so far as human knowledge is concerned, there are no final

answers on law, nor on humanities, nor even on science. Law is not
self-sufficient, as legal positivists, in their characteristic arrogance (sffymp -
tomatic of short-sightedness), seem to assume. In my understanding, law
has much to learn from other branches of human knowledge, and

vice-versa. The limitations of human knowledge recommend a certain
modesty as to what we do. As to law, there is a continuing quest for the
realization of justice.

36. I have already drawn attention to the fact that both Thailand and
Cambodia, in the course of the very recent proceedings before the Court ffin
the case of the Temple of Preah Vihear, have shown their preoccupation with

how to approach properly, each one in its own way, the issue of timelineffss
in the circumstances of the cas d’espèce (cfs.upra). Underlying their concerns
are, first, the distinct theses they uphold of legal interpretation itself, and

secondly, the distinct theses that Cambodia and Thailand uphold of the exis -
tence of a continuing, or else an instantaneousobligation, respectively.
37. As to the first point, concerning legal interpretation, it should not
pass unnoticed that both Cambodia 28and Thailand 29evoked, in distinct

ways, obiter dicta of the Judgment No. 11 (of 16 December 1927) of the
old Permanent Court of International Justice (PCIJ) in the case of theff
factory at Chorzów — Interpretation of Judgments Nos. 7 and 8, in order

to seek to substantiate their submissions on the matter. In fact, with

26K. Popper, En Busca de un Mundo Mejor, Barcelona, Ed. Paidós, 1996, pp. 171-173.
27A. Y. Gurevitch, “El Tiempo como Problema de Historia Cultural”, op. citsupra
note 20, p. 263.
28CR 2011/13, of 30 May 2011, pp. 29, 34 and 36 ;CR 2011/15, of 31 May 2011, pp. 15,

22 29d 24-25.
CR 2011/14, of 30 May 2011, pp. 22-24 and 38-40.

45

6 CIJ1023.indb 86 18/06/13 10:38 demande en interprétffation (op. ind. cançado fftrindade) 578

vaux entamés à la Cour par la génération des juges Morelli efft Bustamante
sont liés à ceux entrepris par la génération actuelle de ses juges. Nous

sommes investis d’une mission commune, qui s’inscrit dans le long terme.
En témoigne l’ordonnance en indication de mesures conservatoires ren -
due par la Cour aujourd’hui, 18 juillet 2011, un demi-siècle après son

arrêt du 15 juin 1962 en l’affaire du Temple de Préah Vihéar.
34. On ne saurait perdre de vue que le temps et l’espace ne relèvent pffas
du monde empirique ou réel, mais font partie de notre « appareil mental»,
des outils dont nous disposons «pour appréhender le monde» 26, pour exa-

miner et comprendre les événements, passés ou en cours, qui marffquent nos
vies. Les êtres humains ont progressivement développé leur percffeption du
temps afin de pouvoir, tout d’abord, surmonter «la fugacité et l’unicité» de
leur existence; par là, vivant dans leur environnement social, ils ont cru pou -
27
voir en quelque sorte «défier la mort» elle-même . Les cultures cherchent à
expliquer le temps et l’espace, chacune à sa façon. Il est largffement admis
aujourd’hui que les cultures, dans leur diversité, aident également les êtres

humains à se rattacher au monde extérieur, à lui trouver un senffs.
35. Sur le plan de la connaissance humaine, il n’existe aucune réponse
définitive, que ce soit dans le domaine du droit, dans celui des humanités,
ou même dans celui de la science. Le droit ne se suffit pas à luiff-même,

contrairement à ce que les tenants du positivisme juridique, avec leuffr
arrogance caractéristique (symptôme de leur manque de clairvoyancffe),
semblent penser. Pour moi, le droit a beaucoup d’enseignements à tirer
d’autres domaines de la connaissance, et inversement. Les limites de ffla

connaissance humaine nous imposent une certaine modestie. En droit, la
réalisation de la justice constitue une quête perpétuelle.
36. J’ai déjà appelé l’attention sur le fait que la Thaïlaffnde et le Cam -

bodge, au cours de la procédure qui s’est tenue très récemmeffnt devant la
Cour en l’espèce, se sont tous deux montrés soucieux de bien apffpréhen -
der, chacun à sa façon, la question du cadre temporel dans les cirffcons -
tances de l’affaire (cf. supra). La raison en est qu’ils s’opposent, tout

d’abord, sur le plan de l’interprétation juridique proprement dffite et,
ensuite, quant à l’existence d’une obligation revêtant, pourff l’un, un carac -
tère continu, pour l’autre, un caractère instantané.
37. En ce qui concerne le premier point — l’interprétation juridique —,
28 29
force est de constater que le Cambodge et la Thaïlande se sont l’un et
l’autre appuyés à cet égard, fût-ce de manière différente, sur les obiter dicta
formulés par la Cour permanente de Justice internationale (la « Cour per -
o
manente») dansoson arrêt n 11 (du 16 décembre 1927) sur l’Interprétation
des arrêts n 7 et 8 (usine de Chorzów). En fait, pour ce qui concerne

26 K. Popper, En busca de un mundo mejor, Barcelone, Ed. Paidós, 1996, p. 171-173.
27
A. Y. Gourevitch, op. cit. supra note 20, p. 263.
28
CR 2011/13 du 30 mai 2011, p. 29, 34 et 36; compte rendu CR 2011/15 du 31 mai 2011,
p. 29, 22 et 24-25.
CR 2011/14 du 30 mai 2011, p. 22-24 et 38-40.

45

6 CIJ1023.indb 87 18/06/13 10:38 579 request for interpretffation (sep. op. cançado tffrindade)

regard to legal interpretation, in my view some precision is here calledff
for, which I deem it fit to dwell upon in the present separate opinion. ffIn
an application for revision of a judgment (which is not the case here), the
facts to take into account are only those set forth in the original applffica-
tion, which formed the object of the corresponding judgment. There

could not be new or additional facts, which would fall outside the scopeff
of revision, and would call for a new application, a new case, if the appli -
cant State would wish to submit to the Court.
38. This is not the situation in an application for interpretation of a
judgment. In so far as interpretation is concerned, in my understanding,ff

one cannot make abstraction of subsequent facts, which gave rise to the ff
different views advanced by the contending parties. Even more so when
both parties rely upon, or refer to, such new or subsequent facts, in their
submissions to the Court, as they have done in this case of the Temple of

Preah Vihear. The Court can take such new facts into account, in order
to perform faithfully its judicial function and its duty to decide on thffe
request for interpretation lodged with it.
39. We have not yet reached this stage. We are presently taking cogni -
zance of provisional measures of protection. In this respect, the consider -

ations I have just made apply even more forcefully, in face of a situation
which appears to be endowed with the prerequisites of urgency and
gravity, an imminence of irreparable harm (cf. infra). I shall turn to this
point later ; for the moment, suffice it to point out that, in a request for

provisional measures of protection like the present one, the Court cannofft
simply decline to answer the points raised before it.
40. As to the second point, concerning the nature of legal obligation, in
its request for interpretation, of 20 April 2011, Cambodia saw it fit to
refer to a “permanent situation” and an obligation endowed with a “carac -

tère de permanence” (para. 37), and explained :
“The obligation incumbent upon Thailand to ‘withdraw any mili -

tary or police forces, or other guards or keepers, stationed by her at
the Temple, or in its vicinity on Cambodian territory’ (second para -
graph of the operative clause) is a particular consequence of the gen -
eral and continuing obligation to respect the integrity of the territoryff

of Cambodia (. . .).” (Application instituting proceedings, p. 37,
para. 45.)

41. The point was retaken by both Parties in their respective pleadings
before the Court, of 30-31 May 2011, concerning the Application for pro -
visional measures of 28 April 2011. In its submissions of 30 May 2011,
Thailand retorted that the applicant State was attempting to transform
into a “continuing obligation” what was “an immediate and instantaneous

obligation” deriving from paragraph 2 of the dispositif of the Court’s 30
Judgment of 1962 in the present case of the Temple of Preah Vihear .

30
CR 2011/14, of 30 May 2011, p. 25.

46

6 CIJ1023.indb 88 18/06/13 10:38 demande en interprétffation (op. ind. cançado fftrindade) 579

l’interprétation juridique, il me semble nécessaire de préciffser un point
dans la présente opinion individuelle. Lorsque est demandée la revision
d’un arrêt (ce qui n’est pas le cas ici), les faits à prenffdre en considération
sont uniquement ceux exposés dans la requête initiale, qui faisaieffnt l’objet
de l’arrêt correspondant. Il ne peut y avoir de faits nouveaux ou ffsupplé -

mentaires, ceux-ci excédant le cadre de la revision et commandant le
dépôt d’une nouvelle requête, l’introduction d’une nouvelle instance, si
l’Etat demandeur souhaite les soumettre à la Cour.
38. La situation est différente lorsque est demandée l’interprétation
d’un arrêt. Dans ce cas-là, je ne pense pas que l’on puisse faire abstraction

des faits ultérieurs, qui ont donné lieu aux divergences de vues effxposées
par les parties — surtout lorsque, comme dans la présente affaire, les deux
parties invoquent ou mentionnent ces faits nouveaux ou ultérieurs danffs
leur argumentation devant la Cour. Celle-ci peut tenir compte de ces faits

nouveaux, afin de s’acquitter fidèlement de sa fonction judiciaireff et de son
devoir de statuer sur la demande en interprétation portée devant efflle.

39. Nous n’en sommes pas encore là. Nous en sommes actuellement au
stade des mesures conservatoires. En l’occurrence, les considérations expo -

sées à l’instant s’appliquent d’autant plus que la situatffion semble présen-
ter les conditions d’urgence et de gravité requises, un préjudiffce irréparable
étant imminent (cf. infra). J’y reviendrai plus tard ; pour l’heure, il suffit
de relever que, face à une demande en indication de mesures conserva -

toires comme celle-ci, la Cour ne peut se borner à refuser de répondre aux
questions soulevées devant elle.
40. quant au second point — la nature de l’obligation juridique —, le
Cambodge, dans sa demande en interprétation du 20 avril 2011, a fait
état d’une «situation permanente» et d’une obligation revêtant un «carac -

tère de permanence » (par. 37), avant de préciser :
«L’obligation pour la Thaïlande de « retirer tous les éléments de

forces armées ou de police ou autres gardes ou gardiens qu’elle a ff
installés dans le temple ou dans ses environs situés en territoireff cam -
bodgien» (point 2 du dispositif [de l’arrêt de la CIJ de 1962]) est une
conséquence particulière de l’obligation générale et contffinue de res -

pecter l’intégrité du territoire du Cambodge. » (Requête introductive
d’instance, p. 36, par. 45.)

41. Les deux Parties sont revenues sur ce point dans leurs plaidoiries
respectives des 30 et 31 mai 2011, consacrées à la demande en indication
de mesures conservatoires du 28 avril 2011. Dans ses exposés du
30 mai 2011, la Thaïlande a répliqué que l’Etat demandeur tentait de
transformer en « obligation continue» ce qui était une « obligation immé -

diate et instantanée » découlant du point 2 du dispositif de l’arrêt 30ndu
par la Cour en 1962 dans l’affaire du Temple de Préah Vihéar .

30
CR 2011/14 du 30 mai 2011, p. 25.

46

6 CIJ1023.indb 89 18/06/13 10:38 580 request for interpretffation (sep. op. cançado tffrindade)

42. On the following day (public sitting of 31 May 2011), Cambodia

replied that the obligation at issue was not “immediate and instanta -
neous”, but rather “continuous and permanent”, because it was “the conse-
quence of the fact that a State should not violate the territorial soverffeignty
of another State”. To regard that obligation as “instantaneous”ff — Cam -

bodia concluded, convincingly in my view — would allow the respondentff
State “to withdraw its troops the day after the Judgment and move theffm
back in again a week later” 31. In the domain of inter-State relations, when

the fundamental principle of the prohibition of use or threat of force
(cf. infra) is at stake, the corresponding obligation is, in my understanding,
a continuing or permanent one, for the States concerned.

IX. From Time to Space :
Territory and People Togffether

43. It is time now to move from my considerations on time and law to
those pertaining to space and law. I can hardly develop my considerationffs

on space without relating it to the human element of statehood : the
population. In their recent submissions before the Court in the case of ff
the Temple of Preah Vihear, the contending Parties themselves, Cambodia
and Thailand, much to their credit, were attentive to territory together

with people. In the public sitting of 30 May 2011, Cambodia expressed its
concern with the fatal victims of, and those injured in, the armed hostiffli -
ties of 15 July 2008, 4 to 7 February 2011 , as well as with the “50000 per-

sonnes de la population civile de la région”, encompassing the “ffzone” of
the Temple of Preah Vihear, as well as the zones of the Temples of Ta
Moan and Ta Krabei, as a result of the hostilities of 22 April 2011 33. For
its part, Thailand, in its pleadings on the same day, conceded that “ff[d]es
34
dizaines de milliers d’habitants de la région frontière ont éffté déplacés” .

44. In its final submissions to the Court, in the public sitting of

31 May 2011, Cambodia stated :

“The rights which Cambodia is seeking to protect do indeed relate
to the area of the Temple and to the cultural and spiritual heritage
which the Temple represents, as well as the prejudice which Cambodia
might suffer through the infringements of its sovereignty and territo -
35
rial integrity and the threat to the lives of its population.”

45. Thailand, for its part, in its final submissions of the same day,
argued that “events at the Ta Kwai and Ta Muen Temples are of no

31 CR 2011/15, of 31 May 2011, p. 18.
32 CR 2011/13, of 30 May 2011, p. 20, and cf. pp. 44-45.
33 Cf. ibid., p. 22, and cf. p. 46.
34
35 CR 2011/14, of 30 May 2011, p. 16, and cf. p. 51.
CR 2011/15, of 31 May 2011, p. 15 [translation].

47

6 CIJ1023.indb 90 18/06/13 10:38 demande en interprétffation (op. ind. cançado fftrindade) 580

42. Le lendemain (à l’audience publique du 31 mai 2011), le Cambodge

a rétorqué que l’obligation en question était « continue et permanente » et
non «immédiate et instantanée», car elle «découl[ait] du fait qu’un Etat ne
doit pas violer la souveraineté territoriale d’un autre Etat». qualifier cette
obligation d’«instantanée» — concluait le Cambodge, de manière convain -

cante selon moi — permettrait à l’Etat défendeur «de retirer ses troupes le
lendemain du prononcé de l’arrêt pour les réinstaller une seffmaine plus
tard » 31. Dans le domaine des relations entre Etats, lorsque le principe fon-

damental de l’interdiction du recours à la menace ou à l’empffloi de la force
(cf. infra) est en jeu, l’obligation correspondante incombant aux Etats
concernés revêt, à mon sens, un caractère continu et permaneffnt.

IX. De la dimension temporffelle à la dimension sffpatial :e
indissociabilité duff territoire et de sa poffpulation

43. Le moment est venu de délaisser mes considérations relatives au
rapport du droit au temps pour analyser le rapport du droit à l’esffpace. Il

m’est difficile d’aborder la question de l’espace sans rattachffer celui-ci à
l’élément humain de la notion d’Etat : la population. Dans leurs récents
exposés en l’affaire, les Parties elles-mêmes, le Cambodge et la Thaïlande,
se sont intéressées au territoire et à la population considéffrés ensemble, et

je m’en félicite. Lors de l’audience publique du 30 mai 2011, le Cambodge
a déploré que les hostilités armées du 15 juillet 2008 et de la période allant
du 4 au 7 février 2011 aient fait des morts et des blessés 32, et il s’est alarmé

du sort des «50 000 personnes de la population civile de la région » — qui
comprend la « zone» du temple de Préah Vihéar, ainsi que celles des
temples de Ta Moan et de Ta Krabei — à la suite des hostilités du
22 avril 2011 33. Pour sa part, la Thaïlande, dans sa plaidoirie du même

jour, a concédé que « [d]es dizaines de milliers d’habitants de la région
frontière [avaient] été déplacés » 34.
44. Concluant ses observations devant la Cour, à l’audience publique

du 31 mai 2011, le Cambodge a indiqué :

«Les droits dont le Cambodge demande la protection se situent
bien dans la zone du temple et concernent bien le patrimoine culturel
et spirituel que représente le temple, ainsi que le préjudice que ffpour -
rait subir le Cambodge à travers les atteintes à sa souverainetéff, son
35
intégrité territoriale et la survie de sa population. »

45. La Thaïlande, elle, en concluant ses exposés le même jour, a faffit
valoir que « les événements intervenus aux temples de Ta Kwai et de

31 CR 2011/15 du 31 mai 2011, p. 18.
32 CR 2011/13 du 30 mai 2011, p. 20 et p. 44-45.
33Voir ibid., p. 22 et p. 46.
34
35 CR 2011/14 du 30 mai 2011, p. 16 et p. 51.
CR 2011/15 du 31 mai 2011, p. 15.

47

6 CIJ1023.indb 91 18/06/13 10:38 581 request for interpretffation (sep. op. cançado tffrindade)

relevance to the present proceedings”, and that there was “no riskff of
aggravation of the dispute due to Thailand’s behaviour”. It added ffthat:

“The picture is that of two neighbouring countries sharing a com -
mon border approximately 800 kilometres long where people engage
in peaceful activities every day throughout the year. This is the fact

between peoples of Thailand and Cambodia — the fact that has not
and will not change.” 36

46. In sum, neither of the contending Parties focused on territory only ;
both of them took duly into account the fate of the local population. This
having been so, at the end of the public sitting of the Court of 31 May 2011,

I deemed it fit to put the following questions to both Parties :

“Dans la demande en indication de mesures conservatoires objet
de la présente procédure, il est notamment indiqué que les inciffdents
qui se sont produits depuis le 22 avril 2011 dans ‘la zone du temple
de Préah Vihéar’ ainsi qu’en d’autres lieux situés le fflong de la frontière

entre les deux Etats parties au différend ont provoqué des ‘morffts,
blessés et évacuations de populations’.
Les Parties peuvent-elles donner à la Cour de plus amples informa -
tions concernant le déplacement de ces populations ? Combien

d’habitants ont été déplacés ? Ceux-ci ont-ils pu retourner en toute
sécurité et volontairement dans leurs foyers ? Où dans la région
sont-ils installés ? Y sont-ils installés depuis longtemps ? quel est
leur mode de vie ? quelle est la densité de population dans la

région ?
Pour préserver l’équilibre linguistique de la Cour, je me permeffts de
poser la même question aux Parties en anglais.

In the present request for the indication of provisional measures by

the Court, it is stated, inter alia, that, as a result of the incidents
occurred since 22 April 2011 in ‘the area of the Temple of Preah
Vihear’, as well as at other places along the boundary between the
two contending States, ‘fatalities, injuries and the displacement of ff

local inhabitants’ were caused.
What further information can be provided by the Parties to the
Court about such displaced local inhabitants? How many inhabitants
were displaced ? Have they safely and voluntarily returned to their

homes? Whereabouts do they live in the region ? Have they been set -
tled there for a long time ? What is their modus vivendi ? What is the
population density of the region ?” 37

36CR 2011/16, of 31 May 2011, pp. 26 and 28-29.
37Ibid., p. 32.

48

6 CIJ1023.indb 92 18/06/13 10:38 demande en interprétffation (op. ind. cançado fftrindade) 581

Ta Muen n’[avaient] aucune pertinence aux fins de la présente instancffe»,
et que «[son] comportement … ne risqu[ait] nullement d’aggraver le diffé-
rend », avant d’ajouter :

«La vérité est que ces deux pays voisins partagent une frontièreff
commune d’environ 800 kilomètres le long de laquelle les habitants
mènent tous les jours de l’année des activités pacifiques. Cff’est là la

réalité de la vie quotidienne entre les peuples de la Thaïlandeff et du
Cambodge, une réalité qui n’a jamais changé et qui ne changeffra
pas. »36

46. En résumé, ni l’une ni l’autre des Parties ne s’est intéffressée qu’au
territoire et à lui seul ; l’une et l’autre ont dûment tenu compte du sort de
la population locale. Ainsi, à l’issue de l’audience publique dffu 31 mai 2011,

il m’a semblé nécessaire de leur poser à toutes deux les questions sui -
vantes :

«Dans la demande en indication de mesures conservatoires objet
de la présente procédure, il est notamment indiqué que les inciffdents
qui se sont produits depuis le 22 avril 2011 dans « la zone du temple
de Préah Vihéar », ainsi qu’en d’autres lieux situés le long de la fron -

tière entre les deux Etats parties au différend, ont provoqué dffes
«morts, blessés et évacuations de populations ».
Les Parties peuvent-elles donner à la Cour de plus amples infor -
mations concernant le déplacement de ces populations ? Combien

d’habitants ont été déplacés ? Ceux-ci ont-ils pu retourner en toute
sécurité et volontairement dans leurs foyers ? Où dans la région
sont-ils installés ? Y sont-ils installés depuis longtemps ? quel est
leur mode de vie ? quelle est la densité de population dans la

région ?
Pour préserver l’équilibre linguistique de la Cour, je me permeffts de
livrer la version anglaise des mêmes questions.

In the present request for the indication of provisional measures

by the Court, it is stated, inter alia, that, as a result of the incidents
occurred since 22 April 2011 in « the area of the Temple of Preah
Vihear», as well as at other places along the boundary between the
two contending States, « fatalities, injuries and the displacement of

local inhabitants» were caused.
What further information can be provided by the Parties to the
Court about such displaced local inhabitants ? How many inhabi -
tants were displaced ? Have they safely and voluntarily returned to

their homes ? Whereabouts do they live in the region ? Have they
been settled there for a long time? What is their modus vivendi ? What
is the population density of the region ?» 37

36CR 2011/16 du 31 mai 2011, p. 26 et 28-29.
37Ibid., p. 32.

48

6 CIJ1023.indb 93 18/06/13 10:38 582 request for interpretffation (sep. op. cançado tffrindade)

1. Cambodia’s first Submissions

47. On 6 June 2011, Cambodia responded to my questions, including
seven annexes to its response . At the beginning of its response, Cambo-
dia explained that it understood my questions as referring to the displace -

ment of the local population from, on the one hand, the area of the
Temple of Preah Vihear, and, on the other hand, from other places along
the border between the two States. Cambodia submitted that, since that

there are no inhabitants living in the Temple itself, Cambodia understooffd
the expression the “area of the Temple”, from my questions, as theff area
indicated on map 5 attached to Cambodia’s request for interpretation
(and projected by Cambodia during the public hearing before the Court).

