Judgment of 4 February 2021

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172-20210204-JUD-01-00-EN
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Incidental Proceedings
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Bilingual Document File

INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE REPORTS OF JUDGMENTS, ADVISORY OPINIONS AND ORDERS APPLICATION OF THE INTERNATIONAL CONVENTION ON THE ELIMINATION OF ALL FORMS OF RACIAL DISCRIMINATION (QATAR v. UNITED ARAB EMIRATES) PRELIMINARY OBJECTIONS JUDGMENT OF 4 FEBRUARY 2021 2021 COUR INTERNATIONALE DE JUSTICE RECUEIL DES ARRÊTS, AVIS CONSULTATIFS ET ORDONNANCES APPLICATION DE LA CONVENTION INTERNATIONALE SUR L’ÉLIMINATION DE TOUTES LES FORMES DE DISCRIMINATION RACIALE (QATAR c. ÉMIRATS ARABES UNIS) EXCEPTIONS PRÉLIMINAIRES ARRÊT DU 4 FÉVRIER 2021 Official citation: Application of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (Qatar v. United Arab Emirates), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2021, p. 71 Mode officiel de citation : Application de la convention internationale sur l’élimination de toutes les formes de discrimination raciale (Qatar c. Emirats arabes unis), exceptions préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2021, p. 71 ISSN 0074-4441 ISBN 978-92-1-003883-6 Sales number No de vente: 1221 © 2022 ICJ/CIJ, United Nations/Nations Unies All rights reserved/Tous droits réservés Printed in France/Imprimé en France APPLICATION OF THE INTERNATIONAL CONVENTION ON THE ELIMINATION OF ALL FORMS OF RACIAL DISCRIMINATION (QATAR v. UNITED ARAB EMIRATES) PRELIMINARY OBJECTIONS APPLICATION DE LA CONVENTION INTERNATIONALE SUR L’ÉLIMINATION DE TOUTES LES FORMES DE DISCRIMINATION RACIALE (QATAR c. ÉMIRATS ARABES UNIS) EXCEPTIONS PRÉLIMINAIRES 4 FEBRUARY 2021 JUDGMENT 4 FÉVRIER 2021 ARRÊT 71 4 TABLE OF CONTENTS Paragraphs Chronology of the Procedure 1‑25 I. Introduction 26‑40 A. Factual background 26-34 B. The jurisdictional basis invoked and the preliminary objections raised 35-40 II. Subject-Matter of the Dispute 41‑70 III. First Preliminary Objection: Jurisdiction Ratione Materiae 71‑114 A. The question whether the term “national origin” encompasses current nationality 74-105 1. The term “national origin” in accordance with its ordinary meaning, read in its context and in the light of the object and purpose of CERD 78-88 2. The term “national origin” in the light of the travaux préparatoires as a supplementary means of interpretation 89-97 3. The practice of the CERD Committee 98-101 4. The jurisprudence of regional human rights courts 102-104 5. Conclusion on the interpretation of the term “national origin” 105 B. The question whether the measures imposed by the UAE on certain Qatari media corporations come within the scope of the Convention 106-108 C. The question whether the measures that Qatar characterizes as “indirect discrimination” against persons of Qatari national origin fall within the scope of the Convention 109-113 D. General conclusion 114 Operative Clause 115 72 5 INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE YEAR 2021 4 February 2021 APPLICATION OF THE INTERNATIONAL CONVENTION ON THE ELIMINATION OF ALL FORMS OF RACIAL DISCRIMINATIONS (QATAR v. UNITED ARAB EMIRATES) PRELIMINARY OBJECTIONS Factual background. Measures announced by the United Arab Emirates (“UAE”) on 5 June 2017 — Severance of diplomatic relations with Qatar — Entry ban — Travel bans — Expulsion order —Closure by UAE of airspace and seaports — Additional measures relating to Qatari media corporations and speech in support of Qatar — Communication of Qatar submitted to the Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination (“CERD Committee”) on 8 March 2018 — Decisions on jurisdiction and admissibility of inter-State communication given by the CERD Committee on 27 August 2019 — CERD Committee rejects preliminary exceptions raised by the UAE — Appointment of an ad hoc Conciliation Commission. * Jurisdictional basis invoked and preliminary objections raised. Article 22 of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (“CERD”) — Preliminary objection to jurisdiction ratione materiae — Preliminary objection based on alleged failure to satisfy procedural preconditions of Article 22 of CERD. * 2021 4 February General List No. 172 73 application of the cerd (judgment) 6 Subject-matter of the dispute. Applicant required to indicate subject-matter of dispute in its application — Court itself determines subject-matter of dispute on objective basis. Qatar makes three claims of racial discrimination — First claim arising out of travel bans and expulsion order — Second claim arising from restrictions on Qatari media corporations — Third claim that measures taken result in “indirect discrimination” on the basis of Qatari national origin. Claim arising out of travel bans and expulsion order — Qatar’s contention that express reference to Qatari nationals constitutes discrimination on basis of current nationality — UAE’s argument that such differentiation based on nationality does not violate CERD — Parties hold opposing views on whether the term “national origin” in Article 1, paragraph 1, of CERD encompasses current nationality. Claim arising from restrictions on Qatari media corporations — Disagreement on whether measures directly targeted those corporations in a racially discriminatory manner. Claim of “indirect discrimination” against persons of Qatari national origin — Qatar’s assertion that expulsion order and travel bans give rise to “indirect discrimination” — Qatar’s allegations that restrictions on media corporations and limitations on freedom of expression result in “indirect discrimination” — UAE’s contention that claim was not presented in Application — Rules of Court do not preclude Qatar from refining the legal arguments presented in its Application or advancing new arguments — Parties hold opposing views over Qatar’s claim that UAE has engaged in “indirect discrimination”. Conclusion that the Parties disagree in respect of Qatar’s three claims that UAE has violated its obligations under CERD — Parties’ disagreements in respect of these claims form the subject‑matter of the dispute. * First preliminary objection: jurisdiction ratione materiae. Question whether term “national origin” encompasses current nationality — Interpretation of “national origin” in Article 1, paragraph 1, of CERD on the basis of Article 31 and 32 of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties — Ordinary meaning of term “national origin” does not encompass current nationality — Context in which term used in CERD, in particular paragraphs 2 and 3 of Article 1, supports ordinary meaning — Ordinary meaning also supported by object and purpose of CERD — The term “national origin”, in accordance with its ordinary meaning, read in its context and in light of object and purpose of CERD, does not encompass current nationality — Travaux préparatoires confirm this interpretation — Practice of the CERD Committee — General Recommendation XXX — Careful consideration by Court of position taken by CERD Committee therein — Court’s conclusion reached using relevant rules of treaty interpretation — Jurisprudence of regional human rights courts of little help — Conclusion that the 74 application of the cerd (judgment) 7 term “national origin” does not encompass current nationality — First claim consequently does not fall within scope of CERD. Question whether measures imposed on Qatari media corporations come within scope of CERD — Convention concerns only individuals or groups of individuals — Reference to “institutions” in Article 2, paragraph 1 (a), does not include media corporations — Second claim, which relates to media corporations, does not fall within scope of CERD. Question whether “indirect discrimination” falls within scope of CERD — Whether measures capable of falling within scope of CERD if, by their purpose or effect, they result in racial discrimination against persons on the basis of their Qatari national origin — Collateral or secondary effects on persons born in Qatar or of Qatari parents, or on family members of Qatari citizens residing in the UAE, do not constitute discrimination under CERD — Measures of which Qatar complains do not entail, either by their purpose or by their effect, racial discrimination under CERD — Court does not have jurisdiction to entertain third claim, which relates to “indirect discrimination”. * First preliminary objection upheld — No need to consider second preliminary objection. JUDGMENT Present: President Yusuf; Vice‑President Xue; Judges Tomka, Abraham, Bennouna, Cançado Trindade, Donoghue, Gaja, Sebutinde, Bhandari, Robinson, Crawford, Gevorgian, Salam, Iwasawa; Judges ad hoc Cot, Daudet; Registrar Gautier. In the case concerning the application of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination, between the State of Qatar, represented by Mr. Mohammed Abdulaziz Al‑Khulaifi, Legal Adviser to H.E. the Deputy Prime Minister and Minister for Foreign Affairs of the State of Qatar, Dean of the College of Law, Qatar University, as Agent; 75 application of the cerd (judgment) 8 Mr. Vaughan Lowe, QC, Emeritus Chichele Professor of Public International Law, University of Oxford, member of the Institut de droit international, Essex Court Chambers, member of the Bar of England and Wales, Mr. Pierre Klein, Professor of International Law, Université libre de Bruxelles, Ms Catherine Amirfar, Debevoise & Plimpton LLP, member of the Bar of the State of New York, Mr. Lawrence H. Martin, Foley Hoag LLP, member of the Bars of the District of Columbia and the Commonwealth of Massachusetts, Mr. Nico Schrijver, Professor of International Law, Leiden University, member of the Institut de droit international, as Counsel and Advocates; H.E. Mr. Abdullah bin Hussein Al‑Jaber, Ambassador of the State of Qatar to the Kingdom of the Netherlands, Mr. Ahmad Al‑Mana, Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the State of Qatar, Mr. Jassim Al‑Kuwari, Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the State of Qatar, Mr. Nasser Al‑Hamad, Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the State of Qatar, Ms Hanadi Al‑Shafei, Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the State of Qatar, Ms Hessa Al‑Dosari, Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the State of Qatar, Ms Sara Al‑Saadi, Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the State of Qatar, Ms Amna Al‑Nasser, Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the State of Qatar, Mr. Ali Al‑Hababi, Embassy of the State of Qatar in the Netherlands, Mr. Rashed Al‑Naemi, Embassy of the State of Qatar in the Netherlands, Mr. Abdulla Al‑Mulla, Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the State of Qatar, as Advisers; Mr. Pemmaraju Sreenivasa Rao, Special Adviser in the Office of the Attorney General of the State of Qatar, former member of the International Law Commission, member of the Institut de droit international, Mr. Surya Subedi, QC (Hon.), Professor of International Law, University of Leeds, member of the Institut de droit international, Three Stone Chambers, member of the Bar of England and Wales, Ms Loretta Malintoppi, 39 Essex Chambers, Singapore, member of the Bar of Rome, Mr. Pierre d’Argent, Professor of International Law, Université catholique de Louvain, member of the Institut de droit international, Foley Hoag LLP, member of the Bar of Brussels, Mr. Constantinos Salonidis, Foley Hoag LLP, member of the Bars of the State of New York and Greece, Ms Floriane Lavaud, Debevoise & Plimpton LLP, member of the Bars of the State of New York and Paris, Solicitor of the Senior Courts of England and Wales, Mr. Ioannis Konstantinidis, Assistant Professor of International Law, College of Law, Qatar University, Mr. Ali Abusedra, Legal Counsel, Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the State of Qatar, Ms Merryl Lawry‑White, Debevoise & Plimpton LLP, member of the Bar of the State of New York, Solicitor Advocate of the Senior Courts of England and Wales, 76 application of the cerd (judgment) 9 Ms Ashika Singh, Debevoise & Plimpton LLP, member of the Bar of the State of New York, Ms Julianne Marley, Debevoise & Plimpton LLP, member of the Bar of the State of New York, Ms Rhianna Hoover, Debevoise & Plimpton LLP, member of the Bar of the State of New York, Mr. Joseph Klingler, Foley Hoag LLP, member of the Bars of the State of New York and the District of Columbia, Mr. Peter Tzeng, Foley Hoag LLP, member of the Bars of the State of New York and the District of Columbia, as Counsel; Ms Mary‑Grace McEvoy, Debevoise & Plimpton LLP, Mr. Andrew Wharton, Debevoise & Plimpton LLP, Mr. Jacob Waltner, Debevoise & Plimpton LLP, as Assistants, and the United States of America, represented by H.E. Ms Hissa Abdullah Ahmed Al‑Otaiba, Ambassador of the United Arab Emirates to the Kingdom of the Netherlands, as Agent; H.E. Mr. Abdalla Hamdan AlNaqbi, Director of International Law Department, Ministry of Foreign Affairs and International Co‑operation of the United Arab Emirates, H.E. Ms Lubna Qassim Al Bastaki, Deputy Permanent Representative of the Permanent Mission of the United Arab Emirates to the United Nations Office and other international organizations in Geneva, Mr. Scott Sheeran, Senior Legal Adviser to the Minister of State for Foreign Affairs, Ministry of Foreign Affairs and International Co‑operation of the United Arab Emirates, Barrister and Solicitor of the High Court of New Zealand, as Representatives and Advocates; Sir Daniel Bethlehem, QC, Barrister, Twenty Essex Chambers, member of the Bar of England and Wales, Mr. Mathias Forteau, Professor, University Paris Nanterre, as Counsel and Advocates; Mr. Abdulla Al Jasmi, Head of the Multilateral Treaties and Agreements Section, International Law Department, Ministry of Foreign Affairs and International Co‑operation of the United Arab Emirates, Mr. Mohamed Salim Ali Alowais, Head of the International Organizations and Courts Section, Embassy of the United Arab Emirates in the Netherlands, Ms Majd Abdelqadir Mohamed Abdalla, Senior Legal Researcher, Multi-lateral Treaties and Agreements Section, International Law Department, Ministry of Foreign Affairs and International Co‑operation of the United Arab Emirates, 77 application of the cerd (judgment) 10 Mr. Rashed Jamal Ibrahim Ibrahim Azzam, Legal Researcher for International Relations, International Law Department, Ministry of Foreign Affairs and International Co‑operation of the United Arab Emirates, as Representatives; Ms Caroline Balme, Legal Adviser to the Minister of State for Foreign Affairs, Ministry of Foreign Affairs and International Co‑operation of the United Arab Emirates, Mr. Paolo Busco, Legal Adviser to the Minister of State for Foreign Affairs, Ministry of Foreign Affairs and International Co‑operation of the United Arab Emirates, member of the Italian Bar, registered European lawyer with the Bar of England and Wales, Mr. Charles L. O. Buderi, Partner, Curtis, Mallet‑Prevost, Colt & Mosle LLP, London, member of the Bars of the District of Columbia and the State of California, Mr. Simon Olleson, Barrister, Twenty Essex Chambers, member of the Bar of England and Wales, Ms Luciana T. Ricart, LLM, New York University School of Law, Partner, Curtis, Mallet‑Prevost, Colt & Mosle LLP, London, member of the Buenos Aires Bar Association and Solicitor of the Senior Courts of England and Wales, Mr. Hal Shapiro, Partner, Akin Gump Strauss Hauer & Feld LLP, Washington, DC, as Counsel; Ms Patricia Jimenez Kwast, international law and dispute settlement consultant, DPhil candidate, University of Oxford, as Assistant Counsel, The Court, composed as above, after deliberation, delivers the following Judgment: 1. On 11 June 2018, the State of Qatar (hereinafter referred to as “Qatar”) filed in the Registry of the Court an Application instituting proceedings against the United Arab Emirates (hereinafter referred to as the “UAE”) with regard to alleged violations of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination of 21 December 1965 (hereinafter “CERD” or the “Convention”). 2. In its Application, Qatar seeks to found the Court’s jurisdiction on Article 36, paragraph 1, of the Statute of the Court and on Article 22 of CERD. 3. On 11 June 2018, Qatar also submitted a Request for the indication of provisional measures, referring to Article 41 of the Statute and to Articles 73, 74 and 75 of the Rules of Court. 4. The Registrar immediately communicated to the Government of the UAE the Application, in accordance with Article 40, paragraph 2, of the Statute of the Court, and the Request for the indication of provisional measures, in accor- 78 application of the cerd (judgment) 11 dance with Article 73, paragraph 2, of the Rules of Court. He also notified the Secretary‑General of the United Nations of the filing of the Application and the Request for the indication of provisional measures by Qatar. 5. In addition, by a letter dated 13 June 2018, the Registrar informed all Member States of the United Nations of the filing of the above‑mentioned Application and Request for the indication of provisional measures. 6. Pursuant to Article 40, paragraph 3, of the Statute of the Court, the Registrar notified the Member States of the United Nations, through the Secretary‑General, of the filing of the Application, by transmission of the printed bilingual text thereof. 7. Since the Court included upon the Bench no judge of the nationality of either Party, each Party proceeded to exercise the right conferred upon it by Article 31, paragraph 3, of the Statute to choose a judge ad hoc to sit in the case. Qatar chose Mr. Yves Daudet and the UAE Mr. Jean‑Pierre Cot. 8. By its Order of 23 July 2018, the Court, having heard the Parties, indicated the following provisional measures: “(1) The United Arab Emirates must ensure that (i) families that include a Qatari, separated by the measures adopted by the United Arab Emirates on 5 June 2017, are reunited; (ii) Qatari students affected by the measures adopted by the United Arab Emirates on 5 June 2017 are given the opportunity to complete their education in the United Arab Emirates or to obtain their educational records if they wish to continue their studies elsewhere; and (iii) Qataris affected by the measures adopted by the United Arab Emirates on 5 June 2017 are allowed access to tribunals and other judicial organs of the United Arab Emirates; (2) Both Parties shall refrain from any action which might aggravate or extend the dispute before the Court or make it more difficult to resolve.” (I.C.J. Reports 2018 (II), pp. 433‑434, para. 79.) 9. Pursuant to Article 43, paragraph 1, of the Rules of Court, the Registrar addressed to States parties to CERD the notifications provided for in Article 63, paragraph 1, of the Statute. In addition, in accordance with Article 69, paragraph 3, of the Rules of Court, the Registrar addressed to the United Nations, through its Secretary‑General, the notifications provided for in Article 34, paragraph 3, of the Statute. 10. By an Order dated 25 July 2018, the President of the Court fixed 25 April 2019 and 27 January 2020 as the respective time‑limits for the filing in the case of a Memorial by Qatar and a Counter‑Memorial by the UAE. 11. On 22 March 2019, the UAE, referring to Article 41 of the Statute and Articles 73, 74 and 75 of the Rules of Court, also submitted a Request for the indication of provisional measures, in order to “preserve the UAE’s procedural rights” and “prevent Qatar from further aggravating or extending the dispute between the Parties pending a final decision in th[e] case”. 12. The Deputy‑Registrar immediately communicated a copy of the said Request to the Government of Qatar. He also notified the Secretary‑General of the United Nations of the filing of the UAE’s Request for the indication of provisional measures. 79 application of the cerd (judgment) 12 13. Qatar filed its Memorial in the case on 25 April 2019, within the time‑limit fixed by the President of the Court. 14. On 30 April 2019, within the time‑limit prescribed by Article 79, paragraph 1, of the Rules of Court of 14 April 1978 as amended on 1 February 2001, the UAE presented preliminary objections to the jurisdiction of the Court and the admissibility of the Application. Consequently, by an Order of 2 May 2019, having noted that, by virtue of Article 79, paragraph 5, of the Rules of Court of 14 April 1978 as amended on 1 February 2001, the proceedings on the merits were suspended, the President of the Court fixed 30 August 2019 as the time‑limit within which Qatar could present a written statement of its observations and submissions on the preliminary objections raised by the UAE. 15. By its Order of 14 June 2019, the Court, having heard the Parties, rejected the Request for the indication of provisional measures submitted by the UAE on 22 March 2019. 16. Qatar filed a written statement of its observations and submissions on the preliminary objections raised by the UAE on 30 August 2019, within the time‑limit fixed by the President of the Court. 17. By a letter dated 3 September 2019, the Registrar, acting pursuant to Article 69, paragraph 3, of the Rules of Court, transmitted to the Secretary‑General of the United Nations copies of the written proceedings filed thus far in the case, and asked whether the Organization intended to present observations in writing under that provision in relation to the preliminary objections raised by the UAE. By a letter dated 27 September 2019, the Under‑Secretary‑General for Legal Affairs of the United Nations stated that the Organization did not intend to submit any observations in writing within the meaning of Article 69, paragraph 3, of the Rules of Court. 18. By a letter dated 19 August 2020, the Agent of the UAE, referring to Article 56 of the Rules of Court and Practice Directions IX and IXbis, expressed the wish of her Government to produce three new documents. By a letter dated 24 August 2020, the Agent of Qatar informed the Court that his Government consented to the production of the three new documents by the UAE and expressed the wish of his Government also to produce four new documents under Article 56, paragraph 1, of the Rules of Court. By a letter dated 26 August 2020, the Agent of the UAE informed the Court that her Government had no objection to the production of the four new documents by Qatar. Accordingly, the documents submitted by both Parties were added to the case file. 19. Pursuant to Article 53, paragraph 2, of its Rules, the Court, after ascertaining the views of the Parties, decided that copies of the pleadings and the documents annexed would be made accessible to the public on the opening of the oral proceedings, with the exception of Annexes 163, 165‑243, 247‑263, 265‑271 and Exhibit B of Annex 272 of Qatar’s Memorial, and Exhibit A of Annex 272‑A of Qatar’s Written Statement on the Preliminary Objections of the UAE. 20. Public hearings on the preliminary objections raised by the UAE were held by video link from 31 August 2020 to 7 September 2020, at which the Court heard the oral arguments and replies of: For the UAE: H.E. Ms Hissa Abdullah Ahmed Al‑Otaiba, H.E. Mr. Abdalla Hamdan AlNaqbi, Ms Lubna Qassim Al Bastaki, Sir Daniel Bethlehem, 80 application of the cerd (judgment) 13 Mr. Scott Sheeran, Mr. Mathias Forteau. For Qatar: Mr. Mohammed Abdulaziz Al‑Khulaifi, Mr. Pierre Klein, Ms Catherine Amirfar, Mr. Lawrence H. Martin, Mr. Nico Schrijver, Mr. Vaughan Lowe. * 21. In the Application, the following claims were made by Qatar: “65. Qatar, in its own right and as parens patriae of its citizens, respectfully requests the Court to adjudge and declare that the UAE, through its State organs, State agents, and other persons and entities exercising governmental authority, and through other agents acting on its instructions or under its direction and control, has violated its obligations under Articles 2, 4, 5, 6, and 7 of the CERD by taking, inter alia, the following unlawful actions: (a) Expelling, on a collective basis, all Qataris from, and prohibiting the entry of all Qataris into, the UAE on the basis of their national origin; (b) Violating other fundamental rights, including the rights to marriage and choice of spouse, freedom of opinion and expression, public health and medical care, education and training, property, work, participation in cultural activities, and equal treatment before tribunals; (c) Failing to condemn and instead encouraging racial hatred against Qatar and Qataris and failing to take measures that aim to combat prejudices, including by inter alia: criminalizing the expression of sympathy toward Qatar and Qataris; allowing, promoting, and financing an international anti‑Qatar public and social‑media campaign; silencing Qatari media; and calling for physical attacks on Qatari entities; and (d) Failing to provide effective protection and remedies to Qataris to seek redress against acts of racial discrimination through UAE courts and institutions. 66. Accordingly, Qatar respectfully requests the Court to order the UAE to take all steps necessary to comply with its obligations under CERD and, inter alia: (a) Immediately cease and revoke the discriminatory measures, including but not limited to the directives against ‘sympathizing’ with Qataris, and any other national laws that discriminate de jure or de facto against Qataris on the basis of their national origin; 81 application of the cerd (judgment) 14 (b) Immediately cease all other measures that incite discrimination (including media campaigns and supporting others to propagate discriminatory messages) and criminalize such measures; (c) Comply with its obligations under the CERD to condemn publicly racial discrimination against Qataris, pursue a policy of eliminating racial discrimination, and adopt measures to combat such prejudice; (d) Refrain from taking any further measures that would discriminate against Qataris within its jurisdiction or control; (e) Restore rights of Qataris to, inter alia, marriage and choice of spouse, freedom of opinion and expression, public health and medical care, education and training, property, work, participation in cultural activities, and equal treatment before tribunals, and put in place measures to ensure those rights are respected; (f) Provide assurances and guarantees of non‑repetition of the UAE’s illegal conduct; and (g) Make full reparation, including compensation, for the harm suffered as a result of the UAE’s actions in violation of the CERD.” 22. In the written proceedings on the merits, the following submissions were presented on behalf of the Government of Qatar in its Memorial: “On the basis of the facts and legal arguments presented in this Memorial, Qatar, in its own right and as parens patriae of its citizens, respectfully requests the Court: 1. To adjudge and declare that the UAE, by the acts and omissions of its organs, agents, persons, and entities exercising governmental authority, and through other agents acting on its instructions or under its direction and control, is responsible for violations of the CERD, namely Articles 2 (1), 4, 5, 6 and 7, including by: (a) expelling, on a collective basis, all Qataris from the UAE; (b) applying the Absolute Ban and Modified Travel Ban in violation of fundamental rights that must be guaranteed equally to all under the CERD, regardless of national origin, including the rights to family, freedom of opinion and expression, education and training, property, work, and equal treatment before tribunals; (c) engaging in, sponsoring, supporting, and otherwise encouraging racial discrimination, including racially discriminatory incitement against Qataris, most importantly by criminalizing ‘sympathy’ with Qatar and orchestrating, funding, and actively promoting a campaign of hatred against Qatar and Qataris, and thereby failing to nullify laws and regulations that have the effect of creating or perpetuating racial discrimination, to take ‘all appropriate’ measures to combat the spread of prejudice and negative stereotypes, and to promote tolerance, understanding and friendship; and 82 application of the cerd (judgment) 15 (d) failing to provide access to effective protection and remedies to Qataris to seek redress against acts of racial discrimination under the CERD through UAE tribunals or institutions, including the right to seek reparation; 2. To adjudge and declare that the UAE has violated the Court’s Order on Provisional Measures of 23 July 2018; 3. And further to adjudge and declare that the UAE is obligated to cease its ongoing violations, make full reparation for all material and moral damage caused by its internationally wrongful acts and omissions under the CERD, and offer assurances and guarantees of non‑repetition. 4. Accordingly, the Court is respectfully requested to order that the UAE: (a) immediately cease its ongoing internationally wrongful acts and omissions in contravention of Articles 2 (1), 4, 5, 6, and 7 of the Convention as requested in Chapter VII; (b) provide full reparation for the harm caused by its actions, including (i) restitution by lifting the ongoing Modified Travel Ban as it applies to Qataris collectively based on their national origin; (ii) financial compensation for the material and moral damage suffered by Qatar and Qataris, in an amount to be quantified in a separate phase of these proceedings; and (iii) satisfaction in the forms of a declaration of wrongfulness and an apology to Qatar and the Qatari people, as requested in Chapter VII; and (c) provide Qatar with assurances and guarantees of non‑repetition in written form as requested in Chapter VII.” 23. In the preliminary objections, the following submissions were presented on behalf of the Government of the UAE: “239. On the basis of each of the three independent preliminary objections explained above, the United Arab Emirates respectfully requests the Court to adjudge and declare that the Court lacks jurisdiction over Qatar’s Application of 11 June 2018 and that the Application is inadmissible. 240. The United Arab Emirates reserves the right to amend and supplement this submission in accordance with the provisions of the Statute and the Rules of Court. The United Arab Emirates also reserves the right to submit further objections to the jurisdiction of the Court and to the admissibility of Qatar’s claims if the case were to proceed to any subsequent phase.” 24. In the written statement of its observations and submissions on the preliminary objections, the following submissions were presented on behalf of the Government of Qatar: “For the reasons described above, Qatar respectfully requests that the Court: 1. Reject the Preliminary Objections presented by the UAE; 83 application of the cerd (judgment) 16 2. Hold that it has jurisdiction to hear the claims presented by Qatar as set out in the Memorial, and that these claims are admissible; and 3. Proceed to hear those claims on the merits.” 25. At the oral proceedings on the preliminary objections, the following submissions were presented by the Parties: On behalf of the Government of the UAE, at the hearing of 4 September 2020: “The United Arab Emirates respectfully requests the Court to adjudge and declare that the Court lacks jurisdiction to address the claims brought by the State of Qatar by its Application dated 11 June 2018.” On behalf of the Government of Qatar, at the hearing of 7 September 2020: “In accordance with Article 60 of the Rules of Court, for the reasons explained in our Written Statement of 30 August 2019 and during these hearings, Qatar respectfully asks the Court to: (a) Reject the Preliminary Objections presented by the UAE; (b) Hold that it has jurisdiction to hear the claims presented by Qatar as set out in its Application and Memorial; and (c) Proceed to hear those claims on the merits; (d) Or, in the alternative, reject the Second Preliminary Objection presented by the UAE and hold, in accordance with the provisions of Article 79ter, paragraph 4, of the Rules of Court, that the First Preliminary Objection submitted by the UAE does not possess an exclusively preliminary character.” * * * I. Introduction A. Factual Background 26. On 5 June 2017, the UAE issued a statement (hereinafter the “5 June 2017 statement”) which provided, in relevant part, that “based on the insistence of the State of Qatar to continue to undermine the security and stability of the region and its failure to honour international commitments and agreements, it has been decided to take the following measures that are necessary for safeguarding the interests of the [Gulf Cooperation Council] States in general and those of the brotherly Qatari people in particular: ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 84 application of the cerd (judgment) 17 2. Preventing Qatari nationals from entering the UAE or crossing its point of entry, giving Qatari residents and visitors in the UAE 14 days to leave the country for precautionary security reasons. The UAE nationals are likewise banned from traveling to or staying in Qatar or transiting through its territories.” The Gulf Cooperation Council (hereinafter the “GCC”) is an intergovernmental political and economic union of which Qatar and the UAE were founding members in 1981, along with the Kingdom of Bahrain, the State of Kuwait, the Sultanate of Oman and the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. 27. In addition, the 5 June 2017 statement announced the severance of diplomatic relations with Qatar, in support of actions taken by the Kingdom of Bahrain and the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, giving Qatari diplomats 48 hours to leave the UAE. It also proclaimed the “[c]losure of UAE airspace and seaports for all Qataris in 24 hours and banning [of] all Qatari means of transportation, coming to or leaving the UAE, from crossing, entering or leaving the UAE territories”. 28. The 5 June 2017 statement explained: “The UAE is taking these decisive measures as a result of the Qatari authorities’ failure to abide by the Riyadh Agreement on returning GCC diplomats to Doha and its Complementary Arrangement in 2014, and Qatar’s continued support, funding and hosting of terror groups, primarily Islamic Brotherhood, and its sustained endeavours to promote the ideologies of Daesh and Al Qaeda across its direct and indirect media in addition to Qatar’s violation of the statement issued at the US‑Islamic Summit in Riyadh on May 21st, 2017 on countering terrorism in the region and considering Iran a state sponsor of terrorism. The UAE measures are taken as well based on Qatari authorities’ hosting of terrorist elements and meddling in the affairs of other countries as well as their support of terror groups — policies which are likely to push the region into a stage of unpredictable consequences.” 29. According to an announcement posted on the website of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and International Co‑operation of the UAE on 11 June 2017, the President of the UAE had “instructed the authorities concerned to take into consideration the humanitarian circumstances of Emirati-Qatari joint families”. The announcement further provided that “the Ministry of the Interior ha[d] set up a telephone line . . . to receive such cases and take appropriate measures to help them”. In a statement 85 application of the cerd (judgment) 18 dated 5 July 2018, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and International Co‑operation of the UAE specified that “[s]ince its announcement on June 5, 2017 . . . the UAE has instituted a requirement for all Qatari citizens overseas to obtain prior permission for entry into the UAE. Permission may be granted for a limited-duration period, at the discretion of the UAE [G]overnment.” The statement added that “Qatari citizens already resident in the UAE need not apply for permission to continue residence in the UAE. However, all Qatari citizens resident in the UAE are encouraged to obtain prior permission for re-entry into UAE territory. All applications for entry clearance may be made through the telephone hotline announced on June 11, 2017.” 30. The UAE took certain additional measures relating to Qatari media and speech in support of Qatar. In this regard, on 6 June 2017, the Attorney General of the UAE issued a statement indicating that expressions of sympathy for the State of Qatar or objections to the measures taken by the UAE against the Qatari Government were considered crimes punishable by imprisonment and a fine. The UAE blocked several websites operated by Qatari companies, including those run by Al Jazeera Media Network. On 6 July 2017, the Abu Dhabi Department of Economic Development issued a circular prohibiting the broadcasting of certain television channels operated by Qatari companies. 31. On 8 March 2018, Qatar deposited a communication with the Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination (hereinafter the “CERD Committee”) under Article 11 of the Convention, requesting that the UAE take all necessary steps to end the measures enacted and implemented since 5 June 2017. According to Article 11, paragraph 1, of CERD, “[i]f a State Party considers that another State Party is not giving effect to the provisions of this Convention, it may bring the matter to the attention of the Committee”. The UAE, through its responses dated 29 November 2018, 14 January 2019 and 19 March 2019, requested “the Committee to dismiss Qatar’s Article 11 Communication for lack [of] jurisdiction and/or lack of admissibility”. 32. On 11 June 2018, Qatar filed an Application in the Registry of the Court instituting the present proceedings (see paragraph 1 above). 33. In its decision on jurisdiction with regard to Qatar’s inter‑State communication, dated 27 August 2019, the CERD Committee con- 86 application of the cerd (judgment) 19 cluded that “it ha[d] jurisdiction to examine the exceptions of inadmissibility raised by the Respondent State” (Decision on the jurisdiction of the Committee over the inter‑State communication submitted by Qatar against the UAE dated 27 August 2019, UN doc. CERD/C/99/3, para. 60). In its decision on the admissibility of the inter‑State communication, also dated 27 August 2019, the CERD Committee concluded as follows: “64. In respect of the inter-state communication submitted on 8 March 2018 by Qatar against the United Arab Emirates, the Committee rejects the exceptions raised by the Respondent State concerning the admissibility of the inter-state communication. 65. The Committee requests its Chairperson to appoint, in accordance with article 12 (1) of the Convention, the members of an ad hoc Conciliation Commission, which shall make its good offices available to the States concerned with a view to an amicable solution of the matter on the basis of the States parties’ compliance with the Convention.” (Decision on the admissibility of the inter-State communication submitted by Qatar against the UAE dated 27 August 2019, UN doc. CERD/C/99/4, paras. 64‑65.) 34. By a Note Verbale dated 27 April 2020, addressed by the Permanent Mission of the UAE in Geneva to the Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights, the Permanent Mission “note[d] with appreciation the [Office’s] Note Verbale of 9 April 2020 advising that the ad hoc Conciliation Commission has been appointed by the Chair of the Committee, and has been effective since 1 March 2020”. B. The Jurisdictional Basis Invoked and the Preliminary Objections Raised 35. Qatar asserts that the Court has jurisdiction over its Application pursuant to Article 22 of CERD, which provides: “Any dispute between two or more States Parties with respect to the interpretation or application of this Convention, which is not settled by negotiation or by the procedures expressly provided for in this Convention, shall, at the request of any of the parties to the dispute, be referred to the International Court of Justice for decision, unless the disputants agree to another mode of settlement.” 36. Qatar and the UAE are parties to CERD. Qatar acceded to this Convention on 22 July 1976 without entering any reservation. The UAE did so on 20 June 1974 without entering any reservation relevant to the present proceedings. 