Application instituting proceedings

Document Number
159-20140424-APP-01-00-EN
Document Type
Date of the Document
Document File
Bilingual Document File

APPLICATION

INSTITUTING PROCEEDINGS

AGAINST

PAKISTAN

submitted on 24 April20 14

by

THE REPUBLIC OF THE MARSHALL ISLANDS

to

THE INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE

re

obligation to pursue in good faith and conclude negotiations

leadingo nuclear disarmament Table of Contents

I. INTRODUCTION AND SUMMARY.........................................................................
....3

II. FACTS .........................................................................
..................................................... 8

A. The Five Nuclear Weapon States Parties to the NPT ...........................................8

B. The Nine States Possessing Nuclear Weapons..................................................... 8

C. Pakistan and the Nuclear Arms Race.................................................................... 9

1. Early Nuclear History .........................................................................
......9

2. Pakistan's Current Nuclear Arsenal........................................................ 10

3. Nuclear Policy, Doctrine, and Expenditure ............................................ 10

4. CurrentPlans for Expansion, Improvement, and

Diversification ofPakistan's Nuclear Arsenal........................................ 12

D. Pakistan and Nuclear Disarmament.................................................................... l3

III. THE LAW.........................................................................
.............................................. l5

A. Article VI of the NPT: An Obligation Erga Omnes ........................................... 15

B. Customary International Law ..................,.......................................................... 16

C. Good Faith .........................................................................
................................. 18

IV. OBLIGATIONS BREACHED BYPAKISTAN ............................................................ 20

A. Breach of Customary International Law.............................................................20

B. Breach of the Obligation to Perform Its Obligations in Good Faith...................21

V. JURISDICTION OF THE COURT........................................................................
........22

VI. FINAL OBSERVATIONS .........................................................................
....................22

REMEDIES........................................................................
......................................................... 23

2 To the Registrar, International Court of Justice.

The Undersigned, being duly authorized by the Government of the Republic of the
Marshall Islands, state as follows:

1. INTRODUCTION AND SUMMARY

1. In its Advisory Opinion of 8 July 1996 on the Legality of the Threat or Use of
1
Nuclear Weapons, this Court observed that "[t]he destructive power of nuclear weapons cannot
be contained in either space or time" and that such weapons "have the potential to destroy ali

civilization and the entire ecosystem of the planet" 2 It acknowledged "the unique characteristics

of nuclear weapons, and in particular their destructive capacity, their capacity to cause untold
human suffering, and their ability to cause damage to generations to come" . Largely based on its

analysis of Article VI of the 1968 Treaty on the Non-Proliferation ofNuclear Weapons 4

(hereafter "the Treaty" or "the NPT"), the Court unanimously concluded: "There exists an
obligation to pursue in good faith and bring to a conclusion negotiations leading to nuclear
5
disarmament in al! its aspects under strict and effective international control".

2. This Application is not an attempt tore-open the question of the legality of

nuclear weapons. Rather, the focus of this Application is the failure to fulfil the obligations of
customary international law with respect to cessation of the nuclear arms race at an early date

and nuclear disarmament enshrined in Article VI of the NPT and declared by the Court.

3. Unless the required negotiations, aimed at reaching the required conclusions, take
place, we shall continue to face the very real prospect of the "devastation that would be visited

upon ali mankind by a nuclear war". We shall also continue to face the possibility, even the
7
likelihood, ofnuclear weapons being used by accident, miscalculation or design, and oftheir
proliferation. As Nobel Peace Laureate Sir Joseph Rotblat pointed out: "If sorne nations­

including the most powerful militari!y- say that they need nuclear weapons for their security,

then such security cannot be denied to other countries which really fee! insecure. Proliferation of

1
I C.J Reports 1996, p. 226.
2
Id., para.35.
3
Id., para.36.
4
729 UNTS 161.
5
Id., para. 105,point 2F.
6
NPT prearnble,2"drecital.
7
In 1996Lord Carver, former UK Chief of the Defence Staff(the professionalhead of the UK's armed
forces andthe principalmilitary adviser to the Secretaryof State for Deferreeand to the UK
Governrnent)stated that "the indefinite deploymentofnuclear weapons carries a high risk oftheir

ultimate use- intentionally,by accident or inadvertence". See Hansard, HL Deb, 28 October 1996, vol.
575, cols. 134.

3 8
nuclear weapons is the logical consequence of this nuclear policy".

4. In its Advisory Opinion, the Court observed: "In the long run, international law,
and with it the stability of the international order which it is intended to govern, are bound to

suffer from the continuing difference of views with regard to the legal status of weapons as
9
deadly as nuclear weapons". A coherent legal system cannot countenance its own destruction or
that of the cornrnunity whose activities it seeks to regulate. 10 That is why fulfilment of the

obligation "to pursue in good faith and bring to a conclusion negotiations leading to nuclear
disarmament in ali its aspects under strict and effective international control" is so important.

5. Equally, a coherent and civilized legal system cannot tolerate unacceptable harm

to hurnanity. A lawful and sustainable world order is predicated on a civilizational right to
survival rooted in "the principles of humanity" 11and "elementary considerations of humanity" 12

which help to shape an emerging "law of humanity", 13the international law for humankind of

which the nuclear disarmarnent obligation is a key element. Yet it is now 68 years since the very
first United Nations General Assembly Resolution sought to put in motion the elimination from

8
Joseph Rotblat, "Science and Nuclear Weapons: Where Do We Go From Here?''The Blackaby Papers,
No. 5, December 2004, p. 7.
9
Id., para. 98.
10
As B.S. Chimni has stated, "No legal system can confer on any of its members the right to annihilate
the community which engenders it and whose activities it seeks to regulate". B.S. Chimni, "Nuclear
Weapons and International Law: Sorne Reflections", in International Law in Transition: Essays in

Memory of Judge Nagendra Singh, 1992, p. 142. Quoted byJudge Weeramantry in Section V.1 of his
Dissenting Opinion in the Advisory Opinion in Legality of the Threat or Use ofNuc/ear Weapons,
supra, n. 1, at p. 522; see a/sa the Dissenting Opinion of Judge Shahabuddeen, id., p. 393: "Thus,
however far-reaching may be the rights conferred by sovereignty, those rights cannat extend beyond the

framework within which sovereignty itself exists; in particular, they cannat violate the framework. The
framework shuts out the right of aState to embark on a course of action which would dismantle the
basis ofthe framework by putting an end to civilization and annihilating mankind".

11From the Martens Clause as expressed in Article 1, paragraph 2 ofProtocol 1 1977 Additional to the

Geneva Conventions 1949: "In cases not covered by this Protocol or by other international agreements,
civilians and combatants remain under the protection and authority of the principles of intemationallaw
derived from established custom, from the principles of humanity and from the dictates of public
conscience".

12Corfu Channel case, Judgment ofApril 9'h,1949, IC.J Reports 1949, p. 22.

13See e.g. the Opinion of the Tribunal in the Einsatzgruppen Case (1948): "[An] evaluation of

international right and wrong, which heretofore existed only in the heart of mankind, bas now been
written into the books of men as the law ofhumanity. This law is not restricted to events ofwar. It
envisages the protection ofhumanity at ali times". United States ofAmerica v. Otto Ohlendorf, et al,
Military Tribunal II, Case No. 9 (1948), in Trials ofWar Crimina/s Before the Nuemberg Military

Tribunals Under Control Council Law No. JO, Vol. IV, Nuernberg, October 1946- Apri11940 (U.S.
Government Printing Office, 1950-872486), p. 497, available at
http://www.loc.gov/rr/frd/Military_Law/pdf/NT_war-criminals_Vol-IV.pdf.

4 14
national arsenals of nuclear and other weapons of mass destruction, almost 45 years since the
NPT entered into force and nearly 20 years since the Court delivered its Advisory Opinion. The

long delay in fulfilling the obligations enshrined in Article VI of the NPT and customary
international law constitutes a flagrant deniai of human justice. 15

6. Inspired and guided by these principles and values, this is an Application
instituting proceedings against Pakistan, a State possessing nuclear weapons not party to the

NPT. The underlying claims, described in more detail herein, are that Pakistan is: (i) in
continuing breach of its obligations under customary international law, including specifically its

obligation to pursue in good faith negotiations to cease the nuclear arms race at an early date, as
weil as to pursue in good faith negotiations leading to nuclear disarmament in ali its aspects

under strict and effective international control; and (ii) in continuing breach of its obligation to
perform its international legal obligations in good faith.

7. The Applicant herein is the Republic of the Marshall Islands (the "Marshall
Islands" or "RMI" or "Applicant"). The Applicant is a non-nuclear-weapon State ("NNWS")

Party to the Treaty. Itacceded to the Treaty as a Party on 30 January 1995, and has continued to
be a Party to it since that time.

8. While cessation of the nuclear arms race and nuclear disarmament are vitally
important objectives for the entire international community, the Marshall Islands has a particular

awareness of the dire consequences of nuclear weapons. The Marshall Islands was the location
of repeated nuclear weapons testing from 1946 to 1958, during the time that the international
16
community had placed it under the trusteeship of the United States ("U.S."). During those 12
years, 67 nuclear weapons of varying explosive power were detonated in the Marshall Islands, at
17
varying distances from human population. According to the 3 September 2012 Report of Calin
Georgescu, a Special Rapporteur to the UN Human Rights Council, the devastating adverse
18
impact on the Marshall Islands of those nuclear substances and wastes continues to this day.
The Special Rapporteur concludes that "the harm suffered by the Marshallese people has resulted

in an increased global understanding of the movement of radionuclides through marine and

14
A/RES/1 (1),24 January 1946.
15
Cf JudgeCançadoTrindade'sremarksinpara. 145ofhis SeparateOpinionin Questions Relating to
the Obligation to Prosecute or Extradite (Belgium v. Senegal), IC.J Reports 2012, pp. 544-548;
especiallyat para. 145wherehe contrasts"the brieftime ofhuman beings (vila brevis)andthe often
prolongedtime ofhumanjustice".

16Reportofthe SpecialRapporteuronthe implicationsforhumanrights of the environmentallysound
managementand disposaiofhazardous substancesandwastes,Ca1inGeorgescu;Addendtnn,Missionto
the MarshallIslands (27-30March 2012)andthe UnitedStatesofAmerica(24-27April2012): 3

September2012,Doc. A/HRC/21/48/Add.l.
17Id.,paras. l-18.

18Id.,para. 19.

5 terrestrial environments", and urges the international community to "learn from the Marshallese
experience with nuclear contamination, particularly the... understanding of the relationship
19
between radioiodine and thyroid cancer".

9. With regard to the RMI's interest in bringing this Application to the Court, the

following should be added. It is weil known that over recent years the RMI has been preoccupied
with combating the extremely harrnful consequences that the effects of climate change have for

its very survival. While focusing on the problem of climate change, the RMI has come to realize
that it cannot ignore the other major threat to its survival: the ongoing threat posed by the

existence of large arsenals ofnuclear weapons the use ofwhich, according to the Court, "seems
scarcely reconcilable with respect for [... ] requirements [of the principles and rules of law
0
applicable in arrned conflict]".Z Itis obvions that the RMI's participation in the common
struggle against climate change needs to lead to firrn commitments by ali States, which

commitments must include not only moral, but also legal obligations aimed at realizing concrete,
clear-cut goals in order to remove the threat of devastation caused by continued reliance on the

use of fossil fuel energy sources. It is from this perspective of striving to reach agreement on
such commitments in the struggle against climate change that the RMI has concluded that it is no

longer acceptable simply to be a Party to the NPT while total nuclear disarrnament pursuant to
Article VI and customary international law remains at best a distant prospect. This Application

seeks to ensure that Pakistan fulfils in good faith and in a timely manner ali its legal obligations
in relation to cessation of the nuclear arms race and to nuclear disarrnarnent.

1O. One of the reasons wh y the RMI became a Party to the NPT is that this Treaty is
the key instrument of the international community for ridding the world of nuclear weapons. 21

Article VI of the Treaty states, in its entirety, as follows:

Each of the Parties to the Treaty undertakes to pursue negotiations in good faith

on effective measures relating to cessation of the nuclear arrns race at an early
date and to nuclear disarrnament, and on a treaty on general and complete
22
disarrnament under strict and effective international contro1.

Il. As previously stated, the Court concluded its Advisory Opinion of 8 July 1996 by

unanimously holding that "[t]here exists an obligation to pursue in good faith and bring to a

19Id.,para. 66(b).
20
Supra,n. 1,para.95.
21At the UN High-LevelMeetingonNuclearDisarmament,26 September2013,Hon. Mr.PhillipMuller,

Ministerof ForeignAffairs,Republicofthe MarshallIslands,statedthatthe RMI's"deeperpurpose"is
"that no nationandpeopleshouldever haveto bearwitnessto the burdenof exposuretothe devastating
impactsofnuclear weapons",
http://www.un.org/eniga/68/meetings/nucleardisarmament/pdf/MH _en.pdf

22See supra, n. 4.

6 conclusion negotiations leading to nuclear disarmament in ali its aspects under strict and
23
effective international control".

12. More than four decades after the NPT entered into force, Pakistan has not joined

the Treaty as a non-nuclear-weapon State, and instead has tested nuclear weapons and acquired a
nuclear arsenal which it is maintaining, improving, diversifying, and expanding.

13. Pakistan has not fulfilled its obligation under custornary international law to
pursue in good faith negotiations to cease the nuclear arms race at an early date, and instead is

taking actions to irnprove and expand its nuclear forces and to rnaintain them for the indefinite
future.

14. Sirnilarly, Pakistan has not fulfilled its obligation under customary international
law to pursue in good faith negotiations leading to nuclear disarmarnent in ali its aspects under

strict and effective international control, in particular by engaging a course of conduct, the
quantitative build-up and qualitative improvernent of its nuclear forces, contrary to the objective

of nuclear disarmament.

15. Further, the obligation of aState to perform its legal obligations in good faith,

whether arising under a treaty or pursuant to customary international law, is itself a legal
obligation that Pakistan has breached.

23Supra, n. 1,para.105,point2F.

7 II. FACTS

A. The Five Nuclear Weapon States Parties to the NPT

16. The U.S. was the first country in the world to develop and test nuclear weapons.
The U.S. used nuclear weapons in warfare on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki on

6 August 1945 and 9 August 1945 respective! y. The U.S. was the sole possessor ofnuclear
weapons in the world until the Soviet Union tested its first nuclear weapon on 29 August 1949.

In 1952, the UK tested its first nuclear weapon. In 1960, France tested its first nuclear weapon.

In 1964, China tested its first nuclear weapon.

17. In the 1960s, negotiations eventuated in agreement on the Nuclear Non-

Proliferation Treaty. The U.S., Russia, the UK, France and China, ali Parties to the NPT, are the
only States meeting the Treaty's definition of a "nuclear-weapon State" for "the purposes of this
4
Treaty" .Z

18. The Treaty was opened for signature on 1 July 1968, and entered into force on 20
March 1970.

B. The Nine States Possessing Nuclear Weapons

19. In addition to the five NPT nuclear-weapon States, four non-NPT States are

known to possess nuclear weapons: India, Pakistan, Israel and the Democratie People's Republic
ofKorea ("DPRK"). 25

20. According to the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute ("SIPRI"), the

individual and collective world nuclear forces as of January, 2013, were as follows:

24Article IX.3 ofthe NPT provides: "For the purposes of this Treaty, a nuclear-weapon State is one which

has manufactured and explodeda nuclear weapon or othernuclear explosive deviee priorto 1January
1967".
25
See infra,n.71.

8 26
"Vorldnuclear forces, January 2013

(Ali figures are approximate)

Year of first Deployed Other Total
Country nuclear test Warheadsa Warheadsb Inventory

United States 1945 2,150c 5,550 -7 700d
Russia 1949 -1,800 6,700' -8 5oo 1

United Kingdom 1952 160 65 225
France 1960 -290 -10 -300

China 1964 -250 -250

India 1974 90-110 90-110
Pakistan 1998 100-120 100-120

Israel -80 -80
NorthKorea 2006 6-8?

Total -4,400 -12,865 -17,270

" 'Deployed' means warheads placed on missiles or located on bases with operational forces.
6
These are warheads in reserve, awaiting dismantlernent or that require sorne preparation (e.g. assembly
or loading on launchers) before they become fully operationally available.
'ln addition to strategie warheads, this figure includes nearly 200 non-strategie (tactical) nuclear weapons

deployed in Europe.
d This figure includes the U.S. Departrnent of Defense nuclear stockpile of c. 4650 warheads and

another c. 3000 retired warheads that are awaiting dismantlement.
'This figure includes c.700 warheads for nuclear-powered ballistic missile submarines (SSBNs) in
overhaul and bornbers,2000 non-strategie nuclear weapons for use by short-range nairforce andair

defense forces, and c. 4000 retired warheads awaiting disrnantlement.
f This includes a rnilitary stockpile of c. 4500 nuclear warheads and another c. 4000 retired warheads
await disrnantlement.

C. Pakistan and the Nuclear Arms Race

1. Early Nuclear History

21. Pakistan' s nuclear weapons program dates back to its defeat in th1971 Indo-
Pakistani war and the 1974 Indian detonation of a 'peaceful' nuclear device.7It built centrifuges

26See Shannon N. Kile, "World Nuclear Forces", SIPRI Yearbook 2013 (Oxford University Press:

Oxford,2013). The question mark(?) against North Korea's total inventory is in the original.
27See Feroz Hassan Khan, "Pakistan's Perspective on the Global Elimination ofNuclear Weapons", in
Barry M. Blechrnan and Alexander K. Bollfrass, eds., National Perspectives on Nuclear Disarrnament

(Washington: Henry L. Stimson Center, 2010) (hereafter "Khan), pp. 214-215; Timothy McDonnell,

9 for enrichment of uranium based on designs stolen from the European consortium URENCO by
A. Q. Khan. 28Reportedly, Pakistan fielded its first deliverable nuclear weapon around 1986. 29

After India conducted nuclear weapons explosive tests on 11 May 1998, Pakistan conducted at
30
!east two such tests on 28 and 30 May 1998. Pakistan has conducted no further such tests.

2. Pakistan's Current Nuclear Arsenal

22. As of2013, Pakistan was estimated to have 100 to 120 nuclear warheads 31 The
32
arsenal has grown from an estimated two warheads in 1998. The operational delivery systems

are two types ofinterrnediate range aircraft, the F-16AIB and Mirage V, and three types of short
and interrnediate range land-based ballistic missiles. 33

3. Nuclear Policy, Doctrine, and Expenditure

23. Pakistan has released no official doctrine regarding possible use ofnuclear
weapons. Ithas refused to adopta no-first-use policy. 34 Observers agree that while preserving

"Nuclear Pursuits: Non-P-5 nuclear-arrned states, 2013", Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, Nuclear

Note book (69(1), 2013) (hereafter "McDonnell"), p. 68, http://bos.sagepub.com/cgi/reprint/69/1/62;
AH. Nayyar and Zia Mian, "Pakistan", in International Panel on Fissile Materials, Country Perspectives
on the Challenges to Nuclear Disarrnament (2010), p. 69,
http://fissilematerials. org/library/20 15/country _perspectives_ on_the_c.html.

28 See McDonnell, supra, n. 27, p. 68; Khan, supra, n. 27, pp. 223-224.

29 See McDonnell, supra, n. 27, p. 64.

30 See id.,pp. 64-65.

31 Supra, n. 26 and chart in text. The term "nuclear warheads" as used here refers to both warheads
deliverable by missile and gravity bombs deliverable by aircraf't.

