Application instituting proceedings

Document Number
160-20140424-APP-01-00-EN
Document Type
Date of the Document
Document File
Bilingual Document File

APPLICATION

INSTITUTING PROCEEDINGS

AGAINST

THE UNITED KINGDOM

submitted on 24 April 2014

by

THE REPUBLIC OF THE MARSHALL ISLANDS

to

THE INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE

re

obligation to pursueod faith and conclude negotiations

leading to nuclear disarmament Table of Contents

I. INTRODUCTION AND SUMMARY.........................................................................
....3

II. FACTS ........................................................................
...................................................... 9

A. The Five Nuclear Weapon States Parties to the NPT ······················~···················'9

B. The Nine States Possessing Nuclear Weapons ..................................................... 9

C. The UK and the Nuclear Anns Race .................................................................. 11

1. Early Nuclear History ........................................................................
..... 11

2. The UK's Current Nuclear Arsenal ........................................................ 12

3. Nuclear Policy, Doctrine and Expenditure ............................................. 15

4. Current Plans for Modernization and Qualitative
Improvements of the UK's Nuclear Arsena1.......................................... 18

D. The UK and Nuclear Disarrnament..................................................................... 23

1. History and General Policy Regarding Negotiation of
Nuclear Disarrnament .........................................................................
.... 23

2. Opposition to Negotiation of aNuclear Weapons
Convention........................................................................
...................... 25

III. THELAW ........................................................................
............................................... 29

A. Article VI of the NPT ........................................................................
................. 29

B. Customary International Law ........................................................................
..... 30

C. Good Faith ........................................................................
.................................. 32

IV. OBLIGATIONS BREACHED BY THE UK................................................................. 35

A. Breach of Article VI of the NPT........................................................................
. 35

B. Breach of Customary International Law............................................................. 36

C. Breach of t.heObligation to Perform its Obligations in Good
Faith ........................................................................
............................................

V. JURISDICTION OF THE COURT........................................................................
........ 38

VI. FINAL OBSERVATIONS ........................................................................
..................... 38

REMEDIES........................................................................
......................................................... 39

2 To the Registrar, International Court of Justice.

The Undersigned, being duly authorized by the Govemment of the Republic of the Marshall

Islands, state as follows:

I. INTRODUCTION AND SUMMARY

1. It is a most fundamentallegal and moral principle that bargains should be kept.
This is embedded in international law through the principle ofpacta sunt servanda. The bargain

which this Application concems is that embodied in the 1968 Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of
Nuclear Weapons (hereafter "the Treaty" or "the NPT"), whereby the non-nuclear-weapon

States have agreed not to acquire nuclear weapons and the NPT nuclear-weapon States have
agreed to negotiate their elimination.

2. This Application is not an attempt tore-open the question of the legality of

nuclear weapons addressed by this Court in its Advisory Opinion of 8 July 1996 on the Legality
of the Threat or Use ofNuclear Weapons. Rather, the focus of this Application is the failure to

fulfil the obligations enshrined in Article VI of the NPT and customary international law; and
particularly the failure of the NPT nuclear-weapon States to keep their part of the strategie

bargain and do what the Court unanimously called for based on its analysis of Article VI, namely

"pursue in good faith and bring to a conclusion negotiations leading to nuclear disarrnament in
al! its aspects under strict and effective international control". 4

3. In its Advisory Opinion, the Court observed that "[t]he destructive power of

nuclear weapons cannot be contained in either space or time" and that such weapons "have the
potential to destroy al! civilization and the entire ecosystem of the planet". 5It acknowledged "the

unique characteristics of nuclear weapons, and in particular their destructive capacity, their
capacity to cause untold human suffering, and their ability to cause damage to generations to
6
come".

4. Unless the required negotiations, aimed at reaching the required conclusions, take
place, we shall continue to face the very real prospect of the 'devastation that would be visited

1Expressed in Article 26 of the Vienna Convention on the Law ofTreaties 1969.

2
729 UNTS 161.
3
1 C.J Reports 1996, p.226.
4Id.,para. 105, point 2F.

5Id.,para. 35.

6Id.,para. 36.

3 upon ail rnank:ind by a nuclear war' . We shall also continue to face the possibility, even the
8
likelihood, of nuclear weapons being used by accident, rniscalculation or design, and of their
proliferation. As Nobel Peace Laureate Sir Joseph Rotblat pointed out: "If sorne nations­

including the most powerful militari! y- say that they need nuclear weapons for their security,

then such security cannat be denied to other countries which really fee! insecure. Proliferation of
nuclear weapons is the logical consequence of this nuclear policy". 9

5. In its Advisory Opinion, the Court observed: "In the long run, international law,

and with itthe stability of the international arder which it is intended to govern, are bound to

suffer from the continuing difference ofviews with regard to the legal status ofweapons as
deadly as nuclear weapons" . 10 A coherent legal system cannat countenance its own destruction
11
or that of the cornrnunity whose activities it seeks to regulate. That is why fulfilrnent of the

obligation "to pursue in good faith and bring to a conclusion negotiations leading to nuclear
disarrnarnent in ali its aspects under strict and effective international control" is so important.

6. Equally, a coherent and civilized legal system cannat tolerate unacceptable harrn

to humanity. A lawful and sustainable world arder is predicated on a civilizational right to
survival rooted in "the principles ofhurnanity" 12and "elernentary considerations ofhurnanity" 13

7 NPT preamble, 2ndrecital.

8
In 1996 Lord Carver, former UK Chief of the Defence Staff(the professional head of the UK's armed
forces and the principal military adviser to the Secretary of State for Defence and to the UK
Govemment) stated that "the indefinite deployment ofnuclear weapons carries a high risk oftheir

ultimate use- intentionally, by accident or inadvertence". See Hansard, HL Deb, 28 October 1996,vol.
575, col. 134..
9
Joseph Rotblat, "Science and Nuclear Weapons: Wbere Do We Go From Here?''The Blackaby Papers,
No. 5, December 2004, p. 7. In February 2007, Mohamed E!Baradei,then Director General of the

IAEA, said that Britain cannot "modernise its Trident submarines and theo tell everyone else that
nuclear weapons are not needed in the future". See David Blair, 'UNnuclear watchdog: Trident is
hypocritical', Dai/y Telegraph, 20 February 2007.

10Supra, n. 3, para. 98.

11As B.S. Chimni bas stated, "No legal system can confer on any ofits members the right to annihilate
the community which engenders it and whose activities it seeks to regulate". B.S. Chirnni,"Nuclear

Weapons and InternationalLaw: SorneReflections", in International Law in Transition: Essays in
Memory of Judge Nagendra Singh, 1992, p. 142. Quoted by Judge Weeramantry in Section V.1 of his
Dissenting Opinion in the Advisory Opinion in Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons,

supra, n. 3, at p. 522; see also the Dissenting Opinion of Judge Shahabuddeen, id., p. 393: "Thus,
however far-reaching may be the rights conferred by sovereignty, those rights can110textend beyond the
framework within which sovereignty itself exists; in particu1ar,they carmotviolate the framework. The

framework shuts out the right of a State to embark on a course of action which would dismantle the
basis of the framework by putting an end to civilization and annihilating mankind".
12
From tbe Martens Clause as expressed in Article 1, paragraph 2 ofProtoco1 I 1977 Additional to the
Geneva Conventions 1949:"In cases not covered by this Protocol or by other international agreements,

4 14
which help to shape an emerging "law ofhumanity", the international law for humankind of
which the nuclear disarmament obligation is a key element. Yet it is now 68 years since the very

frrst United Nations General Assembly Resolution sought to put in motion the elimination from
15
national arsenals of nuclear weapons and other weapons of mass destruction, almost 45 years
since the NPT entered into force and nearly 20 years since the Court delivered its Advisory

Opinion. The long delay in fulfilling the obligations enshrined in Article VI of the NPT
constitutes a flagrant deniai ofhumanjustice.l<i

7. Inspired and guided by these principles and values, this is an Application

instituting proceedings against the United Kingdom ("UK"), an NPT nuclear-weapon State. The
underlying claims, described in more detail herein, are that the UK is: (i) in continuing breach of

its obligations under Article VI of the NPT, including specifically its obligation to pursue in

good faith negotiations to cease the nuclear arms race at an early date, as weil as to pursue in
good faith negotiations leading to nuclear disarmament in ali its aspects under strict and effective

international control; (ii) in continuing breach of customary international law with respect to the

same obligations; and (iii) in continuing breach of its obligation to perform its international legal
obligations in good faith.

8. The Applicant herein is The Republic ofthe Marshall Islands (the "Marshall

Islands", "RMI" or "Applicant). The Applicant is a non-nuclear-weapon State Party to the NPT.
The Marshall Islands acceded to the Treaty on 30 January 1995 and has continued to be a Party

to it since that time.

civilians and combatantsremain underthe protection and authority of the principles of intemationallaw
derivedfrom establishedcustom,from the princip lesofhumanity and fromthe dietales of public
conscience".

13Corfit Channel case, Judgment of Apri/9'h, 1949, JC.J Reports 1949, p. 22.

14See e.g. the Opinionof the Tribunal in the Einsatzgruppen case (1948): "[An] evaluationof
internationalrightand wrong,which heretofore existedonly in the heart ofmankind, has now been

written into the books of men as the law ofhumanity. This law is not restrictedto events ofwar. lt
envisagesthe protection of humanity at alitimes". United States of America v. Otto Oh/endorf, et al,
MilitaryTribunal IICaseNo. 9 (1948), in Trials ofWar Criminals Before the Nuernberg Military
Tribunats Under Control Council Law No. JO,Vol. IV, Nuemberg, October 1946- April 1940 (U.S.

GovemmentPrinting Office, 1950-872486), p. 497, available at
http://www.loc.gov/rr/frd/Military_Law/pdfi'NT _war-criminals_Vol-IV.pdf.
15
A!RES!l(1), 24 January 1946.
16
Cf Judge CançadoTrindade'sremarks in Section XIII of his Separate Opinionin Questions Relating to
the Obligation to Prosecute or Extradite (Belgium v. Senega/), IC.J Reports 2012, pp. 544-548;
especiallyat para.145 wherehe contrasts"the brieftime ofhuman beings (vita brevis) andthe often

prolongedlime ofhumanjustice".

5 9. While cessation of the nuclear arms race and nuclear disarmarnent are vitally

important objectives for the entire international cornrnunity, the Marshall Islands has a particular
awareness of the dire consequences of nuclear weapons. The Marshall Islands was the location

of repeated nuclear weapons testing from 1946 to 1958, during the tirne that the international
cornrnunity had placed it under the trusteeship of the United States ("U.S".). 17 During those 12

years, 67 nuclear weapons ofvarying explosive power were detonated in the Marshall Islands, at
varying distances from hurnan population. 18 According to the 3 Septernber 2012 Report ofCalin

Georgescu, a Special Rapporteur to the UN Hurnan Rights Council, the devastating adverse
impact on the Marshall Islands ofthose nuclear substances and wastes continues to this day. 19

The Special Rapporteur concludes that "the harm suffered by the Marshallese people has resulted
in an increased global understanding of the rnovernent of radionuclides through marine and

terrestrial environrnents," and urges the international cornrnunity to "learn from the Marshallese
experience with nuclear contamination, particularly the... understanding of the relationship
20
between radioiodine and thyroid cancer".

10. With regard to the RMI's interest in bringing this Application to the Court, the

following should be added. Itis weil known that over recent years the RMI has been preoccupied
with cornbating the extrernely harmful consequences that the effects of clirnate change have for

its very survival. While focusing on the problern of clirnate change, the RMI has corne to realize
that it cannat ignore the other major threat to its survival: the ongoing threat posed by the

existence of large arsenals of nuclear weapons the use of which, according to the Court, "seerns
scarcely reconcilable with respect for[ ... ] requirernents [of the principles and rules oflaw
1
applicable in armed conflict]"? It is obvions that the RMI's participation in the cornrnon
struggle against clirnate change needs to lead to finn cornrnitrnents by ali States, which

cornrnitrnents must include not only moral, but also legal obligations airned at realizing concrete,
clear-cut goals in arder to rernove the threat of devastation caused by continued reliance on the

use of fossil fuel energy sources. It is from this perspective of striving to reach agreement on
such cornrnitrnents in the struggle against clirnate change that the RMI has concluded that it is no

longer acceptable sirnply to be a party to the NPT while total nuclear disarmarnent pursuant to
Article VI and custornary international law rernains at best a distantprospect. This Application

17
Reportofthe SpecialRapporteuronthe implicationsforhurnanrightsofthe environrnentallysound
managementanddisposa! of hazardoussubstancesand wastes,CalinGeorgescu;Addendurn,Missionto
the MarshallIslands(27-30March 2012)and the UnitedStatesofAmerica(24-27April2012): 3
September2012,Doc. A/HRC/21/48/Add.l.

18Id.,paras. 1-18.

19Id.,para. 19.
20
Id., para. 66(b).
21
Supra, n. 3, para.95

6 seeks to ensure that the legal obligations undertaken 44 years ago by the UK in the context ofthe
NPT do indeed deliver the promised result.

11. One of the reasons why the RMI became a Party to the NPT is that this Treaty is
2
the key instrument of the international community for ridding the world of nuclear weapons?
The Treaty contains the solemn promise and legal obligation of the nuclear weapon States to sit

down and negotiate towards total nnclear disarmament. That promise has been broken and that
obligation has not been met.

12. Article VI of the Treaty states, in its entirety, as follows:

Each of the Parties to the Treaty undertakes to pursue negotiations in good
faith on effective measures relating to cessation of the nuclear arms race at

an early date and to nuclear disarmament, and on a treaty on general and

complete disarmament under strict and effective international control.

13. As previously stated, the Court concluded its Advisory Opinion of 8 July 1996 by

unanimously holding that "[t]here exists an obligation to pursue in good faith and bring to a
conclusion negotiations leading to nuclear disarmament in ali its aspects under strict and

effective international control" _2 3

14. More than four decades after signing and ratifying the NPT, the UK maintains and
continuously modernizes its nuclear arsenal.

15. The UK has not pursued in good faith negotiations to cease the nuclear arms race

at an early date through comprehensive nuclear disarmament or other measures, and instead is
taking actions to improve its nuclear weapons system and to maintain it for the indefinite future.

16. Similarly, the UK has not fulfilled its obligation to pursue in good faith

negotiations leading to nuclear disarmament in ali its aspects under strict and effective
international control and instead has opposed the efforts ofthe great majority of States to initiale

such negotiations.

17. These obligations are not limited to the States Parties to the Treaty, but also apply
to ali States as a matter of customary international law.

22At the UN High-Level Meeting on Nuclear Disarrnament, 26 September 2013, Hon. Mr. Phillip Muller,
Minister of Foreign Affairs, Republic of the Marshall Islands, stated thal the RMI's "deeper purpose" is

"that no nation and people should ever have to bear witness to the burden of exposure to the devastating
impacts of nuclear weapons",
http://www.un.org/en/ga/68/meetings/nucleardisarmament/pdflMH_en.pdf.

23Supra, n. 3, para. 105, point 2F.

7 18. Further, the obligation of aState to perform its legal obligations in good faith,

whether arising under a treaty or pursuant to custornary international law, is itself a legal
obligation which the UK has breached.

8 II. FACTS

A. The Five Nuclear Weapon States Parties to the NPT

19. The U.S. was the first country in the world to develop and test nuclear weapons.

The U.S. used nuclear weapons in warfare on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki on
6 August 1945 and 9 August 1945 respectively. 24The U.S. was the sole possessor ofnuclear

weapons in the world until the Soviet Union tested its first nuclear weapon on 29 August 1949.
In 1952, the UK tested its first nuclear weapon. In 1960, France tested its first nuclear weapon.

In 1964, China tested its first nuclear weapon.

20. In the 1960s, the UK negotiated with other countries, including the U.S. and the

Soviet Union, both possessors of nuclear weapons, and States not possessing nuclear weapons, to
reach agreement on what became the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty. The U.S., Russia, the

UK, France and China, ali Parties to the NPT, are the on!y States meeting the Treaty's definition
of a "nuclear-weapon State" for "the purposes of this Treaty"? 5

21. The Treaty was opened for signature on 1 July 1968, and entered into force on 5
March 1970. The UK signed the NPT on 1 July 1968 in London, Moscow and Washington and

ratified iton 27 November 1968 in London and Washington and on 29 November 1968 in
Moscow. The UK is one of the Treaty's three Depositary Govemments. 26

B. The Nine States Possessing Nuclear Weapons

22. In addition to the five NPT nuclear-weapon States, four non-NPT States are

known to possess nuclear weapons: India, Pakistan, Israel and Democratie People's Republic of
Korea ("DPRK"). 27

23. According to the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute ("SIPRI"), the
individual and collective world nuclear forces as ofJanuary, 2013, were as follows:

24
On 1July 1945,PrimeMinister WinstonChurchillgavethe UK'sapprovalfor atomicbombsto be
droppedonJapan. See PeterHennessy, Cabinets and the Bomb (TheBritishAcademy,2007),p. 8.
25
ArticleIX.3oftheN'PTprovides:"Forthe purposesof thisTreaty,anuclear-weaponStateis onewhich
has manufacturedand explodeda nuclearweapon orothernuclearexplosivedevieeprier to 1January
1967".
26
The othersaretheRussianFederationandthe U.S. See http://disarmament.un.org/treaties/t/npt.
27
Regardingthe DPRK, see infra,n. 126.

9 28
World nuclear forces, January 2013

(Ali figures are approximate)

Year of first Deployed Other Total

Country nuclear test Warheads" · ·Warheadsb Inventory
UnitedStates 1945 2,150' 5,550 ~7 700d

Russia 1949 ~ 1,800 6,700e ~8 5oof

United Kingdom 1952 160 65 225
France 1960 ~290 ~10 ~300

China 1964 ~250 ~250

India 1974 90-110 90-110
Pakistan 1998 100-120 100-120

Israel ~80 ~80

NorthKorea 2006 6-8?
Total ~4,400 ~12,865 ~17,270

a 'Deployed' means warheads placed on missiles or located on bases with operational forces.

b These are warheads in reserve, awaiting dismantlement or that require sorne preparation (e.g.
assembly or loading on launchers) before they become fully operationally available.

'In addition to strategie warheads, this figure includes nearly 200 non-strategie (tactical) nuclear

weapons deployed in Europe.
d This figure ineludes the U.S. Department of Defense nuclear stockpile of c. 4650 warheads and

another c.3000 retired warheads that are awaiting dismantlement.
e This figure includes c. 700 warheads for nuclear-powered ballistic missile submarines (SSBNs)

in overhaul and bombers, 2000 non-strategie nuclear weapons for use by short-range naval, air
force and air defense forces, and4000 retired warheads awaiting dismantlement.

1This ineludes a military stockpile of c. 4500 nuclear warheads and another c. 4000
retired warheads await dismantlement.

28SeeShannonN.Kile,"WorldNuclearForces", SIPRIYearbook2013(OxfordUniversityPress:

Oxford,2013).The questionmark(?) againstNorthKorea'stotal inventoryis in the original.
10 C. The UK and the Nuclear Arms Race

1. Early Nuclear History 29

24. On 3 October 1952, the first British atomic deviee was detonated in the Monte

Bello Islands off north-western Australia. On 7 November 1953, the UK's first operational
atomic bomb, the Blue Danube, arrived at RAF Wittering from AWE Aldermaston. 30

25. On 26 July 1954 the Cabinet agreed to the manufacture of a much more powerful

British hydrogen bomb and on 15 May 1957 the UK tested a thermonuclear deviee at Christmas
Island in the Pacifie. 31

26. On 4 August 1958, the U.S. and UK govemments concluded the Agreement for

Co-operation on the Uses of Atomic Energy for Mutual Defence Purposes (the "Mutual Defence
32
Agreement" or "MDA").

27. On 3 January 1963, the Cabinet authorized the purchase ofPolaris C3 submarine-
launched ballistic missiles and re-entry vehicles from the U.S. Government. On January 25,

1965, the decision was taken to build four Resolution-class submarines to carry the Polaris

missiles, partly to ensure that one boat would always be on station when the Royal Navy
assumed the main nuclear weapons system role in the late 1960s. HMS Resolution, the first of
33
the four Polaris missile-carrying submarines, was commissioned on 30 October 1967 and on
June 14, 1969, Polaris submarines formally took over the primary strategie nuclear weapons

deployment role from the RAF's 'V' bomber force. 34

28. The development of the Super Antelope (later known as Chevaline) re-entry body

for the UK's Polaris warheads was approved on 30 October 1973. This was because the UK

29See Hennessy,supra, n. 24, pp. 7-20.
30
58 Blue Danubebombs were produced.They were in service withthe RAF unti11961.
31
The devieeyielded 300 kilotons,30% ofthe megatontarget. On 8November 1957Britain's first
megatonhydrogenbomb explodedoff ChristmasIsland, yielding 1.8megatons.See Hennessy, supra, n.

24, p. 10.
32Treaty SeriesNo.41 (1958) Cmnd537. See Hennessy, id., p. Il. The MDA has been renewedfrom time

to time, most recently in 2004.
33
The otherthree Polaris submarineswereHMS Repulse,HMS Renown and HMS Revenge.
34
See Hennessy,supra, n. 24, p. 14.The four nuclear-poweredsubmarineswere eachequipped with 16
Polaris missiles,with three 200-kilotonwarheads on each missile. Polariswas modemized with the
Chevaline upgrade to have a numberof dummyor decoy warheads on each missileas well, but each

missile couldonlybe used againstone target.

11 could no longer be certain that a sufficient number of Polaris warheads would penetrate Soviet

ABM defences to cause the damage required to exert a credible deterrent effect. InNovember
1982 the Ministry ofDefence announced that Chevaline-equipped missiles were operational at
35
sea.

29. In July 1980, the UK government announced the decision to buy the U.S. Trident

C4 missile system as a replacement for the Polaris system, which was due to reach the end of its
service !ife in the early 1990s. In March 1982, however, the order was changed to the Trident II

D5, a new missile announced by the U.S. in October 1981. This ensured missile commonality
between the U.S. Navy and the Royal Navy. The UK defence establishment wanted to ensure

that any future UK nuclear system remained in step with U.S. nuclear hardware and weapon
programmes after the difficult experience with the indigenous Chevaline upgrade. Former

Permanent Under Secretary at the Ministry of Defence, Sir Michael Quinlan, stated in 2004 that
"Purely in weight of strike potential the United Kingdom could have been content with Jess than

Tridentcould offer, even in the C4 version originally chosen (let alone D5 version to which the
United Kingdom switched in early 1982, when it had become clear that the United States was

committed to proceed with its acquisition and deployment). The original choice and the switch
were driven in large measure by the long-term financial and logistic benefits of commonality
36
with the United States".

7
2. The UK's Current Nuclear Arsenae

30. The UK's nuclear weapons system is based upon the submarine-launched Trident

D5 missile. It is the UK's third-generation strategie nuclear weapon system. Trident was
procured during the final decade of the Cold War and was brought into service to replace Polaris
38
over a six-year period beginning in December 1994. It is now the UK's only nuclear weapons
system, the UK having retired its air-launched WE177 free-fall nuclear bombs and repatriated

3sId.

36MichaelQuinlan,"The BritishExperience", inHenry Sokolski(ed.), Getting MAD: mutua/ assured
destruction, ils origins andpractic(StrategieStudiesInstitute,Anny War College:Carlisle,PA,
November2004),p. 271.

37See HouseofCommons DeferreeCommittee,'TheFuture ofthe UK'sNuclearDeterrent:the White
Paper'(HC 225-1), Vol. 1,ch. 2.

38HMSVanguard,thefirst Tridentmissile-carryingsubmarine,wascommissionedon 14August 1993
and sailedonthe first Tridentoperationalpatrol in December 1994.HMSRepulse returnedto Faslane

on 13May 1996atthe endofthe finalPolaris operationalpatrol,marking theendofPolaris'27 yearsof
continuonspatrols. See Hennessy, supra,n. 24, p. 18.

12 forward-deployed US tactical nuclear weapons operated by UK forces under dual-key

arrangements in the 1990s. 39

40
31. The Trident nuclear weapons system has three technical components:

a) The Vanguard-class nuclear-powered ballistic submarines (SSBN), ofwhich

the UK has four: HMS Vanguard, HMS Victorious, HMS Vigilant and
HMS Vengeance, designed and built in the UK by Vickers Shipbuilding and

Engineering Ltd (VSEL), now BAE Systems, in Barrow-in-Fumess,
Cumbria. Refit and maintenance are carried out by Devonport Management

Limited in Devonport, Plymouth, UK.

b) The Trident D5 submarine-launched intercontinental ballistic missile
(ICBM), manufactured in the US by Lockheed Martin. Under the Polaris
41 42
Sales Agreement as modified for Trident, the UK has title to 58 missiles.
Aside from those currently deployed, the missiles are held in a communal

pool at the US Strategie Weapons facility at King's Bay, Georgia, US. Each
submarine is capable ofcarrying up to 16 Trident D5 missiles.

c) The components for the nuclear warheads, including qualitative
improvements to them, are made in the UK at the Atomic W eapons

Establishment (AWE) Alderrnaston, Berkshire, and assembled at nearby
AWE Burghfield. There is extensive collaboration between the UK and the

US on the production of the UK's warheads under the Mutual Defence
Agreement, "which provides for extensive cooperation on nuclear warhead

and reactor technologies, in particular the exchange of classified information

conceming nuclear weapons to improve 'design, development and
fabrication' capability and the transfer of nuclear warhead-related

39See supra, n. 37,Vol.l, para.8.

40J, .paras. 9-10.
41
The PolarisSalesAgreementwassignedin WashingtonDC on 6 April1963. On 30September1980an
exchangeof diplomatienotesincorporatedthe Trident saleintothe PolarisSalesAgreement.
42
Houseof CommonsDefenceCommittee,Session2005-06,EighthReport,para.21.

13 rnaterials". 'As a result, sorne cornponents of the UK warheads are
44
rnanufactured, and undergo qualitative improvements, in the U.S.

32. The submarine fleet is supported by an extensive onshore infrastructure. The
Vanguard submarines are based at HM Naval Base Clyde, Faslane, Scotland. Nuclear warheads

are fitted to the D5 missiles at the Royal Naval Arrnaments Depot Coulport (part of HM Naval

Base Clyde). The warheads are transported by road from AWE Burghfield to Coulport, where
they are placed inunderground bunkers in the Trident Area. When required they are taken to the

Explosive Handling Jetty where they are fitted onto the missiles on the Trident submarines.

45
33. The Strategie Deferree Review, published on 8 July 1998, affirrned the
Governrnent's comrnitrnent to rnaintaining a nuclear weapons system but made a nurnber of

changes to it. The warhead stockpile was to be eut from the ceiling of up to 300 warheads

rnaintained by the previous governrnent to fewer than 200 operationally available warheads. The
patrol cycle of the Trident subrnarines was also relaxed with norrnally only one subrnarine on
46
patrol at any one tirne. As with pre-Chevaline Polaris, each subrnarine would now carry a

maximum of 48 warheads, rather than the ceiling ofup to 96. The Trident submarine's alert
status was also to be reduced. Missiles had not been targeted for sorne years but, in addition,
47
submarines would norrnally now be at severa! days' rather than 15 minutes' notice to fire. A
requirernent for an additional seven Trident missile bodies was cancelled, leaving a new total of

58.

8
34. The Strategie Deferree and Security Review, published on 19 October 2010;

reaffirrned the UK's cornrnitrnent to a submarine-launched nuclear weapons system on

43
N. Ritchie, "A Nuclear Weapons-Free World?Britain, Trident andthe Challenges Ahead", Palgrave
Macmillan 2012, p. 92. Ritchie goes on to statethal "Britain remains highly dependent on the US for

nuclear weapon systems, technology, and support": id., p. 95.
44
John Ainslie, "United Kingdom", in Ray Acheson, ed., Assuring DestructionForever: Nuclear Weapon
ModernizationAround the World (Reaching Critical Will- a projectof the Women's International
League for Peace and Freedom, 2012), pp. 68-71,
http://www.reachingcriticalwill.org/images/documents/Publications/modem…
ationlassuring-destruction­

forever.pdf.
45
StrategieDeferreeReview 1998 (Cm 3999), available at
http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20121026065214/www.mod.uk!NR/…-
4340-4119-93A2-20825848E50E/O/sdr1998_complete.pdf

46see supra, para. 27.

47StrategieDeferreeReview, supra, n. 45, para. 68.
48
SecuringBritain in an Age ofUncertainty: The StrategieDeferreeand Security Review, October 2010
(Cm7948), available at

http://www.direct.gov.uk/prod_consum_dg/groups/dg_digitalassets/@dg/@en…
g_191634.pdf

14 continuons alert based on the Trident missile delivery system, and announced that: the number

ofwarheads on board each deployed submarine would be reduced from 48 to 40; the requirement
for operationally available warheads would be reduced from fewer than 160 to no more than 120;

the number of operational missiles on the Vanguard class submarines would be reduced to no
more than 8; and the UK's overall nuclear weapons stockpile would be reduced from not more
49
than 225 to no more than 180 by the mid-2020s.

3. Nuclear Policy, Doctrine and Expenditnre

35. The Royal Navy has maintained unbroken nuclear weapon patrols since 1968.

The 1998 Strategie Defence Review stated that the UK would continue to maintain these
continuous-at-sea nuclear armed patrols. This means that one of the four Vanguard-class
50
submarines is on patrol at any given time.

36. Trident is the UK's most advanced nuclear weapon system to date. With a range

ofbetween 6,500 kilometres and 12,000 kilometres, depending on payload, Trident's greater
speed, accuracy and multiple independently targetable warheads distinguish it from, and enable it

to reach more targets than, its predecessor, Polaris Chevaline.

37. As the Defence Select Committee noted in 1994:

Trident's accuracy and sophistication in other respects does - and was

always intended to - represent a siguificant enhancement of the UK's
nuclear capability. We have invested a great deal of money to make it

possible to attack more targets with greater effectiveness using nominally
equivalent explosive power. 51

38. Trident was originally designed as a strategie nuclear system with respect to
threats posed by the Soviet Union. In 1993, however, following the end of the Cold War, the

then Secretary of State for Defence announced that in future Trident's role would be to deter
"potential aggressors" from threatening UK "vital interests". In order to do this, Trident was
52
assigned an additional "sub-strategic" role:

The ability to undertake a massive strike with strategie systems is not enough to

ensure deterrence. An aggressor might, in certain circumstances, gambie on a Jack

49Id.,para.3.11.

50StrategieDefenceReview, supra, n. 45, para.66.
51
HC297of Session1993-94,p. xiv.
52
Hansard,HCDeb, 18October1993,col. 34.TheUK'ssub-strategiccapabi1itywasat thattime
providedbythe soontoberetiredWE177bombcarriedonTornadoaircraft.

15 of will ultimately to resort to such dire action. lt is therefore important for the
credibility of our deterrent that the United Kingdom also possesses the capability .

to undertake a more limited nuclear strike in order to induce a political decision to

hait aggression by delivering an unmistakable message of our willingness to
defend our vital interests to the utmost. 53

39. As part of the agreement under which the UK procured Polaris and subsequent! y

Trident missiles from the US, UK Trident forces are assigned to NATO to be used for the
deferree of the Alliance "except where the UK govemment may decide that supreme national

interests are at stake".4 The UK is therefore committed to NATO's nuclear policy, which
55
since the mid-1960s has been based on a doctrine of"flexible response". One of the key
elements ofNATO's nuclear doctrine is that the Alliance refuses to rule out the first use of

NATO nuclear weapons, thereby allowing its nuclear planners to prepare for that option. 56

40. Similarly, the UK has always refused to rule out the first use of its nuclear
weapons, especially in cases where biological or chemical weapons may have been used. For

example, shortly after the 1997 general election, the then Minister of State Dr John Reid stated:

The role of deterrence ... must not be overlooked. Even if a potential

aggressor has developed missiles with the range to strike at the United
Kingdom, and nuclear, biological or chemical warheads to be delivered by

those means, he would have to consider- he would do weil to consider­

the possible consequences of such an attack .. .lt seems unlikely that a
dictator who was willing to strike another country with weapons of mass

destruction would be so trusting as to fee! entirely sure that that country
57
would not respond with the power at its disposai.

53MalcolmRifkind, 'UKDeferreeStrategy; A ContinuingRole forNuclear Weapons',16November

1993,Centre for DeferreeStudies,King's College London; see also the StrategieDefenceReview 1998,
para.63: "The credibility of deterrencealso depends on retaining an option for a limitedstrikethat
wouldnot automaticallyleadto a full scale nuclear exchange. Unlike Polaris and Chevaline,Trident
must alsobe capable ofperfonning this 'sub-strategic'role".

54The British StrategieNuclearForce: Text ofLetters exchangedbetweenthe PrimeMinister and the

Presidentof the UnitedStatesand betweenthe Secretaryof State for Defence and the US Secretaryof
Defense.The lettersare reproducedin 'PolarisSales Agreement betweenthe UnitedStates andthe
UnitedKingdom'signed in Washingtonon 6 Aprill963.

55"The Alliance's StrategieConcept",NATO Press Release NAC-S(99)65,24 April1999.

56In 2006 the then Defence Secretary,Des Browne, stated: "A policy of no first use ofnuclear weapons

would be incompatiblewith our andNATO's doctrine of deterrence",Hansard, HC,22 May 2006, col.
1331W.
57
Hansard,HC Deb, 4 December 1997,cols. 576-577.

16 41. Following the terrorist attacks on the U.S. in September 2001, a new chapter of
the Strategie Defence Review extended the role of nuclear weapons further to include allegedly

deterring terrorist organisations:

The UK's nuclear weapons have a continuing use as a means of deterring

major strategie military threats, and they have a continuing raie in
guaranteeing the ultimate security of the UK. But we also want it to be

clear, particularly to the leaders of states of concem and terrorist
organisations, that ali our forces play a part in deterrence, and that we

have a broad range ofresponses available. 58

42. The implication is that the UK is willing, if deemed to be necessary, to use its
nuclear weapons against States of concem and terrorist organisations. 59

43. The 2010 Strategie Defence and Security Review states that the UK "would on!y
consider using nuclear weapons in extreme circumstances of se1f-defence, including the defence

of our NATO allies", adding: "we remain deliberately ambiguous about precisely when, how and
60
at what scale we would contemplate their use".