37. Qatar contends that there is a dispute between the Parties with respect to the interpretation and application of CERD and that the Par- 87 application of the cerd (judgment) 20 ties have been unable to settle this dispute despite Qatar’s attempts to negotiate with the UAE. 38. At the present stage of these proceedings, the UAE asks the Court to adjudge and declare that the Court lacks jurisdiction to address the claims brought by Qatar on the basis of two preliminary objections. In its first preliminary objection, the UAE maintains that the Court lacks jurisdiction ratione materiae over the dispute between the Parties because the alleged acts do not fall within the scope of CERD. In its second preliminary objection, the UAE asserts that Qatar failed to satisfy the procedural preconditions of Article 22 of CERD. 39. The Court notes that, in its written pleadings, the UAE had also included an objection to admissibility on the ground that Qatar’s claims constitute an abuse of process. However, during the oral proceedings, counsel for the UAE stated that it was not pursuing an allegation of abuse of process at this stage of the proceedings. 40. Before addressing the preliminary objections of the UAE, the Court will determine the subject‑matter of the dispute. II. Subject-Matter of the Dispute 41. Pursuant to Article 40, paragraph 1, of the Statute and Article 38, paragraph 1, of the Rules of Court, an applicant is required to indicate the subject of a dispute in its application. The Rules of Court also require that an application “specify the precise nature of the claim, together with a succinct statement of the facts and grounds on which the claim is based” (Article 38, paragraph 2, of the Rules of Court). A Memorial “shall contain a statement of the relevant facts, a statement of law, and the submissions” (Article 49, paragraph 1, of the Rules of Court). 42. It is for the Court itself to determine on an objective basis the subjectmatter of the dispute between the parties, by isolating the real issue in the case and identifying the object of the applicant’s claims. In doing so, the Court examines the application, as well as the written and oral pleadings of the parties, while giving particular attention to the formulation of the dispute chosen by the applicant. It takes account of the facts that the applicant presents as the basis for its claims. The matter is one of substance, not of form (Application of the International Convention for the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism and of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (Ukraine v. Russian Federation), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2019 (II), p. 575, para. 24; Immunities and Criminal Proceedings (Equatorial Guinea v. France), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2018 (I), pp. 308‑309, para. 48). * * 88 application of the cerd (judgment) 21 43. According to the Applicant, its “Application concerns a legal dispute between Qatar and the UAE regarding the UAE’s deliberate and flagrant violations of the CERD”. It claims that “[t]he UAE has enacted and implemented a series of discriminatory measures directed at Qataris based expressly on their national origin — measures that remain in effect to this day”. 44. Qatar further characterizes the subject-matter of the dispute in the written statement of its observations and submissions on the preliminary objections as follows: “As Qatar explained in its Application, Memorial, and during the provisional measures phase of the proceedings, Qatar’s claims are based on acts and omissions of the UAE that discriminate against Qataris on the basis of national origin and in violation of Articles 2, 4, 5, 6, and 7 of the CERD. These acts and omissions include, in particular, the collective expulsion of Qataris from the UAE pursuant to its 5 June Directive (the ‘Expulsion Order’); the absolute ban on entry to the UAE by Qataris (the ‘Absolute Travel Ban’), which was later modified by the imposition of a ‘hotline’ and website procedure that continue to restrict Qataris’ entry into the UAE on an arbitrary and discriminatory basis (the ‘Modified Travel Ban’); and the enactment of measures encouraging anti‑Qatari hate propaganda and prejudice, and suppressing Qatari media and speech deemed to support Qatar (including, respectively, the ‘Anti‑Qatari Incitement Campaign’, the ‘Anti‑Sympathy Law’, and the ‘Block on Qatari Media’).” 45. Qatar states that the measures it describes as the “expulsion order” and the “travel bans”, by their express reference to Qatari nationals, discriminate against Qataris on the basis of their current nationality. It points out that the definition of “racial discrimination” contained in Article 1, paragraph 1, of CERD includes discrimination on the basis of national origin. Qatar maintains that “nationality” is encompassed within the phrase “national origin”. 46. Qatar also alleges that the UAE directly targeted Qatari media corporations by blocking access to their websites and broadcasts in all or part of the UAE’s territory. It maintains that these measures were imposed “on racially discriminatory grounds” and that CERD extends to racial discrimination against “institutions”, which it considers to include corporations. 89 application of the cerd (judgment) 22 47. Qatar also points out that CERD applies to measures that are not framed as distinctions on the basis of a protected ground but have in fact the purpose or effect of racial discrimination. It maintains that, regardless of whether the measures imposed by the UAE are explicitly based on Qatari nationality, they have the purpose or effect of nullifying or impairing the rights and freedoms of persons of Qatari national origin, in the sense of their Qatari heritage and culture. It contends that such measures give rise to “indirect discrimination”. 48. As one part of its claim of indirect discrimination, Qatar asserts that the measures which discriminate on the basis of current Qatari nationality violate the UAE’s obligations under CERD for another independent reason, “because they have an unjustifiable disparate impact on individuals of Qatari origin, in the sense of their heritage and culture”. 49. As further support for its claim of indirect discrimination, Qatar maintains that a number of measures imposed by the UAE encourage anti‑Qatari propaganda and suppress speech deemed to be in support of Qatar. It refers to the ban on Qatari media corporations as well as a 6 June 2017 announcement of the Attorney General of the UAE which stated that persons “expressing sympathy, bias or affection for” the State of Qatar or “objecting to the . . . measures . . . taken [by the UAE] against the Qatari [G]overnment” are considered to have committed crimes punishable by imprisonment and a fine (see paragraph 30 above). Qatar contends that, although this statement refers to the “Qatari Government”, it is “clearly understood as a reference to Qatar qua State and Qatar qua Qataris”. Additionally, Qatar alleges that the UAE has attempted to incite discrimination against Qataris, referring to statements in social and traditional media by persons it identifies as officials of the UAE, which it considers to be attributable to the UAE. 50. Qatar points out that the UAE’s measures are not exclusively addressed to Qataris on the basis of their current nationality and asserts that it has from the beginning framed its case to include a claim of unjustifiable disparate impact. It alleges that the measures imposed by the UAE penalize persons of Qatari national origin based on their identification with Qatari national traditions and culture, their Qatari accent or their Qatari dress. It further alleges that these measures discriminate against persons who are not Qatari citizens on the basis of their cultural identification as “Qataris”. * 90 application of the cerd (judgment) 23 51. The UAE asserts that the subject‑matter of the dispute is alleged discrimination on the basis of current Qatari nationality, a term that, in its view, is distinct from “national origin”. It contends that claims arising from the measures that Qatar describes as the “expulsion order” and the “travel bans” are founded on differential treatment of persons based on their Qatari nationality. 52. The UAE maintains that Qatar seeks to blur the distinction between the terms “nationality” and “national origin” by using the two terms interchangeably and by referring obliquely to “Qataris” in its written and oral pleadings. 53. The UAE acknowledges that it has imposed restrictions on websites of some Qatari media corporations, stating that it did so on the basis of content restrictions, pursuant to UAE law. It considers that measures that address corporations do not fall within the definition of racial discrimination contained in CERD and thus that Qatar’s claims with respect to the measures to restrict transmissions of Qatari media corporations are outside the scope of CERD. 54. The UAE also maintains that the restrictions on Qatari media and the other facts that Qatar invokes in support of its allegations of incitement and suppression of free speech, even if established, are not indicative of a claim of racial discrimination, but rather must be assessed in the context of the UAE’s conviction that Qatar supports terrorism, extremism and intervention. It points out that Qatar itself frames its allegation of incitement by accusing the UAE of “media attacks on Qatar” and the dissemination of false reports “accusing Qatar of support for terrorism”. It notes that the 6 June 2017 statement of the Attorney General of the UAE relates to persons who express support for the State of Qatar, not to persons of Qatari national origin. 55. The UAE accepts that disguised discrimination against members of a protected group would fall within the scope of CERD. However, it contends that, in the present case, the subject‑matter of the dispute is limited to alleged direct discrimination on the basis of current nationality and does not extend to “indirect discrimination” because this is not the case that Qatar has pleaded. According to the UAE, Qatar has introduced legal arguments relating to “indirect discrimination” because its claim of direct discrimination on the basis of national origin does not withstand scrutiny. * * 91 application of the cerd (judgment) 24 56. As can be seen from Qatar’s characterization of the subject-matter of the dispute (see paragraph 44 above), Qatar makes three claims of racial discrimination. The first is its claim arising out of the “travel bans” and “expulsion order”, which make express reference to Qatari nationals. The second is its claim arising from the restrictions on Qatari media corporations. Qatar’s third claim is that the measures taken by the UAE, including the measures on which Qatar bases its first and second claims, result in “indirect discrimination” on the basis of Qatari national origin. In order to determine the subject-matter of the dispute, the Court will consider these three claims in turn. 57. As noted above (see paragraph 45), Qatar states that the “expulsion order” and the “travel bans”, by their express reference to Qatari nationals, discriminate against Qataris on the basis of their current nationality. The UAE acknowledges that these measures differentiate between Qataris and other persons on the basis of their current nationality, but does not agree that the measures violate its obligations under CERD. The Parties’ characterization of the basis for the challenged measures is consistent with the text of the measures themselves, which refer, inter alia, to “Qatari residents and visitors”, “Qatari nationals”, “Qataris”, “Qatari citizens” and “travellers holding Qatari passports”. 58. As to Qatar’s first claim, taking into account Qatar’s characterization of these measures and the facts on which it relies in support of its claim that the measures that it describes as the “expulsion order” and the “travel bans” discriminate against Qataris on the basis of their current nationality, in violation of the UAE’s obligations under CERD, as well as the characterization by the Respondent, the Court considers that the Parties hold opposing views over this claim. 59. With regard to Qatar’s second claim, the Court has noted that the UAE does not deny that it imposed measures to restrict broadcasting and internet programming by certain Qatari media corporations. The Parties disagree, however, on whether those measures directly targeted these media corporations in a racially discriminatory manner, in violation of the UAE’s obligations under CERD. 60. As to its third claim, as noted above, Qatar maintains that the subjectmatter of the dispute encompasses Qatar’s assertion that the “expulsion order” and the “travel bans” give rise to “indirect discrimination” against persons of Qatari national origin, independent of the claim of racial discrimination on the basis of current nationality. The UAE, however, 92 application of the cerd (judgment) 25 maintains that this claim of “indirect discrimination” is not part of the case presented in Qatar’s Application. 61. The Court observes that the subject‑matter of a dispute is not limited by the precise wording that an applicant State uses in its application. The Rules of Court provide an applicant State with some latitude to develop the allegations in its application, so long as it does not “transform the dispute brought before the Court by the application into another dispute which is different in character” (Land and Maritime Boundary between Cameroon and Nigeria (Cameroon v. Nigeria), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1998, pp. 318‑319, paras. 98 and 99). 62. Qatar’s Application did not expressly set out Qatar’s contention that the “travel bans” and “expulsion order” give rise to “indirect discrimination” against Qataris on a basis other than nationality. Qatar explains that it developed this argument in its Memorial in response to arguments made by the UAE during the provisional measures phase of the case. In addition, Qatar’s Request for the indication of provisional measures, filed on the same day as the Application, requested the Court to order that the UAE cease “all conduct that could result, directly or indirectly, in any form of racial discrimination against Qatari individuals and entities”. 63. The Court considers that the Rules of Court do not preclude Qatar from refining the legal arguments presented in its Application or advancing new arguments in response to those made by the UAE, thereby making explicit the contention that the measures that Qatar describes as the “travel bans” and “expulsion order” give rise to “indirect discrimination” against persons of Qatari national origin, in violation of the UAE’s obligations under CERD. 64. The Court turns next to Qatar’s other allegations of “indirect discrimination” against persons of Qatari national origin. Qatar brings these allegations on the basis of the restrictions on Qatari media corporations and other measures that, in its view, attack freedom of expression, incite anti‑Qatari sentiment, and criminalize speech deemed to be in favour of Qatar or critical of the UAE’s policies towards Qatar, as well as statements by the UAE or its officials that express or condone anti‑Qatari hate speech and propaganda. 65. The Court notes that Qatar made specific references in its Application to the 6 June 2017 statement by the Attorney General of the UAE, the restrictions on Qatari media corporations, the UAE’s “media defamation” campaign against Qatar and alleged statements by UAE officials fostering anti‑Qatari sentiment. 93 application of the cerd (judgment) 26 66. The Parties address these contentions in their written and oral pleadings. Although Qatar acknowledges that the statement by the Attorney General of the UAE refers to criminal penalties for supporting the Qatari Government, not Qataris, it asserts that the risk of criminal penalties has a chilling effect and potentially alienates Qataris from their Emirati friends and family. It introduces several witness statements to substantiate its claims. In support of its contention that the UAE has fostered anti‑Qatari sentiment, Qatar attaches to its Memorial a number of social media posts from persons it describes as UAE officials in which the authors criticize Qatar. Qatar claims that these statements formed part of a wider media campaign directed against it. It asserts that this criticism of Qatar has resulted in hate messages directed towards persons of Qatari national origin. Qatar also claims that the restrictions on Qatari media corporations have interfered with the free expression of Qatari ideas and culture in a broader sense and have contributed to the climate of fear which persons of Qatari national origin are said to have experienced as a result of the other measures that the UAE has taken. 67. The UAE does not dispute that its Attorney General made the statement to which Qatar objects. It acknowledges that it has made “adverse comments directed towards the State of Qatar and its behaviour” and that “others within its territory may have made similar comments against the State of Qatar”. It does not accept, however, that such comments about another State can give rise to a claim of racial discrimination under CERD. The UAE also refutes Qatar’s allegations of certain instances in which individuals claim to have been arrested, mistreated or to have suffered other negative consequences in the UAE for expressing sympathy with Qatar and adds that in any case the persons concerned are not of Qatari nationality or alleged to be of Qatari national origin. The UAE also argues that, by invoking the restrictions on Qatari media corporations in support of its claim of “indirect discrimination”, Qatar has presented a new argument that does not form part of the case pleaded in its Application. 68. In its Application, Qatar alleges that the restrictions imposed on Qatari media corporations violate the freedom of expression of Qataris (see paragraphs 64-65 above). As the Court previously noted (see paragraph 63 above), the Rules of Court do not preclude Qatar from refining the legal arguments presented in its Application or advancing new arguments. 94 application of the cerd (judgment) 27 69. Taking into account the Application and the written and oral pleadings, as well as the facts asserted by Qatar, the Court considers that the Parties hold opposing views over Qatar’s claim that the UAE has engaged in “indirect discrimination” against persons of Qatari national origin, in violation of its obligations under CERD. 70. In view of the preceding analysis, the Court concludes that the Parties disagree in respect of Qatar’s three claims that the UAE has violated its obligations under CERD: first, the claim that the measures that Qatar describes as the “expulsion order” and the “travel bans”, by their express references to Qatari nationals, discriminate against Qataris on the basis of their current nationality; secondly, the claim that the UAE imposed racially discriminatory measures on certain Qatari media corporations; and thirdly, the claim that the UAE has engaged in “indirect discrimination” against persons of Qatari national origin by taking these measures and other measures summarized in paragraph 64. The Parties’ disagreements in respect of these claims form the subject‑matter of the dispute. III. First Preliminary Objection: Jurisdiction Ratione Materiae 71. The Court will now consider whether it has jurisdiction ratione materiae over the dispute under Article 22 of CERD. 72. In order to determine whether the dispute is one with respect to the interpretation or application of CERD, under its Article 22, the Court will examine whether each of the above claims falls within the scope of CERD (Application of the International Convention for the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism and of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (Ukraine v. Russian Federation), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2019 (II), p. 595, paras. 94-95). The Court will address Qatar’s claims in the order mentioned above (see paragraph 70). 73. The Court observes that, as far as the first claim of Qatar is concerned, the Parties disagree on whether the term “national origin” in Article 1, paragraph 1, of the Convention encompasses current nationality. In respect of the second claim of Qatar, the Parties disagree on whether the scope of the Convention extends to Qatari media corporations. Finally, in respect of the third claim, the Parties disagree on whether the measures of which Qatar complains give rise to “indirect discrimination” against Qataris on the basis of their national origin. The Court will examine each of these questions with a view to ascertaining whether it has jurisdiction ratione materiae in the present case. 95 application of the cerd (judgment) 28 A. The Question whether the Term “National Origin” Encompasses Current Nationality 74. Qatar is of the view that the term “national origin”, in the definition of racial discrimination in Article 1, paragraph 1, of the Convention, encompasses current nationality and that the measures of which Qatar complains thus fall within the scope of CERD. The UAE argues that the term “national origin” does not include current nationality and that the Convention does not prohibit differentiation based on the current nationality of Qatari citizens, as complained of by Qatar in this case. Thus, the Parties hold opposing views on the meaning and scope of the term “national origin” in Article 1, paragraph 1, of the Convention, which reads: “In this Convention, the term ‘racial discrimination’ shall mean any distinction, exclusion, restriction or preference based on race, colour, descent, or national or ethnic origin which has the purpose or effect of nullifying or impairing the recognition, enjoyment or exercise, on an equal footing, of human rights and fundamental freedoms in the political, economic, social, cultural or any other field of public life.” * * 75. In order to determine its jurisdiction ratione materiae in this case, the Court will interpret CERD and specifically the term “national origin” in Article 1, paragraph 1, thereof by applying the rules on treaty interpretation enshrined in Articles 31 and 32 of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties (hereinafter the “Vienna Convention”). Although that Convention is not in force between the Parties and is not, in any event, applicable to treaties concluded before it entered into force, such as CERD, it is well established that Articles 31 and 32 of the Vienna Convention reflect rules of customary international law (Application of the International Convention for the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism and of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (Ukraine v. Russian Federation), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2019 (II), p. 598, para. 106; Immunities and Criminal Proceedings (Equatorial Guinea v. France), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2018 (I), pp. 320‑321, para. 91; Question of the Delimitation of the Continental Shelf between Nicaragua and Colombia beyond 200 Nautical Miles from the Nicaraguan Coast (Nicaragua v. Colombia), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2016 (I), p. 116, para. 33). 76. The Court will interpret the term “national origin” by reference, first, to the elements set out in Article 31 of the Vienna Convention, 96 application of the cerd (judgment) 29 which states the general rule of treaty interpretation. Only then will the Court turn to the supplementary means of interpretation provided for in Article 32 in order to confirm the meaning resulting from that process, or to remove ambiguity or obscurity, or to avoid a manifestly absurd or unreasonable result (Immunities and Criminal Proceedings (Equatorial Guinea v. France), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2018 (I), p. 321, para. 91; Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Serbia and Montenegro), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2007 (I), pp. 109‑110, para. 160). 77. The Court will also examine the practice of the CERD Committee and of regional human rights courts. In their pleadings, the Parties expressed different opinions on that practice in relation to the interpretation of the term “national origin” in Article 1, paragraph 1, of the Convention. The Court recalls that, in its jurisprudence, it has taken into account the practice of committees established under human rights conventions, as well as the practice of regional human rights courts, in so far as this was relevant for the purposes of interpretation (Ahmadou Sadio Diallo (Republic of Guinea v. Democratic Republic of the Congo), Compensation, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2012 (I), p. 331, para. 13; pp. 334‑335, para. 24; p. 337, para. 33, and pp. 339‑340, para. 40; Questions relating to the Obligation to Prosecute or Extradite (Belgium v. Senegal), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2012 (II), pp. 457‑458, para. 101; Ahmadou Sadio Diallo (Republic of Guinea v. Democratic Republic of the Congo), Merits, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2010 (II), pp. 663‑664, para. 66; Legal Consequences of the Construction of a Wall in the Occupied Palestinian Territory, Advisory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports 2004 (I), p. 179, para. 109, and pp. 192‑193, para. 136). 1. The term “national origin” in accordance with its ordinary meaning, read in its context and in the light of the object and purpose of CERD 78. The Court recalls that Article 31, paragraph 1, of the Vienna Convention provides that “[a] treaty shall be interpreted in good faith in accordance with the ordinary meaning to be given to the terms of the treaty in their context and in the light of its object and purpose”. The Court’s interpretation must take account of all these elements considered as a whole (Maritime Delimitation in the Indian Ocean (Somalia v. Kenya), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2017, p. 29, para. 64). * * 79. According to the UAE, the ordinary meaning of the term “national origin” does not encompass current nationality, because the latter concept refers to a legal relationship with a State in the sense of citizenship, whereas national origin denotes “an association with a nation of people, not a State”. In the Respondent’s view, the five authentic texts of “the 97 application of the cerd (judgment) 30 Convention confirm that the drafters drew a distinction between the term “national origin”, as used in Article 1, paragraph 1, and Article 5 of the Convention, and “nationality”, as used in Article 1, paragraph 3, of the Convention. In its view, the definition of racial discrimination in the Convention refers only to characteristics that are inherent and immutable, namely race, colour, descent, or national or ethnic origin. Nationality, on the other hand, is a legal bond that can change over time. Lastly, the Respondent considers that the Convention’s title and Preamble confirm that it does not prohibit differentiation on the basis of an individual’s current nationality, since it concerns racial discrimination. According to the Respondent, the Preamble reaffirms the overall aim of bringing racial discrimination to an end and makes no mention of discrimination based on current nationality. It thus argues that the term “national origin” as used in Article 1, paragraph 1, of CERD is “an individual’s permanent association with a particular nation of people” and does not include nationality in the sense of citizenship. 80. In Qatar’s view, discrimination based on a person’s current nationality falls within the prohibition of racial discrimination provided for in Article 1, paragraph 1, of the Convention. According to the Applicant, the term “national origin” refers to a person belonging to a nation by birth, or to the country from which he or she originates, as well as a person’s current nationality or national affiliation. It contends that this term, as reproduced in the different languages of the Convention, does not refer only to the immutable characteristics of a person. Qatar further contends that paragraphs 2 and 3 of Article 1, which exclude from the scope of the Convention any differentiation between citizens and non‑citizens and at the same time prohibit discrimination against any particular nationality, would be deprived of any effet utile if current nationality were not covered by the term “national origin”. Relying on the Preamble, the Applicant argues that it was the drafters’ intention that the Convention would not remain static but would form a comprehensive network of protections which would apply to racial discrimination, however it manifests, across different countries, contexts and time periods. According to the Applicant, excluding current nationality from the definition of racial discrimination would permit States to put in place any discriminatory policy targeting individuals or groups with the characteristics expressly mentioned in Article 1, paragraph 1, of the Convention. The adoption of such policies could be justified officially by sole reference to current nationality rather than to the characteristics in question. The Applicant thus concludes that the exclusion of nationality‑based discrimination from the scope of the Convention would lead to absurd results wholly at odds with its purpose. * * 98 application of the cerd (judgment) 31 81. As the Court has recalled on many occasions, “[i]nterpretation must be based above all upon the text of the treaty” (Territorial Dispute (Libyan Arab Jamahiriya/Chad), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1994, p. 22, para. 41). The Court observes that the definition of racial discrimination in the Convention includes “national or ethnic origin”. These references to “origin” denote, respectively, a person’s bond to a national or ethnic group at birth, whereas nationality is a legal attribute which is within the discretionary power of the State and can change during a person’s lifetime (Nottebohm (Liechtenstein v. Guatemala), Second Phase, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1955, pp. 20 and 23). The Court notes that the other elements of the definition of racial discrimination, as set out in Article 1, paragraph 1, of the Convention, namely race, colour and descent, are also characteristics that are inherent at birth. 82. The Court will next turn to the context in which the term “national origin” is used in the Convention, in particular paragraphs 2 and 3 of Article 1, which provide that: “2. This Convention shall not apply to distinctions, exclusions, restrictions or preferences made by a State Party to this Convention between citizens and non‑citizens. 3. Nothing in this Convention may be interpreted as affecting in any way the legal provisions of States Parties concerning nationality, citizenship or naturalization, provided that such provisions do not discriminate against any particular nationality.” 83. The Court considers that these provisions support the interpretation of the ordinary meaning of the term “national origin” as not encompassing current nationality. While according to paragraph 3, the Convention in no way affects legislation concerning nationality, citizenship or naturalization, on the condition that such legislation does not discriminate against any particular nationality, paragraph 2 provides that any “distinctions, exclusions, restrictions or preferences” between citizens and non‑citizens do not fall within the scope of the Convention. In the Court’s view, such express exclusion from the scope of the Convention of differentiation between citizens and non‑citizens indicates that the Convention does not prevent States parties from adopting measures that restrict the right of non‑citizens to enter a State and their right to reside there — rights that are in dispute in this case — on the basis of their current nationality. 84. The Court will now examine the object and purpose of the Convention. The Court has frequently referred to the preamble of a convention to determine its object and purpose (Certain Iranian Assets (Islamic 99 application of the cerd (judgment) 32 Republic of Iran v. United States of America), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2019 (I), p. 28, para. 57, and p. 38, para. 91; Whaling in the Antarctic (Australia v. Japan: New Zealand intervening), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2014, p. 251, para. 56; Questions relating to the Obligation to Prosecute or Extradite (Belgium v. Senegal), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2012 (II), p. 449, para. 68). 85. It is recalled in the Preamble of CERD that “the United Nations has condemned colonialism and all practices of segregation and discrimination associated therewith, in whatever form and wherever they exist, and that the Declaration on the Granting of Independence to Colonial Countries and Peoples of 14 December 1960 (General Assembly resolution 1514 (XV)) has affirmed and solemnly proclaimed the necessity of bringing them to a speedy and unconditional end”. 86. The Court notes that CERD was drafted against the backdrop of the 1960s decolonization movement, for which the adoption of resolution 1514 (XV) of 14 December 1960 was a defining moment (Legal Consequences of the Separation of the Chagos Archipelago from Mauritius in 1965, Advisory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports 2019 (I), p. 132 para. 150). By underlining that “any doctrine of superiority based on racial differentiation is scientifically false, morally condemnable, socially unjust and dangerous, and that there is no justification for racial discrimination, in theory or in practice, anywhere”, the Preamble to the Convention clearly sets out its object and purpose, which is to bring to an end all practices that seek to establish a hierarchy among social groups as defined by their inherent characteristics or to impose a system of racial discrimination or segregation. The aim of the Convention is thus to eliminate all forms and manifestations of racial discrimination against human beings on the basis of real or perceived characteristics as of their origin, namely at birth. 87. CERD, whose universal character is confirmed by the fact that 182 States are parties to it, thus condemns any attempt to legitimize racial discrimination by invoking the superiority of one social group over another. Therefore, it was clearly not intended to cover every instance of differentiation between persons based on their nationality. Differentiation on the basis of nationality is common and is reflected in the legislation of most States parties. 88. Consequently, the term “national origin” in Article 1, paragraph 1, of CERD, in accordance with its ordinary meaning, read in its context and in the light of the object and purpose of the Convention, does not encompass current nationality. 100 application of the cerd (judgment) 33 2. The term “national origin” in the light of the travaux préparatoires as a supplementary means of interpretation 89. In light of the conclusion above, the Court need not resort to supplementary means of interpretation. However, the Court notes that both Parties have carried out a detailed analysis of the travaux préparatoires of the Convention in support of their respective positions on the meaning and scope of the term “national origin” in Article 1, paragraph 1, of the Convention. Considering this fact and the Court’s practice of confirming, when it deems it appropriate, its interpretation of the relevant texts by reference to the travaux préparatoires (see, for example, Application of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (Georgia v. Russian Federation), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2011 (I), p. 128, para. 142, and pp. 129‑130, para. 147), the Court will examine the travaux préparatoires of CERD in the present case. * * 90. According to the UAE, the various drafts of the definition of racial discrimination considered by the negotiators of the Convention did not refer to nationality in the political‑legal sense of the term. The Respondent recalls that the amendment jointly proposed by the United States of America and France in the course of the work of the Third Committee of the United Nations General Assembly (hereinafter the “Third Committee”), according to which “the expression ‘national origin’ does not mean ‘nationality’ or ‘citizenship’”, was withdrawn in favour of an amendment adopted as the final text of Article 1. The Respondent adds that this withdrawal was justified by the insertion of paragraphs 2 and 3 into the text of Article 1, which the two countries considered “entirely acceptable”. 91. Qatar, for its part, asserts that the drafters of the Convention sought a broad and comprehensive definition of racial discrimination, which would leave no vulnerable group without protection, and they did not intend to exclude nationality-based discrimination from its scope. According to the Applicant, the fact that the proposed amendments seeking to exclude nationality from the scope of the term “national origin” in the definition of racial discrimination were not adopted confirms that this term encompasses current nationality. As regards the joint amendment of the United States of America and France, which was withdrawn in favour of the current wording of Article 1, Qatar considers that it was in any event limited in scope, since it sought to prevent non‑citizens from availing themselves of certain rights reserved for citizens and in no way sought to exclude differentiation based on current nationality from the scope of the Convention. Thus, in Qatar’s view, the travaux préparatoires confirm that the scope of the Convention extends to discrimination based on cur- 101 application of the cerd (judgment) 34 rent nationality, in particular where, as in the present case, a State singles out an entire group of non‑citizens for discriminatory treatment. * * 92. The Court recalls that the Convention was drafted in three stages: first, as part of the work of the Sub‑Commission on Prevention of Discrimination and Protection of Minorities (hereinafter the “Sub‑Commission”), then within the Commission on Human Rights (hereinafter the “Commission”) and, finally, within the Third Committee. 93. In the view of the Court, the definition of racial discrimination contained in the various drafts demonstrates that the drafters did in fact have in mind the differences between national origin and nationality. The Sub‑Commission discussed at length the question whether the definition should refer solely to national origin or should also include nationality. Although some members were in favour of including the term “nationality” in the first draft definition of racial discrimination, this was only for specific cases of States composed of different nationalities. Indeed, several members of the Sub‑Commission were of the opinion that the Convention should not seek to eliminate all differentiation based on nationality in the political‑legal sense of the term, since in all countries a distinction was made between nationals and aliens. As a result, the draft presented by the Sub‑Commission to the Commission did not refer to current nationality as a basis of racial discrimination: “In this Convention the term ‘racial discrimination’ shall mean any distinction, exclusion, restriction or preference based on race, colour, national or ethnic origin (and in the case of States composed of different nationalities discrimination based on such difference) which has the purpose or effect of nullifying or impairing the recognition, enjoyment or exercise, on an equal footing, of human rights and fundamental freedoms in political, economic, social, cultural or any other field of public life set forth inter alia in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.” (“Draft International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination”, annexed to the Report of the Sixteenth Session of the Sub‑Commission on Prevention of Discrimination and Protection of Minorities to the Commission on Human Rights, 13‑31 January 1964, UN doc. E/CN.4/873, E/CN.4/Sub.2/241, 11 February 1964, p. 46.) 