32See Zia Mian, "Pakistan", in Ray Acheson, ed., Assuring Destmction Forever: Nuclear Weapon

Modernization Around the World (Reaching Critical Will- a project of the Women's International
League for Peace and Freedom, 2012) (hereafter "Mian"), p. 51,
http://www.reachingcriticalwill.org/images/documents/Publications/modern
ization/assuring-destruction­
forever.pdf.

33See Hans M. Kristensen and Robert S. Norris, "Pakistan' s nuclear forces, 20 Il", Bulletin of the Atomic

Scientists, Nuclear Notebook (67(4), 2011) (hereafter Kristensen and Norris ), p. 93,
http://bos.sagepub.com/cgi/reprint/65/5/82; Hans M. Kristensen, "Nuclear Weapons and Arrns Control:
Modernizing Nuclear Arsenals", Briefing, 3 November 2013 (hereafter Kristensen), slide 14,

https://www.fas.org/programs/ssp/nukes/publications I/Brief20 13_GWU-APS.pdf; Mian, supra, n. 32,
p. 52.The range of the F-16A/B is 1,600 km and the Mirage V, 2,100 km. The ballistic missiles are the
Ghaznavi (Hatf-3), with a range of- 400 km;the Shaheen-1 (Hatf-4), 450+ km; and Ghauri (Hatf-5),
1,200+.

34See Khan, supra, n. 27, p. 215; Vipin Narang, "Posturing for Peace? Pakistan's Nuclear Postures and

South Asian Stability", International Security, Vol34, No. 3 (Winter 2009/10) (hereafter "Narang"), pp.
56-57, www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdfi'IO.ll62/isec.2010.34.3.38; Jane Perlez, "lndia's Suspicion of
Pakistan Clouds U.S. Strategy", New York Times, 27 November 2008.

10 ambiguity, Pakistan is signaling the possibility of resort to nuclear weapons iffaced with an

overwhelming conventional attack by India striking deep into Pakistani territory, and perhaps in
35
other circumstances creating strategie vulnerabilities for Pakistan.

24. Regarding the 1996 Comprehensive Nuclear- Test-Ban Treaty, Pakistan is one of
the 44 Annex II countries that must ratify the treaty for it to enter into force. 36 Pakistan has not

signed or ratified the treaty, nor has it in recent years given any indication that it intends to do
so.37

25. Regarding a Fissile Materials Cut-offTreaty (FMCT), since 2009 Pakistan has

been blocking consensus in the Conference on Disarrnament on commencing negotiations on
38
such a treaty. Pakistan has two main objections. The first is that the negotiating mandate does
not specify thal the treaty would address the reduction of existing stocks of fissile materials. 39

The second is that the program ofwork envisaging negotiation of an FMCT provides only for

discussions short of negotiations on other items, nam ely complete nuclear disarrnament,
assurances of non-use of nuclear weapons against non-nuclear-weapon States, and prevention of
40
an arms race in outer space. Pakistan maintains that the Conference on Disarrnament should
41
first and foremost address negotiation of complete nuclear disarmament. In the view of many

35
See Narang, supra, no. 34, pp. 58-60; Khan, supra, n. 27, p. 218; A. H. Nayyar, "A Pakistani
Perspective on Nuclear Disarrnament and Non-proliferation", Briefing Paper 9 (Friedrich Ebert Stiftung,
August 2008) (hereafter, "Nayyar"), p. 4, http://library.fes.de/pdf-files/iez/global/05652.pdf.

36Per Article XIV.

37See Eloise Watson, The CTBT: Obstacles to Entry into Force (New York: Reaching Critical Will of the

Women's International League for Peace and Freedom, September 2012), pp. 18-19,
http://www.reachingcriticalwill.org/images/documents/Publications/ctbt-o
bstacles.pdf; Liviu Horovitz
and Robert Golan-Vilella, "Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty: How the Dominoes Might Fall
After U.S. Ratification", 17Nonpro/iferation Review (No. 2, July 2010), pp. 249-250.

38See Zia Mian and A.H. Nayyar, "Playing the Nuclear Game: Pakistan and the Fissile Material Cutoff

Treaty", Arrns Control Today, April2011 (hereafter "Mian and Nayyar"),
http://www.armscontrol.org/act/2010_04/Mian. Pakistan has maintained its opposition to
commencement of negotiations on the treaty through early 2014.

39See, e.g., Statement by Ambassador Zamir Akram, Permanent Representative of Pakistan to the UN at

theCDPlenary, 12 February 2013,
http://www.reachingcriticalwill.org/images/documents/Disarmament-
fora/cd/2013/Statements/12F eb_Pakistan.pdf.

40See, e.g., Statement by Ambassador Zamir Akram, Permanent Representative of Pakistan to the United

Nations, Geneva, at the First Committee General Debate (67thSession of the UNGA), 15 October 2012,
p. 3, http://www.reachingcriticalwill.org/images/documents/Disarmament-
fora/1cornilcorn12/statements/150ct_Pakistan. pdf.

41See, e.g., Statement by Ambassador Zamir Akram, Permanent Representative of Pakistan to the United
Nations, Geneva, at the First Committee General Debate (68thSession of the UNGA), 18 October 2013,

p. 2, http://www.reachingcriticalwill.org/images/documents/Disarrnament-
fora/1cornilcorn13/statements/180ct_Pakistan. pdf.

11 observers, contrary to Pakistan's stated rationales, blocking negotiations on an FMCT serves
inter alia to enable Pakistan to build up its fissile materials stockpile and nuclear arsenal. 42

26. Because Pakistan does not release information on its nuclear weapons spending

and receives extensive external military assistance, it is difficult to reliably estimate such
spending. 43 One estimate is that Pakistan spends about .5% of its gross domestic product on its

nuclear weapons program, including health and environmental costs, which for 2011 is about
44
$2.4 billion

4. Current Plans for Expansion, Improvement, and Diversification of
Pakistan's Nuclear Arsenal

27. Zia Mian, a physicist and analyst at Princeton University and a member of the
45
International Panel on Fissile Materials, summarizes trends in Pakistan's nuclear arsenal as

follows: "Pakistan has been rapidly developing and expanding its nuclear arsenal, increasing its
capacity to produce plutonium, and testing and deploying a diverse array of nuclear-capable

ballistic and cruise missiles. Pakistan is moving from an arsenal based wholly on highly enriched

uranium to greater reliance on lighter and more compact plutonium-based weapons, which is
made possible by a rapid expansion in plutonium production capacity. Pakistan is also moving

from aircraft-delivered nuclear bombs to nuclear-armed ballistic and cruise missiles and from

liquid-fueled to solid-fueled medium-range missiles. Pakistan also has a growing nuclear
weapons research, development, and production infrastructure". 46 Plutonium-based warheads are
47
more suitable for use on missiles.

28. Three types ofballistic missiles, from battle-field range (60 km) to interrnediate
48
range (2000 km) are under development. Iwo types of short-range cruise missiles, air-launched

42E.g., Mian andNayyar, supra, n. 38.

43Mian, supra, n. 32, p. 55.

44Id.

45Mian directs the Project onPeace and Security in SouthAsia, at the Program on Scienceand Global

Security,Princeton University, and is Co-Editor of Science & Global Security, an internationaljournal
oftechnical analysis for arms control, disarmament and non-proliferationpolicy.
46
Zia Mian, "Pakistan", in Ray Acheson, ed., Still assuring destruction forever (ReachingCritical Will­
a project of the Women's InternationalLeague for Peace and Freedom, 2013), p. 14,
http://www.reachingcriticalwill.org/images/documents/Publications/moder…
zation/still-assuring­

destruction-forever.pdf.see also Kristensen andNorris, supra, n. 33.
47
See Kristensen andNorris, supra, n. 33, p. 94.
48
See Kristensen andNorris, supra, n 33, pp. 95-96;Kristensen, supra, n. 33, slide 14;Mian, supra, n.
32, p. 52.

12 49
(350 km) and ground-Iaunched (600 km), are under development.

29. Pakistan has been producing highly enriched uranium for nuclear weapons since
the 1980s and producing plutonium for weapons since the late 1990s. 50 Pakistan has two

operating plutonium production reactors and one plutonium reprocessing facility, and is building
51
two additional production reactors and a second reprocessing facility. ln 2011, Hans Kristensen
and Robert Norris, who prepare wide1y cited analyses for the Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists,
52
described Pakistan as having "the world's fastest-growing nuclear stockpile". Taking into

account ongoing production of plutonium and highly enriched uranium and additional capacity
being developed, they found: "If today's rate of expansion continues, we estimate that over the

next 10 years Pakistan's nuclear weapons stockpile could potentially reach 150-200 warheads ~a
53
number comparable to the future British nuclear stockpile".

D. Pakistan and Nuclear Disarmament

30. Pakistan has not joined the NPT as an NNWS, the on!y option open to it under the
54
terrns of the Treaty. Pakistan further maintains thal commitments and calls made in conferences

ofNPT States Parties do not apply to it, in particular rejecting calls made by NPT States Parties,
as weil as the General Assembly and the Security Council, for it to join the NPT as an NNWS. 55

However, Pakistan has consistently voted for the General Assembly resolution welcoming the
6
Court's conclusion regarding the disarmament obligation. 5 Pakistan also contends it is not
contributing to the further spread of nuclear weapons. It states !hat it has adopted effective

49See Kristensen and Norris, supra, n. 33,pp. 96-97; Kristensen, supra, n. 33, slide 14; Mian, supra, n.

32, p. 52. Cruise missiles are regarded as more capable of penetrating planned Indian missiles defences.
Kristensen indicates thal a submarine-launchedcruise missile may also be planned.
50
M" 1an,supra, n. 32, p.5'.J.
51
See Kristensen and Norris, supra, n. 33, pp. 93-94; Mian, supra, n. 32, pp. 53-54.
52
See Kristensen and Norris, supra, n. 33, p. 91.
53
Id., p. 94.
54
Pakistan does not qualif)ras a nuclear-weapon State under Article IX.3 of the Treaty. According to A.
H. Nayyar: "Like India, Pakistan would like to join the NPT regime as a declared nuclear weapon state.

Since this is not possible under the current formulation of the Treaty, and since the two countries are not
inclined tojoin the Treaty as non-weaponstates, Pakistan and India are likely to remain outside of the
Treaty for the foreseeable future". Nayyar, supra, n. 35, p. 5.

55E.g., "Explanation of Vote on resolution entitled 'United action towards the total elimination ofnuclear
weapons [A/RES/68/51]"', 4 November2013,

http://www.reachingcriticalwill.org/images/documents/Disarmament-
fora/1cornilcorn13/eov/L43_pakistan.pdf

56Most recently adopted as A/RES/68/42, 5 December 2013.

13 policies, Iaws, and regulations in accord with international efforts such as export control regimes

to prevent the acquisition ofnuclear weapons by additional States and by non-state actors. 57

31. Regarding nuclear disarmament, in addition to its position in the Conference on

Disarmament, Pakistan votes for resolutions in the UN General Assembly calling for
commencement ofnegotiations on a convention prohibiting and eliminating nuclear weapons. 58

It also voted for the resolution establishing the Open-Ended Working Group on taking forward
59
proposais for multilateral nuclear disarmament negotiations, and participated in 2013 Working
Group meetings.

32. Pakistan places its cali for the commencement of negotiations on a convention for

the elimination of nuclear weapons within the context of a wider disarmament and security
60
agenda, including strategie and conventional weapons limitations and reductions. In the South
Asian setting, Pakistan advocates a "strategie restraint regime !hat establishes nuclear restraint,
61
balance in conventional forces and a mechanism for conflict resolution".

57See Pakistan National Statement,Nuclear SecuritySurmnit,Seoul, 26-27 March, 2012,
http://pgstest.files.wordpress.com/2013/06/pakistan-national-statement2p .df.

58Most recently,A/RES/68/42,5 December2013; A/RES/68/32,5December 2013.

59A/RES/67/56, 3December 2012.

60See Statementof AmbassadorAkram, 18October 2013,supra, n. 41.

61Statement by H.E. Mr. MuhammadNawaz Sharif,Prime Ministerof the IslamicRepublic of Pakistan

at the Higb-LevelMeeting of the General AssemblyonNuclear Disarmament, 26 September2013,p. 2,
http://www.reachingcriticalwill.org/images/documents/Disarmament-fora/H…
/26Sep_Pakistan.pdf.

14 III. THELAW

A. Article VI of the NPT: An Obligation Erga Omnes

33. Article VI provides:

Each of the Parties to the Treaty undertakes to pursue negotiations in good faith
on effective measures relating to cessation of the nuclear arms race at an early

date and to nuclear disarmament, and on a treaty on general and complete
disarmament under strict and effective international control.

34. In its Advisory Opinion on the Legality of the Threat or Use ofNuclear Weapons,

the Court declared that Article VI involves "an obligation to achieve a precise result- nuclear
disarmament in ail its aspects - by adopting a particular course of conduct, namely, the pursuit of
62
negotiations on the matter in good faith". The Court went on to conclude, unanimously, that
"[t]here exists an obligation to pursue in good faith and bring to a conclusion negotiations
63
leading to nuclear disarmament in ail its aspects under strict and effective control". This

"recognizes that the provisions of Article VI...go beyond mere obligations of conduct- to pursue
nuclear disarmament negotiations in good faith- and actually involve an obligation ofresult, i.e.,
64
to conclude those negotiations" .

35. The Court observed that "fulfilling the obligation expressed in Article VI ...

remains without any doubt an objective of vital importance to the whole of the international
65
community today". The Court has long emphasized the importance of obligations erga omnes,
owed to the international community as a whole. 66Its conclusion in the Advisory Opinion was
67
tantamount to declaring that the obligation in Article VI is an obligation erga omnes. Every
State has a legal interest in its timely performance, therefore, 68and a corresponding legal

62s upra, n. 1, para. 99.

63Supra, n. 1, para. 105, point 2 F.
64
M. Marin Bosch, "The Non-Proliferation Treaty and its Future", in L. Boisson de Chazournes and P.
Sands, eds, International Law, the International Court of Justice and Nuclear Weapons, 1999, p. 375.
65
Supra, n. 1, para. 103.
66
Barcelona Traction, Light and Power Company, Limited, Judgment, IC.J Reports 1970, p. 3, para. 33.
67
See President Bedjaoui's Declaration in Legality ofThreat or Use ofNuclear Weapons, supra, n. 1 at
pp. 273-274: "As the Court has acknowledged, the obligation to negotiate in good faith for nuclear
disarmament concerns the 182 or so States parties to the Non-Proliferation Treaty. 1think one can go
beyond that conclusion and assert that there is in fact a twofoldeneral obligation,opposable erga

omnes, to negotiate in good faith and to achieve the desired result".
68
Barcelona Traction, Light and Power Company, Limited, supra, n. 66.

15 obligation to help bring it about. 69

B. Customary International Law

36. The obligations enshrined in Article VI ofthe NPT are not mere!y treaty
70
obligations; they also exist separately under customary internationallaw.

37. In its Advisory Opinion, after noting that the twofold obligation in Article VIto

pursue and to conclude negotiationsjormally concerns the (now 190 71) States Parties to the NPT,

the Court added that "any realistic search for general and complete disarmament, especially
nuclear disarmament, necessitates the cooperation of ali States". 72

38. In point 2F of the dispositif, moreover, not confining its remarks to the States

Parties to the NPT, the Court unanimously declared: "There exists an obligation to pursue in

good faith and bring to a conclusion negotiations leading to nuclear disarmament in al! its
aspects under strict and effective international control". 73

39. The Court's declaration is an expression of customary international law as it

stands today. All States are under that obligation, therefore. This is consistent with the view
expressed by President Bedjaoui in his Declaration: "Indeed, it is not unreasonable to think that,

considering the at !east formai unanimity in this field, this twofold obligation to negotiate in

good faith and achieve the desired result has now, 50 years on, acquired a customary
character". 74

40. In voting over many years since 1996 for the General Assembly resolution on

69 Cf Legal Consequences of the Construction of a Wall in the Occupied Palestinian Territory, Advisory

Opinion, JC.J. Reports 2004, p. 136,paras. 154-159.
70In Military and Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v. United States of

America), Jurisdiction and Admissibility, Judgment, JC.J Reports 1984, p. 392, at para. 94,the l.C.J.
held that the fact that principles of customary internationallaw are enshrinedin multilateralconventions
does not meanthat they cease to exist and to apply as principlesof customarylaw.

71There are 190StatesParties includingthe DPRK. Although the DPRK announcedits withdrawal from

the NPT on 10January2003, StatesParties continueto express divergent viewsregardingits status
underthe Treaty. See UN Officefor DisarmamentAffairs,Treaty on the Non-ProliferationofNuclear
Weapons,Status ofthe Treaty, http://disarmament.un.org/treaties/t/npt.

72Supra, n. 1, para. 100.

73J. ., para. 105.

74PresidentBedjaoui'sDeclarationin Legality ofThreat or Use ofNuc/ear Weapons, supra, n. 1,p. 274,
para. 23. PresidentBedjaoui was referring to the 50 yearsthat bad then elapsed sincethe adoptionof the

UN GeneralAssembly's first resolution in 1946and the normative language repeatedlyreiterated in its
resolutions on nuclearweapons and in other instrumentssince then.

16 follow-up to the Court's opinion, Pakistan appears to have accepted the universality ofthat

obligation. In operative paragraph one of the resolution, the General Assembly: "Underlines
once again the unanimous conclusion of the International Court of Justice thal there exists an

obligation to pursue in good faith and bring to a conclusion negotiations leading to nuclear
disarmament in al! its aspects under strict and effective international control" ?5

41. As the Court itself noted, the UN General Assembly has been deeply engaged in

working for universal disarmament ofweapons ofmass destruction since its very first resolution
in 1946. 76The UN Security Council also has repeatedly called for the implementation of Article
77
VI by ali States, not on!y Parties to the NPT. In Resolution 1887 of24 September 2009, after
calling upon States Parties to the NPT to implement Article VI, the Council called on "ali other

States to join in this endeavour". 78 The Council has also described the proliferation ofweapons
79
ofmass destruction as athreat to international peace and security.

42. Regarding the obligation of cessation of the nuclear arms race at an early date set

forth in Article VI, it stands on its own as a customary international law obligation based on the

very widespread and representative participation of States in the NPT and is inherent in the
customary international law obligation of nuclear disarmament.

43. The General Assembly has declared the necessity of cessation of the nuclear arms

race. In the Final Document of its first Special Session on Disarmament, held in 1978, the
General Assembly stated that it is "imperative ... to hait and reverse the nuclear arms race until
80
the total elimination ofnuclear weapons and their delivery systems has been achieved".

44. Shortly after India and Pakistan conducted nuclear explosive tests in 1998, in
Resolution 1172 the Security Council demanded thal the two countries refrain from further tests,

75A/RES/68/42, 5 December 2013. During sorne of the years since the resolution was first put forward in

1997, a separate vote was held on the first operative paragraph. Pakistan voted "yes" on those occasions.
Regarding the vote on that paragraph in A/61/83, 6 December 2006, see UN Department of Public
Information, GAil 0547, http://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2006/ga10547.doc.htrn.

76A/RES/1(1)of24 January 1946,cited by the Court in para. 101 of the Advisory Opinion.

77E.g., Resolution 984 of Il April 1995,cited by the Court in para. 103 of the Advisory Opinion, and
Resolution 1887 of24 September2009.

78Resolution 1887, 24 September2009, operative para. 5.