44. The Strategie Defence and Security Review reaffirms in modified form existing

assurances to non-nuclear-weapon States Parties to the NPT. Itstates "that the UK will not use or
threaten to use nuclear weapons against non-nuclear weapon states parties to the NPT" but notes

that "this assurance would not apply to any state in material breach ofthose non-proliferation
obligations". It also notes that "while there is currently no direct threat to the UK or its vital

interests from states developing capabilities in other weapons of mass destruction, for example
chemical and biological, we reserve the right to review this assurance if the future threat,
61
development and proliferation ofthese weapons make it necessary".

45. The UK has continued to maintain and modemize its nuclear forces with annual
expenditure on capital and running costs at around 5 to 6 per cent of the UK defence budget 62

58Strategie Defence Review, New Chapter, 18 July 2002, Vol.!, para. 21, available at

http://indianstrategicknowledgeonline.com/web/sdr _a_new_chapter_cm5566_voll.pdf.
59The 2006 White Paper on The Future of the United Kingdom 'sNuclear Deterrent stated, at 3-11: "We

know that international terrorists are trying to acquire radiological weapons.In future, there are risks
that they may try to acquire nuclear weapons. While our nuclear deterrent is not designed to deter non­
state actors, it should influence the decision-making of any state that might consider transferring nuclear
weapons or nuclear technology to terrorists".

60 Strategie Defence and Security Review, supra, n. 48, para. 3.5.
61
Id., 3.7.
62
House ofCommons Defence Committee, The Future of the UK's Nuclear Deterrent: the White Paper,
Ninth Report of Session 2006-07, paras. 149, !52; see also Hansard, HL, 7 June 2010, col. WA28; HC,
17 This does not include costs for recapitalising the Trident system estimated to be f25 billion at
• 63
outtum pnces.

4. Current Plans for Modernization and Qualitative Improvements of the UK's

Nuclear Arsenal

46. In December 2006 the UK Govemment published a White Paper which formally
64
opened the process to replace the UK's Trident nuclear weapons system. The White Paper was
endorsed by the House of Commons on 14March 2007 when the following motion was carried

by 409 votes to 161:

That this House supports the Govemment's decisions, as set out in the

White Paper The Future of the United Kingdom's Nuclear Deterrent (Cm
6994), to take the steps necessary to maintain the UK's minimum strategie

nuclear deterrent beyond the !ife of the existing system and to take further
steps towards meeting the UK's disarmament responsibilities under
65
Article VI of the Non-Proliferation Treaty.

47. According to British Pugwash, the effect of that vote and its present and future

consequences are as follows:

Parliament voted to authorize the initial 'Concept' phase of the Trident
replacement system. The next major milestone, known as the 'Initial Gate'

decision, was to move to the 'Assessment' phase, involving further
detailed refinement of a set of design options to enable selection of a
preferred solution. The govemment announced the Initial Gate decision on

May 18, 2011. The next big decision to move to the 'Demonstration and
Manufacture' phase is the Main Gate' decision, now scheduled for 2016

(delayed from 2014 in October 2010). That is supposed to be the key
decision-point when the finalized submarine design is adopted; contracts

20 December2012,col. 908W. In2010-11the defenceresourcebudgetwasc f28bn: Public

ExpenditureStatisticalAnalysis20Il, DepartmentalBudgets,HMTreasury,table 1.3a, avai/able at
http://www.hm-treasury.gov.ukldlpesa_2011c _hapterl.pdf. A recentanalysisby Scientistsfor Global
Responsibilityhasrevealed!hatthe UK Govemmentspentan averageof B27 millionper yearon
nuclearweaponsresearchand developmentoverthethreeyearsfrom2008to 20Il. See UK nuc/ear
weapons R&D spending: Addendum AAJ ta Offensive Insecurity, February2014, avai/able at

http://www.sgr.org.uklpublications/uk-nuclear-weapons-rd-spending.
63MinistryofDefence (2011) Initial Gate Par/iamentary Repor(London:MinistryofDefence), p. 10.

64Ministryof DefenceandForeignandCommonwealthOffice, TheFuture of the United Kingdom 's
Nuclear Deterrent, Cm6994.
65
Hansard,HC Deb, 14March2007,cols.298-407.

18 to build the new boats are then tendered, and billions more pounds will be

irrevocably committed to construction of a new generation of nuclear
weapons. 66

48. The Strategie Deferree and Security Review 2010 states:

Under the 1958 UK-US Agreement for Cooperation on the Uses of

Atomic Energy for Mutual Deferree Purposes (the 'Mutual Deferree
Agreement') we have agreed on the future of the Trident D5 delivery

system and determined that a replacement warhead is not required until at

!east the late 2030s. Decisions on replacing the warhead will not therefore
be required in this Parliament. This will defer f500 million of spending
67
from the next 10 years.

49. Underthe UK-US Mutual Deferree Agreement, a new "arming, fusing and firing
68
system" developed by the US is to be used in current UK warheads. The system would improve
the nuclear warhead's effectiveness against hardened targets. The Trident II D5 missile can carry

two types ofre-entry vehicle that house each nuclear warhead: the Mark 4 for the U.S. W76

warhead and the Mark 5 for the more modern and higher yield W88 warhead. The UK purchased
the Mark 4 RV and designed a warhead to meet Mk4 RV specifications in terms ofweight, size,

shape, centre ofgravity, and centre ofinertia. The U.S. is modernizing its W76 warheads and

Mk4 re-entry vehicles, including launcher, navigation, fire control, guidance, and re-entry
systems. 69The modernized W76-1 and Mk4A RV have improved the accuracy of the
70
warheads. These improvements have cascaded through to the UK's Trident warhead and re­
71 72
entry vehicle. The UK government has acknowledged procurement of the Mk4A RV.

66
Briefings on Nuclear Security,'Trident: The Initial GateDecision',available at
http://www.britishpugwash.org/documents/Briefing%203%20-%20Initial%20Ga…
.pdf.

67Supra,n. 48, para. 3.12.

68Richard Norton-Taylor,"Trident more effectivewith US armingdeviee,tests suggest," The Guardian,

6 April2011, available at http://www.theguardian.com/uk/2011/apr/06/trident-us-arming-system-test;
see also Hans M. Kristensenand Robert S. Norris, "British NuclearForces," Bulletinofthe Atomic
Scientists, September/October 2011 vol. 67 no. 5 89-97,avai/able at

http://bos.sagepub.com/content/67/5/89.full#ref-24.
69Ainslie,supra, n. 44, at pp. 71-72.

70Id., at p. 72; HansKristensen, 'AdministrationIncreasesSubmarineNuclear WarheadProductionPlan',

FAS Blog, Federation ofAmerican Scientists, 30 August 2007, avai/able at
http://www.fas.org/blog/ssp/2007/08/us _tripples_submarine_warhead.php.
71
Ainslie,id.; see a/so HansKristensen, 'BritishSubmarines,to Receive UpgradedUS Nuclear
Warhead', FAS StrategieSecurityBlog, 1 April 2011, avai/able at

http://www.fas.org/blog/ssp/2011/04/britishw76-l.php.

19 Preliminary work on a successor warhead is also underway under the Nuclear Warhead
73
Capability Sustainment Programme at AWE Aldermaston. The replacement submarine will be
74
quieter and stealthier. Al! ofthese efforts confirm that the UK continues to be active!y engaged
in qualitative improvements to its nuclear weapons system.

50. On 2 November 20l0, the UK and France concluded a bilateral Treaty for
Deferree and Security Cooperation. 75Article l of the Treaty provides, inter alia:

The Parties, building on the existing strong links between their respective
defense and security communities and armed forces, undertake to build a

long-term mutually beneficia! partnership in defense and security with the
aims of:

4. ensuring the viability and safety oftheir national deterrents, consistent
with the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation ofNuclear Weapons. 76

51. On 18 May 2011, when informing Parliament that the Govemment had approved
the 'Initial Gate' for the nuclear weapons system successor programme, the Secretary ofState for

Deferree explained:

We have now agreed the broad outline design of the submarine, made
sorne of the design choices-including the propulsion system and the

common US-UK missile compartment-and the programme of work we
need to start building the first submarine after 2016. We have a1so agreed

the amount of material and parts we will need to buy in advance of the
main investment decision... Between now and main gate we expect to
77
spend about 15% of the total value of the programme.

72
Ainslie, id,pp. 68-69:Hansard,HC, 8December2009,col.214W.
73
Ainslie, id,pp. 70-71;Hansard,HCDeb, 28 November2012, col. 353W.
74Ainslie, id,at pp. 72-73.

75FranceNo. 01(2010), available at
http://www.ukdf.org.uk/assets/downloads!UKFranceDefenceCooperationTreaty.
pdf#search="defence

andsecuritycooperation".
76The UK andFrancealsosigneda TreatyonJoint Radiographic/HydrodynamicsFacilitiesto buildjoint

nuclearwarheaddiagnostic anddevelopmentfacilitiesat the Valducsiteofthe Commissariat à
l'EnergieAtomiqueetauxEnergiesAlternatives- Directiondes ApplicationsMilitaires(CEA-DAM)
andat AWEAldermaston. See http://www.ukdf.org.uk/assets/downloads/UKFranceNuclearTreaty.pdf.
77
Hansard,HCDeb, 18May 2011,col. 352.

20 52. Although the Secretary of State for Defence denied that the Govemment was

"locked into any particular strategy before main gate in 2016" and stated that he would "assist
the Liberal Democrats in making the case for altematives", 78he declared:

I am absolutely clear that a minimum nuclear deterrent based on the

Trident missile delivery system and continuous-at-sea deterrence is right
for the United Kingdom and that it should be maintained, and that remains

Govemment policy. 79

53. On the sarne day, the Prime Minister told Parliament: "the Govemment's policy is

absolutely clear: we are committed to retaining an independent nuclear deterrent based on
Trident". 80

54. On 30 April 2012, at the First Preparatory Committee for the Ninth Review

Conference of the NPT, the Head of the UK Delegation stated:

As long as large arsenals of nuclear weapons remam and the risk of

nuclear proliferation continues, the UK's judgrnent is that only a credible

nuclear capability can provide the necessary ultimate guarantee to our
national security. The UK Govemment is therefore committed to

maintaining a minimum national nuclear deterrent, and to proceeding with
81
the renewal of Trident and the submarine replacement programme.

55. On 5 March 2013, in a Statement on Nuclear Disarmament, the UK's Permanent

Representative to the Conference on Disarmament declared:

In 2007, the United Kingdom Parliament debated, and approved by a clear
majority, the decision to continue with the programme to renew the UK's

78
ln order to satisfyLiberal Democrat concerns,the govemment's CoalitionAgreementnegotiated after
the 2010 general electionstatedthat "we will maintainBritain's nuclear deterrent,and have agreedthat
the renewal of Trident should be scrutinizedto ensurevalue for money. LiberalDemocrats will continue
to make the case for alternatives".In May 2011 agreementwas reached that the govemmentwould

conduct a forrnal18-month assessment of"credible alternatives"to a like-for-likereplacementled by
the Cabinet Office.
79
Supra, n. 77, col. 352.
80
Id., col. 338;see a/sa the Prime Minister'sstatementat a press conferenceon 2 November 2010 after
the UK-France summitat whichthe Treaty for Deferreeand SecurityCooperationwas concluded:
"while we will always retain an independentnuclear deterrent,it is right that we lookfor efficienciesin

the infrastructurerequiredto developand sustain our separatedeterrents...", avai/able at
http://www.numberlO.gov.uk/news/uk-france-summit-press-conference/.
81
Available at http://www.reachingcriticalwill.org/images/documents/Disarrnament­
fora/npt/prepcom12/statements/3 OApril_UK.pdf.

21 nuclear deterrent. The Govemment set out in the 2010 Strategie Deferree
and Security Review that the UK would maintain a continuons submarine­

based deterrent and begin the work of replacing ils existing submarines

which are due to leave service in the 2020s. This remains the UK
Govemment's policy. 82

56. On 5 June 2013, in response to a question in Parliament, the Prime Minister
stated:"I am strongly committed to the renewal of our deterrent on a like-for-like basis. 1think

thal is right for Britain".83

84 85
57. The Trident Alternatives Review was published on 16July 2013. lt had been
tasked to answer three questions:

a. Are there credible alternatives to a submarine-based deterrent?

b. Are there credible submarine-based alternatives to the current
proposa], e.g. Astute with cruise missiles?

c. Are there alternative nuclear postures, i.e. non-continuous-at-sea

deterrence ("CASD"), which could maintain credibility?

58. The Trident Alternatives Review concluded: "None ofthese alternative systems

and postures offers the same degree of resilience as the current posture of Continuons at Sea
Deterrence, nor could they guarantee a prompt response in ali circumstances" 86

82
Avai/able at http://www.reachingcritica1will.org/images/docnments/Disarmament-
fora!cd/20 13/Statements/5March _UK.pdf.
83
Hansard, HC Deb, 5 June 2013, col. 1518.
84
See supra, n. 78.
85
Available at
https ://www.gov. uk/governrnent/ up1oads/system/up1oads/attachment_ data/fi1e/212745/20130716_Tride
nt_Alternatives_ Study.pdf. For a commentary on the review, see
http://www.basicint.org/sites/defau1t/fi1es/ingramcommentary-tar-jul2013
.pdf.

86Trident Alternatives Review, supra, n. 85, Executive Summary, para 32. The Review a1so concluded
that "transitioning to any of the realistic alternative systems is now more expensive than a 3 or 4-boat

Successor SSBN fleet": id, para. 34.

22 D. The UK and Nuclear Disarmament

1. History and General Policy Regarding Negotiation of Nuclear Disarmament

59. As set forth in more detail below, the UK has refused to enter the Trident system

(or its predecessors) into nuclear disarmament negotiations despite requests to do so.

60. During the 1970s and 1980s, the UK repeatedly refused to enter its nuclear

weapon systems into the disarmament negotiations of that time. During the SALT I and SALT II
talks in the 1970s, the UK's refusai to allow Polaris to be considered caused problems during

negotiations. The Soviet Union repeatedly called for the ballistic missile submarines of US allies
in NATO to be taken into consideration and argued that if"US allies in NATO should increase

the number oftheir modem submarines ... the Soviet Union will have the right to a
corresponding increase in the number of its submarines". 87

61. When the UK govemment first announced its decision to procure the Trident I C4
nuclear weapon system in 1980, it argued that Trident was compatible with the UK's arms

control obligations on the grounds that it was: "fully consistent with the terms of the SALT II
Treaty"; that "the scale of our new capability will in no way disturb existing and prospective
East/West relativities"; and that "Britain's strategie SLBM force lies outside the category of

those United States and Soviet long-range, land-based theatre nuclear forces about whose
limitation the United States... invited the Soviet Union to negotiate". 88

62. Similarly, when the UK announced that it was changing to procure the Trident II
D5 system in 1982, it argued that the deployed Polaris system and planned Trident system were

not relevant to the INF and START negotiations. The govemment argued that its strategie
nuclear weapon systems were not relevant because these negotiations were "bilateral", aimed at

achieving a "leve! of strategie parity" between the U.S. and the Soviet Union. The UK argued
that the "British strategie force will account for no more than a very small fraction of the total
89
size of the strategie nuclear forces maintained by the United States and the Soviet Union".

63. During the !980s, the end of the Cold War resulted in massive cuts to

Soviet/Russian military capabilities, in particular reductions in nuclear weapons. However, the
UK Govemment would not allow the UK's nuclear weapons to be included in the negotiations

87"InterimAgreementbetweenthe UnitedStatesofAmerica andthe UnionofSovietSocialistRepublies
on CertainMeasureswithrespecttothe LimitationofStrategieOffensiveArms",UnilateralStatement
byMinisterSemenov,17May 1972.

88"TheFutureUnitedKingdomStrategieNuclearDeterrentForce",DefenceOpenGovemment
Document80/23,MinistryofDefence, July 1980.

89"The UnitedKingdomTridentProgramme",DefenceOpenGovemmentDocument82/1,Ministryof
Defence,Cmnd8517,March 1982.

23 on reductions. In 1987, the INF Treaty was signed by Presidents Reagan and Gorbachev. The

Soviet Union had tried to involve UK nuclear weapons in the INF negotiations, but the UK,
backed by its NATO allies, opposed this. Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher's response to INF

was that she believed that nuclear arms cuts in Europe had gone far enough: "I will never give up
Britain's independent nuclear deterrent", she told the media 90

64. According to the Defence Select Committee, as US and Soviet nuclear reductions

gathered pace, Mrs. Thatcher "sought and received assurances from the United States that the
supply of Trident missiles to the UK will in no way be affected by any future arms control
91
agreement".

65. The Strategie Defence Review 1998 stated: "The Govemment wishes to see a

safer world in which there is no place for nuclear weapons. Progress on arms control is therefore
an important objective of foreign and defence policy". 92 However, the UK Govemment

continued to make negotiations on nuclear disarmament a long-lerm aspiration rather than an
immediate policy objective. The Strategie Defence Review continued: "while large nuclear

arsenals and risks of proliferation remain, our minimum deterrent remains a necessary element of
our security". 93lt essentially ruled out any further reductions in UK nuclear weapons until

further reductions had been made by the US and Russia.

66. This has remained the UK Govemment's position. In his speech to the 2004 NPT

PrepCom, the UK Ambassador stated:

We have consistently stated thal when we are satisfied that sufficient

progress has been made- for example, in further deep cuts in their nuclear
forces by the US and Russia- to allow us to inelude the UK's nuclear

weapons in any multilateral negotiations, without endangering our security
94
interests, we will do so

67. On 17 March 2009, afier observing that between them the US and Russia retained

around 95% of the nuclear weapons in the world and that the START Treaty, "the mainstay of
their bilateral arms control effort", would expire later that year, the then Prime Minister, Gordon

90
NicholasAshfordandAlexanderChancellor,"ArmsreductionaccordthreatensUK deterrent", The
Independent, 22 September1987.
91
"ProgressoftheTridentProgramme",422 of 1987-88,HMSO, 11May 1988.
9Supra, n. 45, para. 60.

93Id.
94
Statementby AmbassadorDavidBroncher,NPTPreparatoryCommittee2004,Cluster1,3 May2004.

24 Brown stated: "For our part- as soon as it becomes useful for our arsenal to be included in a
broader negotiation, Britain stands ready to participate and to act". 95

68. On 6 July 2010, the then Secretary ofState for Defence, Dr Liam Fox, reiterated

the previous govemment' s position that "as soon as it becomes useful for the UK to inelude its

nuc!ear stockpiles in broader disarmament negotiations, we stand ready to participate and to
act".96

69. On 3 January 2012, the UN General Assembly decided to establish an Open-

Ended Working Group (OEWG) to develop proposais to take forward multilateral nuclear

disarmament negotiations for the achievement and maintenance of a world without nuclear
weapons. 97However, the UK voted against the resolution 98 and did not attend any of the
99
Working Group's meetings.

70. In a statement made jointly with France and the U.S. in the UN General Assembly

First Committee on 6 November 2012, the UK declared that it was "unable to support this
resolution, the establishment of the OEWG and any outcome it may produce" (emphasis
100
added).

2. Opposition to Negotiation of a Nnclear Weapons Convention

71. Similarly, the UK has always voted against the UN General Assembly's
Resolution on "Follow-up to the advisory opinion of the International Court of Justice on the

Legality of the Threat or Use ofNuclear Weapons". The Resolution, adopted every year since
101
1996, underlines the ICJ's unanimous conclusion that there is an obligation to pursue
negotiations leading to nuclear disarmament and calls on States to immediate! y fulfil that

95
10 Downing Street,Press Notice, Speech onNuclear Energy and Proliferation, 17March 2009,
available at http://image.guardian.co.uklsys-
files/Politics/documents/2009/03/17/PMSPEECH170309.pdf?guni=Article:manual-trailblock

package:Position3.
96
Hansard, HC Deb, 6 July 2010, col. 159W.See also the Statement by Ambassador John Duncan ta the
2010 Non-ProliferationTreaty Review Conference, avai/able at
http://www.un.org/enlconflnpt/2010/statements/pdf/uk_en.pdf.

97 UNGAResolution AIRES/67/56,"Taking forward multilateral nuclear disarmament negotiationsfor

the achievementand maintenanceof a world without nuclear weapons" (147-4-31).
98
Along with France,the Russian Federation and the US:UN Doc N67/PV.48, pp. 20-2!.
99
Hansard, HL Deb, 15July 2013, col. WA93.
100
Available at http://www.reachingcriticalwill.org/images/documents/Disarmament­
fora/1cornilcom12/eov/L46_France-UK-US.pdf.
101
Most recently on 5 Decemher 2013 (AIRES/68/42).

25 obligation by commencing multilateral negotiations leading to the early conclusion of a Nuclear

Weapons Convention.

72. In 1997, at the request of Costa Rica, the UN Secretary-General circulated to ali
UN Member States a Mode! Nuclear Weapons Convention. 102Costa Rica submitted the Mode!

Convention as "an effective and helpful instrument in the deliberative process for the
implementation of' the annual resolution on follow-up to the ICJ Advisory Opinion. 103In 2008,

at the request of Costa Rica and Malaysia, the Secretary-General circulated an updated version of
the Mode! Convention. 104The Secretary-Generallater described the Mode! Convention as "a
105
good point of departure" for negotiation of a Nuclear Weapons Convention.

73. The Mode! Convention applies the approach taken by the Chemical Weapons

Convention. The Mode! Convention provides general obligations regarding the non-use and non­
possession of nuclear weapons and their verified dismantlement; sets out phases of elimination;

provides for multiple means of reporting, monitoring and verification, from declarations of states
to satellite observation; prohibits production of fissile material for nuclear weapons; requires

national implementation measures; provides for prosecution of individuals accused of
committing crimes proscribed by the convention; establishes an implementing agency; and

establishes mechanisms for dispute resolution and compliance inducement and enforcement. The
Mode! also builds upon existing nuclear non-proliferation and disarmament regimes and

verification and compliance arrangements, including the NPT, International Atomic Energy
Agency safeguards, the International Monitoring System for the CTBT, regional nuclear

weapon-free zones, UN Security Council Resolution 1540, the International Convention for the
Suppression of Acts ofNuclear Terrorism, and bilateral nuclear force reduction agreements

between Russia and the United States.

74. Despite the annual UN General Assembly resolution discussed above, however,

there have been no inter-govemmental negotiations or deliberations in any official forum leading
toward adoption of a Nuclear Weapons Convention, except in the above-mentioned Open-Ended

Working Group in which the UK and the other NPT nuclear weapon States refused to participate.

102
See Letterdated31 October 1997fromthe Charged'affairesa.i.ofthe PermanentMissionof Costa
Rica to the UnitedNationsAddressedto the Secretary-Genera1,U.N.Doc. A/C.1/52/7(17November
1997).
103
Id.
104
Letterdated 17December2007fromthe PermanentRepresentativesof CostaRicaandMalaysiato the
UnitedNationsAddressedto the Secretary-General,U.N.Doc.A/62/650(18January2008).
105PressRe1ease,Secretary-Genera1BanKi-moon,The UnitedNationsand Securityin aNuclear­

Weapon-Free Wor1d,U.N.Doc. SG/SM/11881(24 October2008), available at
http:/www. un.org/News!Press/docs/2008/sgsm11881.doc.htm.

26 75. In February 2008, the UN High Representative for Disarmament Affairs, Sergio
Duarte, condemned the great powers' "refusa! to negotiate or discuss even the outlines of a

nuclear-weapons convention" as "contrary to the cause of disarmament". 106

76. The UK Government officially expresses opposition to a Nuclear Weapons

Convention. A 2009 policy paper provided that while a Nuclear Weapons Convention will
"likely be necessary to establish the final ban on nuclear weapons", it is "premature and

potentially counter-productive" to prioritise such a Convention "when the many other conditions
07
necessary to enable a ban have yet to be put in place".'

77. In June 2010, Lord Howell of Guildford (Minister ofState, Foreign and
Commonwealth Office). stated: "The idea of a nuclear weapons convention is a fine one, but...

[a] whole series ofthings need to be done before one cornes to the happy situation where the
108
nuclear world is disarmed and a convention could then get full support".

78. In August 2011, the Prime Minister stated that he disagreed "that negotiations
now on a nuclear weapons convention should be the immediate means of getting us to a world
109
free of nuclear weapons". While he acknowledged that a Nuclear Weapons Convention "could

ultimately form the legal underpinning for this end point", he considered that the prospects of
reaching agreement on a Convention "are remote at the moment". 110

79. The first-ever UN General Assembly High-Level Meeting on Nuclear

Disarmament was held on September 26, 2013, pursuant to a 2012 resolution which was opposed
111
by the UK. At that meeting the UK representative delivered a statement on behalf of the UK,
France and the U.S. in which they welcome "the increased energy and enthusiasm around the

nuclear disarmament debate" but "regret that this energy is being directed toward initiatives such

106Nuclear Disannament and the NPT- TheResponsibility of the Nuc/ear-Weapon States, at "Global
Summitfor a Nuclear Weapon-FreeWorld: Layingthe Practical, Technical,and Political Groundwork",

Carnpaignfor Nuclear Disarmamentand AcronymInstitute for DisarrnarnentDiplomacy,London, 16
February2008, available at
http://www.un.org/disarrnarnent/HomePage/HRd / ocs/2008/2008Feb16_London.pdf.

107Foreign and CommonwealthOffice, Lifting the Nuc/ear Shadaw, 2009,p. 34.

108Hansard, HL Deb, 9 June 2010, col. 641: answer to a question by Baroness Williamsof Crosby

(Liberal Democrat), who had pointed out that "the great bulk of non-nuclearpowers decidedto press for
a nuclear weaponsconvention to abolish nuclear weaponscompletelyby 2025".
109
Letter from the Prime Minister to Jeremy CorbynMP, 15 August 2011.

110Id.
111
A/RES/67/39,3 December2012.

27 as this High-Level Meeting, the humanitarian consequences campaign, the Open-Ended Working
112
Group and the push for a Nuclear Weapons Convention".

80. The UK subsequent!y voted against a new UN General Assembly resolution
following up the High-Level Meeting. 113 The resolution calls for "the urgent commencement of

negotiations, in the Conference on Disarmament, for the early conclusion of a comprehensive
convention" to prohibit and eliminate nuclear weapons.

112Avai/able at http://www.reachingcriticalwill.org/images/documents/Disarmament­
fora!HLM/26Sep _UKUSFrance.pdf.

11A!RES/68/32, 5 December2013.

28 III. THELAW

A. Article VI of the NPT

81. Article VI provides:

Each of the Parties to the Treaty undertakes to pursue negotiations in good

faith on effective measures relating to cessation of the nuclear arrns race at

an early date and to nuclear disarrnament, and on a treaty on general and
complete disarrnament under strict and effective international control.

82. The drafting history of the NPT demonstrates that the treaty constitutes a

"strategie bargain": the non-nuclear-weapon States agreed not to acquire nuclear weapons and
the NPT nuclear-weapon States agreed to negotiate their elimination. 114This has been confirrned

by NPT Review Conferences. In particular, the 2010 Review Conference noted that the
overwhelming majority of States entered into their legally binding commitments not to acquire

nuclear weapons "in the context, inter alia, of the corresponding legally binding commitments by
115
the nuclear weapon states to nuclear disarrnament in accordance with the Treaty".

83. Article VI is "the single most important provision of the treaty ... from the
116
standpoint oflong-terrn success or failure ofits goal of proliferation prevention".

84. In its Advisory Opinion on the Legality of the Threat or Use ofNuclear Weapons,
the Court declared that Article VI involves "an obligation to achieve a precise result- nuclear

disarrnament in ali its aspects- by adopting a particular course of conduct, namely, the pursuit
ofnegotiations on the matter in good faith". 117 The Court went on to conclude, unanimously,

that "[t]here exists an obligation to pursue in good faith and bring to a conclusion negotiations
118
leading to nuclear disarrnament in al! its aspects un der strict and effective control" . This
"recognizes that the provisions of Article VI. ..go beyond mere obligations of conduct- to

u• Thomas Graham,Correspondence,"The Origin and Interpretationof Article VI", 15Nonproliferation
Review 7, 9 (2008), available at http://cns.miis.edu/npr/pdfs/151_correspondence.pdf.
115
2010 Review Conferenceof the Partiesto the Treatyon the Non-ProliferationofNuclear Weapons,
Final Document, Vol.!, "Review of the operationof the Treaty," p. 2, para. 2, available at
http://www.un.org/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=NPT/CONF.2010/50 (VOL.!).

11E. Firmage, 'TheTreaty onthe Non-ProliferationofNuclear Weapons',63 American Journal of

International Law (1969) 711,732.
117Supra, n. 3, para. 99.

118Id, para. 105,point 2 F.

29 pursue nuclear disarmament negotiations in good faith- and actually involve an obligation of
result, i.e., to conclude those negotiations".ll 9

85. The Court observed thal "fulfilling the obligation expressed in Article VI ...

remains without any doubt an objective of vital importance to the whole of the international
community today". 120The Court has long emphasized the importance of obligations erga omnes,
121
owed to the international community as a whole. Its conclusion in the Advisory Opinion was
122
tantamount to declaring thal the obligation in Article VI is an obligation erga omnes. Every
State has a legal interest in its timely performance, therefore, 123 and a corresponding legal
124
obligation to help bring it about.

B. Customary International Law

86. The obligations enshrined in Article VI of the NPT are not merely treaty

obligations; they also exist separately under customary intemationallaw. 125

87. In its Advisory Opinion, after noting thal the twofold obligation in Article VIto
126
pursue and to conclude negotiationsformally concerns the (now 190 ) States Parties to the

119
M. Marin Bosch, "The Non-Proliferation Treaty and ils Future," in L. Boisson de Chazournes and P.
Sands, eds, International Law, the International Court of Justice and Nuc/ear Weapons (1999), p. 375.
120
Supra, n. 3, para. 103.
121
Barcelona Traction, Light and Power Company, Limited, Judgment, IC.J Reports 1970, p. 3, para.
33.

122See President Bedjaoui's Declaration in the Nuc/ear Weapons Case, supra, n. 3, at pp. 273-274, para.
23: "As the Court has acknowledged, the obligation to negotiate in good faith for nuclear disarmarnent

concems the 182 or so States parties to the Non-Proliferation Treaty. 1think one can go beyond thal
conclusion and assert thal there is in fact a twofold general obligation, opposable erga omnes, to
negotiate in good faith and to achieve the desired result".

123See supra, n. 121, para 33.

124Cf Legal Consequences of the Construction of a Wall in the Occupied Palestinian Territory, Advisory
Opinion, IC.J Reports 2004, p. 136, paras. 154-159.

125In Military and Parami/itary Activities in and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v.United States of

America), Jurisdiction andAdmissibility, Judgment, IC.J Reports 1984, p. 392, at para. 94, the ICJ
held thal the fact thal principles of customary international law are enshrined in multilateral conventions
does not mean thal they cease to exist and to apply as principles of customary law.

126There are 190 States Parties including the DPRK. Although the DPRK announced ils withdrawal from
the NPT on 10 January 2003, States Parties continue to express divergent views regarding ils status

under the Treaty. See UN Office for Disarmarnent Affairs, Treaty on the Non-Proliferation ofNuclear
Weapons, Status of the Treaty, available at http://disarmament.un.org/treaties/t!npt.

30 NPT, the Court added that "any realistic search for general and complete disarmament,
127
especially nuclear disarmament, necessitates the cooperation of ali States".

88. In point 2F of the dispositif, moreover, not confining its remarks to the States

Parties to the NPT, the Court unanimously declared: "There exists an obligation to pursue in
good faith and bring to a conclusion negotiations leading to nuclear disarmament in ali its
128
aspects under strict and effective international control".

89. The Court's declaration is an expression of customary international law as it
stands today. Al! States are under that obligation, therefore. This is consistent with the view

expressed by President Bedjaoui in his Declaration: "Indeed, it is not unreasonable to think that,
considering the at !east formai unanimity in this field, this twofold obligation to negotiate in

good faith and achieve the desired result has now, 50 years on, acquired a customary
129
character" .

90. As the Court itself noted, the UN General Assembly has been deeply engaged in

working for universal disarmament ofweapons of mass destruction since its very first resolution
in 1946. 130The UN Security Council also has repeatedly called for the implementation of Article
131
VI by ali States, not only Parties to the NPT. In Resolution 1887 of24 September 2009, after
calling upon States Parties to the NPT to implement Article VI, the Council called on "ali other
132
States to join in this endeavour". The Council has also described the proliferation of weapons
133
of mass destruction as a threat to international peace and security.

91. Regarding the obligation of cessation of the nuclear arms race at an early date set

forth in Article VI, it stands on its own as a customary international law obligation based on the
very widespread and representative participation of States in the NPT and is inherent in the

customary international law obligation of nuclear disarmament.

127
Supra, n.3, para. 100.
128
Id.,para. 105.
12Supra, n. 3, atp. 274,Declarationof PresidentBedjaoui,para. 23.PresidentBedjaouiwasreferringto

the 50yearsthalhadthen elapsedsincethe adoptionofthe UN GeneralAssembly'sfirst resolutionin
1946andthe normativelanguagerepeatedlyreiteratedin ilsresolutionson nuclearweaponsand in other
instrumentssineethen.
130
A/RES/l(I) of24 January 1946,cited bythe Court inpara. 101ofthe AdvisoryOpinion.
131
E.g.,Resolution984of 11April 1995,citedbythe Courtinpara. 103,and Resolution1887of24
September2009.
132
Operativepara. 5.
133
E.g.,Resolution1887,2009.

31 92. The UN General Assembly has declared the necessity of cessation of the nuclear
arms race. In the Final Document ofits first Special Session on Disarmament, held in 1978, the

General Assembly stated that it is "imperative ... to hait and reverse the nuclear arms race until
134
the total elimination of nuclear weapons and their delivery systems has been achieved".

C. Good Faith

93. That good faith constitutes a "fundamental principle" of international law is
135
beyond dispute. Not only is it a general princip le oflaw for the purposes of Article 38(l)(c) of
136
the Statute of the International Court of Justice and a cardinal princip le of the Law of
Treaties, 137 it also encapsulates the essence of the Rule of Law in international society 138 and is

one of the Principles of the United Nations.

