Judgment of 21 April 2022

Document Number
155-20220421-JUD-01-00-EN
Document Type
Date of the Document
Document File
Bilingual Document File

21 APRIL 2022 JUDGMENT ALLEGED VIOLATIONS OF SOVEREIGN RIGHTS AND MARITIME SPACES IN THE CARIBBEAN SEA (NICARAGUA v. COLOMBIA) ___________ VIOLATIONS ALLÉGUÉES DE DROITS SOUVERAINS ET D’ESPACES MARITIMES DANS LA MER DES CARAÏBES (NICARAGUA c. COLOMBIE) 21 AVRIL 2022 ARRÊT TABLE OF CONTENTS Paragraphs CHRONOLOGY OF THE PROCEDURE 1-24 I. GENERAL BACKGROUND 25-32 II. SCOPE OF THE JURISDICTION RATIONE TEMPORIS OF THE COURT 33-47 III. ALLEGED VIOLATIONS BY COLOMBIA OF NICARAGUA’S RIGHTS IN ITS MARITIME ZONES 48-199 A. Colombia’s contested activities in Nicaragua’s maritime zones 49-144 1. Incidents alleged by Nicaragua in the south-western Caribbean Sea 49-101 2. Colombia’s alleged authorization of fishing activities and marine scientific research in Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone 102-134 3. Colombia’s alleged oil exploration licensing 135-143 4. Conclusions 144 B. Colombia’s “integral contiguous zone” 145-194 1. The applicable rules on the contiguous zone 147-155 2. Effect of the 2012 Judgment and Colombia’s right to establish a contiguous zone 156-163 3. The compatibility of Colombia’s “integral contiguous zone” with customary international law 164-186 4. Conclusion 187-194 C. Conclusions and remedies 195-199 IV. COUNTER-CLAIMS MADE BY COLOMBIA 200-260 A. Nicaragua’s alleged infringement of the artisanal fishing rights of the inhabitants of the San Andrés Archipelago to access and exploit the traditional banks 201-233 B. Alleged violation of Colombia’s sovereign rights and maritime spaces by Nicaragua’s use of straight baselines 234-260 OPERATIVE CLAUSE 261 ___________ INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE YEAR 2022 2022 21 April General List No. 155 21 April 2022 ALLEGED VIOLATIONS OF SOVEREIGN RIGHTS AND MARITIME SPACES IN THE CARIBBEAN SEA (NICARAGUA v. COLOMBIA) General background  Geography  The Court’s 2012 Judgment in Territorial and Maritime Dispute (Nicaragua v. Colombia) case delimited the Parties’ continental shelf and exclusive economic zone up to 200-nautical-mile limit  Eastern endpoints could not be determined as Nicaragua had not notified location of baselines  Composition of San Andrés Archipelago. * Scope of jurisdiction ratione temporis of the Court  Whether jurisdiction of the Court extends to claims based on incidents allegedly occurring after 27 November 2013, when Pact of Bogotá ceased to be in force for Colombia  Claims relating to incidents allegedly occurring after 27 November 2013 arose directly out of the question which is the subject-matter of Application  Alleged incidents on which these claims are based connected to those already found to fall within the Court’s jurisdiction  Nature of dispute between the Parties not transformed  The Court has jurisdiction ratione temporis over Nicaragua’s claims relating to those events. * * - 2 - Alleged violations by Colombia of Nicaragua’s rights in its maritime zones as delimited by the Court in its 2012 Judgment. Nicaragua’s claims  Colombia’s alleged breach of its international obligation to respect Nicaragua’s zones as delimited in 2012 Judgment  Colombia allegedly engaged in acts violating Nicaragua’s sovereign rights and jurisdiction in its exclusive economic zone  Alleged interference by Colombia with Nicaraguan-flagged or Nicaraguan-licensed fishing and marine scientific research vessels  Alleged obstruction by Colombia of Nicaraguan Navy in exercise of its mission  Colombia’s alleged authorization of fishing activities and marine scientific research in Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone — Alleged offering and awarding by Colombia of hydrocarbon blocks  Colombian Presidential Decree 1946 of 9 September 2013 establishing “integral contiguous zone” allegedly not in conformity with customary international law. Nicaragua is a party to UNCLOS and Colombia is not  Applicable law is customary international law  Customary rules on rights and duties in exclusive economic zone of coastal States and other States reflected in Articles 56, 58, 61, 62 and 73 of UNCLOS. Questions of proof  Party alleging a fact in support of its claims must prove existence of that fact  Evidentiary materials prepared for purposes of a case and evidence from secondary sources to be treated with caution  Evidence from contemporaneous and direct sources more probative  Particular attention to evidence acknowledging facts or conduct unfavourable to the State represented by person making them. Incidents alleged by Nicaragua in south-western Caribbean Sea  Assessment of evidence presented by the Parties. Failure of Nicaragua to discharge its burden of proof with respect to certain alleged incidents  Examination of rest of alleged incidents  Colombian naval vessels purported to exercise enforcement jurisdiction in Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone  Conduct of those vessels carried out to give effect to a policy whereby Colombia sought to continue to control fishing activities and conservation of resources in areas within Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone  Contention by Colombia that its actions were justified as an exercise of its freedoms of navigation and overflight, and on basis of its alleged international obligation to protect and preserve marine environment of south-western Caribbean Sea  Freedoms of navigation and overflight do not include rights relating to exploration, exploitation, conservation and management of the natural resources of the maritime zone, nor jurisdiction to enforce conservation measures  In the exclusive economic zone, such rights and jurisdiction are reserved for coastal State  Coastal State has jurisdiction in its exclusive economic zone to conserve living resources and protect and preserve marine environment  Colombia’s conduct in contravention of customary rules of international law as reflected in Articles 56, 58 and 73 of UNCLOS  Finding that Colombia has violated its international obligation to respect Nicaragua’s sovereign rights and jurisdiction in the latter’s exclusive economic zone. - 3 - Alleged authorization by Colombia of fishing activities and marine scientific research in Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone  Resolutions of General Maritime Directorate of Ministry of National Defence of Colombia related to industrial fishing in the San Andrés Archipelago  Not possible to determine geographical scope of these resolutions  Two resolutions by Governor of San Andrés Archipelago define fishing zone as including areas within Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone  Colombia continues to assert right to authorize fishing activities in Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone  Examination of alleged incidents at sea  Fishing vessels allegedly authorized by Colombia engaged in fishing activities in Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone  Fishing activities conducted under protection of Colombian frigates  Insufficient evidence that Colombia authorized marine scientific research in Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone  Finding that Colombia has violated Nicaragua’s sovereign rights and jurisdiction in its exclusive economic zone by authorizing fishing activities in that zone. Claim made by Nicaragua that Colombia offered and awarded hydrocarbon blocks encompassing parts of Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone  Admissibility of claim  Hydrocarbon blocks offered and awarded by Colombia before maritime boundary between the Parties delimited  Contracts in question not signed  Allegation that Colombia violated Nicaragua’s sovereign rights by issuing oil exploration licences rejected. Colombia’s Presidential Decree 1946 establishing “integral contiguous zone” around Colombian islands in western Caribbean Sea  Article 33 of UNCLOS reflects customary international law on contiguous zone  Powers in contiguous zone confined to customs, fiscal, immigration and sanitary matters  Maximum breadth of contiguous zone limited to 24 nautical miles  2012 Judgment does not delimit contiguous zone of either Party  Contiguous zone and exclusive economic zone governed by two distinct régimes  Establishment by one State of contiguous zone not incompatible with existence of exclusive economic zone of another State in same area  Powers that State may exercise in contiguous zone are different from rights and duties that coastal State has in exclusive economic zone  Colombia has right to establish contiguous zone around San Andrés Archipelago in accordance with customary international law. Question whether Colombia’s “integral contiguous zone” is compatible with customary international law  Breadth of “integral contiguous zone” exceeds 24-nautical-mile limit  Powers asserted by Colombia in “integral contiguous zone”, such as those concerning security, “national maritime interests” and preservation of the environment, exceed those permitted under customary international law  Reference to power to preserve cultural heritage in Article 5 of Presidential Decree 1946  Article 303, paragraph 2, of UNCLOS reflects customary international law  Article 5 of Presidential Decree 1946 does not violate customary international law in so far as it relates to objects of archaeological and historical nature. * - 4 - Conclusions and remedies. Breach by Colombia of its international obligation to respect Nicaragua’s sovereign rights and jurisdiction in its exclusive economic zone  Colombia’s international responsibility engaged  Colombia to immediately cease its wrongful conduct. “Integral contiguous zone” established by Colombia’s Presidential Decree 1946 not in conformity with customary international law with respect to its breadth and powers asserted therein  In maritime areas where it overlaps with Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone, “integral contiguous zone” infringes upon Nicaragua’s sovereign rights and jurisdiction in exclusive economic zone  Colombia under obligation, by means of its own choosing, to bring provisions of Presidential Decree 1946 into conformity with customary international law in so far as they relate to Nicaragua’s maritime areas. Nicaragua’s request to order Colombia to pay compensation rejected. No legal basis to grant Nicaragua’s request that the Court remain seised of the case. * * Counter-claims made by Colombia. Alleged infringement by Nicaragua of artisanal fishing rights of inhabitants of San Andrés Archipelago, in particular the Raizales  Applicable law is customary international law as reflected in relevant provisions of Part V of UNCLOS  Question whether inhabitants of San Andrés Archipelago have historically enjoyed artisanal fishing rights in areas now falling within Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone  Affidavits from fishermen from San Andrés Archipelago  Indications that some fishing activities have taken place in areas that now fall within Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone  Period during which such activities took place and whether there was a constant practice not established with certainty  Colombia’s claim regarding long-standing practice of artisanal fishing not sufficiently established — Previous positions adopted by or on behalf of Colombia undermine Colombia’s claim  Statements of President of Nicaragua do not establish acceptance or recognition by Nicaragua that artisanal fishermen of San Andrés Archipelago have right to fish in Nicaragua’s maritime zones without prior authorization. Colombia has failed to establish that inhabitants of the San Andrés Archipelago enjoy artisanal fishing rights in waters now located in Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone — Counter-claim dismissed. * - 5 - Alleged violation of Colombia’s sovereign rights and maritime spaces by Nicaragua’s use of straight baselines  Nicaragua’s Decree No. 33-2013 establishing a system of straight baselines along Caribbean coast  Article 7 of UNCLOS reflects customary international law  Establishment of straight baselines by coastal State falls to be assessed by international rules, to be applied restrictively. Two alternative geographical preconditions for establishment of straight baselines: coastline “deeply indented and cut into” or existence of “fringe of islands” along coast in its immediate vicinity  Straight baselines drawn in southernmost part of Nicaragua’s coast — Coastline not “deeply indented and cut into” — Straight baselines drawn from Cabo Gracias a Dios on mainland to Great Corn Island  Question whether Nicaragua’s offshore islands constitute fringe of islands along coast in its immediate vicinity  Number of Nicaragua’s islands relative to length of coast not sufficient to constitute fringe of islands  Nicaraguan islands not sufficiently close to each other to form “cluster” along coast  Islands do not have masking effect on mainland coast  Straight baselines convert into internal waters certain areas which otherwise would have been part of Nicaragua’s territorial sea or exclusive economic zone and convert into territorial sea certain areas which would have been part of Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone  Straight baselines established by Decree No. 33-2013 do not conform with customary international law — Declaratory judgment to that effect is appropriate remedy. JUDGMENT Present: President DONOGHUE; Vice-President GEVORGIAN; Judges TOMKA, ABRAHAM, BENNOUNA, YUSUF, XUE, SEBUTINDE, BHANDARI, ROBINSON, SALAM, IWASAWA, NOLTE; Judges ad hoc DAUDET, MCRAE; Registrar GAUTIER. In the case concerning alleged violations of sovereign rights and maritime spaces in the Caribbean Sea, between the Republic of Nicaragua, represented by H.E. Mr. Carlos José Argüello Gómez, Ambassador of the Republic of Nicaragua to the Kingdom of the Netherlands, as Agent and Counsel; - 6 - Mr. Alex Oude Elferink, Director, Netherlands Institute for the Law of the Sea, Professor of International Law of the Sea at Utrecht University, Mr. Vaughan Lowe, QC, Emeritus Chichele Professor of Public International Law, University of Oxford, member of the Institut de droit international, member of the Bar of England and Wales, Mr. Lawrence H. Martin, Attorney at Law, Foley Hoag LLP, member of the Bars of the United States Supreme Court, the District of Columbia and the Commonwealth of Massachusetts, Mr. Alain Pellet, Emeritus Professor of the University Paris Nanterre, former Chairman of the International Law Commission, President of the Institut de droit international, Mr. Paul S. Reichler, Attorney at Law, Foley Hoag LLP, member of the Bars of the United States Supreme Court and the District of Columbia, as Counsel and Advocates; Ms Claudia Loza Obregon, Legal Adviser, Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Nicaragua, Ms Tessa Barsac, Consultant in International Law, Master (University Paris Nanterre), LLM (Leiden University), as Assistant Counsel; Mr. Robin Cleverly, MA, DPhil, CGeol, FGS, Law of the Sea Consultant, Marbdy Consulting Ltd, as Scientific and Technical Adviser; Ms Sherly Noguera de Argüello, MBA, as Administrator, and the Republic of Colombia, represented by H.E. Mr. Carlos Gustavo Arrieta Padilla, former Judge of the Council of State of Colombia, former Attorney General of Colombia and former Ambassador of Colombia to the Netherlands, as Agent; H.E. Mr. Manuel José Cepeda Espinosa, former President of the Constitutional Court of Colombia, former Permanent Delegate of Colombia to UNESCO and former Ambassador of Colombia to the Swiss Confederation, as Co-Agent; - 7 - H.E. Ms Marta Lucía Ramírez Blanco, Vice-President and Minister for Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Colombia, H.E. Mr. Everth Hawkins Sjogreen, Governor of San Andrés, Providencia and Santa Catalina, Colombia, as National Authorities; Mr. W. Michael Reisman, McDougal Professor of International Law at Yale University, member of the Institut de droit international, Mr. Rodman R. Bundy, former avocat à la Cour d’appel de Paris, member of the Bar of the State of New York, partner at Squire Patton Boggs LLP, Sir Michael Wood, KCMG, member of the International Law Commission, member of the Bar of England and Wales, Mr. Eduardo Valencia-Ospina, former Registrar and Deputy-Registrar of the International Court of Justice, member and former Special Rapporteur and Chairman of the International Law Commission, former President of the Latin American Society of International Law, Mr. Jean-Marc Thouvenin, Professor at the University Paris Nanterre, Secretary-General of the Hague Academy of International Law, associate member of the Institut de droit international, member of the Paris Bar, Sygna Partners, Ms Laurence Boisson de Chazournes, Professor of International Law and International Organization at the University of Geneva, member of the Institut de droit international, H.E. Mr. Kent Francis James, former Ambassador of Colombia to Belize, former Ambassador of Colombia to Jamaica, as Counsel and Advocates; Mr. Andrés Villegas Jaramillo, LLM, Co-ordinator, Group of Affairs before the International Court of Justice at the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Colombia, member of the Legal Sub-Commission of the Caribbean Sea Commission, Association of Caribbean States, Mr. Makane Moïse Mbengue, Professor at the University of Geneva, Director of the Department of Public International Law and International Organization, associate member of the Institut de droit international, Mr. Luke Vidal, member of the Paris Bar, Sygna Partners, Mr. Eran Sthoeger, Esq., member of the Bar of the State of New York, Adjunct Professor of International Law at Brooklyn Law School and Seton Hall Law School, Mr. Alvin Yap, Advocate and Solicitor of the Supreme Court of Singapore, Squire Patton Boggs LLP, Mr. Lorenzo Palestini, PhD, Lecturer at the Graduate Institute of International and Development Studies and at the University of Geneva, as Counsel; - 8 - H.E. Mr. Juan José Quintana Aranguren, Head of Multilateral Affairs, former Ambassador of Colombia to the Netherlands, H.E. Mr. Fernando Antonio Grillo Rubiano, Ambassador of the Republic of Colombia to the Kingdom of the Netherlands and Permanent Representative of Colombia to the Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons, Ms Jenny Sharyne Bowie Wilches, Second Secretary, Embassy of Colombia in the Netherlands, Ms Viviana Andrea Medina Cruz, Second Secretary, Embassy of Colombia in the Netherlands, Mr. Sebastián Correa Cruz, Third Secretary, Embassy of Colombia in the Netherlands, Mr. Raúl Alfonso Simancas Gómez, Third Secretary, Group of Affairs before the International Court of Justice, as representatives of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Colombia; Rear Admiral Ernesto Segovia Forero, Chief of Naval Operations, CN Hermann León, Delegate of Colombia to the International Maritime Organization, CN William Pedroza, National Navy of Colombia, Director of Maritime and Fluvial Interests Office, as representatives of the Navy of Colombia; Mr. Scott Edmonds, Cartographer, Director of International Mapping, Ms Victoria Taylor, Cartographer, International Mapping, as Technical Advisers; Mr. Gershon Hasin, LLM, JSD, Yale Law School, as Legal Assistant; Mr. Mark Taylor Archbold, Consultant for the National Unit of Disaster Risk Management, Mr. Joseph Richard Jessie Martinez, Consultant for the National Unit of Disaster Risk Management, as Advisers, - 9 - THE COURT, composed as above, after deliberation, delivers the following Judgment: 1. On 26 November 2013, the Government of the Republic of Nicaragua (hereinafter “Nicaragua”) filed in the Registry of the Court an Application instituting proceedings against the Republic of Colombia (hereinafter “Colombia”) concerning a dispute in relation to “the violations of Nicaragua’s sovereign rights and maritime zones declared by the Court’s Judgment of 19 November 2012 [in the case concerning Territorial and Maritime Dispute (Nicaragua v. Colombia)] and the threat of the use of force by Colombia in order to implement these violations”. 2. In its Application, Nicaragua sought to found the jurisdiction of the Court on Article XXXI of the American Treaty on Pacific Settlement signed on 30 April 1948, officially designated, according to Article LX thereof, as the “Pact of Bogotá” (hereinafter referred to as such). 3. The Registrar immediately communicated the Application to the Colombian Government, in accordance with Article 40, paragraph 2, of the Statute of the Court. He also notified the Secretary-General of the United Nations of the filing of the Application by Nicaragua. 4. Pursuant to Article 40, paragraph 3, of the Statute of the Court, the Registrar subsequently notified the Members of the United Nations, through the Secretary-General, of the filing of the Application, by transmission of the printed bilingual text. 5. Since the Court included upon the Bench no judge of the nationality of either Party, each Party proceeded to exercise the right conferred upon it by Article 31, paragraph 3, of the Statute of the Court to choose a judge ad hoc to sit in the case. Nicaragua first chose Mr. Gilbert Guillaume, who resigned on 8 September 2015, and subsequently Mr. Yves Daudet. Colombia first chose Mr. David Caron and subsequently, following the death of Mr. Caron, Mr. Donald McRae. 6. By an Order of 3 February 2014, the Court fixed 3 October 2014 and 3 June 2015 as the respective time-limits for the filing of a Memorial by Nicaragua and a Counter-Memorial by Colombia. Nicaragua filed its Memorial within the time-limit thus fixed. 7. On 19 December 2014, within the time-limit prescribed by Article 79, paragraph 1, of the Rules of Court of 14 April 1978 as amended on 1 February 2001, Colombia raised preliminary objections to the jurisdiction of the Court. Consequently, by an Order of 19 December 2014, the President noted that, by virtue of Article 79, paragraph 5, of the Rules of Court of 14 April 1978 as amended on 1 February 2001, the proceedings on the merits were suspended and, taking account of Practice Direction V, fixed 20 April 2015 as the time-limit for the presentation by Nicaragua of a written statement of its observations and submissions on the preliminary objections raised by Colombia. Nicaragua filed its statement within the prescribed time-limit. - 10 - 8. Pursuant to the instructions of the Court under Article 43, paragraph 1, of the Rules of Court, the Registrar addressed to States parties to the Pact of Bogotá the notification provided for in Article 63, paragraph 1, of the Statute of the Court. In accordance with the provisions of Article 69, paragraph 3, of the Rules of Court, the Registrar also addressed to the Organization of American States (hereinafter the “OAS”) the notification provided for in Article 34, paragraph 3, of the Statute of the Court and, as provided for in Article 69, paragraph 3, of the Rules of Court, asked that Organization whether or not it intended to furnish observations in writing. The Registrar further stated that, in view of the fact that the current phase of the proceedings related solely to the question of jurisdiction, any written observations should be limited to that question. By letter dated 16 June 2015, the Secretary-General of the OAS indicated that the Organization did not intend to submit any such observations. 9. Referring to Article 53, paragraph 1, of the Rules of Court, the Government of the Republic of Chile (hereinafter “Chile”) asked to be furnished with copies of the pleadings and documents annexed in the case. Having ascertained the views of the Parties in accordance with that same provision, the President of the Court decided to grant that request. The Registrar duly communicated that decision to the Government of Chile and to the Parties. Copies of Nicaragua’s Application and Memorial and of Colombia’s preliminary objections were therefore communicated to Chile. A copy of Nicaragua’s written statement of its observations and submissions on the said preliminary objections was also subsequently transmitted to Chile. 10. Pursuant to the same provision of the Rules, the Government of the Republic of Panama (hereinafter “Panama”) also asked to be furnished with copies of the pleadings and documents annexed in the case. Taking into account the views of the Parties, the Court decided that copies of the preliminary objections raised by Colombia and of Nicaragua’s written statement of its observations and submissions on those objections would be made available to the Government of Panama. The Court decided, however, that it would not be appropriate to furnish Panama with a copy of Nicaragua’s Memorial. The Registrar duly communicated that decision to the Government of Panama and to the Parties. 11. Public hearings on the preliminary objections raised by Colombia were held from 28 September to 2 October 2015. In its Judgment of 17 March 2016 (hereinafter the “2016 Judgment”), the Court found that it had jurisdiction, on the basis of Article XXXI of the Pact of Bogotá, to entertain the dispute between Nicaragua and Colombia regarding the alleged violations by Colombia of Nicaragua’s rights in the maritime zones which, according to Nicaragua, the Court declared in its aforementioned Judgment of 19 November 2012 appertain to Nicaragua. The Court upheld a preliminary objection raised by Colombia in so far as it concerned the existence of a dispute regarding alleged violations by Colombia of its obligation not to use force or threaten to use force. 12. By an Order of 17 March 2016, the Court fixed 17 November 2016 as the new time-limit for the filing of the Counter-Memorial of Colombia; that pleading was filed within the time-limit thus prescribed. In Part III of its Counter-Memorial, Colombia, making reference to Article 80 of the Rules of Court, submitted four counter-claims. 13. Referring to Article 53, paragraph 1, of the Rules of Court, the Government of Panama asked to be furnished with copies of the pleadings and documents annexed in the case on the merits. Having ascertained the views of the Parties in accordance with the same provision, the President of the Court granted that request. However, further to a specific request received from the Agent of - 11 - Colombia, the President decided that the copies of the Counter-Memorial being furnished would not include Annexes 28 to 61, which Colombia claimed were “classified as reserved for reasons of national security” under its domestic legislation. The Registrar duly communicated these decisions to the Government of Panama and to the Parties. A copy of Colombia’s Counter-Memorial, not including Annexes 28 to 61, was also made available to the Government of Chile (see paragraph 9 above). 14. At a meeting held by the President of the Court with the representatives of the Parties on 19 January 2017, Nicaragua indicated that it considered the counter-claims contained in the Counter-Memorial of Colombia to be inadmissible. By letters dated 20 January 2017, the Registrar informed the Parties that the Court had decided that the Government of Nicaragua should specify in writing, by 20 April 2017 at the latest, the legal grounds on which it relied in maintaining that the Respondent’s counter-claims were inadmissible, and that the Government of Colombia should present its own views on the question in writing, by 20 July 2017 at the latest. Nicaragua and Colombia submitted their written observations on the admissibility of Colombia’s counter-claims within the time-limits thus fixed. 15. In its Order of 15 November 2017, the Court found that the first two counter-claims submitted by Colombia were inadmissible as such and did not form part of the current proceedings, and that the third and fourth counter-claims submitted by Colombia were admissible as such and did form part of the current proceedings. In its third counter-claim, Colombia asserts that Nicaragua has “failed to respect the traditional and historic fishing rights of the inhabitants of the San Andrés Archipelago, including the indigenous Raizal people, in the waters to which they are entitled to said rights”. The fourth counter-claim relates to the adoption by Nicaragua of Decree No. 33-2013 of 19 August 2013 (hereinafter “Decree 33”), which, according to Colombia, established straight baselines that are contrary to international law and violate Colombia’s maritime rights and spaces. By the same Order, the Court directed Nicaragua to submit a Reply and Colombia to submit a Rejoinder relating to the claims of both Parties in the current proceedings, and fixed 15 May and 15 November 2018 as the respective time-limits for the filing of those pleadings. The Reply of Nicaragua and the Rejoinder of Colombia were filed within the time-limits thus fixed. 16. By an Order dated 4 December 2018, the Court authorized the submission by Nicaragua of an additional pleading relating solely to the counter-claims submitted by Colombia and fixed 4 March 2019 as the time-limit for the filing of that written pleading. The additional pleading was filed by Nicaragua within the prescribed time-limit. 17. By letter (with 19 annexes) dated 23 September 2019, the Agent of Nicaragua, alleging various “incidents involving the Colombian navy that took place in Nicaraguan waters”, requested, on behalf of his Government, the authorization of the Court, pursuant to Article 56 of its Rules, for the annexed documentation to “be included in the formal record of the case”. In accordance with Article 56, paragraph 1, of the Rules of Court, copies of the above-mentioned documents were communicated to the other Party, which was requested to inform the Court of any observations that it might wish to make with regard to the production of those documents. By letter dated 3 October 2019, the Agent of Colombia informed the Court that his Government “d[id] not consent to the request by Nicaragua” to produce 19 new documents, and provided the reasons why his Government considered that the request did not meet the requirements under either Article 56 of the Rules of Court or Practice Direction IX, paragraph 3. On 15 October 2019, the Court authorized the - 12 - production of the above-mentioned documents by Nicaragua and gave Colombia the opportunity to comment, by 16 December 2019, on the documents thus produced by Nicaragua and to submit documents in support of its comments. Colombia transmitted to the Court its comments on the new documents produced by Nicaragua, as well as documents and audio-visual material in support of those comments, within the time-limit thus fixed. 18. By letter (with four annexes) dated 30 July 2021, the Agent of Nicaragua requested, on behalf of his Government, the authorization of the Court, pursuant to Article 56 of its Rules, for the annexed documentation to “be added to the formal record of the case”. In accordance with Article 56, paragraph 1, of the Rules of Court, copies of the above-mentioned documents were communicated to the other Party, which was requested to inform the Court of any observations that it might wish to make with regard to the production of those documents. By letter dated 16 August 2021, the Co-Agent of Colombia stated that his Government “object[ed] to their production and request[ed] the Court to deny Nicaragua’s request”, and provided the reasons why his Government considered that the request did not meet the requirements under either Article 56 of the Rules of Court or Practice Direction IX, paragraphs 1, 2 and 3. By a letter dated 17 August 2021, the Agent of Nicaragua submitted comments of his Government on Colombia’s observations. By letter dated 18 August 2021, the Co-Agent of Colombia provided further observations of his Government on Nicaragua’s request. On 1 September 2021, the Court authorized the production of two of the four new documents and gave Colombia the opportunity to comment, by 9 September 2021, on the documents thus produced by Nicaragua and to submit documents in support of its comments. Colombia transmitted to the Court its comments on the new documents produced by Nicaragua, as well as documents in support of those comments, within the time-limit thus fixed. 19. Pursuant to Article 53, paragraph 2, of its Rules, the Court, after ascertaining the views of the Parties, decided that copies of the written pleadings and documents annexed would be made accessible to the public, with the exception of certain annexes to, and figures included in, Colombia’s written pleadings. In particular, the Court acceded to Colombia’s request that these materials not be made accessible to the public on the basis that, under Colombian legislation, they are classified as secret or reserved for reasons of national security. The Parties were informed that, while, during the hearings, they were free to refer to the titles of these confidential documents as they appeared in the list of annexes, they were not to read out quotations from them nor display slides showing all or part of them. With the exception of the above-mentioned confidential materials, and in accordance with the Court’s practice, all pleadings and documents annexed were placed on the Court’s website. 20. Public hearings were held on 20, 22, 24, 27 and 29 September and on 1 October 2021. The oral proceedings were conducted in a hybrid format, in accordance with Article 59, paragraph 2, of the Rules of Court and on the basis of the Court’s Guidelines for the parties on the organization of hearings by video link, adopted on 13 July 2020 and communicated to the Parties on 21 July 2021. During the oral proceedings, a number of judges were present in the Great Hall of Justice, while others joined the proceedings via video link, allowing them to view and hear the speaker and see any demonstrative exhibits displayed. Each Party was permitted to have up to four representatives present in the Great Hall of Justice and up to five other representatives in an additional room in the Peace Palace equipped with the necessary facilities to follow the proceedings remotely. The remaining members of each Party’s delegation were given the opportunity to participate via video link from other locations of their choice. - 13 - 21. During the above-mentioned hearings, the Court heard the oral arguments and replies of: For Nicaragua: H.E. Mr. Carlos José Argüello Gómez, Mr. Alain Pellet, Mr. Paul Reichler, Mr. Vaughan Lowe, Mr. Lawrence Martin, Mr. Alex Oude Elferink. For Colombia: H.E. Mr. Manuel José Cepeda Espinosa, H.E. Mr. Kent Francis James, Sir Michael Wood, Ms Laurence Boisson de Chazournes, Mr. Rodman Bundy, Mr. Michael Reisman, Mr. Eduardo Valencia-Ospina, Mr. Jean-Marc Thouvenin, H.E. Mr. Carlos Gustavo Arrieta Padilla. * 22. In the Application, the following claims were made by Nicaragua: “On the basis of the foregoing statement of facts and law, Nicaragua, while reserving the right to supplement, amend or modify this Application, requests the Court to adjudge and declare that Colombia is in breach of:  its obligation not to use or threaten to use force under Article 2 (4) of the UN Charter and international customary law;  its obligation not to violate Nicaragua’s maritime zones as delimited in paragraph 251 of the ICJ Judgment of 19 November 2012 as well as Nicaragua’s sovereign rights and jurisdiction in these zones;  its obligation not to violate Nicaragua’s rights under customary international law as reflected in Parts V and VI of UNCLOS;  and that, consequently, Colombia is bound to comply with the Judgment of 19 November 2012, wipe out the legal and material consequences of its internationally wrongful acts, and make full reparation for the harm caused by those acts.” 23. In the written proceedings, the following submissions were presented by the Parties: On behalf of the Government of Nicaragua, - 14 - in the Memorial: “1. For the reasons given in the present Memorial, the Republic of Nicaragua requests the Court to adjudge and declare that, by its conduct, the Republic of Colombia has breached: (a) its obligation not to violate Nicaragua’s maritime zones as delimited in paragraph 251 of the Court Judgment of 19 November 2012 as well as Nicaragua’s sovereign rights and jurisdiction in these zones; (b) its obligation not to use or threaten to use force under Article 2 (4) of the UN Charter and international customary law; (c) and that, consequently, Colombia has the obligation to wipe out the legal and material consequences of its internationally wrongful acts, and make full reparation for the harm caused by those acts. 2. Nicaragua also requests the Court to adjudge and declare that Colombia must: (a) Cease all its continuing internationally wrongful acts that affect or are likely to affect the rights of Nicaragua. (b) Inasmuch as possible, restore the situation to the status quo ante, in (i) revoking laws and regulations enacted by Colombia, which are incompatible with the Court’s Judgment of 19 November 2012 including the provisions in the Decrees 1946 of 9 September 2013 and 1119 of 17 June 2014 to maritime areas which have been recognized as being under the jurisdiction or sovereign rights of Nicaragua; (ii) revoking permits granted to fishing vessels operating in Nicaraguan waters; and (iii) ensuring that the decision of the Constitutional Court of Colombia of 2 May 2014 or of any other National Authority will not bar compliance with the 19 November 2012 Judgment of the Court. (c) Compensate for all damages caused insofar as they are not made good by restitution, including loss of profits resulting from the loss of investment caused by the threatening statements of Colombia’s highest authorities, including the threat or use of force by the Colombian Navy against Nicaraguan fishing boats [or ships exploring and exploiting the soil and subsoil of Nicaragua’s continental shelf] and third state fishing boats licensed by Nicaragua as well as from the exploitation of Nicaraguan waters by fishing vessels unlawfully ‘authorized’ by Colombia, with the amount of the compensation to be determined in a subsequent phase of the case. (d) Give appropriate guarantees of non-repetition of its internationally wrongful acts.” - 15 - in the Reply: “1. For the reasons given in Chapters II to V of the present Reply, the Republic of Nicaragua requests the Court to adjudge and declare that: (a) By its conduct, the Republic of Colombia has breached its international obligation to respect Nicaragua’s maritime zones as delimited in paragraph 251 of the Court Judgment of 19 November 2012 as well as Nicaragua’s sovereign rights and jurisdiction in these zones; and that, in consequence (b) Colombia must immediately cease its internationally wrongful conduct in Nicaragua’s maritime zones, as delimited by the Court in its Judgment of 19 November 2012, including its violations of Nicaragua’s sovereign rights and jurisdiction in those maritime zones; (c) Colombia must revoke, by means of its choice, all laws and regulations which are incompatible with the Court’s Judgment of 19 November 2012, including the provisions in Decrees 1946 of 9 September 2013 and 1119 of 17 June 2014 on maritime areas which have been recognized as under the jurisdiction or sovereign rights of Nicaragua; (d) Colombia must revoke permits granted to fishing vessels operating in Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone, as delimited in the Court’s Judgment of 19 November 2012; (e) Colombia must ensure that the decision of the Constitutional Court of Colombia of 2 May 2014 or of any other National Authority will not bar compliance with the 19 November 2012 Judgment of the Court; (f) Colombia must compensate Nicaragua for all damages caused by its violations of its international legal obligations, including but not limited to damages caused by the exploitation of the living resources of the Nicaraguan exclusive economic zone by fishing vessels unlawfully ‘authorized’ by Colombia to operate in that zone, and the loss of revenue caused by Colombia’s refusal to allow, or by its deterrence of, fishing by Nicaraguan vessels or third State vessels authorized by Nicaragua and, generally, for the damages caused by its actions and declarations to the proper exploitation of the resources in Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone, with the amount of the compensation to be determined in a subsequent phase of the case; and (g) Colombia must give appropriate guarantees of non-repetition of its internationally wrongful acts. 2. For the reasons given in Chapters VI and VII of this Reply, the Republic of Nicaragua requests the Court to adjudge and declare that the Counter-Claims of Colombia are rejected.” - 16 - On behalf of the Government of Colombia, in the Counter-Memorial: “I. For the reasons stated in this Counter-Memorial, the Republic of Colombia respectfully requests the Court to reject the submissions of the Republic of Nicaragua in its Memorial of 3 October 2014 and to adjudge and declare that 1. Nicaragua has failed to prove that any Colombian naval or coast guard vessel has violated Nicaragua’s sovereign rights and maritime spaces in the Caribbean Sea; 2. Colombia has not, otherwise, violated Nicaragua’s sovereign rights and maritime spaces in the Caribbean Sea; 3. Colombia’s Decree 1946 of 9 September 2013 establishing an Integral Contiguous Zone is lawful under international law and does not constitute a violation of any of Nicaragua’s sovereign rights and maritime spaces, considering that: (a) The Integral Contiguous Zone produced by the naturally overlapping concentric circles forming the contiguous zones of the islands of San Andrés, Providencia, Santa Catalina, Alburquerque Cays, East-Southeast Cays, Roncador, Serrana, Quitasueño and Serranilla and joined by geodetic lines connecting the outermost points of the overlapping concentric circles is, in the circumstances, lawful under international law; (b) The powers enumerated in the Decree are consistent with international law; and 4. No Colombian action in its Integral Contiguous Zone of which Nicaragua complains is a violation of international law or of Nicaragua’s sovereign rights and maritime spaces. II. Further, the Republic of Colombia respectfully requests the Court to adjudge and declare that 5. Nicaragua has infringed Colombia’s sovereign rights and maritime spaces in the Caribbean Sea by failing to prevent its flag or licensed vessels from fishing in Colombia’s waters; 6. Nicaragua has infringed Colombia’s sovereign rights and maritime spaces in the Caribbean Sea by failing to prevent its flag or licensed vessels from engaging in predatory and unlawful fishing methods in violation of its international obligations; 7. Nicaragua has infringed Colombia’s sovereign rights and maritime spaces by failing to fulfil its international legal obligations with respect to the environment in areas of the Caribbean Sea to which said obligations apply; 8. Nicaragua has failed to respect the traditional and historic fishing rights of the inhabitants of the San Andrés Archipelago, including the indigenous Raizal people, in the waters to which they are entitled to said rights; and - 17 - 9. Nicaragua’s Decree No. 33-2013 of 19 August 2013 establishing straight baselines violates international law and Colombia’s maritime rights and spaces. III. The Court is further requested to order Nicaragua 10. With regard to submissions 5 to 8: (a) To desist promptly from its violations of international law; (b) To compensate Colombia for all damages caused, including loss of profits, resulting from Nicaragua’s violations of its international obligations, with the amount and form of compensation to be determined at a subsequent phase of the proceedings; and (c) To give Colombia appropriate guarantees of non-repetition. 11. With regard to submission 8, in particular, to ensure that the inhabitants of the San Andrés Archipelago enjoy unfettered access to the waters to which their traditional and historic fishing rights pertain; and 12. With regard to submission 9, to adjust its Decree No. 33-2013 of 19 August 2013 in order that it complies with the rules of international law concerning the drawing of the baselines from which the breadth of the territorial sea is measured. IV. Colombia reserves its right to supplement or amend these submissions.” in the Rejoinder: “I. For the reasons stated in its Counter-Memorial and Rejoinder, the Republic of Colombia respectfully requests the Court to reject each of the submissions of the Republic of Nicaragua, and to adjudge and declare that 1. Colombia has not in any manner violated Nicaragua’s sovereign rights or maritime spaces in the Southwestern Caribbean Sea. 2. Colombia’s Decree No. 1946 of 9 September 2013 (as amended by Decree No. 1119 of 17 June 2014) has not given rise to any violation of Nicaragua’s sovereign rights or maritime spaces. (a) There is nothing in international law that precludes the contiguous zone of one State from overlapping with the exclusive economic zone of another State; (b) The geodetic lines established in the Decree connecting the outermost points of Colombia’s contiguous zone do not violate international law; (c) The specific powers concerning the contiguous zone enumerated in the Decree do not violate international law; (d) No Colombian action in the contiguous zone has given rise to any violation of Nicaragua’s sovereign rights or maritime spaces. - 18 - II. Further, the Republic of Colombia respectfully requests the Court to adjudge and declare that 3. The inhabitants of the San Andrés Archipelago, in particular the Raizales, enjoy traditional fishing rights in maritime areas adjudicated to appertain to Nicaragua. 4. Nicaragua has violated the traditional fishing rights of the inhabitants of the San Andrés Archipelago. 5. Nicaragua’s straight baselines established in Decree No. 33-2013 of 19 August 2013 are contrary to international law and violate Colombia’s sovereign rights and maritime spaces. III. The Court is further requested to order Nicaragua 6. With regard to submissions 3 and 4, to ensure that the inhabitants of the San Andrés Archipelago engaged in traditional fishing enjoy unfettered access to: (a) Their traditional fishing banks located in the maritime areas adjudicated to appertain to Nicaragua; (b) The banks located in Colombian maritime areas, access to which requires navigating through the maritime areas adjudicated to appertain to Nicaragua. 7. To compensate Colombia for all damages caused, including loss of profits, resulting from Nicaragua’s violations of its international obligations, with the amount and form of compensation to be determined at a subsequent phase of the proceedings. 8. To give Colombia appropriate guarantees of non-repetition.” 24. At the oral proceedings, the following submissions were presented by the Parties: On behalf of the Government of Nicaragua, at the hearing of 27 September 2021, on the claims of Nicaragua: “In the case concerning Alleged Violations of Sovereign Rights and Maritime Spaces in the Caribbean Sea (Nicaragua v. Colombia), for the reasons explained in the Written and Oral phase, Nicaragua respectfully requests the Court to adjudge and declare that: (a) By its conduct, the Republic of Colombia has breached its international obligation to respect Nicaragua’s maritime zones as delimited in paragraph 251 of the Court Judgment of 19 November 2012, as well as Nicaragua’s sovereign rights and jurisdiction in these zones; and that, in consequence - 19 - (b) Colombia must immediately cease its internationally wrongful conduct in Nicaragua’s maritime zones, as delimited by the Court in its Judgment of 19 November 2012, including its violations of Nicaragua’s sovereign rights and jurisdiction in those maritime zones and take all necessary measures effectively to respect Nicaragua’s sovereign rights and jurisdiction; these measures include but are not limited to revoking, by means of its choice: (i) all laws and regulations, permits, licences, and other legal instruments which are incompatible with the Court’s Judgment of 19 November 2012, including those related to marine protected areas; (ii) the provisions of Decrees 1946 of 9 September 2013 and 1119 of 17 June 2014 in so far as they relate to maritime areas which have been recognized as under the jurisdiction or sovereign rights of Nicaragua; and (iii) permits granted to fishing vessels to operate in Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone, as delimited in the Court’s Judgment of 19 November 2012; (c) Colombia must ensure that the decision of the Constitutional Court of Colombia of 2 May 2014 or of any other National Authority will not bar compliance with the 19 November 2012 Judgment of the Court; (d) Colombia must compensate Nicaragua for all damage caused by its violations of its international legal obligations, including but not limited to damages caused by the exploitation of the living resources of the Nicaraguan exclusive economic zone by fishing vessels unlawfully ‘authorized’ by Colombia to operate in that zone, and the loss of revenue caused by Colombia’s refusal to allow, or by its deterrence of, fishing by Nicaraguan vessels or third State vessels authorized by Nicaragua and, generally, for the damages caused by its actions and declarations to the proper exploitation of the resources in Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone, with the amount of the compensation to be determined in a subsequent phase of the case; and (e) Colombia must give appropriate guarantees of non-repetition of its internationally wrongful acts, including by formally acknowledging that the boundary as delimited by the Court in its Judgment of 19 November 2012 will be respected as the international maritime boundary between Colombia and Nicaragua. (f) Nicaragua also requests that the Court adjudge and declare that it will remain seised of the case until Colombia recognizes and respects Nicaragua’s rights in the Caribbean Sea as attributed by the Judgment of the Court of 19 November 2012.” at the hearing of 1 October 2021, on the counter-claims of Colombia: “In the case concerning Alleged Violations of Sovereign Rights and Maritime Spaces in the Caribbean Sea (Nicaragua v. Colombia), for the reasons explained in the - 20 - Written and Oral phase, Nicaragua respectfully requests the Court to adjudge and declare that the counter-claims of the Republic of Colombia are rejected with all legal consequences.” On behalf of the Government of Colombia, at the hearing of 29 September 2021, on the claims of Nicaragua and the counter-claims of Colombia: “I. For the reasons stated in its written and oral pleadings, the Republic of Colombia respectfully requests the Court to reject each of the Submissions of the Republic of Nicaragua, and to adjudge and declare that 1. Colombia has not in any manner violated Nicaragua’s sovereign rights or maritime spaces in the Southwestern Caribbean Sea. 2. Colombia’s Decree No. 1946 of 9 September 2013 (as amended by Decree No. 1119 of 17 June 2014) has not given rise to any violation of Nicaragua’s sovereign rights or maritime spaces. (a) There is nothing in international law that precludes the contiguous zone of one State from overlapping with the exclusive economic zone of another State; (b) The geodetic lines established in the Decree connecting the outermost points of Colombia’s contiguous zone do not violate international law; (c) The specific powers concerning the contiguous zone enumerated in the Decree do not violate international law; (d) No Colombian action in the contiguous zone has given rise to any violation of Nicaragua’s sovereign rights or maritime spaces. II. Further, the Republic of Colombia respectfully requests the Court to adjudge and declare that 3. The inhabitants of the San Andrés Archipelago, in particular the Raizales, enjoy artisanal fishing rights in the traditional fishing grounds located beyond the territorial sea of the islands of the San Andrés Archipelago. 4. Nicaragua has violated the traditional fishing rights of the inhabitants of the San Andrés Archipelago. 5. Nicaragua’s straight baselines established in Decree No. 33-2013 of 19 August 2013 are contrary to international law and violate Colombia’s rights and maritime spaces. III. The Court is further requested to order Nicaragua 6. With regard to submissions 3 and 4, to ensure that the inhabitants of the San Andrés Archipelago engaged in traditional fishing enjoy unfettered access to: - 21 - (a) Their traditional fishing banks located in the maritime areas beyond the territorial sea of the islands of the San Andrés Archipelago; and, (b) The banks located in Colombian maritime areas when access to them requires navigating outside the territorial sea of the islands of the San Andrés Archipelago. 7. To compensate Colombia for all damages caused, including loss of profits, resulting from Nicaragua’s violations of its international obligations. 8. To give Colombia appropriate guarantees of non-repetition.” * * * I. GENERAL BACKGROUND 25. The maritime areas with which the present proceedings are concerned are located in the Caribbean Sea, an arm of the Atlantic Ocean partially enclosed to the north and east by a number of islands, and bounded to the south and west by South and Central America. Nicaragua’s eastern coast faces the south-western part of the Caribbean Sea. To the north of Nicaragua lies Honduras and to the south lie Costa Rica and Panama. To the north-east, Nicaragua faces Jamaica, and to the east, it faces the mainland coast of Colombia. Colombia is situated to the south of the Caribbean Sea. In terms of its Caribbean front, Colombia is bordered to the west by Panama and to the east by Venezuela. The Colombian islands of San Andrés, Providencia and Santa Catalina lie in the south-west of the Caribbean Sea, approximately 100 to 150 nautical miles to the east of the Nicaraguan coast. (For the general geography of the area, see sketch-map No. 1.) 26. In the Judgment rendered by the Court on 19 November 2012 in the case concerning Territorial and Maritime Dispute (Nicaragua v. Colombia) (hereinafter the “2012 Judgment”), the Court decided that Colombia had sovereignty over the islands at Alburquerque, Bajo Nuevo, East-Southeast Cays, Quitasueño, Roncador, Serrana and Serranilla (I.C.J. Reports 2012 (II), p. 718, para. 251, subpara. (1)). The Court also established a single maritime boundary delimiting the continental shelf and the exclusive economic zones of Nicaragua and Colombia up to the 200-nautical-mile limit from the baselines from which the territorial sea of Nicaragua is measured (ibid., pp. 719-720, para. 251, subpara. (4)). The Court, however, noted in its reasoning that, since Nicaragua had not yet notified the Secretary-General of the United Nations of the location of those baselines under Article 16, paragraph 2, of the 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (hereinafter “UNCLOS” or the “Convention”), the precise location of the eastern endpoints of the maritime boundary could not be determined and was therefore depicted on the sketch-map only approximately (ibid., p. 713, para. 237). (For the course of the maritime boundary established by the Court in its 2012 Judgment, see sketch-map No. 2.) - 22 - SKETCH-MAP NO. 1: GENERAL GEOGRAPHY - 23 - SKETCH-MAP NO. 2 : COURSE OF THE MARITIME BOUNDARY ESTABLISHED BY THE COURT IN ITS 2012 JUDGMENT - 24 - 27. The Court notes that, in the present case, the Parties refer to the “San Andrés Archipelago”. In this regard, the Court recalls that it addressed the question of the composition of the Archipelago in its 2012 Judgment but left open the question whether certain features are part of the Archipelago, a matter on which the Parties disagreed. In particular, the Court observed that the Treaty concerning Territorial Questions at Issue between Colombia and Nicaragua, signed at Managua on 24 March 1928 (hereinafter the “1928 Treaty”), had not specified the composition of the San Andrés Archipelago and noted that the question about the composition of the Archipelago could not be definitively answered solely on the basis of the geographical location of the maritime features in dispute or of historical records. However, the Court acknowledged that the 1928 Treaty could be understood as including at least the maritime features closest to San Andrés, Providencia and Santa Catalina. The Court held that “[a]ccordingly, the Alburquerque Cays and East-Southeast Cays, given their geographical location (lying 20 and 16 nautical miles, respectively, from San Andrés island) could be seen as forming part of the Archipelago”. By contrast, in view of considerations of distance, the Court considered that it was less likely that Serranilla and Bajo Nuevo could form part of the Archipelago. The Court further stated that it did not consider that “the express exclusion of Roncador, Quitasueño and Serrana from the scope of the 1928 Treaty [was] in itself sufficient to determine whether these features were considered by Nicaragua and Colombia to be part of the San Andrés Archipelago” (see Territorial and Maritime Dispute (Nicaragua v. Colombia), I.C.J. Reports 2012 (II), pp. 648-649, paras. 52-56). 28. In the present case, Nicaragua alleges that Colombia has violated Nicaragua’s sovereign rights and jurisdiction in Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone in various ways. First, it contends that Colombia has interfered with Nicaraguan-flagged or Nicaraguan-licensed fishing and marine scientific research vessels in this maritime zone in a series of incidents involving Colombian naval vessels and aircraft. Nicaragua also claims that Colombia repeatedly directed its naval frigates and military aircraft to obstruct the Nicaraguan Navy in the exercise of its mission in Nicaraguan waters. Secondly, Nicaragua states that Colombia has granted permits for fishing and authorizations for marine scientific research in Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone to Colombians and nationals of third States. Thirdly, Nicaragua alleges that Colombia has violated its exclusive sovereign right to explore and exploit natural resources by offering and awarding hydrocarbon blocks encompassing parts of Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone. 29. Nicaragua further objects to Presidential Decree No. 1946 of 9 September 2013, as amended by Decree No. 1119 of 17 June 2014 (hereinafter “Presidential Decree 1946”), whereby Colombia established an “integral contiguous zone”, which “ostensibly unified the maritime ‘contiguous zones’ of all of Colombia’s islands, keys and other maritime features in the area”. Nicaragua claims that the “integral contiguous zone” overlaps with waters attributed by the Court to Nicaragua as its exclusive economic zone and therefore “substantially transgresses areas subject to Nicaragua’s exclusive sovereign rights and jurisdiction”. Nicaragua further claims that the Decree violates customary international law and that its mere enactment engages Colombia’s international responsibility. 30. In its counter-claims, Colombia first asserts that the inhabitants of the San Andrés Archipelago, in particular the Raizales, enjoy artisanal fishing rights in the traditional fishing banks located beyond the territorial sea of the islands of the San Andrés Archipelago. It contends that Nicaragua has infringed the traditional fishing rights of the inhabitants of the San Andrés Archipelago to access their traditional fishing banks located in the maritime areas beyond the territorial sea of the islands of the San Andrés Archipelago and those banks located in the Colombian maritime areas, access to which requires navigating outside the territorial sea of the islands of the San Andrés Archipelago. - 25 - 31. Secondly, Colombia challenges the lawfulness of Nicaragua’s straight baselines established by Decree 33 (see paragraph 15 above). More specifically, Colombia contends that the straight baselines, which connect a series of maritime features appertaining to Nicaragua east of its continental coast in the Caribbean Sea, have the effect of pushing the external limit of its territorial sea far east of the 12-nautical-mile limit permitted by international law, expanding Nicaragua’s internal waters, territorial sea, exclusive economic zone and continental shelf. According to Colombia, Nicaragua’s straight baselines thus directly impede the rights and jurisdiction to which Colombia is entitled in the Caribbean Sea. 32. Before examining Nicaragua’s claims and Colombia’s counter-claims, the Court will address the scope of its jurisdiction ratione temporis, an issue raised by Colombia in its Counter-Memorial. II. SCOPE OF THE JURISDICTION RATIONE TEMPORIS OF THE COURT 33. In its 2016 Judgment, the Court concluded that it had jurisdiction, on the basis of Article XXXI of the Pact of Bogotá, to entertain the dispute concerning the alleged violations by Colombia of Nicaragua’s rights in the maritime zones which, according to Nicaragua, the Court declared in its 2012 Judgment appertain to Nicaragua (Alleged Violations of Sovereign Rights and Maritime Spaces in the Caribbean Sea (Nicaragua v. Colombia), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2016 (I), p. 43, para. 111 (2)). 34. Colombia, while accepting that the Court otherwise has jurisdiction in the case, contends that “the Court lacks jurisdiction ratione temporis to consider any claims that are based on events that are alleged to have transpired after Colombia ceased to be bound by the provisions of the Pact”. It argues that, by virtue of Article XXXI of the Pact of Bogotá, the Parties recognized as compulsory the jurisdiction of the Court in all disputes of a juridical nature that arise among them concerning “[a]ny question of international law” (Article XXXI, subparagraph (b)) or “[t]he existence of any fact which, if established, would constitute the breach of an international obligation” (Article XXXI, subparagraph (c)), but only “so long as the present Treaty is in force”. 35. Colombia maintains that this view is reinforced by the 2016 Judgment, in which, according to Colombia, the Court stated that the dispute was limited to those events which allegedly occurred before the critical date. Colombia is of the view that, for the Court to have jurisdiction to consider whether facts alleged by a party in support of its claim constitute a breach of an international obligation by the other party, “those facts must have occurred during a period when a jurisdictional basis exists between the parties”. In this regard, it argues that “[j]urisdiction to deal with a dispute over the legal consequences of facts that are in existence during the period when a jurisdictional title exists is not the same thing as ruling on the legal consequences of facts that occur after a compromissory clause has lapsed” (emphasis in the original). 36. Moreover, Colombia argues that the alleged events in the present case do not amount to a continuing pattern of illegal conduct on the part of Colombia and that they do not constitute a “composite act” within the meaning of Article 15 of the International Law Commission’s Articles on the Responsibility of States for Internationally Wrongful Acts (hereinafter the “ILC Articles on State Responsibility”). It considers that the Court should adopt an “event-by-event” analysis rather than - 26 - the “pattern of conduct” approach advanced by Nicaragua. Colombia argues that Nicaragua’s contentions, if upheld, would lead to a “perverse effect” and would run counter to the Court’s jurisprudence. * 37. Nicaragua, for its part, claims that Colombia’s interpretation of Article XXXI of the Pact of Bogotá is incompatible with the text and context of that provision. Nicaragua maintains, moreover, that the effect of Colombia’s denunciation of the Pact of Bogotá under Article LVI is to prevent the Court from pronouncing on acts occurring after the termination of the treaty that would form the subject of a new dispute, distinct from the present one before the Court in respect of which it has found that it has jurisdiction. 38. Nicaragua maintains that “[t]he appropriate test for determining the existence of jurisdiction over facts occurring after the filing of an application is . . . whether the facts ‘aris[e] directly out of the question which is the subject-matter of [the] Application’”. Nicaragua argues that the events which occurred after 27 November 2013, like those which occurred before that date, arose directly out of the question which is the subject-matter of the Application. According to Nicaragua, those subsequent events, which are both composite and continuing in character, do not form a new dispute, but are manifestations of the same dispute that is presently before the Court. Moreover, Nicaragua contends that Colombia itself refers to events that occurred after the institution of the proceedings in order to support its counter-claims. * * 39. The Court recalls that, at the preliminary objection stage, Colombia’s first preliminary objection was that the Court lacked jurisdiction because Colombia had given its notice of denunciation of the Pact of Bogotá on 27 November 2012, before Nicaragua filed its Application in the present case. The Court rejected Colombia’s objection on the ground that, by virtue of Article LVI, paragraph 1, of the Pact, Article XXXI thereof, which conferred jurisdiction on the Court, remained in force between the Parties on the date that the Application in the present case was filed. The subsequent termination of the Pact of Bogotá as between Nicaragua and Colombia did not affect the jurisdiction which existed on the date when the proceedings were instituted. The question raised by Colombia in the present context concerns the interpretation of Articles XXXI and LVI of the Pact of Bogotá, which was addressed by the Court at length in the 2016 Judgment. Article XXXI states: “In conformity with Article 36, paragraph 2, of the Statute of the International Court of Justice, the High Contracting Parties declare that they recognize in relation to any other American State, the jurisdiction of the Court as compulsory ipso facto, without the necessity of any special agreement so long as the present Treaty is in force, in all disputes of a juridical nature that arise among them concerning: - 27 - a) The interpretation of a treaty; b) Any question of international law; c) The existence of any fact which, if established, would constitute the breach of an international obligation; d) The nature or extent of the reparation to be made for the breach of an international obligation.” According to Colombia, the phrase “so long as the present Treaty is in force” in Article XXXI provides a temporal limitation to Colombia’s consent to the Court’s jurisdiction over disputes as described in subparagraphs (b) and (c). It argues that the Court does not have jurisdiction over the claims based on the events that allegedly occurred after the Pact of Bogotá ceased to be in force for Colombia. 40. The Court does not consider that Colombia’s argument correctly reflects the meaning of Article XXXI. Subparagraphs (b) and (c) of that Article refer to the subject-matter of a dispute over which the Court may exercise jurisdiction (see Border and Transborder Armed Actions (Nicaragua v. Honduras), Jurisdiction and Admissibility, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1988, p. 84, para. 34). The phrase “so long as the present Treaty is in force” limits the period within which such a dispute must have arisen. Since the Court has already decided in its 2016 Judgment that there existed a dispute between the Parties that fell within the scope of Article XXXI at the time Nicaragua filed its Application, the question of consent under Article XXXI with regard to that dispute does not arise at the present stage of the proceedings. The question now before the Court is whether its jurisdiction over that dispute extends to facts or events that allegedly occurred after the lapse of the title of jurisdiction. 41. Colombia maintains that its view on the Court’s jurisdiction ratione temporis is reinforced by the 2016 Judgment, in which, according to Colombia, the Court stated that the dispute was limited to the facts that occurred before the filing of the Application. However, Colombia mischaracterizes the 2016 Judgment, in which the Court, applying its settled jurisprudence, recalled that the date at which its jurisdiction has to be established is the date on which the application is filed with the Court (Alleged Violations of Sovereign Rights and Maritime Spaces in the Caribbean Sea (Nicaragua v. Colombia), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2016 (I), p. 18, para. 33, citing Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Croatia v. Serbia), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2008, pp. 437-438, paras. 79-80, and Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Yugoslavia), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1996 (II), p. 613, para. 26). In order to determine whether the Court has jurisdiction in a particular case, it has to ascertain whether there existed a dispute between the parties on the date on which the application was filed. For that purpose, the Court’s decision must be based on the acts which allegedly occurred before that date. Contrary to what Colombia claims, the 2016 Judgment does not preclude the Court from entertaining those incidents that allegedly occurred after the filing of the application. 42. With regard to the lapse of the jurisdictional title, the Court has stated in a number of cases that, “according to its established jurisprudence, if a title of jurisdiction is shown to have existed at the date of the institution of proceedings, any subsequent lapse or withdrawal of the jurisdictional instrument is without effect on the jurisdiction of the Court” (Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Croatia v. Serbia), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2008, p. 445, para. 95; see also Alleged Violations of Sovereign Rights and Maritime Spaces in the Caribbean Sea (Nicaragua v. Colombia), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2016 (I), p. 18, para. 33; Military and Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v. United States of America), Merits, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1986, p. 28, - 28 - para. 36; Nottebohm (Liechtenstein v. Guatemala), Preliminary Objection, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1953, p. 123). There is nothing in the Court’s jurisprudence to suggest that the lapse of the jurisdictional title after the institution of proceedings has the effect of limiting the Court’s jurisdiction ratione temporis to facts which allegedly occurred before that lapse. 43. Although the question posed by Colombia has not previously been presented to the Court, considerations that have been brought to bear on the adjudication of a claim or submission made after the filing of an application can be instructive in the present case. In the view of the Court, the criteria that it has considered relevant in its jurisprudence to determine the limits ratione temporis of its jurisdiction with respect to such a claim or submission, or the admissibility thereof, should apply to the Court’s examination of the scope of its jurisdiction ratione temporis in the present case. 44. In cases involving the adjudication of a claim or submission made after the filing of the application, the question has in some cases been addressed as one of jurisdiction and, in others, as one of admissibility. The Court has in such instances considered whether such a claim or submission arose directly out of the question which is the subject-matter of the application or whether entertaining such a claim or submission would transform the subject of the dispute originally submitted to the Court (see Fisheries Jurisdiction (Federal Republic of Germany v. Iceland), Merits, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1974, p. 203, para. 72; LaGrand (Germany v. United States of America), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2001, p. 484, para. 45; Certain Phosphate Lands in Nauru (Nauru v. Australia), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1992, pp. 266-267, paras. 67 and 69-70; and Arrest Warrant of 11 April 2000 (Democratic Republic of the Congo v. Belgium), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2002, p. 16, para. 36). With regard to facts or events subsequent to the filing of the application, in Certain Questions of Mutual Assistance in Criminal Matters, the Court referred to the above jurisprudence and stated the following: “When the Court has examined its jurisdiction over facts or events subsequent to the filing of the application, it has emphasized the need to determine whether those facts or events were connected to the facts or events already falling within the Court’s jurisdiction and whether consideration of those later facts or events would transform the ‘nature of the dispute’” (Certain Questions of Mutual Assistance in Criminal Matters (Djibouti v. France), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2008, pp. 211-212, para. 87). Although the Court did not find the above criteria applicable to that case, since the matter before it concerned jurisdiction ratione materiae and not jurisdiction ratione temporis, it affirmed the relevance of criteria relating to “continuity” and “connexity” for “determining limits ratione temporis to its jurisdiction” (ibid., p. 212, para. 88). 45. In the 2016 Judgment, the Court did not address the question of jurisdiction ratione temporis with regard to those alleged incidents that occurred after the denunciation of the Pact of Bogotá came into effect. However, its Judgment implies that the Court has jurisdiction to examine every aspect of the dispute that the Court found to have existed at the time of the filing of the Application. As the Court has pointed out, “it has become an established practice for States submitting an application to the Court to reserve the right to present additional facts and legal considerations. The limit of the freedom to present such facts and considerations is ‘that the result is not to transform - 29 - the dispute brought before the Court by the application into another dispute which is different in character’ (Military and Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v. United States of America), Jurisdiction and Admissibility, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1984, p. 427, para. 80)” (Land and Maritime Boundary between Cameroon and Nigeria (Cameroon v. Nigeria), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1998, pp. 318-319, para. 99). See also Oil Platforms (Islamic Republic of Iran v. United States of America), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2003, pp. 213-214, paras. 116-118). It follows that the task of the Court is to decide whether the incidents alleged to have occurred after the lapse of the jurisdictional title meet the aforementioned criteria drawn from the Court’s jurisprudence. 46. The incidents said to have occurred after 27 November 2013 generally concern Colombian naval vessels and aircraft allegedly interfering with Nicaraguan fishing activities and marine scientific research in Nicaragua’s maritime zones, Colombia’s alleged policing operations and interference with Nicaragua’s naval vessels in Nicaragua’s maritime waters and Colombia’s alleged authorization of fishing activities and marine scientific research in Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone. These alleged incidents are of the same nature as those that allegedly occurred before 26 November 2013. They all give rise to the question whether Colombia has breached its international obligations under customary international law to respect Nicaragua’s rights in the latter’s exclusive economic zone, a question which concerns precisely the dispute over which the Court found it had jurisdiction in the 2016 Judgment. 47. In light of the foregoing considerations, the Court concludes that the claims and submissions made by Nicaragua in relation to incidents that allegedly occurred after 27 November 2013 arose directly out of the question which is the subject-matter of the Application, that those alleged incidents are connected to the alleged incidents that have already been found to fall within the Court’s jurisdiction, and that consideration of those alleged incidents does not transform the nature of the dispute between the Parties in the present case. The Court therefore has jurisdiction ratione temporis over Nicaragua’s claims relating to those alleged incidents. III. ALLEGED VIOLATIONS BY COLOMBIA OF NICARAGUA’S RIGHTS IN ITS MARITIME ZONES 48. The dispute between the Parties in the present case raises questions concerning the rights and duties of the coastal State and the rights and duties of other States in the exclusive economic zone. The Applicant and the Respondent agree that the applicable law between them is customary international law. Nicaragua is a party to UNCLOS and Colombia is not; consequently, UNCLOS is not applicable between them. The Court notes that both Parties acknowledge that a number of the provisions of UNCLOS that they refer to reflect customary international law. They disagree, however, about whether that is true of other provisions that are at issue in the present case. The Court will consider whether the particular provisions of the Convention relevant to the present case reflect customary international law when addressing Nicaragua’s claims and Colombia’s counter-claims. - 30 - A. Colombia’s contested activities in Nicaragua’s maritime zones 1. Incidents alleged by Nicaragua in the south-western Caribbean Sea 49. In its submissions, Nicaragua requests the Court to adjudge and declare that, by its conduct, Colombia has breached its international obligation to respect Nicaragua’s maritime zones as delimited by the Court in its 2012 Judgment. Nicaragua claims that, after the Court delivered its Judgment on maritime delimitation, Colombia engaged in a series of acts that violated Nicaragua’s sovereign rights and jurisdiction in Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone. Nicaragua maintains that Colombia attempted to enforce its own jurisdiction in Nicaragua’s maritime zones, including by obstructing, through both naval and aerial means, Nicaragua’s exercise of its own jurisdiction; by harassing and intimidating Nicaraguan-flagged and Nicaraguan-licensed fishing vessels; and by authorizing Colombians and nationals of third States to operate in those zones. Nicaragua also refers to instances in which it alleges that Colombia asserted its sovereignty over Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone or otherwise rejected the 2012 Judgment. 50. Nicaragua contends that Colombia must establish that the rights it claims in Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone are “attributed” to it, and not to Nicaragua, under customary international law. According to Nicaragua, the set of sovereign rights of the coastal State for the purpose of exploring and exploiting, conserving and managing natural resources in the exclusive economic zone “contains no exception or qualification that would give or preserve traditional fishing rights of artisanal fishermen”. 51. The Applicant recognizes that the Respondent enjoys, in Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone, freedoms of navigation and overflight and other internationally lawful uses of the sea related to these freedoms. It does not question Colombia’s right to take action against Colombian-flagged vessels or against a vessel suspected of drug-trafficking that a Colombian naval vessel may happen to encounter in Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone. The Applicant argues, however, that in light of the ordinary meaning of the word “navigation”, the scope of the Respondent’s freedom of navigation is limited to the passage of ships or the movement of ships on water and does not include systematic acts of “monitoring” and “tracking”. 52. The Applicant complains that the Respondent has erected and implemented a régime of surveillance and enforcement that treats Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone as if it were Colombian “national waters”. Nicaragua further argues that Colombia has no right to enforce or police environmental standards in Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone, because UNCLOS is clear in allocating jurisdiction to coastal and flag States in relation to the protection and preservation of the marine environment. * - 31 - 53. For its part, Colombia contends that in the exclusive economic zone, States other than the coastal State enjoy freedoms of navigation and overflight as well as other internationally lawful uses of the sea. According to Colombia, in assessing the lawfulness of a State’s conduct in another State’s exclusive economic zone, regard needs to be had to the customary international law of the sea, which may be identified by reference to both the text of UNCLOS and to State practice; to other rules of customary international law, including local custom; to commitments undertaken in unilateral declarations; and to rules reflected in other applicable treaties. It is not the case, in the Respondent’s view, that a right not specifically attributed to third States necessarily vests with the coastal State. 54. In support of the legality of its actions, the Respondent claims that it has acted in accordance with three types of rights and duties recognized by international law: (i) the right and duty to protect and preserve the environment of the south-western Caribbean Sea; (ii) the due diligence duty within the relevant maritime area; and (iii) the right and duty to protect the habitat of the Raizales and other local communities inhabiting the Archipelago. Colombia asserts that, in view of the fragility of the Caribbean ecosystem resulting from threats such as marine-based pollution, overfishing and other predatory practices, it has adopted a series of protective measures and become a party to bilateral and regional agreements to protect and preserve the area, among which the most important are the Convention for the Protection and Development of the Marine Environment of the Wider Caribbean Region, done at Cartagena de Indias on 24 March 1983 (hereinafter the “Cartagena Convention”) and the Protocol Concerning Specially Protected Areas and Wildlife to the Convention for the Protection and Development of the Marine Environment of the Wider Caribbean Region, done at Kingston on 18 January 1990 (hereinafter the “SPAW Protocol”). In addition, Colombia established two special reserve areas for marine environmental protection in 2000 and 2005, the Seaflower Biosphere Reserve and the Seaflower Marine Protected Area, with the respective aims of protecting the marine environment in the south-western Caribbean Sea and the habitat of the Raizales community. 55. The Respondent claims that it therefore has the right and duty to protect and preserve the environment of the south-western Caribbean Sea and the duty to exercise due diligence within the relevant marine area. It states that “[e]nvironmental concerns within the Southwestern Caribbean Sea need to be fully taken into account regardless of considerations of sovereignty or sovereign rights”. According to Colombia, it has the right to monitor and track any practices that endanger the marine environment and urge them to cease. The Respondent maintains that to find unlawful under customary international law an activity of Colombia that is not specifically recognized as encompassed by its freedoms of navigation and overflight, or other permissible uses of the sea, it must be proved that “Colombia’s actions impeded, or materially prejudiced, Nicaragua’s ability to exercise its sovereign rights”. * * - 32 - 56. The Court recalls that the applicable law between the Parties is customary international law. The Court notes that, by the time UNCLOS was concluded, the concept of the exclusive economic zone had already received widespread acceptance by States. In 1985, the Court found it incontestable that the institution of the exclusive economic zone had become a part of customary law (Continental Shelf (Libya Arab Jamahiriya/Malta), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1985, p. 33, para. 34). To date, around 130 States, including both parties and non-parties to the Convention, have adopted national legislation or administrative decrees declaring an exclusive economic zone. 57. Customary rules on the rights and duties in the exclusive economic zone of coastal States and other States are reflected in several articles of UNCLOS, including Articles 56, 58, 61, 62 and 73. Article 56 reads as follows: “Article 56 Rights, jurisdiction and duties of the coastal State in the exclusive economic zone 1. In the exclusive economic zone, the coastal State has: (a) sovereign rights for the purpose of exploring and exploiting, conserving and managing the natural resources, whether living or non-living, of the waters superjacent to the sea-bed and of the sea-bed and its subsoil, and with regard to other activities for the economic exploitation and exploration of the zone, such as the production of energy from the water, currents and winds; (b) jurisdiction as provided for in the relevant provisions of this Convention with regard to: (i) the establishment and use of artificial islands, installations and structures; (ii) marine scientific research; (iii) the protection and preservation of the marine environment; (c) other rights and duties provided for in this Convention. 2. In exercising its rights and performing its duties under this Convention in the exclusive economic zone, the coastal State shall have due regard to the rights and duties of other States and shall act in a manner compatible with the provisions of this Convention. 3. The rights set out in this article with respect to the sea-bed and subsoil shall be exercised in accordance with Part VI.” 58. Articles 61 and 62 address the conservation and utilization of the living resources in the exclusive economic zone. Under Article 61, the coastal State has the responsibility to conserve the living resources in that maritime zone. For that purpose, it shall determine the allowable catch of the living resources in the exclusive economic zone and ensure, through proper conservation and management measures, taking into account the best scientific evidence available to it, that the living resources in that zone are not endangered by over-exploitation. The coastal State shall take measures - 33 - to maintain or restore populations of harvested species at levels which can produce the maximum sustainable yield, as qualified by relevant environmental and economic factors, including the economic needs of the coastal fishing communities and the special requirements of developing States. Article 62 provides that in order to achieve an optimum utilization of the living resources in the exclusive economic zone, the coastal State shall determine its capacity to harvest the living resources of the zone, and, where it does not have the capacity to harvest the entire allowable catch, it shall, through agreements or other arrangements, give other States access to the surplus of the allowable catch, with particular attention paid to the rights of landlocked States and geographically disadvantaged States. Article 62 also provides that nationals of other States fishing in a coastal State’s exclusive economic zone shall comply with the conservation measures established in the laws and regulations adopted by the coastal State in conformity with the Convention. 59. Moreover, under Article 73 of UNCLOS, the coastal State, in the exercise of its sovereign rights to explore, exploit, conserve and manage the living resources in the exclusive economic zone, has the power to take such measures, including boarding, inspection, arrest and judicial proceedings, as may be necessary to ensure compliance with the laws and regulations it has adopted in conformity with UNCLOS. 60. In exercising its sovereign rights and jurisdiction in the exclusive economic zone, the coastal State shall have due regard to the rights and duties of other States and shall observe its other obligations under the law of the sea. 61. Customary international law also attributes rights and duties to other States in the exclusive economic zone, as reflected in Article 58 of UNCLOS, which states: “Article 58 Rights and duties of other States in the exclusive economic zone 1. In the exclusive economic zone, all States, whether coastal or land-locked, enjoy, subject to the relevant provisions of this Convention, the freedoms referred to in article 87 of navigation and overflight and of the laying of submarine cables and pipelines, and other internationally lawful uses of the sea related to these freedoms, such as those associated with the operation of ships, aircraft and submarine cables and pipelines, and compatible with the other provisions of this Convention. 2. Articles 88 to 115 and other pertinent rules of international law apply to the exclusive economic zone in so far as they are not incompatible with this Part. 3. In exercising their rights and performing their duties under this Convention in the exclusive economic zone, States shall have due regard to the rights and duties of the coastal State and shall comply with the laws and regulations adopted by the coastal State in accordance with the provisions of this Convention and other rules of international law in so far as they are not incompatible with this Part.” - 34 - 62. Thus, under customary international law, all States enjoy the freedoms of navigation and overflight, as well as other internationally lawful uses related to such freedoms, in another State’s exclusive economic zone. Moreover, the customary rules as reflected in Articles 88 to 115 of UNCLOS and other pertinent rules of international law are applicable to the exclusive economic zone in so far as they are not incompatible with the régime of that zone. 63. In exercising their rights and performing their duties in the exclusive economic zone, other States shall have due regard to the sovereign rights and jurisdiction of the coastal State in that zone. * 64. In considering whether the evidence establishes the violations of customary international law alleged by Nicaragua, the Court will be guided by its jurisprudence on questions of proof. The Court recalls that, “as a general rule, it is for the party which alleges a particular fact in support of its claims to prove the existence of that fact” (Certain Activities Carried Out by Nicaragua in the Border Area (Costa Rica v. Nicaragua), Compensation, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2018 (I), p. 26, para. 33; see also Ahmadou Sadio Diallo (Republic of Guinea v. Democratic Republic of the Congo), Merits, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2010 (II), p. 660, para. 54). The Court will treat with caution evidentiary materials prepared for the purposes of a case, as well as evidence from secondary sources (Territorial and Maritime Dispute between Nicaragua and Honduras in the Caribbean Sea (Nicaragua v. Honduras), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2007 (II), p. 731, para. 244; Armed Activities on the Territory of the Congo (Democratic Republic of the Congo v. Uganda), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2005, pp. 201, 204 and 225, paras. 61, 68 and 159; Military and Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v. United States of America), Merits, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1986, p. 41, para. 65). It will consider evidence that comes from contemporaneous and direct sources to be more probative and credible. The Court will also “give particular attention to reliable evidence acknowledging facts or conduct unfavourable to the State represented by the person making them” (Armed Activities on the Territory of the Congo (Democratic Republic of the Congo v. Uganda), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2005, p. 201, para. 61, citing Military and Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v. United States of America), Merits, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1986, p. 41, para. 64). Finally, while press articles and documentary evidence of a similar secondary nature are not capable of proving facts, they can corroborate, in some circumstances, the existence of facts established by other evidence (Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Croatia v. Serbia), Merits, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2015 (I), p. 87, para. 239, citing Military and Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v. United States of America), Merits, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1986, p. 40, para. 62). 65. In the present case, Nicaragua refers to over 50 alleged incidents at sea. The Court observes that, for most of these events, Nicaragua mainly relies on the following materials as evidence: a letter from the Nicaraguan Naval Force to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Nicaragua dated 26 August 2014, which contains a report of alleged incidents produced pursuant to a request for information from the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and which is accompanied by daily reports from the Navy and, in respect of some of the alleged incidents, audio recordings of exchanges between the vessels - 35 - involved. According to Nicaragua, these daily reports in map format were prepared contemporaneously with the incidents and maintained in the logs of the Nicaraguan armed forces. The above-mentioned report listing alleged incidents was also annexed to a diplomatic Note sent by Nicaragua to Colombia, dated 13 September 2014. Moreover, Nicaragua adduces three letters from the President of the Nicaraguan Chamber of Fisheries to the Executive Director of the Nicaraguan Institute of Fisheries and Aquaculture (hereinafter “INPESCA”), dated, respectively, 6 January 2014, 1 July 2014, and 24 July 2014, each of which refers to certain incidents allegedly reported by captains or crewmembers of fishing vessels to their vessel owners. For alleged incidents between 2015 and 2017, Nicaragua also produces daily reports from its Navy, some with audio recordings attached. In addition to these letters and materials, Nicaragua refers to diplomatic Notes, affidavits, photographic and audio-visual materials, and media reports. 66. In considering the evidentiary weight of the reports from the Nicaraguan Navy, some of which are accompanied by audio recordings, the Court takes into account Nicaragua’s assertion that these reports were prepared contemporaneously with alleged events, while also bearing in mind that they appear to have been prepared for the purposes of the current proceedings and that, in many instances, they do not contain first-hand evidence. The Court approaches with some caution the letters from the President of the Nicaraguan Chamber of Fisheries to the Executive Director of INPESCA, which do not contain first-hand accounts of events and at least some of which appear to have been specially prepared for the purposes of the case. 67. In response, Colombia presents, for certain incidents, its naval maritime travel reports and navigation logs to prove that its naval frigates did not have encounters with Nicaraguan vessels at the times and the places alleged by Nicaragua, or that the naval frigates concerned were recorded docking at the port or elsewhere at the relevant time. In respect of some incidents, Colombia also provides communications from officers of the Colombian Navy, audio recordings, photographic evidence, and video footage of its own, as well as affidavits. In addition, in respect of incidents which allegedly occurred before 18 March 2014, Colombia refers to the statement made on that date by the Chief of Nicaragua’s Army that there had been “no incidents” involving Colombia or its Navy. 68. With regard to Colombia’s evidence, the Court considers that the Colombian Navy’s maritime travel reports and navigation logs have probative value, as they mostly provide information from contemporaneous and direct sources. The Court will attach particular significance to reliable evidence that admits or establishes facts unfavourable to Colombia. In the same way as with the evidence adduced by Nicaragua, the Court will treat with caution reports and affidavits adduced by Colombia which appear to have been prepared specially for the purposes of the case. 69. Upon examination of the evidence submitted by Nicaragua, the Court finds that for many alleged incidents, Nicaragua seeks to establish that Colombian naval vessels violated Nicaragua’s rights in its maritime zones; yet its evidence does not prove, to the satisfaction of the Court, that Colombia’s conduct in Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone went beyond what is permitted under customary international law as reflected in Article 58 of UNCLOS. In relation to a number of other alleged incidents, Nicaragua’s evidence is primarily based on what fishermen reported to the owners - 36 - of their vessels, on materials that were apparently prepared for the purposes of the present case without other corroborating evidence, on audio recordings that are not sufficiently clear, or on media reports that either do not indicate the source of their information or are otherwise uncorroborated. The Court does not consider that such evidence suffices to establish Nicaragua’s allegations against Colombia. The Court considers that, with regard to the alleged incidents referred to above, Nicaragua has failed to discharge its burden of proof to establish a breach by Colombia of its international obligations. The Court will therefore dismiss those allegations for lack of proof. 70. With regard to the rest of the alleged incidents, the Court will examine in detail the evidence adduced by Nicaragua, together with Colombia’s responses to each of the alleged incidents. * * The alleged incidents of 17 November 2013 71. Nicaragua claims that in the morning of 17 November 2013 the ARC Almirante Padilla, a Colombian frigate, ordered the Miss Sofia, a Nicaraguan lobster ship, to move from its position at 14° 50' 00" N and 81° 45' 00" W because the lobster ship was in “Colombian waters”. According to Nicaragua, when the Miss Sofia refused to leave, the Colombian frigate sent a speedboat to chase the lobster ship away. Nicaragua bases these allegations on the report of incidents attached to the letter from the Nicaraguan Naval Force to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Nicaragua, dated 26 August 2014 and the letter from the President of the Nicaraguan Chamber of Fisheries to the Executive Director of INPESCA, dated 6 January 2014. On the basis of the same evidence, Nicaragua claims that, later that day at around 3 p.m., after one of its coast guard vessels, the Río Escondido, informed the ARC Almirante Padilla that it was in Nicaraguan waters, the Colombian frigate refused to leave, stating that the Government of Colombia did not recognize the 2012 Judgment. Nicaragua argues that the different narrative of the alleged incident provided by Colombia (see paragraph 72 below) is not inconsistent with its own allegations, as the two accounts pertain to events that occurred at different times of the day. 72. With regard to these events, Colombia acknowledges that the ARC Almirante Padilla and the Miss Sofia were in the Luna Verde area on 17 November 2013. Colombia claims, however, that on that day the ARC Almirante Padilla unsuccessfully tried to contact the Miss Sofia in order to return two fishermen whom it had rescued in the late afternoon and who appeared to have been abandoned by the Miss Sofia. Colombia asserts that, due to its inability to establish contact with the fishing vessel, its frigate contacted the Nicaraguan patrol boat. Colombia claims that it acted in accordance with its obligation under customary international law to assist any person found at sea in the exclusive economic zone in danger of being lost. In relation to these events, Colombia refers to signed declarations by two fishermen, dated 17 November 2013, attesting to their good treatment by the crew of the Colombian frigate, to audio-visual material, and to a communication from the Commander of the ARC Almirante Padilla to the Commander of the Specific Command of San Andrés and Providencia dated 20 November 2013. Colombia did not provide any information or evidence concerning the location and activities of the ARC Almirante Padilla before 5.10 p.m. that day. - 37 - The alleged incidents of 27 January 2014 73. Nicaragua claims that, on 27 January 2014, the Colombian frigate ARC Independiente informed the Caribbean Star, a Nicaraguan lobster ship, located at 14° 47' 00" N and 81° 52' 00" W, that it was fishing illegally in the Seaflower Biosphere Reserve. In support of this claim, Nicaragua relies on an audio recording, the letter from the President of the Nicaraguan Chamber of Fisheries to the Executive Director of INPESCA dated 1 July 2014, and the report of incidents attached to the letter from the Nicaraguan Naval Force to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs dated 26 August 2014. According to the audio recording submitted by Nicaragua, the Colombian frigate stated “the Colombian [S]tate has determined that the judgment of the International Court of Justice is not applicable, therefore the units of the [Colombian Navy] will continue exercising sovereignty and control over these waters”. Also on the basis of the report attached to the letter dated 26 August 2014, Nicaragua alleges that, on the same day, the ARC Independiente harassed the Al John, another lobster ship, operating with a Nicaraguan fishing licence at 14° 44' 00" N and 81° 47' 00" W. 74. For its part, Colombia states that it cannot confirm the authenticity of the audio recording. It denies, by reference to the maritime travel report of the ARC Independiente for 27 January 2014, that the Independiente encountered the Caribbean Star on that day, but concedes that the ARC Independiente was in Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone and that it interacted with the Al John. Colombia refers to a communication from the Commander of the Colombian Naval Force of the Caribbean, dated 28 January 2014, in support of its claim that the ARC Independiente did not harass the Al John as Nicaragua asserts but rather informed it that its practices in the Seaflower Biosphere Reserve were illegal. According to the communication on which Colombia relies, the captain of the Al John asked the Colombian frigate to allow his crew to continue to work “in these Nicaraguan waters”. Colombia claims that this was the end of the communication, indicating that the fishermen were neither intimidated nor prevented from carrying out their activities. The alleged incidents of 5 February 2014 75. According to Nicaragua, on 5 February 2014, the ARC 20 de Julio, a Colombian frigate, informed the Nicaraguan Navy vessel Tayacán and 12 Nicaraguan fishing boats operating in the vicinity of 14° 44' 01" N and 81° 39' 08" W to withdraw from Colombia’s contiguous zone and territorial sea. Nicaragua relies, in this regard, on the report of incidents and an audio recording attached to the letter dated 26 August 2014. In the audio recording submitted by Nicaragua, the speaker identifies himself as representing the “[Navy] of the Republic of Colombia, ARC ‘20 de Julio’” and informs “Nicaraguan units” that “you are in Colombia jurisdictional waters  the Colombian State has determined that the ruling by The Hague is not applicable; therefore, the units of the [Navy] of the Republic of Colombia will continue to exercise sovereignty over these waters”. The speaker also notes the specific co-ordinates at which the Nicaraguan units are located as 14° 44' 02" N and 81° 39' 06" W. By reference to the letter from the President of the Nicaraguan Chamber of Fisheries to the Executive Director of INPESCA dated 1 July 2014, as well as the abovementioned report, Nicaragua also claims that, later that day, the ARC 20 de Julio intercepted the Nica Fish, a Nicaraguan fishing boat, located at 14° 44' 00" N and 81° 39' 00" W, and urged it to withdraw from “Colombian waters”. - 38 - 76. Colombia does not challenge the authenticity of the audio recording submitted by Nicaragua, nor does it deny that its vessel interacted with the Tayacán, which the ARC 20 de Julio identified as being located at 14° 44' N and 81° 36' W. Colombia, however, asserts that the mere reading of a statement concerning the 2012 Judgment, without any evidence of interference with Nicaragua’s sovereign rights, does not amount to a violation of international law. Colombia also refers to the maritime travel report of the ARC 20 de Julio, which it argues supports its claim that on 5 February 2014 the frigate identified only one fishing vessel, the Nica Fish, with which it did not interact. The alleged incidents of 12 and 13 March 2014 77. Nicaragua claims that on 12 March 2014 the Colombian frigate ARC 20 de Julio harassed the Nicaraguan lobster ship Al John, which was located at approximately 14° 44' 00" N and 81° 50' 00" W, by ordering it to withdraw from the area in which it was fishing and by sending a speedboat to chase it away. Nicaragua also alleges that the Colombian frigate and speedboat had a “hostile attitude”. In respect of this alleged incident, Nicaragua relies on the letter from the President of the Nicaraguan Chamber of Fisheries to the Executive Director of INPESCA dated 1 July 2014 and the report attached to the letter from the Nicaraguan Naval Force to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Nicaragua dated 26 August 2014. Moreover, Nicaragua claims, on the basis of the same evidence, that, the following day, the same Colombian frigate ordered the Marco Polo, a Nicaraguan fishing boat in the vicinity of 14° 43' 00" N and 81° 45' 00" W, to leave the area in which it was fishing. 78. In response, Colombia accepts that the ARC 20 de Julio interacted with the Al John and the Marco Polo on 12 and 13 March 2014, respectively. Colombia claims that its frigate simply informed each of the fishing vessels that they were operating “in a UNESCO specially-protected area” and invited them to suspend their environmentally harmful practices and to change them for other methods. The Respondent submits a communication from the Commander of the ARC 20 de Julio to the Colombian Navy’s Specific Command of San Andrés and Providencia dated 13 March 2014 to which photographic evidence and the transcription of communications with the two fishing vessels were attached, which indicates that the ARC 20 de Julio, reading from a proclamation, informed the Al John and the Marco Polo that they were engaged in predatory fishing practices in a protected area. Colombia notes that, according to its transcription of those communications, the captain of the Al John said that it would move when it was “done fishing” and the Marco Polo replied that it would continue “exercising legal fishing”. Colombia claims that these responses support its contention that there was no harassment or violation of Nicaragua’s sovereign rights. The alleged incident of 3 April 2014 79. Nicaragua alleges that on 3 April 2014 a Colombian Navy ocean patrol ship, the ARC San Andrés, harassed the Mister Jim, a Nicaraguan fishing boat, located at 14° 44' 00" N and 82° 00' 00" W, and advised it by radio that it should not continue to fish for lobster and should withdraw from the area. In relation to this allegation, Nicaragua relies on the report attached to the letter from the Nicaraguan Naval Force to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Nicaragua dated 26 August 2014 and the letter from the President of the Nicaraguan Chamber of Fisheries to the Executive Director of INPESCA dated 1 July 2014. - 39 - 80. While conceding that an interaction did occur between the ARC San Andrés and the Mister Jim, Colombia claims that the ARC San Andrés invited the Mister Jim to suspend its environmentally harmful fishing practices and to make use of authorized fishing methods instead. The communication from the Commander of the Specific Command of San Andrés and Providencia to the Commander of the Naval Force of the Caribbean dated 7 April 2014 and submitted by Colombia with respect to this incident confirms that the interaction indeed took place. Colombia introduces evidence that indicates that, as part of the exchange, the ARC San Andrés, reading from a proclamation, “invited the Mister Jim to suspend its predatory fishing practices, which are harmful to the marine environment, and change its methods to authorized ones”. The alleged incident of 28 July 2014 81. Nicaragua alleges that on 28 July 2014 the captain of the Nicaraguan-flagged fishing vessel Doña Emilia informed a Nicaraguan Navy vessel that “a few days earlier”, while at 14° 29' 00" N and 81° 53' 00" W, a Colombian Navy vessel advised the Doña Emilia that it could not operate in that area. Nicaragua supports this allegation by reference to the report and an audio recording attached to the letter from the Nicaraguan Naval Force to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, dated 26 August 2014. 82. Colombia accepts that one of its naval vessels, the ARC 7 de Agosto, interacted with the Doña Emilia on 22 July 2014. It presents a communication from the Commander of the Specific Command of San Andrés and Providencia to the Commander of Colombia’s Naval Force of the Caribbean dated 22 July 2014. According to this communication, the ARC 7 de Agosto informed the Doña Emilia that it had been found carrying out predatory fishing in a UNESCO protected environmentally sensitive area, and invited it “to suspend such harmful practice for the marine environment and change it for authorized methods”. In support of its assertion that Nicaragua was not impeded from exercising its sovereign rights in the area, Colombia also refers to the transcript of the audio recording provided by Nicaragua, according to which the captain of the Doña Emilia stated that the fishing vessel ignored the Colombian naval vessel and continued with its fishing activities. The alleged incidents of 26 March 2015 83. Nicaragua claims that on 26 March 2015 the ARC 11 de Noviembre, located at 14° 50' 00" N and 81° 41' 00" W, stated to Nicaraguan coast guard vessel GC-401 José Santos Zelaya that, “according to the Colombian government, the ruling of The Hague [was] inapplicable, which is why [it was] in the Colombian Archipelago of San Andrés [and] Providencia”. According to Nicaragua, later that day, the ARC 11 de Noviembre informed the Nicaraguan-flagged fishing vessel Doña Emilia that it was engaging in predatory fishing at co-ordinates 14° 50' 2.98" N and 81° 47' 3.62" W and asked it to suspend this practice. In respect of these alleged events, Nicaragua relies on daily reports of its Navy and audio recordings. According to Nicaragua’s transcript of one of these recordings, the captain of the ARC 11 de Noviembre told the Doña Emilia that its fishing technique was “totally prohibited anywhere . . . regardless of the fishing license that a boat has” and asked the fishing vessel whether the “instructions” were clear. - 40 - 84. For its part, Colombia claims that, even if true, Nicaragua’s audio recording relating to GC-401 José Santos Zelaya shows no violation of Nicaragua’s sovereign rights, and that Nicaragua is seeking to negate Colombia’s rights in the south-western Caribbean Sea. As for the alleged interaction between the ARC 11 de Noviembre and the Doña Emilia, Colombia claims to have no record of this encounter. It further claims that, if Nicaragua’s audio recording is authentic, Nicaragua has distorted the alleged interaction. Colombia asserts that, in the recording, the Colombian officer informed the fishing vessel that “it was in a UNESCO specially-protected area, where predatory fishing was not permitted” and the officer “merely invited the vessel to suspend this harmful fishing practice and change it for authorized methods”. According to Colombia, this alleged incident does not constitute a violation of Nicaragua’s sovereign rights. The alleged incident of 21 August 2016 85. Nicaragua further claims that on 21 August 2016 the captain of the Marco Polo reported that, while fishing at 14° 51' 00" N and 81° 41' 00" W, the Colombian frigate ARC Almirante Padilla informed the vessel that its fishing activities were illegal and “proceeded to emit an acute sound in the water, which obstructed the Marco Polo’s fishing for lobster, thereby forcing it to leave the area”. In respect of this incident, Nicaragua relies on the letter from the Navy to the Commander in Chief of the Army, dated 20 August 2016, accompanied by a signed complaint from the captain of the Nicaraguan fishing vessel Marco Polo, as well as a daily report of its Navy. 86. Regarding the encounter with the Marco Polo, Colombia accepts that the ARC Almirante Padilla had an encounter with the Nicaraguan fishing vessel in question, but argues that the Colombian frigate, after finding the Marco Polo to be undertaking predatory fishing, merely read a proclamation used to address Nicaraguan fishing vessels engaging in what Colombia regarded as predatory practices and invited the crew to suspend its environmentally harmful fishing practices. Colombia relies on the maritime travel report of the ARC Almirante Padilla in claiming that the fishing vessel ignored this invitation, which, in Colombia’s view, implies that the Marco Polo did not leave the area and was not precluded from carrying out its fishing activities. The alleged incidents of 6 and 8 October 2018 87. Nicaragua alleges that, on 6 October 2018, the ARC Almirante Padilla, a Colombian naval vessel, intercepted the Dr Jorge Carranza Fraser, a Mexican-flagged vessel conducting marine scientific research activities with Nicaragua’s authorization in waters south of Alburquerque Cay. Nicaragua claims that the Mexican-flagged vessel was located at 13° 51' 50.79" N and 81° 27' 18.066" W when the Colombian vessel “ordered it to stop its activities and prevented it from continuing [its marine scientific research activities], claiming that it was operating in Colombian waters”. Nicaragua further alleges that, two days later, the ARC Almirante Padilla again intercepted the Mexican-flagged vessel while operating at 11° 51' 39.798" N and 80° 58' 9.998" W and ordered it to leave. Nicaragua bases its claim on evidence that includes diplomatic Notes, a letter from the Mexican National Institute of Fisheries and Aquaculture (hereinafter “INAPESCA”), dated 16 April 2019, and affidavits provided by two Mexican crew members accompanied by contemporaneous radar screen photographs. In respect of its allegations concerning the Mexican-flagged vessel, Nicaragua also refers to the original and modified navigation course and sampling stations of that vessel. - 41 - 88. Colombia argues that the alleged incident “was a non-event”. By reference to a communiqué by INAPESCA dated 8 October 2018, which indicates that on 5 October 2018 the Mexican-flagged vessel had already transited the area in which the alleged incident took place, Colombia claims that the Mexican-flagged vessel “could not have been where Nicaragua claims it was on 6 October 2018”. Colombia further states that contemporaneous materials emanating from INAPESCA do not mention the alleged interference by Colombia and that neither Mexico nor INAPESCA protested the alleged event. While Colombia accepts that the INAPESCA letter dated 16 April 2019 refers to an encounter the Mexican-flagged vessel had with a marine patrol vessel from a third State, it notes that the letter “did not mention Colombia”. Additionally, Colombia questions the veracity of the affidavits submitted by Nicaragua on the grounds that “[t]he individual who served as the notary public in both of them is . . . a recently retired member of Nicaragua’s military as well as legal counsel in the current proceedings”. The alleged incident of 11 December 2018 89. Nicaragua claims that in the late evening of 10 December 2018 the Nicaraguan Navy vessel Tayacán boarded the Observer, a Honduran-flagged fishing boat, and found it to be conducting illegal fishing for lobster at 14° 58' 00" N and 81° 00' 00" W. According to Nicaragua, while escorting the Observer to a Nicaraguan port early in the morning of 11 December 2018, its naval vessel detected the presence of the ARC Antioquia, a Colombian Navy frigate, which established communication, demanding that the Nicaraguan Navy release the Observer. Nicaragua alleges that its naval vessel was harassed first by a low-flying plane and then by a fast boat dispatched by the ARC Antioquia, forcing the Tayacán to change course. According to Nicaragua, the ARC Antioquia followed the Tayacán for hours and then took hostile actions with the aim of impeding the transfer of the Observer, culminating in the Antioquia bumping several times into both the Observer and the Tayacán. Nicaragua further alleges that the crew of the Antioquia pointed guns at Nicaraguan naval personnel aboard the Observer, demanding that they surrender. In respect of these allegations, Nicaragua relies on, among other things, an affidavit from the Commander and Second Commander of the Tayacán; signed and notarized interviews with the captain, second captain, and two crew members of the Observer; audio-visual material; photographs; and audio recordings. 