79E.g., Resolution 1887,24 September 2009.
8
°Final Document of the Tenth Special Session ofthe General Assembly, adopted by A/RES/S-10/2, 30
June 1978, without a vote, para. 20; see also, e.g., paras. 47, 50,
http://www.un.org/disarmament/HomePage/SSOD/ssod4-documents.shtrnl.The 1978 Special Session

establishedUN disarmament machinery in its current form, with the Conference on Disarmament
devoted to negotiations, the Disarmament Commission devoted to deliberation, and the First Committee
of the General Assembly devotedto agenda-setting. The Special Session thus was a quasi-constitutional

assembly with respect to disarmament.

17 called on ali States to refrain from tests in accordance with the provisions of the Comprehensive

Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty, and called on India and Pakistan "immediately to stop their nuclear
weapon development programmes, to refrain from weaponization or from the deployment of

nuclear weapons, to cease development ofballistic missiles capable of delivering nuclear
weapons and any further production of fissile material for nuclear weapons"Y

C. Good Faith

45. That good faith constitutes a "fundamental principle" of international law is
82
beyond dispute. Not only is it a general principle oflaw for the purposes of Article 38(1)(c) of
the Statute of the International Court of Justice 83 and a cardinal principle of the Law of
84 85
Treaties, it also encapsulates the essence of the Rule of Law in international society and is

one of the Principles of the United Nations.

46. Article 2, paragraph 2 of the UN Charter provides: "Al! Members, in order to

ensure to all of them the rights and benefits resulting from membership, shall fulfil in good faith
the obligations assumed by them in accordance with the present Charter". The Declaration on

Principles of International Law 1970 makes it clear thal this duty applies not only to obligations
arising under the Charter but also to those arising "under the general!y recognized principles and

ru!es of international law" and "under international agreements valid under the general!y
recognized principles and rules of international law". 86

47. In the Nuclear Tests cases, the ICJ declared: "One of the basic principles

governing the creation and performance of legal obligations, whatever their source, is the
principle of good faith. Trust and confidence are inherent in international cooperation, in

816 June 1998,operativeparas.2, 7.
82
See RobertKolb, La bonnefoi en droit international public: Contribution à l'étudedes principes
générauxde droit, pp. 112-113(2011).
83
Cf The Free Zones of Upper Savoy and the District of Gex, Second Phase (1930) PCIJ, Series A,
No.24, p.l2; see also, JCrawford, Brownlie 'sPrincip/es of Public International Law, Oxford, 8th
edition,2012,pp. 36-37.

84Articles26 and31(1)ofthe 1969ViennaConventiononthe Law ofTreaties.
85
V. Lowe,InternationalLaw, Oxford,2007,p. 116.
86
DeclarationonPrinciplesof InternationalLaw concerningFriendlyRelations andCooperationamong
Statesin Accordancewiththe Charterofthe UnitedNations,U.N.G.A.Res. 2625 (XXV),24 October
1970.

18 87
parti cular in an age when this co-operation in many fields is becoming increasingly essen tial".

48. In the Final Document of the first Special Session on Disarrnament, the General

Assembly called upon ali States to meet requirements of good faith, declaring:

In order to create favourable conditions for success in the disarrnarnent process,
ali States should strict! y abide by the provisions of the Charter of the United

Nations, refrain from actions which might adverse/y affect efforts in the field of
disarmament, and display a constructive approach to negotiations and the
88
political will to reach agreements.

49. As set forth above, the customary international law obligation ofnuclear
disarrnament requires both conduct and result: States must not only negotiate in good faith with

serions efforts to achieve the elimination of nuclear weapons, but must also actually achieve that
result.9

50. The Court has stated that the "princip le of good faith obliges the Parties to apply
9
[a treaty] in a reasonable way and in such a manner that its purpose can be realized". °Conduct
that prevents the fulfilment of a treaty's object and purpose is proscribed. 91 Further, conduct that

calls into question a State's commitment to the achievement of agreed objectives underrnines the
trust necessary for successful cooperation towards their achievement. Ali of this applies equally
92
to the obligation to fulfil customary international law obligations in good faith.

87Nuclear Tests(Australiav. France),Judgment,JCJ Reports1974, p. 253, at p. 268, para. 46
(emphasis added); Nuclear Tests (New Zealandv. France), Judgment,Id., p. 457, at p. 473, para. 49

(emphasis added).
88Supra, n. 80, para. 41 (emphasis added).

89Supra, para. 34.

9°Case Concerningthe Gabcikovo-NagymarosProject (Hungaryv.S!ovakia).1997JC.J Reports, p. 7,
para. 142.

91Report of the International Law Commission Covering its !6th Session, 727th Meeting, 20 May 1964:
Pursuant to theVCLT Article 26 obligation that every treaty in force must be performed by the parties

in good faith, the dutyof the parties is "not only to observe the letter of the law but also to abstain from
acts which would inevitably affect their ability to perform... ";Antonio Cassese, The Israel-PLO
Agreement and Self-Determination, 4 EUR. J. INT'L L. 567 (1993), availableat
http://www.ejil.org/jouma1Nol4/No4/ (when there is an obligation of good faith negotiation, "bath

Parties are not allowed to (1) advance excuses for not engaging into or pursuing negotiations or (2) to
accomplish acts which would defeat the abject and purpose of the future treaty"); Judge Mohammed
Bedjaoui, "Good Faith, International Law, and Elimination ofNuclear Weapons", Keynote Address, 1
May 2008, http://www.lcnp.org/disarmament/2008MayOleventBedjaoui.pdf, pp. 24-29 (in the NPT

context, good faith proscribes"every initiative the effect of which would be to render impossible the
conclusion of the contemplated disarmament treaty").
92
Seesupra, para. 46.

19 IV. OBLIGATIONS BREACHED BY PAKISTAN

51. Part II of this Application has outlined the facts that are relevant for an assessment

of the Respondent's non-compliance with its international obligations with respect to nuclear
disannament and the cessation of the nuclear arms race. Part III has outlined the legal basis for

this case. The conduct of the Respondent will now be analyzed very briefly in light of the
relevant law.

A. Breach of Customary International Law

Nuclear disarmament

52. As set forth above, the Court has provided an authoritative analysis of the
obligation ofnuclear disarmament. With respect to Article VI of the NPT, it has held that "the

obligation involved here is an obligation to achieve a precise result- nuclear disarmament in ali
its aspects- by adopting a particular course of conduct, namely, the pursuit of negotiations on the
93
matter in good faith". In the dispositif of its Advisory Opinion the Court concluded
unanimously: "There exists an obligation to pursue in good faith and bring to a conclusion

negotiations leading to nuclear disarmament in ali its aspects under strict and effective
international control". 94

53. Although Pakistan expressly supports the commencement of nuclear disarmament
95
negotiations and participated in the Open-Ended Working Group, it has breached this
obligation of customary international law by engaging in a course of conduct, the quantitative

build-up and qualitative improvement of its nuclear forces, contrary to the objective of nuclear
disarmament. 96

Cessation of the nuclear arms race at an early date

54. The customary international law obligation of cessation of the nuclear arms race

at an early date is rooted in Article VI of the NPT and resolutions of the General Assembly and
the Security Council and is inherent in the obligation of nuclear disarmament enunciated by the

Court. The Respondent is failing to comply with this obligation; on the contrary, it is engaged in

93
Supra, n. 1,para. 99.
94
Id., para. 105, point 2F.
95Seesupra, para. 31.

96See supra, Part II.

20 all-out nuclear arms racing.

55. lts conduct, set forth in Part II of this Application, in quantitatively building up its
nuclear forces, qualitatively improving and diversifying them, and planning and preparing to
maintain them for the indefinite future, and in blocking negotiations on a Fissile Materials Cut­

offTreaty, is clear evidence ofPakistan's ongoing breach of the obligation regarding the
cessation of the nuclear arms race at an early date.

B. Breach of the Obligation to Perform Its Obligations in Good Faith

56. In the previous Section, the Applicant has submitted that the Respondent has

breached and continues to breach its obligations under customary international law regarding
nuclear disarmament and cessation of the nuclear arms race at an early date. The Respondent is

especially failing to act in good faith as far as its performance ofthose obligations is concemed.

57. As set forth in Part II of this Application, the Respondent is engaged in the
quantitative build-up, diversification, and qualitative improvement of its nuclear arsenal, and is

blocking negotiations on a Fissile Materials Cut-offTreaty. This constitutes vertical nuclear
proliferation that clearly conflicts with the Respondent's obligations ofnuclear disarmament and

cessation of the nuclear arms race at an early date.lt also encourages other States possessing
nuclear weapons to follow suit and may induce non-nuclear-weapon States to reconsider their
non-nuclear posture.

58. The Respondent's plans and policies also manifest an intention to rely on its
nuclear arsenal for decades to come.

59. In short, by engaging in conduct that directly conflicts with the obligations of
nuclear disarmament and cessation of the nuclear arms race at an early date, the Respondent has

breached and continues to breach its legal duty to perform its obligations under customary
international law in good faith.

21 V. JURISDICTION OF THE COURT

60. Inaccordance with the provisions of Article 36, paragraph 2, of the Statute,

jurisdiction exists by virtue of the operation of the Declaration of the Marshall Islands dated 15
March 2013 (and deposited 24 April2013), and the Declaration of Pakistan dated 12 September
1960 (and deposited 13 September 1960), each Declaration without pertinent reservation.

VI. FINAL OBSERVATIONS

61. Pursuant to Article 31 of the Statute of the Court and Article 35, paragraph 1 ofits
Rules, the Applicant will exercise the power conferred by Article 31 of the Statute and choose a

person to sit asjudgead hoc and will so inform the Court in due course.

62. The Applicant reserves the right to modify and extend the terms of this

Application, the grounds invoked and the Remedies requested.

22 REMEDIES

On the basis of the foregoing statement offacts and law, the Republic of the Marshall Islands

requests the Court

to adjudge and declare

a) that Pakistan has violated and continues to violate its international obligations under
customary international law, by failing to pursue in good faith and bring to a

conclusion negotiations leading to nuclear disarmament in ali its aspects under strict
and effective international control, in particular by engaging a coursef conduct, the
quantitative buildup and qualitative improvement of its nuclear forces, contrary to the

objective of nuclear disarmament;

b) that Pakistan has violated and continues to violate its international obligations under
customary international law with respect to cessation of the nuclear arms race at an
early date, by taking actions to quantitatively build up its nuclear forces, to

qualitatively improve them, and to maintain them for the indefinite future, and by
blocking negotiations on a Fissile Materials Cut-offTreaty;

c) that Pakistan has failed and continues to fail to perform in good faith its obligations
under customary international law by taking actions to quantitatively build up its

nuclear forces, to qualitatively improve them, and to maintain them for the indefinite
future, and by blocking negotiations on a Fissile Materials Cut-offTreaty; and

d) that Pakistan has failed and continues to fail to perform in good faith its obligations
under customary international law by effectively preventing the great majority of

non-nuclear-weapon States from fulfilling their part of the obligations under
customary international law and Article VI of the NPT with respect to nuclear
disarrnament and cessation of the nuclear armsrace at an early date.

23In addition, the Republic of the Marshall Islands requests the Court

to order

Pakistan to take ali steps necessary to cornply with its obligations under custornary

international law with respect to cessation of the nuclear arrns race at an early date and
nuclear disarmarnent within one year of the Judgrnent, including the pursuit, by initiation
if necessary, of negotiations in good faith airned at the conclusion of a convention on
nuclear disarmarnent in ali its aspects under strict and effective international control.

DATED this 24th of Apri12014

n van den Biesen
Co-Agent of the Co Agent of the
Republic of the Marshall islands Republic of the Marshall Islands
and Minister of Foreign Affairs of the
Republic of the Marshall Islands