48. Cambodia further submitted that “the consequences of the inci -
dents in this area have affected the villages or dwellings in the immediffate
proximity” 40of the said area. It is further reiterated that, although the inc-i

dents are interconnected, Cambodia was only requesting the indication of
provisional measures in the area of the Temple itself. Cambodia also
explained that its response to my questions was limited to the most receffnt

events, even though some of the displacements of the local inhabitants
were sometimes “the result of incidents that took place before
22 April 2011” and that the “consequences of such displacements havebeen

prolonged beyond 22 April”. Cambodia submitted that the information
provided in its response covered the period of 22 April to 5 May 2011.
49. Cambodia further submitted that, during that period, more than
50,000 persons were placed in provisional camps and 10,000 inhabitants

were sheltered by their close entourage and friends in secured areas. Caffm -
bodia asserted that, during these “armed aggressions”, the Cambodiffan
Red Cross provided food supply and assisted in the reconstruction of

their dwellings; and that donations from various institutions and private
persons also provided assistance to the population.

50. As to the area of the Temple of Preah Vihear precisely, Cambodia
responded that a total of 9,412 persons were displaced from three villagffes
in the proximity 41of the area of the Temple. Cambodia added that the
inhabitants returned to their homes on 5 May 2011 and that the camps

were closed also on 5 May 2011. Yet, it further contended, the local
inhabitants who worked in the market at close proximity to the Temple
were not able to resume their activities because the market “was destffroyed

38
The seven annexes consist of photos of the Province of Ouddor Meanchey (ffbetween
22 April and 3 May 2011) referred to in Cambodia’s response, as well as a map of the arffea
of the Temple of Preah Vihear.
39Réponse du Royaume du Cambodge à la question posée aux Parties ffpar M. le juge
Cançado Trindade, of 7 June 2011, pp. 1-12.

40In the original French text “les conséquences des incidents dans cette zone ont
touché des village [sic] ou habitations à proximité immédiatffe de cette zone”.
41Cambodia referred in this regard to the map attached to its response (Affnnex 7).

49

6 CIJ1023.indb 94 18/06/13 10:38 demande en interprétffation (op. ind. cançado fftrindade) 582

1. Première communication du Cambodge

47. A sa réponse à mes questions datée du 6 juin 2011 , le Cambodge a
39
joint sept annexes . Pour commencer, il a précisé que, telles qu’il
les comprenait, mes questions visaient le déplacement de la population
locale de, tout d’abord, la zone du temple de Préah Vihéar et, ensuite,
d’autres localités situées le long de la frontière entre les deux Etats. Le Cam -

bodge a estimé que, personne ne vivant à l’intérieur mêmeff du temple,
l’expression «zone du temple», telle qu’employée dans mes questions, devait
désigner la zone indiquée sur la carten o5 annexée à sa demande en interpré -

tation (et projetée par ses conseils lors des audiences publiques deffvant la
Cour).
48. Le Cambodge a en outre soutenu que « les conséquences des
incidents dans cette zone [avaient] touché des villages ou habitationffs à
40
proximité immédiate » . Il a répété là encore que, bien que ces incidents
soient liés les uns aux autres, il demandait à la Cour d’indiquffer des
mesures conservatoires ne visant que la zone même du temple. Le
Cambodge a aussi précisé que sa réponse à mes questions se lffimitait aux

événements les plus récents, même si certains des déplacements de
population avaient parfois « eu pour origine des incidents antérieurs au
22 avril 2011 », les « conséquences de ces déplacements s[’étant] prolon -

gées au-delà du 22 avril ». Il a indiqué que les informations fournies dans
sa réponse couvraient la période allant du 22 avril au 5 mai 2011.
49. Le Cambodge a également indiqué que, au cours de la période
considérée, plus de 50 000 personnes avaient été accueillies dans des cam -

pements provisoires et que 10 000 habitants avaient trouvé refuge chez
des proches ou des amis dans des zones sécurisées. Lors des « agressions
armées» en question, a-t-il signalé, la Croix-Rouge cambodgienne a

fourni des vivres et aidé à reconstruire les habitations des victiffmes ; la
population a également bénéficié d’une aide sous forme deff dons de la part
de diverses institutions et personnes privées.
50. S’agissant précisément de la zone du temple de Préah Vihéar,

le Cambodge a répondu que 9412 personnes en tout avaient été
déplacées de trois villages situés à proximité 41 de cette zone. Elles
auraient regagné leurs foyers le 5 mai 2011 et les campements
auraient été fermés le même jour. Toutefois, a-t-il ajouté, les habitants

qui travaillaient sur le marché situé tout près du temple n’ont pu
reprendre leurs activités car le marché « a été détruit par les com -

38Réponse du Royaume du Cambodge à la question posée aux deux Parffties par M. le
juge Cançado Trindade (déposée le 7 juin 2011), p. 1-12.

39Les sept annexes sont des photos de la province d’Ouddor Meanchey (prises entre

le 22 avril et le 3 mai 2011) auxquelles le Cambodge fait référence dans sa réponse, affinsi
qu’40e carte de la zone du temple de Préah Vihéar.
Sans objet dans la version française.
41
Le Cambodge a renvoyé à cet égard à la carte annexée àff sa réponse (annexe 7).

49

6 CIJ1023.indb 95 18/06/13 10:38 583 request for interpretffation (sep. op. cançado tffrindade)

by the combats” 42. Cambodia contended, moreover, that 80 per cent of
the local population practises agriculture for a living, and that the poffpu -
2
lation density of the region is about 50 persons/km .
51. As to other areas in the region, Cambodia submitted that, in the

Province of Ouddor Meanchey, 52,538 persons, who come from various
villages along the border with Thailand near the Temples of Ta Moan
and Ta Krabei (that is, 150 kilometres west of the area of the Temple of

Preah Vihear), have been displaced. It further submitted that 52 housesff in
this region have been “partially or totally destroyed” 43and that 147 (out
of 194) schools have been closed, making it impossible for 39,873 studeffnts

to go to school. Cambodia added that local inhabitants have lived in disff -
tinct villages established a long time ago 44. In response to my question as
to whether they have returned safely and voluntarily to their homes,

Cambodia contended, moreover, that the local inhabitants have returned
to their homes on 5 May 2011 and that the camps have been closed also
on 5 May 2011. It added that 85 per cent of the displaced population
45
make their living from their agricultural production . Last but not least,
Cambodia submitted that the population density in this region is about
2
28-29 persons/km .

2. Thailand’s first Submissions

52. On 7 June 2011, Thailand submitted its response to my questions,
and included therewith one map illustrating the location of the provinceffs
46
and districts referred to in its response . Thailand began by addressing
the incidents near the Temples of Ta Muen and Ta Kwai (situated about
150 kilometres from the Temple of Preah Vihear 4). In respect of the inci-

dents that took place, from 22 April to 3 May 2011, in the Surin Province
(where Ta Muen and Ta Kwai Temples are situated), it submitted, in res-
ponse to my questions, first that Thai authorities evacuated 45,042 locaffl

inhabitants to “safe shelters” as of 22 April 2011, “[a]s a precautionary

42Cambodia further submitted that the local inhabitants live in the immediffate proxi -

mity of the Temple of Preah Vihear and that they have settled in the vilfflage of Sra Em since
its establishment in 1997, in Svay Chrum village since 1995 and in the vffillage of Samdech
Techo Hun Sen since 2009.
43Cambodia refers in this regard to the pictures attached to its response.ff
44Namely : 2,517 families, totalling 11,124 inhabitants, have been living in the Koffk
Morn village ;3,198 families, totalling 13,408 persons, have been living in the Ampil ffvillage ;
1,103 families, totalling 4,913 persons, have been living in the villageff of Kok;,934s1

families, totalling 9,651 people, have been living in the O’Smach vilfflage ; 1,493 families,
amounting to 6,809 persons, have been living in the Bansay Rak village ;990 families, total-
ling 4,913 persons, have been living in the Kaun Kriel village ;and 354 families, amounting
to 1,720 people, have been living in the Trapeang Prey village.
45And that 52,421 hectares have been contaminated by “unexploded ordnanffces
(UXOs)”, including 8,000 hectares of cultivated land from a total of 37,093 hectares.
46Reply of the Kingdom of Thailand to the question put to both Parties by Judge

Can47do Trindade, of 7 June 2011, pp. 1-4.
Thailand uses the denomination “Temple of Phra Viharn”.

50

6 CIJ1023.indb 96 18/06/13 10:38 demande en interprétffation (op. ind. cançado fftrindade) 583

42
bats » . Le Cambodge a enfin indiqué que 80 % de la population locale
vit de l’agriculture, et que la densité de population de la régffion est d’en -

viron 50 habitants au kilomètre carré.
51. quant aux autres secteurs de la région, le Cambodge a déclaré que,
dans la province d’Ouddor Meanchey, 52 538 personnes, originaires de

différents villages situés le long de la frontière avec la Thaïfflande, près des
temples de Ta Moan et de Ta Krabei (à 150 kilomètres à l’ouest de la zone
du temple de Préah Vihéar), avaient été déplacées; 52 maisons de la région
43
auraient également été « partiellement ou totalement détruites » et
147 écoles (sur 194) fermées, 39 873 élèves se trouvant dans l’incapacité
d’aller étudier. Le Cambodge a ajouté que la population locale ffvivait dans
44
différents villages établis de longue date . En réponse à ma question sur le
point de savoir si les populations concernées avaient pu regagner leuffrs
foyers en toute sécurité et de manière volontaire, le Cambodge a indiqué,

en outre, que celles-ci étaient rentrées chez elles le 5 mai 2011 et que les
campements avaient été fermés le même jour. Il a ajouté qffue 85 % de la
population déplacée vivait de sa production agricole 45. Enfin, et ce n’est

pas le moins important, le Cambodge a déclaré que la densité deff popula -
tion dans cette région était d’environ 28-29 habitants au kilomètre carré.

2. Première communication de la Thaïlande

52. Le 7 juin 2011, la Thaïlande a remis sa réponse à mes questions, y

joignant une carte illustrant l’emplacement des provinces et districtffs men -
tionnés dans ce document 46. Revenant tout d’abord sur les incidents sur -
venus à proximité des temples de Ta Muen et de Ta Kwai (situés à quelque
47
150 kilomètres du temple de Préah Vihéar ) du 22 avril au 3 mai 2011,
dans la province de Surin (où se trouvent les deux temples en questiffon),
elle a commencé par indiquer, en réponse à mes questions, que lffes autori -

tés thaïlandaises avaient fait évacuer 45 042 habitants le 22 avril 2011
pour les conduire «en lieu sûr», «[p]ar mesure de précaution, afin d’éviter

42
Le Cambodge a également déclaré que la population locale vivaitff dans les environs
immédiats du temple de Préah Vihéar et qu’elle s’était installée dans les villages de Sra Em,
de Svay Chrum et de Samdech Techo Hun Sen, établis en 1997, en 1995 et en 2009 respec-
tivement.
43Le Cambodge renvoie à cet égard aux photographies annexées àff sa réponse.
442517 familles (11 124 habitants au total) vivaient dans le village de Kok Morn ;

3198 familles (13 408 personnes au total) à Ampil ; 1103 familles (4913 personnes au
total) à Kok Khpos ; 1934 familles (9651 personnes au total) à O’Smach ; 1493 familles
(6809 personnes) à Bansay Rak ;990 familles (4913 personnes en tout) à Kaun Kriel ;et 354
familles (1720 personnes) à Trapeang Prey.

45Et que 52 421 hectares étaient infestés de « munitions non explosées », dont

80046hectares de terres cultivées, sur un total de 37 093 hectares.
Réponse du Royaume de Thaïlande à la question posée aux deuxff Parties par M. le
juge Cançado Trindade (déposée le 7 juin 2011), p. 1-4.
47La Thaïlande utilise la dénomination « temple de Phra Viharn ».

50

6 CIJ1023.indb 97 18/06/13 10:38 584 request for interpretffation (sep. op. cançado tffrindade)

measure to prevent loss of lives of the Thai population in the area
around Ta Kwai and Ta Muen Temples in Surin Province”. It added that
on 2 May 2011 “all [inhabitants] returned safely and voluntarily to their
homes” and have since then resumed their lives normally.

53. Moreover, Thailand submitted that the evacuated population came
from the Phanom Dong Rak, Prasat, Kabcheung and Sangkha districts
and that the majority of them were born in the region “and their famifflies

have lived there for many generations”. Thailand contended that the
majority of them are farmers; they cultivate rice, rubber trees, sweet pota -
toes, sugar cane and some of them also engage in silk worm breeding
industry. Regarding the population density of the region, Thailand
responds that, in the Phanom Dong Rak district, there are 116 persons/
2
km , with a total population accounting for 37,197 person;sin the district of
Prasat, the population of the subdistrict of Choke Na Sam is 139 personsff/
km 2and of Kok Sa-ard subdistrict is 203 persons/km , making the total
population of the Prasat district 11,423 persons ; in the Kabcheung
2
district, the population density is 105 persons/km , amounting to a total
of 60,421 persons ; and the Sangkha district has a population density of
126 persons/km 2, making the total population 127,592 persons.
54. Concerning the Buriram Province, which is adjacent to the Surin

Province, Thailand asserted that the incidents that took place since
22 April 2011 in the area around Ta Kwai and Ta Muen Temples
prompted the Thai authorities to evacuate the local population in the Baffn
Kruat district of the Buriram Province, which is situated about 10 kilo -
metres from the Ta Kwai and Ta Muen Temples. Thailand submits that,

“[a]s a precautionary measure to prevent loss of lives of the Thai poffpula -
tion in the area near the site of the clashes”, 7,396 local inhabitanffts were
evacuated by Thai authorities to “safe shelters” from 22 April 2011. Thai -
land further submits that on 2 May 2011 “all [inhabitants] returned safely

and voluntarily to their homes” and have since then resumed their livffes
normally.
55. It added that the local inhabitants live in the Ban Kruat district of
the Buriram Province and that the “majority of [them] were born thereff

and their families have lived in the region for many generations” ; the
majority of them “are farmers who cultivate rice, rubber trees, sweetff
potatoes, and sugar cane”. It further contended that the population dffen -
sity of the Ban Kruat district is 136 persons/km 2, the total population
amounting to 73,400 persons. Finally, as to the incident at Phu Makhua,

situated 2.5 kilometres from the Temple of Preah Vihear, Thailand sub -
mitted that no local inhabitants were displaced, as a result of the saidff
incident, which occurred on 26 April 2011.

3. Cambodia’s Second Submissions

56. On 13 June 2011, Cambodia submitted its comments to the
responses provided by Thailand to my questions put to both Parties

51

6 CIJ1023.indb 98 18/06/13 10:38 demande en interprétffation (op. ind. cançado fftrindade) 584

toute perte en vies humaines au sein de la population thaïlandaise viffvant
dans la zone située à proximité des temples de Ta Kwai et de Ta Muen,

dans la province de Surin ». Le 2 mai 2011, a-t-elle ajouté, « tous les habi-
tants concernés étaient retournés en toute sécurité et vofflontairement dans
leurs foyers», et ils auraient depuis lors repris une vie normale.
53. De plus, la Thaïlande a déclaré que les personnes évacuéeffs venaient des
districts de Phanom Dong Rak, Prasat, Kabcheung et Sangkha, qu’elles

étaient en majorité nées dans la région « et [que] leurs familles y viv[ai]ent
depuis des générations». La plupart seraient des fermiers qui cultivent le
riz, l’hévéa, la patate douce et la canne à sucre, certaines de cffes personnes
pratiquant aussi la sériciculture. Au sujet de la densité de populffation de la
région, la Thaïlande a répondu que le district de Phanom Dong Rffak comptait
116 habitants au kilomètre carré, pour une population totale de 37197 per -

sonnes; dans le district de Prasat, les sous-districts de Choke Na Sam et de
KokSa-ard compteraient 139 et203 habitants au kilomètre carré, respective -
ment, la population totale du district étant de 11423 habitants; dans le dis-
trict de Kabcheung, la densité de population serait de 105 habitants au
kilomètre carré, pour une population totale de 60421 âmes; enfin, le district

de Sangkha aurait une densité de population de 126habitants au kilomètre
carré, pour une population totale de 127592 âmes.
54. S’agissant de la province de Buriram, adjacente à celle de Surin, la
Thaïlande a affirmé que les incidents survenus depuis le 22 avril 2011 dans
la zone entourant les temples de Ta Kwai et de Ta Muen avaient poussé

les autorités thaïlandaises à faire évacuer la population duff district de Ban
Kruat, situé à une dizaine de kilomètres des deux temples. Elleff a déclaré
que, « [p]ar mesure de précaution, afin d’éviter toute perte en vies
humaines au sein de la population thaïlandaise vivant dans la zone sifftuée
à proximité du lieu où sont survenus les incidents», 7396 habitants avaient
été conduits « en lieu sûr » par les autorités thaïlandaises à compter du

22 avril 2011. Le 2 mai 2011, a-t-elle ensuite indiqué, « tous les habitants
concernés étaient retournés en toute sécurité et volontaiffrement dans leurs
foyers» et ils auraient depuis lors repris une vie normale.
55. Elle a ajouté que ces habitants vivaient dans le district de Ban
Kruat, dans la province de Buriram, et que « [l]a plupart d’entre eux y

[étaient] nés et leurs familles y viv[ai]ent depuis des généffrations »; en
majorité, ce «sont des fermiers qui cultivent le riz, l’hévéa, la patate doucffe
et la canne à sucre ». La Thaïlande a indiqué de surcroît que, dans le dis -
trict de Ban Kruat, la densité de population était de 136 habitants au
kilomètre carré, pour une population totale de 73 400 habitants. Enfin, au

sujet de l’incident de Phu Makhua, survenu à 2,5 kilomètres du temple de
Préah Vihéar le 26 avril 2011, la Thaïlande a signalé qu’aucun déplace -
ment de population n’en avait résulté.

3. Seconde communication du Cambodge

56. Le Cambodge a présenté ses observations, dans une communica -
tion datée du 13 juin 2011, sur la réponse de la Thaïlande à mes questions

51

6 CIJ1023.indb 99 18/06/13 10:38 585 request for interpretffation (sep. op. cançado tffrindade)

(cf. supra). Cambodia first noted that Thailand provided very little infor -
mation concerning the area of the Temple of Preah Vihear itself and indiff -
cated that no population was displaced there from ; in its view, that

statement showed that, until recent incursions, the situation on the
ground complied with the Court’s 1962 Judgment concerning Cambo -
dia’s control and sovereignty over the area of the Temple. Cambodia
further submitted that Thailand’s response confirmed that there were ff

incidents in the area of the Temple and at other sites, at the time of tffhe
filing of the request for provisional measures, which were needed to preff -
serve the rights at stake and to prevent irreparable harm.

57. Moreover, Cambodia contended that, although calm had been
restored and the populations had returned to their homes since 2 May
2011, yet the calm was fragile and nothing could guarantee that armed
hostilities would not break out again, as they did in July 2008, Octo -

ber 2008, April 2009, February 2011 and April 2011. As to Thailand’s
account of displaced populations in an area 150 kilometres west of the
Temple, Cambodia reiterated its argument that “only the incidents in ffthe
area of the Temple of Preah Vihear should be taken into account”, and

that “the incidents in the area 150 kilometres away from the Temple of
Preah Vihear should not enter into consideration for the measures the
Court might pronounce” 48.

4. Thailand’s Second Submissions

58. On 14 June 2011, Thailand presented its comments to the responses
provided by Cambodia to my questions put to both Parties (cf. supra) 49.
Thailand first submitted that some information provided in Cambodia’sff

response was either of no relevance, or referred to incidents that occurffred
before 22 April 2011, thus falling outside the scope of my questions
(cf. supra). Referring to the villages of Sra Em, Svay Chrum and Samdech
Techo Hun Sen, Thailand submitted that the only incident outside the Ta

Muen and Ta Kwai Temples area occurred after 22 April 2011 at Phu
Makhua, on 26 April 2011. Thailand submits that this incident was a
minor one resulting from a misunderstanding. Thailand contended that
there was no link between the evacuation of the three villages referred ffto

in Cambodia’s response and the incident of 26 April 2011. Thailand thus
submits that the evacuation of these villagers could not be the conse -
quence of incidents that took place from 22 April 2011, as I inquired in
the question I put to the Parties (cf. supra).

48Observations du Royaume du Cambodge sur la réponse fournie par le Royffaume de
Thaïlande à la question posée aux Parties par M. le juge Cançffado Trindade, of 14 June
2011, pp. 1-2 ; Cambodia further dismissed Thailand’s claim of sovereignty over the
Temples of Ta Moan and Ta Krabei and argued that this stemmed from Thailffand’s unila-
teral interpretation regarding the border line in this area.

49Thailand enclosed one attachment to its comments.

52

6 CIJ1023.indb 100 18/06/13 10:38 demande en interprétffation (op. ind. cançado fftrindade) 585

aux deux Parties (cf. supra). Il a tout d’abord noté que celle-ci avait fourni
très peu d’informations sur la zone même du temple de Préah ffVihéar et

qu’elle avait indiqué que personne n’avait été déplacéff de cette zone ; de
l’avis du Cambodge, cette déclaration montre que, jusqu’aux réffcentes
incursions, la situation sur le terrain était conforme à l’arrêfft rendu par la
Cour en 1962 en ce qui concerne son contrôle et sa souveraineté sur la

zone du temple. La réponse de la Thaïlande confirmerait égalemeffnt, selon
lui, que des incidents avaient bien eu lieu dans la zone du temple et aiffl -
leurs, à l’époque du dépôt de la demande en indication deff mesures conse-r
vatoires, mesures que le Cambodge estimait nécessaires pour préserffver ses

droits et prévenir un préjudice irréparable.
57. De plus, le Cambodge a soutenu que, si le calme était revenu et que
les populations étaient rentrées dans leurs foyers depuis le 2 mai 2011,
l’équilibre demeurait toutefois précaire et rien ne garantissaifft que les hos -

tilités armées n’allaient pas reprendre, comme en juillet 2008, en octo -
bre 2008, en avril 2009, en février 2011 et en avril 2011. quant aux
populations qui, d’après la Thaïlande, auraient été déffplacées dans une
zone située 150 kilomètres à l’ouest du temple, le Cambodge a répété qffue,

selon lui, « seuls les incidents survenus dans la région du temple de Préah
Vihéar doivent être pris en compte », et que « les incidents dans la région
à 150 kilomètres du temple de Préah Vihéar ne doivent pas l’êtrffe pour les
mesures que la Cour pourrait prononcer » 48.