94. Article 2, paragraph 2 of the UN Charter provides: "Ali Members, in order to
ensure to ali of them the rights and benefits resulting from membership, shall fulfil in good faith

the obligations assumed by them in accordance with the present Charter". The Declaration on

Princip les oflntemational Law 1970 makes it clear that this duty applies not only to obligations
arising under the Charter but also to those arising "under the generally recognized princip les and

rules of international law" and "under international agreements valid under the genera]]y
139
recognized principles and rules of internationallaw".

134
Final Document of the Tenth Special Session ofthe GeneralAssembly, adoptedby A/RES/S-10/2,30
June 1978,without a vote, para. 20; see a/so, e.g., paras. 47, 50.See

http://www.un.org/disarrnament/HomePage/SSOD/ssod4-documents.shtrnl.The 1978Special Session
established UN disarmamentmachineryin its current form, with the Conferenceon Disarrnament
devotedto negotiations,the DisarrnamentCommissiondevoted to deliberation,and the First Committee
of the General Assemblydevotedto agenda-setting. The Special Sessionthus was a quasi-constitutional

assembly with respectto disarrnament.
135
See Robert Kolb, La bonnefoi en droit international public: Contribution à l'étudedes principes
générauxdu droit, pp. 112-13 (2001).
136
Cf The Free Zones of Upper Savoy and the District of Gex, SecondPhase (1930)PCIJ, Series A,
No.24, p. 12; and see J. Crawford,Brownlie 'sPrincip/es of Public International Law, Oxford, 8th

edition, 2012, pp. 36-37.
137
Articles 26 and 31(1) ofthe ViermaConvention on the Law ofTreaties 1969.
138V. Lowe, International Law, Oxford,2007, p. 116.

139Declaration on Principles oflnternational Law concerning FriendlyRelations and Cooperation among

States in Accordance with the Charterof the United Nations, U.N.G.A.Res. 2625 (XXV), 24 October
1970.

32 95. ln the Nuclear Tests cases, the ICJ declared: "One of the basic principles
goveming the creation and performance of legal obligations, whatever their source, is the

princip le of good faith. Trust and confidence are inherent in international cooperation, in
particular in an age when this co-operation in many fields is becoming increasingly essential". 140

96. In the Final Document of the first Special Session on Disarmament, the General

Assembly caiied upon ali States to meet requirements of good faith, declaring:

In arder to create favourable conditions for success in the disarmament process, ali States

should strict!y abide by the provisions of the Charter of the United Nations, refrain from

actions which might adverse/y affect efforts in the field of disarmament, and display a
constructive approach ta negotiations and the political will ta reach agreements. 141

97. As set forth above, Article VI of the NPT requires bath conduct and result: States
must not on!y negotiate in good faith with seriaus efforts to achieve the elimination of nuclear
142
weapons, but must also actuaiiy achieve that result.

98. The Court has stated that the "principle of good faith obliges the Parties ta apply
[a treaty] in a reasonable way and in such a manner that its purpose can be realized" . 143Conduct
144
thal prevents the fulfilment of a treaty's abject and purpose is proscribed. Further, conduct that
caiis into question a State's commitment ta the achievement of agreed objectives undermines the

140Nuc/ear Tests (Austra/ia v. France), Judgrnent,JC.J Reports 1974, p. 253, at p. 268, para. 46;
Nuc/ear Tests (New Zea/and v. France), Judgrnent,id., p. 457, at p. 473, para. 49.

141Supra, n. 134, para. 41. Emphasis added.
142
See supra, para. 84.
143
Case Concerning the Gabcikovo-Nagymaros Project (Hungary v. S/ovakia), JC.J Reports 1997, p. 7,
para. 142.
144
Report of the International Law Commission Covering its 16th Session, 727thMeeting, 20 May 1964:
Pursuant to the VCLT Article 26 obligation thal every treaty in force must be performed by the parties
in good faith, the dutyof the parties is "not only to observe the letter of the law but also to abstain from

acts which would inevitably affect their ability to perform ....Antonio Cassese, The Israel-PLO
Agreement and Self-Determination, 4 Eur. J. Int'L. 567 (1993), available at
http://www.ejil.org/joumal!Vol4/No4/ (when there is an obligation of good faith negotiation, "bath
Parties are not allowed to (1) advance excuses for not engaging into or pursuing negotiations or (2) to

accomplish acts which would defeat the abject and purpose of the future treaty"); see a/sa Judge
Mohammed Bedjaoui, "Good Faith, International Law, and Elimination ofNuclear Weapons," Keynote
Address, 1 May 2008, avai/able at http://www.lcnp.org/disarmament/2008May01eventBedjaoui.pdf,
pp. 24-29 (in the NPT context, good faith proscribes "every initiative the effect ofwhich would belo

render impossible the conclusion of the contemplated disarmament treaty").

33 trust necessary for successful cooperation towards the ir achievement. Ali of this applies equally
to the obligation to fulfil customary international law obligations in good faith. 145

!'See supra, para. 94.

34 IV. OBLIGATIONS BREACHED BY THE UK

99. Part II of this Application has outlined the facts that are relevant for an assessment

of the Respondent's non-compliance with its international obligations with respect to nuclear
disarmament and the cessation ofthe nuclear arms race. Part III has outlined the legal basis for

this case. The conduct of the Respondent will now be analyzed very briefly in light of the

relevant law.

A. Breach of Article VI of the NPT

100. Two of the obligations entailed by Article VI are relevant for the present case: the

obligation with regard to nuclear disarmament and the obligation with regard to the cessation of

the nuclear arms race at an early date.

Nuclear disarmament

101. As set forth above, the Court has provided an authoritative analysis of the nuclear

disarmament element of the obligations laid down by Article VI. Ithas held thal "the obligation

involved here is an obligation to achieve a precise result- nuclear disarmament in ali its aspects -
by adopting a particular course of conduct, namely, the pursuit of negotiations on the matter in
146
good faith" . In the dispositif of its Advisory Opinion the Court concluded unanimously:
"There exists an obligation to pursue in good faith and bring to a conclusion negotiations leading
147
to nuclear disarmament in ali its aspects under strict and effective international control".

102. The Respondent has stated that "it is premature and potentially counter­
148
productive" to prioritise a Nuclear Weapons Convention and opposes UN General Assembly
resolutions calling for negotiations to begin. 149

103. The Respondent also refused to support the establishment of the Open-Ended

Working Group and even declared preemptively thal it would not support "any outcome it may
produce". 150

146
Supra, n. 3, para. 99.
147
Id., para.! OS,point 2F.
148
See supra, para. 76.
149
See supra, para. 78.
150See supra, para. 70.

35 104. As set forth herein, including in Part II of this Application, the UK clearly has not
actively pursued "negotiations leading to nuclear disannament in ali its aspects under strict and

effective international control". On the contrary, it has opposed the efforts of the great majority
of States to initiate such negotiations. Accordingly, the Respondent has breached and continues

to breach its nuclear disarmament obligations under Article VI of the NPT.

Cessation of the nuclear arms race at an early date

105. With regard to the cessation of the nuclear arms race at an early date, the
Respondent's conduct is similarly negative and obstructive.

106. Its conduct, set forth in Part II of this Application, in (i) continuing engagement in
material efforts to qualitatively improve its nuclear weapons system; (ii) continuing efforts to
maintain and extend that system indefinitely; and (iii) opposing negotiations on comprehensive

nuclear disarmament or other measures in multilateral forums, including the Open-Ended
Working Group and the UN General Assembly, is clear evidence of the UK's ongoing breach of
151
its Article VI obligation regarding the cessation of the nuclear arms race at an early date.

107. Despite having been a party to the NPT for 44 years, therefore, the Respondent

has breached and continues to breach its obligation under Article VI regarding the cessation of
the nuclear arms race at an early date.

B. Breach of Customary International Law

108. For the reasons set out above, the obligations enshrined in Article VI of the NPT
are not mere!y treaty obligations; they also exist separately under customary international law.

109. On the same grounds as those relied on in the preceding Section of this
Application, the Respondent has breached and continues to breach its obligations under
customary international law with regard to nuclear disarmament and the cessation of the nuclear

arms race at an early date.

C. Breach of the Obligation to Perform its Obligations in Good Faith

11O. In the previous two Sections, the Applicant has submitted that the Respondent has

breached and continues to breach its obligations under both the NPT and customary international

151
See supra,Part II.C.4and II.D.
36 law regarding nuclear disarmament and cessation of the nuclear arms race at an early date. The

Respondent is also failing to act in good faith as far as its performance ofthose obligations is
concerned.

111. As set forth in Part II of this Application, the Respondent has been actively

upgrading, modernizing and improving its nuclear arsenal. This constitutes qualitative vertical
nuclear proliferation which clearly conflicts with the Respondent's fundamental commitment to

nuclear disarmament and cessation of the nuclear arms race at an early date. It also encourages
other States possessing nuclear weapons to follow suit and may induce non-nuclear-weapon

States to reconsider their non-nuclear posture.

112. The Respondent has also repeatedly declared its intention to rely on its nuclear
arsenal for decades to come. 152

113. In short, by not actively pursuing negotiations in good faith on effective measures

relating to cessation of the nuclear arms race at an early date and to nuclear disarmament, and
instead engaging in conduct thal directly conflicts with those legally binding commitments, the

Respondent has breached and continues to breach its legal duty to perform its obligations under
the NPT and customary international law in good faith.

152
The May 20 Il Initial Gate report states thal the submarines will be operational "until the 2060s". See
The United Kingdom 'sFuture Deterrent: The Submarine Initial Gate Par/iamentary Report, May 2011,
para 3.1; cited by Ainslie,supra, n. 44, at p. 75.

37 V. JURISDICTION OF THE COURT

114. In accordance with the provisions of Article 36, paragraph 2, of the Statute,
jurisdiction exists by virtue of the operation of the Declaration of the Applicant dated 15March

2013 (and deposited 24 Apri12013) and the Declaration of the United Kingdom dated 5 July
2004, each Declaration without pertinent reservation.

VI. FINAL OBSERVATIONS

115. Pursuant to Article 31 of the Statute of the Court and Article 35, paragraph 1ofits
Rules, the Applicant will exercise the power conferred by Article 31 of the Statute and choose a
person to sit asjudge ad hoc and will so inforrn the Court in due course.

116. The Applicant reserves the right to modify and extend the terrns of this
Application, the grounds invoked and the Remedies requested.

38 REMEDIES

On the basis of the foregoing statement offacts and law, The Republic of the Marshall

Islands requests the Court

to adjudge and declare

a) that the United Kingdom has violated and continues to violate its international

obligations under the NPT, more specifically under Article VI of the Treaty,
by failing to pursue in good faith and bring to a conclusion negotiations

leading to nuclear disarmament in ali its aspects under strict and effective
international control;

b) that the United Kingdom has violated and continues to violate its international
obligations under the NPT, more specifically under Article VI of the Treaty,
by taking actions to qualitatively improve its nuclear weapons system and to

maintain it for the indefinite future, and by failing to pursue negotiations that
would end nuclear arms racing through comprehensive nuclear disarmament

or other measures;

c) that the United Kingdom has violated and continues to violate its international

obligations under customary international law, by failing to pursue in good
faith and bring to a conclusion negotiations leading to nuclear disarmament in

ali its aspects under strict and effective international control;

d) that the United Kingdom has violated and continues to violate its international

obligations under customary international law, by taking actions to
qualitatively improve its nuclear weapons system and to maintain it for the

indefinite future, and by failing to pursue negotiations that would end nuclear
arrns racing through comprehensive nuclear disarmarnent or other measures;

e) that the United Kingdom has failed and continues to fail to perform in good
faith its obligations under the NPT and under customary international law by

modernizing, updating and upgrading its nuclear weapons capacity and
maintaining its declared nuclear weapons policy for an unlimited period of
time, while at the sarne time failing to pursue negotiations as set out in the

four preceding counts; and

39 f) that the United Kingdom has failed and continues to fail to perform in good

faith its obligations under the NPT and under customary international law by
effectively preventing the great majority of non-nuclear-weapon States Parties

to the Treaty from fulfilling their part ofthe obligations under Article VI of
the Treaty and under customary international law with respect to nuclear
disarmament and cessation of the nuclear arms race at an early date.

In addition, The Republic of the Marshall Islands requests the Court

to order

the United Kingdom to take ali steps necessary to comply with its obligations

under Article VI of the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation ofNuclear Weapons
and under customary international law within one year of the Judgment,
including the pursuit, by initiation if necessary, of negotiations in good faith

aimed at the conclusion of a convention on nuclear disarmament in ali its
aspects under strict and effective international control.

DATED this 24'hof April 2014

Ph n van den Biesen
Co-Agent of the Co-Agent of the
Republic of the Marshall Islands Republic of the Marshall Island
and Minister of Foreign Affairs of the