24

Bilingual Content

INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE
APPLICATION
INSTITUTING PROCEEDINGS
filed in the Registry of the Court
on 24 April 2014
OBLIGATIONS CONCERNING NEGOTIATIONS
RELATING TO CESSATION OF THE NUCLEAR ARMS RACE
AND TO NUCLEAR DISARMAMENT
(MARSHALL ISLANDS v. PAKISTAN)
COUR INTERNATIONALE DE JUSTICE
REQUÊTE
INTRODUCTIVE D’INSTANCE
enregistrée au Greffe de la Cour
le 24 avril 2014
OBLIGATIONS RELATIVES À DES NÉGOCIATIONS
CONCERNANT LA CESSATION DE LA COURSE AUX ARMES
NUCLÉAIRES ET LE DÉSARMEMENT NUCLÉAIRE
(ÎLES MARSHALL c. PAKISTAN)
I. LETTER FROM THE MINISTER OF FOREIGN AFFAIRS
AND CO-AGENT OF THE REPUBLIC
OF THE MARSHALL ISLANDS TO THE REGISTRAR
OF THE INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE
Majuro, 6 April 2014.
I have the honour to submit herewith nine Applications to the Court. In six of
these Applications the Marshall Islands is requesting the Respondent State to consent
to the Court’s jurisdiction for the purposes of this particular case.
All of the Applications are delivered to you on Thursday, 24 April 2014, by our
Co-Agent, Mr. Phon van den Biesen. Attached to this letter are nine letters in
which I make it known to the Court that Mr. van den Biesen has been duly
appointed as Co-Agent for each of these cases.
Each of the nine Applications is submitted to the Court in two original copies.
In addition, 30 paper copies of each Application are provided to the Court as well
as one USB device containing digital copies of each Application. I certify that
these paper copies and the digital versions are true copies of their respective originals.
(Signed) Tony A. deBrum,
Minister of Foreign Affairs and Co-Agent,
Republic of the Marshall Islands.
Appointment Decision
Referring to the duly adopted laws of the Republic of the Marshall Islands, and
the constitutional procedures in place, I herewith decide as follows :
Mr. Phon van den Biesen, Attorney at Law in Amsterdam, the Netherlands at
the offices of van den Biesen Kloostra Advocaten (address: Keizersgracht 253,
1016 EB Amsterdam, [email protected]), is hereby appointed
as Co-Agent of the Republic of the Marshall Islands before the International
Court of Justice in its case against the Islamic Republic of Pakistan concerning the
Application of Article VI of the Treaty on the Non‑Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons
(NPT) and/or related rules of international law, among them rules of customary
law (the “proceedings”).
Mr. van den Biesen is entitled to submit the Application introducing the proceedings
to the Court and to further represent the Republic of the Marshall Islands
either alone or together with the other Co-Agent, identified below.
Tony A. deBrum is also hereby appointed as Co-Agent in the proceedings.
This decision will be submitted to the Court with the cover letter submitting the
Application.
Majuro, Marshall Islands, 25 March 2014.
(Signed) Tony A. deBrum,
Minister of Foreign Affairs.
2
2014
General List
No. 159
I. LETTRE DU MINISTRE DES AFFAIRES ÉTRANGÈRES
ET COAGENT DE LA RÉPUBLIQUE
DES ILES MARSHALL AU GREFFIER
DE LA COUR INTERNATIONALE DE JUSTICE
[Traduction]
Majuro, le 6 avril 2014.
Par la présente, j’ai l’honneur de déposer neuf requêtes devant la Cour. Dans six
d’entre elles, les Iles Marshall demandent à l’Etat défendeur visé d’accepter la compétence
de la Cour aux fins de l’affaire.
L’ensemble des requêtes vous sera remis le jeudi 24 avril 2014 par notre coagent,
M. Phon van den Biesen. Vous trouverez, jointes à la présente, neuf lettres dans
lesquelles j’informe la Cour que M. van den Biesen a été dûment désigné comme
coagent pour chacune de ces affaires.
Chacune des neuf requêtes sera déposée à la Cour en deux exemplaires originaux.
Trente exemplaires sur support papier de chacune des requêtes seront également
fournis à la Cour ainsi qu’une clef USB contenant leur version électronique.
Je certifie que ces exemplaires sur support papier et leur version électronique sont
conformes à leurs originaux respectifs.
Le ministre des affaires étrangères et coagent,
République des Iles Marshall,
(Signé) Tony A. deBrum.
Désignation
Me référant aux lois dûment adoptées par la République des Iles Marshall et aux
règles constitutionnelles en vigueur, je désigne par la présente M. Phon van den
Biesen, avocat à Amsterdam, aux Pays‑Bas, au sein du cabinet van den Biesen
Kloostra Advocaten (adresse : Keizersgracht 253, 1016 EB Amsterdam,
phonvandenbiesen@
vdbkadvocaten.eu), comme coagent de la République des
Iles Marshall devant la Cour internationale de Justice en l’instance introduite
contre la République islamique du Pakistan concernant l’application de l’article VI
du traité sur la non‑prolifération des armes nucléaires (TNP) et des règles de droit
international y afférentes, dont celles de droit coutumier (ci‑après l’« instance »).
M. van den Biesen est habilité à déposer la requête introductive d’instance
devant la Cour et à continuer de représenter la République des Iles Marshall seul
ou avec l’autre coagent dont le nom est indiqué ci‑dessous.
M. Tony A. deBrum est désigné par la présente comme coagent en l’instance.
La présente décision sera déposée à la Cour en même temps que la lettre de couverture
accompagnant la requête.
Fait à Majuro, Iles Marshall, le 25 mars 2014.
Le ministre des affaires étrangères,
(Signé) Tony A. deBrum.
3
2014
Rôle général
no 159
4
II. APPLICATION INSTITUTING PROCEEDINGS
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
I. Introduction and summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
II. Facts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
A. The five nuclear-weapon States parties to the NPT . . . . . . . . 12
B. The nine States possessing nuclear weapons . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
C. Pakistan and the nuclear arms race . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1. Early nuclear history . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2. Pakistan’s current nuclear arsenal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
3. Nuclear policy, doctrine and expenditure . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
4. Current plans for expansion, improvement and diversification
of Pakistan’s nuclear arsenal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
D. Pakistan and nuclear disarmament . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
III. The Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
A. Article VI of the NPT : An obligation erga omnes . . . . . . . . . 24
B. Customary international law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
C. Good faith . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
IV. Obligations breached by Pakistan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
A. Breach of customary international law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
1. Nuclear disarmament . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2. Cessation of the nuclear arms race at an early date . . . . . . 34
B. Breach of the obligation to perform its obligations in good faith . 34
V. Jurisdiction of the Court . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
VI. Final observations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Remedies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
5
II. REQUÊTE INTRODUCTIVE D’INSTANCE
[Traduction]
TABLE DES MATIÈRES
Page
I. Introduction et résumé . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
II. Les faits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
A. Les cinq Etats parties au TNP dotés d’armes nucléaires . . . . . . 13
B. Les neuf Etats dotés d’armes nucléaires . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
C. Le Pakistan et la course aux armes nucléaires . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1. Débuts du Pakistan en matière d’armement nucléaire . . . . . 17
2. Arsenal nucléaire actuel du Pakistan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
3. Politique, doctrine et dépenses du Pakistan en matière d’armement
nucléaire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
4. Projets actuels visant l’accroissement, l’amélioration et la
diversification de l’arsenal nucléaire du Pakistan . . . . . . . . 21
D. Le Pakistan et le désarmement nucléaire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
III. Le droit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
A. L’article VI du TNP : une obligation erga omnes . . . . . . . . . . 25
B. Le droit international coutumier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
C. La bonne foi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
IV. Les obligations dont le Pakistan manque de s’acquitter . . . . . . . . . . 35
A. Manquement au droit international coutumier . . . . . . . . . . . 35
1. Désarmement nucléaire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2. Cessation de la course aux armes nucléaires à une date rapprochée
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
B. Manquement à l’obligation de s’acquitter de bonne foi de ses obligations
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
V. Compétence de la Cour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
VI. Observations finales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Conclusions demandées . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
6
I. Introduction and Summary
1. In its Advisory Opinion of 8 July1996 on the Legality of the Threat or Use of
Nuclear Weapons 1, this Court observed that “[t]he destructive power of nuclear
weapons cannot be contained in either space or time” and that such weapons
“have the potential to destroy all civilization and the entire ecosystem of the
planet” 2. It acknowledged “the unique characteristics of nuclear weapons, and in
particular their destructive capacity, their capacity to cause untold human suffering,
and their ability to cause damage to generations to come” 3. Largely based on
its analysis of Article VI of the 1968 Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear
Weapons 4 (hereafter “the Treaty” or “the NPT”), the Court unanimously concluded
: “There exists an obligation to pursue in good faith and bring to a conclusion
negotiations leading to nuclear disarmament in all its aspects under strict and
effective international control.” 5
2. This Application is not an attempt to re-open the question of the legality of
nuclear weapons. Rather, the focus of this Application is the failure to fulfil the
obligations of customary international law with respect to cessation of the nuclear
arms race at an early date and nuclear disarmament enshrined in Article VI of the
NPT and declared by the Court.
3. Unless the required negotiations, aimed at reaching the required conclusions,
take place, we shall continue to face the very real prospect of the “devastation
that would be visited upon all mankind by a nuclear war” 6. We shall also continue
to face the possibility, even the likelihood, of nuclear weapons being used by
accident,
miscalculation or design 7, and of their proliferation. As Nobel Peace
Laureate Sir Joseph Rotblat pointed out :
“If some nations — including the most powerful militarily — say that they
need nuclear weapons for their security, then such security cannot be denied
to other countries which really feel insecure. Proliferation of nuclear weapons
is the logical consequence of this nuclear policy.” 8
4. In its Advisory Opinion, the Court observed :
“In the long run, international law, and with it the stability of the international
order which it is intended to govern, are bound to suffer from the
continuing difference of views with regard to the legal status of weapons as
deadly as nuclear weapons.” 9
1 Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons, Advisory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports
1996 (I), p. 226.
2 Ibid., para. 35.
3 Ibid., para. 36.
4 United Nations, Treaty Series, Vol. 729, p. 161.
5 See op. cit. supra note 1, para. 105, point 2F.
6 NPT preamble, 2nd recital.
7 In 1996 Lord Carver, former United Kingdom Chief of the Defence Staff (the professional
head of the United Kingdom’s armed forces and the principal military adviser to the
Secretary of State for Defence and to the United Kingdom Government) stated that “the
indefinite deployment of nuclear weapons carries a high risk of their ultimate use — intentionally,
by accident or inadvertence”. See Hansard, HL Deb, 28 October 1996, Vol. 575,
col. 134.
8 Joseph Rotblat, “Science and Nuclear Weapons : Where Do We Go from Here ?” The
Blackaby Papers, No. 5, December 2004, p. 7.
9 See supra note 1, para. 98.
7
I. Introduction et résumé
1. Dans son avis consultatif du 8 juillet 1996 sur la Licéité de la menace ou de
l’emploi d’armes nucléaires 1, la Cour a fait observer que « [l]e pouvoir destructeur
des armes nucléaires ne [pouvait] être endigué ni dans l’espace ni dans le temps » et
que ces armes avaient « le pouvoir de détruire toute civilisation, ainsi que l’écosystème
tout entier de la planète » 2. Elle a reconnu les « caractéristiques uniques de
l’arme nucléaire, et en particulier … sa puissance destructrice, … sa capacité d’infliger
des souffrances indicibles à l’homme, ainsi que … son pouvoir de causer des
dommages aux générations à venir » 3. Se fondant en grande partie sur son analyse
de l’article VI du traité sur la non‑prolifération des armes nucléaires de 1968 4
(ci‑après le « traité » ou le « TNP »), la Cour a conclu à l’unanimité qu’« [i]l exist[ait]
une obligation de poursuivre de bonne foi et de mener à terme des négociations
conduisant au désarmement nucléaire dans tous ses aspects, sous un contrôle international
strict et efficace » 5.
2. La présente requête ne vise pas à rouvrir la question de la licéité des armes
nucléaires, mais concerne en revanche le manquement aux obligations de droit
international coutumier relatives à la cessation de la course aux armements
nucléaires à une date rapprochée et au désarmement nucléaire consacrées par l’article
VI du TNP et réaffirmées par la Cour.
3. Tant que les indispensables négociations visant à parvenir à la conclusion
recherchée n’auront pas eu lieu, nous continuerons d’être confrontés à la perspective
bien réelle des « dévastations qu’une guerre nucléaire ferait subir à l’humanité
entière » 6, ainsi qu’à la possibilité, voire à la probabilité, que des armes nucléaires
soient utilisées par accident, par erreur de calcul ou à dessein 7, et qu’elles prolifèrent.
Comme l’a souligné sir Joseph Rotblat, lauréat du prix Nobel de la Paix :
« Si certaines nations, dont les plus puissantes sur le plan militaire, affirment
qu’elles ont besoin des armes nucléaires pour assurer leur sécurité, alors on ne
saurait refuser cette sécurité aux autres pays qui se sentent réellement en danger.
La prolifération des armes nucléaires est la conséquence logique de cette
politique nucléaire. » 8
4. Dans son avis consultatif, la Cour a fait observer :
« A terme, le droit international et avec lui la stabilité de l’ordre international
qu’il a pour vocation de régir ne peuvent que souffrir des divergences de
vues qui subsistent aujourd’hui quant au statut juridique d’une arme aussi
meurtrière que l’arme nucléaire. » 9
1 Licéité de la menace ou de l’emploi d’armes nucléaires, avis consultatif,
C.I.J. Recueil 1996 (I), p. 226.
2 Ibid., par. 35.
3 Ibid., par. 36.
4 Nations Unies, Recueil des traités, vol. 729, p. 161.
5 Voir op. cit. supra note 1, par. 105, point 2F.
6 TNP, préambule, 2e alinéa.
7 En 1996, lord Carver, ancien chef d’état-major de la défense du Royaume-Uni (responsable
des forces armées du Royaume-Uni et conseiller militaire principal du ministre de la
défense et du Gouvernement du Royaume-Uni), a déclaré que « le déploiement illimité
d’armes nucléaires présent[ait] un risque important que celles-ci finissent par être utilisées,
que ce soit intentionnellement, par accident ou par inadvertance ». Voir Hansard, débat à la
Chambre des lords, 28 octobre 1996, vol. 575, col. 134.
8 Joseph Rotblat, « Science and Nuclear Weapons : Where Do We Go from Here ? », The
Blackaby Papers, no 5, décembre 2004, p. 7.
9 Voir supra note 1, par. 98.
8
A coherent legal system cannot countenance its own destruction or that of the
community whose activities it seeks to regulate 10. That is why fulfilment of the
obligation “to pursue in good faith and bring to a conclusion negotiations leading
to nuclear disarmament in all its aspects under strict and effective international
control” is so important.
5. Equally, a coherent and civilized legal system cannot tolerate unacceptable
harm to humanity. A lawful and sustainable world order is predicated on a
civilizational
right to survival rooted in “the principles of humanity” 11 and
“elementary
considerations of humanity” 12 which help to shape an emerging “law
of humanity” 13, the international law for humankind of which the nuclear disarmament
obligation is a key element. Yet it is now 68 years since the very first
United Nations General Assembly resolution sought to put in motion the
elimination
from national arsenals of nuclear and other weapons of mass destruction
14, almost 45 years since the NPT entered into force and nearly 20 years since
the Court delivered its Advisory Opinion. The long delay in fulfilling the obligations
enshrined in Article VI of the NPT and customary international law constitutes
a flagrant denial of human justice 15.
10 As B. S. Chimni has stated, “No legal system can confer on any of its members the
right to annihilate the community which engenders it and whose activities it seeks to regulate”.
B. S. Chimni, “Nuclear Weapons and International Law : Some Reflections”, International
Law in Transition : Essays in Memory of Judge Nagendra Singh, 1992, p. 142. Quoted
by Judge Weeramantry in Section V.1 of his dissenting opinion in the Advisory Opinion in
Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons, see supra note 1, at p. 522 ; see also the
dissenting opinion of Judge Shahabuddeen, ibid., p. 393 :
“Thus, however far‑reaching may be the rights conferred by sovereignty, those rights
cannot extend beyond the framework within which sovereignty itself exists ; in
particular, they cannot violate the framework. The framework shuts out the right of a
State to embark on a course of action which would dismantle the basis of the framewo
rk by putting an end to civilization and annihilating mankind.”
11 From the Martens Clause as expressed in Article I, paragraph 2, of Protocol I 1977
Additional to the Geneva Conventions 1949 :
“In cases not covered by this Protocol or by other international agreements, civilians
and combatants remain under the protection and authority of the principles of international
law derived from established custom, from the principles of humanity and from
the dictates of public conscience.”
12 Corfu Channel (United Kingdom v. Albania), Merits, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1949, p. 22.
13 See e.g., the opinion of the Tribunal in the Einsatzgruppen Case (1948) :
“[An] evaluation of international right and wrong, which heretofore existed only in
the heart of mankind, has now been written into the books of men as the law of
humanity. This law is not restricted to events of war. It envisages the protection of
humanity at all times”. United States of America v. Otto Ohlendorf et al., Military
Tribunal II, Case No. 9 (1948), in Trials of War Criminals before the Nuernberg Military
Tribunals under Control Council Law No. 10, Vol. IV, Nuremberg, October
1946‑Apri1 1949 (US Government Printing Office, 1950-872486), p. 497, available at
http://www.loc.gov/rr/frd/Military_Law/pdf/NT_war-criminals_
Vol-IV.pdf.
14 A/RES/I (I), 24 January 1946.
15 Cf. Judge Cançado Trindade’s remarks in Section XIII of his separate opinion in
Questions relating to the Obligation to Prosecute or Extradite (Belgium v. Senegal), Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 2012 (II), pp. 544‑548 ; especially at paragraph 145 where he contrasts
“the brief time of human beings (vita brevis) and the often prolonged time of human
justice”.
9
Un système juridique cohérent ne saurait admettre sa propre destruction ou celle
de la société dont il vise à régir le fonctionnement 10. C’est pourquoi le respect de
l’obligation de « poursuivre de bonne foi et de mener à terme des négociations
conduisant au désarmement nucléaire dans tous ses aspects, sous un contrôle international
strict et efficace », revêt une telle importance.
5. De même, un système juridique cohérent et civilisé ne saurait tolérer que des
dommages inacceptables soient causés à l’humanité. L’existence pérenne d’un ordre
juridique mondial repose sur l’hypothèse qu’il existe un droit de la civilisation à la
survie, ancré dans « les principes de l’humanité » 11 et les « considérations élémentaires
d’humanité » 12, lesquels contribuent à forger le « droit de l’humanité » 13, ce
droit international en devenir destiné à toute l’humanité, dont l’obligation de procéder
à un désarmement nucléaire constitue un élément fondamental. Or,
soixante‑huit ans se sont écoulés depuis que l’Assemblée générale des Nations Unies
a cherché, avec sa toute première résolution, à lancer le processus visant à éliminer
des arsenaux nationaux les armes nucléaires et autres armes de destruction massive
14, et près de quarante‑cinq et respectivement vingt ans depuis que le TNP est
entré en vigueur et que la Cour a rendu son avis consultatif. Le long retard pris
relativement au respect des obligations prévues par l’article VI du TNP et par le
droit international coutumier constitue un déni flagrant de justice des hommes 15.
10 Pour reprendre les propos de B. S. Chimni, « [a]ucun système juridique ne peut conférer à
l’un quelconque de ses membres le droit d’anéantir la société dont il est l’émanation et dont il
vise à réglementer le fonctionnement ». B. S. Chimni, « Nuclear Weapons and International
Law : Some Reflections », International Law in Transition : Essays in Memory of Judge Nagendra