4. Seconde communication de la Thaïlande

58. Le 14 juin 2011, la Thaïlande a présenté ses observations sur les
49
réponses du Cambodge à mes questions aux deux Parties (cf. supra) .
Elle a tout d’abord fait valoir que certaines des informations contenffues
dans la réponse du Cambodge soit étaient dépourvues de pertinenffce, soit
concernaient des incidents antérieurs au 22 avril 2011, et n’entraient dès

lors pas dans le champ de mes questions (cf. supra). S’agissant des villages
de Sra Em, Svay Chrum et Samdech Techo Hun Sen, la Thaïlande a
déclaré que le seul incident intervenu en dehors de la zone des temples de
Ta Moan et de Ta Kwai s’était produit à Phu Makhua le 26 avril 2011,

soit après le 22 avril 2011, et encore s’agirait-il d’un incident mineur dû à
un malentendu. La Thaïlande a soutenu que l’évacuation des troiffs vil -
lages mentionnés dans la réponse du Cambodge n’avait aucun rapport
avec l’incident du 26 avril 2011, et ne pouvait donc être la conséquence

des incidents survenus à compter du 22 avril 2011, ce dont je m’étais
enquis en interrogeant les Parties (cf. supra).

48
Observations du Royaume du Cambodge sur la réponse fournie par le Royaume de
Thaïlande à la question posée aux deux Parties par M. le juge Cffançado Trindade (déposées
le 14 juin 2011), p. 1-2; le Cambodge a, de même, rejeté la prétention de la Thaïlande à
exercer sa souveraineté sur les temples de Ta Moan et de Ta Krabei, rffépondant que cette
prétention découlait de l’interprétation unilatérale de lffa Thaïlande quant à la ligne fron -
tière dans cette région.
49 La Thaïlande a joint un document à ses observations.

52

6 CIJ1023.indb 101 18/06/13 10:38 586 request for interpretffation (sep. op. cançado tffrindade)

59. Thailand further argued that Cambodia did not specify when the

evacuation began or the reasons for the evacuation, and that Cambodia
herself admitted that the origin of the displacement could have been theff
incidents that took place before 22 April 2011. Thailand submits that this,

“together with the fact that no incident occurred anywhere within

150 kilometres of the Temple of Phra Viharn since 7 February 2011,
(. . .) leads to the only plausible conclusion that (. . .) the alleged
evacuation of the three villages was in fact undertaken as a result of
50
the incidents that occurred during February 2011” .

In Thailand’s view, this displacement fell outside the scope of the ques -
tions I posed to the Parties. Furthermore, Thailand argued that Cambo -
dia’s response concerning the establishment of the three villages confirmed

its argument — made during the hearings — that villagers were put in the
region only recently to serve political motives outside the scope of theff
current proceedings. As to Cambodia’s statement that some inhabitantsff

could not resume their work in the market, because of the latter’s deffstruc -
tion, Thailand retorted that the market was destroyed as a result of theff
incidents that occurred in April 2009, thus also outside the scope of the
51
questions I put to both Parties .

5. General Assessment

60. The two rounds of submissions and comments, provided by the
Parties in response to my questions (cf. supra), clarify some of the issues
underlying the present case of the Temple of Preah Vihear, lodged with
the Court. Yet, there remain still some points of difference between theff

Parties. Their submissions, at first, differ in respect of the motivatioffn or
reason for the evacuation of local inhabitants. While Cambodia asserts
that some of the evacuation was the consequence of incidents that took

place before 22 April 2011, Thailand claims that local inhabitants were
displaced as “a precautionary measure to prevent loss of lives of theff Thai
population” in the area near the site of the clashes 52. Secondly, while

Cambodia maintains that “only the incidents in the area of the Templeff of

50 Comments of the Kingdom of Thailand on the reply given by the Kingdom offf
Cambodia to the question put to both Parties by Judge Cançado Trindadffe, of 14 June
2011, p. 1, and cf. pp. 1-3.
51
As to the province of Ouddor Meanchey, Thailand argued that Cambodia’ffs refer-
ence to 52,421 hectares of land contaminated by “unexploded ordnancesff” (UXOs) was
irrelevant to both the question and the present proceedings, since, accoffrding to its under-
standing, any UXOs contaminated area found in Cambodia is “the resultff of past conflicts
in Cambodia that lasted until 1998” ;ibid., p. 2. Last but not least, Thailand questioned the
credibility of the photographs submitted by Cambodia, since no informatiffon was provided
as to the exact dates and locations where they were taken ; ibid.

52 Reply of the Kingdom of Thailand to the question put to both Parties by Judge
Cançado Trindade, of 7 June 2011, p. 2.

53

6 CIJ1023.indb 102 18/06/13 10:38 demande en interprétffation (op. ind. cançado fftrindade) 586

59. La Thaïlande a aussi fait valoir que le Cambodge n’avait pas pré -

cisé quand exactement l’évacuation avait débuté, ni les cffauses de celle-ci,
et qu’il avait lui-même admis que ce déplacement pouvait trouver son
origine dans les incidents antérieurs au 22 avril 2011. Selon elle,

«[a]jouté au fait que depuis le 7 février 2011 aucun incident n’est sur -

venu, en un quelconque endroit, dans un rayon de 150 kilomètres
autour du temple de Phra Viharn … cela nous conduit à la seule
conclusion plausible, à savoir que … l’évacuation alléguée des trois

villages est en réalité intervenue p50 suite des incidents survenus au
cours du mois de février 2011 » .

De l’avis de la Thaïlande, ce déplacement n’entre pas dans le champ des
questions que j’ai posées aux Parties. La réponse du Cambodge qffuant à l’éta -
blissement des trois villages confirmerait en outre ce que la Thaïlanffde a avancé

lors des audiences, à savoir que les villageois n’auraient étéff installés dans la
région qu’à une date récente pour servir certaines viséesff politiques débordant
le cadre de la présente procédure. quant à la déclaration du Cambodge selon

laquelle certains habitants n’auraient pas pu reprendre leurs activitffés sur le
marché au motif que ce dernier a été détruit, la Thaïlandffe a répliqué que la
destruction du marché remontait aux incidents d’avril 2009, le Cambodge
51
répondant donc là encore à côté de mes questions aux deuxff Parties .

5. Appréciation générale

60. Ces deux tours de communications présentées par les Parties en
réponse à mes questions (cf. supra) ont permis d’éclaircir quelques-unes
des questions qui sont en jeu dans l’affaire portée devant la Courff. Pour -
tant, il subsiste certaines divergences entre les informations fournies ffpar les

Parties. Celles-ci sont divisées, premièrement, sur les motifs ou les raisons
de l’évacuation de la population locale. Tandis que, pour le Camboffdge,
l’évacuation était notamment due à des incidents antérieuffrs au

22 avril 2011, la Thaïlande, elle, prétend que la population locale a étffé
déplacée « [p]ar mesure de précaution, afin d’éviter toute perte en vies
humaines au sein de la population thaïlandaise » dans la zone située près
52
du lieu des affrontements . Deuxièmement, alors que le Cambodge

50 Observations du Royaume de Thaïlande sur la réponse du Royaume du ffCambodge
à la question posée aux deux Parties par M. le juge Cançado Trindade (déposées le
14 juin 2011), p. 1 ;voir aussi p. 1-3.
51
En ce qui concerne la province d’Ouddor Meanchey, la Thaïlande a iffndiqué que la
référence du Cambodge aux 52 421 hectares de terres infestés de « munitions non explo -
sées » n’avait aucun rapport avec la question posée, ni avec la préseffnte procédure, étant
donné que, selon elle, toute munition non explosée pouvant se trouffver au Cambodge
«provien[t] en réalité de conflits passés, dont ce pays a éffté le théâtre jusqu’en 1998 » ;ibid.,
p. 2. Enfin, et ce n’est pas le moins important, la Thaïlande met en dffoute la crédibilité des
photographies présentées par le Cambodge, au motif qu’aucune inffformation n’est fournie
sur les dates et les endroits exacts où celles-ci sont censées avoir été prises ; ibid.
52 Réponse du Royaume de Thaïlande à la question posée aux deuxff Parties par M. le
juge Cançado Trindade (déposée le 7 juin 2011), p. 2.

53

6 CIJ1023.indb 103 18/06/13 10:38 587 request for interpretffation (sep. op. cançado tffrindade)

Preah Vihear should be taken into account” 53 for the indication of provi-

sional measures, in its response Thailand does not focus on incidents inff
the area of the Temple of Preah Vihear, but concentrates rather on dis -
placements that took place in an area situated about 150 kilometres from
54
the Temple of Preah Vihear .
61. Thirdly, as to the displaced persons themselves, Cambodia refers to
9,412 persons displaced in the area of the Temple of Preah Vihear and

52,538 displaced persons in the Province of Ouddor Meanchey; Thailand,
for its part, submits that 45,042 local inhabitants were evacuated in thffe
Surin Province, 7,396 local inhabitants were displaced in the Buriram
Province and no inhabitants were displaced as a result of the incident offn

26 April 2011 at Phu Makhua (situated 2.5 kilometres from the Temple of
Preah Vihear). The Parties responses coincide, however, on the statemenfft
that the displaced population has returned safely and voluntarily to their

homes, even though Cambodia claims that their date of return is
5 May 2011 55, while Thailand claims that they returned on 2 May 2011 . 56
62. In sum and conclusion of the matter at issue, while the responses

provide some clarification and the situation seems to have progressed inff a
positive manner, with regard to the safe and voluntary return of local
inhabitants to their homes, the calm achieved remains fragile, and seemsff

to be provisional. The ceasefire is only verbal. There are no assurancesff
that the armed hostilities will not resume and that the population will ffnot
be displaced yet again. The ceasefire seems to be temporary, and nothingff
indicates that the conflict will not break out again. Accordingly, in ffmy

view, the situation in the present case requires the indication of proviff -
sional measures of protection to prevent or avoid the further aggravation
of the dispute or situation, given its current gravity, urgency, and theff

risks of irreparable harm.

63. May I just observe, in this connection, that it has become almost

commonplace today to evoke provisional measures of protection to pre -
vent or avoid the “aggravation” of the dispute or situation at issffue. Yet,
this sounds almost tautological, given the fact that a dispute or situatffion
which calls for provisional measures of protection is already — per defini ‑

53 Observations du Royaume du Cambodge sur la réponse fournie par le Royffaume de
Thaïlande à la question posée aux Parties par M. le juge Cançffado Trindade, of 14 June
2011, pp. 1-2.
54 Cf. Comments of the Kingdom of Thailand on the reply given by the Kingdom of

Cambodia to the question put to both Parties by Judge Cançado Trindadffe, of 14 June
20155 p. 1.
It is noted, however, that in its comments to Thailand’s responses, iffn a letter dated
13 June 2011, Cambodia claims that “calm was restored (and populations retuffrned) as
early as 2 May 2011” ;Observations du Royaume du Cambodge sur la réponse fournie par
le Royaume de Thaïlande à la question posée aux Parties par M. ffle juge Cançado Trin -
dade, of 14 June 2011, pp. 1-2.

56 Reply of the Kingdom of Thailand to the question put to both Parties by Judge
Cançado Trindade, of 7 June 2011, p. 2.

54

6 CIJ1023.indb 104 18/06/13 10:38 demande en interprétffation (op. ind. cançado fftrindade) 587

soutient que «seuls les incidents dans la région du temple de Préah Vihéar
doivent être pris en compte » 53aux fins de l’indication de mesures conser -
vatoires, la Thaïlande, dans sa réponse, ne s’intéresse pas fftant aux inci -

dents survenus dans la zone du temple de Préah Vihéar qu’aux déffplacements 54
qui ont eu lieu dans une zone située à environ 150 kilomètres de là .
61. Troisièmement, s’agissant des personnes déplacées elles-mêmes, le

Cambodge en recense 9412 dans la zone du temple de Préah Vihéar et
52 538 dans la province d’Ouddor Meanchey ; la Thaïlande, elle, prétend
que 45 042 habitants ont été évacués de la province de Surin et 7396 de la
province de Buriram, et que l’incident qui s’est produit le 26 avril 2011 à

Phu Makhua (à quelque 2,5 kilomètres du temple de Préah Vihéar) n’a
entraîné aucun déplacement de population. Les Parties s’accordent toute -
fois à reconnaître que les personnes déplacées ont pu regagnffer leurs foyers

en toute sécurité et de manière volontaire, encore que le Camboffdge situe
leur retour au 5 mai 2011 55 et la Thaïlande au 2 mai 2011 56.

62. Pour résumer et conclure sur les réponses des Parties, bien qu’ffelles
apportent quelques éclaircissements et que la situation semble avoir ffévo -
lué dans le bon sens, en ce qui concerne la capacité des habitantsff de rega-

gner leurs foyers dans la sécurité et de manière volontaire, leff calme
demeure précaire et semble provisoire. Le cessez-le-feu n’a été convenu
que verbalement, rien ne garantissant que les hostilités armées neff repren -

dront pas et que la population ne sera pas de nouveau déplacée. Leff
cessez-le-feu semble être temporaire, et rien ne promet que le conflit
ne reprendra pas. J’estime donc que, en la présente affaire, des mesuffres

conservatoires s’imposent afin de prévenir ou d’éviter une nouvelle aggra ‑
vation du différend ou de la situation, compte tenu du caractère de gra -
vité, de l’urgence et du risque de préjudice irréparable que cette situation

présente déjà.
63. Je ferai simplement observer, pour conclure sur ce sujet, qu’il est
pour ainsi dire devenu courant de demander des mesures conservatoires
afin de prévenir ou d’éviter l’«aggravation» du différend ou de la situation

en cause. Cela semble cependant quelque peu tautologique, un différenffd ou
une situation nécessitant l’indication de mesures conservatoires rffevêtant

53Observations du Royaume du Cambodge sur la réponse fournie par le Royffaume de
Thaïlande à la question posée aux deux Parties par M. le juge Cffançado Trindade (déposées
le 14 juin 2011), p. 1-2.
54Voir observations du Royaume de Thaïlande sur la réponse du Royaumffe du
Cambodge à la question posée aux deux Parties par M. le juge Cançado Trindade (dépo -
sées le 14 juin 2011), p. 1.
55
Il convient cependant de noter que, dans ses observations sur la réponse de la Thaï -
lande, formulées dans une lettre datée du 13 juin 2011, le Cambodge indique qu’« il y a
bien eu un retour au calme (et un retour des populations) dès la daffte précoce du 2 mai
2011 » ;observations du Royaume du Cambodge sur la réponse fournie par le Royffaume de
Thaïlande à la question posée aux deux Parties par M. le juge Cffançado Trindade (déposées
le 14 juin 2011), p. 1-2.
56Réponse du Royaume de Thaïlande à la question posée aux deuxff Parties par M. le
juge Cançado Trindade (déposée le 7 juin 2011), p. 2.

54

6 CIJ1023.indb 105 18/06/13 10:38 588 request for interpretffation (sep. op. cançado tffrindade)

tionem — endowed with gravity and urgency, given the probability or

imminence of irreparable harm. It would thus be more accurate to evoke
provisional measures of protection to prevent or avoid the “further aggra‑
vation” of the dispute or situation at issue.

X. The Effects of Provisionffal Measures of Protectiffon
in the C as d ’EspèCE

64. International law in a way endeavours to be anticipatory in the
regulation of social facts, so as to avoid disorder and chaos, as well affs

irreparable harm. What is anticipatory is law itself, and not the unwar -
ranted recourse to force. We are here before the raison d’être of provi -
sional measures of protection, to prevent and avoid irreparable harm in
situations of gravity and urgency. They are endowed with a preventive
character, being anticipatory in nature, looking forward in time. They

disclose the preventive dimension of the safeguard of rights. Here, again,
the time factor marks its presence in a notorious way.

65. As I pointed out in my lengthy dissenting opinion (105 paragraphs)
in the case concerning Questions relating to the Obligation to Prosecute or

Extradite (Belgium v. Senegal), Provisional Measures, Order of 28 May
2009, I.C.J. Reports 2009, pp. 165-200, provisional measures of protec -
tion, as evolved in recent years, have enabled contemporary international
tribunals to secure the protection of rights in a preventive way, and to
undertake a continuous monitoring (projected in time) of compliance with

them, on the part of the States concerned. Here, once again, further lesff -
sons can be extracted from this case of the Temple of Preah Vihear, also
in respect of : (a) the protection of people in territory ; (b) the prohibi -
tion of use or threat of force ; (c) the protection of cultural and spiritual
world heritage. Let me turn next to these particular points.

1. The Protection of People in Territory

66. There is epistemologically no impossibility or inadequacy for pro -
visional measures, of the kind of the ones indicated in the present Ordeffr,

not to extend protection also to human life, and to cultural and spirituffal
world heritage (cf. infra). quite on the contrary, the reassuring effects of
the provisional measures indicated in the present Order are that they do
extend protection not only to the territorial zone at issue, but also, bffy

asserting the prohibition of the use or threat of force — pursuant toff a
fundamental principle of international law (cf. infra) —, to the life and
personal integrity of human beings who live or happen to be in that zoneff
or near it, as well as to the Temple of Preah Vihear itself, situated in the
aforementioned zone, and all that the Temple represents.

55

6 CIJ1023.indb 106 18/06/13 10:38 demande en interprétffation (op. ind. cançado fftrindade) 588

déjà, par définition, un caractère de gravité et d’urgffence, dès lors qu’un
préjudice irréparable est probable ou imminent. Il serait donc pluffs exact de

solliciter l’indication de mesures conservatoires en vue de prévenffir ou d’évi -
ter une « nouvelle aggravation » du différend ou de la situation en cause.

X. Les effets des mesuresff conservatoires

dans le cas d’espèce

64. Le droit international a, d’une certaine manière, vocation
anticipatoire lorsqu’il régit des faits de société, pour empêcher le dffésordre et
le chaos, ainsi que tout préjudice irréparable. C’est le droit fflui-même et non
le recours abusif à la force qui est de nature anticipative. D’oùff la raison

d’être des mesures conservatoires : prévenir et éviter un préjudice irrépa-
rable dans des situations présentant un caractère de gravité etff d’urgence.
Pareilles mesures sont préventives, en ce qu’elles sont de nature ffanticipa -
tive, tournées vers l’avenir. Elles illustrent la dimension préffventive de la
sauvegarde des droits. Là encore, l’influence du facteur temps effst mani -

feste.
65. Comme je l’indiquais dans ma longue opinion dissidente (105 para -
graphes) en l’affaire relative à des Questions concernant l’obligation de pou‑r
suivre oud’extrader (Belgique c. Sénégal)m (esures conservatoires, ordonnance
du 28 mai 2009, C.I.J. Recueil 2009, p. 165-200), les mesures conserva -

toires, qui ont évolué ces dernières années, ont permis aux ffjuridictions
internationales modernes de protéger des droits par des moyens préventifs,
et de mettre en place une surveillance continue (en se projetant dans le
temps) afin d’en assurer le respect par les Etats concernés. Là aussi,
d’autres enseignements peuvent être tirés de la présente déffcision de la Cour
en l’affaire du Temple de Préah Vihéar en ce qui concerne: a) la protection

de la population locale ; b) l’interdiction du recours à la menace ou à
l’emploi de la force ; c) la protection du patrimoine culturel et spirituel
mondial — autant d’aspects que je vais maintenant examiner tour à tour.

1. La protection de la population locale

66. Rien, d’un point de vue épistémologique, n’empêche ou ne ffrend
inappropriée l’extension de la protection offerte par des mesures ffconser-
vatoires du type de celles indiquées dans la présente ordonnance à la vie
humaine ainsi qu’au patrimoine culturel et spirituel mondial (cf.infra). Au
contraire, les mesures conservatoires indiquées dans la présente offrdonnance

ont ceci de positif que la protection qu’elles visent s’étend nffon seulement à
la zone territoriale en cause, mais aussi — par l’affirmation de l’interdiction
du recours à la menace ou à l’emploi de la force, conformémeffnt à un prin -
cipe fondamental du droit international (cf. infra) — à la vie et à l’intégrité
physique des êtres humains vivant ou se trouvant dans la zone concernffée,

ou à proximité de celle-ci, aussi bien qu’au temple de Préah Vihéar
lui-même, situé dans ladite zone, et à tout ce que le temple repréffsente.

55

6 CIJ1023.indb 107 18/06/13 10:38 589 request for interpretffation (sep. op. cançado tffrindade)

67. The present Order of provisional measures of protection has taken
due account of the concerns of both contending Parties with securing theff
protection of people in territory. In addition to the answers which bothff

Parties have given to the question I put to them at the end of the publiffc
sitting of the Court of 31 May 2011 (cf. supra), the Parties have made sure
to convey to the Court their concerns on the point at issue throughout tffhe
proceedings of the case. And the Court, in the Order it has just adoptedff,

has taken due account of those concerns.
68. Thus, the Court acknowledged, in the present Order, Cambodia’s
complaints of “serious armed incidents” occurred in the area of thffe Tem -
ple of Preah Vihear since 22 April 2011, that caused “fatalities, injuries

and the evacuation of local inhabitants” (para. 8), as well as Cambodia’s
warning as to the worsening of the situation, with “loss of life and ffhuman
suffering as a result of those armed clashes” (para. 9). Further on, the
Court again acknowledged Cambodia’s complaints of “numerous armed ff

incidents” that took place in the area of the Temple of Preah Vihear ffsince
15 July 2008, that caused “irreparable damage to the Temple itself”, part ff
of the cultural heritage of humankind, as well as “loss of human life,
bodily injuries and the displacement of local people” (para. 48) 57. And,

once again, it took note of Cambodia’s warning as to the worsening of
the situation, with “damage to the Temple of Preah Vihear, as well asff
human suffering and loss of life” (para. 50).

69. The Court, likewise, acknowledged, in the present Order, Thai -
land’s complaints of “numerous armed incidents” occurred in theff area of
the Temple of Preah Vihear which caused “loss of human life, bodily iffnju -

ries, the displacement of local people, and material damage” (para. 51).
Having considered the submissions of both Parties as to the facts, the
Court found that :

“since 15 July 2008, armed clashes have taken place and have contin -
ued to take place in that area, in particular between 4 and 7 Febru -

ary 2011, leading to fatalities, injuries and the displacement of local
inhabitants; (. . .) damage has been caused to the Temple and to the
property associated with it” (para. 53) 5.

70. Yet, the Court’s valuation or assessment of the prima facie evi -
dence (proper to provisional measures of protection) which the Partiesff
brought to its attention was not, in my view, satisfactory : the Court did

not extract all the consequences that it could, and should, from the facffts

57Cambodia further noted that those incidents led, on its initiative, to aff meeting of the
UN Security Council on 14 February 2011 (para. 48).
58The Court further noted that, “on 14 February 2011, the [UN] Security Council
called for a permanent ceasefire to be established between the two Parties and expressed its
support for ASEAN in seeking a solution to the conflict” (para. 53).