94. The Court notes that the question of the scope of the term “national origin” arose again during the work of the Commission. The Court 102 application of the cerd (judgment) 35 observes that it is clear from the Commission’s discussions that the expression “national origin” refers not to nationality but to country of origin (United Nations, Commission on Human Rights, Report on the Twentieth Session, 17 February‑18 March 1964, doc. E/3878, E/CN.4/874, pp. 24‑25, para. 85). Accordingly, the draft Convention presented by the Commission to the Third Committee contained the following definition of racial discrimination, which sought to exclude nationality from the scope of the term “national origin”: “In this Convention the term ‘racial discrimination’ shall mean any distinction, exclusion, restriction or preference based on race, colour, [national] or ethnic origin which has the purpose or effect of nullifying or impairing the recognition, enjoyment or exercise, on an equal footing, of human rights and fundamental freedoms in the political, economic, social, cultural or any other field of public [life]. [In this paragraph the expression ‘national origin’ does not cover the status of any person as a citizen of a given State.]” (Ibid., p. 111; see also United Nations, Commission on Human Rights, Twentieth Session, Summary Record of the 810th Meeting, 13 March 1964, doc. E/CN.4/ SR.810, 15 May 1964, p. 5.) 95. It emerges from the discussions within the Third Committee that, although it was ultimately decided to retain the term “national origin” in the text of the Convention, this decision was made only in so far as the term refers to persons of foreign origin who are subject to racial discrimination in their country of residence on the grounds of that origin. Several delegations noted that national origin differs from current nationality. 96. In the Court’s view, the fact that the amendment of the United States of America and France was not retained (see paragraph 90 above) cannot support the Applicant’s position that the term “national origin” encompasses current nationality (see United Nations, Official Records of the General Assembly, Twentieth Session, Third Committee, “Draft International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination”, doc. A/6181, 18 December 1965, pp. 12‑14, paras. 30‑37). Although the amendment was withdrawn, this was done in order to arrive at a compromise formula that would enable the text of the Convention to be finalized, by adding paragraphs 2 and 3 to Article 1 (see the compromise amendment presented by Ghana, India, Kuwait, Lebanon, Mauritania, Morocco, Nigeria, Poland and Senegal, UN doc. A/C.3/L.1238). As the Court has noted (see paragraphs 82‑83 above), paragraphs 2 and 3 of Article 1 provide that the Convention will not apply to differentiation between citizens and non‑citizens and will not affect States’ legislation on nationality, thus fully addressing the concerns expressed by certain delegations, including those of the United States of America and France, regarding the scope of the term “national origin” (see the explanations 103 application of the cerd (judgment) 36 provided by Lebanon in presenting the compromise amendment, United Nations, Official Records of the General Assembly, Twentieth Session, Third Committee, Summary Record of the 1307th Meeting, held on 18 October 1965, doc. A/C.3/SR.1307, p. 95, para. 1 (Lebanon)). 97. The Court concludes that the travaux préparatoires as a whole confirm that the term “national origin” in Article 1, paragraph 1, of the Convention does not include current nationality. 3. The practice of the CERD Committee 98. With regard to the practice of the CERD Committee, the UAE argues that the Committee’s opinions and general recommendations do not constitute subsequent practice or agreement of States parties to CERD regarding the interpretation of the Convention. In particular, the Respondent considers that General Recommendation XXX concerning discrimination against non‑citizens, adopted by the CERD Committee in 2004, does not constitute an interpretation based on the practice of States parties and that, in any event, it is not intended as a general prohibition of all differential treatment based on nationality. The Respondent further considers that, according to that text, any differential treatment between different groups of non‑citizens must be assessed “in the light of the objectives and purposes of the Convention”. Finally, as regards the decisions on jurisdiction and admissibility delivered by the CERD Committee in respect of the communication submitted by Qatar, the Respondent contends that these decisions are in no way binding on the Court and their reasoning with regard to the interpretation of the term “national origin” is insufficient. It adds that these decisions, whereby the Committee held that measures based on the current nationality of Qatari citizens fell within the scope of the Convention, are based on a single criterion, i.e. the Committee’s “constant practice”, which is inconsistent with the rules of treaty interpretation as reflected in Articles 31 and 32 of the Vienna Convention. 99. Qatar, for its part, requests that the Court ascribe great weight to the CERD Committee’s interpretations of the Convention, in keeping with its jurisprudence relating to committees established under other human rights conventions. The Applicant asserts that the CERD Committee, as the guardian of the Convention, has developed a constant practice whereby differentiation based on nationality is capable of constituting racial discrimination within the meaning of the Convention. It notes, in particular, that the CERD Committee found that it was competent to entertain Qatar’s communication concerning the same measures of which it complains in the present case, considering that they were capable of falling within the scope ratione materiae of the Convention. Thus, accord- 104 application of the cerd (judgment) 37 ing to Qatar, differentiation based on nationality can constitute racial discrimination within the meaning of the Convention, in so far as it does not pursue a legitimate aim and is not proportional to the achievement of that aim. * * 100. The CERD Committee, in its General Recommendation XXX, considered that “differential treatment based on citizenship or immigration status will constitute discrimination if the criteria for such differentiation, judged in the light of the objectives and purposes of the Convention, are not applied pursuant to a legitimate aim, and are not proportional to the achievement of this aim”. The Committee, a body of independent experts established specifically to supervise the application of CERD, relied on this General Recommendation when it found that it was competent to examine Qatar’s communication against the UAE and that this communication was admissible (Decision on the admissibility of the inter‑State communication submitted by Qatar against the UAE dated 27 August 2019, UN doc. CERD/ C/99/4, paras. 53‑63). 101. The Court recalls that, in its Judgment on the merits in the Diallo case, to which reference is made in paragraph 77 above, it indicated that it should “ascribe great weight” to the interpretation of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights — which it was called upon to apply in that case — adopted by the Human Rights Committee (Ahmadou Sadio Diallo (Republic of Guinea v. Democratic Republic of the Congo), Merits, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2010 (II), p. 664, para. 66). In this regard, it also affirmed, however, that it was “in no way obliged, in the exercise of its judicial functions, to model its own interpretation of the Covenant on that of the Committee” (ibid.). In the present case concerning the interpretation of CERD, the Court has carefully considered the position taken by the CERD Committee, which is specified in paragraph 100 above, on the issue of discrimination based on nationality. By applying, as it is required to do (see paragraph 75 above), the relevant customary rules on treaty interpretation, it came to the conclusion indicated in paragraph 88 above, on the basis of the reasons set out above. 4. The jurisprudence of regional human rights courts 102. Lastly, both Parties referred in their written and oral pleadings to the jurisprudence of regional human rights courts in their arguments on the meaning and scope of the term “national origin”. In this respect, Qatar invokes the jurisprudence of the European Court of Human Rights, the Inter‑American Court of Human Rights and the African Commission 105 application of the cerd (judgment) 38 on Human and Peoples’ Rights, which, it contends, have interpreted the term national origin as including nationality. Moreover, the Applicant refers to this jurisprudence to reiterate that discrimination consists in a difference in treatment without legitimate justification and without a reasonable relationship of proportionality with the aim to be achieved, which in its view is true of the measures at issue in this case. The Applicant adds that the elements of the definition of discrimination adopted by the CERD Committee are exactly the same as those applied in regional human rights instruments and in general international law, and entail an examination of the legitimacy and proportionality of the measures. 103. The UAE disputes the relevance of the jurisprudence of regional human rights courts for the purpose of interpreting the Convention. In its view, the concept of discrimination that has prevailed in general international human rights law has no bearing on the interpretation of CERD, which is concerned solely with racial discrimination. * * 104. It is for the Court, in the present case, to determine the scope of CERD, which exclusively concerns the prohibition of racial discrimination on the basis of race, colour, descent, or national or ethnic origin. The Court notes that the regional human rights instruments on which the jurisprudence of the regional courts is based concern respect for human rights without distinction of any kind among their beneficiaries. The relevant provisions of these conventions are modelled on Article 2 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights of 10 December 1948, according to which “[e]veryone is entitled to all the rights and freedoms set forth in this Declaration, without distinction of any kind, such as race, colour, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, property, birth or other status” (see also Article 14 of the European Convention on Human Rights, entitled “Prohibition of discrimination”; Article 1 of the American Convention on Human Rights; and Article 2 of the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights). While these legal instruments all refer to “national origin”, their purpose is to ensure a wide scope of protection of human rights and fundamental freedoms. The jurisprudence of regional human rights courts based on those legal instruments is therefore of little help for the interpretation of the term “national origin” in CERD. 39 106 application of the cerd (judgment) 5. Conclusion on the interpretation of the term “national origin” 105. In light of the above, the Court finds that the term “national origin” in Article 1, paragraph 1, of the Convention does not encompass current nationality. Consequently, the measures complained of by Qatar in the present case as part of its first claim, which are based on the current nationality of its citizens, do not fall within the scope of CERD. B. The Question whether the Measures Imposed by the UAE on certain Qatari Media Corporations Come within the Scope of the Convention 106. In its second claim, Qatar complains that the measures imposed on certain media corporations in the UAE have infringed the right to freedom of opinion and expression of Qataris. According to the Applicant, the UAE has blocked access to news websites and television stations operated by Qatari corporations, including Al Jazeera. In particular, Qatar submits that the effect of closing down Qatari media channels has been to silence sources of independent information that might have mitigated the racially discriminatory messages disseminated as part of anti‑Qatari hate speech and propaganda. The Applicant submits that the block on Qatari media has not only directly targeted Qatari corporations, but has also infringed the freedom of expression of Qatari ideas and culture and contributed to the climate of fear experienced by Qataris as a result of their Qatari identity being targeted. 107. The UAE considers that the Applicant’s claims in respect of Qatari media corporations do not fall within the scope of the Convention. It submits that corporations are not covered by the Convention, which applies only to natural persons. The UAE further submits that while corporations may have a nationality, they do not have a national origin. In respect of the allegations made by Qatar, the UAE argues that it has a regulatory framework for media activities, which provides for certain content restrictions that allow the authorities to block the websites of media corporations. It is pursuant to this regulatory framework, which applies to all media corporations operating in the UAE, that the Respondent has blocked certain websites of Qatari media corporations. * * 108. For the present purposes, the Court will examine only whether the measures concerning certain Qatari media corporations, which according to Qatar have been imposed in a racially discriminatory manner, fall 40 107 application of the cerd (judgment) within the scope of the Convention. As to the alleged “indirect discrimination” resulting from the effect of the media block on persons of Qatari national origin, the Court will examine that aspect in its analysis of Qatar’s third claim. The Court notes that the Convention concerns only individuals or groups of individuals. This is clear from the various substantive provisions of CERD, which refer to “certain racial or ethnic groups or individuals” (Article 1, paragraph 4), “race or group of persons” (Article 4 (a)), or “individuals or groups of individuals” (Article 14, paragraph 1), as well as its Preamble which refers to racial “discrimination between human beings”. While under Article 2, paragraph 1 (a), of the Convention, “[e]ach State Party undertakes to engage in no act or practice of racial discrimination against persons, groups of persons or institutions”, the Court considers that this reference to “institutions” does not include media corporations such as those in the present case. Read in its context and in the light of the object and purpose of the Convention, the term “institutions” refers to collective bodies or associations, which represent individuals or groups of individuals. Thus, the Court concludes that Qatar’s second claim relating to Qatari media corporations does not fall within the scope of the Convention. C. The Question whether the Measures that Qatar Characterizes as “Indirect Discrimination” against Persons of Qatari National Origin Fall within the Scope of the Convention 109. Qatar submits that the “expulsion order” and “travel bans”, as well as other measures taken by the UAE, have had the purpose and effect of discriminating “indirectly” against persons of Qatari national origin in the historical‑cultural sense, namely persons of Qatari birth and heritage, including their spouses, their children and persons otherwise linked to Qatar. According to Qatar, a measure may be considered as “based on” one of the grounds listed in Article 1 if, by its effect, it implicates a protected group. It adds that the Convention prohibits both direct discrimination, where a measure expressly distinguishes on the basis of one of the grounds of racial discrimination, and “indirect discrimination”, where a measure results in such a distinction by its effect. As part of the latter claim, Qatar complains of official statements critical of Qatar, including the 6 June 2017 statement of the Attorney General of the UAE, which mentioned criminal penalties for any expression of sympathy towards Qatar. Qatar adds that the UAE has failed to comply with CERD by encouraging and failing to supress anti‑Qatari hate speech and propaganda. The Applicant emphasizes that its complaints are based not on a minimal difference in the treatment of Qatari citizens in the area of immigration controls, but on comprehensive, serious and co‑ordinated 41 108 application of the cerd (judgment) discriminatory acts resulting in discrimination against persons of Qatari national origin in the historical‑cultural sense, in particular on the basis of their traditions, culture, accent or dress. 110. According to the UAE, there is no question of “indirect” racial discrimination in the present case. It adds that this is not how Qatar presented its complaints in its Application instituting proceedings or in its offer to negotiate dated 25 April 2018, which concerned allegedly discriminatory policies directed at Qatari citizens and companies on the sole basis of their Qatari nationality in violation of CERD. It further states that the notion of “indirect discrimination”, in the context of the present Convention, is more specific than in other human rights treaties, since it refers solely to measures which are not discriminatory at face value but are discriminatory in fact and effect. The UAE observes that the 6 June 2017 statement by its Attorney General was made in the context of existing legislation, i.e. Federal Decree-Law No. 5 on Combating Cybercrimes dated 13 August 2012, and that there was no criminalizing of sympathy for Qatar. The UAE submits that the various allegations relating to its failure to suppress statements critical of Qatar or the actions of its Government, even if they were true, do not fall within the scope ratione materiae of the Convention since it does not constitute racial discrimination on the grounds of race, colour, descent, or national or ethnic origin. * * 111. The Court recalls that it has already found that the “expulsion order” and “travel bans” of which Qatar complains as part of its first claim do not fall within the scope of CERD, since these measures are based on the current nationality of Qatari citizens, and that such differentiation is not covered by the term “national origin” in Article 1, paragraph 1, of the Convention (see paragraph 105 above). The Court will now turn to the question whether these and any other measures as alleged by Qatar are capable of falling within the scope of the Convention, if, by their purpose or effect, they result in racial discrimination against certain persons on the basis of their Qatari national origin. 112. The Court first observes that, according to the definition of racial discrimination in Article 1, paragraph 1, of CERD, a restriction may con- 109 application of the cerd (judgment) 42 stitute racial discrimination if it “has the purpose or effect of nullifying or impairing the recognition, enjoyment or exercise, on an equal footing, of human rights and fundamental freedoms in the political, economic, social, cultural or any other field of public life”. Thus, the Convention prohibits all forms and manifestations of racial discrimination, whether arising from the purpose of a given restriction or from its effect. In the present case, while the measures based on current Qatari nationality may have collateral or secondary effects on persons born in Qatar or of Qatari parents, or on family members of Qatari citizens residing in the UAE, this does not constitute racial discrimination within the meaning of the Convention. In the Court’s view, the various measures of which Qatar complains do not, either by their purpose or by their effect, give rise to racial discrimination against Qataris as a distinct social group on the basis of their national origin. The Court further observes that declarations criticizing a State or its policies cannot be characterized as racial discrimination within the meaning of CERD. Thus, the Court concludes that, even if the measures of which Qatar complains in support of its “indirect discrimination” claim were to be proven on the facts, they are not capable of constituting racial discrimination within the meaning of the Convention. 113. It follows from the above that the Court does not have jurisdiction ratione materiae to entertain Qatar’s third claim, since the measures complained of therein by that State do not entail, either by their purpose or by their effect, racial discrimination within the meaning of Article 1, paragraph 1, of the Convention. D. General Conclusion 114. In light of the above, the Court concludes that the first preliminary objection raised by the UAE must be upheld. Having found that it does not have jurisdiction ratione materiae in the present case under Article 22 of the Convention, the Court does not consider it necessary to examine the second preliminary objection raised by the UAE. In accordance with its jurisprudence, when its jurisdiction is challenged on diverse grounds, the Court is “free to base its decision on the ground which in its judgment is more direct and conclusive” (Aerial Incident of 10 August 1999 (Pakistan v. India), Jurisdiction of the Court, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2000, p. 24, para. 26; Aegean Sea Continental Shelf (Greece v. Turkey), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1978, p. 17, para. 40; Certain Norwegian Loans (France v. Norway), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1957, p. 25). * * * 43 110 application of the cerd (judgment) 115. For these reasons, The Court, (1) By eleven votes to six, Upholds the first preliminary objection raised by the United Arab Emirates; in favour: Vice‑President Xue; Judges Tomka, Abraham, Bennouna, Donoghue, Gaja, Crawford, Gevorgian, Salam; Judges ad hoc Cot, Daudet; against: President Yusuf; Judges Cançado Trindade, Sebutinde, Bhandari, Robinson, Iwasawa; (2) By eleven votes to six, Finds that it has no jurisdiction to entertain the Application filed by the State of Qatar on 11 June 2018. in favour: Vice‑President Xue; Judges Tomka, Abraham, Bennouna, Donoghue, Gaja, Crawford, Gevorgian, Salam; Judges ad hoc Cot, Daudet; against: President Yusuf; Judges Cançado Trindade, Sebutinde, Bhandari, Robinson, Iwasawa. Done in English and in French, the English text being authoritative, at the Peace Palace, The Hague, this fourth day of February, two thousand and twenty‑one, in three copies, one of which will be placed in the archives of the Court and the others transmitted to the Government of the State of Qatar and the Government of the United Arab Emirates, respectively. (Signed) Abdulqawi Ahmed Yusuf, President. (Signed) Philippe Gautier, Registrar. President Yusuf appends a declaration to the Judgment of the Court; Judges Sebutinde, Bhandari and Robinson append dissenting opinions to the Judgment of the Court; Judge Iwasawa appends a separate opinion to the Judgment of the Court; Judge ad hoc Daudet appends a declaration to the Judgment of the Court. (Initialled) A.A.Y. (Initialled) Ph.G.

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INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE REPORTS OF JUDGMENTS, ADVISORY OPINIONS AND ORDERS APPLICATION OF THE INTERNATIONAL CONVENTION ON THE ELIMINATION OF ALL FORMS OF RACIAL DISCRIMINATION (QATAR v. UNITED ARAB EMIRATES) PRELIMINARY OBJECTIONS JUDGMENT OF 4 FEBRUARY 2021 2021 COUR INTERNATIONALE DE JUSTICE RECUEIL DES ARRÊTS, AVIS CONSULTATIFS ET ORDONNANCES APPLICATION DE LA CONVENTION INTERNATIONALE SUR L’ÉLIMINATION DE TOUTES LES FORMES DE DISCRIMINATION RACIALE (QATAR c. ÉMIRATS ARABES UNIS) EXCEPTIONS PRÉLIMINAIRES ARRÊT DU 4 FÉVRIER 2021 Official citation: Application of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (Qatar v. United Arab Emirates), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2021, p. 71 Mode officiel de citation : Application de la convention internationale sur l’élimination de toutes les formes de discrimination raciale (Qatar c. Emirats arabes unis), exceptions préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2021, p. 71 ISSN 0074-4441 ISBN 978-92-1-003883-6 Sales number No de vente: 1221 © 2022 ICJ/CIJ, United Nations/Nations Unies All rights reserved/Tous droits réservés Printed in France/Imprimé en France APPLICATION OF THE INTERNATIONAL CONVENTION ON THE ELIMINATION OF ALL FORMS OF RACIAL DISCRIMINATION (QATAR v. UNITED ARAB EMIRATES) PRELIMINARY OBJECTIONS APPLICATION DE LA CONVENTION INTERNATIONALE SUR L’ÉLIMINATION DE TOUTES LES FORMES DE DISCRIMINATION RACIALE (QATAR c. ÉMIRATS ARABES UNIS) EXCEPTIONS PRÉLIMINAIRES 4 FEBRUARY 2021 JUDGMENT 4 FÉVRIER 2021 ARRÊT 71 4 TABLE OF CONTENTS Paragraphs Chronology of the Procedure 1‑25 I. Introduction 26‑40 A. Factual background 26-34 B. The jurisdictional basis invoked and the preliminary objections raised 35-40 II. Subject-Matter of the Dispute 41‑70 III. First Preliminary Objection: Jurisdiction Ratione Materiae 71‑114 A. The question whether the term “national origin” encompasses current nationality 74-105 1. The term “national origin” in accordance with its ordinary meaning, read in its context and in the light of the object and purpose of CERD 78-88 2. The term “national origin” in the light of the travaux préparatoires as a supplementary means of interpretation 89-97 3. The practice of the CERD Committee 98-101 4. The jurisprudence of regional human rights courts 102-104 5. Conclusion on the interpretation of the term “national origin” 105 B. The question whether the measures imposed by the UAE on certain Qatari media corporations come within the scope of the Convention 106-108 C. The question whether the measures that Qatar characterizes as “indirect discrimination” against persons of Qatari national origin fall within the scope of the Convention 109-113 D. General conclusion 114 Operative Clause 115 71 4 TABLE DES MATIÈRES Paragraphes Qualités 1‑25 I. Introduction 26‑40 A. Contexte factuel 26‑34 B. Base de compétence invoquée et exceptions préliminaires soulevées 35-40 II. Objet du différend 41-70 III. Première exception préliminaire : compétence ratione materiae 71-114 A. La question de savoir si l’expression « origine nationale » englobe la nationalité actuelle 74-105 1. L’expression « origine nationale » selon son sens ordinaire, lue dans son contexte et à la lumière de l’objet et du but de la CIEDR 78-88 2. L’expression « origine nationale » à la lumière des travaux préparatoires comme moyen complémentaire d’interprétation 89-97 3. La pratique du Comité de la CIEDR 98-101 4. La jurisprudence des cours régionales des droits de l’homme 102-104 5. Conclusion quant à l’interprétation de l’expression « origine nationale » 105 B. La question de savoir si les mesures imposées par les Emirats arabes unis à certaines sociétés de médias qatariennes entrent dans le champ d’application de la convention 106-108 C. La question de savoir si les mesures que le Qatar qualifie de « discrimination indirecte » à l’encontre des personnes d’origine nationale qatarienne entrent dans le champ de la convention 109-113 D. Conclusion générale 114 Dispositif 115 72 5 INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE YEAR 2021 4 February 2021 APPLICATION OF THE INTERNATIONAL CONVENTION ON THE ELIMINATION OF ALL FORMS OF RACIAL DISCRIMINATIONS (QATAR v. UNITED ARAB EMIRATES) PRELIMINARY OBJECTIONS Factual background. Measures announced by the United Arab Emirates (“UAE”) on 5 June 2017 — Severance of diplomatic relations with Qatar — Entry ban — Travel bans — Expulsion order —Closure by UAE of airspace and seaports — Additional measures relating to Qatari media corporations and speech in support of Qatar — Communication of Qatar submitted to the Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination (“CERD Committee”) on 8 March 2018 — Decisions on jurisdiction and admissibility of inter-State communication given by the CERD Committee on 27 August 2019 — CERD Committee rejects preliminary exceptions raised by the UAE — Appointment of an ad hoc Conciliation Commission. * Jurisdictional basis invoked and preliminary objections raised. Article 22 of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (“CERD”) — Preliminary objection to jurisdiction ratione materiae — Preliminary objection based on alleged failure to satisfy procedural preconditions of Article 22 of CERD. * 2021 4 February General List No. 172 72 5 COUR INTERNATIONALE DE JUSTICE ANNÉE 2021 4 février 2021 APPLICATION DE LA CONVENTION INTERNATIONALE SUR L’ÉLIMINATION DE TOUTES LES FORMES DE DISCRIMINATION RACIALE (QATAR c. ÉMIRATS ARABES UNIS) EXCEPTIONS PRÉLIMINAIRES Contexte factuel. Mesures annoncées par les Emirats arabes unis le 5 juin 2017 — Rupture des relations diplomatiques avec le Qatar — Interdiction de séjour — Interdictions d’entrée — Décision d’expulsion — Fermeture de l’espace aérien et des ports maritimes par les Emirats arabes unis — Mesures additionnelles concernant les médias qatariens et les expressions de soutien au Qatar — Communication du Qatar adressée le 8 mars 2018 au Comité pour l’élimination de la discrimination raciale (ci‑après le « Comité de la CIEDR ») — Décisions rendues le 27 août 2019 par le Comité de la CIEDR sur sa compétence et la recevabilité de la communication — Rejet par le Comité de la CIEDR des exceptions préliminaires soulevées par les Emirats arabes unis — Constitution d’une commission de conciliation ad hoc. * Base de compétence invoquée et exceptions préliminaires soulevées. Article 22 de la convention sur l’élimination de toutes les formes de discrimination raciale (ci‑après la « CIEDR ») — Exception préliminaire d’incompétence ratione materiae — Exception préliminaire fondée sur le non‑respect allégué des conditions procédurales préalables prévues à l’article 22 de la CIEDR. * 2021 4 février Rôle général no 172 73 application of the cerd (judgment) 6 Subject-matter of the dispute. Applicant required to indicate subject-matter of dispute in its application — Court itself determines subject-matter of dispute on objective basis. Qatar makes three claims of racial discrimination — First claim arising out of travel bans and expulsion order — Second claim arising from restrictions on Qatari media corporations — Third claim that measures taken result in “indirect discrimination” on the basis of Qatari national origin. Claim arising out of travel bans and expulsion order — Qatar’s contention that express reference to Qatari nationals constitutes discrimination on basis of current nationality — UAE’s argument that such differentiation based on nationality does not violate CERD — Parties hold opposing views on whether the term “national origin” in Article 1, paragraph 1, of CERD encompasses current nationality. Claim arising from restrictions on Qatari media corporations — Disagreement on whether measures directly targeted those corporations in a racially discriminatory manner. Claim of “indirect discrimination” against persons of Qatari national origin — Qatar’s assertion that expulsion order and travel bans give rise to “indirect discrimination” — Qatar’s allegations that restrictions on media corporations and limitations on freedom of expression result in “indirect discrimination” — UAE’s contention that claim was not presented in Application — Rules of Court do not preclude Qatar from refining the legal arguments presented in its Application or advancing new arguments — Parties hold opposing views over Qatar’s claim that UAE has engaged in “indirect discrimination”. Conclusion that the Parties disagree in respect of Qatar’s three claims that UAE has violated its obligations under CERD — Parties’ disagreements in respect of these claims form the subject‑matter of the dispute. * First preliminary objection: jurisdiction ratione materiae. Question whether term “national origin” encompasses current nationality — Interpretation of “national origin” in Article 1, paragraph 1, of CERD on the basis of Article 31 and 32 of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties — Ordinary meaning of term “national origin” does not encompass current nationality — Context in which term used in CERD, in particular paragraphs 2 and 3 of Article 1, supports ordinary meaning — Ordinary meaning also supported by object and purpose of CERD — The term “national origin”, in accordance with its ordinary meaning, read in its context and in light of object and purpose of CERD, does not encompass current nationality — Travaux préparatoires confirm this interpretation — Practice of the CERD Committee — General Recommendation XXX — Careful consideration by Court of position taken by CERD Committee therein — Court’s conclusion reached using relevant rules of treaty interpretation — Jurisprudence of regional human rights courts of little help — Conclusion that the application de la ciedr (arrêt) 73 6 Objet du différend. Demandeur tenu d’indiquer l’objet du différend dans sa requête — Cour établissant elle‑même objectivement l’objet du différend. Trois chefs de discrimination raciale avancés par le Qatar — Premier chef se rapportant aux interdictions d’entrée et à la décision d’expulsion — Deuxième chef ayant trait aux restrictions imposées à des sociétés de médias qatariennes — Troisième chef consistant à affirmer que les mesures prises entraînent une « discrimination indirecte » fondée sur l’origine nationale qatarienne. Chef se rapportant aux interdictions d’entrée et à la décision d’expulsion — Affirmation du Qatar selon laquelle la mention expresse des nationaux qatariens constitue une discrimination sur la base de la nationalité actuelle — Argument des Emirats arabes unis selon lequel une telle distinction opérée sur le fondement de la nationalité n’emporte pas violation de la CIEDR — Parties s’opposant sur la question de savoir si l’expression « origine nationale » figurant au paragraphe 1 de l’article premier de la CIEDR englobe la nationalité actuelle. Chef ayant trait aux restrictions imposées à des sociétés de médias qatariennes — Divergence sur la question de savoir si ces sociétés étaient directement visées par les mesures dans le sens d’une discrimination raciale. Chef de « discrimination indirecte » à l’encontre de personnes d’origine nationale qatarienne — Assertion du Qatar selon laquelle la décision d’expulsion et les interdictions d’entrée entraînent une « discrimination indirecte » — Allégations du Qatar selon lesquelles les restrictions imposées aux sociétés de médias et les entraves faites à la liberté d’expression entraînent une « discrimination indirecte » — Affirmation des Emirats arabes unis selon laquelle cette demande n’a pas été présentée dans la requête — Règlement de la Cour n’interdisant pas au Qatar d’affiner l’argumentation juridique présentée dans sa requête ou d’avancer de nouveaux moyens — Parties s’opposant sur la question de savoir si, comme l’allègue le Qatar, les Emirats arabes unis se sont livrés à une « discrimination indirecte ». Conclusion selon laquelle les Parties sont en désaccord au sujet des trois demandes du Qatar imputant aux Emirats arabes unis un manquement aux obligations leur incombant en vertu de la CIEDR — Désaccords entre les Parties sur ces chefs de demande constituant l’objet du différend. * Première exception préliminaire : compétence ratione materiae. Question de savoir si l’expression « origine nationale » englobe la nationalité actuelle — Interprétation de l’expression « origine nationale » figurant au paragraphe 1 de l’article premier de la CIEDR fondée sur les articles 31 et 32 de la convention de Vienne sur le droit des traités — Sens ordinaire de l’expression « origine nationale » n’englobant pas la nationalité actuelle — Contexte dans lequel l’expression est employée dans la CIEDR, notamment les paragraphes 2 et 3 de l’article premier, confortant le sens ordinaire — Sens ordinaire étant également confirmé par l’objet et le but de la CIEDR — Expression « origine nationale », selon son sens ordinaire, lue dans son contexte et à la lumière de l’objet et du but de la convention, n’englobant pas la nationalité actuelle — Travaux préparatoires confirmant cette interprétation — Pratique du Comité de la CIEDR — Recommandation générale XXX — Examen attentif par la Cour de la position adoptée dans celle‑ci par le Comité de la CIEDR — Cour étant parvenue à sa conclusion 74 application of the cerd (judgment) 7 term “national origin” does not encompass current nationality — First claim consequently does not fall within scope of CERD. Question whether measures imposed on Qatari media corporations come within scope of CERD — Convention concerns only individuals or groups of individuals — Reference to “institutions” in Article 2, paragraph 1 (a), does not include media corporations — Second claim, which relates to media corporations, does not fall within scope of CERD. Question whether “indirect discrimination” falls within scope of CERD — Whether measures capable of falling within scope of CERD if, by their purpose or effect, they result in racial discrimination against persons on the basis of their Qatari national origin — Collateral or secondary effects on persons born in Qatar or of Qatari parents, or on family members of Qatari citizens residing in the UAE, do not constitute discrimination under CERD — Measures of which Qatar complains do not entail, either by their purpose or by their effect, racial discrimination under CERD — Court does not have jurisdiction to entertain third claim, which relates to “indirect discrimination”. * First preliminary objection upheld — No need to consider second preliminary objection. JUDGMENT Present: President Yusuf; Vice‑President Xue; Judges Tomka, Abraham, Bennouna, Cançado Trindade, Donoghue, Gaja, Sebutinde, Bhandari, Robinson, Crawford, Gevorgian, Salam, Iwasawa; Judges ad hoc Cot, Daudet; Registrar Gautier. In the case concerning the application of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination, between the State of Qatar, represented by Mr. Mohammed Abdulaziz Al‑Khulaifi, Legal Adviser to H.E. the Deputy Prime Minister and Minister for Foreign Affairs of the State of Qatar, Dean of the College of Law, Qatar University, as Agent; application de la ciedr (arrêt) 74 7 en recourant aux règles pertinentes d’interprétation des traités — Utilité limitée de la jurisprudence des cours régionales des droits de l’homme — Conclusion selon laquelle l’expression « origine nationale » n’englobe pas la nationalité actuelle — Première demande n’entrant donc pas dans le champ d’application de la CIEDR. Question de savoir si les mesures imposées à des sociétés de médias qatariennes entrent dans le champ d’application de la CIEDR — Convention ne s’appliquant qu’aux individus ou groupes d’individus — Référence aux « institutions » faite à l’alinéa a) du paragraphe 1 de l’article 2 n’incluant pas les sociétés de médias — Deuxième demande, relative aux sociétés de médias, n’entrant pas dans le champ d’application de la CIEDR. Question de savoir si la « discrimination indirecte » entre dans le champ de la CIEDR — Question de savoir si les mesures sont susceptibles d’entrer dans le champ d’application de la CIEDR, pour autant que, par leur but ou par leur effet, elles entraînent une discrimination raciale à l’encontre de personnes au motif de leur origine nationale qatarienne — Effets collatéraux ou secondaires sur des personnes nées au Qatar ou de parents qatariens, ou sur des proches de ressortissants qatariens résidant aux Emirats arabes unis, n’étant pas constitutifs de discrimination au sens de la CIEDR — Mesures dont le Qatar tire grief n’opérant pas, par leur but ou par leur effet, une discrimination raciale au regard de la CIEDR — Cour n’ayant pas compétence pour connaître de la troisième demande, relative à la « discrimination indirecte ». * Première exception préliminaire retenue — Examen de la seconde exception préliminaire n’étant pas nécessaire. ARRÊT Présents : M. Yusuf, président ; Mme Xue, vice‑présidente ; MM. Tomka, Abraham, Bennouna, Cançado Trindade, Mme Donoghue, M. Gaja, Mme Sebutinde, MM. Bhandari, Robinson, Crawford, Gevorgian, Salam, Iwasawa, juges ; MM. Cot, Daudet, juges ad hoc ; M. Gautier, greffier. En l’affaire relative à l’application de la convention internationale sur l’élimination de toutes les formes de discrimination raciale, entre l’Etat du Qatar, représenté par M. Mohammed Abdulaziz Al‑Khulaifi, conseiller juridique auprès de S. Exc. le vice‑premier ministre et ministre des affaires étrangères de l’Etat du Qatar, doyen de la faculté de droit de l’Université du Qatar, comme agent ; 75 application of the cerd (judgment) 8 Mr. Vaughan Lowe, QC, Emeritus Chichele Professor of Public International Law, University of Oxford, member of the Institut de droit international, Essex Court Chambers, member