90. With respect to the alleged events of 10-11 December 2018, Colombia argues that the Observer was not fishing in Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone but was in transit between Colombia’s islands. In this regard, Colombia refers to, among other things, how lobster fishing is carried out, the timing of the alleged events, and data from the vessel monitoring system of the Observer. Colombia also relies on these data in support of its claim that the ARC Antioquia was in the area in response to a distress call from the Observer. Colombia denies that it deployed either a low-flying plane or a fast boat to harass the Nicaraguan vessel and refers, in support of its position, to a communication from the Commander of Colombia’s Air Force dated 23 October 2019, which states that on 11 December 2018 there were no flights by the Colombian Air Force in the area, as well as to an affidavit by the captain of the ARC Antioquia and the maritime travel report of the ARC Antioquia. Moreover, relying on audio-visual material, audio recordings, and the affidavit from the captain of the ARC Antioquia, Colombia claims that Nicaraguan officials tried to ram the ARC Antioquia and deliberately manoeuvred the Tayacán in order to have the Observer and the ARC Antioquia bump into each other. Colombia also questions the credibility of the affidavits produced - 42 - by Nicaragua, since the notary public for those affidavits is a recently retired member of Nicaragua’s military who has served as legal counsel for Nicaragua in the present case. Referring to an affidavit from a crew member of the Observer, Colombia considers, moreover, that the interviews on which Nicaragua relies were taken under duress and that the Court should thus not take them into consideration. * * 91. The Court considers that, based upon the above-mentioned evidentiary material, a number of facts on which Nicaragua’s claim rests are established. First of all, as to many of the alleged incidents, the evidence supports Nicaragua’s allegations regarding the location of Colombian frigates (see the alleged incidents of 17 November 2013; 27 January 2014; 12 and 13 March 2014; 3 April 2014; 28 July 2014; 21 August 2016; 6 and 8 October 2018). Colombia’s own naval reports and navigation logs, as contemporaneous documents, also corroborate the specific geographic co-ordinates presented by Nicaragua, which lie within the area east of the 82° meridian, often in the fishing ground at or around Luna Verde, located within the maritime area that was declared by the Court to appertain to Nicaragua. 92. Moreover, the Colombian naval vessels purported to exercise enforcement jurisdiction in Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone (see the alleged incidents of 27 January 2014; 13 March 2014; 3 April 2014; 28 July 2014; 26 March 2015; 21 August 2016). In communications with Nicaraguan naval vessels and fishing vessels operating in Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone, Colombian naval officers, at times reading from a government proclamation, requested Nicaraguan fishing vessels to discontinue their fishing activities, alleging that those activities were environmentally harmful and were illegal or not authorized. These officials also stated to the Nicaraguan vessels that the maritime spaces concerned were “Colombian jurisdictional waters” over which Colombia would “continue to exercise sovereignty” on the basis of the determination by the Colombian Government that the 2012 Judgment “is not applicable”. The evidence sufficiently proves that the conduct of Colombian naval vessels was carried out to give effect to a policy whereby Colombia sought to continue to control fishing activities and the conservation of resources in the area that lies within Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone. 93. Colombia relies on two legal grounds to justify its conduct at sea. First, Colombia claims that its actions, even if proved, are permitted as an exercise of its freedoms of navigation and overflight. Secondly, Colombia asserts that it has an international obligation to protect and preserve the marine environment of the south-western Caribbean Sea and the habitat of the Raizales and other inhabitants of the Archipelago. It argues that environmental concerns need to be fully taken into account regardless of considerations of sovereignty or sovereign rights. - 43 - 94. With regard to the Respondent’s first assertion, the Court considers that, in accordance with the customary rules on the exclusive economic zone, freedoms of navigation and overflight enjoyed by other States in the exclusive economic zone of the coastal State, as reflected in Article 58 of UNCLOS, do not include rights relating to the exploration, exploitation, conservation and management of the natural resources of the maritime zone, nor do they give other States jurisdiction to enforce conservation measures in the exclusive economic zone of the coastal State. Such rights and jurisdiction are specifically reserved for the coastal State under customary international law, as reflected in Articles 56 and 73 of UNCLOS. 95. With regard to Colombia’s assertion relating to its international obligation to preserve the marine environment of the south-western Caribbean Sea, it is not contested between the Parties that all States have the obligation under customary international law to protect and preserve the marine environment. In the exclusive economic zone, however, it is the coastal State that has jurisdiction to discharge that obligation. As stated by the International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea (hereinafter “ITLOS”), “the conservation of the living resources of the sea is an element in the protection and preservation of the marine environment” (Southern Bluefin Tuna Cases (New Zealand v. Japan; Australia v. Japan), Provisional Measures, Order of 27 August 1999, ITLOS Reports 1999, p. 295, para. 70). In this respect, the coastal State bears the responsibility within its exclusive economic zone to take legislative, administrative and enforcement measures in accordance with customary international law, as reflected in the relevant provisions of UNCLOS, for the purpose of conserving the living resources and protecting and preserving the marine environment. A third State, in the capacity of a flag State, also has “an obligation to ensure compliance by vessels flying its flag with relevant conservation measures concerning living resources enacted by the coastal State for its exclusive economic zone” (Request for Advisory Opinion submitted by the Sub-Regional Fisheries Commission, Advisory Opinion, 2 April 2015, ITLOS Reports 2015, p. 37, para. 120). However, a third State has no jurisdiction to enforce conservation standards on fishing vessels of other States in the exclusive economic zone. 96. The Court observes that great emphasis has been placed by the Respondent on its obligations to protect the marine environment of the south-western Caribbean Sea and the habitat of the Raizales and other inhabitants of the Archipelago under the Cartagena Convention and the SPAW Protocol (hereinafter referred to as the “Cartagena régime”). The Cartagena Convention was concluded with the objective of enhancing international co-operation to prevent, reduce and control pollution from various sources in the wider Caribbean region and to ensure sound environmental management. The SPAW Protocol is one of the three protocols to the Cartagena Convention, under which the States parties undertake to establish protected areas and take measures for the preservation of endangered species and marine areas. Colombia became a party to the Cartagena Convention on 2 April 1988 and Nicaragua became a party on 24 September 2005. Both Colombia and Nicaragua are parties to the SPAW Protocol, which entered into force on 17 June 2000. Colombia deposited its instrument of ratification on 5 January 1998; Nicaragua deposited its instrument of ratification on 4 May 2021. 97. In implementing the Cartagena régime, Colombia established the Seaflower Biosphere Reserve and the Seaflower Marine Protected Area. The Court observes that Colombia’s two marine natural reserves were established in the south-western Caribbean Sea at the time when there were overlapping maritime claims between Colombia and Nicaragua in the area. As a result of the - 44 - maritime delimitation in the 2012 Judgment, these two marine natural reserves now partly overlap with Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone (see the map “Colombia’s Seaflower Marine Protected Area”, figure 2.3, Colombia’s Counter-Memorial, p. 51). The question in the present case concerns the extent to which Colombia may exercise its rights and discharge its obligations under the Cartagena régime in an area that presently falls within the exclusive economic zone of Nicaragua. In Colombia’s view, should Nicaragua fail to control and police predatory or other illegal fishing activities carried out by Nicaraguan nationals or by nationals of third States in that area, Colombia has the right and duty under the Cartagena régime to exercise due diligence to control such activities. 98. The maritime delimitation between the Parties directly affects the rights and duties of Colombia in the parts of the Seaflower Marine Protected Area and the Seaflower Biosphere Reserve that overlap with Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone. Colombia is under an international obligation to respect Nicaragua’s sovereign rights and jurisdiction in those areas, not only on the basis of customary international law on the exclusive economic zone, but also on the basis of the Cartagena Convention and the SPAW Protocol. Article 10 of the Cartagena Convention states: “The Contracting Parties shall, individually or jointly, take all appropriate measures to protect and preserve rare or fragile ecosystems, as well as the habitat of depleted, threatened or endangered species in the Convention area. To this end, the Contracting Parties shall endeavour to establish protected areas. The establishment of such areas shall not affect the rights of other Contracting Parties and third States. In addition, the Contracting Parties shall exchange information concerning the administration and management of such areas.” The provision stating that “[t]he establishment of such areas shall not affect the rights of other Contracting Parties and third States” means that in discharging its obligations under the Cartagena Convention, Colombia must respect the sovereign rights and jurisdiction of Nicaragua in its exclusive economic zone. It may not, therefore, enforce conservation standards and protection measures in the area that is within Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone. 99. A similar provision is contained in the SPAW Protocol. Article 3, paragraph 1, of the Protocol states that each party “shall . . . take the necessary measures to protect, preserve and manage [certain areas and species of flora and fauna] in a sustainable way, within areas of the Wider Caribbean Region in which it exercises sovereignty, or sovereign rights or jurisdiction”. Paragraph 2 of Article 3 further states that “[e]ach Party shall endeavour to co-operate in the enforcement of these measures, without prejudice to the sovereignty, or sovereign rights or jurisdiction of other Parties. Any measures taken by such Party to enforce or to attempt to enforce the measures agreed pursuant to this Protocol shall be limited to those within the competence of such Party and shall be in accordance with international law”. Contrary to Colombia’s claim, therefore, under the SPAW Protocol the power of the States parties to adopt and enforce conservation measures is limited to the maritime areas in which they exercise sovereignty, or sovereign rights or jurisdiction. The fragility of the ecological environment of a protected area established by a State party does not provide a legal basis for it to take measures in areas that are subject to the sovereignty, sovereign rights or jurisdiction of another State party. Caribbean Sea PA C I F I C OCEAN Guanaja I. San Andrés Little Corn I. I. Cay Roncador Cay East Southeast Cays Alburquerque Cays Serrana Cay Gorda I. Cajones Is. Bajo Nuevo Cay Miskitos Cays COSTA RICA PANAMA H O N D U R A S C O L O M B I A NICARAGUA VENEZUELA 10°N 10°N 15°N 85°W 80°W 75°W 85°W 80°W Seaflower Biosphere Reserve kitos ays A Quitasueño n I. Santa Catalina Providencia I. Seaflower Marine Protected Area Serranilla Cay JOINT REGIME AREA (Colombia / Jamaica) (Colombia / Dominican Republic) Costa Rica Panama Colombia Nicaragua Col. Col. Colombia Panama Hon Nic 4 1 4 2 3 2 2 Jamaica Colombia Haiti Colombia 1 A B 2 3 4 6 7 9 8 JOINT REGIME AREA 1 1 HaitiHaiti COLOMBIA’S SEAFLOWER MARINE PROTECTED AREA 0 50 100 150 200 0 100 200 300 Nautical Miles Kilometers Mercator Projection Datum: WGS-84 (Scale accurate at 14°N) Prepared by: International Mapping 400 12 M Territorial Sea Great Corn I. 5 Boundary from the 2012 ICJ Judgment Nicaragua Colombia - 45 - 􀀰􀀤􀀳􀀃􀀶􀀫􀀲􀀺􀀬􀀱􀀪􀀃􀀷􀀫􀀨􀀃􀀶􀀨􀀤􀀩􀀯􀀲􀀺􀀨􀀵􀀃􀀰􀀤􀀵􀀬􀀱􀀨􀀃􀀳􀀵􀀲􀀷􀀨􀀦􀀷􀀨􀀧􀀃􀀤􀀵􀀨􀀤􀀃􀀤􀀱􀀧􀀃􀀷􀀫􀀨􀀃 􀀶􀀨􀀤􀀩􀀯􀀲􀀺􀀨􀀵􀀃􀀥􀀬􀀲􀀶􀀳􀀫􀀨􀀵􀀨􀀃􀀵􀀨􀀶􀀨􀀵􀀹􀀨􀀃􀀤􀀦􀀦􀀲􀀵􀀧􀀬􀀱􀀪􀀃􀀷􀀲􀀃􀀦􀀲􀀯􀀲􀀰􀀥􀀬􀀤 􀀋􀀶􀁒􀁘􀁕􀁆􀁈􀀝􀀃􀀦􀁒􀁏􀁒􀁐􀁅􀁌􀁄􀂶􀁖􀀃􀀦􀁒􀁘􀁑􀁗􀁈􀁕􀀐􀀰􀁈􀁐􀁒􀁕􀁌􀁄􀁏􀀏􀀃􀀩􀁌􀁊􀁘􀁕􀁈􀀃􀀕􀀑􀀖􀀏􀀃􀁓􀀑􀀃􀀘􀀔􀀌 - 46 - 100. According to customary international law on the exclusive economic zone, Nicaragua, as the coastal State, enjoys sovereign rights to manage fishing activities and jurisdiction to take measures to protect and preserve the maritime environment in its exclusive economic zone. The evidence before the Court shows that the conduct of Colombian naval frigates in Nicaraguan maritime zones was not limited to “observing” predatory or illegal fishing activities or “informing” fishing vessels of such activities, as claimed by Colombia. This conduct often amounted to exercising control over fishing activities in Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone, implementing conservation measures on Nicaraguan-flagged or Nicaraguan-licensed ships, and hindering the operations of Nicaragua’s naval vessels (see paragraph 92 above). The Court considers that Colombia’s legal arguments do not justify its conduct within Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone. Colombia’s conduct is in contravention of customary rules of international law as reflected in Articles 56, 58 and 73 of UNCLOS. 101. In light of the foregoing considerations, the Court finds that Colombia has violated its international obligation to respect Nicaragua’s sovereign rights and jurisdiction in the latter’s exclusive economic zone by interfering with fishing activities and marine scientific research by Nicaraguan-flagged or Nicaraguan-licensed vessels and with the operations of Nicaragua’s naval vessels, and by purporting to enforce conservation measures in that zone. 2. Colombia’s alleged authorization of fishing activities and marine scientific research in Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone 102. Nicaragua also claims that Colombia authorized fishing activities and marine scientific research in Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone. In support of these contentions, it refers to legal measures adopted by Colombia, as well as alleged incidents at sea. Nicaragua argues that, by these actions, Colombia violated its sovereign rights and jurisdiction in its exclusive economic zone. 103. According to Nicaragua, Colombia issued permits to Colombians and nationals of third States to fish in Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone. In this regard, Nicaragua refers to resolutions issued annually by the General Maritime Directorate of the Ministry of National Defence of Colombia (hereinafter “DIMAR”), starting with a resolution dated 26 June 2013 (Resolution No. 0311 of 26 June 2013; Resolution No. 305 of 25 June 2014; Resolution No. 0437 of 27 July 2015; Resolution No. 0459 of 27 July 2016; and Resolution No. 550 of 15 August 2017), each of which lists anywhere from six to nineteen foreign-flagged industrial fishing vessels which “shall automatically be granted a permit to stay and operate in the jurisdiction of the San Andrés and Providencia Harbour Master’s Offices for the term of one year”. In Nicaragua’s view, the jurisdiction defined in these resolutions extends to maritime areas within Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone. Additionally, Nicaragua alleges that these resolutions encourage such fishing through financial incentives. - 47 - 104. Nicaragua claims, moreover, that the Governor of the Department of the Archipelago of San Andrés, Providencia and Santa Catalina (hereinafter the “Governor of the San Andrés Archipelago”) issued resolutions concerning the applicability of Colombian fishing permits to Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone. In this regard, Nicaragua specifies that Resolution No. 5081 of 22 October 2013 authorized the use by the Honduran-flagged vessel Captain KD of an existing industrial and commercial fishing permit to fish in “[a]ll banks (Roncador, Serrana and Quitasueño, Serranilla) and Shallows (Alicia and Nuevo), and the area known as La Esquina or Luna Verde”, this latter area being “plainly under the jurisdiction of Nicaragua”. Nicaragua also refers to Resolution No. 4780 of 2015 as recognizing the applicability of an “Industrial Commercial Fishing Permit” in “the area known as . . . ‘La Esquina’ or ‘Luna Verde’”. In addition, Nicaragua claims that Resolution No. 2465 of 2016 grants “‘Traditional Commercial Fisherm[e]n’ the right to engage in traditional fishing ‘within the maritime jurisdiction of the Department of the Archipelago of San Andrés, Providencia and Santa Catalina’, which includes maritime areas within Nicaragua’s EEZ”. 105. Further, Nicaragua refers to alleged incidents at sea in support of its claim that Colombia authorized and protected fishing and marine scientific research activities in Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone. Nicaragua emphasizes that the alleged fishing-related incidents all occurred “in or near the Luna Verde area”. * 106. Colombia contends that Nicaragua’s allegation that it authorized Colombians and nationals of other States to fish and conduct marine scientific research activities in Nicaraguan waters is without merit. Regarding the resolutions issued by DIMAR, Colombia claims that the entity concerned does not possess the competence to grant fishing licences and that the resolutions do not grant economic incentives to promote fishing in Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone. In Colombia’s view, the financial exemptions it granted comprise only financial relief without authorizing or encouraging industrial fishing and make no reference to Nicaragua’s maritime zones. 107. Moreover, Colombia claims that the resolutions issued by the Governor of the San Andrés Archipelago do not authorize fishing activities in Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone; they expressly indicate that the only areas where fishing activities are authorized are Roncador, Serrana, Quitasueño, Serranilla, Bajo Alicia and Bajo Nuevo, areas which, according to Colombia, the Court has recognized as lying within Colombia’s territorial sea and exclusive economic zone. The resolutions do not, in Colombia’s view, authorize fishing activities in the Luna Verde bank or in other maritime spaces situated within Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone. As regards Nicaragua’s reliance on Resolution No. 4780, Colombia contends that this resolution is not a fishing permit, that it does not concern the vessel to which Nicaragua refers, and that the reference in its preamble to Luna Verde does not purport to grant a licence to fish there. Colombia further claims that Resolution No. 2465 of 2016 is completely irrelevant, since it has “nothing to do with the granting of fishing permits or any Nicaraguan maritime spaces”. - 48 - 108. In respect of Nicaragua’s claim concerning the Captain KD, Colombia argues that the authorization for an “integrated commercial industrial fishing permit” was granted in September 2012, before the maritime boundary was delimited by the Court, and that Resolution No. 5081 of 22 October 2013 referred to by Nicaragua does not grant authorization to fish at the Luna Verde bank. 109. As regards the incidents alleged by Nicaragua to demonstrate that Colombia authorized fishing and marine scientific research in Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone, Colombia claims that Nicaragua offers no direct evidence, or at least no direct evidence whose authenticity Colombia can confirm. It claims that Colombian vessels that were present at the location and time that some of the incidents alleged by Nicaragua occurred were there in exercise of Colombia’s freedoms of navigation and overflight, or other internationally lawful uses of the sea. * * 110. Before turning to the evidence relating to the incidents at sea alleged by Nicaragua, the Court will first consider the resolutions under which Nicaragua claims Colombia authorized fishing by Colombian-flagged and foreign vessels in Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone. 111. The resolutions in question were issued by two Colombian governmental authorities: DIMAR and the Governor of the San Andrés Archipelago. According to its resolutions, DIMAR has been conferred the “function of authorizing the operation of ships and naval craft in Colombian waters”. While the permits granted by DIMAR to foreign vessels to stay and operate in the San Andrés Archipelago are subject to the authorization of the Governor of the San Andrés Archipelago, they nonetheless constitute an exercise of DIMAR’s function of authorizing the operation of fishing vessels. The Court cannot dismiss Nicaragua’s allegation simply on the basis of Colombia’s statement that DIMAR is not the competent authority to grant such permits without further examining the evidence before it. 112. The case file shows that since the Court delivered its 2012 Judgment, DIMAR has annually issued resolutions relating to industrial fishing in the San Andrés Archipelago. Nicaragua refers to five resolutions: Resolution No. 0311 of 2013, Resolution No. 305 of 2014, Resolution No. 0437 of 2015, Resolution No. 0459 of 2016 and Resolution No. 550 of 2017. 113. The preamble of the first resolution states that, given the “negative economic and social effects” caused by the 2012 Judgment, “it was deemed necessary to implement special transitory measures applicable to national and foreign ships that have been engaged in industrial fishing in said area of the national territory”. On its scope of application, Article 2 of the resolution states: “The provisions of this resolution shall be applicable exclusively to the following ships dedicated to industrial fishing in the jurisdiction of the San Andrés and Providencia Harbour Master’s Offices”. On the granting of fishing permits for foreign ships, the resolution provides: - 49 - “Article 4. Stay-and-operation permit for foreign ships. The foreign-flag motor ships listed in Section 2 of Article 2 of this resolution shall automatically be granted a permit to stay and operate in the jurisdiction of the San Andrés and Providencia Harbour Master’s Offices for the term of one year from the entry into force of this resolution, upon authorization of the office of Secretary of Agriculture and Fishing of the Government of San Andrés, Providencia and Santa Ca[ta]lina.” 114. Among the “special transitory measures” provided for by the resolution are payment exemptions granted to the national and foreign ships listed therein (Article 3). The content of Article 2 and Article 4 of Resolution No. 0311 of 2013, and an exemption from payment of certain fees, were consistently reaffirmed in subsequent resolutions. 115. With regard to the financial exemptions, the Court considers that, for the purposes of the present case, it is unnecessary to determine whether such measures granted by the Colombian Government “authorize” or “encourage” industrial fishing, as alleged by Nicaragua, or whether they comprise only financial relief to serve the objectives of the resolution, as claimed by Colombia. Insomuch as the jurisdiction of the San Andrés and Providencia Harbour Master’s Offices accords with the maritime boundary between the Parties, measures taken under the resolution are matters that rest within the jurisdiction of Colombia. The critical issue for the Court to determine is the geographical scope of the fishing authorizations granted by the Colombian Government. 116. The Court observes that neither of the above-mentioned articles nor any other provisions contained in the DIMAR resolutions specify the extent of “the jurisdiction of the San Andrés and Providencia Harbour Master’s Offices”, a crucial issue for the purposes of the present case. On the basis of the resolutions themselves, the Court cannot determine whether the geographical scope of the area in which the listed fishing vessels were authorized to operate extends into Nicaragua’s maritime area. Therefore, the Court must examine other evidence before it, including the resolutions issued by the Governor of the San Andrés Archipelago. 117. The documents submitted by Nicaragua include five resolutions issued by the Governor of the San Andrés Archipelago: Resolution No. 5081 of 22 October 2013, Resolution No. 4997 of 10 November 2014, Resolution No. 4356 of 1 September 2015, Resolution No. 4780 of 24 September 2015, and Resolution No. 2465 of 30 June 2016, each of which specifies the fishing zones for the fishing operations. In Resolution No. 4356 of 2015, the relevant fishing zone is described as comprising “all of the banks (Roncador, Serrana and Quitasueño, and Serranilla) and Shoals (Alicia and Nuevo), and the zone where fishing is permitted by the laws, which includes our [Colombia’s] island territory and authorized fishing zones”. Resolution No. 4997 of 2014 provides the same, with the addition of “zones where [activities for extraction of Fishery Resources are] permitted by . . . fishing regulations, and system [sic] of Protected Marine Areas that apply in the Department for Industrial Fishing”. The fishing zone in Resolution No. 2465 of 2016 is described as “the territory that is within the jurisdiction of the Department of the Archipelago of San Andrés, Providencia and Santa Catalina”. The scope of jurisdiction is not defined more clearly in these three resolutions than it is in the aforementioned DIMAR resolutions. In Resolution No. 5081 of 22 October 2013 and Resolution No. 4780 of 24 September 2015, however, the fishing zone is described more precisely. - 50 - 118. In Resolution No. 5081 of 22 October 2013, the fishing zone is defined as follows: “All banks (Roncador, Serrana y Quitasue[ñ]o, Serranilla) and Shallows (Alicia and Nuevo), and the area known as La Esquina or Luna Verde, which encompasses our insular territory and fishing zones; nonetheless, protected areas and fisheries regulations of the department and fisheries legislation must be respected.” The fishing zone in Resolution No. 4780 contains the same reference to “the area known as . . . La Esquina or Luna Verde, which includes our [Colombia’s] island territory and fishing zones”. 119. As previously noted, the fishing ground at La Esquina or Luna Verde is located in Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone as delimited by the 2012 Judgment. The express inclusion of “La Esquina or Luna Verde” in the fishing zone described in resolutions issued by the Governor of the San Andrés Archipelago after the 2012 Judgment suggests that Colombia continues to assert the right to authorize fishing activities in parts of Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone. * 120. In light of the above consideration of Colombia’s relevant resolutions, the Court will now examine the alleged incidents at sea to determine whether Colombia authorized fishing activities and marine scientific research in Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone. The alleged incident of 13-14 February 2014 121. Nicaragua claims that, on 13 February 2014, the Nicaraguan vessel Tayacán, while on patrol at 14° 48' 00" N and 81° 36' 00" W, saw personnel from the Colombian frigate ARC Almirante Padilla board the Blu Sky, a Honduran-flagged fishing vessel. According to Nicaragua, when the Tayacán communicated with the Blu Sky on the next day in the vicinity of 14° 56' 00" N and 81° 35' 00" W, the captain of the Blu Sky informed the Tayacán that he had received authorization by Colombia to fish there. In respect of these allegations, Nicaragua relies on the report attached to the letter from the Nicaraguan Naval Force to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs dated 26 August 2014. 122. In response, Colombia asserts that Nicaragua was unaffected by the boarding of the fishing vessel, since Nicaragua is not the flag State of the vessel and since Nicaragua did not license it. By reference to two resolutions issued by the Governor of the San Andrés Archipelago, the Respondent claims that the alleged “fishing permits granted by Colombia” do not in fact grant fishing rights in Luna Verde or in any other area of Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone and that, therefore, the contention that Colombia authorized the Blu Sky to fish in that zone is false. - 51 - The alleged incident of 23 March 2015 123. Nicaragua claims that, on 23 March 2015, when one of its coast guard vessels, located at 14° 40' 00" N and 81° 45' 00" W, observed the Honduran-flagged fishing vessel Lucky Lady and asked it under whose authority it was fishing, the Colombian frigate ARC Independiente intervened, stating that “[the] Lucky Lady is under the protection of the government of Colombia” and that Colombia does not abide by the Court’s 2012 Judgment. In relation to this alleged incident, Nicaragua relies on an audio recording and the daily reports of its Navy. 124. For its part, Colombia claims that the timing and location of this alleged incident cannot be established from Nicaragua’s audio recording. Moreover, in denying that it granted any official authorization to fish in Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone, Colombia refers to a sailing record in which it granted the Lucky Lady, destined for the Northern Islands, permission to leave a Colombian port. The alleged incident of 12 September 2015 125. Referring to audio recordings and the daily reports of its Navy, Nicaragua further claims that, on 12 September 2015, when Nicaragua’s Navy vessel the Tayacán encountered the Tanzanian-flagged industrial fishing vessel Miss Dolores at 14° 54' 00" N and 81° 28' 00" W, a nearby Colombian frigate asked the Tayacán to stay away from the Miss Dolores, stating that the Tayacán had not been authorized by Colombia “to exercise visitation rights on the Miss Dolores flagship of Tanzania, which is fishing for the Colombian government”. 126. Regarding this alleged incident, Colombia asserts that its circumstances, date and location cannot be ascertained from Nicaragua’s audio recordings. Colombia also claims that, even if the audio recordings submitted by Nicaragua were authentic, they would confirm Nicaragua’s attempt to claim sovereignty over maritime spaces in which international law only grants it limited sovereign rights, since they suggest that a Nicaraguan officer claimed to be “exercising sovereignty” in the waters in question. The alleged incidents of 12 and 13 January 2016 127. Relying on audio recordings and the daily reports of its Navy, Nicaragua makes allegations concerning incidents involving the Honduran-flagged fishing vessel the Observer on 12 and 13 January 2016. More specifically, Nicaragua claims that, on 12 January 2016, the commander of one of its coast guard vessels, located at 14° 41' 00" N and 81° 41' 00" W, ordered the Observer to stop fishing there, to which the Observer replied that the Colombian authorities allowed it to fish in that area and indeed “ordered [it] to come and work here”. Nicaragua claims that, later that day, its coast guard vessel attempted to hail the Observer after seeing it fish in the same area with the protection of a Colombian frigate, and that the Colombian frigate intervened, stating that the Observer was authorized by the Colombian maritime authority to fish in the area. Nicaragua alleges that the Colombian frigate gave a similar response the next day, when the Nicaraguan vessel informed the frigate that the Observer, located at 14° 42' 27" N and 81° 42' 39" W, had to leave the area. - 52 - 128. With respect to these alleged events, Colombia claims, on the basis of a Note Verbale from the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Colombia to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Nicaragua dated 1 February 2016, that Nicaraguan patrol boats were observed “on 11 and 12 January 2016  . . . not on 12 and 13 January” and that “communications between the vessels were conducted in an amicable and professional manner”. Colombia refers also to the fact that, if authentic, the audio recordings would confirm Nicaragua’s attempt to claim sovereignty over maritime spaces in which international law only grants it limited sovereign rights, given the latter’s reported reference to “Nicaraguan territorial waters”, among other similar statements. The alleged incidents of 6 January 2017 129. On the basis of an audio recording and the daily reports of its Navy, Nicaragua claims that, on 6 January 2017, the Honduran-flagged fishing vessel Capitán Geovanie refused to follow an order by the Nicaraguan Navy vessel Tayacán to leave Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone and that a Colombian frigate then announced that it was in the Archipelago of San Andrés and Providencia to guarantee the security of all vessels present in the area, before asking the Capitán Geovanie whether the Tayacán was interfering with its work and telling the Capitán Geovanie to continue its fishing in “historically Colombian waters”. Nicaragua further alleges that the Colombian frigate told the Nicaraguan vessel not to attempt to board or prevent the fishing activities of the Capitán Geovanie, adding that the fishing vessel “is authorized by the Colombian maritime authority”. Nicaragua claims, also on the basis of an audio recording and the daily reports of its Navy, that the Colombian frigate informed two other Honduran-flagged and Colombian-authorized fishing vessels, the Observer and the Amex, located at 14° 43' 00" N and 81° 45' 00" W and 14° 48' 00" N and 81° 42' 00" W respectively, that it would remain in the area for their safety. 130. In response, Colombia claims that some of the audio recordings submitted by Nicaragua contain no indication as to when or where the alleged incidents occurred. Moreover, Colombia claims that the audio recordings do not support Nicaragua’s allegation that Colombia authorized those fishing vessels to fish in Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone. As regards the Capitán Geovanie, Colombia refers to the audio recording submitted by Nicaragua in support of its claim that the Capitán Geovanie left San Andrés with a specific sailing record, which, according to Colombia, indicates that authorization was given for fishing only in the Northern Islands, not in Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone. As regards Nicaragua’s allegations concerning the other two vessels, Colombia claims that the alleged Colombian officer merely stated that they were watching over the safety of the vessels and that, in exercising its internationally lawful uses of the sea, Colombia “provides security to vessels of all nationalities” (emphasis in the original). Colombia further contends that Nicaragua’s assertions concerning the alleged incidents on that day are implausible. Colombia states that given the meteorological conditions at the time it is difficult to believe that there were several vessels fishing so far from land. * * - 53 - 131. The evidence presented by the Parties is largely based on the same type of materials as described above (paragraphs 65-68). The Court considers that the evidence reveals at least three facts. First, the fishing vessels allegedly authorized by Colombia did engage in fishing activities in Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone during the relevant time. In this regard, the Court notes that the six foreign fishing vessels involved in the alleged incidents summarized above were identified by name in some of the resolutions of DIMAR and of the Governor of the San Andrés Archipelago. Secondly, such fishing activities were often conducted under the protection of Colombian frigates, a fact that Colombia does not deny. Thirdly, Colombia recognizes that the Luna Verde area is in Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone. 132. The Court considers that Colombia’s responses to Nicaragua’s allegations are not entirely convincing. Colombia’s response that Nicaragua attempted to claim sovereignty over maritime spaces does not provide a legal basis for Colombia to claim a right to authorize fishing in Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone (see Colombia’s responses to the alleged incidents of 12 September 2015 and of 12 and 13 January 2016). Nicaragua’s efforts to prevent and stop fishing activities authorized by Colombia in Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone are a legitimate exercise of its sovereign rights and jurisdiction, to which it is entitled under customary international law. Moreover, the evidence demonstrates that Colombian frigates not only explicitly stated that the fishing vessels were authorized by the Colombian maritime authority to fish in the area but they also, in unequivocal terms, informed Nicaraguan naval vessels that those fishing ships were “under the protection of the government of Colombia”. Colombia, in its responses to Nicaragua’s allegations, denies that it authorized fishing activities in Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone. It does not, however, explain why its naval frigates constantly asserted their authority to protect those fishing activities purportedly unauthorized in Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone when Nicaraguan naval vessels intervened as to such fishing activities on the basis that they were not authorized by Nicaragua. The conduct of Colombian naval frigates, which is attributable to Colombia, confirms that Colombian authorization of fishing activities extended to the maritime area that now appertains to Nicaragua. 133. As regards Colombia’s alleged authorization of marine scientific research in Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone, the Court cannot find in the resolutions before it any express reference to authorization of marine scientific research operations. Without other credible evidence to corroborate Nicaragua’s claim in this regard, the Court cannot draw a conclusion from the available evidence that Colombia also authorized marine scientific research in Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone. 134. On the basis of the above considerations, the Court concludes that Colombia has violated Nicaragua’s sovereign rights and jurisdiction in its exclusive economic zone by authorizing vessels to conduct fishing activities in Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone. - 54 - 3. Colombia’s alleged oil exploration licensing 135. In its Reply, Nicaragua claims that Colombia, through its National Hydrocarbon Agency (hereinafter the “ANH”), offered and awarded “hydrocarbon blocks encompassing parts of Nicaragua’s [exclusive economic zone]”, thereby violating Nicaragua’s sovereign rights. Nicaragua asserts in particular that, according to an ANH list and a map of hydrocarbon blocks, in 2010 the ANH offered 11 blocks in areas that at least in part encroach on Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone (blocks Nos. 3050 to 3057 and 3059 to 3061, named CAYOS 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 10, 11, 12, 13, and 14), and awarded two blocks (Nos. 3050 and 3059) to a consortium made up of Ecopetrol (Colombia), Repsol (Spain) and YPF (Argentina), although the relevant contracts have yet to be signed. As for the remaining nine blocks, Nicaragua contends that the ANH’s list and its map of hydrocarbon blocks in 2017 continue to indicate that those blocks are “available” for licensing. 136. Nicaragua admits that an additional submission modifying substantially the requests in the Application would be inadmissible, but maintains that facts and legal considerations on the petroleum blocks are used to give detail to Nicaragua’s initial requests. In its view, they constitute an “argument” rather than a “new claim”. * 137. With regard to Nicaragua’s claim relating to oil exploration licensing, Colombia first raises the question of admissibility. It maintains that, as Nicaragua has submitted the issue concerning petroleum blocks for the first time in the Reply, this claim is inadmissible. According to Colombia, the claim is neither implicit in Nicaragua’s Application or Memorial, nor does it “arise directly out of the question that is the subject-matter of the Application”. Colombia also contends that the claim was submitted “at a time when the Respondent is no longer able to assert preliminary objections”. 138. Colombia argues that even if the claim were admissible, it has no merit. Colombia asserts that in 2011 it suspended all offshore petroleum blocks that were licensed before the Court’s 2012 Judgment and has not signed or pursued any new contracts. According to Colombia, its courts have prohibited all petroleum activities within the Seaflower Biosphere Reserve. With regard to the remaining blocks referred to by Nicaragua based on a map from the ANH dated 17 February 2017, Colombia argues that the evidence is inadmissible, because it concerns a subject-matter different from the claims contained in the Application and falls outside the temporal jurisdiction of the Court. Colombia contends that even if the Court were to take account of the map in question, it does not show any violation of Nicaragua’s sovereign rights. Colombia asserts that none of those blocks have been the object of any implementation process, and that, accordingly, there is no existing contract or proposal for the blocks in question, nor could there be. Colombia also alleges that Nicaragua itself has admitted that no such contracts have been issued. * * - 55 - 139. The Court will first address the admissibility of Nicaragua’s claim concerning Colombia’s alleged oil exploration licensing. 140. The Court has discussed its jurisprudence on a claim made after the filing of the application in paragraph 44 above. Nicaragua’s allegation regarding Colombia’s oil exploration licensing concerns the question whether Colombia has violated Nicaragua’s sovereign rights in the exclusive economic zone. Although a different kind of activity is involved, Nicaragua’s claim does not transform the subject-matter of the dispute as stated in the Application, since the dispute between the Parties involves the rights of the Parties in all maritime zones as delimited by the 2012 Judgment. Nicaragua’s claim arises directly out of the question which is the subject-matter of the Application. The Court is therefore of the view that Nicaragua’s claim is admissible. 141. Regarding the merits of the claim, the evidence shows, including by Nicaragua’s own account, that Colombia offered 11 oil concession blocks for licensing and awarded two blocks in 2011, at a time when the maritime boundary between the Parties had not yet been delimited. The documents before the Court also demonstrate that signature of the contracts for the said petroleum blocks was first suspended by the parties concerned in 2011 and later by a decision of the administrative tribunal of San Andrés, Providencia and Santa Catalina in 2012. Nicaragua also concedes that, to date, the contracts in question have not been signed. 142. As regards the facts since then, Nicaragua has only produced as evidence a “Map of Lands” taken from the ANH’s website dated 17 February 2017, which shows a number of “available” blocks in the areas that partially overlap with Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone. The map is not corroborated by any other credible evidence that the ANH still intends to offer and award those blocks. The Court notes in this regard that Nicaragua did not pursue its claim during the oral proceedings and that it acknowledged Colombia’s statement that no concessions had been awarded in the areas concerned. Colombia, for its part, reiterated that the blocks in question “[had] not been implemented and [would] not be pursued, and [would] not be offered”. 143. In light of the foregoing, the Court finds that Nicaragua has failed to prove that Colombia continues to offer petroleum blocks situated in Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone. The allegation that Colombia violated Nicaragua’s sovereign rights by issuing oil exploration licences must therefore be rejected. 4. Conclusions 144. In light of the foregoing considerations, the Court finds that Colombia has breached its international obligation to respect Nicaragua’s sovereign rights and jurisdiction in its exclusive economic zone (i) by interfering with fishing and marine scientific research activities of Nicaraguan-flagged or Nicaraguan-licensed vessels and with the operations of Nicaraguan naval vessels in Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone; (ii) by purporting to enforce conservation measures in Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone; and (iii) by authorizing fishing activities in Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone. Colombia’s wrongful conduct engages its responsibility under international law. - 56 - B. Colombia’s “integral contiguous zone” 145. Among its allegations of Colombia’s violations of Nicaragua’s rights in its maritime zones, Nicaragua refers to Colombia’s Presidential Decree 1946, which establishes an “integral contiguous zone” around Colombian islands in the western Caribbean Sea. Nicaragua does not deny Colombia’s entitlement to a contiguous zone, but it maintains that both the geographical extent of the “integral contiguous zone” and the material scope of the powers which Colombia claims it may exercise therein exceed the limits permitted under customary international rules on the contiguous zone. In Nicaragua’s view, by establishing the “integral contiguous zone”, Colombia violated Nicaragua’s rights in the latter’s exclusive economic zone. 146. The Parties disagree as to whether Article 33 of UNCLOS on the contiguous zone reflects customary international law. Before examining Presidential Decree 1946, the Court will first consider the customary rules applicable to the contiguous zone. 1. The applicable rules on the contiguous zone 147. Nicaragua claims that the provisions of Article 33 of UNCLOS reflect customary international law and that the 24-nautical-mile limit prescribed therein is supported by “practically unanimous” State practice. With regard to the powers that the coastal State may exercise in the contiguous zone, Nicaragua maintains that Article 33, paragraph 1, reflects customary international law. It further contends that Colombia has not been able to establish that State practice points to an evolution in customary international law such that it now authorizes States to exercise control in their contiguous zone over matters other than those listed in Article 33 of UNCLOS. * 148. For its part, Colombia takes the view that Article 33 of UNCLOS “does not reflect present-day customary international law on the contiguous zone”. It maintains that “under existing customary international law, a coastal State is permitted to establish zones contiguous to its territorial sea, of varying breadth and for a range of purposes, going in some respects beyond those expressly envisaged in Article 33 of UNCLOS”. In this regard, according to Colombia, “the coastal State may exercise the control necessary to protect and safeguard its essential interests, including but not limited to those relating to customs, fiscal, immigration or sanitary laws and regulations enacted to protect its interests in its territory and territorial sea”. In Colombia’s view, this right enables the coastal State to safeguard essential interests in matters such as security, drug trafficking, pollution, and cultural heritage within its contiguous zone. * * - 57 - 149. As demonstrated by the general practice of States and as accepted by both Parties, the concept of the contiguous zone is well established in international law. The establishment by States of contiguous zones preceded the adoption in 1958 of the Convention on the Territorial Sea and the Contiguous Zone (hereinafter the “1958 Convention”) and of UNCLOS. To date, about 100 States, including States that are not parties to UNCLOS, have established contiguous zones. 150. The Parties hold divergent views as to whether Article 33 of UNCLOS reflects the contemporary customary rules on the contiguous zone. Article 33 reads as follows: “1. In a zone contiguous to its territorial sea, described as the contiguous zone, the coastal State may exercise the control necessary to: (a) prevent infringement of its customs, fiscal, immigration or sanitary laws and regulations within its territory or territorial sea; (b) punish infringement of the above laws and regulations committed within its territory or territorial sea. 2. The contiguous zone may not extend beyond 24 nautical miles from the baselines from which the breadth of the territorial sea is measured.” 151. With regard to the régime governing the contiguous zone, the Court first notes that under the law of the sea the contiguous zone is distinct from other maritime zones in the sense that the establishment of a contiguous zone does not confer upon the coastal State sovereignty or sovereign rights over this zone or its resources. The drafting history of Article 24 of the 1958 Convention and that of Article 33 of UNCLOS demonstrate that States have generally accepted that the powers in the contiguous zone are confined to customs, fiscal, immigration and sanitary matters as stated in Article 33, paragraph 1. With regard to the breadth of the contiguous zone, most States that have established such zones have set the breadth thereof within a 24-nautical-mile limit consistent with Article 33, paragraph 2, of UNCLOS. Some States have even reduced the breadth of previously established contiguous zones to conform to that limit. 152. In the development of the contiguous zone régime, the question whether the coastal State may include “security” in the list of matters over which it may exercise control in the contiguous zone was extensively considered by States. For its part, the International Law Commission (hereinafter the “ILC”) in its Commentary on Article 66 of the draft Articles concerning the law of the sea, which subsequently became Article 24 of the 1958 Convention, gave the following reason for not including security among the matters in respect of which the coastal State may exercise control in its contiguous zone: “The Commission did not recognize special security rights in the contiguous zone. It considered that the extreme vagueness of the term ‘security’ would open the way for abuses and that the granting of such rights was not necessary. The enforcement of customs and sanitary regulations will be sufficient in most cases to safeguard the security of the State. In so far as measures of self-defence against an imminent and direct threat to the security of the State are concerned, the Commission refers to the general principles of international law and the Charter of the United Nations.” (Commentary to the articles concerning the law of the sea, Yearbook of the International Law Commission, 1956, Vol. II, p. 295, Article 66, Comment (4)). - 58 - 153. At the First United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea in 1958, a Polish proposal to add “security” to the list of matters under the contiguous zone régime was adopted by a narrow majority in the First Committee, but it did not obtain the required majority for adoption by the plenary (Official Records of the First United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea (1958), Vol. II, doc. A/CONF.13/38, p. 40, para. 63). Instead, the Conference accepted, by an overwhelming majority, a proposal submitted by the United States which incorporated Ceylon’s proposal to add “immigration” to the article (ibid., para. 64). During the negotiations at the Third United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea, the wording of Article 24, paragraph 1, of the 1958 Convention was adopted in Article 33, paragraph 1, of UNCLOS without any change as regards the matters in respect of which the coastal State may exercise control. 154. Although there are a few States that maintain in their national laws the power to exercise control with respect to security in the contiguous zone, their practice has been opposed by other States. The materials adduced by Colombia with regard to national legislation on the contiguous zone do not support Colombia’s claim that the customary rules on the contiguous zone have evolved since the adoption of UNCLOS such that they allow a coastal State to extend the maximum breadth of the contiguous zone beyond 24 nautical miles or expand the powers it may exercise therein. 155. In conclusion, the Court considers that Article 33 of UNCLOS reflects contemporary customary international law on the contiguous zone, both in respect of the powers that a coastal State may exercise there and the limitation of the breadth of the contiguous zone to 24 nautical miles (hereinafter “the 24-nautical-mile rule”). 2. Effect of the 2012 Judgment and Colombia’s right to establish a contiguous zone 156. Nicaragua maintains that the Parties’ entitlements should be limited by the maritime boundary established by the Court in its 2012 Judgment. In Nicaragua’s view, the rights of Colombia as a third State in Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone are governed by Article 58 of UNCLOS, which reflects customary international law and which does not encompass contiguous zone rights. The delimitation of the exclusive economic zone includes the delimitation of the contiguous zone, “if only implicitly”. Nicaragua argues that the fact that the 2012 Judgment makes no express mention of the contiguous zone is not decisive. 157. Colombia argues that it is entitled under international law to establish a contiguous zone around the San Andrés Archipelago and that the 2012 Judgment does not provide a legal basis to deny such a right. It claims that the exercise of “contingent powers” by a coastal State with respect to “specified categories of events” within its contiguous zone neither negates nor otherwise infringes a neighbouring State’s exercise of its sovereign rights within its overlapping exclusive economic zone. The right of the coastal State to establish a contiguous zone is independent of, and not incompatible with, any resource-oriented exclusive economic zone rights of another State in the same space. * * - 59 - 158. The Court notes that in the proceedings leading to the 2012 Judgment, the Parties discussed the contiguous zone but did not request the Court to delimit it in drawing a single maritime boundary, nor did the Court address the contiguous zone, as the issue did not arise during the delimitation. In this regard, the Court recalls that, in the operative paragraph of that Judgment, it found that Colombia “has sovereignty over the islands at Alburquerque, Bajo Nuevo, East-Southeast Cays, Quitasueño, Roncador, Serrana and Serranilla” and that it decided on both “the single maritime boundary delimiting the continental shelf and the exclusive economic zones” of the two Parties and “the single maritime boundary around Quitasueño and Serrana” (Territorial and Maritime Dispute (Nicaragua v. Colombia), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2012 (II), pp. 718-720, para. 251, subparas. (1), (4) and (5)). The Court considers that, in the absence of any reference to the contiguous zone, the 2012 Judgment cannot be taken to imply that the delimitation of the exclusive economic zone includes the delimitation of the contiguous zone, as claimed by Nicaragua. The 2012 Judgment does not delimit, expressly or otherwise, the contiguous zone of either Party. 159. With regard to maritime areas in which Colombia’s “integral contiguous zone” overlaps with Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone, the Court observes that Nicaragua contends that Colombia is not entitled to establish a contiguous zone that overlaps with Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone following the maritime delimitation between them. Nicaragua further maintains that the rights of Colombia in Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone are limited to the rights set forth in Article 58 of UNCLOS, which does not encompass contiguous zone rights. 160. In the first place, the Court notes that the contiguous zone and the exclusive economic zone are governed by two distinct régimes. It considers that the establishment by one State of a contiguous zone in a specific area is not, as a general matter, incompatible with the existence of the exclusive economic zone of another State in the same area. In principle, the maritime delimitation between Nicaragua and Colombia does not abrogate Colombia’s right to establish a contiguous zone around the San Andrés Archipelago. 161. Under the law of the sea, the powers that a State may exercise in the contiguous zone are different from the rights and duties that a coastal State has in the exclusive economic zone. The two zones may overlap, but the powers that may be exercised therein and the geographical extent are not the same. The contiguous zone is based on an extension of control by the coastal State for the purposes of prevention and punishment of certain conduct that is illegal under its national laws and regulations, while the exclusive economic zone, on the other hand, is established to safeguard the coastal State’s sovereign rights over natural resources and jurisdiction with regard to the protection of the marine environment. This distinction between the two régimes was recognized during the negotiations of UNCLOS (Official Records of the Third United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea, Vol. II, Summary records of the 31st Meeting of the Second Committee, 7 August 1974, UN doc. A/CONF.62/C.2/SR.31, pp. 233-234). In exercising the rights and duties under either régime, each State must have due regard to the rights and duties of the other State. 162. The Court does not accept Nicaragua’s assertion that Article 58 of UNCLOS encompasses all the rights that Colombia has within its contiguous zone. In the parts of the “integral contiguous zone” which overlap with Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone, Colombia may exercise its powers of control in accordance with customary rules on the contiguous zone as reflected in Article 33, paragraph 1, of UNCLOS and it has the rights and duties under customary law as reflected - 60 - in Article 58 of UNCLOS. In the Court’s view, in exercising its powers in the parts of its “integral contiguous zone” which overlap with Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone, Colombia is under an obligation to have due regard to the sovereign rights and jurisdiction which Nicaragua enjoys in its exclusive economic zone under customary law as reflected in Articles 56 and 73 of UNCLOS. 163. Given the above considerations, the Court concludes that Colombia has the right to establish a contiguous zone around the San Andrés Archipelago in accordance with customary international law. 3. The compatibility of Colombia’s “integral contiguous zone” with customary international law 164. Having concluded that the provisions of Article 33 of UNCLOS reflect customary international law and that a coastal State is entitled to a contiguous zone which may overlap with the exclusive economic zone of another State, the Court will next consider the compatibility of Colombia’s “integral contiguous zone” established under Presidential Decree 1946 with customary international law and Nicaragua’s claims in that regard. * 165. Regarding Presidential Decree 1946, Nicaragua claims that, according to the maps issued by Colombia, parts of the “integral contiguous zone” reach into Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone and extend beyond 24 nautical miles from the baselines from which Colombia’s territorial sea is measured. In its view, Colombia’s justification for using geodetic lines to draw the “integral contiguous zone” by reference to the special geographical situation of the San Andrés Archipelago has no legal basis in international law. 166. As for the powers to be exercised in the “integral contiguous zone” under Article 5 (2) and Article 5 (3) of Colombia’s Presidential Decree 1946, Nicaragua contends that some of the powers contained therein, including those concerning the protection of security, national maritime interests and cultural heritage, are not listed in Article 33, paragraph 1, of UNCLOS and are unsupported by general State practice. It argues that Colombia has not been able to establish that State practice has evolved into a rule of customary international law authorizing States to exercise control in their contiguous zone over matters other than those listed in Article 33 of UNCLOS. Nicaragua claims that the powers claimed by Colombia conflict with Nicaragua’s powers in its exclusive economic zone. According to Nicaragua, Colombia wrongfully stretches the phrase “sanitary laws and regulations” in Article 33, paragraph 1, of UNCLOS to encompass laws and regulations relating to environmental protection. 167. With respect to cultural heritage in the contiguous zone, Nicaragua maintains that only a State party to UNCLOS may claim the right referred to in Article 303 and that Colombia has not demonstrated that that provision reflects customary international law. Nicaragua further complains - 61 - that the power to protect cultural heritage in the “integral contiguous zone” is contradictory to Colombia’s own domestic law, which reserves to Colombia itself the sole control over cultural heritage in its exclusive economic zone. * 168. In response to Nicaragua’s arguments against the establishment of the “integral contiguous zone”, Colombia denies that it acted wrongfully under international law. Colombia argues that the spatial construction of the “integral contiguous zone” is dictated by the natural and special configuration of the San Andrés Archipelago and that its use of geodetic lines is consistent with the established jurisprudence in this regard and serves solely to define a “functional” area within which Colombia may execute the powers granted by international law. It argues that even if the Court were to find that the 24-nautical-mile limit of the contiguous zone reflects customary international law, the geographical configuration of the “integral contiguous zone” is justified by a “customary exemption” to this rule. In its view, “in unique geographical circumstances, the techniques according to which the external limit of a maritime zone is determined, if reasonable in context, may depart from the general rules in order to create a viable contiguous zone that enables the achievement of its purposes” where “the application of the general rule would create an impracticable contiguous zone”. 169. Colombia argues that the powers prescribed under Presidential Decree 1946 are based on “context, function and policy considerations”, which are permitted under customary international law. According to Colombia, even if the Court were to proclaim that Article 33, paragraph 1, reflects customary law, the powers to be exercised in the “integral contiguous zone” still fall within the scope of that provision. In particular, Colombia argues that protection of the marine environment is consistent with a contemporary interpretation of the term “sanitary”, and protection of security and national maritime interests can also fall into the “customs”, “fiscal”, “immigration” and “sanitary” generic categories. With respect to the power to preserve cultural heritage, Colombia argues that it is explicitly permitted by Article 303 of UNCLOS. * * 170. The Parties are divided over the conformity with customary international law of the provisions of Article 5 of Presidential Decree 1946, which set out the geographical extent of the “integral contiguous zone” and the material scope of the powers that may be exercised therein. Article 5 reads as follows: “Contiguous zone of the island territories in the western Caribbean Sea 1. Without prejudice to the terms of Section 2 of this Article, the Contiguous Zone of the island territories of Colombia in the Western Caribbean Sea extends up to a distance of 24 nautical miles measured from the baselines referred to in Article 3 above. - 62 - 2. The Contiguous Zones adjacent to the territorial sea of the islands which form the island territories of Colombia in the Western Caribbean Sea, except for the islands Serranilla and Bajo Nuevo, where they intersect, generate a continuous and uninterrupted Contiguous Zone, across the whole of the Department of the Archipelago of San Andrés, Providencia and Santa Catalina, over which the competent national authorities will exercise the powers recognized by international law and Colombian laws mentioned in Section 3 of this Article. In order to secure the proper administration and orderly management of the entire Archipelago of San Andrés, Providencia and Santa Catalina, and of their islands, cays and other formations and their maritime areas and resources, and in order to avoid the existence of irregular figures or contours which would make practical application difficult, the lines indicated for the outer limits of the contiguous zones will be joined to each other through geodetic lines. In the same fashion, these will be linked to the contiguous zone of the island of Serranilla by geodetic lines which maintain the direction of parallel 14° 59' 08" N, and to Meridian 79° 56' 00" W, and thence to the North, thus forming an Integral Contiguous Zone of the Department Archipelago of San Andrés, Providencia and Santa Catalina. 3. Modified by Decree 1119 of 2014, Art. 2. In developing what has been provided for in the previous numeral, with the purpose of protecting the sovereignty in its territory and territorial sea, in the Integral contiguous zone established in this Article Colombia exercises the faculties of enforcement and control necessary to: (a) Modified by Decree 1119 of 2014, Art. 2. Prevent and control the infractions of the laws and regulations related with the integral security of the State, including piracy and trafficking of drugs and psychotropic substances, as well as conduct contrary to security in the sea and the national maritime interests, the customs, fiscal, migration and sanitary matters which take place in its insular territories or in their territorial sea. In the same manner, violations against the laws and regulations related with the preservation of the environment and the cultural heritage will be prevented and controlled. (b) Punish violations of laws and regulations related to the matters indicated in section a) above, committed in its island territories or in their territorial sea. PARAGRAPH Added by Decree 1119 of 2014, Art. 3. The application of this article will be carried out in conformity with international law and Article 7 of the Present Decree.” 171. Colombia produces an illustrative map depicting the “integral contiguous zone”, which it claims is an accurate depiction of how the Decree should apply in practice. Nicaragua also produces a map that it claims was presented by the Colombian President on the day Presidential Decree 1946 was issued. The two maps do not coincide in their depiction of the “integral contiguous zone”, but both of them show that some parts of the “integral contiguous zone” extend more than 24 nautical miles from Colombia’s baselines and overlap with Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone. (For illustrative purposes, the Court includes the map produced by Colombia in its Counter-Memorial.) JOINT REGIME AREA Costa Rica Panama Colombia Jamaica Colombia C Cayman Islands (U.K.) Honduras B A Panama Caribbean Sea PA C I F I C OCEAN San Andrés I. Little Corn I. Great Corn I. Santa Catalina I. Quitasueño Cay Providencia I. Roncador Cay ESE Cays Alburquerque Serrana Cay Serranilla Bajo Nuevo Miskitos Cays COSTA RICA PANAMA JAMAICA CUBA COLOMBIA NICARAGUA HONDURAS 10°N 15°N 10°N 15°N 20°N 80°W 75°W 75°W 0 50 100 150 200 0 100 200 300 Nautical Miles Kilometers Mercator Projection Datum: WGS-84 (Scale accurate at 14°N) Prepared by: International Mapping 400 Integral Contiguous Zone COLOMBIA’S ‘INTEGRAL CONTIGUOUS ZONE’ AS SET OUT IN PRESIDENTIAL DECREE NUMBER 1946 OF 2013 12 M limit - 63 - 􀀰􀀤􀀳􀀃􀀶􀀫􀀲􀀺􀀬􀀱􀀪􀀃􀀦􀀲􀀯􀀲􀀰􀀥􀀬􀀤􀂶􀀶􀀃􀂳􀀬􀀱􀀷􀀨􀀪􀀵􀀤􀀯􀀃􀀦􀀲􀀱􀀷􀀬􀀪􀀸􀀲􀀸􀀶􀀃􀀽􀀲􀀱􀀨􀂴􀀃􀀤􀀦􀀦􀀲􀀵􀀧􀀬􀀱􀀪􀀃􀀷􀀲􀀃􀀦􀀲􀀯􀀲􀀰􀀥􀀬􀀤 􀀋􀀶􀁒􀁘􀁕􀁆􀁈􀀝􀀃􀀦􀁒􀁏􀁒􀁐􀁅􀁌􀁄􀂶􀁖􀀃􀀦􀁒􀁘􀁑􀁗􀁈􀁕􀀐􀀰􀁈􀁐􀁒􀁕􀁌􀁄􀁏􀀏􀀃􀀩􀁌􀁊􀁘􀁕􀁈􀀃􀀘􀀑􀀔􀀏􀀃􀁓􀀑􀀃􀀕􀀓􀀗􀀌 - 64 - 172. Colombia does not deny that the “integral contiguous zone”, in various parts, extends beyond 24 nautical miles, but claims its position to be justified on the basis of customary international law. According to Colombia, a coastal State is permitted under customary international law to establish contiguous zones “of varying breadth”, going beyond those expressly envisaged in Article 33 of UNCLOS. 173. As is stated above, the 24-nautical-mile rule provided for in Article 33, paragraph 2, is an established customary rule. The coastal State does not have the right to extend the breadth of its contiguous zone as it sees fit. The Court notes that the simplification of boundary lines is not uncommon in maritime delimitation between two States, but in such cases a simplified boundary is achieved by mutual agreement or through a third-party settlement. By contrast, in the present case, the establishment of the outer limit of the “integral contiguous zone” is a unilateral act of Colombia that directly affects the rights and interests of Nicaragua. 174. Colombia refers to the Fisheries case between the United Kingdom and Norway and the 2012 Judgment as a jurisprudential basis for the simplified configuration of the “integral contiguous zone”. Neither of the Judgments invoked by Colombia, however, is applicable to the present case. Any consideration of the geographical circumstances by Colombia must respect the 24-nautical-mile rule, as required by customary international law reflected in Article 33, paragraph 2, of UNCLOS. Colombia may choose to reduce the breadth of the “integral contiguous zone” if it wishes to simplify the configuration of the zone, but it has no right to expand it beyond the 24-nautical-mile limit to the detriment of the exercise by Nicaragua of its sovereign rights and jurisdiction in its exclusive economic zone. 175. In sum, Colombia is under an international obligation to observe the 24-nautical-mile rule. The geographical extent of the “integral contiguous zone” is not in conformity with customary international law, as reflected in Article 33, paragraph 2, of UNCLOS. 176. With regard to the material scope of Colombia’s powers within the “integral contiguous zone”, Article 5 (3) (a) of Presidential Decree 1946 provides that Colombia shall exercise powers in the “integral contiguous zone” to prevent and control infringements of laws and regulations regarding “the integral security of the State, including piracy, trafficking of drugs and psychotropic substances, as well as conduct contrary to the security in the sea and the national maritime interests, the customs, fiscal, migration and sanitary matters which take place in its insular territories or in their territorial sea. In the same manner, violations against the laws and regulations related with the preservation of the maritime environment and the cultural heritage will be prevented and controlled.” Under this provision, the scope of the powers under which the Colombian authorities may exercise control in the contiguous zone is much broader than the material scope of the powers enumerated in Article 33, paragraph 1, of UNCLOS (see paragraph 150 above). 177. The Court notes that, in terms of security, Article 5 (3) refers to the “integral security of the State”, which, according to Colombia, includes suppressing piracy and drug-trafficking, as well as conduct contrary to security at sea. As the Court has previously found, security was not a matter that States agreed to include in the list of matters over which a coastal State may exercise control in - 65 - the contiguous zone; nor has there been any evolution of customary international law in this regard since the adoption of UNCLOS (see paragraph 154 above). The inclusion of security in the material scope of Colombia’s powers within the “integral contiguous zone” is therefore not in conformity with the relevant customary rule. 178. In respect of the power to protect “national maritime interests”, Article 5 (3) of Presidential Decree 1946, through its broad wording alone, appears to encroach on the sovereign rights and jurisdiction of Nicaragua as set forth in Article 56, paragraph 1, of UNCLOS. This is also true with regard to violations of “laws and regulations related with the preservation of the environment”. As the “laws and regulations” are adopted by Colombia, the power thus conferred on the Colombian authorities to ensure their implementation in part of Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone is contrary to Article 56, paragraph 1 (b) (iii), of UNCLOS, which grants the coastal State, Nicaragua in the present case, jurisdiction in its exclusive economic zone over the “protection and preservation of the marine environment”. 179. Although under UNCLOS, as stated above, all States parties have an obligation to preserve the marine environment in the exclusive economic zone, other States must observe the laws and regulations adopted by the coastal State for the conservation of the living resources and for the preservation of the marine environment. A flag State may enforce such conservation measures adopted by the coastal State with regard to its national vessels operating in the exclusive economic zone (see Request for Advisory Opinion submitted by the Sub-Regional Fisheries Commission, Advisory Opinion, 2 April 2015, ITLOS Reports 2015, p. 37, para. 120). This is not the situation in the present case with regard to the powers authorized under Presidential Decree 1946. Article 5 (3) confers on the Colombian authorities powers that, if exercised in the area overlapping with Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone, would encroach on the sovereign rights and jurisdiction of Nicaragua. 180. With regard to Colombia’s argument that the word “sanitary” can now be taken to include the protection of the marine environment, the Court is not convinced that the meaning of that word, as used in Article 33, paragraph 1, of UNCLOS, has evolved to extend to the protection of the marine environment, a matter that is separately governed by customary international law on the environment. The term “sanitary” was originally included in the provisions on the contiguous zone because of its connection with customs regulations (Commentary to the articles concerning the law of the sea, Yearbook of the International Law Commission, 1956, Vol. II, p. 295, Article 66, Comment (3)). There is no basis, either in law or in State practice, to give this term the expansive interpretation proposed by Colombia. 181. Article 5 (3) (a) of Presidential Decree 1946 also refers to cultural heritage. In support of its position, Colombia invokes Article 303, paragraph 2, of UNCLOS. Nicaragua challenges Colombia’s claim on the basis that Colombia, as a non-party to UNCLOS, may not claim the right set out in Article 303 and that Colombia has not demonstrated that Article 303, paragraph 2, reflects customary international law. 182. The Court recalls that paragraphs 1 and 2 of Article 303, entitled “Archaeological and historical objects found at sea”, provide as follows: “1. States have the duty to protect objects of an archaeological and historical nature found at sea and shall co-operate for this purpose. - 66 - 2. In order to control traffic in such objects, the coastal State may, in applying article 33, presume that their removal from the sea-bed in the zone referred to in that article without its approval would result in an infringement within its territory or territorial sea of the laws and regulations referred to in that article.” 183. The Court notes that in Article 5 (3) (a), of Presidential Decree 1946, the phrase “cultural heritage” is used. Since Colombia relies on Article 303, paragraph 2, the Court takes it that Colombia uses this phrase to mean objects of an archaeological and historical nature. 184. Article 303 is included in the general provisions of Part XVI of UNCLOS. The travaux préparatoires and the ILC’s Commentary to the articles concerning the law of the sea indicate that the negotiating States did not wish to include objects of cultural heritage found on the sea-bed as part of the natural resources of the continental shelf and, therefore, did not include cultural heritage in the continental shelf régime (Yearbook of the International Law Commission, 1956, Vol. II, p. 298). During the negotiations at the Third United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea, the negotiating States agreed to give the coastal State the power to exercise control over objects of an archaeological and historical nature found in its contiguous zone and that the removal of such objects can be regarded as an infringement of its laws and regulations on customs, fiscal, immigration or sanitary matters. Such extended power is strictly confined to the limit of 24 nautical miles under Article 303, paragraph 2, which was accepted by the plenary of the Third United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea (UN doc. A.CONF.62/L.58, para. 15). 185. Following the conclusion of UNCLOS, a growing number of States have extended the application of their cultural heritage legislation over the contiguous zone, and multilateral treaties have been concluded to protect underwater cultural heritage. 186. Taking into account State practice and other legal developments in this field, the Court is of the view that Article 303, paragraph 2, of UNCLOS reflects customary international law. It follows that Article 5 (3) of Presidential Decree 1946, in so far as it includes the power of control with respect to archaeological and historical objects found within the contiguous zone, does not violate customary international law. 4. Conclusion 187. In light of the foregoing, the Court finds that the “integral contiguous zone” established by Colombia’s Presidential Decree 1946 is not in conformity with customary international law in two respects. First, the geographical extent of the “integral contiguous zone” contravenes the 24-nautical-mile rule for the establishment of the contiguous zone. Secondly, Article 5 (3) of Presidential Decree 1946 confers certain powers on Colombia to exercise control over infringements of its laws and regulations in the “integral contiguous zone” that extend to matters that are not permitted by customary rules as reflected in Article 33, paragraph 1, of UNCLOS. - 67 - 188. Having reached this conclusion, the Court will consider the question whether the establishment of the “integral contiguous zone” by enactment of Presidential Decree 1946 constitutes, in and of itself, a breach by Colombia of its international obligations owed to Nicaragua, which engages its international responsibility. * * 189. Nicaragua claims that Colombia’s enactment of Presidential Decree 1946, even if not implemented, is sufficient to constitute an internationally wrongful act engaging Colombia’s responsibility. Nicaragua adds that, in any event, the incidents at sea have shown that, in implementing Presidential Decree 1946, Colombia infringed and continues to infringe Nicaragua’s sovereign rights and jurisdiction in its exclusive economic zone. * 190. In rejecting Nicaragua’s claim, Colombia maintains, even assuming  “quod non”  that the “integral contiguous zone” established in Presidential Decree 1946 were found to be inconsistent with customary international law, the enactment of the Decree would not ipso facto constitute an internationally wrongful act. It argues that the lawfulness of Presidential Decree 1946 must be evaluated on the basis of whether its “application” has failed to comply with the “due regard” obligation owed to Nicaragua. It argues that Nicaragua has failed to show a single instance where Colombia impeded Nicaragua from exercising its exclusive economic zone rights within the “integral contiguous zone”. * * 191. The Court recalls the ILC’s observation that there is no general rule applicable to the question whether a State engages its international responsibility by the enactment of national legislation. The question depends on the specific terms of the obligation concerned and the circumstances of the case. The ILC’s Commentary explains: “The question often arises whether an obligation is breached by the enactment of legislation by a State, in cases where the content of the legislation prima facie conflicts with what is required by the international obligation, or whether the legislation has to be implemented in the given case before the breach can be said to have occurred. Again, no general rule can be laid down applicable to all cases. Certain obligations may be breached by the mere passage of incompatible legislation. Where this is so, the passage of the legislation without more entails the international responsibility of the enacting State, the legislature itself being an organ of the State for the purposes of the attribution of responsibility. In other circumstances, the enactment of legislation may not in and of - 68 - itself amount to a breach, especially if it is open to the State concerned to give effect to the legislation in a way which would not violate the international obligation in question. In such cases, whether there is a breach will depend on whether and how the legislation is given effect.” (Commentary to Article 12 of the ILC Articles on State Responsibility, Yearbook of the International Law Commission, 2001, Vol. II, Part Two, p. 57, para. 12.) 192. The Court will decide the question for the purposes of the present case in light of the obligations of which Colombia is allegedly in breach and the specific context of the case. 193. Colombia’s Presidential Decree 1946 was initially issued not long after the delivery of the 2012 Judgment. Coupled with the official statements made at the highest level of the Colombian Government with regard to the 2012 Judgment and the events at sea, the enactment of Presidential Decree 1946 contributed to the dispute between the Parties, which eventually led to the institution of the present proceedings by Nicaragua. As the Court has found that Colombia’s “integral contiguous zone” established under Presidential Decree 1946 is, in two respects, incompatible with the rules of customary international law on the contiguous zone and infringes upon Nicaragua’s rights in its exclusive economic zone (see paragraph 187 above), the Court must address the request made by Nicaragua in its final submissions with regard to Presidential Decree 1946. The Court is mindful that Colombia amended Presidential Decree 1946 in 2014 to provide that the Decree will be applied in compliance with international law. Given the finding of the Court and the circumstances of the case, however, the Court does not consider that this additional provision is sufficient to address the concern raised by Nicaragua with respect to Presidential Decree 1946. Colombia is under an international obligation to remedy the situation. 194. On the basis of the above considerations, the Court concludes that, in respect of the maritime areas in which Colombia’s “integral contiguous zone” overlaps with Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone, Colombia’s “integral contiguous zone”, which the Court has found to be incompatible with customary international law as reflected in Article 33 of UNCLOS, infringes upon Nicaragua’s sovereign rights and jurisdiction in the exclusive economic zone. Colombia’s responsibility is thereby engaged. Colombia has the obligation, by means of its own choosing, to bring the provisions of Presidential Decree 1946 into conformity with customary international law in so far as they relate to maritime areas declared by the Court in its 2012 Judgment to appertain to Nicaragua. C. Conclusions and remedies 195. The Court has concluded (see paragraph 144 above) that Colombia breached its international obligation to respect Nicaragua’s sovereign rights and jurisdiction in its exclusive economic zone (i) by interfering with fishing activities and marine scientific research activities of Nicaraguan-flagged or Nicaraguan-licensed vessels and with the operations of Nicaraguan naval vessels in Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone; (ii) by purporting to enforce conservation measures in Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone; and (iii) by authorizing fishing activities in Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone. This wrongful conduct engages Colombia’s responsibility under international law. Colombia must therefore immediately cease its wrongful conduct. - 69 - 196. The Court has also found (see paragraphs 187 and 194 above) that the “integral contiguous zone” established by Colombia’s Presidential Decree 1946 is not in conformity with customary international law, both because its breadth exceeds 24 nautical miles from the baselines from which Colombia’s territorial sea is measured and because the powers that Colombia asserts within the “integral contiguous zone” exceed those that are permitted under customary international law. In the maritime areas where the “integral contiguous zone” overlaps with Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone, the “integral contiguous zone” infringes upon Nicaragua’s sovereign rights and jurisdiction in the exclusive economic zone. Colombia’s responsibility is thereby engaged. Colombia has the obligation, by means of its own choosing, to bring the provisions of Presidential Decree 1946 into conformity with customary international law in so far as they relate to maritime areas declared by the Court in its 2012 Judgment to appertain to Nicaragua. 197. In its final submissions, Nicaragua made a number of requests for additional remedies (see paragraph 24 above). Considering the nature of Colombia’s internationally wrongful acts, the Court considers that the remedies stated above suffice to redress the injury that Colombia’s internationally wrongful acts have inflicted on Nicaragua. 198. As regards the request by Nicaragua to order Colombia to pay compensation, the Court considers that in the course of the proceedings Nicaragua did not offer evidence demonstrating that Nicaraguan-flagged or Nicaraguan-licensed vessels or their fishermen suffered material damage or were effectively prevented from fishing as a result of Colombia’s acts of interference by its naval frigates in Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone. Nicaragua’s claim that fishing activities authorized by Colombia, in Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone, have caused “a substantial loss of profits for Nicaragua and its licensed fishermen” is not substantiated. In the absence of “any evidence capable of demonstrating . . . financially assessable injury”, the Court will not uphold a claim for compensation (Dispute regarding Navigational and Related Rights (Costa Rica v. Nicaragua), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2009, p. 267, para. 149). Therefore, Nicaragua’s request for compensation must be rejected. Accordingly, there is no basis for the Court to defer the question of compensation to a further stage. 199. Finally, Nicaragua requests that the Court remain seised of the case until Colombia recognizes and respects Nicaragua’s rights in the Caribbean Sea as attributed by the 2012 Judgment. The Court considers that there is no legal basis for the Court to accept such a request. Nicaragua’s request must therefore be rejected. IV. COUNTER-CLAIMS MADE BY COLOMBIA 200. The Court recalls, as outlined in paragraph 15 of the present Judgment, that in its Order dated 15 November 2017 it ruled pursuant to Article 80 of the Rules of Court that “there is no direct connection, either in fact or in law, between Colombia’s first and second counter-claims and Nicaragua’s principal claims”, and that those counter-claims are inadmissible as such and do not form part of the present proceedings (Alleged Violations of Sovereign Rights and Maritime Spaces in the Caribbean Sea (Nicaragua v. Colombia), Counter-Claims, Order of 15 November 2017, I.C.J. Reports 2017, p. 314, para. 82 (A) (1) and (2)). The Court found, however, that there is a direct connection between Colombia’s third and fourth counter-claims and Nicaragua’s principal claims and that therefore those counter-claims are admissible and do form part of the present proceedings (ibid., p. 314, para. 82 (A) (3) and (4)). The Court will next examine the merits of Colombia’s third and fourth counter-claims in turn. - 70 - A. Nicaragua’s alleged infringement of the artisanal fishing rights of the inhabitants of the San Andrés Archipelago to access and exploit the traditional banks 201. In its third counter-claim Colombia asserts that the ancestral inhabitants of the San Andrés Archipelago, including the Raizales, have for more than three centuries engaged in navigating, fishing and turtling throughout the south-western Caribbean Sea in the maritime areas adjudged in the 2012 Judgment to appertain to Nicaragua, as well as in Colombian waters, access to which requires navigating through a part of Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone. It contends that the Raizales have traditionally fished between the Mosquito Coast and the San Andrés Archipelago, including in “[t]he shallow grounds of Cape Bank and, in particular, along La Esquina, that is to say on both sides of the 82° West Meridian, and the area known as Luna Verde”; and “[t]he deep-sea banks situated North of Quitasueño, East of the 82° West Meridian and West and North-West of Providencia, and between, respectively, Providencia and Quitasueño, Quitasueño and Serrana and Serrana and Roncador”. Colombia further contends that while long fishing expeditions to Cape Bank and the Northern Banks have always taken place, artisanal fishermen started sailing to these banks much more frequently in the second half of the twentieth century, due to the decrease in production around San Andrés and Providencia. Colombia asserts that, as a result of the 2012 Judgment, many traditional fishing banks of the inhabitants of the Archipelago are now located in the maritime zones under the jurisdiction of Nicaragua, while certain other fishing grounds located in Colombia’s maritime areas can only be accessed by navigating through Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone. 202. In support of its third counter-claim, Colombia asserts, first, that the traditional fishing rights of the Raizales arise out of an uncontested local customary norm or practice spanning centuries, as evidenced through various historical documents and affidavits annexed to the Counter-Memorial. It describes those fishing rights as “limited . . . customary rights of access and exploitation” whose exercise does not negate the exclusive character of the sovereign rights of Nicaragua as the coastal State. Secondly, Colombia argues that, “in the immediate aftermath of the 2012 Judgment, Colombia and Nicaragua recognized, both tacitly and explicitly, that such a . . . long-established practice [of artisanal fishing] had taken the shape of a local customary norm that survived the maritime delimitation”. Thirdly, Colombia asserts that Nicaragua has, through the statements of its Head of State, accepted that the artisanal fishermen of the Archipelago have a right to fish in Nicaragua’s own maritime zones without the need for bilateral fishing agreements or other mechanisms to preserve these rights and without the fishermen having to request authorization from INPESCA. Colombia argues, in the alternative, that these statements must be viewed as constituting a binding unilateral undertaking by Nicaragua to respect the traditional fishing rights of the Raizales. Finally, Colombia asserts that, “[i]t matters little whether the formal source is a local customary norm, a tacit agreement, an act of acquiescence, a unilateral understanding or even a rule of international law on the treatment of vested rights of foreign nationals. The result is the same. The inhabitants of the Archipelago and, in particular, the Raizales have the right to fish in the banks located in the maritime zones found to appertain to Nicaragua . . . without having to request an authorization.” 203. In this regard, Colombia refers, inter alia, to the following statements by Nicaragua’s Head of State: - 71 - (i) a statement of 26 November 2012 in which President Ortega allegedly stressed Nicaragua’s respect for the rights of the inhabitants of the Archipelago “to fish and navigate in those waters, which they ha[d] historically navigated”, while also stating that “artisanal fishermen would require an authorization from the relevant Nicaraguan authorities”; (ii) a statement of 1 December 2012 in which President Ortega allegedly declared that “Nicaragua will respect the ancestral rights of the Raizales” and that “mechanisms for dialogue” would have to be established in order to “ensure the right of the Raizal people to fish”; (iii) a statement of 21 February 2013 in which President Ortega allegedly stated that “the Raizal community, living in San Andrés can continue fishing in the Caribbean waters now belonging to Nicaragua and that their rights as native people will not be affected” but that it was “necessary to work on an agreement between Colombia and Nicaragua to regulate this situation, because right now there is no way to know how many vessels belong to the Raizal community and which are related by industrial fishing”; (iv) a statement of 18 November 2014 in which President Ortega asserted that, while the President of Colombia was prepared to work on an agreement or treaty with Nicaragua to implement the 2012 Judgment, the Parties “agreed that it was necessary to work on reaching an Agreement where the [r]ights of the Raizal Community [would] be guaranteed”; and (v) a statement by President Ortega, of 5 November 2015 which contains a reference to “engagements . . . with the Raizales Brothers regarding their [f]ishing [r]ights, which will have to be arranged later”. 204. Colombia claims that in the aftermath of the 2012 Judgment and, notwithstanding President Ortega’s support of the rights of the inhabitants of the San Andrés Archipelago, Nicaragua’s Naval Force has followed an active strategy of intimidation, including through threats and pillaging, thereby “preventing on a recurring basis, or at the very least, seriously discouraging the artisanal fishermen of the Archipelago from reaching their traditional banks located in the maritime zones adjudicated to appertain to Nicaragua and the Northern Banks of Quitasueño, Serrana, Serranilla and Bajo Nuevo”, as evidenced in 11 affidavits annexed to the Counter-Memorial. Colombia further asserts that the Nicaraguan industrial fishermen operating in the relevant areas are involved in “predatory practices as well as acts of piracy” and that, by the Nicaraguan Naval Force “tolerating these predatory fishing practices and criminal activities”, Nicaragua is in further violation of the customary right of the artisanal fishermen in the Archipelago to access and exploit the traditional banks. 205. Colombia considers that Nicaragua “is under an obligation to cease and desist from preventing Colombian artisanal fishermen from accessing their traditional fishing grounds, and to fully respect the traditional, historic fishing rights of the Raizales and other fishermen of the Archipelago to such grounds”. Colombia is also of the view that Nicaragua should pay compensation for damage caused, including loss of profits resulting from Nicaragua’s alleged violations, and give appropriate guarantees of non-repetition. * - 72 - 206. In response to Colombia’s third counter-claim, Nicaragua argues that “there are absolutely no legal rights, residual or otherwise, of the Raizal population of the small islands of San Andrés, Providencia and Santa Catalina to any purported fishing in the Nicaraguan [exclusive economic zone]” and that the claimed rights are incompatible with the régime of the exclusive economic zone. In Nicaragua’s view, “the text and context of the relevant provisions of UNCLOS, the preparatory works, and the jurisprudence all make clear that historic fishing rights, including artisanal fishing rights, did not survive the creation of the [exclusive economic zone] régime”. Furthermore, Nicaragua asserts that, in any event, Colombia has failed to establish that the artisanal fishermen of the San Andrés Archipelago have such rights or that Nicaragua has infringed them. 207. First, Nicaragua argues that, in accordance with the Court’s jurisprudence, “the régime [of the exclusive economic zone], as codified in Part V of UNCLOS is fully applicable between the Parties as customary international law”. For Nicaragua, an examination of the text, context and preparatory work of Part V of the Convention clearly indicates that the exploitation of the living resources of the exclusive economic zone is reserved for the coastal State. The Applicant relies on the text of Article 56, paragraph 1 (a), which provides for the coastal State’s “sovereign rights for the purpose of exploring and exploiting, conserving and managing the natural resources, whether living or non-living, of the waters superjacent to the sea-bed and of the sea-bed and its subsoil”. Nicaragua also notes that Article 61, paragraph 1, of the Convention gives to the coastal State the exclusive right to establish allowable catch limits in its exclusive economic zone; while Article 62, paragraph 2, empowers the same State to establish its own harvesting capacity, with the possibility, under Article 62, paragraph 3, of giving access to other States to the surplus stocks, taking into account, inter alia, “the need to minimize economic dislocation in States whose nationals have habitually fished in the zone or which have made substantial efforts in research and identification of stocks”. Nicaragua argues that some provisions of UNCLOS concerning other maritime areas, such as Article 51 on archipelagic waters, “contain express carve-outs for traditional fishing rights or the application of other rules of international law”. Thus, according to Nicaragua, the absence of a provision in Part V of UNCLOS preserving traditional fishing rights in the exclusive economic zone indicates the intention of the drafters of the Convention to relegate these rights to a “relevant factor” in the allocation of the surplus resources. 208. Nicaragua further asserts that during the negotiation of UNCLOS at the Third United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea, proposals concerning the protection of historic fishing practices in the exclusive economic zone were discussed and rejected and that a large number of States objected to this protection in the waters adjacent to their coasts, a fact which supports the recognition of exclusive sovereign rights and jurisdiction of the coastal State over the natural resources of the exclusive economic zone. Finally, Nicaragua argues that the jurisprudence, as evidenced by the Court’s ruling in the case concerning Delimitation of the Maritime Boundary in the Gulf of Maine Area (Canada/United States of America) (Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1984, p. 246), also supports its argument that, under customary international law, traditional fishing rights have been extinguished by the establishment of the exclusive economic zone, and that coastal States now enjoy a “legal monopoly” over the living resources of the exclusive economic zone. 209. In the alternative, Nicaragua contends that, should the Court find that traditional fishing rights have survived the establishment of the exclusive economic zone, Colombia has, in any event, not discharged its burden of proving either that its fishermen actually had such rights or that - 73 - Nicaragua has infringed them. Nicaragua argues further that Colombia’s claim of traditional fishing rights is inconsistent with the latter’s own prior admissions during the proceedings before the Court in the case concerning Territorial and Maritime Dispute (Nicaragua v. Colombia), where Colombia did not make any reference to the existence of ancestral fishing rights of the Raizales. Nicaragua also refers to a passage of Colombia’s Counter-Memorial submitted in the above-mentioned case, where the Respondent indicated that the population of the Archipelago has relied for subsistence on the fisheries and other resources located in “Roncador, Quitasueño, Serrana, Serranilla and Bajo Nuevo”, features which are not located in the area the Court declared in its 2012 Judgment to appertain to Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone. Nicaragua also invites the Court to take into account Colombia’s statement to the International Labour Organization’s Committee of Experts on the Application of Conventions and Recommendations that the fishing areas used by the inhabitants of San Andrés “were not affected by the ICJ ruling, as they consisted of territorial waters awarded to Colombia”. Finally, Nicaragua argues that, through official acts, such as Colombia’s DIMAR Resolution No. 0121 of 28 April 2004, Colombia itself placed tight limits on the areas where artisanal fishermen were allowed to fish, restricting their area of operation to a distance of 12 nautical miles from the islands of San Andrés and Providencia. 210. Nicaragua also submits that Colombia’s own evidence, in the form of the 11 affidavits from artisanal fishermen referenced above, disproves Colombia’s claim and demonstrates that fishing did not historically occur in the area the Court declared in its 2012 Judgment to constitute Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone. Nicaragua, moreover, questions the probative value of this type of evidence, arguing that the affidavits were sworn by private persons interested in the outcome of the proceedings, and prepared less than a month before the filing of Colombia’s Counter-Memorial, for the purposes of litigation. Nicaragua asserts that, in any event, the affidavits prove that “historic fishing took place largely in the vicinity of Colombia’s islands, and not in waters that the Court determined to be part of Nicaragua’s [exclusive economic zone]”. 211. Nicaragua further asserts that none of the statements in which President Ortega expressed his openness to address Colombia’s concerns about the fishing practices of the Raizales, amount to an explicit recognition or acceptance of the alleged traditional fishing rights. In Nicaragua’s view, those statements, which must be understood in the particularly delicate context in which they were made, were intended to be conciliatory and to diffuse the political tension created by Colombia’s rejection of the Court’s 2012 Judgment. Nicaragua emphasizes that, in the statements, President Ortega expressly called for the establishment of appropriate mechanisms to accommodate the activities of the artisanal fishermen, including a bilateral agreement with Colombia. Nicaragua also makes it clear that, while it denies that the inhabitants of the San Andrés Archipelago have a “vested ‘right’ to conduct artisanal fishing in Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone as a matter of law, it remains open, in the spirit of brotherhood and good neighbourly relations, to work with Colombia to reach a bilateral agreement that takes account of . . . the fishing needs of the Raizales”. - 74 - 212. Nicaragua further argues that Colombia has failed to produce any contemporaneous evidence of the alleged incidents of interference by the Nicaraguan Navy. Nicaragua states that the declaration of President Santos of 18 February 2013 and the affidavits on which Colombia relies do not provide any details of the incidents of harassment or pillaging that is alleged to have occurred. * * 213. The Court observes that Colombia’s third counter-claim is premised on two main contentions: first, Colombia asserts that the inhabitants of the San Andrés Archipelago, in particular the Raizales, have for centuries practised traditional or artisanal fishing in locations now falling in Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone. The alleged long-standing practices amongst those communities are said to have given rise to an uncontested “local customary norm” between the Parties or to customary rights of access and exploitation that survived the establishment of Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone. Additionally, Colombia points to statements of President Ortega, the Head of State of Nicaragua, which it characterizes both as accepting or recognizing the existence of those rights and as unilateral statements that are capable of producing “legal effects” in the sense that they amounted to “granting rights to the artisanal fishermen”. The Court will examine the merits of each of those arguments before determining whether Colombia has proven Nicaragua’s alleged violations. 214. As to Colombia’s first main contention, the onus is on Colombia to prove that the inhabitants of the San Andrés Archipelago, in particular the Raizales, have historically practised artisanal fishing in areas that now fall within Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone, giving rise (according to Colombia) to an “uncontested local customary norm” or to “customary rights of access and exploitation” that survived the establishment of Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone. 215. The Court begins by recalling that the Parties’ relations in respect of the exclusive economic zone are governed by customary international law (see paragraph 48 above). Accordingly, in order to determine the rights and obligations of the Parties specifically in Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone, the Court will apply the relevant rules of customary international law, as reflected in the relevant provisions of Part V including Article 56 and Article 58 of UNCLOS (see paragraphs 57 and 61 above). 216. Under customary international law, as reflected in Article 56 of UNCLOS, Nicaragua, as the coastal State, enjoys sovereign rights in its exclusive economic zone including “for the purpose of exploring and exploiting, conserving and managing the natural resources, whether living or non-living, of the waters superjacent to the sea-bed and of the sea-bed and its subsoil”. Furthermore, customary international law as reflected in Articles 61 and 62 of UNCLOS grants to Nicaragua, as the coastal State, the right to “determine the allowable catch of the living resources in its exclusive economic zone” (Article 61, paragraph 1); to determine its capacity to harvest the living resources of the exclusive economic zone and where it does not have the capacity to harvest the entire allowable catch, give access to the surplus of the allowable catch to other States, through agreements or other - 75 - arrangements, and pursuant to its terms, conditions and laws (Article 62, paragraph 2). Furthermore, customary international law requires that, in giving access to other States to its exclusive economic zone for the purpose of accessing the surplus of Nicaragua’s allowable catch, Nicaragua “shall take into account all relevant factors, including, inter alia, . . . the requirements of developing States in the subregion or region in harvesting part of the surplus and the need to minimize economic dislocation in States whose nationals have habitually fished in the zone” (Article 62, paragraph 3). 217. Under customary international law, as reflected in Article 58 of UNCLOS, other States, including Colombia, enjoy in Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone, high seas freedoms of navigation and overflight and other internationally lawful uses of the sea related to these freedoms which must, however, be exercised with due regard to Nicaragua’s rights as the coastal State. 218. The Court now turns to the question whether Colombia has proved that the inhabitants of the San Andrés Archipelago, in particular the Raizales, have historically enjoyed “artisanal fishing rights” in areas that now fall within Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone and that those “rights” survived the establishment of Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone. Colombia relies on 11 affidavits annexed to its Counter-Memorial to prove the existence of a long-standing practice of artisanal fishing by the inhabitants of the San Andrés Archipelago, in particular the Raizales. The Court recalls that it must exercise caution in giving weight to affidavit evidence especially prepared by a party for the purposes of a case: “[W]itness statements produced in the form of affidavits should be treated with caution. In assessing such affidavits the Court must take into account a number of factors. These would include whether they were made by State officials or by private persons not interested in the outcome of the proceedings and whether a particular affidavit attests to the existence of facts or represents only an opinion as regards certain events.” (Territorial and Maritime Dispute between Nicaragua and Honduras in the Caribbean Sea (Nicaragua v. Honduras), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2007 (II), p. 731, para. 244.) 219. In the present case, the 11 affidavits annexed to Colombia’s Counter-Memorial appear to have been sworn specifically for the purposes of this case and are signed by fishermen who may be considered as particularly interested in the outcome of these proceedings, factors that have a bearing on the weight and probative value of that evidence. The Court must nonetheless analyse the affidavits “for the utility of what is said” and to determine whether they support Colombia’s contention (Territorial and Maritime Dispute between Nicaragua and Honduras in the Caribbean Sea (Nicaragua v. Honduras), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2007 (II), p. 731, para. 244). 220. Having reviewed the affidavits on which Colombia relies, the Court observes that they contain indications that some fishing activities have in the past taken place in certain areas that had once been part of the high seas but now fall within Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone. However, the Court also notes that the affidavits do not establish with certainty the periods during which such - 76 - activities took place, or whether there was in fact a constant practice of artisanal fishing spanning many decades or centuries, as claimed by Colombia. Some affiants refer to fishing expeditions beyond the Colombian islands being limited to “a few times a year”, while others claim to have carried out fishing in those areas since the 1980s and 1990s, a time span which the Court does not consider, in the circumstances of the present case, long enough to qualify such fishing as “a long-standing practice” or to support Colombia’s claim concerning the existence of a local custom or of “a local customary right to artisanal fishing”. The Court also notes in this regard that most of the affiants speak of having conducted their activities in waters surrounding the Colombian features or in fishing grounds located within Colombia’s territorial sea, rather than Nicaraguan maritime areas. The evidence also suggests that the fishing expeditions within the areas now falling within Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone increased in frequency in recent decades as a result of technological developments enabling artisanal fishermen to venture further out to sea, and as a result of the depletion of fish stocks around the Colombian islands, a fact that Colombia itself concedes in its written pleadings and oral arguments. Finally, the Court observes that certain affidavits do not address the alleged historical nature of the fishing conducted in waters now falling in Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone, so that a conclusion in that regard cannot be derived from their reading. 221. The Court is mindful that traditional fishing practices alleged to have taken place over many decades may not have been documented in any formal or official record (cf. Dispute regarding Navigational and Related Rights (Costa Rica v. Nicaragua), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2009, pp. 265-266, para. 141), which calls for some flexibility in considering the probative value of the affidavits submitted by Colombia. Nonetheless, the Court is of the view that the 11 affidavits submitted by Colombia do not sufficiently establish its claim that the inhabitants of the San Andrés Archipelago, in particular the Raizales, have been engaged in a long-standing practice of artisanal fishing in “traditional fishing banks” located in waters now falling within Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone. 222. The Court also considers that the positions adopted by Colombia, inter alia, its statement before the International Labour Organization’s Committee of Experts on the Application of Conventions and Recommendations, and Resolution No. 0121 of Colombia’s General Maritime Directorate of 28 April 2004 (see paragraph 209 above), are inconsistent with Colombia’s assertion concerning the existence of such a traditional practice of artisanal fishing in Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone. For example, on two occasions (August 2013 and February-March 2014), the Colombian General Confederation of Labour (hereinafter the “CGT”) submitted information on behalf of the Raizal Small-Scale Fishers’ Associations and Groups of the Department Archipelago of San Andrés, Providencia and Santa Catalina to the International Labour Organization’s Committee of Experts on the Application of Conventions and Recommendations concerning the application by Colombia of the International Labour Organization’s Indigenous and Tribal Peoples Convention of 1989. In these communications, the CGT asserted that the 2012 Judgment had negative implications for traditional fishing, as “Raizal fishers have no longer been able to fish with the tranquillity that they did ancestrally” and that “[they] have to cross Nicaraguan maritime territory, which is reported to give rise to difficulties and the payment of fines”. The Committee summarized the responses sent by the Government of Colombia refuting the submissions of the CGT as follows: - 77 - “[T]he Government explains that traditional fishing sites are precisely located in the vicinity of areas not affected by the ICJ judgment since it is a question of territorial sea and in this respect the ICJ ruled in favour of Colombia. The Government states that fishers from the islands of San Andrés, Providencia and Santa Catalina can continue fishing in the traditional way.” (International Labour Organization, Committee of Experts on the Application of Conventions and Recommendations, Observation (CEACR) — adopted 2013, published 103rd ILC session (2014).) “The Government adds that the waters in which the small-scale fishers of the Raizal community traditionally fished continue to belong to Colombia and the fishers can continue their work as they did before the ruling of the ICJ of November 2012. With regard to the right of the inhabitants of San Andrés to have access to traditional fishing areas, the Government specifies that such fishing areas are located precisely around the keys and that these areas were not affected by the ICJ ruling, as they consisted of territorial waters awarded to Colombia, together with the sovereignty of the islands and the seven keys.” (International Labour Organization, Committee of Experts on the Application of Conventions and Recommendations, Observation (CEACR) — adopted 2014, published 104th ILC session (2015).) 