56

6 CIJ1023.indb 108 18/06/13 10:38 demande en interprétffation (op. ind. cançado fftrindade) 589

67. La présente ordonnance en indication de mesures conservatoires
répond bien au souci des deux Parties d’assurer la protection de lffa popu-
lation locale. Outre leurs réponses aux questions que je leur avais pffosées

à l’issue de l’audience publique du 31 mai 2011 (cf. supra), les Parties ont
tenu à faire part à la Cour de leurs préoccupations sur ce point tout au
long de la procédure en l’espèce. Et la Cour, dans l’ordonnaffnce qu’elle
vient de rendre, a tenu pleinement compte de ces préoccupations.

68. Ainsi la Cour a-t-elle pris note, dans la présente ordonnance, des
griefs du Cambodge concernant les «graves incidents armés» qui auraient
eu lieu dans la zone du temple de Préah Vihéar depuis le 22 avril 2011, et

qui auraient causé «des pertes en vies humaines, des blessés, ainsi que des
évacuations de populations» (par. 8), et elle a également pris note de sa
mise en garde quant au risque d’aggravation de la situation, ce qui entraî -
nerait «les souffrances et les pertes en vies humaines qui résultent de ces

affrontements» (par. 9). Plus loin dans son ordonnance, la Cour a aussi
pris acte des griefs du Cambodge concernant « de nombreux incidents
armés» qui se seraient produits dans la zone du temple de Préah Vihéffar
depuis le 15 juillet 2008, et qui auraient causé «des dommages irréparables

au temple lui-même», lequel fait partie du patrimoine culturel de l’huma -
nité, de même que « la perte de vies humaines, des blessés ainsi que des
déplacements de populations» (par. 48) 57. Là encore, elle a pris note de la
mise en garde du Cambodge quant au risque d’aggravation de la situatiffon,
dont résulteraient des «dommages causés au temple de Préah Vihéar, ainsi

que [des] souffrances et [des] pertes en vies humaines» (par. 50).
69. La Cour a, de même, pris note dans la présente ordonnance des
griefs de la Thaïlande quant aux « nombreux incidents armés » qui se
seraient produits dans la zone du temple de Préah Vihéar et qui auraient

causé « des pertes en vies humaines, des blessés, des déplacements de
populations, ainsi que des dommages matériels » (par. 51). Ayant pesé les
arguments des deux Parties sur les faits, la Cour a conclu que :

«depuis le 15 juillet 2008, des affrontements armés ont eu lieu et se
sont poursuivis dans cette zone, notamment entre le 4 et le 7 février

2011, causant des pertes en vies humaines, des blessés et des déplffa-
cements de populations ; … des dommages ont été causés au temple
et aux biens qui s’y rattachent » (par. 53) 58.

70. Néanmoins, il me semble que la Cour n’a pas convenablement évalffué
ou apprécié les éléments de preuve prima facie (propres aux mesures conser -
vatoires) soumis par les Parties : elle n’a pas tiré toutes les conséquences

qu’elle pouvait — et même devait — déduire des faits intéressant la protec ‑

57Le Cambodge a également noté que ces incidents avaient fait l’offbjet, à sa demande, d’une
séance du Conseil de sécurité de l’Organisation des Nations Unies le 14 février 2011 (par. 48).
58La Cour a ajouté que, «le 14 février 2011, le Conseil de sécurité [des Nations Unies] a
demandé qu’un cessez-le-feu permanent soit conclu entre les deux Parties et a apporté son
soutien à l’ANASE pour la recherche d’une solution au conflitff » (par. 53).

56

6 CIJ1023.indb 109 18/06/13 10:38 590 request for interpretffation (sep. op. cançado tffrindade)

pertaining to the protection of people in territory. The Court’s main atten-
tion was focused on territory itself (one of the component elements of

statehood), and not so much of the people, which, in my perception, is the
most precious constituent element of statehood. I shall turn again to thffis
point later on (cf. items XI-XII, infra) in the present separate opinion.

2. The Prohibition of Use or Threat of force

71. On a distinct line of considerations, the Court, in its present Order,
indicated provisional measures to the effect that :

“Both Parties shall immediately withdraw their military personnel

currently present in the provisional demilitarized zone, as defined
in paragraph 62 of the present Order, and refrain from any military
presence within that zone and from any armed activity directed at
that zone ;

Thailand shall not obstruct Cambodia’s free access to the Temple
of Preah Vihear or Cambodia’s provision of fresh supplies to its
non-military personnel in the Temple ;

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ff . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Both Parties shall refrain from any action which might aggravate
or extend the dispute before the Court or make it more difficult to
59
resolve.”

72. Underlying the Court’s decision — informing and conforming it —
is the fundamental principle of the prohibition of the use or threat of ff
force. In fact, in the corresponding reasoning of the Court in the preseffnt
Order, it is clearly stated that :

“the Charter of the United Nations imposes an obligation on all

Member States of the United Nations to refrain in their international
relations from the threat or use of force against the territorial integrffity
or political independence of any State, or in any other manner incon -
sistent with the purposes of the United Nations; (. . .) United Nations

Member States are also obliged to settle their international disputes
by peaceful means in such a manner that international peace and
security, and justice, are not endangered ; and (. . .) both Parties are
obliged, by the Charter and general international law, to respect these ff
60
fundamental principles of international law” (para. 66).

59 Resolutory points B (1), (2) and (4) of the dispositif.
60 Or, in the other official language of the Court,
“la Charte des Nations Unies fait obligation à tous les Etats Membffres de l’O-ganisa

tion des Nations Unies de s’abstenir dans leurs relations internationffales de recourir
à la menace ou à l’emploi de la force, soit contre l’intéffgrité territoriale ou l’indépen
dance politique de tout Etat, soit de toute autre manière incompatible avec les buts
des Nations Unies ;(. . .) les Etats membres de l’Organisation sont également tenus de
régler leurs différends internationaux par des moyens pacifiques, ffde telle manière que

57

6 CIJ1023.indb 110 18/06/13 10:38 demande en interprétffation (op. ind. cançado fftrindade) 590

tion de la population du territoire concerné. En effet, la Cour s’est surtout
attachée au territoire lui-même (qui est l’un des éléments constitutifs de la

notion d’Etat) plutôt qu’à la population, qui, à mon sens, en est l’élément
constitutif le plus précieux. J’y reviendrai plus loin (cf. points XI-XII infra).

2. L’interdiction du recours à la menace ou à l’emploi de la fo▯rce

71. Dans un autre registre, la Cour, dans la présente ordonnance, a
indiqué des mesures conservatoires en ce sens :

«Les deux Parties doivent, immédiatement, retirer leur personnel

militaire actuellement présent dans la zone démilitarisée proviffsoire,
telle que définie au paragraphe 62 de la présente ordonnance, et
s’abstenir de toute présence militaire dans cette zone et de touteff acti -
vité armée dirigée à l’encontre de celle-ci ;

La Thaïlande ne doit pas faire obstacle au libre accès du Cam -
bodge au temple de Préah Vihéar ni à la possibilité pour celui-ci d’y
ravitailler son personnel non militaire ;

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ff . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Les deux Parties doivent s’abstenir de tout acte qui risquerait d’ffag -
graver ou d’étendre le différend dont la Cour est saisie ou d’ffen rendre
59
la solution plus difficile. »

72. Le principe qui sous-tend la décision de la Cour — qui l’a inspirée
et lui a donné corps — est celui, fondamental, de l’interdiction du recours
à la menace ou à l’emploi de la force. Dans le passage pertinent de son
raisonnement, la Cour indique clairement que :

«la Charte des Nations Unies fait obligation à tous les Etats Membres

de l’Organisation des Nations Unies de s’abstenir dans leurs relations
internationales de recourir à la menace ou à l’emploi de la forffce, soit
contre l’intégrité territoriale ou l’indépendance politiqffue de tout Etat,
soit de toute autre manière incompatible avec les buts des Nations

Unies; … les Etats Membres de l’Organisation sont également tenus
de régler leurs différends internationaux par des moyens pacifiqueffs,
de telle manière que la paix et la sécurité internationales ainffsi que la
justice ne soient pas mises en danger ; et … les deux Parties sont

tenues, en vertu de la Charte et du droit international général, dffe res -
pecter ces principes fondamentaux du droit international» 60 (par. 66).

59 Points B 1), 2) et 4) du dispositif.
60 Soit, dans l’autre langue officielle de la Cour,
«the Charter of the United Nations imposes an obligation on all Member Stffates of

the United Nations to refrain in their international relations from the ffthreat or use
of force against the territorial integrity or political independence of ffany State, or in
any other manner inconsistent with the purposes of the United Nations ; … United
Nations Member States are also obliged to settle their international disputes by
peaceful means in such a manner that international peace and security, affnd justice,

57

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73. Due attention is rightly given by the Court to compliance with the
fundamental principles of international law, as enshrined into the UN

Charter (Art. 2) and reckoned in general international law, in particular
that of the prohibition of use or threat of force (Art. 2 (4)), in addition to
that of the peaceful settlement of disputes (Art. 2 (3)). This has in fact
been a concern of the Court in recent years. Three relevant precedents

can be here recalled in this connection, namely, the case of the frontier
Dispute (Burkina faso/Republic of Mali) (1986), the case of the Land and
Maritime Boundary (Cameroon v. Nigeria) (1996), and the case of Armed
Activities on the Territory of the Congo (Democratic Republic of the Congo

v. Uganda) (2000).
74. In those previous three cases, the Court, in indicating provisional
measures of protection, most significantly went beyond the inter‑State
dimension, in expressing its concern also for the human persons (les per ‑

sonnes humaines) in situations of risk, or vulnerability and adversity.
Thus, in its Order of 10 January 1986 in the frontier Dispute (Burkina
faso/Republic of Mali) case, the Chamber of the Court asserted the
power, “independently of the requests submitted by the Parties”, tffo indi -

cate provisional measures “with a view to preventing the aggravation ffor
extension of the dispute whenever it considers that circumstances so
require” (I.C.J. Reports 1986, p. 9, para. 18) 61. It can exercise such power,
it added, even more so in case of “a resort to force which is irreconffcilable

with the principle of the peaceful settlement of international disputes”ff,
when it can adopt such provisional measures “as may conduce to the duffe
administration of justice” (ibid., p. 9, para. 19). It decided to indicate

those measures, comprising the withdrawal by the Parties of their armed ff
forces, as it was of the view that the facts at issue “expose the perffsons and
property in the disputed area, as well as the interests of both States wffithin
that area, to serious risk of irreparable damage” (ibid., p. 10, para. 21).

75. One decade later, in its Order of 15 March 1996 in the case of the
Land and Maritime Boundary between Cameroon and Nigeria (Cameroon
v. Nigeria), the Court pondered that :

“the rights at issue in these proceedings are sovereign rights which ffthe
Parties claim over territory, and (. . .) these rights also concern per -

sons; (. . .) independently of the requests for the indication of provi -
sional measures submitted by the Parties to preserve specific rights,

la paix et la sécurité internationales ainsi que la justice ne soiffent pas mises en danger ;
et (. . .) les deux Parties sont tenues, en vertu de la Charte et du droit inteffrnational
général, de respecter ces principes fondamentaux du droit internatffional”.
61
In a notorious precedent, that of the Court’s Order of 10 May 1984, in the case of
Military and Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua (Nicaragu▯a v. United States
of America), the Court determined that the circumstances of the case required it toff indi
cate provisional measures, as provided by Article 41 of its Statute, without prejudging the
question of its jurisdiction as to the merits (I.C.J. Reports 1984, p. 186, paras. 39-40).

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73. La Cour accorde toute l’attention voulue au respect des principes
fondamentaux du droit international, consacrés par la Charte des
Nations Unies (art. 2) et repris en droit international général, en particu -

lier le principe de l’interdiction du recours à la menace ou à ffl’emploi de la
force (paragraphe 4 de l’article 2), ainsi que le principe du règlement paci -
fique des différends (paragraphe 3 de l’article 2). En fait, ce souci est le sien
depuis quelques années déjà. Trois précédents peuvent êfftre cités ici à cet

égard: les affaires du Différend frontalier (Burkina faso/République du
Mali) (1986), de la frontière terrestre et maritime entre le Cameroun et le
Nigéria (Cameroun c. Nigéria) (1996) et des Activités armées sur le terri ‑
toire du Congo (République démocratique du Congo c. Ouganda) (2000).

74. Dans ces trois affaires, la Cour, lorsqu’elle a indiqué des mesureffs
conservatoires, est — démarche très importante — allée au‑delà de la
dimension interétatique, en s’inquiétant aussi du sort des personnes qui se
trouvaient en danger ou en situation de vulnérabilité ou de détffresse.

Ainsi, dans son ordonnance du 10 janvier 1986 en l’affaire du Différend
frontalier, la Chambre de la Cour a affirmé son pouvoir, « indépendam -
ment des demandes présentées par les Parties », d’indiquer des mesures
conservatoires « en vue d’empêcher l’aggravation ou l’extension du diffé -

rend quand elle 61time que les circonstances l’exigent» (C.I.J. Recueil 1986,
p. 9, par. 18) . Ce pouvoir — a-t-elle ajouté —, elle est d’autant plus
fondée à l’exercer face à « un recours à la force inconciliable avec le prin -
cipe du règlement pacifique des différends internationaux », lorsqu’elle
peut indiquer des mesures conservatoires « contribuant à assurer la bonne

administration de la justice » (ibid., p. 9, par. 19). Elle a décidé d’indiquer
de telles mesures, prescrivant notamment aux Parties de retirer leurs
forces armées, car elle considérait que les faits en cause « expos[ait]ent les
personnes et les biens se trouvant dans la zone litigieuse, ainsi que leffs

intérêts des deux Etats dans cette zone, à un risque sérieuxff de préjudice
irréparable » (ibid., p. 10, par. 21).
75. Dix ans plus tard, dans son ordonnance du 15 mars 1996 en l’af -
faire de la frontière terrestre et maritime entre le Cameroun et le Nigéria,

la Cour a estimé que :

«les droits en litige dans la présente instance sont des droits souve -
rains que les Parties prétendent avoir sur des territoires, et … ces
droits concernent aussi des personnes ; … indépendamment des
demandes en indication de mesures conservatoires présentées par leffs

are not endangered ; and … both Parties are obliged, by the Charter and general
international law, to respect these fundamental principles of internatioffnal law ».

61 Dans un célèbre précédent, l’ordonnance du 10 mai 1984 en l’affaire des Acti ‑
vités militaires et paramilitaires au Nicaragua et contre celui‑ci (▯Nicaragua c. Etats‑Unis
d’Amérique), la Cour a conclu que les circonstances de l’affaire lui imposaient ffd’indi
quer des mesures conservatoires, comme il était prévu à l’article 41 de son Statut, sans
préjuger la question de sa compétence pour connaître du fond (C.I.J. Recueil 1984, p. 186,
par. 39-40).

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the Court possesses by virtue of Article 41 of the Statute the power
to indicate provisional measures with a view to preventing the aggra-
vation or extension of the dispute whenever it considers that circum -
stances so require (. . .) ; (. . .) the events that have given rise to the
request, and more especially the killing of persons, have caused

irreparable damage to the rights that the Parties may have over the
Peninsula; (. . .) persons in the disputed area and, as a consequence,
the rights of the Parties within that area are exposed to serious risk offf
further irreparable damage” (I.C.J. Reports 1996 (I), pp. 22-23,
paras. 39 and 41-42).

Accordingly, in the provisional measures it indicated, the Court deter -
mined, inter alia, that the Parties were to refrain from any action by their
armed forces, which might prejudice the rights of each other in respect of
whatever judgment the Court might render in the case, or which might
“aggravate or extend” the dispute before it 62.

76. Almost half a decade later, in its Order of 1 July 2000, in the case
of Armed Activities on the Territory of the Congo (Democratic Republic of
the Congo v. Uganda), the Court, once again, was attentive also to the
fate of persons. It pondered that, in the cas d’espèce, it was “not dis -
puted” that :

“grave and repeated violations of human rights and international

humanitarian law, including massacres and other atrocities, have
been committed on the territory of the Democratic Republic of the
Congo; (. . .) in the circumstances, the Court is of the opinion that
persons, assets and resources present on the territory of the Congo,
particularly in the area of the conflict, remain extremely vulnerable,ff

and that there is a serious risk that the rights at issue in this case (ff. . .)
may suffer irreparable prejudice” (I.C.J. Reports 2000, p. 128,
paras. 42-43).

77. This being so, the Court was of the view that “independently of the
requests” by the Parties for provisional measures, it was endowed, unffder
Article 41 of the Statute, with the power to indicate such measures with a

view to “preventing the aggravation or extension of the dispute” wffhen -
ever it considered that the circumstances so required. In the case opposing
the Democratic Republic of the Congo to Uganda, it was of the opinion
that there existed “a serious risk of events occurring which might agffgra -
vate or extend the dispute or make it more difficult to resolve” (ibid.,

para. 44). Accordingly, in the measures it indicated the Court determined
that the Parties must “prevent and refrain from any action, and in
particular any armed action”, which might “aggravate or extend theff
dispute”, and, furthermore : “Both Parties must, forthwith, take all mea -
sures necessary to ensure full respect within the zone of conflict forff

62
Paragraph 1 of the dispositif.

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Parties à l’effet de sauvegarder des droits déterminés, la Cffour dis -
pose, en vertu de l’article 41 de son Statut, du pouvoir d’indiquer des
mesures conservatoires en vue d’empêcher l’aggravation ou l’ffexten -
sion du différend quand elle estime que les circonstances l’exigenfft … ;
… les événements qui sont à l’origine de la demande, et tout sffpécia -

lement le fait que des personnes aient été tuées dans la presquff’île de
Bakassi, ont porté un préjudice irréparable aux droits que les ffParties
peuvent avoir sur la presqu’île ; … les personnes se trouvant dans la
zone litigieuse, et par voie de conséquence les droits que les Partieffs
peuvent y avoir, sont exposées au risque sérieux d’un nouveau préju -

dice irréparable» (C.I.J. Recueil 1996 (I), p. 22-23, par. 39 et 41-42).

En conséquence, entre autres mesures conservatoires, la Cour a prescrit à
chacune des Parties de veiller à ce que ses forces armées s’absfftiennent de
tout acte risquant de porter atteinte aux droits de l’autre Partie au regard
de tout arrêt qu’elle pourrait rendre en l’affaire, ou risquantff «d’aggraver
ou d’étendre» le différend porté devant elle 62.
er
76. Près de cinq ans plus tard, dans son ordonnance du 1 juillet 2000
en l’affaire des Activités armées sur le territoire du Congo (République
démocratique du Congo c. Ouganda), la Cour s’est, une fois encore, sou -
ciée également du sort de la population. Elle a estimé que, dans le cas
d’espèce, il n’était « pas contesté» que:

«des violations graves et répétées des droits de l’homme et dffu droit

international humanitaire, y compris des massacres et autres atroci -
tés, [avaient] été commises sur le territoire du Congo… [A]uff vu des
circonstances, la Cour [était] d’avis que les personnes, les biens et
les ressources se trouvant sur le territoire du Congo, en particulier
dans la zone de conflit, demeur[ai]ent gravement exposés, et qu’ffil exis-

t[ait] un risque sérieux que les droits en litige dans la présenteff
espèce … subissent un préjudice irréparable » (C.I.J. Recueil 2000,
p. 128, par. 42-43).

77. Cela étant, la Cour a estimé que, «indépendamment des demandes»
en indication de mesures conservatoires présentées par les Partiesff, elle dis -
posait, en vertu de l’article 41 de son Statut, du pouvoir d’indiquer de

telles mesures en vue « d’empêcher l’aggravation ou l’extension du diffé -
rend» quand elle estimait que les circonstances l’exigeaient. Dans l’ffaffaire
opposant la République démocratique du Congo à l’Ouganda, elffle a
considéré qu’il existait « un risque sérieux que surviennent des faits de
nature à aggraver ou étendre le différend ou à en rendre la ffsolution plus

difficile » (ibid., par. 44). Dès lors, entre autres mesures conservatoires, la
Cour a prescrit aux Parties de « prévenir et s’abstenir de tout acte, et en
particulier de toute action armée », qui risquait « d’aggraver ou d’étendre
le différend», avant d’ajouter: «Les deux Parties doivent, immédiatement,
prendre toutes mesures nécessaires pour assurer, dans la zone de conflffit,

62
Point 1 du dispositif.

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6 CIJ1023.indb 115 18/06/13 10:38 593 request for interpretffation (sep. op. cançado tffrindade)

fundamental human rights and for the applicable provisions of humani -
63
tarian law.”
78. It should not pass unnoticed here that, very recently, for less than
in the present case of the Temple of Preah Vihear, opposing Cambodia to
Thailand (wherein successive armed hostilities have occurred), the Couffrt

has indicated provisional measures of protection, in the case concerningff
Certain Activities Carried Out by Nicaragua in the Border Area, opposing
Costa Rica to Nicaragua (Order of 8 March 2011, I.C.J. Reports 2011 (I),

p. 6). In this case, competing claims between the contending Parties, and
Nicaragua’s intention to carry out activities in the border area, werffe
regarded by the Court as sufficient to conform “a real and present rffisk of
incidents liable to cause irremediable harm in the form of bodily injuryff or

death” (ibid., p. 24, para. 75), and for it, accordingly, to order provisional
measures of protection.
79. The fundamental principle of international law of the prohibition

of the use or threat of force has found expression on numerous occasionsff,
before and after its insertion into the UN Charter (Article 2 (4)) at the
1945 San Francisco Conference. After its assertion at the 1907 II Hague

Peace Conference, it became of nearly universal application under the
1928 General Treaty for the Renunciation of War as an Instrument of
National Policy (the Briand-Kellogg Pact) 64; following the UN Charter,
the fundamental principle at issue was restated by the 1970 UN Declara -

tion on Principles of International Law concerning Friendly Relations
and Co-operation among States in Accordance with the Charter of
the United Nations, the 1974 UN Definition of Aggression, and the 1987

UN Declaration on Enhancing the Effectiveness of the Principle of the
Non-Use of Force.