of the Bar of England and Wales, Mr. Pierre Klein, Professor of International Law, Université libre de Bruxelles, Ms Catherine Amirfar, Debevoise & Plimpton LLP, member of the Bar of the State of New York, Mr. Lawrence H. Martin, Foley Hoag LLP, member of the Bars of the District of Columbia and the Commonwealth of Massachusetts, Mr. Nico Schrijver, Professor of International Law, Leiden University, member of the Institut de droit international, as Counsel and Advocates; H.E. Mr. Abdullah bin Hussein Al‑Jaber, Ambassador of the State of Qatar to the Kingdom of the Netherlands, Mr. Ahmad Al‑Mana, Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the State of Qatar, Mr. Jassim Al‑Kuwari, Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the State of Qatar, Mr. Nasser Al‑Hamad, Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the State of Qatar, Ms Hanadi Al‑Shafei, Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the State of Qatar, Ms Hessa Al‑Dosari, Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the State of Qatar, Ms Sara Al‑Saadi, Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the State of Qatar, Ms Amna Al‑Nasser, Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the State of Qatar, Mr. Ali Al‑Hababi, Embassy of the State of Qatar in the Netherlands, Mr. Rashed Al‑Naemi, Embassy of the State of Qatar in the Netherlands, Mr. Abdulla Al‑Mulla, Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the State of Qatar, as Advisers; Mr. Pemmaraju Sreenivasa Rao, Special Adviser in the Office of the Attorney General of the State of Qatar, former member of the International Law Commission, member of the Institut de droit international, Mr. Surya Subedi, QC (Hon.), Professor of International Law, University of Leeds, member of the Institut de droit international, Three Stone Chambers, member of the Bar of England and Wales, Ms Loretta Malintoppi, 39 Essex Chambers, Singapore, member of the Bar of Rome, Mr. Pierre d’Argent, Professor of International Law, Université catholique de Louvain, member of the Institut de droit international, Foley Hoag LLP, member of the Bar of Brussels, Mr. Constantinos Salonidis, Foley Hoag LLP, member of the Bars of the State of New York and Greece, Ms Floriane Lavaud, Debevoise & Plimpton LLP, member of the Bars of the State of New York and Paris, Solicitor of the Senior Courts of England and Wales, Mr. Ioannis Konstantinidis, Assistant Professor of International Law, College of Law, Qatar University, Mr. Ali Abusedra, Legal Counsel, Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the State of Qatar, Ms Merryl Lawry‑White, Debevoise & Plimpton LLP, member of the Bar of the State of New York, Solicitor Advocate of the Senior Courts of England and Wales, application de la ciedr (arrêt) 75 8 M. Vaughan Lowe, QC, professeur émérite de droit international public à l’Université d’Oxford, titulaire de la chaire Chichele, membre de l’Institut de droit international, Essex Court Chambers, membre du barreau d’Angleterre et du pays de Galles, M. Pierre Klein, professeur de droit international à l’Université libre de Bruxelles, Mme Catherine Amirfar, cabinet Debevoise & Plimpton LLP, membre du barreau de l’Etat de New York, M. Lawrence H. Martin, cabinet Foley Hoag LLP, membre des barreaux du district de Columbia et de l’Etat du Massachusetts, M. Nico Schrijver, professeur de droit international à l’Université de Leyde, membre de l’Institut de droit international, comme conseils et avocats ; S. Exc. M. Abdullah bin Hussein Al‑Jaber, ambassadeur de l’Etat du Qatar auprès du Royaume des Pays‑Bas, M. Ahmad Al‑Mana, ministère des affaires étrangères de l’Etat du Qatar, M. Jassim Al‑Kuwari, ministère des affaires étrangères de l’Etat du Qatar, M. Nasser Al‑Hamad, ministère des affaires étrangères de l’Etat du Qatar, Mme Hanadi Al‑Shafei, ministère des affaires étrangères de l’Etat du Qatar, Mme Hessa Al‑Dosari, ministère des affaires étrangères de l’Etat du Qatar, Mme Sara Al‑Saadi, ministère des affaires étrangères de l’Etat du Qatar, Mme Amna Al‑Nasser, ministère des affaires étrangères de l’Etat du Qatar, M. Ali Al‑Hababi, ambassade de l’Etat du Qatar aux Pays‑Bas, M. Rashed Al‑Naemi, ambassade de l’Etat du Qatar aux Pays‑Bas, M. Abdulla Al‑Mulla, ministère des affaires étrangères de l’Etat du Qatar, comme conseillers ; M. Pemmaraju Sreenivasa Rao, conseiller spécial auprès du bureau du procureur général de l’Etat du Qatar, ancien membre de la Commission du droit international, membre de l’Institut de droit international, M. Surya Subedi, QC (Hon.), professeur de droit international à l’Université de Leeds, membre de l’Institut de droit international, Three Stone Chambers, membre du barreau d’Angleterre et du pays de Galles, Mme Loretta Malintoppi, 39 Essex Chambers (Singapour), membre du barreau de Rome, M. Pierre d’Argent, professeur de droit international à l’Université catholique de Louvain, membre de l’Institut de droit international, cabinet Foley Hoag LLP, membre du barreau de Bruxelles, M. Constantinos Salonidis, cabinet Foley Hoag LLP, membre des barreaux de l’Etat de New York et de Grèce, Mme Floriane Lavaud, cabinet Debevoise & Plimpton LLP, membre des barreaux de l’Etat de New York et de Paris, solicitor près les juridictions supérieures d’Angleterre et du pays de Galles, M. Ioannis Konstantinidis, professeur adjoint de droit international à la faculté de droit de l’Université du Qatar, M. Ali Abusedra, conseiller juridique, ministère des affaires étrangères de l’Etat du Qatar, Mme Merryl Lawry‑White, cabinet Debevoise & Plimpton LLP, membre des barreaux de l’Etat de New York et de Paris, solicitor advocate près les juridictions supérieures d’Angleterre et du pays de Galles, 76 application of the cerd (judgment) 9 Ms Ashika Singh, Debevoise & Plimpton LLP, member of the Bar of the State of New York, Ms Julianne Marley, Debevoise & Plimpton LLP, member of the Bar of the State of New York, Ms Rhianna Hoover, Debevoise & Plimpton LLP, member of the Bar of the State of New York, Mr. Joseph Klingler, Foley Hoag LLP, member of the Bars of the State of New York and the District of Columbia, Mr. Peter Tzeng, Foley Hoag LLP, member of the Bars of the State of New York and the District of Columbia, as Counsel; Ms Mary‑Grace McEvoy, Debevoise & Plimpton LLP, Mr. Andrew Wharton, Debevoise & Plimpton LLP, Mr. Jacob Waltner, Debevoise & Plimpton LLP, as Assistants, and the United States of America, represented by H.E. Ms Hissa Abdullah Ahmed Al‑Otaiba, Ambassador of the United Arab Emirates to the Kingdom of the Netherlands, as Agent; H.E. Mr. Abdalla Hamdan AlNaqbi, Director of International Law Department, Ministry of Foreign Affairs and International Co‑operation of the United Arab Emirates, H.E. Ms Lubna Qassim Al Bastaki, Deputy Permanent Representative of the Permanent Mission of the United Arab Emirates to the United Nations Office and other international organizations in Geneva, Mr. Scott Sheeran, Senior Legal Adviser to the Minister of State for Foreign Affairs, Ministry of Foreign Affairs and International Co‑operation of the United Arab Emirates, Barrister and Solicitor of the High Court of New Zealand, as Representatives and Advocates; Sir Daniel Bethlehem, QC, Barrister, Twenty Essex Chambers, member of the Bar of England and Wales, Mr. Mathias Forteau, Professor, University Paris Nanterre, as Counsel and Advocates; Mr. Abdulla Al Jasmi, Head of the Multilateral Treaties and Agreements Section, International Law Department, Ministry of Foreign Affairs and International Co‑operation of the United Arab Emirates, Mr. Mohamed Salim Ali Alowais, Head of the International Organizations and Courts Section, Embassy of the United Arab Emirates in the Netherlands, Ms Majd Abdelqadir Mohamed Abdalla, Senior Legal Researcher, Multi-lateral Treaties and Agreements Section, International Law Department, Ministry of Foreign Affairs and International Co‑operation of the United Arab Emirates, application de la ciedr (arrêt) 76 9 Mme Ashika Singh, cabinet Debevoise & Plimpton LLP, membre du barreau de l’Etat de New York, Mme Julianne Marley, cabinet Debevoise & Plimpton LLP, membre du barreau de l’Etat de New York, Mme Rhianna Hoover, cabinet Debevoise & Plimpton LLP, membre du barreau de l’Etat de New York, M. Joseph Klingler, cabinet Foley Hoag LLP, membre des barreaux de l’Etat de New York et du district de Columbia, M. Peter Tzeng, cabinet Foley Hoag LLP, membre des barreaux de l’Etat de New York et du district de Columbia, comme conseils ; Mme Mary‑Grace McEvoy, cabinet Debevoise & Plimpton LLP, M. Andrew Wharton, cabinet Debevoise & Plimpton LLP, M. Jacob Waltner, cabinet Debevoise & Plimpton LLP, comme assistants, et les Etats-Unis d’Amérique, représentés par S. Exc. Mme Hissa Abdullah Ahmed Al‑Otaiba, ambassadrice des Emirats arabes unis auprès du Royaume des Pays‑Bas, comme agente ; S. Exc. M. Abdalla Hamdan AlNaqbi, directeur du département de droit international, ministère des affaires étrangères et de la coopération internationale des Emirats arabes unis, S. Exc. Mme Lubna Qassim Al Bastaki, représentante permanente adjointe de la mission permanente des Emirats arabes unis auprès de l’Office des Nations Unies et des autres organisations internationales à Genève, M. Scott Sheeran, conseiller juridique principal auprès du ministre d’Etat aux affaires étrangères, ministère des affaires étrangères et de la coopération internationale des Emirats arabes unis, barrister et solicitor près la High Court de Nouvelle‑Zélande, comme représentants et avocats ; sir Daniel Bethlehem, QC, barrister, Twenty Essex Chambers, membre du barreau d’Angleterre et du pays de Galles, M. Mathias Forteau, professeur à l’Université Paris Nanterre, comme conseils et avocats ; M. Abdulla Al Jasmi, chef de la section des traités et accords multilatéraux, département de droit international, ministère des affaires étrangères et de la coopération internationale des Emirats arabes unis, M. Mohamed Salim Ali Alowais, chef de la section des organisations et juridictions internationales, ambassade des Emirats arabes unis aux Pays‑ Bas, Mme Majd Abdelqadir Mohamed Abdalla, chercheuse en droit principale, section des traités et accords multilatéraux, département de droit international, ministère des affaires étrangères et de la coopération internationale des Emirats arabes unis, 77 application of the cerd (judgment) 10 Mr. Rashed Jamal Ibrahim Ibrahim Azzam, Legal Researcher for International Relations, International Law Department, Ministry of Foreign Affairs and International Co‑operation of the United Arab Emirates, as Representatives; Ms Caroline Balme, Legal Adviser to the Minister of State for Foreign Affairs, Ministry of Foreign Affairs and International Co‑operation of the United Arab Emirates, Mr. Paolo Busco, Legal Adviser to the Minister of State for Foreign Affairs, Ministry of Foreign Affairs and International Co‑operation of the United Arab Emirates, member of the Italian Bar, registered European lawyer with the Bar of England and Wales, Mr. Charles L. O. Buderi, Partner, Curtis, Mallet‑Prevost, Colt & Mosle LLP, London, member of the Bars of the District of Columbia and the State of California, Mr. Simon Olleson, Barrister, Twenty Essex Chambers, member of the Bar of England and Wales, Ms Luciana T. Ricart, LLM, New York University School of Law, Partner, Curtis, Mallet‑Prevost, Colt & Mosle LLP, London, member of the Buenos Aires Bar Association and Solicitor of the Senior Courts of England and Wales, Mr. Hal Shapiro, Partner, Akin Gump Strauss Hauer & Feld LLP, Washington, DC, as Counsel; Ms Patricia Jimenez Kwast, international law and dispute settlement consultant, DPhil candidate, University of Oxford, as Assistant Counsel, The Court, composed as above, after deliberation, delivers the following Judgment: 1. On 11 June 2018, the State of Qatar (hereinafter referred to as “Qatar”) filed in the Registry of the Court an Application instituting proceedings against the United Arab Emirates (hereinafter referred to as the “UAE”) with regard to alleged violations of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination of 21 December 1965 (hereinafter “CERD” or the “Convention”). 2. In its Application, Qatar seeks to found the Court’s jurisdiction on Article 36, paragraph 1, of the Statute of the Court and on Article 22 of CERD. 3. On 11 June 2018, Qatar also submitted a Request for the indication of provisional measures, referring to Article 41 of the Statute and to Articles 73, 74 and 75 of the Rules of Court. 4. The Registrar immediately communicated to the Government of the UAE the Application, in accordance with Article 40, paragraph 2, of the Statute of the Court, and the Request for the indication of provisional measures, in accor- application de la ciedr (arrêt) 77 10 M. Rashed Jamal Ibrahim Ibrahim Azzam, chercheur en droit dans le domaine des relations internationales, département de droit international, ministère des affaires étrangères et de la coopération internationale des Emirats arabes unis, comme représentants ; Mme Caroline Balme, conseillère juridique auprès du ministre d’Etat aux affaires étrangères, ministère des affaires étrangères et de la coopération internationale des Emirats arabes unis, M. Paolo Busco, conseiller juridique auprès du ministre d’Etat aux affaires étrangères, ministère des affaires étrangères et de la coopération internationale des Emirats arabes unis, membre du barreau d’Italie, inscrit en qualité de registered European lawyer au barreau d’Angleterre et du pays de Galles, M. Charles L. O. Buderi, associé, cabinet Curtis, Mallet‑Prevost, Colt & Mosle LLP, Londres, membre des barreaux du district de Columbia et de l’Etat de Californie, M. Simon Olleson, barrister, Twenty Essex Chambers, membre du barreau d’Angleterre et du pays de Galles, Mme Luciana T. Ricart, LLM, faculté de droit de l’Université de New York, associée, cabinet Curtis, Mallet‑Prevost, Colt & Mosle LLP, Londres, membre du barreau de Buenos Aires et solicitor près les juridictions supérieures d’Angleterre et du pays de Galles, M. Hal Shapiro, associé, cabinet Akin Gump Strauss Hauer & Feld LLP, Washington, DC, comme conseils ; Mme Patricia Jimenez Kwast, consultante en droit international et en règlement des différends, doctorante, Université d’Oxford, comme conseil adjointe, La Cour, ainsi composée, après délibéré en chambre du conseil, rend l’arrêt suivant : 1. Le 11 juin 2018, l’Etat du Qatar (ci‑après le « Qatar ») a déposé au Greffe de la Cour une requête introductive d’instance contre les Emirats arabes unis à raison de violations alléguées de la convention internationale du 21 décembre 1965 sur l’élimination de toutes les formes de discrimination raciale (ci‑après la « CIEDR » ou la « convention »). 2. Dans sa requête, le Qatar entend fonder la compétence de la Cour sur le paragraphe 1 de l’article 36 du Statut de celle‑ci et sur l’article 22 de la CIEDR. 3. Le 11 juin 2018, le Qatar a également présenté une demande en indication de mesures conservatoires, en application de l’article 41 du Statut de la Cour et des articles 73, 74 et 75 de son Règlement. 4. Le greffier a immédiatement communiqué au Gouvernement des Emirats arabes unis la requête, conformément au paragraphe 2 de l’article 40 du Statut de la Cour, et la demande en indication de mesures conservatoires, conformé- 78 application of the cerd (judgment) 11 dance with Article 73, paragraph 2, of the Rules of Court. He also notified the Secretary‑General of the United Nations of the filing of the Application and the Request for the indication of provisional measures by Qatar. 5. In addition, by a letter dated 13 June 2018, the Registrar informed all Member States of the United Nations of the filing of the above‑mentioned Application and Request for the indication of provisional measures. 6. Pursuant to Article 40, paragraph 3, of the Statute of the Court, the Registrar notified the Member States of the United Nations, through the Secretary‑General, of the filing of the Application, by transmission of the printed bilingual text thereof. 7. Since the Court included upon the Bench no judge of the nationality of either Party, each Party proceeded to exercise the right conferred upon it by Article 31, paragraph 3, of the Statute to choose a judge ad hoc to sit in the case. Qatar chose Mr. Yves Daudet and the UAE Mr. Jean‑Pierre Cot. 8. By its Order of 23 July 2018, the Court, having heard the Parties, indicated the following provisional measures: “(1) The United Arab Emirates must ensure that (i) families that include a Qatari, separated by the measures adopted by the United Arab Emirates on 5 June 2017, are reunited; (ii) Qatari students affected by the measures adopted by the United Arab Emirates on 5 June 2017 are given the opportunity to complete their education in the United Arab Emirates or to obtain their educational records if they wish to continue their studies elsewhere; and (iii) Qataris affected by the measures adopted by the United Arab Emirates on 5 June 2017 are allowed access to tribunals and other judicial organs of the United Arab Emirates; (2) Both Parties shall refrain from any action which might aggravate or extend the dispute before the Court or make it more difficult to resolve.” (I.C.J. Reports 2018 (II), pp. 433‑434, para. 79.) 9. Pursuant to Article 43, paragraph 1, of the Rules of Court, the Registrar addressed to States parties to CERD the notifications provided for in Article 63, paragraph 1, of the Statute. In addition, in accordance with Article 69, paragraph 3, of the Rules of Court, the Registrar addressed to the United Nations, through its Secretary‑General, the notifications provided for in Article 34, paragraph 3, of the Statute. 10. By an Order dated 25 July 2018, the President of the Court fixed 25 April 2019 and 27 January 2020 as the respective time‑limits for the filing in the case of a Memorial by Qatar and a Counter‑Memorial by the UAE. 11. On 22 March 2019, the UAE, referring to Article 41 of the Statute and Articles 73, 74 and 75 of the Rules of Court, also submitted a Request for the indication of provisional measures, in order to “preserve the UAE’s procedural rights” and “prevent Qatar from further aggravating or extending the dispute between the Parties pending a final decision in th[e] case”. 12. The Deputy‑Registrar immediately communicated a copy of the said Request to the Government of Qatar. He also notified the Secretary‑General of the United Nations of the filing of the UAE’s Request for the indication of provisional measures. application de la ciedr (arrêt) 78 11 ment au paragraphe 2 de l’article 73 du Règlement. Il a également informé le Secrétaire général de l’Organisation des Nations Unies du dépôt par le Qatar de cette requête et de cette demande. 5. En outre, par lettre en date du 13 juin 2018, le greffier en a informé tous les Etats Membres de l’Organisation des Nations Unies. 6. Conformément au paragraphe 3 de l’article 40 du Statut de la Cour, le greffier a informé les Etats Membres de l’Organisation des Nations Unies en leur transmettant, par l’entremise du Secrétaire général, le texte bilingue imprimé de la requête. 7. La Cour ne comptant sur le siège aucun juge de la nationalité de l’une ou l’autre Partie, chacune d’elles s’est prévalue du droit que lui confère le paragraphe 3 de l’article 31 du Statut de désigner un juge ad hoc pour siéger en l’affaire. Le Qatar a désigné M. Yves Daudet et les Emirats arabes unis, M. Jean‑Pierre Cot. 8. Par son ordonnance du 23 juillet 2018, la Cour, ayant entendu les Parties, a indiqué les mesures conservatoires suivantes : « 1) Les Emirats arabes unis doivent veiller à ce que i) les familles qataro‑émiriennes séparées par suite des mesures adoptées par les Emirats arabes unis le 5 juin 2017 soient réunies ; ii) les étudiants qatariens affectés par les mesures adoptées par les Emirats arabes unis le 5 juin 2017 puissent terminer leurs études aux Emirats arabes unis ou obtenir leur dossier scolaire ou universitaire s’ils souhaitent étudier ailleurs ; et iii) les Qatariens affectés par les mesures adoptées par les Emirats arabes unis le 5 juin 2017 puissent avoir accès aux tribunaux et autres organes judiciaires de cet Etat ; 2) Les deux Parties doivent s’abstenir de tout acte qui risquerait d’aggraver ou d’étendre le différend dont la Cour est saisie ou d’en rendre le règlement plus difficile. » (C.I.J. Recueil 2018 (II), p. 433‑434, par. 79.) 9. Conformément au paragraphe 1 de l’article 43 du Règlement, le greffier a adressé aux Etats parties à la CIEDR la notification prévue au paragraphe 1 de l’article 63 du Statut. En outre, conformément au paragraphe 3 de l’article 69 du Règlement, il a adressé à l’Organisation des Nations Unies, par l’entremise de son Secrétaire général, la notification prévue au paragraphe 3 de l’article 34 du Statut. 10. Par ordonnance en date du 25 juillet 2018, le président de la Cour a fixé au 25 avril 2019 et au 27 janvier 2020, respectivement, les dates d’expiration des délais pour le dépôt en l’affaire d’un mémoire par le Qatar et d’un contre‑mémoire par les Emirats arabes unis.11. Le 22 mars 2019, les Emirats arabes unis, se référant à l’article 41 du Statut et aux articles 73, 74 et 75 du Règlement, ont présenté eux aussi une demande en indication de mesures conservatoires, afin de « sauvegarder leurs droits procéduraux » et d’« empêcher le Qatar d’aggraver ou d’étendre encore le différend entre les Parties avant l’arrêt définitif ». 12. Le greffier adjoint a immédiatement communiqué copie de ladite demande au Gouvernement du Qatar. Il a également informé le Secrétaire général de l’Organisation des Nations Unies du dépôt par les Emirats arabes unis de cette demande. 79 application of the cerd (judgment) 12 13. Qatar filed its Memorial in the case on 25 April 2019, within the time‑limit fixed by the President of the Court. 14. On 30 April 2019, within the time‑limit prescribed by Article 79, paragraph 1, of the Rules of Court of 14 April 1978 as amended on 1 February 2001, the UAE presented preliminary objections to the jurisdiction of the Court and the admissibility of the Application. Consequently, by an Order of 2 May 2019, having noted that, by virtue of Article 79, paragraph 5, of the Rules of Court of 14 April 1978 as amended on 1 February 2001, the proceedings on the merits were suspended, the President of the Court fixed 30 August 2019 as the time‑limit within which Qatar could present a written statement of its observations and submissions on the preliminary objections raised by the UAE. 15. By its Order of 14 June 2019, the Court, having heard the Parties, rejected the Request for the indication of provisional measures submitted by the UAE on 22 March 2019. 16. Qatar filed a written statement of its observations and submissions on the preliminary objections raised by the UAE on 30 August 2019, within the time‑limit fixed by the President of the Court. 17. By a letter dated 3 September 2019, the Registrar, acting pursuant to Article 69, paragraph 3, of the Rules of Court, transmitted to the Secretary‑General of the United Nations copies of the written proceedings filed thus far in the case, and asked whether the Organization intended to present observations in writing under that provision in relation to the preliminary objections raised by the UAE. By a letter dated 27 September 2019, the Under‑Secretary‑General for Legal Affairs of the United Nations stated that the Organization did not intend to submit any observations in writing within the meaning of Article 69, paragraph 3, of the Rules of Court. 18. By a letter dated 19 August 2020, the Agent of the UAE, referring to Article 56 of the Rules of Court and Practice Directions IX and IXbis, expressed the wish of her Government to produce three new documents. By a letter dated 24 August 2020, the Agent of Qatar informed the Court that his Government consented to the production of the three new documents by the UAE and expressed the wish of his Government also to produce four new documents under Article 56, paragraph 1, of the Rules of Court. By a letter dated 26 August 2020, the Agent of the UAE informed the Court that her Government had no objection to the production of the four new documents by Qatar. Accordingly, the documents submitted by both Parties were added to the case file. 19. Pursuant to Article 53, paragraph 2, of its Rules, the Court, after ascertaining the views of the Parties, decided that copies of the pleadings and the documents annexed would be made accessible to the public on the opening of the oral proceedings, with the exception of Annexes 163, 165‑243, 247‑263, 265‑271 and Exhibit B of Annex 272 of Qatar’s Memorial, and Exhibit A of Annex 272‑A of Qatar’s Written Statement on the Preliminary Objections of the UAE. 20. Public hearings on the preliminary objections raised by the UAE were held by video link from 31 August 2020 to 7 September 2020, at which the Court heard the oral arguments and replies of: For the UAE: H.E. Ms Hissa Abdullah Ahmed Al‑Otaiba, H.E. Mr. Abdalla Hamdan AlNaqbi, Ms Lubna Qassim Al Bastaki, Sir Daniel Bethlehem, application de la ciedr (arrêt) 79 12 13. Le Qatar a déposé son mémoire en l’affaire le 25 avril 2019, dans le délai fixé par le président de la Cour. 14. Le 30 avril 2019, dans le délai prescrit au paragraphe 1 de l’article 79 du Règlement du 14 avril 1978, tel qu’amendé le 1er février 2001, les Emirats arabes unis ont présenté des exceptions préliminaires d’incompétence de la Cour et d’irrecevabilité de la requête. En conséquence, par ordonnance du 2 mai 2019, le président de la Cour a noté que, en vertu des dispositions du paragraphe 5 de ce même article, la procédure sur le fond était suspendue, et fixé au 30 août 2019 la date d’expiration du délai dans lequel le Qatar pouvait présenter un exposé écrit contenant ses observations et conclusions sur les exceptions préliminaires soulevées par les Emirats arabes unis. 15. Par son ordonnance du 14 juin 2019, la Cour, ayant entendu les Parties, a rejeté la demande en indication de mesures conservatoires soumise par les Emirats arabes unis le 22 mars 2019. 16. Le Qatar a déposé un exposé écrit contenant ses observations et conclusions sur les exceptions préliminaires soulevées par les Emirats arabes unis le 30 août 2019, dans le délai fixé par le président de la Cour. 17. Par lettre en date du 3 septembre 2019, le greffier, en application du paragraphe 3 de l’article 69 du Règlement, a transmis au Secrétaire général de l’Organisation des Nations Unies des exemplaires des écritures déposées jusqu’alors en l’affaire, en le priant de lui faire savoir si l’Organisation entendait présenter, en vertu de cette disposition, des observations écrites concernant les exceptions préliminaires soulevées par les Emirats arabes unis. Par lettre en date du 27 septembre 2019, le Secrétaire général adjoint aux affaires juridiques de l’Organisation des Nations Unies a indiqué que l’Organisation n’entendait présenter aucune observation écrite au sens du paragraphe 3 de l’article 69 du Règlement. 18. Par lettre en date du 19 août 2020, l’agente des Emirats arabes unis, se référant à l’article 56 du Règlement et aux instructions de procédure IX et IXbis, a exprimé le souhait de son gouvernement de produire trois nouveaux documents. Par lettre en date du 24 août 2020, l’agent du Qatar a informé la Cour que son gouvernement consentait à ce que les Emirats arabes unis produisent les trois documents en question, et exprimé le souhait de celui‑ci de produire à son tour quatre nouveaux documents, en vertu du paragraphe 1 de l’article 56 du Règlement. Par lettre en date du 26 août 2020, l’agente des Emirats arabes unis a informé la Cour que son gouvernement ne s’opposait pas à ce que l’Etat du Qatar produise les quatre documents en question. En conséquence, les documents présentés par les deux Parties ont été versés au dossier de l’affaire. 19. Conformément au paragraphe 2 de l’article 53 du Règlement, la Cour a décidé, après avoir consulté les Parties, que des exemplaires des pièces de procédure et des documents annexés seraient rendus accessibles au public à l’ouverture de la procédure orale, à l’exception des annexes 163, 165‑243, 247‑263, 265‑271, de la pièce B de l’annexe 272 du mémoire du Qatar et de la pièce A de l’annexe 272‑A de l’exposé écrit du Qatar sur les exceptions préliminaires soulevées par les Emirats arabes unis. 20. Des audiences publiques sur les exceptions préliminaires soulevées par les Emirats arabes unis ont été tenues par liaison vidéo du 31 août au 7 septembre 2020, au cours desquelles ont été entendus en leurs plaidoiries et réponses : Pour les Emirats arabes unis : S. Exc. Mme Hissa Abdullah Ahmed Al‑Otaiba, S. Exc. M. Abdalla Hamdan AlNaqbi, Mme Lubna Qassim Al Bastaki, sir Daniel Bethlehem, 80 application of the cerd (judgment) 13 Mr. Scott Sheeran, Mr. Mathias Forteau. For Qatar: Mr. Mohammed Abdulaziz Al‑Khulaifi, Mr. Pierre Klein, Ms Catherine Amirfar, Mr. Lawrence H. Martin, Mr. Nico Schrijver, Mr. Vaughan Lowe. * 21. In the Application, the following claims were made by Qatar: “65. Qatar, in its own right and as parens patriae of its citizens, respectfully requests the Court to adjudge and declare that the UAE, through its State organs, State agents, and other persons and entities exercising governmental authority, and through other agents acting on its instructions or under its direction and control, has violated its obligations under Articles 2, 4, 5, 6, and 7 of the CERD by taking, inter alia, the following unlawful actions: (a) Expelling, on a collective basis, all Qataris from, and prohibiting the entry of all Qataris into, the UAE on the basis of their national origin; (b) Violating other fundamental rights, including the rights to marriage and choice of spouse, freedom of opinion and expression, public health and medical care, education and training, property, work, participation in cultural activities, and equal treatment before tribunals; (c) Failing to condemn and instead encouraging racial hatred against Qatar and Qataris and failing to take measures that aim to combat prejudices, including by inter alia: criminalizing the expression of sympathy toward Qatar and Qataris; allowing, promoting, and financing an international anti‑Qatar public and social‑media campaign; silencing Qatari media; and calling for physical attacks on Qatari entities; and (d) Failing to provide effective protection and remedies to Qataris to seek redress against acts of racial discrimination through UAE courts and institutions. 66. Accordingly, Qatar respectfully requests the Court to order the UAE to take all steps necessary to comply with its obligations under CERD and, inter alia: (a) Immediately cease and revoke the discriminatory measures, including but not limited to the directives against ‘sympathizing’ with Qataris, and any other national laws that discriminate de jure or de facto against Qataris on the basis of their national origin; application de la ciedr (arrêt) 80 13 M. Scott Sheeran, M. Mathias Forteau. Pour le Qatar : M. Mohammed Abdulaziz Al‑Khulaifi, M. Pierre Klein, Mme Catherine Amirfar, M. Lawrence H. Martin, M. Nico Schrijver, M. Vaughan Lowe. * 21. Dans sa requête, le Qatar a formulé les demandes suivantes : « 65. Le Qatar, en son nom propre et en qualité de parens patriae des Qatariens, prie respectueusement la Cour de dire et juger que les Emirats arabes unis, par l’intermédiaire de leurs organes et agents et d’autres personnes et entités exerçant la puissance publique, ainsi que par l’intermédiaire d’autres agents agissant sur leurs instructions ou sous leur direction et leur contrôle, ont manqué aux obligations que leur imposent les articles 2, 4, 5, 6 et 7 de la CIEDR en prenant notamment les mesures illicites suivantes : a) en expulsant collectivement tous les Qatariens et en interdisant à tous les Qatariens d’entrer sur le territoire émirien, au motif de leur origine nationale ; b) en violant d’autres droits fondamentaux, dont le droit de se marier et de choisir son conjoint, le droit à la liberté d’opinion et d’expression, le droit à la santé et aux soins médicaux, le droit à l’éducation et à la formation professionnelle, le droit à la propriété, le droit au travail, le droit de prendre part aux activités culturelles et le droit à un traitement égal devant les tribunaux ; c) en s’abstenant de condamner, voire en encourageant, la haine raciale contre le Qatar et les Qatariens, et en s’abstenant de prendre des mesures destinées à lutter contre les préjugés, notamment en incriminant toute expression de sympathie à l’égard du Qatar et des Qatariens, en autorisant, en promouvant et en finançant une campagne internationale visant à dresser l’opinion publique et les médias sociaux contre le Qatar, en réduisant les médias qatariens au silence et en appelant à des attaques contre des entités qatariennes ; et d) en s’abstenant de protéger les Qatariens contre les actes de discrimination raciale et de leur offrir des voies de recours efficaces leur permettant d’obtenir réparation de tels actes devant les tribunaux et autres organismes émiriens. 66. En conséquence, le Qatar prie respectueusement la Cour d’ordonner aux Emirats arabes unis de prendre toutes les dispositions requises pour s’acquitter des obligations que leur impose la CIEDR, et notamment : a) de suspendre et de révoquer immédiatement les mesures discriminatoires actuellement en vigueur, dont, mais pas seulement, les directives interdisant de « sympathiser » avec des Qatariens et toute autre législation nationale discriminatoire de jure ou de facto à l’égard des Qatariens au motif de leur origine nationale ; 81 application of the cerd (judgment) 14 (b) Immediately cease all other measures that incite discrimination (including media campaigns and supporting others to propagate discriminatory messages) and criminalize such measures; (c) Comply with its obligations under the CERD to condemn publicly racial discrimination against Qataris, pursue a policy of eliminating racial discrimination, and adopt measures to combat such prejudice; (d) Refrain from taking any further measures that would discriminate against Qataris within its jurisdiction or control; (e) Restore rights of Qataris to, inter alia, marriage and choice of spouse, freedom of opinion and expression, public health and medical care, education and training, property, work, participation in cultural activities, and equal treatment before tribunals, and put in place measures to ensure those rights are respected; (f) Provide assurances and guarantees of non‑repetition of the UAE’s illegal conduct; and (g) Make full reparation, including compensation, for the harm suffered as a result of the UAE’s actions in violation of the CERD.” 22. In the written proceedings on the merits, the following submissions were presented on behalf of the Government of Qatar in its Memorial: “On the basis of the facts and legal arguments presented in this Memorial, Qatar, in its own right and as parens patriae of its citizens, respectfully requests the Court: 1. To adjudge and declare that the UAE, by the acts and omissions of its organs, agents, persons, and entities exercising governmental authority, and through other agents acting on its instructions or under its direction and control, is responsible for violations of the CERD, namely Articles 2 (1), 4, 5, 6 and 7, including by: (a) expelling, on a collective basis, all Qataris from the UAE; (b) applying the Absolute Ban and Modified Travel Ban in violation of fundamental rights that must be guaranteed equally to all under the CERD, regardless of national origin, including the rights to family, freedom of opinion and expression, education and training, property, work, and equal treatment before tribunals; (c) engaging in, sponsoring, supporting, and otherwise encouraging racial discrimination, including racially discriminatory incitement against Qataris, most importantly by criminalizing ‘sympathy’ with Qatar and orchestrating, funding, and actively promoting a campaign of hatred against Qatar and Qataris, and thereby failing to nullify laws and regulations that have the effect of creating or perpetuating racial discrimination, to take ‘all appropriate’ measures to combat the spread of prejudice and negative stereotypes, and to promote tolerance, understanding and friendship; and application de la ciedr (arrêt) 81 14 b) de suspendre immédiatement toutes autres mesures incitant à la discrimination (y compris les campagnes médiatiques et le soutien à la diffusion de messages à caractère discriminatoire) et d’incriminer de telles mesures ; c) de s’acquitter des obligations qui leur sont faites par la CIEDR de condamner publiquement la discrimination raciale à l’égard des Qatariens, de poursuivre une politique tendant à éliminer la discrimination raciale et de prendre des mesures pour lutter contre semblables préjugés ; d) de s’abstenir de prendre toute autre mesure susceptible d’être discriminatoire à l’égard des Qatariens relevant de leur juridiction ou se trouvant sous leur contrôle ; e) de rétablir les Qatariens dans leurs droits, notamment le droit de se marier et de choisir son conjoint, le droit à la liberté d’opinion et d’expression, le droit à la santé et aux soins médicaux, le droit à l’éducation et à la formation professionnelle, le droit à la propriété, le droit au travail, le droit de prendre part aux activités culturelles et le droit à un traitement égal devant les tribunaux, et de mettre en oeuvre des mesures pour garantir le respect de ces droits ; f) de donner des garanties et assurances de non‑répétition de leur conduite illicite ; et g) de réparer intégralement, notamment par une indemnisation, le préjudice résultant de leurs actes commis en violation de la CIEDR. » 22. Au cours de la procédure écrite sur le fond, les conclusions ci‑après ont été présentées au nom du Gouvernement du Qatar dans le mémoire : « Sur la base des faits et des arguments juridiques exposés dans le présent mémoire, le Qatar, en son nom propre et en qualité de parens patriae des Qatariens, prie respectueusement la Cour : 1. De dire et juger que les Emirats arabes unis, par les actes et omissions de leurs organes et agents et de personnes et d’entités exerçant la puissance publique, ainsi que par l’intermédiaire d’autres agents agissant sur leurs instructions ou sous leur direction et leur contrôle, ont enfreint le paragraphe 1 de l’article 2 et les articles 4, 5, 6 et 7 de la CIEDR, notamment : a) en expulsant collectivement tous les Qatariens du territoire émirien ; b) en appliquant l’interdiction formelle d’entrée et sa version modifiée en violation des droits fondamentaux qui doivent être accordés à tous de la même manière au titre de la CIEDR, indépendamment de l’origine nationale, dont le droit à la famille, le droit à la liberté d’opinion et d’expression, le droit à l’éducation et à la formation professionnelle, le droit à la propriété, le droit au travail et le droit à un traitement égal devant les tribunaux ; c) en se livrant à des actes de discrimination raciale, en soutenant, en appuyant et en encourageant celle‑ci de toute autre manière, notamment en incitant à la discrimination raciale à l’encontre des Qatariens, plus particulièrement en incriminant toute expression de « sympathie » à l’égard du Qatar et en organisant, en finançant et en promouvant activement une campagne de haine contre le Qatar et les Qatariens, négligeant ainsi d’annuler les lois et dispositions réglementaires ayant pour effet de créer la discrimination raciale et de la perpétuer, de prendre « toutes les mesures appropriées » pour lutter contre la propagation des préjugés et des stéréotypes négatifs et de promouvoir la tolérance, l’entente et l’amitié ; et 82 application of the cerd (judgment) 15 (d) failing to provide access to effective protection and remedies to Qataris to seek redress against acts of racial discrimination under the CERD through UAE tribunals or institutions, including the right to seek reparation; 2. To adjudge and declare that the UAE has violated the Court’s Order on Provisional Measures of 23 July 2018; 3. And further to adjudge and declare that the UAE is obligated to cease its ongoing violations, make full reparation for all material and moral damage caused by its internationally wrongful acts and omissions under the CERD, and offer assurances and guarantees of non‑repetition. 