223. Colombia responds to the above observation by claiming that the Colombian Ministry of Labour “cavalierly concluded . . . that the artisanal fishermen of the San Andrés Archipelago could not have been impacted by the 2012 line” while “fail[ing] to provide even a shred of evidence to support its assertion that the traditional fishing sites were precisely located in the vicinity of areas not affected by the decision”. It further points to the plan established by the Colombian Government to alleviate the adverse effects of the 2012 Judgment on the artisanal fishermen and considers that the communications from the fishermen prove its claim in the present proceedings. However, the Court has previously held that “statements emanating from high-ranking official[s] . . . are of particular probative value when they acknowledge facts or conduct unfavourable to the State represented by the person who made them” (Armed Activities on the Territory of the Congo (Democratic Republic of the Congo v. Uganda), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2005, p. 206, para. 78. See also Military and Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v. United States of America), Merits, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1986, p. 41, para. 64). The Court has further observed in the past that “persons representing a State in specific fields may be authorized by that State to bind it by their statements in respect of matters falling within their purview. This may be true, for example, of holders of technical ministerial portfolios exercising powers in their field of competence in the area of foreign relations, and even of certain officials.” (Armed Activities on the Territory of the Congo (New Application: 2002) (Democratic Republic of the Congo v. Rwanda), Jurisdiction and Admissibility, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2006, p. 27, para. 47.) The Court must consider therefore that the statements noted above, emanating from the Head of the Office of Co-operation and International Relations of Colombia’s Ministry of Labour, further undermine Colombia’s assertion of the existence of such a traditional practice of artisanal fishing in Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone. - 78 - 224. The Court also takes note of a report issued by the Comptroller General’s Office of the Department Archipelago of San Andrés, Providencia and Santa Catalina. In his 2013 Report on the “Status of Natural Resources and the Environment”, the Comptroller of the Archipelago presented the new maritime boundary determined by the Court and the effects of the 2012 Judgment, asserting that the ruling of the Court translated into a substantial reduction of the marine territory of the Archipelago. With regard to the impact of the 2012 Judgment on fisheries, the Comptroller’s report alludes to the reduction of fisheries activities, and links it to the concerns expressed by fishermen over “conflicts arising from [the ruling of the Court]”. However, the Court observes that, in presenting “a detailed description of each impact on fisheries [of the 2012 Judgment]”, the report only refers to the effects of the 2012 Judgment on industrial fishing without any specific mention of detrimental impacts in respect of artisanal fishermen. In addition, the report lists the “Traditional Fishing Location[s]” as follows: “San Andrés Island artisanal fishermen distribute themselves throughout the entire shelf, using points of reference for fishing grounds such as: Outside Bank (Northern San Andrés Island), Under the Lee (Western side of San Andres Island), Southend Bank (Southern San Andrés Island), Alburquerque Cays (50 km to the SSW of San Andrés Island), and Meridian 82 on the boundary with Nicaragua. In Providencia and Santa Catalina, fishing takes place in the interior and the exterior of the barrier reef, close to the reef terrace, respecting the park area and the protected marine area . . . [T]he specific work areas are El Faro, Taylor Reef, Morning Star, Northeast Bank, South Banks, and North Banks.” The report also seems to confirm that the artisanal fishermen usually remained close to the Colombian islands and found themselves in Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone only infrequently, a fact supported by the aforesaid affidavits. In view of the foregoing, the Court concludes that previous positions adopted by or on behalf of Colombia further undermine Colombia’s assertion concerning the existence of a traditional practice of artisanal fishing in Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone. 225. The Court turns to several statements of Nicaragua’s Head of State, which, according to Colombia, either illustrate Nicaragua’s acceptance or recognition that the artisanal fishermen of the Archipelago have the right to fish in Nicaragua’s maritime zones without having to request prior authorization or alternatively create a legal obligation on the part of Nicaragua to respect those fishing rights. 226. First, the Court observes that, in certain statements, President Ortega refers to the need to “respect the ancestral rights of the Raizales over those waters now fully belonging to [his] country” or to “respect the historical rights of the Raizal people . . . over the region”. In other instances, the President affirms that “the [R]aizal community, living in San Andrés can continue fishing in the Caribbean waters now belonging to Nicaragua and that their rights as native people will not be affected”. 227. Bearing in mind these observations, the Court begins by considering whether a recognition by Nicaragua of the alleged artisanal fishing rights may be inferred from the above statements. In this context, the Court will examine carefully the words used in those statements in order to ascertain whether such a recognition emerges therefrom. The Court observes that, in several - 79 - of President Ortega’s statements, reference is made to the need for the Raizal community or the inhabitants of the Archipelago to obtain fishing permits or authorizations from Nicaragua to carry on artisanal or industrial fishing. In addition, President Ortega made references to mechanisms that needed to be established between Nicaragua and Colombia before the artisanal fishermen could operate in waters falling in Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone by virtue of the 2012 Judgment. In this regard, President Ortega proposed, inter alia, the creation of a commission “to work [to delimit] where the Raizal people can fish in [the] exercise of their historic rights”; the elaboration of “an agreement between Colombia and Nicaragua to regulate [the] situation”; or the establishment of “a Nicaraguan consular section” on the San Andrés island “to solve the issue of the fishing permits for the [R]aizal community”. In the Court’s view, the statements by President Ortega do not establish that Nicaragua has recognized that the inhabitants of the San Andrés Archipelago, in particular the Raizales, have the right to fish in Nicaragua’s maritime zones without having to request prior authorization. It follows that the Court cannot uphold Colombia’s contention that Nicaragua, through the statements of its Head of State, accepted or recognized the rights of the Raizales to fish in Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone without requiring authorization from Nicaragua. 228. The Court will now consider whether the statements of President Ortega constitute a legal undertaking “granting rights to the artisanal fishermen”. In determining whether a unilateral declaration by a State official entails the creation of legal obligations, the Court has stated: “It is well recognized that declarations made by way of unilateral acts, concerning legal or factual situations, may have the effect of creating legal obligations. Declarations of this kind may be, and often are, very specific. When it is the intention of the State making the declaration that it should become bound according to its terms, that intention confers on the declaration the character of a legal undertaking, the State being thenceforth legally required to follow a course of conduct consistent with the declaration. An undertaking of this kind, if given publicly, and with an intent to be bound, even though not made within the context of international negotiations, is binding. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . With regard to the question of form, it should be observed that this is not a domain in which international law imposes any special or strict requirements. Whether a statement is made orally or in writing makes no essential difference, for such statements made in particular circumstances may create commitments in international law, which does not require that they should be couched in written form. Thus the question of form is not decisive.” (Nuclear Tests (Australia v. France), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1974, pp. 267-268, paras. 43 and 45; Nuclear Tests (New Zealand v. France), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1974, pp. 472-473, paras. 46 and 48.) 229. The Court has also emphasized the need to consider the factual circumstances in which the unilateral statement was made and the need to consider carefully whether the State issuing the declaration intended to be bound by it (Military and Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v. United States of America), Merits, Judgment. I.C.J. Reports 1986, p. 43, para. 71; Frontier Dispute (Burkina Faso/Republic of Mali), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1986, p. 573, para. 39; Obligation to Negotiate Access to the Pacific Ocean (Bolivia v. Chile), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2018 (II), p. 555, para. 146). In this regard, the Court is mindful that certain - 80 - declarations may express a State’s willingness to adopt a particular course of conduct, without being expressed in terms of undertaking a legal obligation (Obligation to Negotiate Access to the Pacific Ocean (Bolivia v. Chile), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2018 (II), p. 555, para. 147). The Court has also held that “[w]hen States make statements by which their freedom of action is to be limited, a restrictive interpretation is called for” (Nuclear Tests (Australia v. France), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1974, p. 267, para. 44; Nuclear Tests (New Zealand v. France), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1974, p. 473, para. 47). It also falls to the Court to “form its own view of the meaning and scope intended by the author of a unilateral declaration which may create a legal obligation” (Frontier Dispute (Burkina Faso/Republic of Mali), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1986, p. 573, para. 39, citing Nuclear Tests (Australia v. France), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1974, p. 269, para. 48; Nuclear Tests (New Zealand v. France), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1974, p. 474, para. 50). 230. In the Court’s view, the statements of Nicaragua’s Head of State indicate that the Nicaraguan authorities were aware of the issues that arose in respect of the fishing activities of the inhabitants of the Archipelago and the challenges that Colombia faced in implementing the 2012 Judgment. In that regard, it appears that Nicaragua expressed an openness to concluding an agreement with Colombia regarding appropriate mechanisms and solutions to overcome those challenges. The Court notes that, in some statements adduced by the Respondent, the Nicaraguan Head of State expressed concerns regarding the rejection by Colombia of the delimitation effected by the Court and affirmed the need to work with Colombia on reaching an agreement to ensure compliance with the 2012 Judgment. President Ortega further alluded to the need to understand the inner workings of domestic politics and to give due time to Colombia to bring its national legislation into compliance with the Court’s Judgment. The Court further observes that both Parties agree that the statements were made in the context of political protests in the aftermath of the 2012 Judgment and against the backdrop of the ongoing negotiations with Colombia with the view of achieving an agreement on the implementation of the 2012 Judgment. Bearing in mind the above context and adopting a restrictive interpretation (Nuclear Tests (Australia v. France), I.C.J. Reports 1974, p. 267, para. 44; Nuclear Tests (New Zealand v. France), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1974, p. 473, para. 47), the Court cannot accept Colombia’s alternative argument that the statements of President Ortega, referred to above, constitute a legal undertaking on the part of Nicaragua to respect the rights of the artisanal fishermen of the San Andrés Archipelago to fish in Nicaragua’s maritime zones without requiring prior authorization from Nicaragua. 231. For these reasons, the Court concludes that Colombia has failed to establish that the inhabitants of the San Andrés Archipelago, in particular the Raizales, enjoy artisanal fishing rights in waters now located in Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone, or that Nicaragua has, through the unilateral statements of its Head of State, accepted or recognized their traditional fishing rights, or legally undertaken to respect them. In view of this conclusion, the Court need not examine the Parties’ arguments in respect of whether or in which circumstances the traditional fishing rights of a particular community can survive the establishment of the exclusive economic zone of another State, or Colombia’s contentions concerning Nicaragua’s alleged infringement of said rights through the conduct of its Naval Force. In light of all the above considerations, the Court dismisses Colombia’s third counter-claim. 232. Notwithstanding the above conclusion, the Court takes note of Nicaragua’s willingness, as expressed through statements of its Head of State, to negotiate with Colombia an agreement regarding access by members of the Raizales community to fisheries located within Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone. The Court considers that the most appropriate solution to address the concerns expressed by Colombia and its nationals in respect of access to fisheries located within Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone would be the negotiation of a bilateral agreement between the Parties. - 81 - 233. The Court also emphasizes that, under customary international law applicable to the exclusive economic zone, as reflected in Article 58 of UNCLOS, third States possess freedom of navigation in this area. It follows that the inhabitants of the Archipelago, including the Raizales, may freely navigate within Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone, including in the course of their travel between the inhabited islands and the fishing areas located on Colombia’s side of the maritime boundary. B. Alleged violation of Colombia’s sovereign rights and maritime spaces by Nicaragua’s use of straight baselines 234. The Court now turns to Colombia’s fourth counter-claim. On 27 August 2013, Nicaragua enacted Decree 33 through which it established a system of straight baselines along its Caribbean coast, from which the breadth of its territorial sea is measured. In the preamble to the Decree, Nicaragua purports to have acted in accordance with the provisions of UNCLOS in establishing those baselines. The Decree identifies nine base points — two are located on the low-water line along Nicaragua’s mainland coast and the remaining seven are located on the low-water line along islands seaward of Nicaragua’s mainland coast — and eight straight baseline segments. (In the 2018 amendment to Decree 33, Nicaragua made a small adjustment to the location of base point 9, located on its southern coast, to take into account the Court’s Judgment of 2 February 2018 in the cases concerning Maritime Delimitation in the Caribbean Sea and the Pacific Ocean (Costa Rica v. Nicaragua) and Land Boundary in the Northern Part of Isla Portillos (Costa Rica v. Nicaragua), a change that neither Party considers material to the present case.) 235. In its fourth counter-claim, Colombia raises three objections to Nicaragua’s use of straight baselines. First, the Respondent argues that Nicaragua has not met the necessary geographical preconditions required under Article 7 of UNCLOS, which reflects the customary international law on the use of straight baselines, in that there is no “fringe of islands along the Nicaraguan coast in its immediate vicinity”, and the coastline is not “deeply indented and cut into”. Colombia also advocates for a strictly frontal projection in determining the extent to which the coast is masked or guarded by the islands and finds that the concerned features “mask no more than 5 to 6 percent of the coast”. Secondly, Colombia argues that even if those geographical preconditions were met, the manner in which Nicaragua drew those baselines contravenes the provisions of Article 7, paragraph 3, since the baselines depart significantly from the general direction of Nicaragua’s coast and enclose sea areas that are not sufficiently closely linked to the land domain to be subject to the régime of internal waters. Thirdly, Colombia argues that by employing straight baselines, Nicaragua is attempting to misappropriate significant maritime areas as its internal waters and is artificially expanding its territorial sea, exclusive economic zone and continental shelf, in a manner that not only infringes upon Colombia’s rights and maritime spaces, but also limits the rights of third States in the Caribbean Sea. Colombia accordingly maintains that Nicaragua’s straight baselines established in Decree 33, as amended, are contrary to international law and violate Colombia’s rights and maritime spaces. * - 82 - 236. For its part, Nicaragua asserts that its straight baselines were drawn in accordance with customary international law and the relevant provisions of UNCLOS, and that the Applicant is therefore entitled to determine the status of the waters landward and seaward of those baselines in accordance with international law. Nicaragua also disagrees with Colombia’s contention that Decree 33 produces an artificial overlap of Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone with Colombia’s entitlement to its own exclusive economic zone and continental shelf. According to Nicaragua, the outer limit of its exclusive economic zone is unaltered by the use of straight baselines, because the outer limit of that zone is controlled by basepoints on the low-water line along its coast that are seaward of the straight baselines. 237. Nicaragua maintains that the geographical configuration of its coast permits the use of straight baselines, in that the coastline is deeply indented and cut into and there is a fringe of islands along the coast in its immediate vicinity, as required by Article 7, paragraph 1, of UNCLOS. Nicaragua further argues that the Court’s 2012 Judgment in two instances refers respectively to the “Nicaraguan fringing islands” and the “islands fringing the Nicaraguan coast”. Moreover, base points on Nicaragua’s fringing islands were used in the construction of a provisional median line. In its view, these islands form a fringe in the immediate vicinity of the coast of Nicaragua. It also disputes Colombia’s assertion that the islands do not form a unity with the mainland given the distance between the main features — the Miskitos Cays and the Corn Islands — and the Nicaraguan coast. Nicaragua observes in this respect that Colombia’s claim does not take account of the fact that these main features are located in an area in which there are numerous other islands. Nicaragua argues that the Court should be informed by its own approach to determining the seaward projection of relevant coasts in connection with the delimitation of maritime boundaries. In light of the Court’s jurisprudence, Nicaragua submits, it would be reasonable to look at a projection of all relevant islands and features between a perpendicular to the general direction of the mainland coast and an angle of 20 degrees to that perpendicular, an approach which allegedly yields a masking effect of 46 per cent. 238. Nicaragua further contends that the course of its baselines does “not depart to any appreciable extent from the general direction of the coast”, in accordance with Article 7, paragraph 3, of the Convention. It considers that, as indicated by the Court, in applying the principle of the general direction of the coast, the focus should be on the overall direction of the coast under consideration, not that of specific localities. Second, it asserts that “the sea areas lying within the lines [are] sufficiently closely linked to the land domain to be subject to the régime of internal waters”, in accordance with the same provision. 239. Finally, Nicaragua argues that Colombia’s rights have not been infringed by Nicaragua’s straight baselines. It states that its straight baselines are in conformity with Article 7 of the Convention and, as a consequence, Nicaragua is entitled to apply the régime for internal waters, as defined by the Convention and customary international law, landward of these straight baselines. It adds that the outer limit of Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone has not shifted seaward following the establishment of its straight baselines through Decree 33, since the outer limit of Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone is determined from base points located on the low-water line along Nee Reef and London Reef (low-tide elevations that are located within 12 nautical miles of the Miskitos Cays), Blowing Rock and Little Corn Island, all of which are seaward of those straight baselines. * * - 83 - 240. The Court recalls that when it delimited the maritime boundary between the Parties in the 2012 Judgment, the location of Nicaragua’s baselines was unsettled, given that “Nicaragua ha[d] not yet notified the Secretary-General [of the United Nations] of the location of those baselines under Article 16, paragraph 2, of UNCLOS”. Accordingly, the location of the eastern endpoints of the maritime boundary was determined only on an approximate basis (Territorial and Maritime Dispute (Nicaragua v. Colombia), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2012 (II), p. 683, para. 159, and p. 713, para. 237). 241. The Parties agree on the principles governing the determination of appropriate baselines. They consider that Article 5 of UNCLOS sets out the criteria that govern the establishment of normal baselines, namely “the low-water line along the coast as marked on large-scale charts officially recognized by the coastal State”. The Parties also agree that customary international law permits a deviation from normal baselines where “the coastline is deeply indented and cut into, or if there is a fringe of islands along the coast in its immediate vicinity”. They accept that Article 7 of UNCLOS reflects customary international law on the drawing of straight baselines. 242. The Court recalls that in its Judgment in the Fisheries case, it recognized the employment of straight baselines as the “application of general international law to a specific case” given the geographic characteristics of Norway’s coast (Fisheries (United Kingdom v. Norway), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1951, p. 131). In assessing the validity of Norway’s baselines under international law, the Court indeed identified certain criteria which were codified in Article 4 of the 1958 Convention. This provision corresponds, almost verbatim, to Article 7 of UNCLOS on “Straight baselines”, paragraphs 1, 3 and 4 of which provide that: “1. In localities where the coastline is deeply indented and cut into, or if there is a fringe of islands along the coast in its immediate vicinity, the method of straight baselines joining appropriate points may be employed in drawing the baseline from which the breadth of the territorial sea is measured. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3. The drawing of straight baselines must not depart to any appreciable extent from the general direction of the coast, and the sea areas lying within the lines must be sufficiently closely linked to the land domain to be subject to the régime of internal waters. 4. Straight baselines shall not be drawn to and from low-tide elevations, unless lighthouses or similar installations which are permanently above sea level have been built on them or except in instances where the drawing of baselines to and from such elevations has received general international recognition.” The Court considers that Article 7 of UNCLOS reflects customary international law. 243. The Court recalls that it is for the coastal State to determine its baselines for the purposes of measuring the breadth of its maritime zones, in conformity with international law. However, as the Court has stated in the past, the determination of baselines is “an exercise which has always an international aspect” and falls to be assessed by reference to international rules (Maritime - 84 - Delimitation in the Black Sea (Romania v. Ukraine), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2009, p. 108, para. 137; see also Fisheries (United Kingdom v. Norway), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1951, p. 132). Moreover, the Court would recall, in relation to the use of straight baselines and the applicable rules, that “the method of straight baselines, which is an exception to the normal rules for the determination of baselines, may only be applied if a number of conditions are met. This method must be applied restrictively.” (Maritime Delimitation and Territorial Questions between Qatar and Bahrain (Qatar v. Bahrain), Merits, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2001, p. 103, para. 212.) 244. Customary international law as reflected in Article 7, paragraph 1, of UNCLOS provides for two geographical preconditions for the establishment of straight baselines. The preconditions are alternative and not cumulative. With respect to the straight baselines drawn from Cabo Gracias a Dios on the mainland to Great Corn Island along the coast (points 1-8), Nicaragua asserts that there is “a fringe of islands along the coast in its immediate vicinity” that entitles it to use straight rather than normal baselines. As to the southernmost part of its mainland coast, Nicaragua claims instead that the indentation of the coast from Monkey Point to the land boundary terminus with Costa Rica justifies Nicaragua’s straight baselines drawn from point 8 (Great Corn Island) to point 9 (Barra Indio Maíz). 245. The Court notes that there appears to be no single test for identifying a coastline that is “deeply indented and cut into”. Since Nicaragua concedes that it is only the southernmost portion of its Caribbean coast between Monkey Point and Barra Indio Maíz that falls to be considered under the second geographic option, the Court must determine whether the straight baseline segment between base points 8 and 9 defined by Decree 33, as amended, is justified on the basis that the corresponding coast is “deeply indented and cut into”. An examination of the relevant maps reveals that Nicaragua’s southernmost coast does, in fact, curve inward. Under the conditions reflected in Article 7, paragraph 1, of UNCLOS, however, it is not sufficient for the coast to have slight indentations and concavities; the coast must be “deeply indented and cut into”. From the Isla del Venado (facing the bay of Bluefields) to Monkey Point, Nicaragua’s mainland coast has a smooth configuration. A broad concavity is observable from Punta Grindston Bay to Isla Portillos, at the land boundary terminus with Costa Rica. The indentations along the relevant portion of Nicaragua’s coast do not penetrate sufficiently inland or present characteristics sufficient for the Court to consider the said portion as “deeply indented and cut into”. The relevant portion is not “of a very distinctive configuration”, nor “broken along its whole length” or “constantly open[ing] out into indentations often penetrating for great distances inland” (Fisheries (United Kingdom v. Norway), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1951, p. 127). Thus, recalling that the straight baselines method “must be applied restrictively”, the Court finds that the straight baseline segment between base points 8 and 9 defined by Decree 33, as amended, does not conform with customary international law on the drawing of straight baselines as reflected in Article 7, paragraph 1, of UNCLOS. 246. The Court now turns to the remainder of Nicaragua’s straight baselines running from point 1 to point 8, where some base points are located on features such as Edinburgh Cay, the Miskitos Cays, Ned Thomas Cay, the Man of War Cays and the Corn Islands. It recalls that base points used to construct straight baselines may be placed on islands, but may not be placed on features that are below water at high tide (low-tide elevations) except in certain situations which are not - 85 - present in this case. Article 121, paragraph 1, of UNCLOS, defines an “island” as “a naturally formed area of land, surrounded by water, which is above water at high tide”. In the case concerning Maritime Delimitation and Territorial Questions between Qatar and Bahrain, the Court viewed the legal definition of an island embodied in Article 121, paragraph 1, as part of customary international law (Maritime Delimitation and Territorial Questions between Qatar and Bahrain, (Qatar v. Bahrain), Merits, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2001, p. 91, para. 167, and p. 99, para. 195) and it reaffirmed the same in its 2012 Judgment (Territorial and Maritime Dispute (Nicaragua v. Colombia), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2012 (II), p. 674, para. 139). 247. In this regard, the Court notes that the Parties are divided on the question whether Nicaragua’s offshore islands constitute a “fringe of islands along the coast in its immediate vicinity” within the meaning of Article 7, paragraph 1, of UNCLOS. First, the Parties disagree as to whether certain features are islands and whether there is a sufficient number of islands for drawing straight baselines. They also disagree on whether the islands in question “form a unity with the mainland” or have a “masking effect” on Nicaragua’s coastline. Lastly, the Parties disagree about the size of the islands and whether their distance from each other and from the mainland justifies the drawing of straight baselines. 248. The Court must begin by ascertaining whether Nicaragua has demonstrated the presence of “islands” and, if so, whether those islands amount to “a fringe . . . along the coast in its immediate vicinity” as required by customary international law. Nicaragua asserts that there are 95 “islands” along its coast and provides a list of these as an annex to its written pleadings. Colombia adopts the view that Nicaragua has failed to prove the existence of the “islands”, noting that Nicaragua does not adduce evidence concerning the insular nature or characteristics of these features. Colombia further considers that the feature called Edinburgh Cay, on which Nicaragua has placed a base point, is not an “island” for the purposes of Article 7, paragraph 1, and is shown as a simple “low-tide elevation” on Nautical Chart 28130. 249. As noted by the Parties, the 2012 Judgment contains references to “islands fringing the Nicaraguan coast” and to “the Nicaraguan mainland and fringing islands”. While the Parties reach different conclusions on the legal significance of such references by the Court, they agree that the Court did not qualify the said islands as “a fringe of islands” within the meaning of Article 7, paragraph 1, of UNCLOS, nor that the Court was dealing with Nicaragua’s claim to straight baselines. Furthermore, the Court clearly indicated that Nicaragua was yet to notify its baselines from which the breadth of its territorial sea would be measured, in accordance with Article 16, paragraph 2, of UNCLOS (Territorial and Maritime Dispute (Nicaragua v. Colombia), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2012 (II), p. 683, para. 159). Notwithstanding these clarifications, the Court is satisfied, in general terms, on the basis of the above references and noting its findings in its 2012 Judgment according to which “[t]here are a number of Nicaraguan islands located off the mainland coast of Nicaragua” (ibid., p. 638, para. 21), that some of the 95 features listed by Nicaragua are islands, as opposed to low-tide elevations. The Court must emphasize, nonetheless, that it does not automatically follow that all the features listed by Nicaragua are “islands” or that they constitute “a fringe” within the meaning of Article 7, paragraph 1, of UNCLOS. It remains for Nicaragua to prove that there is indeed “a fringe of islands along the coast in its immediate vicinity” within the meaning of that provision. - 86 - 250. The Parties are divided concerning the insular nature of “Edinburgh Cay” and about whether this feature may be considered an island for the purpose of drawing straight baselines under Article 7 of UNCLOS. The Court notes that, in plotting a provisional equidistance line, the 2012 Judgment refers to “Edinburgh Reef” as part of the islands located off the coast of Nicaragua (Territorial and Maritime Dispute (Nicaragua v. Colombia), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2012 (II), p. 638, para. 21) and that the Court placed a base point on this feature for the construction of the provisional equidistance line (ibid., pp. 698-700, paras. 201 and 204). However, the Court did not at that time consider the appropriateness of this feature for the purpose of drawing straight baselines, nor did the Court qualify it as an “island” within the meaning of Article 7, paragraph 1, of UNCLOS. The Court has underlined in the past that “the issue of determining the baseline for the purpose of measuring the breadth of the continental shelf and the exclusive economic zone and the issue of identifying base points for drawing an equidistance/median line for the purpose of delimiting the continental shelf and the exclusive economic zone between adjacent/opposite States are two different issues” (Maritime Delimitation in the Black Sea (Romania v. Ukraine), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2009, p. 108, para. 137). 251. The Court notes the contradictory data put forward by the Applicant concerning the nature of Edinburgh Cay. Nautical Chart NGA 28130, annexed to the Applicant’s written pleadings, indicates that Edinburgh Cay, based on charted data, is not an island. Nicaragua explains that a different chart (British Admiralty Chart 1218), which was part of Nicaragua’s pleadings in the case concerning Territorial and Maritime Dispute, shows the presence of “several islands on Edinburgh Cay or Reef”. In these circumstances, the Court considers that there are serious reasons to question the nature of Edinburgh Cay as an island for the purpose of Article 7, paragraph 1, of UNCLOS. Thus, significant questions arise as to its appropriateness as the location for a base point for the drawing of straight baselines under the same provision. The Court adopts the view that Nicaragua has not demonstrated the insular nature of this feature. 252. In respect of the existence of a fringe of islands, the Court notes that there are no specific rules regarding the minimum number of islands, although the phrase “fringe of islands” implies that there should not be too small a number of such islands relative to the length of the coast (Maritime Delimitation and Territorial Questions between Qatar and Bahrain (Qatar v. Bahrain), Merits, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2001, p. 103, para. 214). Given the uncertainty about which of the 95 features are islands, the Court is not satisfied, on the basis of the maps and figures submitted by the Parties, that the number of Nicaragua’s islands relative to the length of the coast is sufficient to constitute “a fringe of islands” along Nicaragua’s coast. 253. The maritime features shown on the maps may be divided into two groups on the basis of their geographic proximity: one group, located off the northernmost part of Nicaragua’s mainland coast, extends from Edinburgh Cay to Ned Thomas Cay, including the Miskitos Cays; the second group, located off the central part of Nicaragua’s mainland coast, extends from Man of War Cays to the Corn Islands, including the Tyra Cays and Pearl Point (Punta de Perlas). - 87 - 254. The Parties have alluded in their pleadings to several factors they consider as relevant to determine whether a given group of islands amounts to “a fringe”. The Court has equated in the past the term “fringe of islands” to a “cluster of islands” or an “island system” (Maritime Delimitation and Territorial Questions between Qatar and Bahrain (Qatar v. Bahrain), Merits, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2001, p. 103, para. 214). The arbitral tribunal in the proceedings between Eritrea and Yemen referred to “[a] tightly knit group of islands and islets, or ‘carpet’ of islands and islets” or to “an intricate system of islands, islets and reefs which guard this part of the coast” (Second stage of the proceedings between Eritrea and Yemen (Maritime Delimitation), Award, 17 December 1999, Reports of International Arbitral Awards (RIAA), Vol. XXII, p. 369, para. 151). Also, it emerges from these considerations that a certain continuity must be observed in respect of the islands in question for them to form a “fringe of islands” within the meaning of Article 7, paragraph 1, of UNCLOS. This conclusion is reinforced by the ordinary meaning of the words “fringe of islands” in other authentic languages of UNCLOS, such as in French, which refers to “un chapelet d’îles”, a term which implies a certain succession or continuity. In the Court’s view, a “fringe” must enclose a set, or a cluster of islands which present an interconnected system with some consistency or continuity. In certain instances, a fringe of islands “guard[ing] [a] part of the coast” may have a masking effect on a large proportion of the coast from the sea, a criterion which has been used and discussed by the Parties in the present proceedings to demonstrate or refute the existence of a fringe of islands along the Nicaraguan coastline (Second stage of the proceedings between Eritrea and Yemen (Maritime Delimitation), Award, 17 December 1999, RIAA, Vol. XXII (2001), p. 369, para. 151). 255. In determining whether the features identified by the Applicant can be considered a “fringe of islands”, the Court observes that customary international law, as reflected in Article 7, paragraph 1, of UNCLOS, requires this fringe to be located “along the coast” and in its “immediate vicinity”. Read together with the additional requirements of Article 7, paragraph 3, according to which the drawing of straight baselines “must not depart to any appreciable extent from the general direction of the coast” and “the sea areas lying within the lines must be sufficiently closely linked to the land domain to be subject to the régime of internal waters”, the specific requirements of Article 7, paragraph 1, indicate that a “fringe of islands” must be sufficiently close to the mainland so as to warrant its consideration as the outer edge or extremity of that coast (Fisheries (United Kingdom v. Norway), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1951, p. 128). It is not sufficient that the concerned maritime features be part, in general terms, of the overall geographical configuration of the State. They need to be an integral part of its coastal configuration (Maritime Delimitation and Territorial Questions between Qatar and Bahrain (Qatar v. Bahrain), Merits, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2001, p. 103, para. 214; Second stage of the proceedings between Eritrea and Yemen (Maritime Delimitation), Award, 17 December 1999, RIAA, Vol. XXII (2001), p. 338, para. 14). 256. Bearing in mind these considerations, the Court is of the opinion that the Nicaraguan “islands” are not sufficiently close to each other to form a coherent “cluster” or a “chapelet” along the coast and are not sufficiently linked to the land domain to be considered as the outer edge of the coast. Nicaragua asserts that “there are numerous small cays between the mainland and the Corn Islands and that as a consequence the territorial seas of the two merge and overlap” in order to illustrate the relationship between the “islands” and the mainland. However, the Court notes that Nicaragua’s straight baselines enclose large maritime areas where no maritime feature entitled to a territorial sea has been shown to exist. These areas are between Ned Thomas Cay and the Man of War Cays, between East of Great Tyra Cay and the Corn Islands, and from Corn Islands to the land boundary terminus with Costa Rica. The Court further notes that the features and islands located towards the south of Nicaragua’s mainland coast  the Man of War and East of Great Tyra Cay and - 88 - the Little Corn and Great Corn Islands  appear to be significantly detached from the islands grouped in the north. Furthermore, a notable break in continuity of over 75 nautical miles can be observed between Ned Thomas Cay, on which Nicaragua has plotted base point 4, and Man of War Cays where base point 5 is located. Nicaragua concedes that the groups of islands along its coast are “separate”. 257. Furthermore, the Court is not convinced that Nicaragua’s islands “guard . . . part of the coast” in such a way that they have a masking effect on a large portion of the mainland coast (Second stage of the proceedings between Eritrea and Yemen (Maritime Delimitation), Award, 17 December 1999, RIAA, Vol. XXII (2001), p. 369, para. 151). The segments of Nicaragua’s mainland coast facing the areas lying between Ned Thomas Cay and the Man of War Cays and south of the Corn Islands do not seem to be masked by islands. The Court notes that the Parties disagree about the approach to be adopted to assess the extent of the masking effect of the islands and propose different methods by way of different projections. Without adopting a view concerning the relevance of the projections suggested by the Parties in assessing the masking effect of islands for the purpose of Article 7, paragraph 1, of UNCLOS, the Court considers that, even if it were to accept Nicaragua’s approach, the masking effect of the maritime features that the Applicant identifies as “islands” is not significant enough for them to be considered as masking a large proportion of the coast from the sea. 258. In light of the above findings, the Court cannot accept Nicaragua’s contention that there exists a continuous fringe or an “intricate system of islands, islets and reefs which guard this part of the coast” of Nicaragua (Second stage of the proceedings between Eritrea and Yemen (Maritime Delimitation), Award, 17 December 1999, RIAA, Vol. XXII (2001), p. 369, para. 151). It follows that Nicaragua’s straight baselines do not meet the requirements of customary international law reflected in Article 7, paragraph 1, of UNCLOS. Having reached this conclusion, the Court need not consider whether the Applicant’s straight baselines meet the additional requirements reflected in Article 7, paragraph 3, of UNCLOS. 259. Nicaragua’s own evidence establishes that the straight baselines convert into internal waters certain areas which otherwise would have been part of Nicaragua’s territorial sea or exclusive economic zone and convert into territorial sea certain areas which would have been part of Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone. The establishment of Nicaragua’s straight baselines limits the rights that Colombian vessels would have had in those areas. The availability of the right of innocent passage in areas landward of straight baselines, consistent with Article 8, paragraph 2, of UNCLOS, does not fully address the implications for Colombia of Nicaragua’s straight baselines. The Court notes in particular that by converting certain areas of its exclusive economic zone into internal waters or into territorial sea, Nicaragua’s straight baselines deny to Colombia the rights to which it is entitled in the exclusive economic zone, including the freedoms of navigation and overflight and of the laying of submarine cables and pipelines, as provided under customary international law as reflected in Article 58, paragraph 1, of UNCLOS. - 89 - 260. For the reasons set out above, the Court concludes that the straight baselines established by Decree 33, as amended, do not conform with customary international law. The Court considers that a declaratory judgment to that effect is an appropriate remedy. * * * 261. For these reasons, THE COURT, (1) By ten votes to five, Finds that its jurisdiction, based on Article XXXI of the Pact of Bogotá, to adjudicate upon the dispute regarding the alleged violations by the Republic of Colombia of the Republic of Nicaragua’s rights in the maritime zones which the Court declared in its 2012 Judgment to appertain to the Republic of Nicaragua, covers the claims based on those events referred to by the Republic of Nicaragua that occurred after 27 November 2013, the date on which the Pact of Bogotá ceased to be in force for the Republic of Colombia; IN FAVOUR: President Donoghue; Vice-President Gevorgian; Judges Tomka, Xue, Sebutinde, Bhandari, Robinson, Salam, Iwasawa; Judge ad hoc Daudet; AGAINST: Judges Abraham, Bennouna, Yusuf, Nolte; Judge ad hoc McRae; (2) By ten votes to five, Finds that, by interfering with fishing and marine scientific research activities of Nicaraguan-flagged or Nicaraguan-licensed vessels and with the operations of Nicaraguan naval vessels in the Republic of Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone and by purporting to enforce conservation measures in that zone, the Republic of Colombia has violated the Republic of Nicaragua’s sovereign rights and jurisdiction in this maritime zone; IN FAVOUR: President Donoghue; Vice-President Gevorgian; Judges Tomka, Xue, Sebutinde, Bhandari, Robinson, Salam, Iwasawa; Judge ad hoc Daudet; AGAINST: Judges Abraham, Bennouna, Yusuf, Nolte; Judge ad hoc McRae; (3) By nine votes to six, Finds that, by authorizing fishing activities in the Republic of Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone, the Republic of Colombia has violated the Republic of Nicaragua’s sovereign rights and jurisdiction in this maritime zone; IN FAVOUR: President Donoghue; Judges Tomka, Xue, Sebutinde, Bhandari, Robinson, Salam, Iwasawa; Judge ad hoc Daudet; AGAINST: Vice-President Gevorgian; Judges Abraham, Bennouna, Yusuf, Nolte; Judge ad hoc McRae; - 90 - (4) By nine votes to six, Finds that the Republic of Colombia must immediately cease the conduct referred to in points (2) and (3) above; IN FAVOUR: President Donoghue; Judges Tomka, Xue, Sebutinde, Bhandari, Robinson, Salam, Iwasawa; Judge ad hoc Daudet; AGAINST: Vice-President Gevorgian; Judges Abraham, Bennouna, Yusuf, Nolte; Judge ad hoc McRae; (5) By thirteen votes to two, Finds that the “integral contiguous zone” established by the Republic of Colombia by Presidential Decree 1946 of 9 September 2013, as amended by Decree 1119 of 17 June 2014, is not in conformity with customary international law, as set out in paragraphs 170 to 187 above; IN FAVOUR: President Donoghue; Vice-President Gevorgian; Judges Tomka, Bennouna, Yusuf, Xue, Sebutinde, Bhandari, Robinson, Salam, Iwasawa, Nolte; Judge ad hoc Daudet; AGAINST: Judge Abraham; Judge ad hoc McRae; (6) By twelve votes to three, Finds that the Republic of Colombia must, by means of its own choosing, bring into conformity with customary international law the provisions of Presidential Decree 1946 of 9 September 2013, as amended by Decree 1119 of 17 June 2014, in so far as they relate to maritime areas declared by the Court in its 2012 Judgment to appertain to the Republic of Nicaragua; IN FAVOUR: President Donoghue; Vice-President Gevorgian; Judges Tomka, Bennouna, Xue, Sebutinde, Bhandari, Robinson, Salam, Iwasawa, Nolte; Judge ad hoc Daudet; AGAINST: Judges Abraham, Yusuf; Judge ad hoc McRae; (7) By twelve votes to three, Finds that the Republic of Nicaragua’s straight baselines established by Decree No. 33-2013 of 19 August 2013, as amended by Decree No. 17-2018 of 10 October 2018, are not in conformity with customary international law; IN FAVOUR: President Donoghue; Vice-President Gevorgian; Judges Tomka, Abraham, Yusuf, Sebutinde, Bhandari, Robinson, Salam, Iwasawa, Nolte; Judge ad hoc Daudet; AGAINST: Judges Bennouna, Xue; Judge ad hoc McRae; - 91 - (8) By fourteen votes to one, Rejects all other submissions made by the Parties. IN FAVOUR: President Donoghue; Vice-President Gevorgian; Judges Tomka, Abraham, Bennouna, Yusuf, Xue, Sebutinde, Bhandari, Robinson, Salam, Iwasawa, Nolte; Judge ad hoc Daudet; AGAINST: Judge ad hoc McRae. Done in English and in French, the English text being authoritative, at the Peace Palace, The Hague, this twenty-first day of April, two thousand and twenty-two, in three copies, one of which will be placed in the archives of the Court and the others transmitted to the Government of the Republic of Nicaragua and the Government of the Republic of Colombia, respectively. (Signed) Joan E. DONOGHUE, President. (Signed) Philippe GAUTIER, Registrar. Vice-President GEVORGIAN appends a declaration to the Judgment of the Court; Judge TOMKA appends a separate opinion to the Judgment of the Court; Judge ABRAHAM appends a dissenting opinion to the Judgment of the Court; Judge BENNOUNA appends a declaration to the Judgment of the Court; Judge YUSUF appends a separate opinion to the Judgment of the Court; Judge XUE appends a declaration to the Judgment of the Court; Judge ROBINSON appends a separate opinion to the Judgment of the Court; Judge IWASAWA appends a declaration to the Judgment of the Court; Judge NOLTE appends a dissenting opinion to the Judgment of the Court; Judge ad hoc MCRAE appends a dissenting opinion to the Judgment of the Court. (Initialled) J.E.D. (Initialled) Ph.G. ___________

Bilingual Content

INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE
REPORTS OF JUDGMENTS,
ADVISORY OPINIONS AND ORDERS
ALLEGED VIOLATIONS
OF SOVEREIGN RIGHTS AND MARITIME SPACES
IN THE CARIBBEAN SEA
(NICARAGUA v. COLOMBIA)
JUDGMENT OF 21 APRIL 2022
2022
COUR INTERNATIONALE DE JUSTICE
RECUEIL DES ARRÊTS,
AVIS CONSULTATIFS ET ORDONNANCES
VIOLATIONS ALLÉGUÉES
DE DROITS SOUVERAINS ET D’ESPACES MARITIMES
DANS LA MER DES CARAÏBES
(NICARAGUA c. COLOMBIE)
ARRÊT DU 21 AVRIL 2022
Official citation:
Alleged Violations of Sovereign Rights and Maritime Spaces
in the Caribbean Sea (Nicaragua v. Colombia),
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2022, p. 266
Mode officiel de citation :
Violations alléguées de droits souverains et d’espaces maritimes
dans la mer des Caraïbes (Nicaragua c. Colombie),
arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2022, p. 266
ISSN 0074-4441
ISBN 978-92-1-003906-2
e-ISBN 978-92-1-002567-6
Sales number
No de vente : 1243
© 2023 ICJ/CIJ, United Nations/Nations Unies
All rights reserved/Tous droits réservés
printed in france/imprimé en france
ALLEGED VIOLATIONS
OF SOVEREIGN RIGHTS AND MARITIME SPACES
IN THE CARIBBEAN SEA
(NICARAGUA v. COLOMBIA)
VIOLATIONS ALLÉGUÉES
DE DROITS SOUVERAINS ET D’ESPACES MARITIMES
DANS LA MER DES CARAÏBES
(NICARAGUA c. COLOMBIE)
21 APRIL 2022
JUDGMENT
21 AVRIL 2022
ARRÊT
266
4
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Paragraphs
Chronology of the Procedure 1-24
I. General Background 25-32
II. Scope of the Jurisdiction Ratione Temporis of the Court 33-47
III. Alleged Violations by Colombia of Nicaragua’s Rights in
Its Maritime Zones 48-199
A. Colombia’s contested activities in Nicaragua’s maritime
zone 49-144
1. Incidents alleged by Nicaragua in the south-western
Caribbean Sea 49-101
2. Colombia’s alleged authorization of fishing activities and
marine scientific research in Nicaragua’s exclusive economic
zone 102-134
3. Colombia’s alleged oil exploration licensing 135-143
4. Conclusions 144
B. Colombia’s “integral contiguous zone” 145-194
1. The applicable rules on the contiguous zone 147-155
2. Effect of the 2012 Judgment and Colombia’s right to establish
a contiguous zone 156-163
3. The compatibility of Colombia’s “integral contiguous zone”
with customary international law 164-186
4. Conclusion 187-194
C. Conclusions and remedies 195-199
IV. Counter-Claims
Made by Colombia 200-260
A. Nicaragua’s alleged infringement of the artisanal fishing
rights of the inhabitants of the San Andrés Archipelago to
access and exploit the traditional banks 201-233
B. Alleged violation of Colombia’s sovereign rights and maritime
spaces by Nicaragua’s use of straight baseline 234-260
Operative Clause 261
266
4
TABLE DES MATIÈRES
Paragraphes
Qualités 1-24
I. Contexte général 25-32
II. Portée de la compétence ratione temporis de la Cour 33-47
III. Allégations de violations par la Colombie des droits du
Nicaragua dans ses zones maritimes 48-199
A. Les activités contestées de la Colombie dans les espaces
maritimes
du Nicaragua 49-144
1. Les incidents dans le sud-ouest de la mer des Caraïbes
qu’allègue le Nicaragua 49-101
2. Les allégations d’autorisation, par la Colombie, d’activités
de pêche et de recherche scientifique marine dans la zone
économique exclusive du Nicaragua 102-134
3. La délivrance alléguée de permis d’exploration pétrolière
par la Colombie 135-143
4. Conclusions 144
B. La « zone contiguë unique » de la Colombie 145-194
1. Les règles applicables à la zone contiguë 147-155
2. L’effet de l’arrêt de 2012 et le droit de la Colombie d’établir
une zone contiguë 156-163
3. La compatibilité de la « zone contiguë unique » de la
Colombie avec le droit international coutumier 164-186
4. Conclusion 187-194
C. Conclusions et remèdes 195-199
IV. Demandes reconventionnelles formulées par la Colombie 200-260
A. Allégations de violation par le Nicaragua des droits des
pêcheurs artisanaux de l’archipel de San Andrés d’accéder
aux bancs traditionnels et de les exploiter 201-233
B. Allégations de violation des droits souverains et des espaces
maritimes de la Colombie en raison du recours aux lignes de
base droites par le Nicaragua 234-260
Dispositif 261
267
5
INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE
YEAR 2022
21 April 2022
ALLEGED VIOLATIONS
OF SOVEREIGN RIGHTS AND MARITIME SPACES
IN THE CARIBBEAN SEA
(NICARAGUA v. COLOMBIA)
General background — Geography — The Court’s 2012 Judgment in Territorial
and Maritime Dispute (Nicaragua v. Colombia) case delimited the Parties’
continental shelf and exclusive economic zone up to 200‑nautical‑mile limit —
Eastern endpoints could not be determined as Nicaragua had not notified location
of baselines — Composition of San Andrés Archipelago.
*
Scope of jurisdiction ratione temporis of the Court — Whether jurisdiction of
the Court extends to claims based on incidents allegedly occurring after 27 November
2013, when Pact of Bogotá ceased to be in force for Colombia — Claims relating
to incidents allegedly occurring after 27 November 2013 arose directly out of
the question which is the subject-matter
of Application — Alleged incidents on
which these claims are based connected to those already found to fall within the
Court’s jurisdiction — Nature of dispute between the Parties not transformed —
The Court has jurisdiction ratione temporis over Nicaragua’s claims relating to
those events.
* *
Alleged violations by Colombia of Nicaragua’s rights in its maritime zones as
delimited by the Court in its 2012 Judgment.
Nicaragua’s claims — Colombia’s alleged breach of its international obligation
to respect Nicaragua’s zones as delimited in 2012 Judgment — Colombia allegedly
engaged in acts violating Nicaragua’s sovereign rights and jurisdiction in its exclusive
economic zone — Alleged interference by Colombia with Nicaraguan‑flagged
or Nicaraguan‑licensed fishing and marine scientific research vessels — Alleged
obstruction by Colombia of Nicaraguan Navy in exercise of its mission — Colom‑
2022
21 April
General List
No. 155
267
5
COUR INTERNATIONALE DE JUSTICE
ANNÉE 2022
21 avril 2022
VIOLATIONS ALLÉGUÉES
DE DROITS SOUVERAINS ET D’ESPACES MARITIMES
DANS LA MER DES CARAÏBES
(NICARAGUA c. COLOMBIE)
Contexte général — Géographie — Arrêt rendu par la Cour en 2012 en l’affaire
du Différend territorial et maritime (Nicaragua c. Colombie) ayant délimité le
plateau continental et la zone économique exclusive des Parties jusqu’à la limite
des 200 milles marins — Points terminaux à l’est n’ayant pu être déterminés faute
de notification par le Nicaragua de l’emplacement des lignes de base — Composition
de l’archipel de San Andrés.
*
Portée de la compétence ratione temporis de la Cour — Question de savoir si la
compétence de la Cour s’étend aux demandes fondées sur des incidents qui seraient
survenus après le 27 novembre 2013, date à laquelle le pacte de Bogotá a cessé d’être
en vigueur pour la Colombie — Demandes relatives à des incidents qui seraient survenus
après le 27 novembre 2013 découlant directement de la question faisant l’objet
de la requête — Incidents allégués sur lesquels sont fondées ces demandes étant liés
à ceux dont la Cour a déjà estimé qu’ils relèvent de sa compétence — Nature du
différend entre les Parties n’étant pas transformée — Cour ayant compétence ratione
temporis à l’égard des demandes du Nicaragua relatives à ces événements.
* *
Allégations de violations par la Colombie des droits du Nicaragua dans ses
espaces maritimes tels que délimités par la Cour dans son arrêt de 2012.
Demandes du Nicaragua — Manquement allégué de la Colombie à son obligation
internationale de respecter les espaces du Nicaragua tels que délimités dans
l’arrêt de 2012 — Allégations de commission par la Colombie d’actes portant violation
des droits souverains et de la juridiction du Nicaragua dans sa zone économique
exclusive — Allégations d’entrave, par la Colombie, aux activités de navires de
pêche et de navires de recherche scientifique marine battant pavillon nicaraguayen
2022
21 avril
Rôle général
no 155
268 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (judgment)
6
bia’s alleged authorization of fishing activities and marine scientific research in
Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone — Alleged offering and awarding by Colombia
of hydrocarbon blocks — Colombian Presidential Decree 1946 of 9 September
2013 establishing “integral contiguous zone” allegedly not in conformity with customary
international law.
Nicaragua is a party to UNCLOS and Colombia is not — Applicable law is
customary international law — Customary rules on rights and duties in exclusive
economic zone of coastal States and other States reflected in Articles 56, 58, 61,
62 and 73 of UNCLOS.
Questions of proof — Party alleging a fact in support of its claims must prove
existence of that fact — Evidentiary materials prepared for purposes of a case and
evidence from secondary sources to be treated with caution — Evidence from contemporaneous
and direct sources more probative — Particular attention to evidence
acknowledging facts or conduct unfavourable to the State represented by
person making them.
Incidents alleged by Nicaragua in south-western
Caribbean Sea — Assessment
of evidence presented by the Parties.
Failure of Nicaragua to discharge its burden of proof with respect to certain
alleged incidents — Examination of rest of alleged incidents — Colombian naval
vessels purported to exercise enforcement jurisdiction in Nicaragua’s exclusive economic
zone — Conduct of those vessels carried out to give effect to a policy
whereby Colombia sought to continue to control fishing activities and conservation
of resources in areas within Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone — Contention by
Colombia that its actions were justified as an exercise of its freedoms of navigation
and overflight, and on basis of its alleged international obligation to protect and
preserve marine environment of south-western
Caribbean Sea — Freedoms of navigation
and overflight do not include rights relating to exploration, exploitation,
conservation and management of the natural resources of the maritime zone, nor
jurisdiction to enforce conservation measures — In the exclusive economic zone,
such rights and jurisdiction are reserved for coastal State — Coastal State has
jurisdiction in its exclusive economic zone to conserve living resources and protect
and preserve marine environment — Colombia’s conduct in contravention of customary
rules of international law as reflected in Articles 56, 58 and 73 of
UNCLOS — Finding that Colombia has violated its international obligation to
respect Nicaragua’s sovereign rights and jurisdiction in the latter’s exclusive economic
zone.
Alleged authorization by Colombia of fishing activities and marine scientific
research in Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone — Resolutions of General Maritime
Directorate of Ministry of National Defence of Colombia related to industrial
fishing in the San Andrés Archipelago — Not possible to determine geographical
scope of these resolutions — Two resolutions by Governor of San Andrés Archipelago
define fishing zone as including areas within Nicaragua’s exclusive economic
zone — Colombia continues to assert right to authorize fishing activities in
Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone — Examination of alleged incidents at
sea — Fishing vessels allegedly authorized by Colombia engaged in fishing activities
in Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone — Fishing activities conducted under
protection of Colombian frigates — Insufficient evidence that Colombia authorized
marine scientific research in Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone — Finding
droits souverains et espaces maritimes (arrêt) 268
6
ou détenteurs d’un permis nicaraguayen — Allégations d’obstruction, par la Colombie,
aux activités de la marine nicaraguayenne dans l’exercice de sa mission — Allégations
d’autorisation, par la Colombie, d’activités de pêche et de recherche scientifique
marine dans la zone économique exclusive du Nicaragua — Colombie ayant
supposément proposé et accordé des concessions d’hydrocarbures — Non-conformité
alléguée du décret présidentiel colombien 1946 du 9 septembre 2013 établissant la
« zone contiguë unique » avec le droit international coutumier.
Nicaragua étant partie à la CNUDM et la Colombie ne l’étant pas — Droit
applicable étant le droit international coutumier — Règles coutumières relatives
aux droits et obligations de l’Etat côtier et des autres Etats dans la zone économique
exclusive étant reflétées aux articles 56, 58, 61, 62 et 73 de la CNUDM.
Questions de preuve — Partie alléguant un fait à l’appui de sa demande devant
prouver l’existence de ce fait — Nécessité de traiter avec prudence les éléments de
preuve établis aux fins d’une affaire et ceux provenant de sources secondaires — Eléments
émanant de sources contemporaines et directes étant plus probants — Attention
particulière étant portée aux éléments attestant de faits ou de comportements
défavorables à l’Etat que représente la personne dont émanent lesdits éléments.
Incidents allégués par le Nicaragua dans le sud-ouest de la mer des Caraïbes —
Appréciation des preuves produites par les Parties.
Nicaragua ne s’étant pas acquitté de la charge de la preuve qui lui incombe
s’agissant de certains incidents allégués — Examen du reste des incidents allégués
— Navires de la marine colombienne ayant cherché à exercer des pouvoirs de
police dans la zone économique exclusive du Nicaragua — Comportement de ces
navires visant à donner effet à une politique par laquelle la Colombie cherchait à
continuer de contrôler des activités de pêche et la conservation de ressources dans
des espaces relevant de la zone économique exclusive du Nicaragua — Colombie
affirmant que ses actes étaient justifiés en tant qu’exercice de ses libertés de navigation
et de survol ainsi que sur le fondement de son obligation internationale alléguée
de protéger et de préserver l’environnement marin dans le sud-ouest de la mer
des Caraïbes — Libertés de navigation et de survol n’incluant pas de droits relatifs
à l’exploration, à l’exploitation, à la conservation et à la gestion des ressources
naturelles de la zone maritime, ni la compétence nécessaire pour appliquer des
mesures de conservation — Dans la zone économique exclusive, pareils droits et
compétence étant réservés à l’Etat côtier — Etat côtier ayant juridiction dans sa
zone économique exclusive sur la conservation des ressources biologiques et la protection
et la préservation de l’environnement marin — Comportement de la Colombie
contrevenant aux règles coutumières du droit international telles que reflétées
aux articles 56, 58 et 73 de la CNUDM — Constatation de manquement par la
Colombie à son obligation internationale de respecter les droits souverains et la
juridiction du Nicaragua dans sa zone économique exclusive.
Allégations d’autorisation, par la Colombie, d’activités de pêche et de recherche
scientifique dans la zone économique exclusive du Nicaragua — Résolutions de la
direction générale des affaires maritimes et portuaires du ministère de la défense
colombien relatives à la pêche industrielle dans l’archipel de San Andrés — Impossibilité
de déterminer la portée géographique de ces résolutions — Deux résolutions
du gouverneur de l’archipel de San Andrés définissant la zone de pêche comme
incluant des espaces relevant de la zone économique exclusive du Nicaragua —
Colombie continuant de faire valoir le droit d’autoriser des activités de pêche dans
la zone économique exclusive du Nicaragua — Examen des incidents qui seraient
survenus en mer — Navires de pêche pratiquant des activités de pêche dans la zone
économique exclusive du Nicaragua avec l’autorisation alléguée de la Colombie —
Activités de pêche menées sous la protection de frégates colombiennes — Preuve
269 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (judgment)
7
that Colombia has violated Nicaragua’s sovereign rights and jurisdiction in its
exclusive economic zone by authorizing fishing activities in that zone.
Claim made by Nicaragua that Colombia offered and awarded hydrocarbon
blocks encompassing parts of Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone — Admissibility
of claim — Hydrocarbon blocks offered and awarded by Colombia before
maritime boundary between the Parties delimited — Contracts in question
not signed — Allegation that Colombia violated Nicaragua’s sovereign rights by
issuing oil exploration licences rejected.
Colombia’s Presidential Decree 1946 establishing “integral contiguous zone”
around Colombian islands in western Caribbean Sea — Article 33 of UNCLOS
reflects customary international law on contiguous zone — Powers in contiguous
zone confined to customs, fiscal, immigration and sanitary matters — Maximum
breadth of contiguous zone limited to 24 nautical miles — 2012 Judgment does not
delimit contiguous zone of either Party — Contiguous zone and exclusive economic
zone governed by two distinct régimes — Establishment by one State of
contiguous zone not incompatible with existence of exclusive economic zone of
another State in same area — Powers that State may exercise in contiguous zone
are different from rights and duties that coastal State has in exclusive economic
zone — Colombia has right to establish contiguous zone around San Andrés Archipelago
in accordance with customary international law.
Question whether Colombia’s “integral contiguous zone” is compatible with customary
international law — Breadth of “integral contiguous zone” exceeds
24-nautical-mile limit — Powers asserted by Colombia in “integral contiguous
zone”, such as those concerning security, “national maritime interests” and preservation
of the environment, exceed those permitted under customary international
law — Reference to power to preserve cultural heritage in Article 5 of Presidential
Decree 1946 — Article 303, paragraph 2, of UNCLOS reflects customary international
law — Article 5 of Presidential Decree 1946 does not violate customary
international law in so far as it relates to objects of archaeological and historical
nature.
*
Conclusions and remedies.
Breach by Colombia of its international obligation to respect Nicaragua’s
sovereign
rights and jurisdiction in its exclusive economic zone — Colombia’s international
responsibility engaged — Colombia to immediately cease its wrongful
conduct.
“Integral contiguous zone” established by Colombia’s Presidential Decree 1946
not in conformity with customary international law with respect to its breadth and
powers asserted therein — In maritime areas where it overlaps with Nicaragua’s
exclusive economic zone, “integral contiguous zone” infringes upon Nicaragua’s
sovereign rights and jurisdiction in exclusive economic zone — Colombia under
obligation, by means of its own choosing, to bring provisions of Presidential
Decree 1946 into conformity with customary international law in so far as they
relate to Nicaragua’s maritime areas.
Nicaragua’s request to order Colombia to pay compensation rejected.
droits souverains et espaces maritimes (arrêt) 269
7
insuffisante de l’autorisation, par la Colombie, de la recherche scientifique marine
dans la zone économique exclusive du Nicaragua — Constatation que la Colombie
a violé les droits souverains et la juridiction du Nicaragua dans sa zone économique
exclusive en autorisant des activités de pêche dans cette zone.
Nicaragua affirmant que la Colombie a proposé et accordé des concessions
d’hydrocarbures englobant des portions de la zone économique exclusive nicaraguayenne
— Recevabilité de la demande — Concessions d’hydrocarbures proposées
et accordées par la Colombie avant la délimitation de la frontière maritime
entre les Parties — Contrats en question n’ayant pas été signés — Rejet de l’allégation
que la Colombie a violé les droits souverains du Nicaragua en délivrant des
permis d’exploration pétrolière.
Décret présidentiel colombien 1946 établissant une « zone contiguë unique » autour
des îles colombiennes dans la partie occidentale de la mer des Caraïbes — Article 33
de la CNUDM reflétant le droit international coutumier relatif à la zone contiguë —
Pouvoirs pouvant être exercés dans la zone contiguë étant limités aux domaines des
douanes, de la fiscalité, de l’immigration et des questions sanitaires — Largeur
maximale
de la zone contiguë étant limitée à 24 milles marins — Arrêt de 2012 ne délimitant
pas la zone contiguë de l’une ou l’autre Partie — Zone contiguë et zone économique
exclusive régies par deux régimes distincts — Etablissement d’une zone contiguë
par un Etat n’étant pas incompatible avec l’existence de la zone économique exclusive
d’un autre Etat dans le même espace — Pouvoirs pouvant être exercés par l’Etat dans
la zone contiguë étant différents des droits et obligations de l’Etat côtier dans la zone
économique exclusive — Colombie ayant le droit d’établir une zone contiguë autour
de l’archipel de San Andrés conformément au droit international coutumier.
Question de savoir si la « zone contiguë unique » de la Colombie est compatible
avec le droit international coutumier — Largeur de la « zone contiguë unique »
excédant la limite des 24 milles marins — Pouvoirs revendiqués par la Colombie
dans la « zone contiguë unique », tels que ceux concernant la sécurité, les « intérêts
maritimes nationaux » et la préservation de l’environnement, excédant ceux autorisés
en droit international coutumier — Pouvoir de préserver le patrimoine culturel
prévu à l’article 5 du décret présidentiel 1946 — Paragraphe 2 de l’article 303 de
la CNUDM reflétant le droit international coutumier — Article 5 du décret présidentiel
1946 n’emportant pas violation du droit international coutumier en tant
qu’il a trait à des objets à caractère archéologique et historique.
*
Conclusions et remèdes.
Manquement par la Colombie à son obligation internationale de respecter les
droits souverains et la juridiction du Nicaragua dans sa zone économique exclusive
— Responsabilité internationale de la Colombie étant engagée — Colombie
devant cesser immédiatement son comportement illicite.
« Zone contiguë unique » établie par le décret présidentiel colombien 1946 n’étant
pas conforme au droit international coutumier s’agissant de sa largeur et des pouvoirs
qui y sont revendiqués — « Zone contiguë unique » portant atteinte, dans les
espaces maritimes où elle chevauche la zone économique exclusive nicaraguayenne,
aux droits souverains et à la juridiction du Nicaragua dans sa zone économique
exclusive — Colombie ayant l’obligation, par les moyens de son choix, de mettre les
dispositions du décret présidentiel 1946 en conformité avec le droit international
coutumier, en tant que celles-
ci ont trait aux espaces maritimes nicaraguayens.
Rejet de la demande du Nicaragua tendant à ce qu’il soit ordonné à la Colombie
de l’indemniser.
270 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (judgment)
8
No legal basis to grant Nicaragua’s request that the Court remain seised of the
case.
* *
Counter-claims
made by Colombia.
Alleged infringement by Nicaragua of artisanal fishing rights of inhabitants of
San Andrés Archipelago, in particular the Raizales — Applicable law is customary
international law as reflected in relevant provisions of Part V of UNCLOS —
Question whether inhabitants of San Andrés Archipelago have historically enjoyed
artisanal fishing rights in areas now falling within Nicaragua’s exclusive economic
zone — Affidavits from fishermen from San Andrés Archipelago — Indications
that some fishing activities have taken place in areas that now fall within Nicaragua’s
exclusive economic zone — Period during which such activities took place
and whether there was a constant practice not established with certainty — Colombia’s
claim regarding long-standing
practice of artisanal fishing not sufficiently
established — Previous positions adopted by or on behalf of Colombia undermine
Colombia’s claim — Statements of President of Nicaragua do not establish
acceptance
or recognition by Nicaragua that artisanal fishermen of San Andrés
Archipelago have right to fish in Nicaragua’s maritime zones without prior authorization.
Colombia has failed to establish that inhabitants of the San Andrés Archipelago
enjoy artisanal fishing rights in waters now located in Nicaragua’s exclusive economic
zone — Counter‑claim dismissed.
*
Alleged violation of Colombia’s sovereign rights and maritime spaces by Nicaragua’s
use of straight baselines — Nicaragua’s Decree No. 33‑2013 establishing
a system of straight baselines along Caribbean coast — Article 7 of UNCLOS
reflects customary international law — Establishment of straight baselines
by coastal State falls to be assessed by international rules, to be applied restrictively.
Two alternative geographical preconditions for establishment of straight baselines:
coastline “deeply indented and cut into” or existence of “fringe of islands”
along coast in its immediate vicinity — Straight baselines drawn in southernmost
part of Nicaragua’s coast — Coastline not “deeply indented and cut into” —
Straight baselines drawn from Cabo Gracias a Dios on mainland to Great Corn
Island — Question whether Nicaragua’s offshore islands constitute fringe of
islands along coast in its immediate vicinity — Number of Nicaragua’s islands
relative to length of coast not sufficient to constitute fringe of islands — Nicaraguan
islands not sufficiently close to each other to form “cluster” along coast —
Islands do not have masking effect on mainland coast — Straight baselines convert
into internal waters certain areas which otherwise would have been part of Nicaragua’s
territorial sea or exclusive economic zone and convert into territorial sea
certain areas which would have been part of Nicaragua’s exclusive economic
zone — Straight baselines established by Decree No. 33‑2013 do not conform with
droits souverains et espaces maritimes (arrêt) 270
8
Cour n’étant pas fondée en droit à accueillir la demande du Nicaragua tendant
à ce qu’elle demeure saisie de l’affaire.
* *
Demandes reconventionnelles formulées par la Colombie.
Allégations de violation par le Nicaragua des droits des pêcheurs artisanaux de
l’archipel de San Andrés, en particulier les Raizals — Droit applicable étant
le droit international coutumier tel que reflété dans les dispositions pertinentes
de la partie V de la CNUDM — Question de savoir si les habitants de l’archipel
de San Andrés jouissaient historiquement de droits de pêche artisanale dans
des espaces relevant désormais de la zone économique exclusive du Nicaragua —
Déclarations sous serment émanant de pêcheurs de l’archipel de San Andrés —
Indications que certaines activités de pêche ont été exercées dans des espaces
relevant
désormais de la zone économique exclusive du Nicaragua — Période pendant
laquelle de telles activités ont été exercées et constance de la pratique n’étant
pas établies avec certitude — Demande de la Colombie relative à la pratique de la
pêche artisanale existant de longue date n’étant pas suffisamment établie —
Positions
précédemment adoptées par la Colombie ou en son nom venant fragiliser
la demande de celle-
ci — Déclarations du président nicaraguayen n’établissant
pas une acceptation ou une reconnaissance, par le Nicaragua, de l’existence
d’un droit des pêcheurs artisanaux de l’archipel de San Andrés d’opérer dans les
espaces maritimes nicaraguayens sans autorisation préalable.
Colombie n’ayant pas établi que les habitants de l’archipel de San Andrés
jouissent de droits de pêche artisanale dans les eaux situées à présent dans la zone
économique exclusive du Nicaragua — Demande reconventionnelle rejetée.
*
Allégations de violation des droits souverains et des espaces maritimes de la
Colombie en raison du recours aux lignes de base droites par le Nicaragua —
Décret nicaraguayen no 33‑2013 établissant un système de lignes de base droites le
long de la côte caribéenne — Article 7 de la CNUDM reflétant le droit international
coutumier — Etablissement de lignes de base droites par l’Etat côtier devant
être apprécié au regard des règles internationales, qui doivent être appliquées de
façon restrictive.
Deux conditions d’ordre géographique et de nature alternative à l’établissement
de lignes de base droites : côte « profondément échancrée et découpée » ou existence
d’un « chapelet d’îles » le long de la côte, à proximité immédiate de celle-
ci —
Lignes de base droites tracées dans la portion la plus méridionale de la côte du
Nicaragua — Littoral n’étant pas « profondément échancré et découpé » — Lignes
de base droites tracées entre le cap Gracias a Dios sur le continent et la grande île
du Maïs — Question de savoir si les îles au large du Nicaragua constituent un
chapelet d’îles le long de la côte, à proximité immédiate de celle-
ci — Nombre
d’îles nicaraguayennes au regard de la longueur de la côte ne suffisant pas à la
constitution d’un chapelet d’îles — Iles nicaraguayennes n’étant pas suffisamment
proches les unes des autres pour former un « amas » le long de la côte — Iles
n’ayant pas un effet de masquage sur la côte continentale — Lignes de base droites
transformant en eaux intérieures certains espaces qui, autrement, auraient fait partie
de la mer territoriale ou de la zone économique exclusive du Nicaragua, et
271 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (judgment)
9
customary international law — Declaratory judgment to that effect is appropriate
remedy.
JUDGMENT
Present: President Donoghue; Vice‑President Gevorgian; Judges Tomka,
Abraham, Bennouna, Yusuf, Xue, Sebutinde, Bhandari, Robinson,
Salam, Iwasawa, Nolte; Judges ad hoc Daudet, McRae; Regis-
trar Gautier.
In the case concerning alleged violations of sovereign rights and maritime
spaces in the Caribbean Sea,
between
the Republic of Nicaragua,
represented by
H.E. Mr. Carlos José Argüello Gómez, Ambassador of the Republic of Nicaragua
to the Kingdom of the Netherlands,
as Agent and Counsel;
Mr. Alex Oude Elferink, Director, Netherlands Institute for the Law of the
Sea, Professor of International Law of the Sea at Utrecht University,
Mr. Vaughan Lowe, QC, Emeritus Chichele Professor of Public International
Law, University of Oxford, member of the Institut de droit international,
member of the Bar of England and Wales,
Mr. Lawrence H. Martin, Attorney at Law, Foley Hoag LLP, member of the
Bars of the United States Supreme Court, the District of Columbia and the
Commonwealth of Massachusetts,
Mr. Alain Pellet, Emeritus Professor of the University Paris Nanterre, former
Chairman of the International Law Commission, President of the Institut
de droit international,
Mr. Paul S. Reichler, Attorney at Law, Foley Hoag LLP, member of the Bars
of the United States Supreme Court and the District of Columbia,
as Counsel and Advocates;
Ms Claudia Loza Obregon, Legal Adviser, Ministry of Foreign Affairs of
Nicaragua,
Ms Tessa Barsac, Consultant in International Law, Master (University Paris
Nanterre), LLM (Leiden University),
as Assistant Counsel;
Mr. Robin Cleverly, MA, DPhil, CGeol, FGS, Law of the Sea Consultant,
Marbdy Consulting Ltd,
as Scientific and Technical Adviser;
droits souverains et espaces maritimes (arrêt) 271
9
transformant en mer territoriale certains espaces qui, autrement, auraient fait
partie
de sa zone économique exclusive — Lignes de base droites établies par le
décret no 33‑2013 n’étant pas conformes au droit international coutumier — Jugement
déclaratoire à cet effet constituant un remède approprié.
ARRÊT
Présents : Mme Donoghue, présidente ; M. Gevorgian, vice‑président ;
MM. Tomka, Abraham, Bennouna, Yusuf, Mmes Xue, Sebutinde,
MM. Bhandari, Robinson, Salam, Iwasawa, Nolte, juges ;
MM. Daudet, McRae, juges ad hoc ; M. Gautier, greffier.
En l’affaire relative à des violations alléguées de droits souverains et d’espaces
maritimes dans la mer des Caraïbes,
entre
la République du Nicaragua,
représentée par
S. Exc. M. Carlos José Argüello Gómez, ambassadeur de la République du
Nicaragua auprès du Royaume des Pays‑Bas,
comme agent et conseil ;
M. Alex Oude Elferink, directeur de l’Institut néerlandais du droit de la mer,
professeur de droit international de la mer à l’Université d’Utrecht,
M. Vaughan Lowe, QC, professeur émérite de droit international public à
l’Université d’Oxford, titulaire de la chaire Chichele, membre de l’Institut de
droit international, membre du barreau d’Angleterre et du pays de Galles,
M. Lawrence H. Martin, avocat au cabinet Foley Hoag LLP, membre des
barreaux de la Cour suprême des Etats‑Unis d’Amérique, du district de
Columbia et du Commonwealth du Massachusetts,
M. Alain Pellet, professeur émérite de l’Université Paris Nanterre, ancien président
de la Commission du droit international, président de l’Institut de
droit international,
M. Paul S. Reichler, avocat au cabinet Foley Hoag LLP, membre des barreaux
de la Cour suprême des Etats‑Unis d’Amérique et du district de
Columbia,
comme conseils et avocats ;
Mme Claudia Loza Obregon, conseillère juridique auprès du ministère des
affaires étrangères de la République du Nicaragua,
Mme Tessa Barsac, consultante en droit international, master (Université
Paris Nanterre), LLM (Université de Leyde),
comme conseils adjoints ;
M. Robin Cleverly, MA, DPhil, CGeol, FGS, consultant en droit de la mer,
Marbdy Consulting Ltd,
comme conseiller scientifique et technique ;
272 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (judgment)
10
Ms Sherly Noguera de Argüello, MBA,
as Administrator,
and
the Republic of Colombia,
represented by
H.E. Mr. Carlos Gustavo Arrieta Padilla, former Judge of the Council of
State of Colombia, former Attorney General of Colombia and former
Ambassador of Colombia to the Kingdom of the Netherlands,
as Agent;
H.E. Mr. Manuel José Cepeda Espinosa, former President of the Constitutional
Court of Colombia, former Permanent Delegate of Colombia
to UNESCO and former Ambassador of Colombia to the Swiss Confederation,
as Co‑Agent;
H.E. Ms Marta Lucía Ramírez Blanco, Vice‑President and Minister for Foreign
Affairs of the Republic of Colombia,
H.E. Mr. Everth Hawkins Sjogreen, Governor of San Andrés, Providencia
and Santa Catalina, Colombia,
as National Authorities;
Mr. W. Michael Reisman, McDougal Professor of International Law at Yale
University, member of the Institut de droit international,
Mr. Rodman R. Bundy, former avocat à la cour d’appel de Paris, member of
the Bar of the State of New York, partner at Squire Patton Boggs LLP,
Sir Michael Wood, KCMG, member of the International Law Commission,
member of the Bar of England and Wales,
Mr. Eduardo Valencia‑Ospina, former Registrar and Deputy‑Registrar of the
International Court of Justice, member and former Special Rapporteur
and Chairman of the International Law Commission, former President of
the Latin American Society of International Law,
Mr. Jean‑Marc Thouvenin, Professor at the University Paris Nanterre, Secretary‑General
of the Hague Academy of International Law, associate member
of the Institut de droit international, member of the Paris Bar, Sygna
Partners,
Ms Laurence Boisson de Chazournes, Professor of International Law and
International Organization at the University of Geneva, member of the
Institut de droit international,
H.E. Mr. Kent Francis James, former Ambassador of Colombia to Belize,
former Ambassador of Colombia to Jamaica,
as Counsel and Advocates;
Mr. Andrés Villegas Jaramillo, LLM, Co‑ordinator, Group of Affairs before
the International Court of Justice at the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of
Colombia, member of the Legal Sub‑Commission of the Caribbean Sea
Commission, Association of Caribbean States,
Mr. Makane Moïse Mbengue, Professor at the University of Geneva, Director
of the Department of Public International Law and International
Organization, associate member of the Institut de droit international,
droits souverains et espaces maritimes (arrêt) 272
10
Mme Sherly Noguera de Argüello, MBA,
comme administratrice,
et
la République de Colombie,
représentée par
S. Exc. M. Carlos Gustavo Arrieta Padilla, ancien juge au Conseil d’Etat de
la Colombie, ancien Procurador General de la Nación et ancien ambassadeur
de Colombie auprès du Royaume des Pays‑Bas,
comme agent ;
S. Exc. M. Manuel José Cepeda Espinosa, ancien président de la Cour constitutionnelle
de la Colombie, ancien délégué permanent de la Colombie
auprès de l’UNESCO et ancien ambassadeur de Colombie auprès de la
Confédération suisse,
comme coagent ;
S. Exc. Mme Marta Lucía Ramírez Blanco, vice‑présidente et ministre des
affaires étrangères de la République de Colombie,
S. Exc. M. Everth Hawkins Sjogreen, gouverneur de San Andrés, Providencia
et Santa Catalina, Colombie,
comme représentants de l’Etat ;
M. W. Michael Reisman, professeur de droit international à l’Université
Yale, titulaire de la chaire McDougal, membre de l’Institut de droit international,
M. Rodman R. Bundy, ancien avocat à la cour d’appel de Paris, membre du
barreau de l’Etat de New York, associé au cabinet Squire Patton Boggs LLP,
sir Michael Wood, KCMG, membre de la Commission du droit international,
membre du barreau d’Angleterre et du pays de Galles,
M. Eduardo Valencia‑Ospina, ancien greffier et greffier adjoint de la Cour
internationale de Justice, membre et ancien rapporteur spécial et président
de la Commission du droit international, ancien président de la société
latino‑américaine
de droit international,
M. Jean‑Marc Thouvenin, professeur à l’Université Paris Nanterre, secrétaire
général de l’Académie de droit international de La Haye, membre associé
de l’Institut de droit international, membre du barreau de Paris, cabinet
Sygna Partners,
Mme Laurence Boisson de Chazournes, professeure à l’Université de Genève
(droit international et organisation internationale), membre de l’Institut de
droit international,
S. Exc. M. Kent Francis James, ancien ambassadeur de Colombie auprès du
Belize et ancien ambassadeur de Colombie auprès de la Jamaïque,
comme conseils et avocats ;
M. Andrés Villegas Jaramillo, LLM, coordonnateur du groupe chargé des
affaires portées devant la Cour internationale de Justice au ministère des
affaires étrangères de la République de Colombie, membre de la
sous‑commission
juridique relevant de la Commission de la mer des Caraïbes
de l’Association des Etats de la Caraïbe,
M. Makane Moïse Mbengue, professeur à l’Université de Genève, directeur
du département de droit international public et organisation internationale,
membre associé de l’Institut de droit international,
273 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (judgment)
11
Mr. Luke Vidal, member of the Paris Bar, Sygna Partners,
Mr. Eran Sthoeger, Esq., member of the Bar of the State of New York,
Adjunct Professor of International Law at Brooklyn Law School and
Seton Hall Law School,
Mr. Alvin Yap, Advocate and Solicitor of the Supreme Court of Singapore,
Squire Patton Boggs LLP,
Mr. Lorenzo Palestini, PhD, Lecturer at the Graduate Institute of International
and Development Studies and at the University of Geneva,
as Counsel;
H.E. Mr. Juan José Quintana Aranguren, Head of Multilateral Affairs, former
Ambassador of Colombia to the Kingdom of the Netherlands,
H.E. Mr. Fernando Antonio Grillo Rubiano, Ambassador of the Republic of
Colombia to the Kingdom of the Netherlands and Permanent Representative
of Colombia to the Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons,
Ms Jenny Sharyne Bowie Wilches, Second Secretary, Embassy of Colombia
in the Netherlands,
Ms Viviana Andrea Medina Cruz, Second Secretary, Embassy of Colombia
in the Netherlands,
Mr. Sebastián Correa Cruz, Third Secretary, Embassy of Colombia in the
Netherlands,
Mr. Raúl Alfonso Simancas Gómez, Third Secretary, Group of Affairs before
the International Court of Justice,
as representatives of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Colombia;
Rear Admiral Ernesto Segovia Forero, Chief of Naval Operations,
CN Hermann León, Delegate of Colombia to the International Maritime
Organization,
CN William Pedroza, National Navy of Colombia, Director of Maritime and
Fluvial Interests Office,
as representatives of the Navy of Colombia;
Mr. Scott Edmonds, Cartographer, Director of International Mapping,
Ms Victoria Taylor, Cartographer, International Mapping,
as Technical Advisers;
Mr. Gershon Hasin, LLM, JSD, Yale Law School,
as Legal Assistant;
Mr. Mark Taylor Archbold, Consultant for the National Unit of Disaster
Risk Management,
Mr. Joseph Richard Jessie Martinez, Consultant for the National Unit of
Disaster Risk Management,
as Advisers,
The Court,
composed as above,
after deliberation,
delivers the following Judgment:
1. On 26 November 2013, the Government of the Republic of Nicaragua
(hereinafter “Nicaragua”) filed in the Registry of the Court an Application insti-
droits souverains et espaces maritimes (arrêt) 273
11
M. Luke Vidal, membre du barreau de Paris, cabinet Sygna Partners,
M. Eran Sthoeger, Esq., membre du barreau de l’Etat de New York, professeur
adjoint de droit international à la Brooklyn Law School et à la faculté
de droit de l’Université Seton Hall,
M. Alvin Yap, avocat et solicitor à la Cour suprême de Singapour, cabinet
Squire Patton Boggs LLP,
M. Lorenzo Palestini, PhD, chargé d’enseignement à l’Institut de hautes
études internationales et du développement et à l’Université de Genève,
comme conseils ;
S. Exc. M. Juan José Quintana Aranguren, chef des affaires multilatérales,
ancien ambassadeur de Colombie auprès du Royaume des Pays‑Bas,
S. Exc. M. Fernando Antonio Grillo Rubiano, ambassadeur de Colombie
auprès du Royaume des Pays‑Bas et représentant permanent de la Colombie
auprès de l’Organisation pour l’interdiction des armes chimiques,
Mme Jenny Sharyne Bowie Wilches, deuxième secrétaire, ambassade de
Colombie aux Pays‑Bas,
Mme Viviana Andrea Medina Cruz, deuxième secrétaire, ambassade de
Colombie aux Pays‑Bas,
M. Sebastián Correa Cruz, troisième secrétaire, ambassade de Colombie aux
Pays‑Bas,
M. Raúl Alfonso Simancas Gómez, troisième secrétaire, groupe chargé des
affaires portées devant la Cour internationale de Justice,
comme représentants du ministère des affaires étrangères de la République de
Colombie ;
le contre‑amiral Ernesto Segovia Forero, chef des opérations navales,
le capitaine de vaisseau Hermann León, représentant de la Colombie auprès
de l’Organisation maritime internationale,
le capitaine de vaisseau William Pedroza, marine nationale de la Colombie,
chef de la direction chargée des intérêts maritimes et fluviaux,
comme représentants de la marine de la République de Colombie ;
M. Scott Edmonds, cartographe, directeur d’International Mapping,
Mme Victoria Taylor, cartographe, International Mapping,
comme conseillers techniques ;
M. Gershon Hasin, LLM, JSD, faculté de droit de l’Université Yale,
comme assistant juridique ;
M. Mark Taylor Archbold, consultant auprès de l’unité nationale de gestion
des risques de catastrophe,
M. Joseph Richard Jessie Martinez, consultant auprès de l’unité nationale de
gestion des risques de catastrophe,
comme conseillers,
La Cour,
ainsi composée,
après délibéré en chambre du conseil,
rend l’arrêt suivant :
1. Le 26 novembre 2013, le Gouvernement de la République du Nicaragua
(dénommée ci‑après le « Nicaragua ») a déposé au Greffe de la Cour une requête
274 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (judgment)
12
tuting proceedings against the Republic of Colombia (hereinafter “Colombia”)
concerning a dispute in relation to “the violations of Nicaragua’s sovereign
rights and maritime zones declared by the Court’s Judgment of 19 November
2012 [in the case concerning Territorial and Maritime Dispute (Nicaragua v.
Colombia)] and the threat of the use of force by Colombia in order to implement
these violations”.
2. In its Application, Nicaragua sought to found the jurisdiction of the Court
on Article XXXI of the American Treaty on Pacific Settlement signed on
30 April 1948, officially designated, according to Article LX thereof, as the
“Pact of Bogotá” (hereinafter referred to as such).
3. The Registrar immediately communicated the Application to the Colombian
Government, in accordance with Article 40, paragraph 2, of the Statute of
the Court. He also notified the Secretary‑General of the United Nations of the
filing of the Application by Nicaragua.
4. Pursuant to Article 40, paragraph 3, of the Statute of the Court, the
Registrar
subsequently notified the Members of the United Nations, through
the Secretary‑General, of the filing of the Application, by transmission of the
printed bilingual text.
5. Since the Court included upon the Bench no judge of the nationality of
either Party, each Party proceeded to exercise the right conferred upon it by
Article 31, paragraph 3, of the Statute of the Court to choose a judge ad hoc to
sit in the case. Nicaragua first chose Mr. Gilbert Guillaume, who resigned on
8 September 2015, and subsequently Mr. Yves Daudet. Colombia first chose
Mr. David Caron and subsequently, following the death of Mr. Caron,
Mr. Donald McRae.
6. By an Order of 3 February 2014, the Court fixed 3 October 2014 and
3 June 2015 as the respective time‑limits for the filing of a Memorial by Nicaragua
and a Counter‑Memorial by Colombia. Nicaragua filed its Memorial within
the time‑limit thus fixed.
7. On 19 December 2014, within the time‑limit prescribed by Article 79, paragraph
1, of the Rules of Court of 14 April 1978 as amended on 1 February 2001,
Colombia raised preliminary objections to the jurisdiction of the Court. Consequently,
by an Order of 19 December 2014, the President noted that, by virtue
of Article 79, paragraph 5, of the Rules of Court of 14 April 1978 as amended
on 1 February 2001, the proceedings on the merits were suspended and, taking
account of Practice Direction V, fixed 20 April 2015 as the time‑limit for the
presentation by Nicaragua of a written statement of its observations and submissions
on the preliminary objections raised by Colombia. Nicaragua filed its
statement within the prescribed time‑limit.
8. Pursuant to the instructions of the Court under Article 43, paragraph 1, of
the Rules of Court, the Registrar addressed to States parties to the Pact of
Bogotá the notification provided for in Article 63, paragraph 1, of the Statute of
the Court. In accordance with the provisions of Article 69, paragraph 3, of the
Rules of Court, the Registrar also addressed to the Organization of American
States (hereinafter the “OAS”) the notification provided for in Article 34, paragraph
3, of the Statute of the Court and, as provided for in Article 69, paragraph
3, of the Rules of Court, asked that Organization whether or not it
intended to furnish observations in writing. The Registrar further stated that, in
view of the fact that the current phase of the proceedings related solely to the
question of jurisdiction, any written observations should be limited to that question.
By letter dated 16 June 2015, the Secretary‑General of the OAS indicated
that the Organization did not intend to submit any such observations.
droits souverains et espaces maritimes (arrêt) 274
12
introductive d’instance contre la République de Colombie (dénommée ci‑après
la « Colombie ») au sujet d’un différend portant sur des « violations des droits
souverains et des espaces maritimes du Nicaragua qui … ont été reconnus [à cet
Etat] par la Cour dans son arrêt du 19 novembre 2012 [en l’affaire du Différend
territorial et maritime (Nicaragua c. Colombie)] ainsi que sur la menace de la
Colombie de recourir à la force pour commettre ces violations ».
2. Dans sa requête, le Nicaragua entendait fonder la compétence de la Cour
sur l’article XXXI du traité américain de règlement pacifique signé le 30 avril
1948, dénommé officiellement, aux termes de son article LX, le « pacte de
Bogotá » (et ainsi désigné ci‑après).
3. Le greffier a immédiatement communiqué la requête au Gouvernement
colombien, conformément au paragraphe 2 de l’article 40 du Statut de la Cour.
Il a également informé le Secrétaire général de l’Organisation des Nations Unies
du dépôt de celle‑ci par le Nicaragua.
4. Conformément au paragraphe 3 de l’article 40 du Statut de la Cour, le
greffier a par la suite informé les Membres des Nations Unies, par l’entremise du
Secrétaire général, du dépôt de la requête en leur transmettant le texte bilingue
imprimé de celle‑ci.
5. La Cour ne comptant sur le siège aucun juge de la nationalité des Parties,
chacune d’elles a fait usage du droit que lui confère le paragraphe 3 de
l’article
31 du Statut de désigner un juge ad hoc pour siéger en l’affaire. Le
Nicaragua
a d’abord désigné à cet effet M. Gilbert Guillaume, qui a démissionné
de ses fonctions le 8 septembre 2015, puis M. Yves Daudet. La Colombie
a d’abord désigné M. David Caron, puis, à la suite du décès de celui‑ci,
M. Donald McRae.
6. Par ordonnance du 3 février 2014, la Cour a fixé au 3 octobre 2014 et au
3 juin 2015, respectivement, la date d’expiration du délai pour le dépôt du
mémoire du Nicaragua et du contre‑mémoire de la Colombie. Le Nicaragua a
déposé son mémoire dans le délai ainsi fixé.
7. Le 19 décembre 2014, dans le délai prescrit au paragraphe 1 de l’article 79 du
Règlement de la Cour du 14 avril 1978 tel que modifié le 1er février 2001, la
Colombie a soulevé des exceptions préliminaires d’incompétence de la Cour. En
conséquence, par ordonnance du 19 décembre 2014, le président a constaté que,
en application du paragraphe 5 de l’article 79 du Règlement de la Cour du 14 avril
1978 tel que modifié le 1er février 2001, la procédure sur le fond était suspendue et,
tenant compte de l’instruction de procédure V, a fixé au 20 avril 2015 la date d’expiration
du délai dans lequel le Nicaragua pourrait présenter un exposé écrit
contenant ses observations et conclusions sur les exceptions préliminaires soulevées
par la Colombie. Le Nicaragua a déposé son exposé dans le délai ainsi fixé.
8. Sur les instructions données par la Cour conformément au paragraphe 1
de l’article 43 de son Règlement, le greffier a adressé aux Etats parties au pacte
de Bogotá la notification prévue au paragraphe 1 de l’article 63 du Statut. En
application des dispositions du paragraphe 3 de l’article 69 du Règlement, il a en
outre adressé la notification prévue au paragraphe 3 de l’article 34 du Statut à
l’Organisation des Etats américains (dénommée ci‑après l’« OEA ») et a demandé
à cette dernière si elle entendait présenter des observations écrites. Le greffier a
précisé en outre que, la procédure ne portant à ce stade que sur la compétence,
les observations écrites devaient être limitées à cette question. Par lettre datée du
16 juin 2015, le secrétaire général de l’OEA a indiqué que l’organisation n’avait
pas l’intention de présenter de telles observations.
275 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (judgment)
13
9. Referring to Article 53, paragraph 1, of the Rules of Court, the Government
of the Republic of Chile (hereinafter “Chile”) asked to be furnished with
copies of the pleadings and documents annexed in the case. Having ascertained
the views of the Parties in accordance with that same provision, the President of
the Court decided to grant that request. The Registrar duly communicated that
decision to the Government of Chile and to the Parties. Copies of Nicaragua’s
Application and Memorial and of Colombia’s preliminary objections were
therefore communicated to Chile. A copy of Nicaragua’s written statement of
its observations and submissions on the said preliminary objections was also
subsequently transmitted to Chile.
10. Pursuant to the same provision of the Rules, the Government of the
Republic of Panama (hereinafter “Panama”) also asked to be furnished with
copies of the pleadings and documents annexed in the case. Taking into
account the views of the Parties, the Court decided that copies of the preliminary
objections raised by Colombia and of Nicaragua’s written statement of
its observations and submissions on those objections would be made available
to the Government of Panama. The Court decided, however, that it would not
be appropriate to furnish Panama with a copy of Nicaragua’s Memorial. The
Registrar
duly communicated that decision to the Government of Panama and
to the Parties.
11. Public hearings on the preliminary objections raised by Colombia were
held from 28 September to 2 October 2015. In its Judgment of 17 March 2016
(hereinafter the “2016 Judgment”), the Court found that it had jurisdiction, on
the basis of Article XXXI of the Pact of Bogotá, to entertain the dispute between
Nicaragua and Colombia regarding the alleged violations by Colombia of Nicaragua’s
rights in the maritime zones which, according to Nicaragua, the Court
declared in its aforementioned Judgment of 19 November 2012 appertain to
Nicaragua. The Court upheld a preliminary objection raised by Colombia in so
far as it concerned the existence of a dispute regarding alleged violations by
Colombia of its obligation not to use force or threaten to use force.
12. By an Order of 17 March 2016, the Court fixed 17 November 2016 as the
new time‑limit for the filing of the Counter‑Memorial of Colombia; that pleading
was filed within the time‑limit thus prescribed. In Part III of its Counter‑Memorial,
Colombia, making reference to Article 80 of the Rules of Court, submitted
four counter‑claims.
13. Referring to Article 53, paragraph 1, of the Rules of Court, the Government
of Panama asked to be furnished with copies of the pleadings and documents
annexed in the case on the merits. Having ascertained the views of the
Parties in accordance with the same provision, the President of the Court
granted that request. However, further to a specific request received from the
Agent of Colombia, the President decided that the copies of the Counter‑Memorial
being furnished would not include Annexes 28 to 61, which Colombia
claimed were “classified as reserved for reasons of national security” under its
domestic legislation. The Registrar duly communicated these decisions to the
Government of Panama and to the Parties. A copy of Colombia’s Counter‑Memorial,
not including Annexes 28 to 61, was also made available to the Government
of Chile (see paragraph 9 above).
14. At a meeting held by the President of the Court with the representatives
of the Parties on 19 January 2017, Nicaragua indicated that it considered the
counter‑claims
contained in the Counter‑Memorial of Colombia to be inadmissible.
By letters dated 20 January 2017, the Registrar informed the Parties that
droits souverains et espaces maritimes (arrêt) 275
13
9. Se référant au paragraphe 1 de l’article 53 du Règlement de la Cour, le
Gouvernement de la République du Chili (dénommée ci‑après le « Chili ») a
demandé communication des pièces de procédure et des documents annexés
produits en l’affaire. S’étant renseigné auprès des Parties conformément à cette
même disposition, le président de la Cour a décidé d’accéder à cette demande.
Le greffier a dûment transmis cette décision au Gouvernement chilien et aux
Parties. Des exemplaires de la requête et du mémoire du Nicaragua ainsi que des
exceptions préliminaires de la Colombie ont donc été communiqués au Chili, de
même que, par la suite, un exemplaire de l’exposé écrit contenant les observations
et conclusions du Nicaragua sur lesdites exceptions préliminaires.
10. En application de la même disposition du Règlement, le Gouvernement
de la République du Panama (dénommée ci‑après le « Panama ») a également
demandé communication des pièces de procédure et des documents annexés
produits en l’affaire. Compte tenu des vues exprimées par les Parties, la Cour a
décidé que des exemplaires des exceptions préliminaires de la Colombie ainsi
que de l’exposé écrit contenant les observations et conclusions du Nicaragua à
leur sujet seraient tenus à la disposition du Gouvernement panaméen. Elle a
toutefois décidé qu’il n’y avait pas lieu de communiquer au Panama un exemplaire
du mémoire du Nicaragua. Le greffier a dûment transmis cette décision au
Gouvernement du Panama et aux Parties.
11. Des audiences publiques sur les exceptions préliminaires soulevées par la
Colombie se sont tenues du 28 septembre au 2 octobre 2015. Dans son arrêt du
17 mars 2016 (ci-
après l’« arrêt de 2016 »), la Cour a jugé qu’elle avait compétence,
sur la base de l’article XXXI du pacte de Bogotá, pour connaître du différend
entre le Nicaragua et la Colombie relatif aux allégations de violations,
par la Colombie, des droits du Nicaragua dans les espaces maritimes dont
celui‑ci affirme qu’ils lui ont été reconnus par l’arrêt du 19 novembre 2012 susmentionné.
Elle a cependant retenu une exception préliminaire soulevée par la
Colombie, en ce que celle-
ci avait trait à l’existence d’un différend relatif à de
prétendus manquements, par la Colombie, à l’obligation lui incombant de s’abstenir
de recourir à la menace ou à l’emploi de la force.
12. Par ordonnance du 17 mars 2016, la Cour a fixé au 17 novembre 2016 la
date d’expiration du nouveau délai pour le dépôt du contre‑mémoire de la
Colombie, lequel a été déposé dans le délai ainsi prescrit. Dans la troisième partie
de son contre‑mémoire, la Colombie, se référant à l’article 80 du Règlement
de la Cour, a présenté quatre demandes reconventionnelles.
13. Invoquant le paragraphe 1 de l’article 53 du Règlement, le Gouvernement
du Panama a demandé communication des pièces de procédure sur le fond et des
documents annexés produits en l’affaire. Le président de la Cour, s’étant renseigné
auprès des Parties conformément à cette même disposition, a fait droit à cette
demande. Cependant, comme suite à une demande expresse de l’agent de la
Colombie, il a décidé que les annexes 28 à 61 du contre‑mémoire, dont la Colombie
affirmait que « le contenu [étai]t classé comme étant à diffusion restreinte en
vertu de [s]a législation … pour des raisons de sécurité nationale », ne figureraient
pas dans les exemplaires qui seraient transmis. Le greffier a dûment communiqué
ces décisions au Gouvernement panaméen et aux Parties. Un exemplaire du
contre‑mémoire de la Colombie, à l’exception des annexes 28 à 61, a également été
mis à la disposition du Gouvernement du Chili (voir le paragraphe 9 ci‑dessus).
14. Lors d’une réunion que le président de la Cour a tenue avec les représentants
des Parties le 19 janvier 2017, le Nicaragua a indiqué qu’il considérait
comme irrecevables les demandes reconventionnelles présentées dans le
contre‑mémoire de la Colombie. Par lettres datées du 20 janvier 2017, le greffier
276 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (judgment)
14
the Court had decided that the Government of Nicaragua should specify in
writing, by 20 April 2017 at the latest, the legal grounds on which it relied in
maintaining that the Respondent’s counter‑claims were inadmissible, and that
the Government of Colombia should present its own views on the question in
writing, by 20 July 2017 at the latest. Nicaragua and Colombia submitted their
written observations on the admissibility of Colombia’s counter‑claims within
the time‑limits thus fixed.
15. In its Order of 15 November 2017, the Court found that the first two
counter‑claims submitted by Colombia were inadmissible as such and did not
form part of the current proceedings, and that the third and fourth counter‑claims
submitted by Colombia were admissible as such and did form part of the
current proceedings. In its third counter‑claim, Colombia asserts that Nicaragua
has “failed to respect the traditional and historic fishing rights of the inhabitants
of the San Andrés Archipelago, including the indigenous Raizal people, in the
waters to which they are entitled to said rights”. The fourth counter‑claim
relates to the adoption by Nicaragua of Decree No. 33‑2013 of 19 August 2013
(hereinafter “Decree 33”), which, according to Colombia, established straight
baselines that are contrary to international law and violate Colombia’s maritime
rights and spaces. By the same Order, the Court directed Nicaragua to submit a
Reply and Colombia to submit a Rejoinder relating to the claims of both Parties
in the current proceedings, and fixed 15 May and 15 November 2018 as the
respective time‑limits for the filing of those pleadings. The Reply of Nicaragua
and the Rejoinder of Colombia were filed within the time‑limits thus fixed.
16. By an Order dated 4 December 2018, the Court authorized the submission
by Nicaragua of an additional pleading relating solely to the counter‑claims
submitted by Colombia and fixed 4 March 2019 as the time‑limit for the filing
of that written pleading. The additional pleading was filed by Nicaragua within
the prescribed time‑limit.
17. By letter (with 19 annexes) dated 23 September 2019, the Agent of Nicaragua,
alleging various “incidents involving the Colombian navy that took place
in Nicaraguan waters”, requested, on behalf of his Government, the authorization
of the Court, pursuant to Article 56 of its Rules, for the annexed documentation
to “be included in the formal record of the case”. In accordance with
Article 56, paragraph 1, of the Rules of Court, copies of the above‑mentioned
documents were communicated to the other Party, which was requested to
inform the Court of any observations that it might wish to make with regard to
the production of those documents. By letter dated 3 October 2019, the Agent
of Colombia informed the Court that his Government “d[id] not consent to the
request by Nicaragua” to produce 19 new documents, and provided the reasons
why his Government considered that the request did not meet the requirements
under either Article 56 of the Rules of Court or Practice Direction IX, paragraph
3. On 15 October 2019, the Court authorized the production of the
above‑mentioned documents by Nicaragua and gave Colombia the opportunity
to comment, by 16 December 2019, on the documents thus produced by Nicaragua
and to submit documents in support of its comments. Colombia transmitted
to the Court its comments on the new documents produced by Nicaragua, as
well as documents and audio‑visual material in support of those comments,
within the time‑limit thus fixed.
18. By letter (with four annexes) dated 30 July 2021, the Agent of Nicaragua
requested, on behalf of his Government, the authorization of the Court, pursu-
droits souverains et espaces maritimes (arrêt) 276
14
a informé les Parties que, sur décision de la Cour, le Gouvernement nicaraguayen
devrait spécifier par écrit, le 20 avril 2017 au plus tard, les motifs juridiques sur
lesquels il se fondait pour juger irrecevables les demandes reconventionnelles de
la défenderesse, et que le Gouvernement colombien était invité à exposer par écrit
ses propres vues sur la question le 20 juillet 2017 au plus tard. Le Nicaragua et la
Colombie ont présenté leurs observations écrites sur la recevabilité des demandes
reconventionnelles colombiennes dans les délais ainsi prescrits.
15. Dans son ordonnance du 15 novembre 2017, la Cour a dit que les deux
premières demandes reconventionnelles présentées par la Colombie étaient irrecevables
comme telles et ne faisaient pas partie de l’instance en cours, et que les
troisième et quatrième demandes reconventionnelles présentées par la Colombie
étaient recevables comme telles et faisaient partie de l’instance en cours. Dans sa
troisième demande reconventionnelle, la Colombie affirme que le Nicaragua n’a
« pas respecté les droits de pêche traditionnels et historiques des habitants de
l’archipel de San Andrés, notamment la population autochtone raizale, dans les
eaux où ceux-
ci peuvent prétendre à les exercer ». La quatrième demande vise
l’adoption du décret no 33‑2013 du 19 août 2013 (ci‑après le « décret 33 »), par
lequel le Nicaragua aurait, selon la Colombie, établi des lignes de base droites
contraires au droit international et emportant violation des droits et espaces
maritimes de la Colombie. Par la même ordonnance, la Cour a prescrit la présentation
d’une réplique, par le Nicaragua, et d’une duplique, par la Colombie,
portant sur les demandes des deux Parties dans l’instance en cours, et a fixé au
15 mai 2018 et au 15 novembre 2018, respectivement, la date d’expiration du
délai pour le dépôt de ces pièces. La réplique du Nicaragua et la duplique de la
Colombie ont été déposées dans les délais ainsi fixés.
16. Par ordonnance du 4 décembre 2018, la Cour a autorisé la présentation
par le Nicaragua d’une pièce additionnelle portant exclusivement sur les
demandes reconventionnelles de la Colombie et fixé au 4 mars 2019 la date d’expiration
du délai pour le dépôt de cette pièce de procédure. La pièce additionnelle
a été déposée par le Nicaragua dans le délai ainsi fixé.
17. Par lettre (accompagnée de 19 annexes) datée du 23 septembre 2019,
l’agent du Nicaragua, alléguant que plusieurs « incidents … impliquant la marine
colombienne [s’étaient produits] dans les eaux nicaraguayennes », a demandé, au
nom de son gouvernement, que la Cour l’autorise, en vertu de l’article 56 de son
Règlement, à « vers[er] au dossier officiel de [l’]affaire » les documents annexés.
Conformément au paragraphe 1 dudit article 56, des exemplaires de ces documents
ont été communiqués à l’autre Partie, laquelle a été invitée à faire part à
la Cour de toutes observations qu’elle souhaiterait présenter relativement à la
production de ces documents. Par lettre datée du 3 octobre 2019, l’agent de la
Colombie a informé la Cour que son gouvernement « ne consent[ait] pas à la
demande du Nicaragua » tendant à produire 19 nouveaux documents, en exposant
les raisons pour lesquelles il était considéré que cette demande ne remplissait
ni les conditions énoncées à l’article 56 du Règlement, ni les exigences du
paragraphe 3 de l’instruction de procédure IX. Le 15 octobre 2019, la Cour a
autorisé le Nicaragua à produire les documents susmentionnés et a donné à la
Colombie la possibilité de présenter, le 16 décembre 2019 au plus tard, des
observations sur les documents ainsi produits par le Nicaragua et de soumettre
des documents à l’appui de celles‑ci. La Colombie a communiqué à la Cour,
dans le délai ainsi fixé, ses observations sur les nouveaux documents produits
par le Nicaragua ainsi que des documents, y compris audiovisuels, à l’appui.