80. The over-all prohibition of the use or threat of force is a corner -
stone of contemporary international law. For its part, the 1997 UNESCO

Declaration on the Responsibilities of the Present Generations towards
the Future Generations stated (Article 9 (2)) that :

“The present generations should spare future generations the
scourge of war. To that end, they should avoid exposing future

63
Paragraphs 1 and 3 of the dispositif. May it be recalled, however, that, inse-s sub
quent Order of 10 July 2002, in the case of the Armed Activities on the Territory of the
Congo, opposing the Democratic Republic of the Congo to Rwanda, the Court didff not
indicate provisional measures, as it found itself without prima facie juffrisdiction to do so
(I.C.J. Reports 2002, p249, para. 89), though it expressed its deep concern with “the
deplorable human tragedy, loss of life, and enormous suffering” in thffe east of the Demo-
cratic Republic of the Congo resulting from “the continued fighting tffhere” (ibid., p. 240,
para. 54).
64Followed, in the American continent, by the 1933 Pact Saavedra Lamas, thffe 1938

Declaration of Principles adopted by the Inter-American Conference of Liffma, and the
1948 OAS Charter.

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le plein respect des droits fondamentaux de l’homme, ainsi que des règles
applicables du droit humanitaire. » 63

78. N’oublions pas que, très récemment, pour des enjeux moindres quffe
dans la présente affaire du Temple de Préah Vihéar, qui oppose le Cam -
bodge et la Thaïlande (et qui met en cause une série d’hostilifftés armées), la

Cour a indiqué des mesures conservatoires dans l’affaire concernanfft Cer ‑
taines activités menées par le Nicaragua dans la région frontali▯ ère, qui oppo -
sait le Costa Rica au Nicaragua (ordonnance du 8 mars 2011, C.I.J. Recueil
2011 (I), p. 6). Dans cette affaire-là, la Cour a considéré que les prétentions

concurrentes des Parties, et l’intention du Nicaragua de se livrer àff des acti -
vités dans la zone frontalière, suffisaient à constituer « un risque réel et
actuel d’incidents susceptibles d’entraîner une atteinte irréffmédiable à l’inté -
grité physique de personnes ou à leur vie » (ibid., p. 24, par. 75), et pour

que, en conséquence, elle indique des mesures conservatoires.
79. Le principe fondamental, en droit international, de l’interdiction
du recours à la menace ou à l’emploi de la force a été foffrmulé à maintes

occasions, tant avant qu’après son inscription dans la Charte des ff
Nations Unies (paragraphe 4 de l’article 2) lors de la Conférence de
San Francisco de 1945. Mis en avant lors de la seconde conférence de la
paix de La Haye, en 1907, il devint d’application quasi universelle en

vertu du traité général de renonciation à la guerre comme instrument de
politique nationale (dit le « pacte Briand-Kellogg », de 1928) 64; une fois
inscrit dans la Charte des Nations Unies, ce principe fondamental a été
réaffirmé dans la déclaration des Nations Unies de 1970 relative aux prin -

cipes du droit international touchant les relations amicales et la coopéra -
tion entre les Etats conformément à la Charte des Nations Unies, dans la
définition de l’agression adoptée par les Nations Unies en 1974, et dans la

déclaration des Nations Unies de 1987 sur le renforcement de l’efficacité
du principe de l’abstention du recours à la menace ou à l’emffploi de la
force dans les relations internationales.
80. L’interdiction absolue du recours à la menace ou à l’emploi ffde la

force est une pierre angulaire du droit international moderne. La décfflara -
tion de l’UNESCO de 1997 sur les responsabilités des générations présentes
envers les générations futures énonce (paragraphe 2 de l’article 9) que

«[l]es générations présentes devraient préserver les généffrations futu-
res du fléau de la guerre. A cette fin, elles devraient éviter d’ffex poser

63 Points 1 et 3 du dispositif ; qu’il me soit permis de rappeler cependant que, dans son
ordonnance ultérieure du 10 juillet 2002 en l’affaire des Activités armées sur le territoire
du Congo, qui opposait la République démocratique du Congo au Rwanda, la Cffour n’a
pas indiqué de mesures conservatoires car elle s’est estimée inffcompétente prima facie pour
ce faire (C.I.J. Recueil 2002, p. 249, par. 89), non sans se déclarer toutefois grandement
préoccupée par «le drame humain, les pertes en vies humaines et les terribles souffranceffs »

intervenus dans l’est de la République démocratique du Congo «à la suite des combats qui
s’y64oursuivent » (ibid., p. 240, par. 54).
Suivi, sur le continent américain, du pacte Saavedra Lamas de 1933, dffe la déclaration
de principes adoptée en 1938 par la conférence interaméricaine de Lima et de la Charte de ff
l’Organisation des Etats américains de 1948.

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6 CIJ1023.indb 117 18/06/13 10:38 594 request for interpretffation (sep. op. cançado tffrindade)

generations to the harmful consequences of armed conflicts as well as ff

all other forms of aggression and use of weapons, contrary to human-
itarian principles.”

The corresponding obligation, not to resort to force, or to the threat of it,
is not a simple immediate or “instantaneous” obligation (whateverff that
may mean); it is, by definition, a continuing or permanent obligation.

81. Decisions ensuing from, and grounded on, the fundamental prin -

ciple of the prohibition of the use or threat of force, such as the pro-
visional measures of protection aforementioned, can nowadays be
approached, in my perception, from a humanist perspective, proper of theff
contemporary jus gentium: this is the case of the provisional measures of

protection just adopted by the Court in the present case of the Temple of
Preah Vihear, which took into account people and territory together,
comme il faut, in the circumstances of the case, keeping in mind the fun -
damental principles of international law of the prohibition of the use offr
the threat of force and of peaceful settlement of disputes. The Court

should, from now onwards, in such circumstances, embrace expressly and
more resolutely this approach (cf. items XI-XII, infra).

3. Space and Time, and the Protection of Cultural
and Spiritual World Heritage

82. My considerations on space and law seem likewise permeated by
time. This is also what ensues from an examination of the submissions by
the contending Parties with regard to the inscription of the Temple of

Preah Vihear in UNESCO’s World Cultural Heritage List on 7 July 2008.
In its request for interpretation (of 28 April 2011) of the Court’s Judg -
ment of 15 June 1962 in the case of the Temple of Preah Vihear, Cambo -
dia stated :

“It was therefore only from 2007, when steps were taken to
have the Temple of Preah Vihear declared a World Heritage site [by
UNESCO], that the issue of a territorial claim by Thailand emerged

(. . .).” (Application instituting proceedings, p. 15, para. 15.)

83. And Cambodia referred, in this connection, to the recent hostilities
which ensued there from :
“the recent period has been marked by a serious deterioration in rela-

tions between them, the origin of which may be found in the opening
of discussions within UNESCO to have the Temple declared a World
Heritage site.
The Temple was included on the List of World Heritage sites by
UNESCO on 7 July 2008, despite strong opposition from Thailand.

As from 15 July 2008, large numbers of Thai soldiers crossed the bor-

61

6 CIJ1023.indb 118 18/06/13 10:38 demande en interprétffation (op. ind. cançado fftrindade) 594

les générations futures aux conséquences dommageables des conflffits
armés ainsi que de toutes autres formes d’agression et d’usage ffdes

armes qui sont contraires aux principes humanitaires. »
L’obligation correspondante de ne pas faire usage de la force, ou menffacer

d’en faire usage, ne constitue pas simplement une obligation immédffiate
ou «instantanée» (quoi qu’on puisse entendre par là) ; il s’agit, par défini-
tion, d’une obligation continue et permanente.
81. Les décisions qui découlent du principe fondamental de l’interdffiction
du recours à la menace ou à l’emploi de la force et qui sont foffndées

sur lui, telles que les ordonnances en indication de mesures conser-
vatoires susmentionnées, peuvent aujourd’hui être envisagées, à moffn
sens, dans une perspective humaniste, propre au jus gentium moderne : tel
est le cas de l’ordonnance tout juste rendue en l’affaire du Temple de
Préah Vihéar, dans laquelle la Cour a tenu compte de l’indissociabilité du

territoire et de sa population, «comme il faut », vu les circonstances de
l’affaire, en gardant à l’esprit les principes fondamentaux du ffdroit inter -
national que sont l’interdiction du recours à la menace ou à l’ffemploi de la
force et le règlement pacifique des différends. La Cour devrait doffréna -
vant, en pareilles circonstances, adopter expressément et suivre plusff réso-

lument cette démarche (cf. points XI-XII infra).

3. L’espace et le temps, et la protection du patrimoine
culturel et spirituel mondial

82. Mes considérations sur l’espace et le droit semblent elles aussi pffor -

ter l’empreinte du temps. La même constatation se dégage de l’ffexamen
des arguments avancés par les Parties au sujet de l’inscription paffr
l’UNESCO, le 7 juillet 2008, du temple de Préah Vihéar sur la liste du
patrimoine mondial. Dans sa demande en interprétation (du 28avril 2011)
de l’arrêt rendu par la Cour le 15 juin 1962 en l’affaire du Temple de

Préah Vihéar, le Cambodge indiquait :
«Ce n’est donc qu’à partir de 2007, lors des démarches pour l’ins -

cription du temple de Préah Vihéar sur la liste du Patrimoine mon -
dial [de l’UNESCO], que la question d’une revendication territoriale
de la part de la Thaïlande émerge.» (Requête introductive d’instance,
p. 14, par. 15.)

83. Le Cambodge se référait, à cet égard, aux récentes hostilffités qui
s’étaient ensuivies :

«la période récente a été marquée par une profonde détéffrioration des
relations entre les deux Etats dont on peut situer l’origine lors du ff
début des discussions dans le cadre de l’UNESCO à propos de l’inscrip -
tion du Temple sur la liste du Patrimoine mondial.
Le Temple a été inscrit par l’UNESCO sur la liste des sites du Patri -

moine mondial le 7 juillet 2008 en dépit d’une forte opposition de la
Thaïlande. Dès le 15 juillet 2008, de nombreux soldats thaïlandais

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6 CIJ1023.indb 119 18/06/13 10:38 595 request for interpretffation (sep. op. cançado tffrindade)

der and occupied an area of Cambodian territory near the Temple,
on the site of the Keo Sikha Kiri Svara Pagoda (. . .). This Pagoda
was built by Cambodia in 1998 and had not previously given rise to

any protest from Thailand (. . .).” (Application instituting proceed -
ings, p. 13, paras. 13-14.)

84. Cambodia singled out, in particular, “the serious incidents of
15 July 2008” (ibid., p. 15, para. 16), and added that, “[i]n these various
incidents between 2008 and 2011, architectural features of the Temple
have been damaged, leading to inquiries and reports by the UNESCO

authorities (. . .)” (ibid., p. 29, para. 35). Furthermore, in its request for
provisional measures of 28 April 2011, Cambodia asked the Court to order
the withdrawal of troops and the prohibition of any military activities ffin
“the zone of the Temple of Preah Vihear”, given the urgency and thffe “grav -

ity of the situation” (ibid., pp. 9-11, paras. 7-9). Last but not least, Cambo-
dia stated, in its pleadings of 30 May 2011 before the Court, that “following
the designation of the Temple of Preah Vihear as a UNESCO World
Heritage Site on 7 July 2008, Thailand decided to dispute that designa -

tion by force of arms within a unilaterally defined area close to the Teffm-
ple”; hence the “armed incidents” which followed, on 15 July 2008, that
is, “immediately after the inscription of the Temple in the World Heritage
of UNESCO on 7 July 2008” 65.

85. For its part, Thailand addressed this particular issue in its plead -
ings before the Court, of 30-31 May 2011. Thailand began by admitting
clearly and frankly, in its pleadings of 30 May 2011, that it accepts the
Court’s Judgment of 15 June 1962 in the case of the Temple of Preah

Vihear :
“despite the fact that the Temple is a very important cultural and

historical symbol for its people. This explains why the Court’s deci -
sion provoked consternation and ill feeling in Thailand at all levels
of society, to the extent that for some it became a national trauma,
which is still manifesting itself today in various ways.” 66

86. In its following pleadings of 31 May 2011, turning to the inscrip -

tion of the “Temple of Preah Vihear” on UNESCO’s World Cultural
Heritage List, Thailand deemed it fit to add :

“The Temple requires a buffer zone as a World Heritage site, and
that can only be found in Thai territory. We understand that, and
have always been ready and willing to undertake a joint nomination
with Cambodia. It is Cambodia’s constant refusal of such joint under -

taking that is the root cause of the problems that have arisen over the ff
inscription.” 67

65CR 2011/13, of 30 May 2011, pp. 32, 39-40, para. 6. [Translation.]
66CR 2011/14, of 30 May 2011, p. 3, para. 3. [Translation.]
67CR 2011/16, of 31 May 2011, p. 26, para. 4.

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6 CIJ1023.indb 120 18/06/13 10:38 demande en interprétffation (op. ind. cançado fftrindade) 595

ont franchi la frontière et occupé une zone du territoire cambodgien
près du Temple sur le site de la pagode Keo Sikha Kiri Svara… Cettffe
pagode fut construite par le Cambodge en 1998 et n’avait donné lieu,

jusqu’alors, à aucune protestation thaïlandaise. » (Requête introduc-
tive d’instance, p. 12, par. 13-14.)

84. Le Cambodge citait, en particulier, « les incidents graves du 15 juil-
let 2008 » (ibid., p. 14, par. 16), et ajoutait que, « [l]ors de ces différents
incidents entre 2008 et 2011, des éléments architecturaux du Temple ont
été endommagés, provoquant enquêtes et rapports de la part des autorités

de l’UNESCO » (ibid., p. 28, par. 35). En outre, dans sa demande en indi -
cation de mesures conservatoires du 28 avril 2011, le Cambodge priait la
Cour d’ordonner le retrait des troupes et l’interdiction de toute ffactivité
militaire dans « la zone du temple de Préah Vihéar », étant donné l’ur -

gence et la « gravité de la situation » (ibid., p. 8-10, par. 7-9). Enfin, le
Cambodge, plaidant le 30 mai 2011 devant la Cour, a déclaré que « la
Thaïlande a[vait] décidé, à la suite de l’inscription du temple de
Préah Vihéar au patrimoine mondial de l’UNESCO le 7 juillet 2008, de

contester cette inscription par les armes dans une zone unilatéralement
définie proche du temple»; d’où les «incidents armés» qui s’étaient ensui -
vis, le 15 juillet 2008, « immédiatement après l’inscription du temple au
patrimoine mondial de l’UNESCO le 7 juillet 2008 » 65.

85. Pour sa part, la Thaïlande a traité cette question particulière dans
ses plaidoiries des 30 et 31 mai 2011. Elle a commencé par admettre clai -
rement et sans ambages, dans ses exposés du 30 mai, qu’elle acceptait
l’arrêt rendu par la Cour le 15 juin 1962 dans l’instance initiale

«malgré le fait que le Temple est un symbole historique et culturel trffès

important pour sa population. C’est pour cela que la décision de lffa
Cour a causé en Thaïlande consternation et ressentiment dans touteffs
les couches sociales, au point de devenir, pour certains, un traumatismeff
national qui se manifeste encore aujourd’hui de diverses manières» .ff

86. Dans ses plaidoiries du lendemain, le 31 mai 2011, la Thaïlande, au

sujet de l’inscription du « temple de Préah Vihéar » sur la liste du patri -
moine mondial, a estimé nécessaire d’ajouter :

«Le temple, en tant que site classé au patrimoine mondial, a besoin
d’être entouré d’une zone tampon, laquelle ne peut se trouveffr qu’en
territoire thaïlandais. Nous le comprenons très bien et avons tou -
jours été prêts à présenter une demande conjointe d’inffscription avec

le Cambodge. C’est le refus persistant du Cambodge de présenter
cette demande conjointe qui est à l’origine des problèmes surveffnus à
propos de cette inscription. » 67

65 CR 2011/13 du 30 mai 2011, p. 39-40, par. 6.
66 CR 2011/14 du 30 mai 2011, p. 11, par. 3.
67 CR 2011/16 du 31 mai 2011, p. 26, par. 4.

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6 CIJ1023.indb 121 18/06/13 10:38 596 request for interpretffation (sep. op. cançado tffrindade)

87. To Thailand, thus, the inscription of the Temple of Preah Vihear on the

World Cultural Heritage List of UNESCO, at the 32nd Session of the Worldff
Heritage Committee (quebec City, 2008), became a matter of concern regard -
ing its border with Cambodia in the area in the vicinity of the Temple. ffThe

Temple itself was in the middle of the controversy, which seems to have ffbeen
reignited by the Temple’s inscription in the aforementioned List of UffNESCO,
as a result of Cambodia’s Application. Thailand expressly admitted its resent -

ment, going back to the Court’s Judgment of 15 June 1962 (cf. supra).
88. Here we are faced with the time element again. Resentment flows
with the passing of time ; it may last for a short time, months or years, or
it may prolong for a much longer time, decades, passing on from one

generation to another, or even centuries. History is full of examples ilfflus -
trating such prolongation in time 68. Here, again, simple chronological
time does not help much in assessing each situation, as the “horizontffal”

approach of chronological time does not reveal the depth of the problem ff
of resentment in each historical situation 6. What is important here is to
be attentive to the complexities of the relationship between time and laffw,

in the settlement of international disputes.
89. It has recently been pointed out, rightly and with due sensitivity,
that :

“A travers la protection des biens culturels, ce ne sont donc pas
seulement des monuments et des objets que l’on cherche à protégffer,

c’est la mémoire des peuples, c’est leur conscience collective,ff c’est leur
identité, mais c’est aussi la mémoire, la conscience et l’idffentité de cha -
cun des individus qui les composent. Car en vérité, nous n’exisfftons pas

en dehors de notre famille et du corps social auquel nous appartenons.
Fermez les yeux et imaginez Paris sans Notre-Dame, Athènes sans
le Parthénon, Gizeh sans les Pyramides, Jérusalem sans le Dôme ffdu

Rocher, la Mosquée Al-Aqsa ni le Mur des Lamentations, l’Inde sansff
le Taj Mahal, Pékin sans la Cité interdite, New York sans la statuffe
de la Liberté. Ne serait-ce pas un peu de l’identité de chacun ffde nous
70
qui nous serait arrachée ?”

68
Cf., e.g., Marc Ferro, El Resentimiento en la Historia (Le ressentiment dans l’histoire,
20069, Madrid, Ed. Cátedra, 2009, pp. 9-187.
Cf. ibid., p. 185. Some decades ago, in his endeavours to elaborate a phenomenology
and sociology of resentment, Max Scheler identified factors which had to do with the struc-
ture of the society concerned, or else with the individuals within it, and the prevailing arti -
culation of values in it, at a given historical moment; M. Scheler, L’homme du ressentiment
(1912), Paris, Gallimard, 1933, p. 36, and cf. pp. 48, 55-57, 88-89 and 189-190.
70Or, in the other official language of the Court,

“by protecting cultural property, one is attempting to protect not onffly monuments
and objects, but a people’s memory, its collective consciousness and ffits identity,
and indeed the memory, consciousness and identity of all the individualsff who make
up that people. Ultimately, we do not exist outside of our families and ffthe social
frameworks to which we belong.
Close your eyes and imagine Paris without Notre Dame, Athens without the
Parthenon, Giza without the Pyramids, Jerusalem without the Dome of the ffRock,

63

6 CIJ1023.indb 122 18/06/13 10:38 demande en interprétffation (op. ind. cançado fftrindade) 596

87. Pour la Thaïlande, donc, l’inscription du temple de Préah Vihéffar sur
la liste du patrimoine mondial, lors de la trente-deuxième session du Comité
du patrimoine mondial (à québec en 2008), a fait naître certaines craintes

quant à sa frontière avec le Cambodge dans la zone située dans les environs
du temple. Le temple lui-même était au cœur de la controverse, le feu ayant
été remis aux poudres par son inscription sur ladite liste de l’ffUNESCO, à

la demande du Cambodge. La Thaïlande a expressément admis son ressffen -
timent, qui remonte à l’arrêt de la Cour du 15 juin 1962 (cf. supra).
88. Le facteur temps refait donc surface. Le ressentiment se manifeste
au fil du temps; il peut durer un court moment, des mois ou des années, ou

subsister bien plus longtemps, des dizaines d’années, se transmettffant d’une
génération à l’autre, voire pendant des siècles. L’histoire en est pleine
d’exemples 68. Là encore, considérer le temps dans sa dimension purement

chronologique n’aide pas vraiment à apprécier chaque situation,ff une lec -
ture « horizontale» des choses ne permettant pas de mesurer combien le
ressentiment est enraciné dans une situation historique donnée 6. Ce qui

compte ici, c’est de ne pas perdre de vue les complexités de la refflation entre
le temps et le droit, lorsqu’il s’agit de régler des différeffnds internationaux.
89. Il a récemment été indiqué, à juste titre et avec toute lffa finesse de

rigueur, que :

«A travers la protection des biens culturels, ce ne sont donc pas
seulement des monuments et des objets que l’on cherche à protégffer,
c’est la mémoire des peuples, c’est leur conscience collective,ff c’est leur

identité, mais c’est aussi la mémoire, la conscience et l’idffentité de cha -
cun des individus qui les composent. Car en vérité, nous n’existons pas
en dehors de notre famille et du corps social auquel nous appartenons.

Fermez les yeux et imaginez Paris sans Notre-Dame, Athènes sans
le Parthénon, Gizeh sans les Pyramides, Jérusalem sans le Dôme ffdu
Rocher, la Mosquée Al-Aqsa ni le Mur des Lamentations, l’Inde

sans le Taj Mahal, Pékin sans la Cité interdite, New York sans la
statue de la Liberté. Ne serait-ce pas un peu de l’identité de ffchacun
de nous qui nous serait arrachée ?» 70

68 Voir, par exemple, Marc Ferro, El resentimiento en la historia (Le ressentiment dans
l’histoire, 2007), Madrid, Ed. Cátedra, 2009, p. 9-187.
69Voir ibid., p. 185. Il y a quelques dizaines d’années, Max Scheler, tentant d’élaborer

une phénoménologie et une sociologie du ressentiment, identifia certains facteurs qui
étaient liés à la structure de la société concernée ouff à ses membres, et à la hiérarchie des
valeurs prévalant dans celle-ci, à un moment donné de l’histffoire; M. Scheler, L’homme du
ressentiment (1912), Paris, Gallimard, 1933, p. 36 ;voir aussi p. 48, 55-57, 88-89 et 189-190.
70 Soit, dans l’autre langue officielle de la Cour :

«by protecting cultural property, one is attempting to protect not only mffonuments
and objects, but a people’s memory, its collective consciousness and ffits identity,
and indeed the memory, consciousness and identity of all the individualsff who make
up that people. Ultimately, we do not exist outside of our families and ffthe social
frameworks to which we belong.
Close your eyes and imagine Paris without Notre Dame, Athens without the
Parthenon, Giza without the Pyramids, Jerusalem without the Dome of the ffRock,

63

6 CIJ1023.indb 123 18/06/13 10:38 597 request for interpretffation (sep. op. cançado tffrindade)

Other examples could be referred to the same effect, such as, inter alia,

e.g., Moscow without the Red Square and St. Basil’s Cathedral, Rio de
Janeiro without the Statue of Christ the Redeemer, Samarkand without
the Registan and the Gur Emir, Guatemala without Antigua and Tikal,

Rome without the Coliseum, Peru without Machu-Picchu, and so forth.
The examples abound, in every continent, all over the world.
90. The universal value of the Temple of Preah Vihear was brought before

the attention of the World Heritage Committee (2007-2008), established by
the 1972 UNESCO Convention concerning the Protection of the World Cul -
71
tural and Natural Heritage . The Temple of Preah Vihear was inscribed as
a UNESCO World Heritage Site on 7 July 2008, at the 32nd Session of the
World Heritage Committee, held inquebec City, Canada (2-10 July2008).
72
The nomination of the Temple had been before the World Heritage Com -
mittee also at its previous 31st Session, held in Christchurch, New Zealffand
(23 June to 2 July 2007), when it was evaluated 73.