4. Accordingly, the Court is respectfully requested to order that the UAE: (a) immediately cease its ongoing internationally wrongful acts and omissions in contravention of Articles 2 (1), 4, 5, 6, and 7 of the Convention as requested in Chapter VII; (b) provide full reparation for the harm caused by its actions, including (i) restitution by lifting the ongoing Modified Travel Ban as it applies to Qataris collectively based on their national origin; (ii) financial compensation for the material and moral damage suffered by Qatar and Qataris, in an amount to be quantified in a separate phase of these proceedings; and (iii) satisfaction in the forms of a declaration of wrongfulness and an apology to Qatar and the Qatari people, as requested in Chapter VII; and (c) provide Qatar with assurances and guarantees of non‑repetition in written form as requested in Chapter VII.” 23. In the preliminary objections, the following submissions were presented on behalf of the Government of the UAE: “239. On the basis of each of the three independent preliminary objections explained above, the United Arab Emirates respectfully requests the Court to adjudge and declare that the Court lacks jurisdiction over Qatar’s Application of 11 June 2018 and that the Application is inadmissible. 240. The United Arab Emirates reserves the right to amend and supplement this submission in accordance with the provisions of the Statute and the Rules of Court. The United Arab Emirates also reserves the right to submit further objections to the jurisdiction of the Court and to the admissibility of Qatar’s claims if the case were to proceed to any subsequent phase.” 24. In the written statement of its observations and submissions on the preliminary objections, the following submissions were presented on behalf of the Government of Qatar: “For the reasons described above, Qatar respectfully requests that the Court: 1. Reject the Preliminary Objections presented by the UAE; application de la ciedr (arrêt) 82 15 d) en privant les Qatariens de la possibilité de se prévaloir, sur le fondement de la CIEDR, d’une protection et de voies de recours effectives, devant les tribunaux et autres organismes émiriens, contre les actes de discrimination raciale, notamment du droit de demander réparation à raison de tels actes ; 2. De dire et juger que les Emirats arabes unis ont violé l’ordonnance en indication de mesures conservatoires rendue par la Cour le 23 juillet 2018 ; 3. De dire et juger au surplus que les Emirats arabes unis sont tenus de cesser les violations auxquelles ils se livrent actuellement, de réparer l’intégralité du préjudice moral et matériel causé par leurs actes et omissions internationalement illicites au regard de la CIEDR, et d’offrir des assurances et des garanties de non‑répétition. 4. En conséquence, la Cour est respectueusement priée d’ordonner aux Emirats arabes unis : a) de cesser immédiatement les actes et omissions internationalement illicites par lesquels ils contreviennent au paragraphe 1 de l’article 2 et aux articles 4, 5, 6 et 7 de la CIEDR, comme il est demandé au chapitre VII ; b) de réparer intégralement les dommages causés par leurs actes, au moyen notamment i) de la restitution, en levant l’interdiction d’entrée dans sa version modifiée en ce qu’elle s’applique collectivement aux Qatariens au motif de leur origine nationale ; ii) d’une indemnisation visant à réparer le préjudice matériel et moral subi par le Qatar et les Qatariens, dont le montant sera déterminé lors d’une phase distincte de la présente procédure ; et iii) d’une satisfaction prenant la forme d’une déclaration d’illicéité et d’excuses présentées au Qatar et aux Qatariens, comme il est demandé au chapitre VII ; et c) d’offrir au Qatar des assurances et des garanties écrites de non‑répétition, comme il est demandé au chapitre VII. » 23. Les conclusions ci‑après ont été présentées au nom du Gouvernement des Emirats arabes unis dans les exceptions préliminaires : « 239. Sur le fondement de chacune des trois exceptions préliminaires indépendantes exposées ci‑dessus, les Emirats arabes unis prient respectueusement la Cour de dire et juger qu’elle n’est pas compétente pour connaître de la requête du Qatar datée du 11 juin 2018 et que ladite requête est irrecevable. 240. Les Emirats arabes unis se réservent le droit de modifier et de compléter la présente conclusion conformément aux dispositions du Statut et du Règlement de la Cour. Ils se réservent également le droit de présenter de nouvelles exceptions à la compétence de la Cour et à la recevabilité des demandes du Qatar si l’affaire devait passer à une phase ultérieure de la procédure. » 24. Les conclusions ci‑après ont été présentées au nom du Gouvernement du Qatar dans l’exposé écrit contenant ses observations et conclusions sur les exceptions préliminaires : « Pour les raisons exposées ci‑dessus, le Qatar prie respectueusement la Cour : 1. de rejeter les exceptions préliminaires soulevées par les Emirats arabes unis ; 83 application of the cerd (judgment) 16 2. Hold that it has jurisdiction to hear the claims presented by Qatar as set out in the Memorial, and that these claims are admissible; and 3. Proceed to hear those claims on the merits.” 25. At the oral proceedings on the preliminary objections, the following submissions were presented by the Parties: On behalf of the Government of the UAE, at the hearing of 4 September 2020: “The United Arab Emirates respectfully requests the Court to adjudge and declare that the Court lacks jurisdiction to address the claims brought by the State of Qatar by its Application dated 11 June 2018.” On behalf of the Government of Qatar, at the hearing of 7 September 2020: “In accordance with Article 60 of the Rules of Court, for the reasons explained in our Written Statement of 30 August 2019 and during these hearings, Qatar respectfully asks the Court to: (a) Reject the Preliminary Objections presented by the UAE; (b) Hold that it has jurisdiction to hear the claims presented by Qatar as set out in its Application and Memorial; and (c) Proceed to hear those claims on the merits; (d) Or, in the alternative, reject the Second Preliminary Objection presented by the UAE and hold, in accordance with the provisions of Article 79ter, paragraph 4, of the Rules of Court, that the First Preliminary Objection submitted by the UAE does not possess an exclusively preliminary character.” * * * I. Introduction A. Factual Background 26. On 5 June 2017, the UAE issued a statement (hereinafter the “5 June 2017 statement”) which provided, in relevant part, that “based on the insistence of the State of Qatar to continue to undermine the security and stability of the region and its failure to honour international commitments and agreements, it has been decided to take the following measures that are necessary for safeguarding the interests of the [Gulf Cooperation Council] States in general and those of the brotherly Qatari people in particular: ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� application de la ciedr (arrêt) 83 16 2. de juger qu’elle est compétente pour connaître des demandes présentées par le Qatar dans son mémoire et que lesdites demandes sont recevables ; et 3. de procéder à l’examen au fond de ces demandes. » 25. A l’issue de la procédure orale sur les exceptions préliminaires, les conclusions ci‑après ont été présentées par les Parties : Au nom du Gouvernement des Emirats arabes unis, à l’audience du 4 septembre 2020 : « Les Emirats arabes unis prient respectueusement la Cour de dire et juger qu’elle n’est pas compétente pour connaître des demandes formulées par l’Etat du Qatar dans sa requête en date du 11 juin 2018. » Au nom du Gouvernement du Qatar, à l’audience du 7 septembre 2020 : « Se référant à l’article 60 du Règlement de la Cour, pour les raisons indiquées dans son exposé écrit en date du 30 août 2019 et à l’audience, le Qatar prie respectueusement la Cour : a) de rejeter les exceptions préliminaires soulevées par les Emirats arabes unis ; b) de juger qu’elle est compétente pour connaître des demandes formulées par le Qatar dans sa requête et son mémoire ; et c) de procéder à l’examen au fond de ces demandes ; d) ou, à titre subsidiaire, de rejeter la deuxième exception préliminaire soulevée par les Emirats arabes unis et de juger, conformément aux dispositions du paragraphe 4 de l’article 79ter du Règlement de la Cour, que la première exception préliminaire présentée par les Emirats arabes unis n’a pas un caractère exclusivement préliminaire. » * * * I. Introduction A. Contexte factuel 26. Le 5 juin 2017, les Emirats arabes unis ont publié une déclaration (ci‑après la « déclaration du 5 juin 2017 ») qui, dans sa partie pertinente, indiquait ce qui suit : « [E]tant donné que l’Etat du Qatar persiste à compromettre la sécurité et la stabilité de la région et à ne pas respecter les obligations et accords auxquels il a souscrit sur le plan international, les Emirats arabes unis ont adopté les mesures suivantes, nécessaires pour préserver les intérêts des Etats membres du [Conseil de coopération du Golfe] en général et ceux de leurs frères qatariens en particulier : ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 84 application of the cerd (judgment) 17 2. Preventing Qatari nationals from entering the UAE or crossing its point of entry, giving Qatari residents and visitors in the UAE 14 days to leave the country for precautionary security reasons. The UAE nationals are likewise banned from traveling to or staying in Qatar or transiting through its territories.” The Gulf Cooperation Council (hereinafter the “GCC”) is an intergovernmental political and economic union of which Qatar and the UAE were founding members in 1981, along with the Kingdom of Bahrain, the State of Kuwait, the Sultanate of Oman and the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. 27. In addition, the 5 June 2017 statement announced the severance of diplomatic relations with Qatar, in support of actions taken by the Kingdom of Bahrain and the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, giving Qatari diplomats 48 hours to leave the UAE. It also proclaimed the “[c]losure of UAE airspace and seaports for all Qataris in 24 hours and banning [of] all Qatari means of transportation, coming to or leaving the UAE, from crossing, entering or leaving the UAE territories”. 28. The 5 June 2017 statement explained: “The UAE is taking these decisive measures as a result of the Qatari authorities’ failure to abide by the Riyadh Agreement on returning GCC diplomats to Doha and its Complementary Arrangement in 2014, and Qatar’s continued support, funding and hosting of terror groups, primarily Islamic Brotherhood, and its sustained endeavours to promote the ideologies of Daesh and Al Qaeda across its direct and indirect media in addition to Qatar’s violation of the statement issued at the US‑Islamic Summit in Riyadh on May 21st, 2017 on countering terrorism in the region and considering Iran a state sponsor of terrorism. The UAE measures are taken as well based on Qatari authorities’ hosting of terrorist elements and meddling in the affairs of other countries as well as their support of terror groups — policies which are likely to push the region into a stage of unpredictable consequences.” 29. According to an announcement posted on the website of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and International Co‑operation of the UAE on 11 June 2017, the President of the UAE had “instructed the authorities concerned to take into consideration the humanitarian circumstances of Emirati-Qatari joint families”. The announcement further provided that “the Ministry of the Interior ha[d] set up a telephone line . . . to receive such cases and take appropriate measures to help them”. In a statement application de la ciedr (arrêt) 84 17 2. Il est interdit aux ressortissants qatariens d’entrer sur le territoire des Emirats arabes unis ou de franchir ses points d’entrée, et ceux qui s’y trouvent en qualité de résident ou de visiteur doivent le quitter dans un délai de 14 jours par mesure de sécurité préventive. De même, il est interdit aux ressortissants des Emirats arabes unis de voyager ou de séjourner au Qatar, ou de transiter par son territoire. » Le Conseil de coopération du Golfe (ci‑après le « CCG ») est une union intergouvernementale politique et économique, dont le Qatar et les Emirats arabes unis ont été des membres fondateurs en 1981, aux côtés du Royaume de Bahreïn, de l’Etat du Koweït, du Sultanat d’Oman et du Royaume d’Arabie saoudite. 27. En outre, la déclaration du 5 juin 2017 annonçait la rupture des relations diplomatiques avec le Qatar, à l’appui de certaines mesures prises par le Royaume de Bahreïn et le Royaume d’Arabie saoudite, donnant aux diplomates qatariens un délai de 48 heures pour quitter le pays. Elle proclamait également que l’« espace aérien et les ports maritimes des Emirats arabes unis ser[aie]nt fermés à tous les Qatariens dans un délai de 24 heures, aucun moyen de transport qatarien en provenance ou à destination des Emirats arabes unis ne p[ouvan]t entrer sur le territoire émirien ni y transiter ou en sortir ». 28. La déclaration du 5 juin 2017 précisait ce qui suit : « Les Emirats arabes unis prennent ces mesures radicales en conséquence du non‑respect, par les autorités qatariennes, de l’accord de Riyad et de ses dispositions complémentaires de 2014, prévoyant le retour à Doha des diplomates des Etats membres du CCG, ainsi qu’au vu du soutien, du financement et de l’accueil que le Qatar persiste à offrir à des groupes terroristes, principalement les Frères musulmans, et de sa constance à promouvoir les idéologies de Daech et d’Al‑Qaida par ses médias directs et indirects, et encore en raison de la violation par le Qatar de la déclaration publiée à l’issue du sommet islamo‑américain du 21 mai 2017 à Riyad consacré à la lutte contre le terrorisme dans la région et à la désignation de l’Iran comme « Etat soutenant le terrorisme ». Ces mesures sont également prises en raison du fait que les autorités qatariennes accueillent des éléments terroristes, s’ingèrent dans les affaires d’autres pays et soutiennent des groupes terroristes — toutes politiques qui entraîneront probablement pour la région des conséquences impossibles à prévoir. » 29. Selon une annonce placée le 11 juin 2017 sur le site Internet du ministère émirien des affaires étrangères et de la coopération internationale, le président des Emirats arabes unis avait « donné pour instruction aux autorités concernées de tenir compte de la situation humanitaire des familles émiro‑qatariennes ». L’annonce précisait également que « le ministère de l’intérieur a[vait] mis en place une ligne téléphonique … afin d’être informé de ces situations et de prendre les mesures appropriées 85 application of the cerd (judgment) 18 dated 5 July 2018, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and International Co‑operation of the UAE specified that “[s]ince its announcement on June 5, 2017 . . . the UAE has instituted a requirement for all Qatari citizens overseas to obtain prior permission for entry into the UAE. Permission may be granted for a limited-duration period, at the discretion of the UAE [G]overnment.” The statement added that “Qatari citizens already resident in the UAE need not apply for permission to continue residence in the UAE. However, all Qatari citizens resident in the UAE are encouraged to obtain prior permission for re-entry into UAE territory. All applications for entry clearance may be made through the telephone hotline announced on June 11, 2017.” 30. The UAE took certain additional measures relating to Qatari media and speech in support of Qatar. In this regard, on 6 June 2017, the Attorney General of the UAE issued a statement indicating that expressions of sympathy for the State of Qatar or objections to the measures taken by the UAE against the Qatari Government were considered crimes punishable by imprisonment and a fine. The UAE blocked several websites operated by Qatari companies, including those run by Al Jazeera Media Network. On 6 July 2017, the Abu Dhabi Department of Economic Development issued a circular prohibiting the broadcasting of certain television channels operated by Qatari companies. 31. On 8 March 2018, Qatar deposited a communication with the Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination (hereinafter the “CERD Committee”) under Article 11 of the Convention, requesting that the UAE take all necessary steps to end the measures enacted and implemented since 5 June 2017. According to Article 11, paragraph 1, of CERD, “[i]f a State Party considers that another State Party is not giving effect to the provisions of this Convention, it may bring the matter to the attention of the Committee”. The UAE, through its responses dated 29 November 2018, 14 January 2019 and 19 March 2019, requested “the Committee to dismiss Qatar’s Article 11 Communication for lack [of] jurisdiction and/or lack of admissibility”. 32. On 11 June 2018, Qatar filed an Application in the Registry of the Court instituting the present proceedings (see paragraph 1 above). 33. In its decision on jurisdiction with regard to Qatar’s inter‑State communication, dated 27 August 2019, the CERD Committee con- application de la ciedr (arrêt) 85 18 pour venir en aide aux intéressés ». Dans une déclaration en date du 5 juillet 2018, le ministère émirien des affaires étrangères et de la coopération internationale précisait ce qui suit : « Depuis leur annonce du 5 juin 2017 …, les Emirats arabes unis ont établi une condition imposant à tous les ressortissants qatariens de l’étranger d’obtenir une autorisation préalable pour pouvoir entrer sur le sol émirien. Une telle autorisation peut être accordée pour une durée limitée, à la discrétion du Gouvernement émirien. » La déclaration se poursuivait ainsi : « [L]es ressortissants qatariens résidant déjà aux Emirats arabes unis ne sont pas tenus de demander l’autorisation de continuer à y résider. Toutefois, il est conseillé à tous les ressortissants qatariens résidant aux Emirats arabes unis d’obtenir une autorisation préalable avant de retourner sur le territoire émirien. Toutes les demandes d’admission peuvent être déposées par l’intermédiaire du service d’assistance téléphonique d’urgence dont la mise en service a été annoncée le 11 juin 2017. » 30. Les Emirats arabes unis ont pris un certain nombre de mesures additionnelles, concernant les médias qatariens et les expressions de soutien au Qatar. A cet égard, le 6 juin 2017, le procureur général des Emirats arabes unis a publié une déclaration dans laquelle il indiquait que les expressions de sympathie pour l’Etat du Qatar ou de désapprobation des mesures prises par les Emirats arabes unis à l’encontre du Gouvernement qatarien étaient considérées comme des infractions passibles d’une peine d’emprisonnement et d’une amende. Les Emirats arabes unis ont bloqué plusieurs sites Internet exploités par des sociétés qatariennes, dont ceux du réseau de médias Al Jazeera. Le 6 juillet 2017, le département du développement économique d’Abou Dhabi a publié une circulaire interdisant la diffusion de certaines chaînes de télévision dirigées par des sociétés qatariennes. 31. Le 8 mars 2018, le Qatar a adressé au Comité pour l’élimination de la discrimination raciale (ci‑après le « Comité de la CIEDR ») une communication au titre de l’article 11 de la convention par laquelle il demandait que les Emirats arabes unis prennent toutes les dispositions nécessaires pour mettre un terme aux mesures adoptées et appliquées depuis le 5 juin 2017. Aux termes du paragraphe 1 de l’article 11 de la CIEDR, « [s]i un Etat partie estime qu’un autre Etat également partie n’applique pas les dispositions de la … Convention, il peut appeler l’attention du Comité sur la question ». Les Emirats arabes unis, par leurs réponses en date des 29 novembre 2018, 14 janvier 2019 et 19 mars 2019, ont prié « le Comité de rejeter la communication soumise par le Qatar en vertu de l’article 11 pour défaut de compétence et irrecevabilité ». 32. Le 11 juin 2018, le Qatar a déposé au Greffe de la Cour une requête introduisant la présente instance (voir le paragraphe 1 ci‑dessus). 33. Statuant sur sa compétence pour connaître de la communication interétatique du Qatar, le 27 août 2019, le Comité de la CIEDR a conclu 86 application of the cerd (judgment) 19 cluded that “it ha[d] jurisdiction to examine the exceptions of inadmissibility raised by the Respondent State” (Decision on the jurisdiction of the Committee over the inter‑State communication submitted by Qatar against the UAE dated 27 August 2019, UN doc. CERD/C/99/3, para. 60). In its decision on the admissibility of the inter‑State communication, also dated 27 August 2019, the CERD Committee concluded as follows: “64. In respect of the inter-state communication submitted on 8 March 2018 by Qatar against the United Arab Emirates, the Committee rejects the exceptions raised by the Respondent State concerning the admissibility of the inter-state communication. 65. The Committee requests its Chairperson to appoint, in accordance with article 12 (1) of the Convention, the members of an ad hoc Conciliation Commission, which shall make its good offices available to the States concerned with a view to an amicable solution of the matter on the basis of the States parties’ compliance with the Convention.” (Decision on the admissibility of the inter-State communication submitted by Qatar against the UAE dated 27 August 2019, UN doc. CERD/C/99/4, paras. 64‑65.) 34. By a Note Verbale dated 27 April 2020, addressed by the Permanent Mission of the UAE in Geneva to the Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights, the Permanent Mission “note[d] with appreciation the [Office’s] Note Verbale of 9 April 2020 advising that the ad hoc Conciliation Commission has been appointed by the Chair of the Committee, and has been effective since 1 March 2020”. B. The Jurisdictional Basis Invoked and the Preliminary Objections Raised 35. Qatar asserts that the Court has jurisdiction over its Application pursuant to Article 22 of CERD, which provides: “Any dispute between two or more States Parties with respect to the interpretation or application of this Convention, which is not settled by negotiation or by the procedures expressly provided for in this Convention, shall, at the request of any of the parties to the dispute, be referred to the International Court of Justice for decision, unless the disputants agree to another mode of settlement.” 36. Qatar and the UAE are parties to CERD. Qatar acceded to this Convention on 22 July 1976 without entering any reservation. The UAE did so on 20 June 1974 without entering any reservation relevant to the present proceedings. 37. Qatar contends that there is a dispute between the Parties with respect to the interpretation and application of CERD and that the Par- application de la ciedr (arrêt) 86 19 qu’« il [étai]t compétent pour examiner les exceptions d’irrecevabilité soulevées par les Emirats arabes unis » (décision sur la compétence du Comité pour connaître de la communication interétatique présentée par le Qatar contre les Emirats arabes unis en date du 27 août 2019, Nations Unies, doc. CERD/C/99/3, par. 60). Dans sa décision sur la recevabilité de la communication interétatique du Qatar, également datée du 27 août 2019, le Comité s’est prononcé en ces termes : « 64. Le Comité rejette les exceptions soulevées par l’Etat défendeur concernant la recevabilité de la communication interétatique visant les Emirats arabes unis que le Qatar a présentée le 8 mars 2018. 65. Le Comité demande à son président de désigner, conformément au paragraphe 1 de l’article 12 de la Convention, les membres d’une commission de conciliation ad hoc, qui mettra ses bons offices à la disposition des Etats concernés afin de parvenir à une solution amiable de la question fondée sur le respect de la Convention. » (Décision sur la recevabilité de la communication interétatique soumise par le Qatar contre les Emirats arabes unis en date du 27 août 2019, Nations Unies, doc. CERD/C/99/4, par. 64‑65.) 34. Dans sa note verbale du 27 avril 2020 adressée au Haut‑Commissariat des Nations Unies aux droits de l’homme, la mission permanente des Emirats arabes unis a « pr[is] acte, avec satisfaction, de la note verbale [du Haut‑Commissariat] en date du 9 avril 2020 indiquant que la commission de conciliation ad hoc avait été constituée par le président du Comité et était en fonction depuis le 1er mars 2020 ». B. Base de compétence invoquée et exceptions préliminaires soulevées 35. Le Qatar affirme que la Cour est compétente pour connaître de sa requête en vertu de l’article 22 de la CIEDR, qui se lit comme suit : « Tout différend entre deux ou plusieurs Etats parties touchant l’interprétation ou l’application de la présente Convention, qui n’aura pas été réglé par voie de négociation ou au moyen des procédures expressément prévues par ladite Convention, sera porté, à la requête de toute partie au différend, devant la Cour internationale de Justice pour qu’elle statue à son sujet, à moins que les parties au différend ne conviennent d’un autre mode de règlement. » 36. Le Qatar et les Emirats arabes unis sont parties à la CIEDR. Le Qatar y a adhéré le 22 juillet 1976 et n’a pas formulé de réserve. Les Emirats arabes unis y ont adhéré le 20 juin 1974 et n’ont pas formulé de réserve qui soit pertinente aux fins de la présente procédure. 37. Le Qatar soutient qu’il existe un différend entre les Parties quant à l’interprétation et à l’application de la CIEDR, différend que celles‑ci ne 87 application of the cerd (judgment) 20 ties have been unable to settle this dispute despite Qatar’s attempts to negotiate with the UAE. 38. At the present stage of these proceedings, the UAE asks the Court to adjudge and declare that the Court lacks jurisdiction to address the claims brought by Qatar on the basis of two preliminary objections. In its first preliminary objection, the UAE maintains that the Court lacks jurisdiction ratione materiae over the dispute between the Parties because the alleged acts do not fall within the scope of CERD. In its second preliminary objection, the UAE asserts that Qatar failed to satisfy the procedural preconditions of Article 22 of CERD. 39. The Court notes that, in its written pleadings, the UAE had also included an objection to admissibility on the ground that Qatar’s claims constitute an abuse of process. However, during the oral proceedings, counsel for the UAE stated that it was not pursuing an allegation of abuse of process at this stage of the proceedings. 40. Before addressing the preliminary objections of the UAE, the Court will determine the subject‑matter of the dispute. II. Subject-Matter of the Dispute 41. Pursuant to Article 40, paragraph 1, of the Statute and Article 38, paragraph 1, of the Rules of Court, an applicant is required to indicate the subject of a dispute in its application. The Rules of Court also require that an application “specify the precise nature of the claim, together with a succinct statement of the facts and grounds on which the claim is based” (Article 38, paragraph 2, of the Rules of Court). A Memorial “shall contain a statement of the relevant facts, a statement of law, and the submissions” (Article 49, paragraph 1, of the Rules of Court). 42. It is for the Court itself to determine on an objective basis the subjectmatter of the dispute between the parties, by isolating the real issue in the case and identifying the object of the applicant’s claims. In doing so, the Court examines the application, as well as the written and oral pleadings of the parties, while giving particular attention to the formulation of the dispute chosen by the applicant. It takes account of the facts that the applicant presents as the basis for its claims. The matter is one of substance, not of form (Application of the International Convention for the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism and of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (Ukraine v. Russian Federation), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2019 (II), p. 575, para. 24; Immunities and Criminal Proceedings (Equatorial Guinea v. France), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2018 (I), pp. 308‑309, para. 48). * * application de la ciedr (arrêt) 87 20 sont pas parvenues à régler bien qu’il ait, pour sa part, tenté de négocier avec les Emirats arabes unis. 38. Au présent stade de la procédure, les Emirats arabes unis prient la Cour de dire et juger qu’elle n’est pas compétente pour connaître des demandes formulées par le Qatar eu égard à deux exceptions préliminaires. Dans le cadre de la première, ils avancent que la Cour n’a pas compétence ratione materiae à l’égard du différend opposant les Parties, parce que les faits allégués n’entrent pas dans le champ d’application de la CIEDR. Dans le cadre de la seconde, ils affirment que le Qatar n’a pas satisfait aux conditions procédurales préalables prévues à l’article 22 de la CIEDR. 39. La Cour note que, dans leurs écritures, les Emirats arabes unis avaient aussi soulevé une exception d’irrecevabilité, arguant que les demandes du Qatar étaient constitutives d’un abus de procédure. A l’audience, le conseil des Emirats arabes unis a toutefois indiqué qu’ils ne maintenaient pas d’allégation d’abus de procédure à ce stade. 40. Avant de se pencher sur les exceptions préliminaires des Emirats arabes unis, la Cour déterminera quel est l’objet du différend. II. Objet du différend 41. Conformément au paragraphe 1 de l’article 40 du Statut de la Cour et au paragraphe 1 de l’article 38 de son Règlement, le demandeur est tenu d’indiquer dans sa requête l’objet du différend. Le Règlement de la Cour prescrit aussi que la requête doit « indique[r] … la nature précise de la demande et cont[enir] un exposé succinct des faits et moyens sur lesquels cette demande repose » (paragraphe 2 de l’article 38 du Règlement). Le mémoire, quant à lui, « contient un exposé des faits sur lesquels la demande est fondée, un exposé de droit et les conclusions » (paragraphe 1 de l’article 49 du Règlement). 42. Il appartient à la Cour d’établir objectivement ce sur quoi porte le différend entre les parties en circonscrivant le véritable problème en cause et en précisant l’objet des griefs du demandeur. La Cour examine à cet effet la requête, ainsi que les exposés écrits et oraux des parties, tout en consacrant une attention particulière à la formulation du différend utilisée par le demandeur. Elle tient compte des faits que celui‑ci invoque à l’appui de ses demandes. Il s’agit là d’une question de fond, et non de forme (Application de la convention internationale pour la répression du financement du terrorisme et de la convention internationale sur l’élimination de toutes les formes de discrimination raciale (Ukraine c. Fédération de Russie), exceptions préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2019 (II), p. 575, par. 24 ; Immunités et procédures pénales (Guinée équatoriale c. France), exceptions préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2018 (I), p. 308‑309, par. 48). * * 88 application of the cerd (judgment) 21 43. According to the Applicant, its “Application concerns a legal dispute between Qatar and the UAE regarding the UAE’s deliberate and flagrant violations of the CERD”. It claims that “[t]he UAE has enacted and implemented a series of discriminatory measures directed at Qataris based expressly on their national origin — measures that remain in effect to this day”. 44. Qatar further characterizes the subject-matter of the dispute in the written statement of its observations and submissions on the preliminary objections as follows: “As Qatar explained in its Application, Memorial, and during the provisional measures phase of the proceedings, Qatar’s claims are based on acts and omissions of the UAE that discriminate against Qataris on the basis of national origin and in violation of Articles 2, 4, 5, 6, and 7 of the CERD. These acts and omissions include, in particular, the collective expulsion of Qataris from the UAE pursuant to its 5 June Directive (the ‘Expulsion Order’); the absolute ban on entry to the UAE by Qataris (the ‘Absolute Travel Ban’), which was later modified by the imposition of a ‘hotline’ and website procedure that continue to restrict Qataris’ entry into the UAE on an arbitrary and discriminatory basis (the ‘Modified Travel Ban’); and the enactment of measures encouraging anti‑Qatari hate propaganda and prejudice, and suppressing Qatari media and speech deemed to support Qatar (including, respectively, the ‘Anti‑Qatari Incitement Campaign’, the ‘Anti‑Sympathy Law’, and the ‘Block on Qatari Media’).” 45. Qatar states that the measures it describes as the “expulsion order” and the “travel bans”, by their express reference to Qatari nationals, discriminate against Qataris on the basis of their current nationality. It points out that the definition of “racial discrimination” contained in Article 1, paragraph 1, of CERD includes discrimination on the basis of national origin. Qatar maintains that “nationality” is encompassed within the phrase “national origin”. 46. Qatar also alleges that the UAE directly targeted Qatari media corporations by blocking access to their websites and broadcasts in all or part of the UAE’s territory. It maintains that these measures were imposed “on racially discriminatory grounds” and that CERD extends to racial discrimination against “institutions”, which it considers to include corporations. application de la ciedr (arrêt) 88 21 43. Le demandeur affirme que sa « requête a trait à un différend juridique entre le Qatar et les Emirats arabes unis concernant des violations délibérées et flagrantes de la CIEDR ». Il soutient que « [l]es Emirats arabes unis ont adopté et appliqué un ensemble de mesures discriminatoires, toujours en vigueur à ce jour, qui ciblent les Qatariens au motif exprès de leur origine nationale ». 44. Dans l’exposé écrit contenant ses observations et conclusions sur les exceptions préliminaires, le Qatar définit dans les termes suivants l’objet du différend : « Comme le Qatar l’a exposé dans sa requête et son mémoire, ainsi qu’au cours de la phase de la procédure consacrée aux mesures conservatoires, ses demandes reposent sur des actes et des omissions des Emirats arabes unis qui font subir aux Qatariens des discriminations fondées sur l’origine nationale, et ce, en violation des articles 2, 4, 5, 6 et 7 de la CIEDR. Au nombre de ces actes et omissions figurent notamment l’expulsion collective des Qatariens hors du territoire émirien en application de la directive du 5 juin des Emirats arabes unis (ci‑après la « décision d’expulsion ») ; l’interdiction formelle d’entrée sur le territoire émirien opposée aux Qatariens (ci‑après l’« interdiction formelle d’entrée »), laquelle a ultérieurement été modifiée par l’imposition d’une procédure fondée sur un « service d’assistance téléphonique » et un site Internet qui continue de limiter de manière arbitraire et discriminatoire l’entrée des Qatariens sur le territoire émirien (ci‑après l’« interdiction d’entrée dans sa version modifiée ») ; et la promulgation de mesures favorisant la propagande de haine et les partis pris contre les Qatariens, et revenant à museler les médias qatariens ainsi qu’à interdire les expressions supposées de soutien au Qatar (qui incluent, respectivement, la « campagne visant à alimenter l’hostilité envers les Qatariens », la « loi contre les expressions de sympathie » et le « blocage des médias qatariens »). » 45. Le Qatar affirme que les mesures qu’il présente comme la « décision d’expulsion » et les « interdictions d’entrée », en tant qu’elles visent expressément les nationaux qatariens, font subir aux Qatariens une discrimination sur la base de leur nationalité actuelle, et souligne que la définition de la « discrimination raciale » donnée au paragraphe 1 de l’article premier de la CIEDR inclut la discrimination fondée sur l’origine nationale. Or, selon lui, l’expression « origine nationale » comprend la notion de « nationalité ». 46. Le Qatar affirme aussi que les Emirats arabes unis ont directement pris pour cible des sociétés de médias qatariennes en bloquant, sur tout ou partie du territoire émirien, l’accès à leurs sites Internet et la diffusion de leurs émissions. Il soutient que les mesures prises à cet effet l’ont été pour des « motifs qui relèvent de la discrimination raciale » et que le champ d’application de la CIEDR s’étend à la discrimination raciale pratiquée contre les « institutions », lesquelles couvrent, selon lui, les sociétés. 89 application of the cerd (judgment) 22 47. Qatar also points out that CERD applies to measures that are not framed as distinctions on the basis of a protected ground but have in fact the purpose or effect of racial discrimination. It maintains that, regardless of whether the measures imposed by the UAE are explicitly based on Qatari nationality, they have the purpose or effect of nullifying or impairing the rights and freedoms of persons of Qatari national origin, in the sense of their Qatari heritage and culture. It contends that such measures give rise to “indirect discrimination”. 48. As one part of its claim of indirect discrimination, Qatar asserts that the measures which discriminate on the basis of current Qatari nationality violate the UAE’s obligations under CERD for another independent reason, “because they have an unjustifiable disparate impact on individuals of Qatari origin, in the sense of their heritage and culture”. 49. As further support for its claim of indirect discrimination, Qatar maintains that a number of measures imposed by the UAE encourage anti‑Qatari propaganda and suppress speech deemed to be in support of Qatar. It refers to the ban on Qatari media corporations as well as a 6 June 2017 announcement of the Attorney General of the UAE which stated that persons “expressing sympathy, bias or affection for” the State of Qatar or “objecting to the . . . measures . . . taken [by the UAE] against the Qatari [G]overnment” are considered to have committed crimes punishable by imprisonment and a fine (see paragraph 30 above). Qatar contends that, although this statement refers to the “Qatari Government”, it is “clearly understood as a reference to Qatar qua State and Qatar qua Qataris”. Additionally, Qatar alleges that the UAE has attempted to incite discrimination against Qataris, referring to statements in social and traditional media by persons it identifies as officials of the UAE, which it considers to be attributable to the UAE. 50. Qatar points out that the UAE’s measures are not exclusively addressed to Qataris on the basis of their current nationality and asserts that it has from the beginning framed its case to include a claim of unjustifiable disparate impact. It alleges that the measures imposed by the UAE penalize persons of Qatari national origin based on their identification with Qatari national traditions and culture, their Qatari accent or their Qatari dress. It further alleges that these measures discriminate against persons who are not Qatari citizens on the basis of their cultural identification as “Qataris”. * application de la ciedr (arrêt) 89 22 47. Le Qatar souligne également que la CIEDR s’applique à des mesures dont le propos n’est pas d’imposer des distinctions fondées sur l’un des motifs prohibés, mais qui ont, de fait, pour but ou pour effet d’opérer une discrimination raciale. Selon lui, les mesures imposées par les Emirats arabes unis, qu’elles soient ou non fondées expressément sur la nationalité qatarienne, ont pour but ou pour effet de détruire ou de compromettre les droits et les libertés de personnes d’origine nationale qatarienne, au sens de leur héritage et de leur culture — ce qui, selon le Qatar, donne lieu à une « discrimination indirecte ». 48. Sous le chef de discrimination indirecte, le Qatar argue que les mesures faisant subir aux Qatariens une discrimination sur la base de leur nationalité actuelle emportent également violation des obligations incombant aux Emirats arabes unis en vertu de la CIEDR pour un autre motif, indépendant, en ceci « qu’elles ont une incidence distincte injustifiable sur les personnes d’origine qatarienne, au sens de leur héritage et de leur culture ». 