Republic of the Marshall Islands

40

Bilingual Content

INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE
APPLICATION
INSTITUTING PROCEEDINGS
filed in the Registry of the Court
on 24 April 2014
OBLIGATIONS CONCERNING NEGOTIATIONS
RELATING TO CESSATION OF THE NUCLEAR ARMS RACE
AND TO NUCLEAR DISARMAMENT
(MARSHALL ISLANDS v. UNITED KINGDOM)
COUR INTERNATIONALE DE JUSTICE
REQUÊTE
INTRODUCTIVE D’INSTANCE
enregistrée au Greffe de la Cour
le 24 avril 2014
OBLIGATIONS RELATIVES À DES NÉGOCIATIONS
CONCERNANT LA CESSATION DE LA COURSE AUX ARMES
NUCLÉAIRES ET LE DÉSARMEMENT NUCLÉAIRE
(ÎLES MARSHALL c. ROYAUME-UNI)
I. LETTER FROM THE MINISTER OF FOREIGN AFFAIRS
AND CO-AGENT OF THE REPUBLIC
OF THE MARSHALL ISLANDS TO THE REGISTRAR
OF THE INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE
Majuro, 6 April 2014.
I have the honour to submit herewith nine Applications to the Court. In six of
these Applications the Marshall Islands is requesting the Respondent State to consent
to the Court’s jurisdiction for the purposes of this particular case.
All of the Applications are delivered to you on Thursday, 24 April 2014, by our
Co-Agent, Mr. Phon van den Biesen. Attached to this letter are nine letters in
which I make it known to the Court that Mr. van den Biesen has been duly
appointed as Co-Agent for each of these cases.
Each of the nine Applications is submitted to the Court in two original copies.
In addition, 30 paper copies of each Application are provided to the Court as well
as one USB device containing digital copies of each Application. I certify that
these paper copies and the digital versions are true copies of their respective originals.
(Signed) Tony A. deBrum,
Minister of Foreign Affairs and Co-Agent,
Republic of the Marshall Islands.
Appointment Decision
Referring to the duly adopted laws of the Republic of the Marshall Islands, and
the constitutional procedures in place, I herewith decide as follows :
Mr. Phon van den Biesen, Attorney at Law in Amsterdam, the Netherlands at
the offices of van den Biesen Kloostra Advocaten (address: Keizersgracht 253,
1016 EB Amsterdam, [email protected]), is hereby appointed
as Co-Agent of the Republic of the Marshall Islands before the International
Court of Justice in its case against the United Kingdom of Great Britain and
Northern Ireland concerning the Application of Article VI of the Treaty on the
Non‑Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT) and/or related rules of international
law, among them rules of customary law (the “proceedings”) ;
Mr. van den Biesen is entitled to submit the Application introducing the proceedings
to the Court and to further represent the Republic of the Marshall Islands
either alone or together with the other Co-Agent, identified below ;
Tony A. deBrum is also hereby appointed as Co-Agent in the proceedings ;
This decision will be submitted to the Court with the cover letter submitting the
Application.
Majuro, Marshall Islands, 25 March 2014.
(Signed) Tony A. deBrum,
Minister of Foreign Affairs.
2
2014
General List
No. 160
I. LETTRE DU MINISTRE DES AFFAIRES ÉTRANGÈRES
ET COAGENT DE LA RÉPUBLIQUE
DES ÎLES MARSHALL AU GREFFIER
DE LA COUR INTERNATIONALE DE JUSTICE
[Traduction]
Majuro, le 6 avril 2014.
Par la présente, j’ai l’honneur de déposer neuf requêtes devant la Cour. Dans six
d’entre elles, les Iles Marshall demandent à l’Etat défendeur visé d’accepter la compétence
de la Cour aux fins de l’affaire.
L’ensemble des requêtes vous sera remis le jeudi 24 avril 2014 par notre coagent,
M. Phon van den Biesen. Vous trouverez, jointes à la présente, neuf lettres dans
lesquelles j’informe la Cour que M. van den Biesen a été dûment désigné comme
coagent pour chacune de ces affaires.
Chacune des neuf requêtes sera déposée à la Cour en deux exemplaires originaux.
Trente exemplaires sur support papier de chacune des requêtes seront également
fournis à la Cour ainsi qu’une clef USB contenant leur version électronique.
Je certifie que ces exemplaires sur support papier et leur version électronique sont
conformes à leurs originaux respectifs.
Le ministre des affaires étrangères et coagent,
République des Iles Marshall,
(Signé) Tony A. deBrum. (Signé)
Désignation
Me référant aux lois dûment adoptées par la République des Iles Marshall et aux
règles constitutionnelles en vigueur, je désigne par la présente M. Phon van den Biesen,
avocat à Amsterdam, aux Pays‑Bas, au sein du cabinet van den Biesen Kloostra
Advocaten (adresse : Keizersgracht 253, 1016 EB Amsterdam, phonvandenbiesen@
vdbkadvocaten.eu), comme coagent de la République des Iles Marshall devant la
Cour internationale de Justice en l’instance introduite contre le Royaume-Uni de
Grande-Bretagne et d’Irlande du Nord concernant l’application de l’article VI du
traité sur la non‑prolifération des armes nucléaires (TNP) et des règles de droit international
y afférentes, dont celles de droit coutumier (ci‑après l’« instance »).
M. van den Biesen est habilité à déposer la requête introductive d’instance
devant la Cour et à continuer de représenter la République des Iles Marshall seul
ou avec l’autre coagent dont le nom est indiqué ci‑dessous.
M. Tony A. deBrum est désigné par la présente comme coagent en l’instance.
La présente décision sera déposée à la Cour en même temps que la lettre de couverture
accompagnant la requête.
Fait à Majuro, Iles Marshall, le 25 mars 2014.
Le ministre des affaires étrangères,
(Signé) Tony A. deBrum. (Signé)
3
2014
Rôle général
no 160
4
II. APPLICATION INSTITUTING PROCEEDINGS
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
I. Introduction and summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
II. Facts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
A. The five nuclear-weapon States parties to the NPT . . . . . . . . 14
B. The nine States possessing nuclear weapons . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
C. The United Kingdom and the nuclear arms race . . . . . . . . . . 16
1. Early nuclear history . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2. The United Kingdom’s current nuclear arsenal . . . . . . . . 20
3. Nuclear policy, doctrine and expenditure . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
4. Current plans for modernization and qualitative improvements
of the United Kingdom’s nuclear arsenal . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
D. The United Kingdom and nuclear disarmament . . . . . . . . . . 36
1. History and general policy regarding negotiation of nuclear
disarmament . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
2. Opposition to negotiation of a nuclear weapons convention 42
III. The Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
A. Article VI of the NPT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
B. Customary international law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
C. Good faith . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
IV. Obligations breached by the United Kingdom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
A. Breach of Article VI of the NPT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
1. Nuclear disarmament . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
2. Cessation of the nuclear arms race at an early date . . . . . . 56
B. Breach of customary international law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
C. Breach of the obligation to perform its obligations in good faith . 58
V. Jurisdiction of the Court . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
VI. Final observations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
Remedies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
5
II. REQUÊTE INTRODUCTIVE D’INSTANCE
[Traduction]
TABLE DES MATIÈRES
Page
I. Introduction et résumé . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
II. Les faits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
A. Les cinq Etats parties au TNP dotés d’armes nucléaires . . . . . . 15
B. Les neuf Etats dotés d’armes nucléaires . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
C. Le Royaume-Uni et la course aux armements nucléaires . . . . . 17
1. Débuts du Royaume-Uni en matière d’armements nucléaires . . 17
2. Arsenal nucléaire actuel du Royaume-Uni . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3. Politique, doctrine et dépenses du Royaume-Uni en matière
d’armements nucléaires . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
4. Projets actuels de modernisation et d’amélioration de l’arsenal
nucléaire du Royaume-Uni . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
D. Le Royaume-Uni et le désarmement nucléaire . . . . . . . . . . . 37
1. Historique et politique générale concernant les négociations en
vue du désarmement nucléaire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2. Opposition à la négociation d’une convention relative aux
armes nucléaires . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
III. Le droit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
A. L’article VI du TNP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
B. Le droit international coutumier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
C. La bonne foi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
IV. Les obligations dont le Royaume-Uni manque de s’acquitter . . . . . . 55
A. Manquement à l’article VI du TNP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
1. Désarmement nucléaire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
2. Cessation de la course aux armements nucléaires à une date
rapprochée. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
B. Manquement au droit international coutumier . . . . . . . . . . . 57
C. Manquement à l’obligation de s’acquitter de bonne foi de ses obligations
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
V. Compétence de la Cour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
VI. Observations finales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Conclusions demandées . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
6
I. Introduction and Summary
1. It is a most fundamental legal and moral principle that bargains should be
kept. This is embedded in international law through the principle of pacta sunt
servanda 1. The bargain which this Application concerns is that embodied in the
1968 Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (hereafter “the Treaty”
or “the NPT”) 2, whereby the non‑nuclear‑weapon States have agreed not to
acquire nuclear weapons and the NPT nuclear‑weapon States have agreed to negotiate
their elimination.
2. This Application is not an attempt to re-open the question of the legality of
nuclear weapons addressed by this Court in its Advisory Opinion of 8 July 1996 on
the Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons 3. Rather, the focus of this
Application is the failure to fulfil the obligations enshrined in Article VI of the
NPT and customary international law ; and particularly the failure of the NPT
nuclear‑weapon States to keep their part of the strategic bargain and do what the
Court unanimously called for based on its analysis of Article VI, namely “pursue in
good faith and bring to a conclusion negotiations leading to nuclear disarmament
in all its aspects under strict and effective international control” 4.
3. In its Advisory Opinion, the Court observed that “[t]he destructive power of
nuclear weapons cannot be contained in either space or time” and that such weapons
“have the potential to destroy all civilization and the entire ecosystem of the
planet” 5. It acknowledged “the unique characteristics of nuclear weapons, and in
particular their destructive capacity, their capacity to cause untold human suffering,
and their ability to cause damage to generations to come” 6.
4. Unless the required negotiations, aimed at reaching the required conclusions,
take place, we shall continue to face the very real prospect of the “devastation that
would be visited upon all mankind by a nuclear war” 7. We shall also continue to
face the possibility, even the likelihood, of nuclear weapons being used by accident,
miscalculation or design 8, and of their proliferation. As Nobel Peace Laureate
Sir Joseph Rotblat pointed out :
“If some nations — including the most powerful militarily — say that they
need nuclear weapons for their security, then such security cannot be denied
to other countries which really feel insecure. Proliferation of nuclear weapons
is the logical consequence of this nuclear policy.” 9
1 Expressed in Article 26 of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties (1969).
2 United Nations, Treaty Series, Vol. 729, p. 161.
3 Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons, Advisory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports
1996 (I), p. 226.
4 Ibid., para. 105, point 2F.
5 Ibid., para. 35.
6 Ibid., para. 36.
7 NPT preamble, 2nd recital.
8 In 1996, Lord Carver, former United Kingdom Chief of the Defence Staff (the professional
head of the United Kingdom’s armed forces and the principal military adviser to the
Secretary of State for Defence and to the United Kingdom Government) stated that “the
indefinite deployment of nuclear weapons carries a high risk of their ultimate use — intentionally,
by accident or inadvertence”. See Hansard, HL Deb, 28 October 1996, Vol. 575,
col. 134.
9 Joseph Rotblat, “Science and Nuclear Weapons : Where Do We Go from Here ?” The
Blackaby Papers, No. 5, December 2004, p. 7. In February 2007, Mohamed El Baradei, then
Director General of the IAEA, said that Britain cannot “modernize its Trident submarines
7
I. Introduction et résumé
1. L’obligation de respecter les accords qui ont été conclus constitue un principe
juridique et moral absolument essentiel, consacré par le droit international sous la
forme du principe pacta sunt servanda 1. L’accord sur lequel porte la présente
requête constitue la substance même du traité sur la non-prolifération des armes
nucléaires de 1968 (ci-après le « traité » ou le « TNP ») 2, en vertu duquel les Etats
non dotés d’armes nucléaires sont convenus de ne pas en acquérir et ceux parties
au TNP qui en sont dotés, de négocier en vue de leur élimination.
2. La présente requête ne vise pas à rouvrir la question de la licéité des armes
nucléaires, déjà traitée par la Cour dans son avis consultatif du 8 juillet 1996 sur la
Licéité de la menace ou de l’emploi d’armes nucléaires 3. Elle concerne en revanche
le manquement aux obligations qui découlent de l’article VI du TNP et du droit
international coutumier et, en particulier, le fait que les Etats parties au TNP dotés
d’armes nucléaires ont failli à observer leur part de l’accord stratégique et à adopter
les mesures que la Cour les avait unanimement appelés à prendre sur le fondement
de son analyse de l’article VI, à savoir « poursuivre de bonne foi et mener à
terme des négociations conduisant au désarmement nucléaire dans tous ses aspects,
sous un contrôle international strict et efficace » 4.
3. Dans son avis consultatif, la Cour a fait observer que « [l]e pouvoir destructeur
des armes nucléaires ne [pouvait] être endigué ni dans l’espace ni dans le
temps » et que ces armes avaient « le pouvoir de détruire toute civilisation, ainsi que
l’écosystème tout entier de la planète » 5. Elle a reconnu les « caractéristiques
uniques de l’arme nucléaire, et en particulier … sa puissance destructrice, … sa
capacité d’infliger des souffrances indicibles à l’homme, ainsi que … son pouvoir
de causer des dommages aux générations à venir » 6.
4. Tant que les indispensables négociations visant à parvenir à la conclusion
recherchée n’auront pas eu lieu, nous continuerons d’être confrontés à la perspective
bien réelle des « dévastations qu’une guerre nucléaire ferait subir à l’humanité
entière » 7, ainsi qu’à la possibilité, voire à la probabilité, que des armes nucléaires
soient utilisées par accident, par erreur de calcul ou à dessein 8, et qu’elles prolifèrent.
Comme l’a souligné sir Joseph Rotblat, lauréat du prix Nobel de la paix :
« Si certaines nations, dont les plus puissantes sur le plan militaire, affirment
qu’elles ont besoin des armes nucléaires pour assurer leur sécurité, alors on ne
saurait refuser cette sécurité aux autres pays qui se sentent réellement en danger.
La prolifération des armes nucléaires est la conséquence logique de cette
politique nucléaire. » 9
1 Enoncé à l’article 26 de la convention de Vienne sur le droit des traités de 1969.
2 Nations Unies, Recueil des traités, vol. 729, p. 161.
3 Licéité de la menace ou de l’emploi d’armes nucléaires, avis consultatif, C.I.J. Recueil
1996 (I), p. 226.
4 Ibid., par. 105, point 2F.
5 Ibid., par. 35.
6 Ibid., par. 36.
7 TNP, préambule, 2e alinéa.
8 En 1996, lord Carver, ancien chef d’état-major de la défense du Royaume-Uni (responsable
des forces armées du Royaume-Uni et conseiller militaire principal du ministre de la
défense et du Gouvernement du Royaume-Uni), a déclaré que « le déploiement illimité
d’armes nucléaires présent[ait] un risque important que celles-ci finissent par être utilisées,
que ce soit intentionnellement, par accident ou par inadvertance ». Voir Hansard, débat à la
Chambre des lords, 28 octobre 1996, vol. 575, col. 134.
9 Joseph Rotblat, « Science and Nuclear Weapons : Where Do We Go from Here ? », The
Blackaby Papers, no 5, décembre 2004, p. 7. En février 2007, Mohamed El Baradei, alors
directeur général de l’AIEA, a affirmé que la Grande-Bretagne ne pouvait pas « à la fois
8
5. In its Advisory Opinion, the Court observed :
“In the long run, international law, and with it the stability of the international
order which it is intended to govern, are bound to suffer from the continuing
difference of views with regard to the legal status of weapons as deadly
as nuclear weapons.” 10
A coherent legal system cannot countenance its own destruction or that of the
community whose activities it seeks to regulate 11. That is why fulfilment of the
obligation “to pursue in good faith and bring to a conclusion negotiations leading
to nuclear disarmament in all its aspects under strict and effective international
control” is so important.
6. Equally, a coherent and civilized legal system cannot tolerate unacceptable
harm to humanity. A lawful and sustainable world order is predicated on a civilizational
right to survival rooted in “the principles of humanity” 12 and “elementary
considerations of humanity” 13 which help to shape an emerging “law of
humanity” 14, the international law for humankind of which the nuclear disarmament
obligation is a key element. Yet it is now 68 years since the very first United
Nations General Assembly resolution sought to put in motion the elimination
from national arsenals of nuclear weapons and other weapons of mass destruction
15, almost 45 years since the NPT entered into force and nearly 20 years since
the Court delivered its Advisory Opinion. The long delay in fulfilling the obligaand
then tell everyone else that nuclear weapons are not needed in the future”. See David
Blair, “UN nuclear watchdog : Trident is hypocritical”, Daily Telegraph, 20 February 2007.
10 See supra note 3, para. 98.
11 As B. S. Chimni has stated, “No legal system can confer on any of its members the
right to annihilate the community which engenders it and whose activities it seeks to regulate”.
B. S. Chimni, “Nuclear Weapons and International Law : Some Reflections”, in International
Law in Transition : Essays in Memory of Judge Nagendra Singh, 1992, p. 142.
Quoted by Judge Weeramantry in Section V.1 of his dissenting opinion in the Advisory
Opinion in Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons, see supra note 3, at p. 522 ; see
also the dissenting opinion of Judge Shahabuddeen, ibid., p. 393 :
“Thus, however far‑reaching may be the rights conferred by sovereignty, those rights
cannot extend beyond the framework within which sovereignty itself exists ; in
particular, they cannot violate the framework. The framework shuts out the right of a
State to embark on a course of action which would dismantle the basis of the framewo
rk by putting an end to civilization and annihilating mankind.”
12 From the Martens Clause as expressed in Article 1, paragraph 2, of Protocol I 1977
Additional to the Geneva Conventions 1949 :
“In cases not covered by this Protocol or by other international agreements, civilians
and combatants remain under the protection and authority of the principles of international
law derived from established custom, from the principles of humanity and from
the dictates of public conscience.”
13 Corfu Channel (United Kingdom v. Albania), Merits, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1949,
p. 22.
14 See e.g., the opinion of the Tribunal in the Einsatzgruppen Case (1948) : “[An] evaluation
of international right and wrong, which heretofore existed only in the heart of mankind,
has now been written into the books of men as the law of humanity. This law is not restricted
to events of war. It envisages the protection of humanity at all times”. United States of
America v. Otto Ohlendorf et al., Military Tribunal II, Case No. 9 (1948), in Trials of War
Criminals before the Nuernberg Military Tribunals under Control Council Law No. 10,
Vol. IV, Nuremberg, October 1946‑Apri1 1949 (US Government Printing Office, 1950-
872486), p. 497, available at http://www.loc.gov/rr/frd/Military_Law/pdf/NT_war-criminals_
Vol-IV.pdf.
15 A/RES/I (I), 24 January 1946.
9
5. Dans son avis consultatif, la Cour a fait observer :
« A terme, le droit international et avec lui la stabilité de l’ordre international
qu’il a pour vocation de régir ne peuvent que souffrir des divergences de
vues qui subsistent aujourd’hui quant au statut juridique d’une arme aussi
meurtrière que l’arme nucléaire. » 10
Un système juridique cohérent ne saurait admettre sa propre destruction ou celle
de la société dont il vise à régir le fonctionnement 11. C’est pourquoi le respect de
l’obligation de « poursuivre de bonne foi et de mener à terme des négociations
conduisant au désarmement nucléaire dans tous ses aspects, sous un contrôle international
strict et efficace », revêt une telle importance.
6. De même, un système juridique cohérent et civilisé ne saurait tolérer que des
dommages soient causés à l’humanité. L’existence pérenne d’un ordre juridique
mondial repose sur l’existence d’un droit de la civilisation à la survie, ancré dans
« les principes de l’humanité » 12 et les « considérations élémentaires d’humanité » 13,
lesquels forgent le « droit de l’humanité » 14, ce droit international destiné à toute
l'humanité, dont l'obligation de procéder à un désarmement nucléaire constitue un
élément fondamental. Or, soixante-huit ans se sont écoulés depuis que l’Assemblée
générale des Nations Unies a cherché, avec sa toute première résolution, à lancer le
processus visant à éliminer des arsenaux nationaux les armes nucléaires et autres
armes de destruction massive 15, et près de quarante-cinq et respectivement
moderniser ses sous-marins Trident et dire à tout le monde que les armes nucléaires ne
[seraient] plus nécessaires à l’avenir ». Voir David Blair, « UN nuclear watchdog : Trident is
hypocritical », Daily Telegraph, 20 février 2007.
10 Voir supra note 3, par. 98.
11 Pour reprendre les propos de B. S. Chimni, « [a]ucun système juridique ne peut conférer à
l’un quelconque de ses membres le droit d’anéantir la société dont il est l’émanation et dont il
vise à réglementer le fonctionnement ». (« Nuclear Weapons and International Law : Some
Reflections », dans International Law in Transition : Essays in Memory of Judge Nagendra Singh,
1992, p. 142). Cité par M. le juge Weeramantry à la section V.1 de l’opinion dissidente qu’il a
jointe à l’avis consultatif sur la Licéité de la menace ou de l’emploi d’armes nucléaires, voir supra
note 3, p. 522 ; voir aussi l’opinion dissidente de M. le juge Shahabuddeen, ibid., p. 393 :
« Ainsi donc, si étendus que puissent être les droits découlant de la souveraineté, ces
droits ne peuvent aller au-delà du cadre dans lequel la souveraineté elle-même existe ; en
particulier, ils ne peuvent violer ledit cadre. Celui-ci exclut qu’un Etat puisse avoir le
droit d’entreprendre une action qui démantèlerait la base du cadre en anéantissant la
civ ilisation et l’humanité. »
12 Expression tirée de la clause de Martens telle qu’énoncée au paragraphe 2 de l’article
premier du Protocole additionnel I de 1977 aux conventions de Genève de 1949 :
« Dans les cas non prévus par le présent Protocole ou par d’autres accords internationaux,
les personnes civiles et les combattants restent sous la sauvegarde et sous l’empire
des principes du droit des gens, tels qu’ils résultent des usages établis, des principes de
l’hu manité et des exigences de la conscience publique. »
13 Détroit de Corfou (Royaume-Uni c. Albanie), fond, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1949, p. 22.
14 Voir, par exemple, l’opinion du Tribunal de Nuremberg dans l’affaire des Einsatzgruppen
(1948) : une « évaluation du bien et du mal au niveau international, qui n’existait jusqu’ici que
dans le coeur des hommes, est désormais inscrite dans leurs livres en tant que droit de l’humanité.
Ce droit ne se limite pas aux actes de guerre, mais a pour objet de protéger l’humanité en
toutes circonstances. » Etats-Unis d’Amérique c. Otto Ohlendorf et consorts, Tribunal militaire
II, affaire no 9 (1948), dans Trials of War Criminals before the Nuernberg Military Tribunals
under Control Council Law No. 10, vol. IV, Nuremberg, octobre 1946-avril 1949
(US Government Printing Office, 1950-872486), p. 497 ; peut être consulté à l’adresse suivante :
http://www.loc.gov/rr/frd/Military_Law/pdf/NT_war-criminals_Vol-IV.pdf.
15 A/RES/1(1), 24 janvier 1946.
10
tions enshrined in Article VI of the NPT constitutes a flagrant denial of human
justice 16.
7. Inspired and guided by these principles and values, this is an Application
instituting proceedings against the United Kingdom, an NPT nuclear-weapon
State. The underlying claims, described in more detail herein, are that the United
Kingdom is : (i) in continuing breach of its obligations under Article VI of the
NPT, including specifically its obligation to pursue in good faith negotiations to
cease the nuclear arms race at an early date, as well as to pursue in good faith
negotiations leading to nuclear disarmament in all its aspects under strict and
effective international control ; (ii) in continuing breach of customary international
law with respect to the same obligations ; and (iii) in continuing breach of its obligation
to perform its international legal obligations in good faith.
8. The Applicant herein is the Republic of the Marshall Islands (the “Marshall
Islands”, “RMI” or “Applicant). The Applicant is a non-nuclear-weapon State
party to the NPT. The Marshall Islands acceded to the Treaty on 30 January 1995
and has continued to be a party to it since that time.
9. While cessation of the nuclear arms race and nuclear disarmament are vitally
important objectives for the entire international community, the Marshall Islands
has a particular awareness of the dire consequences of nuclear weapons. The Marshall
Islands was the location of repeated nuclear weapons testing from 1946 to
1958, during the time that the international community had placed it under the
trusteeship of the United States 17. During those 12 years, 67 nuclear weapons of
varying explosive power were detonated in the Marshall Islands, at varying distances
from human population 18. According to the 3 September 2012 Report of
Calin Georgescu, a Special Rapporteur to the UN Human Rights Council, the
devastating adverse impact on the Marshall Islands of those nuclear substances
and wastes continues to this day 19. The Special Rapporteur concludes that “the
harm suffered by the Marshallese people has resulted in an increased global understanding
of the movement of radionuclides through marine and terrestrial environments”,
and urges the international community to “learn from the Marshallese
experience with nuclear contamination, particularly the . . . understanding of the
relationship between radioiodine and thyroid cancer” 20.
10. With regard to the RMI’s interest in bringing this Application to the Court,
the following should be added. It is well known that over recent years the RMI has
been preoccupied with combating the extremely harmful consequences that the
effects of climate change have for its very survival. While focusing on the problem
of climate change, the RMI has come to realize that it cannot ignore the other
major threat to its survival : the ongoing threat posed by the existence of large
arsenals of nuclear weapons the use of which, according to the Court, “seems
16 Cf. Judge Cançado Trindade’s remarks in Section XIII of his separate opinion in
Questions relating to the Obligation to Prosecute or Extradite (Belgium v. Senegal), Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 2012 (I), pp. 544‑548 ; especially at paragraph 145 where he contrasts
“the brief time of human beings (vita brevis) and the often prolonged time of human
justice”.
17 Report of the Special Rapporteur on the implications for human rights of the environmentally
sound management and disposal of hazardous substances and wastes, Calin Georgescu
; Addendum, Mission to the Marshall Islands (27-30 March 2012) and the United
States of America (24-27 April 2012) : 3 September 2012, doc. A/HRC/21/48/Add.1.
18 Ibid., paras. 1-18.
19 Ibid., para. 19.
20 Ibid., para. 66 (b).
11
vingt ans depuis que le TNP est entré en vigueur et que la Cour a rendu son avis
consultatif. Le long retard pris relativement au respect des obligations consacrées
par l’article VI du TNP constitue un déni flagrant de justice des hommes 16.
7. Inspirée et guidée par ces principes et valeurs, la présente requête introduit
une instance contre le Royaume-Uni, Etat partie au TNP doté d’armes nucléaires.
Les demandes qui suivent sont reprises et détaillées plus avant dans la requête :
le Royaume-Uni : i) manque de manière continue aux obligations qui lui incombent
en vertu de l’article VI du TNP, en particulier à celle de mener de bonne foi des
négociations devant, d’une part, mettre fin à une date rapprochée à la course aux
armements nucléaires et, d’autre part, conduire à un désarmement nucléaire dans
tous ses aspects effectué sous un contrôle international strict et efficace ; ii) manque
de manière continue à ces mêmes obligations qui lui incombent en vertu du droit
international coutumier ; et iii) manque de manière continue à son obligation de
s’acquitter de bonne foi de ses obligations juridiques internationales.
8. Le demandeur à la présente est la République des Iles Marshall (ci-après les
« Iles Marshall »), Etat partie au TNP non doté d’armes nucléaires. Les Iles Marshall
sont devenues partie au traité par voie d’adhésion le 30 janvier 1995 et n’ont
cessé de l’être depuis lors.
9. Si la cessation de la course aux armements nucléaires et le désarmement
nucléaire constituent des objectifs d’une importance vitale pour la communauté
internationale dans son ensemble, les Iles Marshall sont particulièrement sensibilisées
aux effets désastreux des armes nucléaires. De 1946 à 1958, période pendant
laquelle la communauté internationale les avait placées sous la tutelle des Etats-
Unis d’Amérique (ci-après les « Etats-Unis »), elles ont été à plusieurs reprises le
théâtre d’essais nucléaires 17. Au cours de ces douze années, 67 armes nucléaires de
différentes puissances ont explosé dans les Iles Marshall, à distance variable de
populations humaines 18. Selon le rapport du 3 septembre 2012 établi par
Calin Georgescu, rapporteur spécial au Conseil des droits de l’homme des
Nations Unies, l’effet dévastateur pour les Iles Marshall de ces substances et
déchets nucléaires se fait encore sentir aujourd’hui 19. Le rapporteur spécial conclut
que « les dommages subis par la population marshallaise ont permis de mieux comprendre,
au niveau mondial, le cheminement des radionucléides dans les environnements
marin et terrestre » et prie la communauté internationale de « tirer les leçons
de l’expérience vécue par les Iles Marshall en matière de contamination nucléaire, et
en particulier … des liens entre l’iode radioactif et le cancer de la thyroïde » 20.
10. S’agissant de l’intérêt de la République des Iles Marshall à introduire la
présente requête devant la Cour, il convient d’ajouter ce qui suit. Il est de notoriété
publique que, ces dernières années, la République des Iles Marshall a cherché à
combattre les conséquences néfastes des effets du changement climatique, qui vont
jusqu’à mettre en danger sa survie. En se concentrant sur ce problème, elle a pris
conscience qu’elle ne pouvait ignorer l’autre grande menace que font peser sur sa
survie les arsenaux nucléaires qui subsistent encore aujourd’hui et dont la Cour a
16 Voir les observations faites par M. le juge Cançado Trindade à la section XIII de l’opinion
individuelle qu’il a jointe à l’arrêt en l’affaire relative à des Questions concernant l’obligation
de poursuivre ou d’extrader (Belgique c. Sénégal), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2012 (I),
p. 544‑548, en particulier au paragraphe 145, où il oppose « le temps compté des êtres
humains (vita brevis) et le temps souvent long de la justice des hommes ».
17 Rapport du rapporteur spécial sur les incidences sur les droits de l’homme de la gestion
et de l’élimination écologiquement rationnelles des produits et déchets dangereux,
Calin Georgescu ; additif, mission dans les Iles Marshall (27-30 mars 2012) et aux Etats-Unis
d’Amérique (24-27 avril 2012), 3 septembre 2012, doc. A/HRC/21/48/Add.l.
18 Ibid., par. 1-18.
19 Ibid., par. 19.
20 Ibid., par. 66 b).
12
scarcely reconcilable with respect for . . . requirements [of the principles and rules
of law applicable in armed conflict]” 21. It is obvious that the RMI’s participation
in the common struggle against climate change needs to lead to firm commitments
by all States, which commitments must include not only moral, but also legal obligations
aimed at realizing concrete, clear‑cut goals in order to remove the threat of
devastation caused by continued reliance on the use of fossil fuel energy sources. It
is from this perspective of striving to reach agreement on such commitments in the
struggle against climate change that the RMI has concluded that it is no longer
acceptable simply to be a party to the NPT while total nuclear disarmament pursuant
to Article VI and customary international law remains at best a distant prospect.
This Application seeks to ensure that the legal obligations undertaken
44 years ago by the United Kingdom in the context of the NPT do indeed deliver
the promised result.
11. One of the reasons why the RMI became a party to the NPT is that this
Treaty is the key instrument of the international community for ridding the world
of nuclear weapons 22. The Treaty contains the solemn promise and legal obligation
of the nuclear weapon States to sit down and negotiate towards total nuclear
disarmament. That promise has been broken and that obligation has not been met.
12. Article VI of the Treaty states, in its entirety, as follows :
“Each of the parties to the Treaty undertakes to pursue negotiations in
good faith on effective measures relating to cessation of the nuclear arms race
at an early date and to nuclear disarmament, and on a treaty on general and
complete disarmament under strict and effective international control.”
13. As previously stated, the Court concluded its Advisory Opinion of
8 July 1996 by unanimously holding that “[t]here exists an obligation to pursue in
good faith and bring to a conclusion negotiations leading to nuclear disarmament
in all its aspects under strict and effective international control” 23.
14. More than four decades after signing and ratifying the NPT, the United
Kingdom maintains and continuously modernizes its nuclear arsenal.
15. The United Kingdom has not pursued in good faith negotiations to cease
the nuclear arms race at an early date through comprehensive nuclear disarmament
or other measures, and instead is taking actions to improve its nuclear weapons
system and to maintain it for the indefinite future.
16. Similarly, the United Kingdom has not fulfilled its obligation to pursue in
good faith negotiations leading to nuclear disarmament in all its aspects under
21 See supra note 3, para. 95.
22 At the United Nations High-Level Meeting on Nuclear Disarmament, 26 September
2013, Hon. Mr. Phillip Muller, Minister of Foreign Affairs, Republic of the Marshall
Islands, stated that the RMI’s “deeper purpose” is “that no nation and people should ever
have to bear witness to the burden of exposure to the devastating impacts of nuclear
weapons”, http://www.un.org/en/ga/68/meetings/nucleardisarmament/pdf/MH_en.pdf.
23 See supra note 3, para. 105, point 2F.
13
jugé que l’utilisation n’était « guère conciliable avec le respect [des] exigences
… [relatives aux principes et règles du droit applicable dans les conflits
armés] » 21. La participation de la République des Iles Marshall à la lutte commune
contre le changement climatique doit de toute évidence conduire à ce que tous les
Etats prennent des engagements fermes, parmi lesquels doivent figurer des obligations
non seulement morales mais aussi juridiques visant à atteindre des objectifs
concrets clairement définis afin d’éliminer la menace d’une dévastation causée par
la poursuite de l’utilisation de sources d’énergie fondées sur des combustibles fossiles.
C’est dans le contexte de la recherche d’un accord sur de tels engagements
visant à lutter contre le changement climatique que la République des Iles Marshall
est parvenue à la conclusion qu’elle ne pouvait plus se contenter d’être partie
au TNP, alors que le désarmement nucléaire total, en application de l’article VI et
du droit international coutumier, reste au mieux une perspective lointaine. La présente
requête vise à faire en sorte que les obligations juridiques contractées il y a
quarante-quatre ans par le Royaume-Uni dans le cadre du TNP finissent par aboutir
au résultat promis.
11. L’une des raisons pour lesquelles la République des Iles Marshall est devenue
partie au TNP tient au fait que ce traité constitue le principal instrument mis
au point par la communauté internationale dans le but de débarrasser le monde
des armes nucléaires 22. Il renferme la promesse solennelle des Etats dotés d’armes
nucléaires, ainsi que l’obligation juridique qui en découle, de s’asseoir autour d’une
table et de négocier en vue de procéder à un désarmement nucléaire total. Or, ces
Etats n’ont pas tenu leur promesse, pas plus qu’ils ne se sont acquittés de leur obligation.
12. Le libellé complet de l’article VI du traité est le suivant :
« Chacune des parties au Traité s’engage à poursuivre de bonne foi des
négociations sur des mesures efficaces relatives à la cessation de la course aux
armements nucléaires à une date rapprochée et au désarmement nucléaire, et
sur un traité de désarmement général et complet sous un contrôle international
strict et efficace. »
13. Comme indiqué précédemment, la Cour, dans son avis consultatif du 8 juillet
1996, a unanimement conclu qu’« [i]l exist[ait] une obligation de poursuivre de
bonne foi et de mener à terme des négociations conduisant au désarmement
nucléaire dans tous ses aspects, sous un contrôle international strict et efficace » 23.
14. Plus de quarante ans après avoir signé et ratifié le TNP, le Royaume-Uni a
conservé son arsenal nucléaire et ne cesse de le moderniser.
15. Au lieu de poursuivre de bonne foi des négociations pour mettre fin à la
course aux armements nucléaires à une date rapprochée par un désarmement
nucléaire complet ou d’autres mesures, le Royaume-Uni cherche à améliorer son
système d’armes nucléaires et à le conserver pour une durée illimitée.
16. De même, le Royaume-Uni, au lieu de s’acquitter de son obligation de poursuivre
de bonne foi des négociations conduisant à un désarmement nucléaire dans
21 Voir supra note 3, par. 95.
22 Lors de la réunion de haut niveau des Nations Unies sur le désarmement nucléaire
tenue le 26 septembre 2013, M. Phillip Muller, ministre des affaires étrangères de la République
des Iles Marshall, a déclaré que l’« objectif ultime » des Iles Marshall consistait à faire
en sorte « qu’aucune nation ou population ne doive jamais témoigner du fardeau représenté
par une exposition aux impacts dévastateurs d’armes nucléaires » ; cette déclaration peut être
consultée en anglais à l’adresse suivante : http://www.un.org/en/ga/68/meetings/nucleardisarmament/
pdf/MH_en.pdf.
23 Voir supra note 3, par. 105, point 2F.
14
strict and effective international control and instead has opposed the efforts of the
great majority of States to initiate such negotiations.
17. These obligations are not limited to the States parties to the Treaty, but also
apply to all States as a matter of customary international law.