91. The Temple of Preah Vihear was regarded as an outstanding
masterpiece of Khmer art and architecture, disclosing the highpoint of aff

significant stage in human history (in the first half of the eleventh cffentury),
and the capacity of the Khmer civilization to make use of that site — one
of difficult access — over a long period. Particularly impressive waffs con -

the Al-Aqsa Mosque and the Wailing Wall, India without the Taj Mahal, Peffking
without the Forbidden City, New York without the Statue of Liberty. Woulffd we not
all have lost part of our identities ?”

F. Bugnion, “La genèse de la protection juridique des biens culturels en cas de conflit
armé”, 86 Revue internationale de la Croix‑Rouge (2004), note 854, p. 322.
71 Article 8 (1). The 1972 Convention expresses its concern with the deterioration ffof the
cultural and natural heritage, “to be preserved as part of the world ffheritage of mankind
as a whole” (preamble, paras. 1-2 and 6). To that effect, it calls for the establishment
of “an effective system of collective protection of the cultural and ffnatural heritage of

outstanding universal value, organized on a permanent basis” (preambffle, para. 8). The
1972 Convention asserts the duty of co-operation of the international community as a
whole (Article 6 (1)). Moreover, each State party undertakes not to take any “delibfferate
measures” which “might damage directly or indirectly” the cultuffral and natural heritage
“on the territory of other States parties” (Art.(3)). The UNESCO Convention further
provides for the establishment of the World Heritage List (Art. 11 (2)), and, in addition,

of a list of World Heritage in Danger (as a result of various causes, iffncluding, inter alia,
“the outbreak or the threat of an armed conflict” — Art. 11 (4)). The World Heritage
Committee is also to consider requests for international assistance to property forming
part of cultural or natural heritage (Art. 13 (1)). The 1972 Convention further provides for
the creation of a World Heritage Fund (Art. 15).

72
Made by Cambodia, though Thailand had sought a joint nomination.

73 Cf. UNESCO/World Heritage, documents WHC-07/31.COM/8B-8B.1 (2007) ;
and WHC-07/31.COM/24 (2007). For the UNESCO guidelines for the inscriptionff on
the World Heritage List and the corresponding monitoring of the properties at issuffe,
cf. UNESCO, Operational Guidelines for the Implementation of the World Heritage Conv▯en‑

tion, document WHC.08/01, of January 2008, pp. 30-53, paras. 120-198.

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6 CIJ1023.indb 124 18/06/13 10:38 demande en interprétffation (op. ind. cançado fftrindade) 597

Et ce ne sont là que quelques exemples parmi tant d’autres : imaginez

Moscou sans la place Rouge et la cathédrale Saint-Basile, Rio de Janeffiro
sans la statue du Christ Rédempteur, Samarcande sans le Régistan efft le

Gour Emir, le Guatemala sans Antigua et Tikal, Rome sans le Colisée, ffle
Pérou sans le Machu Picchu, et ainsi de suite. Les exemples abondent, sur
chaque continent.

90. La valeur universelle du temple de Préah Vihéar a été portée à
l’attention du Comité du patrimoine mondial (en 2007-2008), organe éta-
bli par la convention de l’UNESCO de 1972 sur la protection du patri -
71
moine mondial, culturel et naturel . Le temple a été inscrit sur la liste
du patrimoine mondial le 7 juillet 2008, lors de la trente-deuxième session

du Comité du patrimoine mondial, qui s’est tenue à québec (Canada) du
2 au 10 juillet 2008. La Comité avait déjà abordé l’examen de la demande ff
d’inscription du temple 72 à sa trente et unième session, tenue à Christ -
73
church (Nouvelle-Zélande) du 23 juin au 2 juillet 2007 .
91. Le temple de Préah Vihéar a été considéré comme un chefff-d’œuvre

exceptionnel de l’art et de l’architecture khmers, marquant l’apogée d’une
époque importante dans l’histoire (la première moitié du XIff esiècle) et illus-
trant la capacité de la civilisation khmère d’utiliser un site ffdifficile d’accès

sur une longue période. La forte impression que produit ce temple tieffnt, en

the Al-Aqsa Mosque and the Wailing Wall, India without the Taj Mahal, Peffking
without the Forbidden City, New York without the Statue of Liberty. Woulffd we not
all have lost part of our identities ? »

F. Bugnion, « La genèse de la protection juridique des biens culturels en cas de conflit
armé »,Revue internationale de la Croix‑Rouge, vol. 86 (2004), note 854, p. 322.
71 Paragraphe 1 de l’article 8. Dans la convention de 1972, certaines craintes sont expri-

mées quant à la dégradation du patrimoine culturel ou naturel, ffdont il convient d’assurer
«l[a] préservation en tant qu’élément du patrimoine mondial de l’humanité tout entière »
(alinéas 1, 2 et 6 du préambule). A cet effet, il était préconisé d’étaffblir « un système effi
cace de protection collective du patrimoine culturel et naturel de valeuffr universelle excep-
tionnelle organisé d’une façon permanente » (alinéa 8). La convention de 1972 confirme

le devoir de coopération qui incombe à la communauté internatioffnale dans son ensemble
(paragraphe 1 de l’article 6). En outre, chaque Etat partie s’engage à ne prendre « déli-
bérément aucune mesure susceptible d’endommager directement ou ffindirectement » le
patrimoine culturel ou naturel «situé sur le territoire d’autres Etats parties » (paragraphe 3
de l’article 6). La convention de l’UNESCO prévoit également l’établissement de la liste
du patrimoine mondial (paragraphe 2 de l’article 11), ainsi que d’une liste du patrimoine

mondial en péril (en raison de diverses causes, dont le « conflit armé venant ou menaçant
d’éclater » ;paragraphe 4 de l’article 11). Le Comité du patrimoine mondial est aussi chargé
d’examiner les demandes d’assistance internationale qui se rapportffent à des biens faisant
partie du patrimoine culturel ou naturel (paragraphe 1 de l’article 13). Enfin, la convention
de 1972 porte création d’un Fonds du patrimoine mondial (article 15).
72 Présentée par le Cambodge, bien que la Thaïlande eût préffféré une demande d’ins -

cri73ion conjointe.
Voir UNESCO/patrimoine mondial, doc. WHC-07/31.COM/8B-8B.1 (2007) et
WHC-07/31.COM/24 (2007). S’agissant des directives de l’UNESCO aux fins de l’ins -
cription de biens sur la liste du patrimoine mondial et le suivi assuréff en conséquence,
voir UNESCO, Orientations devant guider la mise en œuvre de la convention du patri▯moine
mondial, doc. WHC.08/01 (janvier 2008), p. 30-53, par. 120-198.

64

6 CIJ1023.indb 125 18/06/13 10:38 598 request for interpretffation (sep. op. cançado tffrindade)

sidered the position of the Temple on a high cliff edge site, 547 metres
above the Cambodian Plain, close to the border with Thailand.
92. At the time I write this separate opinion, shortly before the adop -

tion of the present Order of provisional measures of protection of the
Court, there are 34 properties around the world that the World Heritage ff
Committee has decided to include on the List of World Heritage in Dan -
ger, in accordance with Article 11 (4) of the 1972 UNESCO Convention.

The fact that the Temple of Preah Vihear does not appear in this particuff -
lar List in no way can be construed as meaning that it does not have “ffan
outstanding universal value for purposes other than those resulting fromff
inclusion” therein, as warned by Article 12 of the 1972 Convention.

93. This provision appears interrelated with that of Article 4 of the
1972 Convention, on the obligation of each State party to secure the pro -
tection, conservation and transmission to future generations of the cul -
tural heritage situation in its territory. The prohibition of destructioffn of

cultural heritage of an outstanding universal value and74reat relevance fffor
humankind is arguably an obligation erga omnes .

94. The Temple, while being inscribed as a UNESCO World Heritage

Site, was seen as inextricably linked to its landscape — the cultural, the
spiritual and the natural dimensions appearing together. The three sur -
rounding peaks have been taken to reflect the Hindu divine triad of
Vishnu, Shiva and Brahma. The Temple of Preah Vihear was considered
to have an outstanding universal value, testifying to the Khmer genius fffor

domesticating the local territory, and adapting the construction on it tffo
the landscape.
95. UNESCO itself has been attentive to the recent hostilities in the
zone in the vicinity of the Temple of Preah Vihear. Its Special Envoy foffr

Preah Vihear (Mr. K. Matsuura) recently met Thai and Cambodian
authorities, to consider ways to safeguard the World Heritage Site of thffe
Temple of Preah Vihear, during his visits to Bangkok and Phnom Penh
between 27 February and 1 March 2011. The Special Envoy stressed the

need to set up a lasting dialogue between the two States so as to createff the
conditions necessary for the safeguarding of the Temple of Preah Vihear,ff
and for establishing long-term sustainable conservation of the Site 75.

XI. Provisional Measures ffof Protection :
Beyond the Strict Territfforialist Approach

96. As already pointed out, given the circumstances of the present case

of the Temple of Preah Vihear, the gravity of the situation, the probability

74Cf., to this effect, F. Francioni and F. Lenzerini, “The Destruction of the Buddhas
of Bamiyan and International Law”, 14 European Journal of International Law (2003),
pp. 634 and 638, and cf. p. 631.
75UNESCO, “UNESCO Special Envoy for Preah Vihear Meets Thai and Cambodian
Leaders”, Paris, UNESCO Press, 2 March 2011, p. 1.

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6 CIJ1023.indb 126 18/06/13 10:38 demande en interprétffation (op. ind. cançado fftrindade) 598

particulier, à ce qu’il est sis au bord d’un haut plateau surplffombant de
547 mètres la plaine cambodgienne, près de la frontière avec la Thaffïlande.

92. Alors que j’écris ces lignes, peu avant l’adoption par la Cour ffde son
ordonnance en indication de mesures conservatoires, le monde compte
34 sites que le Comité du patrimoine mondial a décidé d’inscrirffe sur la liste
du patrimoine mondial en péril, en application du paragraphe 4 de l’ar -

ticle 11 de la convention de l’UNESCO de 1972. Le fait que le temple de
Préah Vihéar ne figure pas sur cette liste particulière ne signifie en aucun
cas que cet édifice n’a pas « une valeur universelle exceptionnelle à des fins
autres que celles résultant de l’inscription » sur cette liste, pour reprendre

la mise en garde formulée à l’article 12 de la convention de 1972.
93. Cette disposition paraît liée à celle énoncée à l’affrticle 4 de la
convention de 1972, qui fait obligation à chaque Etat partie d’assurer la
protection, la conservation et la transmission aux générations futures du

patrimoine culturel situé sur son territoire. L’interdiction de détruire un
bien faisant partie du patrimoine culturel qui présente une valeur univer -
selle exceptionnelle et une grande importance pour l’humanité peut être
vue comme une obligation erga omnes 74.

94. On a fait observer, à l’époque de son inscription par l’UNESCO sur
la liste du patrimoine mondial, que le temple était consubstantiel àff son
paysage, illustrant la coalescence des dimensions culturelle, spirituellffe et
naturelle. Les trois sommets environnants passent pour une représentafftion

des trois divinités de la triade hindoue, Vishnu, Shiva et Brahma. Leff temple
de Préah Vihéar s’est vu attribuer une valeur universelle excepfftionnelle en
tant qu’il illustre le génie des bâtisseurs khmers, capables deff dompter la

nature et d’ériger des édifices en parfaite harmonie avec le paffysage.
95. L’UNESCO s’est elle-même inquiétée des hostilités récemment sur -
venues dans la zone du temple de Préah Vihéar. Son envoyé spéffcial pour
le temple (M. K. Matsuura) s’est rendu à Bangkok et à Phnom Penh entre
er
le 27 février et le 1 mars 2011, et a rencontré les autorités thaïlandaises
et cambodgiennes afin d’examiner les moyens de préserver ce site cfflassé
au patrimoine mondial. Il a insisté sur la nécessité, pour les ffdeux Etats, de
nouer un dialogue durable afin d’instaurer les conditions nécessaiffres à la
75
sauvegarde du temple de Préah Vihéar et à sa conservation pérenne .

XI. Les mesures conservatffoires, au-delà d’une conceptioffn

strictement axée surff le territoire

96. Comme je l’ai déjà indiqué, vu les circonstances de la préffsente
affaire, la gravité de la situation, le risque ou l’imminence d’ffun préjudice

74
Voir, en ce sens, F. Francioni et F. Lenzerini, « The Destruction of the Buddhas of
Bamiyan and International Law », European Journal of International Law, vol. 14 (2003),
p. 634 et 638 ; voir aussi p. 631.
75 UNESCO, « L’envoyé spécial de l’UNESCO pour Préah Vihéar rencontre des diri -
geants thaïlandais et cambodgiens », Paris, communiqué de presse du 2 mars 2011, p. 1.

65

6 CIJ1023.indb 127 18/06/13 10:38 599 request for interpretffation (sep. op. cançado tffrindade)

or imminence of irreparable harm, and the resulting urgency, the Court
has rightly indicated provisional measures of protection. To that end, ifft
has established a provisional demilitarized zone, in the vicinity of theff
Temple of Preah Vihear. Yet, though the Court has taken the correct
decision in the present Order, it has done so pursuant to a reductionistff

reasoning. In laying the grounds for its decision to order the provisionffal
measures, the Court was attentive essentially to territory, although theff
case lodged with it goes well beyond it.
97. Despite the wealth of information placed before it by the Parties
concerning the fate and the need of protection of people in territory, the

Court repeatedly insisted on respect for “sovereignty” and “territorial
integrity” (Order, paras. 35, 39 and 42), and on protection of “rights to
sovereignty” (ibid., para. 44). Instead of bringing people and territory
together, expressly, for the purpose of protection, as in my view it should,

the Court has preferred to rely on its traditional outlook, utilizing thffe
conceptual framework and the language it is used to, and refusing to
behold, and give concrete expression to, any other factors beyond territffo -
rial integrity and sovereignty. This is certainly to be regretted, as the
Court should be prepared, in our days, to give proper weight to the human

factor.
98. On an earlier occasion, in the case of the Land and Maritime
Boundary between Cameroon and Nigeria (Cameroon v. Nigeria) (Order
of 15 March 1996, I.C.J. Reports 1996 (I)), as I have already pointed
76
out , the Court, faced with the victimization of human beings resulting
from armed conflicts of greater intensity, expressly conceded that theff
rights at issue concerned also persons (I.C.J. Reports 1996 (I), p. 22,
para. 39). I would say that, in those grave circumstances, they concerned,
for the purpose of provisional measures of protection, mainly persons,

human beings, who were killed.
99. In the present Order of provisional measures in the case of the
Temple of Preah Vihear, the traditional and unsatisfactory territorialist
outlook pursued by the Court leads it to state, e.g., that

“the rights which Cambodia claims to hold under the terms of the

1962 Judgment in the area of the Temple might suffer irreparable
prejudice resulting from the military activities in the area and, in parff
ticular, from the loss of life, bodily injuries and damage caused to theff
Temple and the property associated with it” (Order, para. 55).

Not everything can be subsumed under territorial sovereignty. The funda-
mental human right to life is not at all subsumed under State sovereigntffy.

The human right not to be forcefully displaced or evacuated from one’s
home is not to be equated with territorial sovereignty. The Court needs ffto
adjust its conceptual framework and its language to the new needs of

76
Cf. paragraph 73, supra.

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irréparable, et donc l’urgence de la situation, la Cour a eu raison d’indi-
quer des mesures conservatoires. Ainsi, elle a estimé qu’il était nécessaire
de définir une zone démilitarisée provisoire aux alentours du tffemple de
Préah Vihéar. Pourtant, bien qu’elle ait pris la bonne décisffion dans la
présente ordonnance, elle l’a fait selon un raisonnement réductffeur. En

effet, dans l’exposé des motifs de sa décision d’indiquer deffs mesures
conservatoires, la Cour a évoqué des questions essentiellement d’ordre
territorial, alors même que l’affaire qui lui est soumise va bien ffau-delà.
97. Malgré l’abondance des informations présentées par les Partiffes sur le
sort et les besoins de protection de la population du territoire concerné, la

Cour a insisté à plusieurs reprises sur le respect de la « souveraineté» et de
l’«intégrité territoriale» (ordonnance, par. 35, 39 et 42), et sur la protection
des «droits à la souveraineté» (ibid., par. 44). Au lieu de prendre en compte
— expressément — l’indissociabilité du territoire et de sa population aux fins

de la protection à accorder, comme elle aurait dû le faire à moffn sens, la
Cour a préféré s’en tenir à sa vision traditionnelle, au ffcadre conceptuel et au
langage dont elle a l’habitude, et a refusé d’examiner et de prffendre concrète -
ment en compte tout aspect autre que l’intégrité territoriale efft la souvera-i
neté. Ce choix est assurément regrettable, car la Cour devrait aujffourd’hui se

montrer prête à accorder toute l’importance voulue à la dimension humaine.
98. En l’affaire de la frontière terrestre et maritime entre le Cameroun
et le Nigéria (Cameroun c. Nigéria) (ordonnance du 15 mars 1996, C.I.J.
Recueil 1996 (I)), comme je l’ai déjà fait observer 7, la Cour, face au sort

d’êtres humains victimes de conflits armés plus violents, avaffit reconnu
expressément que les droits en jeu concernaient également des personnes
(C.I.J. Recueil 1996 (I), p. 22, par. 39). Je dirais même que, dans ces cir -
constances tragiques, ils concernaient, aux fins des mesures conserva -
toires, surtout les personnes, les êtres humains qui étaient tués.

99. Dans la présente ordonnance en indication de mesures conserva -
toires, la traditionnelle — et fort peu satisfaisante — démarche stricte -
ment axée sur le territoire que la Cour a suivie lui a fait dire, notffamment,
ce qui suit :

«les droits que le Cambodge prétend détenir en vertu de l’arrêfft

de 1962 dans la zone du temple pourraient subir un préjudice irrépa -
rable résultant des activités militaires dans cette zone et, en particu -
lier, des pertes en vies humaines, des atteintes à l’intégritéff physique
des personnes et des dommages infligés au temple ainsi qu’aux biffens
qui s’y rattachent » (ordonnance, par. 55).

Tout ne peut pas être ramené à la souveraineté territoriale.ff Le droit fon -
damental de l’homme à la vie n’est en rien subsumé sous la sffouveraineté

de l’Etat. Le droit de l’homme de ne pas être déplacé ou ffévacué de force
de ses foyers ne se confond nullement avec la souveraineté territoriaffle. La
Cour se doit d’adapter son mode de pensée et son langage aux besoiffns

76
Voir paragraphe 73 supra.

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6 CIJ1023.indb 129 18/06/13 10:38 600 request for interpretffation (sep. op. cançado tffrindade)

protection, when it decides to indicate or order the provisional measureffs
requested from it.

100. If we add, to the aforementioned, the protection of cultural and
spiritual world heritage (cf. supra), for the purposes of provisional mea -
sures, the resulting picture will appear even more complex, and the strict
territorialist approach even more unsatisfactory. The human factor is the

most prominent one here. It shows how multifaceted, in these circum -
stances, the protection provided by provisional measures can be. It goesff
well beyond State territorial sovereignty, bringing territory, people and
human values together.

XII. Final Considerations,ff s ub s pECiE a EtErnitatis

101. When we come to consider cultural and spiritual world heritage,
there is still one remaining aspect, which I deem it fit to dwell upon, ffhow -
ever briefly, in this separate opinion: I refer in particular to the protection
of the spiritual needs of human beings. Such protection is brought to the

fore by the safeguard of cultural and spiritual world heritage, as raiseffd,
inter alia, in the present case of the Temple of Preah Vihear. Here we
come back to timelessness (cf. supra), and we are led, ultimately, to con -
siderations from the perspective of eternity (sub specie aeternitatis).

102. In this respect, it may be recalled that the needs of protection of
people comprise all their needs, starting with the protection of the funffda -

mental right to life in its wide dimension (i.e., the right to live with dig -
nity, e.g., not to keep on being forcefully and suddenly evacuated from ff
one’s home), and also including their spiritual needs. In this connection,
may I further recall that the judgment of 15 June 2005 (merits and repa-

rations) of the IACtHR in the case of the Moiwana Community v. Suri ‑
name, in addressing the massacre of the N’djukas of the Moiwana village
and the drama of the forced displacement of the survivors, duly valued
the relationship of the N’djukas in Moiwana with their traditional laffnd as

being of “vital spiritual, cultural and material importance”, al77ff for the
preservation of the “integrity and identity” of their culture .

103. In my extensive separate opinion appended to that judgment, I
recalled what the surviving members of the Moiwana Community pointed
out before the IACtHR 78, namely, that the massacre at issue perpetrated
in Suriname in 1986, planned by the State, had “destroyed the culturaffl

tradition (. . .) of the Maroon communities in Moiwana” (para. 80). Ever

77
The Court warned that “[l]arger territorial land rights are vested inff the entire people,
according to N’djuka custom ; community members consider such rights to exist in perpe -
tuity and to be unalienable” (para. 86 (6)).
78In the public hearing of 9 September 2004.