18. Par lettre (accompagnée de quatre annexes) datée du 30 juillet 2021,
l’agent du Nicaragua a demandé, au nom de son gouvernement, que la Cour
277 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (judgment)
15
ant to Article 56 of its Rules, for the annexed documentation to “be added to
the formal record of the case”. In accordance with Article 56, paragraph 1, of
the Rules of Court, copies of the above‑mentioned documents were communicated
to the other Party, which was requested to inform the Court of any observations
that it might wish to make with regard to the production of those documents.
By letter dated 16 August 2021, the Co‑Agent of Colombia stated that
his Government “object[ed] to their production and request[ed] the Court to
deny Nicaragua’s request”, and provided the reasons why his Government considered
that the request did not meet the requirements under either Article 56 of
the Rules of Court or Practice Direction IX, paragraphs 1, 2 and 3. By a letter
dated 17 August 2021, the Agent of Nicaragua submitted comments of his Government
on Colombia’s observations. By letter dated 18 August 2021, the
Co‑Agent of Colombia provided further observations of his Government on
Nicaragua’s request. On 1 September 2021, the Court authorized the production
of two of the four new documents and gave Colombia the opportunity to comment,
by 9 September 2021, on the documents thus produced by Nicaragua and
to submit documents in support of its comments. Colombia transmitted to the
Court its comments on the new documents produced by Nicaragua, as well as
documents in support of those comments, within the time‑limit thus fixed.
19. Pursuant to Article 53, paragraph 2, of its Rules, the Court, after ascertaining
the views of the Parties, decided that copies of the written pleadings and
documents annexed would be made accessible to the public, with the exception
of certain annexes to, and figures included in, Colombia’s written pleadings. In
particular, the Court acceded to Colombia’s request that these materials not be
made accessible to the public on the basis that, under Colombian legislation,
they are classified as secret or reserved for reasons of national security. The Parties
were informed that, while, during the hearings, they were free to refer to the
titles of these confidential documents as they appeared in the list of annexes,
they were not to read out quotations from them nor display slides showing all
or part of them. With the exception of the above‑mentioned confidential materials,
and in accordance with the Court’s practice, all pleadings and documents
annexed were placed on the Court’s website.
20. Public hearings were held on 20, 22, 24, 27 and 29 September and on 1 October
2021. The oral proceedings were conducted in a hybrid format, in accordance
with Article 59, paragraph 2, of the Rules of Court and on the basis of the
Court’s Guidelines for the parties on the organization of hearings by video link,
adopted on 13 July 2020 and communicated to the Parties on 21 July 2021.
During
the oral proceedings, a number of judges were present in the Great Hall
of Justice, while others joined the proceedings via video link, allowing them to
view and hear the speaker and see any demonstrative exhibits displayed.
Each Party was permitted to have up to four representatives present in
the Great Hall of Justice and up to five other representatives in an additional
room in the Peace Palace equipped with the necessary facilities to follow the
proceedings remotely. The remaining members of each Party’s delegation were
given the opportunity to participate via video link from other locations of their
choice.
21. During the above-mentioned
hearings, the Court heard the oral arguments
and replies of:
droits souverains et espaces maritimes (arrêt) 277
15
l’autorise, en vertu de l’article 56 de son Règlement, à « vers[er] au dossier officiel
de l’affaire » les documents annexés. Conformément au paragraphe 1 dudit
article 56, des exemplaires de ces documents ont été communiqués à l’autre Partie,
laquelle a été invitée à faire part à la Cour de toutes observations qu’elle
souhaiterait présenter relativement à la production de ces documents. Par lettre
datée du 16 août 2021, le coagent de la Colombie a informé la Cour que son
gouvernement « s’oppos[ait] à la production de ces documents et pri[ait] la Cour
de rejeter la demande du Nicaragua », en exposant les raisons pour lesquelles il
était considéré que cette demande ne remplissait ni les conditions énoncées à
l’article 56 du Règlement, ni les exigences des paragraphes 1, 2 et 3 de l’instruction
de procédure IX. Par lettre datée du 17 août 2021, l’agent du Nicaragua a
présenté les commentaires de son gouvernement sur les observations de la
Colombie. Par lettre datée du 18 août 2021, le coagent de la Colombie a communiqué
de nouvelles observations de son gouvernement au sujet de la demande
du Nicaragua. Le 1er septembre 2021, la Cour a autorisé la production de deux
des quatre nouveaux documents et a donné à la Colombie la possibilité de présenter,
le 9 septembre 2021 au plus tard, des observations sur les documents
ainsi produits par le Nicaragua et de soumettre des documents à l’appui de
celles‑ci. La Colombie a transmis à la Cour, dans le délai ainsi fixé, ses observations
sur les nouveaux documents produits par le Nicaragua, ainsi que des documents
à l’appui.
19. Conformément au paragraphe 2 de l’article 53 de son Règlement, la
Cour, après avoir consulté les Parties, a décidé que des exemplaires des pièces de
procédure et des documents annexés seraient rendus accessibles au public, à l’exception
de certaines annexes et figures contenues dans les écritures de la Colombie.
En particulier, la Cour a fait droit à la demande de la Colombie tendant à
ce que ces éléments ne soient pas rendus accessibles au public au motif que, en
vertu de la législation colombienne, ils étaient classés comme étant confidentiels
ou à diffusion restreinte pour des raisons de sécurité nationale. Les Parties ont
été informées que, si elles pouvaient, à l’audience, se référer librement aux titres
de ces documents confidentiels tels qu’ils apparaissent dans la liste des annexes,
elles ne pouvaient cependant en lire à haute voix des citations, ni en présenter un
quelconque passage dans des diapositives. A l’exception des éléments confidentiels
susmentionnés, et conformément à la pratique de la Cour, toutes les pièces
de procédure et les documents annexés ont été publiés sur le site Internet de la
Cour.
20. Des audiences publiques ont été tenues les 20, 22, 24, 27 et 29 septembre,
ainsi que le 1er octobre 2021. La procédure orale a été menée sous forme hybride,
conformément au paragraphe 2 de l’article 59 du Règlement de la Cour et sur
la base de ses directives à l’intention des parties concernant l’organisation
d’
audiences
par liaison vidéo, adoptées le 13 juillet 2020 et communiquées aux
Parties le 21 juillet 2021. Pendant la procédure orale, plusieurs juges étaient présents
dans la grande salle de justice tandis que les autres y participaient par
liaison vidéo, ce qui leur permettait de voir et d’entendre l’intervenant ainsi que
de voir toutes les pièces présentées. Chaque Partie était autorisée à ce que quatre
de ses représentants au maximum soient présents en même temps dans la grande
salle de justice et cinq autres au maximum dans une salle supplémentaire du
Palais de la Paix équipée des facilités nécessaires pour suivre la procédure à
distance.
Les autres membres de la délégation de chaque Partie avaient la possibilité
de participer aux audiences par liaison vidéo en tout autre lieu de leur
choix.
21. Au cours des audiences susmentionnées, la Cour a entendu en leurs plaidoiries
et réponses :
278 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (judgment)
16
For Nicaragua: H.E. Mr. Carlos José Argüello Gómez,
Mr. Alain Pellet,
Mr. Paul Reichler,
Mr. Vaughan Lowe,
Mr. Lawrence Martin,
Mr. Alex Oude Elferink.
For Colombia: H.E. Mr. Manuel José Cepeda Espinosa,
H.E. Mr. Kent Francis James,
Sir Michael Wood,
Ms Laurence Boisson de Chazournes,
Mr. Rodman Bundy,
Mr. Michael Reisman,
Mr. Eduardo Valencia‑Ospina,
Mr. Jean‑Marc Thouvenin,
H.E. Mr. Carlos Gustavo Arrieta Padilla.
*
22. In the Application, the following claims were made by Nicaragua:
“On the basis of the foregoing statement of facts and law, Nicaragua,
while reserving the right to supplement, amend or modify this Application,
requests the Court to adjudge and declare that Colombia is in breach of:
— its obligation not to use or threaten to use force under Article 2 (4) of
the UN Charter and international customary law;
— its obligation not to violate Nicaragua’s maritime zones as delimited in
paragraph 251 of the ICJ Judgment of 19 November 2012 as well as
Nicaragua’s sovereign rights and jurisdiction in these zones;
— its obligation not to violate Nicaragua’s rights under customary international
law as reflected in Parts V and VI of UNCLOS;
— and that, consequently, Colombia is bound to comply with the Judgment
of 19 November 2012, wipe out the legal and material consequences
of its internationally wrongful acts, and make full reparation
for the harm caused by those acts.”
23. In the written proceedings, the following submissions were presented by
the Parties:
On behalf of the Government of Nicaragua,
in the Memorial:
“1. For the reasons given in the present Memorial, the Republic of Nicaragua
requests the Court to adjudge and declare that, by its conduct, the
Republic of Colombia has breached:
(a) its obligation not to violate Nicaragua’s maritime zones as delimited in
paragraph 251 of the Court Judgment of 19 November 2012 as well as
Nicaragua’s sovereign rights and jurisdiction in these zones;
(b) its obligation not to use or threaten to use force under Article 2 (4) of
the UN Charter and international customary law;
droits souverains et espaces maritimes (arrêt) 278
16
Pour le Nicaragua : S. Exc. M. Carlos José Argüello Gómez,
M. Alain Pellet,
M. Paul Reichler,
M. Vaughan Lowe,
M. Lawrence Martin,
M. Alex Oude Elferink.
Pour la Colombie : S. Exc. M. Manuel José Cepeda Espinosa,
S. Exc. M. Kent Francis James,
sir Michael Wood,
Mme Laurence Boisson de Chazournes,
M. Rodman Bundy,
M. Michael Reisman,
M. Eduardo Valencia‑Ospina,
M. Jean‑Marc Thouvenin,
S. Exc. M. Carlos Gustavo Arrieta Padilla.
*
22. Dans la requête, les demandes ci‑après ont été formulées par le Nicaragua :
« Au vu de l’exposé des éléments factuels et juridiques qui précède, le
Nicaragua, tout en se réservant le droit de compléter ou de modifier la
présente requête, prie la Cour de dire et juger que la Colombie :
— manque à l’obligation qui lui incombe en vertu du paragraphe 4 de l’article
2 de la Charte des Nations Unies et du droit international coutumier
de s’abstenir de recourir à la menace ou à l’emploi de la force ;
— manque à l’obligation qui lui incombe de ne pas violer les espaces maritimes
du Nicaragua tels que délimités au paragraphe 251 de l’arrêt
rendu par la Cour le 19 novembre 2012, ainsi que les droits souverains
et la juridiction du Nicaragua dans lesdits espaces ;
— manque à l’obligation qui lui incombe de ne pas violer les droits du
Nicaragua en vertu du droit international coutumier tel que reflété dans
les parties V et VI de la CNUDM ;
— est en conséquence tenue de se conformer à l’arrêt du 19 novembre
2012, d’effacer les conséquences juridiques et matérielles de ses faits
internationalement illicites, et de réparer intégralement le préjudice
causé par ceux‑ci. »
23. Dans les pièces de procédure, les conclusions ci‑après ont été présentées
par les Parties :
Au nom du Gouvernement du Nicaragua,
dans le mémoire :
« 1. Pour les motifs exposés dans le présent mémoire, la République du
Nicaragua prie la Cour de dire et juger que, par son comportement, la
République de Colombie :
a) a manqué à l’obligation qui lui incombe de ne pas violer les espaces
maritimes du Nicaragua tels que délimités au paragraphe 251 de l’arrêt
rendu par la Cour le 19 novembre 2012, ainsi que les droits souverains
et la juridiction du Nicaragua dans lesdits espaces ;
b) a manqué à l’obligation lui incombant en vertu du paragraphe 4 de
l’article 2 de la Charte des Nations Unies et du droit international coutumier
de s’abstenir de recourir à la menace ou à l’emploi de la force ;
279 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (judgment)
17
(c) and that, consequently, Colombia has the obligation to wipe out the
legal and material consequences of its internationally wrongful acts,
and make full reparation for the harm caused by those acts.
2. Nicaragua also requests the Court to adjudge and declare that Colombia
must:
(a) Cease all its continuing internationally wrongful acts that affect or are
likely to affect the rights of Nicaragua.
(b) Inasmuch as possible, restore the situation to the status quo ante, in
(i) revoking laws and regulations enacted by Colombia, which are
incompatible with the Court’s Judgment of 19 November 2012
including the provisions in the Decrees 1946 of 9 September
2013 and 1119 of 17 June 2014 to maritime areas which have been
recognized as being under the jurisdiction or sovereign rights of
Nicaragua;
(ii) revoking permits granted to fishing vessels operating in Nicaraguan
waters; and
(iii) ensuring that the decision of the Constitutional Court of Colombia
of 2 May 2014 or of any other National Authority will not bar
compliance
with the 19 November 2012 Judgment of the Court.
(c) Compensate for all damages caused insofar as they are not made good
by restitution, including loss of profits resulting from the loss of investment
caused by the threatening statements of Colombia’s highest
authorities, including the threat or use of force by the Colombian Navy
against Nicaraguan fishing boats [or ships exploring and exploiting the
soil and subsoil of Nicaragua’s continental shelf] and third state fishing
boats licensed by Nicaragua as well as from the exploitation of Nicaraguan
waters by fishing vessels unlawfully ‘authorized’ by Colombia,
with the amount of the compensation to be determined in a subsequent
phase of the case.
(d) Give appropriate guarantees of non‑repetition of its internationally
wrongful acts.”
in the Reply:
“1. For the reasons given in Chapters II to V of the present Reply, the
Republic of Nicaragua requests the Court to adjudge and declare that:
(a) By its conduct, the Republic of Colombia has breached its international
obligation to respect Nicaragua’s maritime zones as delimited in paragraph
251 of the Court Judgment of 19 November 2012 as well as
Nicaragua’s
sovereign rights and jurisdiction in these zones; and that,
in consequence
(b) Colombia must immediately cease its internationally wrongful conduct
in Nicaragua’s maritime zones, as delimited by the Court in its
Judgment
of 19 November 2012, including its violations of Nicaragua’s
sovereign rights and jurisdiction in those maritime zones;
(c) Colombia must revoke, by means of its choice, all laws and regulations
which are incompatible with the Court’s Judgment of 19 November
droits souverains et espaces maritimes (arrêt) 279
17
c) est en conséquence tenue d’effacer les conséquences juridiques et matérielles
de ses faits internationalement illicites, et de réparer intégralement
le préjudice causé par ceux‑ci.
2. Le Nicaragua prie également la Cour de dire et juger que la Colombie
doit :
a) cesser tous ses faits internationalement illicites de caractère continu portant
atteinte ou susceptibles de porter atteinte aux droits du Nicaragua ;
b) dans toute la mesure du possible, rétablir le statu quo ante,
i) en abrogeant les lois et règlements promulgués par elle qui sont
incompatibles avec l’arrêt rendu par la Cour le 19 novembre 2012,
notamment les dispositions des décrets nos 1946 du 9 septembre 2013
et 1119 du 17 juin 2014 relatives aux espaces maritimes sur lesquels
la juridiction ou les droits souverains du Nicaragua ont été reconnus
;
ii) en révoquant les permis délivrés à des navires de pêche opérant dans
les eaux nicaraguayennes ; et
iii) en faisant en sorte que ni la décision rendue le 2 mai 2014 par la
Cour constitutionnelle de la Colombie ni aucune autre décision rendue
par une autorité nationale n’empêche l’exécution de l’arrêt
rendu par la Cour le 19 novembre 2012 ;
c) l’indemniser à raison de l’ensemble des dommages causés dans la mesure
où ceux‑ci n’auront pas été réparés par la restitution, notamment le
manque à gagner résultant des pertes d’investissements qu’ont entraînées
les déclarations à caractère comminatoire faites par les plus hautes autorités
colombiennes et le recours, par les forces navales colombiennes, à la
menace ou à l’emploi de la force contre des navires de pêche nicaraguayens
[ou des navires explorant ou exploitant le sol et le sous‑sol du plateau
continental du Nicaragua] et des navires de pêche d’Etats tiers détenteurs
d’un permis délivré par le Nicaragua, ainsi que l’exploitation des eaux
nicaraguayennes par des navires de pêche agissant en vertu d’une « autorisation
» illicite de la Colombie, étant entendu que le montant de l’indemnisation
sera déterminé lors d’une phase ultérieure de la procédure ;
d) donner des garanties appropriées de non‑répétition de ses faits internationalement
illicites. »
dans la réplique :
« 1. Pour les motifs exposés ci‑dessus aux chapitres II à V de la présente
réplique, la République du Nicaragua prie la Cour de dire et juger que :
a) par son comportement, la République de Colombie a manqué à son
obligation internationale de respecter les espaces maritimes du Nicaragua
tels que délimités au paragraphe 251 de l’arrêt rendu par la Cour le
19 novembre 2012, ainsi que les droits souverains et la juridiction du
Nicaragua dans lesdits espaces et que, par conséquent :
b) la Colombie doit immédiatement cesser son comportement internationalement
illicite dans les espaces maritimes du Nicaragua tels que délimités
par la Cour dans son arrêt du 19 novembre 2012, notamment ses
violations des droits souverains et de la juridiction du Nicaragua dans
lesdits espaces ;
c) la Colombie doit abroger, par les moyens de son choix, l’ensemble des
lois et règlements incompatibles avec l’arrêt de la Cour du 19 novembre
280 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (judgment)
18
2012, including the provisions in Decrees 1946 of 9 September 2013
and 1119 of 17 June 2014 on maritime areas which have been recognized
as under the jurisdiction or sovereign rights of Nicaragua;
(d) Colombia must revoke permits granted to fishing vessels operating in
Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone, as delimited in the Court’s Judgment
of 19 November 2012;
(e) Colombia must ensure that the decision of the Constitutional Court of
Colombia of 2 May 2014 or of any other National Authority will not
bar compliance with the 19 November 2012 Judgment of the Court;
(f) Colombia must compensate Nicaragua for all damages caused by its
violations of its international legal obligations, including but not limited
to damages caused by the exploitation of the living resources of
the Nicaraguan exclusive economic zone by fishing vessels unlawfully
‘authorized’ by Colombia to operate in that zone, and the loss of revenue
caused by Colombia’s refusal to allow, or by its deterrence
of, fishing
by Nicaraguan vessels or third State vessels authorized by
Nicaragua and, generally, for the damages caused by its actions and
declarations to the proper exploitation of the resources in Nicaragua’s
exclusive economic zone, with the amount of the compensation to be
determined in a subsequent phase of the case; and
(g) Colombia must give appropriate guarantees of non‑repetition of its
internationally wrongful acts.
2. For the reasons given in Chapters VI and VII of this Reply, the
Republic of Nicaragua requests the Court to adjudge and declare that the
Counter‑Claims
of Colombia are rejected.”
On behalf of the Government of Colombia,
in the Counter‑Memorial:
“I. For the reasons stated in this Counter‑Memorial, the Republic of
Colombia respectfully requests the Court to reject the submissions of the
Republic of Nicaragua in its Memorial of 3 October 2014 and to adjudge
and declare that
1. Nicaragua has failed to prove that any Colombian naval or coast guard
vessel has violated Nicaragua’s sovereign rights and maritime spaces in
the Caribbean Sea;
2. Colombia has not, otherwise, violated Nicaragua’s sovereign rights and
maritime spaces in the Caribbean Sea;
3. Colombia’s Decree 1946 of 9 September 2013 establishing an Integral
Contiguous Zone is lawful under international law and does not constitute
a violation of any of Nicaragua’s sovereign rights and maritime
spaces, considering that:
(a) The Integral Contiguous Zone produced by the naturally overlapping
concentric circles forming the contiguous zones of the islands
of San Andrés, Providencia, Santa Catalina, Alburquerque Cays,
East‑Southeast Cays, Roncador, Serrana, Quitasueño and Serranilla
and joined by geodetic lines connecting the outermost points
of the overlapping concentric circles is, in the circumstances, lawful
under international law;
droits souverains et espaces maritimes (arrêt) 280
18
2012, y compris les dispositions des décrets nos 1946 du 9 septembre 2013
et 1119 du 17 juin 2014 relatives aux espaces maritimes sur lesquels la
juridiction ou les droits souverains du Nicaragua ont été reconnus ;
d) la Colombie doit révoquer les permis octroyés à des navires de pêche
opérant dans la zone économique exclusive du Nicaragua, telle qu’elle
a été délimitée dans l’arrêt de la Cour du 19 novembre 2012 ;
e) la Colombie doit veiller à ce que ni la décision rendue le 2 mai 2014 par
la Cour constitutionnelle de la Colombie ni aucune autre décision rendue
par une autorité nationale n’empêche l’exécution de l’arrêt de la
Cour du 19 novembre 2012 ;
f) la Colombie doit indemniser le Nicaragua à raison de l’ensemble des
dommages résultant des manquements à ses obligations juridiques internationales,
notamment, mais pas seulement, les dommages causés par
l’exploitation des ressources biologiques de la zone économique exclusive
du Nicaragua du fait des activités des navires de pêche qu’elle a
illégalement « autorisés » à opérer dans ladite zone et le manque à gagner
résultant de son refus d’autoriser des navires nicaraguayens ou des
navires d’Etats tiers détenteurs de permis nicaraguayens à pêcher, ou de
ses manoeuvres pour les en dissuader, et, plus généralement, les préjudices
causés par les actes et déclarations de la Colombie qui ont entravé
la capacité du Nicaragua d’exploiter comme il convient ses ressources
dans sa zone économique exclusive, étant entendu que le montant de
l’indemnisation sera déterminé lors d’une phase ultérieure ; et
g) la Colombie doit donner des garanties appropriées de non‑répétition de
ses faits internationalement illicites.
2. Pour les motifs exposés aux chapitres VI et VII de la présente
réplique, la République du Nicaragua prie la Cour de dire et juger que les
demandes reconventionnelles de la Colombie sont rejetées. »
Au nom du Gouvernement de la Colombie,
dans le contre‑mémoire :
« I. Pour les motifs exposés dans le présent contre‑mémoire, la République
de Colombie prie respectueusement la Cour de rejeter les conclusions
que la République du Nicaragua a formulées dans son mémoire en
date du 3 octobre 2014 et de dire et juger que :
1. Le Nicaragua n’a pas démontré que l’un quelconque des navires des forces
navales colombiennes ou de ses garde‑côtes avait violé les droits souverains
et les espaces maritimes du Nicaragua dans la mer des Caraïbes ;
2. La Colombie n’a pas violé, d’une autre manière, les droits souverains et
les espaces maritimes du Nicaragua dans la mer des Caraïbes ;
3. Le décret colombien no 1946 portant création d’une zone contiguë
unique, en date du 9 septembre 2013, est licite au regard du droit international
et ne viole aucun des droits souverains et espaces maritimes du
Nicaragua, étant donné que :
a) dans les circonstances de l’espèce, la zone contiguë unique produite
par les cercles concentriques se chevauchant naturellement qui forment
les zones contiguës des îles de San Andrés, Providencia et
Santa Catalina et des cayes d’Alburquerque, Est‑Sud‑Est, Roncador,
Serrana, Quitasueño et Serranilla, cercles concentriques dont
les points extrêmes sont reliés par des lignes géodésiques, est licite
au regard du droit international ;
281 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (judgment)
19
(b) The powers enumerated in the Decree are consistent with international
law; and
4. No Colombian action in its Integral Contiguous Zone of which Nicaragua
complains is a violation of international law or of Nicaragua’s
sovereign rights and maritime spaces.
II. Further, the Republic of Colombia respectfully requests the Court to
adjudge and declare that
5. Nicaragua has infringed Colombia’s sovereign rights and maritime
spaces in the Caribbean Sea by failing to prevent its flag or licensed
vessels from fishing in Colombia’s waters;
6. Nicaragua has infringed Colombia’s sovereign rights and maritime
spaces in the Caribbean Sea by failing to prevent its flag or licensed
vessels from engaging in predatory and unlawful fishing methods in
violation of its international obligations;
7. Nicaragua has infringed Colombia’s sovereign rights and maritime
spaces by failing to fulfil its international legal obligations with respect
to the environment in areas of the Caribbean Sea to which said obligations
apply;
8. Nicaragua has failed to respect the traditional and historic fishing rights
of the inhabitants of the San Andrés Archipelago, including the indigenous
Raizal people, in the waters to which they are entitled to said
rights; and
9. Nicaragua’s Decree No. 33‑2013 of 19 August 2013 establishing straight
baselines violates international law and Colombia’s maritime rights and
spaces.
III. The Court is further requested to order Nicaragua
10. With regard to submissions 5 to 8:
(a) To desist promptly from its violations of international law;
(b) To compensate Colombia for all damages caused, including loss of
profits, resulting from Nicaragua’s violations of its international
obligations, with the amount and form of compensation to be
determined at a subsequent phase of the proceedings; and
(c) To give Colombia appropriate guarantees of non‑repetition.
11. With regard to submission 8, in particular, to ensure that the inhabitants
of the San Andrés Archipelago enjoy unfettered access to the waters to
which their traditional and historic fishing rights pertain; and
12. With regard to submission 9, to adjust its Decree No. 33‑2013 of
19 August 2013 in order that it complies with the rules of international
law concerning the drawing of the baselines from which the breadth of
the territorial sea is measured.
IV. Colombia reserves its right to supplement or amend these submissions.”
in the Rejoinder:
“I. For the reasons stated in its Counter‑Memorial and Rejoinder, the
Republic of Colombia respectfully requests the Court to reject each of the
submissions of the Republic of Nicaragua, and to adjudge and declare that
droits souverains et espaces maritimes (arrêt) 281
19
b) les pouvoirs énoncés dans le décret sont conformes au droit international
; et
4. Aucune des mesures que la Colombie a prises dans sa zone contiguë
unique, et dont le Nicaragua lui fait grief, ne constitue une violation du
droit international ou des droits souverains et des espaces maritimes du
Nicaragua.
II. En outre, la République de Colombie prie respectueusement la Cour
de dire et juger que :
5. Le Nicaragua a violé les droits souverains et les espaces maritimes de la
Colombie dans la mer des Caraïbes en n’empêchant pas les navires qui
battent son pavillon ou qui sont titulaires de permis délivrés par lui de
pêcher dans les eaux colombiennes ;
6. Le Nicaragua a violé les droits souverains et les espaces maritimes de la
Colombie dans la mer des Caraïbes en n’empêchant pas les navires qui
battent son pavillon ou qui sont titulaires de permis délivrés par lui de
recourir à des méthodes de pêche déprédatrices et illicites, manquant
ainsi à ses obligations internationales ;
7. Le Nicaragua a violé les droits souverains et les espaces maritimes de la
Colombie en manquant aux obligations juridiques internationales qui
lui incombent à l’égard de l’environnement dans certaines zones de la
mer des Caraïbes ;
8. Le Nicaragua n’a pas respecté les droits de pêche traditionnels et historiques
des habitants de l’archipel de San Andrés, notamment la population
autochtone raizale, dans les eaux où ceux‑ci peuvent prétendre à
les exercer ; et
9. Le décret nicaraguayen no 33‑2013 établissant des lignes de base droites,
en date du 19 août 2013, viole le droit international ainsi que les droits
et les espaces maritimes de la Colombie.
III. Il est de plus demandé à la Cour d’ordonner au Nicaragua :
10. S’agissant des conclusions nos 5 à 8 :
a) de mettre fin sans retard à ses violations du droit international ;
b) d’indemniser la Colombie pour tous dommages, y compris le manque
à gagner, résultant du non‑respect par le Nicaragua de ses obligations
internationales, le montant et la forme de l’indemnisation devant être
déterminés lors d’une phase ultérieure de la procédure ; et
c) de donner à la Colombie des garanties appropriées de non‑répétition.
11. S’agissant de la conclusion no 8, en particulier, de garantir que les habitants
de l’archipel de San Andrés jouissent d’un libre accès aux eaux sur
lesquelles portent leurs droits de pêche traditionnels et historiques ; et
12. S’agissant de la conclusion no 9, de modifier son décret no 33‑2013 en
date du 19 août 2013 de manière qu’il respecte les règles du droit international
concernant le tracé des lignes de base à partir desquelles est
mesurée la largeur de la mer territoriale.
IV. La Colombie se réserve le droit de compléter ou de modifier les présentes
conclusions. »
dans la duplique :
« I. Pour les motifs exposés dans son contre‑mémoire et sa duplique, la
République de Colombie prie respectueusement la Cour de rejeter chacune
des conclusions de la République du Nicaragua, et de dire et juger que :
282 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (judgment)
20
1. Colombia has not in any manner violated Nicaragua’s sovereign rights
or maritime spaces in the Southwestern Caribbean Sea.
2. Colombia’s Decree No. 1946 of 9 September 2013 (as amended by
Decree No. 1119 of 17 June 2014) has not given rise to any violation of
Nicaragua’s sovereign rights or maritime spaces.
(a) There is nothing in international law that precludes the contiguous
zone of one State from overlapping with the exclusive economic
zone of another State;
(b) The geodetic lines established in the Decree connecting the outermost
points of Colombia’s contiguous zone do not violate international
law;
(c) The specific powers concerning the contiguous zone enumerated in
the Decree do not violate international law;
(d) No Colombian action in the contiguous zone has given rise to any
violation of Nicaragua’s sovereign rights or maritime spaces.
II. Further, the Republic of Colombia respectfully requests the Court to
adjudge and declare that
3. The inhabitants of the San Andrés Archipelago, in particular the
Raizales, enjoy traditional fishing rights in maritime areas adjudicated
to appertain to Nicaragua.
4. Nicaragua has violated the traditional fishing rights of the inhabitants
of the San Andrés Archipelago.
5. Nicaragua’s straight baselines established in Decree No. 33‑2013 of
19 August 2013 are contrary to international law and violate Colombia’s
sovereign rights and maritime spaces.
III. The Court is further requested to order Nicaragua
6. With regard to submissions 3 and 4, to ensure that the inhabitants of
the San Andrés Archipelago engaged in traditional fishing enjoy unfettered
access to:
(a) Their traditional fishing banks located in the maritime areas adjudicated
to appertain to Nicaragua;
(b) The banks located in Colombian maritime areas, access to which
requires navigating through the maritime areas adjudicated to
appertain to Nicaragua.
7. To compensate Colombia for all damages caused, including loss of profits,
resulting from Nicaragua’s violations of its international obligations,
with the amount and form of compensation to be determined at a subsequent
phase of the proceedings.
8. To give Colombia appropriate guarantees of non‑repetition.”
24. At the oral proceedings, the following submissions were presented by the
Parties:
On behalf of the Government of Nicaragua,
at the hearing of 27 September 2021, on the claims of Nicaragua:
“In the case concerning Alleged Violations of Sovereign Rights and
Maritime
Spaces in the Caribbean Sea (Nicaragua v. Colombia), for the
reasons explained in the Written and Oral phase, Nicaragua respectfully
requests the Court to adjudge and declare that:
droits souverains et espaces maritimes (arrêt) 282
20
1) la Colombie n’a en aucune manière violé les droits souverains ou espaces
maritimes du Nicaragua dans le sud‑ouest de la mer des Caraïbes ;
2) le décret colombien no 1946 du 9 septembre 2013 (tel que modifié par le
décret no 1119 du 17 juin 2014) n’a donné lieu à aucune violation des
droits souverains ou des espaces maritimes du Nicaragua ;
a) rien, en droit international, n’empêche la zone contiguë d’un Etat de
chevaucher la zone économique exclusive d’un autre ;
b) les lignes géodésiques fixées par le décret et reliant les points extrêmes
de la zone contiguë colombienne ne sont pas contraires au droit
international ;
c) les pouvoirs spécifiques concernant la zone contiguë énumérés dans
le décret ne sont pas contraires au droit international ;
d) aucun acte de la Colombie dans la zone contiguë n’a donné lieu à
une quelconque violation des droits souverains ou des espaces maritimes
du Nicaragua.
II. En outre, la République de Colombie prie respectueusement la Cour
de dire et juger que :
3) les habitants de l’archipel de San Andrés, et notamment les Raizals,
jouissent de droits de pêche traditionnels dans des espaces maritimes
dont il a été établi qu’ils appartiennent au Nicaragua ;
4) le Nicaragua a violé les droits de pêche traditionnels des habitants de
l’archipel de San Andrés ;
5) les lignes de base droites du Nicaragua établies par le décret no 33‑2013
du 19 août 2013 sont contraires au droit international et violent les
droits souverains et les espaces maritimes de la Colombie.
III. Il est de plus demandé à la Cour d’ordonner au Nicaragua :
6) s’agissant des conclusions 3 et 4, de veiller à ce que les habitants de
l’archipel de San Andrés exerçant des activités de pêche traditionnelles
jouissent d’un accès sans entrave :
a) à leurs zones de pêche traditionnelles se trouvant dans des espaces
maritimes dont il a été établi qu’ils appartiennent au Nicaragua ;
b) aux bancs de pêche situés dans des espaces maritimes colombiens,
dont l’accès requiert de traverser des espaces maritimes dont il a été
établi qu’ils appartiennent au Nicaragua ;
7) d’indemniser la Colombie pour tous dommages, y compris le manque à
gagner, résultant du non‑respect par le Nicaragua de ses obligations
internationales, le montant et la forme de l’indemnisation restant à
déterminer lors d’une phase ultérieure de la procédure ;
8) de donner à la Colombie des garanties appropriées de non‑répétition. »
24. Au cours de la procédure orale, les conclusions ci‑après ont été présentées
par les Parties :
Au nom du Gouvernement du Nicaragua,
à l’issue de l’audience du 27 septembre 2021 sur ses propres demandes :
« En l’affaire relative à des Violations alléguées de droits souverains et
d’espaces maritimes dans la mer des Caraïbes (Nicaragua c. Colombie), sur
le fondement des moyens qu’il a présentés au cours de la procédure écrite
et de la procédure orale en l’espèce, le Nicaragua prie respectueusement la
Cour de dire et juger que :
283 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (judgment)
21
(a) By its conduct, the Republic of Colombia has breached its international
obligation to respect Nicaragua’s maritime zones as delimited in paragraph
251 of the Court Judgment of 19 November 2012, as well as Nicaragua’s
sovereign rights and jurisdiction in these zones; and that, in
consequence
(b) Colombia must immediately cease its internationally wrongful conduct
in Nicaragua’s maritime zones, as delimited by the Court in its Judgment
of 19 November 2012, including its violations of Nicaragua’s
sovereign rights and jurisdiction in those maritime zones and take all
necessary measures effectively to respect Nicaragua’s sovereign rights
and jurisdiction; these measures include but are not limited to revoking,
by means of its choice:
(i) all laws and regulations, permits, licences, and other legal instruments
which are incompatible with the Court’s Judgment of 19 November
2012, including those related to marine protected areas;
(ii) the provisions of Decrees 1946 of 9 September 2013 and 1119 of
17 June 2014 in so far as they relate to maritime areas which have
been recognized as under the jurisdiction or sovereign rights of
Nicaragua; and
(iii) permits granted to fishing vessels to operate in Nicaragua’s exclusive
economic zone, as delimited in the Court’s Judgment of
19 November 2012;
(c) Colombia must ensure that the decision of the Constitutional Court of
Colombia of 2 May 2014 or of any other National Authority will
not bar compliance with the 19 November 2012 Judgment of the
Court;
(d) Colombia must compensate Nicaragua for all damage caused by its
violations of its international legal obligations, including but not limited
to damages caused by the exploitation of the living resources of
the Nicaraguan exclusive economic zone by fishing vessels unlawfully
‘authorized’ by Colombia to operate in that zone, and the loss of
revenue
caused by Colombia’s refusal to allow, or by its deterrence
of, fishing by Nicaraguan vessels or third State vessels authorized by
Nicaragua
and, generally, for the damages caused by its actions and
declarations to the proper exploitation of the resources in Nicaragua’s
exclusive economic zone, with the amount of the compensation to be
determined in a subsequent phase of the case; and
(e) Colombia must give appropriate guarantees of non‑repetition of its
internationally wrongful acts, including by formally acknowledging
that the boundary as delimited by the Court in its Judgment of
19 November 2012 will be respected as the international maritime
boundary between Colombia and Nicaragua.
(f) Nicaragua also requests that the Court adjudge and declare that it will
remain seised of the case until Colombia recognizes and respects Nicaragua’s
rights in the Caribbean Sea as attributed by the Judgment of
the Court of 19 November 2012.”
droits souverains et espaces maritimes (arrêt) 283
21
a) par son comportement, la République de Colombie a manqué à son
obligation internationale de respecter les espaces maritimes du Nicaragua
tels que délimités au paragraphe 251 de l’arrêt rendu par la Cour le
19 novembre 2012, ainsi que les droits souverains et la juridiction du
Nicaragua dans lesdits espaces et que, par conséquent :
b) la Colombie doit immédiatement cesser son comportement internationalement
illicite dans les espaces maritimes du Nicaragua tels que délimités
par la Cour dans son arrêt du 19 novembre 2012, notamment ses
violations des droits souverains et de la juridiction du Nicaragua dans
lesdits espaces, et prendre toutes les mesures nécessaires pour que soient
effectivement respectés les droits souverains et la juridiction du Nicaragua,
notamment, mais pas seulement, en révoquant, par les moyens de
son choix :
i) l’ensemble des lois, règlements, permis et licences et autres
instruments
juridiques incompatibles avec l’arrêt de la Cour du
19 novembre 2012, notamment ceux se rapportant aux aires marines
protégées ;
ii) les dispositions des décrets nos 1946 du 9 septembre 2013 et 1119 du
17 juin 2014 en tant qu’elles s’appliquent aux espaces maritimes sur
lesquels la juridiction ou les droits souverains du Nicaragua ont été
reconnus ; et
iii) les permis autorisant des navires de pêche à opérer dans la zone
économique exclusive du Nicaragua, telle qu’elle a été délimitée dans
l’arrêt de la Cour du 19 novembre 2012 ;
c) la Colombie doit veiller à ce que ni la décision rendue le 2 mai 2014 par
la Cour constitutionnelle de la Colombie ni aucune autre décision rendue
par une autorité nationale n’empêche l’exécution de l’arrêt de la
Cour du 19 novembre 2012 ;
d) la Colombie doit indemniser le Nicaragua à raison de l’ensemble
des dommages résultant des manquements à ses obligations juridiques
internationales, notamment, mais pas seulement, les dommages causés
par l’exploitation des ressources biologiques de la zone économique
exclusive du Nicaragua du fait des activités des navires de pêche qu’elle
a illégalement « autorisés » à opérer dans ladite zone et le manque à
gagner résultant de son refus d’autoriser des navires nicaraguayens ou
des navires d’Etats tiers détenteurs de permis nicaraguayens à pêcher,
ou de ses manoeuvres pour les en dissuader, et, plus généralement,
les préjudices causés par les actes et déclarations de la Colombie qui
ont entravé la capacité du Nicaragua d’exploiter comme il convient ses
ressources dans sa zone économique exclusive, étant entendu que le
montant de l’indemnisation sera déterminé lors d’une phase ultérieure ;
et
e) la Colombie doit donner des garanties appropriées de non‑répétition de
ses faits internationalement illicites, notamment en confirmant officiellement
que la frontière telle qu’elle a été délimitée par la Cour dans son
arrêt du 19 novembre 2012 sera respectée en tant que frontière maritime
internationale entre la Colombie et le Nicaragua.
f) Le Nicaragua prie en outre la Cour de dire et juger qu’elle restera saisie
de l’affaire tant que la Colombie n’aura pas reconnu et ne respectera pas
les droits que la Cour, par son arrêt du 19 novembre 2012, a adjugés au
Nicaragua dans la mer des Caraïbes. »
284 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (judgment)
22
at the hearing of 1 October 2021, on the counter‑claims of Colombia:
“In the case concerning Alleged Violations of Sovereign Rights and Maritime
Spaces in the Caribbean Sea (Nicaragua v. Colombia), for the reasons
explained in the Written and Oral phase, Nicaragua respectfully requests
the Court to adjudge and declare that the counter‑claims of the Republic
of Colombia are rejected with all legal consequences.”
On behalf of the Government of Colombia,
at the hearing of 29 September 2021, on the claims of Nicaragua and the counter‑claims
of Colombia:
“I. For the reasons stated in its written and oral pleadings, the Republic
of Colombia respectfully requests the Court to reject each of the Submissions
of the Republic of Nicaragua, and to adjudge and declare that
1. Colombia has not in any manner violated Nicaragua’s sovereign rights
or maritime spaces in the Southwestern Caribbean Sea.
2. Colombia’s Decree No. 1946 of 9 September 2013 (as amended by Decree
No. 1119 of 17 June 2014) has not given rise to any violation of Nicaragua’s
sovereign rights or maritime spaces.
(a) There is nothing in international law that precludes the contiguous
zone of one State from overlapping with the exclusive economic zone
of another State;
(b) The geodetic lines established in the Decree connecting the outermost
points of Colombia’s contiguous zone do not violate international
law;
(c) The specific powers concerning the contiguous zone enumerated in
the Decree do not violate international law;
(d) No Colombian action in the contiguous zone has given rise to any
violation of Nicaragua’s sovereign rights or maritime spaces.
II. Further, the Republic of Colombia respectfully requests the Court to
adjudge and declare that
3. The inhabitants of the San Andrés Archipelago, in particular the Raizales,
enjoy artisanal fishing rights in the traditional fishing grounds located
beyond the territorial sea of the islands of the San Andrés Archipelago.
4. Nicaragua has violated the traditional fishing rights of the inhabitants of
the San Andrés Archipelago.
5. Nicaragua’s straight baselines established in Decree No. 33‑2013 of
19 August 2013 are contrary to international law and violate Colombia’s
rights and maritime spaces.
III. The Court is further requested to order Nicaragua
6. With regard to submissions 3 and 4, to ensure that the inhabitants of the
San Andrés Archipelago engaged in traditional fishing enjoy unfettered
access to:
(a) Their traditional fishing banks located in the maritime areas beyond
the territorial sea of the islands of the San Andrés Archipelago; and,
droits souverains et espaces maritimes (arrêt) 284
22
à l’issue de l’audience du 1er octobre 2021 sur les demandes reconventionnelles
de la Colombie :
« En l’affaire relative à des Violations alléguées de droits souverains et d’espaces
maritimes dans la mer des Caraïbes (Nicaragua c. Colombie), sur le fondement
des moyens qu’il a présentés au cours de la procédure écrite et de la
procédure orale en l’espèce, le Nicaragua prie respectueusement la Cour de
dire et juger que les demandes reconventionnelles de la République de Colombie
sont rejetées, avec toutes les conséquences qui s’ensuivent en droit. »
Au nom du Gouvernement de la Colombie,
à l’issue de l’audience du 29 septembre 2021 sur les demandes du Nicaragua et
sur ses propres demandes reconventionnelles :
« I. Pour les motifs exposés dans ses écritures et ses plaidoiries, la République
de Colombie prie respectueusement la Cour de rejeter chacune des
conclusions de la République du Nicaragua, et de dire et juger que :
1) la Colombie n’a en aucune manière violé les droits souverains ou espaces
maritimes du Nicaragua dans le sud‑ouest de la mer des Caraïbes ;
2) le décret colombien no 1946 du 9 septembre 2013 (tel que modifié par le
décret no 1119 du 17 juin 2014) n’a donné lieu à aucune violation des
droits souverains ou des espaces maritimes du Nicaragua ;
a) rien, en droit international, n’empêche la zone contiguë d’un Etat de
chevaucher la zone économique exclusive d’un autre ;
b) les lignes géodésiques fixées par le décret et reliant les points extrêmes
de la zone contiguë colombienne ne sont pas contraires au droit
international ;
c) les pouvoirs spécifiques concernant la zone contiguë énumérés dans
le décret ne sont pas contraires au droit international ;
d) aucun acte de la Colombie dans la zone contiguë n’a donné lieu à
une quelconque violation des droits souverains ou des espaces maritimes
du Nicaragua.
II. En outre, la République de Colombie demande respectueusement à la
Cour de dire et juger que :
3) les habitants de l’archipel de San Andrés, et notamment les Raizals,
jouissent de droits de pêche artisanale dans les zones de pêche traditionnelles
situées au‑delà de la mer territoriale des îles composant l’archipel
de San Andrés ;
4) le Nicaragua a violé les droits de pêche traditionnels des habitants de
l’archipel de San Andrés ;
5) les lignes de base droites du Nicaragua établies par le décret no 33‑2013
du 19 août 2013 sont contraires au droit international et violent les
droits et les espaces maritimes de la Colombie.
III. Il est de plus demandé à la Cour d’ordonner au Nicaragua :
6) s’agissant des conclusions 3 et 4, de veiller à ce que les habitants de
l’archipel de San Andrés exerçant des activités de pêche traditionnelles
jouissent d’un accès sans entrave :
a) à leurs bancs de pêche traditionnels se trouvant dans des espaces
maritimes situés au‑delà de la mer territoriale des îles composant
l’archipel de San Andrés ; et
285 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (judgment)
23
(b) The banks located in Colombian maritime areas when access to them
requires navigating outside the territorial sea of the islands of the
San Andrés Archipelago.
7. To compensate Colombia for all damages caused, including loss of
profits,
resulting from Nicaragua’s violations of its international obligations.
8. To give Colombia appropriate guarantees of non‑repetition.”
* * *
I. General Background
25. The maritime areas with which the present proceedings are concerned
are located in the Caribbean Sea, an arm of the Atlantic Ocean
partially enclosed to the north and east by a number of islands, and
bounded to the south and west by South and Central America. Nicaragua’s
eastern coast faces the south‑western part of the Caribbean Sea. To
the north of Nicaragua lies Honduras and to the south lie Costa Rica and
Panama. To the north‑east, Nicaragua faces Jamaica, and to the east, it
faces the mainland coast of Colombia. Colombia is situated to the south
of the Caribbean Sea. In terms of its Caribbean front, Colombia is bordered
to the west by Panama and to the east by Venezuela. The Colombian
islands of San Andrés, Providencia and Santa Catalina lie in the
south‑west of the Caribbean Sea, approximately 100 to 150 nautical miles
to the east of the Nicaraguan coast. (For the general geography of the
area, see sketch‑map No. 1, p. 286.)
26. In the Judgment rendered by the Court on 19 November 2012 in
the case concerning Territorial and Maritime Dispute (Nicaragua v.
Colombia) (hereinafter the “2012 Judgment”), the Court decided that
Colombia had sovereignty over the islands at Alburquerque, Bajo Nuevo,
East‑Southeast Cays, Quitasueño, Roncador, Serrana and Serranilla
(I.C.J. Reports 2012 (II), p. 718, para. 251, subpara. 1). The Court also
established a single maritime boundary delimiting the continental shelf
and the exclusive economic zones of Nicaragua and Colombia up to the
200‑nautical‑mile limit from the baselines from which the territorial sea of
Nicaragua is measured (ibid., pp. 719‑720, para. 251, subpara. 4). The
Court, however, noted in its reasoning that, since Nicaragua had not yet
notified the Secretary-General
of the United Nations of the location of
those baselines under Article 16, paragraph 2, of the 1982 United Nations
Convention on the Law of the Sea (hereinafter “UNCLOS” or the “Convention”),
the precise location of the eastern endpoints of the maritime
boundary could not be determined and was therefore depicted on the
sketch‑map only approximately (ibid., p. 713, para. 237). (For the course
of the maritime boundary established by the Court in its 2012 Judgment,
see sketch‑map No. 2, p. 287.)
droits souverains et espaces maritimes (arrêt) 285
23
b) aux bancs de pêche situés dans des espaces maritimes colombiens
dont l’accès requiert de naviguer hors de la mer territoriale des îles
composant l’archipel de San Andrés.
7) d’indemniser la Colombie pour tous dommages, y compris le manque à
gagner, résultant du non‑respect par le Nicaragua de ses obligations
internationales ;
8) de donner à la Colombie des garanties appropriées de non‑répétition. »
* * *
I. Contexte général
25. Les espaces maritimes qui font l’objet de la présente procédure se
trouvent dans la mer des Caraïbes, bras de l’océan Atlantique partiellement
entouré, au nord et à l’est, par un certain nombre d’îles et limité, au
sud et à l’ouest, par l’Amérique du Sud et l’Amérique centrale. La côte est
du Nicaragua fait face à la partie sud‑ouest de la mer des Caraïbes. Au
nord, le Nicaragua est bordé par le Honduras, et au sud, par le Costa Rica
et le Panama. Au nord‑est, il fait face à la Jamaïque et, à l’est, à la côte
continentale de la Colombie, laquelle est située dans la partie sud de la
mer des Caraïbes. Sur sa façade caraïbe, la Colombie est bordée à l’ouest
par le Panama, et à l’est par le Venezuela. Les îles colombiennes de
San Andrés, Providencia et Santa Catalina sont situées dans la partie
sud‑ouest de la mer des Caraïbes, à quelque 100 à 150 milles marins à
l’est de la côte nicaraguayenne. (Pour la géographie générale de la zone,
voir le croquis no 1, p. 286)
26. Dans l’arrêt qu’elle a rendu le 19 novembre 2012 en l’affaire du
Différend
territorial et maritime (Nicaragua c. Colombie) (ci‑après l’« arrêt
de 2012 »), la Cour a reconnu à la Colombie la souveraineté sur les îles
faisant partie des formations suivantes : Alburquerque, Bajo Nuevo, cayes
de l’Est‑Sud‑Est, Quitasueño, Roncador, Serrana et Serranilla (C.I.J.
Recueil 2012 (II), p. 718, par. 251, point 1). Elle a également établi une
frontière maritime unique délimitant le plateau continental et les zones économiques
exclusives du Nicaragua et de la Colombie jusqu’à la limite située
à 200 milles marins des lignes de base à partir desquelles est mesurée la mer
territoriale du Nicaragua (ibid., p. 719‑720, par. 251, point 4). La Cour a,
cependant, fait observer dans son raisonnement que, le Nicaragua n’ayant
pas encore notifié au Secrétaire général de l’Organisation des Nations Unies
l’emplacement de ces lignes de base en application du paragraphe 2 de
l’article 16 de la convention de 1982 des Nations Unies sur le droit de la
mer (ci‑après la « CNUDM » ou la « convention »), la position précise des
points terminaux de la frontière maritime, à l’est, ne pouvait pas être
déterminée et n’était donc indiquée sur le croquis que de manière approximative
(ibid., p. 713, par. 237). (Pour le tracé de la frontière maritime établie
par la Cour dans son arrêt de 2012, voir le croquis no 2, p. 287.)
286 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (judgment)
24
Sketch-Map No. 1: General Geography
droits souverains et espaces maritimes (arrêt) 286
24
Croquis no 1 : Géographie générale
287 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (judgment)
25
Sketch-Map No. 2: Course of the Maritime Boundary Established
by the Court in Its 2012 Judgment
droits souverains et espaces maritimes (arrêt) 287
25
Croquis no 2 : Tracé de la frontière maritime établie par la Cour
dans son arrêt de 2012
288 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (judgment)
26
27. The Court notes that, in the present case, the Parties refer to the
“San Andrés Archipelago”. In this regard, the Court recalls that it
addressed the question of the composition of the Archipelago in its
2012 Judgment but left open the question whether certain features are
part of the Archipelago, a matter on which the Parties disagreed. In particular,
the Court observed that the Treaty concerning Territorial Questions
at Issue between Colombia and Nicaragua, signed at Managua on
24 March 1928 (hereinafter the “1928 Treaty”), had not specified the
composition of the San Andrés Archipelago and noted that the question
about the composition of the Archipelago could not be definitively
answered solely on the basis of the geographical location of the maritime
features in dispute or of historical records. However, the Court acknowledged
that the 1928 Treaty could be understood as including at least the
maritime features closest to San Andrés, Providencia and Santa Catalina.
The Court held that “[a]ccordingly, the Alburquerque Cays and
East‑Southeast Cays, given their geographical location (lying 20 and 16 nautical
miles, respectively, from San Andrés island) could be seen as forming
part of the Archipelago”. By contrast, in view of considerations of
distance, the Court considered that it was less likely that Serranilla and
Bajo Nuevo could form part of the Archipelago. The Court further stated
that it did not consider that “the express exclusion of Roncador, Quitasueño
and Serrana from the scope of the 1928 Treaty [was] in itself sufficient
to determine whether these features were considered by Nicaragua
and Colombia to be part of the San Andrés Archipelago” (see Territorial
and Maritime Dispute (Nicaragua v. Colombia), Judgment, I.C.J.
Reports 2012 (II), pp. 648‑649, paras. 52-56).
28. In the present case, Nicaragua alleges that Colombia has violated
Nicaragua’s sovereign rights and jurisdiction in Nicaragua’s exclusive
economic zone in various ways. First, it contends that Colombia has
interfered with Nicaraguan‑flagged or Nicaraguan‑licensed fishing and
marine scientific research vessels in this maritime zone in a series of incidents
involving Colombian naval vessels and aircraft. Nicaragua also
claims that Colombia repeatedly directed its naval frigates and military
aircraft to obstruct the Nicaraguan Navy in the exercise of its mission in
Nicaraguan waters. Secondly, Nicaragua states that Colombia has
granted permits for fishing and authorizations for marine scientific
research in Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone to Colombians and
nationals of third States. Thirdly, Nicaragua alleges that Colombia has
violated its exclusive sovereign right to explore and exploit natural
resources by offering and awarding hydrocarbon blocks encompassing
parts of Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone.
29. Nicaragua further objects to Presidential Decree No. 1946 of
9 September 2013, as amended by Decree No. 1119 of 17 June 2014 (hereinafter
“Presidential Decree 1946”), whereby Colombia established an
“integral contiguous zone”, which “ostensibly unified the maritime ‘con-
droits souverains et espaces maritimes (arrêt) 288
26
27. La Cour note que, dans la présente affaire, les Parties se réfèrent à
« l’archipel de San Andrés ». Elle rappelle à cet égard que, dans son arrêt
de 2012, elle a traité de la composition de celui-
ci mais sans se prononcer
sur la question, contestée entre les deux Etats, de savoir si certaines formations
en faisaient partie. Elle avait alors relevé, en particulier, que le
traité de règlement territorial entre la Colombie et le Nicaragua, signé à
Managua le 24 mars 1928 (ci‑après le « traité de 1928 »), n’indiquait pas
précisément la composition de l’archipel, et considéré que cette question
ne pouvait être tranchée sur le seul fondement de la situation géographique
des formations maritimes en litige ou de documents historiques.
Elle a néanmoins admis que le traité de 1928 pouvait être interprété
comme englobant au moins les formations maritimes les plus proches de
San Andrés, Providencia et Santa Catalina. Ainsi, a-t-elle estimé, « les
cayes d’Alburquerque et de l’Est-Sud-Est pourraient, vu leur situation
géographique (les premières étant à 20 et les secondes à 16 milles marins
de l’île de San Andrés), être considérées comme faisant partie de l’archipel
». A l’inverse, toujours pour des raisons de distance, elle a jugé moins
probable que Serranilla et Bajo Nuevo en fassent partie. La Cour a précisé
que, de son point de vue, « le fait que ces trois formations aient été
expressément exclues du champ d’application du traité de 1928 n’est pas
en soi suffisant pour conclure que le Nicaragua et la Colombie les considéraient
comme faisant partie intégrante de l’archipel de San Andrés »
(voir Différend territorial et maritime (Nicaragua c. Colombie), C.I.J.
Recueil 2012 (II), p. 648‑649, par. 52-56).
28. Dans la présente affaire, le Nicaragua soutient que la Colombie a
violé de diverses manières ses droits souverains et sa juridiction dans la
zone économique exclusive nicaraguayenne. Premièrement, il affirme que
la Colombie a entravé dans cet espace maritime les activités de navires de
pêche et de navires de recherche scientifique marine battant pavillon nicaraguayen
ou détenteurs d’un permis nicaraguayen, au cours d’une série
d’incidents impliquant des navires et des aéronefs colombiens. Il affirme
également que la Colombie a ordonné de manière répétée à ses propres
frégates et aéronefs militaires de faire obstacle à l’exercice par la marine
nicaraguayenne de sa mission dans les eaux nicaraguayennes. Deuxièmement,
le Nicaragua soutient que la Colombie a délivré à des Colombiens
ou à des ressortissants d’Etats tiers des permis de pêche et des autorisations
d’effectuer des recherches scientifiques marines dans sa zone économique
exclusive. Troisièmement, il allègue que la Colombie a violé ses
droits souverains exclusifs d’explorer et d’exploiter des ressources naturelles,
en proposant et en accordant des concessions d’hydrocarbures
englobant des portions de la zone économique exclusive nicaraguayenne.
29. Enfin le Nicaragua conteste le décret no 1946 du 9 septembre 2013,
tel que modifié par le décret no 1119 du 17 juin 2014 (ci‑après le « décret
présidentiel 1946 »), par lequel la Colombie a établi une « zone contiguë
unique » qui prétendait « relier les « zones [maritimes] contiguës » de toutes
289 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (judgment)
27
tiguous zones’ of all of Colombia’s islands, keys and other maritime features
in the area”. Nicaragua claims that the “integral contiguous zone”
overlaps with waters attributed by the Court to Nicaragua as its exclusive
economic zone and therefore “substantially transgresses areas subject to
Nicaragua’s exclusive sovereign rights and jurisdiction”. Nicaragua further
claims that the Decree violates customary international law and that
its mere enactment engages Colombia’s international responsibility.
30. In its counter‑claims, Colombia first asserts that the inhabitants of
the San Andrés Archipelago, in particular the Raizales, enjoy artisanal
fishing rights in the traditional fishing banks located beyond the territorial
sea of the islands of the San Andrés Archipelago. It contends that
Nicaragua has infringed the traditional fishing rights of the inhabitants of
the San Andrés Archipelago to access their traditional fishing banks
located in the maritime areas beyond the territorial sea of the islands of
the San Andrés Archipelago and those banks located in the Colombian
maritime areas, access to which requires navigating outside the territorial
sea of the islands of the San Andrés Archipelago.
31. Secondly, Colombia challenges the lawfulness of Nicaragua’s
straight baselines established by Decree 33 (see paragraph 15 above).
More specifically, Colombia contends that the straight baselines, which
connect a series of maritime features appertaining to Nicaragua east of
its continental coast in the Caribbean Sea, have the effect of pushing the
external limit of its territorial sea far east of the 12‑nautical-mile limit
permitted by international law, expanding Nicaragua’s internal waters,
territorial sea, exclusive economic zone and continental shelf. According
to Colombia, Nicaragua’s straight baselines thus directly impede the rights
and jurisdiction to which Colombia is entitled in the Caribbean Sea.
32. Before examining Nicaragua’s claims and Colombia’s counter-claims,
the Court will address the scope of its jurisdiction ratione temporis,
an issue raised by Colombia in its Counter‑Memorial.
II. Scope of the Jurisdiction Ratione Temporis of the Court
33. In its 2016 Judgment, the Court concluded that it had jurisdiction,
on the basis of Article XXXI of the Pact of Bogotá, to entertain the dispute
concerning the alleged violations by Colombia of Nicaragua’s rights
in the maritime zones which, according to Nicaragua, the Court declared
in its 2012 Judgment appertain to Nicaragua (Alleged Violations of Sovereign
Rights and Maritime Spaces in the Caribbean Sea (Nicaragua v.
Colombia), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2016 (I),
p. 43, para. 111 (2)).
34. Colombia, while accepting that the Court otherwise has jurisdiction
in the case, contends that “the Court lacks jurisdiction ratione tempo‑
droits souverains et espaces maritimes (arrêt) 289
27
les îles, cayes et autres formations maritimes de la Colombie dans la
région ». Il affirme que cette « zone contiguë unique » englobe des espaces
maritimes qui relèvent de la zone économique exclusive nicaraguayenne
telle que reconnue par la Cour et, par conséquent, « empiète considérablement
sur des espaces sur lesquels le Nicaragua a une juridiction et des droits
souverains exclusifs ». Le Nicaragua avance en outre que ce décret est
contraire au droit international coutumier et que le simple fait de l’avoir
promulgué suffit à engager la responsabilité internationale de la Colombie.
30. Dans ses demandes reconventionnelles, la Colombie affirme, premièrement,
que les habitants de l’archipel de San Andrés, notamment les
Raizals, jouissent de droits de pêche artisanale dans les bancs de pêche
traditionnels situés au-
delà de la mer territoriale des îles composant cet
archipel. Elle soutient que le Nicaragua a porté atteinte aux droits traditionnels
de pêche des habitants de l’archipel de San Andrés, dont leur
droit d’avoir accès à leurs bancs de pêche traditionnels se trouvant dans
les espaces maritimes situés au-
delà de ladite mer territoriale ainsi que
dans des espaces maritimes colombiens dont l’accès requiert de naviguer
hors de celle-
ci.
31. Deuxièmement, la Colombie conteste la licéité des lignes de base
droites établies par le décret 33 (voir le paragraphe 15 ci-
dessus).
Plus précisément,
elle affirme que ces lignes de base droites, qui relient une série de
formations maritimes nicaraguayennes situées à l’est de la côte continentale
du Nicaragua dans la mer des Caraïbes, ont pour effet de repousser la limite
extérieure de la mer territoriale nicaraguayenne bien au‑delà, vers l’est, de la
limite des 12 milles marins autorisée par le droit international, étendant les
eaux intérieures, la mer territoriale, la zone économique exclusive et le plateau
continental du Nicaragua. La Colombie estime que les lignes de base
droites du Nicaragua portent ainsi directement atteinte aux droits et à la
juridiction auxquels elle peut prétendre dans la mer des Caraïbes.
32. Avant d’examiner les demandes du Nicaragua et les demandes
reconventionnelles de la Colombie, la Cour traitera la question de la portée
de sa compétence ratione temporis, telle que soulevée par la Colombie
dans son contre‑mémoire.
II. Portée de la compétence ratione temporis de la Cour
33. Dans son arrêt de 2016, la Cour a conclu qu’elle avait compétence,
sur la base de l’article XXXI du pacte de Bogotá, pour statuer sur le différend
concernant les allégations de violations par la Colombie des droits
du Nicaragua dans les espaces maritimes dont celui‑ci affirme qu’ils lui
ont été reconnus par l’arrêt de 2012 (Violations alléguées de droits souverains
et d’espaces maritimes dans la mer des Caraïbes (Nicaragua c. Colombie),
exceptions préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2016 (I), p. 43,
par. 111 2)).
34. La Colombie reconnaît que la Cour a compétence en l’espèce, mais
pas « ratione temporis pour connaître d’une quelconque demande fondée
290 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (judgment)
28
ris to consider any claims that are based on events that are alleged to have
transpired after Colombia ceased to be bound by the provisions of the
Pact”. It argues that, by virtue of Article XXXI of the Pact of Bogotá, the
Parties recognized as compulsory the jurisdiction of the Court in all disputes
of a juridical nature that arise among them concerning “[a]ny question
of international law” (Article XXXI, subparagraph (b)) or “[t]he
existence of any fact which, if established, would constitute the breach of
an international obligation” (Article XXXI, subparagraph (c)), but only
“so long as the present Treaty is in force”.
35. Colombia maintains that this view is reinforced by the 2016 Judgment,
in which, according to Colombia, the Court stated that the dispute
was limited to those events which allegedly occurred before the critical
date. Colombia is of the view that, for the Court to have jurisdiction to
consider whether facts alleged by a party in support of its claim constitute
a breach of an international obligation by the other party, “those facts
must have occurred during a period when a jurisdictional basis exists
between the parties”. In this regard, it argues that
“[j]urisdiction to deal with a dispute over the legal consequences of
facts that are in existence during the period when a jurisdictional title
exists is not the same thing as ruling on the legal consequences of facts
that occur after a compromissory clause has lapsed” (emphasis in the
original).
36. Moreover, Colombia argues that the alleged events in the present
case do not amount to a continuing pattern of illegal conduct on the part
of Colombia and that they do not constitute a “composite act” within the
meaning of Article 15 of the International Law Commission’s Articles on
the Responsibility of States for Internationally Wrongful Acts (hereinafter
the “ILC Articles on State Responsibility”). It considers that the
Court should adopt an “event-by-event” analysis rather than the “pattern
of conduct” approach advanced by Nicaragua. Colombia argues that
Nicaragua’s contentions, if upheld, would lead to a “perverse effect” and
would run counter to the Court’s jurisprudence.
*
37. Nicaragua, for its part, claims that Colombia’s interpretation of
Article XXXI of the Pact of Bogotá is incompatible with the text and
context of that provision. Nicaragua maintains, moreover, that the effect
of Colombia’s denunciation of the Pact of Bogotá under Article LVI is to
prevent the Court from pronouncing on acts occurring after the termination
of the treaty that would form the subject of a new dispute, distinct
from the present one before the Court in respect of which it has found
that it has jurisdiction.
38. Nicaragua maintains that “[t]he appropriate test for determining
the existence of jurisdiction over facts occurring after the filing of an
application is . . . whether the facts ‘aris[e] directly out of the question
droits souverains et espaces maritimes (arrêt) 290
28
sur des événements prétendument survenus alors que les dispositions du
pacte ne s’imposaient plus à la Colombie ». Elle fait valoir que, en vertu
de l’article XXXI du pacte de Bogotá, les Parties ont reconnu comme
obligatoire la juridiction de la Cour dans tous les différends d’ordre juridique
surgissant entre elles et ayant pour objet « [t]oute question de droit
international » (alinéa b) de l’article XXXI) ou « [l]’existence de tout fait
qui, s’il était établi, constituerait la violation d’un engagement international
» (alinéa c) de l’article XXXI), mais uniquement « tant que le[dit]
Traité restera[it] en vigueur ».
35. La Colombie soutient que cette position est confirmée par l’arrêt de
2016, dans lequel, selon elle, la Cour a précisé que le différend était circonscrit
aux événements qui se seraient produits avant la date critique. Elle
estime que, pour que la Cour soit compétente pour déterminer si des faits
allégués par une partie à l’appui de sa demande constituent un manquement,
par l’autre partie, à une obligation internationale, « il est nécessaire que ces
faits soient survenus au cours d’une période durant laquelle une base juridictionnelle
existait entre les parties ». A cet égard, la Colombie soutient que
« [l]a compétence pour connaître d’un différend portant sur les conséquences
juridiques de faits survenus alors qu’il existe un titre de compétence
diffère de la compétence pour se prononcer sur les
conséquences juridiques de faits survenus après qu’une clause compromissoire
est devenue caduque » (les italiques sont dans l’original).
36. La Colombie fait valoir en outre que les incidents allégués dans la
présente espèce ne constituent ni un comportement illicite continu de sa
part ni un « fait composite » au sens de l’article 15 des articles de la Commission
du droit international sur la responsabilité de l’Etat pour fait
internationalement illicite (ci‑après les « articles de la Commission du
droit international sur la responsabilité de l’Etat »). Elle considère que la
Cour devrait analyser « chaque incident allégué » individuellement et non
pas sous l’angle d’une « ligne de conduite » comme le voudrait le demandeur.
Elle affirme que la thèse du Nicaragua, si elle était retenue, produirait
un « effet pervers » et contraire à la jurisprudence de la Cour.
*
37. Le Nicaragua prétend, quant à lui, que l’interprétation que donne
la Colombie de l’article XXXI du pacte de Bogotá est incompatible avec
le texte et le contexte de cette disposition. Il soutient en outre que la
dénonciation du pacte de Bogotá faite par la Colombie en vertu des dispositions
de l’article LVI a pour effet d’empêcher la Cour de se prononcer
sur des faits postérieurs à l’extinction du traité qui constitueraient l’objet
d’un nouveau différend, distinct de celui qui lui est actuellement soumis et
à l’égard duquel elle s’est déclarée compétente.
38. Le Nicaragua soutient que, suivant « le critère approprié pour
déterminer si la Cour est compétente pour connaître de faits survenus
après le dépôt d’une requête », il faut vérifier si ces faits « découlent direc-
291 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (judgment)
29
which is the subject-matter
of [the] Application’”. Nicaragua argues that
the events which occurred after 27 November 2013, like those which
occurred before that date, arose directly out of the question which is the
subject-matter
of the Application. According to Nicaragua, those subsequent
events, which are both composite and continuing in character, do
not form a new dispute, but are manifestations of the same dispute that is
presently before the Court. Moreover, Nicaragua contends that Colombia
itself refers to events that occurred after the institution of the proceedings
in order to support its counter-claims.
* *
39. The Court recalls that, at the preliminary objection stage, Colombia’s
first preliminary objection was that the Court lacked jurisdiction
because Colombia had given its notice of denunciation of the Pact of
Bogotá on 27 November 2012, before Nicaragua filed its Application in
the present case. The Court rejected Colombia’s objection on the ground
that, by virtue of Article LVI, paragraph 1, of the Pact, Article XXXI
thereof, which conferred jurisdiction on the Court, remained in force
between the Parties on the date that the Application in the present case
was filed. The subsequent termination of the Pact of Bogotá as between
Nicaragua and Colombia did not affect the jurisdiction which existed on
the date when the proceedings were instituted.
The question raised by Colombia in the present context concerns the
interpretation of Articles XXXI and LVI of the Pact of Bogotá, which
was addressed by the Court at length in the 2016 Judgment.
Article XXXI states:
“In conformity with Article 36, paragraph 2, of the Statute of the
International Court of Justice, the High Contracting Parties declare
that they recognize in relation to any other American State, the jurisdiction
of the Court as compulsory ipso facto, without the necessity
of any special agreement so long as the present Treaty is in force, in
all disputes of a juridical nature that arise among them concerning:
(a) The interpretation of a treaty; (b) Any question of international
law; (c) The existence of any fact which, if established, would constitute
the breach of an international obligation; (d) The nature or
extent of the reparation to be made for the breach of an international
obligation.”
According to Colombia, the phrase “so long as the present Treaty is in
force” in Article XXXI provides a temporal limitation to Colombia’s
consent to the Court’s jurisdiction over disputes as described in subparagraphs
(b) and (c). It argues that the Court does not have jurisdiction
over the claims based on the events that allegedly occurred after the Pact
of Bogotá ceased to be in force for Colombia.
40. The Court does not consider that Colombia’s argument correctly
reflects the meaning of Article XXXI. Subparagraphs (b) and (c) of that
droits souverains et espaces maritimes (arrêt) 291
29
tement de la question qui fait l’objet de cette requête ». Il affirme que les
événements survenus après le 27 novembre 2013, comme ceux qui se sont
produits avant cette date, découlent directement de la question qui fait
l’objet de la requête en l’espèce. Selon lui, ces événements ultérieurs, à la
fois composites et continus, ne forment pas un nouveau litige mais constituent
des manifestations du même différend présentement porté devant la
Cour. En outre, le Nicaragua affirme que la Colombie elle‑même se réfère
à des événements postérieurs à l’introduction de l’instance pour établir le
bien‑fondé de ses demandes reconventionnelles.
* *
39. La Cour rappelle que, au stade des exceptions préliminaires, la
Colombie a soulevé une première exception d’incompétence au motif
qu’elle avait donné notification de sa dénonciation du pacte de Bogotá le
27 novembre 2012, avant le dépôt de la requête en l’affaire par le Nicaragua.
La Cour a rejeté ladite exception préliminaire, estimant que, en vertu
du paragraphe 1 de l’article LVI du pacte, l’article XXXI du même instrument,
qui lui conférait compétence, demeurait en vigueur entre les Parties
à la date de la requête. L’extinction ultérieure du pacte de Bogotá entre le
Nicaragua et la Colombie n’a pas eu d’incidence sur la compétence qui
existait à la date où l’instance a été introduite.
La question soulevée par la Colombie dans le présent contexte concerne
l’interprétation des articles XXXI et LVI du pacte, sur laquelle la Cour
s’est longuement penchée dans l’arrêt de 2016.
L’article XXXI se lit comme suit :
« Conformément au paragraphe 2 de l’article 36 du Statut de la
Cour internationale de Justice, les Hautes Parties Contractantes en
ce qui concerne tout autre Etat américain déclarent reconnaître
comme obligatoire de plein droit, et sans convention spéciale tant
que le présent Traité restera en vigueur, la juridiction de la Cour sur
tous les différends d’ordre juridique surgissant entre elles et ayant
pour objet : a) L’interprétation d’un traité ; b) Toute question de
droit international ; c) L’existence de tout fait qui, s’il était établi,
constituerait la violation d’un engagement international ; d) La
nature ou l’étendue de la réparation qui découle de la rupture d’un
engagement international. »
La Colombie affirme que le membre de phrase « tant que le présent
Traité restera en vigueur » figurant à l’article XXXI limite dans le temps
son acceptation de la compétence de la Cour pour connaître des différends
relevant des alinéas b) et c). Elle fait valoir que la Cour n’a pas
compétence pour connaître des demandes fondées sur des événements qui
se seraient produits après qu’elle a cessé d’être liée par le pacte de Bogotá.
40. La Cour considère que l’on ne retrouve pas exactement dans l’argument
de la Colombie le sens de l’article XXXI. Les alinéas b) et c) de cet
292 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (judgment)
30
Article refer to the subject-matter
of a dispute over which the Court may
exercise jurisdiction (see Border and Transborder Armed Actions (Nicaragua
v. Honduras), Jurisdiction and Admissibility, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports
1988, p. 84, para. 34). The phrase “so long as the present Treaty is in
force” limits the period within which such a dispute must have arisen.
Since the Court has already decided in its 2016 Judgment that there
existed a dispute between the Parties that fell within the scope of Article
XXXI at the time Nicaragua filed its Application, the question of consent
under Article XXXI with regard to that dispute does not arise at the
present stage of the proceedings. The question now before the Court is
whether its jurisdiction over that dispute extends to facts or events that
allegedly occurred after the lapse of the title of jurisdiction.
41. Colombia maintains that its view on the Court’s jurisdiction
ratione
temporis is reinforced by the 2016 Judgment, in which, according
to Colombia, the Court stated that the dispute was limited to the facts that
occurred before the filing of the Application. However, Colombia mischaracterizes
the 2016 Judgment, in which the Court, applying its settled jurisprudence,
recalled that the date at which its jurisdiction has to be established
is the date on which the application is filed with the Court (Alleged
Violations
of Sovereign Rights and Maritime Spaces in the Caribbean Sea
(Nicaragua v. Colombia), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports
2016 (I), p. 18, para. 33, citing Application of the Convention on the Prevention
and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Croatia v. Serbia), Preliminary
Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2008, pp. 437‑438, paras. 79‑80,
and Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the
Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Yugoslavia), Preliminary
Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1996 (II), p. 613, para. 26). In order
to determine whether the Court has jurisdiction in a particular case, it has
to ascertain whether there existed a dispute between the parties on the date
on which the application was filed. For that purpose, the Court’s decision
must be based on the acts which allegedly occurred before that date. Contrary
to what Colombia claims, the 2016 Judgment does not preclude the
Court from entertaining those incidents that allegedly occurred after the
filing of the application.
42. With regard to the lapse of the jurisdictional title, the Court has
stated in a number of cases that, “according to its established jurisprudence,
if a title of jurisdiction is shown to have existed at the date of the
institution of proceedings, any subsequent lapse or withdrawal of the
jurisdictional instrument is without effect on the jurisdiction of the Court”
(Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the
Crime of Genocide (Croatia v. Serbia), Preliminary Objections, Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 2008, p. 445, para. 95; see also Alleged Violations of Sovereign
Rights and Maritime Spaces in the Caribbean Sea (Nicaragua v.
Colombia), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2016 (I),
p. 18, para. 33; Military and Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua
(Nicaragua v. United States of America), Merits, Judgment, I.C.J.
droits souverains et espaces maritimes (arrêt) 292
30
article font référence à l’objet des différends à l’égard desquels la Cour peut
exercer sa compétence (voir Actions armées frontalières et transfrontalières
(Nicaragua c. Honduras), compétence et recevabilité, arrêt, C.I.J.
Recueil 1988, p. 84, par. 34). Le membre de phrase « tant que le présent Traité
restera en vigueur » limite la période dans laquelle un tel différend doit survenir.
La Cour ayant déjà décidé dans son arrêt de 2016 qu’il existait entre les
Parties un différend entrant dans le champ d’application de l’article XXXI
au moment où le Nicaragua avait déposé sa requête, la question du consentement
au titre dudit article relativement à ce différend ne se pose pas au
présent stade de la procédure. La question dont la Cour est maintenant
saisie est celle de savoir si sa compétence à l’égard de ce différend s’étend
aux faits ou événements qui se seraient produits après l’extinction du titre
de compétence.
41. La Colombie soutient que sa position sur la compétence ratione
temporis de la Cour est renforcée par l’arrêt de 2016, dans lequel, selon
elle, la Cour a dit que le différend se limitait aux faits survenus avant le
dépôt de la requête. Or, la Colombie interprète erronément l’arrêt de 2016,
dans lequel la Cour, appliquant sa jurisprudence constante, a rappelé que
la date à laquelle s’apprécie sa compétence est celle du dépôt de la requête
(Violations alléguées de droits souverains et d’espaces maritimes dans la
mer des Caraïbes (Nicaragua c. Colombie), exceptions préliminaires, arrêt,
C.I.J. Recueil 2016 (I), p. 18, par. 33, citant Application de la convention
pour la prévention et la répression du crime de génocide (Croatie c. Serbie),
exceptions préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2008, p. 437‑438, par. 79‑80,
et Application de la convention pour la prévention et la répression du crime
de génocide (Bosnie‑Herzégovine c. Yougoslavie), exceptions préliminaires,
arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1996 (II), p. 613, par. 26). Pour déterminer si elle a
compétence dans une affaire particulière, la Cour doit vérifier s’il existait
un différend entre les parties à la date du dépôt de la requête. Pour ce
faire, elle doit se fonder sur les faits survenus avant cette date. Contrairement
à ce qu’affirme la Colombie, l’arrêt de 2016 n’empêche pas la Cour
de connaître des incidents qui seraient survenus après le dépôt de la
requête.
42. En ce qui concerne l’extinction du titre de compétence, la Cour a
rappelé dans plusieurs affaires que, « selon sa jurisprudence constante, s’il
est démontré qu’un titre de compétence existait à la date de l’introduction
de l’instance, la caducité de l’instrument établissant sa juridiction ou le
retrait dont il peut ultérieurement faire l’objet sont sans effet sur sa compétence
» (Application de la convention pour la prévention et la répression du
crime de génocide (Croatie c. Serbie), exceptions préliminaires, arrêt,
C.I.J. Recueil 2008, p. 445, par. 95 ; voir également Violations alléguées de
droits souverains et d’espaces maritimes dans la mer des Caraïbes (Nicaragua
c. Colombie), exceptions préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2016 (I), p. 18,
par. 33 ; Activités militaires et paramilitaires au Nicaragua et contre celui‑ci
(Nicaragua c. Etats‑Unis d’Amérique), fond, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1986,
293 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (judgment)
31
Reports 1986, p. 28, para. 36; Nottebohm (Liechtenstein v. Guatemala),
Preliminary Objection, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1953, p. 123). There is
nothing in the Court’s jurisprudence to suggest that the lapse of the jurisdictional
title after the institution of proceedings has the effect of limiting
the Court’s jurisdiction ratione temporis to facts which allegedly occurred
before that lapse.
43. Although the question posed by Colombia has not previously been
presented to the Court, considerations that have been brought to bear on
the adjudication of a claim or submission made after the filing of an
application can be instructive in the present case. In the view of the Court,
the criteria that it has considered relevant in its jurisprudence to determine
the limits ratione temporis of its jurisdiction with respect to such a
claim or submission, or the admissibility thereof, should apply to the
Court’s examination of the scope of its jurisdiction ratione temporis in the
present case.
44. In cases involving the adjudication of a claim or submission made
after the filing of the application, the question has in some cases been
addressed as one of jurisdiction and, in others, as one of admissibility.
The Court has in such instances considered whether such a claim or submission
arose directly out of the question which is the subject‑matter of
the application or whether entertaining such a claim or submission would
transform the subject of the dispute originally submitted to the Court (see
Fisheries Jurisdiction (Federal Republic of Germany v. Iceland), Merits,
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1974, p. 203, para. 72; LaGrand (Germany v.
United States of America), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2001, p. 484, para. 45;
Certain Phosphate Lands in Nauru (Nauru v. Australia), Preliminary
Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1992, pp. 266‑267, paras. 67 and
69‑70; and Arrest Warrant of 11 April 2000 (Democratic Republic of the
Congo v. Belgium), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2002, p. 16, para. 36). With
regard to facts or events subsequent to the filing of the application, in
Certain Questions of Mutual Assistance in Criminal Matters, the Court
referred to the above jurisprudence and stated the following:
“When the Court has examined its jurisdiction over facts or events
subsequent to the filing of the application, it has emphasized the need
to determine whether those facts or events were connected to the facts
or events already falling within the Court’s jurisdiction and whether
consideration of those later facts or events would transform the
‘nature of the dispute’” (Certain Questions of Mutual Assistance
in Criminal Matters (Djibouti v. France), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports
2008, pp. 211‑212, para. 87).
Although the Court did not find the above criteria applicable to that
case, since the matter before it concerned jurisdiction ratione materiae
and not jurisdiction ratione temporis, it affirmed the relevance of criteria
relating to “continuity” and “connexity” for “determining limits ratione
temporis to its jurisdiction” (ibid., p. 212, para. 88).
droits souverains et espaces maritimes (arrêt) 293
31
p. 28, par. 36 ; Nottebohm (Liechtenstein c. Guatemala), exception préliminaire,
arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1953, p. 123). Rien, dans la jurisprudence de la
Cour, ne suggère que l’extinction du titre de compétence après l’introduction
d’une instance ait pour effet de limiter la compétence ratione temporis
de la Cour aux faits qui se seraient produits avant ladite caducité.
43. Même si, par le passé, la Cour n’a pas été saisie d’une question
comme celle que présente la Colombie en l’espèce, les considérations dont
elle a tenu compte pour statuer sur une demande ou une conclusion formulée
après le dépôt d’une requête peuvent être instructives. De l’avis de
la Cour, les critères jugés pertinents dans sa jurisprudence pour déterminer
les limites ratione temporis de sa compétence à l’égard d’une telle
demande ou conclusion, ou la recevabilité de celle‑ci, devraient s’appliquer
à l’examen du champ de sa compétence ratione temporis dans la présente
affaire.
44. Dans les affaires où il s’agissait pour la Cour de se prononcer sur
une demande ou une conclusion soumise après le dépôt de la requête, la
question a été traitée dans certains cas du point de vue de la compétence
et, dans d’autres, de la recevabilité. La Cour a en pareil cas vérifié si ladite
demande ou conclusion découlait directement de la question qui faisait
l’objet de la requête ou si le fait de se prononcer sur celle-
ci aurait pour
effet de transformer l’objet du différend qui lui avait été initialement soumis
(Compétence en matière de pêcheries (République fédérale d’Allemagne
c. Islande), fond, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1974, p. 203, par. 72 ; LaGrand (Allemagne
c. Etats‑Unis d’Amérique), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2001, p. 484,
par. 45 ; Certaines terres à phosphates à Nauru (Nauru c. Australie), exceptions
préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1992, p. 266‑267, par. 67 et 69‑70 ;
et Mandat d’arrêt du 11 avril 2000 (République démocratique du Congo
c. Belgique), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2002, p. 16, par. 36). Au sujet des faits ou
événements survenus après le dépôt d’une requête, la Cour, dans l’affaire
relative à Certaines questions concernant l’entraide judiciaire en matière
pénale, s’est référée à la jurisprudence susmentionnée et a dit ce qui suit :
« Lorsque la Cour a examiné la question de sa compétence à
l’égard de faits ou d’événements postérieurs au dépôt de la requête,
elle a souligné la nécessité de déterminer si ceux‑ci se rapportaient
aux faits ou événements relevant déjà de sa compétence et si leur
prise en considération aurait pour effet de transformer la « nature du
différend » » (Certaines questions concernant l’entraide judiciaire en
matière pénale (Djibouti c. France), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2008,
p. 211‑212, par. 87).
Même si elle n’a pas jugé les critères ci-
dessus
applicables à cette affaire,
puisque la question dont elle était saisie concernait la compétence ratione
materiae et non la compétence ratione temporis, la Cour a affirmé que des
critères relatifs à la « continuité » et à la « connexité » étaient pertinents
pour « déterminer les limites ratione temporis de sa compétence » (ibid.,
p. 212, par. 88).
294 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (judgment)
32
45. In the 2016 Judgment, the Court did not address the question of
jurisdiction ratione temporis with regard to those alleged incidents that
occurred after the denunciation of the Pact of Bogotá came into effect.
However, its Judgment implies that the Court has jurisdiction to examine
every aspect of the dispute that the Court found to have existed at the
time of the filing of the Application. As the Court has pointed out,
“it has become an established practice for States submitting an application
to the Court to reserve the right to present additional facts and
legal considerations. The limit of the freedom to present such facts
and considerations is ‘that the result is not to transform the dispute
brought before the Court by the application into another dispute
which is different in character’ (Military and Paramilitary Activities
in and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v. United States of America),
Jurisdiction and Admissibility, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1984, p. 427,
para. 80)” (Land and Maritime Boundary between Cameroon and Nigeria
(Cameroon v. Nigeria), Preliminary Objections, Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 1998, pp. 318‑319, para. 99). See also Oil Platforms
(Islamic Republic of Iran v. United States of America), Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 2003, pp. 213‑214, paras. 116‑118).
It follows that the task of the Court is to decide whether the incidents
alleged to have occurred after the lapse of the jurisdictional title meet the
aforementioned criteria drawn from the Court’s jurisprudence.
46. The incidents said to have occurred after 27 November 2013 generally
concern Colombian naval vessels and aircraft allegedly interfering
with Nicaraguan fishing activities and marine scientific research in Nicaragua’s
maritime zones, Colombia’s alleged policing operations and interference
with Nicaragua’s naval vessels in Nicaragua’s maritime waters
and Colombia’s alleged authorization of fishing activities and marine scientific
research in Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone. These alleged
incidents are of the same nature as those that allegedly occurred before
26 November 2013. They all give rise to the question whether Colombia
has breached its international obligations under customary international
law to respect Nicaragua’s rights in the latter’s exclusive economic zone,
a question which concerns precisely the dispute over which the Court
found it had jurisdiction in the 2016 Judgment.
47. In light of the foregoing considerations, the Court concludes that the
claims and submissions made by Nicaragua in relation to incidents that
allegedly occurred after 27 November 2013 arose directly out of the question
which is the subject-matter
of the Application, that those alleged incidents
are connected to the alleged incidents that have already been found
to fall within the Court’s jurisdiction, and that consideration of those
alleged incidents does not transform the nature of the dispute between the
Parties in the present case. The Court therefore has jurisdiction ratione temporis
over Nicaragua’s claims relating to those alleged incidents.
droits souverains et espaces maritimes (arrêt) 294
32
45. Dans l’arrêt de 2016, la Cour n’a pas traité la question de la compétence
ratione temporis à l’égard des incidents qui seraient survenus
après que la dénonciation du pacte de Bogotá eut pris effet. Cependant,
cet arrêt implique que la Cour a compétence pour connaître de tous les
aspects du différend dont l’existence à la date du dépôt de la requête a été
établie par elle. Comme la Cour l’a relevé,
« selon une pratique établie, les Etats qui déposent une requête à la
Cour se réservent le droit de présenter ultérieurement des éléments de
fait et de droit supplémentaires. Cette liberté de présenter de tels éléments
trouve sa limite dans l’exigence que « le différend porté devant
la Cour par requête ne se trouve pas transformé en un autre différend
dont le caractère ne serait pas le même » (Activités militaires et paramilitaires
au Nicaragua et contre celui‑ci (Nicaragua c. Etats-Unis
d’Amérique), compétence et recevabilité, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1984,
p. 427, par. 80) » (Frontière terrestre et maritime entre le Cameroun et
le Nigéria (Cameroun c. Nigéria), exceptions préliminaires, arrêt,
C.I.J. Recueil 1998, p. 318‑319, par. 99). Voir aussi Plates‑formes
pétrolières (République islamique d’Iran c. Etats Unis d’Amérique),
arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2003, p. 213‑214, par. 116-118).
Il s’ensuit que la Cour est appelée à décider si les incidents qui seraient
survenus après l’extinction du titre de compétence satisfont aux critères
susmentionnés tirés de sa jurisprudence.
46. Les incidents qui se seraient produits après le 27 novembre 2013
concernent généralement des activités de pêche et de recherche scientifique
marine du Nicaragua qui auraient été entravées par des navires et
aéronefs militaires colombiens dans les espaces maritimes nicaraguayens,
des activités de police ainsi que des entraves aux activités de navires de la
marine nicaraguayenne qui auraient été le fait de la Colombie dans les
eaux maritimes nicaraguayennes et des activités de pêche et de recherche
scientifique marine que la Colombie aurait autorisées dans la zone économique
exclusive nicaraguayenne. Ces incidents allégués sont de même
nature que ceux qui seraient survenus avant le 26 novembre 2013. Ils soulèvent
tous la question de savoir si la Colombie a manqué aux obligations
internationales qui lui incombent en droit international coutumier de respecter
les droits du Nicaragua dans la zone économique exclusive de ce
dernier, question qui concerne précisément le différend à l’égard duquel la
Cour s’est déclarée compétente dans l’arrêt de 2016.
47. A la lumière de ce qui précède, la Cour conclut que les demandes
et conclusions présentées par le Nicaragua en relation avec les incidents
qui seraient survenus après le 27 novembre 2013 découlent directement de
la question qui fait l’objet de la requête, que ces incidents allégués sont
liés à ceux à l’égard desquels elle s’est déjà déclarée compétente, et que les
prendre en considération n’a pas pour effet de transformer la nature du
différend qui oppose les Parties en l’espèce. La Cour a par conséquent
compétence ratione temporis à l’égard des demandes du Nicaragua relatives
à ces incidents allégués.
295 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (judgment)
33
III. Alleged Violations by Colombia of Nicaragua’s
Rights in Its Maritime Zones
48. The dispute between the Parties in the present case raises questions
concerning the rights and duties of the coastal State and the rights and
duties of other States in the exclusive economic zone. The Applicant and
the Respondent agree that the applicable law between them is customary
international law. Nicaragua is a party to UNCLOS and Colombia is
not; consequently, UNCLOS is not applicable between them. The Court
notes that both Parties acknowledge that a number of the provisions of
UNCLOS that they refer to reflect customary international law. They disagree,
however, about whether that is true of other provisions that are at
issue in the present case. The Court will consider whether the particular
provisions of the Convention relevant to the present case reflect customary
international law when addressing Nicaragua’s claims and Colombia’s
counter‑claims.
A. Colombia’s Contested Activities
in Nicaragua’s Maritime Zones
1. Incidents alleged by Nicaragua in the south-western
Caribbean Sea
49. In its submissions, Nicaragua requests the Court to adjudge and
declare that, by its conduct, Colombia has breached its international obligation
to respect Nicaragua’s maritime zones as delimited by the Court in
its 2012 Judgment. Nicaragua claims that, after the Court delivered its
Judgment on maritime delimitation, Colombia engaged in a series of acts
that violated Nicaragua’s sovereign rights and jurisdiction in Nicaragua’s
exclusive economic zone. Nicaragua maintains that Colombia attempted
to enforce its own jurisdiction in Nicaragua’s maritime zones, including
by obstructing, through both naval and aerial means, Nicaragua’s exercise
of its own jurisdiction; by harassing and intimidating Nicaraguan-flagged
and Nicaraguan-licensed
fishing vessels; and by authorizing
Colombians and nationals of third States to operate in those zones. Nicaragua
also refers to instances in which it alleges that Colombia asserted
its sovereignty over Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone or otherwise
rejected the 2012 Judgment.
50. Nicaragua contends that Colombia must establish that the rights
it claims in Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone are “attributed” to it,
and not to Nicaragua, under customary international law. According to
Nicaragua, the set of sovereign rights of the coastal State for the purpose
of exploring and exploiting, conserving and managing natural resources
in the exclusive economic zone “contains no exception or qualification
that would give or preserve traditional fishing rights of artisanal fishermen”.
droits souverains et espaces maritimes (arrêt) 295
33
III. Allégations de violations par la Colombie des droits
du Nicaragua dans ses zones maritimes
48. Le différend entre les Parties dans la présente instance soulève des
questions concernant les droits et les obligations de l’Etat côtier, ainsi que
ceux d’autres Etats, dans la zone économique exclusive. Le demandeur et la
défenderesse conviennent que le droit applicable dans leurs relations est le
droit international coutumier. La CNUDM n’est pas applicable entre eux
puisque le Nicaragua y est partie et la Colombie ne l’est pas. La Cour relève
que les deux Parties s’accordent à reconnaître que nombre des dispositions
de la CNUDM qu’elles invoquent reflètent le droit international coutumier.
Leurs avis divergent toutefois sur la question de savoir s’il en est ainsi
d’autres dispositions en cause dans la présente espèce. La Cour déterminera
si les dispositions particulières de la convention pertinentes en la présente
affaire reflètent le droit international coutumier lorsqu’elle examinera les
demandes du Nicaragua et les demandes reconventionnelles de la Colombie.
A. Les activités contestées de la Colombie
dans les espaces maritimes du Nicaragua
1. Les incidents dans le sud‑ouest de la mer des Caraïbes qu’allègue le
Nicaragua
49. Dans ses conclusions, le Nicaragua prie la Cour de dire et juger
que, par son comportement, la Colombie a manqué à son obligation
internationale de respecter ses espaces maritimes tels que délimités par la
Cour dans son arrêt de 2012. Il soutient que la Colombie, après que la
Cour eut rendu son arrêt sur la délimitation maritime, a commis une série
d’actes qui ont violé ses droits souverains et sa juridiction dans sa zone
économique exclusive. Il affirme que la Colombie a cherché à exercer sa
propre juridiction dans les espaces maritimes nicaraguayens, notamment
en l’empêchant, aussi bien par les airs que par la mer, d’exercer lui‑même
sa juridiction, en se livrant à des manoeuvres de harcèlement et d’intimidation
contre des navires de pêche battant pavillon nicaraguayen ou
détenteurs d’un permis nicaraguayen, et en autorisant des Colombiens ou
des ressortissants d’Etats tiers à opérer dans ces espaces. Le Nicaragua
fait également état de cas où la Colombie a, selon lui, fait acte de souveraineté
à l’égard de la zone économique exclusive nicaraguayenne, ou
méconnu d’une autre manière l’arrêt de 2012.
50. Le Nicaragua affirme qu’il appartient à la Colombie de démontrer
que c’est à elle, et non à lui, que le droit international coutumier « attribue
» les droits qu’elle revendique dans la zone économique exclusive
nicaraguayenne. Il ajoute que l’ensemble des droits souverains de l’Etat
côtier aux fins d’exploration et d’exploitation, de conservation et de gestion
des ressources naturelles de la zone économique exclusive ne fait
l’objet d’« aucune exception ou restriction qui accorderait ou préserverait
les droits de pêche traditionnels des pêcheurs artisanaux ».
296 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (judgment)
34
51. The Applicant recognizes that the Respondent enjoys, in Nicaragua’s
exclusive economic zone, freedoms of navigation and overflight and
other internationally lawful uses of the sea related to these freedoms. It
does not question Colombia’s right to take action against Colombian-flagged
vessels or against a vessel suspected of drug-trafficking
that a
Colombian naval vessel may happen to encounter in Nicaragua’s exclusive
economic zone. The Applicant argues, however, that in light of the
ordinary meaning of the word “navigation”, the scope of the Respondent’s
freedom of navigation is limited to the passage of ships or the
movement of ships on water and does not include systematic acts of
“monitoring” and “tracking”.
52. The Applicant complains that the Respondent has erected and
implemented a régime of surveillance and enforcement that treats Nicaragua’s
exclusive economic zone as if it were Colombian “national waters”.
Nicaragua further argues that Colombia has no right to enforce or police
environmental standards in Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone, because
UNCLOS is clear in allocating jurisdiction to coastal and flag States in
relation to the protection and preservation of the marine environment.
*
53. For its part, Colombia contends that in the exclusive economic
zone, States other than the coastal State enjoy freedoms of navigation
and overflight as well as other internationally lawful uses of the sea.
According to Colombia, in assessing the lawfulness of a State’s conduct
in another State’s exclusive economic zone, regard needs to be had to the
customary international law of the sea, which may be identified by reference
to both the text of UNCLOS and to State practice; to other rules of
customary international law, including local custom; to commitments
undertaken in unilateral declarations; and to rules reflected in other applicable
treaties. It is not the case, in the Respondent’s view, that a right not
specifically attributed to third States necessarily vests with the coastal
State.
54. In support of the legality of its actions, the Respondent claims that
it has acted in accordance with three types of rights and duties recognized
by international law: (i) the right and duty to protect and preserve the
environment of the south‑western Caribbean Sea; (ii) the due diligence
duty within the relevant maritime area; and (iii) the right and duty to protect
the habitat of the Raizales and other local communities inhabiting the
Archipelago. Colombia asserts that, in view of the fragility of the Caribbean
ecosystem resulting from threats such as marine-based pollution,
overfishing and other predatory practices, it has adopted a series of protective
measures and become a party to bilateral and regional agreements
to protect and preserve the area, among which the most important are the
Convention for the Protection and Development of the Marine Environment
of the Wider Caribbean Region, done at Cartagena de Indias on
droits souverains et espaces maritimes (arrêt) 296
34
51. Le demandeur reconnaît que la Colombie jouit, dans la zone économique
exclusive nicaraguayenne, des libertés de navigation et de survol
ainsi que de la liberté d’utiliser la mer à d’autres fins internationalement
licites liées à l’exercice de ces libertés. Il ne conteste pas qu’elle ait le droit
d’agir contre les navires battant son propre pavillon, ou contre un navire
soupçonné de se livrer au trafic de stupéfiants qu’un navire de la marine
colombienne croiserait dans la zone économique exclusive nicaraguayenne.