Singh, 1992, p. 142. Cité par M. le juge Weeramantry à la section V.1 de l’opinion dissidente
qu’il a jointe à l’avis consultatif sur la Licéité de la menace ou de l’emploi d’armes nucléaires, voir
supra note 1, p. 522 ; voir aussi l’opinion dissidente de M. le juge Shahabuddeen, ibid., p. 393 :
« Ainsi donc, si étendus que puissent être les droits découlant de la souveraineté, ces
droits ne peuvent aller au-delà du cadre dans lequel la souveraineté elle-même existe ; en
particulier, ils ne peuvent violer ledit cadre. Celui-ci exclut qu’un Etat puisse avoir le
droit d’entreprendre une action qui démantèlerait la base du cadre en anéantissant la
civ ilisation et l’humanité. »
11 Expression tirée de la clause de Martens telle qu’énoncée au paragraphe 2 de l’article
premier du Protocole additionnel I de 1977 aux conventions de Genève de 1949 :
« Dans les cas non prévus par le présent Protocole ou par d’autres accords internationaux,
les personnes civiles et les combattants restent sous la sauvegarde et sous l’empire
des principes du droit des gens, tels qu’ils résultent des usages établis, des principes de
l’hu manité et des exigences de la conscience publique. »
12 Détroit de Corfou (Royaume-Uni c. Albanie), fond, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1949, p. 22.
13 Voir, par exemple, l’opinion du Tribunal de Nuremberg dans l’affaire des Einsatzgruppen
(1948) :
« [Une] évaluation du bien et du mal au niveau international, qui n’existait jusqu’ici
que dans le coeur des hommes, est désormais inscrite dans leurs livres en tant que droit
de l’humanité. Ce droit ne se limite pas aux actes de guerre, mais a pour objet de
protéger l’humanité en toutes circonstances. » Etats-Unis d’Amérique c. Otto Ohlendorf
et consorts, Tribunal militaire II, affaire no 9 (1948), dans Trials of War Criminals
before the Nuernberg Military Tribunals under Control Council Law No. 10, vol. IV,
Nuremberg, octobre 1946-avril 1949 (US Government Printing Office, 1950-872486),
p. 497, peut être consulté en anglais à l’adresse suivante : http://www.loc.gov/rr/frd/
Military_Law/pdf/NT_war-criminals_Vol-IV.pdf.
14 A/RES/I (I), 24 janvier 1946.
15 Voir les observations faites par M. le juge Cançado Trindade dans l’opinion individuelle
qu’il a jointe à l’arrêt en l’affaire relative à des Questions concernant l’obligation de
poursuivre ou d’extrader (Belgique c. Sénégal), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2012 (II), p. 544‑548, en
particulier au paragraphe 145, où il oppose « le temps compté des êtres humains (vita brevis)
et le temps souvent long de la justice des hommes ».
10
6. Inspired and guided by these principles and values, this is an Application
instituting proceedings against Pakistan, a State possessing nuclear weapons not
party to the NPT. The underlying claims, described in more detail herein, are that
Pakistan is : (i) in continuing breach of its obligations under customary international
law, including specifically its obligation to pursue in good faith negotiations
to cease the nuclear arms race at an early date, as well as to pursue in good faith
negotiations leading to nuclear disarmament in all its aspects under strict and
effective international control ; and (ii) in continuing breach of its obligation to
perform its international legal obligations in good faith.
7. The Applicant herein is the Republic of the Marshall Islands (the “Marshall
Islands” or “RMI” or “Applicant”). The Applicant is a non-nuclear-weapon State
(“NNWS”) party to the Treaty. It acceded to the Treaty as a party on 30 January
1995, and has continued to be a party to it since that time.
8. While cessation of the nuclear arms race and nuclear disarmament are vitally
important objectives for the entire international community, the Marshall Islands
has a particular awareness of the dire consequences of nuclear weapons. The Marshall
Islands was the location of repeated nuclear weapons testing from 1946 to
1958, during the time that the international community had placed it under the
trusteeship of the United States 16. During those 12 years, 67 nuclear weapons of
varying explosive power were detonated in the Marshall Islands, at varying distances
from human population 17. According to the 3 September 2012 Report of
Calin Georgescu, a Special Rapporteur to the United Nations Human Rights
Council, the devastating adverse impact on the Marshall Islands of those nuclear
substances and wastes continues to this day 18. The Special Rapporteur concludes
that “the harm suffered by the Marshallese people has resulted in an increased
global understanding of the movement of radionuclides through marine and terrestrial
environments”, and urges the international community to “learn from the
Marshallese experience with nuclear contamination, particularly the . . . understanding
of the relationship between radioiodine and thyroid cancer” 19.
9. With regard to the RMI’s interest in bringing this Application to the Court,
the following should be added. It is well known that over recent years the RMI has
been preoccupied with combating the extremely harmful consequences that the
effects of climate change have for its very survival. While focusing on the problem
of climate change, the RMI has come to realize that it cannot ignore the other
major threat to its survival : the ongoing threat posed by the existence of large
arsenals of nuclear weapons the use of which, according to the Court, “seems
scarcely reconcilable with respect for . . . requirements [of the principles and rules
of law applicable in armed conflict]” 20. It is obvious that the RMI’s participation
in the common struggle against climate change needs to lead to firm commitments
by all States, which commitments must include not only moral, but also legal obligations
aimed at realizing concrete, clear‑cut goals in order to remove the threat of
devastation caused by continued reliance on the use of fossil fuel energy sources. It
is from this perspective of striving to reach agreement on such commitments in the
struggle against climate change that the RMI has concluded that it is no longer
16 Report of the Special Rapporteur on the implications for human rights of the environmentally
sound management and disposal of hazardous substances and wastes, Calin Georgescu
; Addendum, Mission to the Marshall Islands (27-30 March 2012) and the United
States of America (24-27 April 2012), 3 September 2012, doc. A/HRC/21/48/Add.1.
17 Ibid., paras. 1-18.
18 Ibid., para. 19.
19 Ibid., para. 66 (b).
20 See supra note 1, para. 95.
11
6. Inspirée et guidée par ces principes et valeurs, la présente requête introduit
une instance contre le Pakistan (ci-après le « Pakistan »), Etat doté d’armes nucléaires
non partie au TNP. Les demandes qui suivent sont reprises et détaillées plus avant
dans la requête : le Pakistan : i) manque de manière continue aux obligations qui lui
incombent en vertu du droit international coutumier, en particulier à celle de
mener de bonne foi des négociations devant, d’une part, mettre fin à une date
rapprochée
à la course aux armements nucléaires et, d’autre part, déboucher
sur un désarmement nucléaire dans tous ses aspects effectué sous un contrôle
international
strict et efficace ; et ii) manque de manière continue à son obligation
de s’acquitter de bonne foi de ses obligations juridiques internationales.
7. Le demandeur à la présente est la République des Iles Marshall (ci‑après les
« Iles Marshall »), Etat partie au traité non doté d’armes nucléaires. Les Iles Marshall
sont devenues partie au traité par voie d’adhésion le 30 janvier 1995 et n’ont
cessé de l’être depuis lors.
8. Si la cessation de la course aux armements nucléaires et le désarmement nucléaire
constituent des objectifs d’une importance vitale pour la communauté internationale
dans son ensemble, les Iles Marshall sont particulièrement sensibilisées aux effets
désastreux des armes nucléaires. De 1946 à 1958, période pendant laquelle la communauté
internationale les avait placées sous la tutelle des Etats‑Unis, elles ont été à
plusieurs reprises le théâtre d’essais nucléaires 16. Au cours de ces douze années,
67 armes nucléaires de différentes puissances ont explosé dans les Iles Marshall, à
distance variable de populations humaines 17. Selon le rapport du 3 septembre 2012
établi par Calin Georgescu, rapporteur spécial au Conseil des droits de l’homme des
Nations Unies, l’effet dévastateur pour les Iles Marshall de ces substances et déchets
nucléaires se fait encore sentir aujourd’hui 18. Le rapporteur spécial conclut que « les
dommages subis par la population marshallaise ont permis de mieux comprendre, au
niveau mondial, le cheminement des radionucléides dans les environnements marin et
terrestre » et prie la communauté internationale de « tirer les leçons de l’expérience
vécue par les Iles Marshall en matière de contamination nucléaire, et en particulier
… des liens entre l’iode radioactif et le cancer de la thyroïde » 19.
9. S’agissant de l’intérêt de la République des Iles Marshall à introduire la présente
requête devant la Cour, il convient d’ajouter ce qui suit. Il est de notoriété
publique que, ces dernières années, la République des Iles Marshall a cherché à
combattre les conséquences extrêmement néfastes des effets du changement climatique,
qui vont jusqu’à mettre en danger sa survie. En se concentrant sur ce problème,
elle a pris conscience qu’elle ne pouvait ignorer l’autre grande menace que
font peser sur sa survie les vastes arsenaux nucléaires qui subsistent encore
aujourd’hui et dont la Cour a jugé que l’utilisation n’était « guère conciliable avec le
respect [des] exigences … [relatives aux principes et règles du droit applicable dans
les conflits armés] » 20. La participation de la République des Iles Marshall à la lutte
commune contre le changement climatique doit de toute évidence conduire à ce que
tous les Etats prennent des engagements fermes, parmi lesquels doivent figurer des
obligations non seulement morales mais aussi juridiques visant à atteindre des
objectifs concrets clairement définis afin d’éliminer la menace d’une dévastation
causée par la poursuite de l’utilisation de sources d’énergie fondées sur des combus-
16 Rapport du rapporteur spécial sur les incidences sur les droits de l’homme de la gestion
et de l’élimination écologiquement rationnelles des produits et déchets dangereux, Calin
Georgescu ; additif, mission dans les Iles Marshall (27-30 mars 2012) et aux Etats-Unis
d’Amérique (24-27 avril 2012), 3 septembre 2012, doc. A/HRC/21/48/Add.l.
17 Ibid., par. 1-18.
18 Ibid., par. 19.
19 Ibid., par. 66 b).
20 Voir supra note 1, par. 95.
12
acceptable simply to be a party to the NPT while total nuclear disarmament pursuant
to Article VI and customary international law remains at best a distant prospect.
This Application seeks to ensure that Pakistan fulfils in good faith and in a
timely manner all its legal obligations in relation to cessation of the nuclear arms
race and to nuclear disarmament.
10. One of the reasons why the RMI became a party to the NPT is that this
Treaty is the key instrument of the international community for ridding the world
of nuclear weapons 21. Article VI of the Treaty states, in its entirety, as follows :
“Each of the parties to the Treaty undertakes to pursue negotiations in
good faith on effective measures relating to cessation of the nuclear arms race
at an early date and to nuclear disarmament, and on a treaty on general and
complete disarmament under strict and effective international control.” 22
11. As previously stated, the Court concluded its Advisory Opinion of
8 July 1996 by unanimously holding that “[t]here exists an obligation to pursue in
good faith and bring to a conclusion negotiations leading to nuclear disarmament
in all its aspects under strict and effective international control” 23.
12. More than four decades after the NPT entered into force, Pakistan has not
joined the Treaty as a non‑nuclear‑weapon State, and instead has tested nuclear
weapons and acquired a nuclear arsenal which it is maintaining, improving, diversifying,
and expanding.
13. Pakistan has not fulfilled its obligation under customary international law
to pursue in good faith negotiations to cease the nuclear arms race at an early date,
and instead is taking actions to improve and expand its nuclear forces and to maintain
them for the indefinite future.
14. Similarly, Pakistan has not fulfilled its obligation under customary international
law to pursue in good faith negotiations leading to nuclear disarmament in
all its aspects under strict and effective international control, in particular by
engaging a course of conduct, the quantitative build‑up and qualitative improvement
of its nuclear forces, contrary to the objective of nuclear disarmament.
15. Further, the obligation of a State to perform its legal obligations in good
faith, whether arising under a treaty or pursuant to customary international law, is
itself a legal obligation that Pakistan has breached.
II. Facts
A. The Five Nuclear-Weapon States Parties to the NPT
16. The United States was the first country in the world to develop and test
nuclear weapons. The United States used nuclear weapons in warfare on the Japa-
21 At the United Nations High-Level Meeting on Nuclear Disarmament, 26 September
2013, Hon. Mr. Phillip Muller, Minister of Foreign Affairs, Republic of the Marshall
Islands, stated that the RMI’s “deeper purpose” is “that no nation and people should ever
have to bear witness to the burden of exposure to the devastating impacts of nuclear
weapons”, http://www.un.org/en/ga/68/meetings/nucleardisarmament/pdf/MH_en.pdf.
22 See supra note 4.
23 See supra note 1, para. 105, point 2F.
13
tibles fossiles. C’est dans le contexte de la recherche d’un accord sur de tels engagements
visant à lutter contre le changement climatique que la République des Iles
Marshall est parvenue à la conclusion qu’elle ne pouvait plus se contenter d’être
partie au TNP, alors que le désarmement nucléaire total, en application de l’article
VI et du droit international coutumier, reste au mieux une perspective lointaine.
La présente requête vise à faire en sorte que le Pakistan s’acquitte de bonne
foi et dans un délai raisonnable de toutes ses obligations juridiques concernant la
cessation de la course aux armements nucléaires et le désarmement nucléaire.
10. L’une des raisons pour lesquelles la République des Iles Marshall est devenue
partie au TNP tient au fait que ce traité constitue le principal instrument mis
au point par la communauté internationale dans le but de débarrasser le monde
des armes nucléaires 21. Le libellé complet de l’article VI du traité est le suivant :
« Chacune des Parties au Traité s’engage à poursuivre de bonne foi des
négociations sur des mesures efficaces relatives à la cessation de la course aux
armements nucléaires à une date rapprochée et au désarmement nucléaire, et
sur un traité de désarmement général et complet sous un contrôle international
strict et efficace. » 22
11. Comme indiqué précédemment, la Cour, dans son avis consultatif du 8 juillet
1996, est unanimement parvenue à la conclusion qu’« [i]l exist[ait] une obligation de
poursuivre de bonne foi et de mener à terme des négociations conduisant au désarmement
nucléaire dans tous ses aspects, sous un contrôle international strict et efficace » 23.
12. Plus de quarante ans après l’entrée en vigueur du TNP, le Pakistan n’est
toujours pas devenu partie au traité en qualité d’Etat non doté d’armes nucléaires.
En revanche, il a procédé à des essais nucléaires et s’est équipé, dans ce domaine,
d’un arsenal qu’il conserve, améliore, diversifie et accroît.
13. Le Pakistan, au lieu de s’acquitter de l’obligation que lui impose le droit
international coutumier de poursuivre de bonne foi des négociations pour mettre
fin à la course aux armements nucléaires à une date rapprochée, cherche à améliorer
et à accroître ses forces nucléaires et à les conserver pour une durée illimitée.
14. De même, le Pakistan a manqué de s’acquitter de l’obligation que lui impose
le droit international coutumier de poursuivre de bonne foi des négociations
conduisant à un désarmement nucléaire dans tous ses aspects effectué sous un
contrôle international strict et efficace, et ce, en particulier, en adoptant une ligne
de conduite qui, en visant à accroître et à améliorer ses forces nucléaires, est
contraire à l’objectif du désarmement nucléaire.
15. Par ailleurs, l’obligation qui incombe à tout Etat de se conformer de bonne
foi à ses obligations juridiques, qu’elles découlent d’un traité ou relèvent du droit
international coutumier, constitue elle‑même une obligation juridique, obligation
à laquelle le Pakistan a manqué.
II. Les faits
A. Les cinq Etats parties au TNP dotés d’armes nucléaires
16. Les Etats‑Unis ont été les premiers à mettre au point des armes nucléaires et
à les soumettre à des essais. Ils ont ensuite utilisé ces armes en temps de guerre
21 Lors de la réunion de haut niveau des Nations Unies sur le désarmement nucléaire qui
s’est tenue le 26 septembre 2013, M. Phillip Muller, ministre des affaires étrangères de la
République des Iles Marshall, a déclaré que l’« objectif ultime » des Iles Marshall consistait
à faire en sorte « qu’aucune nation ou population ne doive jamais témoigner du fardeau
représenté par une exposition aux impacts dévastateurs d’armes nucléaires », http://www.
un.org/en/ga/68/meetings/nucleardisarmament/pdf/MH_en.pdf.
22 Voir supra note 4.
23 Voir supra note 1, par. 105, point 2F.
14
nese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki on 6 August 1945 and 9 August 1945
respectively. The United States was the sole possessor of nuclear weapons in the
world until the Soviet Union tested its first nuclear weapon on 29 August 1949.
In 1952, the United Kingdom tested its first nuclear weapon. In 1960, France
tested its first nuclear weapon. In 1964, China tested its first nuclear weapon.
17. In the 1960s, negotiations eventuated in agreement on the Nuclear Non‑Proliferation
Treaty. The United States, Russia, the United Kingdom, France
and China, all parties to the NPT, are the only States meeting the Treaty’s definition
of a “nuclear‑weapon State” for “the purposes of this Treaty” 24.
18. The Treaty was opened for signature on 1 July 1968, and entered into force
in March 1970.
B. The Nine States Possessing Nuclear Weapons
19. In addition to the five NPT nuclear-weapon States, four non‑NPT States are
known to possess nuclear weapons : India, Pakistan, Israel and the Democratic
People’s Republic of Korea (“DPRK”) 25.
20. According to the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute
(“SIPRI”), the individual and collective world nuclear forces as of January 2013,
were as follows :
World Nuclear Forces, January 2013 26
(All figures are approximate)
Country
Year
of first
nuclear test
Deployed
Warheads a
Other
Warheads b
Total
Inventory
United States 1945 2,150 c 5,550 ~ 7,700 d
Russia 1949 ~ 1,800 6,700 e ~ 8,500 f
United Kingdom 1952 160 65 225
France 1960 ~ 290 ~ 10 ~ 300
China 1964 ~ 250 ~ 250
India 1974 90-110 90-110
Pakistan 1998 100-120 100-120
Israel ~ 80 ~ 80
North Korea 2006 6-8?
Total ~ 4,400 ~ 12,865 ~ 17,270
a “Deployed” means warheads placed on missiles or located on bases with operational
forces.
24 Article IX.3 of the NPT provides : “For the purposes of this Treaty, a nuclear‑weapon
State is one which has manufactured and exploded a nuclear weapon or other nuclear explosive
device prior to 1 January 1967.”
25 See infra note 71.
26 See Shannon N. Kile, “World Nuclear Forces”, SIPRI Yearbook 2013, Oxford University
Press, 2013. The question mark (?) against North Korea’s total inventory is in the
original.
15
dans les villes japonaises de Hiroshima et de Nagasaki, respectivement les 6 et
9 août 1945. Il s’agissait du seul pays au monde à posséder de telles armes avant
que l’Union soviétique ne procède à un essai de sa première arme nucléaire, le
29 août 1949, suivie par le Royaume‑Uni en 1952, la France en 1960 et la Chine
en 1964.
17. Dans les années soixante, des négociations ont abouti à un accord concernant
un traité sur la non‑prolifération des armes nucléaires. La Chine, les
Etats‑Unis, la France, le Royaume‑Uni et la Russie, qui sont tous parties au TNP,
constituent les seuls Etats répondant à la définition donnée dans celui‑ci d’un
« Etat doté d’armes nucléaires » aux « fins du … Traité » 24.
18. Le traité a été ouvert à la signature le 1er juillet 1968 et est entré en vigueur
le 5 mars 1970.
B. Les neuf Etats dotés d’armes nucléaires
19. Outre les cinq Etats parties au TNP dotés d’armes nucléaires, quatre Etats
qui n’y sont pas parties possèdent l’arme nucléaire : l’Inde, Israël, le Pakistan et la
République populaire démocratique de Corée (ci‑après la « RPDC ») 25.
20. Selon l’Institut international de recherche pour la paix de Stockholm
(ci‑après le « SIPRI »), en janvier 2013, l’arsenal nucléaire mondial, pris individuellement
et collectivement, se présentait comme suit :
Forces nucléaires mondiales, janvier 2013 26
(tous les chiffres sont approximatifs)
Pays
Année
du premier
essai nucléaire
Ogives
déployées a
Autres
ogives b
Inventaire
total
Etats-Unis 1945 2 150 c 5 550 ~ 7 700 d
Russie 1949 ~ 1 800 6 700 e ~ 8 500 f
Royaume-Uni 1952 160 65 225
France 1960 ~ 290 ~ 10 ~ 300
Chine 1964 ~ 250 ~ 250
Inde 1974 90-110 90-110
Pakistan 1998 100-120 100-120
Israël ~ 80 ~ 80
Corée du Nord 2006 6-8 ?
Total ~ 4 400 ~ 12 865 ~ 17 270
a Par « déployées », on entend des ogives embarquées sur des missiles ou situées dans des
bases dotées de forces opérationnelles.
24 Le paragraphe 3 de l’article IX du TNP dispose que, « [a]ux fins du présent Traité, un
Etat doté d’armes nucléaires est un Etat qui a fabriqué et … fait exploser une arme nucléaire
ou un autre dispositif nucléaire explosif avant le 1er janvier 1967 ».
25 Voir infra note 71.
26 Voir Shannon N. Kile, « World Nuclear Forces », Annuaire 2013 du SIPRI, Oxford
University Press, 2013. Le point d’interrogation (?) concernant l’inventaire total de la Corée