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nouveaux de protection lorsqu’elle décide d’indiquer ou de presffcrire des
mesures conservatoires.
100. Si l’on prend en outre en considération, aux fins de l’indicatiffon de

mesures conservatoires, la protection du patrimoine culturel et spiritueffl
mondial (cf. supra), le tableau n’en apparaît que plus complexe et la
conception strictement territoriale moins satisfaisante. Le facteur humain
occupe la première place ici. Cela montre à quel point la protectiffon offerte

par des mesures conservatoires peut, dans ces circonstances, être mulffti-
dimensionnelle, allant bien au-delà de la souveraineté territoriale d’un
Etat pour englober territoire, population et valeurs humaines.

XII. Considérations finalffes, sub spECiE aEtErnitatis

101. S’agissant du patrimoine culturel et spirituel mondial, il reste un

aspect que je me dois d’examiner, fût-ce brièvement, dans la présente
opinion individuelle : la protection répondant aux besoins spirituels des
êtres humains. Cette protection passe au premier plan lorsqu’il s’agit de
sauvegarder le patrimoine culturel et spirituel mondial, comme dans

la présente affaire du Temple de Préah Vihéar. Nous en revenons ici
à la question de l’intemporalité (cf. supra) et nous sommes amenés, en
définitive, à nous replacer dans la perspective de l’éternitffé (sub specie
aeternitatis).
102. Je rappellerai à cet égard que, par « besoins auxquels doit répon -

dre la protection », j’entends tous les besoins de la population, à com -
mencer par celui d’exercer son droit fondamental à la vie au sens fflarge
(c’est-à-dire le droit de vivre dans la dignité, par exemple de ne pas être
sans cesse évacué de force et brusquement de chez soi), jusqu’ffà ses besoins

spirituels. Je rappellerai également ici que, dans son arrêt du 15 juin 2005
(fond et réparation) en l’affaire Communauté de Moiwana c. Suriname,
au sujet du massacre des N’djukas du village de Moiwana et du drame
vécu par les survivants déplacés de force, la Cour interaméricaine des

droits de l’homme, toujours aux fins de préserver «l’intégrité et l’identité»
de la culture de cette communauté, a apprécié à sa juste valffeur la relation
que les N’djukas de Moiwana entretenaient avec leur terre traditionnelle,
qui était pour eux « d’importance vitale sur les plans spirituel, culturel et
77
matériel » .
103. Dans la longue opinion individuelle que j’avais jointe à cet arrêfft,
je rappelais ce que les membres survivants de la communauté de Moiwanffa
avaient fait valoir devant la Cour interaméricaine des droits de l’ffhomme 78,

à savoir que ce massacre perpétré au Suriname en 1986, qui avait été pla -
nifié par l’Etat, avait « réduit à néant la tradition culturelle … des com -

77 La Cour interaméricaine a signalé que, « selon les coutumes des N’djukas, les droits
territoriaux plus étendus sont dévolus à la population dans sonff en; ur les membres
de la communauté, ces droits sont éternels et inaliénables » (par. 86 6)).
78 Lors de l’audience publique du 9 septembre 2004.

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6 CIJ1023.indb 131 18/06/13 10:38 601 request for interpretffation (sep. op. cançado tffrindade)

since this has tormented them, as they were unable to give a proper buriffal
to the mortal remains of their beloved ones (paras. 13-22). Their suffering
projected itself in time, for almost two decades (paras. 24-33). In their
culture, mortality had an inescapable relevance to the living, the surviffvors

(paras. 41-46), who had duties towards their dead (paras. 47-59). Duties
of the kind — I added in the same separate opinion (paras. 60-61) — were
present in the origins of the law of nations itself, as pointed out, in ffthe
seventeenth century, by Hugo Grotius in Chapter XIX of Book II of his
79
classic work De Jure Belli ac Pacis (1625) .

104. In the case of the Moiwana Community, I sustained in my afore -
mentioned separate opinion the configuration, beyond moral damage, of
a true spiritual damage (paras. 71-81), and, beyond the right to a project

of life, I dared to identify what I termed the right to a project of after‑life :

“The present case of the Moiwana Community, in my view, takes
us even further than the emerging right to the project of life. (. . .) I
can visualize, in the griefs of the N’djukas of the Moiwana village, ffa
claim to the right to the project of after‑life, taking into account the
living in the relations with their dead, altogether. International law iffn

general, and the international law of human rights in particular,
cannot remain indifferent to the spiritual manifestations of human
beings (. . .). There is no cogent reason to remain in the world exclu -
sively of the living. In the cas d’espèce, it appears to me that the

N’djukas are certainly well entitled to cherish their project of afteffr-
life, the encounter of each of them with their ancestors, the harmoni -
ous relationship between the living and their dead. Their outlook of
life and after-life embodies fundamental values (. . .).” (Paras. 67-70.)

105. I turned next to what I termed the spiritual damage, which I

sought to elaborate conceptually as :
“an aggravated form of moral damage, which has a direct bearing on

what is most intimate to the human person, namely, her inner self,
her beliefs in human destiny, her relations with their dead. This
spiritual damage would of course not give rise to pecuniary repara -
tions, but rather to other forms of reparation. The idea is launched

herein, for the first time ever, to the best of my knowledge. (. . .) This
new category of damage — as I perceive it — embodies the principle
of humanity in a temporal dimension, encompassing the living in their
relations with their dead, as well as the unborn, conforming the future ff

generations. (. . .) The principle of humanitas has, in fact, a long his -
torical projection, and owes much to ancient cultures (in particular

79Dedicated to the “right to burial”, inherent to all human beings, ffin conformity with a
precept of “virtue and humanity”; H. Grotius, Del Derecho de la Guerra y de la Paz [1625],
Vol. III (Books II and III), Madrid, Edit. Reus, 1925, pp. 39, 43 and 45, and cf. p. 55.

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6 CIJ1023.indb 132 18/06/13 10:38 demande en interprétffation (op. ind. cançado fftrindade) 601

munautés Maroon de Moiwana » (par. 80) — ce qui ne cessait de les
hanter depuis, car elles n’avaient pas pu inhumer dignement les déffpouilles
de leurs êtres chers (par. 13-22). Leurs souffrances s’étaient projetées dans
le temps, pendant près d’une vingtaine d’années (par. 24-33). Dans leur

culture, la mortalité occupait une place incontournable dans l’exiffstence
des vivants, des survivants (par. 41-46), qui avaient des devoirs envers
leurs morts (par. 47-59). Pareils devoirs — ajoutais-je dans cette opinion
individuelle (par. 60-61) — se retrouvaient aux origines du droit des gens
e
lui-même, ainsi qu’observé, au XVII siècle, par Hugo Grotius au cha - 79
pitre XIX du livre II de son grand classique, De jure belli ac pacis (1625) .
104. Toujours dans mon opinion en l’affaire Moiwana, j’esquissais les
contours d’un véritable préjudice spirituel, qui va plus loin que le préju -
dice moral (par. 71-81) et, au-delà du droit à un projet de vie, je m’étais

risqué à définir ce que j’avais appelé un droit à un projet pour l’au‑delà :

«La présente affaire Moiwana, à mon sens, nous entraîne même
au-delà du droit à un projet de vie qui est en voie d’apparition…
J’entrevois, à travers les griefs des N’djukas du village de Moffiwana,
la revendication d’un droit à un projet pour l’au‑delà, compte tenu de
la relation qui unit les vivants à leurs morts. Le droit internationaffl en

général et le droit international des droits de l’homme en partfficulier
ne peuvent rester sourds aux manifestations spirituelles des êtres
humains… Rien ne nous oblige à demeurer exclusivement dans le
monde des vivants. Dans le cas d’espèce, je ne doute pas que les

N’djukas aient parfaitement le droit de célébrer leur projet de vie
après la mort, la rencontre de chacun d’entre eux avec ses ancêtres,
la relation harmonieuse entre les vivants et leurs morts. Leur vision
de la vie et de l’au-delà est l’expression de valeurs fondamentales. »

(Par. 67-70.)
105. Je m’intéressais ensuite à ce que j’appelais le préjudice spirituel, un

concept que je définissais comme
«une forme aggravée de préjudice moral, qui touche directement la

personne humaine en ce qu’elle a de plus intime, à savoir son moi
profond, sa foi en la destinée humaine, sa relation avec ses morts. Un
tel préjudice spirituel ne peut évidemment pas donner lieu à une répa -
ration pécuniaire, mais appelle d’autres formes de réparation. ffIl s’agit

ici d’une idée nouvelle, avancée pour la toute première foisff, du moins
à ma connaissance… Cette nouvelle catégorie de préjudice —ff telle
que je la perçois — constitue l’expression du principe d’humanité
dans sa dimension temporelle, englobant la relation des vivants avec

leurs morts, ainsi qu’avec les êtres à naître, qui formerontff les généra -
tions futures… Le principe d’humanité est, en fait, une projection de

79Consacré au « droit à l’inhumation », propre à tous les êtres humains, selon un prin -
cipe «de vertu et d’humanité » ; H. Grotius,De jure belli ac pacis, 1625.

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to that of the Greeks), having become associated in time with the very
80
moral and spiritual formation of human beings.” (Paras. 71-73.)

106. I further recalled, in my separate opinion, that the testimonial
evidence produced before the IACtHR in the cas d’espèce indicated that,

in the N’djukas cosmovision, in circumstances like those of the preseffnt
case, “the living and their dead suffer together, and this has an intffergen -

erational projection”. Unlike moral damages, in my view, the spirit‑
ual damage was not susceptible of “quantifications”, and could only
be repaired, and redress be secured, by means of obligations of doing

(obligaciones de hacer), in the form of satisfaction (e.g., honouring the
dead in the persons of the living) (para. 77) 81. In fact, the expert evidence
produced before the Court indeed referred expressly to “spiritually-cffaused
82
illnesses” . I then concluded, in my separate opinion, on this particular
point, that :

“All religions devote attention to human suffering, and attempt to
provide the needed transcendental support to the faithful; all religions

focus on the relations between life and death, and provide distinct
interpretations and explanations of human destiny and after-life 83.

Undue interferences in human beliefs — whatever religion they may
be attached to — cause harm to the faithful (. . .). [S]uch harm (. . .)

80 G. Radbruch, Introducción a la filosofía del Derecho, 3rd ed., Mexico/Buenos Aires,
Fondo de Cultura Económica, 1965, pp. 153-154.
81 It should be kept in mind — I proceeded — that, in the present case of the Moiwana
Community, as a result of the massacre of 1986,

“the whole community life in the Moiwana village was disrupted ;family life was like-
wise disrupted, displacements took place which last until now (almost tffwo decades
later). The fate of the mortal remains of the direct victims, the non-performance

of funerary rites and ceremonies, and the lack of a proper burial of theff deceased,
deeply disrupted the otherwise harmonious relations of the living N’dffjukas with
their dead. The grave damage caused to them, in my view, was not only psycho -
logical, it was more than that :it was a true spiritual damage, which seriously affected,
in their cosmovision, not only the living, but the living with their deaffd altogether.”
(Para. 78.)

Moreover,

“the resulting impunity, in the form of a generalized and sustained vffiolence (increased
by the sense of indifference of the public power to the fate of the victffims) (. . .), has
generated, in the members of theMoiwana Community, a sense of total defencelessness.
This has been accompanied by their loss of faith in human justice, the lffoss of faith in
law, the loss of faith in reason and conscience governing the world.”ff (Para. 79.)

82 Paragraphs 80 (e) and 86 (9) of the IACtHR judgment.
83 Cf., e.g., [Various Authors], Life after Death in World Religions, Maryknoll, N.Y.,

Orbis, 1997, pp. 1-124.

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profondes racines historiques, et il doit beaucoup aux cultures

anciennes (en particulier à la Grèce antique), s’étant assffocié au fil du
temps à la formation même du tissu moral et spirituel.» 80 (Par. 71-73.)

106. Je rappelais en outre, dans mon opinion individuelle, que les
témoignages présentés devant la Cour interaméricaine des droffits de

l’homme dans cette affaire indiquaient que, selon la vision du cosmosff des
N’djukas, dans des circonstances analogues à celles de la préseffnte affaire,

«les vivants et leurs morts souffrent ensemble, et leurs souffrances se
transmettent de génération en génération ». A la différence du préjudice
moral, le préjudice spirituel ne me semblait pas susceptible de « quantifica -

tion», le seul remède, la seule réparation possible, consistait à prescrire
des obligations de faire (obligaciones de hacer), sous la forme d’une satis ‑
faction (par exemple honorer les morts à travers la personne des vivants)
81
(par. 77) . De fait, dans les rapports d’experts produits devant la Cour
interaméricaine, il était bel et bien fait état expressément de « maladies
82
d’origine spirituelle » . Dans mon opinion individuelle, je concluais enfin,
sur ce point particulier, que :

«Toutes les religions sont attentives aux souffrances humaines, et
tentent d’apporter aux croyants l’aide transcendantale dont ils onfft

besoin; toutes les religions s’attachent à la relation entre la vie et lffa mort,
et proposent différentes interprétations et explications de la desfftinée
83
humaine et de l’au-delà . Toute interférence indue avec les croyances
humaines — quelle que soit la religion concernée — porte préjudice aux

80 G. Radbruch, Introducción a la filosofía del derecho, 3 éd., Mexico/Buenos Aires,
Fondo de Cultura Económica, 1965, p. 153-154.
81 Il ne faut pas oublier — ajoutais-je — que, dans l’affaire Moiwana, à la suite du
massacre de 1986,

«toute la vie de la communauté du village de Moiwana s’est trouvée perturbéffe, de
même que la vie de famille ; des déplacements ont eu lieu et se poursuivent toujours
(près de vingt ans plus tard). Le sort des dépouilles des victimffes directes et l-im

possibilité d’accomplir les rites et cérémonies funéraireffs et d’inhumer dignement les
défunts ont profondément ébranlé les relations des N’djukffas survivants avec leurs
morts, pourtant harmonieuses en d’autres circonstances. Ceux-ci n’ffont pas seulement
subi de graves dommages psychologiques, me semble-t-il, mais bien pire effncore : ils
ont subi un véritable préjudice spirituel, qui a gravement frappé, dans leur vision de
l’Univers, non seulement les vivants mais aussi les vivants dans leurffs relations avec
leurs morts. » (Par. 78.)

En outre,

«l’impunité qui s’est ensuivie, sous la forme de violences géffnéralisées et soutenues (à
laquelle l’indifférence apparente des pouvoirs publics quant au soffrt des victimes n’a
fait qu’ajouter), … a engendré, chez les membres de la communauté de Moiwana, un
sentiment de vulnérabilité totale. Ceux-ci ont également perdu leur foi dans la justice
humaine, dans le droit, dans la raison et dans la conscience qui gouverne le monde. »

(Par. 79.)
82 Paragraphes 80 e) et 86 9) de l’arrêt de la Cour interaméricaine.
83 Voir, par exemple, [divers auteurs], Life after Death in World Religions, Maryknoll,

N.Y., Orbis, 1997, p. 1-124.

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6 CIJ1023.indb 135 18/06/13 10:38 603 request for interpretffation (sep. op. cançado tffrindade)

is to be duly taken into account, like other injuries, for the purpose
of redress. Spiritual damage, like the one undergone by the members

of the Moiwana Community, is a serious harm, requiring correspond-
ing reparation, of the (non-pecuniary) kind I have just indicated. (. . .)

The N’djukas had their right to the project of life, as well as their

right to the project of after‑life, violated, and continuously so, ever
since the State-planned massacre perpetrated in the Moiwana village
on 29 November 1986. They suffered material and immaterial dam -
ages, as well as spiritual damage. (. . .) In sum, the wide range of

reparations ordered by the Court in the present judgment in the Moi ‑
wana community case (. . .) has concentrated on, and enhanced the
centrality of, the position of the victims — as well as on devising aff
wide range of possible and adequate means of redress. In the cas

d’espèce, the collective memory of the Maroon N’djukas is hereby
duly preserved, against oblivion, honouring their dead, thus safe -
guarding their right to life lato sensu, encompassing the right to cul -
tural identity, which finds expression in their acknowledged links of

solidarity with their dead.” (Paras. 81 and 91-92.)

107. In my following separate opinion in the same case of the Moiwana
Community (interpretation of judgment, of 8 February 2006), I insisted
on the need of reconstruction and preservation of cultural identity
(paras. 17-24) of the members of the community, on which the project of

life and of post‑life of each member of the community much depended. In
fact, the understanding has been manifested within UNESCO to the effect ff
that the assertion and preservation of cultural identity (including thafft of
minorities) contributes to the “liberation of the peoples”; cultural identity

has thus been regarded as “a treasure which vitalizes mankind’s poffssibili -
ties for self-fulfillment by encouraging every people and every group to
seek nurture in the past, to welcome contributions from outside compat -
ible with their own characteristics, and so to continue the process of tffheir
84
own creation” . In this new separate opinion, I expressed my own under-
standing of the pressing need to redress the spiritual damage caused to the
N’djukas of the Moiwana Community, and to create the conditions for
the prompt reconstruction of their cultural tradition (para. 19) 85.

108. In the present case of the Temple of Preah Vihear before the ICJ, it
is indeed a pity that a temple that was built with inspiration in the fiffrst half
of the eleventh century, to assist in fulfilling the religious needs of ffhuman

84
J. Symonides, “UNESCO’s Contribution to the Progressive Developmenfft of Human
Rig85s”, 5 Max Planck Yearbook of United Nations Law (2001), p. 317.
To that end — I added —, the delimitation, demarcation, issuing of title and return
of their traditional land were essential. This was “a question of surffvival of the cultural
identity of the N’djukas, so that they may conserve their memory, at ffpersonal as well as
collective levels. Only thus one will be duly giving protection to theirff fundamental right to
life lato sensu, comprising their cultural identity.” (Para. 20.)

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croyants. [C]e préjudice … doit être pleinement pris en considération,
comme tout autre préjudice, aux fins de la réparation. Le préjudice spi ‑

rituel, comme celui qu’ont subi les membres de la communauté de
Moiwana, constitue une atteinte grave, et il exige une réparation en
conséquence, sous la forme (non pécuniaire) que je viens d’inffdiquer…
Le droit à un projet de vie des N’djukas ainsi que leur droit à un

projet pour l’au‑delà ont été et demeurent bafoués depuis qu’un mas -
sacre planifié par l’Etat a été perpétré dans le villaffge de Moiwana le
29 novembre 1986. Ceux-ci ont subi des dommages matériels et non
matériels, ainsi qu’un préjudice spirituel… Pour résumer,ff en prescri -

vant une telle panoplie de remèdes dans son présent arrêt en l’ffaffaire
Moiwana …, la Cour s’est concentrée sur la situation des victimes, en
la rendant encore plus centrale — et elle s’est attachée à concevoir un
large éventail de mesures de réparation applicables et appropriées.

En l’espèce, la mémoire collective des N’djukas Maroon a donc été
dûment préservée de l’oubli, en honorant leurs morts et, ainffsi, en
sauvegardant leur droit à la vie lato sensu, y compris le droit à une
identité culturelle, qui s’exprime à travers leurs liens de solffidarité

reconnus avec leurs morts. » (Par. 81 et 91-92.)

107. Dans mon opinion individuelle suivante en l’affaire Moiwana
(interprétation de l’arrêt, 8 février 2006), j’insistais sur la nécessité de
reconstruire et de préserver l’identité culturelle (par. 17-24) de la commu -
nauté en question, dont dépendaient beaucoup le projet de vie et le projet

pour l’au‑delà de chacun de ses membres. De fait, l’UNESCO a estimé que
l’affirmation et la préservation de l’identité culturelle (notamment de celle
des minorités) contribuaient à la « libération des peuples »; l’identité
culturelle a donc été considérée comme « un trésor qui donne vie aux pos -

sibilités d’épanouissement de l’humanité en encourageant chaque peuple
et chaque groupe à se nourrir du passé, à accueillir les apportffs extérieurs
compatibles avec ses spécificités et, ainsi, à poursuivre son pffropre proces -
sus de création » . Dans cette nouvelle opinion individuelle, j’indiquais

que, selon moi, il était impératif de porter remède au préjudice spirituel
causé aux N’djukas de la communauté de Moiwana, et d’instaurffer les
conditions nécessaires à la reconstruction rapide de leur traditioffn cultu -
relle (par. 19) .5

108. Dans la présente affaire du Temple de Préah Vihéar, il est vrai -
ment regrettable qu’un édifice inspiré, bâti au cours de la ffpremière moitié
du XI e siècle afin de répondre aux aspirations religieuses d’êtres ffhumains,

84
J. Symonides, «UNESCO’s Contribution to the Progressive Development of Human
Rig85s »,Max Planck Yearbook of United Nations Law, vol. 5 (2001), p. 317.
A cette fin — ajoutais-je —, il était essentiel de délimiter leurs terres traditionnellesff et
d’en démarquer les limites, d’officialiser leur titre sur cellffes-ci et de les leur restituer. Il en
allait «de la survie de l’identité culturelle des N’djukas, pour que ceffux-ci puissent conserver
leur mémoire, tant au niveau personnel qu’au niveau collectif. Ainffsi, telle est la seule façon
de protéger convenablement leur droit fondamental à la vie lato sensu, y compris leur iden-
tité culturelle. » (Par. 20.)

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6 CIJ1023.indb 137 18/06/13 10:38 604 request for interpretffation (sep. op. cançado tffrindade)

beings, and which is nowadays — since the end of the first decade of ffthe
twenty-first century — regarded as integrating the world heritage of

humankind, becomes now part of the bone of contention between the two
bordering States concerned. This seems to display the worrisome frailty ffof

the human condition, anywhere in the world, in that individuals appear
prepared to fight each other and to kill each other in order to possess or
control what was erected in times past to help human beings to under -

stand their lives and their world, and to relate themselves to the cosmoffs.
109. Such relationship, by the way, is what is conveyed by the very
term religion (deriving from the Latin re‑ligare), assisting each human

being in attaining his connection with the cosmos he barely understands,ff
so as to find peace for himself. This leads to yet another aspect of theff
cas d’espèce, as I perceive it, to be referred to herein, in relation to the

context of the Order which the Court adopts today, 18 July 2011. Reli -
gions are a complex matter, deserving of close and respectful attention ; it
has been suggested some decades ago that, from a social perspective, theffy
86
are more complex than scientific knowledge .
110. The relationship, in its distinct aspects, between different religions

of the world and the law of nations (le droit des gens) itself, has been the
object of constant attention throughout the last nine decades 87. There
have been studies focused on the influence of theology in the evolution of
88
international legal doctrine . The interest on the relationship between
religions and the law of nations has remained alive lately. Some recent ff
essays look back in time, focusing on the relationship between inter-

86 Cf. Bertrand Russell, Science et religion (Religion and Science, 1935), Paris, Galli -
mard, 1957, p. 8.
87
As attested, e.g., by the thematic courses devoted to the subject by the Hague
Academy of International Law, with its universalist and pluralist outlooffk ; cf., e.g.,
A. Hobza, “questions de droit international concernant les religions”, 5 Recueil des cours
de l’Académie de droit international de La Haye (RCADI) (1924) pp. 371-420 ; G. Goyau,
“L’Eglise catholique et le droit des gens”, 6 RCADI (1925), pp. 127-236 ; M. Boegner,
“L’influence de la réforme sur le développement du droit iffnternational”, 6 RCADI (1925),
pp. 245-321 ; J. Muller-Azúa, “L’œuvre de toutes les confessions chrétiennes (Eglises)

pour la paix internationale”, 31 RCADI (1930), pp. 299-388; K. N. Jayatilleke, “The Prin-
ciples of International Law in Buddhist Doctrine”, 120 RCADI (1967), pp. 445-563 ;
H. de Riedmatten, “Le catholicisme et le développement du droit international”, 151 RCADI
(1976), pp. 121-158; P. Weil, “Le judaïsme et le développement du droit international”, ff151
RCADI (1976), pp. 259-335 ; P. H. Kooijmans, “Protestantism and the Development of
International Law”, 152 RCADI (1976), pp. 87-116 ; M. Charfi, “L’influence de la religion
dans le droit international privé des pays musulmans”, 203 RCADI (1987), pp. 329-454.