49. A l’appui de son allégation de discrimination indirecte, le demandeur affirme en outre qu’un certain nombre de mesures imposées par les Emirats arabes unis tendent à encourager la propagande contre les Qatariens ou à interdire les expressions supposées de soutien au Qatar. Il se réfère aux restrictions imposées à des sociétés de médias qatariennes ainsi qu’à une annonce faite le 6 juin 2017 par le procureur général des Emirats arabes unis, qui indiquait que les personnes « exprimant de la sympathie, un parti pris ou de l’amitié pour » l’Etat du Qatar ou « une désapprobation de[s] … mesures … prises [par les Emirats arabes unis] à [l’]égard [du Gouvernement qatarien] » seraient réputées avoir commis une infraction passible d’une peine d’emprisonnement et d’une amende (voir le paragraphe 30 ci‑dessus). Selon lui, bien que cette déclaration désigne le « Gouvernement qatarien », « l’on comprend aisément qu’elle vise le Qatar en tant qu’Etat et le Qatar tel qu’incarné par les Qatariens ». De plus, le Qatar avance que les Emirats arabes unis ont cherché à inciter à la discrimination contre les Qatariens ; il fait fond sur des déclarations, relayées par les médias sociaux ou traditionnels, de personnes qu’il présente comme des représentants de l’Etat émirien, auquel il attribue de ce fait ces propos. 50. Le Qatar souligne que les mesures prises par les Emirats arabes unis ne visent pas les Qatariens sur la seule base de leur nationalité actuelle et affirme avoir d’emblée expressément avancé, entre autres demandes, celle fondée sur une incidence distincte injustifiable. Il allègue que les mesures en question pénalisent les personnes d’origine qatarienne identifiées comme telles en tant qu’elles partagent les traditions et la culture nationales qatariennes, parlent avec l’accent qatarien ou encore portent l’habit qatarien. Il soutient encore que ces mesures opèrent une discrimination à l’égard de non‑ressortissants de l’Etat du Qatar sur le fondement de leur identification culturelle en tant que « Qatariens ». * 90 application of the cerd (judgment) 23 51. The UAE asserts that the subject‑matter of the dispute is alleged discrimination on the basis of current Qatari nationality, a term that, in its view, is distinct from “national origin”. It contends that claims arising from the measures that Qatar describes as the “expulsion order” and the “travel bans” are founded on differential treatment of persons based on their Qatari nationality. 52. The UAE maintains that Qatar seeks to blur the distinction between the terms “nationality” and “national origin” by using the two terms interchangeably and by referring obliquely to “Qataris” in its written and oral pleadings. 53. The UAE acknowledges that it has imposed restrictions on websites of some Qatari media corporations, stating that it did so on the basis of content restrictions, pursuant to UAE law. It considers that measures that address corporations do not fall within the definition of racial discrimination contained in CERD and thus that Qatar’s claims with respect to the measures to restrict transmissions of Qatari media corporations are outside the scope of CERD. 54. The UAE also maintains that the restrictions on Qatari media and the other facts that Qatar invokes in support of its allegations of incitement and suppression of free speech, even if established, are not indicative of a claim of racial discrimination, but rather must be assessed in the context of the UAE’s conviction that Qatar supports terrorism, extremism and intervention. It points out that Qatar itself frames its allegation of incitement by accusing the UAE of “media attacks on Qatar” and the dissemination of false reports “accusing Qatar of support for terrorism”. It notes that the 6 June 2017 statement of the Attorney General of the UAE relates to persons who express support for the State of Qatar, not to persons of Qatari national origin. 55. The UAE accepts that disguised discrimination against members of a protected group would fall within the scope of CERD. However, it contends that, in the present case, the subject‑matter of the dispute is limited to alleged direct discrimination on the basis of current nationality and does not extend to “indirect discrimination” because this is not the case that Qatar has pleaded. According to the UAE, Qatar has introduced legal arguments relating to “indirect discrimination” because its claim of direct discrimination on the basis of national origin does not withstand scrutiny. * * application de la ciedr (arrêt) 90 23 51. Les Emirats arabes unis affirment que le différend a pour objet la pratique alléguée d’une discrimination fondée sur la nationalité actuelle qatarienne, étant précisé que, selon eux, le terme « nationalité » est distinct de l’expression « origine nationale ». Ils font valoir que les demandes liées aux mesures que le Qatar présente comme la « décision d’expulsion » et les « interdictions d’entrée » renvoient au traitement différencié qui aurait été réservé à des personnes sur la base de leur nationalité qatarienne. 52. Les Emirats arabes unis maintiennent que le Qatar cherche à brouiller la distinction entre « nationalité » et « origine nationale » en utilisant ces termes de manière interchangeable et en faisant référence de manière équivoque aux « Qatariens » dans ses exposés écrits et oraux. 53. Les Emirats arabes unis reconnaissent avoir imposé des restrictions aux sites Internet de certaines sociétés de médias qatariennes, mais affirment l’avoir fait en raison de considérations liées au contenu de ces sites, et en conformité avec leur droit interne. Selon eux, les mesures visant les sociétés ne sont pas couvertes par la définition de la discrimination raciale énoncée dans la CIEDR et, dès lors, les demandes du Qatar relatives aux dispositions prises en vue de restreindre la capacité de diffusion de sociétés de médias qatariennes sont exclues du champ d’application de la convention. 54. Les Emirats arabes unis plaident en outre que l’imposition de restrictions à certains médias qatariens et les autres faits invoqués par le Qatar à l’appui de ses allégations d’incitation et d’atteinte à la liberté d’expression, même avérés, ne tendent nullement à accréditer la thèse d’une discrimination raciale. Selon eux, ces faits sont, bien plutôt, à apprécier eu égard à leur conviction que le Qatar promeut le terrorisme, l’extrémisme et l’ingérence. Les Emirats arabes unis relèvent que, s’agissant de l’allégation d’incitation, le demandeur lui‑même l’a formulée en termes d’« attaques menées à l’encontre du Qatar dans les médias » et de diffusion de fausses nouvelles dans lesquelles « le Qatar est accus[é] de soutien au terrorisme ». Ils notent de même que la déclaration de leur procureur général en date du 6 juin 2017 vise les personnes exprimant leur soutien à l’Etat du Qatar, et non les personnes d’origine nationale qatarienne. 55. Les Emirats arabes unis admettent que la pratique d’une discrimination déguisée contre les membres d’un groupe protégé entrerait dans les prévisions de la CIEDR. Ils soutiennent toutefois que, dans le cas d’espèce, l’objet du différend est limité à une allégation de discrimination directe fondée sur la nationalité actuelle, et qu’il ne s’étend pas à la « discrimination indirecte », que le Qatar n’a pas plaidée. Selon eux, le Qatar a introduit des arguments juridiques en rapport avec la « discrimination indirecte », conscient que sa demande relative à une discrimination directe fondée sur l’origine nationale ne résisterait pas à l’examen de la Cour. * * 91 application of the cerd (judgment) 24 56. As can be seen from Qatar’s characterization of the subject-matter of the dispute (see paragraph 44 above), Qatar makes three claims of racial discrimination. The first is its claim arising out of the “travel bans” and “expulsion order”, which make express reference to Qatari nationals. The second is its claim arising from the restrictions on Qatari media corporations. Qatar’s third claim is that the measures taken by the UAE, including the measures on which Qatar bases its first and second claims, result in “indirect discrimination” on the basis of Qatari national origin. In order to determine the subject-matter of the dispute, the Court will consider these three claims in turn. 57. As noted above (see paragraph 45), Qatar states that the “expulsion order” and the “travel bans”, by their express reference to Qatari nationals, discriminate against Qataris on the basis of their current nationality. The UAE acknowledges that these measures differentiate between Qataris and other persons on the basis of their current nationality, but does not agree that the measures violate its obligations under CERD. The Parties’ characterization of the basis for the challenged measures is consistent with the text of the measures themselves, which refer, inter alia, to “Qatari residents and visitors”, “Qatari nationals”, “Qataris”, “Qatari citizens” and “travellers holding Qatari passports”. 58. As to Qatar’s first claim, taking into account Qatar’s characterization of these measures and the facts on which it relies in support of its claim that the measures that it describes as the “expulsion order” and the “travel bans” discriminate against Qataris on the basis of their current nationality, in violation of the UAE’s obligations under CERD, as well as the characterization by the Respondent, the Court considers that the Parties hold opposing views over this claim. 59. With regard to Qatar’s second claim, the Court has noted that the UAE does not deny that it imposed measures to restrict broadcasting and internet programming by certain Qatari media corporations. The Parties disagree, however, on whether those measures directly targeted these media corporations in a racially discriminatory manner, in violation of the UAE’s obligations under CERD. 60. As to its third claim, as noted above, Qatar maintains that the subjectmatter of the dispute encompasses Qatar’s assertion that the “expulsion order” and the “travel bans” give rise to “indirect discrimination” against persons of Qatari national origin, independent of the claim of racial discrimination on the basis of current nationality. The UAE, however, application de la ciedr (arrêt) 91 24 56. De la manière dont il définit l’objet du différend (voir le paragraphe 44 ci‑dessus), il appert que le Qatar avance trois chefs de discrimination raciale. Le premier se rapporte à la « décision d’expulsion » et aux « interdictions d’entrée », qui visent expressément les nationaux qatariens, le second, aux restrictions imposées à des sociétés de médias qatariennes. En outre, le Qatar avance un troisième chef, affirmant que les mesures prises par les Emirats arabes unis, y compris celles sur lesquelles le Qatar fonde ses premier et deuxième chefs de discrimination, entraînent une « discrimination indirecte » fondée sur l’origine nationale qatarienne. Afin de déterminer l’objet du différend, la Cour examinera successivement ces trois demandes. 57. Ainsi qu’il a été noté plus haut (voir le paragraphe 45), le Qatar affirme que la « décision d’expulsion » et les « interdictions d’entrée », en tant qu’elles visent expressément les nationaux qatariens, font subir aux Qatariens une discrimination sur la base de leur nationalité actuelle. Les Emirats arabes unis reconnaissent que ces mesures établissent une distinction entre les Qatariens et les non‑Qatariens sur le fondement de leur nationalité actuelle, mais contestent qu’elles emportent violation des obligations qu’ils tiennent de la CIEDR. La qualification par les Parties du fondement de la pratique dénoncée cadre avec le libellé des mesures elles‑mêmes, qui fait référence, notamment, aux « Qatariens [ayant la] qualité de résident ou de visiteur », aux « nationaux qatariens », aux « Qatariens », aux « ressortissants qatariens » et aux « voyageurs détenteurs d’un passeport qatarien ». 58. S’agissant de la première demande du Qatar, compte tenu de la manière dont ce dernier qualifie les mesures en cause et des faits qu’il invoque en ce qui concerne la demande selon laquelle les mesures qu’il présente comme la « décision d’expulsion » et les « interdictions d’entrée » font subir aux Qatariens une discrimination sur la base de leur nationalité actuelle, en violation des obligations incombant aux Emirats arabes unis en vertu de la CIEDR, et compte tenu aussi de la manière dont le défendeur qualifie ces mesures, la Cour considère que les Parties ont, sur cette demande, des vues opposées. 59. S’agissant de la deuxième demande du Qatar, la Cour a déjà noté que les Emirats arabes unis ne démentaient pas avoir imposé des mesures tendant à restreindre la diffusion, à la radio, à la télévision et sur Internet, des émissions de certaines sociétés de médias qatariennes. Les Parties divergent toutefois sur la question de savoir si celles‑ci étaient directement visées par lesdites mesures dans le sens d’une discrimination raciale, en violation des obligations incombant aux Emirats arabes unis en vertu de la CIEDR. 60. Dans sa troisième demande, ainsi qu’il a été noté plus haut, le Qatar soutient que l’objet du différend englobe son affirmation selon laquelle, indépendamment du fait qu’il ait plaidé la discrimination raciale fondée sur la nationalité actuelle, la « décision d’expulsion » et les « interdictions d’entrée » entraînent en tout état de cause une « discrimination indirecte » 92 application of the cerd (judgment) 25 maintains that this claim of “indirect discrimination” is not part of the case presented in Qatar’s Application. 61. The Court observes that the subject‑matter of a dispute is not limited by the precise wording that an applicant State uses in its application. The Rules of Court provide an applicant State with some latitude to develop the allegations in its application, so long as it does not “transform the dispute brought before the Court by the application into another dispute which is different in character” (Land and Maritime Boundary between Cameroon and Nigeria (Cameroon v. Nigeria), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1998, pp. 318‑319, paras. 98 and 99). 62. Qatar’s Application did not expressly set out Qatar’s contention that the “travel bans” and “expulsion order” give rise to “indirect discrimination” against Qataris on a basis other than nationality. Qatar explains that it developed this argument in its Memorial in response to arguments made by the UAE during the provisional measures phase of the case. In addition, Qatar’s Request for the indication of provisional measures, filed on the same day as the Application, requested the Court to order that the UAE cease “all conduct that could result, directly or indirectly, in any form of racial discrimination against Qatari individuals and entities”. 63. The Court considers that the Rules of Court do not preclude Qatar from refining the legal arguments presented in its Application or advancing new arguments in response to those made by the UAE, thereby making explicit the contention that the measures that Qatar describes as the “travel bans” and “expulsion order” give rise to “indirect discrimination” against persons of Qatari national origin, in violation of the UAE’s obligations under CERD. 64. The Court turns next to Qatar’s other allegations of “indirect discrimination” against persons of Qatari national origin. Qatar brings these allegations on the basis of the restrictions on Qatari media corporations and other measures that, in its view, attack freedom of expression, incite anti‑Qatari sentiment, and criminalize speech deemed to be in favour of Qatar or critical of the UAE’s policies towards Qatar, as well as statements by the UAE or its officials that express or condone anti‑Qatari hate speech and propaganda. 65. The Court notes that Qatar made specific references in its Application to the 6 June 2017 statement by the Attorney General of the UAE, the restrictions on Qatari media corporations, the UAE’s “media defamation” campaign against Qatar and alleged statements by UAE officials fostering anti‑Qatari sentiment. application de la ciedr (arrêt) 92 25 contre les personnes d’origine nationale qatarienne. Pour les Emirats arabes unis, en revanche, la demande relative à la « discrimination indirecte » ne relève pas de la cause plaidée par le Qatar dans sa requête. 61. La Cour fait observer que l’objet d’un différend n’est pas limité par les termes expressément utilisés par l’Etat demandeur dans sa requête. En vertu de son Règlement, l’Etat demandeur jouit d’une certaine latitude pour développer les allégations qu’il a formulées dans sa requête, pour autant que « le différend [qu’il a ainsi] porté devant la Cour ne se trouve pas transformé en un autre différend dont le caractère ne serait pas le même » (Frontière terrestre et maritime entre le Cameroun et le Nigéria (Cameroun c. Nigéria), exceptions préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1998, p. 318‑319, par. 98 et 99). 62. Le Qatar, dans sa requête, n’a pas expressément soutenu que les « interdictions d’entrée » et la « décision d’expulsion » seraient à l’origine d’une « discrimination indirecte » à l’encontre des Qatariens sur le fondement d’un élément autre que la nationalité. Il a depuis expliqué avoir développé cet argument dans son mémoire en réponse aux moyens formulés par les Emirats arabes unis au stade des mesures conservatoires. Par ailleurs, dans sa demande en indication de mesures conservatoires, déposée le même jour que la requête, le Qatar avait prié la Cour de prescrire aux Emirats arabes unis de cesser « de commettre tout acte pouvant entraîner, directement ou indirectement, une forme quelconque de discrimination raciale à l’égard de Qatariens ou d’entités du Qatar ». 63. La Cour considère que son Règlement n’interdit pas au Qatar d’affiner l’argumentation juridique présentée dans sa requête ou d’avancer de nouveaux arguments en réponse à celle avancée par les Emirats arabes unis, avec pour effet d’expliciter l’argument selon lequel les mesures qu’il présente comme les « interdictions d’entrée » et la « décision d’expulsion » sont à l’origine d’une « discrimination indirecte » à l’encontre des personnes d’origine nationale qatarienne, en violation des obligations incombant aux Emirats arabes unis en vertu de la CIEDR. 64. La Cour en vient aux autres allégations de « discrimination indirecte » dont auraient, selon le Qatar, été victimes les personnes d’origine nationale qatarienne. Le Qatar formule ces allégations en se référant aux restrictions imposées à des sociétés de médias qatariennes, et à d’autres mesures dont il prétend qu’elles seraient constitutives d’atteintes à la liberté d’expression ou reviendraient à inciter à l’hostilité envers les Qatariens et à incriminer les expressions supposées de soutien à son égard ou de critiques des dispositions émiriennes le visant, ou encore à des déclarations des Emirats arabes unis ou de responsables émiriens reprenant ou cautionnant un discours et une propagande hostiles aux Qatariens. 65. La Cour relève que le Qatar a fait spécifiquement référence, dans sa requête, à la déclaration du procureur général des Emirats arabes unis en date du 6 juin 2017, aux restrictions imposées à des sociétés de médias qatariennes, à la campagne de « diffamation … dans les médias » et à ce qu’il présente comme des déclarations de responsables émiriens tendant à alimenter l’hostilité envers les Qatariens. 93 application of the cerd (judgment) 26 66. The Parties address these contentions in their written and oral pleadings. Although Qatar acknowledges that the statement by the Attorney General of the UAE refers to criminal penalties for supporting the Qatari Government, not Qataris, it asserts that the risk of criminal penalties has a chilling effect and potentially alienates Qataris from their Emirati friends and family. It introduces several witness statements to substantiate its claims. In support of its contention that the UAE has fostered anti‑Qatari sentiment, Qatar attaches to its Memorial a number of social media posts from persons it describes as UAE officials in which the authors criticize Qatar. Qatar claims that these statements formed part of a wider media campaign directed against it. It asserts that this criticism of Qatar has resulted in hate messages directed towards persons of Qatari national origin. Qatar also claims that the restrictions on Qatari media corporations have interfered with the free expression of Qatari ideas and culture in a broader sense and have contributed to the climate of fear which persons of Qatari national origin are said to have experienced as a result of the other measures that the UAE has taken. 67. The UAE does not dispute that its Attorney General made the statement to which Qatar objects. It acknowledges that it has made “adverse comments directed towards the State of Qatar and its behaviour” and that “others within its territory may have made similar comments against the State of Qatar”. It does not accept, however, that such comments about another State can give rise to a claim of racial discrimination under CERD. The UAE also refutes Qatar’s allegations of certain instances in which individuals claim to have been arrested, mistreated or to have suffered other negative consequences in the UAE for expressing sympathy with Qatar and adds that in any case the persons concerned are not of Qatari nationality or alleged to be of Qatari national origin. The UAE also argues that, by invoking the restrictions on Qatari media corporations in support of its claim of “indirect discrimination”, Qatar has presented a new argument that does not form part of the case pleaded in its Application. 68. In its Application, Qatar alleges that the restrictions imposed on Qatari media corporations violate the freedom of expression of Qataris (see paragraphs 64-65 above). As the Court previously noted (see paragraph 63 above), the Rules of Court do not preclude Qatar from refining the legal arguments presented in its Application or advancing new arguments. application de la ciedr (arrêt) 93 26 66. Les Parties traitent de ces affirmations dans leurs exposés écrits et oraux. Si le Qatar reconnaît que la déclaration du procureur général des Emirats arabes unis fait état de sanctions pénales encourues en cas de soutien au Gouvernement du Qatar, et non aux Qatariens, il plaide que le fait de s’exposer à pareilles sanctions a un effet dissuasif pour les Qatariens, quand il ne risque pas de les éloigner de leurs amis et de leurs proches émiriens. Il produit à cet égard plusieurs témoignages destinés à étayer son propos. Pour accréditer la thèse selon laquelle les Emirats arabes unis ont alimenté l’hostilité envers les Qatariens, le Qatar joint à son mémoire un certain nombre de messages, critiques à son endroit, publiés sur les réseaux sociaux et émanant de personnes qu’il présente comme des responsables émiriens. Le Qatar prétend que ces déclarations s’inscrivaient dans une campagne médiatique de plus grande envergure à son encontre. Il affirme que les critiques dont il a fait l’objet dans ce cadre ont offert un terreau propice à l’expression de messages haineux contre les personnes d’origine nationale qatarienne. Il soutient également que les restrictions imposées à des sociétés de médias qatariennes ont porté atteinte à la liberté de mettre en avant les idées et la culture qatariennes dans un sens plus large, et ont contribué au climat de peur dont les personnes d’origine nationale qatarienne auraient souffert en conséquence d’autres mesures prises par les Emirats arabes unis. 67. Les Emirats arabes unis ne contestent pas que leur procureur général ait fait la déclaration dont il est tiré grief. Ils reconnaissent que celui‑ci a formulé « des commentaires hostiles visant l’Etat du Qatar et son comportement » et que « d’autres, sur leur territoire, [o]nt pu faire des commentaires analogues, hostiles à l’Etat qatarien ». Ils n’admettent pas en revanche que pareils commentaires à propos d’un Etat puissent donner lieu à une allégation de discrimination raciale au titre de la CIEDR. Les Emirats arabes unis rejettent par ailleurs les allégations du Qatar concernant certains cas où des individus prétendent avoir été arrêtés, soumis à des mauvais traitements ou autrement pénalisés sur le territoire émirien pour avoir exprimé leur sympathie à l’égard du Qatar, et ajoutent que, en tout état de cause, les intéressés ne sont pas de nationalité qatarienne ni n’ont été présentés comme étant d’origine nationale qatarienne. Les Emirats arabes unis soutiennent également que, en invoquant les restrictions imposées aux sociétés de médias qatariennes à l’appui de son chef de « discrimination indirecte », le Qatar a présenté un nouvel argument qui ne relève pas de la cause plaidée dans sa requête. 68. Dans sa requête, le Qatar soutient que les restrictions imposées aux sociétés de médias qatariennes violent la liberté d’expression des Qatariens (voir les paragraphes 64-65 ci- dessus). Ainsi que la Cour l’a indiqué précédemment (voir le paragraphe 63 ci- dessus), le Règlement n’interdit pas au Qatar d’affiner l’argumentation juridique présentée dans sa requête ou d’avancer de nouveaux arguments. 94 application of the cerd (judgment) 27 69. Taking into account the Application and the written and oral pleadings, as well as the facts asserted by Qatar, the Court considers that the Parties hold opposing views over Qatar’s claim that the UAE has engaged in “indirect discrimination” against persons of Qatari national origin, in violation of its obligations under CERD. 70. In view of the preceding analysis, the Court concludes that the Parties disagree in respect of Qatar’s three claims that the UAE has violated its obligations under CERD: first, the claim that the measures that Qatar describes as the “expulsion order” and the “travel bans”, by their express references to Qatari nationals, discriminate against Qataris on the basis of their current nationality; secondly, the claim that the UAE imposed racially discriminatory measures on certain Qatari media corporations; and thirdly, the claim that the UAE has engaged in “indirect discrimination” against persons of Qatari national origin by taking these measures and other measures summarized in paragraph 64. The Parties’ disagreements in respect of these claims form the subject‑matter of the dispute. III. First Preliminary Objection: Jurisdiction Ratione Materiae 71. The Court will now consider whether it has jurisdiction ratione materiae over the dispute under Article 22 of CERD. 72. In order to determine whether the dispute is one with respect to the interpretation or application of CERD, under its Article 22, the Court will examine whether each of the above claims falls within the scope of CERD (Application of the International Convention for the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism and of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (Ukraine v. Russian Federation), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2019 (II), p. 595, paras. 94-95). The Court will address Qatar’s claims in the order mentioned above (see paragraph 70). 73. The Court observes that, as far as the first claim of Qatar is concerned, the Parties disagree on whether the term “national origin” in Article 1, paragraph 1, of the Convention encompasses current nationality. In respect of the second claim of Qatar, the Parties disagree on whether the scope of the Convention extends to Qatari media corporations. Finally, in respect of the third claim, the Parties disagree on whether the measures of which Qatar complains give rise to “indirect discrimination” against Qataris on the basis of their national origin. The Court will examine each of these questions with a view to ascertaining whether it has jurisdiction ratione materiae in the present case. application de la ciedr (arrêt) 94 27 69. Compte tenu de la requête et des exposés écrits et oraux des Parties, ainsi que des faits avancés par le Qatar, la Cour estime que les Parties s’opposent sur la question de savoir si, comme l’allègue le Qatar, les Emirats arabes unis se sont livrés à une « discrimination indirecte » contre les personnes d’origine nationale qatarienne, en violation des obligations leur incombant en vertu de la CIEDR. 70. Au vu de l’analyse qui précède, la Cour conclut que les Parties sont en désaccord au sujet des trois demandes du Qatar imputant aux Emirats arabes unis un manquement aux obligations leur incombant en vertu de la CIEDR, en ceci que : premièrement, les mesures que le Qatar présente comme la « décision d’expulsion » et les « interdictions d’entrée », en tant qu’elles visent expressément les nationaux qatariens, font subir aux Qatariens une discrimination sur la base de leur nationalité actuelle ; deuxièmement, les Emirats arabes unis ont imposé à certaines sociétés de médias qatariennes des mesures constitutives de discrimination raciale ; et, troisièmement, les Emirats arabes unis ont fait subir aux personnes d’origine nationale qatarienne une « discrimination indirecte » par l’effet desdites mesures, ainsi que d’autres mentionnées au paragraphe 64. Les désaccords entre les Parties au sujet de ces chefs de demande constituent l’objet du différend. III. Première exception préliminaire : compétence ratione materiae 71. La Cour recherchera à présent si elle a compétence ratione materiae pour connaître du différend en vertu de l’article 22 de la CIEDR. 72. Aux fins de déterminer si le différend est de ceux touchant l’interprétation ou l’application de la CIEDR, au titre de son article 22, la Cour examinera si les demandes susvisées entrent dans le champ d’application de la convention (Application de la convention internationale pour la répression du financement du terrorisme et de la convention internationale sur l’élimination de toutes les formes de discrimination raciale (Ukraine c. Fédération de Russie), exceptions préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2019 (II), p. 595, par. 94‑95). Elle les analysera tour à tour selon l’ordre indiqué plus haut (voir le paragraphe 70 ci‑dessus). 73. La Cour observe, à propos de la première demande du Qatar, que les Parties divergent sur la question de savoir si l’expression « origine nationale » figurant au paragraphe 1 de l’article premier de la convention englobe la nationalité actuelle. Concernant la deuxième demande du Qatar, les Parties divergent sur la question de savoir si le champ d’application de la convention s’étend aux sociétés de médias qatariennes. Enfin, s’agissant de la troisième demande, les Parties divergent sur la question de savoir si les mesures dont le Qatar tire grief entraînent, à l’égard des Qatariens, une « discrimination indirecte » sur la base de leur origine nationale. La Cour se penchera sur chacune de ces questions en vue de déterminer si elle a compétence ratione materiae en la présente espèce. 95 application of the cerd (judgment) 28 A. The Question whether the Term “National Origin” Encompasses Current Nationality 74. Qatar is of the view that the term “national origin”, in the definition of racial discrimination in Article 1, paragraph 1, of the Convention, encompasses current nationality and that the measures of which Qatar complains thus fall within the scope of CERD. The UAE argues that the term “national origin” does not include current nationality and that the Convention does not prohibit differentiation based on the current nationality of Qatari citizens, as complained of by Qatar in this case. Thus, the Parties hold opposing views on the meaning and scope of the term “national origin” in Article 1, paragraph 1, of the Convention, which reads: “In this Convention, the term ‘racial discrimination’ shall mean any distinction, exclusion, restriction or preference based on race, colour, descent, or national or ethnic origin which has the purpose or effect of nullifying or impairing the recognition, enjoyment or exercise, on an equal footing, of human rights and fundamental freedoms in the political, economic, social, cultural or any other field of public life.” * * 75. In order to determine its jurisdiction ratione materiae in this case, the Court will interpret CERD and specifically the term “national origin” in Article 1, paragraph 1, thereof by applying the rules on treaty interpretation enshrined in Articles 31 and 32 of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties (hereinafter the “Vienna Convention”). Although that Convention is not in force between the Parties and is not, in any event, applicable to treaties concluded before it entered into force, such as CERD, it is well established that Articles 31 and 32 of the Vienna Convention reflect rules of customary international law (Application of the International Convention for the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism and of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (Ukraine v. Russian Federation), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2019 (II), p. 598, para. 106; Immunities and Criminal Proceedings (Equatorial Guinea v. France), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2018 (I), pp. 320‑321, para. 91; Question of the Delimitation of the Continental Shelf between Nicaragua and Colombia beyond 200 Nautical Miles from the Nicaraguan Coast (Nicaragua v. Colombia), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2016 (I), p. 116, para. 33). 76. The Court will interpret the term “national origin” by reference, first, to the elements set out in Article 31 of the Vienna Convention, application de la ciedr (arrêt) 95 28 A. La question de savoir si l’expression « origine nationale » englobe la nationalité actuelle 74. Le Qatar considère que l’expression « origine nationale », dans la définition de la discrimination raciale figurant au paragraphe 1 de l’article premier de la convention, englobe la nationalité actuelle, et que les mesures dont il tire grief entrent ainsi dans les prévisions de la CIEDR. Les Emirats arabes unis font valoir que l’expression « origine nationale » n’inclut pas la nationalité actuelle et que la convention n’interdit pas la différenciation fondée sur la nationalité actuelle des ressortissants qatariens, dont se plaint le Qatar en la présente espèce. Ainsi, les Parties ont des vues opposées quant au sens et à la portée de l’expression « origine nationale » figurant au paragraphe 1 de l’article premier de la convention, qui se lit comme suit : « Dans la présente Convention, l’expression « discrimination raciale » vise toute distinction, exclusion, restriction ou préférence fondée sur la race, la couleur, l’ascendance ou l’origine nationale ou ethnique, qui a pour but ou pour effet de détruire ou de compromettre la reconnaissance, la jouissance ou l’exercice, dans des conditions d’égalité, des droits de l’homme et des libertés fondamentales dans les domaines politique, économique, social et culturel ou dans tout autre domaine de la vie publique. » * * 75. Aux fins de déterminer si elle a compétence ratione materiae en l’espèce, la Cour interprétera la CIEDR et, en particulier, l’expression « origine nationale » figurant au paragraphe 1 de son article premier. Elle appliquera, pour ce faire, les règles d’interprétation des traités, telles qu’elles sont consacrées aux articles 31 et 32 de la convention de Vienne sur le droit des traités (ci‑après la « convention de Vienne »). Bien que cette convention ne soit pas en vigueur entre les Parties et qu’en tout état de cause elle ne couvre pas les traités conclus avant son entrée en vigueur, tels que la CIEDR, il est constant que les articles 31 et 32 de cet instrument reflètent des règles de droit international coutumier (Application de la convention internationale pour la répression du financement du terrorisme et de la convention internationale sur l’élimination de toutes les formes de discrimination raciale (Ukraine c. Fédération de Russie), exceptions préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2019 (II), p. 598, par. 106 ; Immunités et procédures pénales (Guinée équatoriale c. France), exceptions préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2018 (I), p. 320‑321, par. 91 ; Question de la délimitation du plateau continental entre le Nicaragua et la Colombie au‑delà de 200 milles marins de la côte nicaraguayenne (Nicaragua c. Colombie), exceptions préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2016 (I), p. 116, par. 33). 76. La Cour procédera à l’interprétation de l’expression « origine nationale » par référence, en premier lieu, aux éléments contenus à l’article 31 96 application of the cerd (judgment) 29 which states the general rule of treaty interpretation. Only then will the Court turn to the supplementary means of interpretation provided for in Article 32 in order to confirm the meaning resulting from that process, or to remove ambiguity or obscurity, or to avoid a manifestly absurd or unreasonable result (Immunities and Criminal Proceedings (Equatorial Guinea v. France), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2018 (I), p. 321, para. 91; Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Serbia and Montenegro), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2007 (I), pp. 109‑110, para. 160). 77. The Court will also examine the practice of the CERD Committee and of regional human rights courts. In their pleadings, the Parties expressed different opinions on that practice in relation to the interpretation of the term “national origin” in Article 1, paragraph 1, of the Convention. The Court recalls that, in its jurisprudence, it has taken into account the practice of committees established under human rights conventions, as well as the practice of regional human rights courts, in so far as this was relevant for the purposes of interpretation (Ahmadou Sadio Diallo (Republic of Guinea v. Democratic Republic of the Congo), Compensation, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2012 (I), p. 331, para. 13; pp. 334‑335, para. 24; p. 337, para. 33, and pp. 339‑340, para. 40; Questions relating to the Obligation to Prosecute or Extradite (Belgium v. Senegal), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2012 (II), pp. 457‑458, para. 101; Ahmadou Sadio Diallo (Republic of Guinea v. Democratic Republic of the Congo), Merits, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2010 (II), pp. 663‑664, para. 66; Legal Consequences of the Construction of a Wall in the Occupied Palestinian Territory, Advisory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports 2004 (I), p. 179, para. 109, and pp. 192‑193, para. 136). 1. The term “national origin” in accordance with its ordinary meaning, read in its context and in the light of the object and purpose of CERD 78. The Court recalls that Article 31, paragraph 1, of the Vienna Convention provides that “[a] treaty shall be interpreted in good faith in accordance with the ordinary meaning to be given to the terms of the treaty in their context and in the light of its object and purpose”. The Court’s interpretation must take account of all these elements considered as a whole (Maritime Delimitation in the Indian Ocean (Somalia v. Kenya), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2017, p. 29, para. 64). * * 79. According to the UAE, the ordinary meaning of the term “national origin” does not encompass current nationality, because the latter concept refers to a legal relationship with a State in the sense of citizenship, whereas national origin denotes “an association with a nation of people, not a State”. In the Respondent’s view, the five authentic texts of “the application de la ciedr (arrêt) 96 29 de la convention de Vienne, qui pose la règle générale en matière d’interprétation des traités. Ce n’est que dans un second temps que la Cour se penchera sur les moyens complémentaires d’interprétation prévus à l’article 32, pour confirmer le sens ainsi établi, éliminer une ambiguïté, un point obscur ou éviter un résultat manifestement absurde ou déraisonnable (Immunités et procédures pénales (Guinée équatoriale c. France), exceptions préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2018 (I), p. 321, par. 91 ; Application de la convention pour la prévention et la répression du crime de génocide (Bosnie‑Herzégovine c. Serbie‑et‑Monténégro), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2007 (I), p. 109‑110, par. 160). 