18. Further, the obligation of a State to perform its legal obligations in good
faith, whether arising under a treaty or pursuant to customary international law, is
itself a legal obligation which the United Kingdom has breached.
II. Facts
A. The Five Nuclear-Weapon States Parties to the NPT
19. The United States was the first country in the world to develop and test
nuclear weapons. The United States used nuclear weapons in warfare on the Japanese
cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki on 6 August 1945 and 9 August 1945
respectively 24. The United States was the sole possessor of nuclear weapons in the
world until the Soviet Union tested its first nuclear weapon on 29 August 1949.
In 1952, the United Kingdom tested its first nuclear weapon. In 1960, France
tested its first nuclear weapon. In 1964, China tested its first nuclear weapon.
20. In the 1960s, the United Kingdom negotiated with other countries, including
the United States and the Soviet Union, both possessors of nuclear weapons,
and States not possessing nuclear weapons, to reach agreement on what became
the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty. The United States, Russia, the United
Kingdom, France and China, all parties to the NPT, are the only States meeting
the Treaty’s definition of a “nuclear-weapon State” for “the purposes of this
Treaty” 25.
21. The Treaty was opened for signature on 1 July 1968, and entered into force
on 5 March 1970. The United Kingdom signed the NPT on 1 July 1968 in London,
Moscow and Washington and ratified it on 27 November 1968 in London and
Washington and on 29 November 1968 in Moscow. The United Kingdom is one of
the Treaty’s three Depositary Governments 26.
B. The Nine States Possessing Nuclear Weapons
22. In addition to the five NPT nuclear-weapon States, four non‑NPT States are
known to possess nuclear weapons : India, Pakistan, Israel and Democratic People’s
Republic of Korea (“DPRK”) 27.
23. According to the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute
(“SIPRI”), the individual and collective world nuclear forces as of January 2013,
were as follows :
24 On 1 July 1945, Prime Minister Winston Churchill gave the United Kingdom’s
approval for atomic bombs to be dropped on Japan. See Peter Hennessy, Cabinets and the
Bomb, The British Academy, 2007, p. 8.
25 Article IX.3 of the NPT provides : “For the purposes of this Treaty, a nuclear-weapon
State is one which has manufactured and exploded a nuclear weapon or other nuclear explosive
device prior to 1 January 1967”.
26 The others are the Russian Federation and the United States. See http://disarmament.
un.org/treaties/t/npt.
27 Regarding the DPRK, see infra note 126.
15
tous ses aspects effectué sous un contrôle international strict et efficace, s’est
opposé aux efforts déployés par la grande majorité des Etats pour engager de telles
négociations.
17. Ces obligations ne se limitent pas aux Etats parties au traité, mais, en vertu
du droit international coutumier, s’appliquent également à l’ensemble des Etats.
18. Par ailleurs, l’obligation qui incombe à tout Etat de se conformer de bonne
foi à ses obligations juridiques, qu’elles découlent d’un traité ou relèvent du droit
international coutumier, constitue elle-même une obligation juridique, obligation
à laquelle le Royaume-Uni a manqué.
II. Les faits
A. Les cinq Etats parties au TNP dotés d’armes nucléaires
19. Les Etats-Unis ont été les premiers à mettre au point des armes nucléaires et
à les soumettre à des essais. Ils ont ensuite utilisé ces armes en temps de guerre
dans les villes japonaises d’Hiroshima et de Nagasaki, respectivement les 6
et 9 août 1945 24. Il s’agissait du seul pays au monde à posséder de telles armes
avant que l’Union soviétique ne procède à un essai de sa première arme nucléaire,
le 29 août 1949, suivie par le Royaume-Uni en 1952, la France en 1960 et la Chine
en 1964.
20. Dans les années 1960, le Royaume-Uni a négocié avec d’autres pays, dont
les Etats-Unis et l’Union soviétique, qui possédaient tous deux des armes nucléaires,
ainsi qu’avec des Etats qui n’en étaient pas dotés, afin d’aboutir à un accord sur ce
qui est devenu le traité sur la non-prolifération des armes nucléaires. La Chine, les
Etats-Unis, la France, le Royaume-Uni et la Russie, qui sont tous parties au TNP,
constituent les seuls Etats répondant à la définition donnée dans celui-ci d’un
« Etat doté d’armes nucléaires » aux « fins du … Traité » 25.
21. Le traité a été ouvert à la signature le 1er juillet 1968 et est entré en vigueur
le 5 mars 1970. Le Royaume-Uni l’a signé le 1er juillet 1968 à Londres, Moscou et
Washington, puis l’a ratifié le 27 novembre 1968 à Londres et à Washington et le
29 novembre 1968 à Moscou. Il est l’un des trois gouvernements dépositaires du
traité 26.
B. Les neuf Etats dotés d’armes nucléaires
22. Outre les cinq Etats parties au TNP dotés d’armes nucléaires, il est avéré que
quatre Etats qui n’y sont pas parties possèdent l’arme nucléaire : la République populaire
démocratique de Corée (ci-après la « RPDC »), l’Inde, Israël et le Pakistan 27.
23. Selon l’Institut international de recherche pour la paix de Stockholm (ciaprès
le « SIPRI »), en janvier 2013, l’arsenal nucléaire mondial, pris individuellement
et collectivement, se présentait comme suit :
24 Le 1er juillet 1945, Winston Churchill, premier ministre du Royaume-Uni, a accepté au
nom de son pays que des bombes atomiques soient larguées sur le Japon. Voir Peter Hennessy,
Cabinets and the Bomb, The British Academy, 2007, p. 8.
25 Le paragraphe 3 de l’article IX du TNP dispose que, « [a]ux fins du présent Traité, un
Etat doté d’armes nucléaires est un Etat qui a fabriqué et … fait exploser une arme nucléaire
ou un autre dispositif nucléaire explosif avant le 1er janvier 1967 ».
26 Les deux autres sont la Fédération de Russie et les Etats-Unis. Voir l’adresse suivante :
http://disarmament.un.org/treaties/t/npt.
27 S’agissant de la République populaire démocratique de Corée, voir infra note 126.
16
World Nuclear Forces, January 2013 28
(All figures are approximate)
Country
Year
of first
nuclear test
Deployed
Warheads a
Other
Warheads b
Total
Inventory
United States 1945 2,150 c 5,550 ~ 7 700 d
Russia 1949 ~ 1,800 6,700e ~ 8 500 f
United Kingdom 1952 160 65 225
France 1960 ~ 290 ~ 10 ~300
China 1964 ~ 250 ~250
India 1974 90-110 90-110
Pakistan 1998 100-120 100-120
Israel ~80 ~ 80
North Korea 2006 6-8?
Total ~ 4,400 ~ 12,865 ~ 17,270
a “Deployed” means warheads placed on missiles or located on bases with operational
forces.
b These are warheads in reserve, awaiting dismantlement or that require some preparation
(e.g., assembly or loading on launchers) before they become fully operationally available.
c In addition to strategic warheads, this figure includes nearly 200 non-strategic (tactical)
nuclear weapons deployed in Europe.
d This figure includes the United States Department of Defense nuclear stockpile of
c. 4650 warheads and another c. 3000 retired warheads that are awaiting dismantlement.
e This figure includes c. 700 warheads for nuclear-powered ballistic missile submarines
(SSBNs) in overhaul and bombers, 2000 non-strategic nuclear weapons for use by shortrange
naval, air force and air defence forces, and c. 4000 retired warheads awaiting dismantlement.
f This includes a military stockpile of c. 4500 nuclear warheads and another c. 4000
retired warheads await dismantlement.
C. The United Kingdom and the Nuclear Arms Race
1. Early nuclear history 29
24. On 3 October 1952, the first British atomic device was detonated in the
Monte Bello Islands off north-western Australia. On 7 November 1953, the United
Kingdom’s first operational atomic bomb, the Blue Danube, arrived at Royal Air
Force (RAF) Wittering from AWE Aldermaston 30.
25. On 26 July 1954 the Cabinet agreed to the manufacture of a much more
powerful British hydrogen bomb and on 15 May 1957 the United Kingdom tested
a thermonuclear device at Christmas Island in the Pacific 31.
28 See Shannon N. Kile, “World Nuclear Forces”, SIPRI Yearbook 2013, Oxford University
Press, 2013. The question mark (?) against North Korea’s total inventory is in the
original.
29 See Hennessy, op. cit. supra note 24, pp. 7‑20.
30 Fifty-eight Blue Danube bombs were produced. They were in service with the Royal
Air Force until 1961.
31 The device yielded 300 kilotons, 30 per cent of the megaton target. On 8 November 1957
Britain’s first megaton hydrogen bomb exploded off Christmas Island, yielding 1.8 megatons.
See Hennessy, op. cit. supra note 24, p. 10.
17
Forces nucléaires mondiales, janvier 2013 28
(tous les chiffres sont approximatifs)
Pays
Année
du premier
essai nucléaire
Ogives
déployées a
Autres
ogives b
Inventaire
total
Etats-Unis 1945 2150 c 5550 ~ 7700 d
Russie 1949 ~ 1800 6700 e ~ 8500 f
Royaume-Uni 1952 160 65 225
France 1960 ~ 290 ~ 10 ~ 300
Chine 1964 ~ 250 ~ 250
Inde 1974 90-110 90-110
Pakistan 1998 100-120 100-120
Israël ~ 80 ~80
Corée du Nord 2006 6-8 ?
Total ~ 4400 ~ 12 865 ~ 17 270
a Par « déployées », on entend des ogives embarquées sur des missiles ou situées dans des
bases dotées de forces opérationnelles.
b Ogives de réserve, en attente de démantèlement ou nécessitant une certaine préparation
(montage ou chargement sur des lanceurs, etc.) pour être entièrement opérationnelles.
c Outre les ogives stratégiques, ce chiffre comprend près de 200 armes nucléaires non stratégiques
(tactiques) déployées en Europe.
d Ce chiffre comprend l’arsenal nucléaire du ministère de la défense des Etats-Unis, soit
environ 4650 ogives opérationnelles, et 3000 ogives déclassées en attente de démantèlement.
e Ce chiffre comprend environ 700 ogives destinées à des sous-marins nucléaires lanceurs
d’engins (SNLE) en révision et à des bombardiers, 2000 armes nucléaires non stratégiques
destinées aux forces navales, aériennes et de défense aérienne à courte portée, et quelque
4000 ogives déclassées en attente de démantèlement.
f Ce chiffre comprend un arsenal militaire composé d’environ 4500 ogives nucléaires
opérationnelles et de quelque 4000 ogives déclassées en attente de démantèlement.
C. Le Royaume-Uni et la course aux armements nucléaires
1. Débuts du Royaume-Uni en matière d’armements nucléaires 29
24. Le 3 octobre 1952, les Britanniques faisaient exploser leur premier dispositif
nucléaire dans les Iles Montebello, situées au nord-ouest de l’Australie. Le
7 novembre 1953, le site d’Aldermaston de l’Atomic Weapons Establishment
(AWE) livrait la première bombe atomique opérationnelle du Royaume-Uni
(« Blue Danube ») à la base de la Royal Air Force (RAF) de Wittering 30.
25. Le 26 juillet 1954, le cabinet donna son accord à la fabrication d’une bombe à
hydrogène britannique plus puissante et, le 15 mai 1957, le Royaume-Uni procéda à
l’essai d’un dispositif thermonucléaire sur l’Ile Christmas, dans le Pacifique 31.
28 Voir Shannon N. Kile, « World Nuclear Forces », Annuaire 2013 du SIPRI, Oxford
University Press, 2013. Le point d’interrogation (?) concernant l’inventaire total de la Corée
du Nord figure dans l’original.
29 Voir Hennessy, op. cit. supra note 24, p. 7‑20.
30 Cinquante-huit bombes « Blue Danube » ont été fabriquées. Elles sont restées en
service à la Royal Air Force jusqu’en 1961.
31 Le dispositif avait une puissance de 300 kilotonnes, soit 30 % de l’objectif d’une mégatonne.
Le 8 novembre 1957, la Grande-Bretagne fit exploser sa première bombe à hydrogène
d’une puissance supérieure à celui-ci (1,8 mégatonne) au large de l’île Christmas. Voir
Hennessy, op. cit. supra note 24, p. 10.
18
26. On 4 August 1958, the United States and United Kingdom Governments
concluded the Agreement for Co‑operation on the Uses of Atomic Energy for
Mutual Defence Purposes (the “Mutual Defence Agreement” or “MDA”) 32.
27. On 3 January 1963, the Cabinet authorized the purchase of Polaris C3 submarine‑launched
ballistic missiles and re-entry vehicles from the United States
Government. On 25 January 1965, the decision was taken to build four Resolution‑class
submarines to carry the Polaris missiles, partly to ensure that one boat
would always be on station when the Royal Navy assumed the main nuclear weapons
system role in the late 1960s. HMS Resolution, the first of the four Polaris
missile-carrying submarines, was commissioned on 30 October 1967 33 and on
14 June 1969, Polaris submarines formally took over the primary strategic nuclear
weapons deployment role from the RAF’s “V” bomber force 34.
28. The development of the Super Antelope (later known as Chevaline) re‑entry
body for the United Kingdom’s Polaris warheads was approved on 30 October
1973. This was because the United Kingdom could no longer be certain that a
sufficient number of Polaris warheads would penetrate Soviet ABM defences to
cause the damage required to exert a credible deterrent effect. In November 1982
the Ministry of Defence announced that Chevaline-equipped missiles were operational
at sea 35.
29. In July 1980, the United Kingdom Government announced the decision to
buy the United States Trident C4 missile system as a replacement for the Polaris
system, which was due to reach the end of its service life in the early 1990s. In
March 1982, however, the order was changed to the Trident II D5, a new missile
announced by the United States in October 1981. This ensured missile commonality
between the United States Navy and the Royal Navy. The United Kingdom
defence establishment wanted to ensure that any future United Kingdom nuclear
system remained in step with United States nuclear hardware and weapon programmes
after the difficult experience with the indigenous Chevaline upgrade. Former
Permanent Under Secretary at the Ministry of Defence, Sir Michael Quinlan,
stated in 2004 that
“Purely in weight of strike potential the United Kingdom could have been
content with less than Trident could offer, even in the C4 version originally
chosen (let alone D5 version to which the United Kingdom switched in early
1982, when it had become clear that the United States was committed to proceed
with its acquisition and deployment). The original choice and the switch
were driven in large measure by the long-term financial and logistic benefits of
commonality with the United States.” 36
32 United Nations, Treaty Series, No. 41 (1958), Cmnd 537. See Hennessy, op. cit. supra
note 24, p. 11. The MDA has been renewed from time to time, most recently in 2004.
33 The other three Polaris submarines were HMS Repulse, HMS Renown and HMS
Revenge.
34 See Hennessy, op. cit. supra note 24, p. 14. The four nuclear-powered submarines were
each equipped with 16 Polaris missiles, with three 200‑kiloton warheads on each missile.
Polaris was modernized with the Chevaline upgrade to have a number of dummy or decoy
warheads on each missile as well, but each missile could only be used against one target.
35 Ibid.
36 Michael Quinlan, “The British Experience”, in Henry Sokolski (ed.), Getting MAD :
Mutual Assured Destruction, Its Origins and Practice, Carlisle, Pennsylvania, Strategic
Studies Institute, Army War College, November 2004, p. 271.
19
26. Le 4 août 1958, le Gouvernement des Etats-Unis et celui du Royaume-Uni
conclurent l’accord de coopération sur les usages de l’énergie atomique pour les
besoins mutuels de défense (l’« accord de défense mutuelle ») 32.
27. Le 3 janvier 1963, le cabinet autorisa l’achat au Gouvernement des Etats-
Unis de missiles balistiques lancés par sous-marin (Polaris C3) et de vecteurs de
rentrée. Le 25 janvier 1965, la décision fut prise de construire quatre sous-marins
de la classe Resolution destinés à être équipés de missiles Polaris, notamment pour
faire en sorte qu’un bâtiment soit toujours en station lorsque, à la fin des
années 1960, la Royal Navy serait devenue la pierre angulaire du système britannique
d’armement nucléaire. Le HMS Resolution, premier des quatre sous-marins
équipés de missiles Polaris, fut mis en service le 30 octobre 1967 33 et, le 14 juin 1969,
le premier rôle en ce qui concerne le déploiement d’armes nucléaires stratégiques
fut officiellement transféré de la RAF et de sa flotte de bombardiers de la classe
« V » aux sous-marins Polaris 34.
28. Le 30 octobre 1973, le Royaume-Uni approuva la mise au point du vecteur
de rentrée Super Antelope (par la suite rebaptisé Chevaline) destiné aux ogives Polaris
britanniques, car il n’était plus certain qu’un nombre suffisant d’ogives Polaris
parviendraient, le cas échéant, à percer les défenses antimissiles balistiques soviétiques
de manière à causer des dommages suffisants pour exercer un effet dissuasif
crédible. En novembre 1982, le ministère de la défense annonça que les missiles
équipés du vecteur Chevaline étaient opérationnels en mer 35.
29. En juillet 1980, le Gouvernement du Royaume-Uni fit part de sa décision
d’acquérir le système de missiles Trident C4 américain afin de remplacer le dispositif
Polaris, qui devait arriver en fin de vie opérationnelle au début des années 1990.
En mars 1982, il modifia toutefois sa commande au profit du Trident II D5, un
nouveau missile que les Etats-Unis avaient annoncé en octobre 1981, ce qui allait
permettre aux marines militaires américaine et britannique d’utiliser les mêmes
missiles. L’establishment de la défense du Royaume-Uni voulait s’assurer que
l’éventuel futur système nucléaire britannique reste en phase avec le matériel et les
programmes d’armes nucléaires des Etats-Unis, compte tenu des difficultés rencontrées
avec la mise à niveau nationale (Chevaline). En 2004, sir Michael Quinlan,
alors secrétaire général du ministère de la défense, devait déclarer :
« Si l’on ne considère que le potentiel de frappe, le Royaume-Uni aurait pu
se contenter d’une solution inférieure au dispositif Trident, même dans la version
C4 qu’il avait initialement retenue (sans parler de la version D5 que le
Royaume-Uni a finalement choisie début 1982, lorsqu’il est apparu que les
Etats-Unis étaient déterminés à mettre au point ce nouveau système et à le
déployer). Le choix initial et la décision de modifier la commande découlent,
dans une large mesure, des avantages d’ordre financier et logistique que l’utilisation
d’un matériel commun avec les Etats-Unis allait offrir à long terme. » 36
32 Nations Unies, Recueil des traités, vol. 41 (1958), Cmnd 537. Voir Hennessy, op. cit.
supra note 24, p. 11. L’accord de défense mutuelle a été reconduit à plusieurs reprises, en
dernier lieu en 2004.
33 Les trois autres sous-marins Polaris étaient le HMS Repulse, le HMS Renown et le
HMS Revenge.
34 Voir Hennessy, op. cit. supra note 24, p. 14. Les quatre sous-marins à propulsion
nucléaire (ci-après « sous-marins nucléaires ») étaient tous équipés de 16 missiles Polaris
munis chacun de trois ogives de 200 kilotonnes. Ces missiles bénéficièrent de la mise à niveau
Chevaline, destinée à leur ajouter un certain nombre d’ogives factices ou leurres, mais
chacun d’entre eux ne pouvait être utilisé que contre une seule cible.
35 Ibid.
36 Michael Quinlan, « The British Experience », dans Henry Sokolski (dir. publ.), Getting
MAD : Mutual Assured Destruction, Its Origins and Practice, Carlisle, Pennsylvanie, Strategic
Studies Institute, Army War College, novembre 2004, p. 271.
20
2. The United Kingdom’s current nuclear arsenal 37
30. The United Kingdom’s nuclear arsenal is based upon the submarinelaunched
Trident D5 missile. It is the United Kingdom’s third‑generation strategic
nuclear weapon system. Trident was procured during the final decade of the Cold
War and was brought into service to replace Polaris over a six‑year period beginning
in December 1994 38. It is now the United Kingdom’s only nuclear weapons
system, the United Kingdom having retired its air‑launched WE177 free‑fall
nuclear bombs and repatriated forward‑deployed United States tactical nuclear
weapons operated by United Kingdom forces under dual‑key arrangements in
the 1990s 39.
31. The Trident nuclear weapons system has three technical components 40:
(a) The Vanguard-class nuclear-powered ballistic submarines (SSBN), of which
the United Kingdom has four : HMS Vanguard, HMS Victorious, HMS
Vigilant
and HMS Vengeance, designed and built in the United Kingdom by
Vickers Shipbuilding and Engineering Ltd., (VSEL), now BAE Systems, in
Barrow‑in‑Furness, Cumbria. Refit and maintenance are carried out by
Devonport Management Limited in Devonport, Plymouth, United Kingdom.
(b) The Trident D5 submarine‑launched intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM),
manufactured in the United States by Lockheed Martin. Under the Polaris
Sales Agreement as modified for Trident 41, the United Kingdom has title to
58 missiles 42. Aside from those currently deployed, the missiles are held in a
communal pool at the United States Strategic Weapons facility at King’s Bay,
Georgia, United States. Each submarine is capable of carrying up to 16 Trident
D5 missiles.
(c) The components for the nuclear warheads, including qualitative improvements
to them, are made in the United Kingdom at the Atomic Weapons
Establishment (AWE) Aldermaston, Berkshire, and assembled at nearby
AWE Burghfield. There is extensive collaboration between the United Kingdom
and the United States on the production of the United Kingdom’s warheads
under the Mutual Defence Agreement,
“which provides for extensive co-operation on nuclear warhead and
reactor
technologies, in particular the exchange of classified information
concerning nuclear weapons to improve ‘design, development and
37 See House of Commons Defence Committee, The Future of the United Kingdom’s
Nuclear Deterrent : The White Paper (House of Commons (HC) 225‑1), Vol. 1, Chap. 2.
38 HMS Vanguard, the first Trident missile-carrying submarine, was commissioned on
14 August 1993 and sailed on the first Trident operational patrol in December 1994. HMS
Repulse returned to Faslane on 13 May 1996 at the end of the final Polaris operational
patrol, marking the end of Polaris’s 27 years of continuous patrols. See Hennessy, op. cit.
supra note 24, p. 18.
39 See supra note 37, Vol. 1, para. 8.
40 Ibid., paras. 9-10.
41 The Polaris Sales Agreement was signed in Washington D.C. on 6 April 1963. On
30 September 1980 an exchange of diplomatic Notes incorporated the Trident sale into the
Polaris Sales Agreement.
42 House of Commons Defence Committee, Session 2005-2006, Eighth Report, para. 21.
21
2. Arsenal nucléaire actuel du Royaume-Uni 37
30. Le missile Trident D5 lancé par sous-marin constitue le noyau de l’arsenal
nucléaire britannique, un système d’armes nucléaires stratégiques de troisième
génération. Le programme d’acquisition du système Trident par le Royaume-Uni
a couvert la dernière décennie de la guerre froide et la mise en service de ce système
en remplacement du dispositif Polaris s’est étalée sur une période de six ans, qui a
débuté en décembre 1994 38. Il s’agit désormais de l’unique système d’armes
nucléaires du Royaume-Uni, celui-ci ayant déclassé ses bombes nucléaires aéroportées
à gravitation WE177 et rapatrié les armes nucléaires tactiques américaines
déployées à l’avant, qui, dans les années 1990, étaient gérées dans le cadre d’un
système de la double clef 39.
31. Le système d’armes nucléaires Trident a trois composantes techniques 40 :
a) les quatre sous-marins nucléaires britanniques lanceurs d’engins de classe
Vanguard
(HMS Vanguard, HMS Victorious, HMS Vigilant et HMS Vengeance),
qui ont été conçus et fabriqués au Royaume-Uni par la société
Vickers
Shipbuilding and Engineering Ltd. (VSEL), désormais appelée
BAE Systems, à Barrow-in-Furness, dans le comté de Cumbria. La remise
en état et la maintenance de ces bâtiments sont assurées par la société Devonport
Management Limited dans le port de Devonport, à Plymouth (Royaume-
Uni) ;
b) le missile balistique intercontinental lancé par sous-marin Trident D5, fabriqué
aux Etats-Unis par Lockheed Martin. En vertu de l’accord de vente relatif au
système Polaris, tel que modifié pour le dispositif Trident 41, le Royaume-Uni a
droit à 58 missiles 42. Les missiles qui ne sont pas déployés actuellement se
trouvent dans un bassin commun du centre américain des armes stratégiques de
King’s Bay, en Géorgie (Etats-Unis). Chaque sous-marin peut être équipé d’un
maximum de 16 missiles Trident D5 ;
c) la fabrication des composantes des ogives nucléaires et leur amélioration sont
effectuées au Royaume-Uni, sur un site de l’AWE situé à Aldermaston, dans le
comté du Berkshire, et assemblées sur un autre site de l’AWE situé à proximité,
à Burghfield. Le Royaume-Uni et les Etats-Unis collaborent étroitement à la
production des ogives britanniques dans le cadre de l’accord de défense
mutuelle,
« qui prévoit une coopération poussée dans le domaine des technologies
relatives aux ogives et aux réacteurs nucléaires, notamment l’échange
d’informations
classées secrètes sur les armes nucléaires, en vue d’améliorer
37 Voir commission de la défense de la Chambre des communes, The Future of the United
Kingdom’s Nuclear Deterrent : The White Paper, 225-1, vol. 1, chap. 2.
38 Le HMS Vanguard, premier sous-marin porteur de missiles Trident, a été mis en
service le 14 août 1993 et a pris la mer pour sa première patrouille opérationnelle Trident en
décembre 1994. Le HMS Repulse a regagné Faslane le 13 mai 1996 à l’issue de la dernière
patrouille opérationnelle Polaris, marquant la fin du programme de patrouilles éponymes,
mené sans interruption pendant vingt-sept ans. Voir Hennessy, op. cit. supra note 24, p. 18.
39 Voir supra note 37, vol. 1, par. 8.
40 Ibid., par. 9-10.
41 L’accord de vente relatif au système Polaris a été signé à Washington, D.C., le
6 avril 1963. Le 30 septembre 1980, un échange de notes diplomatiques a permis d’intégrer
la vente du dispositif Trident dans l’accord de vente relatif au système Polaris.
42 Commission de la défense de la Chambre des communes, session 2005-2006, huitième
rapport, par. 21.
22
fabrication’
capability and the transfer of nuclear warhead‑related
materials” 43.
As a result, some components of the United Kingdom warheads are manufactured,
and undergo qualitative improvements, in the United States 44.
32. The submarine fleet is supported by an extensive onshore infrastructure.
The Vanguard submarines are based at HM Naval Base Clyde, Faslane, Scotland.
Nuclear warheads are fitted to the D5 missiles at the Royal Naval Armaments
Depot Coulport (part of HM Naval Base Clyde). The warheads are transported by
road from AWE Burghfield to Coulport, where they are placed in underground
bunkers in the Trident Area. When required they are taken to the Explosive
Handling
Jetty where they are fitted onto the missiles on the Trident submarines.
33. The Strategic Defence Review, published on 8 July 1998 45, affirmed the
Government’s
commitment to maintaining a nuclear weapons system but made a
number of changes to it. The warhead stockpile was to be cut from the ceiling of up
to 300 warheads maintained by the previous Government to fewer than 200 operationally
available warheads. The patrol cycle of the Trident submarines was also
relaxed with normally only one submarine on patrol at any one time. As with pre-
Chevaline Polaris 46, each submarine would now carry a maximum of 48 warheads,
rather than the ceiling of up to 96. The Trident submarine’s alert status was also to
be reduced. Missiles had not been targeted for some years but, in addition, submarines
would normally now be at several days’ rather than 15 minutes’
notice to fire 47. A requirement for an additional seven Trident missile bodies was
cancelled, leaving a new total of 58.
34. The Strategic Defence and Security Review, published on 19 October 2010 48,
reaffirmed the United Kingdom’s commitment to a submarine-launched nuclear
weapons system on continuous alert based on the Trident missile delivery system,
and announced that : the number of warheads on board each deployed submarine
would be reduced from 48 to 40 ; the requirement for operationally available warheads
would be reduced from fewer than 160 to no more than 120 ; the number of
operational missiles on the Vanguard class submarines would be reduced to no
more than 8 ; and the United Kingdom’s overall nuclear weapons stockpile would
be reduced from not more than 225 to no more than 180 by the mid‑2020s 49.
43 N. Ritchie, “A Nuclear Weapons-Free World ? Britain, Trident and the Challenges
Ahead”, Palgrave Macmillan, 2012, p. 92. Ritchie goes on to state that “Britain remains
highly dependent on the US for nuclear weapon systems, technology and support” : ibid.,
p. 95.
44 John Ainslie, “United Kingdom”, in Ray Acheson, (ed.), Assuring Destruction Forever :
Nuclear Weapon Modernization around the World, Reaching Critical Will : A Project of
the Women’s International League for Peace and Freedom, 2012, pp. 68‑71, http://www.
reachingcriticalwill.org/images/documents/Publications/modernization/assuring-destruction-
forever.pdf.
45 Strategic Defence Review 1998 (Cm 3999), available at http://webarchive.nationalarchives.
gov.uk/20121026065214/www.mod.uk/NR/rdonlyres/65F3D7AC-
4340‑4119-93A2-20825848E50E/0/sdr1998_complete.pdf.
46 See supra para. 27.
47 Strategic Defence Review, see supra note 45, para. 68.
48 Securing Britain in an Age of Uncertainty : The Strategic Defence and Security Review,
October 2010 (Cm 7948), available at : http://www.direct.gov.uk/prod_consum_dg/groups/
dg_digitalassets/@dg/@en/documents/digitalasset/dg_191634.pdf.
49 Op. cit. supra note 48, para. 3.11.
23
les capacités « de conception, de développement et de fabrication » ainsi
que le transfert de matières en rapport avec la fabrication d’ogives
nucléaires » 43.
En conséquence, les opérations de fabrication et d’amélioration de certaines
composantes des ogives britanniques se déroulent aux Etats-Unis 44.
32. La flotte de sous-marins est appuyée par une vaste infrastructure terrestre. Le
point d’attache des submersibles de classe Vanguard est la base navale de Clyde, à
Faslane (Ecosse). Les ogives nucléaires sont montées sur les missiles D5 au dépôt
d’armement de la Royal Navy à Coulport (qui fait partie de la base navale de
Clyde). Les ogives sont transportées par route du site de Burghfield de l’AWE
jusqu’à Coulport, où elles sont entreposées dans des bunkers souterrains de la zone
Trident. Au besoin, elles sont acheminées à l’embarcadère de manipulation d’explosifs
pour être placées sur les missiles équipant les sous-marins Trident.
33. Dans la Strategic Defence Review publiée le 8 juillet 1998 45, le gouvernement
indiqua qu’il était déterminé à conserver un système d’armes nucléaires, mais
en y apportant un certain nombre de changements. S’agissant du stock d’ogives, le
plafond devait ainsi être ramené de 300 (soit le nombre d’ogives conservées par le
gouvernement précédent) à moins de 200 ogives opérationnelles. Il convenait par
ailleurs d’assouplir le cycle des patrouilles de sous-marins Trident, de sorte qu’un
seul bâtiment à la fois prenne la mer. Il était également prévu que chaque submersible
serait équipé de 48 ogives au maximum (et non de 96, le plafond), comme cela
avait été le cas avec la version du système Polaris antérieure à Chevaline 46. L’état
d’alerte des sous-marins Trident devait, lui aussi, être réduit. Les missiles n’avaient
pas été pointés pendant plusieurs années, mais il y avait désormais lieu de porter le
préavis de tir des submersibles de 15 minutes à plusieurs jours 47. Parallèlement, le
nombre total des vecteurs de missile Trident passait à 58 exemplaires, la décision
de se munir de sept exemplaires supplémentaires ayant été annulée.
34. Dans la Strategic Defence and Security Review publiée le 19 octobre 2010 48, le
Royaume-Uni a réaffirmé sa détermination à conserver un système d’armes nucléaires
lancées par sous-marin, qui soit en état d’alerte continu et repose sur le système de
lancement de missiles Trident, et annoncé que le nombre d’ogives embarquées par
chaque sous-marin déployé serait ramené de 48 à 40, que celui des ogives devant être
opérationnelles passerait de moins de 160 à 120 au maximum, que le nombre maximal
de missiles opérationnels sur chaque sous-marin de la classe Vanguard serait réduit à
huit et que le stock global du Royaume-Uni serait limité à 180 armes nucléaires
(contre un plafond de 225 actuellement) d’ici au milieu des années 2020 49.
43 N. Ritchie, « A Nuclear Weapons-Free World ? Britain, Trident and the Challenges
Ahead », Palgrave Macmillan, 2012, p. 92. Ritchie précise ensuite que « la Grande-Bretagne
reste très dépendante des Etats-Unis s’agissant des systèmes d’armes nucléaires ainsi que des
technologies et du soutien y afférents » : ibid., p. 95.
44 John Ainslie, « United Kingdom », dans Ray Acheson (dir. publ.), Assuring Destruction
Forever : Nuclear Weapon Modernization around the World, Reaching Critical Will : A
Project of the Women’s International League for Peace and Freedom, 2012, p. 68‑71, peut
être consulté à l’adresse suivante : http://www.reachingcriticalwill.org/images/documents/
Publications/modernization/assuring-destruction-forever.pdf.
45 Strategic Defence Review de 1998, Cm 3999, peut être consultée à l’adresse suivante :
http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20121026065214/www.mod.uk/NR/…
65F3D7AC-4340-4119-93A2-20825848E50E/0/sdr1998_complete.pdf.
46 Voir supra par. 27.
47 Strategic Defence Review, voir supra note 45, par. 68.
48 Securing Britain in an Age of Uncertainty : The Strategic Defence and Security Review,
octobre 2010, Cm 7948, peut être consulté à l’adresse suivante : http://www.direct.gov.uk/
prod_consum_dg/groups/dg_digitalassets/@dg/@en/documents/digitalasset/dg_191634.pdf.
49 Op. cit. supra note 48, par. 3.11.
24
3. Nuclear policy, doctrine and expenditure
35. The Royal Navy has maintained unbroken nuclear weapon patrols since
1968. The Strategic Defence Review 1998, stated that the United Kingdom would
continue to maintain these continuous‑at‑sea nuclear armed patrols. This means
that one of the four Vanguard-class submarines is on patrol at any given time 50.
36. Trident is the United Kingdom’s most advanced nuclear weapon system to
date. With a range of between 6,500 kilometres and 12,000 kilometres, depending
on payload, Trident’s greater speed, accuracy and multiple independently targetable
warheads distinguish it from, and enable it to reach more targets than, its predecessor,
Polaris Chevaline.
37. As the Defence Select Committee noted in 1994 :
“Trident’s accuracy and sophistication in other respects does — and was
always intended to — represent a significant enhancement of the United
Kingdom’s nuclear capability. We have invested a great deal of money to
make it possible to attack more targets with greater effectiveness using nominally
equivalent explosive power.” 51
38. Trident was originally designed as a strategic nuclear system with respect to
threats posed by the Soviet Union. In 1993, however, following the end of the Cold
War, the then Secretary of State for Defence announced that in future Trident’s
role would be to deter “potential aggressors” from threatening United
Kingdom
“vital interests”. In order to do this, Trident was assigned an additional
“sub‑strategic” role 52:
“The ability to undertake a massive strike with strategic systems is not
enough to ensure deterrence. An aggressor might, in certain circumstances,
gamble on a lack of will ultimately to resort to such dire action. It is therefore
important for the credibility of our deterrent that the United Kingdom also
possesses the capability to undertake a more limited nuclear strike in order to
induce a political decision to halt aggression by delivering an unmistakable
message of our willingness to defend our vital interests to the utmost.” 53
39. As part of the agreement under which the United Kingdom procured Polaris
and subsequently Trident missiles from the United States, United Kingdom
Trident forces are assigned to NATO to be used for the defence of the Alliance
“except where the United Kingdom Government may decide that supreme national
50 Strategic Defence Review, see supra, note 45, para. 66.
51 HC 297 of Session 1993-1994, p. xiv.
52 Hansard, HC Deb, 18 October 1993, col. 34. The United Kingdom’s sub‑strategic
capability was at that time provided by the soon to be retired WE177 bomb carried on
Tornado aircraft.
53 Malcolm Rifkind, “United Kingdom Defence Strategy : A Continuing Role for
Nuclear Weapons”, 16 November 1993, Centre for Defence Studies, King’s College London ;
see also the Strategic Defence Review 1998, supra para. 63 :
“The credibility of deterrence also depends on retaining an option for a limited strike
that would not automatically lead to a full scale nuclear exchange. Unlike Polaris and
Chevaline, Trident must also be capable of performing this ‘sub-strategic’ role.”
25
3. Politique, doctrine et dépenses du Royaume-Uni en matière d’armements
nucléaires
35. Depuis 1968, la Royal Navy a mené sans interruption des patrouilles avec
ses sous-marins équipés d’armes nucléaires. Dans sa Strategic Defence Review
de 1998, le Royaume-Uni a indiqué son intention de conserver ce système de
présence nucléaire continue en mer, ce qui signifie que, à tout moment, l’un des
quatre submersibles de la classe Vanguard se trouve en mer 50.
36. Le dispositif Trident est, à ce jour, le système d’armes nucléaires le plus perfectionné
du Royaume-Uni. D’une portée comprise entre 6500 et 12 000 kilomètres
suivant la charge utile, il se démarque de son prédécesseur, le dispositif Polaris Chevaline,
par une vitesse et une précision accrues ainsi que par des ogives multiples
indépendamment guidées, qui lui permettent d’atteindre davantage de cibles.
37. En 1994, la commission de la défense de la Chambre des communes faisait
observer :
« De par sa précision et sa sophistication à d’autres égards, le système Trident
a considérablement amélioré les capacités nucléaires du Royaume-Uni,
ce qui a toujours été son objectif. Nous avons investi des sommes considérables
pour acquérir la possibilité d’attaquer davantage de cibles avec une
efficacité accrue à puissance explosive nominale équivalente. » 51
38. Le dispositif Trident avait initialement été conçu comme un système nucléaire
stratégique devant permettre de répondre aux menaces posées par l’Union soviétique.
Toutefois, en 1993, la guerre froide ayant pris fin, le ministre de la défense de
l’époque annonça qu’à l’avenir ce système aurait pour mission de dissuader les
« agresseurs potentiels » de menacer les « intérêts vitaux » du Royaume-Uni, un rôle
supplémentaire, « substratégique », lui étant assigné à cette fin 52 :
« La faculté d’effectuer une frappe massive avec des systèmes stratégiques
n’est pas suffisamment dissuasive à elle seule. Dans certaines circonstances, un
agresseur pourrait tabler sur un manque de volonté de recourir, en définitive,
à un acte aussi extrême. Il importe donc, pour la crédibilité de [sa] dissuasion,
que le Royaume-Uni soit également capable d’effectuer une frappe nucléaire
plus limitée, de manière à contraindre l’auteur de l’agression à prendre la décision
politique d’y mettre fin, en envoyant un message univoque qui témoigne
de la volonté du Royaume-Uni de défendre jusqu’au bout ses intérêts
vitaux. » 53
39. L’accord en vertu duquel le Royaume-Uni a acheté aux Etats-Unis le système
Polaris, puis les missiles Trident, prévoit que les forces faisant partie de son
dispositif Trident soient affectées à l’OTAN et qu’elles servent à la défense de l’Alliance,
« sauf si le Gouvernement britannique devait décider que ses intérêts natio-
50 Strategic Defence Review, voir supra note 45, par. 66.
51 Chambre des communes, 297, session 1993-1994, p. xiv.
52 Hansard, débat à la Chambre des lords, 18 octobre 1993, col. 34. A l’époque, les capacités
substratégiques du Royaume-Uni étaient assurées par la bombe WE177, embarquée
sur un avion Tornado, et qui devait bientôt être déclassée.
53 Malcolm Rifkind, « United Kingdom Defence Strategy : A Continuing Role for
Nuclear Weapons », 16 novembre 1993, Centre for Defence Studies, King’s College London ;
voir aussi la Strategic Defence Review de 1998, supra note 45, par. 63 :
« La crédibilité de notre dissuasion dépend aussi de notre possibilité d’effectuer une
frappe limitée qui ne déclenche pas automatiquement des hostilités nucléaires à grande
échelle. Contrairement aux systèmes Polaris et Chevaline, le dispositif Trident doit
également être capable de jouer ce rôle « substratégique ». »
26
interests are at stake” 54. The United Kingdom is therefore committed to NATO’s
nuclear policy, which since the mid-1960s has been based on a doctrine of “flexible
response” 55. One of the key elements of NATO’s nuclear doctrine is that the
Alliance
refuses to rule out the first use of NATO nuclear weapons, thereby
allowing
its nuclear planners to prepare for that option 56.
40. Similarly, the United Kingdom has always refused to rule out the first use of
its nuclear weapons, especially in cases where biological or chemical weapons may