88
Cf., e.g., Association internationale Vitoria-Suárez, Vitoria et Suárez — Contribution
des théologiens au droit international moderne, Paris, Pedone, 1939, pp. 7-170 ; A. García y
García, “The Spanish School of the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries : A Precursor of
the Theory of Human Rights”, 10 Ratio Juris, University of Bologna (1997), pp. 27-29 ;
L. Getino (ed.), francisco de Vitoria, Sentencias de Doctrina Internacional. Antología,
Madrid, Ediciones FE, 1940, pp. 15-130 ; C. A. Stumpf, The Grotian Theology of Interna ‑

tional Law — Hugo Grotius and the Moral foundations of International Relations, Berlin,
W. de Gruyter, 2006, pp. 1-243.

71

6 CIJ1023.indb 138 18/06/13 10:38 demande en interprétffation (op. ind. cançado fftrindade) 604

et qui est considéré à notre époque — depuis la fin de la première décen -
nie du XXI siècle — comme un élément du patrimoine de l’humanité, se

trouve aujourd’hui pris dans le litige qui oppose les deux Etats voisffins
concernés. Je vois là un signe de la fragilité alarmante de la ffcondition

humaine, partout dans le monde, les hommes paraissant prêts à se battre
et à s’entretuer pour posséder ou contrôler ce qui a étéff construit en
d’autres temps en vue d’aider les êtres humains à comprendreff leur vie et

leur monde, et à trouver leur lien avec l’Univers.
109. C’est d’ailleurs ce lien qu’exprime le terme religion lui-même (tiré
du latin re‑ligare), qui signifie aider chaque être humain à trouver sa place

dans un Univers qu’il saisit à peine, afin d’être en paix avffec lui-même.
Cela m’amène à considérer ici un autre aspect du cas d’esffpèce, tel que je
le conçois, dans le contexte de l’ordonnance rendue par la Cour ce jour,

18 juillet 2011. Les religions constituent une question complexe, qui
mérite d’être examinée de près et avec respect ; il a été suggéré il y a
quelques dizaines d’années que, d’un point de vue social, les religions
86
étaient plus complexes que la connaissance scientifique .
110. Le rapport, dans ses multiples aspects, entre les différentes reli -

gions du monde et le droit des gens lui-même a été l’objet d’une attention
constante au cours des quatre-vingt-dix dernières années 87. Des études
ont été consacrées à l’influence de la théologie surff l’évolution de la doc -
88
trine juridique internationale . L’intérêt pour la relation entre les reli -
gions et le droit des gens ne s’est pas relâché à l’heureff actuelle. Certains
auteurs d’essais récents remontent dans le temps, pour s’attachffer à la rela -

86 Voir Bertrand Russell, Science et religion (Religion and Science, 1935), Paris, Galli -
mard, 1957, p. 8.
87
Comme l’attestent, par exemple, les cours donnés sur ce thème àff l’Académie de droit
international de La Haye, où règne une vision universaliste et pluraliste ;voir, par exemple,
A. Hobza, « questions de droit international concernant les religions », Recueil des cours
de l’Académie de droit international de La Haye (RCADI), tome 5 (1924), p. 371-420 ;
G. Goyau, « L’Eglise catholique et le droit des gens », RCADI, tome 6 (1925), p. 127-236 ;
M. Boegner, « L’influence de la réforme sur le développement du droit interffnational »,
RCADI, tome 6 (1925), p. 245-321 ; J. Muller-Azúa, « L’œuvre de toutes les confessions

chrétiennes (Eglises) pour la paix internationale »RCADI, tome 31 (1930), p. 299-388 ;
K. N. Jayatilleke, « The Principles of International Law in Buddhist Doctrine »,RCADI
(1967), tome 120, p. 445-563 ; H. de Riedmatten, « Le catholicisme et le développement
du droit international », RCADI, tome 151 (1976), p. 121-158 ; P. Weil, « Le judaïsme et le
développement du droit international »,RCADI, tome 151 (1976), p. 259-335; P. H. Kooij-
mans, « Protestantism and the Development of International Law », RCADI, tome 152
(1976), p. 87-116 ; M. Charfi, « L’influence de la religion dans le droit international privé

des88ays musulmans », RCADI, tome 203 (1987), p. 329-454.
Voir, par exemple, Association internationale Vitoria-Suárez, Vitoria et
Suárez. Contribution des théologiens au droit international moderne, Paris, Pedone, 1939,
p. 7-170 ; A. García y García, « The Spanish School of the Sixteenth and Seventeenth
Centuries : A Precursor of the Theory of Human Rights », Ratio Juris, Université de
Bologne, vol. 10 (1997), p. 27-29; L. Getino (dir. publ.), francisco de Vitoria, Sentencias de
Doctrina Internacional. Antología, Madrid, Ediciones FE, 1940, p. 15-130 ; C. A. Stumpf,

The Grotian Theology of International Law. Hugo Grotius and the Moral foundations of
International Relations, Berlin, W. de Gruyter, 2006, p. 1-243.

71

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89
national law and religions in times past . Others look forward in time,
centering attention on the role of religions in the progressive developmffent
of international law 90. Still others concentrate on topical aspects of that
91
relationship .

111. Here we are taken back to timelessness again. In his inspiring
essay of 1948 titled Civilization on Trial, Arnold J. Toynbee pondered
that the works of artists and men of letters have outlived the deeds of ff

soldiers, businessmen and statesmen ; statues, poems and philosophical
works have counted for more than the texts of laws and treaties, and theff

teachings of religious prophets and saints (of distinct religions of thffe
world) have outlasted them all, as lasting benefactors of humankind 92.

112. Toynbee beheld a “unified world”, working its way towards “an

equilibrium between its diverse component cultures”, resulting from tffhe
“encounters” between them as well as the religions of the world 9. He was
attentive to what he wisely termed the encounters 94of civilizations (and

religions), and he recalled, as examples in this connection :

“Judaism and Zoroastrianism, which sprang from an encounter
between the Syrian and Babylonian civilizations ; Christianity and

Islam, which sprang from an encounter between the Syrian and Greek

89Cf., e.g., D. J. Bederman, “Religion and the Sources of International Law in Anti -

quity”, Religion and International Law (eds. M. W. Janis and C. Evans), Leiden, Nijhoff,
2004, pp. 1-26; V. P. Nanda, “International Law in Ancient Hindu India”, ibid., pp. 51-61;
H. McCoubrey, “Natural Law, Religion and the Development of International ffLaw”,
ibid., pp. 177-189.
90Cf., e.g., M. Veuthey, “Religions et droit international humanitaire : histoire et

actualité d’un dialogue nécessaire”, Religions et droit international humanitaire (Colloque
de Nice, June 2007 ; ed. A.-S. Millet-Devalle), Paris, Pedone, 2008, pp. 9-45 ; P. Tavernier,
“La protection de l’exercice des religions par le droit internatioffnal humanitaire”, ibid.,
pp. 105-118 ;M. C. W. Pinto, “Reflections on the Role of Religion in International Law”,
Liber Amicorum In Memoriam of Judge J. M. Ruda (eds. C. A. Armas Barea, J. A. Barberis
et alii), The Hague, Kluwer, 2000, pp. 25-42.
91
Cf., e.g., T. J. Gunn, “The Complexity of Religion and the Definition of ‘Religion’
in International Law”, Religion and Human Rights — Critical Concepts in Religious Studies
(ed. N. Ghanea), Vol. IV, London/N.Y., Routledge, 2010, pp. 159-187 ; T. van Boven,
“Advances and Obstacles in Building Understanding and Respect between People of
Diverse Religions and Beliefs”, bid., pp. 469-481 ; K. Hashemi, Religious Legal Traditions,

International Human Rights Law and Muslim States, Leiden, Nijhoff, 2008, pp. 135-265 (on
protection of religious minorities, and rights of the child) ;[Various Authors], The Religious
in Responses to Mass Atrocity (eds. T. Brudholm and T. Cushman), Cambridge University
Press, 2009, pp. 1-263.

92
93A. J. Toynbee,Civilization on Trial, Oxford University Press, 1948, .-5, 90 and 156.
Ibid., pp. 158-159.
94Rather than “clash”, as some post-moderns say in our hectic days, ffwithout giving
much thought to the matter, and with their characteristic and regrettablffe shallowness and
prejudice.

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89
tion qui existait dans le passé entre le droit international et les rffeligions .
D’autres, tournés vers l’avenir, concentrent leur attention surff le rôle des
religions dans le développement progressif du droit international 90.

D’autres encore se focalisent sur certains aspects actuels de cette rffela -
tion .1

111. Nous voici revenus à l’intemporalité. Dans son essai profond
de 1948 intitulé Civilization on Trial, Arnold J. Toynbee observait que
l’œuvre des artistes et des hommes de lettres avait mieux traverséff les

temps que les actions des soldats, des hommes d’affaires et des hommeffs
d’Etat: les statues, les poèmes et les ouvrages philosophiques avaient

davantage compté que les textes de loi et les traités, et les propffhètes et les
saints (des différentes religions du monde), qui avaient laissé des enseigne -
ments ayant survécu à tous, étaient les bienfaiteurs de l’humanité depuis
92
des temps immémoriaux .
112. Toynbee a imaginé un « monde unifié», tendant vers un équilibre

entre les diverses cultures qui le composent, rendu possible par les «ffinter-
actions» entre celles-ci et entre les religions du monde 93. Attentif à ce
qu’il appelle avec justesse les interactions 94 des civilisations (et des reli -

gions), il cite les exemples suivants :

«Le judaïsme et le zoroastrisme, nés d’une interaction entre lesff
civilisations syrienne et babylonienne ; le christianisme et l’islam, nés

d’une interaction entre les civilisations syrienne et grecque ; le

89 Voir, par exemple, D. J. Bederman, « Religion and the Sources of International Law

in Antiquity », Religion and International Law(M. W. Janis et C. Evans (dir. publ.)), Leyde,
Nijhoff, 2004, p. 1-26 ; V. P. Nanda, « International Law in Ancient Hindu India », ibid.,
p. 51-61 ; H. McCoubrey, « Natural Law, Religion and the Development of International
Law »,ibid., p. 177-189.
90 Voir, par exemple, M. Veuthey, « Religions et droit international humanitaire :

histoire et actualité d’un dialogue nécessaire », Religions et droit international humani ‑
taire (colloque de Nice, juin 2007 ; A.-S. Millet-Devalle (dir. publ.)), Paris, Pedone, 2008,
p. 9-45 ; P. Tavernier, « La protection de l’exercice des religions par le droit international ff
humanitaire », ibid., p. 105-118 ; M. C. W. Pinto, « Reflections on the Role of Religion
in International Law », Liber Amicorum in Memoriam of Judge J. M. Ruda (C. A. Armas
Barea, J. A. Barberis et al. (dir. publ.)), La Haye, Kluwer, 2000, p. 25-42.
91
Voir, par exemple, T. J. Gunn, « The Complexity of Religion and the Definition
of « Religion » in International Law », Religion and Human Rights. Critical Concepts
in Religious Studies (N. Ghanea (dir. publ.)), vol. IV, Londres/New York, Routledge,
2010, p. 159-187 ; T. van Boven, « Advances and Obstacles in Building Understanding
and Respect between People of Diverse Religions and Beliefs » , ibid., p. 469-481 ; K. Ha-

shemi, Religious Legal Traditions, International Human Rights Law and Muslim Sta ▯ tes,
Leyde, Nijhoff, 2008, p. 135-265 (sur la protection des minorités religieuses et
des droits de l’enfant) ; [divers auteurs], The Religious in Responses to Mass Atro ‑
city (T. Brudholm et T. Cushman (dir. publ.)), Cambridge University Press, 2009,
p. 1-263.
92
93 A. J. Toynbee, Civilization on Trial, Oxford University Press, 1948, p. 4-5, 90 et 156.
Ibid., p. 158-159.
94 Préférant ce terme à la notion de «choc », que certains auteurs postmodernes utilisent
à notre époque troublée sans guère réfléchir à laff question, s’enferrant, à mon grand regret,
dans leur superficialité et leurs préjugés habituels.

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civilizations; the Mahayana form of Buddhism and Hinduism, which
sprang from an encounter between the Indian and Greek civiliza -
95
tions.”
Those were just a couple of examples of religions, in a long-term perspec -

tive, which appeared within the last 4000 years. Toynbee repeatedly
referred to the “historically illuminating” encounters between civiliza -
tions, to “the time-span” of such “encounters between civilizatffions”, with
their “long-term religious consequences”, seeking to bring improveffment
96
to “the conditions of human social life on Earth” .
113. Cultural and spiritual heritage appears more closely related to a
human context, rather than to the traditional State-centric context ; it
appears to transcend the purely inter-State dimension, that the Court is

used to. I have made this point also on other occasions, in the adjudicaff -
tion of distinct cases lodged with the Court. For example, two weeks agoff,
in the Court’s Order of 4 July 2011 in the case of the Jurisdictional Immu ‑

nities of the State (Germany v. Italy) (intervention of Greece), I sustained,
in my separate opinion, that rights of States and rights of individuals
evolve pari passu in contemporary jus gentium (I.C.J. Reports 2011 (II),
pp. 506-530, paras. 1-61), to a greater extent than one may prima facie

realize or assume.
114. In any case, beyond the States are the human beings who organize
themselves socially and compose them. The State is not, and has never
been, conceived as an end in itself, but rather as a means to regulate affnd

improve the living conditions of the societas gentium, keeping in mind the
basic principle of humanity, amongst other fundamental principles of the
law of nations, so as to achieve the common good. Beyond the States, the
ultimate titulaires of the right to the safeguard and preservation of their

cultural and spiritual heritage are the collectivities of human beings cffon -
cerned, or else humankind as a whole.
115. As it can be inferred from the present case of the Temple of Preah
Vihear, we are here in the domain of superior human values, the protection
97
of which is not unknown to the law of nations , although not sufficiently
worked upon in international case law and doctrine to date. It is beyond
doubt that the States, as promoters of the common good, are under the
duty of co-operation between themselves to that end of the safeguard andff

preservation of the cultural and spiritual heritage. I dare to nourish tffhe
hope that both Thailand and Cambodia, with their respectable, ancient
cultures, will know how to comply jointly with the provisional measures ffof

protection indicated by the Court in the Order it has just adopted todayff.
116. Half a century ago, the Court’s Judgment of 15 June 1962 in the
case of the Temple of Preah Vihear expressly stated, in its dispositif

95
96A. J. Toynbee, op. cit. supra note 92, p. 159.
Ibid., pp. 159, 215, 218-220 and 251.
97 Cf., over half a century ago, e.g., S. Glaser, “La protection internationale des valeurs
humaines”, 60 Revue générale de droit international public (1957), pp. 211-241.

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Mahayana, forme de bouddhisme et d’hindouisme, né d’une inter-
action entre les civilisations indienne et grecque. » 95

Ce ne sont là que quelques exemples de religions qui sont apparues auff
cours des quatre mille dernières années. Toynbee se réfère à plusieurs
reprises aux interactions entre civilisations, « qui éclairent l’histoire », à la
«durée» de ces « interactions entre civilisations », qui « marquèrent dura -

blement les religions », tendant à améliorer « les conditions de vie en
société de l’homme sur Terre » 96.
113. Le patrimoine culturel et spirituel relève d’une dimension humaine

plutôt que de la dimension étatique traditionnelle, et paraît tffranscender la
dimension purement interétatique à laquelle la Cour est habituéffe. Je l’ai
déjà fait observer à d’autres occasions, dans le cadre d’ffaffaires dont le
règlement avait été confié à la Cour. Par exemple, au sujffet de l’ordonnance

rendue par la Cour il y a deux semaines, le 4 juillet 2011, en l’affaire des
Immunités juridictionnelles de l’Etat (Allemagne c. Italie) (intervention de
la République hellénique), j’ai dit, dans mon opinion individuffelle, que les
droits des Etats et ceux des personnes évoluaient de concert dans le cadre

du jus gentium moderne (C.I.J. Recueil 2011 (II), p. 506-530, par. 1-61),
bien davantage qu’on pourrait l’observer ou le supposer de prime affbord.
114. En tout état de cause, au-delà des Etats se trouvent les êtres

humains, qui s’organisent en société et forment l’Etat. Celuffi-ci n’est pas,
et n’a jamais été, conçu comme une fin en soi, mais comme unff moyen de
régir et d’améliorer les conditions de vie de la societas gentium, en gardant
à l’esprit le principe d’humanité, entre autres principes fondamentaux du

droit des gens, de sorte à parvenir à la réalisation du bien commun.
Au-delà des Etats, les titulaires ultimes du droit à la sauvegarde etff à la
préservation du patrimoine culturel et spirituel sont les collectivitffés
humaines concernées, voire l’humanité tout entière.

115. Ainsi qu’il ressort de la présente affaire du Temple de Préah Vihéar,
nous touchons ici aux valeurs humaines suprêmes, dont la protection n’est
pas inconnue du droit des gens 97, bien qu’elle ait jusqu’à présent occupé

une place insuffisante dans la jurisprudence et la doctrine internationffales.
Il est indubitable que les Etats, qui doivent rechercher le bien commun,
sont tenus de coopérer entre eux aux fins de sauvegarder et de préffserver
le patrimoine culturel et spirituel. J’ose espérer que la Thaïlffande et le

Cambodge, héritiers de cultures vénérables et anciennes, s’affppliqueront
conjointement à mettre en œuvre les mesures conservatoires que la ffCour
vient d’indiquer ce jour dans son ordonnance.

116. Il y a un demi-siècle, dans son arrêt du 15 juin 1962 en l’affaire du
Temple de Préah Vihéar, la Cour avait expressément indiqué, au point 2

95
96 A. J. Toynbee, op. cit. supra note 92, p. 159.
97 Ibid., p. 159, 215, 218-220 et 251.
Voir, par exemple, l’ouvrage — qui date d’un demi-siècle — de S. Glaser «La protec-
tion internationale des valeurs humaines »Revue générale de droit international public,
vol. 60 (1957), p. 211-241.

73

6 CIJ1023.indb 143 18/06/13 10:38 607 request for interpretffation (sep. op. cançado tffrindade)

(para. 2), that “Thailand is under an obligation to withdraw any military

or police forces, or other guards or keepers, stationed by her at the Tem -
ple, or in its vicinity on Cambodian territory”. The Temple is and reffmains
the reference to “its vicinity” (from Latin vicinitas). The zone set up by the
Court for the purpose of the provisional measures of protection indicateffd
in the present Order, of 18 July 2011, encompasses the territory neigh -

bouring (vicinus to) the Temple.

117. For the issue of the supervision of compliance by the States con -
cerned with the present provisional measures of protection, the Court’ffs
Order, with the demilitarized zone set forth herein, encompasses, in my

understanding, to the effect of protection, the people living in the saiffd
zone and its surroundings, the Temple of Preah Vihear itself, and all thffat
it represents, all that comes with it from time immemorial, nowadays
regarded by UNESCO as part of the cultural and spiritual world heri -
tage. Cultures, like human beings, are vulnerable, and need protection. ff

The universality of international law is erected upon respect for culturffal
diversity. It is reassuring that, for the first time in the history of tffhis
Court, provisional measures of protection indicated or ordered by it areff,
as I perceive them, so meaningfully endowed with a scope of this kind.
This is well in keeping with the jus gentium of our times.

(Signed) Antônio Augusto Cançado Trindade.

74

6 CIJ1023.indb 144 18/06/13 10:38 demande en interprétffation (op. ind. cançado fftrindade) 607

du dispositif, que « la Thaïlande [était] tenue de retirer tous les éléments

de forces armées ou de police ou autres gardes ou gardiens qu’elleff a[vait]
installés dans le temple ou dans ses environs [« vicinity», en anglais] situés
en territoire cambodgien ». Le temple demeure le point de référence par
rapport auquel est définie cette « vicinity» (du latin vicinitas). La zone
définie par la Cour aux fins des mesures conservatoires indiquées ffdans la

présente ordonnance, en ce jour du 18 juillet 2011, couvre le territoire voi -
sin (vicinus) du temple.
117. En ce qui concerne le contrôle de l’exécution par les Parties dffes
mesures indiquées, la protection offerte par la présente ordonnancffe, avec
la zone démilitarisée définie dans celle-ci, s’étend selon moi aux habitants

de ladite zone et de ses environs, aussi bien qu’au temple de Préaffh Vihéar
lui-même, et à tout ce qu’il représente et qui lui est associéff depuis des
temps immémoriaux, et qui fait qu’il est désormais considéré par l’UNESCO
comme faisant partie du patrimoine culturel et spirituel mondial. Les
cultures, comme les êtres humains, sont vulnérables et doivent êfftre proté -

gées. L’universalité du droit international repose sur le respeffct de la dive-r
sité culturelle. Je me félicite que la Cour ait, pour la premièffre fois de son
histoire, indiqué des mesures conservatoires ayant, ainsi que je les ffperçois,
si clairement une telle portée. Sa décision est parfaitement en acffcord avec
le jus gentium contemporain.

(Signé) Antônio Augusto Cançado Trindade.

74

6 CIJ1023.indb 145 18/06/13 10:38

Document file FR
Document Long Title

Separate opinion of Judge Cançado Trindade

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