Il argue cependant que, à la lumière du sens ordinaire du terme
« navigation », la portée de la liberté de navigation de la défenderesse est
limitée au passage ou au mouvement de navires sur l’eau et n’inclut pas
les actes systématiques de « surveillance » et de « suivi ».
52. Le demandeur fait grief à la Colombie d’avoir instauré et appliqué
un régime de surveillance et de répression par lequel elle traite la zone
économique exclusive nicaraguayenne comme s’il s’agissait de ses propres
« eaux nationales ». Il soutient en outre que la défenderesse n’a pas le
droit d’appliquer ou de faire respecter des normes de protection de l’environnement
dans la zone économique exclusive nicaraguayenne, car la
CNUDM place clairement la protection et la préservation du milieu
marin sous la juridiction de l’Etat côtier et de l’Etat du pavillon.
*
53. La Colombie affirme quant à elle que, dans la zone économique
exclusive, les Etats autres que l’Etat côtier jouissent des libertés de navigation
et de survol ainsi que de la liberté d’utiliser la mer à d’autres fins
internationalement licites. Selon elle, pour apprécier la licéité du comportement
d’un Etat dans la zone économique exclusive d’un autre Etat, il
convient d’examiner le droit international coutumier de la mer, que l’on
peut inférer tant du texte de la CNUDM que de la pratique des Etats,
d’autres règles du droit international coutumier, notamment les coutumes
locales, les engagements pris dans des déclarations unilatérales, et les
règles énoncées dans d’autres traités applicables. De l’avis de la défenderesse,
un droit qui n’est pas spécifiquement attribué aux Etats tiers ne
revient pas nécessairement à l’Etat côtier.
54. Comme justification de la licéité de ses actes, la Colombie affirme
qu’elle a agi conformément à trois types de droits et devoirs reconnus par
le droit international : i) le droit et le devoir de protéger et de préserver
l’environnement dans le sud‑ouest de la mer des Caraïbes ; ii) le devoir
d’exercer la diligence requise dans la zone maritime pertinente ; et iii) le
droit et le devoir de protéger l’habitat des Raizals et des autres communautés
locales vivant dans l’archipel. Elle affirme que, compte tenu de la
fragilité de l’écosystème caribéen menacé, entre autres, par la pollution
marine, la surpêche et d’autres pratiques déprédatrices, elle a adopté une
série de mesures de protection et est devenue partie à des accords bilatéraux
et régionaux visant à protéger et à préserver la zone, dont les plus
importants sont la convention pour la protection et la mise en valeur du
milieu marin dans la région des Caraïbes, signée à Carthagène des Indes
297 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (judgment)
35
24 March 1983 (hereinafter the “Cartagena Convention”) and the Protocol
Concerning Specially Protected Areas and Wildlife to the Convention
for the Protection and Development of the Marine Environment of the
Wider Caribbean Region, done at Kingston on 18 January 1990 (hereinafter
the “SPAW Protocol”). In addition, Colombia established two special
reserve areas for marine environmental protection in 2000 and 2005, the
Seaflower Biosphere Reserve and the Seaflower Marine Protected Area,
with the respective aims of protecting the marine environment in the
south-western
Caribbean Sea and the habitat of the Raizales community.
55. The Respondent claims that it therefore has the right and duty to
protect and preserve the environment of the south-western
Caribbean Sea
and the duty to exercise due diligence within the relevant marine area. It
states that “[e]nvironmental concerns within the Southwestern Caribbean
Sea need to be fully taken into account regardless of considerations
of sovereignty or sovereign rights”. According to Colombia, it has the
right to monitor and track any practices that endanger the marine environment
and urge them to cease. The Respondent maintains that to find
unlawful under customary international law an activity of Colombia that
is not specifically recognized as encompassed by its freedoms of navigation
and overflight, or other permissible uses of the sea, it must be proved
that “Colombia’s actions impeded, or materially prejudiced, Nicaragua’s
ability to exercise its sovereign rights”.
* *
56. The Court recalls that the applicable law between the Parties is customary
international law. The Court notes that, by the time UNCLOS was
concluded, the concept of the exclusive economic zone had already received
widespread acceptance by States. In 1985, the Court found it incontestable
that the institution of the exclusive economic zone had become a part of
customary law (Continental Shelf (Libyan Arab Jamahiriya/Malta), Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 1985, p. 33, para. 34). To date, around 130 States, including
both parties and non-parties
to the Convention, have adopted national
legislation or administrative decrees declaring an exclusive economic zone.
57. Customary rules on the rights and duties in the exclusive economic
zone of coastal States and other States are reflected in several articles of
UNCLOS, including Articles 56, 58, 61, 62 and 73. Article 56 reads as
follows:
“Article 56
Rights, jurisdiction and duties of the coastal State
in the exclusive economic zone
1. In the exclusive economic zone, the coastal State has:
(a) sovereign rights for the purpose of exploring and exploiting, conserving
and managing the natural resources, whether living or
droits souverains et espaces maritimes (arrêt) 297
35
le 24 mars 1983 (ci‑après la « convention de Carthagène »), et le protocole
à cette convention relatif aux zones et à la vie sauvage spécialement protégées,
signé à Kingston le 18 janvier 1990 (ci‑après le « protocole
SPAW »). De plus, la Colombie a spécialement établi, en 2000 et en 2005,
deux zones réservées pour la protection du milieu marin — la réserve de
biosphère Seaflower et l’aire marine protégée Seaflower — qui visent à
protéger, l’une le milieu marin du sud‑ouest de la mer des Caraïbes, et
l’autre, l’habitat de la communauté raizale.
55. La Colombie prétend avoir ainsi le droit et le devoir de protéger et
de préserver l’environnement dans le sud‑ouest de la mer des Caraïbes et le
devoir d’exercer la diligence requise dans cette zone maritime. Elle affirme
que « [l]es préoccupations relatives à l’environnement dans le sud‑ouest de
la mer des Caraïbes doivent être pleinement prises en compte, indépendamment
de considérations de souveraineté ou de droits souverains ». Elle
estime avoir le droit de surveiller et de suivre toute pratique susceptible de
menacer le milieu marin et de réclamer qu’il y soit mis fin. Elle soutient
que, pour déclarer illicite, au regard du droit international coutumier,
l’une quelconque de ses activités qui ne serait pas précisément reconnue
comme relevant de ses libertés de navigation et de survol ou de sa liberté
d’utiliser la mer à d’autres fins internationalement licites, il faudrait prouver
que ladite « activit[é] … [a] compromis l’exercice [par le Nicaragua] de
ses droits souverains, ou qu’ell[e] y [a] gravement porté atteinte ».
* *
56. La Cour rappelle que le droit applicable entre les Parties est le droit
international coutumier. Elle note que, à l’époque où la CNUDM a été
conclue, la notion de zone économique exclusive était déjà largement
acceptée par les Etats. En 1985, la Cour a conclu qu’il était incontestable
que l’institution de la zone économique exclusive s’était intégrée au droit
coutumier (Plateau continental (Jamahiriya arabe libyenne/Malte), arrêt,
C.I.J. Recueil 1985, p. 33, par. 34). A ce jour, environ 130 Etats, parties
ou non à la CNUDM, ont adopté une législation nationale ou des décrets
instituant une zone économique exclusive.
57. Plusieurs articles de la CNUDM, notamment les articles 56, 58, 61,
62 et 73, reflètent les règles coutumières relatives aux droits et aux obligations
de l’Etat côtier et des autres Etats dans la zone économique exclusive.
L’article 56 se lit comme suit :
« Article 56
Droits, juridiction et obligations de l’Etat côtier
dans la zone économique exclusive
1. Dans la zone économique exclusive, l’Etat côtier a :
a) des droits souverains aux fins d’exploration et d’exploitation, de
conservation et de gestion des ressources naturelles, biologiques
298 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (judgment)
36
non-living,
of the waters superjacent to the sea-bed and of the
sea-bed and its subsoil, and with regard to other activities for the
economic exploitation and exploration of the zone, such as the
production of energy from the water, currents and winds;
(b) jurisdiction as provided for in the relevant provisions of this Convention
with regard to:
(i) the establishment and use of artificial islands, installations
and structures;
(ii) marine scientific research;
(iii) the protection and preservation of the marine environment;
(c) other rights and duties provided for in this Convention.
2. In exercising its rights and performing its duties under this Convention
in the exclusive economic zone, the coastal State shall have
due regard to the rights and duties of other States and shall act in a
manner compatible with the provisions of this Convention.
3. The rights set out in this article with respect to the sea-bed and
subsoil shall be exercised in accordance with Part VI.”
58. Articles 61 and 62 address the conservation and utilization of the
living resources in the exclusive economic zone. Under Article 61, the
coastal State has the responsibility to conserve the living resources in that
maritime zone. For that purpose, it shall determine the allowable catch of
the living resources in the exclusive economic zone and ensure, through
proper conservation and management measures, taking into account the
best scientific evidence available to it, that the living resources in that
zone are not endangered by over‑exploitation. The coastal State shall
take measures to maintain or restore populations of harvested species at
levels which can produce the maximum sustainable yield, as qualified by
relevant environmental and economic factors, including the economic
needs of the coastal fishing communities and the special requirements of
developing States. Article 62 provides that in order to achieve an optimum
utilization of the living resources in the exclusive economic zone,
the coastal State shall determine its capacity to harvest the living resources
of the zone, and, where it does not have the capacity to harvest the entire
allowable catch, it shall, through agreements or other arrangements, give
other States access to the surplus of the allowable catch, with particular
attention paid to the rights of landlocked States and geographically disadvantaged
States. Article 62 also provides that nationals of other States
fishing in a coastal State’s exclusive economic zone shall comply with the
conservation measures established in the laws and regulations adopted by
the coastal State in conformity with the Convention.
59. Moreover, under Article 73 of UNCLOS, the coastal State, in the
exercise of its sovereign rights to explore, exploit, conserve and manage
the living resources in the exclusive economic zone, has the power to take
such measures, including boarding, inspection, arrest and judicial pro-
droits souverains et espaces maritimes (arrêt) 298
36
ou non biologiques, des eaux surjacentes aux fonds marins, des
fonds marins et de leur sous‑sol, ainsi qu’en ce qui concerne
d’autres activités tendant à l’exploration et à l’exploitation de la
zone à des fins économiques, telles que la production d’énergie à
partir de l’eau, des courants et des vents ;
b) juridiction, conformément aux dispositions pertinentes de la
Convention, en ce qui concerne :
i) la mise en place et l’utilisation d’îles artificielles, d’installations
et d’ouvrages ;
ii) la recherche scientifique marine ;
iii) la protection et la préservation du milieu marin ;
c) les autres droits et obligations prévus par la Convention.
2. Lorsque, dans la zone économique exclusive, il exerce ses droits
et s’acquitte de ses obligations en vertu de la Convention, l’Etat
côtier tient dûment compte des droits et des obligations des autres
Etats et agit d’une manière compatible avec la Convention.
3. Les droits relatifs aux fonds marins et à leur sous‑sol énoncés
dans le présent article s’exercent conformément à la partie VI. »
58. Les articles 61 et 62 traitent de la conservation et de l’exploitation
des ressources biologiques dans la zone économique exclusive. Aux termes
de l’article 61, l’Etat côtier est responsable de la conservation des ressources
biologiques dans cette zone maritime. A cette fin, il fixe le volume admissible
des captures en ce qui concerne les ressources biologiques dans sa zone
économique exclusive et prend, compte tenu des données scientifiques les
plus fiables dont il dispose, des mesures appropriées de conservation et de
gestion pour éviter que ces ressources ne soient compromises par une surexploitation.
Il prend aussi des mesures pour maintenir ou rétablir les stocks
des espèces exploitées à des niveaux qui en assurent le rendement constant
maximal, eu égard aux facteurs écologiques et économiques pertinents, y
compris les besoins économiques des collectivités côtières vivant de la pêche
et les besoins particuliers des Etats en développement. L’article 62 dispose
que, pour parvenir à une exploitation optimale des ressources biologiques
de la zone économique exclusive, l’Etat côtier détermine sa capacité d’exploitation
des ressources biologiques de la zone, et, si cette capacité
d’exploitation
est inférieure à l’ensemble du volume admissible des captures,
il autorise d’autres Etats, par voie d’accords ou d’autres arrangements, à
exploiter le reliquat du volume admissible, en prêtant une attention toute
particulière aux droits des Etats sans littoral et géographiquement désavantagés.
L’article 62 dispose également que les ressortissants d’autres Etats
qui pêchent dans la zone économique exclusive d’un Etat côtier doivent se
conformer aux mesures de conservation fixées par les lois et règlements
adoptés par l’Etat côtier en application de la convention.
59. En outre, selon l’article 73 de la CNUDM, l’Etat côtier, dans
l’exercice de ses droits souverains relatifs à l’exploration, l’exploitation, la
conservation et la gestion des ressources biologiques dans la zone économique
exclusive, a le pouvoir de prendre toutes mesures, y compris l’ar-
299 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (judgment)
37
ceedings, as may be necessary to ensure compliance with the laws and
regulations it has adopted in conformity with UNCLOS.
60. In exercising its sovereign rights and jurisdiction in the exclusive
economic zone, the coastal State shall have due regard to the rights and
duties of other States and shall observe its other obligations under the law
of the sea.
61. Customary international law also attributes rights and duties to
other States in the exclusive economic zone, as reflected in Article 58 of
UNCLOS, which states:
“Article 58
Rights and duties of other States
in the exclusive economic zone
1. In the exclusive economic zone, all States, whether coastal or
land-locked,
enjoy, subject to the relevant provisions of this Convention,
the freedoms referred to in article 87 of navigation and overflight
and of the laying of submarine cables and pipelines, and other internationally
lawful uses of the sea related to these freedoms, such as
those associated with the operation of ships, aircraft and submarine
cables and pipelines, and compatible with the other provisions of this
Convention.
2. Articles 88 to 115 and other pertinent rules of international law
apply to the exclusive economic zone in so far as they are not incompatible
with this Part.
3. In exercising their rights and performing their duties under this
Convention in the exclusive economic zone, States shall have due
regard to the rights and duties of the coastal State and shall comply
with the laws and regulations adopted by the coastal State in accordance
with the provisions of this Convention and other rules of
international
law in so far as they are not incompatible with this
Part.”
62. Thus, under customary international law, all States enjoy the freedoms
of navigation and overflight, as well as other internationally lawful
uses related to such freedoms, in another State’s exclusive economic zone.
Moreover, the customary rules as reflected in Articles 88 to 115 of
UNCLOS and other pertinent rules of international law are applicable to
the exclusive economic zone in so far as they are not incompatible with
the régime of that zone.
63. In exercising their rights and performing their duties in the exclusive
economic zone, other States shall have due regard to the sovereign
rights and jurisdiction of the coastal State in that zone.
*
droits souverains et espaces maritimes (arrêt) 299
37
raisonnement, l’inspection, la saisie et l’introduction d’une instance
judiciaire, qui sont nécessaires pour assurer le respect des lois et règlements
qu’il a adoptés conformément à la convention.
60. Dans l’exercice de ses droits souverains et de sa juridiction dans la
zone économique exclusive, l’Etat côtier doit tenir dûment compte des
droits et obligations des autres Etats et s’acquitter des autres obligations
qui lui incombent au titre du droit de la mer.
61. Le droit international coutumier attribue aussi à d’autres Etats des
droits et des obligations dans la zone économique exclusive, comme
reflété à l’article 58 de la CNUDM qui se lit comme suit :
« Article 58
Droits et obligations des autres Etats
dans la zone économique exclusive
1. Dans la zone économique exclusive, tous les Etats, qu’ils soient
côtiers ou sans littoral, jouissent, dans les conditions prévues par les
dispositions pertinentes de la Convention, des libertés de navigation
et de survol et de la liberté de poser des câbles et pipelines sous‑marins
visées à l’article 87, ainsi que de la liberté d’utiliser la mer à
d’autres fins internationalement licites liées à l’exercice de ces libertés
et compatibles avec les autres dispositions de la Convention, notamment
dans le cadre de l’exploitation des navires, d’aéronefs et de
câbles et pipelines sous‑marins.
2. Les articles 88 à 115 ainsi que les autres règles pertinentes du
droit international s’appliquent à la zone économique exclusive dans
la mesure où ils ne sont pas incompatibles avec la présente partie.
3. Lorsque, dans la zone économique exclusive, ils exercent leurs
droits et s’acquittent de leurs obligations en vertu de la Convention,
les Etats tiennent dûment compte des droits et des obligations de
l’Etat côtier et respectent les lois et règlements adoptés par celui‑ci
conformément aux dispositions de la Convention et, dans la mesure
où elles ne sont pas incompatibles avec la présente partie, aux autres
règles du droit international. »
62. En conséquence, en droit international coutumier, tous les Etats
jouissent, dans la zone économique exclusive d’un autre Etat, des libertés
de navigation et de survol ainsi que de la liberté d’utiliser la mer à d’autres
fins internationalement licites liées à l’exercice de ces libertés. En outre,
les règles coutumières telles que reflétées aux articles 88 à 115 de la
CNUDM et d’autres règles pertinentes de droit international s’appliquent
à la zone économique exclusive dans la mesure où elles ne sont pas incompatibles
avec le régime de celle‑ci.
63. Lorsqu’ils exercent leurs droits et s’acquittent de leurs obligations dans
la zone économique exclusive, les autres Etats doivent tenir dûment compte
des droits souverains et de la juridiction de l’Etat côtier dans cette zone.
*
300 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (judgment)
38
64. In considering whether the evidence establishes the violations of
customary international law alleged by Nicaragua, the Court will be
guided by its jurisprudence on questions of proof. The Court recalls that,
“as a general rule, it is for the party which alleges a particular fact in support
of its claims to prove the existence of that fact” (Certain Activities
Carried Out by Nicaragua in the Border Area (Costa Rica v. Nicaragua),
Compensation, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2018 (I), p. 26, para. 33; see also
Ahmadou Sadio Diallo (Republic of Guinea v. Democratic Republic of the
Congo), Merits, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2010 (II), p. 660, para. 54).
The Court will treat with caution evidentiary materials prepared for the
purposes of a case, as well as evidence from secondary sources (Territorial
and Maritime Dispute between Nicaragua and Honduras in the Caribbean
Sea (Nicaragua v. Honduras), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2007 (II),
p. 731, para. 244; Armed Activities on the Territory of the Congo (Democratic
Republic of the Congo v. Uganda), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2005,
pp. 201, 204 and 225, paras. 61, 68 and 159; Military and Paramilitary
Activities in and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v. United States of America),
Merits, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1986, p. 41, para. 65). It will consider
evidence that comes from contemporaneous and direct sources to be
more probative and credible. The Court will also “give particular attention
to reliable evidence acknowledging facts or conduct unfavourable to
the State represented by the person making them” (Armed Activities on
the Territory of the Congo (Democratic Republic of the Congo v. Uganda),
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2005, p. 201, para. 61, citing Military and Paramilitary
Activities in and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v. United States of
America), Merits, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1986, p. 41, para. 64). Finally,
while press articles and documentary evidence of a similar secondary
nature are not capable of proving facts, they can corroborate, in some
circumstances, the existence of facts established by other evidence (Application
of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of
Genocide (Croatia v. Serbia), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2015 (I), p. 87,
para. 239, citing Military and Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua
(Nicaragua v. United States of America), Merits, Judgment, I.C.J.
Reports 1986, p. 40, para. 62).
65. In the present case, Nicaragua refers to over 50 alleged incidents at
sea. The Court observes that, for most of these events, Nicaragua mainly
relies on the following materials as evidence: a letter from the Nicaraguan
Naval Force to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Nicaragua dated
26 August 2014, which contains a report of alleged incidents produced
pursuant to a request for information from the Ministry of Foreign
Affairs and which is accompanied by daily reports from the Navy and, in
respect of some of the alleged incidents, audio recordings of exchanges
between the vessels involved. According to Nicaragua, these daily reports
in map format were prepared contemporaneously with the incidents and
maintained in the logs of the Nicaraguan armed forces. The above-mentioned
report listing alleged incidents was also annexed to a diplomatic
Note sent by Nicaragua to Colombia, dated 13 September 2014.
droits souverains et espaces maritimes (arrêt) 300
38
64. Pour déterminer si les éléments de preuve produits démontrent les
violations du droit international coutumier alléguées par le Nicaragua, la
Cour se référera à sa jurisprudence relative aux questions de preuve. Elle
rappelle que, « en règle générale, c’est à la partie qui allègue un fait à l’appui
de ses prétentions qu’il appartient d’en démontrer l’existence » (Certaines
activités menées par le Nicaragua dans la région frontalière (Costa
Rica c. Nicaragua), indemnisation, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2018 (I), p. 26,
par. 33 ; voir aussi Ahmadou Sadio Diallo (République de Guinée c. République
démocratique du Congo), fond, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2010 (II), p. 660,
par. 54). La Cour traitera avec prudence les éléments de preuve établis aux
fins d’une affaire ainsi que ceux provenant de sources secondaires (Différend
territorial et maritime entre le Nicaragua et le Honduras dans la mer
des Caraïbes (Nicaragua c. Honduras), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2007 (II),
p. 731, par. 244 ; Activités armées sur le territoire du Congo (République
démocratique du Congo c. Ouganda), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2005, p. 201,
204, 225, par. 61, 68 et 159 ; Activités militaires et paramilitaires au Nicaragua
et contre celui‑ci (Nicaragua c. Etats‑Unis d’Amérique), fond, arrêt,
C.I.J. Recueil 1986, p. 41, par. 65). Elle considérera que les éléments émanant
de sources contemporaines et directes sont plus crédibles et plus probants.
En outre, elle « prêtera une attention toute particulière aux éléments
de preuve dignes de foi attestant de faits ou de comportements défavorables
à l’Etat que représente celui dont émanent lesdits éléments » (Activités
armées sur le territoire du Congo (République démocratique du Congo
c. Ouganda), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2005, p. 201, par. 61, citant Activités
militaires et paramilitaires au Nicaragua et contre celui‑ci (Nicaragua
c. Etats‑Unis d’Amérique), fond, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1986, p. 41, par. 64).
Enfin, si les articles de presse et d’autres preuves secondaires comme certains
documents ne peuvent servir à prouver des faits, ils peuvent corroborer,
dans certains cas, l’existence de faits établis par d’autres éléments de
preuve (Application de la convention pour la prévention et la répression du
crime de génocide (Croatie c. Serbie), fond, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2015 (I),
p. 87, par. 239, citant Activités militaires et paramilitaires au Nicaragua et
contre celui-
ci (Nicaragua c. Etats-Unis d’Amérique), fond, arrêt, C.I.J.
Recueil 1986, p. 40, par. 62).
65. En la présente espèce, le Nicaragua fait état de plus de 50 incidents
qui se seraient produits en mer. La Cour relève qu’il justifie la plupart de
ces événements principalement par les éléments suivants : une lettre du
26 août 2014 adressée par la marine nicaraguayenne au ministère des
affaires étrangères du Nicaragua, à laquelle est joint un compte-rendu des
incidents allégués produit en réponse à une demande d’information dudit
ministère, accompagné de rapports quotidiens de la marine et, pour certains
de ces incidents, d’enregistrements audio des échanges entre les
navires en cause. Selon le Nicaragua, ces rapports quotidiens, qui prennent
la forme de cartes, ont été établis à l’époque des faits et conservés dans les
livres de bord des forces armées nicaraguayennes. Le compte‑rendu susmentionné
dans lequel sont décrits les incidents allégués était également
annexé à une note diplomatique que le Nicaragua a adressée à la Colom-
301 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (judgment)
39
Moreover, Nicaragua adduces three letters from the President of the
Nicaraguan Chamber of Fisheries to the Executive Director of the Nicaraguan
Institute of Fisheries and Aquaculture (hereinafter “INPESCA”),
dated, respectively, 6 January 2014, 1 July 2014, and 24 July 2014, each of
which refers to certain incidents allegedly reported by captains or crewmembers
of fishing vessels to their vessel owners. For alleged incidents
between 2015 and 2017, Nicaragua also produces daily reports from its
Navy, some with audio recordings attached. In addition to these letters
and materials, Nicaragua refers to diplomatic Notes, affidavits, photographic
and audio-visual
materials, and media reports.
66. In considering the evidentiary weight of the reports from the Nicaraguan
Navy, some of which are accompanied by audio recordings, the
Court takes into account Nicaragua’s assertion that these reports were
prepared contemporaneously with alleged events, while also bearing in
mind that they appear to have been prepared for the purposes of the current
proceedings and that, in many instances, they do not contain
first‑hand evidence. The Court approaches with some caution the letters
from the President of the Nicaraguan Chamber of Fisheries to the Executive
Director of INPESCA, which do not contain first‑hand accounts of
events and at least some of which appear to have been specially prepared
for the purposes of the case.
67. In response, Colombia presents, for certain incidents, its naval
maritime travel reports and navigation logs to prove that its naval frigates
did not have encounters with Nicaraguan vessels at the times and the
places alleged by Nicaragua, or that the naval frigates concerned were
recorded docking at the port or elsewhere at the relevant time. In respect
of some incidents, Colombia also provides communications from officers
of the Colombian Navy, audio recordings, photographic evidence, and
video footage of its own, as well as affidavits. In addition, in respect of
incidents which allegedly occurred before 18 March 2014, Colombia
refers to the statement made on that date by the Chief of Nicaragua’s
Army that there had been “no incidents” involving Colombia or its
Navy.
68. With regard to Colombia’s evidence, the Court considers that the
Colombian Navy’s maritime travel reports and navigation logs have probative
value, as they mostly provide information from contemporaneous
and direct sources. The Court will attach particular significance to reliable
evidence that admits or establishes facts unfavourable to Colombia.
In the same way as with the evidence adduced by Nicaragua, the Court
will treat with caution reports and affidavits adduced by Colombia which
appear to have been prepared specially for the purposes of the case.
69. Upon examination of the evidence submitted by Nicaragua, the
Court finds that for many alleged incidents, Nicaragua seeks to establish
that Colombian naval vessels violated Nicaragua’s rights in its maritime
droits souverains et espaces maritimes (arrêt) 301
39
bie le 13 septembre 2014. De plus, le demandeur produit trois lettres du
président de la chambre de la pêche du Nicaragua adressées au directeur
exécutif de l’institut nicaraguayen de la pêche et de l’aquaculture (ci-
après
dénommé l’« INPESCA »), datées respectivement du 6 janvier 2014, du
1er juillet 2014 et du 24 juillet 2014, qui font chacune référence à des incidents
que les capitaines ou membres d’équipage de navires de pêche
auraient signalés aux propriétaires de ces navires. S’agissant des incidents
qui seraient survenus entre 2015 et 2017, le Nicaragua produit également
des rapports quotidiens de sa marine, parfois accompagnés d’enregistrements
audio. Outre ces lettres et documents, il se réfère à des notes diplomatiques,
à des déclarations sous serment, à des matériels photographiques
et audiovisuels, et à des articles de presse.
66. Pour apprécier la force probante des rapports de la marine nicaraguayenne,
dont certains sont accompagnés d’enregistrements audio, la
Cour tient compte du fait que ceux‑ci, d’après le Nicaragua, ont été établis
à l’époque des événements allégués, mais elle garde aussi à l’esprit
qu’ils semblent l’avoir été aux fins de la présente procédure et que nombre
d’entre eux ne renferment pas des preuves de première main. La Cour
traite avec une certaine prudence les lettres du président de la chambre de
la pêche du Nicaragua adressées au directeur exécutif de l’INPESCA, qui
ne contiennent pas de relation de première main des événements et dont
certaines au moins semblent avoir été spécialement rédigées pour les
besoins de l’affaire.
67. En réponse, la Colombie présente, s’agissant de certains incidents,
des livres et journaux de bord de sa marine pour montrer que ses frégates
n’ont pas eu d’échanges avec les navires nicaraguayens aux moments et
aux endroits allégués par le Nicaragua, ou qu’elles se trouvaient amarrées
dans un port ou ailleurs au moment indiqué. En ce qui concerne certains
incidents, la Colombie fournit également des communications d’officiers
de sa marine, ses propres enregistrements audio, éléments de preuve photographiques
et séquences vidéo, ainsi que des déclarations sous serment.
En outre, pour ce qui est des incidents qui se seraient produits avant le
18 mars 2014, elle mentionne la déclaration faite ce jour‑là par le chef de
l’armée nicaraguayenne, selon qui il n’y « a[vait] pas eu d’incident » impliquant
la Colombie ou sa marine.
68. En ce qui concerne les éléments de preuve de la Colombie, la Cour
considère que les livres et journaux de bord de sa marine ont valeur probante,
en ce qu’ils fournissent le plus souvent des informations émanant
de sources contemporaines et directes. Elle attachera une importance
toute particulière aux éléments dignes de foi qui constituent ou corroborent
des faits défavorables à la défenderesse. De la même manière que
pour les éléments de preuve produits par le Nicaragua, la Cour traitera
avec prudence les rapports et déclarations sous serment produits par la
Colombie qui semblent avoir été établis spécialement aux fins de l’affaire.
69. Après examen des éléments de preuve soumis par le Nicaragua, la
Cour constate que ce dernier, pour nombre d’incidents allégués, tente de
démontrer que des navires de la marine colombienne ont violé ses droits
302 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (judgment)
40
zones; yet its evidence does not prove, to the satisfaction of the Court,
that Colombia’s conduct in Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone went
beyond what is permitted under customary international law as reflected
in Article 58 of UNCLOS. In relation to a number of other alleged incidents,
Nicaragua’s evidence is primarily based on what fishermen reported
to the owners of their vessels, on materials that were apparently prepared
for the purposes of the present case without other corroborating evidence,
on audio recordings that are not sufficiently clear, or on media reports
that either do not indicate the source of their information or are otherwise
uncorroborated. The Court does not consider that such evidence suffices
to establish Nicaragua’s allegations against Colombia.
The Court considers that, with regard to the alleged incidents referred
to above, Nicaragua has failed to discharge its burden of proof to establish
a breach by Colombia of its international obligations. The Court will
therefore dismiss those allegations for lack of proof.
70. With regard to the rest of the alleged incidents, the Court will
examine in detail the evidence adduced by Nicaragua, together with
Colombia’s responses to each of the alleged incidents.
* *
The alleged incidents of 17 November 2013
71. Nicaragua claims that in the morning of 17 November 2013 the
ARC Almirante Padilla, a Colombian frigate, ordered the Miss Sofia, a
Nicaraguan lobster ship, to move from its position at 14° 50ʹ 00ʺ N and
81° 45ʹ 00ʺ W because the lobster ship was in “Colombian waters”.
According to Nicaragua, when the Miss Sofia refused to leave, the
Colombian frigate sent a speedboat to chase the lobster ship away. Nicaragua
bases these allegations on the report of incidents attached to the
letter from the Nicaraguan Naval Force to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs
of Nicaragua, dated 26 August 2014 and the letter from the President of
the Nicaraguan Chamber of Fisheries to the Executive Director of
INPESCA,
dated 6 January 2014. On the basis of the same evidence,
Nicaragua claims that, later that day at around 3 p.m., after one of its
coast guard vessels, the Río Escondido, informed the ARC Almirante
Padilla that it was in Nicaraguan waters, the Colombian frigate refused
to leave, stating that the Government of Colombia did not recognize the
2012 Judgment. Nicaragua argues that the different narrative of the
alleged incident provided by Colombia (see paragraph 72 below) is not
inconsistent with its own allegations, as the two accounts pertain to events
that occurred at different times of the day.
72. With regard to these events, Colombia acknowledges that the
ARC Almirante Padilla and the Miss Sofia were in the Luna Verde area
droits souverains et espaces maritimes (arrêt) 302
40
dans ses zones maritimes, mais sans apporter la preuve, à la satisfaction
de la Cour, que le comportement de la Colombie dans la zone économique
exclusive nicaraguayenne outrepassait ce que permet le droit international
coutumier, tel que reflété à l’article 58 de la CNUDM. Les
éléments de preuve du Nicaragua relatifs à certains autres incidents allégués
sont essentiellement basés sur des informations communiquées par
les pêcheurs aux propriétaires des navires de pêche, des comptes rendus
qui ont apparemment été établis aux fins de la présente affaire sans que
d’autres éléments viennent les corroborer, des enregistrements audio
insuffisamment exploitables ou des articles de presse qui n’indiquent pas
leurs sources ou ne sont pas corroborés d’une autre manière. La Cour ne
considère pas que de tels éléments de preuve suffisent à établir la véracité
des allégations du Nicaragua au sujet de la Colombie.
La Cour considère que, s’agissant des incidents allégués en question, le
Nicaragua ne s’est pas acquitté de la charge qui lui incombe d’établir que
la Colombie a manqué à ses obligations internationales. Elle rejettera par
conséquent ces allégations pour défaut de preuve.
70. Quant au reste des incidents allégués, la Cour examinera en détail
les éléments de preuve produits par le Nicaragua ainsi que les réponses de
la Colombie sur chacun de ces incidents.
* *
Les incidents allégués du 17 novembre 2013
71. Le Nicaragua soutient que, dans la matinée du 17 novembre 2013,
l’ARC Almirante Padilla, une frégate colombienne, avait enjoint au
Miss Sofia, un langoustier nicaraguayen, de quitter la position qu’il occupait
par 14° 50ʹ 00ʺ de latitude nord et 81° 45ʹ 00ʺ de longitude ouest, au
motif qu’il se trouvait « dans les eaux colombiennes ». Selon le Nicaragua,
lorsque le Miss Sofia avait refusé d’obtempérer, la frégate avait envoyé
une vedette pour le chasser. Le Nicaragua fonde ces allégations sur le
compte rendu d’incidents joint à la lettre en date du 26 août 2014 adressée
par la marine nicaraguayenne au ministère des affaires étrangères du Nicaragua
et sur la lettre en date du 6 janvier 2014 adressée par le président de
la chambre de la pêche du Nicaragua au directeur exécutif de l’INPESCA.
Se fondant sur ces éléments de preuve, le Nicaragua soutient que, un peu
plus tard, vers 15 heures, après que l’un de ses navires garde‑côtes, le
Río Escondido, avait informé l’ARC Almirante Padilla qu’elle se trouvait
dans les eaux nicaraguayennes, celle‑ci avait refusé d’abandonner sa position,
répondant que le Gouvernement colombien ne reconnaissait pas
l’arrêt de 2012. Le Nicaragua fait valoir que la version différente que
donne la Colombie de l’incident allégué (voir le paragraphe 72 ci-
dessous)
n’est pas incompatible avec la sienne, car chacune se rapporte à des événements
qui se sont produits à des moments différents de la journée.
72. A propos de ces événements, la Colombie convient que l’ARC
Almirante Padilla et le Miss Sofia se trouvaient dans le secteur de
303 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (judgment)
41
on 17 November 2013. Colombia claims, however, that on that day the
ARC Almirante Padilla unsuccessfully tried to contact the Miss Sofia in
order to return two fishermen whom it had rescued in the late afternoon
and who appeared to have been abandoned by the Miss Sofia. Colombia
asserts that, due to its inability to establish contact with the fishing vessel,
its frigate contacted the Nicaraguan patrol boat. Colombia claims that it
acted in accordance with its obligation under customary international law
to assist any person found at sea in the exclusive economic zone in danger
of being lost. In relation to these events, Colombia refers to signed declarations
by two fishermen, dated 17 November 2013, attesting to their
good treatment by the crew of the Colombian frigate, to audio‑visual
material, and to a communication from the Commander of the ARC Almirante
Padilla to the Commander of the Specific Command of San Andrés
and Providencia dated 20 November 2013. Colombia did not provide any
information or evidence concerning the location and activities of the
ARC Almirante Padilla before 5.10 p.m. that day.
The alleged incidents of 27 January 2014
73. Nicaragua claims that, on 27 January 2014, the Colombian frigate
ARC Independiente informed the Caribbean Star, a Nicaraguan lobster
ship, located at 14° 47ʹ 00ʺ N and 81° 52ʹ 00ʺ W, that it was fishing
illegally
in the Seaflower Biosphere Reserve. In support of this claim,
Nicaragua relies on an audio recording, the letter from the President
of the Nicaraguan Chamber of Fisheries to the Executive Director of
INPESCA
dated 1 July 2014, and the report of incidents attached to the
letter from the Nicaraguan Naval Force to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs
dated 26 August 2014. According to the audio recording submitted by
Nicaragua, the Colombian frigate stated “the Colombian [S]tate has
determined that the judgment of the International Court of Justice is not
applicable, therefore the units of the [Colombian Navy] will continue
exercising sovereignty and control over these waters”. Also on the basis
of the report attached to the letter dated 26 August 2014, Nicaragua
alleges that, on the same day, the ARC Independiente harassed the
Al John, another lobster ship, operating with a Nicaraguan fishing licence
at 14° 44ʹ 00ʺ N and 81° 47ʹ 00ʺ W.
74. For its part, Colombia states that it cannot confirm the authenticity
of the audio recording. It denies, by reference to the maritime travel
report of the ARC Independiente for 27 January 2014, that the Independiente
encountered the Caribbean Star on that day, but concedes that the
ARC Independiente was in Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone and that
it interacted with the Al John. Colombia refers to a communication from
the Commander of the Colombian Naval Force of the Caribbean, dated
28 January 2014, in support of its claim that the ARC Independiente did
not harass the Al John as Nicaragua asserts but rather informed it that its
droits souverains et espaces maritimes (arrêt) 303
41
Luna Verde le 17 novembre 2013. Elle fait toutefois valoir que, ce jour‑là,
l’ARC Almirante Padilla avait tenté, en vain, d’entrer en contact avec le
Miss Sofia afin de lui ramener deux pêcheurs qu’elle avait secourus en fin
d’après-midi et qui semblaient avoir été abandonnés par le langoustier.
La Colombie affirme que, ne parvenant pas à établir la communication
avec le navire de pêche, sa frégate avait pris contact avec le patrouilleur
nicaraguayen. Elle soutient avoir agi conformément à l’obligation que lui
impose le droit international coutumier de prêter assistance à quiconque
est trouvé en péril en mer dans la zone économique exclusive. S’agissant
de ces événements, elle fait état de déclarations signées par deux pêcheurs,
en date du 17 novembre 2013, attestant qu’ils avaient été bien traités par
l’équipage de la frégate colombienne, d’un document audiovisuel, et d’une
communication en date du 20 novembre 2013 adressée par le commandant
de l’ARC Almirante Padilla au chef du commandement spécial de
San Andrés et Providencia. La Colombie n’a apporté aucune information
ou aucun élément de preuve concernant la localisation et les activités de
l’ARC Almirante Padilla avant 17h10 ce jour-là.
Les incidents allégués du 27 janvier 2014
73. Le Nicaragua affirme que, le 27 janvier 2014, la frégate colombienne
l’ARC Independiente avait dit à un langoustier nicaraguayen, le
Caribbean Star, qui se trouvait par 14° 47ʹ 00ʺ de latitude nord et
81° 52ʹ 00ʺ de longitude ouest, qu’il pêchait en toute illicéité dans les eaux
de la réserve de biosphère Seaflower. A l’appui de cette assertion, le Nicaragua
se fonde sur un enregistrement audio, sur la lettre en date du
1er juillet 2014 adressée par le président de la chambre de la pêche du
Nicaragua au directeur exécutif de l’INPESCA et sur le compte rendu
d’incidents joint à la lettre en date du 26 août 2014 adressée par la marine
nicaraguayenne au ministère des affaires étrangères. Selon l’enregistrement
audio soumis par le Nicaragua, la frégate colombienne avait déclaré
que « l’Etat de Colombie consid[érait] que l’arrêt de la Cour internationale
de Justice [étai]t inapplicable, [de sorte que] les unités de [sa marine
nationale] continuer[aie]nt d’exercer leur juridiction et leur contrôle dans
ces eaux ». Se fondant également sur le compte rendu joint à la lettre du
26 août 2014, le Nicaragua allègue que, le même jour, l’ARC Independiente
s’en était pris au Al John, autre langoustier titulaire d’un permis
nicaraguayen, qui pêchait par 14° 44ʹ 00ʺ de latitude nord et 81° 47ʹ 00ʺ de
longitude ouest.
74. Pour sa part, la Colombie déclare ne pas pouvoir confirmer l’authenticité
de l’enregistrement audio. Invoquant le livre de bord de l’ARC Independiente
relatif au 27 janvier 2014, elle nie que ce navire ait croisé le
Caribbean Star ce jour‑là, concédant cependant qu’il se trouvait dans la zone
économique exclusive du Nicaragua et avait eu un échange avec le Al John.
Elle se réfère à une communication du commandant des forces navales
colombiennes dans les Caraïbes, datée du 28 janvier 2014, pour démontrer
que, comme elle le dit, l’ARC Independiente ne s’en était pas pris au Al John
comme l’affirme le Nicaragua, mais qu’il avait informé le langoustier que ses
304 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (judgment)
42
practices in the Seaflower Biosphere Reserve were illegal. According to
the communication on which Colombia relies, the captain of the Al John
asked the Colombian frigate to allow his crew to continue to work “in
these Nicaraguan waters”. Colombia claims that this was the end of the
communication, indicating that the fishermen were neither intimidated
nor prevented from carrying out their activities.
The alleged incidents of 5 February 2014
75. According to Nicaragua, on 5 February 2014, the ARC 20 de Julio,
a Colombian frigate, informed the Nicaraguan Navy vessel Tayacán and
12 Nicaraguan fishing boats operating in the vicinity of 14° 44ʹ 01ʺ N and
81° 39ʹ 08ʺ W to withdraw from Colombia’s contiguous zone and territorial
sea. Nicaragua relies, in this regard, on the report of incidents and
an audio recording attached to the letter dated 26 August 2014. In the
audio recording submitted by Nicaragua, the speaker identifies himself as
representing the “[Navy] of the Republic of Colombia, ARC ‘20 de Julio’”
and informs “Nicaraguan units” that “you are in Colombia jurisdictional
waters — the Colombian State has determined that the ruling by
The Hague is not applicable; therefore, the units of the [Navy] of the Republic
of Colombia will continue to exercise sovereignty over these waters”. The
speaker also notes the specific co‑ordinates at which the Nicaraguan units
are located as 14° 44ʹ 02ʺ N and 81° 39ʹ 06ʺ W. By reference to the
letter
from the President of the Nicaraguan Chamber of Fisheries to the
Executive Director of INPESCA dated 1 July 2014, as well as the above-
mentioned
report, Nicaragua also claims that, later that day, the ARC
20 de Julio intercepted the Nica Fish, a Nicaraguan fishing boat,
located at 14° 44ʹ 00ʺ N and 81° 39ʹ 00ʺ W, and urged it to withdraw from
“Colombian waters”.
76. Colombia does not challenge the authenticity of the audio recording
submitted by Nicaragua, nor does it deny that its vessel interacted
with the Tayacán, which the ARC 20 de Julio identified as being located
at 14° 44ʹ N and 81° 36’ W. Colombia, however, asserts that the mere
reading of a statement concerning the 2012 Judgment, without any evidence
of interference with Nicaragua’s sovereign rights, does not amount
to a violation of international law. Colombia also refers to the maritime
travel report of the ARC 20 de Julio, which it argues supports its claim
that on 5 February 2014 the frigate identified only one fishing vessel, the
Nica Fish, with which it did not interact.
The alleged incidents of 12 and 13 March 2014
77. Nicaragua claims that on 12 March 2014 the Colombian frigate
ARC 20 de Julio harassed the Nicaraguan lobster ship Al John, which was
droits souverains et espaces maritimes (arrêt) 304
42
pratiques dans la réserve de biosphère Seaflower étaient illicites. Selon la
communication sur laquelle s’appuie la Colombie, le capitaine du Al John
avait demandé à la frégate colombienne d’autoriser son équipage à continuer
de travailler « dans les eaux nicaraguayennes ». La Colombie soutient qu’il
s’agissait là de la fin de la communication, ce qui indique que les pêcheurs
n’étaient ni intimidés ni empêchés d’exercer leurs activités.
Les incidents allégués du 5 février 2014
75. Selon le Nicaragua, le 5 février 2014, l’ARC 20 de Julio, une frégate
colombienne, avait intimé au bâtiment de la marine nicaraguayenne le
Tayacán, ainsi qu’à 12 bateaux de pêche nicaraguayens qui opéraient
dans les environs de 14° 44ʹ 01ʺ de latitude nord et 81° 39ʹ 08ʺ de longitude
ouest, l’ordre de se retirer de la zone contiguë et de la mer territoriale
de la Colombie. Le Nicaragua se fonde, à cet égard, sur le compte rendu
d’incidents et sur un enregistrement audio joints à la lettre du 26 août
2014. Dans l’enregistrement audio présenté par le Nicaragua, l’homme
qui s’exprime déclare représenter « la [marine nationale] de la République
de Colombie, l’ARC 20 de Julio », et informe les « unités nicaraguayennes »
qu’elles se trouvent « dans des eaux relevant de la juridiction de la Colombie
[car] l’Etat de Colombie considère que la décision de La Haye est
inapplicable[, ce] pourquoi les unités de la [marine nationale] de la République
de Colombie continueront d’exercer leur juridiction sur ces eaux ».
Il relève en outre les coordonnées spécifiques des unités nicaraguayennes,
qui croisaient par 14° 44ʹ 02ʺ de latitude nord et 81° 39ʹ 06ʺ de longitude
ouest. Se référant à la lettre en date du 1er juillet 2014 adressée par le président
de la chambre de la pêche du Nicaragua au directeur exécutif de
l’INPESCA ainsi qu’au compte rendu mentionné ci‑dessus, le Nicaragua
soutient également que, quelques heures plus tard, la même frégate avait
intercepté un bateau de pêche nicaraguayen, le Nica Fish, qui se trouvait
par 14° 44ʹ 00ʺ de latitude nord et 81° 39ʹ 00ʺ de longitude ouest, et l’avait
pressé de se retirer des « eaux colombiennes ».
76. La Colombie ne conteste pas l’authenticité de l’enregistrement
audio soumis par le Nicaragua et ne nie pas non plus que la frégate
colombienne ARC 20 de Julio avait eu un échange avec le Tayacán, dont
elle avait relevé qu’il se trouvait par 14° 44ʹ de latitude nord et 81° 36ʹ de
longitude ouest. Elle allègue cependant que, en l’absence du moindre élément
attestant une atteinte aux droits souverains du Nicaragua, la simple
lecture d’une déclaration concernant l’arrêt de 2012 n’emporte pas violation
du droit international. Elle renvoie également au livre de bord de
l’ARC 20 de Julio, qui selon elle démontre que, comme elle l’affirme, la
frégate n’avait, le 5 février 2014, localisé qu’un seul navire de pêche, le
Nica Fish, avec lequel elle n’avait eu aucun échange.
Les incidents allégués des 12 et 13 mars 2014
77. Le Nicaragua affirme que, le 12 mars 2014, la frégate colombienne
l’ARC 20 de Julio s’en était pris au langoustier nicaraguayen le Al John,
305 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (judgment)
43
located at approximately 14° 44ʹ 00ʺ N and 81° 50ʹ 00ʺ W, by ordering it
to withdraw from the area in which it was fishing and by sending a speedboat
to chase it away. Nicaragua also alleges that the Colombian frigate
and speedboat had a “hostile attitude”. In respect of this alleged incident,
Nicaragua relies on the letter from the President of the Nicaraguan
Chamber of Fisheries to the Executive Director of INPESCA dated 1 July
2014 and the report attached to the letter from the Nicaraguan Naval
Force to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Nicaragua dated 26 August
2014. Moreover, Nicaragua claims, on the basis of the same evidence,
that, the following day, the same Colombian frigate ordered the
Marco Polo, a Nicaraguan fishing boat in the vicinity of 14° 43ʹ 00ʺ N
and 81° 45ʹ 00ʺ W, to leave the area in which it was fishing.
78. In response, Colombia accepts that the ARC 20 de Julio interacted
with the Al John and the Marco Polo on 12 and 13 March 2014, respectively.
Colombia claims that its frigate simply informed each of the fishing
vessels that they were operating “in a UNESCO specially-protected
area” and invited them to suspend their environmentally harmful practices
and to change them for other methods. The Respondent submits a
communication from the Commander of the ARC 20 de Julio to the
Colombian Navy’s Specific Command of San Andrés and Providencia
dated 13 March 2014 to which photographic evidence and the transcription
of communications with the two fishing vessels were attached, which
indicates that the ARC 20 de Julio, reading from a proclamation, informed
the Al John and the Marco Polo that they were engaged in predatory fishing
practices in a protected area. Colombia notes that, according to its
transcription of those communications, the captain of the Al John said
that it would move when it was “done fishing” and the Marco Polo replied
that it would continue “exercising legal fishing”. Colombia claims that
these responses support its contention that there was no harassment or
violation of Nicaragua’s sovereign rights.
The alleged incident of 3 April 2014
79. Nicaragua alleges that on 3 April 2014 a Colombian Navy ocean
patrol ship, the ARC San Andrés, harassed the Mister Jim, a Nicaraguan
fishing boat, located at 14° 44ʹ 00ʺ N and 82° 00ʹ 00ʺ W, and advised it by
radio that it should not continue to fish for lobster and should withdraw
from the area. In relation to this allegation, Nicaragua relies on the report
attached to the letter from the Nicaraguan Naval Force to the Ministry of
Foreign Affairs of Nicaragua dated 26 August 2014 and the letter from
the President of the Nicaraguan Chamber of Fisheries to the Executive
Director of INPESCA dated 1 July 2014.
80. While conceding that an interaction did occur between the
ARC San Andrés and the Mister Jim, Colombia claims that the ARC
San Andrés invited the Mister Jim to suspend its environmentally harmful
droits souverains et espaces maritimes (arrêt) 305
43
qui se trouvait dans une zone située approximativement par 14° 44ʹ 00ʺ de
latitude nord et 81° 50ʹ 00ʺ de longitude ouest, lui ordonnant de s’en retirer
et envoyant une vedette pour l’en chasser. Il allègue également que la
frégate et la vedette colombienne avaient une « attitude hostile ». Pour ce
qui est de cet incident allégué, il invoque la lettre en date du 1er juillet
2014 adressée par le président de la chambre de la pêche du Nicaragua au
directeur exécutif de l’INPESCA et le compte rendu joint à la lettre en
date du 26 août 2014 adressée par la marine nicaraguayenne au ministère
des affaires étrangères du Nicaragua. Il ajoute, toujours sur le fondement
de ces éléments de preuve, que, le lendemain, la même frégate colombienne
avait donné l’ordre au Marco Polo, un bateau de pêche nicaraguayen,
de se retirer de la zone située par 14° 43ʹ 00ʺ de latitude nord et
81° 45ʹ 00ʺ de longitude ouest où il pêchait.
78. En réponse, la Colombie reconnaît que l’ARC 20 de Julio avait eu
des échanges avec le Al John et le Marco Polo les 12 et 13 mars 2014,
respectivement. Elle affirme que sa frégate s’était contentée d’informer
chacun des navires de pêche qu’ils opéraient dans une « zone spécialement
protégée de l’UNESCO » et de les inviter à suspendre leurs pratiques préjudiciables
à l’environnement et à leur préférer d’autres méthodes. Elle
produit une communication en date du 13 mars 2014 adressée par le commandant
de l’ARC 20 de Julio au commandement spécial de la marine
colombienne de San Andrés et Providencia, à laquelle étaient joints des
éléments de preuve photographiques et la transcription des communications
avec les deux navires de pêche, qui indique que l’équipage de la
frégate, donnant lecture d’une proclamation, avait informé le Al John et
le Marco Polo qu’ils se livraient à une pêche déprédatrice dans une zone
protégée. La Colombie note que, d’après la transcription de ces communications,
le capitaine du Al John avait répondu qu’il s’en irait lorsqu’il
aurait « fini de pêcher », et le Marco Polo qu’il continuerait de « pratiquer
la pêche de manière licite ». La Colombie fait valoir que ces réponses
étayent son affirmation voulant qu’il n’y ait eu ni harcèlement ni violation
des droits souverains du Nicaragua.
L’incident allégué du 3 avril 2014
79. Le Nicaragua allègue que, le 3 avril 2014, un patrouilleur de la
marine colombienne, l’ARC San Andrés, s’en était pris au bateau de
pêche nicaraguayen Mister Jim, qui se trouvait par 14° 44ʹ 00ʺ de latitude
nord et 82° 00ʹ 00ʺ de longitude ouest, l’avisant par radio qu’il devait
cesser de pêcher la langouste et se retirer de la zone. Il se fonde à cet égard
sur le compte rendu joint à la lettre du 26 août 2014 adressée par la
marine nicaraguayenne au ministère des affaires étrangères du Nicaragua
et sur la lettre en date du 1er juillet 2014 adressée par le président de la
chambre de la pêche du Nicaragua au directeur exécutif de l’INPESCA.
80. Tout en concédant qu’il y avait bien eu un échange entre
l’ARC San Andrés et le Mister Jim, la Colombie affirme que la première
avait invité le second à suspendre ses pratiques de pêche préjudiciables à
306 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (judgment)
44
fishing practices and to make use of authorized fishing methods instead.
The communication from the Commander of the Specific Command of
San Andrés and Providencia to the Commander of the Naval Force
of the Caribbean dated 7 April 2014 and submitted by Colombia
with respect to this incident confirms that the interaction indeed took
place. Colombia introduces evidence that indicates that, as part of the
exchange, the ARC San Andrés, reading from a proclamation, “invited
the Mister
Jim to suspend its predatory fishing practices, which are harmful
to the marine environment, and change its methods to authorized
ones”.
The alleged incident of 28 July 2014
81. Nicaragua alleges that on 28 July 2014 the captain of the
Nicaraguan-flagged
fishing vessel Doña Emilia informed a Nicaraguan
Navy vessel that “a few days earlier”, while at 14° 29ʹ 00ʺ N and
81° 53ʹ 00ʺ W, a Colombian Navy vessel advised the Doña Emilia that it
could not operate in that area. Nicaragua supports this allegation by reference
to the report and an audio recording attached to the letter from
the Nicaraguan Naval Force to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, dated
26 August 2014.
82. Colombia accepts that one of its naval vessels, the ARC 7 de Agosto,
interacted with the Doña Emilia on 22 July 2014. It presents a communication
from the Commander of the Specific Command of San Andrés and
Providencia to the Commander of Colombia’s Naval Force of the Caribbean
dated 22 July 2014. According to this communication, the
ARC 7 de Agosto informed the Doña Emilia that it had been found carrying
out predatory fishing in a UNESCO-protected
environmentally sensitive
area, and invited it “to suspend such harmful practice for the marine
environment and change it for authorized methods”. In support of its
assertion that Nicaragua was not impeded from exercising its sovereign
rights in the area, Colombia also refers to the transcript of the audio
recording provided by Nicaragua, according to which the captain of the
Doña Emilia stated that the fishing vessel ignored the Colombian naval
vessel and continued with its fishing activities.
The alleged incidents of 26 March 2015
83. Nicaragua claims that on 26 March 2015 the ARC 11 de Noviembre,
located at 14° 50ʹ 00ʺ N and 81° 41ʹ 00ʺ W, stated to Nicaraguan
coast guard vessel GC-401 José Santos Zelaya that, “according to the
Colombian government, the ruling of The Hague [was] inapplicable,
which is why [it was] in the Colombian Archipelago of San Andrés [and]
Providencia”. According to Nicaragua, later that day, the ARC 11 de
Noviembre informed the Nicaraguan-flagged
fishing vessel Doña Emilia
droits souverains et espaces maritimes (arrêt) 306
44
l’environnement et à leur préférer des méthodes de pêche autorisées. La
communication en date du 7 avril 2014 adressée par le chef du commandement
spécial de San Andrés et Providencia au commandant des forces
navales colombiennes dans les Caraïbes, soumise par la défenderesse au
sujet de cet incident, confirme que l’échange avait effectivement eu lieu.
La Colombie produit des éléments de preuve indiquant que, dans le cadre
de cet échange, l’ARC San Andrés, donnant lecture d’une proclamation,
« a[vait] invité le Mister Jim à suspendre ses pratiques de pêche déprédatrices
préjudiciables au milieu marin et à leur substituer des méthodes
autorisées ».
L’incident allégué du 28 juillet 2014
81. Le Nicaragua allègue que, le 28 juillet 2014, le capitaine du
Doña Emilia, navire de pêche battant pavillon nicaraguayen, avait informé
un navire de la marine du Nicaragua que, « quelques jours auparavant »,
alors qu’il se trouvait par 14° 29ʹ 00ʺ de latitude nord et 81° 53ʹ 00ʺ de
longitude ouest, un navire de la marine colombienne avait avisé le
Doña Emilia qu’il ne pouvait opérer dans cette zone. A l’appui de cette
allégation, le Nicaragua se réfère au compte rendu et à un enregistrement
audio joints à la lettre en date du 26 août 2014 adressée par la marine
nicaraguayenne au ministère des affaires étrangères du Nicaragua.
82. La Colombie reconnaît que l’un des navires de sa marine,
l’ARC 7 de Agosto, avait eu un échange avec le Doña Emilia le 22 juillet
2014. Elle produit une communication en date du 22 juillet 2014 adressée
par le chef du commandement spécial de San Andrés et Providencia au
commandant des forces navales colombiennes dans les Caraïbes. Selon
cette communication, l’ARC 7 de Agosto avait informé le Doña Emilia qu’il
avait été surpris en train de se livrer à des pratiques de pêche déprédatrices
dans une zone spécialement protégée de l’Organisation des Nations Unies
pour l’éducation, la science et la culture (UNESCO) et l’avait « invité à
suspendre cette pratique préjudiciable au milieu marin et à lui préférer des
méthodes autorisées ». Pour démontrer que, comme elle l’affirme, le Nicaragua
n’a pas été empêché d’exercer ses droits souverains dans la zone, la
Colombie fait également référence à la transcription de l’enregistrement
audio fournie par le Nicaragua, selon laquelle le capitaine du Doña Emilia
avait déclaré que le navire de pêche n’avait pas prêté attention au navire de
la marine colombienne et avait poursuivi ses activités de pêche.
Les incidents allégués du 26 mars 2015
83. Le Nicaragua affirme que, le 26 mars 2015, la frégate l’ARC 11 de
Noviembre, qui croisait par 14° 50ʹ 00ʺ de latitude nord et 81° 41ʹ 00ʺ de longitude
ouest, avait déclaré au navire garde‑côtes nicaraguayen le GC-401 José
Santos Zelaya que, « [s]elon le Gouvernement colombien, la décision de
La Haye [étai]t inapplicable, ce pourquoi [elle se trouvait] dans l’archipel
colombien de San Andrés et Providencia ». D’après le Nicaragua, quelques
heures plus tard, l’ARC 11 de Noviembre avait informé un navire de pêche
307 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (judgment)
45
that it was engaging in predatory fishing at co-ordinates
14° 50ʹ 2.98ʺ N
and 81° 47ʹ 3.62ʺ W and asked it to suspend this practice. In respect of
these alleged events, Nicaragua relies on daily reports of its Navy and
audio recordings. According to Nicaragua’s transcript of one of these
recordings, the captain of the ARC 11 de Noviembre told the Doña Emilia
that its fishing technique was “totally prohibited anywhere . . . regardless
of the fishing license that a boat has” and asked the fishing vessel whether
the “instructions” were clear.
84. For its part, Colombia claims that, even if true, Nicaragua’s audio
recording relating to GC-401 José Santos Zelaya shows no violation of
Nicaragua’s sovereign rights, and that Nicaragua is seeking to negate
Colombia’s rights in the south-western
Caribbean Sea. As for the alleged
interaction between the ARC 11 de Noviembre and the Doña Emilia,
Colombia claims to have no record of this encounter. It further claims
that, if Nicaragua’s audio recording is authentic, Nicaragua has distorted
the alleged interaction. Colombia asserts that, in the recording, the
Colombian officer informed the fishing vessel that “it was in a UNESCO
specially-protected
area, where predatory fishing was not permitted” and
the officer “merely invited the vessel to suspend this harmful fishing practice
and change it for authorized methods”. According to Colombia, this
alleged incident does not constitute a violation of Nicaragua’s sovereign
rights.
The alleged incident of 21 August 2016
85. Nicaragua further claims that on 21 August 2016 the captain of the
Marco Polo reported that, while fishing at 14° 51ʹ 00ʺ N and 81° 41ʹ 00ʺ W,
the Colombian frigate ARC Almirante Padilla informed the vessel that its
fishing activities were illegal and “proceeded to emit an acute sound in the
water, which obstructed the Marco Polo’s fishing for lobster, thereby
forcing it to leave the area”. In respect of this incident, Nicaragua relies
on the letter from the Navy to the Commander in Chief of the Army,
dated 20 August 2016, accompanied by a signed complaint from the captain
of the Nicaraguan fishing vessel Marco Polo, as well as a daily report
of its Navy.
86. Regarding the encounter with the Marco Polo, Colombia accepts
that the ARC Almirante Padilla had an encounter with the Nicaraguan
fishing vessel in question, but argues that the Colombian frigate, after
finding the Marco Polo to be undertaking predatory fishing, merely read
a proclamation used to address Nicaraguan fishing vessels engaging in
what Colombia regarded as predatory practices and invited the crew to
suspend its environmentally harmful fishing practices. Colombia relies on
the maritime travel report of the ARC Almirante Padilla in claiming that
the fishing vessel ignored this invitation, which, in Colombia’s view,
implies that the Marco Polo did not leave the area and was not precluded
from carrying out its fishing activities.
droits souverains et espaces maritimes (arrêt) 307
45
battant pavillon nicaraguayen, le Doña Emilia, qu’il se livrait à une pêche
déprédatrice par 14° 50ʹ 2,98ʺ de latitude nord et 81° 47ʹ 3,62ʺ de longitude
ouest et lui avait demandé de mettre fin à cette pratique. S’agissant de ces
événements allégués, le demandeur se fonde sur les rapports quotidiens de sa
marine et sur des enregistrements audio. Selon la transcription qu’il a faite
de l’un de ces enregistrements, le capitaine de l’ARC 11 de Noviembre avait
dit au Doña Emilia que sa technique de pêche était « totalement interdite
partout … quel que soit le permis de pêche dont dispos[ait] le bateau » et
avait demandé au navire de pêche si les « instructions » étaient claires.
84. La Colombie soutient quant à elle que, même s’il était véridique,
l’enregistrement audio du Nicaragua concernant le GC-401 José Santos
Zelaya ne fait apparaître aucune violation des droits souverains du Nicaragua,
et que c’est ce dernier qui cherche à nier les droits de la Colombie
dans le sud-ouest de la mer des Caraïbes. Quant au prétendu échange entre
l’ARC 11 de Noviembre et le Doña Emilia, la Colombie affirme n’en avoir
aucune trace. Elle ajoute que, à supposer que l’enregistrement audio du
Nicaragua soit authentique, ce dernier a déformé l’échange allégué. Elle
affirme que, dans cet enregistrement, l’officier colombien avait informé le
bateau de pêche qu’« il se trouvait dans une zone spécialement protégée de
l’UNESCO, où la pêche déprédatrice n’[étai]t pas autorisée », et « s’[étai]t
contenté d[e l]’inviter … à suspendre cette pratique de pêche nuisible et à
y substituer des méthodes autorisées ». Selon la Colombie, cet incident
allégué n’emporte pas violation des droits souverains du Nicaragua.
L’incident allégué du 21 août 2016
85. Le Nicaragua prétend en outre que, le 21 août 2016, le capitaine du
Marco Polo avait signalé que, alors qu’il pêchait par 14° 51ʹ 00ʺ de latitude
nord et 81° 41ʹ 00ʺ de longitude ouest, la frégate colombienne l’ARC Almirante
Padilla l’avait informé que les activités en question étaient illicites et
avait « émis un son aigu dans l’eau, empêchant de continuer à pêcher la
langouste et contraignant ainsi le Marco Polo à quitter la zone ». S’agissant
de cet incident, le Nicaragua se fonde sur la lettre en date du 20 août
2016, adressée par la marine au commandant en chef de l’armée et accompagnée
d’une plainte signée du capitaine du navire de pêche nicaraguayen
le Marco Polo, ainsi que sur un rapport quotidien de sa marine.
86. A propos de l’échange avec le Marco Polo, la Colombie admet que
l’ARC Almirante Padilla avait croisé le navire de pêche nicaraguayen en
question, mais avance que sa frégate, après avoir constaté que le
Marco Polo pratiquait une pêche déprédatrice, avait simplement donné
lecture d’une proclamation destinée aux navires de pêche nicaraguayens
se livrant à ce qu’elle considérait comme des pratiques déprédatrices et
invité l’équipage à suspendre ses pratiques de pêche préjudiciables à l’environnement.
La Colombie se fonde sur le livre de bord de l’ARC Almirante
Padilla pour affirmer que le Marco Polo avait ignoré cette invitation,
ce qui, selon elle, signifie qu’il n’avait pas quitté la zone, ni été empêché
de poursuivre ses activités de pêche.
308 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (judgment)
46
The alleged incidents of 6 and 8 October 2018
87. Nicaragua alleges that, on 6 October 2018, the ARC Almirante
Padilla, a Colombian naval vessel, intercepted the Dr Jorge Carranza
Fraser, a Mexican-flagged
vessel conducting marine scientific
research activities with Nicaragua’s authorization in waters south of
Alburquerque Cay. Nicaragua claims that the Mexican-flagged
vessel was
located at 13° 51ʹ 50.79ʺ N and 81° 27ʹ 18.066ʺ W when the Colombian
vessel “ordered it to stop its activities and prevented it from continuing
[its marine scientific research activities], claiming that it was operating in
Colombian waters”. Nicaragua further alleges that, two days later, the
ARC Almirante Padilla again intercepted the Mexican-flagged
vessel
while operating at 11° 51ʹ 39.798ʺ N and 80° 58ʹ 9.998ʺ W and ordered it
to leave. Nicaragua bases its claim on evidence that includes diplomatic
Notes, a letter from the Mexican National Institute of Fisheries and
Aquaculture (hereinafter “INAPESCA”), dated 16 April 2019, and affidavits
provided by two Mexican crew members accompanied by contemporaneous
radar screen photographs. In respect of its allegations
concerning the Mexican-flagged
vessel, Nicaragua also refers to the
original
and modified navigation course and sampling stations of that
vessel.
88. Colombia argues that the alleged incident “was a non-event”. By
reference to a communiqué by INAPESCA dated 8 October 2018, which
indicates that on 5 October 2018 the Mexican-flagged
vessel had already
transited the area in which the alleged incident took place, Colombia
claims that the Mexican-flagged
vessel “could not have been where Nicaragua
claims it was on 6 October 2018”. Colombia further states that
contemporaneous materials emanating from INAPESCA do not mention
the alleged interference by Colombia and that neither Mexico nor INAPESCA
protested the alleged event. While Colombia accepts that the INAPESCA
letter
dated 16 April 2019 refers to an encounter the Mexican-flagged
vessel
had with a marine patrol vessel from a third State, it notes that the
letter “did not mention Colombia”. Additionally, Colombia questions the
veracity of the affidavits submitted by Nicaragua on the grounds that
“[t]he individual who served as the notary public in both of them is . . . a
recently retired member of Nicaragua’s military as well as legal counsel in
the current proceedings”.
The alleged incident of 11 December 2018
89. Nicaragua claims that in the late evening of 10 December 2018 the
Nicaraguan Navy vessel Tayacán boarded the Observer, a Honduran-flagged
fishing boat, and found it to be conducting illegal fishing for lobster
at 14° 58ʹ 00ʺ N and 81° 00ʹ 00ʺ W. According to Nicaragua, while
escorting the Observer to a Nicaraguan port early in the morning of
droits souverains et espaces maritimes (arrêt) 308
46
Les incidents allégués des 6 et 8 octobre 2018
87. Le Nicaragua allègue que, le 6 octobre 2018, l’ARC Almirante
Padilla, un navire de la marine colombienne, avait intercepté le Dr Jorge
Carranza Fraser, un navire battant pavillon mexicain qui menait des activités
de recherche scientifique marine avec son autorisation dans des eaux
situées au sud de la caye d’Alburquerque. Il affirme que le navire battant
pavillon mexicain se trouvait par 13° 51ʹ 50,79ʺ de latitude nord et
81° 27ʹ 18,066ʺ de longitude ouest lorsque le navire colombien « lui a[vait]
ordonné de cesser ses activités [de recherche scientifique marine] et l’a[vait]
empêché de les poursuivre, … affirmant qu[’il] se trouvait dans des eaux
colombiennes ». Le Nicaragua allègue en outre que, deux jours plus tard,
l’ARC Almirante Padilla avait de nouveau intercepté le navire battant
pavillon mexicain alors qu’il opérait par 11° 51ʹ 39,798ʺ de latitude nord et
80° 58ʹ 9,998ʺ de longitude ouest et lui avait intimé l’ordre de quitter la
zone. Le Nicaragua fonde son affirmation sur des éléments de preuve tels
que des notes diplomatiques, une lettre de l’institut national mexicain
des pêches et de l’aquaculture (ci‑après dénommé l’« INAPESCA ») en
date du 16 avril 2019 et des déclarations sous serment fournies par deux
membres mexicains de l’équipage et accompagnées de photographies
d’écran radar contemporaines des faits. S’agissant de ce navire battant
pavillon mexicain, le Nicaragua se réfère aussi à son itinéraire de navigation
et à ses sites d’échantillonnage initialement prévus et modifiés.
88. La Colombie fait valoir que l’incident allégué était « un non‑événement
». Se référant à un communiqué de l’INAPESCA en date du
8 octobre 2018 qui indique que, le 5 octobre 2018, le navire battant pavillon
mexicain avait déjà traversé la zone dans laquelle cet incident aurait eu
lieu, elle affirme que, « le 6 octobre 2018, [il] ne pouvait [avoir été] là où le
Nicaragua le prétend ». Elle affirme également que les documents contemporains
des faits émanant de l’INAPESCA ne mentionnent pas une quelconque
entrave aux activités de ce navire, et que ni le Mexique ni
l’INAPESCA n’avaient protesté contre le prétendu événement. Si elle
admet que la lettre de l’INAPESCA en date du 16 avril 2019 fait référence
à un échange que le navire battant pavillon mexicain avait eu avec un
patrouilleur naval d’un Etat tiers, elle note que cette lettre « ne fait …
aucune mention de la Colombie ». Au surplus, la défenderesse met en
doute la véracité des déclarations sous serment soumises par le Nicaragua,
au motif que la personne qui « a fait office de notaire pour l’établissement
de ces deux documents [est un] ancien membre de l’armée nicaraguayenne
ayant récemment pris sa retraite et [un] conseiller juridique en l’affaire ».
L’incident allégué du 11 décembre 2018
89. Le Nicaragua affirme que, tard dans la soirée du 10 décembre 2018, le
navire de la marine nicaraguayenne le Tayacán avait arraisonné l’Observer,
un bateau de pêche battant pavillon hondurien, et découvert qu’il se livrait
à une pêche illicite à la langouste par 14° 58ʹ 00ʺ de latitude nord et
81° 00ʹ 00ʺ de longitude ouest. Il indique que son navire, tandis qu’il escor-
309 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (judgment)
47
11 December 2018, its naval vessel detected the presence of the ARC Antioquia,
a Colombian Navy frigate, which established communication,
demanding that the Nicaraguan Navy release the Observer. Nicaragua
alleges that its naval vessel was harassed first by a low‑flying plane and
then by a fast boat dispatched by the ARC Antioquia, forcing the
Tayacán
to change course. According to Nicaragua, the ARC Antioquia
followed the Tayacán for hours and then took hostile actions with the
aim of impeding the transfer of the Observer, culminating in the
Antioquia
bumping several times into both the Observer and the Tayacán.
Nicaragua
further alleges that the crew of the Antioquia pointed guns at
Nicaraguan naval personnel aboard the Observer, demanding that they
surrender. In respect of these allegations, Nicaragua relies on, among
other things, an affidavit from the Commander and Second Commander
of the Tayacán; signed and notarized interviews with the captain, second
captain, and two crew members of the Observer; audio-visual
material;
photographs; and audio recordings.
90. With respect to the alleged events of 10-11 December 2018, Colombia
argues that the Observer was not fishing in Nicaragua’s exclusive economic
zone but was in transit between Colombia’s islands. In this regard,
Colombia refers to, among other things, how lobster fishing is carried
out, the timing of the alleged events, and data from the vessel monitoring
system of the Observer. Colombia also relies on these data in support of
its claim that the ARC Antioquia was in the area in response to a distress
call from the Observer. Colombia denies that it deployed either a low-flying
plane or a fast boat to harass the Nicaraguan vessel and refers, in
support of its position, to a communication from the Commander of
Colombia’s Air Force dated 23 October 2019, which states that on
11 December 2018 there were no flights by the Colombian Air Force in
the area, as well as to an affidavit by the captain of the ARC Antioquia
and the maritime travel report of the ARC Antioquia. Moreover, relying
on audio-visual
material, audio recordings, and the affidavit from the
captain of the ARC Antioquia, Colombia claims that Nicaraguan officials
tried to ram the ARC Antioquia and deliberately manoeuvred the Tayacán
in order to have the Observer and the ARC Antioquia bump into
each other. Colombia also questions the credibility of the affidavits produced
by Nicaragua, since the notary public for those affidavits is a
recently retired member of Nicaragua’s military who has served as legal
counsel for Nicaragua in the present case. Referring to an affidavit from
a crew member of the Observer, Colombia considers, moreover, that the
interviews on which Nicaragua relies were taken under duress and that
the Court should thus not take them into consideration.
* *
droits souverains et espaces maritimes (arrêt) 309
47
tait l’Observer vers un port nicaraguayen tôt dans la matinée du 11 décembre
2018, avait constaté la présence de l’ARC Antioquia, une frégate de la marine
colombienne, qui avait établi la communication, exigeant que la marine
nicaraguayenne libérât l’Observer. Le Nicaragua allègue que le Tayacán
avait été harcelé d’abord par un avion volant à basse altitude, puis par une
vedette envoyée par l’ARC Antioquia, qui l’avait forcé à modifier son itinéraire.
Selon lui, l’ARC Antioquia avait suivi le Tayacán des heures durant,
avant de prendre des mesures hostiles visant à entraver le transfert de l’Observer,
finissant par percuter à plusieurs reprises tant ce dernier que le navire
nicaraguayen. Le Nicaragua allègue en outre que l’équipage de l’ARC Antioquia
avait mis en joue les membres du personnel de la marine nicaraguayenne
montés à bord de l’Observer, exigeant qu’ils se rendissent et les menaçant de
ses armes. S’agissant de ces allégations, il s’appuie notamment sur des déclarations
sous serment émanant du commandant et du commandant en second
du Tayacán, des entretiens signés et authentifiés avec le capitaine, le second
et deux membres de l’équipage de l’Observer, des documents audiovisuels,
des photographies et des enregistrements audio.
90. Pour ce qui est des événements qui se seraient produits les 10 et
11 décembre 2018, la Colombie fait valoir que l’Observer ne pêchait pas dans
la zone économique exclusive du Nicaragua, mais se trouvait en transit
entre des îles colombiennes. A cet égard, elle se réfère notamment à la
manière dont se pratique la pêche à la langouste, à l’heure des événements
allégués et aux données enregistrées par le système de surveillance des
navires de l’Observer. Elle fait également fond sur ces données pour étayer
son argument voulant que l’ARC Antioquia se soit trouvée dans la zone
pour répondre à un appel de détresse envoyé par l’Observer. Elle nie avoir
dépêché un avion volant à basse altitude ou une vedette pour harceler le
navire nicaraguayen et se réfère, à l’appui de sa position, à une communication
en date du 23 octobre 2019 dans laquelle le commandant de l’armée
de l’air colombienne déclarait que, le 11 décembre 2018, aucun vol militaire
n’avait été effectué dans la région, ainsi qu’à une déclaration sous serment
du capitaine de l’ARC Antioquia et au livre de bord de cette frégate. Au
surplus, en s’appuyant sur des documents audiovisuels, des enregistrements
audio et la déclaration sous serment du capitaine de l’ARC Antioquia, la
Colombie soutient que des officiers nicaraguayens aux commandes du
Tayacán avaient tenté de percuter l’ARC Antioquia et effectué une
manoeuvre délibérée pour provoquer une collision entre celle-
ci et l’Observer.
Elle met également en doute la crédibilité des déclarations sous serment
produites par le Nicaragua, la personne qui avait officié en tant que notaire
pour les recueillir étant un membre récemment retraité de l’armée nicaraguayenne
qui avait exercé les fonctions de conseiller juridique du Nicaragua
dans la présente affaire. Se référant à une déclaration sous serment
d’un membre de l’équipage de l’Observer, la Colombie estime en outre que
les entretiens sur lesquels se fonde le Nicaragua ont été obtenus par la
contrainte et que la Cour ne devrait donc pas les prendre en considération.
* *
310 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (judgment)
48
91. The Court considers that, based upon the above-mentioned
evidentiary
material, a number of facts on which Nicaragua’s claim rests are
established. First of all, as to many of the alleged incidents, the evidence
supports Nicaragua’s allegations regarding the location of Colombian
frigates (see the alleged incidents of 17 November 2013; 27 January 2014;
12 and 13 March 2014; 3 April 2014; 28 July 2014; 21 August 2016; as
well as 6 and 8 October 2018). Colombia’s own naval reports and navigation
logs, as contemporaneous documents, also corroborate the specific
geographic co‑ordinates presented by Nicaragua, which lie within the
area east of the 82° meridian, often in the fishing ground at or around
Luna Verde, located within the maritime area that was declared by the
Court to appertain to Nicaragua.
92. Moreover, the Colombian naval vessels purported to exercise
enforcement jurisdiction in Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone (see the
alleged incidents of 27 January 2014; 13 March 2014; 3 April 2014; 28 July
2014; 26 March 2015; 21 August 2016). In communications with Nicaraguan
naval vessels and fishing vessels operating in Nicaragua’s exclusive
economic zone, Colombian naval officers, at times reading from a government
proclamation, requested Nicaraguan fishing vessels to discontinue
their fishing activities, alleging that those activities were environmentally
harmful and were illegal or not authorized. These officials also stated to
the Nicaraguan vessels that the maritime spaces concerned were “Colombian
jurisdictional waters” over which Colombia would “continue to
exercise sovereignty” on the basis of the determination by the Colombian
Government that the 2012 Judgment “is not applicable”. The evidence
sufficiently proves that the conduct of Colombian naval vessels was carried
out to give effect to a policy whereby Colombia sought to continue to
control fishing activities and the conservation of resources in the area that
lies within Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone.
93. Colombia relies on two legal grounds to justify its conduct at sea.
First, Colombia claims that its actions, even if proved, are permitted as
an exercise of its freedoms of navigation and overflight. Secondly, Colombia
asserts that it has an international obligation to protect and preserve
the marine environment of the south‑western Caribbean Sea and the habitat
of the Raizales and other inhabitants of the Archipelago. It argues
that environmental concerns need to be fully taken into account regardless
of considerations of sovereignty or sovereign rights.
94. With regard to the Respondent’s first assertion, the Court considers
that, in accordance with the customary rules on the exclusive economic
zone, freedoms of navigation and overflight enjoyed by other
States in the exclusive economic zone of the coastal State, as reflected in
Article 58 of UNCLOS, do not include rights relating to the exploration,
droits souverains et espaces maritimes (arrêt) 310
48
91. La Cour considère que, compte tenu des éléments de preuve susmentionnés,
un certain nombre des faits sur lesquels repose la demande
du Nicaragua sont établis. Tout d’abord, pour nombre des incidents allégués,
ces éléments confirment les allégations du Nicaragua quant à l’emplacement
des frégates colombiennes (voir les incidents allégués des
17 novembre 2013, 27 janvier 2014, 12 et 13 mars 2014, 3 avril 2014,
28 juillet 2014, 21 août 2016, ainsi que des 6 et 8 octobre 2018). Les
propres comptes rendus et journaux de bord de la marine colombienne,
en tant que documents contemporains des faits, corroborent eux aussi les
coordonnées géographiques spécifiques indiquées par le Nicaragua, qui se
situent dans la zone située à l’est du 82e méridien, souvent dans le banc de
pêche de Luna Verde ou à proximité de celui‑ci, dans l’espace maritime
que la Cour a considéré comme relevant de la juridiction du Nicaragua.
92. En outre, les navires de la marine colombienne ont cherché à exercer
des pouvoirs de police dans la zone économique exclusive du Nicaragua
(voir les incidents allégués des 27 janvier 2014, 13 mars 2014, 3 avril
2014, 28 juillet 2014, 26 mars 2015 et 21 août 2016). Dans des communications
avec des navires de la marine nicaraguayenne et des navires de
pêche opérant dans la zone économique exclusive du Nicaragua, des officiers
de la marine colombienne, donnant parfois lecture d’une proclamation
gouvernementale, ont demandé à des navires de pêche nicaraguayens
de cesser leurs activités, alléguant que celles‑ci étaient préjudiciables à
l’environnement et illicites, ou qu’elles n’étaient pas autorisées. Ils ont
également déclaré aux navires nicaraguayens que les espaces maritimes en
question se trouvaient dans des « eaux relevant de la juridiction de la
Colombie » à l’égard desquelles celle‑ci « continuera[it] d’exercer sa souveraineté
», le Gouvernement colombien considérant que l’arrêt de 2012
« était inapplicable ». Les éléments de preuve suffisent à établir que le
comportement des navires des forces navales colombiennes visait à donner
effet à une politique par laquelle la Colombie cherchait à continuer de
contrôler les activités de pêche et la conservation des ressources dans un
espace qui fait partie de la zone économique exclusive du Nicaragua.
93. La Colombie invoque deux moyens de droit pour justifier son comportement
en mer. Premièrement, elle prétend que ces actes, à supposer
même que leur existence soit démontrée, sont autorisés en tant qu’exercice
des libertés de navigation et de survol dont elle peut se prévaloir.
Deuxièmement, la Colombie affirme qu’elle a une obligation internationale
de protéger et de préserver le milieu marin du sud‑ouest de la mer des
Caraïbes ainsi que l’habitat des Raizals et d’autres habitants de l’archipel.
Elle fait valoir qu’il faut tenir pleinement compte des préoccupations relatives
à l’environnement, indépendamment de considérations de souveraineté
ou de droits souverains.
94. En ce qui concerne la première assertion de la défenderesse, la
Cour estime que, selon les règles coutumières relatives à la zone économique
exclusive, les libertés de navigation et de survol dont jouissent les
autres Etats dans la zone économique exclusive de l’Etat côtier, telles que
reflétées à l’article 58 de la CNUDM, n’incluent pas de droits relatifs à
311 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (judgment)
49
exploitation, conservation and management of the natural resources of
the maritime zone, nor do they give other States jurisdiction to enforce
conservation measures in the exclusive economic zone of the coastal
State. Such rights and jurisdiction are specifically reserved for the coastal
State under customary
international law, as reflected in Articles 56 and 73
of UNCLOS.
95. With regard to Colombia’s assertion relating to its international
obligation to preserve the marine environment of the south-western
Caribbean Sea, it is not contested between the Parties that all States have
the obligation under customary international law to protect and preserve
the marine environment. In the exclusive economic zone, however, it is
the coastal State that has jurisdiction to discharge that obligation. As
stated by the International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea (hereinafter
“ITLOS”), “the conservation of the living resources of the sea is an element
in the protection and preservation of the marine environment”
(Southern Bluefin Tuna Cases (New Zealand v. Japan; Australia v. Japan),
Provisional Measures, Order of 27 August 1999, ITLOS Reports 1999,
p. 295, para. 70). In this respect, the coastal State bears the responsibility
within its exclusive economic zone to take legislative, administrative and
enforcement measures in accordance with customary international law, as
reflected in the relevant provisions of UNCLOS, for the purpose of conserving
the living resources and protecting and preserving the marine
environment. A third State, in the capacity of a flag State, also has “an
obligation to ensure compliance by vessels flying its flag with relevant
conservation measures concerning living resources enacted by the coastal
State for its exclusive economic zone” (Request for Advisory Opinion submitted
by the Sub‑Regional Fisheries Commission, Advisory Opinion,
2 April 2015, ITLOS Reports 2015, p. 37, para. 120). However, a third
State has no jurisdiction to enforce conservation standards on fishing vessels
of other States in the exclusive economic zone.
96. The Court observes that great emphasis has been placed by the
Respondent
on its obligations to protect the marine environment of the
south-western
Caribbean Sea and the habitat of the Raizales and other
inhabitants
of the Archipelago under the Cartagena Convention and the
SPAW Protocol (hereinafter referred to as the “Cartagena régime”).
The Cartagena Convention was concluded with the objective of enhancing
international co‑operation to prevent, reduce and control pollution from various
sources in the wider Caribbean region and to ensure sound environmental
management. The SPAW Protocol is one of the three protocols to the
Cartagena
Convention, under which the States parties undertake to establish
protected areas and take measures for the preservation of endangered species
and marine areas. Colombia became a party to the Cartagena Convention
on 2 April 1988 and Nicaragua became a party on 24 September 2005.
Both Colombia and Nicaragua are parties to the SPAW Protocol, which
entered into force on 17 June 2000. Colombia deposited its instrument of
ratification on 5 January 1998; Nicaragua deposited its instrument of ratification
on 4 May 2021.
droits souverains et espaces maritimes (arrêt) 311
49
l’exploration, à l’exploitation, à la conservation et à la gestion des ressources
naturelles de la zone maritime, ni ne confèrent aux autres Etats la
compétence nécessaire pour appliquer des mesures de conservation dans
la zone économique exclusive de l’Etat côtier. De tels droits et compétence
sont spécifiquement réservés à l’Etat côtier en droit international
coutumier, ainsi qu’il ressort des articles 56 et 73 de la CNUDM.
95. En ce qui concerne l’assertion de la Colombie relative à l’obligation
internationale qui lui incombe de préserver le milieu marin du sud‑ouest
de la mer des Caraïbes, les Parties ne contestent pas que le droit international
coutumier impose à tous les Etats l’obligation de protéger et de
préserver le milieu marin. Cela étant, dans la zone économique exclusive,
c’est l’Etat côtier qui dispose de la juridiction nécessaire pour s’acquitter
de cette obligation. Comme l’a affirmé le Tribunal international du droit
de la mer (ci‑après dénommé le « TIDM »), « la conservation des ressources
biologiques de la mer constitue un élément de la protection et de
la préservation du milieu marin » (Thon à nageoire bleue (Nouvelle‑Zélande
c. Japon ; Australie c. Japon), mesures conservatoires, ordonnance du
27 août 1999, TIDM Recueil 1999, p. 295, par. 70). A cet égard, c’est à
l’Etat côtier qu’il incombe, dans sa zone économique exclusive, de prendre
des mesures législatives et administratives et de faire respecter la loi
conformément au droit international coutumier, tel que reflété dans les
dispositions pertinentes de la convention, afin de conserver les ressources
biologiques et de protéger et préserver le milieu marin. Un Etat tiers, en
sa qualité d’Etat du pavillon, est également dans « l’obligation de veiller
au respect par les navires battant son pavillon des mesures de conservation
des ressources biologiques adoptées par l’Etat côtier pour sa zone
économique exclusive » (Demande d’avis consultatif soumise par la Commission
sous‑régionale des pêches, avis consultatif, 2 avril 2015, TIDM
Recueil 2015, p. 37, par. 120). Cela étant, il ne dispose pas de la juridiction
nécessaire pour faire appliquer des normes de conservation par les
navires de pêche d’autres Etats dans la zone économique exclusive.
96. La Cour observe que la défenderesse a beaucoup insisté sur l’obligation
de protéger le milieu marin du sud‑ouest de la mer des Caraïbes et
l’habitat des Raizals ainsi que d’autres habitants de l’archipel qui lui
incombe en vertu de la convention de Carthagène et du protocole SPAW
(ci‑après dénommés le « régime de Carthagène »). La convention de Carthagène
a été conclue dans l’objectif d’améliorer la coopération internationale
afin de prévenir, de réduire et de combattre la pollution produite
par différentes sources dans la région des Caraïbes et d’assurer une gestion
rationnelle de l’environnement. Le protocole SPAW est l’un des trois
protocoles à cette convention, par lequel les Etats parties s’engagent à
établir des zones protégées et à prendre des mesures en faveur de la préservation
des espèces en voie d’extinction et des espaces maritimes. La
Colombie est devenue partie à la convention de Carthagène le 2 avril 1988
et le Nicaragua, le 24 septembre 2005. L’une et l’autre sont parties au
protocole SPAW, qui est entré en vigueur le 17 juin 2000. La Colombie a
déposé son instrument de ratification le 5 janvier 1998 ; le Nicaragua a
déposé le sien le 4 mai 2021.
312 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (judgment)
50
97. In implementing the Cartagena régime, Colombia established the
Seaflower Biosphere Reserve and the Seaflower Marine Protected Area.
The Court observes that Colombia’s two marine natural reserves were
established in the south-western
Caribbean Sea at the time when there
were overlapping maritime claims between Colombia and Nicaragua in
the area. As a result of the maritime delimitation in the 2012 Judgment,
these two marine natural reserves now partly overlap with Nicaragua’s
exclusive economic zone. (For illustrative purposes, the Court includes on
page 313 the map produced by Colombia in its Counter-Memorial.)
The question in the present case concerns the extent to which Colombia
may exercise its rights and discharge its obligations under the Cartagena
régime in an area that presently falls within the exclusive economic zone
of Nicaragua. In Colombia’s view, should Nicaragua fail to control and
police predatory or other illegal fishing activities carried out by Nicaraguan
nationals or by nationals of third States in that area, Colombia has
the right and duty under the Cartagena régime to exercise due diligence to
control such activities.
98. The maritime delimitation between the Parties directly affects the
rights and duties of Colombia in the parts of the Seaflower Marine Protected
Area and the Seaflower Biosphere Reserve that overlap with Nicaragua’s
exclusive economic zone. Colombia is under an international
obligation to respect Nicaragua’s sovereign rights and jurisdiction in
those areas, not only on the basis of customary international law on the
exclusive economic zone, but also on the basis of the Cartagena Convention
and the SPAW Protocol. Article 10 of the Cartagena Convention
states:
“The Contracting Parties shall, individually or jointly, take all
appropriate measures to protect and preserve rare or fragile ecosystems,
as well as the habitat of depleted, threatened or endangered
species in the Convention area. To this end, the Contracting Parties
shall endeavour to establish protected areas. The establishment of
such areas shall not affect the rights of other Contracting Parties and
third States. In addition, the Contracting Parties shall exchange information
concerning the administration and management of such
areas.”
The provision stating that “[t]he establishment of such areas shall not
affect the rights of other Contracting Parties and third States” means that
in discharging its obligations under the Cartagena Convention, Colombia
must respect the sovereign rights and jurisdiction of Nicaragua in its
exclusive economic zone. It may not, therefore, enforce conservation
standards and protection measures in the area that is within Nicaragua’s
exclusive economic zone.
99. A similar provision is contained in the SPAW Protocol. Article 3,
paragraph 1, of the Protocol states that each party
droits souverains et espaces maritimes (arrêt) 312
50
97. Dans le cadre de la mise en oeuvre du régime de Carthagène, la
Colombie a créé la réserve de biosphère Seaflower et l’aire marine protégée
Seaflower. La Cour relève que ces deux réserves naturelles marines
ont été établies dans le sud‑ouest de la mer des Caraïbes à un moment où
la Colombie et le Nicaragua revendiquaient dans la région des espaces
maritimes se chevauchant. En conséquence de la délimitation maritime
établie par l’arrêt de 2012, ces deux réserves naturelles marines empiètent
à présent en partie sur la zone économique exclusive du Nicaragua. (A titre
d’illustration, la Cour reproduit à la page 313 la carte produite par la
Colombie dans son contre-mémoire.) La question qui se pose en l’espèce
a trait à la mesure dans laquelle la Colombie peut exercer les droits et
s’acquitter des devoirs découlant du régime de Carthagène dans un espace
qui relève à présent de la zone économique exclusive du Nicaragua. Selon
la Colombie, si le Nicaragua ne contrôle pas les activités de pêche déprédatrices
ou autres activités de pêche illicites auxquelles se livrent ses ressortissants
ou des ressortissants de pays tiers dans cette zone, elle a le
droit et le devoir, en vertu du régime de Carthagène, de faire preuve de la
diligence requise pour contrôler ces activités.
98. La délimitation maritime entre les Parties affecte directement les
droits et devoirs de la Colombie dans les parties de l’aire marine protégée
Seaflower et de la réserve de biosphère Seaflower qui chevauchent la zone
économique exclusive du Nicaragua. La Colombie a une obligation internationale
de respecter les droits souverains et la juridiction du Nicaragua
dans ces espaces, non seulement en vertu du droit international coutumier
relatif à la zone économique exclusive, mais aussi en vertu de la convention
de Carthagène et du protocole SPAW. L’article 10 de la convention
de Carthagène est libellé comme suit :
« Les Parties contractantes prennent, individuellement ou conjointement,
toutes les mesures appropriées pour protéger et préserver, dans
la zone d’application de la Convention, les écosystèmes rares ou fragiles
ainsi que l’habitat des espèces en régression, menacées ou en voie
d’extinction. A cet effet, les Parties contractantes s’efforcent d’établir
des zones protégées. L’établissement de telles zones ne porte pas
atteinte aux droits des autres Parties contractantes ni à ceux des Etats
tiers. En outre, les Parties contractantes procèdent à l’échange de renseignements
concernant l’administration et la gestion de ces zones. »
La disposition énonçant que « [l]’établissement de telles zones ne porte pas
atteinte aux droits des autres Parties contractantes ni à ceux des Etats tiers »
signifie que, lorsqu’elle s’acquitte des obligations qui lui incombent au titre
de la convention de Carthagène, la Colombie doit respecter les droits souverains
et la juridiction du Nicaragua dans la zone économique exclusive
nicaraguayenne. Elle ne peut, par conséquent, pas faire appliquer des
normes de conservation et mesures de protection dans la partie des espaces
protégés qui se trouve dans la zone économique exclusive du Nicaragua.
99. Une disposition similaire figure dans le protocole SPAW. Le paragraphe
1 de l’article 3 de ce protocole précise que chaque partie doit
313 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (judgment)
51
Map Showing the Seaflower Marine Protected Area and
the Seaflower Biosphere Reserve according to Colombia
(Source: Colombia’s Counter-Memorial,
Figure 2.3, p. 51)
droits souverains et espaces maritimes (arrêt) 313
51
Carte montrant l’aire marine protégée Seaflower et la réserve
de biosphère Seaflower, selon la Colombie
(Source : contre‑mémoire de la Colombie, figure 2.3, p. 51. Original en anglais)
314 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (judgment)
52
“shall . . . take the necessary measures to protect, preserve and manage
[certain areas and species of flora and fauna] in a sustainable way,
within areas of the Wider Caribbean Region in which it exercises
sovereignty, or sovereign rights or jurisdiction”.
Paragraph 2 of Article 3 further states that
“[e]ach Party shall endeavour to co-operate
in the enforcement of
these measures, without prejudice to the sovereignty, or sovereign
rights or jurisdiction of other Parties. Any measures taken by such
Party to enforce or to attempt to enforce the measures agreed pursuant
to this Protocol shall be limited to those within the competence
of such Party and shall be in accordance with international law.”
Contrary to Colombia’s claim, therefore, under the SPAW Protocol the
power of the States parties to adopt and enforce conservation measures is
limited to the maritime areas in which they exercise sovereignty, or sovereign
rights or jurisdiction. The fragility of the ecological environment of
a protected area established by a State party does not provide a legal
basis for it to take measures in areas that are subject to the sovereignty,
sovereign rights or jurisdiction of another State party.
100. According to customary international law on the exclusive economic
zone, Nicaragua, as the coastal State, enjoys sovereign rights to
manage fishing activities and jurisdiction to take measures to protect and
preserve the maritime environment in its exclusive economic zone. The
evidence before the Court shows that the conduct of Colombian naval
frigates in Nicaraguan maritime zones was not limited to “observing”
predatory or illegal fishing activities or “informing” fishing vessels of such
activities, as claimed by Colombia. This conduct often amounted to exercising
control over fishing activities in Nicaragua’s exclusive economic
zone, implementing conservation measures on Nicaraguan-flagged
or
Nicaraguan-licensed
ships, and hindering the operations of Nicaragua’s
naval vessels (see paragraph 92 above). The Court considers that
Colombia’s
legal arguments do not justify its conduct within Nicaragua’s
exclusive economic zone. Colombia’s conduct is in contravention of customary
rules of international law as reflected in Articles 56, 58 and 73
of UNCLOS.
101. In light of the foregoing considerations, the Court finds that
Colombia has violated its international obligation to respect Nicaragua’s
sovereign rights and jurisdiction in the latter’s exclusive economic zone by
interfering with fishing activities and marine scientific research by Nicaraguan‑flagged
or Nicaraguan-licensed
vessels and with the operations of
Nicaragua’s naval vessels, and by purporting to enforce conservation
measures in that zone.
droits souverains et espaces maritimes (arrêt) 314
52
« prend[re] les mesures nécessaires pour protéger, préserver et gérer
[certaines zones et espèces de la flore et de la faune] de manière
durable, dans les zones de la région des Caraïbes dans laquelle
s’exercent sa souveraineté, ses droits souverains ou sa juridiction ».