have been used. For example, shortly after the 1997 general election, the then
Minister
of State Dr. John Reid stated :
“The role of deterrence . . . must not be overlooked. Even if a potential
aggressor has developed missiles with the range to strike at the United
Kingdom, and nuclear, biological or chemical warheads to be delivered by
those means, he would have to consider — he would do well to consider — the
possible consequences of such an attack . . . It seems unlikely that a dictator
who was willing to strike another country with weapons of mass destruction
would be so trusting as to feel entirely sure that that country would not respond
with the power at its disposal.” 57
41. Following the terrorist attacks on the United States in September 2001, a
new chapter of the Strategic Defence Review extended the role of nuclear weapons
further to include allegedly deterring terrorist organizations :
“The United Kingdom’s nuclear weapons have a continuing use as a means
of deterring major strategic military threats, and they have a continuing role
in guaranteeing the ultimate security of the United Kingdom. But we also
want it to be clear, particularly to the leaders of States of concern and terrorist
organizations, that all our forces play a part in deterrence, and that we have a
broad range of responses available.” 58
42. The implication is that the United Kingdom is willing, if deemed to be necessary,
to use its nuclear weapons against States of concern and terrorist organizations
59.
54 “The British Strategic Nuclear Force : Text of Letters Exchanged between the Prime
Minister and the President of the United States and between the Secretary of State for
Defence and the US Secretary of Defense.” The letters are reproduced in “Polaris Sales
Agreement between the United States and the United Kingdom” signed in Washington on
6 April 1963.
55 “The Alliance’s Strategic Concept”, NATO Press Release NAC-S(99)65, 24 April
1999.
56 In 2006 the then Defence Secretary, Des Browne, stated : “A policy of no first use of
nuclear weapons would be incompatible with our and NATO’s doctrine of deterrence”,
Hansard, HC, 22 May 2006, col. 1331W.
57 Hansard, HC Deb, 4 December 1997, cols. 576-577.
58 Strategic Defence Review : A New Chapter, 18 July 2002, Vol. 1, para. 21, available at :
http://indianstrategicknowledgeonline.com/web/sdr_a_new_chapter_cm5566_….
59 The 2006 White Paper on The Future of the United Kingdom’s Nuclear Deterrent stated,
at 3‑11 :
“We know that international terrorists are trying to acquire radiological weapons. In
future, there are risks that they may try to acquire nuclear weapons. While our nuclear
deterrent is not designed to deter non-State actors, it should influence the decisionmaking
of any State that might consider transferring nuclear weapons or nuclear technology
to terrorists.”
27
naux suprêmes étaient en jeu » 54. Le Royaume-Uni est donc lié par la politique
nucléaire de l’OTAN, qui, depuis le milieu des années 1960, est fondée sur une
doctrine de « réponse souple » 55, dont l’un des éléments principaux est le refus d’exclure
que l’Alliance utilise en premier ses armes nucléaires, ce qui permet à ses
planificateurs en la matière de préparer pareille éventualité 56.
40. Le Royaume-Uni a, lui aussi, toujours refusé d’écarter la possibilité d’employer
en premier ses armes nucléaires, surtout si des armes biologiques ou chimiques étaient
utilisées à son encontre. Peu après les élections législatives de 1997, M. John Reid,
alors ministre d’Etat en charge de la défense, avait par exemple précisé :
« Il ne faut pas minimiser … le rôle joué par la dissuasion. Même si un agresseur
potentiel parvenait à mettre au point des missiles d’une portée suffisante
pour atteindre le Royaume-Uni ainsi que des ogives nucléaires, biologiques ou
chimiques pouvant être lancées grâce à ces missiles, il lui faudrait encore envisager
— il aurait en tout cas intérêt à le faire — les conséquences qu’une telle
attaque pourrait avoir… Il semble peu probable qu’un dictateur désireux d’attaquer
un autre pays avec des armes de destruction massive puisse croire sérieusement
que ce pays ne réplique pas avec toute la puissance dont il dispose. » 57
41. Après les attentats terroristes qui ont frappé les Etats-Unis en septembre
2001, un nouveau chapitre de la Strategic Defence Review a étendu encore
davantage le rôle des armes nucléaires, celles-ci devant dès lors également exercer
un effet dissuasif sur les organisations terroristes :
« Les armes nucléaires britanniques contribuent en permanence à dissuader
les plus importantes menaces militaires stratégiques et participent ainsi, en
dernier ressort, à la sécurité du Royaume-Uni. Toutefois, nous tenons aussi à
préciser clairement, en particulier aux chefs des Etats qui suscitent des inquiétudes
et aux organisations terroristes, que l’ensemble de nos forces jouent un
rôle dissuasif, et que nous disposons d’un vaste éventail de réponses possibles.
» 58
42. Cela implique que le Royaume-Uni est prêt, s’il le juge nécessaire, à utiliser
ses armes nucléaires contre les Etats qui suscitent des inquiétudes et les organisations
terroristes 59.
54 « The British Strategic Nuclear Force : Text of Letters Exchanged between the Prime
Minister and the President of the United States and between the Secretary of State for
Defence and the US Secretary of Defense. » Les lettres en question sont reproduites dans
l’« accord de vente relatif au système Polaris conclu entre les Etats-Unis et le Royaume-
Uni », signé à Washington le 6 avril 1963.
55 « Le concept stratégique de l’Alliance », OTAN, communiqué de presse NAC-S(99)65,
24 avril 1999.
56 En 2006, Des Browne, alors ministre de la défense, avait déclaré qu’« [u]ne politique de
non-utilisation en premier des armes nucléaires serait incompatible avec [la] doctrine de
dissuasion [du Royaume-Uni] ainsi qu’avec celle de l’OTAN », Hansard, Chambre des
communes, 22 mai 2006, col. 1331W.
57 Hansard, débat à la Chambre des lords, 4 décembre 1997, col. 576-577.
58 The Strategic Defence Review : A New Chapter, 18 juillet 2002, vol. 1, par. 21, peut être
consulté à l’adresse suivante : http://indianstrategicknowledgeonline.com/web/sdr_a_new_
chapter_cm5566_vol1.pdf.
59 Le livre blanc de 2006 intitulé The Future of the United Kingdom’s Nuclear Deterrent
indiquait, au point 3-11 :
« Nous savons que des terroristes internationaux cherchent à acquérir des armes
radiologiques. A l’avenir, ils risquent de tenter d’obtenir des armes nucléaires. Même si
notre dissuasion nucléaire ne vise pas en premier lieu les acteurs non étatiques, elle
devrait tout de même influer sur le processus décisionnel de tout Etat susceptible d’envisager
de fournir des armes ou des technologies nucléaires à des terroristes. »
28
43. The Strategic Defence and Security Review 2010 states that the United Kingdom
“would only consider using nuclear weapons in extreme circumstances of selfdefence,
including the defence of our NATO allies”, adding : “we remain deliberately
ambiguous about precisely when, how and at what scale we would contemplate
their use” 60.
44. The Strategic Defence and Security Review reaffirms in modified form existing
assurances to non-nuclear-weapon States parties to the NPT. It states “that the
United Kingdom will not use or threaten to use nuclear weapons against nonnuclear
weapon States parties to the NPT” but notes that “this assurance would
not apply to any State in material breach of those non-proliferation obligations”.
It also notes that
“while there is currently no direct threat to the United Kingdom or its vital
interests from states developing capabilities in other weapons of mass destruction,
for example chemical and biological, we reserve the right to review this
assurance if the future threat, development and proliferation of these weapons
make it necessary” 61.
45. The United Kingdom has continued to maintain and modernize its nuclear
forces with annual expenditure on capital and running costs at around 5 to
6 per cent of the United Kingdom defence budget 62. This does not include costs for
recapitalising the Trident system estimated to be £25 billion at outturn prices 63.
4. Current plans for modernization and qualitative improvements of the United
Kingdom’s
nuclear arsenal
46. In December 2006 the United Kingdom Government published a White
Paper which formally opened the process to replace the United Kingdom’s Trident
nuclear weapons system 64. The White Paper was endorsed by the House of Commons
on 14 March 2007 when the following motion was carried by 409 votes
to 161 :
“That this House supports the Government’s decisions, as set out in
the White Paper The Future of the United Kingdom’s Nuclear Deterrent
(Cm 6994), to take the steps necessary to maintain the United Kingdom’s
minimum strategic nuclear deterrent beyond the life of the existing system and
60 Strategic Defence and Security Review, see supra note 48, para. 3.5.
61 Ibid., para. 3.7.
62 House of Commons Defence Committee, The Future of the United Kingdom’s Nuclear
Deterrent : The White Paper, Ninth Report of Session 2006-2007, paras. 149, 152 ; see also
Hansard, HL, 7 June 2010, col. WA28 ; HC, 20 December 2012, col. 908W. In 2010‑2011 the
defence resource budget was c. £28bn : Public Expenditure Statistical Analysis 2011, Departmental
Budgets, HM Treasury, table 1.3a, available at : http://www.hm-treasury.gov.uk/d/
pesa_2011_chapter1.pdf. A recent analysis by Scientists for Global Responsibility has
revealed that the United Kingdom Government spent an average of £327 million per year on
nuclear weapons research and development over the three years from 2008 to 2011. See
United Kingdom Nuclear Weapons R&D Spending : Addendum AA1 to Offensive Insecurity,
February 2014, available at : http://www.sgr.org.uk/publications/uk-nuclear-weaponsrd-
spending.
63 Ministry of Defence, Initial Gate Parliamentary Report, London, 2011, p. 10.
64 Ministry of Defence and Foreign and Commonwealth Office, The Future of the United
Kingdom’s Nuclear Deterrent, Cm 6994.
29
43. Dans sa Strategic Defence and Security Review de 2010, le Royaume-Uni a
indiqué qu’il « n’envisagerait d’employer des armes nucléaires que dans des circonstances
extrêmes de légitime défense, y compris pour venir en aide à [ses] alliés
de l’OTAN », en ajoutant qu’« [il] s’absten[ait] délibérément de préciser quand,
comment et à quelle échelle [il] pourrait en faire usage » 60.
44. Dans ce même document, il rappelle sous une forme modifiée les assurances
qu’il avait déjà données aux Etats parties au TNP dépourvus de l’arme nucléaire.
Le Royaume-Uni y a en effet précisé « qu’[il] n’utilisera[it] pas d’armes nucléaires
contre des Etats parties au TNP qui n’en sont pas dotés et qu’il ne les menacera[it]
pas d’employer de telles armes », mais aussi que « cette assurance ne s’appliquera[it]
pas à un Etat ayant manqué de façon substantielle [aux] obligations [en question]
relatives à la non-prolifération ». Il a par ailleurs fait observer que,
« même si les Etats travaillant sur d’autres armes de destruction massive, par
exemple chimiques et biologiques, ne représent[aient] pas à ce stade une
menace directe pour le Royaume-Uni ou ses intérêts vitaux, celui-ci se
réserv[ait] le droit de réexaminer cette assurance si les menaces posées par ces
armes, leur mise au point et leur prolifération devaient l’imposer à l’avenir » 61.
45. Le Royaume-Uni consacre chaque année au maintien et à la modernisation
de ses forces nucléaires 5 à 6 % du budget qu’il alloue à la défense 62, chiffre qui
correspond aux dépenses d’investissement et de fonctionnement relatives au système
Trident mais n’inclut pas les coûts afférents à la recapitalisation de celui-ci,
qui sont estimés à 25 milliards de livres en prix courants 63.
4. Projets actuels de modernisation et d’amélioration de l’arsenal nucléaire
du Royaume-Uni
46. En décembre 2006, le Gouvernement britannique a publié un livre blanc qui
a officiellement lancé la procédure de remplacement du système d’armes nucléaires
Trident du Royaume-Uni 64. Ce livre blanc a été approuvé par la Chambre des
communes le 14 mars 2007, celle-ci ayant adopté par 409 voix contre 161 la motion
suivante :
« Que la présente Chambre soutienne les décisions du gouvernement, telles
qu’exposées dans le livre blanc intitulé The Future of the United Kingdom’s
Nuclear Deterrent (Cm 6994), visant à prendre les mesures nécessaires pour
perpétuer la dissuasion nucléaire stratégique minimale du Royaume-Uni
60 Strategic Defence and Security Review, voir supra note 48, par. 3.5.
61 Ibid., par. 3.7.
62 Commission de la défense de la Chambre des communes, The Future of the United
Kingdom’s Deterrent : The White Paper, neuvième rapport, session 2006-2007, par. 149, 152 ;
voir aussi Hansard, Chambre des lords, 7 juin 2010, col. WA28 ; Chambre des communes,
20 décembre 2012, col. 908W. En 2010-2011, le budget alloué à la défense était d’environ
28 milliards de livres, voir « Public Expenditure Statistical Analysis 2011 », Departmental
Budgets, HM Treasury, table 1.3a, peut être consulté à l’adresse suivante : http://www.
hm-treasury.gov.uk/d/pesa_2011_chapter1.pdf. Une analyse récemment effectuée par l’organisation
Scientists for Global Responsibility a révélé que, de 2008 à 2011, le Gouvernement
du Royaume-Uni avait dépensé en moyenne 327 millions de livres par an en recherche et
développement dans le domaine des armes nucléaires. Voir United Kingdom Nuclear
Weapons R&D Spending : Addendum AA1 to Offensive Insecurity, février 2014, peut être
consulté à l’adresse suivante : http://www.sgr.org.uk/publications/uk-nuclear-weapons-rdspending.
63 Ministère de la défense, Initial Gate Parliamentary Report, Londres, 2011, p. 10.
64 Ministère de la défense et ministère des affaires étrangères et du Commonwealth, The
Future of the United Kingdom’s Nuclear Deterrent, Cm 6994.
30
to take further steps towards meeting the United Kingdom’s disarmament
responsibilities under Article VI of the Non-Proliferation Treaty.” 65
47. According to British Pugwash, the effect of that vote and its present and
future consequences are as follows :
“Parliament voted to authorize the initial ‘Concept’ phase of the Trident
replacement system. The next major milestone, known as the ‘Initial Gate’
decision, was to move to the ‘Assessment’ phase, involving further detailed
refinement of a set of design options to enable selection of a preferred solution.
The Government announced the Initial Gate decision on 18 May 2011.
The next big decision to move to the ‘Demonstration and Manufacture’ phase
is the ‘Main Gate’ decision, now scheduled for 2016 (delayed from 2014 in
October 2010). That is supposed to be the key decision‑point when the finalized
submarine design is adopted ; contracts to build the new boats are then
tendered, and billions more pounds will be irrevocably committed to construction
of a new generation of nuclear weapons.” 66
48. The Strategic Defence and Security Review 2010 states :
“Under the 1958 UK-US Agreement for Co-operation on the Uses of Atomic
Energy for Mutual Defence Purposes (the ‘Mutual Defence Agreement’)
we have agreed on the future of the Trident D5 delivery system and determined
that a replacement warhead is not required until at least the late 2030s.
Decisions on replacing the warhead will not therefore be required in this Parliament.
This will defer £500 million of spending from the next 10 years.” 67
49. Under the United Kingdom‑United States Mutual Defence Agreement, a
new “arming, fusing and firing system” developed by the United States is to be
used in current United Kingdom warheads 68. The system would improve the
nuclear warhead’s effectiveness against hardened targets. The Trident II D5 missile
can carry two types of re‑entry vehicle that house each nuclear warhead : the
Mark 4 for the United States W76 warhead and the Mark 5 for the more modern
and higher yield W88 warhead. The United Kingdom purchased the Mark 4 RV
and designed a warhead to meet Mk4 RV specifications in terms of weight, size,
shape, centre of gravity, and centre of inertia. The United States is modernizing its
W76 warheads and Mk4 re‑entry vehicles, including launcher, navigation, fire control,
guidance, and re-entry systems 69. The modernized W76-1 and Mk4A RV
65 Hansard, HC Deb, 14 March 2007, cols. 298-407.
66 Briefings on Nuclear Security, “Trident : The Initial Gate Decision”, available at :
http://www.britishpugwash.org/documents/Briefing%203%20-%20Initial%20Ga….
67 See supra note 48, para. 3.12.
68 Richard Norton-Taylor, “Trident more effective with US arming device, tests suggest”,
The Guardian, 6 April 2011, available at : http://www.theguardian.com/uk/2011/apr/06/
trident-us-arming-system-test ; see also Hans M. Kristensen and Robert S. Norris, “British
Nuclear Forces”, Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, September/October 2011, Vol. 67, No. 5,
pp. 89-97, available at : http://bos.sagepub.com/content/67/5/89.full#ref-24.
69 Ainslie, see op. cit. supra note 44, at pp. 71‑72.
31
lorsque le système existant sera arrivé en fin de vie et à prendre des mesures
supplémentaires pour permettre au Royaume-Uni de s’acquitter des responsabilités
qui lui incombent en matière de désarmement au titre de l’article VI
du traité sur la non-prolifération des armes nucléaires. » 65
47. D’après le mouvement britannique Pugwash, l’effet de ce vote et ses conséquences
actuelles et à venir sont les suivants :
« Le Parlement a autorisé le lancement de la première étape (phase de
conception) du projet de remplacement du système Trident. Le jalon suivant,
qualifié de « décision de principe », a été le passage à la phase de l’évaluation,
impliquant d’affiner un ensemble d’options parmi lesquelles devra être effectué
un choix. Le gouvernement a annoncé qu’il avait adopté cette décision de
principe le 18 mai 2011. La prochaine grande étape, à savoir le passage à la
phase de « démonstration et [de] fabrication », correspondra à la décision
finale qui devrait être prise en 2016 (après avoir été reportée une première fois
à 2014 en octobre 2010). C’est à ce point décisif que sera adoptée la conception
définitive du sous-marin ; un appel d’offres portant sur la construction
des nouveaux submersibles sera ensuite lancé, et plusieurs milliards de livres
supplémentaires seront irrémédiablement alloués à la fabrication d’une nouvelle
génération d’armes nucléaires. » 66
48. D’après la Strategic Defence and Security Review de 2010 :
« En vertu de l’accord de coopération sur les usages de l’énergie atomique
pour les besoins mutuels de défense (l’« accord de défense mutuelle »), conclu
en 1958 entre le Royaume-Uni et les Etats-Unis, nous avons pris une décision
au sujet de l’avenir du système de lancement Trident D5 et avons conclu qu’il
n’y avait pas lieu de disposer d’une nouvelle ogive avant la fin des années 2030
au plus tôt. Par conséquent, le Parlement n’aura pas à prendre de décision sur
le remplacement de l’ogive actuelle, ce qui différera la dépense de 500 millions
de livres qui devait intervenir au cours de ces dix prochaines années. » 67
49. Conformément à l’accord précité, un nouveau « système d’armement, d’allumage
et de mise à feu » développé par les Etats-Unis devra être adopté pour les ogives
actuelles du Royaume-Uni 68. Ce système améliorerait l’efficacité des ogives nucléaires
contre les cibles blindées. Le missile Trident II D5 peut porter deux types de vecteurs
de rentrée abritant les différentes ogives nucléaires : le Mark 4 pour l’ogive W76 des
Etats-Unis et le Mark 5 pour l’ogive W88, plus moderne et plus puissante. Le
Royaume-Uni a acheté le vecteur de rentrée Mark 4 (Mk4) et conçu une ogive dont
le poids, la taille, la forme, le centre de gravité et le centre d’inertie sont conformes
aux spécifications Mk4. Les Etats-Unis modernisent actuellement leurs ogives W76
et leurs vecteurs de rentrée Mk4, y compris les systèmes de lancement, de navigation,
de commande de mise à feu, de guidage et de rentrée 69. Les ogives W76-1 et les vec-
65 Hansard, débat à la Chambre des communes, 14 mars 2007, col. 298-407.
66 Briefings on Nuclear Security, « Trident : The Initial Gate Decision » ; peut être
consulté à l’adresse suivante : http://www.britishpugwash.org/documents/Briefing%203%
20-%20Initial%20Gate.pdf.
67 Voir supra note 48, par. 3.12.
68 Richard Norton-Taylor, « Trident more effective with US arming device, tests suggest »,
The Guardian, 6 avril 2011, peut être consulté à l’adresse suivante : http://www.theguardian.
com/uk/2011/apr/06/trident-us-arming-system-test ; voir aussi Hans M. Kristensen et Robert
S. Norris, « British Nuclear Forces », Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists [Bulletin des scientifiques
atomistes], septembre-octobre 2011, vol. 67, no 5, p. 89‑97, peut être consulté à l’adresse
suivante : http://bos.sagepub.com/content/67/5/89.full#ref-24.
69 Ainslie, voir op. cit. supra note 44, p. 71‑72.
32
have improved the accuracy of the warheads 70. These improvements have cascaded
through to the United Kingdom’s Trident warhead and re-entry vehicle 71.
The United Kingdom Government has acknowledged procurement of the
Mk4A RV 72. Preliminary work on a successor warhead is also underway under the
Nuclear Warhead Capability Sustainment Programme at AWE Aldermaston 73.
The replacement submarine will be quieter and stealthier 74. All of these efforts
confirm that the United Kingdom continues to be actively engaged in qualitative
improvements to its nuclear weapons system.
50. On 2 November 2010, the United Kingdom and France concluded a bilateral
Treaty for Defence and Security Co‑operation 75. Article 1 of the Treaty provides,
inter alia :
“The Parties, building on the existing strong links between their respective
defense and security communities and armed forces, undertake to build a
long-term mutually beneficial partnership in defense and security with the
aims of . . .
4. ensuring the viability and safety of their national deterrents, consistent
with the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons.” 76
51. On 18 May 2011, when informing Parliament that the Government had
approved the “Initial Gate” for the nuclear weapons system successor programme,
the Secretary of State for Defence explained :
“We have now agreed the broad outline design of the submarine, made
some of the design choices — including the propulsion system and the common
US-United Kingdom missile compartment — and the programme of
work we need to start building the first submarine after 2016. We have also
agreed the amount of material and parts we will need to buy in advance
of the main investment decision . . . Between now and main gate we expect to
spend about 15 per cent of the total value of the programme.” 77
52. Although the Secretary of State for Defence denied that the Government
was “locked into any particular strategy before main gate in 2016” and stated that
70 Ibid., at p. 72 ; Hans Kristensen, “Administration Increases Submarine Nuclear
Warhead Production Plan”, FAS Blog, Federation of American Scientists, 30 August 2007,
available at : http://www.fas.org/blog/ssp/2007/08/us_tripples_submarine_warhead.php.
71 Ainslie, op. cit. supra note 44, p. 72 ; see also Hans Kristensen, “British Submarines to
Receive Upgraded US Nuclear Warhead”, FAS Strategic Security Blog, 1 April 2011, available
at http://www.fas.org/blog/ssp/2011/04/britishw76-1.php.
72 Ainslie, op. cit. supra, note 44, pp. 68‑69 ; Hansard, HC, 8 December 2009, col. 214W.
73 Ainslie, op. cit. supra note 44, pp. 70‑71 ; Hansard, HC Deb, 28 November 2012,
col. 353W.
74 Ainslie, op. cit. supra note 44, at pp. 72‑73.
75 France No. 01 (2010), available at : http://www.ukdf.org.uk/assets/downloads/
UKFranceDefenceCooperationTreaty.pdf#search=“defence and security cooperation”.
76 The United Kingdom and France also signed a Treaty on Joint Radiographic/Hydrodynamics
Facilities to build joint nuclear warhead diagnostic and development facilities at
the Valduc site of the Commissariat à l’Energie Atomique et aux Energies Alternatives —
Direction des Applications Militaires (CEA-DAM) and at AWE Aldermaston. See http://
www.ukdf.org.uk/assets/downloads/United KingdomFranceNuclearTreaty.pdf.
77 Hansard, HC Deb, 18 May 2011, col. 352.
33
teurs Mk4A modernisés offrent un surcroît de précision 70. Ces améliorations ont
également été apportées à l’ogive Trident et au vecteur de rentrée britanniques 71. Le
Gouvernement du Royaume-Uni a confirmé l’achat du vecteur Mk4A 72. Dans le
cadre du programme de préservation des capacités en matière d’ogives nucléaires,
des travaux préliminaires sur une nouvelle ogive sont également en cours sur le site
d’Aldermaston de l’AWE 73. Le sous-marin de remplacement sera plus silencieux et
gagnera en furtivité 74. Ces efforts confirment que le Royaume-Uni continue
d’oeuvrer à l’amélioration de son système d’armes nucléaires.
50. Le 2 novembre 2010, le Royaume-Uni et la France ont conclu un traité bilatéral
de coopération en matière de défense et de sécurité 75, dont l’article premier
dispose notamment ce qui suit :
« Se fondant sur les liens solides établis entre leurs communautés de défense
et de sécurité et leurs forces armées respectives, les Parties s’engagent à bâtir
un partenariat à long terme mutuellement avantageux en matière de défense
et de sécurité visant à…
4. assurer la viabilité et la sécurité de leur dissuasion nationale, dans le respect
du traité sur la non-prolifération des armes nucléaires. » 76
51. Le 18 mai 2011, lorsqu’il a informé le Parlement que le gouvernement avait
pris la décision de principe de lancer le programme de remplacement du système
d’armes nucléaires, le ministre de la défense a expliqué :
« Nous avons maintenant trouvé un accord sur la conception d’ensemble du
sous-marin, effectué certains choix à ce sujet — y compris en ce qui concerne
le système de propulsion et le compartiment à missiles commun aux Etats-
Unis et au Royaume-Uni — et établi le programme de travail dont nous avons
besoin pour lancer la construction du premier exemplaire, après 2016. Nous
sommes également convenus de la quantité de matériel et du nombre de pièces
que nous devrons acquérir avant de prendre la décision principale quant à
l’investissement … Entre aujourd’hui et la décision finale, nous prévoyons de
dépenser environ 15 % de la valeur totale du programme. » 77
52. Bien que le ministre de la défense ait nié que le gouvernement soit « lié par
une stratégie précise jusqu’à ce que la décision finale relative au programme
70 Ibid., p. 72 ; Hans Kristensen, « Administration Increases Submarine Nuclear Warhead
Production Plan », blog de la Federation of American Scientists [Fédération des scientifiques
américains (FAS)], 30 août 2007, peut être consulté en anglais à l’adresse suivante : http://
www.fas.org/blog/ssp/2007/08/us_tripples_submarine_warhead.php.
71 Ainslie, op. cit. supra note 44, p. 72 ; voir aussi Hans Kristensen, « British Submarines to
Receive Upgraded US Nuclear Warhead », blog sur la sécurité stratégique de la FAS, 1er avril
2011, peut être consulté à l’adresse suivante : http://blogs.fas.org/security/2011/04/britishw76-1.
72 Ainslie, op. cit. supra note 44, p. 68‑69 ; Hansard, Chambre des communes, 8 décembre
2009, col. 214W.
73 Ainslie, op. cit. supra note 44, p. 70‑71 ; Hansard, débat à la Chambre des lords,
28 novembre 2012, col. 353W.
74 Ainslie, op. cit. supra note 44, p. 72‑73.
75 Peut être consulté à l’adresse suivante : http://www.diplomatie.gouv.fr/fr/IMG/
pdf/291846_BST_Cooperation_French_Text_Formatted_Final_6_.pdf.
76 Le Royaume-Uni et la France ont également signé un traité relatif à des installations
radiographiques et hydrodynamiques communes en vue de construire des installations
communes de diagnostic et de développement d’ogives nucléaires sur le site de Valduc du
Commissariat à l’énergie atomique et aux énergies alternatives-Direction des applications militaires
(CEA-DAM) et sur le site d’Aldermaston de l’AWE. Voir l’adresse suivante : http://www.
diplomatie.gouv.fr/fr/IMG/pdf/291845_BST_hydro_French_Text_Formatted_Final_6.pdf.
77 Hansard, débat à la Chambre des lords, 18 mai 2011, col. 352.
34
he would “assist the Liberal Democrats in making the case for alternatives” 78, he
declared :
“I am absolutely clear that a minimum nuclear deterrent based on the Trident
missile delivery system and continuous‑at‑sea deterrence is right for the
United Kingdom and that it should be maintained, and that remains Government
policy.” 79
53. On the same day, the Prime Minister told Parliament : “the Government’s
policy is absolutely clear : we are committed to retaining an independent nuclear
deterrent based on Trident” 80.
54. On 30 April 2012, at the First Preparatory Committee for the Ninth Review
Conference of the NPT, the Head of the United Kingdom Delegation stated :
“As long as large arsenals of nuclear weapons remain and the risk of nuclear
proliferation continues, the United Kingdom’s judgment is that only a credible
nuclear capability can provide the necessary ultimate guarantee to our
national security. The United Kingdom Government is therefore committed
to maintaining a minimum national nuclear deterrent, and to proceeding with
the renewal of Trident and the submarine replacement programme.” 81
55. On 5 March 2013, in a Statement on Nuclear Disarmament, the United
Kingdom’s Permanent Representative to the Conference on Disarmament
declared :
“In 2007, the United Kingdom Parliament debated, and approved by a
clear majority, the decision to continue with the programme to renew the
United Kingdom’s nuclear deterrent. The Government set out in the Strategic
Defence and Security Review 2010 that the United Kingdom would maintain
a continuous submarine‑based deterrent and begin the work of replacing its
existing submarines which are due to leave service in the 2020s. This remains
the United Kingdom Government’s policy.” 82
78 In order to satisfy Liberal Democrat concerns, the Government’s Coalition Agreement
negotiated after the 2010 general election stated that “we will maintain Britain’s nuclear
deterrent, and have agreed that the renewal of Trident should be scrutinized to ensure value
for money. Liberal Democrats will continue to make the case for alternatives”. In May 2011,
agreement was reached that the Government would conduct a formal 18-month assessment
of “credible alternatives” to a like‑for‑like replacement led by the Cabinet Office.
79 See supra note 77, col. 352.
80 Ibid., col. 338 ; see also the Prime Minister’s statement at a press conference on
2 November 2010 after the United Kingdom‑France summit at which the Treaty for Defence
and Security Co-operation was concluded : “while we will always retain an independent
nuclear deterrent, it is right that we look for efficiencies in the infrastructure required to
develop and sustain our separate deterrents . . .”, available at : http://www.number10.gov.
uk/news/uk-france-summit-press-conference/.
81 Available at : http://www.reachingcriticalwill.org/images/documents/Disarmament-fora/
npt/prepcom12/statements/30April_UK.pdf.
82 Available at : http://www.reachingcriticalwill.org/images/documents/Disarmament-fora/
cd/2013/Statements/5March_UK.pdf.
35
nucléaire soit prise en 2016 » et indiqué qu’il « aidera[it] les libéraux-démocrates à
plaider en faveur des autres possibilités » 78, il n’en a pas moins déclaré :
« Je tiens à préciser clairement qu’une dissuasion nucléaire minimale, fondée
sur le système de lancement de missiles Trident et sur une dissuasion permanente
en mer, est une solution adaptée au Royaume-Uni et qu’il convient
de la conserver, et telle demeure la politique du gouvernement. » 79
53. Le même jour, le premier ministre a informé le Parlement que « la politique
du gouvernement [était] absolument claire » et qu’elle consistait à « s’engag[er] à
conserver une dissuasion nucléaire indépendante fondée sur le système Trident » 80.
54. Le 30 avril 2012, lors du premier comité préparatoire à la neuvième conférence
de revision du TNP, le chef de la délégation du Royaume-Uni a indiqué :
« Tant que subsisteront des arsenaux nucléaires importants et le risque
de prolifération nucléaire, le Royaume-Uni estime que seules des capacités
nucléaires crédibles seront à même de garantir, en dernier ressort, sa
sécurité
nationale. Par conséquent, le Gouvernement britannique est déterminé
à conserver une dissuasion nucléaire nationale minimale et à procéder au renouvellement
du système Trident et au remplacement de ses sous-marins. » 81
55. Le 5 mars 2013, dans une déclaration sur le désarmement nucléaire, le
représentant
permanent du Royaume-Uni à la Conférence du désarmement a
précisé
:
« En 2007, le Parlement du Royaume-Uni a examiné, puis approuvé à une
large majorité, la décision de poursuivre le programme de renouvellement du
système de dissuasion nucléaire britannique. Dans la Strategic Defence and
Security Review de 2010, le gouvernement a indiqué que le Royaume-Uni
entendait conserver une dissuasion permanente fondée sur des sous-marins et
lancer les travaux de remplacement de ses submersibles existants, qui devraient
être déclassés dans les années 2020. Telle demeure la politique du Gouvernement
du Royaume-Uni. » 82
78 Afin de répondre aux préoccupations des libéraux-démocrates, le gouvernement avait
indiqué dans l’accord de coalition négocié après les élections législatives de 2010 : « Nous
conserverons la dissuasion nucléaire britannique et sommes convenus de la nécessité de
veiller attentivement à ce que le renouvellement du système Trident se fasse pour un rapport
qualité/prix satisfaisant. Les libéraux-démocrates continueront de plaider en faveur d’autres
possibilités. » En mai 2011, un accord a été trouvé, aux termes duquel le gouvernement
procéderait pendant dix-huit mois à une évaluation officielle, sous la direction du Cabinet
Office, des « autres solutions crédibles » qui permettraient d’éviter un renouvellement à
l’identique du système.
79 Voir supra note 77, col. 352.
80 Ibid., col. 338 ; voir aussi la déclaration faite par le premier ministre lors d’une conférence
de presse, le 2 novembre 2010, après le sommet entre le Royaume-Uni et la France au
cours duquel a été conclu le traité de coopération en matière de défense et de sécurité :
« même si nous conserverons toujours une dissuasion nucléaire indépendante, il n’en est pas
moins opportun de rechercher une efficacité accrue en matière d’infrastructures nécessaires
à la mise au point et à la conservation de nos propres systèmes de dissuasion… », qui peut
être consultée en anglais à l’adresse suivante : http://www.number10.gov.uk/news/
uk-france-summit-press-conference/.
81 Peut être consulté à l’adresse suivante : http://www.reachingcriticalwill.org/images/
documents/Disarmament-fora/npt/prepcom12/statements/30April_UK.pdf.
82 Peut être consulté à l’adresse suivante : http://www.reachingcriticalwill.org/images/
documents/Disarmament-fora/cd/2013/Statements/5March_UK.pdf.
36
56. On 5 June 2013, in response to a question in Parliament, the Prime Minister
stated : “I am strongly committed to the renewal of our deterrent on a like-for-like
basis. I think that is right for Britain” 83.
57. The Trident Alternatives Review 84 was published on 16 July 2013 85. It had
been tasked to answer three questions :
(a) Are there credible alternatives to a submarine-based deterrent ?
(b) Are there credible submarine-based alternatives to the current proposal, e.g.,
Astute with cruise missiles ?
(c) Are there alternative nuclear postures, i.e., non-continuous-at-sea deterrence
(“CASD”), which could maintain credibility ?
58. The Trident Alternatives Review concluded : “None of these alternative systems
and postures offers the same degree of resilience as the current posture of
Continuous at Sea Deterrence, nor could they guarantee a prompt response in all
circumstances.” 86
D. The United Kingdom and Nuclear Disarmament
1. History and general policy regarding negotiation of nuclear disarmament
59. As set forth in more detail below, the United Kingdom has refused to enter
the Trident system (or its predecessors) into nuclear disarmament negotiations
despite requests to do so.
60. During the 1970s and 1980s, the United Kingdom repeatedly refused to
enter its nuclear weapon systems into the disarmament negotiations of that time.
During the SALT I and SALT II talks in the 1970s, the United Kingdom’s refusal
to allow Polaris to be considered caused problems during negotiations. The Soviet
Union repeatedly called for the ballistic missile submarines of United States allies
in NATO to be taken into consideration and argued that if “US allies in NATO
should increase the number of their modern submarines . . . the Soviet Union will
have the right to a corresponding increase in the number of its submarines” 87.
61. When the United Kingdom Government first announced its decision to procure
the Trident I C4 nuclear weapon system in 1980, it argued that Trident was
compatible with the United Kingdom’s arms control obligations on the grounds
that it was : “fully consistent with the terms of the SALT II Treaty” ; that “the scale
of our new capability will in no way disturb existing and prospective East/West
83 Hansard, HC Deb, 5 June 2013, col. 1518.
84 See supra note 78.
85 Available at : https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_
data/file/212745/20130716_Trident_Alternatives_Study.pdf.
86 Trident Alternatives Review, supra note 85, Executive Summary, para. 32. The Review
also concluded that “transitioning to any of the realistic alternative systems is now more
expensive than a 3 or 4-boat Successor SSBN fleet” : ibid., para. 34.
87 “Interim Agreement between the United States of America and the Union of Soviet
Socialist Republics on Certain Measures with respect to the Limitation of Strategic Offensive
Arms”, Unilateral Statement by Minister Semenov, 17 May 1972.
37
56. Le 5 juin 2013, en réponse à une question posée au Parlement, le premier
ministre a affirmé qu’il était « bien déterminé à renouveler à l’identique le système
de dissuasion [du Royaume-Uni] » et qu’il était « persuadé qu’il s’agi[ssait] de la
bonne décision pour la Grande-Bretagne » 83.
57. La Trident Alternatives Review 84, qui a été publiée le 16 juillet 2013 85, visait
à répondre aux trois questions suivantes :
a) Existe-t-il des solutions de substitution crédibles à une dissuasion fondée sur
des sous-marins ?
b) Existe-t-il des solutions de substitution crédibles à la proposition actuelle qui
soient fondées sur des sous-marins, combinant par exemple des sous-marins de
la classe Astute et des missiles de croisière ?
c) Existe-t-il d’autres postures nucléaires, c’est-à-dire une dissuasion en mer non
permanente, qui resteraient crédibles ?
58. La conclusion tirée de l’étude de telles solutions de substitution est : « Aucun
de ces systèmes et postures de substitution n’offrirait le même niveau de résilience
que la posture actuelle de la dissuasion permanente en mer, pas plus qu’ils ne
garantiraient une réponse rapide en toutes circonstances. » 86
D. Le Royaume-Uni et le désarmement nucléaire
1. Historique et politique générale concernant les négociations en vue du désarmement
nucléaire
59. Comme nous l’exposerons plus en détail ci-après, le Royaume-Uni n’a
jamais accepté, en dépit des demandes formulées en ce sens, de remettre en question
le système Trident (pas plus, d’ailleurs, que ses prédécesseurs) dans le cadre
des négociations en vue du désarmement nucléaire.
60. Au cours des années 1970 et 1980, il a ainsi refusé à plusieurs reprises que
son système d’armes nucléaires soit évoqué lors des pourparlers menés au sujet
du désarmement. Pendant les négociations sur la limitation des armes stratégiques
(SALT I et SALT II) conduites dans les années 1970, le refus du Royaume-
Uni de débattre du dispositif Polaris a été source de difficultés. L’Union soviétique
avait en effet demandé plusieurs fois qu’il soit tenu compte des sous-
marins lanceurs
d’engins des alliés des Etats-Unis membres de l’OTAN et argué que, si lesdits
« alliés … devaient acquérir davantage de sous-marins modernes …, [elle] serait
fondée à accroître d’autant le nombre de ses propres submersibles » 87.
61. En 1980, lorsqu’il a annoncé pour la première fois sa décision d’acquérir le
système d’armes nucléaires Trident I C4, le Gouvernement du Royaume-Uni a
affirmé que ce dispositif était compatible avec les obligations de contrôle des armements
qui lui incombaient. En guise de justification, il avait alors avancé que le
système Trident était « pleinement conforme aux dispositions du traité SALT II »,
83 Hansard, débat à la Chambre des lords, 5 juin 2013, col. 1518.
84 Voir supra note 78.
85 Peut être consultée à l’adresse suivante : https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/
system/uploads/attachment_data/file/212745/20130716_Trident_Alternatives_Study.pdf.