77. La Cour examinera également la pratique du Comité de la CIEDR et celle des cours régionales des droits de l’homme. Dans leurs exposés, les Parties ont exprimé des opinions différentes quant auxdites pratiques pour ce qui est de l’interprétation de l’expression « origine nationale » figurant au paragraphe 1 de l’article premier de la convention. La Cour rappelle que, dans sa jurisprudence, elle a pris en compte la pratique des comités établis en vertu de conventions relatives aux droits de l’homme, ainsi que la pratique des cours régionales des droits de l’homme, dans la mesure où celle‑ci était pertinente aux fins de l’interprétation (Ahmadou Sadio Diallo (République de Guinée c. République démocratique du Congo), indemnisation, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2012 (I), p. 331, par. 13 ; p. 334‑335, par. 24 ; p. 337, par. 33, et p. 339‑340, par. 40 ; Questions concernant l’obligation de poursuivre ou d’extrader (Belgique c. Sénégal), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2012 (II), p. 457‑458, par. 101 ; Ahmadou Sadio Diallo (République de Guinée c. République démocratique du Congo), fond, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2010 (II), p. 663‑664, par. 66 ; Conséquences juridiques de l’édification d’un mur dans le territoire palestinien occupé, avis consultatif, C.I.J. Recueil 2004 (I), p. 179, par. 109, et p. 192‑193, par. 136). 1. L’expression « origine nationale » selon son sens ordinaire, lue dans son contexte et à la lumière de l’objet et du but de la CIEDR 78. La Cour rappelle que, selon le paragraphe 1 de l’article 31 de la convention de Vienne, « [u]n traité doit être interprété de bonne foi suivant le sens ordinaire à attribuer aux termes du traité dans leur contexte et à la lumière de son objet et de son but ». L’interprétation faite par la Cour doit prendre en compte l’ensemble de ces éléments considérés comme un tout (Délimitation maritime dans l’océan Indien (Somalie c. Kenya), exceptions préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2017, p. 29, par. 64). * * 79. Selon les Emirats arabes unis, le sens ordinaire de l’expression « origine nationale » n’englobe pas la nationalité actuelle, cette dernière renvoyant au lien de rattachement juridique à un Etat au sens de citoyenneté, alors que l’origine nationale désigne « le lien avec une nation et non pas avec un Etat ». Pour le défendeur, les cinq textes de la convention faisant 97 application of the cerd (judgment) 30 Convention confirm that the drafters drew a distinction between the term “national origin”, as used in Article 1, paragraph 1, and Article 5 of the Convention, and “nationality”, as used in Article 1, paragraph 3, of the Convention. In its view, the definition of racial discrimination in the Convention refers only to characteristics that are inherent and immutable, namely race, colour, descent, or national or ethnic origin. Nationality, on the other hand, is a legal bond that can change over time. Lastly, the Respondent considers that the Convention’s title and Preamble confirm that it does not prohibit differentiation on the basis of an individual’s current nationality, since it concerns racial discrimination. According to the Respondent, the Preamble reaffirms the overall aim of bringing racial discrimination to an end and makes no mention of discrimination based on current nationality. It thus argues that the term “national origin” as used in Article 1, paragraph 1, of CERD is “an individual’s permanent association with a particular nation of people” and does not include nationality in the sense of citizenship. 80. In Qatar’s view, discrimination based on a person’s current nationality falls within the prohibition of racial discrimination provided for in Article 1, paragraph 1, of the Convention. According to the Applicant, the term “national origin” refers to a person belonging to a nation by birth, or to the country from which he or she originates, as well as a person’s current nationality or national affiliation. It contends that this term, as reproduced in the different languages of the Convention, does not refer only to the immutable characteristics of a person. Qatar further contends that paragraphs 2 and 3 of Article 1, which exclude from the scope of the Convention any differentiation between citizens and non‑citizens and at the same time prohibit discrimination against any particular nationality, would be deprived of any effet utile if current nationality were not covered by the term “national origin”. Relying on the Preamble, the Applicant argues that it was the drafters’ intention that the Convention would not remain static but would form a comprehensive network of protections which would apply to racial discrimination, however it manifests, across different countries, contexts and time periods. According to the Applicant, excluding current nationality from the definition of racial discrimination would permit States to put in place any discriminatory policy targeting individuals or groups with the characteristics expressly mentioned in Article 1, paragraph 1, of the Convention. The adoption of such policies could be justified officially by sole reference to current nationality rather than to the characteristics in question. The Applicant thus concludes that the exclusion of nationality‑based discrimination from the scope of the Convention would lead to absurd results wholly at odds with its purpose. * * application de la ciedr (arrêt) 97 30 foi confirment que les rédacteurs ont établi une distinction entre l’expression « origine nationale », employée au paragraphe 1 de l’article premier et à l’article 5, et le terme « nationalité », figurant au paragraphe 3 de l’article premier de la convention. Selon lui, la définition de la discrimination raciale figurant dans la convention ne vise que des caractéristiques inhérentes à la personne et immuables, à savoir la race, la couleur, l’ascendance ou l’origine nationale ou ethnique. La nationalité, en revanche, est un lien juridique susceptible de changer au fil du temps. Enfin, le défendeur considère que l’intitulé et le préambule de la convention confirment que celle‑ci n’interdit pas la différenciation fondée sur la nationalité actuelle de l’individu, puisqu’elle concerne la discrimination raciale. Selon lui, le préambule réaffirme l’objectif général consistant à mettre fin à la discrimination raciale sans mentionner la discrimination fondée sur la nationalité actuelle. Le défendeur soutient, en conséquence, que l’expression « origine nationale », telle qu’employée au paragraphe 1 de l’article premier de la CIEDR, désigne « l’appartenance immuable de l’individu à une nation déterminée » et qu’elle n’inclut pas la nationalité au sens de citoyenneté. 80. Pour le Qatar, la discrimination fondée sur la nationalité actuelle d’une personne relève de l’interdiction de la discrimination raciale prévue au paragraphe 1 de l’article premier de la convention. Selon le demandeur, l’expression « origine nationale » comprend l’appartenance d’une personne à une nation, à la naissance, ou au pays dont elle est originaire, ainsi que sa nationalité ou son affiliation nationale actuelle. Il avance que cette expression, telle qu’elle est reproduite dans les différentes langues de la convention, ne vise pas seulement les caractéristiques immuables de la personne. Le Qatar ajoute que les paragraphes 2 et 3 de l’article premier, qui excluent du champ d’application de la convention toute différenciation selon qu’il s’agit de ressortissants ou de non‑ressortissants, tout en interdisant la discrimination à l’égard d’une nationalité particulière, seraient dépourvus de tout effet utile si la nationalité actuelle n’était pas couverte par l’expression « origine nationale ». En se fondant sur le préambule, le demandeur fait valoir que les rédacteurs entendaient que la convention ne reste pas immuable, mais constitue un réseau étendu de protections qui s’appliquerait à la discrimination raciale quelle que soit sa forme, dans différents pays, contextes et époques. Selon le demandeur, le fait d’exclure la nationalité actuelle de la définition de la discrimination raciale permettrait aux Etats de mettre en place n’importe quelle politique discriminatoire visant des personnes ou des groupes sur la base des éléments expressément mentionnés au paragraphe 1 de l’article premier de la convention. Il suffirait, selon lui, que l’adoption de ces politiques soit justifiée officiellement par référence non aux caractéristiques en question mais à la seule nationalité actuelle. En conséquence, le demandeur conclut que le fait d’exclure la discrimination fondée sur la nationalité du champ d’application de la convention conduirait à des résultats absurdes et totalement contraires au but de celle‑ci. * * 98 application of the cerd (judgment) 31 81. As the Court has recalled on many occasions, “[i]nterpretation must be based above all upon the text of the treaty” (Territorial Dispute (Libyan Arab Jamahiriya/Chad), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1994, p. 22, para. 41). The Court observes that the definition of racial discrimination in the Convention includes “national or ethnic origin”. These references to “origin” denote, respectively, a person’s bond to a national or ethnic group at birth, whereas nationality is a legal attribute which is within the discretionary power of the State and can change during a person’s lifetime (Nottebohm (Liechtenstein v. Guatemala), Second Phase, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1955, pp. 20 and 23). The Court notes that the other elements of the definition of racial discrimination, as set out in Article 1, paragraph 1, of the Convention, namely race, colour and descent, are also characteristics that are inherent at birth. 82. The Court will next turn to the context in which the term “national origin” is used in the Convention, in particular paragraphs 2 and 3 of Article 1, which provide that: “2. This Convention shall not apply to distinctions, exclusions, restrictions or preferences made by a State Party to this Convention between citizens and non‑citizens. 3. Nothing in this Convention may be interpreted as affecting in any way the legal provisions of States Parties concerning nationality, citizenship or naturalization, provided that such provisions do not discriminate against any particular nationality.” 83. The Court considers that these provisions support the interpretation of the ordinary meaning of the term “national origin” as not encompassing current nationality. While according to paragraph 3, the Convention in no way affects legislation concerning nationality, citizenship or naturalization, on the condition that such legislation does not discriminate against any particular nationality, paragraph 2 provides that any “distinctions, exclusions, restrictions or preferences” between citizens and non‑citizens do not fall within the scope of the Convention. In the Court’s view, such express exclusion from the scope of the Convention of differentiation between citizens and non‑citizens indicates that the Convention does not prevent States parties from adopting measures that restrict the right of non‑citizens to enter a State and their right to reside there — rights that are in dispute in this case — on the basis of their current nationality. 84. The Court will now examine the object and purpose of the Convention. The Court has frequently referred to the preamble of a convention to determine its object and purpose (Certain Iranian Assets (Islamic application de la ciedr (arrêt) 98 31 81. Ainsi que la Cour l’a rappelé à maintes reprises, « l’interprétation doit être fondée avant tout sur le texte du traité lui‑même » (Différend territorial (Jamahiriya arabe libyenne/Tchad), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1994, p. 22, par. 41). La Cour observe que la définition de la discrimination raciale figurant dans la convention inclut l’« origine nationale ou ethnique ». Ces références à l’« origine » désignent, respectivement, le rattachement de la personne à un groupe national ou ethnique à sa naissance, alors que la nationalité est un attribut juridique qui relève du pouvoir discrétionnaire de l’Etat et qui peut changer au cours de l’existence de la personne (Nottebohm (Liechtenstein c. Guatemala), deuxième phase, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1955, p. 20 et 23). La Cour relève que les autres éléments de la définition de la discrimination raciale, telle qu’énoncée au paragraphe 1 de l’article premier de la convention, à savoir la race, la couleur et l’ascendance, sont également des caractéristiques inhérentes à la personne à la naissance. 82. La Cour examinera ensuite le contexte dans lequel l’expression « origine nationale » est employée dans la convention, notamment les paragraphes 2 et 3 de l’article premier qui prévoient ceci : « 2. La présente Convention ne s’applique pas aux distinctions, exclusions, restrictions ou préférences établies par un Etat partie à la Convention selon qu’il s’agit de ses ressortissants ou de nonressortissants. 3. Aucune disposition de la présente Convention ne peut être interprétée comme affectant de quelque manière que ce soit les dispositions législatives des Etats parties à la Convention concernant la nationalité, la citoyenneté ou la naturalisation, à condition que ces dispositions ne soient pas discriminatoires à l’égard d’une nationalité particulière. » 83. La Cour considère que ces dispositions viennent conforter l’interprétation selon laquelle le sens ordinaire de l’expression « origine nationale » n’englobe pas la nationalité actuelle. En effet, tandis que, selon le paragraphe 3, la convention n’affecte d’aucune façon les législations concernant la nationalité, la citoyenneté ou la naturalisation, à condition que ces législations ne soient pas discriminatoires à l’égard d’une nationalité particulière, le paragraphe 2 soustrait au champ d’application de la convention toutes « distinctions, exclusions, restrictions ou préférences » établies entre ressortissants et non‑ressortissants. Selon la Cour, pareille exclusion expresse du champ de la CIEDR des différences de traitement entre ressortissants et non‑ressortissants indique que la convention n’empêche pas les Etats parties d’adopter des mesures qui restreignent les droits des non‑ressortissants d’entrer sur leur territoire et d’y résider, au motif de leur nationalité actuelle, droits qui sont en cause dans la présente affaire. 84. La Cour en vient maintenant à l’objet et au but de la convention. Elle s’est souvent référée au préambule d’une convention pour en déterminer l’objet et le but (Certains actifs iraniens (République islamique 99 application of the cerd (judgment) 32 Republic of Iran v. United States of America), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2019 (I), p. 28, para. 57, and p. 38, para. 91; Whaling in the Antarctic (Australia v. Japan: New Zealand intervening), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2014, p. 251, para. 56; Questions relating to the Obligation to Prosecute or Extradite (Belgium v. Senegal), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2012 (II), p. 449, para. 68). 85. It is recalled in the Preamble of CERD that “the United Nations has condemned colonialism and all practices of segregation and discrimination associated therewith, in whatever form and wherever they exist, and that the Declaration on the Granting of Independence to Colonial Countries and Peoples of 14 December 1960 (General Assembly resolution 1514 (XV)) has affirmed and solemnly proclaimed the necessity of bringing them to a speedy and unconditional end”. 86. The Court notes that CERD was drafted against the backdrop of the 1960s decolonization movement, for which the adoption of resolution 1514 (XV) of 14 December 1960 was a defining moment (Legal Consequences of the Separation of the Chagos Archipelago from Mauritius in 1965, Advisory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports 2019 (I), p. 132 para. 150). By underlining that “any doctrine of superiority based on racial differentiation is scientifically false, morally condemnable, socially unjust and dangerous, and that there is no justification for racial discrimination, in theory or in practice, anywhere”, the Preamble to the Convention clearly sets out its object and purpose, which is to bring to an end all practices that seek to establish a hierarchy among social groups as defined by their inherent characteristics or to impose a system of racial discrimination or segregation. The aim of the Convention is thus to eliminate all forms and manifestations of racial discrimination against human beings on the basis of real or perceived characteristics as of their origin, namely at birth. 87. CERD, whose universal character is confirmed by the fact that 182 States are parties to it, thus condemns any attempt to legitimize racial discrimination by invoking the superiority of one social group over another. Therefore, it was clearly not intended to cover every instance of differentiation between persons based on their nationality. Differentiation on the basis of nationality is common and is reflected in the legislation of most States parties. 88. Consequently, the term “national origin” in Article 1, paragraph 1, of CERD, in accordance with its ordinary meaning, read in its context and in the light of the object and purpose of the Convention, does not encompass current nationality. application de la ciedr (arrêt) 99 32 d’Iran c. Etats‑Unis d’Amérique), exceptions préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2019 (I), p. 28, par. 57, et p. 38, par. 91 ; Chasse à la baleine dans l’Antarctique (Australie c. Japon ; Nouvelle‑Zélande (intervenant)), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2014, p. 251, par. 56 ; Questions concernant l’obligation de poursuivre ou d’extrader (Belgique c. Sénégal), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2012 (II), p. 449, par. 68). 85. Dans son préambule, la CIEDR rappelle que « les Nations Unies ont condamné le colonialisme et toutes les pratiques de ségrégation et de discrimination dont il s’accompagne, sous quelque forme et en quelque endroit qu’ils existent, et que la Déclaration sur l’octroi de l’indépendance aux pays et aux peuples coloniaux, du 14 décembre 1960 [résolution 1514 (XV) de l’Assemblée générale], a affirmé et solennellement proclamé la nécessité d’y mettre rapidement et inconditionnellement fin ». 86. La Cour relève que la CIEDR a été élaborée alors que se développait le mouvement des années 1960 en faveur de la décolonisation, dont la résolution 1514 (XV) du 14 décembre 1960 a constitué un moment décisif (Effets juridiques de la séparation de l’archipel des Chagos de Maurice en 1965, avis consultatif, C.I.J. Recueil 2019 (I), p. 132, par. 150). En effet, en mettant l’accent sur le fait que « toute doctrine de supériorité fondée sur la différenciation entre les races est scientifiquement fausse, moralement condamnable et socialement injuste et dangereuse et que rien ne saurait justifier, où que ce soit, la discrimination raciale, ni en théorie ni en pratique », le préambule de la convention a clairement formulé l’objet et le but de celle‑ci, qui consiste à mettre un terme à toutes les pratiques qui cherchent à instaurer des hiérarchies entre des groupes sociaux, définis par des caractéristiques qui leur sont inhérentes, ou à imposer un système de discrimination ou de ségrégation raciales. La convention se fixe ainsi pour objectif l’élimination de toutes les formes et de toutes les manifestations de discrimination raciale visant les personnes humaines en raison de leurs caractéristiques, réelles ou supposées, à l’origine, soit à la naissance. 87. C’est ainsi que la CIEDR, dont la vocation universelle est attestée par le fait que 182 Etats y sont parties, condamne toute tentative de légitimer la discrimination raciale par l’invocation de la supériorité d’un groupe social par rapport à un autre. Dès lors, elle n’était manifestement pas destinée à régir tous les cas de différenciation entre les personnes en fonction de leur nationalité. Les différenciations fondées sur la nationalité sont fréquentes et inscrites dans la législation de la plupart des Etats parties. 88. Par conséquent, l’expression « origine nationale » figurant au paragraphe 1 de l’article premier de la CIEDR, selon son sens ordinaire, lue dans son contexte et à la lumière de l’objet et du but de la convention, n’englobe pas la nationalité actuelle. 100 application of the cerd (judgment) 33 2. The term “national origin” in the light of the travaux préparatoires as a supplementary means of interpretation 89. In light of the conclusion above, the Court need not resort to supplementary means of interpretation. However, the Court notes that both Parties have carried out a detailed analysis of the travaux préparatoires of the Convention in support of their respective positions on the meaning and scope of the term “national origin” in Article 1, paragraph 1, of the Convention. Considering this fact and the Court’s practice of confirming, when it deems it appropriate, its interpretation of the relevant texts by reference to the travaux préparatoires (see, for example, Application of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (Georgia v. Russian Federation), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2011 (I), p. 128, para. 142, and pp. 129‑130, para. 147), the Court will examine the travaux préparatoires of CERD in the present case. * * 90. According to the UAE, the various drafts of the definition of racial discrimination considered by the negotiators of the Convention did not refer to nationality in the political‑legal sense of the term. The Respondent recalls that the amendment jointly proposed by the United States of America and France in the course of the work of the Third Committee of the United Nations General Assembly (hereinafter the “Third Committee”), according to which “the expression ‘national origin’ does not mean ‘nationality’ or ‘citizenship’”, was withdrawn in favour of an amendment adopted as the final text of Article 1. The Respondent adds that this withdrawal was justified by the insertion of paragraphs 2 and 3 into the text of Article 1, which the two countries considered “entirely acceptable”. 91. Qatar, for its part, asserts that the drafters of the Convention sought a broad and comprehensive definition of racial discrimination, which would leave no vulnerable group without protection, and they did not intend to exclude nationality-based discrimination from its scope. According to the Applicant, the fact that the proposed amendments seeking to exclude nationality from the scope of the term “national origin” in the definition of racial discrimination were not adopted confirms that this term encompasses current nationality. As regards the joint amendment of the United States of America and France, which was withdrawn in favour of the current wording of Article 1, Qatar considers that it was in any event limited in scope, since it sought to prevent non‑citizens from availing themselves of certain rights reserved for citizens and in no way sought to exclude differentiation based on current nationality from the scope of the Convention. Thus, in Qatar’s view, the travaux préparatoires confirm that the scope of the Convention extends to discrimination based on cur- application de la ciedr (arrêt) 100 33 2. L’expression « origine nationale » à la lumière des travaux préparatoires comme moyen complémentaire d’interprétation 89. Au vu de la conclusion qui précède, il n’est pas nécessaire pour la Cour de recourir à des moyens complémentaires d’interprétation. Cela étant, la Cour constate que les deux Parties ont procédé à une analyse détaillée des travaux préparatoires de la CIEDR pour conforter leurs thèses respectives quant au sens et à la portée de l’expression « origine nationale » figurant au paragraphe 1 de l’article premier de la convention. Compte tenu de ce fait et de la pratique de la Cour consistant, lorsqu’elle l’estime approprié, à confirmer son interprétation des textes pertinents par référence aux travaux préparatoires (voir, par exemple, Application de la convention internationale sur l’élimination de toutes les formes de discrimination raciale (Géorgie c. Fédération de Russie), exceptions préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2011 (I), p. 128, par. 142, et p. 129‑130, par. 147), la Cour examinera les travaux préparatoires de la CIEDR en la présente espèce. * * 90. Selon les Emirats arabes unis, les différents projets relatifs à la définition de la discrimination raciale examinés par les négociateurs de la convention ne visaient pas la nationalité au sens politico-juridique du terme. Le défendeur rappelle que l’amendement proposé conjointement par les Etats‑Unis d’Amérique et la France dans le cadre des travaux de la Troisième Commission de l’Assemblée générale des Nations Unies (ci‑après la « Troisième Commission »), selon lequel « l’expression « origine nationale » ne désigne ni la « nationalité » ni la « citoyenneté » », a été retiré en faveur d’un amendement qui allait être adopté comme texte final de l’article premier. Le défendeur ajoute que ce retrait était justifié par l’introduction, dans le texte de l’article premier, des paragraphes 2 et 3, ce qui, pour les deux pays, était « tout à fait acceptable ». 91. Le Qatar, de son côté, affirme que les rédacteurs de la convention visaient une définition large et exhaustive de la discrimination raciale, qui ne laisserait aucun groupe vulnérable sans protection, et n’entendaient pas exclure la discrimination fondée sur la nationalité de son champ d’application. Selon le demandeur, les propositions d’amendement à la définition de la discrimination raciale, qui tendaient à exclure la nationalité de la portée de l’expression « origine nationale », n’ont pas été retenues, ce qui confirme que cette expression englobe la nationalité actuelle. En ce qui concerne l’amendement conjoint des Etats‑Unis d’Amérique et de la France, qui a été retiré en faveur du libellé actuel de l’article premier, le Qatar considère que cet amendement avait de toute façon une portée limitée puisqu’il entendait empêcher les non‑ressortissants de se prévaloir de certains droits réservés aux ressortissants et ne visait aucunement à exclure la différenciation fondée sur la nationalité actuelle du champ d’application de la convention. Ainsi, pour le Qatar, les travaux prépara- 101 application of the cerd (judgment) 34 rent nationality, in particular where, as in the present case, a State singles out an entire group of non‑citizens for discriminatory treatment. * * 92. The Court recalls that the Convention was drafted in three stages: first, as part of the work of the Sub‑Commission on Prevention of Discrimination and Protection of Minorities (hereinafter the “Sub‑Commission”), then within the Commission on Human Rights (hereinafter the “Commission”) and, finally, within the Third Committee. 93. In the view of the Court, the definition of racial discrimination contained in the various drafts demonstrates that the drafters did in fact have in mind the differences between national origin and nationality. The Sub‑Commission discussed at length the question whether the definition should refer solely to national origin or should also include nationality. Although some members were in favour of including the term “nationality” in the first draft definition of racial discrimination, this was only for specific cases of States composed of different nationalities. Indeed, several members of the Sub‑Commission were of the opinion that the Convention should not seek to eliminate all differentiation based on nationality in the political‑legal sense of the term, since in all countries a distinction was made between nationals and aliens. As a result, the draft presented by the Sub‑Commission to the Commission did not refer to current nationality as a basis of racial discrimination: “In this Convention the term ‘racial discrimination’ shall mean any distinction, exclusion, restriction or preference based on race, colour, national or ethnic origin (and in the case of States composed of different nationalities discrimination based on such difference) which has the purpose or effect of nullifying or impairing the recognition, enjoyment or exercise, on an equal footing, of human rights and fundamental freedoms in political, economic, social, cultural or any other field of public life set forth inter alia in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.” (“Draft International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination”, annexed to the Report of the Sixteenth Session of the Sub‑Commission on Prevention of Discrimination and Protection of Minorities to the Commission on Human Rights, 13‑31 January 1964, UN doc. E/CN.4/873, E/CN.4/Sub.2/241, 11 February 1964, p. 46.) 94. The Court notes that the question of the scope of the term “national origin” arose again during the work of the Commission. The Court application de la ciedr (arrêt) 101 34 toires confirment que le champ d’application de la convention s’étend à la discrimination fondée sur la nationalité actuelle, en particulier, comme c’est le cas en l’espèce, lorsqu’un Etat cible un groupe entier de non‑ressortissants en lui infligeant un traitement discriminatoire. * * 92. La Cour rappelle que la convention a été élaborée en trois étapes, d’abord dans le cadre des travaux de la Sous‑Commission de la lutte contre les mesures discriminatoires et de la protection des minorités (ci‑après la « Sous‑Commission »), ensuite au sein de la Commission des droits de l’homme (ci‑après la « Commission »), et enfin au sein de la Troisième Commission. 93. Selon la Cour, la définition de la discrimination raciale contenue dans les différents projets démontre que les rédacteurs avaient bien à l’esprit les différences entre l’origine nationale et la nationalité. Les membres de la Sous‑Commission ont longuement débattu de la question de savoir si la définition devait se référer seulement à l’origine nationale ou si elle devait également inclure la nationalité. Si certains membres se sont exprimés en faveur de l’inclusion du terme « nationalité » dans le projet initial de définition de la discrimination raciale, ce n’était que pour le cas spécifique des Etats composés de nationalités différentes. En effet, plusieurs membres de la Sous‑Commission étaient d’avis que la convention ne devait pas viser l’élimination de toute différenciation fondée sur la nationalité au sens politico‑juridique puisque, dans tous les pays, une distinction était établie entre les nationaux et les étrangers. Dès lors, le projet présenté par la Sous‑Commission à la Commission ne visait pas la nationalité actuelle en tant que fondement de la discrimination raciale : « Dans la présente Convention, l’expression « discrimination raciale » vise toute distinction, exclusion, restriction ou préférence fondée sur la race, la couleur, l’origine nationale ou ethnique (et dans le cas des Etats composés de nationalités différentes la discrimination fondée sur cette différence), qui a pour but ou pour effet de détruire ou d’altérer la reconnaissance, la jouissance ou l’exercice, dans des conditions d’égalité, des droits de l’homme et des libertés fondamentales dans les domaines politique, économique, social et culturel ou dans tout autre domaine de la vie publique, énoncés notamment dans la Déclaration universelle des droits de l’homme. » (« Projet de convention internationale sur l’élimination de toutes les formes de discrimination raciale », en annexe au Rapport de la Sous‑Commission de la lutte contre les mesures discriminatoires et de la protection des minorités à la Commission des droits de l’homme sur les travaux de sa seizième session, 13‑31 janvier 1964, Nations Unies, doc. E/CN.4/873, E/CN.4/Sub.2/241, 14 février 1964, p. 49.) 94. La Cour constate que la question de la portée de l’expression « origine nationale » s’est posée à nouveau dans le cadre des travaux de la 102 application of the cerd (judgment) 35 observes that it is clear from the Commission’s discussions that the expression “national origin” refers not to nationality but to country of origin (United Nations, Commission on Human Rights, Report on the Twentieth Session, 17 February‑18 March 1964, doc. E/3878, E/CN.4/874, pp. 24‑25, para. 85). Accordingly, the draft Convention presented by the Commission to the Third Committee contained the following definition of racial discrimination, which sought to exclude nationality from the scope of the term “national origin”: “In this Convention the term ‘racial discrimination’ shall mean any distinction, exclusion, restriction or preference based on race, colour, [national] or ethnic origin which has the purpose or effect of nullifying or impairing the recognition, enjoyment or exercise, on an equal footing, of human rights and fundamental freedoms in the political, economic, social, cultural or any other field of public [life]. [In this paragraph the expression ‘national origin’ does not cover the status of any person as a citizen of a given State.]” (Ibid., p. 111; see also United Nations, Commission on Human Rights, Twentieth Session, Summary Record of the 810th Meeting, 13 March 1964, doc. E/CN.4/ SR.810, 15 May 1964, p. 5.) 95. It emerges from the discussions within the Third Committee that, although it was ultimately decided to retain the term “national origin” in the text of the Convention, this decision was made only in so far as the term refers to persons of foreign origin who are subject to racial discrimination in their country of residence on the grounds of that origin. Several delegations noted that national origin differs from current nationality. 96. In the Court’s view, the fact that the amendment of the United States of America and France was not retained (see paragraph 90 above) cannot support the Applicant’s position that the term “national origin” encompasses current nationality (see United Nations, Official Records of the General Assembly, Twentieth Session, Third Committee, “Draft International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination”, doc. A/6181, 18 December 1965, pp. 12‑14, paras. 30‑37). Although the amendment was withdrawn, this was done in order to arrive at a compromise formula that would enable the text of the Convention to be finalized, by adding paragraphs 2 and 3 to Article 1 (see the compromise amendment presented by Ghana, India, Kuwait, Lebanon, Mauritania, Morocco, Nigeria, Poland and Senegal, UN doc. A/C.3/L.1238). As the Court has noted (see paragraphs 82‑83 above), paragraphs 2 and 3 of Article 1 provide that the Convention will not apply to differentiation between citizens and non‑citizens and will not affect States’ legislation on nationality, thus fully addressing the concerns expressed by certain delegations, including those of the United States of America and France, regarding the scope of the term “national origin” (see the explanations application de la ciedr (arrêt) 102 35 Commission. Selon elle, il ressort clairement des débats tenus au sein de celle‑ci que l’expression « origine nationale » se réfère non pas à la nationalité mais au pays d’origine (Nations Unies, Commission des droits de l’homme, Rapport sur la vingtième session, 17 février‑18 mars 1964, doc. E/3878, E/CN.4/874, p. 23, par. 85). C’est ainsi que le projet de convention présenté par la Commission à la Troisième Commission contenait la définition suivante de la discrimination raciale, qui visait à exclure la nationalité de la portée de l’expression « origine nationale » : « Dans la présente Convention, l’expression « discrimination raciale » vise toute distinction, exclusion, restriction ou préférence fondée sur la race, la couleur ou l’origine [nationale] ethnique, qui a pour but ou pour effet de détruire ou d’altérer la reconnaissance, la jouissance ou l’exercice, dans des conditions d’égalité, des droits de l’homme et des libertés fondamentales dans les domaines politique, économique, social et culturel ou dans tout autre domaine de la vie publique. [Dans ce paragraphe, l’expression « origine nationale » ne désigne pas le statut conféré à une personne par sa qualité de citoyen d’un Etat donné.] » (Ibid., p. 107 ; voir aussi Nations Unies, Commission des droits de l’homme, vingtième session, compte rendu analytique de la 810e séance, tenue le 13 mars 1964, doc. E/CN.4/ SR.810, 15 mai 1964, p. 5.) 95. Il ressort des débats au sein de la Troisième Commission que, s’il a été décidé finalement de conserver l’expression « origine nationale » dans le texte de la convention, ce n’est que dans la mesure où elle vise des personnes d’origine étrangère qui font l’objet, dans leur pays de résidence, d’une discrimination en raison de cette origine. Plusieurs délégations ont souligné que l’origine nationale se distinguait de la nationalité actuelle. 96. Selon la Cour, le fait que l’amendement des Etats‑Unis d’Amérique et de la France n’ait pas été retenu (voir le paragraphe 90 ci- dessus) ne saurait conforter la thèse plaidée par le demandeur, selon laquelle l’expression « origine nationale » englobe la nationalité actuelle (voir Nations Unies, Compte rendu de l’Assemblée générale, vingtième session, Troisième Commission, « Projet de convention internationale sur l’élimination de toutes les formes de discrimination raciale », doc. A/6181, 18 décembre 1965, p. 12‑14, par. 30‑37). En effet, si cet amendement a été retiré, c’était pour parvenir à une formule de compromis qui permettrait de finaliser le texte de la convention, par l’ajout des paragraphes 2 et 3 à l’article premier (voir l’amendement de compromis présenté par le Ghana, l’Inde, le Koweït, le Liban, le Maroc, la Mauritanie, le Nigéria, la Pologne et le Sénégal, Nations Unies, doc. A/C.3/L.1238). Ainsi que la Cour l’a relevé (voir les paragraphes 82-83 ci‑dessus), les paragraphes 2 et 3 de l’article premier disposent que la convention ne s’appliquera pas à la différenciation entre ressortissants et non‑ressortissants et qu’elle n’affectera pas la législation des Etats en matière de nationalité, répondant ainsi pleinement aux préoccupations exprimées par certaines délégations, y com- 103 application of the cerd (judgment) 36 provided by Lebanon in presenting the compromise amendment, United Nations, Official Records of the General Assembly, Twentieth Session, Third Committee, Summary Record of the 1307th Meeting, held on 18 October 1965, doc. A/C.3/SR.1307, p. 95, para. 1 (Lebanon)). 97. The Court concludes that the travaux préparatoires as a whole confirm that the term “national origin” in Article 1, paragraph 1, of the Convention does not include current nationality. 3. The practice of the CERD Committee 98. With regard to the practice of the CERD Committee, the UAE argues that the Committee’s opinions and general recommendations do not constitute subsequent practice or agreement of States parties to CERD regarding the interpretation of the Convention. In particular, the Respondent considers that General Recommendation XXX concerning discrimination against non‑citizens, adopted by the CERD Committee in 2004, does not constitute an interpretation based on the practice of States parties and that, in any event, it is not intended as a general prohibition of all differential treatment based on nationality. The Respondent further considers that, according to that text, any differential treatment between different groups of non‑citizens must be assessed “in the light of the objectives and purposes of the Convention”. Finally, as regards the decisions on jurisdiction and admissibility delivered by the CERD Committee in respect of the communication submitted by Qatar, the Respondent contends that these decisions are in no way binding on the Court and their reasoning with regard to the interpretation of the term “national origin” is insufficient. It adds that these decisions, whereby the Committee held that measures based on the current nationality of Qatari citizens fell within the scope of the Convention, are based on a single criterion, i.e. the Committee’s “constant practice”, which is inconsistent with the rules of treaty interpretation as reflected in Articles 31 and 32 of the Vienna Convention. 99. Qatar, for its part, requests that the Court ascribe great weight to the CERD Committee’s interpretations of the Convention, in keeping with its jurisprudence relating to committees established under other human rights conventions. The Applicant asserts that the CERD Committee, as the guardian of the Convention, has developed a constant practice whereby differentiation based on nationality is capable of constituting racial discrimination within the meaning of the Convention. It notes, in particular, that the CERD Committee found that it was competent to entertain Qatar’s communication concerning the same measures of which it complains in the present case, considering that they were capable of falling within the scope ratione materiae of the Convention. Thus, accord- application de la ciedr (arrêt) 103 36 pris les Etats‑Unis d’Amérique et la France, quant à la portée de l’expression « origine nationale » (voir les explications du Liban, présentant l’amendement de compromis, Nations Unies, Compte rendu de l’Assemblée générale, vingtième session, Troisième Commission, compte rendu analytique de la 1307e séance, tenue le 18 octobre 1965, doc. A/C.3/ SR.1307, p. 101, par. 1 (Liban)). 