Le paragraphe 2 de l’article 3 dispose en outre que
« [c]haque Partie coopérera dans la mesure du possible à l’application
de ces mesures, sans qu’il soit porté atteinte à la souveraineté, aux
droits souverains ou à la juridiction des autres Parties. Toute mesure
prise par une Partie pour appliquer ou chercher à appliquer les mesures
convenues conformément au présent Protocole doit relever de la compétence
de ladite Partie et être conforme au droit international. »
Contrairement à ce qu’affirme la Colombie, par conséquent, le protocole
SPAW limite le pouvoir des Etats parties d’adopter des mesures de
conservation et de les faire appliquer aux espaces maritimes dans lesquels
ils exercent leur souveraineté, leurs droits souverains ou leur juridiction.
La fragilité de l’environnement écologique d’une zone protégée établie
par un Etat partie ne fournit pas à celui‑ci de fondement juridique permettant
de prendre des mesures dans des espaces qui relèvent de la souveraineté,
des droits souverains ou de la juridiction d’un autre Etat partie.
100. Conformément au droit international coutumier relatif à la zone
économique exclusive, le Nicaragua, en tant qu’Etat côtier, jouit de droits
souverains pour gérer les activités de pêche et de la juridiction nécessaire
pour prendre des mesures visant à protéger et à préserver le milieu marin
dans sa zone économique exclusive. Il ressort des éléments de preuve soumis
à la Cour que le comportement des frégates de la marine colombienne
dans les espaces maritimes nicaraguayens ne se limitait pas à « observer »
des activités de pêche déprédatrices ou illicites ou à « informer » les navires
de pêche de ces activités, comme le prétend la Colombie. Ce comportement
revenait souvent à exercer un contrôle des activités de pêche dans la
zone économique exclusive du Nicaragua, à imposer des mesures de
conservation à des bateaux battant pavillon nicaraguayen ou détenteurs
d’un permis nicaraguayen, et à entraver les opérations de navires de la
marine nicaraguayenne (voir le paragraphe 92 ci‑dessus). La Cour considère
que les arguments juridiques avancés par la Colombie ne justifient
pas son comportement dans la zone économique exclusive du Nicaragua.
Un tel comportement contrevient aux règles coutumières du droit international
telles que reflétées aux articles 56, 58 et 73 de la CNUDM.
101. A la lumière des considérations qui précèdent, la Cour constate
que la Colombie a manqué à l’obligation internationale qui lui incombe
de respecter les droits souverains et la juridiction du Nicaragua dans sa zone
économique exclusive en entravant des activités de pêche et de recherche
scientifique marine menées par des navires battant pavillon nicaraguayen ou
détenteurs d’un permis nicaraguayen, ainsi que les opérations de navires
nicaraguayens et en voulant faire appliquer ses propres mesures de conservation
dans cette zone.
315 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (judgment)
53
2. Colombia’s alleged authorization of fishing activities and marine scientific
research in Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone
102. Nicaragua also claims that Colombia authorized fishing activities
and marine scientific research in Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone. In
support of these contentions, it refers to legal measures adopted by
Colombia, as well as alleged incidents at sea. Nicaragua argues that, by
these actions, Colombia violated its sovereign rights and jurisdiction in its
exclusive economic zone.
103. According to Nicaragua, Colombia issued permits to Colombians
and nationals of third States to fish in Nicaragua’s exclusive economic
zone. In this regard, Nicaragua refers to resolutions issued annually by
the General Maritime Directorate of the Ministry of National Defence of
Colombia (hereinafter “DIMAR”), starting with a resolution dated
26 June 2013 (Resolution No. 0311 of 26 June 2013; Resolution No. 305
of 25 June 2014; Resolution No. 0437 of 27 July 2015; Resolution
No. 0459 of 27 July 2016; and Resolution No. 550 of 15 August 2017),
each of which lists anywhere from six to nineteen foreign-flagged
industrial
fishing vessels which “shall automatically be granted a permit to stay
and operate in the jurisdiction of the San Andrés and Providencia Harbour
Master’s Offices for the term of one year”. In Nicaragua’s view, the
jurisdiction defined in these resolutions extends to maritime areas within
Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone. Additionally, Nicaragua alleges
that these resolutions encourage such fishing through financial incentives.
104. Nicaragua claims, moreover, that the Governor of the Department
of the Archipelago of San Andrés, Providencia and Santa Catalina
(hereinafter the “Governor of the San Andrés Archipelago”) issued resolutions
concerning the applicability of Colombian fishing permits to
Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone. In this regard, Nicaragua specifies
that Resolution No. 5081 of 22 October 2013 authorized the use by the
Honduran-flagged
vessel Captain KD of an existing industrial and commercial
fishing permit to fish in “[a]ll banks (Roncador, Serrana and Quitasueño,
Serranilla) and Shallows (Alicia and Nuevo), and the area
known as La Esquina or Luna Verde”, this latter area being “plainly
under the jurisdiction of Nicaragua”. Nicaragua also refers to Resolution
No. 4780 of 2015 as recognizing the applicability of an “Industrial Commercial
Fishing Permit” in “the area known as . . . ‘La Esquina’ or ‘Luna
Verde’”. In addition, Nicaragua claims that Resolution No. 2465 of 2016
grants “‘Traditional Commercial Fisherm[e]n’ the right to engage in traditional
fishing ‘within the maritime jurisdiction of the Department of the
Archipelago of San Andrés, Providencia and Santa Catalina’, which
includes maritime areas within Nicaragua’s EEZ”.
105. Further, Nicaragua refers to alleged incidents at sea in support of
its claim that Colombia authorized and protected fishing and marine sci-
droits souverains et espaces maritimes (arrêt) 315
53
2. Les allégations d’autorisation, par la Colombie, d’activités de pêche et de
recherche scientifique marine dans la zone économique exclusive du
Nicaragua
102. Le Nicaragua affirme aussi que la Colombie a autorisé des activités
de pêche et de recherche scientifique marine dans la zone économique
exclusive nicaraguayenne. A l’appui de ces assertions, il renvoie aux
mesures législatives adoptées par la Colombie ainsi qu’à des incidents qui
seraient survenus en mer. Le Nicaragua fait valoir que, par ces actions, la
Colombie a violé ses droits souverains et sa juridiction dans sa zone économique
exclusive.
103. Selon le Nicaragua, la Colombie a délivré à ses propres ressortissants
et à ceux d’Etats tiers des permis les autorisant à pêcher dans la
zone économique exclusive nicaraguayenne. Le Nicaragua se réfère à cet
égard aux résolutions qui ont été publiées chaque année par la direction
générale des affaires maritimes et portuaires du ministère de la défense
colombien (ci‑après dénommée la « DIMAR ») à compter du 26 juin 2013
(résolution no 0311 du 26 juin 2013 ; résolution no 305 du 25 juin 2014 ;
résolution no 0437 du 27 juillet 2015 ; résolution no 0459 du 27 juillet
2016, et résolution no 550 du 15 août 2017), et qui recensent chacune
entre 6 et 19 navires de pêche industrielle battant pavillon étranger auxquels
est « automatiquement accord[ée] la permission de demeurer et de
pratiquer la pêche dans le secteur relevant de la capitainerie du port de
San Andrés et Providencia pendant un an ». Le Nicaragua estime que la
juridiction définie dans ces résolutions s’étend aux espaces maritimes relevant
de sa zone économique exclusive. Il avance de surcroît que ces résolutions
encouragent les activités de pêche par des incitations financières.
104. Le Nicaragua affirme en outre que des résolutions ont été prises par
le gouverneur du département de l’archipel de San Andrés, Providencia et
Santa Catalina (ci‑après le « gouverneur de l’archipel de San Andrés ») pour
permettre l’utilisation des permis de pêche colombiens dans la zone économique
exclusive nicaraguayenne. Il indique à ce propos que la résolution
no 5081 du 22 octobre 2013 autorisait ainsi le Captain KD, navire
battant pavillon hondurien, à utiliser un permis de pêche industrielle et commerciale
existant pour pêcher dans « [t]ous les bancs (Roncador, Serrana et
Quitasueño, Serranilla) et … hauts‑fonds (Alicia et Nuevo), ainsi que dans
le secteur appelé La Esquina ou Luna Verde », lequel relève « clairement de
[s]a juridiction ». Le Nicaragua renvoie également à la résolution no 4780 de
2015 par laquelle est reconnue la validité d’un « permis de pêche commerciale
industrielle » pour « le secteur connu sous le nom de « La Esquina » ou
« Luna Verde » ». Il ajoute que la résolution no 2465 de 2016 accorde « aux
« pêcheurs pratiquant la pêche commerciale traditionnelle » le droit d’exercer
cette activité dans « la juridiction maritime du département de l’archipel de
San Andrés, Providencia et Santa Catalina », qui englobe « des espaces maritimes
relevant de la [zone économique exclusive] du Nicaragua ».
105. Le Nicaragua invoque en outre certains incidents qui seraient survenus
en mer pour montrer que la Colombie a autorisé et protégé des
316 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (judgment)
54
entific research activities in Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone. Nicaragua
emphasizes that the alleged fishing-related
incidents all occurred “in
or near the Luna Verde area”.
*
106. Colombia contends that Nicaragua’s allegation that it authorized
Colombians and nationals of other States to fish and conduct marine scientific
research activities in Nicaraguan waters is without merit. Regarding
the resolutions issued by DIMAR, Colombia claims that the entity
concerned does not possess the competence to grant fishing licences and
that the resolutions do not grant economic incentives to promote fishing
in Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone. In Colombia’s view, the financial
exemptions it granted comprise only financial relief without authorizing
or encouraging industrial fishing and make no reference to Nicaragua’s
maritime zones.
107. Moreover, Colombia claims that the resolutions issued by the
Governor of the San Andrés Archipelago do not authorize fishing activities
in Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone; they expressly indicate that
the only areas where fishing activities are authorized are Roncador, Serrana,
Quitasueño, Serranilla, Bajo Alicia and Bajo Nuevo, areas which,
according to Colombia, the Court has recognized as lying within Colombia’s
territorial sea and exclusive economic zone. The resolutions do not,
in Colombia’s view, authorize fishing activities in the Luna Verde bank or
in other maritime spaces situated within Nicaragua’s exclusive economic
zone. As regards Nicaragua’s reliance on Resolution No. 4780, Colombia
contends that this resolution is not a fishing permit, that it does not concern
the vessel to which Nicaragua refers, and that the reference in its
preamble to Luna Verde does not purport to grant a licence to fish there.
Colombia further claims that Resolution No. 2465 of 2016 is completely
irrelevant, since it has “nothing to do with the granting of fishing permits
or any Nicaraguan maritime spaces”.
108. In respect of Nicaragua’s claim concerning the Captain KD,
Colombia argues that the authorization for an “integrated commercial
industrial fishing permit” was granted in September 2012, before the maritime
boundary was delimited by the Court, and that Resolution No. 5081
of 22 October 2013 referred to by Nicaragua does not grant authorization
to fish at the Luna Verde bank.
109. As regards the incidents alleged by Nicaragua to demonstrate that
Colombia authorized fishing and marine scientific research in Nicaragua’s
exclusive economic zone, Colombia claims that Nicaragua offers no direct
evidence, or at least no direct evidence whose authenticity Colombia can
confirm. It claims that Colombian vessels that were present at the location
and time that some of the incidents alleged by Nicaragua occurred
droits souverains et espaces maritimes (arrêt) 316
54
activités de pêche et de recherche scientifique marine dans la zone économique
exclusive nicaraguayenne. Il souligne que ces incidents allégués
relatifs à la pêche se sont tous produits « dans le secteur de Luna Verde ou
à proximité de celui‑ci ».
*
106. La Colombie affirme que l’allégation du Nicaragua, qui prétend
qu’elle aurait autorisé des Colombiens et des ressortissants d’autres Etats
à pêcher et à mener des activités de recherche scientifique marine dans les
eaux nicaraguayennes, est dépourvue de fondement. Au sujet des résolutions
de la DIMAR, elle fait valoir que cet organisme n’est pas compétent
pour délivrer des permis de pêche, et que les résolutions en question ne
prévoient pas d’incitations financières pour promouvoir la pêche dans la
zone économique exclusive du Nicaragua. Selon la Colombie, ces résolutions
accordent seulement des exonérations à titre de compensation financière,
sans autoriser ni encourager la pêche industrielle, et ne font aucune
référence aux espaces maritimes du Nicaragua.
107. En outre, la Colombie soutient que les résolutions du gouverneur
de l’archipel de San Andrés n’autorisent pas les activités de pêche dans la
zone économique exclusive du Nicaragua, mais indiquent au contraire
expressément que les seules zones dans lesquelles la pêche est autorisée
sont celles de Roncador, Serrana, Quitasueño, Serranilla, Bajo Alicia et
Bajo Nuevo, zones dont, selon elle, la Cour a reconnu qu’elles faisaient
partie de la mer territoriale et de la zone économique exclusive colombiennes.
Ces résolutions, d’après la Colombie, n’autorisent pas la pêche
dans le banc de Luna Verde ou dans d’autres espaces maritimes situés dans
la zone économique exclusive du Nicaragua. Au sujet de la résolution
no 4780 sur laquelle s’appuie le Nicaragua, la Colombie affirme qu’elle
n’a pas pour effet de délivrer un permis de pêche, qu’elle ne concerne pas le
navire mentionné par le Nicaragua, et que le fait qu’elle cite Luna Verde
dans son préambule n’équivaut pas à autoriser la pêche à cet endroit. Quant
à la résolution no 2465 de 2016, la Colombie avance en outre qu’elle est
dépourvue de toute pertinence puisqu’elle est « sans rapport avec la délivrance
de permis de pêche ou avec les espaces maritimes du Nicaragua ».
108. S’agissant de la réclamation du Nicaragua relative au Captain KD,
la Colombie fait valoir que la délivrance d’un « permis de pêche
industrielle
et commerciale » avait été autorisée en septembre 2012, avant
que la frontière maritime ne soit délimitée par la Cour, et que la résolution
no 5081 du 22 octobre 2013 mentionnée par le Nicaragua n’autorise
pas la pêche dans le banc de Luna Verde.
109. Pour ce qui est des incidents allégués dont le Nicaragua tire grief
pour lui reprocher d’avoir autorisé des activités de pêche et de recherche
scientifique marine dans sa zone économique exclusive, la Colombie fait
valoir que le Nicaragua ne fournit aucun élément de preuve directe, ou,
du moins, aucun dont elle puisse confirmer l’authenticité. Elle affirme que
les navires colombiens qui étaient présents au moment et à l’endroit où se
317 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (judgment)
55
were there in exercise of Colombia’s freedoms of navigation and overflight,
or other internationally lawful uses of the sea.
* *
110. Before turning to the evidence relating to the incidents at sea
alleged by Nicaragua, the Court will first consider the resolutions under
which Nicaragua claims Colombia authorized fishing by Colombian-flagged
and foreign vessels in Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone.
111. The resolutions in question were issued by two Colombian governmental
authorities: DIMAR and the Governor of the San Andrés
Archipelago. According to its resolutions, DIMAR has been conferred
the “function of authorizing the operation of ships and naval craft in
Colombian waters”. While the permits granted by DIMAR to foreign
vessels to stay and operate in the San Andrés Archipelago are subject to
the authorization of the Governor of the San Andrés Archipelago, they
nonetheless constitute an exercise of DIMAR’s function of authorizing
the operation of fishing vessels. The Court cannot dismiss Nicaragua’s
allegation simply on the basis of Colombia’s statement that DIMAR is
not the competent authority to grant such permits without further examining
the evidence before it.
112. The case file shows that since the Court delivered its 2012 Judgment,
DIMAR has annually issued resolutions relating to industrial fishing
in the San Andrés Archipelago. Nicaragua refers to five resolutions:
Resolution No. 0311 of 2013, Resolution No. 305 of 2014, Resolution
No. 0437 of 2015, Resolution No. 0459 of 2016 and Resolution No. 550
of 2017.
113. The preamble of the first resolution states that, given the “negative
economic and social effects” caused by the 2012 Judgment, “it was
deemed necessary to implement special transitory measures applicable to
national and foreign ships that have been engaged in industrial fishing in
said area of the national territory”. On its scope of application, Article 2
of the resolution states: “The provisions of this resolution shall be applicable
exclusively to the following ships dedicated to industrial fishing in
the jurisdiction of the San Andrés and Providencia Harbour Master’s
Offices”.
On the granting of fishing permits for foreign ships, the resolution provides:
“Article 4. Stay-and-operation
permit for foreign ships. The foreign-flag
motor ships listed in Section 2 of Article 2 of this resolution shall
automatically be granted a permit to stay and operate in the jurisdiction
of the San Andrés and Providencia Harbour Master’s Offices
for the term of one year from the entry into force of this resolution,
upon authorization of the office of Secretary of Agriculture and
droits souverains et espaces maritimes (arrêt) 317
55
sont produits certains des incidents allégués par le Nicaragua se trouvaient
là dans l’exercice de ses propres libertés de navigation et de survol
et d’utilisation de la mer à d’autres fins internationalement licites.
* *
110. Avant de passer à l’examen des éléments de preuve relatifs aux
incidents en mer allégués par le Nicaragua, la Cour s’intéressera aux résolutions
par lesquelles la Colombie aurait, selon le Nicaragua, autorisé des
navires battant pavillon colombien et des navires étrangers à pêcher dans
ladite zone.
111. Les résolutions en question émanent de deux autorités du Gouvernement
colombien : la DIMAR et le gouverneur de l’archipel de San
Andrés. La DIMAR indique dans ses résolutions qu’elle a pour « fonction
d’autoriser les activités de navires et d’autres embarcations dans les eaux
colombiennes ». Si les permis qu’elle délivre à des navires étrangers pour
demeurer et pratiquer la pêche dans l’archipel de San Andrés restent
subordonnés à l’autorisation du gouverneur de l’archipel de San Andrés,
ils résultent néanmoins de l’exercice de la fonction qui est la sienne d’autoriser
les activités des navires de pêche. La Cour ne saurait écarter l’allégation
du Nicaragua au seul motif que la Colombie affirme que la DIMAR
n’est pas l’autorité compétente pour délivrer des permis de pêche, sans
avoir examiné plus avant les éléments de preuve versés au dossier.
112. Il ressort du dossier de l’affaire que, depuis que la Cour a rendu
son arrêt de 2012, la DIMAR a publié chaque année des résolutions sur
la pêche industrielle dans l’archipel de San Andrés. Le Nicaragua en mentionne
cinq : la résolution no 0311 de 2013, la résolution no 305 de 2014,
la résolution no 0437 de 2015, la résolution no 0459 de 2016 et la résolution
no 550 de 2017.
113. Il est indiqué dans les considérants de la première résolution que,
compte tenu des « effets économiques et sociaux négatifs » de l’arrêt de
2012, « il est jugé nécessaire d’appliquer certaines mesures transitoires
spéciales aux navires colombiens et étrangers de pêche industrielle qui
exercent leurs activités dans ledit secteur du territoire national ». Au sujet
de son champ d’application, l’article 2 de la résolution indique ce qui suit :
« Les dispositions de la présente résolution sont applicables exclusivement
aux navires ci-
après pratiquant la pêche industrielle dans la juridiction
des capitaineries de San Andrés et de Providencia ».
En ce qui concerne la délivrance de permis de pêche aux navires étrangers,
la résolution dispose ce qui suit :
« Article 4. Permis autorisant les navires étrangers à demeurer dans la
juridiction et à y pratiquer leurs activités. Les navires à moteur battant
pavillon étranger énumérés au paragraphe 2 de l’article 2 de la présente
résolution se voient automatiquement accorder un permis qui les
autorise à demeurer dans la juridiction des capitaineries de San Andrés
et de Providencia et à y pratiquer leurs activités pendant une durée
318 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (judgment)
56
Fishing
of the Government of San Andrés, Providencia and Santa
Ca[ta]lina.”
114. Among the “special transitory measures” provided for by the resolution
are payment exemptions granted to the national and foreign ships
listed therein (Art. 3). The content of Article 2 and Article 4 of Resolution
No. 0311 of 2013, and an exemption from payment of certain fees,
were consistently reaffirmed in subsequent resolutions.
115. With regard to the financial exemptions, the Court considers that,
for the purposes of the present case, it is unnecessary to determine whether
such measures granted by the Colombian Government “authorize” or
“encourage” industrial fishing, as alleged by Nicaragua, or whether they
comprise only financial relief to serve the objectives of the resolution, as
claimed by Colombia. Insomuch as the jurisdiction of the San Andrés
and Providencia Harbour Master’s Offices accords with the maritime
boundary between the Parties, measures taken under the resolution are
matters that rest within the jurisdiction of Colombia. The critical issue for
the Court to determine is the geographical scope of the fishing authorizations
granted by the Colombian Government.
116. The Court observes that neither of the above-mentioned
articles
nor any other provisions contained in the DIMAR resolutions specify the
extent of “the jurisdiction of the San Andrés and Providencia Harbour
Master’s Offices”, a crucial issue for the purposes of the present case. On
the basis of the resolutions themselves, the Court cannot determine
whether the geographical scope of the area in which the listed fishing vessels
were authorized to operate extends into Nicaragua’s maritime area.
Therefore, the Court must examine other evidence before it, including the
resolutions issued by the Governor of the San Andrés Archipelago.
117. The documents submitted by Nicaragua include five resolutions
issued by the Governor of the San Andrés Archipelago: Resolution
No. 5081 of 22 October 2013, Resolution No. 4997 of 10 November 2014,
Resolution No. 4356 of 1 September 2015, Resolution No. 4780 of
24 September 2015, and Resolution No. 2465 of 30 June 2016, each of
which specifies the fishing zones for the fishing operations. In Resolution
No. 4356 of 2015, the relevant fishing zone is described as comprising “all
of the banks (Roncador, Serrana and Quitasueño, and Serranilla) and
Shoals (Alicia and Nuevo), and the zone where fishing is permitted by the
laws, which includes our [Colombia’s] island territory and authorized
fishing zones”. Resolution No. 4997 of 2014 provides the same, with the
addition of “zones where [activities for extraction of Fishery Resources
are] permitted by . . . fishing regulations, and system [sic] of Protected
Marine Areas that apply in the Department for Industrial Fishing”. The
fishing zone in Resolution No. 2465 of 2016 is described as “the territory
that is within the jurisdiction of the Department of the Archipelago of
San Andrés, Providencia and Santa Catalina”. The scope of jurisdiction
is not defined more clearly in these three resolutions than it is in the afore-
droits souverains et espaces maritimes (arrêt) 318
56
d’un an à compter de l’entrée en vigueur de la présente résolution, sous
réserve de l’autorisation du secrétariat de l’agriculture et de la pêche
du gouvernement de San Andrés, Providencia et Santa Ca[ta]lina. »
114. Parmi les « mesures transitoires spéciales » prévues par la résolution
figurent des exonérations de taxes accordées aux bateaux nationaux
et étrangers qui y sont énumérés (art. 3). La teneur des articles 2 et 4 de
la résolution no 0311 de 2013 ainsi que l’exonération de certaines taxes
ont été systématiquement reprises dans les résolutions suivantes.
115. En ce qui concerne les exonérations de taxes, la Cour estime qu’il
n’est pas nécessaire, aux fins de l’espèce, de déterminer si les mesures ainsi
accordées par le Gouvernement colombien « autorisent » ou « encouragent
» la pêche industrielle, comme le soutient le Nicaragua, ou si elles
consistent seulement en une compensation financière servant les objectifs
de la résolution, comme l’affirme la Colombie. Pour autant que la juridiction
de la capitainerie du port de San Andrés et Providencia soit conforme
à la frontière maritime entre les Parties, les mesures prises en application
de la résolution relèvent de la compétence de la Colombie. La question
essentielle que la Cour doit trancher est celle de la portée géographique
des autorisations de pêche accordées par le Gouvernement colombien.
116. La Cour note que ni les articles susmentionnés ni les autres dispositions
des résolutions de la DIMAR ne précisent l’étendue de « la juridiction
de la capitainerie du port de San Andrés et Providencia », qui est une
question cruciale aux fins de la présente espèce. La Cour ne peut, sur la
seule base desdites résolutions, déterminer si l’étendue géographique du
secteur dans lequel les navires énumérés sont autorisés à pêcher empiète
sur l’espace maritime nicaraguayen. Elle doit donc examiner les autres
éléments de preuve versés au dossier, dont les résolutions publiées par le
gouverneur de l’archipel de San Andrés.
117. Cinq résolutions du gouverneur de l’archipel de San Andrés figurent
parmi les documents présentés par le Nicaragua : la résolution no 5081 du
22 octobre 2013, la résolution no 4997 du 10 novembre 2014, la résolution
no 4356 du 1er septembre 2015, la résolution no 4780 du 24 septembre
2015 et la résolution no 2465 du 30 juin 2016, qui précisent chacune les
zones des activités de pêche. Dans la résolution no 4356 de 2015, la zone de
pêche concernée est décrite comme englobant « tous les bancs (Roncador,
Serrana et Quitasueño, et Serranilla) et hauts-fonds (Alicia et Nuevo), et le
secteur où la pêche est autorisée par la législation, ce qui inclut [le] territoire
insulaire et les zones autorisées à la pêche [de la Colombie] ». La résolution
no 4997 de 2014 contient des dispositions analogues, mentionnant en
outre les « zones dans lesquelles [les activités d’extraction de ressources
halieutiques] sont autorisées par … la réglementation en la matière, et le
régime des zones marines protégées applicable au département en ce qui
concerne la pêche industrielle ». Dans la résolution no 2465 de 2016, la zone
de pêche est décrite comme « le territoire relevant de la juridiction du département
de l’archipel de San Andrés, Providencia et Santa Catalina ». La
portée de la juridiction n’est pas définie plus clairement dans ces trois réso-
319 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (judgment)
57
mentioned DIMAR resolutions. In Resolution No. 5081 of 22 October
2013 and Resolution No. 4780 of 24 September 2015, however, the fishing
zone is described more precisely.
118. In Resolution No. 5081 of 22 October 2013, the fishing zone is
defined as follows:
“All banks (Roncador, Serrana y Quitasue[ñ]o, Serranilla) and
Shallows (Alicia and Nuevo), and the area known as La Esquina or
Luna Verde, which encompasses our insular territory and fishing
zones; nonetheless, protected areas and fisheries regulations of the
department and fisheries legislation must be respected.”
The fishing zone in Resolution No. 4780 contains the same reference to
“the area known as . . . La Esquina or Luna Verde, which includes our
[Colombia’s] island territory and fishing zones”.
119. As previously noted, the fishing ground at La Esquina or Luna
Verde is located in Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone as delimited by
the 2012 Judgment. The express inclusion of “La Esquina or Luna Verde”
in the fishing zone described in resolutions issued by the Governor of the
San Andrés Archipelago after the 2012 Judgment suggests that Colombia
continues to assert the right to authorize fishing activities in parts of
Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone.
*
120. In light of the above consideration of Colombia’s relevant resolutions,
the Court will now examine the alleged incidents at sea to determine
whether Colombia authorized fishing activities and marine scientific
research in Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone.
The alleged incident of 13-14 February 2014
121. Nicaragua claims that, on 13 February 2014, the Nicaraguan vessel
Tayacán, while on patrol at 14° 48ʹ 00ʺ N and 81° 36ʹ 00ʺ W, saw personnel
from the Colombian frigate ARC Almirante Padilla board the
Blu Sky, a Honduran-flagged
fishing vessel. According to Nicaragua,
when the Tayacán communicated with the Blu Sky on the next day in the
vicinity of 14° 56ʹ 00ʺ N and 81° 35ʹ 00ʺ W, the captain of the Blu Sky
informed the Tayacán that he had received authorization by Colombia to
fish there. In respect of these allegations, Nicaragua relies on the report
attached to the letter from the Nicaraguan Naval Force to the Ministry of
Foreign Affairs dated 26 August 2014.
122. In response, Colombia asserts that Nicaragua was unaffected by
the boarding of the fishing vessel, since Nicaragua is not the flag State of
the vessel and since Nicaragua did not license it. By reference to two reso-
droits souverains et espaces maritimes (arrêt) 319
57
lutions que dans les résolutions susmentionnées
de la DIMAR. Toutefois,
les résolutions no 5081 du 22 octobre 2013 et no 4780 du 24 septembre 2015
décrivent plus précisément la zone de pêche.
118. Dans la résolution no 5081 du 22 octobre 2013, la zone de pêche
est définie comme suit :
« Tous les bancs (Roncador, Serrana et Quitasue[ñ]o, et Serranilla),
et hauts-fonds (Alicia et Nuevo), et la zone appelée La Esquina ou
Luna Verde, qui inclut notre territoire insulaire et les zones de pêche ;
cependant, les zones protégées, la réglementation du département en
matière de pêche et la législation sur la pêche doivent être respectées. »
La zone de pêche visée par la résolution no 4780 contient la même référence
au « secteur appelé La Esquina ou Luna Verde, ce qui inclut [le]
territoire insulaire et les zones [de] pêche [de la Colombie] ».
119. Comme il a été indiqué précédemment, le banc de pêche de La
Esquina ou Luna Verde se situe dans la zone économique exclusive du
Nicaragua telle que délimitée par l’arrêt de 2012. L’inclusion expresse de
« La Esquina ou Luna Verde » dans la zone de pêche décrite dans des résolutions
publiées par le gouverneur de l’archipel de San Andrés après l’arrêt
de 2012 semble montrer que la Colombie continue de faire valoir le
droit d’autoriser des activités de pêche dans certaines parties de la zone
économique exclusive du Nicaragua.
*
120. Compte tenu de l’analyse ci-
dessus
des résolutions pertinentes de
la Colombie, la Cour examinera à présent les incidents qui se seraient
produits en mer pour déterminer si la Colombie a autorisé des activités de
pêche et de recherche scientifique marine dans la zone économique exclusive
du Nicaragua.
L’incident allégué des 13-14 février 2014
121. Le Nicaragua affirme que, le 13 février 2014, un bâtiment nicaraguayen,
le Tayacán, avait vu, alors qu’il patrouillait par 14° 48ʹ 00ʺ de
latitude nord et 81° 36ʹ 00ʺ de longitude ouest, des membres de l’équipage
de la frégate colombienne l’ARC Almirante Padilla monter à bord du
Blu Sky, un navire de pêche battant pavillon hondurien. Selon le Nicaragua,
le lendemain, lorsque le Tayacán, qui croisait alors par 14° 56ʹ 00ʺ de
latitude nord et 81° 35ʹ 00ʺ de longitude ouest, était entré en communication
avec le Blu Sky, le capitaine de ce navire l’avait informé que la
Colombie l’avait autorisé à pêcher à cet endroit. Le Nicaragua fonde ces
allégations sur le rapport joint à la lettre du 26 août 2014 adressée par la
marine nicaraguayenne au ministère des affaires étrangères.
122. En réponse, la Colombie fait valoir que l’intervention à bord du
navire de pêche n’a eu aucune conséquence pour le Nicaragua, celui-
ci
n’étant ni l’Etat du pavillon ni l’autorité ayant délivré le permis de pêche.
320 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (judgment)
58
lutions issued by the Governor of the San Andrés Archipelago, the
Respondent claims that the alleged “fishing permits granted by
Colombia”
do not in fact grant fishing rights in Luna Verde or in any
other area of Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone and that, therefore,
the contention that Colombia authorized the Blu Sky to fish in that zone
is false.
The alleged incident of 23 March 2015
123. Nicaragua claims that, on 23 March 2015, when one of its coast
guard vessels, located at 14° 40ʹ 00ʺ N and 81° 45ʹ 00ʺ W, observed the
Honduran-flagged
fishing vessel Lucky Lady and asked it under whose
authority it was fishing, the Colombian frigate ARC Independiente intervened,
stating that “[the] Lucky Lady is under the protection of the government
of Colombia” and that Colombia does not abide by the Court’s
2012 Judgment. In relation to this alleged incident, Nicaragua relies on an
audio recording and the daily reports of its Navy.
124. For its part, Colombia claims that the timing and location of this
alleged incident cannot be established from Nicaragua’s audio recording.
Moreover, in denying that it granted any official authorization to fish in
Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone, Colombia refers to a sailing record
in which it granted the Lucky Lady, destined for the Northern Islands,
permission to leave a Colombian port.
The alleged incident of 12 September 2015
125. Referring to audio recordings and the daily reports of its Navy,
Nicaragua further claims that, on 12 September 2015, when Nicaragua’s
Navy vessel the Tayacán encountered the Tanzanian‑flagged industrial
fishing vessel Miss Dolores at 14° 54ʹ 00ʺ N and 81° 28ʹ 00ʺ W, a nearby
Colombian frigate asked the Tayacán to stay away from the Miss Dolores,
stating that the Tayacán had not been authorized by Colombia “to
exercise visitation rights on the Miss Dolores flagship of Tanzania, which
is fishing for the Colombian government”.
126. Regarding this alleged incident, Colombia asserts that its circumstances,
date and location cannot be ascertained from Nicaragua’s audio
recordings. Colombia also claims that, even if the audio recordings submitted
by Nicaragua were authentic, they would confirm Nicaragua’s
attempt to claim sovereignty over maritime spaces in which international
law only grants it limited sovereign rights, since they suggest that a Nicaraguan
officer claimed to be “exercising sovereignty” in the waters in
question.
droits souverains et espaces maritimes (arrêt) 320
58
Se référant à deux résolutions adoptées par le gouverneur de l’archipel de
San Andrés, la défenderesse affirme que les prétendus « permis de pêche
délivrés par [elle] » ne donnent en fait pas le droit de pêcher dans le secteur
de Luna Verde ni dans aucune autre partie de la zone économique
exclusive du Nicaragua, et qu’il est donc faux qu’elle ait autorisé le
Blu Sky à y pêcher.
L’incident allégué du 23 mars 2015
123. Le Nicaragua affirme que, le 23 mars 2015, lorsqu’un de ses
navires garde-côtes, qui croisait par 14° 40ʹ 00ʺ de latitude nord et
81° 45ʹ 00ʺ de longitude ouest, avait repéré le Lucky Lady, navire de pêche
battant pavillon hondurien, et lui avait demandé quelle autorité l’avait
autorisé à pêcher à cet endroit, la frégate colombienne l’ARC Independiente
était intervenue en indiquant que « le Lucky Lady [étai]t sous la
protection du Gouvernement colombien » et que la Colombie ne se
conformait pas à l’arrêt de 2012. S’agissant de cet incident allégué, le
Nicaragua se fonde sur un enregistrement audio et sur les rapports quotidiens
de la marine nicaraguayenne.
124. La Colombie affirme quant à elle que l’enregistrement audio du
Nicaragua ne permet pas de savoir où et quand l’incident allégué avait eu
lieu. En outre, pour montrer qu’elle n’avait pas accordé au Lucky Lady
une quelconque autorisation officielle de pêcher dans la zone économique
exclusive du Nicaragua, elle produit un document de navigation indiquant
qu’elle autorisait seulement ce navire, qui se rendait aux îles du
Nord, à quitter un port colombien.
L’incident allégué du 12 septembre 2015
125. S’appuyant sur des enregistrements audio et les rapports quotidiens
de sa marine, le Nicaragua affirme également que, le 12 septembre
2015, lorsque le Tayacán, bâtiment nicaraguayen, avait rencontré le Miss
Dolores, navire de pêche industrielle battant pavillon tanzanien, par
14° 54ʹ 00ʺ de latitude nord et 81° 28ʹ 00ʺ de longitude ouest, une frégate
colombienne qui naviguait à proximité lui avait demandé de rester à l’écart
du Miss Dolores, en lui rappelant qu’il n’était pas autorisé par la Colombie
« à exercer des droits de visite sur le Miss Dolores battant pavillon tanzanien,
qui pêch[ait] pour le compte du Gouvernement colombien ».
126. A ce sujet, la Colombie affirme que les enregistrements audio du
Nicaragua ne permettent pas de savoir où, quand et dans quelles circonstances
l’incident allégué avait eu lieu. Elle avance en outre que, même à
supposer qu’ils soient authentiques, ces enregistrements audio ne font que
confirmer que le demandeur tente de revendiquer la souveraineté sur des
espaces maritimes où le droit international ne lui reconnaît que des droits
souverains limités, puisqu’il semble qu’un officier nicaraguayen y déclare
se trouver dans les eaux en question dans « l’exercice de la souveraineté [de
son pays] ».
321 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (judgment)
59
The alleged incidents of 12 and 13 January 2016
127. Relying on audio recordings and the daily reports of its Navy,
Nicaragua makes allegations concerning incidents involving the
Honduran-flagged
fishing vessel the Observer on 12 and 13 January 2016.
More specifically, Nicaragua claims that, on 12 January 2016, the commander
of one of its coast guard vessels, located at 14° 41ʹ 00ʺ N and
81° 41ʹ 00ʺ W, ordered the Observer to stop fishing there, to which the
Observer replied that the Colombian authorities allowed it to fish in that
area and indeed “ordered [it] to come and work here”. Nicaragua claims
that, later that day, its coast guard vessel attempted to hail the Observer
after seeing it fish in the same area with the protection of a Colombian
frigate, and that the Colombian frigate intervened, stating that the
Observer was authorized by the Colombian maritime authority to fish in
the area. Nicaragua alleges that the Colombian frigate gave a similar
response the next day, when the Nicaraguan vessel informed the frigate
that the Observer, located at 14° 42ʹ 27ʺ N and 81° 42ʹ 39ʺ W, had to leave
the area.
128. With respect to these alleged events, Colombia claims, on the
basis of a Note Verbale from the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Colombia
to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Nicaragua dated 1 February 2016,
that Nicaraguan patrol boats were observed “on 11 and 12 January
2016 — . . . not on 12 and 13 January” and that “communications
between the vessels were conducted in an amicable and professional manner”.
Colombia refers also to the fact that, if authentic, the audio recordings
would confirm Nicaragua’s attempt to claim sovereignty over
maritime spaces in which international law only grants it limited sovereign
rights, given the latter’s reported reference to “Nicaraguan territorial
waters”, among other similar statements.
The alleged incidents of 6 January 2017
129. On the basis of an audio recording and the daily reports of its
Navy, Nicaragua claims that, on 6 January 2017, the Honduran-flagged
fishing vessel Capitán Geovanie refused to follow an order by the Nicaraguan
Navy vessel Tayacán to leave Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone
and that a Colombian frigate then announced that it was in the Archipelago
of San Andrés and Providencia to guarantee the security of all
vessels present in the area, before asking the Capitán Geovanie whether
the Tayacán was interfering with its work and telling the Capitán Geovanie
to continue its fishing in “historically Colombian waters”. Nicaragua
further alleges that the Colombian frigate told the Nicaraguan vessel
not to attempt to board or prevent the fishing activities of the Capitán
Geovanie, adding that the fishing vessel “is authorized by the Colombian
maritime authority”. Nicaragua claims, also on the basis of an audio
droits souverains et espaces maritimes (arrêt) 321
59
Les incidents allégués des 12 et 13 janvier 2016
127. S’appuyant sur des enregistrements audio et les rapports quotidiens
de sa marine, le Nicaragua formule des allégations relatives aux
incidents des 12 et 13 janvier 2016 concernant l’Observer, navire de pêche
battant pavillon hondurien. Plus précisément, il soutient que, le 12 janvier
2016, le commandant de l’un de ses navires garde-côtes, croisant par
14° 41ʹ 00ʺ de latitude nord et 81° 41ʹ 00ʺ de longitude ouest, avait
ordonné à l’Observer de cesser de pêcher à cet endroit, ce à quoi ce dernier
aurait répondu que les autorités colombiennes lui avaient permis
d’opérer dans cette zone et même « ordonné de venir travailler [là] ». Le
Nicaragua affirme que, plus tard le même jour, le garde‑côtes avait tenté
d’entrer en communication avec l’Observer après l’avoir aperçu en train
de pêcher dans la même zone sous la protection d’une frégate colombienne,
et que celle-
ci était intervenue pour déclarer que l’Observer était
autorisé par les autorités maritimes colombiennes à pêcher dans la zone.
Le Nicaragua allègue que la frégate colombienne avait donné une réponse
similaire le lendemain, lorsque le garde-côtes nicaraguayen lui avait fait
savoir que l’Observer, qui se trouvait par 14° 42ʹ 27ʺ de latitude nord et
81° 42ʹ 39ʺ de longitude ouest, devait quitter la zone.
128. A propos de ces incidents allégués, la Colombie fait valoir, en se
référant à une note verbale du 1er février 2016 adressée par le ministère
colombien des affaires étrangères à son homologue nicaraguayen, que des
patrouilleurs nicaraguayens avaient été aperçus « les 11 et 12 janvier 2016
— et non les 12 et 13 » et que « les communications entre les navires
s’étaient déroulées de manière amicale et professionnelle ». La Colombie
fait observer en outre que les enregistrements audio, à supposer qu’ils
soient authentiques, ne font que confirmer que le Nicaragua tente de
revendiquer la souveraineté sur des espaces maritimes où le droit international
ne lui reconnaît que des droits souverains limités, puisqu’il aurait
fait référence aux « eaux territoriales nicaraguayennes », entre autres
déclarations du même ordre.
Les incidents allégués du 6 janvier 2017
129. Sur la base également d’un enregistrement audio et des rapports
quotidiens de sa marine, le Nicaragua affirme que, le 6 janvier 2017, le
Capitán Geovanie, navire de pêche battant pavillon hondurien, avait
refusé d’obtempérer lorsque le Tayacán, bâtiment de la marine nicaraguayenne,
lui avait ordonné de quitter la zone économique exclusive nicaraguayenne
et qu’une frégate colombienne était alors intervenue, déclarant
qu’elle croisait dans l’archipel de San Andrés et Providencia pour garantir
la sécurité de tous les navires qui s’y trouvaient avant de demander au
Capitán Geovanie si le Tayacán l’empêchait de travailler et de l’encourager
à poursuivre ses activités de pêche dans les « eaux appartenant historiquement
à la Colombie ». Le Nicaragua affirme en outre que la frégate
colombienne avait enjoint au bâtiment nicaraguayen de ne pas chercher à
arraisonner le Capitán Geovanie ou à l’empêcher de mener ses activités de
322 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (judgment)
60
recording and the daily reports of its Navy, that the Colombian frigate
informed two other Honduran-flagged
and Colombian-authorized
fishing
vessels, the Observer and the Amex, located at 14° 43ʹ 00ʺ N and
81° 45ʹ 00ʺ W and 14° 48ʹ 00ʺ N and 81° 42ʹ 00ʺ W respectively, that it
would remain in the area for their safety.
130. In response, Colombia claims that some of the audio recordings
submitted by Nicaragua contain no indication as to when or where the
alleged incidents occurred. Moreover, Colombia claims that the audio
recordings do not support Nicaragua’s allegation that Colombia authorized
those fishing vessels to fish in Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone.
As regards the Capitán Geovanie, Colombia refers to the audio recording
submitted by Nicaragua in support of its claim that the Capitán Geovanie
left San Andrés with a specific sailing record, which, according to Colombia,
indicates that authorization was given for fishing only in the Northern
Islands, not in Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone. As regards
Nicaragua’s allegations concerning the other two vessels, Colombia
claims that the alleged Colombian officer merely stated that they were
watching over the safety of the vessels and that, in exercising its internationally
lawful uses of the sea, Colombia “provides security to vessels of
all nationalities” (emphasis in the original). Colombia further contends
that Nicaragua’s assertions concerning the alleged incidents on that day
are implausible. Colombia states that given the meteorological conditions
at the time it is difficult to believe that there were several vessels fishing so
far from land.
* *
131. The evidence presented by the Parties is largely based on the same
type of materials as described above (paras. 65-68). The Court considers
that the evidence reveals at least three facts. First, the fishing vessels allegedly
authorized by Colombia did engage in fishing activities in Nicaragua’s
exclusive economic zone during the relevant time. In this regard, the
Court notes that the six foreign fishing vessels involved in the alleged incidents
summarized above were identified by name in some of the resolutions
of DIMAR and of the Governor of the San Andrés Archipelago.
Secondly, such fishing activities were often conducted under the protection
of Colombian frigates, a fact that Colombia does not deny. Thirdly,
Colombia recognizes that the Luna Verde area is in Nicaragua’s exclusive
economic zone.
132. The Court considers that Colombia’s responses to Nicaragua’s
allegations are not entirely convincing. Colombia’s response that Nicara-
droits souverains et espaces maritimes (arrêt) 322
60
pêche, ajoutant que ce dernier avait été « autorisé [à pêcher] par les autorités
maritimes colombiennes ». Il soutient également, toujours au vu d’un
enregistrement audio et des rapports quotidiens de sa marine, que la frégate
colombienne avait informé deux autres navires de pêche battant
pavillon hondurien et titulaires d’une autorisation délivrée par les autorités
colombiennes, l’Observer et l’Amex, qui croisaient par 14° 43ʹ 00ʺ de
latitude nord et 81° 45ʹ 00ʺ de longitude ouest et par 14° 48ʹ 00ʺ de latitude
nord et 81° 42ʹ 00ʺ de longitude ouest, respectivement, qu’elle restait
dans le secteur pour assurer leur sécurité.
130. En réponse, la Colombie affirme que certains des enregistrements
audio versés au dossier par le Nicaragua ne contiennent aucune information
sur le moment ou l’endroit où les incidents allégués s’étaient produits.
Elle fait valoir en outre que les enregistrements n’attestent pas
qu’elle ait autorisé les navires en question à pêcher dans la zone économique
exclusive du Nicaragua, comme le prétend ce dernier. S’agissant du
Capitán Geovanie, elle se réfère à l’enregistrement audio produit par le
demandeur pour montrer que ce navire avait quitté San Andrés avec un
document de navigation précis qui indique, selon elle, qu’il n’était autorisé
à pêcher que dans les îles du Nord, et non dans la zone économique
exclusive nicaraguayenne. Au sujet des allégations concernant les deux
autres navires, la Colombie soutient que l’officier colombien qui serait
intervenu avait simplement déclaré que la frégate se trouvait dans le secteur
pour veiller à la sécurité des navires, et que, lorsqu’elle utilisait la mer
à des fins internationalement licites, elle « assur[ait] … la sécurité des
bateaux de toutes les nationalités » (les italiques sont dans l’original). Elle
estime en outre que les allégations du Nicaragua concernant des incidents
survenus le jour en question ne sont pas crédibles, car au vu des conditions
météorologiques qui régnaient, il est difficile de croire que plusieurs
navires pêchaient si loin en mer.
* *
131. Les éléments de preuve produits par les deux Parties consistent en
grande partie en des documents du même type que ceux décrits précédemment
(par. 65-68). La Cour estime que ces éléments font apparaître au
moins trois faits. Premièrement, des navires de pêche supposément autorisés
par la Colombie pratiquaient des activités de pêche dans la zone
économique exclusive du Nicaragua à la période concernée. A cet égard,
la Cour note que les six navires de pêche étrangers impliqués dans les
incidents allégués mentionnés ci-
dessus
sont identifiés nommément dans
certaines des résolutions de la DIMAR et du gouverneur de l’archipel de
San Andrés. Deuxièmement, ces activités de pêche étaient souvent menées
sous la protection de frégates colombiennes, ce que la Colombie ne
conteste pas. Troisièmement, cette dernière reconnaît que le secteur de
Luna Verde se trouve dans la zone économique exclusive du Nicaragua.
132. La Cour estime que les réponses fournies par la Colombie au sujet
des allégations du Nicaragua ne sont pas entièrement convaincantes. La
323 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (judgment)
61
gua attempted to claim sovereignty over maritime spaces does not provide
a legal basis for Colombia to claim a right to authorize fishing in
Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone (see Colombia’s responses to the
alleged incidents of 12 September 2015 and of 12 and 13 January 2016).
Nicaragua’s efforts to prevent and stop fishing activities authorized by
Colombia in Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone are a legitimate exercise
of its sovereign rights and jurisdiction, to which it is entitled under
customary international law. Moreover, the evidence demonstrates that
Colombian frigates not only explicitly stated that the fishing vessels were
authorized by the Colombian maritime authority to fish in the area but
they also, in unequivocal terms, informed Nicaraguan naval vessels that
those fishing ships were “under the protection of the government of
Colombia”. Colombia, in its responses to Nicaragua’s allegations, denies
that it authorized fishing activities in Nicaragua’s exclusive economic
zone. It does not, however, explain why its naval frigates constantly
asserted their authority to protect those fishing activities purportedly
unauthorized in Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone when Nicaraguan
naval vessels intervened as to such fishing activities on the basis that they
were not authorized by Nicaragua. The conduct of Colombian naval frigates,
which is attributable to Colombia, confirms that Colombian authorization
of fishing activities extended to the maritime area that now
appertains to Nicaragua.
133. As regards Colombia’s alleged authorization of marine scientific
research in Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone, the Court cannot find in
the resolutions before it any express reference to authorization of marine
scientific research operations. Without other credible evidence to corroborate
Nicaragua’s claim in this regard, the Court cannot draw a conclusion
from the available evidence that Colombia also authorized marine
scientific research in Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone.
134. On the basis of the above considerations, the Court concludes
that Colombia has violated Nicaragua’s sovereign rights and jurisdiction
in its exclusive economic zone by authorizing vessels to conduct fishing
activities in Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone.
3. Colombia’s alleged oil exploration licensing
135. In its Reply, Nicaragua claims that Colombia, through its
National Hydrocarbon Agency (hereinafter the “ANH”), offered and
awarded “hydrocarbon blocks encompassing parts of Nicaragua’s [exclusive
economic zone]”, thereby violating Nicaragua’s sovereign rights.
Nicaragua asserts in particular that, according to an ANH list and a map
of hydrocarbon blocks, in 2010 the ANH offered 11 blocks in areas that
at least in part encroach on Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone (blocks
droits souverains et espaces maritimes (arrêt) 323
61
Colombie a ainsi fait valoir que le Nicaragua tentait de revendiquer la
souveraineté sur des espaces maritimes, mais cela ne lui donne pas un
fondement juridique pour revendiquer elle-même le droit d’autoriser la
pêche dans la zone exclusive économique nicaraguayenne (voir les
réponses de la Colombie au sujet des incidents qui auraient eu lieu le
12 septembre 2015 et les 12 et 13 janvier 2016). Les tentatives du Nicaragua
pour empêcher les activités de pêche autorisées par la Colombie dans
la zone économique exclusive nicaraguayenne sont des manifestations de
l’exercice légitime, par cet Etat, des droits souverains et de la juridiction
que lui reconnaît le droit international coutumier. En outre, les éléments
de preuve montrent que des frégates colombiennes non seulement ont
déclaré expressément que les navires de pêche étaient autorisés par les
autorités maritimes colombiennes à pêcher dans la zone, mais ont aussi
informé, en des termes sans équivoque, les bâtiments de la marine nicaraguayenne
que ces bateaux de pêche se trouvaient « sous la protection du
Gouvernement colombien ». Face aux allégations du Nicaragua, la
Colombie dément avoir autorisé les activités de pêche dans la zone économique
exclusive nicaraguayenne. Cependant, elle n’explique pas pourquoi
ses frégates ont constamment affirmé être habilitées à protéger de telles
activités supposément non autorisées dans cette zone, lorsque les forces
navales nicaraguayennes intervenaient pour les faire cesser parce qu’elles
n’étaient pas autorisées par le Nicaragua. Le comportement des frégates
colombiennes, qui est attribuable à la Colombie, confirme que l’autorisation
des activités de pêche donnée par la Colombie s’étendait à l’espace
maritime qui appartient maintenant au Nicaragua.
133. Pour ce qui est des activités de recherche scientifique marine qui
auraient été autorisées par la Colombie dans la zone économique exclusive
du Nicaragua, la Cour n’en trouve aucune mention explicite dans les
résolutions dont elle dispose. En l’absence d’autres éléments crédibles qui
permettraient de corroborer le grief du Nicaragua à cet égard, elle ne peut
conclure, au vu du dossier, que la Colombie ait aussi autorisé des activités
de recherche scientifique marine dans la zone économique exclusive nicaraguayenne.
134. Sur la base des considérations qui précèdent, la Cour conclut que
la Colombie a violé les droits souverains et la juridiction dont jouit le
Nicaragua dans sa zone économique exclusive en autorisant des navires à
y pratiquer des activités de pêche.
3. La délivrance alléguée de permis d’exploration pétrolière par la Colombie
135. Le Nicaragua prétend, dans sa réplique, que la Colombie, par
l’intermédiaire de son Agence nationale des hydrocarbures (ci-
après
dénommée l’« ANH »), a proposé et accordé « des concessions d’hydrocarbures
englobant des portions de la zone économique exclusive nicaraguayenne
», violant, ce faisant, ses droits souverains. Se fondant sur une
liste et une carte établies par l’ANH, il affirme en particulier que, en 2010,
cet organisme avait ouvert à concession 11 blocs dans des zones empié-
324 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (judgment)
62
Nos. 3050 to 3057 and 3059 to 3061, named CAYOS 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 10,
11, 12, 13, and 14), and awarded two blocks (Nos. 3050 and 3059) to a
consortium made up of Ecopetrol (Colombia), Repsol (Spain) and YPF
(Argentina), although the relevant contracts have yet to be signed. As for
the remaining nine blocks, Nicaragua contends that the ANH’s list and
its map of hydrocarbon blocks in 2017 continue to indicate that those
blocks are “available” for licensing.
136. Nicaragua admits that an additional submission modifying substantially
the requests in the Application would be inadmissible, but
maintains that facts and legal considerations on the petroleum blocks are
used to give detail to Nicaragua’s initial requests. In its view, they constitute
an “argument” rather than a “new claim”.
*
137. With regard to Nicaragua’s claim relating to oil exploration
licensing, Colombia first raises the question of admissibility. It maintains
that, as Nicaragua has submitted the issue concerning petroleum blocks
for the first time in the Reply, this claim is inadmissible. According to
Colombia, the claim is neither implicit in Nicaragua’s Application or
Memorial, nor does it “arise directly out of the question that is the
subject-matter
of the Application”. Colombia also contends that the
claim was submitted “at a time when the Respondent is no longer able to
assert preliminary objections”.
138. Colombia argues that even if the claim were admissible, it has no
merit. Colombia asserts that in 2011 it suspended all offshore petroleum
blocks that were licensed before the Court’s 2012 Judgment and has not
signed or pursued any new contracts. According to Colombia, its courts
have prohibited all petroleum activities within the Seaflower Biosphere
Reserve. With regard to the remaining blocks referred to by Nicaragua
based on a map from the ANH dated 17 February 2017, Colombia argues
that the evidence is inadmissible, because it concerns a subject‑matter different
from the claims contained in the Application and falls outside the
temporal jurisdiction of the Court. Colombia contends that even if the
Court were to take account of the map in question, it does not show any
violation of Nicaragua’s sovereign rights. Colombia asserts that none of
those blocks have been the object of any implementation process, and
that, accordingly, there is no existing contract or proposal for the blocks
in question, nor could there be. Colombia also alleges that Nicaragua
itself has admitted that no such contracts have been issued.
* *
139. The Court will first address the admissibility of Nicaragua’s claim
concerning Colombia’s alleged oil exploration licensing.
droits souverains et espaces maritimes (arrêt) 324
62
tant, à tout le moins en partie, sur la zone économique exclusive nicaraguayenne
(blocs numérotés 3050 à 3057 et 3059 à 3061, et baptisés
CAYOS 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 10, 11, 12, 13 et 14) et attribué deux d’entre eux
(les numéros 3050 et 3059) à un consortium regroupant Ecopetrol
(Colombie), Repsol (Espagne) et YPF (Argentine), quoique les contrats
correspondants n’aient pas été signés à ce jour. Quant aux neuf blocs restants,
ils continuaient, selon le Nicaragua, d’être présentés comme « disponibles
» sur la liste et la carte de l’ANH de 2017.
136. Le Nicaragua admet qu’une conclusion supplémentaire modifiant
substantiellement des demandes énoncées dans la requête serait irrecevable,
mais soutient que les faits et considérations juridiques exposés relativement
aux permis pétroliers l’ont été pour préciser ses demandes initiales. Selon
lui, ils appuient un « argument » et non une « nouvelle réclamation ».
*
137. S’agissant de la demande du Nicaragua en ce qu’elle a trait à la délivrance
de permis d’exploration pétrolière, la Colombie commence par soulever
la question de la recevabilité. Elle soutient que, le Nicaragua l’ayant
formulée pour la première fois dans sa réplique, cette demande est irrecevable.
Selon la Colombie, la demande en question n’est pas implicitement contenue
dans la requête ou le mémoire du Nicaragua, et elle ne découle pas non plus
« directement de la question qui fait l’objet de la requête ». La Colombie argue
également que cette demande a été soumise « à un moment où le défendeur
n’[étai]t plus en mesure de soulever des exceptions préliminaires ».
138. La Colombie fait valoir que cette demande, quand bien même elle
serait recevable, serait dépourvue de fondement. Elle indique qu’en 2011
elle a suspendu l’ensemble des concessions pétrolières qui avaient été accordées
en mer avant que la Cour ne rende son arrêt en 2012, et qu’elle n’a pas
signé ni exécuté de contrats depuis lors ; ses tribunaux ont par ailleurs interdit
toute activité pétrolière dans la réserve de biosphère Seaflower. S’agissant
des blocs restants, auxquels le Nicaragua se réfère sur le fondement
d’une carte de l’ANH datée du 17 février 2017, la Colombie soutient que la
demande est irrecevable en ce que son objet diffère de celui des demandes
contenues dans la requête, et qu’elle échappe à la compétence de la Cour
ratione temporis. Elle fait valoir que, à supposer même que la Cour en
tienne compte, la carte en question ne témoigne pas de violation des droits
souverains du Nicaragua. La Colombie affirme qu’aucune suite n’a été
donnée au sujet de ces blocs : aucun contrat ou aucune proposition les
concernant n’existe donc ni n’aurait pu exister. Elle ajoute que le Nicaragua
lui-
même a admis qu’aucun contrat de cette nature n’avait été conclu.
* *
139. La Cour examinera tout d’abord la recevabilité de la demande du
Nicaragua portant sur la délivrance alléguée, par la Colombie, de permis
d’exploration pétrolière.
325 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (judgment)
63
140. The Court has discussed its jurisprudence on a claim made after
the filing of the application in paragraph 44 above. Nicaragua’s allegation
regarding Colombia’s oil exploration licensing concerns the question
whether Colombia has violated Nicaragua’s sovereign rights in the exclusive
economic zone. Although a different kind of activity is involved,
Nicaragua’s claim does not transform the subject‑matter of the dispute as
stated in the Application, since the dispute between the Parties involves
the rights of the Parties in all maritime zones as delimited by the
2012 Judgment. Nicaragua’s claim arises directly out of the question
which is the subject-matter
of the Application. The Court is therefore of
the view that Nicaragua’s claim is admissible.
141. Regarding the merits of the claim, the evidence shows, including
by Nicaragua’s own account, that Colombia offered 11 oil concession
blocks for licensing and awarded two blocks in 2011, at a time when the
maritime boundary between the Parties had not yet been delimited. The
documents before the Court also demonstrate that signature of the contracts
for the said petroleum blocks was first suspended by the parties
concerned in 2011 and later by a decision of the administrative tribunal of
San Andrés, Providencia and Santa Catalina in 2012. Nicaragua also concedes
that, to date, the contracts in question have not been signed.
142. As regards the facts since then, Nicaragua has only produced as
evidence a “Map of Lands” taken from the ANH’s website dated 17 February
2017, which shows a number of “available” blocks in the areas that
partially overlap with Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone. The map is
not corroborated by any other credible evidence that the ANH still
intends to offer and award those blocks. The Court notes in this regard
that Nicaragua did not pursue its claim during the oral proceedings and
that it acknowledged Colombia’s statement that no concessions had been
awarded in the areas concerned. Colombia, for its part, reiterated that the
blocks in question “[had] not been implemented and [would] not be pursued,
and [would] not be offered”.
143. In light of the foregoing, the Court finds that Nicaragua has failed
to prove that Colombia continues to offer petroleum blocks situated in
Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone. The allegation that Colombia violated
Nicaragua’s sovereign rights by issuing oil exploration licences must
therefore be rejected.
4. Conclusions
144. In light of the foregoing considerations, the Court finds that
Colombia has breached its international obligation to respect Nicaragua’s
sovereign rights and jurisdiction in its exclusive economic zone
(i) by interfering with fishing and marine scientific research activities of
Nicaraguan‑flagged or Nicaraguan-licensed
vessels and with the operations
of Nicaraguan naval vessels in Nicaragua’s exclusive economic
zone; (ii) by purporting to enforce conservation measures in Nicaragua’s
exclusive economic zone; and (iii) by authorizing fishing activities in
droits souverains et espaces maritimes (arrêt) 325
63
140. La Cour a exposé au paragraphe 44 sa jurisprudence concernant
les demandes nouvelles soumises en cours d’instance. Lorsqu’il fait grief à
la Colombie d’avoir délivré des permis d’exploration pétrolière, le Nicaragua
soulève la question de savoir si celle-
ci a violé les droits souverains
dont il jouit dans sa zone économique exclusive. Bien qu’elle mette en
cause un autre type d’activité, sa demande à cet égard ne modifie pas
l’objet du différend indiqué dans la requête, puisque le différend opposant
les Parties se rapporte aux droits dont celles-
ci peuvent se prévaloir dans
tous les espaces maritimes tels que délimités par l’arrêt de 2012. La
demande du Nicaragua découle directement de la question qui fait l’objet
de la requête. Selon la Cour, elle est donc recevable.
141. Quant au fond, il ressort des éléments de preuve — et le Nicaragua
lui-
même en convient — que la Colombie a ouvert à concession 11 blocs
pétroliers et qu’elle en a attribué deux en 2011, alors que la frontière maritime
entre les deux Parties n’avait pas encore été fixée. Les documents
versés au dossier établissent en outre que la signature des contrats relatifs
à ces blocs a été suspendue une première fois par les parties prenantes en
2011, puis de nouveau par décision du tribunal administratif de San
Andrés, Providencia et Santa Catalina en 2012. Le Nicaragua admet également
que, à ce jour, les contrats correspondants n’ont pas été signés.
142. En ce qui concerne les faits intervenus depuis lors, le Nicaragua n’a
soumis à titre d’élément de preuve qu’une « carte des terres » tirée du site
Internet de l’ANH et datée du 17 février 2017, qui représente un certain
nombre de blocs « disponibles » dans des espaces recoupant en partie sa zone
économique exclusive. Aucun autre élément de preuve digne de foi ne vient
corroborer l’idée que l’ANH ait toujours l’intention d’offrir à concession ou
d’attribuer ces blocs. La Cour note à cet égard que le Nicaragua n’a pas
maintenu sa demande à l’audience, et qu’il a pris acte de la déclaration de la
Colombie, qui indiquait n’avoir octroyé aucune concession dans les zones en
cause. La Colombie, quant à elle, a réaffirmé que les blocs en question
« n’[avaie]nt pas … été mis en place et ne ser[aie]nt ni exploités ni attribués ».
143. Au vu de ce qui précède, la Cour conclut que le Nicaragua n’a pas
démontré que la Colombie continuait d’offrir à concession des blocs
pétroliers situés dans sa zone économique exclusive. Aussi convient-il de
rejeter l’allégation que la Colombie aurait, en délivrant des permis d’exploration
pétrolière, violé les droits souverains du Nicaragua.
4. Conclusions
144. A la lumière des considérations qui précèdent, la Cour juge que la
Colombie a manqué à son obligation internationale de respecter les droits
souverains et la juridiction du Nicaragua dans sa zone économique exclusive,
i) en entravant les activités de pêche et de recherche scientifique
marine de navires battant pavillon nicaraguayen ou détenteurs d’un permis
nicaraguayen et les opérations de navires de la marine nicaraguayenne
dans la zone économique exclusive du Nicaragua, ii) en voulant faire
appliquer des mesures de conservation dans cette zone, et iii) en y autori-
326 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (judgment)
64
Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone. Colombia’s wrongful conduct
engages its responsibility under international law.
B. Colombia’s “Integral Contiguous Zone”
145. Among its allegations of Colombia’s violations of Nicaragua’s
rights in its maritime zones, Nicaragua refers to Colombia’s Presidential
Decree 1946, which establishes an “integral contiguous zone” around
Colombian islands in the western Caribbean Sea. Nicaragua does not
deny Colombia’s entitlement to a contiguous zone, but it maintains that
both the geographical extent of the “integral contiguous zone” and the
material scope of the powers which Colombia claims it may exercise
therein exceed the limits permitted under customary international rules
on the contiguous zone. In Nicaragua’s view, by establishing the “integral
contiguous zone”, Colombia violated Nicaragua’s rights in the latter’s
exclusive economic zone.
146. The Parties disagree as to whether Article 33 of UNCLOS on the
contiguous zone reflects customary international law. Before examining
Presidential Decree 1946, the Court will first consider the customary rules
applicable to the contiguous zone.
1. The applicable rules on the contiguous zone
147. Nicaragua claims that the provisions of Article 33 of UNCLOS
reflect customary international law and that the 24-nautical-mile limit
prescribed therein is supported by “practically unanimous” State practice.
With regard to the powers that the coastal State may exercise in the contiguous
zone, Nicaragua maintains that Article 33, paragraph 1, reflects
customary international law. It further contends that Colombia has not
been able to establish that State practice points to an evolution in customary
international law such that it now authorizes States to exercise
control in their contiguous zone over matters other than those listed in
Article 33 of UNCLOS.
*
148. For its part, Colombia takes the view that Article 33 of UNCLOS
“does not reflect present-day customary international law on the contiguous
zone”. It maintains that “under existing customary international law,
a coastal State is permitted to establish zones contiguous to its territorial
sea, of varying breadth and for a range of purposes, going in some
respects beyond those expressly envisaged in Article 33 of UNCLOS”. In
this regard, according to Colombia,
“the coastal State may exercise the control necessary to protect and
safeguard its essential interests, including but not limited to those
droits souverains et espaces maritimes (arrêt) 326
64
sant des activités de pêche. Par son comportement illicite, la Colombie a
engagé sa responsabilité au regard du droit international.
B. La « zone contiguë unique » de la Colombie
145. Lorsqu’il reproche à la Colombie de violer les droits dont il jouit
dans ses espaces maritimes, le Nicaragua se réfère au décret présidentiel
1946 par lequel la Colombie a établi une « zone contiguë unique » autour
de ses îles de la partie occidentale de la mer des Caraïbes. Le Nicaragua
ne conteste pas que la Colombie ait droit à une zone contiguë, mais soutient
que tant l’étendue géographique de la « zone contiguë unique » que
le champ d’application matériel des pouvoirs que la Colombie prétend y
exercer outrepassent les limites que posent les règles internationales coutumières
relatives à la zone contiguë. Selon le Nicaragua, en établissant la
« zone contiguë unique », la Colombie a violé les droits qu’il détient dans
sa zone économique exclusive.
146. Les Parties sont en désaccord sur la question de savoir si l’article
33 de la CNUDM consacré à la zone contiguë reflète le droit international
coutumier. La Cour, avant de se pencher sur le décret
présidentiel 1946, s’interrogera sur les règles coutumières applicables à la
zone contiguë.
1. Les règles applicables à la zone contiguë
147. Le Nicaragua soutient que les dispositions de l’article 33 de la
CNUDM reflètent le droit international coutumier, et que la règle fixant à
24 milles marins la limite de la zone contiguë qui y est énoncée est confortée
par une pratique étatique « quasiment unanime ». Pour ce qui est des pouvoirs
reconnus à l’Etat côtier dans la zone contiguë, le Nicaragua soutient
que le paragraphe 1 de l’article 33 reflète le droit international coutumier.
Selon lui, la Colombie n’a pas été en mesure d’établir que la pratique étatique
ait fait évoluer le droit international coutumier au point que celui‑ci
autoriserait maintenant les Etats à exercer, dans leur zone contiguë, un
contrôle dans des domaines autres que ceux énumérés à l’article 33 de la
CNUDM.
*
148. La Colombie, quant à elle, considère que l’article 33 de la
CNUDM « ne reflète pas l’état actuel du droit international coutumier
concernant la zone contiguë ». Elle soutient que, « en vertu du droit international
coutumier, il est permis à un Etat côtier de créer des zones contiguës
à sa mer territoriale, d’une largeur variable et à des fins diverses, et
ce, à certains égards, au-
delà de ce que prévoit expressément l’article 33
de la CNUDM ». Ainsi, écrit-elle,
« l’Etat côtier peut exercer, dans [de telles] zone[s] …, le contrôle
nécessaire pour protéger et préserver ses intérêts essentiels, et notam-
327 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (judgment)
65
relating to customs, fiscal, immigration or sanitary laws and regulations
enacted to protect its interests in its territory and territorial
sea”.
In Colombia’s view, this right enables the coastal State to safeguard
essential interests in matters such as security, drug trafficking, pollution,
and cultural heritage within its contiguous zone.
* *
149. As demonstrated by the general practice of States and as accepted
by both Parties, the concept of the contiguous zone is well established in
international law. The establishment by States of contiguous zones preceded
the adoption in 1958 of the Convention on the Territorial Sea and
the Contiguous Zone (hereinafter the “1958 Convention”) and of
UNCLOS. To date, about 100 States, including States that are not parties
to UNCLOS, have established contiguous zones.
150. The Parties hold divergent views as to whether Article 33 of
UNCLOS reflects the contemporary customary rules on the contiguous
zone. Article 33 reads as follows:
“1. In a zone contiguous to its territorial sea, described as the
contiguous
zone, the coastal State may exercise the control necessary
to:
(a) prevent infringement of its customs, fiscal, immigration or
sanitary
laws and regulations within its territory or territorial
sea;
(b) punish infringement of the above laws and regulations committed
within its territory or territorial sea.
2. The contiguous zone may not extend beyond 24 nautical miles
from the baselines from which the breadth of the territorial sea is
measured.”
151. With regard to the régime governing the contiguous zone, the Court
first notes that under the law of the sea the contiguous zone is distinct from
other maritime zones in the sense that the establishment of a contiguous
zone does not confer upon the coastal State sovereignty or sovereign rights
over this zone or its resources. The drafting history of Article 24 of the
1958 Convention and that of Article 33 of UNCLOS demonstrate that
States have generally accepted that the powers in the contiguous zone are
confined to customs, fiscal, immigration and sanitary matters as stated in
Article 33, paragraph 1. With regard to the breadth of the contiguous zone,
most States that have established such zones have set the breadth thereof
within a 24-nautical-mile limit consistent with Article 33, paragraph 2, of
UNCLOS. Some States have even reduced the breadth of previously established
contiguous zones to conform to that limit.
152. In the development of the contiguous zone régime, the question
whether the coastal State may include “security” in the list of matters
droits souverains et espaces maritimes (arrêt) 327
65
ment ceux afférents aux lois et règlements douaniers, fiscaux, sanitaires
ou d’immigration promulgués dans le but de protéger ses
intérêts sur son territoire et dans sa mer territoriale ».
De l’avis de la Colombie, ce droit permet aux Etats côtiers de préserver,
dans leur zone contiguë, leurs intérêts essentiels dans des domaines tels que
la sécurité, le trafic de stupéfiants, la pollution et le patrimoine culturel.
* *
149. Comme l’atteste la pratique générale des Etats et comme le reconnaissent
les deux Parties, le concept de zone contiguë est bien ancré en
droit international. Des zones contiguës avaient été établies avant même
l’adoption en 1958 de la convention sur la mer territoriale et la zone
contiguë (ci‑après la « convention de 1958 ») et de la CNUDM. Une centaine
d’Etats, dont certains ne sont pas parties à cette dernière, se sont à
ce jour dotés de zones contiguës.
150. Les Parties sont en désaccord sur le point de savoir si l’article 33
de la CNUDM reflète l’état actuel du droit international coutumier relatif
à la zone contiguë. L’article 33 se lit comme suit :
« 1. Dans une zone contiguë à sa mer territoriale, désignée sous le
nom de zone contiguë, l’Etat côtier peut exercer le contrôle nécessaire
en vue de :
a) prévenir les infractions à ses lois et règlements douaniers, fiscaux,
sanitaires ou d’immigration sur son territoire ou dans sa mer territoriale
;
b) réprimer les infractions à ces mêmes lois et règlements commises
sur son territoire ou dans sa mer territoriale.
2. La zone contiguë ne peut s’étendre au-
delà de 24 milles marins
des lignes de base à partir desquelles est mesurée la largeur de la mer
territoriale. »
151. En ce qui concerne le régime gouvernant la zone contiguë, la Cour
relèvera tout d’abord que, en droit de la mer, la zone contiguë est distincte
d’autres types d’espaces maritimes en ceci que sa création ne confère à
l’Etat côtier ni souveraineté ni droits souverains sur la zone elle-même ou
sur ses ressources. La genèse de l’article 24 de la convention de 1958 et de
l’article 33 de la CNUDM démontre qu’il était globalement admis que les
pouvoirs qui pouvaient y être exercés se limitaient aux domaines des
douanes, de la fiscalité, des questions sanitaires et de l’immigration énumérés
au paragraphe 1 de l’article 33. S’agissant de la largeur de la zone contiguë,
la plupart des Etats ayant établi de telles zones en ont fixé la largeur
dans une limite de 24 milles marins, ce qui est conforme au paragraphe
2 de
l’article 33 de la CNUDM. Certains ont même réduit, pour s’y conformer,
la largeur de leurs zones contiguës antérieurement établies.
152. Pendant l’élaboration du régime de la zone contiguë, la question
de savoir si l’Etat côtier pouvait inclure la « sécurité » parmi les domaines
328 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (judgment)
66
over which it may exercise control in the contiguous zone was extensively
considered by States. For its part, the International Law Commission
(hereinafter the “ILC”) in its Commentary on Article 66 of the draft Articles
concerning the law of the sea, which subsequently became Article 24
of the 1958 Convention, gave the following reason for not including security
among the matters in respect of which the coastal State may exercise
control in its contiguous zone:
“The Commission did not recognize special security rights in the
contiguous zone. It considered that the extreme vagueness of the term
‘security’ would open the way for abuses and that the granting of such
rights was not necessary. The enforcement of customs and sanitary
regulations will be sufficient in most cases to safeguard the security
of the State. In so far as measures of self-defence
against an imminent
and direct threat to the security of the State are concerned, the Commission
refers to the general principles of international law and the
Charter of the United Nations.” (Commentary to the articles concerning
the law of the sea, Yearbook of the International Law Commission,
1956, Vol. II, p. 295, Art. 66, Comment (4).)
153. At the First United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea
in 1958, a Polish proposal to add “security” to the list of matters under
the contiguous zone régime was adopted by a narrow majority in the
First Committee, but it did not obtain the required majority for adoption
by the plenary (Official Records of the First United Nations Conference on
the Law of the Sea (1958), Vol. II, UN doc. A/CONF.13/38, p. 40,
para. 63). Instead, the Conference accepted, by an overwhelming majority,
a proposal submitted by the United States which incorporated Ceylon’s
proposal to add “immigration” to the article (ibid., para. 64). During
the negotiations at the Third United Nations Conference on the Law of
the Sea, the wording of Article 24, paragraph 1, of the 1958 Convention
was adopted in Article 33, paragraph 1, of UNCLOS without any change
as regards the matters in respect of which the coastal State may exercise
control.
154. Although there are a few States that maintain in their national
laws the power to exercise control with respect to security in the contiguous
zone, their practice has been opposed by other States. The materials
adduced by Colombia with regard to national legislation on the contiguous
zone do not support Colombia’s claim that the customary rules on
the contiguous zone have evolved since the adoption of UNCLOS such
that they allow a coastal State to extend the maximum breadth of the
contiguous zone beyond 24 nautical miles or expand the powers it may
exercise therein.
155. In conclusion, the Court considers that Article 33 of UNCLOS
reflects contemporary customary international law on the contiguous
zone, both in respect of the powers that a coastal State may exercise there
and the limitation of the breadth of the contiguous zone to 24 nautical
miles (hereinafter “the 24‑nautical‑mile rule”).
droits souverains et espaces maritimes (arrêt) 328
66
où il était en droit d’exercer un contrôle dans cette zone a été amplement
débattue par les Etats. Pour sa part, la Commission du droit international,
dans son commentaire de l’article 66 du projet d’articles relatifs au
droit de la mer, qui allait devenir l’article 24 de la convention de 1958, a
expliqué comme suit pourquoi elle n’avait pas prévu que l’Etat côtier
puisse exercer
un contrôle sur la sécurité dans sa zone contiguë :
« La Commission n’a pas reconnu, dans la zone contiguë, des droits
spéciaux en matière de sécurité. Il lui a paru, d’une part, que le caractère
extrêmement vague du terme « sécurité » ouvrirait la voie aux abus ;
d’autre part, elle a estimé que l’attribution d’un pareil droit ne serait
pas nécessaire. L’exercice de la police douanière et sanitaire suffira dans
la plupart des cas à sauvegarder la sécurité de l’Etat. Pour ce qui est des
mesures de légitime défense contre une menace imminente et directe à
la sécurité de l’Etat, la Commission se réfère aux principes généraux du
droit international et à la Charte des Nations Unies. » (Articles relatifs
au droit de la mer, paragraphe 4) du commentaire de l’article 66,
Annuaire de la Commission du droit international, 1956, vol. II, p. 295.)
153. A la première conférence des Nations Unies sur le droit de la mer,
en 1958, la Première Commission a adopté à une faible majorité une proposition
de la Pologne tendant à ce que la « sécurité » soit ajoutée à la liste
des domaines couverts par le régime de la zone contiguë, mais cette proposition
n’a pas obtenu la majorité requise en plénière (Documents officiels de
la première conférence des Nations Unies sur le droit de la mer, 1958, vol. II,
Nations Unies, doc. A/CONF.13/38, p. 40, par. 63). En lieu et place, la
conférence a adopté, à une très grande majorité, une proposition des
Etats‑Unis d’Amérique, qui incorporait celle qu’avait faite Ceylan d’ajouter
à cette liste le domaine de l’« immigration » (ibid., par. 64). Pendant les
négociations à la troisième conférence des Nations Unies sur le droit de la
mer, le libellé du paragraphe 1 de l’article 24 de la convention de 1958 a été
repris au paragraphe 1 de l’article 33 de la CNUDM sans aucune modification
quant aux domaines dans lesquels l’Etat côtier peut exercer un contrôle.
154. Bien que quelques Etats maintiennent dans leur législation nationale
le pouvoir d’exercer un contrôle en matière de sécurité dans la zone
contiguë, leur pratique a été contestée par d’autres Etats. Les documents
produits par la Colombie en ce qui concerne des législations nationales
relatives à la zone contiguë ne montrent pas que, comme l’affirme la
Colombie, les règles coutumières relatives à la zone contiguë ont évolué
depuis l’adoption de la CNUDM de sorte qu’elles permettent à l’Etat
côtier d’étendre la largeur maximale de la zone contiguë au-
delà de
24 milles marins ou d’élargir les pouvoirs qu’il est en droit d’y exercer.
155. En conclusion, la Cour considère que l’article 33 de la CNUDM
reflète l’état actuel du droit international coutumier relatif à la zone contiguë,
en ce qui concerne à la fois les pouvoirs que l’Etat côtier peut y
exercer et la limitation à 24 milles marins de la largeur de la zone contiguë
(ci‑après « la règle des 24 milles marins »).
329 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (judgment)
67
2. Effect of the 2012 Judgment and Colombia’s right to establish a contiguous
zone
156. Nicaragua maintains that the Parties’ entitlements should be limited
by the maritime boundary established by the Court in its 2012 Judgment.
In Nicaragua’s view, the rights of Colombia as a third State in
Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone are governed by Article 58 of
UNCLOS, which reflects customary international law and which does not
encompass contiguous zone rights. The delimitation of the exclusive economic
zone includes the delimitation of the contiguous zone, “if only
implicitly”. Nicaragua argues that the fact that the 2012 Judgment makes
no express mention of the contiguous zone is not decisive.
157. Colombia argues that it is entitled under international law to
establish a contiguous zone around the San Andrés Archipelago and that
the 2012 Judgment does not provide a legal basis to deny such a right. It
claims that the exercise of “contingent powers” by a coastal State with
respect to “specified categories of events” within its contiguous zone neither
negates nor otherwise infringes a neighbouring State’s exercise of its
sovereign rights within its overlapping exclusive economic zone. The right
of the coastal State to establish a contiguous zone is independent of, and
not incompatible with, any resource-oriented
exclusive economic zone
rights of another State in the same space.
* *
158. The Court notes that in the proceedings leading to the 2012 Judgment,
the Parties discussed the contiguous zone but did not request the
Court to delimit it in drawing a single maritime boundary, nor did the
Court address the contiguous zone, as the issue did not arise during the
delimitation. In this regard, the Court recalls that, in the operative paragraph
of that Judgment, it found that Colombia “has sovereignty over
the islands at Alburquerque, Bajo Nuevo, East-Southeast
Cays, Quitasueño,
Roncador, Serrana and Serranilla” and that it decided on both
“the single maritime boundary delimiting the continental shelf and the
exclusive economic zones” of the two Parties and “the single maritime
boundary around Quitasueño and Serrana” (Territorial and Maritime
Dispute (Nicaragua v. Colombia), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2012 (II),
pp. 718‑720, para. 251, subparas. 1, 4 and 5). The Court considers that, in
the absence of any reference to the contiguous zone, the 2012 Judgment
cannot be taken to imply that the delimitation of the exclusive economic
zone includes the delimitation of the contiguous zone, as claimed by
Nicaragua. The 2012 Judgment does not delimit, expressly or otherwise,
the contiguous zone of either Party.
159. With regard to maritime areas in which Colombia’s “integral contiguous
zone” overlaps with Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone, the
droits souverains et espaces maritimes (arrêt) 329
67
2. L’effet de l’arrêt de 2012 et le droit de la Colombie d’établir une
zone contiguë
156. Le Nicaragua affirme que les droits des Parties devraient être limités
par la frontière maritime établie par la Cour dans son arrêt de 2012.
De son point de vue, les droits de la Colombie, en tant qu’Etat tiers, dans
la zone économique exclusive nicaraguayenne sont régis par l’article 58 de
la CNUDM, qui reflète le droit international coutumier et ne couvre pas
les droits reconnus dans la zone contiguë. La délimitation de la zone économique
exclusive comprend celle de la zone contiguë, « ne serait‑ce
qu’implicitement ». Le Nicaragua soutient que l’absence de mention
expresse de la zone contiguë dans l’arrêt de 2012 n’est pas décisive.
157. La Colombie fait valoir qu’elle est fondée, en droit international,
à créer une zone contiguë autour de l’archipel de San Andrés et que l’arrêt
de 2012 n’offre aucune base juridique pour lui contester un tel droit.
Elle affirme que, en faisant usage, dans sa zone contiguë, des « pouvoirs »
qu’il est en droit d’y exercer dans « certains cas précis », l’Etat côtier ne
fait échec ni ne porte atteinte d’aucune autre façon à l’exercice par un
Etat voisin des droits souverains dont celui-
ci jouit dans sa zone économique
exclusive, lorsqu’il y a chevauchement de ces deux zones. Le droit
de l’Etat côtier de se doter d’une zone contiguë est indépendant de tous
droits liés aux ressources dont jouit un autre Etat dans sa zone économique
exclusive, lorsque les deux espaces se chevauchent, et il n’est nullement
incompatible avec ceux‑ci.
* *
158. La Cour fait observer que, dans la procédure ayant abouti à l’arrêt
de 2012, aux fins du tracé de la frontière maritime unique, les Parties
ont évoqué la zone contiguë mais ne lui ont pas demandé de la délimiter,
et elle‑même n’en a pas traité, la question ne se posant pas pour la délimitation.
A cet égard, la Cour rappelle que, dans le dispositif de cet arrêt,
elle reconnaît à la Colombie « la souveraineté sur les îles faisant partie des
formations suivantes : Alburquerque, Bajo Nuevo, cayes de l’Est‑Sud‑Est,
Quitasueño, Roncador, Serrana et Serranilla » et fixe à la fois « le tracé de
la frontière maritime unique délimitant le plateau continental et les zones
économiques exclusives » des deux Parties et « la frontière maritime
unique » « autour de Quitasueño et de Serrana » (Différend territorial et
maritime (Nicaragua c. Colombie), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2012 (II),
p. 718‑720, par. 251, points 1, 4 et 5). La Cour considère que, en l’absence
de toute référence à la zone contiguë, l’arrêt de 2012 ne peut être réputé
impliquer que la délimitation de la zone économique exclusive comprend
celle de la zone contiguë, comme le soutient le Nicaragua. L’arrêt de 2012
ne délimite pas, ni expressément ni d’aucune autre façon, la zone contiguë
de l’une ou l’autre des Parties.
159. En ce qui concerne les espaces maritimes communs à la « zone contiguë
unique » colombienne et à la zone économique exclusive nicaraguayenne,
330 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (judgment)
68
Court observes that Nicaragua contends that Colombia is not entitled to
establish a contiguous zone that overlaps with Nicaragua’s exclusive economic
zone following the maritime delimitation between them. Nicaragua
further maintains that the rights of Colombia in Nicaragua’s exclusive
economic zone are limited to the rights set forth in Article 58 of UNCLOS,
which does not encompass contiguous zone rights.
160. In the first place, the Court notes that the contiguous zone and
the exclusive economic zone are governed by two distinct régimes. It considers
that the establishment by one State of a contiguous zone in a specific
area is not, as a general matter, incompatible with the existence of
the exclusive economic zone of another State in the same area. In principle,
the maritime delimitation between Nicaragua and Colombia does not
abrogate Colombia’s right to establish a contiguous zone around the
San Andrés Archipelago.
161. Under the law of the sea, the powers that a State may exercise in
the contiguous zone are different from the rights and duties that a coastal
State has in the exclusive economic zone. The two zones may overlap, but
the powers that may be exercised therein and the geographical extent are
not the same. The contiguous zone is based on an extension of control by
the coastal State for the purposes of prevention and punishment of certain
conduct that is illegal under its national laws and regulations, while the
exclusive economic zone, on the other hand, is established to safeguard the
coastal State’s sovereign rights over natural resources and jurisdiction with
regard to the protection of the marine environment. This distinction
between the two régimes was recognized during the negotiations of
UNCLOS (Official Records of the Third United Nations Conference on the
Law of the Sea, Vol. II, Summary records of the 31st Meeting of the Second
Committee, 7 August 1974, UN doc. A/CONF.62/C.2/SR.31, pp. 233‑234).
In exercising the rights and duties under either régime, each State must
have due regard to the rights and duties of the other State.
162. The Court does not accept Nicaragua’s assertion that Article 58
of UNCLOS encompasses all the rights that Colombia has within its contiguous
zone. In the parts of the “integral contiguous zone” which overlap
with Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone, Colombia may exercise its
powers of control in accordance with customary rules on the contiguous
zone as reflected in Article 33, paragraph 1, of UNCLOS and it has the
rights and duties under customary law as reflected in Article 58 of
UNCLOS. In the Court’s view, in exercising its powers in the parts of its
“integral contiguous zone” which overlap with Nicaragua’s exclusive economic
zone, Colombia is under an obligation to have due regard to the
sovereign rights and jurisdiction which Nicaragua enjoys in its exclusive
economic zone under customary law as reflected in Articles 56 and 73 of
UNCLOS.
163. Given the above considerations, the Court concludes that Colombia
has the right to establish a contiguous zone around the San Andrés
Archipelago in accordance with customary international law.
droits souverains et espaces maritimes (arrêt) 330
68
la Cour relève que le Nicaragua affirme que, maintenant que la délimitation
maritime a été opérée entre eux, la Colombie n’est pas en droit d’établir une
zone contiguë chevauchant la zone économique exclusive du Nicaragua. Le
Nicaragua soutient en outre que les droits de la Colombie dans la zone économique
exclusive nicaraguayenne sont limités à ceux énoncés à l’article 58
de la CNUDM, qui ne couvre pas les droits reconnus dans la zone contiguë.
160. Tout d’abord, la Cour fait observer que la zone contiguë et la
zone économique exclusive sont gouvernées par deux régimes distincts.
Elle considère que l’établissement par un Etat d’une zone contiguë à un
endroit donné n’est pas, de manière générale, incompatible avec la présence
à ce même endroit de la zone économique exclusive d’un autre Etat.
En principe, la délimitation maritime opérée entre le Nicaragua et la
Colombie n’a pas pour effet de priver cette dernière du droit de se doter
d’une zone contiguë autour de l’archipel de San Andrés.
161. En droit de la mer, les pouvoirs qu’un Etat peut exercer dans la zone
contiguë sont différents des droits et obligations qu’a l’Etat côtier dans la
zone économique exclusive. Les deux zones peuvent se chevaucher, mais les
pouvoirs qui peuvent y être exercés et leur étendue géographique ne sont pas
identiques. Le régime de la zone contiguë est fondé sur une extension du
contrôle de l’Etat côtier aux fins de la prévention et de la répression de certains
comportements illicites sanctionnés par ses lois et règlements internes,
tandis que le régime de la zone économique exclusive vise à protéger les droits
souverains de l’Etat côtier à l’égard des ressources naturelles et sa juridiction
sur la protection de l’environnement marin. Cette distinction a été reconnue
pendant les négociations sur la CNUDM (Documents officiels de la troisième
conférence des Nations Unies sur le droit de la mer, vol. II, compte rendu analytique
de la 31e séance de la Deuxième Commission, 7 août 1974,
Nations Unies, doc. A/CONF.62/C.2/SR.31, p. 233‑234). Lorsqu’il exerce les
droits et s’acquitte des obligations prévus par l’un ou l’autre de ces régimes,
chaque Etat doit tenir dûment compte des droits et obligations de l’autre Etat.
162. La Cour n’accepte pas l’affirmation du Nicaragua selon laquelle
l’article 58 de la CNUDM couvre tous les droits que la Colombie détient
dans sa zone contiguë. Dans les parties de la « zone contiguë unique » qui
chevauchent la zone économique exclusive du Nicaragua, la Colombie
peut exercer ses pouvoirs de contrôle conformément aux règles coutumières
relatives aux zones contiguës, telles que reflétées au paragraphe 1
de l’article 33 de la CNUDM, et elle y a les droits et obligations que prévoit
le droit international coutumier tel que reflété à l’article 58 de la
convention. La Cour est d’avis que, lorsqu’elle exerce ses pouvoirs dans
les parties de sa « zone contiguë unique » qui chevauchent la zone économique
exclusive du Nicaragua, la Colombie doit tenir dûment compte des
droits souverains et de la juridiction qui sont reconnus au Nicaragua,
dans sa zone économique exclusive, par le droit international coutumier
tel que reflété aux articles 56 et 73 de la CNUDM.
163. Compte tenu de ce qui précède, la Cour conclut que la Colombie
a le droit d’établir autour de l’archipel de San Andrés une zone contiguë
conforme au droit international coutumier.
331 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (judgment)
69
3. The compatibility of Colombia’s “integral contiguous zone” with
customary international law
164. Having concluded that the provisions of Article 33 of UNCLOS
reflect customary international law and that a coastal State is entitled to a
contiguous zone which may overlap with the exclusive economic zone of
another State, the Court will next consider the compatibility of Colombia’s
“integral contiguous zone” established under Presidential Decree 1946 with
customary international law and Nicaragua’s claims in that regard.
*
165. Regarding Presidential Decree 1946, Nicaragua claims that,
according to the maps issued by Colombia, parts of the “integral contiguous
zone” reach into Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone and extend
beyond 24 nautical miles from the baselines from which Colombia’s territorial
sea is measured. In its view, Colombia’s justification for using
geodetic lines to draw the “integral contiguous zone” by reference to the
special geographical situation of the San Andrés Archipelago has no legal
basis in international law.
166. As for the powers to be exercised in the “integral contiguous
zone” under Article 5 (2) and Article 5 (3) of Colombia’s Presidential
Decree 1946, Nicaragua contends that some of the powers contained
therein, including those concerning the protection of security, national
maritime interests and cultural heritage, are not listed in Article 33, paragraph
1, of UNCLOS and are unsupported by general State practice. It
argues that Colombia has not been able to establish that State practice
has evolved into a rule of customary international law authorizing States
to exercise control in their contiguous zone over matters other than those
listed in Article 33 of UNCLOS. Nicaragua claims that the powers
claimed by Colombia conflict with Nicaragua’s powers in its exclusive
economic zone. According to Nicaragua, Colombia wrongfully stretches
the phrase “sanitary laws and regulations” in Article 33, paragraph 1, of
UNCLOS to encompass laws and regulations relating to environmental
protection.
167. With respect to cultural heritage in the contiguous zone, Nicaragua
maintains that only a State party to UNCLOS may claim the right
referred to in Article 303 and that Colombia has not demonstrated that
that provision reflects customary international law. Nicaragua further
complains that the power to protect cultural heritage in the “integral contiguous
zone” is contradictory to Colombia’s own domestic law, which
reserves to Colombia itself the sole control over cultural heritage in its
exclusive economic zone.
*
droits souverains et espaces maritimes (arrêt) 331
69
3. La compatibilité de la « zone contiguë unique » de la Colombie avec
le droit international coutumier
164. Ayant conclu que les dispositions de l’article 33 de la CNUDM
reflètent le droit international coutumier et qu’un Etat côtier a droit à une
zone contiguë qui pourrait chevaucher la zone économique exclusive d’un
autre Etat, la Cour recherchera maintenant si la « zone contiguë unique »
de la Colombie établie en vertu du décret présidentiel 1946 est compatible
avec le droit international coutumier, et examinera les griefs du Nicaragua
à cet égard.
*
165. Au sujet du décret présidentiel 1946, le Nicaragua affirme que,
selon les cartes publiées par la Colombie, certaines parties de la « zone
contiguë unique » empiètent sur sa zone économique exclusive et
s’étendent au-
delà de 24 milles marins des lignes de base à partir desquelles
est mesurée la mer territoriale colombienne. Selon lui, les arguments
par lesquels la Colombie justifie l’utilisation de lignes géodésiques
pour tracer les contours de la « zone contiguë unique », qui font référence
à la situation géographique propre à l’archipel de San Andrés, ne sont
nullement fondés en droit international.
166. Pour ce qui est des pouvoirs que les paragraphes 2 et 3 de l’article
5 du décret présidentiel 1946 permettraient d’exercer dans la « zone
contiguë unique », le Nicaragua soutient que certains de ces pouvoirs,
notamment ceux intéressant la protection de la sécurité, des intérêts maritimes
nationaux et du patrimoine culturel, ne sont pas mentionnés au
paragraphe 1 de l’article 33 de la CNUDM, et qu’ils ne sont pas attestés
dans la pratique générale des Etats. Il affirme que la Colombie n’a pas été
en mesure d’établir que la pratique des Etats aurait donné naissance à une
règle de droit international coutumier qui autoriserait les Etats à exercer,
dans leur zone contiguë, un contrôle dans des domaines autres que ceux
énumérés à l’article 33 de la CNUDM. Le Nicaragua prétend que les pouvoirs
revendiqués par la Colombie entrent en conflit avec ceux qu’il détient
pour sa part dans sa zone économique exclusive. Selon lui, la Colombie
sollicite à l’excès l’expression « lois et règlements … sanitaires » employée
au paragraphe 1 de l’article 33, l’interprétant à mauvais escient comme
englobant les lois et règlements relatifs à la protection de l’environnement.
167. S’agissant du patrimoine culturel dans la zone contiguë, le Nicaragua
soutient que le droit visé à l’article 303 ne peut être invoqué que par
un Etat partie à la CNUDM, et que la Colombie n’a pas établi que cette
disposition refléterait le droit international coutumier. Il argue en outre
que la propre législation interne de la Colombie contredit le pouvoir dont
se prévaut celle-
ci de protéger le patrimoine culturel dans sa « zone contiguë
unique », puisqu’elle réserve à la Colombie le seul contrôle du patrimoine
culturel dans sa zone économique exclusive.
*
332 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (judgment)
70
168. In response to Nicaragua’s arguments against the establishment
of the “integral contiguous zone”, Colombia denies that it acted wrongfully
under international law. Colombia argues that the spatial construction
of the “integral contiguous zone” is dictated by the natural and
special configuration of the San Andrés Archipelago and that its use of
geodetic lines is consistent with the established jurisprudence in this
regard and serves solely to define a “functional” area within which
Colombia may execute the powers granted by international law. It argues
that even if the Court were to find that the 24‑nautical‑mile limit of the
contiguous zone reflects customary international law, the geographical
configuration of the “integral contiguous zone” is justified by a “customary
exemption” to this rule. In its view, “in unique geographical circumstances,
the techniques according to which the external limit of a maritime
zone is determined, if reasonable in context, may depart from the general
rules in order to create a viable contiguous zone that enables the achievement
of its purposes” where “the application of the general rule would
create an impracticable contiguous zone”.
169. Colombia argues that the powers prescribed under Presidential
Decree 1946 are based on “context, function and policy considerations”,
which are permitted under customary international law. According to
Colombia, even if the Court were to proclaim that Article 33, paragraph
1, reflects customary law, the powers to be exercised in the

integral contiguous zone” still fall within the scope of that provision.
In particular, Colombia argues that protection of the marine environment is
consistent with a contemporary interpretation of the term “sanitary”, and
protection of security and national maritime interests can also fall into
the “customs”, “fiscal”, “immigration” and “sanitary” generic categories.
With respect to the power to preserve cultural heritage, Colombia argues
that it is explicitly permitted by Article 303 of UNCLOS.