86 Trident Alternatives Review, supra note 85, résumé, par. 32. Les auteurs de cette étude
ont également conclu que, « à ce stade, se rabattre sur l’une des autres options réalistes
revien[drait] plus cher qu’une nouvelle flotte de SNLE composée de trois ou quatre bâtiments
» : ibid., par. 34.
87 « Accord intérimaire entre les Etats-Unis d’Amérique et l’Union des républiques socialistes
soviétiques sur certaines mesures concernant la limitation des armes stratégiques offensives
», déclaration unilatérale du ministre Semenov, 17 mai 1972.
38
relativities” ; and that “Britain’s strategic SLBM force lies outside the category of
those United States and Soviet long-range, land-based theatre nuclear forces about
whose limitation the United States . . . invited the Soviet Union to negotiate” 88.
62. Similarly, when the United Kingdom announced that it was changing to
procure the Trident II D5 system in 1982, it argued that the deployed Polaris system
and planned Trident system were not relevant to the INF and START negotiations.
The Government argued that its strategic nuclear weapon systems were
not relevant because these negotiations were “bilateral”, aimed at achieving a
“level of strategic parity” between the United States and the Soviet Union. The
United Kingdom argued that the “British strategic force will account for no more
than a very small fraction of the total size of the strategic nuclear forces maintained
by the United States and the Soviet Union” 89.
63. During the 1980s, the end of the Cold War resulted in massive cuts to Soviet/
Russian military capabilities, in particular reductions in nuclear weapons. However,
the United Kingdom Government would not allow the United Kingdom’s
nuclear weapons to be included in the negotiations on reductions. In 1987, the INF
Treaty was signed by Presidents Reagan and Gorbachev. The Soviet Union had
tried to involve United Kingdom nuclear weapons in the INF negotiations, but the
United Kingdom, backed by its NATO allies, opposed this. Prime Minister
Margaret
Thatcher’s response to INF was that she believed that nuclear arms
cuts in Europe had gone far enough : “I will never give up Britain’s independent
nuclear deterrent”, she told the media 90.
64. According to the Defence Select Committee, as United States and Soviet
nuclear reductions gathered pace, Mrs. Thatcher “sought and received assurances
from the United States that the supply of Trident missiles to the United Kingdom
will in no way be affected by any future arms control agreement” 91.
65. The Strategic Defence Review 1998 stated : “The Government wishes to see
a safer world in which there is no place for nuclear weapons. Progress on arms
control is therefore an important objective of foreign and defence policy.” 92 However,
the United Kingdom Government continued to make negotiations on nuclear
disarmament a long-term aspiration rather than an immediate policy objective.
The Strategic Defence Review continued : “while large nuclear arsenals and risks of
proliferation remain, our minimum deterrent remains a necessary element of our
security” 93. It essentially ruled out any further reductions in United Kingdom
nuclear weapons until further reductions had been made by the United States and
Russia.
88 “The Future United Kingdom Strategic Nuclear Deterrent Force”, Defence Open
Government Document 80/23, Ministry of Defence, July 1980.
89 “The United Kingdom Trident Programme”, Defence Open Government Document
82/1, Ministry of Defence, Cmnd 8517, March 1982.
90 Nicholas Ashford and Alexander Chancellor, “Arms reduction accord threatens UK
deterrent”, The Independent, 22 September 1987.
91 “Progress of the Trident Programme”, 1987-1988, HMSO, 11 May 1988, p. 422.
92 See supra note 45, para. 60.
93 Ibid.
39
que « l’étendue de [ses] nouvelles capacités ne perturberait en rien les rapports de
force existants et prospectifs entre l’Est et l’Ouest », et que « la force stratégique
britannique, fondée sur des SNLE, n’entr[ait] pas dans la même catégorie que les
forces nucléaires terrestres de théâtre à longue portée américaines et soviétiques
dont les Etats-Unis … avaient invité l’Union soviétique à négocier la limitation » 88.
62. De même, lorsque le Royaume-Uni a annoncé, en 1982, qu’il avait finalement
opté pour l’acquisition du système Trident II D5, il a allégué que le dispositif Polaris
déployé et le système Trident prévu n’avaient aucune incidence sur les négociations
relatives au traité sur les forces nucléaires à portée intermédiaire (INF) et au traité sur
la réduction des armes stratégiques (START). Le gouvernement a soutenu que ses
systèmes d’armes nucléaires stratégiques ne jouaient aucun rôle puisque ces négociations
étaient « bilatérales » et qu’elles visaient à atteindre un « niveau de parité stratégique
» entre les Etats-Unis et l’Union soviétique. Le Royaume-Uni a affirmé que la
« force stratégique britannique ne représentera[it] qu’une infime fraction des forces
nucléaires stratégiques totales conservées par les Etats-Unis et l’Union soviétique » 89.
63. Dans les années 1980, alors que la fin de la guerre froide approchait, les capacités
militaires soviétiques et russes furent massivement réduites, notamment en
matière d’armements nucléaires. Toutefois, le Gouvernement du Royaume-Uni
n’accepta pas de mettre ses armes nucléaires sur la table des négociations relatives au
désarmement. En 1987, les présidents Reagan et Gorbatchev signèrent le traité INF.
Dans le cadre des pourparlers y afférents, l’Union soviétique avait tenté d’aborder la
question des armes nucléaires du Royaume-Uni, mais celui-ci, appuyé par ses alliés
de l’OTAN, s’y était refusé. Le premier ministre de l’époque, Margaret Thatcher,
répondit à l’INF en affirmant qu’elle estimait que la réduction de l’arsenal nucléaire
en Europe était allée suffisamment loin : « Je ne renoncerai jamais à la dissuasion
nucléaire indépendante de la Grande-Bretagne », avait-elle déclaré à la presse 90.
64. Selon la commission de la défense de la Chambre des communes, à mesure
que la réduction des arsenaux nucléaires des Etats-Unis et de l’Union soviétique
prenait de l’ampleur, Mme Thatcher demanda — et obtint — des « assurances des
Etats-Unis lui garantissant que la conclusion éventuelle d’un futur accord de
contrôle des armements n’aurait aucune incidence sur la fourniture au Royaume-
Uni de missiles Trident » 91.
65. Bien que, dans sa Strategic Defence Review de 1998, le Gouvernement britannique
ait affirmé qu’il « souhait[ait] promouvoir un monde plus sûr dans lequel
les armes nucléaires n’aur[aient] plus leur place[, et que] le contrôle des armements
constitu[ait] dès lors un objectif important en matière de politique étrangère et de
défense » 92, il n’en continua pas moins à considérer les négociations sur le désarmement
nucléaire comme une perspective à long terme plutôt que comme un objectif
politique immédiat. Plus loin dans la Strategic Defence Review, il est en effet indiqué
que, « tant que subsisteront des arsenaux nucléaires importants et des risques
de prolifération, [la] dissuasion minimale [du Royaume-Uni] demeurera un élément
indispensable à [sa] sécurité » 93. Pour l’essentiel, ce document excluait que le
Royaume-Uni réduise son arsenal nucléaire tant que les Etats-Unis et la Russie
n’auraient pas pris des mesures supplémentaires de désarmement.
88 « The Future United Kingdom Strategic Nuclear Deterrent Force », Defence Open
Government Document 80/23, ministère de la défense, juillet 1980.
89 « The United Kingdom Trident Programme », Defence Open Government Document
82/1, ministère de la défense, Cm 8517, mars 1982.
90 Nicholas Ashford et Alexander Chancellor, « Arms reduction accord threatens UK
deterrent », The Independent, 22 septembre 1987.
91 « Progress of the Trident Programme », 1987-1988, HMSO, 11 mai 1988, p. 422.
92 Voir supra note 45, par. 60.
93 Ibid.
40
66. This has remained the United Kingdom Government’s position. In his
speech to the 2004 NPT PrepCom, the United Kingdom Ambassador stated :
“We have consistently stated that when we are satisfied that sufficient progress
has been made — for example, in further deep cuts in their nuclear
forces by the United States and Russia — to allow us to include the United
Kingdom’s nuclear weapons in any multilateral negotiations, without endangering
our security interests, we will do so.” 94
67. On 17 March 2009, after observing that between them the United States and
Russia retained around 95 per cent of the nuclear weapons in the world and that
the START Treaty, “the mainstay of their bilateral arms control effort”, would
expire later that year, the then Prime Minister, Gordon Brown stated : “For our
part — as soon as it becomes useful for our arsenal to be included in a broader
negotiation, Britain stands ready to participate and to act” 95.
68. On 6 July 2010, the then Secretary of State for Defence, Dr. Liam Fox, reiterated
the previous government’s position that “as soon as it becomes useful for
the United Kingdom to include its nuclear stockpiles in broader disarmament
negotiations, we stand ready to participate and to act” 96.
69. On 3 January 2012, the United Nations General Assembly decided to establish
an Open‑Ended Working Group (OEWG) to develop proposals to take
forward
multilateral nuclear disarmament negotiations for the achievement
and maintenance of a world without nuclear weapons 97. However, the United
Kingdom voted against the resolution 98 and did not attend any of the Working
Group’s meetings 99.
70. In a statement made jointly with France and the United States in the United
Nations General Assembly First Committee on 6 November 2012, the United
Kingdom declared that it was “unable to support this resolution, the establishment
of the OEWG and any outcome it may produce” (emphasis added) 100.
94 Statement by Ambassador David Broucher, NPT Preparatory Committee 2004,
Cluster I, 3 May 2004.
95 10 Downing Street, Press Notice, Speech on Nuclear Energy and Proliferation,
17 March 2009, available at : http://image.guardian.co.uk/sys-files/Politics/documents/2009/
03/17/PMSPEECH170309.pdf?guni=Article:manual-trailblock package:Position3.
96 Hansard, HC Deb, 6 July 2010, col. 159W. See also : the Statement by Ambassador
John Duncan to the 2010 Non‑Proliferation Treaty Review Conference, available at : http://
www.un.org/en/conf/npt/2010/statements/pdf/uk_en.pdf.
97 United Nations, General Assembly resolution A/RES/67/56, “Taking forward multilateral
nuclear disarmament negotiations for the achievement and maintenance of a world
without nuclear weapons” (147-4-31).
98 Along with France, the Russian Federation and the United States : United Nations
doc. A/67/PV.48, pp. 20‑21.
99 Hansard, HL Deb, 15 July 2013, col. WA93.
100 Available at : http://www.reachingcriticalwill.org/images/documents/Disarmamentfora/
1com/1com12/eov/L46_France-UK-US.pdf.
41
66. La position du Gouvernement britannique est depuis restée inchangée. Lors
d’un discours prononcé au sein du comité préparatoire du TNP de 2004, l’ambassadeur
du Royaume-Uni s’est exprimé en ces termes :
« Nous nous sommes toujours déclarés disposés à débattre des armes
nucléaires du Royaume-Uni dans le cadre d’éventuelles négociations multilatérales
dès que nous serions convaincus que des progrès suffisants auront été
accomplis — par exemple sous la forme de nouvelles réductions massives des
forces nucléaires des Etats-Unis et de la Russie — pour nous permettre de le
faire sans mettre en danger nos intérêts en matière de sécurité. » 94
67. Le 17 mars 2009, après avoir fait observer que les Etats-Unis et la Russie
détenaient toujours à eux deux près de 95 % des armes nucléaires subsistant dans
le monde et que le traité START, « pilier de leur effort bilatéral de contrôle des
armements », allait expirer dans le courant de l’année, le premier ministre
de l’époque, M. Gordon Brown, avait déclaré que « [p]our [sa] part, dès qu’il
sera[it] utile d’inclure l’arsenal [britannique] dans des négociations à plus grande
échelle, la Grande-Bretagne se tiendra[it] prête à participer activement à ces
efforts » 95.
68. Le 6 juillet 2010, le ministre de la défense, M. Liam Fox, reprit à son compte
la position du gouvernement précédent, selon laquelle « le Royaume-Uni
se tiendra[it] prêt à jouer un rôle actif dès qu’il sera[it] utile d’inclure le désarmement
de [ses] stocks nucléaires dans des négociations à plus grande
échelle » 96.
69. Le 3 janvier 2012, l’Assemblée générale des Nations Unies a décidé de créer
un groupe de travail à composition non limitée chargé d’élaborer des propositions
pour faire avancer les négociations multilatérales sur le désarmement nucléaire,
aux fins de l’avènement définitif d’un monde sans armes nucléaires 97. Toutefois, le
Royaume-Uni a voté contre cette résolution 98 et n’a pris part à aucune des réunions
du groupe de travail 99.
70. Dans une déclaration faite conjointement avec la France et les Etats-Unis
devant la Première Commission de l’Assemblée générale des Nations Unies, le
6 novembre 2012, le Royaume-Uni a précisé qu’il n’était « en mesure de soutenir ni
la résolution [en question], ni la constitution du groupe de travail à composition
non limitée, ni les conclusions que celui-ci [était] susceptible de tirer » (les italiques
sont de nous) 100.
94 Déclaration de l’ambassadeur David Broucher, comité préparatoire du TNP de 2004,
premier groupe de questions, 3 mai 2004.
95 10 Downing Street, note de presse, discours sur l’énergie et la prolifération nucléaires,
17 mars 2009, peut être consulté à l’adresse suivante : http://image.guardian.co.uk/sys-files/
Politics/documents/2009/03/17/PMSPEECH170309.pdf?guni=Article:manualtrailblockpackage:
Position3.
96 Hansard, débat à la Chambre des lords, 6 juillet 2010, col. 159W ; voir aussi la déclaration
faite par l’ambassadeur John Duncan lors de la conférence d’examen du traité sur la
non-prolifération de 2010, qui peut être consultée à l’adresse suivante : http://www.un.org/
en/conf/npt/2010/statements/pdf/uk_en.pdf.
97 Nations Unies, Assemblée générale, résolution A/RES/67/56, « Faire avancer les négociations
multilatérales sur le désarmement nucléaire, aux fins de l’avènement définitif d’un
monde sans armes nucléaires » (147-4-31).
98 De même que la France, la Fédération de Russie et les Etats-Unis ; Nations Unies,
doc. A/67/PV.48, p. 20‑21.
99 Hansard, débat à la Chambre des lords, 15 juillet 2013, col. WA93.
100 Peut être consultée à l’adresse suivante : http://www.reachingcriticalwill.org/images/
documents/Disarmament-fora/1com/1com12/eov/L46_France-UK-US.pdf.
42
2. Opposition to negotiation of a nuclear weapons convention
71. Similarly, the United Kingdom has always voted against the United Nations
General Assembly’s resolution on “Follow-up to the Advisory Opinion of the
International Court of Justice on the Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear
Weapons”. The resolution, adopted every year since 1996 101, underlines the International
Court of Justice’s unanimous conclusion that there is an obligation to
pursue negotiations leading to nuclear disarmament and calls on States to immediately
fulfil that obligation by commencing multilateral negotiations leading to the
early conclusion of a Nuclear Weapons Convention.
72. In 1997, at the request of Costa Rica, the UN Secretary-General circulated to
all United Nations Member States a Model Nuclear Weapons Convention 102. Costa
Rica submitted the Model Convention as “an effective and helpful instrument in the
deliberative process for the implementation of” the annual resolution on follow-up to
the International Court of Justice Advisory Opinion 103. In 2008, at the request of
Costa Rica and Malaysia, the Secretary‑General circulated an updated version of the
Model Convention 104. The Secretary‑General later described the Model Convention
as “a good point of departure” for negotiation of a Nuclear Weapons Convention 105.
73. The Model Convention applies the approach taken by the Chemical Weapons
Convention. The Model Convention provides general obligations regarding
the non‑use and non‑possession of nuclear weapons and their verified dismantlement
; sets out phases of elimination ; provides for multiple means of reporting,
monitoring and verification, from declarations of states to satellite observation ;
prohibits production of fissile material for nuclear weapons ; requires national
implementation measures ; provides for prosecution of individuals accused of committing
crimes proscribed by the convention ; establishes an implementing agency ;
and establishes mechanisms for dispute resolution and compliance inducement
and enforcement. The Model also builds upon existing nuclear non‑proliferation
and disarmament régimes and verification and compliance arrangements, including
the NPT, International Atomic Energy Agency safeguards, the International
Monitoring System for the CTBT, regional nuclear weapon‑free zones, UN Security
Council resolution 1540, the International Convention for the Suppression of
Acts of Nuclear Terrorism, and bilateral nuclear force reduction agreements
between Russia and the United States.
74. Despite the annual UN General Assembly resolution discussed above, however,
there have been no inter-governmental negotiations or deliberations in any
official forum leading toward adoption of a Nuclear Weapons Convention, except
in the above-mentioned Open‑Ended Working Group in which the United Kingdom
and the other NPT nuclear weapon States refused to participate.
101 Most recently on 5 December 2013 (A/RES/68/42).
102 See letter dated 31 October 1997 from the Charge d’affaires a.i. of the Permanent
Mission of Costa Rica to the United Nations Addressed to the Secretary-General, United
Nations doc. A/C.1/52/7 (17 November 1997).
103 Ibid.
104 Letter dated 17 December 2007 from the Permanent Representatives of Costa Rica
and Malaysia to the United Nations Addressed to the Secretary-General, United Nations
doc. A/62/650 (18 January 2008).
105 Press Release, Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon, “The United Nations and Security in
a Nuclear-Weapon-Free World”, United Nations doc. SG/SM/11881 (24 October 2008),
available at : http://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2008/sgsm11881.doc.htm.
43
2. Opposition à la négociation d’une convention relative aux armes nucléaires
71. De la même manière, le Royaume-Uni a toujours voté contre la résolution de
l’Assemblée générale des Nations Unies sur la « Suite donnée à l’avis consultatif de
la Cour internationale de Justice sur la licéité de la menace ou de l’emploi d’armes
nucléaires ». Cette résolution, adoptée chaque année depuis 1996 101, rappelle la
conclusion rendue à l’unanimité par la Cour : il existe une obligation de mener des
négociations conduisant au désarmement nucléaire, et demande aux Etats de satisfaire
immédiatement à cette obligation en engageant des négociations multilatérales
afin de conclure sans tarder une convention relative aux armes nucléaires.
72. En 1997, à la demande du Costa Rica, le Secrétaire général de l’ONU avait
distribué à tous les Etats membres des Nations Unies le texte d’un modèle (« projet »)
de convention relative aux armes nucléaires 102. Selon le Costa Rica, ce « projet » de
convention « [pouvait] apporter une contribution utile à la mise en oeuvre » de la
résolution annuelle sur la suite donnée à l’avis consultatif de la Cour 103. En 2008, à
la demande du Costa Rica et de la Malaisie, le Secrétaire général a diffusé une version
mise à jour du modèle de convention 104, qu’il a décrit par la suite comme « un
bon point de départ » pour négocier une convention relative aux armes nucléaires 105.
73. Le projet de convention suit l’approche retenue pour l’élaboration de la
convention sur les armes chimiques. Il énonce des obligations relatives à la non-utilisation
et à la non-possession d’armes nucléaires et à leur démantèlement contrôlé,
définit un calendrier de désarmement nucléaire, expose différents moyens d’établissement
de rapports, de surveillance et de vérification (allant de déclarations faites par
les Etats à l’observation par satellite), interdit la production de matières fissiles destinées
à des armes nucléaires, impose des mesures d’application nationales, prévoit
l’exercice de poursuites pénales à l’encontre des personnes accusées d’avoir enfreint
la convention, crée une agence chargée de sa mise en oeuvre, et met en place des mécanismes
visant à résoudre les différends ainsi qu’à encourager et à garantir son respect.
Le projet s’appuie également sur les régimes existants en matière de non-prolifération
et de désarmement nucléaires ainsi que sur les instruments relatifs à la vérification et
au respect, notamment le TNP, les garanties de l’Agence internationale de l’énergie
atomique, le système de surveillance international destiné à assurer la mise en oeuvre
du traité d’interdiction complète des essais, les zones régionales exemptes d’armes
nucléaires, la résolution 1540 du Conseil de sécurité des Nations Unies, la convention
internationale pour la répression des actes de terrorisme nucléaire, et les accords
bilatéraux sur la réduction des forces nucléaires entre la Russie et les Etats-Unis.
74. Toutefois, en dépit de la résolution annuelle de l’Assemblée générale des
Nations Unies citée plus haut, aucune négociation ou délibération intergouvernementale
n’a eu lieu, dans quelque enceinte officielle que ce soit, en vue de l’adoption
d’une convention relative aux armes nucléaires, hormis au sein du groupe de
travail à composition non limitée susmentionné, auquel le Royaume-Uni et les
autres Etats parties au TNP dotés de l’arme nucléaire ont refusé de participer.
101 En dernier lieu le 5 décembre 2013 (A/RES/68/42).
102 Voir la lettre datée du 31 octobre 1997 adressée au Secrétaire général par le chargé
d’affaires par intérim de la mission permanente du Costa Rica auprès de l’Organisation des
Nations Unies ; Nations Unies, doc. A/C.1/52/7, 17 novembre 1997.
103 Ibid.
104 Lettre datée du 17 décembre 2007 adressée au Secrétaire général par les représentants
permanents du Costa Rica et de la Malaisie auprès de l’Organisation des Nations Unies ;
Nations Unies, doc. A/62/650, 18 janvier 2008.
105 Communiqué de presse du Secrétaire général Ban Ki-moon, « Les Nations Unies et la
sécurité dans un monde exempt d’armes nucléaires » ; Nations Unies, doc. SG/SM/11881,
24 octobre 2008, peut être consulté à l’adresse suivante : http://www.un.org/News/Press/
docs/2008/sgsm11881.doc.htm.
44
75. In February 2008, the UN High Representative for Disarmament Affairs,
Sergio Duarte, condemned the great powers’ “refusal to negotiate or discuss even
the outlines of a nuclear-weapons convention” as “contrary to the cause of
disarmament” 106.
76. The United Kingdom Government officially expresses opposition to a
Nuclear Weapons Convention. A 2009 policy paper provided that while a Nuclear
Weapons Convention will “likely be necessary to establish the final ban on nuclear
weapons”, it is “premature and potentially counter-productive” to prioritize such
a Convention “when the many other conditions necessary to enable a ban have yet
to be put in place” 107.
77. In June 2010, Lord Howell of Guildford (Minister of State, Foreign and
Commonwealth Office) stated :
“The idea of a nuclear weapons convention is a fine one, but . . . [a] whole
series of things need to be done before one comes to the happy situation where
the nuclear world is disarmed and a convention could then get full support.” 108
78. In August 2011, the Prime Minister stated that he disagreed “that negotiations
now on a nuclear weapons convention should be the immediate means of
getting us to a world free of nuclear weapons” 109. While he acknowledged that a
Nuclear Weapons Convention “could ultimately form the legal underpinning for
this end point”, he considered that the prospects of reaching agreement on a Convention
“are remote at the moment” 110.
79. The first-ever UN General Assembly High-Level Meeting on Nuclear Disarmament
was held on 26 September 2013, pursuant to a 2012 resolution which
was opposed by the United Kingdom 111. At that meeting the United Kingdom
representative delivered a statement on behalf of the United Kingdom, France and
the United States in which they welcome “the increased energy and enthusiasm
around the nuclear disarmament debate” but
“regret that this energy is being directed toward initiatives such as this High-
Level Meeting, the humanitarian consequences campaign, the Open-Ended
Working Group and the push for a Nuclear Weapons Convention” 112.
106 “Nuclear Disarmament and the NPT : The Responsibility of the Nuclear-Weapon
States”, at Global Summit for a Nuclear Weapon-Free World : Laying the Practical, Technical,
and Political Groundwork, Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament and Acronym Institute
for Disarmament Diplomacy, London, 16 February 2008, available at : http://www.
un.org/disarmament/HomePage/HR/docs/2008/2008Feb16_London.pdf.
107 Foreign and Commonwealth Office, Lifting the Nuclear Shadow, 2009, p. 34.
108 Hansard, HL Deb, 9 June 2010, col. 641 : answer to a question by Baroness Williams
of Crosby (Liberal Democrat), who had pointed out that “the great bulk of non-nuclear
powers decided to press for a nuclear weapons convention to abolish nuclear weapons
completely by 2025”.
109 Letter from the Prime Minister to Jeremy Corbyn MP, 15 August 2011.
110 Ibid.
111 A/RES/67/39, 3 December 2012.
112 Available at : http://www.reachingcriticalwill.org/images/documents/Disarmamentfora/
HLM/26Sep_UKUSFrance.pdf.
45
75. En février 2008, Sergio Duarte, Haut Représentant des Nations Unies pour
les affaires de désarmement, a condamné le refus des grandes puissances « de négocier
ou d’examiner ne seraient-ce que les grandes lignes d’une convention relative aux
armes nucléaires », jugeant cette attitude « néfaste pour la cause du désarmement » 106.
76. Le Gouvernement du Royaume-Uni exprime officiellement son opposition
à une convention relative aux armes nucléaires. Dans un document politique de
2009, il a indiqué que, si une telle convention « serait probablement nécessaire pour
interdire définitivement les armes nucléaires », il était « prématuré et potentiellement
contre-productif » d’en faire une priorité « alors que les nombreuses autres
conditions nécessaires pour promulguer leur interdiction n’[avaient] pas encore été
mises en place » 107.
77. En juin 2010, lord Howell of Guildford, ministre d’Etat en charge des
affaires étrangères et du Commonwealth, a déclaré :
« L’idée d’une convention relative aux armes nucléaires est certes séduisante,
mais … [i]l reste un long chemin à parcourir avant d’avoir le plaisir de
vivre dans un monde exempt d’armes nucléaires, et ce n’est qu’alors que nous
pourrions offrir notre plein soutien à la convention. » 108
78. En août 2011, le premier ministre a nié « que le moyen immédiat pour débarrasser
le monde des armes nucléaires consist[ait] à mener des négociations sur
une convention relative aux armes nucléaires » 109. Tout en reconnaissant
qu’un tel instrument « pourrait, en dernier recours, former le fondement juridique
étayant cet objectif final », il a considéré qu’il y avait « peu de
chance, à l’heure actuelle », qu’un accord puisse être trouvé sur une telle
convention
110.
79. Le 26 septembre 2013, l’Assemblée générale des Nations Unies a tenu sa
toute première réunion de haut niveau sur le désarmement nucléaire, à la suite
d’une résolution de 2012 à laquelle le Royaume-Uni s’était opposé 111. Lors de cette
réunion, le représentant britannique avait fait une déclaration au nom du
Royaume-Uni, de la France et des Etats-Unis, en indiquant que ces pays saluaient
« le surcroît d’énergie et d’enthousiasme déployés pour faire avancer le débat sur le
désarmement nucléaire », tout en
« déplorant que ces efforts soient consacrés à des initiatives telles que la réunion
de haut niveau [en question], la campagne sur les conséquences humanitaires,
le groupe de travail à composition non limitée et l’appel à conclure une
convention relative aux armes nucléaires 112 ».
106 « Nuclear Disarmament and the NPT : The Responsibility of the Nuclear-Weapon
States », dans Global Summit for a Nuclear Weapon-Free World : Laying the Practical, Technical,
and Political Groundwork, Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament et Acronym Institute for
Disarmament Diplomacy, Londres, 16 février 2008, peut être consulté à l’adresse suivante :
http://www.un.org/disarmament/HomePage/HR/docs/2008/2008Feb16_London.pdf.
107 Ministère des affaires étrangères et du Commonwealth, Lifting the Nuclear Shadow,
2009, p. 34.
108 Hansard, débat à la Chambre des lords, 9 juin 2010, col. 641 : réponse à une question
posée par la baronne Williams of Crosby (libérale-démocrate), qui avait souligné que « la
grande majorité des puissances non dotées de l’arme nucléaire avait décidé de faire campagne
en faveur de l’adoption d’une convention relative aux armes nucléaires permettant d’abolir
complètement ces armes d’ici à 2025 ».
109 Lettre adressée au député Jeremy Corbyn par le Premier ministre, 15 août 2011.
110 Ibid.
111 A/RES/67/39, 3 décembre 2012.
112 Peut être consultée à l’adresse suivante : http://www.reachingcriticalwill.org/images/
documents/Disarmament-fora/HLM/26Sep_UKUSFrance.pdf.
46
80. The United Kingdom subsequently voted against a new UN General
Assembly resolution following up the High-Level Meeting 113. The resolution calls
for “the urgent commencement of negotiations, in the Conference on Disarmament,
for the early conclusion of a comprehensive convention” to prohibit and
eliminate nuclear weapons.
III. The Law
A. Article VI of the NPT
81. Article VI provides :
“Each of the Parties to the Treaty undertakes to pursue negotiations in
good faith on effective measures relating to cessation of the nuclear arms race
at an early date and to nuclear disarmament, and on a treaty on general and
complete disarmament under strict and effective international control.”
82. The drafting history of the NPT demonstrates that the treaty constitutes a
“strategic bargain” : the non‑nuclear‑weapon States agreed not to acquire nuclear
weapons and the NPT nuclear‑weapon States agreed to negotiate their elimination
114. This has been confirmed by NPT Review Conferences. In particular, the
2010 Review Conference noted that the overwhelming majority of States entered
into their legally binding commitments not to acquire nuclear weapons “in the
context, inter alia, of the corresponding legally binding commitments by the
nuclear weapon states to nuclear disarmament in accordance with the Treaty” 115.
83. Article VI is “the single most important provision of the treaty . . . from the
standpoint of long‑term success or failure of its goal of proliferation prevention” 116.
84. In its Advisory Opinion on the Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear
Weapons, the Court declared that Article VI involves “an obligation to achieve a
precise result — nuclear disarmament in all its aspects — by adopting a particular
course of conduct, namely, the pursuit of negotiations on the matter in good
faith” 117. The Court went on to conclude, unanimously, that “[t]here exists an obligation
to pursue in good faith and bring to a conclusion negotiations leading to
nuclear disarmament in all its aspects under strict and effective control” 118. This
“recognizes that the provisions of Article VI . . . go beyond mere obligations of
conduct — to pursue nuclear disarmament negotiations in good faith — and actually
involve an obligation of result, i.e., to conclude those negotiations” 119.
113 A/RES/68/32, 5 December 2013.
114 Thomas Graham, correspondence, “The Origin and Interpretation of Article VI”,
15 The Nonproliferation Review, pp. 7 and 9 (2008), available at http://cns.miis.edu/npr/
pdfs/151_correspondence.pdf.
115 2010 Review Conference of the Parties to the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of
Nuclear Weapons, Final Document, Vol. I, “Review of the operation of the Treaty”, p. 2,
para. 2, available at : http://www.un.org/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=NPT/CONF.2010/
50 (Vol. I).
116 E. Firmage, “The Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons”, 63 American
Journal of International Law (1969), pp. 711, 732.
117 See supra note 3, para. 99.
118 Ibid., para. 105, point 2F.
119 M. Marin Bosch, “The Non-Proliferation Treaty and Its Future,” in L. Boisson de
Chazournes and P. Sands, (eds.), International Law, the International Court of Justice and
Nuclear Weapons (1999), p. 375.
47
80. Par la suite, le Royaume-Uni a voté contre une nouvelle résolution de l’Assemblée
générale des Nations Unies, qui faisait suite à la réunion de haut niveau 113
et appelait à ce « que des négociations commencent au plus tôt, dans le cadre de la
Conférence du désarmement, en vue de l’adoption rapide d’une convention globale
», afin d’interdire et d’éliminer les armes nucléaires.
III. Le droit
A. L’article VI du TNP
81. L’article VI est libellé comme suit :
« Chacune des parties au Traité s’engage à poursuivre de bonne foi des
négociations sur des mesures efficaces relatives à la cessation de la course aux
armements nucléaires à une date rapprochée et au désarmement nucléaire, et
sur un traité de désarmement général et complet sous un contrôle international
strict et efficace. »
82. L’historique de la rédaction du TNP démontre que ce traité constitue un
« accord stratégique » : les Etats non dotés d’armes nucléaires sont convenus de ne
pas en acquérir et ceux parties au TNP qui en sont dotés, de négocier en vue de leur
élimination 114, ainsi que cela a été confirmé dans le cadre des conférences d’examen
du TNP. Lors de la conférence de 2010, il a été relevé en particulier que l’écrasante
majorité des Etats avaient pris l’engagement juridiquement contraignant de ne pas
acquérir d’armes nucléaires « compte tenu notamment des engagements … correspondants
qu’[avaient] pris les Etats dotés d’armes nucléaires en faveur du désarmement
nucléaire, conformément aux dispositions du Traité » 115.
83. L’article VI est « la disposition individuelle la plus importante du traité … du
point de vue de la réussite ou de l’échec à long terme de son objectif de prévention
de la prolifération » 116.
84. Dans son avis consultatif sur la question de la Licéité de la menace ou de l’emploi
d’armes nucléaires, la Cour a déclaré que l’article VI supposait une obligation
« de parvenir à un résultat précis — le désarmement nucléaire dans tous ses aspects —
par l’adoption d’un comportement déterminé, à savoir la poursuite de bonne foi de
négociations en la matière » 117. Elle a ensuite conclu, à l’unanimité, qu’« [i]l exist[ait]
une obligation de poursuivre de bonne foi et de mener à terme des négociations
conduisant au désarmement nucléaire dans tous ses aspects, sous un contrôle international
strict et efficace » 118. Ainsi a-t-elle reconnu « que les dispositions de l’article
VI … prévoient davantage que de simples obligations de moyen — à savoir,
mener de bonne foi des négociations sur le désarmement nucléaire — et supposent en
fait une obligation de résultat — à savoir, conclure ces négociations » 119.
113 A/RES/68/32, 5 décembre 2013.
114 Thomas Graham, correspondance, « The Origin and Interpretation of Article VI »,
The Nonproliferation Review, vol. 15, 2008, p. 7 et 9, peut être consultée à l’adresse suivante :
http://cns.miis.edu/npr/pdfs/151_correspondence.pdf.
115 Conférence des Parties chargée d’examiner le traité sur la non-prolifération des armes
nucléaires en 2010, document final, volume I, « Examen du fonctionnement du traité », p. 2,
par. 2, peut être consulté à l’adresse suivante : http://www.un.org/ga/search/view_doc.asp ?
symbol=NPT/CONF.2010/50 (Vol. I).
116 E. Firmage, « The Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons », American
Journal of International Law, vol. 63 (1969), p. 711 et 732.
117 Voir supra note 3, par. 99.
118 Ibid., par. 105, point 2F.
119 M. Marin Bosch, « The Non-Proliferation Treaty and Its Future », dans L. Boisson de
Chazournes et P. Sands (dir. publ.), International Law, the International Court of Justice and
Nuclear Weapons, 1999, p. 375.
48
85. The Court observed that “fulfilling the obligation expressed in Article VI . . .
remains without any doubt an objective of vital importance to the whole of the
international community today” 120. The Court has long emphasized the importance
of obligations erga omnes, owed to the international community as a
whole 121. Its conclusion in the Advisory Opinion was tantamount to declaring
that the obligation in Article VI is an obligation erga omnes 122. Every State has a
legal interest in its timely performance, therefore 123, and a corresponding legal
obligation
to help bring it about 124.
B. Customary International Law
86. The obligations enshrined in Article VI of the NPT are not merely treaty
obligations ; they also exist separately under customary international law 125.
87. In its Advisory Opinion, after noting that the twofold obligation in
Article VI to pursue and to conclude negotiations formally concerns the (now
190 126) States parties to the NPT, the Court added that “any realistic search for
general and complete disarmament, especially nuclear disarmament, necessitates
the co-operation of all States” 127.
88. In point 2F of the dispositif, moreover, not confining its remarks to the
States parties to the NPT, the Court unanimously declared : “There exists an obligation
to pursue in good faith and bring to a conclusion negotiations leading to
nuclear disarmament in all its aspects under strict and effective international
control.” 128
89. The Court’s declaration is an expression of customary international law as
it stands today. All States are under that obligation, therefore. This is consistent
with the view expressed by President Bedjaoui in his declaration :
“Indeed, it is not unreasonable to think that, considering the at least formal
unanimity in this field, this twofold obligation to negotiate in good faith and
120 See supra note 3, para. 103.
121 Barcelona Traction, Light and Power Company, Limited (Belgium v. Spain), Second
Phase, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1970, p. 32, para. 33.
122 See President Bedjaoui’s declaration in the Legality of Threat or Use of Nuclear
Weapons, supra note 3, at pp. 273‑274, para. 23 :
“As the Court has acknowledged, the obligation to negotiate in good faith for
nuclear disarmament concerns the 182 or so States parties to the Non-Proliferation
Treaty. I think one can go beyond that conclusion and assert that there is in fact a
twofold general obligation, opposable erga omnes, to negotiate in good faith and to
ach ieve the desired result.”
123 See supra note 121, para. 33.
124 Cf. Legal Consequences of the Construction of a Wall in the Occupied Palestinian Territory,
Advisory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports 2004 (I), pp. 199‑200, paras. 154-159.
125 In Military and Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v. United
States of America), Jurisdiction and Admissibility, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1984, p. 434, at
para. 94, the International Court of Justice held that the fact that principles of customary
international law are enshrined in multilateral conventions does not mean that they cease to
exist and to apply as principles of customary law.
126 There are 190 States parties including the DPRK. Although the DPRK announced its
withdrawal from the NPT on 10 January 2003, States parties continue to express divergent
views regarding its status under the Treaty. See UN Office for Disarmament Affairs, Treaty
on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons, Status of the Treaty, available at : http://
disarmament.un.org/treaties/t/npt.
127 Supra note 3, para. 100.
128 Ibid., para. 105.
49
85. Selon la Cour, « l’exécution de l’obligation exprimée à l’article VI … [est]
indubitablement … un objectif qui demeure vital pour l’ensemble de la communauté
internationale… » 120. Elle insiste par ailleurs depuis longtemps sur l’importance
des obligations erga omnes, dont le respect est dû à la communauté internationale
dans son ensemble 121. Or, la conclusion qu’elle a rendue dans son avis
consultatif revient à faire de l’obligation énoncée à l’article VI une obligation
erga omnes 122. Chaque Etat a donc un intérêt juridique à ce qu’elle soit exécutée
dans un délai raisonnable 123 et l’obligation juridique corrélative d’y contribuer 124.
B. Le droit international coutumier
86. Les obligations énoncées à l’article VI du TNP ne sont pas de simples obligations
conventionnelles ; elles existent aussi de manière autonome en droit international
coutumier 125.
87. Dans son avis consultatif, après avoir relevé que la double obligation de
l’article VI, consistant à poursuivre et à mener à terme des négociations, concernait