97. En conclusion, la Cour est d’avis que l’ensemble des travaux préparatoires confirme que l’expression « origine nationale » figurant au paragraphe 1 de l’article premier de la convention n’inclut pas la nationalité actuelle. 3. La pratique du Comité de la CIEDR 98. S’agissant de la pratique du Comité de la CIEDR, les Emirats arabes unis font valoir que les opinions et les recommandations générales de celui‑ci ne constituent pas une pratique ou un accord ultérieurs des Etats parties à la CIEDR à l’égard de l’interprétation de la convention. En particulier, le défendeur considère que la recommandation générale XXX concernant la discrimination contre les non‑ressortissants, adoptée par le Comité de la CIEDR en 2004, ne constitue pas une interprétation fondée sur la pratique des Etats parties et que, de toute façon, elle ne vise pas l’interdiction générale de toute différenciation de traitement fondée sur la nationalité. Le défendeur ajoute que, selon ce texte, toute différence de traitement entre les différents groupes de non‑ressortissants doit être appréciée « à la lumière des objectifs et des buts de la convention ». Enfin, pour ce qui est des décisions sur la compétence et sur la recevabilité rendues par le Comité de la CIEDR dans le cadre de la communication soumise par le Qatar, le défendeur soutient que celles‑ci ne lient aucunement la Cour et ne sont pas suffisamment motivées en ce qui concerne l’interprétation de l’expression « origine nationale ». Il ajoute que ces décisions, par lesquelles le Comité a estimé que les mesures fondées sur la nationalité actuelle des ressortissants qatariens entraient dans le champ d’application de la convention, ne reposent que sur un seul critère, à savoir celui de la « pratique constante » du Comité, ce qui n’est pas conforme aux règles d’interprétation des traités telles que reflétées aux articles 31 et 32 de la convention de Vienne. 99. Le Qatar, pour sa part, prie la Cour d’accorder une grande considération aux interprétations de la convention par le Comité de la CIEDR, à l’instar de ce qu’elle a fait dans sa jurisprudence relative aux comités établis dans le cadre d’autres conventions des droits de l’homme. Le demandeur fait valoir que le Comité de la CIEDR, en tant que gardien de la convention, a développé une pratique constante selon laquelle la différenciation fondée sur la nationalité est susceptible de constituer une discrimination raciale au sens de la convention. Il relève, en particulier, que le Comité de la CIEDR s’est déclaré compétent pour connaître de la communication du Qatar concernant les mêmes mesures dont il tire grief en la présente espèce, considérant que celles‑ci étaient susceptibles d’entrer 104 application of the cerd (judgment) 37 ing to Qatar, differentiation based on nationality can constitute racial discrimination within the meaning of the Convention, in so far as it does not pursue a legitimate aim and is not proportional to the achievement of that aim. * * 100. The CERD Committee, in its General Recommendation XXX, considered that “differential treatment based on citizenship or immigration status will constitute discrimination if the criteria for such differentiation, judged in the light of the objectives and purposes of the Convention, are not applied pursuant to a legitimate aim, and are not proportional to the achievement of this aim”. The Committee, a body of independent experts established specifically to supervise the application of CERD, relied on this General Recommendation when it found that it was competent to examine Qatar’s communication against the UAE and that this communication was admissible (Decision on the admissibility of the inter‑State communication submitted by Qatar against the UAE dated 27 August 2019, UN doc. CERD/ C/99/4, paras. 53‑63). 101. The Court recalls that, in its Judgment on the merits in the Diallo case, to which reference is made in paragraph 77 above, it indicated that it should “ascribe great weight” to the interpretation of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights — which it was called upon to apply in that case — adopted by the Human Rights Committee (Ahmadou Sadio Diallo (Republic of Guinea v. Democratic Republic of the Congo), Merits, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2010 (II), p. 664, para. 66). In this regard, it also affirmed, however, that it was “in no way obliged, in the exercise of its judicial functions, to model its own interpretation of the Covenant on that of the Committee” (ibid.). In the present case concerning the interpretation of CERD, the Court has carefully considered the position taken by the CERD Committee, which is specified in paragraph 100 above, on the issue of discrimination based on nationality. By applying, as it is required to do (see paragraph 75 above), the relevant customary rules on treaty interpretation, it came to the conclusion indicated in paragraph 88 above, on the basis of the reasons set out above. 4. The jurisprudence of regional human rights courts 102. Lastly, both Parties referred in their written and oral pleadings to the jurisprudence of regional human rights courts in their arguments on the meaning and scope of the term “national origin”. In this respect, Qatar invokes the jurisprudence of the European Court of Human Rights, the Inter‑American Court of Human Rights and the African Commission application de la ciedr (arrêt) 104 37 dans le champ ratione materiae de la convention. Ainsi, selon le Qatar, une différenciation fondée sur la nationalité peut constituer une discrimination raciale au sens de la convention, dans la mesure où elle ne poursuit pas un but légitime et n’est pas proportionnée à la réalisation de ce but. * * 100. Le Comité de la CIEDR, dans sa recommandation générale XXX, a considéré que « l’application d’un traitement différent fondé sur le statut quant à la citoyenneté ou à l’immigration constitue une discrimination si les critères de différenciation, jugés à la lumière des objectifs et des buts de la convention, ne visent pas un but légitime et ne sont pas proportionnés à l’atteinte de ce but ». Le Comité, organe d’experts indépendants spécialement établi en vue de superviser l’application de la CIEDR, s’est appuyé sur cette recommandation générale lorsqu’il s’est déclaré compétent pour examiner la communication du Qatar contre les Emirats arabes unis et qu’il a déclaré cette communication recevable (décision sur la recevabilité de la communication interétatique soumise par le Qatar contre les Emirats arabes unis en date du 27 août 2019, Nations Unies, doc. CERD/C/99/4, par. 53‑63). 101. La Cour rappelle que, dans l’arrêt qu’elle a rendu sur le fond en l’affaire Diallo, à laquelle il est fait référence au paragraphe 77 ci‑dessus, elle a indiqué qu’elle devait « accorder une grande considération » à l’interprétation du Pacte international relatif aux droits civils et politiques — qu’elle était appelée à appliquer en ladite affaire — telle qu’adoptée par le Comité des droits de l’homme (Ahmadou Sadio Diallo (République de Guinée c. République démocratique du Congo), fond, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2010 (II), p. 664, par. 66). A cet égard, elle a également affirmé qu’elle n’était « aucunement tenue, dans l’exercice de ses fonctions judiciaires, de conformer sa propre interprétation du Pacte à celle du Comité » (ibid.). En la présente espèce, qui concerne l’interprétation de la CIEDR, la Cour a examiné attentivement la position du Comité de la CIEDR, présentée au paragraphe 100 ci‑dessus, s’agissant de la discrimination fondée sur la nationalité. En se fondant, comme elle doit le faire (voir le paragraphe 75 ci‑dessus), sur les règles coutumières pertinentes en matière d’interprétation des traités, elle est parvenue à la conclusion indiquée au paragraphe 88 ci‑dessus, pour les motifs exposés plus haut. 4. La jurisprudence des cours régionales des droits de l’homme 102. Enfin, les deux Parties se sont référées, dans leurs exposés écrits et oraux, à la jurisprudence des cours régionales des droits de l’homme dans leurs thèses concernant le sens et la portée de l’expression « origine nationale ». A cet égard, le Qatar évoque la jurisprudence de la Cour européenne des droits de l’homme, de la Cour interaméricaine des droits de 105 application of the cerd (judgment) 38 on Human and Peoples’ Rights, which, it contends, have interpreted the term national origin as including nationality. Moreover, the Applicant refers to this jurisprudence to reiterate that discrimination consists in a difference in treatment without legitimate justification and without a reasonable relationship of proportionality with the aim to be achieved, which in its view is true of the measures at issue in this case. The Applicant adds that the elements of the definition of discrimination adopted by the CERD Committee are exactly the same as those applied in regional human rights instruments and in general international law, and entail an examination of the legitimacy and proportionality of the measures. 103. The UAE disputes the relevance of the jurisprudence of regional human rights courts for the purpose of interpreting the Convention. In its view, the concept of discrimination that has prevailed in general international human rights law has no bearing on the interpretation of CERD, which is concerned solely with racial discrimination. * * 104. It is for the Court, in the present case, to determine the scope of CERD, which exclusively concerns the prohibition of racial discrimination on the basis of race, colour, descent, or national or ethnic origin. The Court notes that the regional human rights instruments on which the jurisprudence of the regional courts is based concern respect for human rights without distinction of any kind among their beneficiaries. The relevant provisions of these conventions are modelled on Article 2 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights of 10 December 1948, according to which “[e]veryone is entitled to all the rights and freedoms set forth in this Declaration, without distinction of any kind, such as race, colour, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, property, birth or other status” (see also Article 14 of the European Convention on Human Rights, entitled “Prohibition of discrimination”; Article 1 of the American Convention on Human Rights; and Article 2 of the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights). While these legal instruments all refer to “national origin”, their purpose is to ensure a wide scope of protection of human rights and fundamental freedoms. The jurisprudence of regional human rights courts based on those legal instruments is therefore of little help for the interpretation of the term “national origin” in CERD. application de la ciedr (arrêt) 105 38 l’homme et de la Commission africaine des droits de l’homme et des peuples, lesquelles, selon lui, ont interprété l’expression « origine nationale » comme incluant la nationalité. Le demandeur se réfère en outre à cette jurisprudence pour réitérer que la discrimination consiste en une différence de traitement qui est dépourvue de motif légitime et qui ne présente pas de lien de proportionnalité raisonnable avec l’objectif poursuivi, ce qui est, selon lui, le cas en ce qui concerne les mesures en cause en la présente espèce. Le demandeur ajoute que les éléments de la définition de la discrimination retenus par le Comité de la CIEDR sont exactement les mêmes que ceux qui ont été appliqués dans le cadre des instruments régionaux des droits de l’homme ou en droit international général, à savoir l’examen de la légitimité et de la proportionnalité des mesures. 103. Les Emirats arabes unis contestent la pertinence de la jurisprudence des cours régionales des droits de l’homme aux fins de l’interprétation de la convention. Ils considèrent que la conception de la discrimination qui a prévalu dans le cadre du droit international général des droits de l’homme n’est pas pertinente pour interpréter la CIEDR, laquelle vise uniquement la discrimination raciale. * * 104. Il revient à la Cour, en la présente espèce, de déterminer le champ d’application de la CIEDR, qui vise exclusivement l’interdiction de la discrimination fondée sur la race, la couleur, l’ascendance ou l’origine nationale ou ethnique. La Cour relève que les conventions régionales relatives aux droits de l’homme, sur lesquelles se fonde la jurisprudence des cours régionales, concernent le respect de droits de l’homme sans distinction aucune entre leurs bénéficiaires. Les dispositions pertinentes de ces conventions reprennent à leur compte l’article 2 de la Déclaration universelle des droits de l’homme du 10 décembre 1948, selon lequel « [c]hacun peut se prévaloir de tous les droits et de toutes les libertés proclamés dans la présente Déclaration, sans distinction aucune, notamment de race, de couleur, de sexe, de langue, de religion, d’opinion politique ou de toute autre opinion, d’origine nationale ou sociale, de fortune, de naissance ou de toute autre situation » (voir aussi l’article 14 de la convention européenne des droits de l’homme, intitulé « Interdiction de discrimination » ; l’article premier de la convention américaine relative aux droits de l’homme ; et l’article 2 de la Charte africaine des droits de l’homme et des peuples). Si ces instruments juridiques mentionnent tous l’« origine nationale », leur finalité est d’assurer la portée étendue de la protection des droits de l’homme et des libertés fondamentales. La jurisprudence des cours régionales des droits de l’homme fondée sur les instruments juridiques précités n’est donc guère utile pour l’interprétation de l’expression « origine nationale » figurant dans la CIEDR. 39 106 application of the cerd (judgment) 5. Conclusion on the interpretation of the term “national origin” 105. In light of the above, the Court finds that the term “national origin” in Article 1, paragraph 1, of the Convention does not encompass current nationality. Consequently, the measures complained of by Qatar in the present case as part of its first claim, which are based on the current nationality of its citizens, do not fall within the scope of CERD. B. The Question whether the Measures Imposed by the UAE on certain Qatari Media Corporations Come within the Scope of the Convention 106. In its second claim, Qatar complains that the measures imposed on certain media corporations in the UAE have infringed the right to freedom of opinion and expression of Qataris. According to the Applicant, the UAE has blocked access to news websites and television stations operated by Qatari corporations, including Al Jazeera. In particular, Qatar submits that the effect of closing down Qatari media channels has been to silence sources of independent information that might have mitigated the racially discriminatory messages disseminated as part of anti‑Qatari hate speech and propaganda. The Applicant submits that the block on Qatari media has not only directly targeted Qatari corporations, but has also infringed the freedom of expression of Qatari ideas and culture and contributed to the climate of fear experienced by Qataris as a result of their Qatari identity being targeted. 107. The UAE considers that the Applicant’s claims in respect of Qatari media corporations do not fall within the scope of the Convention. It submits that corporations are not covered by the Convention, which applies only to natural persons. The UAE further submits that while corporations may have a nationality, they do not have a national origin. In respect of the allegations made by Qatar, the UAE argues that it has a regulatory framework for media activities, which provides for certain content restrictions that allow the authorities to block the websites of media corporations. It is pursuant to this regulatory framework, which applies to all media corporations operating in the UAE, that the Respondent has blocked certain websites of Qatari media corporations. * * 108. For the present purposes, the Court will examine only whether the measures concerning certain Qatari media corporations, which according to Qatar have been imposed in a racially discriminatory manner, fall 39 application de la ciedr (arrêt) 106 5. Conclusion quant à l’interprétation de l’expression « origine nationale » 105. A la lumière de ce qui précède, la Cour conclut que l’expression « origine nationale » figurant au paragraphe 1 de l’article premier de la convention n’englobe pas la nationalité actuelle. Dès lors, les mesures dont le Qatar tire grief en l’espèce dans le cadre de sa première demande, fondées sur la nationalité actuelle de ses ressortissants, n’entrent pas dans le champ d’application de la CIEDR. B. La question de savoir si les mesures imposées par les Emirats arabes unis à certaines sociétés de médias qatariennes entrent dans le champ d’application de la convention 106. Dans le cadre de sa deuxième demande, le Qatar se plaint de ce que les mesures imposées à certaines sociétés de médias aux Emirats arabes unis ont porté atteinte au droit à la liberté d’opinion et d’expression des Qatariens. Selon le demandeur, les Emirats arabes unis ont bloqué l’accès à des sites d’information et à des chaînes de télévision gérés par des sociétés qatariennes, dont Al Jazeera. En particulier, le Qatar soutient que la fermeture de chaînes qatariennes a eu pour effet de réduire au silence des sources d’information indépendantes qui auraient pu atténuer les messages constitutifs de discrimination raciale diffusés à l’appui d’un discours et d’une propagande hostiles aux Qatariens. Le demandeur plaide que le blocage des médias qatariens, s’il visait directement les sociétés qatariennes, a également porté atteinte à la libre expression des idées et de la culture qatariennes, et a contribué au climat de peur dont les Qatariens ont souffert du fait que leur identité qatarienne a été prise pour cible. 107. Les Emirats arabes unis considèrent que les demandes du Qatar relatives aux sociétés de médias qatariennes n’entrent pas dans le champ d’application de la convention. Ils soutiennent que les sociétés ne sont pas protégées par la convention, laquelle ne s’applique qu’aux personnes physiques. Les Emirats arabes unis plaident encore que, si les sociétés peuvent posséder une nationalité, elles sont en revanche dépourvues d’origine nationale. S’agissant des allégations formulées par le Qatar, les Emirats arabes unis font valoir qu’ils disposent d’un cadre réglementaire régissant les activités des médias et que ce cadre prévoit certaines restrictions de contenu permettant aux autorités de bloquer l’accès aux sites Internet de sociétés de médias. C’est conformément audit cadre réglementaire, applicable à l’ensemble des sociétés de médias opérant sur le territoire émirien, que le défendeur a bloqué l’accès à certains sites Internet exploités par des sociétés de médias qatariennes. * * 108. Pour les besoins de la présente procédure, la Cour se contentera de rechercher si les mesures concernant certaines sociétés de médias qatariennes, constitutives, selon le Qatar, de discrimination raciale, entrent 40 107 application of the cerd (judgment) within the scope of the Convention. As to the alleged “indirect discrimination” resulting from the effect of the media block on persons of Qatari national origin, the Court will examine that aspect in its analysis of Qatar’s third claim. The Court notes that the Convention concerns only individuals or groups of individuals. This is clear from the various substantive provisions of CERD, which refer to “certain racial or ethnic groups or individuals” (Article 1, paragraph 4), “race or group of persons” (Article 4 (a)), or “individuals or groups of individuals” (Article 14, paragraph 1), as well as its Preamble which refers to racial “discrimination between human beings”. While under Article 2, paragraph 1 (a), of the Convention, “[e]ach State Party undertakes to engage in no act or practice of racial discrimination against persons, groups of persons or institutions”, the Court considers that this reference to “institutions” does not include media corporations such as those in the present case. Read in its context and in the light of the object and purpose of the Convention, the term “institutions” refers to collective bodies or associations, which represent individuals or groups of individuals. Thus, the Court concludes that Qatar’s second claim relating to Qatari media corporations does not fall within the scope of the Convention. C. The Question whether the Measures that Qatar Characterizes as “Indirect Discrimination” against Persons of Qatari National Origin Fall within the Scope of the Convention 109. Qatar submits that the “expulsion order” and “travel bans”, as well as other measures taken by the UAE, have had the purpose and effect of discriminating “indirectly” against persons of Qatari national origin in the historical‑cultural sense, namely persons of Qatari birth and heritage, including their spouses, their children and persons otherwise linked to Qatar. According to Qatar, a measure may be considered as “based on” one of the grounds listed in Article 1 if, by its effect, it implicates a protected group. It adds that the Convention prohibits both direct discrimination, where a measure expressly distinguishes on the basis of one of the grounds of racial discrimination, and “indirect discrimination”, where a measure results in such a distinction by its effect. As part of the latter claim, Qatar complains of official statements critical of Qatar, including the 6 June 2017 statement of the Attorney General of the UAE, which mentioned criminal penalties for any expression of sympathy towards Qatar. Qatar adds that the UAE has failed to comply with CERD by encouraging and failing to supress anti‑Qatari hate speech and propaganda. The Applicant emphasizes that its complaints are based not on a minimal difference in the treatment of Qatari citizens in the area of immigration controls, but on comprehensive, serious and co‑ordinated 40 application de la ciedr (arrêt) 107 dans le champ d’application de la convention. S’agissant de la « discrimination indirecte » qu’auraient subie les personnes d’origine nationale qatarienne en raison de l’effet du blocage des médias, la Cour examinera cet aspect lorsqu’elle analysera la troisième demande du Qatar. La Cour relève que la convention concerne uniquement des individus ou des groupes d’individus. C’est ce qui ressort clairement de ses dispositions de fond, qui mentionnent « certains groupes raciaux ou ethniques ou … individus » (paragraphe 4 de l’article premier), « toute race ou tout groupe de personnes » (alinéa a) de l’article 4), ou encore des « personnes ou … groupes de personnes » (paragraphe 1 de l’article 14), ainsi que, dans son préambule, « la discrimination [raciale] entre les êtres humains ». Bien qu’aux termes de l’alinéa a) du paragraphe 1 de l’article 2, « [c]haque Etat partie s’engage à ne se livrer à aucun acte ou pratique de discrimination raciale contre des personnes, groupes de personnes ou institutions et à faire en sorte que toutes les autorités publiques et institutions publiques, nationales et locales, se conforment à cette obligation », la Cour estime que cette référence aux « institutions » n’inclut pas les sociétés de médias telles que visées en la présente espèce. Lu dans son contexte et à la lumière de l’objet et du but de la convention, le terme « institutions » renvoie aux organes collectifs ou aux associations, qui représentent des individus ou des groupes d’individus. En conséquence, la Cour conclut que la deuxième demande du Qatar, relative aux sociétés de médias qatariennes, n’entre pas dans le champ d’application de la convention. C. La question de savoir si les mesures que le Qatar qualifie de « discrimination indirecte » à l’encontre des personnes d’origine nationale qatarienne entrent dans le champ de la convention 109. Le Qatar soutient que la « décision d’expulsion » et les « interdictions d’entrée », ainsi que d’autres mesures prises par les Emirats arabes unis, ont eu pour but et pour effet d’opérer une « discrimination indirecte » à l’égard des personnes d’origine nationale qatarienne, au sens historico‑culturel, à savoir les personnes qatariennes de naissance et d’héritage, y compris leurs conjoints, leurs enfants et les personnes qui seraient autrement liées au Qatar. Selon le Qatar, une mesure peut être considérée comme « fondée sur » l’un des motifs prévus à l’article premier dès lors que, par son effet, elle concerne un groupe protégé. Il ajoute que la convention interdit aussi bien la discrimination directe, à savoir le cas où une mesure opère expressément une distinction fondée sur l’un des motifs de discrimination raciale énoncés, que la « discrimination indirecte », à savoir celui où une mesure a pour effet pareille distinction. Dans le cadre de cette dernière demande, le Qatar tire grief de déclarations officielles critiques à son endroit, notamment de la déclaration du procureur général des Emirats arabes unis en date du 6 juin 2017, dans laquelle celui‑ci évoque des sanctions pénales en cas d’expression d’un soutien au Qatar. Le Qatar ajoute que les Emirats arabes unis ont manqué aux obligations que leur impose la CIEDR en encourageant et en s’abstenant de réprimer 41 108 application of the cerd (judgment) discriminatory acts resulting in discrimination against persons of Qatari national origin in the historical‑cultural sense, in particular on the basis of their traditions, culture, accent or dress. 110. According to the UAE, there is no question of “indirect” racial discrimination in the present case. It adds that this is not how Qatar presented its complaints in its Application instituting proceedings or in its offer to negotiate dated 25 April 2018, which concerned allegedly discriminatory policies directed at Qatari citizens and companies on the sole basis of their Qatari nationality in violation of CERD. It further states that the notion of “indirect discrimination”, in the context of the present Convention, is more specific than in other human rights treaties, since it refers solely to measures which are not discriminatory at face value but are discriminatory in fact and effect. The UAE observes that the 6 June 2017 statement by its Attorney General was made in the context of existing legislation, i.e. Federal Decree-Law No. 5 on Combating Cybercrimes dated 13 August 2012, and that there was no criminalizing of sympathy for Qatar. The UAE submits that the various allegations relating to its failure to suppress statements critical of Qatar or the actions of its Government, even if they were true, do not fall within the scope ratione materiae of the Convention since it does not constitute racial discrimination on the grounds of race, colour, descent, or national or ethnic origin. * * 111. The Court recalls that it has already found that the “expulsion order” and “travel bans” of which Qatar complains as part of its first claim do not fall within the scope of CERD, since these measures are based on the current nationality of Qatari citizens, and that such differentiation is not covered by the term “national origin” in Article 1, paragraph 1, of the Convention (see paragraph 105 above). The Court will now turn to the question whether these and any other measures as alleged by Qatar are capable of falling within the scope of the Convention, if, by their purpose or effect, they result in racial discrimination against certain persons on the basis of their Qatari national origin. 112. The Court first observes that, according to the definition of racial discrimination in Article 1, paragraph 1, of CERD, a restriction may con- 41 application de la ciedr (arrêt) 108 les discours et la propagande hostiles aux Qatariens. Le demandeur souligne que ses griefs reposent non pas sur une différence mineure de traitement à l’encontre des ressortissants qatariens en matière de contrôle de l’immigration, mais sur des actes de discrimination généralisés, graves et coordonnés, qui ont pour effet d’entraîner une discrimination à l’égard des personnes d’origine nationale qatarienne, au sens historico‑culturel, notamment au motif de leurs traditions, de leur culture, de leur accent ou de leurs vêtements. 110. Selon les Emirats arabes unis, il n’est pas question d’une discrimination raciale « indirecte » en la présente espèce. Ils ajoutent que ce n’est pas ainsi que le Qatar avait formulé ses griefs dans sa requête introductive d’instance, ni dans son offre de négocier en date du 25 avril 2018, qui portait sur des politiques prétendument discriminatoires visant des ressortissants et entreprises qatariens sur le seul fondement de leur nationalité qatarienne, en violation de la CIEDR. Il ajoute que la notion de « discrimination indirecte », dans le cadre de la présente convention, est plus spécifique que dans d’autres traités relatifs aux droits de l’homme, puisqu’elle ne vise que des mesures dont il n’apparaît pas d’emblée qu’elles sont discriminatoires mais qui le sont dans les faits et dans leurs effets. Les Emirats arabes unis font remarquer que la déclaration de leur procureur général en date du 6 juin 2017 s’inscrivait dans le contexte de la législation en vigueur, à savoir le décret‑loi fédéral no 5 sur la lutte contre la cybercriminalité en date du 13 août 2012, et qu’il ne s’agissait nullement d’ériger en infraction l’expression d’une sympathie envers le Qatar. Ils soutiennent que les diverses allégations relatives à leur inaction face aux propos critiquant le Qatar ou l’action de son gouvernement, même à en admettre le bien‑fondé, n’entrent pas dans le champ ratione materiae de la convention puisque cette inaction n’est pas constitutive de discrimination raciale pour des motifs fondés sur la race, la couleur, l’ascendance ou l’origine nationale ou ethnique. * * 111. La Cour rappelle qu’elle a déjà conclu que la « décision d’expulsion » et les « interdictions d’entrée » dont le Qatar tire grief, dans le cadre de sa première demande, n’entrent pas dans le champ d’application de la CIEDR puisque ces mesures sont fondées sur la nationalité actuelle des ressortissants qatariens et que la différenciation opérée à ce titre ne relève pas de l’expression « origine nationale » figurant au paragraphe 1 de l’article premier de la convention (voir le paragraphe 105 ci‑dessus). La Cour se penchera à présent sur la question de savoir si ces mesures ou toutes autres mesures alléguées par le Qatar sont susceptibles d’entrer dans le champ d’application de la convention, pour autant que, par leur but ou par leur effet, elles entraînent une discrimination raciale à l’encontre de certaines personnes au motif de leur origine nationale qatarienne. 112. La Cour observe tout d’abord que, selon la définition de la discrimination raciale figurant au paragraphe 1 de l’article premier de la 109 application of the cerd (judgment) 42 stitute racial discrimination if it “has the purpose or effect of nullifying or impairing the recognition, enjoyment or exercise, on an equal footing, of human rights and fundamental freedoms in the political, economic, social, cultural or any other field of public life”. Thus, the Convention prohibits all forms and manifestations of racial discrimination, whether arising from the purpose of a given restriction or from its effect. In the present case, while the measures based on current Qatari nationality may have collateral or secondary effects on persons born in Qatar or of Qatari parents, or on family members of Qatari citizens residing in the UAE, this does not constitute racial discrimination within the meaning of the Convention. In the Court’s view, the various measures of which Qatar complains do not, either by their purpose or by their effect, give rise to racial discrimination against Qataris as a distinct social group on the basis of their national origin. The Court further observes that declarations criticizing a State or its policies cannot be characterized as racial discrimination within the meaning of CERD. Thus, the Court concludes that, even if the measures of which Qatar complains in support of its “indirect discrimination” claim were to be proven on the facts, they are not capable of constituting racial discrimination within the meaning of the Convention. 113. It follows from the above that the Court does not have jurisdiction ratione materiae to entertain Qatar’s third claim, since the measures complained of therein by that State do not entail, either by their purpose or by their effect, racial discrimination within the meaning of Article 1, paragraph 1, of the Convention. D. General Conclusion 114. In light of the above, the Court concludes that the first preliminary objection raised by the UAE must be upheld. Having found that it does not have jurisdiction ratione materiae in the present case under Article 22 of the Convention, the Court does not consider it necessary to examine the second preliminary objection raised by the UAE. In accordance with its jurisprudence, when its jurisdiction is challenged on diverse grounds, the Court is “free to base its decision on the ground which in its judgment is more direct and conclusive” (Aerial Incident of 10 August 1999 (Pakistan v. India), Jurisdiction of the Court, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2000, p. 24, para. 26; Aegean Sea Continental Shelf (Greece v. Turkey), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1978, p. 17, para. 40; Certain Norwegian Loans (France v. Norway), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1957, p. 25). * * * application de la ciedr (arrêt) 109 42 CIEDR, une restriction peut être constitutive de discrimination raciale dès lors qu’elle « a pour but ou pour effet de détruire ou de compromettre la reconnaissance, la jouissance ou l’exercice, dans des conditions d’égalité, des droits de l’homme et des libertés fondamentales dans les domaines politique, économique, social et culturel ou dans tout autre domaine de la vie publique ». La convention interdit ainsi toutes les formes et toutes les manifestations de discrimination raciale, qu’elles découlent du but d’une restriction donnée ou de son effet. En la présente espèce, bien que les mesures fondées sur la nationalité actuelle des ressortissants qatariens puissent produire des effets collatéraux ou secondaires sur des personnes nées au Qatar ou de parents qatariens, ou sur des proches de ressortissants qatariens résidant aux Emirats arabes unis, il ne s’agit pas là d’une discrimination raciale au sens de la convention. Selon la Cour, les mesures dont le Qatar tire grief n’entraînent pas, par leur but ou par leur effet, une discrimination raciale à l’égard des Qatariens en tant que groupe social distinct au motif de leur origine nationale. La Cour observe en outre que les déclarations critiquant un Etat ou sa politique ne sauraient être assimilées à une discrimination raciale au sens de la CIEDR. En conséquence, la Cour conclut que, quand bien même les mesures dont le Qatar tire grief dans le cadre de son allégation de « discrimination indirecte » seraient avérées, elles ne peuvent être constitutives de discrimination raciale au sens de la convention. 113. Il découle de ce qui précède que la Cour n’est pas compétente ratione materiae pour connaître de la troisième demande du Qatar, dès lors que les mesures dont il tire grief n’opèrent pas, par leur but ou par leur effet, une discrimination raciale au sens du paragraphe 1 de l’article premier de la convention. D. Conclusion générale 114. A la lumière de ce qui précède, la Cour conclut que la première exception préliminaire soulevée par les Emirats arabes unis doit être retenue. Ayant décidé qu’elle n’a pas compétence ratione materiae en la présente espèce au titre de l’article 22 de la convention, la Cour ne juge pas nécessaire d’examiner la seconde exception préliminaire soulevée par les Emirats arabes unis. Conformément à sa jurisprudence, lorsque sa compétence est contestée pour différents motifs, la Cour est « libre de baser sa décision sur le motif qui, selon elle, est plus direct et décisif » (Incident aérien du 10 août 1999 (Pakistan c. Inde), compétence de la Cour, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2000, p. 24, par. 26 ; Plateau continental de la mer Egée (Grèce c. Turquie), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1978, p. 17, par. 40 ; Certains emprunts norvégiens (France c. Norvège), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1957, p. 25). * * * 43 110 application of the cerd (judgment) 115. For these reasons, The Court, (1) By eleven votes to six, Upholds the first preliminary objection raised by the United Arab Emirates; in favour: Vice‑President Xue; Judges Tomka, Abraham, Bennouna, Donoghue, Gaja, Crawford, Gevorgian, Salam; Judges ad hoc Cot, Daudet; against: President Yusuf; Judges Cançado Trindade, Sebutinde, Bhandari, Robinson, Iwasawa; (2) By eleven votes to six, Finds that it has no jurisdiction to entertain the Application filed by the State of Qatar on 11 June 2018. in favour: Vice‑President Xue; Judges Tomka, Abraham, Bennouna, Donoghue, Gaja, Crawford, Gevorgian, Salam; Judges ad hoc Cot, Daudet; against: President Yusuf; Judges Cançado Trindade, Sebutinde, Bhandari, Robinson, Iwasawa. Done in English and in French, the English text being authoritative, at the Peace Palace, The Hague, this fourth day of February, two thousand and twenty‑one, in three copies, one of which will be placed in the archives of the Court and the others transmitted to the Government of the State of Qatar and the Government of the United Arab Emirates, respectively. (Signed) Abdulqawi Ahmed Yusuf, President. (Signed) Philippe Gautier, Registrar. President Yusuf appends a declaration to the Judgment of the Court; Judges Sebutinde, Bhandari and Robinson append dissenting opinions to the Judgment of the Court; Judge Iwasawa appends a separate opinion to the Judgment of the Court; Judge ad hoc Daudet appends a declaration to the Judgment of the Court. (Initialled) A.A.Y. (Initialled) Ph.G. 43 application de la ciedr (arrêt) 110 115. Par ces motifs, La Cour, 1) Par onze voix contre six, Retient la première exception préliminaire soulevée par les Emirats arabes unis ; pour : Mme Xue, vice-présidente ; MM. Tomka, Abraham, Bennouna, Mme Donoghue, MM. Gaja, Crawford, Gevorgian, Salam, juges ; MM. Cot, Daudet, juges ad hoc ; contre : M. Yusuf, président ; M. Cançado Trindade, Mme Sebutinde, MM. Bhandari, Robinson, Iwasawa, juges ; 2) Par onze voix contre six, Dit qu’elle n’a pas compétence pour connaître de la requête déposée par l’Etat du Qatar le 11 juin 2018. pour : Mme Xue, vice-présidente ; MM. Tomka, Abraham, Bennouna, Mme Donoghue, MM. Gaja, Crawford, Gevorgian, Salam, juges ; MM. Cot, Daudet, juges ad hoc ; contre : M. Yusuf, président ; M. Cançado Trindade, Mme Sebutinde, MM. Bhandari, Robinson, Iwasawa, juges. Fait en anglais et en français, le texte anglais faisant foi, au Palais de la Paix, à La Haye, le quatre février deux mille vingt et un, en trois exemplaires, dont l’un restera déposé aux archives de la Cour et les autres seront transmis respectivement au Gouvernement de l’Etat du Qatar et au Gouvernement des Emirats arabes unis. Le président, (Signé) Abdulqawi Ahmed Yusuf. Le greffier, (Signé) Philippe Gautier. M. le président Yusuf joint une déclaration à l’arrêt ; Mme la juge Sebutinde joint à l’arrêt l’exposé de son opinion dissidente ; MM. les juges Bhandari et Robinson joignent à l’arrêt les exposés de leur opinion dissidente ; M. le juge Iwasawa joint à l’arrêt l’exposé de son opinion individuelle ; M. le juge ad hoc Daudet joint une déclaration à l’arrêt. (Paraphé) A.A.Y. (Paraphé) Ph.G.

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Preliminary objections

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Document Long Title

Judgment of 4 February 2021

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