du Nord figure dans l’original.
16
b These are warheads in reserve, awaiting dismantlement or that require some preparation
(e.g., assembly or loading on launchers) before they become fully operationally available.
c In addition to strategic warheads, this figure includes nearly 200 non-strategic (tactical)
nuclear weapons deployed in Europe.
d This figure includes the United States Department of Defense nuclear stockpile of
c. 4,650 warheads and another c. 3,000 retired warheads that are awaiting dismantlement.
e This figure includes c. 700 warheads for nuclear-powered ballistic missile submarines
(SSBNs) in overhaul and bombers, 2000 non-strategic nuclear weapons for use by shortrange
naval, air force and air defence forces, and c. 4,000 retired warheads awaiting dismantlement.
f This includes a military stockpile of c. 4,500 nuclear warheads and another c. 4,000
retired warheads await dismantlement.
C. Pakistan and the Nuclear Arms Race
1. Early nuclear history
21. Pakistan’s nuclear weapons programme dates back to its defeat in the 1971
Indo‑Pakistani war and the 1974 Indian detonation of a “peaceful” nuclear
device 27. It built centrifuges for enrichment of uranium based on designs stolen
from the European consortium URENCO by A. Q. Khan 28. Reportedly, Pakistan
fielded its first deliverable nuclear weapon around 1986 29. After India conducted
nuclear weapons explosive tests on 11 May 1998, Pakistan conducted at least two
such tests on 28 and 30 May 1998 30. Pakistan has conducted no further such tests.
2. Pakistan’s current nuclear arsenal
22. As of 2013, Pakistan was estimated to have 100 to 120 nuclear warheads 31.
The arsenal has grown from an estimated two warheads in 1998 32. The operational
delivery systems are two types of intermediate range aircraft, the F-16A/B and
27 See Feroz Hassan Khan, “Pakistan’s Perspective on the Global Elimination of Nuclear
Weapons”, in Barry M. Blechman and Alexander K. Bollfrass (eds.), National Perspectives
on Nuclear Disarmament, Washington, Henry L. Stimson Center, 2010 (hereafter “Khan”),
pp. 214‑215 ; Timothy McDonnell, “Nuclear Pursuits : Non-P-5 Nuclear-Armed States,
2013”, Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, Nuclear Notebook, Vol. 69 (1), 2013 (hereafter
“McDonnell”), p. 68, http://bos.sagepub.com/cgi/reprint/69/1/62 ; A. H. Nayyar and Zia
Mian, “Pakistan”, in International Panel on Fissile Materials, Country Perspectives on the
Challenges to Nuclear Disarmament (2010), p. 69, http://fissilematerials.org/library/2010/05/
country_perspectives_on_the_c.html.
28 See McDonnell, op. cit. supra note 27, p. 68 ; Khan, op. cit. supra note 27, pp. 223‑224.
29 See McDonnell, op. cit. supra note 27, p. 64.
30 See ibid., pp. 64‑65.
31 See op. cit. supra note 26 and chart in text. The term “nuclear warheads” as used here
refers to both warheads deliverable by missile and gravity bombs deliverable by aircraft.
32 See Zia Mian, “Pakistan”, in Ray Acheson, (ed.), Assuring Destruction Forever :
Nuclear Weapon Modernization around the World (Reaching Critical Will : A Project of the
Women’s International League for Peace and Freedom, 2012) (hereafter “Mian”), p. 51,
http://www.reachingcriticalwill.org/images/documents/Publications/moder…-
destructionforever.pdf.
17
b Ogives de réserve, en attente de démantèlement ou nécessitant une certaine préparation
(montage ou chargement sur des lanceurs, etc.) pour être entièrement opérationnelles.
c Outre les ogives stratégiques, ce chiffre comprend près de 200 armes nucléaires non
stratégiques (tactiques) déployées en Europe.
d Ce chiffre comprend l’arsenal nucléaire du ministère de la défense des Etats‑Unis, soit
environ 4 650 ogives opérationnelles, et quelque 3 000 ogives déclassées en attente de démantèlement.
e Ce chiffre comprend environ 700 ogives destinées à des sous‑marins nucléaires lanceurs
d’engins (SNLE) en révision et à des bombardiers, 2 000 armes nucléaires non stratégiques
destinées aux forces navales, aériennes et de défense aérienne à courte portée, et quelque
4 000 ogives déclassées en attente de démantèlement.
f Ce chiffre comprend un arsenal militaire composé d’environ 4 500 ogives nucléaires
opérationnelles et de quelque 4 000 ogives déclassées en attente de démantèlement.
C. Le Pakistan et la course aux armements nucléaires
1. Débuts du Pakistan en matière d’armement nucléaire
21. C’est après sa défaite dans la guerre qui l’a opposé à l’Inde en 1971 et l’explosion,
par cette dernière, d’un engin nucléaire « pacifique » 27 en 1974 que le
Pakistan mit en place un programme d’armement nucléaire. Il construisit des centrifugeuses
permettant d’enrichir de l’uranium à partir de plans dérobés par
A. Q. Khan au consortium européen URENCO 28. Le Pakistan est considéré
comme ayant déployé sa première arme nucléaire vers 1986 29. Après que l’Inde eut
procédé à des explosions nucléaires expérimentales le 11 mai 1998, le Pakistan se
livra à son tour à au moins deux essais, les 28 et 30 mai 1998 30. Il n’a procédé à
aucun autre essai nucléaire depuis.
2. Arsenal nucléaire actuel du Pakistan
22. En 2013, le Pakistan était considéré comme disposant de 100 à 120 ogives
nucléaires 31, contre deux en 1998 32. Les systèmes de vecteurs opérationnels sont
constitués par deux types d’avions à moyen rayon d’action, le F‑16A/B et le
27 Voir Feroz Hassan Khan, « Pakistan’s Perspective on the Global Elimination of
Nuclear Weapons », dans Barry M. Blechman et Alexander K. Bollfrass (dir. publ.), National
Perspectives on Nuclear Disarmament, Washington, Henry L. Stimson Center, 2010 (ci-après
« Khan »), p. 214‑215 ; Timothy McDonnell, « Nuclear Pursuits : Non-P-5 Nuclear-Armed
States, 2013 », Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, Nuclear Notebook, vol. 69-1 (2013) (ci-après
« McDonnell »), p. 68, http://bos.sagepub.com/cgi/reprint/69/1/62 ; A. H. Nayyar et Zia
Mian, « Pakistan », dans International Panel on Fissile Materials, Country Perspectives on
the Challenges to Nuclear Disarmament, 2010, p. 69, http://fissilematerials.org/library/2010/05/
country_perspectives_on_the_c.html.
28 Voir McDonnell, op. cit. supra note 27, p. 68 ; Khan, op. cit. supra note 27, p. 223‑224.
29 Voir McDonnell, op. cit. supra note 27, p. 64.
30 Voir ibid., p. 64‑65.
31 Voir op. cit. supra note 26 et le tableau dans le corps du texte. L’expression « ogive
nucléaire » telle qu’elle est utilisée ici renvoie aussi bien à des ogives pouvant être propulsées
par missiles qu’à des bombes à gravitation pouvant être larguées par avion.
32 Voir Zia Mian, « Pakistan », dans Ray Acheson (dir. publ.), Assuring Destruction
Forever : Nuclear Weapon Modernization around the World (Reaching Critical Will :
A Project of the Women’s International League for Peace and Freedom, 2012) (ciaprès
« Mian »), p. 51, http://www.reachingcriticalwill.org/images/documents/Publications/
modernization/assuring-destructionforever.pdf.
18
Mirage V, and three types of short and intermediate range land-based ballistic missiles
33.
3. Nuclear policy, doctrine and expenditure
23. Pakistan has released no official doctrine regarding possible use of nuclear
weapons. It has refused to adopt a no-first-use policy 34. Observers agree that while
preserving ambiguity, Pakistan is signalling the possibility of resorting to nuclear
weapons if faced with an overwhelming conventional attack by India striking deep
into Pakistani territory, and perhaps in other circumstances creating strategic
vulnerabilities
for Pakistan 35.
24. Regarding the 1996 Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty, Pakistan is
one of the 44 Annex II countries that must ratify the Treaty for it to enter into
force 36. Pakistan has not signed or ratified the Treaty, nor has it in recent years
given any indication that it intends to do so 37.
25. Regarding a Fissile Materials Cut-off Treaty (FMCT), since 2009 Pakistan
has been blocking consensus in the Conference on Disarmament on commencing
negotiations on such a treaty 38. Pakistan has two main objections. The first is that
the negotiating mandate does not specify that the Treaty would address the reduction
of existing stocks of fissile materials 39. The second is that the programme of
work envisaging negotiation of an FMCT provides only for discussions short of
negotiations on other items, namely complete nuclear disarmament, assurances of
non-use of nuclear weapons against non-nuclear-weapon States, and prevention of
33 See Hans M. Kristensen and Robert S. Norris, “Pakistan’s nuclear forces, 2011”,
Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, Nuclear Notebook, Vol. 67, No. 4, 2011) (hereafter “Kristensen
and Norris”), p. 93, http://bos.sagepub.com/cgi/reprint/65/5/82 ; Hans M. Kristensen,
“Nuclear Weapons and Arms Control : Modernizing Nuclear Arsenals”, Briefing,
3 November 2013 (hereafter “Kristensen”), slide 14, https://www.fas.org/programs/ssp/
nukes/publications1/Brief2013_GWU-APS.pdf ; Mian, op. cit. supra note 32, p. 52. The
range of the F-16A/B is 1,600 km and the Mirage V, 2,100 km. The ballistic missiles are the
Ghaznavi (Hatf-3), with a range of ~ 400 km ; the Shaheen-1 (Hatf-4), 450+ km ; and Ghauri
(Hatf-5), 1,200+.
34 See Khan, op. cit. supra note 27, p. 215 ; Vipin Narang, “Posturing for Peace ? Pakistan’s
Nuclear Postures and South Asian Stability”, International Security, Vol. 34, No. 3
(Winter 2009-2010) (hereafter “Narang”), pp. 56‑57, www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/
pdf/10.1162/isec.2010.34.3.38 ; Jane Perlez, “India’s Suspicion of Pakistan Clouds US Strategy”,
New York Times, 27 November 2008.
35 See Narang, op. cit. supra note 34, pp. 58‑60 ; Khan, op. cit. supra note 27, p. 218 ;
A. H. Nayyar, “A Pakistani Perspective on Nuclear Disarmament and Non-Proliferation”,
Briefing Paper 9 (Friedrich Ebert Stiftung, August 2008) (hereafter, “Nayyar”), p. 4, http://
library.fes.de/pdf-files/iez/global/05652.pdf.
36 Per Article XIV.
37 See Eloise Watson, “The CTBT : Obstacles to Entry into Force” (New York : Reaching
Critical Will : A Project of the Women’s International League for Peace and Freedom,
September 2012), pp. 18‑19, http://www.reachingcriticalwill.org/images/documents/
Publications/ctbt-obstacles.pdf ; Liviu Horovitz and Robert Golan‑Vilella, “Comprehensive
Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty : How the Dominoes Might Fall After US Ratification”,
17 The Nonproliferation Review (No. 2, July 2010), pp. 249‑250.
38 See Zia Mian and A. H. Nayyar, “Playing the Nuclear Game : Pakistan and the Fissile
Material Cutoff Treaty”, Arms Control Today, April 2011 (hereafter “Mian and Nayyar”),
http://www.armscontrol.org/act/2010_04/Mian. Pakistan has maintained its opposition to
commencement of negotiations on the treaty through early 2014.
39 See, Statement by Ambassador Zamir Akram, Permanent Representative of Pakistan
to the United Nations at the CD Plenary, 12 February 2013, http://www.reachingcriticalwill.
org/images/documents/Disarmament-fora/cd/2013/Statements/12Feb_Pakistan.pdf.
19
Mirage V, et trois types de missiles balistiques à lanceur terrestre de courte portée
et de portée intermédiaire 33.
3. Politique, doctrine et dépenses du Pakistan en matière d’armements nucléaires
23. Le Pakistan n’a publié aucune doctrine officielle concernant l’emploi éventuel
d’armes nucléaires. Il a par ailleurs refusé d’adopter une politique de
non‑recours en premier à l’arme nucléaire 34. Les observateurs reconnaissent que,
tout en préservant l’ambiguïté, le Pakistan laisse entrevoir la possibilité de recourir
à l’arme nucléaire s’il est confronté à une attaque conventionnelle massive de la
part de l’Inde, qui frapperait son territoire en profondeur, ainsi que, peut‑être,
dans d’autres conditions qui l’affaibliraient en certains points stratégiques 35.
24. Quant au traité d’interdiction complète des essais nucléaires de 1996, le Pakistan
figure parmi les 44 pays mentionnés à l’annexe II qui doivent ratifier le traité
pour que celui‑ci entre en vigueur 36. Or le Pakistan n’a ni signé ni ratifié le traité et
n’a jamais, ces dernières années, donné à entendre que telle serait son intention 37.
25. S’agissant du traité sur l’arrêt de la production de matières fissiles (FMCT), le
Pakistan empêche, depuis 2009, tout consensus au sein de la Conférence du désarmement
en faveur de l’ouverture de négociations 38. Il nourrit à cet égard deux objections
principales. La première est que le mandat de négociation n’indique pas si le
traité portera sur la réduction des réserves de matières fissiles existantes 39. La seconde
est que, en ce qui concerne d’autres questions, telles que le désarmement nucléaire
complet, les assurances de non‑recours à l’arme nucléaire contre les Etats qui n’en
sont pas dotés et la prévention d’une course aux armements dans l’espace, le pro-
33 Voir Hans M. Kristensen et Robert S. Norris, « Pakistan’s nuclear forces, 2011 »,
Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, Nuclear Notebook, vol. 67-4 (2011) (ci-après « Kristensen et
Norris »), p. 93, http://bos.sagepub.com/cgi/reprint/65/5/82 ; Hans M. Kristensen, « Nuclear
Weapons and Arms Control : Modernizing Nuclear Arsenals », Briefing, 3 novembre 2013
(ci-après « Kristensen »), diapositive 14, https://www.fas.org/programs/ssp/nukes/publications1/
Brief2013_GWU-APS.pdf ; Mian, op. cit. supra note 32, p. 52. Le F-16A/B a une
portée de 1 600 km et le Mirage V, de 2 100 km. Les missiles balistiques sont le Ghaznavi
(Hatf-3), le Shaheen-1 (Hatf-4) et le Ghauri (Hatf-5), dont les portées sont respectivement
d’environ 400 km, de plus de 450 km et de plus de 1 200 km.
34 Voir Khan, op. cit. supra note 27, p. 215 ; Vipin Narang, « Posturing for Peace ? Pakistan’s
Nuclear Postures and South Asian Stability », International Security, vol. 34, no 3
(hiver 2009-2010) (ci-après « Narang »), p. 56‑57, www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/
isec.2010.34.3.38 ; Jane Perlez, « India’s Suspicion of Pakistan Clouds US Strategy »,
New York Times, 27 novembre 2008.
35 Voir Narang, op. cit. supra note 34, p. 58‑60 ; Khan, op. cit. supra note 27, p. 218 ;
A. H. Nayyar, « A Pakistani Perspective on Nuclear Disarmament and Non-proliferation »,
Briefing Paper no 9, Friedrich Ebert Stiftung, août 2008 (ci-après « Nayyar »), p. 4, http://
library.fes.de/pdf-files/iez/global/05652.pdf.
36 Voir article XIV.
37 Voir Eloise Watson, « The CTBT : Obstacles to Entry into Force », New York,
Reaching Critical Will : A Project of the Women’s International League for Peace and
Freedom, septembre 2012, p. 18‑19, http://www.reachingcriticalwill.org/images/documents/
Publications/ctbt-obstacles.pdf ; Liviu Horovitz et Robert Golan-Vilella, « Comprehensive
Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty : How the Dominoes Might Fall After US Ratification », The
Nonproliferation Review, vol. 17, no 2 (juillet 2010), p. 249‑250.
38 Voir Zia Mian et A. H. Nayyar, « Playing the Nuclear Game : Pakistan and the Fissile
Material Cutoff Treaty », Arms Control Today, avril 2011 (ci-après « Mian et Nayyar »),
http://www.armscontrol.org/act/2010_04/Mian. Le Pakistan a maintenu son opposition à
l’ouverture de négociations sur le traité jusqu’au début de l’année 2014.
39 Voir, par exemple, la déclaration faite par S. Exc. M. Zamir Akram, ambassadeur et
représentant permanent du Pakistan auprès de l’Organisation des Nations Unies, à la séance
plénière de la Conférence du désarmement le 12 février 2013, http://www.reachingcriticalwill.
org/images/documents/Disarmament-fora/cd/2013/Statements/12Feb_Pakistan.pdf.
20
an arms race in outer space 40. Pakistan maintains that the Conference on Disarmament
should first and foremost address negotiation of complete nuclear
disarmament
41. In the view of many observers, contrary to Pakistan’s stated
rationales, blocking negotiations on an FMCT serves inter alia to enable Pakistan
to build up its fissile materials stockpile and nuclear arsenal 42.
26. Because Pakistan does not release information on its nuclear weapons
spending and receives extensive external military assistance, it is difficult to reliably
estimate such spending 43. One estimate is that Pakistan spends about 0.5 per cent
of its gross domestic product on its nuclear weapons programme, including health
and environmental costs, which for 2011 is about $2.4 billion 44.
4. Current plans for expansion, improvement and diversification of Pakistan’s
nuclear arsenal
27. Zia Mian, a physicist and analyst at Princeton University and a member of
the International Panel on Fissile Materials 45, summarizes trends in Pakistan’s
nuclear arsenal as follows :
“Pakistan has been rapidly developing and expanding its nuclear arsenal,
increasing its capacity to produce plutonium, and testing and deploying a
diverse array of nuclear-capable ballistic and cruise missiles. Pakistan is
moving
from an arsenal based wholly on highly enriched uranium to greater
reliance on lighter and more compact plutonium-based weapons, which is
made possible by a rapid expansion in plutonium production capacity. Pakistan
is also moving from aircraft-delivered nuclear bombs to nuclear-armed
ballistic and cruise missiles and from liquid‑fuelled to solid fuelled mediumrange
missiles. Pakistan also has a growing nuclear weapons research,
development,
and production infrastructure.” 46
Plutonium-based warheads are more suitable for use on missiles 47.
40 See, e.g., Statement by Ambassador Zamir Akram, Permanent Representative of Pakistan
to the United Nations, Geneva, at the First Committee General Debate (67th Session of the
United Nations General Assembly), 15 October 2012, p. 3, http://www.reachingcriticalwill.org/
images/documents/Disarmament-fora/1com/1com12/statements/ 15Oct_Pakistan.pdf.
41 See, e.g., Statement by Ambassador Zamir Akram, Permanent Representative
of Pakistan to the United Nations, Geneva, at the First Committee General Debate
(68th Session of the United Nations General Assembly), 18 October 2013, p. 2, http://www.
reachingcriticalwill.org/images/documents/Disarmament-fora/1com/1com13/statements/
18Oct_Pakistan.pdf.
42 E.g., Mian and Nayyar, op. cit. supra note 38.
43 Mian, op. cit. supra note 32, p. 55.
44 Ibid.
45 Mian directs the Project on Peace and Security in South Asia, at the Program on
Science and Global Security, Princeton University, and is Co-Editor of Science & Global
Security, an international journal of technical analysis for arms control, disarmament and
non-proliferation policy.
46 Zia Mian, “Pakistan”, in Ray Acheson (ed.), Still Assuring Destruction Forever
(Reaching Critical Will : A Project of the Women’s International League for Peace and
Freedom, 2013), p. 14, http://www.reachingcriticalwill.org/images/documents/Publications/
modernization/still-assuring-destruction-forever.pdf. See also Kristensen and Norris, op. cit.
supra note 33.
47 See Kristensen and Norris, op. cit. supra note 33, p. 94.
21
gramme de travail dans lequel a été envisagé ce mandat n’a prévu que des discussions,
et non des négociations 40. Le Pakistan soutient que la Conférence du désarmement
devrait tout d’abord se préoccuper de la négociation d’un désarmement
nucléaire complet 41. Selon nombre d’observateurs, contrairement aux raisons énoncées
par le Pakistan, le fait de bloquer des négociations sur un tel traité lui permettrait
notamment d’accroître ses réserves de matières fissiles et son arsenal nucléaire 42.
26. Le Pakistan ne publiant aucune information concernant ses dépenses en
matière d’armement nucléaire et recevant une aide militaire extérieure importante,
il est difficile d’aboutir à des estimations fiables à cet égard 43. Le budget du Pakistan
pour son programme d’armement nucléaire est estimé à environ 0,5 % de son
produit intérieur brut, y compris les dépenses en matière de santé et d’environnement,
soit environ 2,4 milliards de dollars pour 2011 44.
4. Projets actuels visant l’accroissement, l’amélioration et la diversification de
l’arsenal nucléaire du Pakistan
27. M. Zia Mian, physicien et analyste à l’université de Princeton et membre de
l’International Panel on Fissile Materials 45, résume les orientations suivies par
l’arsenal nucléaire du Pakistan comme suit :
« Le Pakistan a rapidement développé et enrichi son arsenal nucléaire, augmenté
sa capacité de production de plutonium, procédé à des essais et déployé
tout un ensemble de missiles balistiques et de croisière à capacité nucléaire. Parti
d’un arsenal reposant entièrement sur le recours à de l’uranium hautement
enrichi, il accorde à présent une plus grande place à des armes au plutonium,
plus légères et plus compactes, cette évolution ayant été rendue possible par une
expansion rapide de sa capacité de production de plutonium. Par ailleurs, ses
bombes nucléaires aéroportées tendent également à laisser la place à des missiles
balistiques et de croisière à capacité nucléaire et le combustible solide vient remplacer
le combustible liquide pour ses missiles à moyenne portée. Le Pakistan
développe également ses infrastructures en matière de recherche, de développement
et de production dans le domaine des armements nucléaires. » 46
Les ogives à plutonium sont mieux adaptées aux missiles 47.
40 Voir, par exemple, la déclaration faite par S. Exc. M. Zamir Akram, ambassadeur et
représentant permanent du Pakistan auprès de l’Organisation des Nations Unies à Genève,
dans le cadre du débat général devant la Première Commission (67e session de l’Assemblée
générale des Nations Unies) le 15 octobre 2012, p. 3, http://www.reachingcriticalwill.
org/images/documents/Disarmament-fora/1com/1com12/statements/15Oct_Pakistan.pdf.
41 Voir, par exemple, la déclaration faite par S. Exc. M. Zamir Akram, ambassadeur et
représentant permanent du Pakistan auprès de l’Organisation des Nations Unies à Genève,
dans le cadre du débat général devant la Première Commission (68e session de l’Assemblée
générale des Nations Unies) le 18 octobre 2013, p. 2, http://www.reachingcriticalwill.org/
images/documents/Disarmament-fora/1com/1com13/statements/18Oct_Pakistan.pdf.