formellement les Etats parties au TNP (à présent au nombre de 190 126), la Cour a
ajouté que « toute recherche réaliste d’un désarmement général et complet, en particulier
nucléaire, nécessit[ait] la coopération de tous les Etats » 127.
88. Par ailleurs, au point 2F du dispositif, la Cour, ne limitant pas ses observations
aux Etats parties au TNP, a déclaré à l’unanimité qu’« [i]l exist[ait] une obligation
de poursuivre de bonne foi et de mener à terme des négociations conduisant
au désarmement nucléaire dans tous ses aspects, sous un contrôle international
strict et efficace » 128.
89. La conclusion de la Cour constitue ainsi l’expression du droit international
coutumier tel qu’il existe aujourd’hui. Tous les Etats doivent donc s’acquitter de
cette obligation, ainsi que l’entendait le président Bedjaoui dans sa déclaration :
« Il n’est en effet pas déraisonnable de penser qu’eu égard à l’unanimité, au
moins formelle, qui prévaut en ce domaine cette double obligation de négocier
120 Voir supra note 3, par. 103.
121 Barcelona Traction, Light and Power Company, Limited (Belgique c. Espagne),
deuxième phase, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1970, p. 32, par. 33.
122 Voir la déclaration que M. le président Bedjaoui a jointe dans l’affaire de la Licéité de
la menace ou de l’emploi d’armes nucléaires, supra note 3, p. 273‑274, par. 23 :
« Comme la Cour l’a reconnu, l’obligation de négocier de bonne foi un désarmement
nucléaire concerne les quelque cent quatre-vingt-deux Etats parties au traité de nonprolifération.
Il me paraît pour ma part possible d’aller au-delà de cette conclusion et
d’affirmer qu’il existe en réalité une double obligation générale, opposable erga omnes,
de négocier de bonne foi et de parvenir au résultat recherché. »
123 Voir supra note 121, par. 33.
124 Conséquences juridiques de l’édification d’un mur dans le territoire palestinien occupé,
avis consultatif, C.I.J. Recueil 2004 (I), p. 199‑200, par. 154-159.
125 Dans l’affaire des Activités militaires et paramilitaires au Nicaragua et contre celui-ci
(Nicaragua c. Etats-Unis d’Amérique), compétence et recevabilité, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1984,
p. 434, par. 94, la Cour a jugé que ce n’était pas parce que les principes de droit international
coutumier étaient consacrés dans des conventions multilatérales qu’ils cessaient d’exister et
de s’appliquer en tant que principes de droit international.
126 Les Etats parties au traité sont au nombre de 190, parmi lesquels figure la RPDC.
Bien que celle-ci ait annoncé, le 10 janvier 2003, qu’elle se retirait du TNP, les Etats parties
à ce texte expriment encore des opinions divergentes s’agissant du statut de la RPDC au
regard du traité. Voir Organisation des Nations Unies, Bureau des affaires de désarmement,
traité sur la non-prolifération des armes nucléaires, statut du traité, peut être consulté à
l’adresse suivante : http://disarmament.un.org/treaties/t/npt.
127 Voir supra note 3, par. 100.
128 Ibid., par. 105.
50
achieve the desired result has now, 50 years on, acquired a customary
character.” 129
90. As the Court itself noted, the UN General Assembly has been deeply
engaged in working for universal disarmament of weapons of mass destruction
since its very first resolution in 1946 130. The UN Security Council also has repeatedly
called for the implementation of Article VI by all States 131, not only parties to
the NPT. In resolution 1887 of 24 September 2009, after calling upon States parties
to the NPT to implement Article VI, the Council called on “all other States to join
in this endeavour” 132. The Council has also described the proliferation of weapons
of mass destruction as a threat to international peace and security 133.
91. Regarding the obligation of cessation of the nuclear arms race at an early
date set forth in Article VI, it stands on its own as a customary international law
obligation based on the very widespread and representative participation of States
in the NPT and is inherent in the customary international law obligation of nuclear
disarmament.
92. The UN General Assembly has declared the necessity of cessation of the
nuclear arms race. In the Final Document of its First Special Session on Disarmament,
held in 1978, the General Assembly stated that it is “imperative . . . to halt
and reverse the nuclear arms race until the total elimination of nuclear weapons
and their delivery systems has been achieved” 134.
C. Good Faith
93. That good faith constitutes a “fundamental principle” of international law
is beyond dispute 135. Not only is it a general principle of law for the purposes of
Article 38 (1) (c) of the Statute of the International Court of Justice 136 and a
cardinal
principle of the Law of Treaties 137, it also encapsulates the essence of
129 Supra note 3, at p. 274, declaration of President Bedjaoui, para. 23. President Bedjaoui
was referring to the 50 years that had then elapsed since the adoption of the United Nations
General Assembly’s first resolution in 1946 and the normative language repeatedly reiterated
in its resolutions on nuclear weapons and in other instruments since then.
130 A/RES/1(I) of 24 January 1946, cited by the Court in paragraph 101 of the Advisory
Opinion.
131 E.g., resolution 984 of 11 April 1995, cited by the Court in paragraph 103 of the Advisory
Opinion, and resolution 1887 of 24 September 2009.
132 Operative paragraph 5.
133 E.g., resolution 1887 of 24 September 2009.
134 Final Document of the Tenth Special Session of the General Assembly, adopted by
resolution A/RES/S-10/2, 30 June 1978, without a vote, para. 20 ; see also, e.g., paras. 47, 50.
See http://www.un.org/disarmament/HomePage/SSOD/ssod4-documents.shtml. The 1978
Special Session established United Nations disarmament machinery in its current form, with
the Conference on Disarmament devoted to negotiations, the Disarmament Commission
devoted to deliberation, and the First Committee of the General Assembly devoted to
agenda-setting. The Special Session thus was a quasi-constitutional assembly with respect to
disarmament.
135 See Robert Kolb, La bonne foi en droit international public : contribution à l’étude des
principes généraux du droit, 2001, pp. 112‑113.
136 Cf. Free Zones of Upper Savoy and the District of Gex, Order of 6 December 1930,
P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 24, p. 12 ; see also, J. Crawford, Brownlie’s Principles of Public International
Law, Oxford University Press, 8th edition, 2012, pp. 36‑37.
137 Articles 26 and 31 (1) of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties (1969).
51
de bonne foi et de parvenir au résultat prévu a désormais revêtu, après cinquante
ans, un caractère coutumier. » 129
90. Comme la Cour l’a elle-même relevé, l’Assemblée générale des Nations
Unies s’est engagée pleinement, depuis sa toute première résolution, en 1946, à
oeuvrer à l’élimination universelle des armes de destruction massive 130. Le Conseil
de sécurité de l’ONU a également exhorté à plusieurs reprises tous les Etats 131, y
compris ceux qui ne sont pas parties au TNP, à mettre en oeuvre l’article VI. En
effet, dans sa résolution 1887 du 24 septembre 2009, après avoir prié les Etats parties
au TNP d’appliquer l’article VI, le Conseil a invité « tous les autres Etats à se
joindre à cette entreprise » 132, décrivant la prolifération des armes de destruction
massive comme une menace pour la paix et la sécurité internationales 133.
91. En qui concerne l’obligation de cesser la course aux armements nucléaires à
une date rapprochée énoncée à l’article VI, celle-ci existe de façon autonome en
tant que prescription du droit international coutumier fondée sur la participation
particulièrement large et représentative des Etats au TNP et est inhérente à l’obligation
relative au désarmement nucléaire prévue par le droit international coutumier.
92. L’Assemblée générale a affirmé la nécessité de cesser la course aux
armements
nucléaires. Dans le document final de sa première session extraordinaire
consacrée au désarmement, tenue en 1978, l’Assemblée générale a déclaré
qu’il était « indispensable … d’arrêter et d’inverser la course aux armements
nucléaires jusqu’à l’élimination totale des armes nucléaires et de leurs vecteurs » 134.
C. La bonne foi
93. Il n’est nullement contesté que la bonne foi constitue un « principe fondamental
» du droit international 135. En effet, outre qu’il s’agit d’un principe général
de droit aux fins de l’alinéa c) du paragraphe 1 de l’article 38 du Statut de la Cour
internationale de Justice 136 et d’un principe central du droit des traités 137, il est à la
129 Supra note 3, p. 274, déclaration de M. le président Bedjaoui, par. 23.
Le président Bedjaoui y a fait référence aux cinquante années écoulées depuis l’adoption par
l’Assemblée générale des Nations Unies, en 1946, de sa première résolution, ainsi qu’à la phraséologie
normative qu’elle a utilisée à de nombreuses reprises dans celles relatives à l’armement
nucléaire adoptées par elle ultérieurement et qui ont figuré dans d’autres textes depuis lors.
130 A/RES/1(I), 24 janvier 1946, citée par la Cour au paragraphe 101 de son avis consultatif.
131 Voir, par exemple, la résolution 984 du 11 avril 1995, citée par la Cour au paragraphe
103, et la résolution 1887 du 24 septembre 2009.
132 Dispositif, par. 5.
133 Voir, par exemple, la résolution 1887 du 24 septembre 2009.
134 Document final de la dixième session extraordinaire de l’Assemblée générale, adopté
sans vote par la résolution A/RES/S-10/2, 30 juin 1978, par. 20 ; voir aussi, par exemple,
par. 47, 50 ; peut être consulté à l’adresse suivante : http://www.un.org/disarmament/Home-
Page/SSOD/ssod4-documents.shtml. La session extraordinaire de 1978 a établi la
forme actuelle du mécanisme des Nations Unies pour le désarmement, qui se compose de la
Conférence du désarmement, organe de négociation, de la Commission du désarmement,
organe délibérant, et de la Première Commission de l’Assemblée générale, chargée d’établir
l’ordre du jour. La session extraordinaire s’apparente donc, en matière de désarmement,
à une assemblée constituante.
135 Voir Robert Kolb, La bonne foi en droit international public : contribution à l’étude des
principes généraux de droit, 2001, p. 112‑113.
136 Voir Zones franches de la Haute-Savoie et du Pays de Gex, ordonnance du
6 décembre 1930, C.P.J.I. série A no 24, p. 12 ; voir aussi J. Crawford, Brownlie’s Principles
of Public International Law, Oxford University Press, 8e éd., 2012, p. 36‑37.
137 Article 26 et paragraphe 1 de l’article 31 de la convention de Vienne sur le droit des
traités de 1969.
52
the Rule of Law in international society 138 and is one of the principles of the
United Nations.
94. Article 2, paragraph 2, of the UN Charter provides : “All Members, in order
to ensure to all of them the rights and benefits resulting from membership, shall
fulfil in good faith the obligations assumed by them in accordance with the present
Charter”. The Declaration of 1970 on Principles of International Law makes it
clear that this duty applies not only to obligations arising under the Charter but
also to those arising “under the generally recognized principles and rules of international
law” and “under international agreements valid under the generally recognized
principles and rules of international law” 139.
95. In the Nuclear Tests cases, the International Court of Justice declared :
“One of the basic principles governing the creation and performance of legal
obligations, whatever their source, is the principle of good faith. Trust and
confidence are inherent in international co‑operation, in particular in an age
when this co‑operation in many fields is becoming increasingly essential.” 140
96. In the Final Document of the First Special Session on Disarmament, the
General Assembly called upon all States to meet requirements of good faith,
declaring :
“In order to create favourable conditions for success in the disarmament
process, all States should strictly abide by the provisions of the Charter of the
United Nations, refrain from actions which might adversely affect efforts in the
field of disarmament, and display a constructive approach to negotiations and
the political will to reach agreements.” 141
97. As set forth above, Article VI of the NPT requires both conduct and
result : States must not only negotiate in good faith with serious efforts to
achieve the elimination of nuclear weapons, but must also actually achieve that
result 142.
98. The Court has stated that the “principle of good faith obliges the Parties to
apply [a treaty] in a reasonable way and in such a manner that its purpose can be
realized” 143. Conduct that prevents the fulfilment of a treaty’s object and purpose
is proscribed 144. Further, conduct that calls into question a State’s commitment to
138 V. Lowe, International Law, Oxford University Press, 2007, p. 116.
139 Declaration on Principles of International Law concerning Friendly Relations and
Co-operation among States in Accordance with the Charter of the United Nations, General
Assembly resolution 2625 (XXV), 24 October 1970.
140 Nuclear Tests (Australia v. France), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1974, p. 268, para. 46 ;
Nuclear Tests (New Zealand v. France), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1974, p. 473, para. 49.
141 Supra note 134, para. 41.
142 See supra para. 84.
143 Gabčíkovo-Nagymaros Project (Hungary/Slovakia), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1997,
pp. 78‑79, para. 142.
144 Report of the International Law Commission Covering Its 16th Session, 727th
Meeting, 20 May 1964 : pursuant to the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties Article 26
obligation that every treaty in force must be performed by the parties in good faith, the duty
of the parties is “not only to observe the letter of the law but also to abstain from acts which
would inevitably affect their ability to perform . . .” ; Antonio Cassese, “The Israel-PLO
Agreement and Self-Determination”, 4 Eur. J. Int’l Law 567 (1993), available at : http://
www.ejil.org/journal/Vol4/No4/ (when there is an obligation of good faith negotiation,
“both parties are not allowed to (1) advance excuses for not engaging into or pursuing negotiations
or (2) to accomplish acts which would defeat the object and purpose of the future
53
base même de la suprématie du droit dans la société internationale 138 et constitue
l’un des principes des Nations Unies.
94. Le paragraphe 2 de l’article 2 de la Charte des Nations Unies est libellé
comme suit : « [l]es Membres de l’Organisation, afin d’assurer à tous la jouissance
des droits et avantages résultant de leur qualité de Membre, doivent remplir de
bonne foi les obligations qu’ils ont assumées aux termes de la présente Charte ». La
déclaration de 1970 relative aux principes du droit international indique clairement
que cette règle s’applique non seulement aux obligations qui découlent de la Charte,
mais également à celles qui incombent aux Etats « en vertu des principes et règles
généralement reconnus du droit international » et « d’accords internationaux
conformes aux principes et règles généralement reconnus du droit international » 139.
95. Dans les affaires des Essais nucléaires, la Cour a dit :
« [l]’un des principes de base qui président à la création et à l’exécution
d’obligations juridiques, quelle qu’en soit la source, est celui de la bonne foi.
La confiance réciproque est une condition inhérente de la coopération internationale,
surtout à une époque où, dans bien des domaines, cette coopération
est de plus en plus indispensable. » 140
96. Dans le document final de la première session extraordinaire consacrée au
désarmement, l’Assemblée générale a exhorté tous les Etats à respecter le principe
de bonne foi, en déclarant que,
« [p]our créer des conditions propres à assurer le succès du processus de
désarmement,
tous les Etats dev[aient] respecter strictement les dispositions
de la Charte des Nations Unies, s’abstenir de tous actes qui risqueraient de
nuire aux efforts déployés dans le domaine du désarmement et faire preuve d’une
attitude constructive à l’égard des négociations et de la volonté politique d’aboutir
à des accords » 141.
97. Comme nous l’avons exposé plus haut, l’article VI du TNP impose à la fois
un comportement et un résultat : les Etats doivent non seulement négocier de
bonne foi en déployant de réels efforts pour parvenir à l’élimination des armes
nucléaires, mais ils doivent également aboutir effectivement à ce résultat 142.
98. La Cour a affirmé que « le principe de bonne foi oblige[ait] les Parties
à … appliquer [un traité] de façon raisonnable et de telle sorte que son but p[ût]
être atteint » 143. Tout comportement empêchant la réalisation de l’objet et du but
d’un traité est proscrit 144. En outre, un comportement qui remet en cause l’engage-
138 V. Lowe, International Law, Oxford University Press, 2007, p. 116.
139 Déclaration relative aux principes du droit international touchant les relations
amicales et la coopération entre les Etats conformément à la Charte des Nations Unies ;
Nations Unies, Assemblée générale, résolution 2625 (XXV), 24 octobre 1970.
140 Essais nucléaires (Australie c. France), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1974, p. 268, par. 46 ;
Essais nucléaires (Nouvelle-Zélande c. France), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1974, p. 473, par. 49.
141 Voir supra note 134, par. 41 (les italiques sont de nous).
142 Voir supra par. 84.
143 Projet Gabčíkovo-Nagymaros (Hongrie/Slovaquie), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1997,
p. 78‑79, par. 142.
144 Rapport de la Commission du droit international sur les travaux de sa seizième session,
727e séance, 20 mai 1964 : conformément à l’obligation énoncée à l’article 26 de la convention
de Vienne sur le droit des traités et selon laquelle tout traité en vigueur doit être exécuté
par les parties de bonne foi, il appartient à celles-ci « non seulement d’observer strictement le
texte, mais également de s’abstenir de tout acte qui aurait une incidence inévitable sur leur
capacité à l’exécuter… » ; Antonio Cassese, « The Israel-PLO Agreement and Self-Determination
», Eur. J. Int’l L., vol. 4 (1993), p. 567, peut être consulté à l’adresse suivante : http://
www.ejil.org/journalVol4/No4/ (lorsqu’il existe une obligation de négocier de bonne foi,
« aucune des deux parties n’est autorisée 1) à avancer des raisons pour excuser le fait qu’elle
54
the achievement of agreed objectives undermines the trust necessary for successful
co‑operation towards their achievement. All of this applies equally to the obligation
to fulfil customary international law obligations in good faith 145.
IV. Obligations Breached by the United Kingdom
99. Part II of this Application has outlined the facts that are relevant for an
assessment of the Respondent’s non-compliance with its international obligations
with respect to nuclear disarmament and the cessation of the nuclear arms race.
Part III has outlined the legal basis for this case. The conduct of the Respondent
will now be analysed very briefly in light of the relevant law.
A. Breach of Article VI of the NPT
100. Two of the obligations entailed by Article VI are relevant for the present
case : the obligation with regard to nuclear disarmament and the obligation with
regard to the cessation of the nuclear arms race at an early date.
1. Nuclear disarmament
101. As set forth above, the Court has provided an authoritative analysis of the
nuclear disarmament element of the obligations laid down by Article VI. It has
held that “the obligation involved here is an obligation to achieve a precise result —
nuclear disarmament in all its aspects — by adopting a particular course of conduct,
namely, the pursuit of negotiations on the matter in good faith” 146. In the
dispositif of its Advisory Opinion the Court concluded unanimously : “There exists
an obligation to pursue in good faith and bring to a conclusion negotiations leading
to nuclear disarmament in all its aspects under strict and effective international
control.” 147
102. The Respondent has stated that “it is premature and potentially counterproductive”
to prioritize a Nuclear Weapons Convention 148 and opposes United
Nations General Assembly resolutions calling for negotiations to begin 149.
treaty”) ; Judge Mohammed Bedjaoui, “Good Faith, International Law and Elimination
of Nuclear Weapons”, Keynote Address, 1 May 2008, http://www.lcnp.org/
disarmament/2008May01eventBedjaoui.pdf, pp. 24-29 (in the NPT context, good faith
proscribes “every initiative the effect of which would be to render impossible the conclusion
of the contemplated disarmament treaty”).
145 See supra para. 94.
146 See supra note 3, para. 99.
147 Ibid., para. 105, point 2F.
148 See supra para. 76.
149 See supra para. 78.
55
ment d’un Etat à réaliser les objectifs convenus sape la confiance nécessaire à une
coopération réussie en vue de leur réalisation. Ces règles s’appliquent de la même
manière à l’obligation qui consiste à s’acquitter de bonne foi des prescriptions du
droit international coutumier 145.
IV. Les obligations dont le Royaume-Uni manque de s’acquitter
99. Dans la deuxième partie de la présente requête, nous avons brièvement
exposé les faits pertinents pour l’évaluation du non-respect, par le défendeur, des
obligations internationales qui lui incombent en ce qui concerne le désarmement
nucléaire et la cessation de la course aux armements nucléaires. Dans la troisième
partie, nous avons exposé les grandes lignes du fondement juridique de l’espèce.
Nous allons à présent analyser très succinctement le comportement du défendeur à
la lumière du droit applicable.
A. Manquement à l’article VI du TNP
100. Deux des obligations découlant de l’article VI sont particulièrement
pertinentes
en la présente espèce, à savoir celles qui ont trait au désarmement
nucléaire et à la cessation de la course aux armements nucléaires à une date
rapprochée.
1. Désarmement nucléaire
101. Comme cela a été rappelé plus haut, la Cour a eu l’occasion de fournir du
désarmement nucléaire, premier élément faisant partie des obligations définies à
l’article VI, une analyse qui fait autorité. Elle a jugé que « l’obligation en
cause … [était] celle de parvenir à un résultat précis — le désarmement nucléaire
dans tous ses aspects — par l’adoption d’un comportement déterminé, à savoir la
poursuite de bonne foi de négociations en la matière » 146. Dans le dispositif de son
avis consultatif, la Cour a conclu à l’unanimité qu’« [i]l exist[ait] une obligation de
poursuivre de bonne foi et de mener à terme des négociations conduisant au
désarmement nucléaire dans tous ses aspects, sous un contrôle international strict
et efficace » 147.
102. Le défendeur a affirmé qu’« il [était] prématuré et potentiellement contreproductif
» de donner la priorité à une convention relative aux armes nucléaires 148
et s’oppose aux résolutions de l’Assemblée générale des Nations Unies appelant à
engager des négociations 149.
n’engage ni ne mène de négociations ou 2) à accomplir des actes qui pourraient faire échec à
l’objet et au but du traité à venir ») ; voir aussi M. le juge Mohammed Bedjaoui, « Good
Faith, International Law and Elimination of Nuclear Weapons », discours liminaire,
prononcé le 1er mai 2008, peut être consulté à l’adresse suivante : http://www.lcnp.org/disar
mament/2008May01eventBedjaoui.pdf, p. 24‑29 (dans le contexte du TNP, la bonne foi
proscrit « toute initiative qui aurait pour effet de rendre impossible la conclusion du traité
envisagé relatif au désarmement »).
145 Voir supra par. 94.
146 Voir supra note 3, par. 99.
147 Ibid., par. 105, point 2F.
148 Voir supra par. 76.
149 Voir supra par. 80.
56
103. The Respondent also refused to support the establishment of the Open-
Ended Working Group and even declared preemptively that it would not support
“any outcome it may produce” 150.
104. As set forth herein, including in Part II of this Application, the United
Kingdom clearly has not actively pursued “negotiations leading to nuclear disarmament
in all its aspects under strict and effective international control”. On the
contrary, it has opposed the efforts of the great majority of States to initiate such
negotiations. Accordingly, the Respondent has breached and continues to breach
its nuclear disarmament obligations under Article VI of the NPT.
2. Cessation of the nuclear arms race at an early date
105. With regard to the cessation of the nuclear arms race at an early date, the
Respondent’s conduct is similarly negative and obstructive.
106. Its conduct, set forth in Part II of this Application, in (i) continuing
engagement
in material efforts to qualitatively improve its nuclear weapons
system
; (ii) continuing efforts to maintain and extend that system indefinitely ;
and (iii) opposing negotiations on comprehensive nuclear disarmament or other
measures in multilateral forums, including the Open-Ended Working Group and
the UN General Assembly, is clear evidence of the United Kingdom’s ongoing
breach of its Article VI obligation regarding the cessation of the nuclear arms
race at an early date 151.
107. Despite having been a party to the NPT for 44 years, therefore, the
Respondent has breached and continues to breach its obligation under Article VI
regarding the cessation of the nuclear arms race at an early date.
B. Breach of Customary International Law
108. For the reasons set out above, the obligations enshrined in Article VI of the
NPT are not merely treaty obligations ; they also exist separately under customary
international law.
109. On the same grounds as those relied on in the preceding Section of this
Application, the Respondent has breached and continues to breach its obligations
under customary international law with regard to nuclear disarmament and the
cessation of the nuclear arms race at an early date.
C. Breach of the Obligation to Perform Its Obligations
in Good Faith
110. In the previous two Sections, the Applicant has submitted that the
Respondent has breached and continues to breach its obligations under both the
NPT and customary international law regarding nuclear disarmament and cessa-
150 See supra para. 70.
151 See supra Part II C.4 and II D.
57
103. Le défendeur a également refusé d’appuyer la création du groupe de travail
à composition non limitée, affirmant même d’emblée qu’il ne soutiendrait pas « les
conclusions que celui-ci [était] susceptible de tirer » 150.
104. Ainsi que nous l’avons exposé dans la présente requête, et plus particulièrement
dans sa deuxième partie, le Royaume-Uni n’a manifestement pas poursuivi
activement de « négociations conduisant au désarmement nucléaire dans tous ses
aspects, sous un contrôle international strict et efficace ». Bien au contraire, il s’est
opposé aux efforts déployés par la grande majorité des Etats pour engager de telles
négo‑ciations.
En conséquence, le défendeur a manqué et continue de manquer aux
obligations
de désarmement nucléaire qui lui incombent en vertu de l’article VI
du TNP.
2. Cessation de la course aux armements nucléaires à une date rapprochée
105. S’agissant de la cessation de la course aux armements nucléaires à une date
rapprochée, le défendeur a fait preuve d’un comportement tout aussi négatif et
obstructionniste.
106. Ce comportement, exposé dans la deuxième partie de la présente requête et
consistant i) à continuer à déployer des efforts importants pour améliorer son système
d’armes nucléaires ; ii) à poursuivre ses efforts afin de conserver et d’étendre
ce système pour une durée illimitée ; et iii) à s’opposer aux négociations sur un
désarmement nucléaire complet ou d’autres mesures au sein d’enceintes multilatérales,
dont le groupe de travail à composition non limitée et l’Assemblée générale
des Nations Unies, démontre clairement un manquement continu de la part du
Royaume-Uni de s’acquitter de l’obligation qui lui incombe en vertu de l’article VI
relativement à la cessation de la course aux armements nucléaires à une date rapprochée
151.
107. Bien qu’il soit partie au TNP depuis quarante-quatre ans, le défendeur a
donc manqué et continue de manquer à l’obligation qui lui incombe en vertu de
l’article VI concernant la cessation de la course aux armements nucléaires à une
date rapprochée.
B. Manquement au droit international coutumier
108. Pour les raisons exposées plus haut, les obligations énoncées à l’article VI
du TNP ne sont pas de simples obligations conventionnelles ; elles existent aussi de
manière autonome en droit international coutumier.
109. Pour les mêmes motifs que ceux déjà invoqués à la section précédente de la
présente requête, le défendeur a manqué et continue de manquer aux obligations
qui lui incombent en vertu du droit international coutumier relativement au désarmement
nucléaire et à la cessation de la course aux armements nucléaires à une
date rapprochée.
C. Manquement à l’obligation de s’acquitter de bonne foi
de ses obligations
110. Dans les deux sections précédentes, le demandeur a soutenu que le défendeur
avait manqué et continuait de manquer aux obligations que lui imposaient tant le
TNP que le droit international coutumier concernant le désarmement nucléaire et la
150 Voir supra par. 70.
151 Voir IIe partie, C.4 et D.
58
tion of the nuclear arms race at an early date. The Respondent is also failing to act
in good faith as far as its performance of those obligations is concerned.
111. As set forth in Part II of this Application, the Respondent has been actively
upgrading, modernizing and improving its nuclear arsenal. This constitutes
qualitative
vertical nuclear proliferation which clearly conflicts with the Respondent’s
fundamental commitment to nuclear disarmament and cessation of the
nuclear arms race at an early date. It also encourages other States possessing
nuclear weapons to follow suit and may induce non‑nuclear‑weapon States to
reconsider their non-nuclear posture.
112. The Respondent has also repeatedly declared its intention to rely on its
nuclear arsenal for decades to come 152.
113. In short, by not actively pursuing negotiations in good faith on effective
measures relating to cessation of the nuclear arms race at an early date and to
nuclear disarmament, and instead engaging in conduct that directly conflicts with
those legally binding commitments, the Respondent has breached and continues to
breach its legal duty to perform its obligations under the NPT and customary
international law in good faith.
V. Jurisdiction of the Court
114. In accordance with the provisions of Article 36, paragraph 2, of the
Statute,
jurisdiction exists by virtue of the operation of the Declaration of the
Applicant dated 15 March 2013 (and deposited 24 April 2013) and the Declaration
of the United Kingdom dated 5 July 2004, each Declaration without pertinent
reservation.
VI. Final Observations
115. Pursuant to Article 31 of the Statute of the Court and Article 35, paragraph
1, of its Rules, the Applicant will exercise the power conferred by Article 31
of the Statute and choose a person to sit as judge ad hoc and will so inform the
Court in due course.
116. The Applicant reserves the right to modify and extend the terms of this
Application, the grounds invoked and the Remedies requested.
Remedies
On the basis of the foregoing statement of facts and law, the Republic of the
Marshall Islands requests the Court
to adjudge and declare
(a) that the United Kingdom has violated and continues to violate its international
obligations under the NPT, more specifically under Article VI of the
Treaty, by failing to pursue in good faith and bring to a conclusion negotia-
152 The May 2011 Initial Gate report states that the submarines will be operational “until
the 2060s”. See The United Kingdom’s Future Deterrent : The Submarine Initial Gate Parliamentary
Report, May 2011, para. 3.1 ; cited by Ainslie, see op. cit. supra note 44, at p. 75.
59
cessation de la course aux armements nucléaires à une date rapprochée. S’agissant de
l’exécution de ces obligations, le défendeur manque également d’agir de bonne foi.
111. Comme nous l’avons exposé dans la deuxième partie de la présente requête,
le défendeur procède activement à la mise à niveau, à la modernisation et à l’amélioration
de son arsenal nucléaire, ce qui constitue une prolifération nucléaire qualitative
verticale, laquelle contrevient de toute évidence à l’engagement fondamental
de désarmement nucléaire et de cessation de la course aux armements nucléaires
à une date rapprochée qui lui incombe. Ce comportement encourage en outre
d’autres Etats possédant des armes nucléaires à faire de même et peut inciter les
Etats non dotés d’armes nucléaires à reconsidérer leur position en la matière.
112. Le défendeur a également exprimé à plusieurs reprises son intention de
s’appuyer sur son arsenal nucléaire pendant les décennies à venir 152.
113. En bref, en ne poursuivant pas activement des négociations de bonne foi
sur des mesures efficaces relatives à la cessation de la course aux armements
nucléaires à une date rapprochée ainsi qu’au désarmement nucléaire et en adoptant
un comportement contrevenant directement à ces obligations juridiquement
contraignantes, le défendeur a manqué de s’acquitter et continue de ne pas s’acquitter
de son obligation juridique consistant à exécuter de bonne foi les prescriptions
du TNP et du droit international coutumier.
V. Compétence de la Cour
114. Conformément aux dispositions du paragraphe 2 de l’article 36 de son Statut,
la Cour est compétente pour connaître du présent différend par l’effet de la
déclaration d’acceptation faite le 15 mars 2013 (et déposée le 24 avril 2013) par le
demandeur et de celle faite le 5 juillet 2004 par le Royaume-Uni, toutes deux sans
aucune réserve pertinente en l’espèce.
VI. Observations finales
115. Conformément à l’article 31 du Statut de la Cour et au paragraphe 1 de
l’article 35 du Règlement, le demandeur exercera son droit de désigner un juge
ad hoc et informera la Cour de son choix en temps utile.
116. Le demandeur se réserve le droit de modifier et de compléter la présente
requête, ainsi que l’exposé des moyens et les conclusions demandées.
Conclusions demandées
Sur la base de l’exposé des faits et des moyens juridiques qui précède, la République
des Iles Marshall prie la Cour
de dire et juger
a) que le Royaume-Uni a manqué et continue de manquer aux obligations internationales
qui lui incombent en vertu du TNP, et en particulier de son article VI,
en s’abstenant de poursuivre de bonne foi et de mener à terme des négociations
152 Le rapport sur la décision de principe de mai 2011 indique que les sous-marins seront
opérationnels « jusque dans les années 2060 ». Voir « The United Kingdom’s Future
Deterrent : The Submarine Initial Gate Parliamentary Report », mai 2011, par. 3.1 ; cité par
Ainslie, voir op. cit. supra note 44, p. 75.
60
tions leading to nuclear disarmament in all its aspects under strict and effective
international control ;
(b) that the United Kingdom has violated and continues to violate its international
obligations under the NPT, more specifically under Article VI of the
Treaty, by taking actions to qualitatively improve its nuclear weapons system
and to maintain it for the indefinite future, and by failing to pursue negotiations
that would end nuclear arms racing through comprehensive nuclear disarmament
or other measures ;
(c) that the United Kingdom has violated and continues to violate its international
obligations under customary international law, by failing to pursue in
good faith and bring to a conclusion negotiations leading to nuclear disarmament
in all its aspects under strict and effective international control ;
(d) that the United Kingdom has violated and continues to violate its international
obligations under customary international law, by taking actions to
qualitatively improve its nuclear weapons system and to maintain it for the
indefinite future, and by failing to pursue negotiations that would end nuclear
arms racing through comprehensive nuclear disarmament or other measures ;
(e) that the United Kingdom has failed and continues to fail to perform in good
faith its obligations under the NPT and under customary international law by
modernizing, updating and upgrading its nuclear weapons capacity and maintaining
its declared nuclear weapons policy for an unlimited period of time,
while at the same time failing to pursue negotiations as set out in the four
preceding counts ; and
(f) that the United Kingdom has failed and continues to fail to perform in good
faith its obligations under the NPT and under customary international law by
effectively preventing the great majority of non‑nuclear-weapon States parties
to the Treaty from fulfilling their part of the obligations under Article VI of
the Treaty and under customary international law with respect to nuclear disarmament
and cessation of the nuclear arms race at an early date.
In addition, the Republic of the Marshall Islands requests the Court
to order
the United Kingdom to take all steps necessary to comply with its obligations
under Article VI of the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons and
under customary international law within one year of the Judgment, including the
pursuit, by initiation if necessary, of negotiations in good faith aimed at the conclusion
of a convention on nuclear disarmament in all its aspects under strict and
effective international control.
Dated this 24th of April 2014.
(Signed) Tony A. deBrum, (Signed) Phon van den Biesen,
Co-Agent and Minister Co-Agent of the Republic
of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of the Marshall Islands.
of the Marshall Islands
61
conduisant à un désarmement nucléaire dans tous ses aspects effectué sous un
contrôle international strict et efficace ;
b) que le Royaume-Uni a manqué et continue de manquer aux obligations internationales
qui lui incombent en vertu du TNP, et en particulier de son article VI,
en prenant des mesures visant à améliorer, et à conserver pour une durée illimitée,
son système d’armes nucléaires, ainsi qu’en s’abstenant de mener des négociations
qui mettraient fin à la course aux armements nucléaires par un désarmement
nucléaire complet ou d’autres mesures ;
c) que le Royaume-Uni a manqué et continue de manquer aux obligations internationales
qui lui incombent en vertu du droit international coutumier en s’abstenant
de poursuivre de bonne foi et de mener à terme des négociations conduisant
à un désarmement nucléaire dans tous ses aspects effectué sous un contrôle
international strict et efficace ;
d) que le Royaume-Uni a manqué et continue de manquer aux obligations internationales
qui lui incombent en vertu du droit international coutumier en prenant
des mesures visant à améliorer, et à conserver pour une durée illimitée, son
système d’armes nucléaires, ainsi qu’en s’abstenant de mener des négociations
qui mettraient fin à la course aux armements nucléaires par un désarmement
nucléaire complet ou d’autres mesures ;
e) que le Royaume-Uni a manqué de s’acquitter et continue de ne pas s’acquitter
de bonne foi des obligations internationales qui lui incombent en vertu du TNP
et du droit international coutumier en modernisant, actualisant et mettant à
niveau ses capacités en matière d’armes nucléaires, ainsi qu’en poursuivant,
pour une durée illimitée, sa politique déclarée en matière d’armes nucléaires,
tout en s’abstenant de mener des négociations, tel qu’exposé aux quatre points
précédents ; et
f) que le Royaume-Uni a manqué de s’acquitter et continue de ne pas s’acquitter
de bonne foi des obligations internationales qui lui incombent en vertu du TNP
et du droit international coutumier en empêchant de fait la grande majorité des
Etats non dotés d’armes nucléaires de respecter la part des obligations que leur
imposent l’article VI du traité et le droit international coutumier en ce qui
concerne le désarmement nucléaire et la cessation de la course aux armements
nucléaires à une date rapprochée.
En outre, la République des Iles Marshall prie la Cour
d’ordonner
au Royaume-Uni de prendre toutes les mesures nécessaires pour se conformer,
dans un délai d’un an à compter du prononcé de l’arrêt, aux obligations qui lui
incombent en vertu de l’article VI du TNP et du droit international coutumier, parmi
lesquelles celle de mener des négociations de bonne foi, si nécessaire en engageant
celles-ci, en vue de conclure une convention relative à un désarmement nucléaire
dans tous ses aspects effectué sous un contrôle international strict et efficace.
Fait ce jour, le 24 avril 2014.
Le coagent et ministre Le coagent de la République
des affaires étrangères de la République des Iles Marshall,
des Iles Marshall,
(Signé) M. Tony A. deBrum. (Signé) M. Phon van den Biesen.

IMPRIMÉ EN FRANCE – PRINTED IN FRANCE

Document file FR
Document Long Title

Application instituting proceedings

Links