* *
170. The Parties are divided over the conformity with customary international
law of the provisions of Article 5 of Presidential Decree 1946,
which set out the geographical extent of the “integral contiguous zone”
and the material scope of the powers that may be exercised therein. Article
5 reads as follows:
“Contiguous zone of the island territories in the western
Caribbean Sea
1. Without prejudice to the terms of Section 2 of this Article, the
Contiguous Zone of the island territories of Colombia in the Western
Caribbean Sea extends up to a distance of 24 nautical miles measured
from the baselines referred to in Article 3 above.
droits souverains et espaces maritimes (arrêt) 332
70
168. En réponse aux arguments qu’oppose le Nicaragua à l’établissement
de sa « zone contiguë unique », la Colombie nie avoir agi de manière
illicite au regard du droit international. Elle soutient que la physionomie de
cette zone est dictée par la configuration naturelle et spécifique de l’archipel
de San Andrés, et que l’utilisation qu’elle fait des lignes géodésiques est
conforme à la jurisprudence établie en la matière et ne vise qu’à définir une
zone « fonctionnelle » dans laquelle la Colombie peut exercer les pouvoirs
qui lui sont conférés par le droit international. Elle argue que, même si la
Cour devait conclure que la limite de 24 milles marins de la zone contiguë
reflète le droit international coutumier, la configuration géographique de sa
« zone contiguë unique » est justifiée en vertu d’une « exemption coutumière
» à pareille règle. Elle invoque ainsi, « en présence de caractéristiques
géographiques uniques et pour autant que ce soit raisonnable dans le
contexte, la possibilité de recourir, aux fins de la détermination de la limite
extérieure d’une zone maritime, à des techniques qui dérogent aux règles
générales en vue de créer une zone contiguë viable à même de remplir [l]es
objectifs » poursuivis par le droit international coutumier là où « l’application
de la règle générale rendrait la zone contiguë impraticable ».
169. La Colombie fait valoir que les pouvoirs spécifiés par le décret
présidentiel 1946 reposent sur « des considérations d’ordre contextuel,
fonctionnel et politique », permises en droit international coutumier.
Selon elle, quand bien même la Cour conclurait que le paragraphe 1 de
l’article 33 reflète le droit coutumier, les pouvoirs pouvant être exercés
dans la « zone contiguë unique » entrent dans les prévisions de cette disposition.
En particulier, la Colombie soutient que la protection du milieu
marin est conforme à une interprétation contemporaine du terme « sanitaire
», et que la protection des intérêts maritimes nationaux et de la sécurité
peut également relever des domaines — génériques — « douanier »,
« fiscal », « d’immigration » et « sanitaire ». S’agissant du pouvoir de préserver
le patrimoine culturel, elle argue que celui‑ci est expressément
garanti par l’article 303 de la CNUDM.
* *
170. Les Parties sont divisées sur la question de la conformité au droit
international coutumier des dispositions de l’article 5 du décret présidentiel
1946, qui définissent l’étendue géographique de la « zone contiguë
unique » et le champ d’application matériel des pouvoirs pouvant y être
exercés. L’article 5 se lit comme suit :
« Zone contiguë des territoires insulaires dans la partie
occidentale
de la mer des Caraïbes
1. Sans préjudice des dispositions énoncées au paragraphe 2 du
présent article, la zone contiguë des territoires insulaires de la Colombie
dans la partie occidentale de la mer des Caraïbes s’étend sur une
distance de 24 milles marins mesurés à partir des lignes de base mentionnées
à l’article 3 du présent décret.
333 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (judgment)
71
2. The Contiguous Zones adjacent to the territorial sea of the
islands which form the island territories of Colombia in the Western
Caribbean Sea, except for the islands Serranilla and Bajo Nuevo,
where they intersect, generate a continuous and uninterrupted Contiguous
Zone, across the whole of the Department of the Archipelago
of San Andrés, Providencia and Santa Catalina, over which the competent
national authorities will exercise the powers recognized by
international law and Colombian laws mentioned in Section 3 of this
Article.
In order to secure the proper administration and orderly management
of the entire Archipelago of San Andrés, Providencia and Santa
Catalina, and of their islands, cays and other formations and their
maritime areas and resources, and in order to avoid the existence of
irregular figures or contours which would make practical application
difficult, the lines indicated for the outer limits of the contiguous zones
will be joined to each other through geodetic lines. In the same
fashion,
these will be linked to the contiguous zone of the island of
Serranilla by geodetic lines which maintain the direction of parallel
14° 59ʹ 08ʺ N, and to Meridian 79° 56ʹ 00ʺ W, and thence to the North,
thus forming an Integral Contiguous Zone of the Department Archipelago
of San Andrés, Providencia and Santa Catalina.
3. Modified by Decree 1119 of 2014, Art. 2. In developing what has
been provided for in the previous numeral, with the purpose of protecting
the sovereignty in its territory and territorial sea, in the integral
contiguous zone established in this Article, Colombia exercises the
faculties of enforcement and control necessary to:
(a) Modified by Decree 1119 of 2014, Art. 2. Prevent and control the
infractions of the laws and regulations related with the integral
security of the State, including piracy and trafficking of drugs and
psychotropic substances, as well as conduct contrary to security
in the sea and the national maritime interests, the customs, fiscal,
migration and sanitary matters which take place in its insular
territories or in their territorial sea. In the same manner, violations
against the laws and regulations related with the preservation
of the environment and the cultural heritage will be prevented
and controlled.
(b) Punish violations of laws and regulations related to the matters
indicated in section (a) above, committed in its island territories
or in their territorial sea.
Paragraph added by Decree 1119 of 2014, Art. 3. The application
of this Article will be carried out in conformity with international law
and Article 7 of the Present Decree.”
171. Colombia produces an illustrative map depicting the “integral
contiguous zone”, which it claims is an accurate depiction of how the
Decree should apply in practice. Nicaragua also produces a map that it
claims was presented by the Colombian President on the day Presidential
droits souverains et espaces maritimes (arrêt) 333
71
2. Les zones contiguës adjacentes à la mer territoriale des îles
constituant les territoires insulaires de la Colombie dans la partie
occidentale de la mer des Caraïbes, hormis celles des îles de Serranilla
et de Bajo Nuevo, forment en se rejoignant une seule zone
contiguë, continue et ininterrompue pour l’ensemble du département
de l’archipel de San Andrés, Providencia et Santa Catalina, sur
laquelle les autorités nationales compétentes exerceront les pouvoirs
qui leur sont reconnus par le droit international et les lois colombiennes
visées au paragraphe 3 du présent article.
Afin d’assurer la bonne administration et la gestion ordonnée de
l’ensemble de l’archipel de San Andrés, Providencia et Santa Catalina,
de ses îles, cayes et autres formations, ainsi que de ses espaces
maritimes et ressources, et d’éviter de créer des formes ou contours
irréguliers difficiles à respecter dans la pratique, les lignes correspondant
aux limites extérieures des zones contiguës seront reliées par des
lignes géodésiques. De la même manière, celles‑ci seront reliées à la
zone contiguë de l’île de Serranilla à l’aide de lignes géodésiques qui
suivront le parallèle situé par 14° 59ʹ 08ʺ de latitude nord jusqu’au
méridien situé par 79° 56ʹ 00ʺ de longitude ouest, avant de se diriger
vers le nord, formant ainsi la zone contiguë unique du département
de l’archipel de San Andrés, Providencia et Santa Catalina.
3. Modifié par le décret 1119 de 2014, art. 2. En application des
dispositions du paragraphe précédent, afin de protéger sa souveraineté
sur son territoire et sa mer territoriale, l’Etat colombien exercera
dans la zone contiguë unique établie par le présent article les facultés
d’exécution et de contrôle nécessaires pour :
a) Modifié par le décret 1119 de 2014, art. 2. Prévenir les infractions
et contrôler le respect des lois et règlements touchant à la sûreté
de l’Etat, notamment la piraterie et le trafic de stupéfiants et de
substances psychotropes, ainsi que les comportements qui attentent
à la sûreté en mer et aux intérêts maritimes nationaux, aux affaires
douanières, fiscales, migratoires et sanitaires, commises sur ses
territoires insulaires ou dans leur mer territoriale. De la même
manière, prévenir les infractions et contrôler le respect des lois et
règlements touchant à la préservation de l’environnement maritime
et du patrimoine culturel.
b) Réprimer les infractions aux lois ou règlements relatifs aux questions
visées à l’alinéa a) ci-
dessus,
commises dans les territoires
insulaires de la Colombie ou dans leur mer territoriale.
Paragraphe ajouté par le décret 1119 de 2014, art. 3. Le présent
article sera appliqué conformément au droit international et aux dispositions
de l’article 7 du présent décret. »
171. La Colombie fournit une carte représentant la « zone contiguë
unique », affirmant qu’elle décrit fidèlement la manière dont le décret
devrait s’appliquer dans la pratique. Le Nicaragua a produit lui aussi une
carte, dont il dit qu’elle a été présentée par le président colombien le jour
334 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (judgment)
72
Map Showing Colombia’s “Integral Contiguous Zone”
according to Colombia
(Source: Colombia’s Counter-Memorial,
Figure 5.1, p. 204)
droits souverains et espaces maritimes (arrêt) 334
72
Carte montrant la « zone contiguë unique » colombienne,
selon la Colombie
(Source : Contre-mémoire
de la Colombie, figure 5.1, p. 204. Original en anglais)
335 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (judgment)
73
Decree 1946 was issued. The two maps do not coincide in their depiction
of the “integral contiguous zone”, but both of them show that some parts
of the “integral contiguous zone” extend more than 24 nautical miles
from Colombia’s baselines and overlap with Nicaragua’s exclusive economic
zone. (For illustrative purposes, the Court includes on page 334
the map produced by Colombia in its Counter-Memorial.)
172. Colombia does not deny that the “integral contiguous zone”, in
various parts, extends beyond 24 nautical miles, but claims its position to
be justified on the basis of customary international law. According to
Colombia, a coastal State is permitted under customary international law
to establish contiguous zones “of varying breadth”, going beyond those
expressly envisaged in Article 33 of UNCLOS.
173. As is stated above, the 24‑nautical-mile rule provided for in Article
33, paragraph 2, is an established customary rule. The coastal State
does not have the right to extend the breadth of its contiguous zone as it
sees fit. The Court notes that the simplification of boundary lines is not
uncommon in maritime delimitation between two States, but in
such cases a simplified boundary is achieved by mutual agreement or
through a third-party settlement. By contrast, in the present case, the
establishment of the outer limit of the “integral contiguous zone” is a
unilateral act of Colombia that directly affects the rights and interests of
Nicaragua.
174. Colombia refers to the Fisheries case between the United Kingdom
and Norway and the 2012 Judgment as a jurisprudential basis for
the simplified configuration of the “integral contiguous zone”. Neither of
the Judgments invoked by Colombia, however, is applicable to the present
case. Any consideration of the geographical circumstances by Colombia
must respect the 24-nautical-mile rule, as required by customary
international law reflected in Article 33, paragraph 2, of UNCLOS.
Colombia may choose to reduce the breadth of the “integral contiguous
zone” if it wishes to simplify the configuration of the zone, but it has no
right to expand it beyond the 24-nautical-mile limit to the detriment of
the exercise by Nicaragua of its sovereign rights and jurisdiction in its
exclusive economic zone.
175. In sum, Colombia is under an international obligation to observe
the 24-nautical-mile rule. The geographical extent of the “integral contiguous
zone” is not in conformity with customary international law, as
reflected in Article 33, paragraph 2, of UNCLOS.
176. With regard to the material scope of Colombia’s powers within the
“integral contiguous zone”, Article 5 (3) (a) of Presidential Decree 1946
provides
that Colombia shall exercise powers in the “integral contiguous
zone” to prevent and control infringements of laws and regulations regarding
“the integral security of the State, including piracy, trafficking of drugs
and psychotropic substances, as well as conduct contrary to the
security
in the sea and the national maritime interests, the customs,
droits souverains et espaces maritimes (arrêt) 335
73
de la promulgation du décret présidentiel 1946. Ces cartes ne représentent
pas de la même manière la « zone contiguë unique », mais toutes deux
montrent que certaines parties de celle‑ci s’étendent au‑delà de 24 milles
marins des lignes de base de la Colombie et chevauchent la zone économique
exclusive du Nicaragua. (A titre d’illustration, la Cour reproduit à
la page 334 la carte produite par la Colombie dans son contre-mémoire.)
172. La Colombie ne conteste pas que sa « zone contiguë unique »
s’étende, à différents endroits, au-
delà de 24 milles marins, mais affirme
que sa position est justifiée au regard du droit international coutumier.
Selon elle, celui-
ci autorise un Etat côtier à établir des zones contiguës
« de largeur variable », allant au-
delà de ce qui est expressément prévu à
l’article 33 de la CNUDM.
173. Ainsi qu’il a été dit plus haut, la règle des 24 milles marins, énoncée
au paragraphe 2 de l’article 33, est une règle coutumière établie.
L’Etat côtier n’a pas le droit d’élargir sa zone contiguë selon son bon
vouloir. La Cour rappelle que la simplification des lignes frontières n’est
pas inhabituelle lorsqu’il est procédé à une délimitation maritime entre
deux Etats ; néanmoins, le cas échéant, la frontière simplifiée est arrêtée
d’un commun accord ou au moyen d’un règlement par tierce partie. En
l’espèce, en revanche, la détermination de la limite extérieure de la « zone
contiguë unique » est un acte unilatéral de la Colombie, ayant une incidence
directe sur les droits et intérêts du Nicaragua.
174. Pour justifier la configuration simplifiée de sa « zone contiguë
unique », la Colombie se réfère à l’affaire des Pêcheries entre le
Royaume‑Uni et la Norvège ainsi qu’à l’arrêt de 2012. Or ces deux précédents
ne sont pas applicables à la présente espèce. La Colombie n’est fondée
à prendre en considération les caractéristiques géographiques qu’elle
invoque qu’à la condition de respecter la règle des 24 milles marins,
comme l’exige le droit international coutumier tel que reflété au paragraphe
2 de l’article 33 de la CNUDM. Si elle peut, dans le dessein de
simplifier la configuration de sa « zone contiguë unique », choisir d’en
réduire la largeur, elle ne saurait l’étendre au‑delà de 24 milles marins, au
détriment de l’exercice, par le Nicaragua, de ses droits souverains et de sa
juridiction dans sa zone économique exclusive.
175. En somme, la Colombie a l’obligation, en droit international, de
respecter la règle des 24 milles marins. L’étendue géographique de la
« zone contiguë unique » n’est donc pas conforme au droit international
coutumier, tel que reflété au paragraphe 2 de l’article 33 de la CNUDM.
176. Pour ce qui est du champ d’application matériel des pouvoirs
reconnus à la Colombie dans la « zone contiguë unique », l’alinéa a) du
paragraphe 3 de l’article 5 du décret présidentiel 1946 dispose que la
Colombie exerce dans ladite zone les pouvoirs nécessaires pour prévenir
les infractions et contrôler le respect des lois et règlements touchant à
« la sûreté de l’Etat, notamment la piraterie et le trafic de stupéfiants
et de substances psychotropes, ainsi que les comportements qui
attentent à la sûreté en mer et aux intérêts maritimes nationaux, aux
336 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (judgment)
74
fiscal,
migration and sanitary matters which take place in its insular territories
or in their territorial sea. In the same manner, violations against
the laws and regulations related with the preservation of the maritime
environment and the cultural heritage will be prevented and controlled.”
Under this provision, the scope of the powers under which the Colombian
authorities may exercise control in the contiguous zone is much
broader than the material scope of the powers enumerated in Article 33,
paragraph 1, of UNCLOS (see paragraph 150 above).
177. The Court notes that, in terms of security, Article 5 (3) refers to
the “integral security of the State”, which, according to Colombia,
includes suppressing piracy and drug-trafficking,
as well as conduct contrary
to security at sea. As the Court has previously found, security was
not a matter that States agreed to include in the list of matters over which
a coastal State may exercise control in the contiguous zone; nor has there
been any evolution of customary international law in this regard since the
adoption of UNCLOS (see paragraph 154 above). The inclusion of security
in the material scope of Colombia’s powers within the “integral
contiguous
zone” is therefore not in conformity with the relevant customary
rule.
178. In respect of the power to protect “national maritime interests”,
Article 5 (3) of Presidential Decree 1946, through its broad wording
alone, appears to encroach on the sovereign rights and jurisdiction of
Nicaragua as set forth in Article 56, paragraph 1, of UNCLOS. This is
also true with regard to violations of “laws and regulations related with
the preservation of the environment”. As the “laws and regulations” are
adopted by Colombia, the power thus conferred on the Colombian
authorities to ensure their implementation in part of Nicaragua’s exclusive
economic zone is contrary to Article 56, paragraph 1 (b) (iii), of
UNCLOS, which grants the coastal State, Nicaragua in the present case,
jurisdiction in its exclusive economic zone over the “protection and preservation
of the marine environment”.
179. Although under UNCLOS, as stated above, all States parties
have an obligation to preserve the marine environment in the exclusive
economic zone, other States must observe the laws and regulations
adopted by the coastal State for the conservation of the living resources
and for the preservation of the marine environment. A flag State may
enforce such conservation measures adopted by the coastal State with
regard to its national vessels operating in the exclusive economic zone
(see Request for Advisory Opinion submitted by the Sub-Regional
Fisheries
Commission, Advisory Opinion, 2 April 2015, ITLOS Reports 2015, p. 37,
para. 120). This is not the situation in the present case with regard to the
powers authorized under Presidential Decree 1946. Article 5 (3) confers
on the Colombian authorities powers that, if exercised in the area overlapping
with Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone, would encroach on
the sovereign rights and jurisdiction of Nicaragua.
droits souverains et espaces maritimes (arrêt) 336
74
affaires douanières, fiscales, migratoires et sanitaires … sur ses territoires
insulaires ou dans leur mer territoriale [, et à] la préservation
de l’environnement maritime et du patrimoine culturel. »
En vertu de cette disposition, le champ d’application matériel des pouvoirs
en application desquels les autorités colombiennes peuvent exercer
un contrôle dans la zone contiguë est bien plus vaste que celui des pouvoirs
énumérés au paragraphe 1 de l’article 33 de la CNUDM (voir le
paragraphe 150 ci-
dessus).
177. La Cour note que, s’agissant de la sécurité, le paragraphe 3 de
l’article 5 vise la « sûreté de l’Etat » qui, selon la Colombie, comprend la
lutte contre la piraterie, le trafic de stupéfiants et les comportements
attentatoires à la sûreté en mer. Comme la Cour l’a déjà dit, la sécurité
n’était pas l’un des domaines que les Etats ont accepté d’inclure parmi
ceux où l’Etat côtier est en droit d’exercer un contrôle dans la zone contiguë,
et le droit international coutumier n’a connu à cet égard aucune évolution
depuis l’adoption de la CNUDM (voir le paragraphe 154 ci‑dessus).
Il serait donc contraire à la règle coutumière pertinente d’inclure la sécurité
dans le champ d’application matériel des pouvoirs reconnus à la
Colombie dans la « zone contiguë unique ».
178. S’agissant du pouvoir de protéger les « intérêts maritimes nationaux
», le paragraphe 3 de l’article 5 du décret présidentiel 1946, du simple
fait de son libellé général, semble porter atteinte aux droits souverains et à
la juridiction du Nicaragua tels que définis au paragraphe 1 de l’article 56
de la CNUDM. Il en va de même pour ce qui est des infractions aux « lois
et règlements touchant à la préservation de l’environnement ». Ces « lois et
règlements » étant adoptés par la Colombie, le pouvoir ainsi conféré aux
autorités colombiennes d’assurer leur exécution dans une partie de la zone
économique exclusive du Nicaragua va à l’encontre du litt. iii) de l’alinéa b)
du paragraphe 1 de l’article 56 de la CNUDM, qui donne à l’Etat côtier, en
l’occurrence le Nicaragua, juridiction dans sa zone économique exclusive
en ce qui concerne « la protection et la préservation du milieu marin ».
179. Si la CNUDM, ainsi qu’il a été mentionné plus haut, impose à
tous les Etats parties de préserver le milieu marin, les autres Etats doivent,
dans la zone économique exclusive, observer les lois et règlements adoptés
par l’Etat côtier en matière de conservation des ressources biologiques et
de préservation du milieu marin. Un Etat du pavillon peut appliquer les
mesures de conservation adoptées par l’Etat côtier en faisant le nécessaire
auprès de ses navires opérant dans ladite zone (voir Demande d’avis
consultatif soumise par la Commission sous‑régionale des pêches, avis
consultatif, 2 avril 2015, TIDM Recueil 2015, p. 37, par. 120). Tel n’est
pas le cas en la présente espèce pour ce qui est des pouvoirs conférés aux
autorités colombiennes en vertu du paragraphe 3 de l’article 5 du décret
présidentiel 1946, qui, s’ils étaient exercés dans la zone empiétant sur la
zone économique exclusive du Nicaragua, porteraient atteinte aux droits
souverains et à la juridiction de celui-
ci.
337 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (judgment)
75
180. With regard to Colombia’s argument that the word “sanitary” can
now be taken to include the protection of the marine environment, the
Court is not convinced that the meaning of that word, as used in Article 33,
paragraph 1, of UNCLOS, has evolved to extend to the protection of the
marine environment, a matter that is separately governed by customary
international law on the environment. The term “sanitary” was originally
included in the provisions on the contiguous zone because of its connection
with customs regulations (Commentary to the articles concerning the law of
the sea, Yearbook of the International Law Commission, 1956, Vol. II, p. 295,
Article 66, Comment (3)). There is no basis, either in law or in State practice,
to give this term the expansive interpretation proposed by Colombia.
181. Article 5 (3) (a) of Presidential Decree 1946 also refers to cultural
heritage. In support of its position, Colombia invokes Article 303, paragraph
2, of UNCLOS. Nicaragua challenges Colombia’s claim on the
basis that Colombia, as a non-party to UNCLOS, may not claim the
right set out in Article 303 and that Colombia has not demonstrated that
Article 303, paragraph 2, reflects customary international law.
182. The Court recalls that paragraphs 1 and 2 of Article 303, entitled
“Archaeological and historical objects found at sea”, provide as fol-
lows:
“1. States have the duty to protect objects of an archaeological and
historical nature found at sea and shall co-operate
for this purpose.
2. In order to control traffic in such objects, the coastal State may,
in applying article 33, presume that their removal from the sea-bed in
the zone referred to in that article without its approval would result
in an infringement within its territory or territorial sea of the laws and
regulations referred to in that article.”
183. The Court notes that in Article 5 (3) (a), of Presidential
Decree 1946, the phrase “cultural heritage” is used. Since Colombia relies
on Article 303, paragraph 2, the Court takes it that Colombia uses this
phrase to mean objects of an archaeological and historical nature.
184. Article 303 is included in the general provisions of Part XVI of
UNCLOS. The travaux préparatoires and the ILC’s Commentary to the
articles concerning the law of the sea indicate that the negotiating States
did not wish to include objects of cultural heritage found on the sea-bed
as part of the natural resources of the continental shelf and, therefore, did
not include cultural heritage in the continental shelf régime (Yearbook of
the International Law Commission, 1956, Vol. II, p. 298). During the
negotiations at the Third United Nations Conference on the Law of the
Sea, the negotiating States agreed to give the coastal State the power to
exercise control over objects of an archaeological and historical nature
found in its contiguous zone and that the removal of such objects can be
regarded as an infringement of its laws and regulations on customs, fiscal,
immigration or sanitary matters. Such extended power is strictly confined
droits souverains et espaces maritimes (arrêt) 337
75
180. S’agissant de l’argument selon lequel le terme « sanitair[e] » peut
désormais être interprété comme incluant la protection du milieu marin, la
Cour n’est pas convaincue que le sens de ce terme, tel que celui‑ci est
employé au paragraphe 1 de l’article 33 de la CNUDM, ait évolué jusqu’à
couvrir ce domaine, lequel est régi par des règles coutumières distinctes du
droit international de l’environnement. Ce terme figurait initialement dans
les dispositions sur les zones contiguës en raison de son lien avec les réglementations
douanières (Articles relatifs au droit de la mer, paragraphe 3
du commentaire de l’article 66, Annuaire de la Commission du droit international,
1956, vol. II, p. 295). Rien, ni en droit ni dans la pratique
des
Etats, ne justifie l’interprétation extensive qu’en fait la Colombie.
181. L’alinéa a) du paragraphe 3 de l’article 5 du décret présidentiel
1946 fait également mention du patrimoine culturel. La Colombie
invoque, à l’appui de sa position, le paragraphe 2 de l’article 303 de la
CNUDM. Le Nicaragua, lui, conteste l’allégation de la Colombie au
motif que celle-
ci, n’étant pas partie à la CNUDM, ne peut revendiquer
le droit visé à l’article 303 et qu’elle n’a pas démontré que le paragraphe 2
de l’article 303 reflétait le droit international coutumier.
182. La Cour rappelle que les paragraphes 1 et 2 de l’article 303, intitulé
« Objets archéologiques et historiques découverts en mer », disposent
ce qui suit :
« 1. Les Etats ont l’obligation de protéger les objets de caractère
archéologique ou historique découverts en mer et coopèrent à cette fin.
2. Pour contrôler le commerce de ces objets, l’Etat côtier peut, en
faisant application de l’article 33, considérer que leur enlèvement du
fond de la mer dans la zone visée à cet article, sans son approbation,
serait cause d’une infraction sur son territoire ou dans sa mer territoriale,
aux lois et règlements de l’Etat côtier visés à ce même article. »
183. La Cour note que l’expression « patrimoine culturel » est employée
à l’alinéa a) du paragraphe 3 de l’article 5 du décret présidentiel 1946.
Elle part du principe que la Colombie, puisqu’elle invoque le paragraphe 2
de l’article 303 de la CNUDM, emploie cette expression pour désigner les
objets de caractère archéologique ou historique.
184. L’article 303 figure parmi les dispositions générales de la partie
XVI de la CNUDM. Les travaux préparatoires de la convention et les
commentaires de la Commission du droit international sur les articles
relatifs au droit de la mer indiquent que les Etats participant aux négociations
ne souhaitaient pas que les objets patrimoniaux découverts sur les
fonds marins soient considérés comme faisant partie des ressources naturelles
du plateau continental et qu’ils n’entendaient donc pas faire entrer
le patrimoine culturel dans le cadre du régime du plateau continental
(Annuaire de la Commission du droit international, 1956, vol. II, p. 298).
Au cours des négociations tenues lors de la troisième conférence des
Nations Unies sur le droit de la mer, les Etats participants sont convenus
de donner à l’Etat côtier le pouvoir d’exercer un contrôle sur les objets de
caractère archéologique et historique découverts dans sa zone contiguë,
338 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (judgment)
76
to the limit of 24 nautical miles under Article 303, paragraph 2, which
was accepted by the plenary of the Third United Nations Conference on
the Law of the Sea (UN doc. A.CONF.62/L.58, para. 15).
185. Following the conclusion of UNCLOS, a growing number of
States have extended the application of their cultural heritage legislation
over the contiguous zone, and multilateral treaties have been concluded
to protect underwater cultural heritage.
186. Taking into account State practice and other legal developments
in this field, the Court is of the view that Article 303, paragraph 2,
of UNCLOS reflects customary international law. It follows that
Article
5 (3) of Presidential Decree 1946, in so far as it includes the power of
control with respect to archaeological and historical objects found within
the contiguous zone, does not violate customary international law.
4. Conclusion
187. In light of the foregoing, the Court finds that the “integral contiguous
zone” established by Colombia’s Presidential Decree 1946 is not
in conformity with customary international law in two respects. First, the
geographical extent of the “integral contiguous zone” contravenes the
24‑nautical-mile rule for the establishment of the contiguous zone. Secondly,
Article 5 (3) of Presidential Decree 1946 confers certain powers on
Colombia to exercise control over infringements of its laws and regulations
in the “integral contiguous zone” that extend to matters that are not
permitted by customary rules as reflected in Article 33, paragraph 1,
of UNCLOS.
188. Having reached this conclusion, the Court will consider the question
whether the establishment of the “integral contiguous zone” by
enactment of Presidential Decree 1946 constitutes, in and of itself, a
breach by Colombia of its international obligations owed to Nicaragua,
which engages its international responsibility.
* *
189. Nicaragua claims that Colombia’s enactment of Presidential
Decree 1946, even if not implemented, is sufficient to constitute an internationally
wrongful act engaging Colombia’s responsibility. Nicaragua
adds that, in any event, the incidents at sea have shown that, in implementing
Presidential Decree 1946, Colombia infringed and continues to
infringe Nicaragua’s sovereign rights and jurisdiction in its exclusive economic
zone.
*
droits souverains et espaces maritimes (arrêt) 338
76
l’enlèvement de tels objets pouvant être considéré comme une infraction à
ses lois et règlements touchant aux affaires douanières, fiscales, migratoires
ou sanitaires. Ce pouvoir étendu s’applique exclusivement dans la
limite des 24 milles marins prévue au paragraphe 2 de l’article 303, ainsi
qu’il en a été décidé en plénière à la troisième conférence des Nations Unies
sur le droit de la mer (Nations Unies, doc. A.CONF.62/L.58, par. 15).
185. A la suite de la conclusion de la CNUDM, un nombre croissant
d’Etats ont étendu l’application de leur législation interne en matière de
patrimoine culturel à leur zone contiguë et des traités multilatéraux ont
été conclus en vue de protéger le patrimoine culturel subaquatique.
186. Compte tenu de la pratique des Etats et d’autres développements
juridiques dans ce domaine, la Cour estime que le paragraphe 2 de l’article
303 de la CNUDM reflète le droit international coutumier. Il s’ensuit
que le paragraphe 3 de l’article 5 du décret présidentiel 1946, en tant qu’il
inclut le pouvoir d’exercer un contrôle sur les objets archéologiques et
historiques découverts dans la zone contiguë, n’emporte pas violation du
droit international coutumier.
4. Conclusion
187. A la lumière de ce qui précède, la Cour conclut que la « zone
contiguë unique » établie par le décret présidentiel colombien 1946 n’est
pas conforme au droit international coutumier à deux égards. Premièrement,
son étendue géographique n’est pas conforme à la règle des 24 milles
marins applicable à l’établissement de la zone contiguë. Deuxièmement, le
paragraphe 3 de l’article 5 du décret présidentiel 1946 confère à la Colombie
certains pouvoirs pour contrôler le respect de ses lois et règlements
dans la « zone contiguë unique » qui s’étendent à des domaines non autorisés
par les règles coutumières telles que reflétées au paragraphe 1 de l’article
33 de la CNUDM.
188. Etant parvenue à cette conclusion, la Cour en vient à présent à la
question de savoir si l’établissement de la « zone contiguë unique » par
l’adoption du décret présidentiel 1946 constitue en soi un manquement
aux obligations internationales qui incombent à la Colombie à l’égard du
Nicaragua, engageant sa responsabilité internationale.
* *
189. Le Nicaragua affirme que, quand bien même le décret présidentiel
1946 ne serait pas mis en oeuvre, son adoption suffit à constituer un fait
internationalement illicite qui engage la responsabilité de la Colombie. Il
ajoute que, en tout état de cause, les incidents survenus en mer ont montré
que, en mettant en oeuvre ce décret, la Colombie avait porté atteinte à
ses droits souverains et à sa juridiction dans sa zone économique exclusive
et continuait d’y porter atteinte.
*
339 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (judgment)
77
190. In rejecting Nicaragua’s claim, Colombia maintains, even assuming
— “quod non” — that the “integral contiguous zone” established in
Presidential Decree 1946 were found to be inconsistent with customary
international law, the enactment of the Decree would not ipso facto constitute
an internationally wrongful act. It argues that the lawfulness of
Presidential Decree 1946 must be evaluated on the basis of whether its
“application” has failed to comply with the “due regard” obligation owed
to Nicaragua. It argues that Nicaragua has failed to show a single instance
where Colombia impeded Nicaragua from exercising its exclusive economic
zone rights within the “integral contiguous zone”.
* *
191. The Court recalls the ILC’s observation that there is no general
rule applicable to the question whether a State engages its international
responsibility by the enactment of national legislation. The question
depends on the specific terms of the obligation concerned and the circumstances
of the case. The ILC’s Commentary explains:
“The question often arises whether an obligation is breached by the
enactment of legislation by a State, in cases where the content of the
legislation prima facie conflicts with what is required by the international
obligation, or whether the legislation has to be implemented in
the given case before the breach can be said to have occurred. Again,
no general rule can be laid down [that is] applicable to all cases. Certain
obligations may be breached by the mere passage of incompatible
legislation. Where this is so, the passage of the legislation without
more entails the international responsibility of the enacting State, the
legislature itself being an organ of the State for the purposes of the
attribution of responsibility. In other circumstances, the enactment of
legislation may not in and of itself amount to a breach, especially if
it is open to the State concerned to give effect to the legislation in a
way which would not violate the international obligation in question.
In such cases, whether there is a breach will depend on whether and
how the legislation is given effect.” (Commentary to Article 12 of the
ILC Articles on State Responsibility, Yearbook of the International
Law Commission, 2001, Vol. II, Part Two, p. 57, para. 12.)
192. The Court will decide the question for the purposes of the present
case in light of the obligations of which Colombia is allegedly in breach
and the specific context of the case.
193. Colombia’s Presidential Decree 1946 was initially issued not long
after the delivery of the 2012 Judgment. Coupled with the official statements
made at the highest level of the Colombian Government with regard
to the 2012 Judgment and the events at sea, the enactment of Presidential
Decree 1946 contributed to the dispute between the Parties, which eventu-
droits souverains et espaces maritimes (arrêt) 339
77
190. Réfutant ces allégations, la Colombie soutient que, même à supposer
que la « zone contiguë unique » instaurée par le décret présidentiel
1946 soit incompatible avec le droit international coutumier — « quod
non » —, l’adoption dudit décret ne constituerait pas en soi un fait internationalement
illicite. Elle fait valoir qu’il convient, pour apprécier la
licéité de ce décret, de considérer si, en l’« appli[quant] », elle a manqué à
son obligation de tenir « dûment compte » des droits du Nicaragua. Or,
argue-t-elle, le Nicaragua n’a pas fait état d’un seul cas dans lequel elle
l’aurait empêché d’exercer dans la « zone contiguë unique » ses droits attachés
à la zone économique exclusive.
* *
191. La Cour rappelle que la Commission du droit international a noté
qu’il n’existait pas de règle générale applicable à la question de savoir si
un Etat engage sa responsabilité internationale en adoptant des dispositions
législatives nationales. La réponse à cette question dépend des
termes spécifiques de l’obligation en cause et des circonstances de l’affaire.
La Commission explique ainsi que
« [l]a question se pose souvent de savoir si l’adoption d’une loi par un
Etat peut violer une obligation, dans les cas où il existe un conflit apparent
entre le contenu de cette loi et ce qui est requis par l’obligation
internationale, ou si la loi en question doit avoir été appliquée en l’espèce
avant que la violation soit réputée s’être produite. Encore une fois,
aucune règle générale, qui soit applicable dans tous les cas, ne peut être
établie. La simple adoption d’une loi incompatible peut entraîner la
violation de certaines obligations. Dans ce cas, la seule adoption de la
loi en question engage la responsabilité internationale de l’Etat qui la
promulgue, le législateur lui‑même étant un organe de l’Etat aux fins de
l’attribution de la responsabilité. Dans d’autres circonstances, il se peut
que l’adoption d’une loi ne constitue pas en soi une violation, en particulier
si l’Etat concerné a la possibilité de donner effet à cette loi d’une
manière qui ne violerait pas l’obligation internationale en question. En
pareil cas, l’existence ou non d’une violation dépend de la mise en
application de cette loi et de la façon dont elle le sera. » (Commentaire
de l’article 12 des articles de la Commission du droit international sur
la responsabilité de l’Etat, Annuaire de la Commission du droit international,
2001, vol. II, deuxième partie, p. 60, par. 12.)
192. Aux fins de la présente affaire, la Cour se prononcera ainsi sur la
question à la lumière des obligations auxquelles la Colombie aurait manqué
et du contexte spécifique de l’affaire.
193. Le décret présidentiel colombien 1946 a été initialement promulgué
peu de temps après le prononcé de l’arrêt de 2012. Conjointement
avec les déclarations officielles faites au plus haut niveau de l’Etat colombien
au sujet de l’arrêt en question et aux incidents survenus en mer, son
adoption a alimenté le différend entre les Parties, ce qui allait conduire à
340 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (judgment)
78
ally led to the institution of the present proceedings by Nicaragua. As the
Court has found that Colombia’s “integral contiguous zone” established
under Presidential Decree 1946 is, in two respects, incompatible with the
rules of customary international law on the contiguous zone and infringes
upon Nicaragua’s rights in its exclusive economic zone (see paragraph 187
above), the Court must address the request made by Nicaragua in its final
submissions with regard to Presidential Decree 1946. The Court is mindful
that Colombia amended Presidential Decree 1946 in 2014 to provide that
the Decree will be applied in compliance with international law. Given the
finding of the Court and the circumstances of the case, however, the Court
does not consider that this additional provision is sufficient to address the
concern raised by Nicaragua with respect to Presidential Decree 1946.
Colombia is under an international obligation to remedy the situation.
194. On the basis of the above considerations, the Court concludes
that, in respect of the maritime areas in which Colombia’s “integral contiguous
zone” overlaps with Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone,
Colombia’s “integral contiguous zone”, which the Court has found to be
incompatible with customary international law as reflected in Article 33
of UNCLOS, infringes upon Nicaragua’s sovereign rights and jurisdiction
in the exclusive economic zone. Colombia’s responsibility is thereby
engaged. Colombia has the obligation, by means of its own choosing, to
bring the provisions of Presidential Decree 1946 into conformity with
customary international law in so far as they relate to maritime areas
declared by the Court in its 2012 Judgment to appertain to Nicaragua.
C. Conclusions and Remedies
195. The Court has concluded (see paragraph 144 above) that Colombia
breached its international obligation to respect Nicaragua’s sovereign
rights and jurisdiction in its exclusive economic zone (i) by interfering
with fishing activities and marine scientific research activities of
Nicaraguan-flagged
or Nicaraguan-licensed
vessels and with the operations
of Nicaraguan naval vessels in Nicaragua’s exclusive economic
zone; (ii) by purporting to enforce conservation measures in Nicaragua’s
exclusive economic zone; and (iii) by authorizing fishing activities in
Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone. This wrongful conduct engages
Colombia’s responsibility under international law. Colombia must therefore
immediately cease its wrongful conduct.
196. The Court has also found (see paragraphs 187 and 194 above)
that the “integral contiguous zone” established by Colombia’s Presidential
Decree 1946 is not in conformity with customary international law,
both because its breadth exceeds 24 nautical miles from the baselines
from which Colombia’s territorial sea is measured and because the powers
that Colombia asserts within the “integral contiguous zone” exceed
those that are permitted under customary international law. In the maritime
areas where the “integral contiguous zone” overlaps with Nicaragua’s
exclusive economic zone, the “integral contiguous zone” infringes
droits souverains et espaces maritimes (arrêt) 340
78
l’introduction de la présente instance par le Nicaragua. Ayant constaté
que la « zone contiguë unique » établie en vertu du décret présidentiel
1946 est, à deux égards, incompatible avec les règles coutumières internationales
relatives à la zone contiguë et qu’elle porte atteinte aux droits
reconnus au Nicaragua dans sa zone économique exclusive (voir le paragraphe
187 ci‑dessus), la Cour doit traiter la demande afférente audit
décret que celui‑ci a formulée dans ses conclusions finales. La Cour
n’ignore pas que la Colombie a modifié ce décret en 2014, de sorte à préciser
qu’il serait appliqué conformément au droit international. Compte
tenu du constat qu’elle a dressé et des circonstances de l’espèce, elle ne
considère toutefois pas que cette précision constitue une réponse suffisante
à la préoccupation soulevée à cet égard par le Nicaragua. La
Colombie a l’obligation internationale de remédier à cette situation.
194. Sur la base des considérations exposées ci-
dessus,
la Cour conclut,
en ce qui concerne les espaces maritimes communs à la « zone contiguë
unique » colombienne et à la zone économique exclusive nicaraguayenne,
que la « zone contiguë unique » colombienne, qu’elle a jugée incompatible
avec le droit international coutumier tel que reflété à l’article 33 de la
CNUDM, porte atteinte aux droits souverains et à la juridiction du Nicaragua
dans la zone économique exclusive. La responsabilité de la Colombie,
dès lors, est engagée. La Colombie doit, par les moyens de son choix,
mettre en conformité avec le droit international coutumier les dispositions
du décret présidentiel 1946, en tant que celles-
ci ont trait aux espaces
maritimes que la Cour a reconnus au Nicaragua dans son arrêt de 2012.
C. Conclusions et remèdes
195. La Cour a conclu (voir le paragraphe 144 ci-
dessus)
que la Colombie
avait manqué à son obligation internationale de respecter les droits
souverains et la juridiction du Nicaragua dans sa zone économique exclusive,
i) en entravant les activités de pêche et de recherche scientifique
marine de navires battant pavillon nicaraguayen ou détenteurs d’un permis
nicaraguayen et les opérations de navires de la marine nicaraguayenne
dans la zone économique exclusive du Nicaragua, ii) en voulant faire
appliquer des mesures de conservation dans cette zone, et iii) en y autorisant
des activités de pêche. Par son comportement illicite, la Colombie a
engagé sa responsabilité au regard du droit international. Elle doit par
conséquent cesser immédiatement ce comportement illicite.
196. La Cour a également constaté (voir les paragraphes 187 et 194
ci-
dessus)
que la « zone contiguë unique » établie par le décret présidentiel
colombien 1946 n’était pas conforme au droit international coutumier,
à la fois parce qu’elle s’étend à plus de 24 milles marins des lignes de
base à partir desquelles est mesurée la largeur de la mer territoriale colombienne,
et parce que les pouvoirs que la Colombie entend y exercer vont
au-
delà de ceux qui sont permis par le droit international coutumier.
Dans les espaces maritimes communs à la « zone contiguë unique » colombienne
et à la zone économique exclusive nicaraguayenne, la première
341 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (judgment)
79
upon Nicaragua’s sovereign rights and jurisdiction in the exclusive economic
zone. Colombia’s responsibility is thereby engaged. Colombia has
the obligation, by means of its own choosing, to bring the provisions of
Presidential Decree 1946 into conformity with customary international
law in so far as they relate to maritime areas declared by the Court in its
2012 Judgment to appertain to Nicaragua.
197. In its final submissions, Nicaragua made a number of requests for
additional remedies (see paragraph 24 above). Considering the nature of
Colombia’s internationally wrongful acts, the Court considers that the
remedies stated above suffice to redress the injury that Colombia’s internationally
wrongful acts have inflicted on Nicaragua.
198. As regards the request by Nicaragua to order Colombia to pay
compensation, the Court considers that in the course of the proceedings
Nicaragua did not offer evidence demonstrating that Nicaraguan-flagged
or Nicaraguan-licensed
vessels or their fishermen suffered material damage
or were effectively prevented from fishing as a result of Colombia’s
acts of interference by its naval frigates in Nicaragua’s exclusive economic
zone. Nicaragua’s claim that fishing activities authorized by Colombia, in
Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone, have caused “a substantial loss of
profits for Nicaragua and its licensed fishermen” is not substantiated. In
the absence of “any evidence capable of demonstrating . . . financially
assessable injury”, the Court will not uphold a claim for compensation
(Dispute regarding Navigational and Related Rights (Costa Rica v. Nicaragua),
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2009, p. 267, para. 149). Therefore,
Nicaragua’s request for compensation must be rejected. Accordingly,
there is no basis for the Court to defer the question of compensation to a
further stage.
199. Finally, Nicaragua requests that the Court remain seised of the
case until Colombia recognizes and respects Nicaragua’s rights in the
Caribbean Sea as attributed by the 2012 Judgment. The Court considers
that there is no legal basis for the Court to accept such a request. Nicaragua’s
request must therefore be rejected.
IV. Counter‑Claims Made by Colombia
200. The Court recalls, as outlined in paragraph 15 of the present
Judgment, that in its Order dated 15 November 2017 it ruled pursuant to
Article 80 of the Rules of Court that “there is no direct connection, either
in fact or in law, between Colombia’s first and second counter‑claims and
Nicaragua’s principal claims”, and that those counter‑claims are inadmissible
as such and do not form part of the present proceedings (Alleged
Violations of Sovereign Rights and Maritime Spaces in the Caribbean Sea
(Nicaragua v. Colombia), Counter‑Claims, Order of 15 November 2017,
I.C.J. Reports 2017, p. 314, para. 82 (A) (1) and (2)). The Court found,
droits souverains et espaces maritimes (arrêt) 341
79
porte atteinte aux droits souverains et à la juridiction que le Nicaragua
est en droit d’exercer dans la seconde. La responsabilité de la Colombie
est par là même engagée. La Colombie doit, par les moyens de son choix,
mettre en conformité avec le droit international coutumier les dispositions
du décret présidentiel 1946, en tant que celles‑ci ont trait aux espaces
maritimes que la Cour a reconnus au Nicaragua dans son arrêt de 2012.
197. Dans ses conclusions finales, le Nicaragua a sollicité un certain
nombre de remèdes supplémentaires (voir le paragraphe 24 ci-
dessus).
Compte tenu de la nature des faits internationalement illicites de la
Colombie, la Cour considère que les remèdes exposés ci‑dessus suffisent à
réparer le préjudice que ces faits ont causé au Nicaragua.
198. En ce qui concerne la demande du Nicaragua tendant à ce qu’il
soit ordonné à la Colombie de l’indemniser, la Cour considère que, au
cours de la procédure, le Nicaragua n’a pas présenté de preuve que des
navires battant pavillon nicaraguayen ou détenteurs d’un permis nicaraguayen
ou les pêcheurs qui se trouvaient à leur bord avaient subi un préjudice
matériel ou avaient été effectivement empêchés de pêcher par suite
de faits d’ingérence de frégates colombiennes dans la zone économique
exclusive nicaraguayenne. L’assertion du Nicaragua, qui prétend que les
activités de pêche autorisées par la Colombie dans ladite zone lui ont
causé « un manque à gagner considérable [de même qu’à] ses pêcheurs
titulaires de licences », n’est pas étayée par la moindre preuve. En l’absence
d’« éléments permettant de démontrer [l’existence d’]un préjudice
propre susceptible d’évaluation financière », la Cour ne fera pas droit à
une demande d’indemnisation (Différend relatif à des droits de navigation
et des droits connexes (Costa Rica c. Nicaragua), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2009,
p. 267, par. 149). La demande d’indemnisation du Nicaragua doit donc
être rejetée. Par conséquent, rien ne fonde la Cour à reporter la question
de l’indemnisation à un stade ultérieur.
199. Enfin, le Nicaragua prie la Cour de demeurer saisie de l’affaire tant
que la Colombie n’aura pas reconnu et ne respectera pas les droits que la
Cour, par l’arrêt de 2012, a adjugés au Nicaragua dans la mer des Caraïbes.
La Cour considère qu’elle n’est nullement fondée en droit à accueillir
pareille demande. La demande du Nicaragua doit donc être rejetée.
IV. Demandes reconventionnelles formulées par la Colombie
200. La Cour rappelle, comme elle l’a déjà évoqué au paragraphe 15
du présent arrêt, que dans son ordonnance en date du 15 novembre 2017
elle a constaté « l’absence de connexité directe, tant en fait qu’en droit,
entre les deux premières demandes reconventionnelles de la Colombie et
les demandes principales du Nicaragua », et a conclu, conformément à
l’article 80 de son Règlement, que ces demandes étaient irrecevables
comme telles et ne pouvaient pas faire partie de la présente procédure
(Violations alléguées de droits souverains et d’espaces maritimes dans la
mer des Caraïbes (Nicaragua c. Colombie), demandes reconventionnelles,
342 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (judgment)
80
however, that there is a direct connection between Colombia’s third and
fourth counter‑claims and Nicaragua’s principal claims and that therefore
those counter‑claims are admissible and do form part of the present
proceedings (I.C.J. Reports 2017, p. 314, para. 82 (A) (3) and (4)). The
Court will next examine the merits of Colombia’s third and fourth counter‑claims
in turn.
A. Nicaragua’s Alleged Infringement of the Artisanal Fishing Rights
of the Inhabitants of the San Andrés Archipelago to Access
and Exploit the Traditional Banks
201. In its third counter-claim Colombia asserts that the ancestral
inhabitants of the San Andrés Archipelago, including the Raizales, have
for more than three centuries engaged in navigating, fishing and turtling
throughout the south-western
Caribbean Sea in the maritime areas
adjudged in the 2012 Judgment to appertain to Nicaragua, as well as in
Colombian waters, access to which requires navigating through a part of
Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone. It contends that the Raizales have
traditionally fished between the Mosquito Coast and the San Andrés
Archipelago, including in “[t]he shallow grounds of Cape Bank and, in
particular, along La Esquina, that is to say on both sides of the 82° West
Meridian, and the area known as Luna Verde”; and “[t]he deep‑sea banks
situated North of Quitasueño, East of the 82° West Meridian and West
and North‑West of Providencia, and between, respectively, Providencia
and Quitasueño, Quitasueño and Serrana and Serrana and Roncador”.
Colombia further contends that while long fishing expeditions to Cape
Bank and the Northern Banks have always taken place, artisanal fishermen
started sailing to these banks much more frequently in the second
half of the twentieth century, due to the decrease in production around
San Andrés and Providencia. Colombia asserts that, as a result of the
2012 Judgment, many traditional fishing banks of the inhabitants of the
Archipelago are now located in the maritime zones under the jurisdiction
of Nicaragua, while certain other fishing grounds located in Colombia’s
maritime areas can only be accessed by navigating through Nicaragua’s
exclusive economic zone.
202. In support of its third counter‑claim, Colombia asserts, first, that
the traditional fishing rights of the Raizales arise out of an uncontested
local customary norm or practice spanning centuries, as evidenced
through various historical documents and affidavits annexed to the
Counter-Memorial.
It describes those fishing rights as “limited . . . customary
rights of access and exploitation” whose exercise does not negate
the exclusive character of the sovereign rights of Nicaragua as the coastal
State. Secondly, Colombia argues that, “in the immediate aftermath of
the 2012 Judgment, Colombia and Nicaragua recognized, both tacitly
droits souverains et espaces maritimes (arrêt) 342
80
ordonnance du 15 novembre 2017, C.I.J. Recueil 2017, p. 314, par. 82,
point A), alinéas 1) et 2)). La Cour a cependant conclu qu’il y avait une
connexité directe entre les troisième et quatrième demandes reconventionnelles
de la Colombie et les demandes principales du Nicaragua et que,
conséquence, ces demandes reconventionnelles étaient recevables et pouvaient
faire partie de la présente procédure (ibid., p. 314, par. 82, point A),
alinéas 3) et 4)). Elle examinera à présent la troisième, puis la quatrième
demande reconventionnelle de la Colombie sur le fond.
A. Allégations de violation par le Nicaragua des droits des pêcheurs
artisanaux de l’archipel de San Andrés d’accéder aux bancs traditionnels
et de les exploiter
201. Dans sa troisième demande reconventionnelle, la Colombie
affirme que les habitants dont l’archipel de San Andrés est le territoire
ancestral, notamment les Raizals, naviguent, pêchent et chassent la tortue
depuis plus de trois siècles dans l’ensemble du sud-ouest de la mer des
Caraïbes, dans les espaces maritimes que la Cour a reconnus au Nicaragua
dans son arrêt de 2012, ainsi que dans des eaux colombiennes dont
l’accès requiert de traverser une partie de la zone économique exclusive
du Nicaragua. Elle soutient que les Raizals pêchaient traditionnellement
entre la côte des Mosquitos et l’archipel de San Andrés, notamment
« dans les eaux peu profondes, à Cape Bank et, en particulier, le long de
La Esquina, autrement dit de part et d’autre du 82e méridien de longitude
ouest, et la zone dite de Luna Verde », ainsi que dans « les eaux profondes,
au nord de Quitasueño, à l’est du 82e méridien de longitude ouest et à
l’ouest et au nord‑ouest de Providencia, et entre, respectivement, Providencia
et Quitasueño, Quitasueño et Serrana et Serrana et Roncador ».
La Colombie soutient en outre que, si de longues expéditions de pêche
vers Cape Bank et les bancs septentrionaux ont eu lieu de tout temps, les
pêcheurs artisanaux ont commencé à fréquenter ces bancs beaucoup plus
assidûment pendant la seconde moitié du XXe siècle, en raison de la diminution
des prises autour de San Andrés et Providencia. Elle avance que,
en conséquence de l’arrêt de 2012, de nombreux lieux de pêche traditionnels
des habitants de l’archipel se trouvent à présent dans des espaces
maritimes qui relèvent de la juridiction du Nicaragua, et que certains
autres bancs de pêche situés dans des espaces maritimes colombiens ne
peuvent être rejoints qu’en traversant ladite zone économique exclusive.
202. A l’appui de sa troisième demande reconventionnelle, la Colombie
affirme, en premier lieu, que les droits de pêche traditionnels des Raizals
découlent d’une coutume ou pratique locale non contestée et multiséculaire,
telle qu’attestée par divers documents historiques et déclarations
sous serment annexés au contre-mémoire.
Elle qualifie ces droits de pêche
de « droits coutumiers d’accès et d’exploitation » limités dont l’exercice ne
remet nullement en cause le caractère exclusif des droits souverains du
Nicaragua en tant qu’Etat côtier. En deuxième lieu, la Colombie fait valoir
que, « immédiatement après le prononcé de l’arrêt de 2012, … le Nicara-
343 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (judgment)
81
and explicitly, that such a . . . long‑established practice [of artisanal fishing]
had taken the shape of a local customary norm that survived the
maritime delimitation”. Thirdly, Colombia asserts that Nicaragua has,
through the statements of its Head of State, accepted that the artisanal
fishermen of the Archipelago have a right to fish in Nicaragua’s own maritime
zones without the need for bilateral fishing agreements or other
mechanisms to preserve these rights and without the fishermen having to
request authorization from INPESCA. Colombia argues, in the alternative,
that these statements must be viewed as constituting a binding unilateral
undertaking by Nicaragua to respect the traditional fishing rights
of the Raizales. Finally, Colombia asserts that,
“[i]t matters little whether the formal source is a local customary norm,
a tacit agreement, an act of acquiescence, a unilateral understanding
or even a rule of international law on the treatment of vested rights
of foreign nationals. The result is the same. The inhabitants of the
Archipelago and, in particular, the Raizales have the right to fish in
the banks located in the maritime zones found to appertain to
Nicaragua
. . . without having to request an authorization.”
203. In this regard, Colombia refers, inter alia, to the following statements
by Nicaragua’s Head of State:
(i) a statement of 26 November 2012 in which President Ortega allegedly
stressed Nicaragua’s respect for the rights of the inhabitants of the
Archipelago “to fish and navigate in those waters, which they ha[d]
historically navigated”, while also stating that “artisanal fishermen
would require an authorization from the relevant Nicaraguan authorities”;
(ii) a statement of 1 December 2012 in which President Ortega allegedly
declared that “Nicaragua will respect the ancestral rights of the
Raizales” and that “mechanisms for dialogue” would have to be
established in order to “ensure the right of the Raizal people to fish”;
(iii) a statement of 21 February 2013 in which President Ortega allegedly
stated that “the Raizal community, living in San Andrés can continue
fishing in the Caribbean waters now belonging to Nicaragua and that
their rights as native people will not be affected” but that it was “necessary
to work on an agreement between Colombia and Nicaragua to
regulate this situation, because right now there is no way to know
how many vessels belong to the Raizal community and which are
related by industrial fishing”;
(iv) a statement of 18 November 2014 in which President Ortega asserted
that, while the President of Colombia was prepared to work on an
agreement or treaty with Nicaragua to implement the 2012 Judgment,
the Parties “agreed that it was necessary to work on reaching
droits souverains et espaces maritimes (arrêt) 343
81
gua [et elle-même] [av]aient reconnu, tant tacitement qu’expressément,
qu’un[e telle pratique ancestrale de pêche artisanale] s’était mué[e] en
norme coutumière locale qui survivait à la délimitation maritime ». En
troisième lieu, la Colombie affirme que le Nicaragua a admis, par les déclarations
de son chef d’Etat, que les pêcheurs artisanaux de l’archipel ont le
droit de pêcher dans les zones maritimes du Nicaragua sans qu’il soit
nécessaire de conclure des accords de pêche bilatéraux ou d’autres mécanismes
pour préserver ces droits et sans que les pêcheurs aient à demander
l’autorisation de l’INPESCA. La Colombie soutient, à titre subsidiaire,
que ces déclarations doivent être considérées comme constituant un engagement
unilatéral contraignant du Nicaragua à respecter les droits de
pêche traditionnels des Raizals. Enfin, la Colombie fait valoir que
« [p]eu importe que [le droit coutumier local] tire, formellement, sa
source d’une norme coutumière locale, d’un accord tacite, d’un acte
d’acquiescement, d’un engagement unilatéral voire d’une règle de
droit international sur le sort à réserver aux droits acquis de ressortissants
étrangers. Le résultat est le même. Les habitants de l’archipel
et, en particulier, les Raizals ont le droit de pêcher sur les bancs
situés dans les zones maritimes dont l’appartenance a été reconnue
au Nicaragua … sans avoir à en demander l’autorisation. »
203. A cet égard, la Colombie renvoie notamment aux déclarations
suivantes du chef de l’Etat nicaraguayen :
i) une déclaration du 26 novembre 2012, dans laquelle le président
Ortega aurait insisté sur le respect de son pays envers les droits des
habitants de l’archipel « de pêcher et de naviguer dans les eaux où ils
navigu[ai]ent depuis toujours », non sans préciser, toutefois, que « les
pêcheurs artisanaux devraient obtenir l’autorisation des autorités
nicaraguayennes compétentes » ;
ii) une déclaration du 1er décembre 2012, dans laquelle le président
Ortega aurait affirmé que son pays « respectera[it] les droits ancestraux
des Raizals » et mentionné la nécessité d’instaurer des « mécanismes de
dialogue » en vue de « garantir le droit de pêche d[e ce] peuple » ;
iii) une déclaration du 21 février 2013, dans laquelle le président Ortega
aurait affirmé que « la communauté raizale vivant à San Andrés
p[ouvai]t continuer de pêcher dans les eaux caribéennes qui
appart[enai]ent désormais au Nicaragua et que ses droits en tant que
peuple autochtone ne ser[aie]nt pas touchés » mais qu’il était
« nécess[aire] d’oeuvrer à la conclusion d’un accord entre la Colombie
et le Nicaragua afin de régulariser la situation, en l’absence de moyen
de savoir combien de navires appart[enai]ent à la communauté raizale
et lesquels se livr[ai]ent à la pêche industrielle » ;
iv) une déclaration du 18 novembre 2014, dans laquelle le président
Ortega aurait indiqué que le président colombien était disposé à
oeuvrer à la conclusion d’un accord ou d’un traité avec le Nicaragua
en vue de donner effet à l’arrêt de 2012 et que, dans ce contexte, les
344 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (judgment)
82
an Agreement where the [r]ights of the Raizal Community [would] be
guaranteed”; and
(v) a statement by President Ortega, of 5 November 2015 which contains
a reference to “engagements . . . with the Raizales Brothers regarding
their [f]ishing [r]ights, which will have to be arranged later”.
204. Colombia claims that in the aftermath of the 2012 Judgment and,
notwithstanding President Ortega’s support of the rights of the inhabitants
of the San Andrés Archipelago, Nicaragua’s Naval Force has followed
an active strategy of intimidation, including through threats and
pillaging, thereby
“preventing on a recurring basis, or at the very least, seriously discouraging
the artisanal fishermen of the Archipelago from reaching
their traditional banks located in the maritime zones adjudicated to
appertain to Nicaragua and the Northern Banks of Quitasueño, Serrana,
Serranilla and Bajo Nuevo”,
as evidenced in 11 affidavits annexed to the Counter‑Memorial. Colombia
further asserts that the Nicaraguan industrial fishermen operating in the
relevant areas are involved in “predatory practices as well as acts of
piracy” and that, by the Nicaraguan Naval Force “tolerating these predatory
fishing practices and criminal activities”, Nicaragua is in further violation
of the customary right of the artisanal fishermen in the Archipelago
to access and exploit the traditional banks.
205. Colombia considers that Nicaragua
“is under an obligation to cease and desist from preventing Colombian
artisanal fishermen from accessing their traditional fishing
grounds, and to fully respect the traditional, historic fishing rights of
the Raizales and other fishermen of the Archipelago to such grounds”.
Colombia is also of the view that Nicaragua should pay compensation
for damage caused, including loss of profits resulting from Nicaragua’s
alleged violations, and give appropriate guarantees of non‑repetition.
*
206. In response to Colombia’s third counter-claim, Nicaragua
argues that “there are absolutely no legal rights, residual or otherwise, of
the Raizal population of the small islands of San Andrés, Providencia
and Santa Catalina to any purported fishing in the Nicaraguan [exclusive
economic zone]” and that the claimed rights are incompatible with the
régime of the exclusive economic zone. In Nicaragua’s view, “the text and
context of the relevant provisions of UNCLOS, the preparatory works,
and the jurisprudence all make clear that historic fishing rights, including
artisanal fishing rights, did not survive the creation of the [exclusive
droits souverains et espaces maritimes (arrêt) 344
82
Parties étaient « convenues de la nécessité d’oeuvrer à la conclusion
d’un accord garantissant les droits de la communauté raizale » ; et
v) une déclaration du président Ortega, en date du 5 novembre 2015,
dans laquelle il est fait référence aux « engagements … envers nos
frères raizals concernant leurs droits de pêche, qui devront être pris
ultérieurement ».
204. La Colombie affirme que, à la suite de l’arrêt de 2012 et nonobstant
le soutien apporté par le président Ortega aux droits des habitants de
l’archipel de San Andrés, les forces navales nicaraguayennes ont poursuivi
une stratégie active d’intimidation, notamment par les menaces et les
pillages auxquels elles se livrent, de sorte qu’elles
« empêche[nt] régulièrement, ou du moins … décourage[nt] fortement,
les pêcheurs artisanaux de l’archipel d’atteindre leurs bancs
traditionnels situés dans les espaces maritimes qui ont été reconnus
au Nicaragua ainsi que les bancs septentrionaux de Quitasueño, Serrana,
Serranilla et Bajo Nuevo »,
comme l’attestent 11 déclarations sous serment annexées à son contre‑mémoire.
Elle soutient en outre que les pêcheurs industriels nicaraguayens
opérant dans les espaces en question se livrent à des « pratiques déprédatrices
ainsi qu’à des actes de piraterie » et que, du fait que la marine
nicaraguayenne
tolère ces « pratiques de pêche déprédatrices et … agissements
criminels », le Nicaragua commet en outre une violation du droit
coutumier des pêcheurs artisanaux de l’archipel d’accéder aux bancs traditionnels
et de les exploiter.
205. La Colombie estime que le Nicaragua
« a l’obligation de cesser d’empêcher les pêcheurs artisanaux colombiens
d’accéder à leurs zones de pêche traditionnelles et de pleinement
respecter les droits de pêche traditionnels dont les Raizals et les autres
pêcheurs de l’archipel ont toujours joui sur ces mêmes zones ».
La Colombie est également d’avis que le Nicaragua devrait l’indemniser
du dommage causé, y compris le manque à gagner résultant des violations
qu’il aurait commises, et lui donner des garanties appropriées de non‑répétition.
*
206. En réponse à la troisième demande reconventionnelle de la Colombie,
le Nicaragua fait valoir que « la population raizale des petites îles de
San Andrés, Providencia et Santa Catalina ne jouit d’aucun droit juridique,
résiduel ou autre, de mener de prétendues activités de pêche dans la [zone
économique exclusive] nicaraguayenne » et que les droits revendiqués sont
incompatibles avec le régime de la zone économique exclusive. Selon lui, « il
ressort clairement du texte et du contexte des dispositions pertinentes de la
CNUDM, ainsi que des travaux préparatoires et de la jurisprudence, que
les droits de pêche historiques, y compris les droits de pêche artisanale,
345 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (judgment)
83
economic
zone] régime”. Furthermore, Nicaragua asserts that, in any
event, Colombia has failed to establish that the artisanal fishermen of the
San Andrés Archipelago have such rights or that Nicaragua has infringed
them.
207. First, Nicaragua argues that, in accordance with the Court’s jurisprudence,
“the régime [of the exclusive economic zone], as codified in
Part V of UNCLOS is fully applicable between the Parties as customary
international law”. For Nicaragua, an examination of the text, context
and preparatory work of Part V of the Convention clearly indicates that
the exploitation of the living resources of the exclusive economic zone is
reserved for the coastal State. The Applicant relies on the text of Article
56, paragraph 1 (a), which provides for the coastal State’s “sovereign
rights for the purpose of exploring and exploiting, conserving and managing
the natural resources, whether living or non‑living, of the waters
superjacent to the sea-bed and of the sea-bed and its subsoil”. Nicaragua
also notes that Article 61, paragraph 1, of the Convention gives to the
coastal State the exclusive right to establish allowable catch limits in its
exclusive economic zone; while Article 62, paragraph 2, empowers the
same State to establish its own harvesting capacity, with the possibility,
under Article 62, paragraph 3, of giving access to other States to the surplus
stocks, taking into account, inter alia, “the need to minimize economic
dislocation in States whose nationals have habitually fished in the
zone or which have made substantial efforts in research and identification
of stocks”. Nicaragua argues that some provisions of UNCLOS concerning
other maritime areas, such as Article 51 on archipelagic waters, “contain
express carve‑outs for traditional fishing rights or the application of
other rules of international law”. Thus, according to Nicaragua, the
absence of a provision in Part V of UNCLOS preserving traditional fishing
rights in the exclusive economic zone indicates the intention of the
drafters of the Convention to relegate these rights to a “relevant factor”
in the allocation of the surplus resources.
208. Nicaragua further asserts that during the negotiation of UNCLOS
at the Third United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea, proposals
concerning the protection of historic fishing practices in the exclusive economic
zone were discussed and rejected and that a large number of
States objected to this protection in the waters adjacent to their coasts,
a fact which supports the recognition of exclusive sovereign rights and
jurisdiction of the coastal State over the natural resources of the exclusive
economic zone. Finally, Nicaragua argues that the jurisprudence,
as evidenced by the Court’s ruling in the case concerning
Delimitation of the Maritime Boundary in the Gulf of Maine Area
(Canada/
United States of America) (Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1984,
p. 246), also supports its argument that, under customary international
law, traditional fishing rights have been extinguished by the establishment
of the exclusive economic zone, and that coastal States now enjoy
droits souverains et espaces maritimes (arrêt) 345
83
n’ont pas survécu à la création du régime de la [zone économique exclusive]
». Le Nicaragua affirme en outre que, en tout état de cause, la Colombie
n’a pas établi que les pêcheurs artisanaux de l’archipel de San Andrés
détiennent de tels droits ou que le Nicaragua ait violé ceux‑ci.
207. Premièrement, le Nicaragua fait valoir que, conformément à la
jurisprudence de la Cour, « le régime de la [zone économique exclusive], tel
que codifié dans la partie V de la CNUDM, est pleinement applicable entre
les Parties en tant qu’élément du droit international coutumier ». Pour lui,
il ressort clairement de l’examen du texte, du contexte et des travaux préparatoires
relatifs à la partie V de la convention que l’exploitation des ressources
biologiques de la zone économique exclusive est réservée à l’Etat
côtier. Le demandeur s’appuie sur le libellé de l’alinéa a) du paragraphe 1
de l’article 56, qui dispose que l’Etat côtier a « des droits souverains aux fins
d’exploration et d’exploitation, de conservation et de gestion des ressources
naturelles, biologiques ou non biologiques, des eaux surjacentes aux fonds
marins, des fonds marins et de leur sous-sol ». Il relève également que l’article
61 de la convention, en son paragraphe 1, confère à l’Etat côtier le
droit exclusif de fixer le volume admissible des captures dans sa zone économique
exclusive, tandis que l’article 62, en son paragraphe 2, lui permet
de déterminer sa propre capacité d’exploitation et, en son paragraphe 3, de
donner à d’autres Etats accès au reliquat des stocks en tenant compte,
notamment, de « la nécessité de réduire à un minimum les perturbations
économiques dans les Etats dont les ressortissants pratiquent habituellement
la pêche dans la zone ou qui ont beaucoup contribué à la recherche et
à l’inventaire des stocks ». Le Nicaragua fait valoir que certaines dispositions
de la CNUDM ayant trait à d’autres espaces maritimes, tel que l’article
51 relatif aux eaux archipélagiques, « prévoient des exceptions expresses
concernant les droits de pêche traditionnels ou l’application d’autres règles
du droit international ». Par conséquent, selon lui, l’absence dans la partie
V de la CNUDM de disposition protégeant les droits de pêche traditionnels
dans la zone économique exclusive témoigne de l’intention qu’avaient
les rédacteurs de la convention de considérer ces droits comme un simple
« facteur pertinent » dans l’allocation du reliquat des ressources.
208. Le Nicaragua avance en outre que, pendant la négociation de la
CNUDM à la troisième conférence des Nations Unies sur le droit de la
mer, des propositions pour la protection de pratiques de pêche historiques
dans la zone économique exclusive ont été discutées et rejetées et qu’un
grand nombre d’Etats se sont dits opposés à cette protection dans les
eaux adjacentes à leurs côtes, fait qui va dans le sens de la reconnaissance
des droits souverains et de la juridiction exclusifs de l’Etat côtier sur les
ressources naturelles de la zone économique exclusive. Enfin, le Nicaragua
fait valoir que la jurisprudence, comme l’atteste l’arrêt rendu par la
Cour en l’affaire de la Délimitation de la frontière maritime dans la
région du golfe du Maine (Canada/Etats-Unis d’Amérique) (arrêt, C.I.J.
Recueil 1984, p. 246), vient aussi étayer son argument que, en vertu du
droit international coutumier, les droits de pêche traditionnels ont été
éteints par la création de la zone économique exclusive et que les Etats
346 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (judgment)
84
a “legal monopoly” over the living resources of the exclusive economic
zone.
209. In the alternative, Nicaragua contends that, should the Court find
that traditional fishing rights have survived the establishment of the
exclusive economic zone, Colombia has, in any event, not discharged its
burden of proving either that its fishermen actually had such rights or
that Nicaragua has infringed them. Nicaragua argues further that Colombia’s
claim of traditional fishing rights is inconsistent with the latter’s own
prior admissions during the proceedings before the Court in the case concerning
Territorial and Maritime Dispute (Nicaragua v. Colombia), where
Colombia did not make any reference to the existence of ancestral fishing
rights of the Raizales. Nicaragua also refers to a passage of Colombia’s
Counter-Memorial
submitted in the above‑mentioned case, where the
Respondent indicated that the population of the Archipelago has relied
for subsistence on the fisheries and other resources located in “Roncador,
Quitasueño, Serrana, Serranilla and Bajo Nuevo”, features which are not
located in the area the Court declared in its 2012 Judgment to appertain
to Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone. Nicaragua also invites the Court
to take into account Colombia’s statement to the International Labour
Organization’s Committee of Experts on the Application of Conventions
and Recommendations that the fishing areas used by the inhabitants of
San Andrés “were not affected by the ICJ ruling, as they consisted of territorial
waters awarded to Colombia”. Finally, Nicaragua argues that,
through official acts, such as Colombia’s DIMAR Resolution No. 0121
of 28 April 2004, Colombia itself placed tight limits on the areas where
artisanal fishermen were allowed to fish, restricting their area of operation
to a distance of 12 nautical miles from the islands of San Andrés and
Providencia.
210. Nicaragua also submits that Colombia’s own evidence, in the
form of the 11 affidavits from artisanal fishermen referenced above, disproves
Colombia’s claim and demonstrates that fishing did not historically
occur in the area the Court declared in its 2012 Judgment to
constitute Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone. Nicaragua, moreover,
questions the probative value of this type of evidence, arguing that the
affidavits were sworn by private persons interested in the outcome of the
proceedings, and prepared less than a month before the filing of
Colombia’s
Counter‑Memorial, for the purposes of litigation. Nicaragua
asserts that, in any event, the affidavits prove that “historic fishing took
place largely in the vicinity of Colombia’s islands, and not in waters that
the Court determined to be part of Nicaragua’s [exclusive economic
zone]”.
211. Nicaragua further asserts that none of the statements in which
President Ortega expressed his openness to address Colombia’s concerns
about the fishing practices of the Raizales, amount to an explicit recognition
or acceptance of the alleged traditional fishing rights. In Nicaragua’s
droits souverains et espaces maritimes (arrêt) 346
84
côtiers jouissent désormais d’un « monopole de droits » sur les ressources
biologiques de cette zone.
209. A titre subsidiaire, le Nicaragua maintient que, si la Cour devait
conclure que des droits de pêche traditionnels ont survécu à la création de
la zone économique exclusive, la Colombie ne s’est, en tout état de cause,
pas acquittée de la charge qui lui incombe de prouver que ses pêcheurs
avaient effectivement de tels droits ou que le Nicaragua y a porté atteinte.
Il affirme en outre que la revendication par la Colombie de droits de pêche
traditionnels contredit ce que celle‑ci a précédemment admis au cours de la
procédure devant la Cour en l’affaire du Différend territorial et maritime
(Nicaragua c. Colombie), dans laquelle elle n’a pas fait la moindre référence
à l’existence de droits de pêche ancestraux des Raizals. Le Nicaragua
renvoie aussi à un passage du contre‑mémoire soumis par la Colombie en
l’affaire susmentionnée, dans lequel il est dit que la population de l’archipel
dépendait pour subsister des ressources halieutiques et d’autres ressources
se trouvant à « Roncador, Quitasueño, Serrana, Serranilla et
Bajo Nuevo », formations qui ne sont pas situées dans l’espace dont la
Cour a dit dans son arrêt de 2012 qu’il fait partie de la zone économique
exclusive nicaraguayenne. Le demandeur invite également la Cour à tenir
compte de la déclaration faite par la Colombie à la commission d’experts
pour l’application des conventions et recommandations de l’Organisation
internationale du Travail, à savoir que l’arrêt de la Cour n’avait « pas eu
d’incidence » sur « les zones de pêche fréquentées par les habitants de
San Andrés … puisqu’il s’agi[ssai]t … d’une zone maritime appartenant à
la Colombie ». Enfin, le Nicaragua affirme que, par des textes officiels tels
que la résolution no 0121 du 28 avril 2004 de la DIMAR, la Colombie a
elle-même imposé des limites strictes aux espaces où les pêcheurs artisanaux
étaient autorisés à pêcher, réduisant leur zone d’activité à une distance
de 12 milles marins des îles de San Andrés et Providencia.
210. Le Nicaragua fait valoir également que la Colombie voit ses prétentions
contredites par les preuves qu’elle-même a produites, sous la
forme des 11 déclarations sous serment de pêcheurs artisanaux mentionnées
ci‑dessus, qui montrent que cette pêche n’a jamais été pratiquée dans
l’espace dont la Cour a dit dans son arrêt de 2012 qu’il fait partie de la
zone économique exclusive nicaraguayenne. Il met du reste en doute la
force probante de ce type de preuve, estimant que ces déclarations sous
serment émanent de particuliers qui ont des intérêts dans l’issue de la procédure,
et ont été établies moins d’un mois avant le dépôt du contre-mémoire
de la Colombie, pour les besoins de la cause. Il affirme que, quoi
qu’il en soit, ces déclarations prouvent que « toutes les pratiques de pêche
historiques ont eu pour cadre des eaux situées pour la plupart à proximité
d’îles colombiennes et non des eaux dont la Cour a jugé qu’elles faisaient
partie de la [zone économique exclusive] du Nicaragua ».
211. Le Nicaragua affirme de plus qu’aucune des déclarations dans lesquelles
le président Ortega a exprimé sa volonté de prendre en considération
les préoccupations de la Colombie concernant les pratiques de pêche
des Raizals n’équivaut à une reconnaissance ou acceptation explicite des
347 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (judgment)
85
view, those statements, which must be understood in the particularly delicate
context in which they were made, were intended to be conciliatory
and to diffuse the political tension created by Colombia’s rejection of the
Court’s 2012 Judgment. Nicaragua emphasizes that, in the statements,
President Ortega expressly called for the establishment of appropriate
mechanisms to accommodate the activities of the artisanal fishermen,
including a bilateral agreement with Colombia. Nicaragua also makes it
clear that, while it denies that the inhabitants of the San Andrés Archipelago
have a
“vested ‘right’ to conduct artisanal fishing in Nicaragua’s exclusive
economic zone as a matter of law, it remains open, in the spirit of
brotherhood and good neighbourly relations, to work with Colombia
to reach a bilateral agreement that takes account of . . . the fishing
needs of the Raizales”.
212. Nicaragua further argues that Colombia has failed to produce
any contemporaneous evidence of the alleged incidents of interference by
the Nicaraguan Navy. Nicaragua states that the declaration of President
Santos of 18 February 2013 and the affidavits on which Colombia
relies do not provide any details of the incidents of harassment or pillaging
that is alleged to have occurred.
* *
213. The Court observes that Colombia’s third counter-claim is premised
on two main contentions: first, Colombia asserts that the inhabitants
of the San Andrés Archipelago, in particular the Raizales, have for
centuries practised traditional or artisanal fishing in locations now falling
in Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone. The alleged long‑standing practices
amongst those communities are said to have given rise to an uncontested
“local customary norm” between the Parties or to customary rights
of access and exploitation that survived the establishment of Nicaragua’s
exclusive economic zone. Additionally, Colombia points to statements of
President Ortega, the Head of State of Nicaragua, which it characterizes
both as accepting or recognizing the existence of those rights and as
unilateral
statements that are capable of producing “legal effects” in
the sense that they amounted to “granting rights to the artisanal fishermen”.
The Court will examine the merits of each of those arguments
before determining whether Colombia has proven Nicaragua’s alleged
violations.
214. As to Colombia’s first main contention, the onus is on Colombia
to prove that the inhabitants of the San Andrés Archipelago, in particular
the Raizales, have historically practised artisanal fishing in areas that now
fall within Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone, giving rise (according to
Colombia) to an “uncontested local customary norm” or to “customary
rights of access and exploitation” that survived the establishment of Nicaragua’s
exclusive economic zone.
droits souverains et espaces maritimes (arrêt) 347
85
droits de pêche traditionnels qu’auraient ces derniers. Selon lui, ces déclarations,
qui doivent s’analyser dans le contexte particulièrement délicat dans
lequel elles ont été faites, se voulaient conciliantes et visaient à désamorcer
les tensions politiques dues au rejet par la Colombie de l’arrêt de la Cour
de 2012. Le Nicaragua souligne que, dans ces déclarations, le président
Ortega a appelé expressément à l’élaboration de mécanismes appropriés
pour faire une place aux activités des pêcheurs artisanaux, et notamment à
la conclusion d’un accord bilatéral avec la Colombie. Le Nicaragua indique
aussi clairement que, s’il dénie aux habitants de l’archipel de San Andrés un
« droit « acquis » de pratiquer la pêche artisanale dans sa [zone économique
exclusive] du point de vue juridique, il reste disposé, dans
un esprit de fraternité et de bon voisinage, à travailler avec la Colombie
pour parvenir à un accord bilatéral tenant compte … des besoins
des Raizals en matière de pêche ».
212. Le Nicaragua fait valoir encore que la Colombie n’a produit
aucune preuve contemporaine des incidents dans lesquels la marine nicaraguayenne
aurait entravé des activités. Il considère que la déclaration
faite par le président Santos le 18 février 2013 et les déclarations sous
serment sur lesquelles elle se fonde ne fournissent aucune information
précise sur les faits de harcèlement ou de pillage allégués.
* *
213. La Cour note que la troisième demande reconventionnelle de la
Colombie est fondée sur deux thèses principales : la Colombie affirme
d’abord que les habitants de l’archipel de San Andrés, notamment les
Raizals, se livrent de longue date à la pêche artisanale ou traditionnelle
dans des espaces qui relèvent à présent de la zone économique exclusive
du Nicaragua et que ces pratiques, qu’elle prétend séculaires, auraient
donné naissance à une « norme coutumière locale » incontestée entre les
Parties ou à des droits coutumiers d’accès et d’exploitation ayant survécu
à l’établissement de ladite zone. Elle se réfère en outre à des déclarations
du chef de l’Etat nicaraguayen, le président Ortega, affirmant y voir à la
fois une acceptation ou une reconnaissance de l’existence de ces droits et
des déclarations unilatérales capables de produire des « effets juridiques »,
en l’occurrence l’« octro[i] de … droits aux pêcheurs artisanaux ». La
Cour examinera le bien‑fondé de chacun de ces arguments avant de déterminer
si la Colombie a rapporté la preuve des violations qu’elle prête au
Nicaragua.
214. S’agissant de la première de ces assertions, c’est à la Colombie
qu’incombe la charge d’établir que les habitants de l’archipel de
San Andrés, notamment les Raizals, pratiquent historiquement la pêche
artisanale dans des zones qui relèvent à présent de la zone économique
exclusive du Nicaragua, activité ayant donné naissance (selon la Colombie)
à une « norme coutumière locale » incontestée ou à des « droits coutumiers
d’accès et d’exploitation » ayant survécu à la création de ladite zone.
348 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (judgment)
86
215. The Court begins by recalling that the Parties’ relations in respect
of the exclusive economic zone are governed by customary international
law (see paragraph 48 above). Accordingly, in order to determine the
rights and obligations of the Parties specifically in Nicaragua’s exclusive
economic zone, the Court will apply the relevant rules of customary
international
law, as reflected in the relevant provisions of Part V including
Article 56 and Article 58 of UNCLOS (see paragraphs 57 and 61
above).
216. Under customary international law, as reflected in Article 56 of
UNCLOS, Nicaragua, as the coastal State, enjoys sovereign rights in its
exclusive economic zone including “for the purpose of exploring and
exploiting, conserving and managing the natural resources, whether living
or non‑living, of the waters superjacent to the sea-bed and of the sea-bed
and its subsoil”. Furthermore, customary international law as reflected in
Articles 61 and 62 of UNCLOS grants to Nicaragua, as the coastal State,
the right to “determine the allowable catch of the living resources in its
exclusive economic zone” (Art. 61, para. 1); to determine its capacity to
harvest the living resources of the exclusive economic zone and where it
does not have the capacity to harvest the entire allowable catch, give
access to the surplus of the allowable catch to other States, through agreements
or other arrangements, and pursuant to its terms, conditions and
laws (Art. 62, para. 2). Furthermore, customary international law requires
that, in giving access to other States to its exclusive economic zone for
the purpose of accessing the surplus of Nicaragua’s allowable catch,
Nicaragua
“shall take into account all relevant factors, including, inter alia, . . .
the requirements of developing States in the subregion or region in
harvesting part of the surplus and the need to minimize economic
dislocation in States whose nationals have habitually fished in the
zone” (Art. 62, para. 3).
217. Under customary international law, as reflected in Article 58 of
UNCLOS, other States, including Colombia, enjoy in Nicaragua’s exclusive
economic zone, high seas freedoms of navigation and overflight and
other internationally lawful uses of the sea related to these freedoms
which must, however, be exercised with due regard to Nicaragua’s rights
as the coastal State.
218. The Court now turns to the question whether Colombia
has proved that the inhabitants of the San Andrés Archipelago, in particular
the Raizales, have historically enjoyed “artisanal fishing rights” in
areas that now fall within Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone and that
those “rights” survived the establishment of Nicaragua’s exclusive economic
zone. Colombia relies on 11 affidavits annexed to its Counter‑Memorial
to prove the existence of a long‑standing practice of artisanal
droits souverains et espaces maritimes (arrêt) 348
86
215. La Cour commence par rappeler que les relations entre les Parties
en ce qui concerne la zone économique exclusive sont régies par le droit
international coutumier (voir le paragraphe 48 ci‑dessus). Par conséquent,
afin de déterminer les droits et obligations des Parties spécifiquement
dans la zone économique exclusive du Nicaragua, la Cour appliquera les
règles pertinentes du droit international coutumier, telles que reflétées
dans les dispositions pertinentes de la partie V, notamment les articles 56
et 58, de la convention (voir les paragraphes 57 et 61 ci‑dessus).
216. En vertu du droit international coutumier tel que reflété à l’article
56 de la CNUDM, le Nicaragua, en tant qu’Etat côtier, jouit de
droits souverains dans sa zone économique exclusive, notamment « aux
fins de l’exploration et de l’exploitation, de la conservation et de la gestion
des ressources naturelles, biologiques ou non biologiques, du fond
des mers et de son sous‑sol et des eaux surjacentes ». En outre, le droit
international coutumier tel que reflété aux articles 61 et 62 de la CNUDM
confère au Nicaragua, en tant qu’Etat côtier, le droit de « fixer le volume
admissible des captures en ce qui concerne les ressources biologiques dans
sa zone économique exclusive » (art. 61, par. 1), ainsi que celui de déterminer
sa capacité d’exploitation des ressources biologiques de cette zone
et, si cette capacité d’exploitation est inférieure à l’ensemble du volume
admissible des captures, d’autoriser d’autres Etats, par voie d’accords ou
d’autres arrangements et conformément aux modalités, aux conditions et
aux lois et règlements qu’il aura fixées, à exploiter le reliquat du volume
admissible (art. 62, par. 2). Du reste, le droit international coutumier
impose au Nicaragua, dès lors qu’il accorde à d’autres Etats l’accès à sa
zone économique exclusive à l’effet d’exploiter ce reliquat, de
« t[enir] compte de tous les facteurs pertinents, entre autres : … les
besoins des Etats en développement de la région ou de la sous-région
pour ce qui est de l’exploitation d’une partie du reliquat, et la nécessité
de réduire à un minimum les perturbations économiques dans les
Etats dont les ressortissants pratiquent habituellement la pêche dans
la zone » (art. 62, par. 3).
217. En vertu du droit international coutumier, tel que reflété à l’article
58 de la CNUDM, les autres Etats, dont la Colombie, jouissent dans
la zone économique exclusive nicaraguayenne des libertés de la haute mer
que sont les libertés de navigation et de survol, ainsi que de la liberté
d’utiliser la mer à d’autres fins internationalement licites liées à l’exercice
de ces libertés, pour autant qu’il soit dûment tenu compte, dans cet exercice,
des droits du Nicaragua en tant qu’Etat côtier.
218. La Cour examinera maintenant la question de savoir si la Colombie
a établi que les habitants de l’archipel de San Andrés, notamment les
Raizals, jouissent historiquement de « droits de pêche artisanale » dans
des espaces relevant désormais de la zone économique exclusive du Nicaragua,
et que ces « droits » ont survécu à l’établissement de celle‑ci. La
Colombie s’appuie sur 11 déclarations sous serment de pêcheurs annexées
à son contre‑mémoire pour démontrer l’existence d’une pratique ancienne
349 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (judgment)
87
fishing by the inhabitants of the San Andrés Archipelago, in particular
the Raizales. The Court recalls that it must exercise caution in giving
weight to affidavit
evidence especially prepared by a party for the purposes
of a case:
“[W]itness statements produced in the form of affidavits should be
treated with caution. In assessing such affidavits the Court must take
into account a number of factors. These would include whether they
were made by State officials or by private persons not interested in
the outcome of the proceedings and whether a particular affidavit
attests to the existence of facts or represents only an opinion as
regards certain events.” (Territorial and Maritime Dispute between
Nicaragua and Honduras in the Caribbean Sea (Nicaragua v. Honduras),
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2007 (II), p. 731, para. 244.)
219. In the present case, the 11 affidavits annexed to Colombia’s
Counter‑Memorial
appear to have been sworn specifically for the purposes
of this case and are signed by fishermen who may be considered as
particularly interested in the outcome of these proceedings, factors that
have a bearing
on the weight and probative value of that evidence. The
Court must nonetheless analyse the affidavits “for the utility of what is
said” and to determine whether they support Colombia’s contention
(ibid.).
220. Having reviewed the affidavits on which Colombia relies, the
Court observes that they contain indications that some fishing activities
have in the past taken place in certain areas that had once been part of
the high seas but now fall within Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone.
However, the Court also notes that the affidavits do not establish with
certainty the periods during which such activities took place, or whether
there was in fact a constant practice of artisanal fishing spanning many
decades or centuries, as claimed by Colombia. Some affiants refer to fishing
expeditions beyond the Colombian islands being limited to “a few
times a year”, while others claim to have carried out fishing in those areas
since the 1980s and 1990s, a time span which the Court does not consider,
in the circumstances of the present case, long enough to qualify such fishing
as “a long‑standing practice” or to support Colombia’s claim concerning
the existence of a local custom or of “a local customary right to
artisanal fishing”. The Court also notes in this regard that most of the
affiants speak of having conducted their activities in waters surrounding
the Colombian features or in fishing grounds located within Colombia’s
territorial sea, rather than Nicaraguan maritime areas. The evidence also
suggests that the fishing expeditions within the areas now falling within
Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone increased in frequency in recent
decades as a result of technological developments enabling artisanal fishermen
to venture further out to sea, and as a result of the depletion of fish
stocks around the Colombian islands, a fact that Colombia itself concedes
in its written pleadings and oral arguments. Finally, the Court
droits souverains et espaces maritimes (arrêt) 349
87
de la pêche artisanale par les habitants de l’archipel de San Andrés, en
particulier les Raizals. La Cour rappellera qu’il lui faut faire preuve de
prudence quant au poids à accorder à des déclarations sous serment qui
ont été spécialement établies par une partie pour les besoins d’une cause :
« [L]es dépositions de témoins produites sous la forme de déclarations
sous serment doivent être traitées avec prudence. En examinant
ces déclarations, la Cour doit tenir compte d’un certain nombre de
facteurs. Elle doit examiner notamment si les déclarations émanent
d’agents de l’Etat ou de particuliers qui n’ont pas d’intérêts dans l’issue
de la procédure, et si telle ou telle déclaration atteste l’existence
de faits ou expose seulement une opinion sur certains événements. »
(Différend territorial et maritime entre le Nicaragua et le Honduras
dans la mer des Caraïbes (Nicaragua c. Honduras), arrêt, C.I.J.
Recueil 2007 (II), p. 731, par. 244.)
219. Dans la présente affaire, les 11 déclarations sous serment annexées
au contre‑mémoire de la Colombie semblent avoir été établies spécialement
pour les besoins de la cause et sont signées par des pêcheurs qui
peuvent être considérés comme ayant un intérêt particulier dans l’issue de
la procédure, facteurs qui ont une incidence sur le poids et la valeur probante
à leur accorder. La Cour doit néanmoins analyser ces déclarations
« pour apprécier l’utilité des propos tenus » et pour déterminer si elles
étayent la thèse de la Colombie (ibid.).
220. Ayant procédé à l’examen des déclarations sous serment sur lesquelles
s’appuie la Colombie, la Cour constate qu’il en ressort que des
activités de pêche ont, par le passé, été pratiquées dans des espaces qui
étaient autrefois situés en haute mer mais qui relèvent à présent de la zone
économique exclusive du Nicaragua. Cela étant, elle note aussi que les
déclarations sous serment n’établissent pas avec certitude pendant quelles
périodes ces activités ont été exercées, ni s’il s’agissait de fait d’une pratique
constante de pêche artisanale qui s’est poursuivie pendant des
décennies ou des siècles, ainsi que le soutient la Colombie. Certains
pêcheurs mentionnent des expéditions de pêche au‑delà des îles colombiennes
dont la fréquence se limitait à « quelques fois par an », d’autres,
des activités de pêche dans les espaces en question qui remonteraient aux
années 1980 et 1990, soit un laps de temps que la Cour ne considère pas,
dans les circonstances de l’espèce, comme suffisamment long pour lui permettre
de voir dans ces activités « une pratique existant de longue date »
ou une preuve de l’existence d’une coutume locale ou d’« un droit coutumier
local de pratiquer la pêche artisanale » allégués par la Colombie. La
Cour relève également à cet égard que la plupart des intéressés disent
avoir mené leurs activités dans les eaux entourant les formations colombiennes
ou font référence à des bancs de pêche situés dans la mer territoriale
de la Colombie et non dans les espaces maritimes du Nicaragua. Les
éléments de preuve semblent également montrer que les expéditions de
pêche menées dans les espaces relevant à présent de la zone économique
exclusive du Nicaragua sont devenues plus fréquentes ces dernières décen-
350 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (judgment)
88
observes that certain affidavits do not address the alleged historical nature
of the fishing conducted in waters now falling in Nicaragua’s exclusive
economic zone, so that a conclusion in that regard cannot be derived
from their reading.
221. The Court is mindful that traditional fishing practices alleged to
have taken place over many decades may not have been documented in
any formal or official record (cf. Dispute regarding Navigational and
Related Rights (Costa Rica v. Nicaragua), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2009,
pp. 265‑266, para. 141), which calls for some flexibility in considering the
probative value of the affidavits submitted by Colombia. Nonetheless, the
Court is of the view that the 11 affidavits submitted by Colombia do not
sufficiently establish its claim that the inhabitants of the San Andrés
Archipelago, in particular the Raizales, have been engaged in a long‑standing
practice of artisanal fishing in “traditional fishing banks” located
in waters now falling within Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone.
222. The Court also considers that the positions adopted by Colombia,
inter alia, its statement before the International Labour Organization’s
Committee of Experts on the Application of Conventions and Recommendations,
and Resolution No. 0121 of Colombia’s General Maritime Directorate
of 28 April 2004 (see paragraph 209 above), are inconsistent with
Colombia’s assertion concerning the existence of such a traditional practice
of artisanal fishing in Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone. For example,
on two occasions (August 2013 and February-March 2014), the
Colombian General Confederation of Labour (hereinafter the “CGT”)
submitted information on behalf of the Raizal Small‑Scale Fishers’ Associations
and Groups of the Department Archipelago of San Andrés, Providencia
and Santa Catalina to the International Labour Organization’s
Committee of Experts on the Application of Conventions and Recommendations
concerning the application by Colombia of the International
Labour Organization’s Indigenous and Tribal Peoples Convention
of
1989. In these communications, the CGT asserted that the 2012 Judgment
had negative implications for traditional fishing, as “Raizal fishers have no
longer been able to fish with the tranquillity that they did ancestrally” and
that “[they] have to cross Nicaraguan maritime territory, which is reported
to give rise to difficulties and the payment of fines”. The Committee summarized
the responses sent by the Government of Colombia refuting the
submissions of the CGT as follows:
“[T]he Government explains that traditional fishing sites are precisely
located in the vicinity of areas not affected by the ICJ judgment
since it is a question of territorial sea and in this respect the ICJ ruled
in favour of Colombia. The Government states that fishers from the
droits souverains et espaces maritimes (arrêt) 350
88
nies en raison d’avancées techniques ayant permis aux pêcheurs artisanaux
de s’aventurer plus au large ainsi qu’en raison de l’épuisement des
stocks de poissons autour des îles colombiennes, fait que la Colombie
elle‑même a admis dans ses exposés écrits et oraux. Enfin, la Cour constate
que certaines déclarations sous serment ne traitent pas du caractère historique
allégué des activités de pêche menées dans des eaux se trouvant à
présent dans la zone économique exclusive du Nicaragua, de sorte qu’elles
ne permettent pas de tirer de conclusion à cet égard.
221. La Cour a conscience que des pratiques de pêche traditionnelles
qui se seraient étalées sur de nombreuses décennies n’auront peut‑être pas
été consignées de manière formelle ou officielle (voir Différend relatif à des
droits de navigation et droits connexes (Costa Rica c. Nicaragua), arrêt,
C.I.J. Recueil 2009, p. 265‑266, par. 141). Une certaine souplesse s’impose
dès lors s’agissant de déterminer la valeur probante des déclarations sous
serment produites par la Colombie. Néanmoins, la Cour est d’avis que les
11 déclarations en question ne suffisent pas à établir que, comme le soutient
la défenderesse, les habitants de l’archipel de San Andrés, en particulier
les Raizals, se sont longtemps livrés à la pêche artisanale dans des
« bancs de sable traditionnels » situés dans des eaux relevant à présent de
la zone économique exclusive du Nicaragua.
222. La Cour estime en outre que l’allégation relative à l’existence
d’une telle pratique traditionnelle de pêche artisanale dans la zone économique
exclusive du Nicaragua est contredite par les positions exprimées
par la Colombie, notamment par sa déclaration devant la commission
d’experts pour l’application des conventions et recommandations de
l’Organisation
internationale du Travail, et par la résolution no 0121 du
28 avril 2004 de la DIMAR (voir le paragraphe 209 ci‑dessus).
Par exemple, en deux occasions (août 2013 et février‑mars 2014), la
Confédération générale du travail (ci‑après dénommée la « CGT ») colombienne
a soumis, au nom des associations de pêcheurs artisanaux et
groupes raizals du département de l’archipel de San Andrés, Providencia
et Santa Catalina,
des observations à ladite commission concernant
l’application par la Colombie de la convention de l’Organisation internationale
du Travail
relative aux peuples indigènes et tribaux de 1989. La
CGT y affirmait
que l’arrêt de 2012 avait des conséquences négatives
pour la pêche traditionnelle, car « les pêcheurs raizals ne p[ouvai]ent plus
pêcher avec la tranquillité d’esprit qu’ils [avaie]nt eue de tout temps » et
devaient « travers[er] des zones maritimes nicaraguayennes, [où] ils
s’expos[ai]ent à des difficultés et [étaie]nt passibles d’amendes ». La commission
a résumé comme suit le démenti apporté par le Gouvernement
colombien :
« [L]e gouvernement établit que les lieux de pêche traditionnels se
trouvent précisément près des zones qui ne sont affectées en aucune
manière par l’arrêt de la Cour internationale de Justice, puisqu’il est
question dans cet arrêt d’un secteur maritime qui a été reconnu
351 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (judgment)
89
islands of San Andrés, Providencia and Santa Catalina can continue
fishing in the traditional way.” (International Labour Organization,
Committee of Experts on the Application of Conventions and Recommendations,
Observation (CEACR) — adopted 2013, published
at the 103rd ILC session (2014).)
“The Government adds that the waters in which the small‑scale
fishers of the Raizal community traditionally fished continue to
belong to Colombia and the fishers can continue their work as they
did before the ruling of the ICJ of November 2012. With regard to
the right of the inhabitants of San Andrés to have access to traditional
fishing areas, the Government specifies that such fishing areas are
located precisely around the keys and that these areas were not
affected by the ICJ ruling, as they consisted of territorial waters
awarded to Colombia, together with the sovereignty of the islands
and the seven keys.” (International Labour Organization, Committee
of Experts on the Application of Conventions and Recommendations,
Observation (CEACR) — adopted 2014, published at the
104th ILC session (2015).)