42 Voir, par exemple, Mian et Nayyar, op. cit. supra note 38.
43 Mian, op. cit. supra note 32, p. 55.
44 Ibid.
45 M. Mian a dirigé le projet sur la paix et la sécurité en Asie du Sud, dans le cadre du
programme sur la science et la sécurité mondiale de l’Université de Princeton, et est co-éditeur
de Science & Global Security, une revue internationale contenant des analyses techniques sur
le contrôle des armements, le désarmement et la politique de non-prolifération.
46 Zia Mian, « Pakistan », dans Ray Acheson (dir. publ.), Still Assuring Destruction Forever
(Reaching Critical Will : A Project of the Women’s International League for Peace and
Freedom, 2013), p. 14, http://www.reachingcriticalwill.org/images/documents/Publications/
modernization/still-assuring-destruction-forever.pdf ; voir aussi Kristensen et Norris, op. cit.
supra note 33.
47 Voir Kristensen et Norris, op. cit. supra note 33, p. 94.
22
28. Three types of ballistic missiles, from battle-field range (60 km) to intermediate
range (2,000 km) are under development 48. Two types of short-range
cruise missiles, air-launched (350 km) and ground-launched (600 km), are under
development 49.
29. Pakistan has been producing highly enriched uranium for nuclear weapons
since the 1980s and producing plutonium for weapons since the late 1990s 50. Pakistan
has two operating plutonium production reactors and one plutonium reprocessing
facility, and is building two additional production reactors and a second
reprocessing facility 51. In 2011, Hans Kristensen and Robert Norris, who prepare
widely cited analyses for the Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, described Pakistan as
having “the world’s fastest-growing nuclear stockpile” 52. Taking into account
ongoing production of plutonium and highly enriched uranium and additional
capacity being developed, they found : “If today’s rate of expansion continues, we
estimate that over the next 10 years Pakistan’s nuclear weapons stockpile could
potentially reach 150-200 warheads — a number comparable to the future British
nuclear stockpile” 53.
D. Pakistan and Nuclear Disarmament
30. Pakistan has not joined the NPT as an NNWS, the only option open to
it under the terms of the Treaty 54. Pakistan further maintains that commitments
and calls made in conferences of NPT States parties do not apply to it,
in particular rejecting calls made by NPT States parties, as well as the General
Assembly and the Security Council, for it to join the NPT as an NNWS 55.
However, Pakistan has consistently voted for the General Assembly resolution
welcoming the Court’s conclusion regarding the disarmament obligation
56. Pakistan also contends it is not contributing to the further spread of nuclear
weapons. It states that it has adopted effective policies, laws and regulations in
48 See Kristensen and Norris, op. cit. supra note 33, pp. 95‑96 ; Kristensen, op. cit. supra
note 33, slide 14 ; Mian, op. cit. supra note 32, p. 52.
49 See Kristensen and Norris, op. cit. supra note 33, pp. 96‑97 ; Kristensen, op. cit. supra
note 33, slide 14 ; Mian, op. cit. supra note 32, p. 52. Cruise missiles are regarded as
more capable of penetrating planned Indian missiles defences. Kristensen indicates that a
submarine‑launched cruise missile may also be planned.
50 Mian, op. cit. supra note 32, p. 53.
51 See Kristensen and Norris, op. cit. supra note 33, pp. 93‑94 ; Mian, op. cit. supra
note 32, pp. 53‑54.
52 See Kristensen and Norris, op. cit. supra note 33, p. 91.
53 Ibid., p. 94.
54 Pakistan does not qualify as a nuclear-weapon State under Article IX.3 of the Treaty.
According to A. H. Nayyar :
“Like India, Pakistan would like to join the NPT regime as a declared nuclear
weapon state. Since this is not possible under the current formulation of the Treaty, and
since the two countries are not inclined to join the Treaty as non-weapon states, Pakistan
and India are likely to remain outside of the Treaty for the foreseeable future.”
(N ayyar, op. cit. supra note 35, p. 5.)
55 E.g., “Explanation of Vote on resolution entitled ‘United action towards the total elimination
of nuclear weapons’”, A/RES/68/51, 4 November 2013, http://www.reachingcriticalwill.
org/images/documents/Disarmament-fora/1com/1com13/eov/L43_Pakistan.pdf.
56 Most recently adopted as A/RES/68/42, 5 December 2013.
23
28. Trois types de missiles balistiques, allant d’une portée ne dépassant pas le
champ de bataille (60 km) jusqu’à une portée intermédiaire (2 000 km), sont
en cours de développement 48, de même que deux types de missiles de croisière à
courte portée, respectivement à lanceur aérien (350 km) et à lanceur terrestre
(600 km) 49.
29. Le Pakistan produit de l’uranium hautement enrichi destiné à l’armement
nucléaire depuis les années quatre-vingt et du plutonium à des fins militaires depuis
la fin des années quatre-vingt-dix 50. Il possède déjà deux réacteurs de production
de plutonium en service et une usine de retraitement du plutonium, et construit
deux autres réacteurs de production et une seconde usine de retraitement 51.
En 2011, MM. Hans Kristensen et Robert Norris, dont les analyses pour le Bulletin
of the Atomic Scientists sont régulièrement citées, ont décrit le Pakistan comme
le pays dont « l’arsenal nucléaire connaît la croissance la plus rapide au monde » 52.
Tenant compte de la production en cours de plutonium et d’uranium hautement
enrichi et du développement des structures, ils ont conclu que, « [s]i le taux d’accroissement
… continuait sa progression, l’arsenal nucléaire du Pakistan pourrait
atteindre 150 à 200 ogives dans les dix prochaines années — un chiffre comparable
à l’arsenal nucléaire britannique à venir » 53.
D. Le Pakistan et le désarmement nucléaire
30. Le Pakistan n’a pas adhéré au TNP en qualité d’Etat non doté d’armes
nucléaires, seule possibilité qui lui était ouverte en application du traité 54. Il a soutenu
par ailleurs que les engagements pris lors de conférences réunissant les Etats
parties au TNP et les appels lancés à ces occasions ne s’appliquaient pas au Pakistan,
rejetant en particulier les exhortations des Etats parties au TNP ainsi que
celles de l’Assemblée générale et du Conseil de sécurité à adhérer à ce traité en
qualité d’Etat non doté d’armes nucléaires 55. Le Pakistan a cependant toujours
voté en faveur de la résolution de l’Assemblée générale dans laquelle celle‑ci se
félicitait de la conclusion de la Cour relative à l’obligation de désarmement 56. Il
48 Voir Kristensen et Norris, op. cit. supra note 33, p. 95‑96 ; Kristensen, op. cit. supra
note 33, diapositive 14 ; Mian, op. cit. supra note 32, p. 52.
49 Voir Kristensen et Norris, op. cit. supra note 33, p. 96‑97 ; Kristensen, op. cit. supra
note 33, diapositive 14 ; Mian, op. cit. supra note 32, p. 52. Les missiles de croisière sont
considérés comme étant mieux à même de pénétrer le système de défense antimissile élaboré
par l’Inde. M. Kristensen signale qu’un missile de croisière à lanceur sous-marin serait également
envisagé.
50 Mian, op. cit. supra note 32, p. 53.
51 Voir Kristensen et Norris, op. cit. supra note 33, p. 93‑94 ; Mian, op. cit. supra note 32,
p. 53‑54.
52 Voir Kristensen et Norris, op. cit. supra note 33, p. 91.
53 Ibid., p. 94.
54 Le Pakistan ne saurait être considéré comme un Etat doté de l’arme nucléaire au sens
du paragraphe 3 de l’article IX du traité. Selon A. H. Nayyar :
« Comme l’Inde, le Pakistan souhaiterait adhérer au régime du TNP en qualité d’Etat
déclaré doté de l’arme nucléaire. La formulation actuelle du traité n’ouvrant pas cette
possibilité et les deux pays n’étant pas tentés d’adhérer au traité en qualité d’Etats non
dotés de l’arme nucléaire, le Pakistan et l’Inde resteront probablement à l’écart du traité
jus qu’à nouvel ordre. » (Nayyar, op. cit. supra note 35, p. 5.)
55 Voir, « Explication du vote sur la résolution intitulée « Unité d’action pour l’élimination
totale des armes atomiques » », A/RES/68/51, 4 novembre 2013, http://www.reachingcriticalwill.
org/images/documents/Disarmament-fora/1com/1com13/eov/L43_Pakistan.pdf.
56 Très récemment adoptée sous la cote A/RES/68/42, 5 décembre 2013.
24
accord with international efforts such as export control régimes to prevent the
acquisition of nuclear weapons by additional States and by non-state actors 57.
31. Regarding nuclear disarmament, in addition to its position in the Conference
on Disarmament, Pakistan votes for resolutions in the United Nations
General Assembly calling for commencement of negotiations on a convention prohibiting
and eliminating nuclear weapons 58. It also voted for the resolution
establishing
the Open-Ended Working Group on taking forward proposals for
multilateral nuclear disarmament negotiations 59, and participated in 2013 Working
Group meetings.
32. Pakistan places its call for the commencement of negotiations on a convention
for the elimination of nuclear weapons within the context of a wider disarmament
and security agenda, including strategic and conventional weapons
limitations and reductions 60. In the South Asian setting, Pakistan advocates a
“strategic restraint regime that establishes nuclear restraint, balance in conventional
forces and a mechanism for conflict resolution” 61.
III. The Law
A. Article VI of the NPT : An Obligation Erga Omnes
33. Article VI provides :
“Each of the parties to the Treaty undertakes to pursue negotiations in
good faith on effective measures relating to cessation of the nuclear arms race
at an early date and to nuclear disarmament, and on a treaty on general and
complete disarmament under strict and effective international control.”
34. In its Advisory Opinion on the Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear
Weapons, the Court declared that Article VI involves “an obligation to achieve a
precise result — nuclear disarmament in all its aspects — by adopting a particular
course of conduct, namely, the pursuit of negotiations on the matter in good
faith” 62. The Court went on to conclude, unanimously, that “[t]here exists an obligation
to pursue in good faith and bring to a conclusion negotiations leading to
nuclear disarmament in all its aspects under strict and effective control” 63. This
“recognizes that the provisions of Article VI . . . go beyond mere obligations of
57 See Pakistan National Statement, Nuclear Security Summit, Seoul, 26-27 March 2012,
http://pgstest.files.wordpress.com/2013/06/pakistan-national-statement2….
58 Most recently, A/RES/68/42, 5 December 2013 ; A/RES/68/32, 5 December 2013.
59 A/RES/67/56, 3 December 2012.
60 See Statement of Ambassador Akram, 18 October 2013, supra note 41.
61 Statement by H.E. Mr. Muhammad Nawaz Sharif, Prime Minister of the Islamic
Republic of Pakistan at the High-Level Meeting of the General Assembly on Nuclear Disarmament,
26 September 2013, p. 2, http://www.reachingcriticalwill.org/images/documents/
Disarmament-fora/HLM/26Sep_Pakistan.pdf.
62 See supra note 1, para. 99.
63 See supra note 1, para. 105, point 2F.
25
affirme également qu’il ne contribue pas à une plus grande dissémination des armes
nucléaires et déclare que, se conformant aux efforts déployés sur le plan international
pour empêcher que d’autres Etats et entités ne se procurent des armes nucléaires,
il a adopté des politiques et des textes législatifs et réglementaires efficaces, tels que
des systèmes de contrôle à l’exportation 57.
31. En ce qui concerne le désarmement nucléaire, outre sa position à la Conférence
du désarmement, le Pakistan vote en faveur des résolutions de l’Assemblée
générale des Nations Unies demandant aux Etats d’engager des négociations
afin de parvenir à une convention visant à interdire et à éliminer les armes
nucléaires 58. Il a également voté en faveur de la résolution créant le groupe de travail
à composition non limitée chargé de faire avancer les propositions visant des
négociations multilatérales sur le désarmement nucléaire 59, et a pris part aux réunions
du groupe de travail de 2013.
32. Le Pakistan replace son appel à l’ouverture de négociations relatives à une
convention visant l’élimination des armes nucléaires dans le contexte d’un projet
plus large concernant le désarmement et la sécurité et comprenant des limitations
et des réductions d’armes stratégiques et conventionnelles 60. Dans le cadre de
l’Asie du Sud, le Pakistan défend un « système de contrôle stratégique établissant
une limitation en matière nucléaire, l’équilibre des forces conventionnelles et un
mécanisme de règlement des conflits » 61.
III. Le droit
A. L’article VI du TNP : une obligation erga omnes
33. L’article VI est libellé comme suit :
« Chacune des parties au Traité s’engage à poursuivre de bonne foi des
négociations sur des mesures efficaces relatives à la cessation de la course aux
armements nucléaires à une date rapprochée et au désarmement nucléaire, et
sur un traité de désarmement général et complet sous un contrôle international
strict et efficace. »
34. Dans son avis consultatif sur la question de la Licéité de la menace ou de
l’emploi d’armes nucléaires, la Cour a déclaré que l’article VI supposait une obligation
« de parvenir à un résultat précis — le désarmement nucléaire dans tous ses
aspects — par l’adoption d’un comportement déterminé, à savoir la poursuite de
bonne foi de négociations en la matière » 62. Elle a ensuite conclu, à l’unanimité,
qu’« [i]l exist[ait] une obligation de poursuivre de bonne foi et de mener à terme des
négociations conduisant au désarmement nucléaire dans tous ses aspects, sous un
contrôle international strict et efficace » 63. Ainsi a-t-elle reconnu « que les disposi-
57 Voir la déclaration nationale du Pakistan au Sommet sur la sécurité nucléaire de Séoul,
les 26-27 mars 2012, qui peut être consultée en anglais à l’adresse suivante : http://pgstest.
files.wordpress.com/2013/06/pakistan-national-statement2.pdf.
58 Très récemment, A/RES/68/42, 5 décembre 2013 ; A/RES/68/32, 5 décembre 2013.
59 A/RES/67/56, 3 décembre 2012.
60 Voir la déclaration de S. Exc. M. Akram, ambassadeur, le 18 octobre 2013, supra note 41.
61 Déclaration faite par S. Exc. M. Muhammad Nawaz Sharif, premier ministre de la
République islamique du Pakistan, à la réunion de haut niveau de l’Assemblée générale sur
le désarmement nucléaire le 26 septembre 2013, p. 2, qui peut être consultée en anglais
à l’adresse suivante : http://www.reachingcriticalwill.org/images/documents/Disarmamentfora/
HLM/26Sep_Pakistan.pdf.
62 Voir supra note 1, par. 99.
63 Voir supra note 1, par. 105, point 2F.
26
conduct — to pursue nuclear disarmament negotiations in good faith — and actually
involve an obligation of result, i.e., to conclude those negotiations” 64.
35. The Court observed that “fulfilling the obligation expressed in Article VI . . .
remains without any doubt an objective of vital importance to the whole of the
international community today” 65. The Court has long emphasized the importance
of obligations erga omnes, owed to the international community as a whole 66.
Its conclusion in the Advisory Opinion was tantamount to declaring that the obligation
in Article VI is an obligation erga omnes 67. Every State has a legal interest
in its timely performance, therefore 68, and a corresponding legal obligation to help
bring it about 69.
B. Customary International Law
36. The obligations enshrined in Article VI of the NPT are not merely treaty
obligations ; they also exist separately under customary international law 70.
37. In its Advisory Opinion, after noting that the twofold obligation in Article
VI to pursue and to conclude negotiations formally concerns the (now 190 71)
States parties to the NPT, the Court added that “any realistic search for general
and complete disarmament, especially nuclear disarmament, necessitates the cooperation
of all States” 72.
38. In point 2F of the dispositif, moreover, not confining its remarks to the
States parties to the NPT, the Court unanimously declared : “There exists an obligation
to pursue in good faith and bring to a conclusion negotiations leading to
64 M. Marin Bosch, “The Non-Proliferation Treaty and Its Future”, in L. Boisson de
Chazournes and P. Sands (eds.), International Law, the International Court of Justice and
Nuclear Weapons, 1999, p. 375.
65 See supra note 1, para. 103.
66 Barcelona Traction, Light and Power Company, Limited (Belgium v. Spain), Second
Phase, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1970, p. 32, para. 33.
67 See President Bedjaoui’s declaration in Legality of Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons,
supra note 1 at pp. 273‑274 :
“As the Court has acknowledged, the obligation to negotiate in good faith for
nuclear disarmament concerns the 182 or so States parties to the Non-Proliferation
Treaty. I think one can go beyond that conclusion and assert that there is in fact a
twofold general obligation, opposable erga omnes, to negotiate in good faith and to
achieve the desired result.”
68 Barcelona Traction, Light and Power Company, Limited, supra note 66.
69 Cf. Legal Consequences of the Construction of a Wall in the Occupied Palestinian Territory,
Advisory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports 2004 (I), pp. 199‑200, paras. 154-159.
70 In Military and Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v. United
States of America), Jurisdiction and Admissibility, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1984, p. 434, at
para. 94, the International Court of Justice held that the fact that principles of customary
international law are enshrined in multilateral conventions does not mean that they cease to
exist and to apply as principles of customary law.
71 There are 190 States parties including the DPRK. Although the DPRK announced its
withdrawal from the NPT on 10 January 2003, States parties continue to express divergent
views regarding its status under the Treaty. See United Nations Office for Disarmament
Affairs, Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons, Status of the Treaty, http://
disarmament.un.org/treaties/t/npt.
72 See supra note 1, para. 100.
27
tions de l’article VI … prévoient davantage que de simples obligations de moyen
— à savoir, mener de bonne foi des négociations sur le désarmement nucléaire — et
supposent en fait une obligation de résultat — à savoir, conclure ces négociations
» 64.
35. Selon la Cour, « l’exécution de l’obligation exprimée à l’article VI … [est]
indubitablement … un objectif qui demeure vital pour l’ensemble de la communauté
internationale… » 65. Elle insiste par ailleurs depuis longtemps sur l’importance des
obligations erga omnes, dont le respect est dû à la communauté internationale dans
son ensemble 66. Or, la conclusion qu’elle a rendue dans son avis consultatif revient à
faire de l’obligation énoncée à l’article VI une obligation erga omnes 67. Chaque Etat
a donc un intérêt juridique à ce qu’elle soit exécutée dans un délai raisonnable 68 et
l’obligation juridique corrélative d’y contribuer 69.
B. Le droit international coutumier
36. Les obligations énoncées à l’article VI du TNP ne sont pas de simples obligations
conventionnelles ; elles existent aussi de manière autonome en droit international
coutumier 70.
37. Dans son avis consultatif, après avoir relevé que la double obligation de
l’article VI, consistant à poursuivre et à mener à terme des négociations, concernait
formellement les Etats parties au TNP (à présent au nombre de 190 71), la Cour a
ajouté que « toute recherche réaliste d’un désarmement général et complet, en particulier
nucléaire, nécessit[ait] la coopération de tous les Etats » 72.
38. Par ailleurs, au point 2F du dispositif, la Cour, ne limitant pas ses observations
aux Etats parties au TNP, a déclaré à l’unanimité qu’« [i]l exist[ait] une obligation
de poursuivre de bonne foi et de mener à terme des négociations conduisant
64 M. Marin Bosch, « The Non-Proliferation Treaty and Its Future », dans L. Boisson de
Chazournes et P. Sands (dir. publ.), International Law, the International Court of Justice and
Nuclear Weapons, 1999, p. 375.
65 Voir supra note 1, par. 103.
66 Barcelona Traction, Light and Power Company, Limited (Belgique c. Espagne),
deuxième phase, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1970, p. 32, par. 33.
67 Voir la déclaration que M. le président Bedjaoui a jointe à l’avis consultatif sur la
question de la Licéité de la menace ou de l’emploi d’armes nucléaires, supra note 1, p. 273‑274 :
« Comme la Cour l’a reconnu, l’obligation de négocier de bonne foi un désarmement
nucléaire concerne les quelque cent quatre-vingt-deux Etats parties au traité de nonprolifération.
Il me paraît pour ma part possible d’aller au-delà de cette conclusion et
d’affirmer qu’il existe en réalité une double obligation générale, opposable erga omnes,
de négocier de bonne foi et de parvenir au résultat recherché. »
68 Barcelona Traction, Light and Power Company, Limited, voir supra note 66.
69 Conséquences juridiques de l’édification d’un mur dans le territoire palestinien occupé,
avis consultatif, C.I.J. Recueil 2004 (I), p. 199‑200, par. 154-159.
70 Dans l’affaire des Activités militaires et paramilitaires au Nicaragua et contre celui-ci
(Nicaragua c. Etats-Unis d’Amérique), compétence et recevabilité, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1984,
p. 434, par. 94, la Cour a jugé que ce n’était pas parce que les principes de droit international
coutumier étaient consacrés dans des conventions multilatérales qu’ils cessaient d’exister et
de s’appliquer en tant que principes de droit international.
71 Les Etats parties au traité sont au nombre de 190, parmi lesquels figure la RPDC. Bien
que celle-ci ait annoncé, le 10 janvier 2003, qu’elle se retirait du TNP, les Etats parties à ce
texte expriment encore des opinions divergentes s’agissant du statut de la RPDC au regard
du traité. Voir Organisation des Nations Unies, Bureau des affaires de désarmement, traité
sur la non-prolifération des armes nucléaires, statut du traité, http://disarmament.un.org/
treaties/t/npt.
72 Voir supra note 1, par. 100.
28
nuclear disarmament in all its aspects under strict and effective international