223. Colombia responds to the above observation by claiming that the
Colombian Ministry of Labour “cavalierly concluded . . . that the artisanal
fishermen of the San Andrés Archipelago could not have been
impacted by the 2012 line” while “fail[ing] to provide even a shred of
evidence to support its assertion that the traditional fishing sites were
precisely
located in the vicinity of areas not affected by the decision”. It
further points to the plan established by the Colombian Government
to alleviate the adverse effects of the 2012 Judgment on the artisanal fishermen
and considers that the communications from the fishermen prove its
claim in the present proceedings. However, the Court has previously held
that “statements emanating from high‑ranking official[s] . . . are of particular
probative value when they acknowledge facts or conduct unfavourable
to the State represented by the person who made them” (Armed
Activities on the Territory of the Congo (Democratic Republic of the
Congo v. Uganda), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2005, p. 206, para. 78. See
also Military and Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua
v. United States of America), Merits, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1986,
p. 41, para. 64). The Court has further observed in the past that
“persons representing a State in specific fields may be authorized
by that State to bind it by their statements in respect of matters
falling
within their purview. This may be true, for example, of holders
of technical ministerial portfolios exercising powers in their field of
competence in the area of foreign relations, and even of certain
droits souverains et espaces maritimes (arrêt) 351
89
comme eaux territoriales en faveur de la Colombie. Il ajoute que les
pêcheurs des îles de San Andrés, Providencia et Santa Catalina pourront
poursuivre leurs activités de pêche traditionnelle comme ils l’ont
toujours fait. » (Organisation internationale du Travail, rapport de la
Commission d’experts pour l’application des conventions et recommandations
(CEACR), observation adoptée en 2013, publiée à la
103e session (2014) de la Conférence internationale du Travail.)
« Le gouvernement déclare que les eaux dans lesquelles la communauté
raizale pratiquait traditionnellement la pêche artisanale appartiennent
toujours à la Colombie et que les pêcheurs peuvent continuer
à mener leurs activités comme ils le faisaient avant le jugement rendu
par la CIJ en novembre 2012. S’agissant du droit des habitants de
San Andrés d’accéder à leurs lieux traditionnels de pêche, le gouvernement
explique que les zones de pêche en question se situent précisément
autour des îlots et que ces zones n’ont pas été affectées par le
jugement de la CIJ puisqu’il s’agit, comme l’a reconnu la [C]our,
d’une zone maritime appartenant à la Colombie, qui a également la
souveraineté sur les îles et les sept îlots. » (Organisation internationale
du Travail, rapport de la Commission d’experts pour l’application
des conventions et recommandations (CEACR), observation
adoptée en 2014, publiée à la 104e session (2015) de la Conférence
internationale du Travail.)
223. La Colombie affirme à ce propos que son ministère du travail « a
conclu inconsidérément … que le tracé de la ligne de 2012 ne pouvait pas
avoir eu de conséquence pour les pêcheurs artisanaux de l’archipel de
San Andrés » d’autant qu’il « n’a pas fourni le moindre élément prouvant
que les lieux de pêche traditionnels se trouvaient précisément à proximité de
zones non concernées par l’arrêt ». Elle rappelle aussi que son gouvernement
a mis en place un plan pour atténuer les effets négatifs de l’arrêt de 2012 sur
les pêcheurs artisanaux et fait valoir que les communications de ces derniers
à l’Organisation internationale du Travail confortent sa demande dans la
présente procédure. Cependant, la Cour a déjà dit que les déclarations
« émanant de personnalités politiques officielles de haut rang … possèdent
une valeur probante particulière lorsqu’elles reconnaissent des faits ou des
comportements défavorables à l’Etat que représente celui qui les a formulées
» (Activités armées sur le territoire du Congo (République démocratique
du Congo c. Ouganda), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2005, p. 206, par. 78. Voir aussi
Activités militaires et paramilitaires au Nicaragua et contre celui‑ci (Nicaragua
c. Etats‑Unis d’Amérique), fond, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1986, p. 41,
par. 64). Par le passé, elle avait aussi relevé que des
« personnes représentant un Etat dans des domaines déterminés
[pouvaient être] autorisées par cet Etat à engager celui‑ci, par leurs
déclarations, dans les matières relevant de leur compétence. Il peut
en être ainsi des titulaires de portefeuilles ministériels techniques
exerçant, dans les relations extérieures, des pouvoirs dans leur
352 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (judgment)
90
officials.”
(Armed Activities on the Territory of the Congo (New Application:
2002) (Democratic Republic of the Congo v. Rwanda), Jurisdiction
and Admissibility, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2006, p. 27,
para. 47.)
The Court must consider therefore that the statements noted above, emanating
from the Head of the Office of Co‑operation and International
Relations of Colombia’s Ministry of Labour, further undermine Colombia’s
assertion of the existence of such a traditional practice of artisanal
fishing in Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone.
224. The Court also takes note of a report issued by the Comptroller
General’s Office of the Department Archipelago of San Andrés, Providencia
and Santa Catalina. In his 2013 Report on the “Status of Natural
Resources and the Environment”, the Comptroller of the Archipelago
presented the new maritime boundary determined by the Court and the
effects of the 2012 Judgment, asserting that the ruling of the Court translated
into a substantial reduction of the marine territory of the Archipelago.
With regard to the impact of the 2012 Judgment on fisheries, the
Comptroller’s report alludes to the reduction of fisheries activities, and
links it to the concerns expressed by fishermen over “conflicts arising
from [the ruling of the Court]”. However, the Court observes that, in
presenting “a detailed description of each impact on fisheries [of the
2012 Judgment]”, the report only refers to the effects of the 2012 Judgment
on industrial fishing without any specific mention of detrimental
impacts in respect of artisanal fishermen. In addition, the report lists the
“Traditional Fishing Location[s]” as follows:
“San Andrés Island artisanal fishermen distribute themselves
throughout the entire shelf, using points of reference for fishing
grounds such as: Outside Bank (Northern San Andrés Island),
Under the Lee (Western side of San Andrés Island), Southend Bank
(Southern
San Andrés Island), Alburquerque Cays (50 km to the
SSW of San Andrés Island), and Meridian 82 on the boundary with
Nicaragua.
In Providencia and Santa Catalina, fishing takes place in the
interior
and the exterior of the barrier reef, close to the reef
terrace, respecting the park area and the protected marine area . . .
[T]he specific work areas are El Faro, Taylor Reef, Morning Star,
Northeast Bank, South Banks, and North Banks.”
The report also seems to confirm that the artisanal fishermen usually
remained close to the Colombian islands and found themselves in Nicaragua’s
exclusive economic zone only infrequently, a fact supported by the
aforesaid affidavits. In view of the foregoing, the Court concludes that
previous positions adopted by or on behalf of Colombia further undermine
Colombia’s assertion concerning the existence of a traditional practice
of artisanal fishing in Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone.
droits souverains et espaces maritimes (arrêt) 352
90
domaine de compétence, voire même de certains fonctionnaires. »
(Activités armées sur le territoire du Congo (nouvelle requête : 2002)
(République démocratique du Congo c. Rwanda), compétence et recevabilité,
arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2006, p. 27, par. 47.)
Force est donc pour la Cour de conclure que les déclarations susmentionnées,
émanant du chef de l’office de la coopération et des relations
internationales
du ministère colombien du travail, fragilisent encore la
thèse de la Colombie quant à l’existence d’une pratique traditionnelle de
pêche artisanale dans la zone économique exclusive du Nicaragua.
224. La Cour prend note également d’un rapport du bureau du contrôleur
général du département de l’archipel de San Andrés, Providencia
et Santa Catalina. Dans son rapport sur l’« Etat des ressources naturelles
et l’environnement » publié en 2013, le contrôleur présentait la
nouvelle
frontière maritime délimitée par la Cour et les effets de l’arrêt de
2012, en disant que cette décision se traduisait par une réduction importante
du territoire marin de l’archipel. Au sujet des effets de l’arrêt de
2012 sur les ressources halieutiques, le rapport du contrôleur fait référence
à une diminution des activités de pêche, en la rattachant aux préoccupations
exprimées par les pêcheurs quant aux « conflits engendrés
[par la décision de la Cour] ». La Cour relève néanmoins que, dans sa
« description détaillée de chacune des implications [de l’arrêt de 2012]
pour les activités de pêche », le rapport ne fait état que d’incidences sur
la pêche industrielle, sans mention particulière d’effets négatifs pour les
pêcheurs artisanaux. De plus, les « lieux de pêche traditionnels » y sont
énumérés comme suit :
« Les pêcheurs artisanaux de l’île de San Andrés se répartissent sur
l’ensemble du plateau, en utilisant des points de référence pour les
lieux de pêche tels que : Outside Bank (nord de l’île de San Andrés),
Under the Lee (côte ouest de l’île de San Andrés), Southend Bank
(sud de l’île de San Andrés), Cayes d’Alburquerque (50 km au
sud‑ouest de l’île de San Andrés) et Méridien 82 sur la frontière avec
le Nicaragua.
A Providencia et Santa Catalina, la pêche a lieu en deçà et au‑delà
de la barrière de corail, à proximité de la terrasse récifale, en respectant
la zone du parc et la zone marine protégée… [L]es zones
de travail
spécifiques sont El Faro, Taylor Reef, Morning Star,
Northeast
Bank, South Banks et North Banks. »
Le rapport semble aussi confirmer que les pêcheurs artisanaux ne s’éloignaient
généralement pas des îles colombiennes et ne se trouvaient que
rarement dans la zone économique exclusive du Nicaragua, ce que confirment
les déclarations sous serment susmentionnées. Compte tenu de ce
qui précède, la Cour conclut que les positions précédemment adoptées
par la Colombie ou en son nom viennent encore fragiliser la thèse de
celle‑ci quant à l’existence d’une pratique traditionnelle de pêche artisanale
dans la zone économique exclusive du Nicaragua.
353 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (judgment)
91
225. The Court turns to several statements of Nicaragua’s Head of
State, which, according to Colombia, either illustrate Nicaragua’s acceptance
or recognition that the artisanal fishermen of the Archipelago have
the right to fish in Nicaragua’s maritime zones without having to request
prior authorization or alternatively create a legal obligation on the part
of Nicaragua to respect those fishing rights.
226. First, the Court observes that, in certain statements, President
Ortega refers to the need to “respect the ancestral rights of the
Raizales over those waters now fully belonging to [his] country” or to
“respect the historical rights of the Raizal people . . . over the region”. In
other instances, the President affirms that “the [R]aizal community, living
in San Andrés can continue fishing in the Caribbean waters now belonging
to Nicaragua and that their rights as native people will not be
affected”.
227. Bearing in mind these observations, the Court begins by considering
whether a recognition by Nicaragua of the alleged artisanal fishing
rights may be inferred from the above statements. In this context, the
Court will examine carefully the words used in those statements in order
to ascertain whether such a recognition emerges therefrom. The Court
observes that, in several of President Ortega’s statements, reference is
made to the need for the Raizal community or the inhabitants of the
Archipelago to obtain fishing permits or authorizations from Nicaragua
to carry on artisanal or industrial fishing. In addition, President Ortega
made references to mechanisms that needed to be established between
Nicaragua and Colombia before the artisanal fishermen could operate in
waters falling in Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone by virtue of the
2012 Judgment. In this regard, President Ortega proposed, inter alia, the
creation of a commission “to work [to delimit] where the Raizal people
can fish in [the] exercise of their historic rights”; the elaboration of “an
agreement between Colombia and Nicaragua to regulate [the] situation”;
or the establishment of “a Nicaraguan consular section” on the San
Andrés island “to solve the issue of the fishing permits for the [R]aizal
community”. In the Court’s view, the statements by President Ortega do
not establish that Nicaragua has recognized that the inhabitants of the
San Andrés Archipelago, in particular the Raizales, have the right to fish
in Nicaragua’s maritime zones without having to request prior authorization.
It follows that the Court cannot uphold Colombia’s contention that
Nicaragua, through the statements of its Head of State, accepted or recognized
the rights of the Raizales to fish in Nicaragua’s exclusive economic
zone without requiring authorization from Nicaragua.
228. The Court will now consider whether the statements of
President
Ortega constitute a legal undertaking “granting rights to the
artisanal
fishermen”. In determining whether a unilateral declaration by a
State official entails the creation of legal obligations, the Court has
stated:
“It is well recognized that declarations made by way of unilateral
acts, concerning legal or factual situations, may have the effect of
droits souverains et espaces maritimes (arrêt) 353
91
225. La Cour examinera à présent plusieurs déclarations du chef de
l’Etat nicaraguayen dont la Colombie affirme qu’elles traduisent une acceptation
ou une reconnaissance, par le Nicaragua, de l’existence d’un droit
qu’auraient les pêcheurs artisanaux de l’archipel d’opérer dans ses espaces
maritimes sans autorisation préalable, ou encore qu’elles font naître une
obligation juridique, pour le Nicaragua, de respecter de tels droits de pêche.
226. Tout d’abord, la Cour constate que, dans certaines de ses déclarations,
le président Ortega évoque la nécessité de « respecter les droits
ancestraux des Raizals dans [les] eaux qui appartiennent à présent pleinement
à [son] pays » ou de « respecter les droits historiques du peuple raizal
… dans la région ». Dans d’autres, il affirme que « la communauté
raizale, qui vit à San Andrés, peut continuer à pêcher dans les eaux caribéennes
qui appartiennent désormais au Nicaragua et que ses droits en
tant que peuple autochtone ne seront pas touchés ».
227. Compte tenu de ces considérations, la Cour commencera par se
demander s’il peut être inféré des déclarations sus‑citées que le Nicaragua
a reconnu les droits de pêche artisanale allégués. Dans ce contexte, la
Cour examinera en détail les termes employés dans ces déclarations en
vue de déterminer si celles‑ci traduisent une telle reconnaissance. La Cour
constate que, dans plusieurs des déclarations du président Ortega, il est
fait référence à la nécessité pour la communauté raizale ou les habitants
de l’archipel d’obtenir des permis de pêche ou des autorisations du Nicaragua
pour pratiquer la pêche artisanale ou industrielle. En outre, le président
Ortega a évoqué les mécanismes devant être mis en place
conjointement par le Nicaragua et la Colombie avant que les pêcheurs
artisanaux ne puissent opérer dans les eaux relevant, en vertu de l’arrêt de
2012, de la zone économique exclusive nicaraguayenne. A cet égard, il a
notamment proposé la création d’une commission « chargée de délimiter
… les zones où le peuple raizal p[ouvait] pêcher dans l’exercice de ses
droits historiques », l’élaboration d’« un accord entre la Colombie et le
Nicaragua pour réglementer [la] situation », ou l’établissement d’une
« section consulaire nicaraguayenne » sur l’île de San Andrés « pour régler
le problème des permis de pêche de la communauté raizale ». De l’avis de
la Cour, les déclarations du président Ortega n’établissent pas que le
Nicaragua ait reconnu aux habitants de l’archipel de San Andrés, en particulier
les Raizals, le droit d’opérer dans ses espaces maritimes sans autorisation
préalable. Il s’ensuit que la Cour ne peut faire droit à la thèse de
la Colombie selon laquelle le Nicaragua, par les déclarations de son président,
aurait accepté ou reconnu les droits qu’auraient les Raizals de
pêcher dans sa zone économique exclusive sans autorisation de sa part.
228. La Cour va maintenant s’interroger sur le point de savoir si les
déclarations du président Ortega sont constitutives d’un engagement juridique
emportant « octro[i] de … droits aux pêcheurs artisanaux ». A propos
de la question de savoir si une déclaration unilatérale d’un agent de
l’Etat fait naître des obligations juridiques, la Cour a dit ceci :
« Il est reconnu que des déclarations revêtant la forme d’actes unilatéraux
et concernant des situations de droit ou de fait peuvent
354 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (judgment)
92
creating legal obligations. Declarations of this kind may be, and often
are, very specific. When it is the intention of the State making the
declaration that it should become bound according to its terms, that
intention confers on the declaration the character of a legal undertaking,
the State being thenceforth legally required to follow a course of
conduct consistent with the declaration. An undertaking of this kind,
if given publicly, and with an intent to be bound, even though not
made within the context of international negotiations, is binding.
�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������
With regard to the question of form, it should be observed that this
is not a domain in which international law imposes any special or
strict requirements. Whether a statement is made orally or in writing
makes no essential difference, for such statements made in particular
circumstances may create commitments in international law, which
does not require that they should be couched in written form. Thus
the question of form is not decisive.” (Nuclear Tests (Australia v.
France), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1974, pp. 267‑268, paras. 43 and
45; Nuclear Tests (New Zealand v. France), Judgment, I.C.J.
Reports 1974, pp. 472‑473, paras. 46 and 48.)
229. The Court has also emphasized the need to consider the factual
circumstances in which the unilateral statement was made and the need to
consider carefully whether the State issuing the declaration intended to be
bound by it (Military and Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua
(Nicaragua v. United States of America), Merits, Judgment. I.C.J.
Reports 1986, p. 43, para. 71; Frontier Dispute (Burkina Faso/Republic of
Mali), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1986, p. 573, para. 39; Obligation to
Negotiate Access to the Pacific Ocean (Bolivia v. Chile), Judgment, I.C.J.
Reports 2018 (II), p. 555, para. 146). In this regard, the Court is mindful
that certain declarations may express a State’s willingness to adopt a particular
course of conduct, without being expressed in terms of undertaking
a legal obligation (ibid., para. 147). The Court has also held that
“[w]hen States make statements by which their freedom of action is to be
limited, a restrictive interpretation is called for” (Nuclear Tests (Australia
v. France), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1974, p. 267, para. 44; Nuclear
Tests (New Zealand v. France), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1974, p. 473,
para. 47). It also falls to the Court to “form its own view of the meaning
and scope intended by the author of a unilateral declaration which may
create a legal obligation” (Frontier Dispute (Burkina Faso/Republic of
Mali), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1986, p. 573, para. 39, citing Nuclear
Tests (Australia v. France), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1974, p. 269,
para. 48; Nuclear Tests (New Zealand v. France), Judgment, I.C.J.
Reports 1974, p. 474, para. 50).
230. In the Court’s view, the statements of Nicaragua’s Head of State
indicate that the Nicaraguan authorities were aware of the issues that
arose in respect of the fishing activities of the inhabitants of the Archi-
droits souverains et espaces maritimes (arrêt) 354
92
avoir pour effet de créer des obligations juridiques. Des déclarations
de cette nature peuvent avoir et ont souvent un objet très précis.
Quand 1’Etat auteur de la déclaration entend être lié conformément
à ses termes, cette intention confère à sa prise de position le caractère
d’un engagement juridique, 1’Etat intéressé étant désormais tenu en
droit de suivre une ligne de conduite conforme à sa déclaration. Un
engagement de cette nature, exprimé publiquement et dans l’intention
de se lier, même hors du cadre de négociations internationales, a
un effet obligatoire.
�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������
Pour ce qui est de la forme, il convient de noter que ce n’est pas là
un domaine dans lequel le droit international impose des règles
strictes ou spéciales. Qu’une déclaration soit verbale ou écrite, cela
n’entraîne aucune différence essentielle, car de tels énoncés faits dans
des circonstances particulières peuvent constituer des engagements
en droit international sans avoir nécessairement à être consignés par
écrit. La forme n’est donc pas décisive. » (Essais nucléaires (Australie
c. France), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1974, p. 267‑268, par. 43 et 45 ; Essais
nucléaires (Nouvelle‑Zélande c. France), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1974,
p. 472‑473, par. 46 et 48.)
229. La Cour a également souligné la nécessité de tenir compte des
circonstances factuelles dans lesquelles la déclaration unilatérale a été
faite et d’examiner soigneusement si l’Etat qui en est l’auteur avait l’intention
d’être lié par celle-
ci (Activités militaires et paramilitaires au Nicaragua
et contre celui‑ci (Nicaragua c. Etats‑Unis d’Amérique), fond, arrêt,
C.I.J. Recueil 1986, p. 43, par. 71 ; Différend frontalier (Burkina Faso/
République du Mali), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1986, p. 573, par. 39 ; Obligation
de négocier un accès à l’océan Pacifique (Bolivie c. Chili), arrêt, C.I.J.
Recueil 2018 (II), p. 555, par. 146). A cet égard, elle garde à l’esprit que
certaines déclarations peuvent traduire la volonté d’un Etat d’adopter un
comportement particulier sans pour autant indiquer qu’il accepte une
obligation juridique (ibid., par. 147). Elle a aussi précisé que, « lorsque des
Etats font des déclarations qui limitent leur liberté d’action future, une
interprétation restrictive s’impose » (Essais nucléaires (Australie c. France),
arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1974, p. 267, par. 44 ; Essais nucléaires (Nouvelle-Zélande
c. France), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1974, p. 473, par. 47), et que c’est
à la Cour qu’il appartient « de se faire sa propre opinion sur le sens et la
portée que l’auteur a entendu donner à une déclaration unilatérale d’où
peut naître une obligation juridique » (Différend frontalier (Burkina Faso/
République du Mali), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1986, p. 573, par. 39, citant
Essais nucléaires (Australie c. France), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1974, p. 269,
par. 48 ; Essais nucléaires (Nouvelle‑Zélande
c. France), arrêt, C.I.J.
Recueil 1974, p. 474, par. 50).
230. La Cour estime qu’il ressort des déclarations du président du
Nicaragua que les autorités du pays avaient conscience des problèmes liés
aux activités de pêche des habitants de l’archipel et des difficultés que
355 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (judgment)
93
pelago and the challenges that Colombia faced in implementing the
2012 Judgment. In that regard, it appears that Nicaragua expressed an
openness to concluding an agreement with Colombia regarding appropriate
mechanisms and solutions to overcome those challenges. The Court
notes that, in some statements adduced by the Respondent, the Nicaraguan
Head of State expressed concerns regarding the rejection by Colombia
of the delimitation effected by the Court and affirmed the need to
work with Colombia on reaching an agreement to ensure compliance
with the 2012 Judgment. President Ortega further alluded to the need to
understand the inner workings of domestic politics and to give due time
to Colombia to bring its national legislation into compliance with the
Court’s Judgment. The Court further observes that both Parties agree
that the statements were made in the context of political protests in the
aftermath of the 2012 Judgment and against the backdrop of the ongoing
negotiations with Colombia with the view of achieving an agreement on
the implementation of the 2012 Judgment. Bearing in mind the above
context and adopting a restrictive interpretation (Nuclear Tests
(Australia
v. France), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1974, p. 267, para. 44;
Nuclear Tests (New Zealand v. France), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1974,
p. 473, para. 47), the Court cannot accept Colombia’s alternative argument
that the statements of President Ortega, referred to above, constitute
a legal undertaking on the part of Nicaragua to respect the rights of the
artisanal fishermen of the San Andrés Archipelago to fish in Nicaragua’s
maritime zones without requiring prior authorization from Nicaragua.
231. For these reasons, the Court concludes that Colombia has failed
to establish that the inhabitants of the San Andrés Archipelago, in particular
the Raizales, enjoy artisanal fishing rights in waters now located in
Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone, or that Nicaragua has, through the
unilateral statements of its Head of State, accepted or recognized their
traditional fishing rights, or legally undertaken to respect them. In view of
this conclusion, the Court need not examine the Parties’ arguments in
respect of whether or in which circumstances the traditional fishing rights
of a particular community can survive the establishment of the exclusive
economic zone of another State, or Colombia’s contentions concerning
Nicaragua’s alleged infringement of said rights through the conduct of its
Naval Force. In light of all the above considerations, the Court dismisses
Colombia’s third counter‑claim.
232. Notwithstanding the above conclusion, the Court takes note of
Nicaragua’s willingness, as expressed through statements of its Head of
State, to negotiate with Colombia an agreement regarding access by
members of the Raizales community to fisheries located within Nicaragua’s
exclusive economic zone. The Court considers that the most appropriate
solution to address the concerns expressed by Colombia and its
nationals in respect of access to fisheries located within Nicaragua’s
exclusive economic zone would be the negotiation of a bilateral agreement
between the Parties.
droits souverains et espaces maritimes (arrêt) 355
93
rencontrait la Colombie pour exécuter l’arrêt de 2012. A cet égard, le
Nicaragua, semble‑t‑il, s’est dit prêt à envisager de conclure avec la
Colombie un accord sur des mécanismes et solutions appropriés pour y
remédier. La Cour relève que, dans certaines déclarations produites par la
Colombie, le chef de l’Etat nicaraguayen s’est déclaré préoccupé de voir
que celle‑ci refuse la délimitation effectuée par la Cour, et a évoqué la
nécessité pour les deux pays d’oeuvrer à la conclusion d’un accord pour
garantir l’exécution de l’arrêt de 2012. Le président Ortega a également
évoqué la nécessité de comprendre les rouages de la politique intérieure et
de laisser à la Colombie le temps requis pour mettre sa législation en
conformité avec l’arrêt de la Cour. La Cour note en outre que les deux
Parties conviennent que les déclarations ont été faites dans le contexte des
protestations politiques qui ont suivi le prononcé de l’arrêt de 2012 ainsi
qu’au moment où des négociations étaient menées avec la Colombie en
vue de parvenir à un accord portant sur la mise en oeuvre de cet arrêt.
Compte tenu du contexte susmentionné et suivant une interprétation restrictive
(Essais nucléaires (Australie c. France), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1974,
p. 267, par. 44 ; Essais nucléaires (Nouvelle‑Zélande c. France), arrêt,
C.I.J. Recueil 1974, p. 473, par. 47), la Cour ne peut retenir l’argument
développé à titre subsidiaire par la Colombie selon lequel, par les déclarations
susvisées du président Ortega, le Nicaragua a pris l’engagement juridique
de respecter le droit qu’auraient les pêcheurs artisanaux de l’archipel
de San Andrés de pêcher dans ses espaces maritimes sans lui en demander
au préalable l’autorisation.
231. Pour ces motifs, la Cour conclut que la Colombie n’a pas établi
que les habitants de l’archipel de San Andrés, notamment les Raizals,
jouissent de droits de pêche artisanale dans les eaux situées à présent dans
la zone économique exclusive nicaraguayenne, ou que le Nicaragua a, par
les déclarations unilatérales de son président, accepté ou reconnu l’existence
de leurs droits de pêche traditionnels, ou pris l’engagement juridique
de respecter de tels droits. Au vu de cette conclusion, point n’est besoin
pour elle d’examiner les arguments des Parties quant au point de savoir si
et dans quelles circonstances les droits de pêche traditionnels d’une communauté
donnée peuvent survivre à la création de la zone économique
exclusive d’un autre Etat, non plus que les violations desdits droits que le
Nicaragua, selon la Colombie, aurait commises du fait du comportement
de ses forces navales. A la lumière de toutes ces considérations, la Cour
rejette la troisième demande reconventionnelle de la Colombie.
232. Nonobstant la conclusion qui précède, la Cour prend note de la
disposition du Nicaragua, manifestée par le chef de l’Etat dans ses déclarations,
à négocier avec la Colombie un accord concernant l’accès des
membres de la communauté raizale aux pêcheries situées dans la zone économique
exclusive nicaraguayenne. Elle estime que la méthode la plus
propre à remédier aux préoccupations exprimées par la Colombie et ses
nationaux au sujet de l’accès aux pêcheries situées dans la zone économique
exclusive du Nicaragua serait la négociation d’un accord bilatéral entre les
Parties.
356 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (judgment)
94
233. The Court also emphasizes that, under customary international
law applicable to the exclusive economic zone, as reflected in Article 58 of
UNCLOS, third States possess freedom of navigation in this area. It follows
that the inhabitants of the Archipelago, including the Raizales, may
freely navigate within Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone, including in
the course of their travel between the inhabited islands and the fishing
areas located on Colombia’s side of the maritime boundary.
B. Alleged Violation of Colombia’s Sovereign Rights and Maritime
Spaces by Nicaragua’s Use of Straight Baselines
234. The Court now turns to Colombia’s fourth counter-claim. On
27 August 2013, Nicaragua enacted Decree 33 through which it established
a system of straight baselines along its Caribbean coast, from which
the breadth of its territorial sea is measured. In the preamble to the
Decree, Nicaragua purports to have acted in accordance with the provisions
of UNCLOS in establishing those baselines. The Decree identifies
nine base points — two are located on the low‑water line along Nicaragua’s
mainland coast and the remaining seven are located on the low‑water
line along islands seaward of Nicaragua’s mainland coast — and eight
straight baseline segments. (In the 2018 amendment to Decree 33, Nicaragua
made a small adjustment to the location of base point 9, located on
its southern coast, to take into account the Court’s Judgment of 2 February
2018 in the cases concerning Maritime Delimitation in the Caribbean
Sea and the Pacific Ocean (Costa Rica v. Nicaragua) and Land
Boundary in the Northern Part of Isla Portillos (Costa Rica v. Nicaragua),
a change that neither Party considers material to the present case.)
235. In its fourth counter‑claim, Colombia raises three objections to
Nicaragua’s use of straight baselines. First, the Respondent argues that
Nicaragua has not met the necessary geographical preconditions required
under Article 7 of UNCLOS, which reflects the customary international
law on the use of straight baselines, in that there is no “fringe of islands
along the Nicaraguan coast in its immediate vicinity”, and the coastline is
not “deeply indented and cut into”. Colombia also advocates for a strictly
frontal projection in determining the extent to which the coast is masked
or guarded by the islands and finds that the concerned features “mask no
more than 5 to 6 percent of the coast”. Secondly, Colombia argues that
even if those geographical preconditions were met, the manner in which
Nicaragua drew those baselines contravenes the provisions of Article 7,
paragraph 3, since the baselines depart significantly from the general
direction of Nicaragua’s coast and enclose sea areas that are not sufficiently
closely linked to the land domain to be subject to the régime of
internal waters. Thirdly, Colombia argues that by employing straight
baselines, Nicaragua is attempting to misappropriate significant maritime
droits souverains et espaces maritimes (arrêt) 356
94
233. La Cour souligne aussi que, conformément au droit international
coutumier applicable à la zone économique exclusive, tel que reflété à l’article
58 de la CNUDM, les Etats tiers jouissent de la liberté de navigation
dans cette zone. Il s’ensuit que les habitants de l’archipel, notamment les
Raizals, peuvent naviguer librement dans la zone économique exclusive du
Nicaragua, y compris au cours de leurs déplacements entre les îles habitées
et les zones de pêche situées du côté colombien de la frontière maritime.
B. Allégations de violation des droits souverains et des espaces maritimes
de la Colombie en raison du recours aux lignes de base droites
par le Nicaragua
234. La Cour en vient maintenant à la quatrième demande reconventionnelle
de la Colombie. Le 27 août 2013, le Nicaragua a promulgué le
décret 33, par lequel il a établi un système de lignes de base droites le long
de sa côte caribéenne, à partir desquelles est mesurée la largeur de sa mer
territoriale. Dans le préambule du décret, le Nicaragua déclare avoir agi
conformément aux dispositions de la CNUDM en établissant ces lignes
de base. Le décret définit neuf points de base — deux sont situés sur la
laisse de basse mer le long de la côte continentale, tandis que les sept
autres sont situés sur la laisse de basse mer le long des îles bordant ladite
côte — et huit segments de ligne de base. (En procédant à la révision du
décret 33 en 2018, le Nicaragua a légèrement ajusté l’emplacement du
point de base 9, situé sur la partie méridionale de sa côte, afin de tenir
compte de l’arrêt rendu par la Cour le 2 février 2018 dans les affaires
relatives à la Délimitation maritime dans la mer des Caraïbes et l’océan
Pacifique (Costa Rica c. Nicaragua) et à la Frontière terrestre dans la
partie septentrionale d’Isla Portillos (Costa Rica c. Nicaragua), cette
modification n’étant considérée pertinente par aucune des Parties aux fins
de la présente espèce.)
235. Dans le cadre de sa quatrième demande reconventionnelle, la
Colombie soulève trois objections à l’utilisation des lignes de base droites
par le Nicaragua. Premièrement, elle avance que les conditions géographiques
requises par l’article 7 de la CNUDM, qui reflète le droit international
coutumier relatif à l’utilisation de lignes de base droites, ne sont pas
remplies, en ce qu’il n’existe pas de « chapelet d’îles le long de la côte nicaraguayenne,
à proximité de celle‑ci » et que la côte n’est pas « profondément
échancrée et découpée ». Elle préconise également le recours à une projection
strictement frontale pour déterminer dans quelle mesure les îles masquent ou
gardent la côte et estime que les formations en question « ne masquent pas
plus de 5 à 6 % du littoral ». Deuxièmement, la Colombie fait valoir que,
même si ces conditions géographiques étaient remplies, la manière dont le
Nicaragua a tracé les lignes de base contrevient aux dispositions du paragraphe
3 de l’article 7 étant donné que les lignes s’écartent sensiblement de
la direction générale de la côte et que les étendues de mer situées en deçà ne
sont pas suffisamment liées au domaine terrestre pour être soumises au
régime des eaux intérieures. Troisièmement, elle affirme que, en employant
357 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (judgment)
95
areas as its internal waters and is artificially expanding its territorial sea,
exclusive economic zone and continental shelf, in a manner that not only
infringes upon Colombia’s rights and maritime spaces, but also limits the
rights of third States in the Caribbean Sea. Colombia accordingly maintains
that Nicaragua’s straight baselines established in Decree 33, as
amended, are contrary to international law and violate Colombia’s rights
and maritime spaces.
*
236. For its part, Nicaragua asserts that its straight baselines were
drawn in accordance with customary international law and the relevant
provisions of UNCLOS, and that the Applicant is therefore entitled to
determine the status of the waters landward and seaward of those baselines
in accordance with international law. Nicaragua also disagrees with
Colombia’s contention that Decree 33 produces an artificial overlap of
Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone with Colombia’s entitlement to its
own exclusive economic zone and continental shelf. According to Nicaragua,
the outer limit of its exclusive economic zone is unaltered by the use
of straight baselines, because the outer limit of that zone is controlled by
base points on the low‑water line along its coast that are seaward of the
straight baselines.
237. Nicaragua maintains that the geographical configuration of its
coast permits the use of straight baselines, in that the coastline is deeply
indented and cut into and there is a fringe of islands along the coast in its
immediate vicinity, as required by Article 7, paragraph 1, of UNCLOS.
Nicaragua further argues that the Court’s 2012 Judgment in two instances
refers respectively to the “Nicaraguan fringing islands” and the “islands
fringing the Nicaraguan coast”. Moreover, base points on Nicaragua’s
fringing islands were used in the construction of a provisional median
line. In its view, these islands form a fringe in the immediate vicinity of
the coast of Nicaragua. It also disputes Colombia’s assertion that the
islands do not form a unity with the mainland given the distance between
the main features — the Miskitos Cays and the Corn Islands — and the
Nicaraguan coast. Nicaragua observes in this respect that Colombia’s
claim does not take account of the fact that these main features are
located in an area in which there are numerous other islands. Nicaragua
argues that the Court should be informed by its own approach to
determining
the seaward projection of relevant coasts in connection
with the delimitation of maritime boundaries. In light of the Court’s jurisprudence,
Nicaragua submits, it would be reasonable to look at a projection
of all relevant islands and features between a perpendicular to the
general direction of the mainland coast and an angle of 20 degrees to that
perpendicular, an approach which allegedly yields a masking effect of
46 per cent.
droits souverains et espaces maritimes (arrêt) 357
95
des lignes de base droites, le Nicaragua tente de s’approprier de manière
abusive des espaces maritimes importants et de les soumettre au régime des
eaux intérieures, et étend artificiellement sa mer territoriale, sa zone économique
exclusive et son plateau continental d’une manière qui non seulement
porte atteinte aux droits et aux espaces maritimes de la Colombie, mais
limite également les droits des Etats tiers dans la mer des Caraïbes. La
Colombie soutient donc que les lignes de base droites du Nicaragua établies
par le décret 33, tel que modifié, sont contraires au droit international et
violent ses droits et ses espaces maritimes.
*
236. Le Nicaragua soutient pour sa part que ses lignes de base droites
ont été tracées conformément au droit international coutumier et aux dispositions
pertinentes de la CNUDM, et qu’il est donc en droit de déterminer
le statut des eaux situées en deçà et au‑delà de ces lignes de base
conformément au droit international. Il conteste également l’assertion de
la Colombie, pour qui le décret 33 produit un chevauchement artificiel de
la zone économique exclusive du Nicaragua et de la zone économique
exclusive et du plateau continental auxquels elle‑même peut prétendre.
Selon le Nicaragua, la limite extérieure de sa zone économique exclusive
n’est pas modifiée par l’utilisation de lignes de base droites, parce que
cette limite est fonction de points de base le long de la laisse de basse mer
sur le littoral nicaraguayen qui se trouvent au large de ces lignes.
237. Le Nicaragua soutient que la configuration géographique de sa
côte permet le recours aux lignes de base droites, car le littoral est profondément
échancré et découpé et il existe un chapelet d’îles le long de la
côte, à proximité de celle‑ci, comme l’exige le paragraphe 1 de l’article 7
de la CNUDM. Il fait valoir en outre que, dans son arrêt de 2012, la Cour
mentionne à deux reprises les « îles côtières nicaraguayennes ». De plus,
des points de base situés sur des îles côtières nicaraguayennes ont été utilisés
pour procéder à la construction d’une ligne médiane provisoire.
Selon le demandeur, ces îles forment un chapelet à proximité immédiate
de la côte nicaraguayenne. Le Nicaragua conteste aussi l’assertion de la
Colombie voulant que les îles ne forment pas un tout avec le territoire
principal en raison de la distance qui sépare les formations principales
— les cayes des Miskitos et les îles du Maïs — de la côte nicaraguayenne.
Il fait observer à cet égard que cette assertion ne tient pas compte du fait
que ces formations principales sont situées dans un espace abritant de
nombreuses autres îles. Le Nicaragua estime que la Cour devrait s’inspirer
de la méthode qu’elle‑même utilise pour définir la projection en mer
des côtes pertinentes lorsqu’il s’agit de délimiter des frontières maritimes.
Selon lui, à la lumière de la jurisprudence de la Cour, il serait raisonnable
d’envisager une projection de toutes les îles et formations concernées
entre une ligne perpendiculaire à la direction générale de la côte continentale
et un angle de 20 degrés par rapport à ladite ligne, ce qui donnerait
un effet de masquage de 46 %.
358 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (judgment)
96
238. Nicaragua further contends that the course of its baselines does
“not depart to any appreciable extent from the general direction of the
coast”, in accordance with Article 7, paragraph 3, of the Convention. It
considers that, as indicated by the Court, in applying the principle of the
general direction of the coast, the focus should be on the overall direction
of the coast under consideration, not that of specific localities. Second, it
asserts that “the sea areas lying within the lines [are] sufficiently closely
linked to the land domain to be subject to the régime of internal waters”,
in accordance with the same provision.
239. Finally, Nicaragua argues that Colombia’s rights have not been
infringed by Nicaragua’s straight baselines. It states that its straight baselines
are in conformity with Article 7 of the Convention and, as a consequence,
Nicaragua is entitled to apply the régime for internal waters, as
defined by the Convention and customary international law, landward of
these straight baselines. It adds that the outer limit of Nicaragua’s exclusive
economic zone has not shifted seaward following the establishment
of its straight baselines through Decree 33, since the outer limit of Nicaragua’s
exclusive economic zone is determined from base points located
on the low‑water line along Nee Reef and London Reef (low‑tide elevations
that are located within 12 nautical miles of the Miskitos Cays),
Blowing Rock and Little Corn Island, all of which are seaward of those
straight baselines.
* *
240. The Court recalls that when it delimited the maritime boundary
between the Parties in the 2012 Judgment, the location of Nicaragua’s
baselines was unsettled, given that “Nicaragua ha[d] not yet notified the
Secretary‑General [of the United Nations] of the location of those baselines
under Article 16, paragraph 2, of UNCLOS”. Accordingly, the location
of the eastern endpoints of the maritime boundary was determined
only on an approximate basis (Territorial and Maritime Dispute (Nicaragua
v. Colombia), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2012 (II), p. 683, para. 159,
and p. 713, para. 237).
241. The Parties agree on the principles governing the determination of
appropriate baselines. They consider that Article 5 of UNCLOS sets out
the criteria that govern the establishment of normal baselines, namely
“the low‑water line along the coast as marked on large‑scale charts officially
recognized by the coastal State”. The Parties also agree that customary
international law permits a deviation from normal baselines
where “the coastline is deeply indented and cut into, or if there is a fringe
of islands along the coast in its immediate vicinity”. They accept that
Article 7 of UNCLOS reflects customary international law on the drawing
of straight baselines.
242. The Court recalls that in its Judgment in the Fisheries case, it
recognized
the employment of straight baselines as the “application of
droits souverains et espaces maritimes (arrêt) 358
96
238. Le Nicaragua soutient en outre que le tracé de ses lignes de base
droites « ne s’écarte pas sensiblement de la direction générale de la côte »,
conformément au paragraphe 3 de l’article 7 de la convention. Il estime
que, comme l’a indiqué la Cour, en cas d’application du principe de la
direction générale de la côte, il convient de placer l’accent sur la direction
générale de la côte concernée et non de secteurs spécifiques de celles‑ci.
Au surplus, il affirme que, conformément à la même disposition, « les
étendues de mer situées en deçà [sont] suffisamment liées au domaine terrestre
pour être soumises au régime des eaux intérieures ».
239. Le Nicaragua fait valoir enfin que ses lignes de base droites ne
portent pas atteinte aux droits de la Colombie. Il affirme que ses lignes de
base droites sont conformes à l’article 7 de la CNUDM et que, par conséquent,
il peut appliquer en deçà desdites lignes le régime des eaux intérieures,
tel qu’il est défini par la convention et le droit international
coutumier. Il ajoute que le tracé des lignes de base droites opéré par le
décret 33 n’a pas eu pour effet de repousser vers le large la limite extérieure
de sa zone économique exclusive, étant donné que cette limite est
déterminée par des points de base situés sur la laisse de basse mer le long
des récifs Nee Reef et London Reef (hauts‑fonds découvrants situés à
moins de 12 milles marins des cayes des Miskitos), de Blowing Rock et de
la petite île du Maïs (Little Corn Island), qui se trouvent tous au large des
lignes de base droites.
* *
240. La Cour rappelle que, quand elle a délimité la frontière maritime
entre les Parties dans son arrêt de 2012, l’emplacement des lignes de base
du Nicaragua n’était pas arrêté, étant donné que « ce dernier n’a[vait] pas
encore notifié au Secrétaire général [de l’Organisation des Nations Unies]
l’emplacement de ces lignes de base, en application du paragraphe 2 de
l’article 16 de la CNUDM ». En conséquence, la position des points terminaux
de la frontière maritime, à l’est, n’a pu être déterminée que de manière
approximative (Différend territorial et maritime (Nicaragua c. Colombie),
arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2012 (II), p. 683, par. 159, et p. 713, par. 237).
241. Les Parties s’accordent sur les principes régissant la détermination
de lignes de base appropriées. Elles considèrent que l’article 5 de la
CNUDM définit les éléments permettant de déterminer les lignes de base
normales, soit « la laisse de basse mer le long de la côte, telle qu’elle est
indiquée sur les cartes marines à grande échelle reconnues officiellement
par l’Etat côtier ». Elles conviennent aussi que le droit international coutumier
permet de s’écarter des lignes de base normales lorsque « la côte est
profondément échancrée et découpée, ou s’il existe un chapelet d’îles le
long de la côte, à proximité immédiate de celle‑ci ». Elles admettent que
l’article 7 de la CNUDM reflète le droit international coutumier sur le
tracé de lignes de base droites.
242. La Cour rappelle que, dans l’arrêt qu’elle a rendu en l’affaire des
Pêcheries, elle a conclu que le recours à des lignes de base droites correspon-
359 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (judgment)
97
general international law to a specific case” given the geographic characteristics
of Norway’s coast (Fisheries (United Kingdom v. Norway), Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 1951, p. 131). In assessing the validity of Norway’s
baselines under international law, the Court indeed identified certain criteria
which were codified in Article 4 of the 1958 Convention. This provision
corresponds, almost verbatim, to Article 7 of UNCLOS on “Straight
baselines”, paragraphs 1, 3 and 4 of which provide that:
“1. In localities where the coastline is deeply indented and cut into,
or if there is a fringe of islands along the coast in its immediate vicinity,
the method of straight baselines joining appropriate points may
be employed in drawing the baseline from which the breadth of the
territorial sea is measured.
�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������
3. The drawing of straight baselines must not depart to any appreciable
extent from the general direction of the coast, and the sea areas
lying within the lines must be sufficiently closely linked to the land
domain to be subject to the régime of internal waters.
4. Straight baselines shall not be drawn to and from low‑tide elevations,
unless lighthouses or similar installations which are permanently
above sea level have been built on them or except in instances where
the drawing of baselines to and from such elevations has received
general international recognition.”
The Court considers that Article 7 of UNCLOS reflects customary international
law.
243. The Court recalls that it is for the coastal State to determine its
baselines for the purposes of measuring the breadth of its maritime zones,
in conformity with international law. However, as the Court has stated in
the past, the determination of baselines is “an exercise which has always
an international aspect” and falls to be assessed by reference to international
rules (Maritime Delimitation in the Black Sea (Romania v. Ukraine),
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2009, p. 108, para. 137; see also Fisheries
(United Kingdom v. Norway), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1951, p. 132).
Moreover, the Court would recall, in relation to the use of straight baselines
and the applicable rules, that “the method of straight baselines,
which is an exception to the normal rules for the determination of baselines,
may only be applied if a number of conditions are met. This method
must be applied restrictively.” (Maritime Delimitation and Territorial
Questions between Qatar and Bahrain (Qatar v. Bahrain), Merits, Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 2001, p. 103, para. 212.)
244. Customary international law as reflected in Article 7, paragraph 1,
of UNCLOS provides for two geographical preconditions for the establishment
of straight baselines. The preconditions are alternative and not
cumulative. With respect to the straight baselines drawn from Cabo Gracias
a Dios on the mainland to Great Corn Island along the coast
droits souverains et espaces maritimes (arrêt) 359
97
dait à « l’application du droit international commun à un cas particulier »,
compte tenu de la géographie particulière de la côte norvégienne (Pêcheries
(Royaume‑Uni c. Norvège), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1951, p. 131). Lorsqu’elle a
examiné la validité des lignes de base de la Norvège au regard du droit international,
la Cour a en effet défini certains critères qui ont ensuite été codifiés
à l’article 4 de la convention de 1958. Cette disposition a été reprise presque
mot pour mot à l’article 7 de la CNUDM relatif aux « Lignes de base
droites », dont les paragraphes 1, 3 et 4 sont libellés comme suit :
« 1. Là où la côte est profondément échancrée et découpée, ou s’il
existe un chapelet d’îles le long de la côte, à proximité immédiate de
celle‑ci, la méthode des lignes de base droites reliant des points
appropriés peut être employée pour tracer la ligne de base à partir de
laquelle est mesurée la largeur de la mer territoriale.
�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������
3. Le tracé des lignes de base droites ne doit pas s’écarter sensiblement
de la direction générale de la côte et les étendues de mer situées
en deçà doivent être suffisamment liées au domaine terrestre pour
être soumises au régime des eaux intérieures.
4. Les lignes de base droites ne doivent pas être tirées vers ou
depuis des hauts‑fonds découvrants, à moins que des phares ou des
installations similaires émergées en permanence n’y aient été
construits ou que le tracé de telles lignes de base droites n’ait fait
l’objet d’une reconnaissance internationale générale. »
La Cour considère que l’article 7 de la CNUDM reflète le droit international
coutumier.
243. La Cour rappelle qu’il appartient à l’Etat côtier de déterminer ses
lignes de base pour mesurer la largeur de ses espaces maritimes, conformément
au droit international. Cependant, comme elle l’a dit par le passé, la
détermination de lignes de base est « un exercice qui comporte toujours un
aspect international » et doit être apprécié au regard des règles internationales
(Délimitation maritime en mer Noire (Roumanie c. Ukraine), arrêt,
C.I.J. Recueil 2009, p. 108, par. 137 ; voir aussi Pêcheries (Royaume‑Uni
c. Norvège), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1951, p. 132). Par ailleurs, la Cour tient à
rappeler, au sujet du recours à des lignes de base droites et des règles applicables,
que « la méthode des lignes de base droites, qui déroge aux règles
normales de détermination des lignes de base, ne peut être appliquée que
si plusieurs conditions sont remplies. Cette méthode doit être appliquée
de façon restrictive. » (Délimitation maritime et questions territoriales entre
Qatar et Bahreïn (Qatar c. Bahreïn), fond, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2001,
p. 103, par. 212.)
244. Le droit international coutumier, tel que reflété au paragraphe 1
de l’article 7 de la CNUDM, subordonne l’application de la méthode des
lignes de base droites à deux conditions d’ordre géographique. Ces conditions
sont de nature alternative et non cumulative. S’agissant des lignes de
base droites tracées entre le cap Gracias a Dios sur le continent et la
360 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (judgment)
98
(points 1‑8), Nicaragua asserts that there is “a fringe of islands along the
coast in its immediate vicinity” that entitles it to use straight rather than
normal baselines. As to the southernmost part of its mainland coast,
Nicaragua claims instead that the indentation of the coast from Monkey
Point to the land boundary terminus with Costa Rica justifies Nicaragua’s
straight baselines drawn from point 8 (Great Corn Island) to
point 9 (Barra Indio Maíz).
245. The Court notes that there appears to be no single test for identifying
a coastline that is “deeply indented and cut into”. Since Nicaragua
concedes that it is only the southernmost portion of its Caribbean coast
between Monkey Point and Barra Indio Maíz that falls to be considered
under the second geographic option, the Court must determine whether
the straight baseline segment between base points 8 and 9 defined by
Decree 33, as amended, is justified on the basis that the corresponding
coast is “deeply indented and cut into”. An examination of the relevant
maps reveals that Nicaragua’s southernmost coast does, in fact, curve
inward. Under the conditions reflected in Article 7, paragraph 1, of
UNCLOS, however, it is not sufficient for the coast to have slight indentations
and concavities; the coast must be “deeply indented and cut into”.
From the Isla del Venado (facing the bay of Bluefields) to Monkey Point,
Nicaragua’s mainland coast has a smooth configuration. A broad concavity
is observable from Punta Grindston Bay to Isla Portillos, at the
land boundary terminus with Costa Rica. The indentations along the relevant
portion of Nicaragua’s coast do not penetrate sufficiently inland or
present characteristics sufficient for the Court to consider the said portion
as “deeply indented and cut into”. The relevant portion is not “of a very
distinctive configuration”, nor “broken along its whole length” or “constantly
open[ing] out into indentations often penetrating for great distances
inland” (Fisheries (United Kingdom v. Norway), Judgment, I.C.J.
Reports 1951, p. 127). Thus, recalling that the straight baselines method
“must be applied restrictively”, the Court finds that the straight baseline
segment between base points 8 and 9 defined by Decree 33, as amended,
does not conform with customary international law on the drawing of
straight baselines as reflected in Article 7, paragraph 1, of UNCLOS.
246. The Court now turns to the remainder of Nicaragua’s straight
baselines running from point 1 to point 8, where some base points are
located on features such as Edinburgh Cay, the Miskitos Cays, Ned
Thomas Cay, the Man of War Cays and the Corn Islands. It recalls that
base points used to construct straight baselines may be placed on islands,
but may not be placed on features that are below water at high tide (lowtide
elevations) except in certain situations which are not present in this
case. Article 121, paragraph 1, of UNCLOS, defines an “island” as “a
naturally formed area of land, surrounded by water, which is above water
droits souverains et espaces maritimes (arrêt) 360
98
grande île du Maïs le long de la côte (points 1-8), le Nicaragua fait valoir
qu’il existe un « chapelet d’îles le long de la côte, à proximité immédiate
de celle‑ci » qui l’autorise à recourir à de telles lignes en lieu et place de
lignes de base normales. Pour ce qui est de la partie la plus méridionale de
sa côte continentale, c’est l’échancrure de la portion de son littoral comprise
entre Monkey Point et l’extrémité de la frontière terrestre avec le
Costa Rica qui justifie, selon lui, de tracer une ligne de base droite entre
le point 8 (grande île du Maïs) et le point 9 (Barra Indio Maíz).
245. La Cour note qu’il ne semble pas y avoir de critère unique permettant
de déterminer qu’une côte est « profondément échancrée et découpée ».
Puisque le Nicaragua admet que seule la portion la plus méridionale de sa
côte caribéenne, entre Monkey Point et Barra Indio Maíz, pourrait relever
de ce second cas de figure, la Cour doit déterminer si l’utilisation du segment
de ligne de base droite reliant les points de base 8 et 9, défini par le
décret 33, tel que modifié, se justifie parce que la côte présenterait à cet
endroit de telles caractéristiques. L’examen des cartes pertinentes révèle
que, dans sa partie la plus méridionale, la côte nicaraguayenne s’infléchit en
effet vers l’intérieur. Pour autant, selon les conditions dont il est fait état au
paragraphe 1 de l’article 7 de la CNUDM, l’existence de légères échancrures
ou concavités ne suffit pas ; il faut que la côte soit « profondément échancrée
et découpée ». A partir d’Isla del Venado (en face de la baie de Bluefields),
la côte continentale du Nicaragua présente une physionomie
régulière jusqu’à Monkey Point. Elle s’incurve alors pour former une
concavité prononcée à partir de Punta Grindston Bay jusqu’à Isla Portillos,
à l’extrémité de la frontière terrestre avec le Costa Rica. Les échancrures
que présente la portion pertinente de la côte nicaraguayenne ne pénètrent
cependant pas assez dans les terres pour que la Cour puisse considérer que
le littoral, à cet endroit, est « profondément échancr[é] et découp[é] ». La
portion en question ne présente pas « une configuration très caractéristique
», elle n’est pas « découpée sur tout son parcours » ni n’« ouvre à tout
instant des échancrures qui pénètrent dans les terres, sur une distance souvent
très considérable » (Pêcheries (Royaume‑Uni c. Norvège),
arrêt,
C.I.J. Recueil 1951, p. 127). Rappelant que la méthode des lignes de base
droites « doit être appliquée de façon restrictive », la Cour conclut en conséquence
que le segment de ligne de base droite tracé entre les points 8 et 9,
défini par le décret 33, tel que modifié, n’est pas conforme aux règles du
droit international coutumier gouvernant le tracé de lignes de base droites
tel que reflété au paragraphe 1 de l’article 7 de la CNUDM.
246. La Cour en vient maintenant aux autres lignes de base droites tracées
par le Nicaragua entre les points de base 1 et 8, qui, pour certains, se
situent sur des formations telles que la caye d’Edimbourg, les cayes des
Miskitos, la caye de Ned Thomas, les cayes de Man of War et les îles du
Maïs. Elle rappelle que les points de base employés pour tracer des lignes
de base droites peuvent être placés sur des îles, mais non sur des formations
immergées à marée haute (hauts‑fonds découvrants), sauf dans certaines
situations qui ne se présentent pas en l’espèce. Le paragraphe 1 de
l’article 121 de la CNUDM définit une « île » comme « une étendue natu-
361 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (judgment)
99
at high tide”. In the case concerning Maritime Delimitation and Territorial
Questions between Qatar and Bahrain, the Court viewed the legal definition
of an island embodied in Article 121, paragraph 1, as part of
customary international law (Maritime Delimitation and Territorial Questions
between Qatar and Bahrain, (Qatar v. Bahrain), Merits, Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 2001, p. 91, para. 167, and p. 99, para. 195) and it reaffirmed
the same in its 2012 Judgment (Territorial and Maritime Dispute
(Nicaragua v. Colombia), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2012 (II), p. 674,
para. 139).
247. In this regard, the Court notes that the Parties are divided on the
question whether Nicaragua’s offshore islands constitute a “fringe of
islands along the coast in its immediate vicinity” within the meaning of
Article 7, paragraph 1, of UNCLOS. First, the Parties disagree as to
whether certain features are islands and whether there is a sufficient number
of islands for drawing straight baselines. They also disagree on
whether the islands in question “form a unity with the mainland” or have
a “masking effect” on Nicaragua’s coastline. Lastly, the Parties disagree
about the size of the islands and whether their distance from each other
and from the mainland justifies the drawing of straight baselines.
248. The Court must begin by ascertaining whether Nicaragua has
demonstrated the presence of “islands” and, if so, whether those islands
amount to “a fringe . . . along the coast in its immediate vicinity” as
required by customary international law. Nicaragua asserts that there are
95 “islands” along its coast and provides a list of these as an annex to its
written pleadings. Colombia adopts the view that Nicaragua has failed to
prove the existence of the “islands”, noting that Nicaragua does not
adduce evidence concerning the insular nature or characteristics of these
features. Colombia further considers that the feature called Edinburgh
Cay, on which Nicaragua has placed a base point, is not an “island”
for the purposes of Article 7, paragraph 1, and is shown as a simple “lowtide
elevation” on Nautical Chart 28130.
249. As noted by the Parties, the 2012 Judgment contains references to
“islands fringing the Nicaraguan coast” and to “the Nicaraguan mainland
and fringing islands”. While the Parties reach different conclusions
on the legal significance of such references by the Court, they agree that
the Court did not qualify the said islands as “a fringe of islands” within
the meaning of Article 7, paragraph 1, of UNCLOS, nor that the Court
was dealing with Nicaragua’s claim to straight baselines. Furthermore,
the Court clearly indicated that Nicaragua was yet to notify its baselines
from which the breadth of its territorial sea would be measured, in accordance
with Article 16, paragraph 2, of UNCLOS (Territorial and Maritime
Dispute (Nicaragua v. Colombia), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2012 (II),
p. 683, para. 159). Notwithstanding these clarifications, the Court is satisfied,
in general terms, on the basis of the above references and noting its
droits souverains et espaces maritimes (arrêt) 361
99
relle de terre entourée d’eau qui reste découverte à marée haute ». En l’affaire
de la Délimitation maritime et des questions territoriales entre Qatar et
Bahreïn, la Cour a considéré que la définition juridique d’une île, énoncée
au paragraphe 1 de l’article 121, faisait partie du droit international
coutumier
(Délimitation maritime et questions territoriales entre Qatar
et Bahreïn (Qatar c. Bahreïn), fond, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2001, p. 91,
par. 167, et p. 99, par. 195), et elle l’a réaffirmé dans son arrêt de 2012
(Différend territorial et maritime (Nicaragua c. Colombie), arrêt,
C.I.J. Recueil 2012 (II), p. 674, par. 139).
247. A cet égard, la Cour note que les Parties divergent sur le point de
savoir si les îles au large du littoral nicaraguayen constituent un « chapelet
d’îles le long de la côte, à proximité immédiate de celle‑ci » au sens du
paragraphe 1 de l’article 7 de la CNUDM. En premier lieu, les Parties
sont en désaccord sur la question de savoir si certaines formations sont
effectivement des îles et si le nombre d’îles est suffisant aux fins du tracé
de lignes de base droites. En deuxième lieu, elles sont en désaccord sur le
point de savoir si les îles en question « constituent un tout avec la terre
ferme » ou produisent un « effet de masquage » sur la côte continentale
nicaraguayenne. Enfin, les Parties sont en désaccord à propos de la taille
des îles, ainsi que sur le point de savoir si la distance entre elles, d’une
part, et entre elles et le territoire continental, d’autre part, justifie le tracé
de lignes de base droites.
248. La Cour doit commencer par déterminer si le Nicaragua a démontré
la présence d’« îles » et, le cas échéant, si ces îles forment un « chapelet
… le long de la côte, à proximité immédiate de celle‑ci », comme l’exige
le droit international coutumier. Le Nicaragua dénombre au large de sa
côte 95 « îles », dont la liste est fournie en annexe de ses écritures. La
Colombie soutient que le Nicaragua n’en a pas démontré l’existence,
notant qu’il n’a pas produit d’éléments renseignant sur les caractéristiques
qui permettraient d’établir que les formations répertoriées sont bien des
îles. Elle affirme en outre que la formation appelée « caye d’Edimbourg »,
sur laquelle le Nicaragua a placé un point de base, n’est pas une « île »,
aux fins du paragraphe 1 de l’article 7, mais apparaît comme un simple
« haut‑fond découvrant » sur la carte marine 28130.
249. Ainsi que l’ont relevé les Parties, l’arrêt de 2012 fait référence aux
« îles côtières nicaraguayennes [islands fringing the Nicaraguan coast] » et
aux « territoire continental du Nicaragua et … îles qui le bordent [Nicaraguan
mainland and fringing islands] ». Si elles parviennent à des conclusions
différentes sur la signification juridique de ces expressions, les Parties
conviennent cependant que la Cour n’a pas utilisé, pour désigner ces formations,
l’expression « chapelet d’îles » (fringe of islands) telle qu’employée
au paragraphe 1 de l’article 7 de la CNUDM, et qu’elle ne traitait
pas, lorsqu’elle y faisait référence, de la prétention du Nicaragua à recourir
à des lignes de base droites. Du reste, la Cour a clairement indiqué que
le Nicaragua n’avait pas encore notifié les lignes de base droites à partir
desquelles serait mesurée la largeur de sa mer territoriale en application
du paragraphe 2 de l’article 16 de la CNUDM (Différend territorial et
362 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (judgment)
100
findings in its 2012 Judgment according to which “[t]here are a number of
Nicaraguan islands located off the mainland coast of Nicaragua” (Territorial
and Maritime Dispute (Nicaragua v. Colombia), Judgment, I.C.J.
Reports 2012 (II), p. 638, para. 21), that some of the 95 features listed by
Nicaragua are islands, as opposed to low‑tide elevations. The Court must
emphasize, nonetheless, that it does not automatically follow that all the
features listed by Nicaragua are “islands” or that they constitute “a fringe”
within the meaning of Article 7, paragraph 1, of UNCLOS. It remains for
Nicaragua to prove that there is indeed “a fringe of islands along the
coast in its immediate vicinity” within the meaning of that provision.
250. The Parties are divided concerning the insular nature of “Edinburgh
Cay” and about whether this feature may be considered an island
for the purpose of drawing straight baselines under Article 7 of UNCLOS.
The Court notes that, in plotting a provisional equidistance line, the
2012 Judgment refers to “Edinburgh Reef” as part of the islands located
off the coast of Nicaragua (ibid.) and that the Court placed a base point
on this feature for the construction of the provisional equidistance line
(ibid., pp. 698‑700, paras. 201 and 204). However, the Court did not at
that time consider the appropriateness of this feature for the purpose of
drawing straight baselines, nor did the Court qualify it as an “island”
within the meaning of Article 7, paragraph 1, of UNCLOS. The Court has
underlined in the past that
“the issue of determining the baseline for the purpose of measuring
the breadth of the continental shelf and the exclusive economic zone
and the issue of identifying base points for drawing an equidistance/
median line for the purpose of delimiting the continental shelf and the
exclusive economic zone between adjacent/opposite States are two
different issues” (Maritime Delimitation in the Black Sea (Romania v.
Ukraine), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2009, p. 108, para. 137).
251. The Court notes the contradictory data put forward by the
Applicant
concerning the nature of Edinburgh Cay. Nautical Chart
NGA 28130, annexed to the Applicant’s written pleadings, indicates that
Edinburgh Cay, based on charted data, is not an island. Nicaragua explains
that a different chart (British Admiralty Chart 1218), which was part of
Nicaragua’s pleadings in the case concerning Territorial and Maritime
Dispute,
shows the presence of “several islands on Edinburgh Cay or
Reef”. In these circumstances, the Court considers that there are serious
reasons to question the nature of Edinburgh Cay as an island for the purpose
of Article 7, paragraph 1, of UNCLOS. Thus, significant questions
arise as to its appropriateness as the location for a base point for the
drawing of straight baselines under the same provision. The Court adopts
the view that Nicaragua has not demonstrated the insular nature of this
feature.
droits souverains et espaces maritimes (arrêt) 362
100
maritime (Nicaragua c. Colombie), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2012 (II), p. 683,
par. 159). Ce nonobstant, elle considère de manière générale, sur la base
des critères mentionnés ci‑dessus, et eu égard à ce qu’elle a dit dans son
arrêt de 2012, où elle a constaté la présence d’« un certain nombre d’îles
nicaraguayennes situées au large de la côte continentale du Nicaragua »
(ibid., p. 638, par. 21), que certaines des 95 formations répertoriées par le
Nicaragua sont effectivement des îles, et non des hauts‑fonds découvrants.
Force est néanmoins de souligner qu’il ne s’ensuit pas automatiquement
que toutes les formations répertoriées par le Nicaragua seraient effectivement
des « îles » ni qu’elles formeraient un « chapelet » au sens du paragraphe
1 de l’article 7 de la CNUDM. Il incombe au Nicaragua de
prouver qu’il existe bien un « chapelet d’îles le long de [s]a côte, à proximité
immédiate de celle‑ci », au sens de ladite disposition.
250. Les Parties sont en désaccord sur le caractère insulaire de la « caye
d’Edimbourg » et sur la question de savoir si cette formation peut être
considérée comme une île aux fins du recours à la méthode des lignes de
base droites prévue à l’article 7 de la CNUDM. La Cour rappelle que,
dans son arrêt de 2012, alors qu’elle procédait au tracé d’une ligne d’équidistance
provisoire, elle a désigné le « récif d’Edimbourg » au nombre des
îles situées au large de la côte du Nicaragua (ibid.), et y a placé un point
de base (ibid., p. 698‑700, par. 201 et 204). Elle ne se posait cependant pas
alors la question de savoir si cette formation se prêtait au tracé de lignes
de base droites et elle n’a pas dit à cette occasion qu’il s’agissait d’une
« île » telle que visée au paragraphe 1 de l’article 7 de la CNUDM. La
Cour avait déjà, par le passé, souligné que
« la question de la détermination de la ligne de base servant à mesurer
la largeur du plateau continental et de la zone économique exclusive et
celle de la définition des points de base servant à tracer une ligne d’équidistance/
médiane aux fins de délimiter le plateau continental et la zone économique
exclusive entre deux Etats adjacents ou se faisant face sont deux
questions distinctes » (Délimitation maritime en mer Noire (Roumanie
c. Ukraine), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2009, p. 108, par. 137).
251. La Cour prend note des données contradictoires avancées par le
demandeur quant à la nature de la caye d’Edimbourg. D’après la carte
marine NGA 28130 annexée aux écritures du demandeur, cette formation
n’est pas répertoriée en tant qu’île. Le Nicaragua expose qu’une autre
carte (carte no 1218 de l’Amirauté britannique) annexée à ses écritures en
l’affaire du Différend territorial et maritime révèle quant à elle que « la
caye ou le récif d’Edimbourg comporte plusieurs îles ». Dans ces circonstances,
la Cour considère qu’il existe de réelles raisons de douter que la
caye d’Edimbourg soit une île aux fins du paragraphe 1 de l’article 7 de la
CNUDM. Dès lors, de sérieuses questions se posent quant à l’opportunité
de s’en servir comme emplacement d’un point de base aux fins du
tracé de lignes de base droites prévu par cette disposition. La Cour estime
que le Nicaragua n’a pas démontré, comme il lui incombait de le faire,
que cette formation est une île.
363 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (judgment)
101
252. In respect of the existence of a fringe of islands, the Court notes
that there are no specific rules regarding the minimum number of islands,
although the phrase “fringe of islands” implies that there should not be
too small a number of such islands relative to the length of the coast
(Maritime Delimitation and Territorial Questions between Qatar and
Bahrain
(Qatar v. Bahrain), Merits, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2001,
p. 103, para. 214). Given the uncertainty about which of the 95 features
are islands, the Court is not satisfied, on the basis of the maps and figures
submitted by the Parties, that the number of Nicaragua’s islands relative
to the length of the coast is sufficient to constitute “a fringe of islands”
along Nicaragua’s coast.
253. The maritime features shown on the maps may be divided into
two groups on the basis of their geographic proximity: one group, located
off the northernmost part of Nicaragua’s mainland coast, extends from
Edinburgh Cay to Ned Thomas Cay, including the Miskitos Cays; the
second group, located off the central part of Nicaragua’s mainland coast,
extends from Man of War Cays to the Corn Islands, including the
Tyra Cays and Pearl Point (Punta de Perlas).
254. The Parties have alluded in their pleadings to several factors they
consider as relevant to determine whether a given group of islands
amounts to “a fringe”. The Court has equated in the past the term “fringe
of islands” to a “cluster of islands” or an “island system” (ibid.). The
arbitral tribunal in the proceedings between Eritrea and Yemen referred
to “[a] tightly knit group of islands and islets, or ‘carpet’ of islands and
islets” or to “an intricate system of islands, islets and reefs which guard
this part of the coast” (Award of the Arbitral Tribunal in the second stage
of the proceedings between Eritrea and Yemen (Maritime Delimitation)
(Second stage of the proceedings between Eritrea and Yemen, (Maritime
Delimitation), Decision of 17 December 1999 Reports of International
Arbitral Awards (RIAA), Vol. XXII (2001), p. 369, para. 151). Also, it
emerges from these considerations that a certain continuity must be
observed in respect of the islands in question for them to form a “fringe
of islands” within the meaning of Article 7, paragraph 1, of UNCLOS.
This conclusion is reinforced by the ordinary meaning of the words
“fringe of islands” in other authentic languages of UNCLOS, such as in
French, which refers to “un chapelet d’îles”, a term which implies a certain
succession or continuity. In the Court’s view, a “fringe” must enclose
a set, or a cluster of islands which present an interconnected system with
some consistency or continuity. In certain instances, a fringe of islands
“guard[ing] [a] part of the coast” may have a masking effect on a large
proportion of the coast from the sea, a criterion which has been used and
discussed by the Parties in the present proceedings to demonstrate or
refute the existence of a fringe of islands along the Nicaraguan coastline
(ibid.).
255. In determining whether the features identified by the Applicant
can be considered a “fringe of islands”, the Court observes that custom-
droits souverains et espaces maritimes (arrêt) 363
101
252. S’agissant de l’existence d’un chapelet d’îles, la Cour note qu’il
n’existe pas de règles bien définies en ce qui concerne le nombre minimal
d’îles, bien que l’expression « chapelet » implique que celles‑ci ne doivent
pas être trop peu nombreuses au regard de la longueur de la côte (Délimitation
maritime et questions territoriales entre Qatar et Bahreïn (Qatar
c. Bahreïn), fond, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2001, p. 103, par. 214). Compte tenu
de l’incertitude entourant la question de savoir lesquelles des 95 formations
répertoriées sont des îles, la Cour n’a pas, sur la base des cartes et figures
soumises par les Parties, acquis la conviction que le nombre d’îles du Nicaragua
est suffisant au regard de la longueur de la côte pour lui permettre de
conclure qu’il existe un « chapelet » le long de la côte nicaraguayenne.
253. Les formations maritimes représentées sur les cartes peuvent être
divisées en deux groupes en fonction de leur proximité géographique ; le
premier, situé au large de la partie la plus septentrionale de la côte continentale
du Nicaragua, s’étend de la caye d’Edimbourg à la caye de
Ned Thomas et comprend les cayes des Miskitos ; le second, situé au large
de la partie centrale de la côte continentale du Nicaragua, s’étend des
cayes de Man of War aux îles du Maïs, et comprend les cayes de Tyra et
Pearl Point (Punta de Perlas).
254. Les Parties se sont, dans leurs exposés, référées à plusieurs facteurs
qu’elles jugent pertinents pour déterminer si un groupe d’îles donné
peut être qualifié de « fringe » ou « chapelet ». La Cour a, par le passé,
défini celui‑ci comme un « amas d’îles » ou « système insulaire » (ibid.). Le
tribunal arbitral constitué en l’affaire Erythrée/Yémen l’a également assimilé
à un « groupe compact ou « tapis » … d’îles et d’îlots » ou « système
complexe d’îles, d’îlots et de récifs qui gardent [une] partie de la côte »
(Sentence du tribunal arbitral rendue au terme de la seconde étape de la
procédure entre l’Erythrée et le Yémen (délimitation maritime), décision du
17 décembre 1999, Recueil des sentences arbitrales (RSA), vol. XXII
(2001), p. 369, par. 151). De ces considérations, il ressort également que
les îles en question doivent présenter une certaine continuité pour pouvoir
être qualifiées de « fringe » ou « chapelet » au sens du paragraphe 1 de l’article
7 de la CNUDM. Cette conclusion est renforcée par le sens ordinaire
des termes correspondant à l’expression « fringe of islands » employés
dans d’autres langues de la convention faisant également foi : en français,
par exemple, la notion de « chapelet d’îles » implique un certain élément
de succession ou de continuité. De l’avis de la Cour, un « chapelet » doit
ainsi englober un ensemble ou amas d’îles intégrées et interconnectées
dans un système présentant une certaine cohérence ou continuité. Dans
certains cas, un chapelet d’îles « gard[a]nt [une] partie de la côte » peut
masquer une grande partie du littoral depuis la mer, un critère dont les
Parties ont débattu, et à l’aune duquel l’une a cherché à démontrer, et
l’autre à réfuter, la présence d’un tel chapelet le long de la côte nicaraguayenne
(ibid.).
255. S’agissant de déterminer si les formations répertoriées par le
demandeur peuvent être considérées comme un « chapelet d’îles », la Cour
364 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (judgment)
102
ary international law, as reflected in Article 7, paragraph 1, of UNCLOS,
requires this fringe to be located “along the coast” and in its “immediate
vicinity”. Read together with the additional requirements of Article 7,
paragraph 3, according to which the drawing of straight baselines “must
not depart to any appreciable extent from the general direction of the
coast” and “the sea areas lying within the lines must be sufficiently closely
linked to the land domain to be subject to the régime of internal waters”,
the specific requirements of Article 7, paragraph 1, indicate that a “fringe
of islands” must be sufficiently close to the mainland so as to warrant its
consideration as the outer edge or extremity of that coast (Fisheries
(United Kingdom v. Norway), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1951, p. 128). It is
not sufficient that the concerned maritime features be part, in general
terms, of the overall geographical configuration of the State. They need
to be an integral part of its coastal configuration (Maritime Delimitation
and Territorial Questions between Qatar and Bahrain (Qatar v. Bahrain),
Merits, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2001, p. 103, para. 214; Award of the
Arbitral Tribunal in the second stage of the proceedings between Eritrea
and Yemen (Maritime Delimitation), Decision of 17 December 1999,
RIAA, Vol. XXII (2001), p. 338, para. 14).
256. Bearing in mind these considerations, the Court is of the opinion
that the Nicaraguan “islands” are not sufficiently close to each other to
form a coherent “cluster” or a “chapelet” along the coast and are not sufficiently
linked to the land domain to be considered as the outer edge of
the coast. Nicaragua asserts that “there are numerous small cays between
the mainland and the Corn Islands and that as a consequence the territorial
seas of the two merge and overlap” in order to illustrate the relationship
between the “islands” and the mainland. However, the Court notes
that Nicaragua’s straight baselines enclose large maritime areas where no
maritime feature entitled to a territorial sea has been shown to exist.
These areas are between Ned Thomas Cay and the Man of War Cays,
between East of Great Tyra Cay and the Corn Islands, and from the
Corn Islands to the land boundary terminus with Costa Rica. The Court
further notes that the features and islands located towards the south of
Nicaragua’s mainland coast — the Man of War and East of Great
Tyra Cay and the Little Corn and Great Corn Islands — appear to be
significantly detached from the islands grouped in the north. Furthermore,
a notable break in continuity of over 75 nautical miles can be
observed between Ned Thomas Cay, on which Nicaragua has plotted
base point 4, and Man of War Cays where base point 5 is located.
Nicaragua
concedes that the groups of islands along its coast are “separate”.
257. Furthermore, the Court is not convinced that Nicaragua’s islands
“guard . . . part of the coast” in such a way that they have a masking
effect on a large portion of the mainland coast (Award of the Arbitral
Tribunal in the second stage of the proceedings between Eritrea and Yemen
(Maritime Delimitation), Decision of 17 December 1999, RIAA, Vol. XXII
droits souverains et espaces maritimes (arrêt) 364
102
observe que, selon le droit international coutumier, tel que reflété au
paragraphe 1 de l’article 7 de la CNUDM, ledit chapelet doit se trouver
« le long de la côte » et « à proximité immédiate de celle‑ci ». Lues conjointement
avec les autres conditions énoncées au paragraphe 3 de l’article 7,
qui dispose que le tracé des lignes de base droites « ne doit pas s’écarter
sensiblement de la direction générale de la côte » et que « les étendues de
mer situées en deçà doivent être suffisamment liées au domaine terrestre
pour être soumises au régime des eaux intérieures », celles que pose le
paragraphe 1 impliquent qu’un « chapelet d’îles » doit être suffisamment
proche de la côte continentale pour pouvoir légitimement être considéré
comme en constituant l’extrémité ou le bord extérieur (Pêcheries
(Royaume‑Uni c. Norvège), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1951, p. 128). Il ne suffit
pas que les formations maritimes en question fassent partie, de manière
générale, de la configuration géographique générale d’un Etat ;
elles doivent faire partie intégrante de sa configuration côtière (Délimitation
maritime et questions territoriales entre Qatar et Bahreïn (Qatar
c. Bahreïn), fond, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2001, p. 103, par. 214 ; Sentence
du tribunal arbitral rendue au terme de la seconde étape de la procédure
entre l’Erythrée et le Yémen (délimitation maritime), décision du
17 décembre 1999, RSA, vol. XXII (2001), p. 338, par. 14).
256. Compte tenu de ces considérations, la Cour est d’avis que les
« îles » nicaraguayennes ne sont pas suffisamment proches les unes des
autres pour former un « amas » ou « chapelet » cohérent le long de la côte,
et ne sont pas suffisamment liées au domaine terrestre pour pouvoir être
considérées comme formant le bord extérieur de la côte. Pour illustrer la
relation entre les « îles » et le continent, le Nicaragua écrit qu’il existe « de
nombreuses petites cayes entre [celui‑ci] et les îles du Maïs » et que, en
conséquence, « leurs mers territoriales respectives se fondent et se chevauchent
». La Cour note toutefois que les lignes de base droites du Nicaragua
englobent de larges espaces maritimes où n’a été établie l’existence
d’aucune formation maritime ouvrant droit à une mer territoriale. Ces
espaces sont ceux compris entre la caye de Ned Thomas et les cayes de
Man of War, entre la caye East of Great Tyra et les îles du Maïs, et entre
les îles du Maïs et le point terminal de la frontière terrestre du Costa Rica.
La Cour relève en outre que les formations et îles situées au sud de la côte
continentale du Nicaragua — les cayes de Man of War et East of
Great Tyra, et les petite et grande îles du Maïs — semblent nettement
détachées du groupement d’îles au nord. Qui plus est, on observe une
solution de continuité marquée, sur plus de 75 milles marins, entre la caye
de Ned Thomas, où le Nicaragua a placé le point de base 4, et les cayes
de Man of War, où se trouve le point de base 5. Le Nicaragua reconnaît
du reste que les îles longeant sa côte forment des groupes « distincts ».
257. En outre, la Cour n’est pas convaincue que les îles nicaraguayennes
« gardent [une] partie de la côte » en masquant une grande partie du littoral
depuis la mer (Sentence du tribunal arbitral rendue au terme de la
seconde étape de la procédure entre l’Erythrée et le Yémen (délimitation
maritime), décision du 17 décembre 1999, RSA, vol. XXII (2001), p. 369,
365 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (judgment)
103
(2001), p. 369, para. 151). The segments of Nicaragua’s mainland coast
facing the areas lying between Ned Thomas Cay and the Man of War Cays
and south of the Corn Islands do not seem to be masked by islands. The
Court notes that the Parties disagree about the approach to be adopted to
assess the extent of the masking effect of the islands and propose different
methods by way of different projections. Without adopting a view concerning
the relevance of the projections suggested by the Parties in assessing
the masking effect of islands for the purpose of Article 7, paragraph 1,
of UNCLOS, the Court considers that, even if it were to accept Nicaragua’s
approach, the masking effect of the maritime features that the
Applicant identifies as “islands” is not significant enough for them to be
considered as masking a large proportion of the coast from the sea.
258. In light of the above findings, the Court cannot accept Nicaragua’s
contention that there exists a continuous fringe or an “intricate system
of islands, islets and reefs which guard this part of the coast” of
Nicaragua (Award of the Arbitral Tribunal in the second stage of the proceedings
between Eritrea and Yemen (Maritime Delimitation), Decision of
17 December 1999, RIAA, Vol. XXII (2001), p. 369, para. 151). It follows
that Nicaragua’s straight baselines do not meet the requirements of customary
international law reflected in Article 7, paragraph 1, of UNCLOS.
Having reached this conclusion, the Court need not consider whether the
Applicant’s straight baselines meet the additional requirements reflected
in Article 7, paragraph 3, of UNCLOS.
259. Nicaragua’s own evidence establishes that the straight baselines
convert into internal waters certain areas which otherwise would have
been part of Nicaragua’s territorial sea or exclusive economic zone and
convert into territorial sea certain areas which would have been part of
Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone. The establishment of Nicaragua’s
straight baselines limits the rights that Colombian vessels would have had
in those areas. The availability of the right of innocent passage in areas
landward of straight baselines, consistent with Article 8, paragraph 2, of
UNCLOS, does not fully address the implications for Colombia of Nicaragua’s
straight baselines. The Court notes in particular that by converting
certain areas of its exclusive economic zone into internal waters or
into territorial sea, Nicaragua’s straight baselines deny to Colombia the
rights to which it is entitled in the exclusive economic zone, including the
freedoms of navigation and overflight and of the laying of submarine
cables and pipelines, as provided under customary international law as
reflected in Article 58, paragraph 1, of UNCLOS.
260. For the reasons set out above, the Court concludes that the
straight baselines established by Decree 33, as amended, do not conform
with customary international law. The Court considers that a declaratory
judgment to that effect is an appropriate remedy.
* * *
droits souverains et espaces maritimes (arrêt) 365
103
par. 151). Les segments de la côte continentale du Nicaragua, qui font
face aux espaces situés entre la caye de Ned Thomas et les cayes de
Man of War et au sud des îles du Maïs, ne semblent pas être soumis à un
effet de masquage. La Cour relève que les Parties sont en désaccord sur la
manière de procéder pour déterminer l’ampleur de l’effet de masquage des
îles, et préconisent d’utiliser des projections différentes. Sans se prononcer
sur la pertinence qu’ont ces projections s’agissant d’apprécier l’effet de
masquage des îles aux fins du paragraphe 1 de l’article 7 de la CNUDM,
la Cour est d’avis que, même à retenir l’approche du Nicaragua, les formations
maritimes que celui‑ci qualifie d’« îles » ne produisent pas un effet
suffisamment important pour qu’elles puissent être considérées comme
masquant une grande partie du littoral depuis la mer.
258. Compte tenu de ce qui précède, la Cour ne peut admettre l’allégation
du Nicaragua quant à l’existence d’un chapelet continu ou d’un « système
complexe d’îles, d’îlots et de récifs … gard[ant] cette partie de la côte » du
Nicaragua (Sentence du tribunal arbitral rendue au terme de la seconde étape
de la procédure entre l’Erythrée et le Yémen (délimitation maritime), décision
du 17 décembre 1999, RSA, vol. XXII (2001), p. 369, par. 151). Il s’ensuit que
les lignes de base droites du Nicaragua ne satisfont pas aux exigences du
droit international coutumier tel que reflété au paragraphe 1 de l’article 7 de
la CNUDM. Etant parvenue à cette conclusion, la Cour n’a pas besoin de se
demander si les lignes de base droites du demandeur satisfont aux exigences
supplémentaires énoncées au paragraphe 3 de ce même article.
259. Les propres éléments de preuve du Nicaragua montrent que les
lignes de base droites transforment en eaux intérieures certains espaces
qui, autrement, auraient fait partie de sa mer territoriale ou de sa zone
économique exclusive, et transforment en mer territoriale certains espaces
qui, autrement, auraient fait partie de sa zone économique exclusive.
L’établissement de ces lignes limite les droits dont les navires colombiens
auraient pu jouir dans ces espaces. L’existence d’un droit de passage inoffensif
dans les espaces maritimes situés en deçà de ces lignes, prévue par
le paragraphe 2 de l’article 8 de la CNUDM, ne remédie pas entièrement
aux implications que celles-
ci ont pour la Colombie. La Cour note en
particulier que, en transformant en eaux intérieures ou en mer territoriale
certaines parties de sa zone économique exclusive, les lignes de base
droites établies par le Nicaragua privent la Colombie des droits qui lui
sont reconnus dans la zone économique exclusive, notamment la liberté
de navigation et de survol ou encore celle de poser des câbles et pipelines
sous‑marins prévues par le droit international coutumier tel que reflété au
paragraphe 1 de l’article 58 de la CNUDM.
260. Pour les raisons exposées ci‑dessus, la Cour conclut que les lignes
de base droites établies par le décret 33, tel que modifié, ne sont pas
conformes au droit international coutumier. Elle considère qu’un jugement
déclaratoire à cet effet constitue un remède approprié.
* * *
366 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (judgment)
104
261. For these reasons,
The Court,
(1) By ten votes to five,
Finds that its jurisdiction, based on Article XXXI of the Pact of Bogotá,
to adjudicate upon the dispute regarding the alleged violations by the
Republic of Colombia of the Republic of Nicaragua’s rights in the maritime
zones which the Court declared in its 2012 Judgment to appertain to
the Republic of Nicaragua, covers the claims based on those events
referred to by the Republic of Nicaragua that occurred after 27 November
2013, the date on which the Pact of Bogotá ceased to be in force for
the Republic of Colombia;
in favour: President Donoghue; Vice-President
Gevorgian; Judges Tomka,
Xue, Sebutinde, Bhandari, Robinson, Salam, Iwasawa; Judge ad hoc
Daudet;
against: Judges Abraham, Bennouna, Yusuf, Nolte; Judge ad hoc McRae;
(2) By ten votes to five,
Finds that, by interfering with fishing and marine scientific research
activities of Nicaraguan‑flagged or Nicaraguan-licensed
vessels and with
the operations of Nicaraguan naval vessels in the Republic of Nicaragua’s
exclusive economic zone and by purporting to enforce conservation
measures
in that zone, the Republic of Colombia has violated the
Republic
of Nicaragua’s sovereign rights and jurisdiction in this maritime
zone;
in favour: President Donoghue; Vice-President
Gevorgian; Judges Tomka,
Xue, Sebutinde, Bhandari, Robinson, Salam, Iwasawa; Judge ad hoc
Daudet;
against: Judges Abraham, Bennouna, Yusuf, Nolte; Judge ad hoc McRae;
(3) By nine votes to six,
Finds that, by authorizing fishing activities in the Republic of Nicaragua’s
exclusive economic zone, the Republic of Colombia has violated the
Republic of Nicaragua’s sovereign rights and jurisdiction in this maritime
zone;
in favour: President Donoghue; Judges Tomka, Xue, Sebutinde, Bhandari,
Robinson, Salam, Iwasawa; Judge ad hoc Daudet;
against: Vice-President
Gevorgian; Judges Abraham, Bennouna, Yusuf,
Nolte; Judge ad hoc McRae;
(4) By nine votes to six,
Finds that the Republic of Colombia must immediately cease the conduct
referred to in points 2 and 3 above;
droits souverains et espaces maritimes (arrêt) 366
104
261. Par ces motifs,
La Cour,
1) Par dix voix contre cinq,
Dit que la compétence qu’elle a, sur le fondement de l’article XXXI du
pacte de Bogotá, pour statuer sur le différend relatif à des allégations de
violations, par la République de Colombie, des droits de la République
du Nicaragua dans les espaces maritimes que la Cour a reconnus à cette
dernière dans son arrêt de 2012, couvre les demandes fondées sur les événements
mentionnés par la République du Nicaragua survenus après le
27 novembre 2013, date à laquelle le pacte de Bogotá a cessé d’être en
vigueur pour la République de Colombie ;
pour : Mme Donoghue, présidente ; M. Gevorgian, vice-président
; M. Tomka,
Mmes Xue, Sebutinde, MM. Bhandari, Robinson, Salam, Iwasawa, juges ;
M. Daudet, juge ad hoc ;
contre : MM. Abraham, Bennouna, Yusuf, Nolte, juges ; M. McRae, juge
ad hoc ;
2) Par dix voix contre cinq,
Dit que, en entravant les activités de pêche et de recherche scientifique
marine de navires battant pavillon nicaraguayen ou détenteurs d’un permis
nicaraguayen et les opérations de navires de la marine nicaraguayenne
dans la zone économique exclusive de la République du Nicaragua et en
voulant faire appliquer des mesures de conservation dans cette zone, la
République de Colombie a violé les droits souverains et la juridiction de
la République du Nicaragua dans cette zone maritime ;
pour : Mme Donoghue, présidente ; M. Gevorgian, vice-président
; M. Tomka,
Mmes Xue, Sebutinde, MM. Bhandari, Robinson, Salam, Iwasawa, juges ;
M. Daudet, juge ad hoc ;
contre : MM. Abraham, Bennouna, Yusuf, Nolte, juges ; M. McRae, juge
ad hoc ;
3) Par neuf voix contre six,
Dit que, en autorisant des activités de pêche dans la zone économique
exclusive de la République du Nicaragua, la République de Colombie a
violé les droits souverains et la juridiction de la République du Nicaragua
dans cette zone maritime ;
pour : Mme Donoghue, présidente ; M. Tomka, Mmes Xue, Sebutinde,
MM. Bhandari, Robinson, Salam, Iwasawa, juges ; M. Daudet, juge ad hoc ;
contre : M. Gevorgian, vice-président
; MM. Abraham, Bennouna, Yusuf,
Nolte, juges ; M. McRae, juge ad hoc ;
4) Par neuf voix contre six,
Dit que la République de Colombie doit immédiatement cesser le comportement
visé aux points 2 et 3 ci-
dessus
;
367 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (judgment)
105
in favour: President Donoghue; Judges Tomka, Xue, Sebutinde, Bhandari,
Robinson, Salam, Iwasawa; Judge ad hoc Daudet;
against: Vice-President
Gevorgian; Judges Abraham, Bennouna, Yusuf,
Nolte; Judge ad hoc McRae;
(5) By thirteen votes to two,
Finds that the “integral contiguous zone” established by the Republic
of Colombia by Presidential Decree 1946 of 9 September 2013, as
amended by Decree 1119 of 17 June 2014, is not in conformity with customary
international law, as set out in paragraphs 170 to 187 above;
in favour: President Donoghue; Vice-President
Gevorgian; Judges Tomka,
Bennouna, Yusuf, Xue, Sebutinde, Bhandari, Robinson, Salam, Iwasawa,
Nolte; Judge ad hoc Daudet;
against: Judge Abraham; Judge ad hoc McRae;
(6) By twelve votes to three,
Finds that the Republic of Colombia must, by means of its own choosing,
bring into conformity with customary international law the provisions
of Presidential Decree 1946 of 9 September 2013, as amended by
Decree 1119 of 17 June 2014, in so far as they relate to maritime areas
declared by the Court in its 2012 Judgment to appertain to the Republic
of Nicaragua;
in favour: President Donoghue; Vice-President
Gevorgian; Judges Tomka,
Bennouna, Xue, Sebutinde, Bhandari, Robinson, Salam, Iwasawa, Nolte;
Judge ad hoc Daudet;
against: Judges Abraham, Yusuf; Judge ad hoc McRae;
(7) By twelve votes to three,
Finds that the Republic of Nicaragua’s straight baselines established by
Decree No. 33‑2013 of 19 August 2013, as amended by Decree No. 17‑2018
of 10 October 2018, are not in conformity with customary international
law;
in favour: President Donoghue; Vice-President
Gevorgian; Judges Tomka,
Abraham, Yusuf, Sebutinde, Bhandari, Robinson, Salam, Iwasawa, Nolte;
Judge ad hoc Daudet;
against: Judges Bennouna, Xue; Judge ad hoc McRae;
(8) By fourteen votes to one,
Rejects all other submissions made by the Parties.
in favour: President Donoghue; Vice-President
Gevorgian; Judges Tomka,
Abraham, Bennouna, Yusuf, Xue, Sebutinde, Bhandari, Robinson, Salam,
Iwasawa, Nolte; Judge ad hoc Daudet;
against: Judge ad hoc McRae.
Done in English and in French, the English text being authoritative, at
the Peace Palace, The Hague, this twenty-first day of April, two thousand
droits souverains et espaces maritimes (arrêt) 367
105
pour : Mme Donoghue, présidente ; M. Tomka, Mmes Xue, Sebutinde,
MM. Bhandari, Robinson, Salam, Iwasawa, juges ; M. Daudet, juge ad hoc ;
contre : M. Gevorgian, vice-président
; MM. Abraham, Bennouna, Yusuf,
Nolte, juges ; M. McRae, juge ad hoc ;
5) Par treize voix contre deux,
Dit que la « zone contiguë unique » établie par la République de Colombie
par le décret présidentiel 1946 du 9 septembre 2013, tel que modifié
par le décret 1119 du 17 juin 2014, n’est pas conforme au droit international
coutumier, ainsi qu’exposé aux paragraphes 170 à 187 ci‑dessus ;
pour : Mme Donoghue, présidente ; M. Gevorgian, vice-président
; MM. Tomka,
Bennouna, Yusuf, Mmes Xue, Sebutinde, MM. Bhandari, Robinson, Salam,
Iwasawa, Nolte, juges ; M. Daudet, juge ad hoc ;
contre : M. Abraham, juge ; M. McRae, juge ad hoc ;
6) Par douze voix contre trois,
Dit que la République de Colombie doit, par les moyens de son choix,
mettre les dispositions du décret présidentiel 1946 du 9 septembre 2013,
tel que modifié par le décret 1119 du 17 juin 2014, en conformité avec le
droit international coutumier, en tant qu’elles ont trait aux espaces maritimes
que la Cour a reconnus à la République du Nicaragua dans son
arrêt de 2012 ;
pour : Mme Donoghue, présidente ; M. Gevorgian, vice-président
; MM. Tomka,
Bennouna, Mmes Xue, Sebutinde, MM. Bhandari, Robinson, Salam,
Iwasawa,
Nolte, juges ; M. Daudet, juge ad hoc ;
contre : MM. Abraham, Yusuf, juges ; M. McRae, juge ad hoc ;
7) Par douze voix contre trois,
Dit que les lignes de base droites de la République du Nicaragua établies
par le décret no 33‑2013 du 19 août 2013, tel que modifié par le
décret no 17‑2018 du 10 octobre 2018, ne sont pas conformes au droit
international coutumier ;
pour : Mme Donoghue, présidente ; M. Gevorgian, vice-président
; MM. Tomka,
Abraham, Yusuf, Mme Sebutinde, MM. Bhandari, Robinson, Salam,
Iwasawa,
Nolte, juges ; M. Daudet, juge ad hoc ;
contre : M. Bennouna, Mme Xue, juges ; M. McRae, juge ad hoc ;
8) Par quatorze voix contre une,
Rejette le surplus des conclusions présentées par les Parties.
pour : Mme Donoghue, présidente ; M. Gevorgian, vice-président
; MM. Tomka,
Abraham, Bennouna, Yusuf, Mmes Xue, Sebutinde, MM. Bhandari,
Robinson,
Salam, Iwasawa, Nolte, juges ; M. Daudet, juge ad hoc ;
contre : M. McRae, juge ad hoc.
Fait en anglais et en français, le texte anglais faisant foi, au Palais de la
Paix, à La Haye, le vingt et un avril deux mille vingt-deux, en trois
368 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (judgment)
106
and twenty-two, in three copies, one of which will be placed in the archives
of the Court and the others transmitted to the Government of the Republic
of Nicaragua and the Government of the Republic of Colombia,
respectively.
(Signed) Joan E. Donoghue,
President.
(Signed) Philippe Gautier,
Registrar.
Vice-President
Gevorgian appends a declaration to the Judgment of
the Court; Judge Tomka appends a separate opinion to the Judgment
of the Court; Judge Abraham appends a dissenting opinion to the
Judgment
of the Court; Judge Bennouna appends a declaration to
the Judgment
of the Court; Judge Yusuf appends a separate opinion to
the Judgment of the Court; Judge Xue appends a declaration to the
Judgment
of the Court; Judge Robinson appends a separate opinion to
the Judgment of the Court; Judge Iwasawa appends a declaration to
the Judgment of the Court; Judge Nolte appends a dissenting opinion to
the Judgment of the Court; Judge ad hoc McRae appends a dissenting
opinion to the Judgment of the Court.
(Initialled) J.E.D.
(Initialled) Ph.G.
droits souverains et espaces maritimes (arrêt) 368
106
exemplaires,
dont l’un restera déposé aux archives de la Cour et les autres
seront transmis respectivement au Gouvernement de la République du
Nicaragua et au Gouvernement de la République de Colombie.
La présidente,
(Signé) Joan E. Donoghue.
Le greffier,
(Signé) Philippe Gautier.
M. le juge Gevorgian, vice-président,
joint une déclaration à l’arrêt ;
M. le juge Tomka joint à l’arrêt l’exposé de son opinion individuelle ;
M. le juge Abraham joint à l’arrêt l’exposé de son opinion dissidente ;
M. le juge Bennouna joint une déclaration à l’arrêt ; M. le juge Yusuf
joint à l’arrêt l’exposé de son opinion individuelle ; Mme la juge Xue joint
une déclaration à l’arrêt ; M. le juge Robinson joint à l’arrêt l’exposé de
son opinion individuelle ; M. le juge Iwasawa joint une déclaration à l’arrêt
; M. le juge Nolte joint à l’arrêt l’exposé de son opinion dissidente ;
M. le juge ad hoc McRae joint à l’arrêt l’exposé de son opinion dissidente.
(Paraphé) J.E.D.
(Paraphé) Ph.G.

Document file FR
Document Long Title

Judgment of 21 April 2022

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