control.” 73
39. The Court’s declaration is an expression of customary international law as
it stands today. All States are under that obligation, therefore. This is consistent
with the view expressed by President Bedjaoui in his declaration :
“Indeed, it is not unreasonable to think that, considering the at least formal
unanimity in this field, this twofold obligation to negotiate in good faith
and achieve the desired result has now, 50 years on, acquired a customary
character.” 74
40. In voting over many years since 1996 for the General Assembly resolution
on follow-up to the Court’s opinion, Pakistan appears to have accepted the universality
of that obligation. In operative paragraph one of the resolution, the General
Assembly :
“[u]nderlines once again the unanimous conclusion of the International Court
of Justice that there exists an obligation to pursue in good faith and bring to
a conclusion negotiations leading to nuclear disarmament in all its aspects
under strict and effective international control” 75.
41. As the Court itself noted, the United Nations General Assembly has been
deeply engaged in working for universal disarmament of weapons of mass destruction
since its very first resolution in 1946 76. The United Nations Security Council
also has repeatedly called for the implementation of Article VI by all States 77, not
only parties to the NPT. In resolution 1887 of 24 September 2009, after calling
upon States parties to the NPT to implement Article VI, the Council called on “all
other States to join in this endeavour” 78. The Council has also described the proliferation
of weapons of mass destruction as a threat to international peace and
security 79.
42. Regarding the obligation of cessation of the nuclear arms race at an early
date set forth in Article VI, it stands on its own as a customary international law
obligation based on the very widespread and representative participation of States
in the NPT and is inherent in the customary international law obligation of nuclear
disarmament.
43. The General Assembly has declared the necessity of cessation of the nuclear
arms race. In the Final Document of its first Special Session on Disarmament, held
73 See supra note 1, para. 105.
74 President Bedjaoui’s declaration in Legality of Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons,
supra note 1, p. 274, para. 23. President Bedjaoui was referring to the 50 years that had then
elapsed since the adoption of the United Nations General Assembly’s first resolution in 1946
and the normative language repeatedly reiterated in its resolutions on nuclear weapons and
in other instruments since then.
75 A/RES/68/42, 5 December 2013. During some of the years since the resolution was first
put forward in 1997, a separate vote was held on the first operative paragraph. Pakistan
voted “yes” on those occasions. Regarding the vote on that paragraph in A/61/83,
6 December 2006, see United Nations Department of Public Information, GA/10547, http://
www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2006/GA10547.doc.htm.
76 A/RES/1 (I) of 24 January 1946, cited by the Court in paragraph 101 of the Advisory
Opinion.
77 E.g., resolution 984 of 11 April 1995, cited by the Court in paragraph 103 of the Advisory
Opinion, and resolution 1887 of 24 September 2009.
78 Resolution 1887, 24 September 2009, operative para. 5.
79 E.g., resolution 1887, 24 September 2009.
29
au désarmement nucléaire dans tous ses aspects, sous un contrôle international
strict et efficace » 73.
39. La conclusion de la Cour constitue ainsi l’expression du droit international
coutumier tel qu’il existe aujourd’hui. Tous les Etats doivent donc s’acquitter de
cette obligation, ainsi que l’entendait le président Bedjaoui dans sa déclaration :
« Il n’est en effet pas déraisonnable de penser qu’eu égard à l’unanimité, au
moins formelle, qui prévaut en ce domaine cette double obligation de négocier
de bonne foi et de parvenir au résultat prévu a désormais revêtu, après cinquante
ans, un caractère coutumier. » 74
40. En votant pendant de nombreuses années depuis 1996 en faveur de la résolution
de l’Assemblée générale sur la suite donnée à l’avis de la Cour, le Pakistan
semble avoir accepté l’universalité de cette obligation. Au premier paragraphe du
dispositif de la résolution, l’Assemblée générale :
« [s]ouligne de nouveau la conclusion unanime de la Cour internationale de
Justice selon laquelle il existe une obligation de poursuivre de bonne foi et de
mener à terme des négociations conduisant au désarmement nucléaire dans
tous ses aspects, sous un contrôle international strict et efficace » 75.
41. Comme la Cour l’a elle‑même relevé, l’Assemblée générale des Nations Unies
s’est engagée pleinement, depuis sa toute première résolution, en 1946, à oeuvrer à
l’élimination universelle des armes de destruction massive 76. Le Conseil de sécurité
des Nations Unies a également exhorté à plusieurs reprises tous les Etats 77, y compris
ceux qui ne sont pas parties au TNP, à mettre en oeuvre l’article VI. En effet,
dans sa résolution 1887 du 24 septembre 2009, après avoir prié les Etats parties au
TNP d’appliquer l’article VI, le Conseil a invité « tous les autres Etats à se joindre
à cette entreprise » 78, décrivant la prolifération des armes de destruction massive
comme une menace pour la paix et la sécurité internationales 79.
42. En qui concerne l’obligation de cesser la course aux armements nucléaires à
une date rapprochée énoncée à l’article VI, celle‑ci existe de façon autonome en tant
que prescription du droit international coutumier fondée sur la participation particulièrement
large et représentative des Etats au TNP et est inhérente à l’obligation
relative au désarmement nucléaire prévue par le droit international coutumier.
43. L’Assemblée générale a affirmé la nécessité de cesser la course aux armements
nucléaires. Dans le document final de sa première session extraordinaire
73 Voir supra note 1, par. 105.
74 Déclaration que M. le président Bedjaoui a jointe à l’avis consultatif sur la question de
la Licéité de la menace ou de l’emploi d’armes nucléaires, voir supra note 1, p. 274, par. 23. Le
président Bedjaoui y a fait référence aux cinquante années écoulées depuis l’adoption par
l’Assemblée générale des Nations Unies, en 1946, de sa première résolution, ainsi qu’à la
phraséologie normative qu’elle a utilisée à de nombreuses reprises dans celles relatives à
l’armement nucléaire adoptées par elle ultérieurement et qui ont figuré dans d’autres textes
depuis lors.
75 A/RES/68/42, 5 décembre 2013. Depuis que le texte de cette résolution a été proposé
pour la première fois, en 1997, un vote séparé a été organisé à plusieurs reprises sur le
premier paragraphe du dispositif. Le Pakistan a voté « oui » à chaque fois. En ce qui concerne
le vote sur ce paragraphe, document A/61/83, 6 décembre 2006, voir le département de l’information
de l’Organisation des Nations Unies, AG/10547, http://www.un.org/News/
fr-press/docs/2006/AG10547.doc.htm.
76 A/RES/1(I), 24 janvier 1946, citée par la Cour au paragraphe 101 de son avis consultatif.
77 Voir, par exemple, la résolution 984 du 11 avril 1995, citée par la Cour au paragraphe
103 de son avis consultatif, et la résolution 1887 du 24 septembre 2009.
78 Résolution 1887, 24 septembre 2009, dispositif, par. 5.
79 Voir, par exemple, la résolution 1887 du 24 septembre 2009.
30
in 1978, the General Assembly stated that it is “imperative . . . to halt and reverse
the nuclear arms race until the total elimination of nuclear weapons and their
delivery systems has been achieved” 80.
44. Shortly after India and Pakistan conducted nuclear explosive tests in 1998,
in resolution 1172 the Security Council demanded that the two countries refrain
from further tests, called on all States to refrain from tests in accordance with the
provisions of the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty, and called on India
and Pakistan
“immediately to stop their nuclear weapon development programmes, to
refrain from weaponization or from the deployment of nuclear weapons, to
cease development of ballistic missiles capable of delivering nuclear weapons
and any further production of fissile materials for nuclear weapons” 81.
C. Good Faith
45. That good faith constitutes a “fundamental principle” of international law
is beyond dispute 82. Not only is it a general principle of law for the purposes of
Article 38 (1) (c) of the Statute of the International Court of Justice 83 and a cardinal
principle of the Law of Treaties 84, it also encapsulates the essence of the Rule
of Law in international society 85 and is one of the principles of the United Nations.
46. Article 2, paragraph 2, of the United Nations Charter provides : “All Members,
in order to ensure to all of them the rights and benefits resulting from membership,
shall fulfil in good faith the obligations assumed by them in accordance
with the present Charter.” The Declaration of 1970 on Principles of International
Law makes it clear that this duty applies not only to obligations arising under the
Charter but also to those arising “under the generally recognized principles and
rules of international law” and “under international agreements valid under the
generally recognized principles and rules of international law” 86.
47. In the Nuclear Tests cases, the International Court of Justice declared :
80 Final Document of the 10th Special Session of the General Assembly, adopted by
A/RES/S-10/2, 30 June 1978, without a vote, para. 20 ; see also, e.g., paras. 47 and 50, http://
www.un.org/disarmament/HomePage/SSOD/ssod4-documents.shtml. The 1978 Special
Session established United Nations disarmament machinery in its current form, with the
Conference on Disarmament devoted to negotiations, the Disarmament Commission
devoted to deliberation, and the First Committee of the General Assembly devoted to
agenda‑setting. The Special Session thus was a quasi-constitutional assembly with respect to
disarmament.
81 6 June 1998, operative paras. 2 and 7.
82 See Robert Kolb, La bonne foi en droit international public : Contribution à l’étude des
principes généraux de droit, 2001, pp. 112‑113.
83 Cf. Free Zones of Upper Savoy and the District of Gex, Order of 6 December 1930,
P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 24, p. 12 ; see also, J. Crawford, Brownlie’s Principles of Public International
Law, Oxford University Press, 8th ed., 2012, pp. 36‑37.
84 Articles 26 and 31 (1) of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties (1969).
85 V. Lowe, International Law, Oxford University Press, 2007, p. 116.
86 Declaration on Principles of International Law concerning Friendly Relations and
Co-operation among States in Accordance with the Charter of the United Nations, General
Assembly resolution 2625 (XXV), 24 October 1970.
31
consacrée au désarmement, tenue en 1978, l’Assemblée générale a déclaré qu’il
était « indispensable … d’arrêter et d’inverser la course aux armements nucléaires
jusqu’à l’élimination totale des armes nucléaires et de leurs vecteurs » 80.
44. Peu après que l’Inde et le Pakistan eurent procédé à des explosions nucléaires
expérimentales en 1998, le Conseil de sécurité, dans sa résolution 1172, a exigé
que les deux pays s’abstiennent de conduire de nouveaux essais, a prié tous
les Etats
de ne procéder à aucun essai, conformément aux dispositions du traité
d’interdiction complète des essais nucléaires, et a demandé à l’Inde et au
Pakistan
« de mettre immédiatement fin à leurs programmes de développement d’armes
nucléaires, de s’abstenir de fabriquer ou de déployer des armes nucléaires, de
cesser de développer des missiles balistiques pouvant emporter des armes
nucléaires et de cesser toute nouvelle production de matières fissiles pour des
armes nucléaires » 81.
C. La bonne foi
45. Il n’est nullement contesté que la bonne foi constitue un « principe fondamental
» du droit international 82. En effet, outre qu’il s’agit d’un principe général
de droit aux fins de l’alinéa c) du paragraphe 1 de l’article 38 du Statut de la Cour
internationale de Justice 83 et d’un principe central du droit des traités 84, il est à la
base même de la suprématie du droit dans la société internationale 85 et constitue
l’un des principes des Nations Unies.
46. Le paragraphe 2 de l’article 2 de la Charte des Nations Unies est libellé
comme suit : «Les Membres de l’Organisation, afin d’assurer à tous la jouissance
des droits et avantages résultant de leur qualité de Membre, doivent remplir de
bonne foi les obligations qu’ils ont assumées aux termes de la présente Charte. » La
déclaration de 1970 relative aux principes du droit international indique clairement
que cette règle s’applique non seulement aux obligations qui découlent de la Charte,
mais également à celles qui incombent aux Etats « en vertu des principes et règles
généralement reconnus du droit international » et « d’accords internationaux
conformes aux principes et règles généralement reconnus du droit international » 86.
47. Dans les affaires des Essais nucléaires, la Cour a dit :
80 Document final de la dixième session extraordinaire de l’Assemblée générale, adopté sans
vote par la résolution A/RES/S-10/2, 30 juin 1978, par. 20 ; voir aussi, par exemple, par. 47 et 50 ;
peut être consulté en anglais à l’adresse suivante : http://www.un.org/disarmament/HomePage/
SSOD/ssod4-documents.shtml. La session extraordinaire de 1978 a établi la forme actuelle
du mécanisme des Nations Unies pour le désarmement, qui se compose de la Conférence du
désarmement, organe de négociation, de la Commission du désarmement, organe délibérant,
et de la Première Commission de l’Assemblée générale, chargée d’établir l’ordre du jour.
La session extraordinaire s’apparente donc, en matière de désarmement, à une assemblée
constituante.
81 6 juin 1998, dispositif, par. 2 et 7.
82 Voir Robert Kolb, La bonne foi en droit international public : contribution à l’étude des
principes généraux de droit, 2001, p. 112‑113.
83 Voir Zones franches de la Haute-Savoie et du Pays de Gex, ordonnance du
6 décembre 1930, C.P.J.I. série A no 24, p. 12 ; voir aussi J. Crawford, Brownlie’s Principles of
Public International Law, Oxford University Press, 8e éd., 2012, p. 36‑37.
84 Article 26 et paragraphe 1 de l’article 31 de la convention de Vienne sur le droit des
traités de 1969.
85 V. Lowe, International Law, Oxford University Press, 2007, p. 116.
86 Déclaration relative aux principes du droit international touchant les relations amicales
et la coopération entre les Etats conformément à la Charte des Nations Unies, Nations Unies,
Assemblée générale, résolution 2625 (XXV), 24 octobre 1970.
32
“One of the basic principles governing the creation and performance of
legal obligations, whatever their source, is the principle of good faith. Trust
and confidence are inherent in international co-operation, in particular in an
age when this co‑operation in many fields is becoming increasingly essential.” 87
48. In the Final Document of the first Special Session on Disarmament, the
General Assembly called upon all States to meet requirements of good faith,
declaring :
“In order to create favourable conditions for success in the disarmament
process, all States should strictly abide by the provisions of the Charter of the
United Nations, refrain from actions which might adversely affect efforts in the
field of disarmament, and display a constructive approach to negotiations and
the political will to reach agreements.” 88
49. As set forth above, the customary international law obligation of nuclear
disarmament requires both conduct and result : States must not only negotiate in
good faith with serious efforts to achieve the elimination of nuclear weapons, but
must also actually achieve that result 89.
50. The Court has stated that the “principle of good faith obliges the Parties to
apply [a treaty] in a reasonable way and in such a manner that its purpose can be
realized” 90. Conduct that prevents the fulfilment of a treaty’s object and purpose is
proscribed 91. Further, conduct that calls into question a State’s commitment to the
achievement of agreed objectives undermines the trust necessary for successful
co‑operation towards their achievement. All of this applies equally to the obligation
to fulfil customary international law obligations in good faith 92.
87 Nuclear Tests (Australia v. France), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1974, p. 268, para. 46
(emphasis added) ; Nuclear Tests (New Zealand v. France), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1974,
at p. 473, para. 49 (emphasis added).
88 See supra note 80, para. 41 (emphasis added).
89 See para. 34.
90 Gabčíkovo-Nagymaros Project (Hungary/Slovakia), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1997,
pp. 78‑79, para. 142.
91 Report of the International Law Commission Covering its 16th Session, 727th Meeting,
20 May 1964 : Pursuant to the VCLT Article 26 obligation that every treaty in force
must be performed by the parties in good faith, the duty of the parties is “not only to observe
the letter of the law but also to abstain from acts which would inevitably affect their ability
to perform . . .” ; Antonio Cassese, “The Israel-PLO Agreement and Self-Determination”,
4 Eur. J. Int’l Law 567 (1993), available at http://www.ejil.org/journal/Vol4/No4/ (when
there is an obligation of good faith negotiation, “both parties are not allowed to (1) advance
excuses for not engaging into or pursuing negotiations or (2) to accomplish acts which
would defeat the object and purpose of the future treaty”) ; Judge Mohammed Bedjaoui,
“Good Faith, International Law and Elimination of Nuclear Weapons”, Keynote Address,
1 May 2008, http://www.lcnp.org/disarmament/2008May01eventBedjaoui.pdf, pp. 24–29 (in
the NPT context, good faith proscribes “every initiative the effect of which would be to
render impossible the conclusion of the contemplated disarmament treaty”).
92 See para. 46.
33
« L’un des principes de base qui président à la création et à l’exécution
d’obligations juridiques, quelle qu’en soit la source, est celui de la bonne foi. La
confiance réciproque est une condition inhérente de la coopération internationale,
surtout à une époque où, dans bien des domaines, cette coopération est
de plus en plus indispensable. » 87
48. Dans le document final de la première session extraordinaire consacrée au
désarmement, l’Assemblée générale a exhorté tous les Etats à respecter le principe
de bonne foi, en déclarant que,
« [p]our créer des conditions propres à assurer le succès du processus de désarmement,
tous les Etats dev[aient] respecter strictement les dispositions de la
Charte des Nations Unies, s’abstenir de tous actes qui risqueraient de nuire aux
efforts déployés dans le domaine du désarmement et faire preuve d’une attitude
constructive à l’égard des négociations et de la volonté politique d’aboutir à des
accords » 88.
49. Comme nous l’avons exposé plus haut, l’obligation de désarmement
nucléaire prévue par le droit international coutumier impose à la fois un comportement
et un résultat : les Etats doivent non seulement négocier de bonne foi en
déployant de réels efforts pour parvenir à l’élimination des armes nucléaires, mais
ils doivent également aboutir effectivement à ce résultat 89.
50. La Cour a affirmé que « le principe de bonne foi oblige[ait] les Parties
à … appliquer [un traité] de façon raisonnable et de telle sorte que son but
p[ût] être atteint » 90. Tout comportement empêchant la réalisation de l’objet
et du but d’un traité est proscrit 91. En outre, un comportement qui remet en
cause l’engagement d’un Etat à réaliser les objectifs convenus sape grandement
la confiance nécessaire à une coopération réussie en vue de leur réalisation.
Ces règles s’appliquent de la même manière à l’obligation qui consiste à
s’acquitter de bonne foi des prescriptions du droit international coutumier 92.
87 Essais nucléaires (Australie c. France), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1974, p. 268, par. 46 (les
italiques sont de nous) ; Essais nucléaires (Nouvelle-Zélande c. France), arrêt, C.I.J.
Recueil 1974, p. 473, par. 49 (les italiques sont de nous).
88 Voir supra note 80, par. 41 (les italiques sont de nous).
89 Voir par. 34.
90 Projet Gabčíkovo-Nagymaros (Hongrie/Slovaquie), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1997, p. 78‑79,
par. 142.
91 Rapport de la Commission du droit international sur les travaux de sa
seizième session, 727e séance, 20 mai 1964 : conformément à l’obligation énoncée à l’article
26 de la convention
de Vienne sur le droit des traités et selon laquelle tout traité en
vigueur doit être exécuté par les parties de bonne foi, il appartient à celles-ci « non seulement
d’observer strictement le texte, mais également de s’abstenir de tout acte qui aurait
une incidence inévitable sur leur capacité à l’exécuter… » ; Antonio Cassese, « The Israel-
PLO Agreement and Self-Determination », Eur. J. Int’l Law, vol. 4 (1993), p. 567, peut
être consulté en anglais à l’adresse suivante : http://www.ejil.org/journal/Vol4/No4/
(lorsqu’il existe une obligation de négocier de bonne foi, « aucune des deux parties n’est
autorisée 1) à avancer des raisons pour excuser le fait qu’elle n’engage ni ne mène de
négociations ou 2) à accomplir des actes qui pourraient faire échec à l’objet et au but du
traité à venir ») ; M. le juge Mohammed Bedjaoui, « Good Faith, International Law and
Elimination of Nuclear Weapons », discours liminaire, 1er mai 2008, peut être consulté en
anglais à l’adresse suivante : http://www.lcnp.org/disarmament/2008May01eventBedjaoui.
pdf, p. 24‑29 (dans le contexte du TNP, la bonne foi proscrit « toute initiative qui aurait
pour effet de rendre impossible la conclusion du traité envisagé relatif au désarmement
»).
92 Voir par. 46.
34
IV. Obligations Breached by Pakistan
51. Part II of this Application has outlined the facts that are relevant for an
assessment of the Respondent’s non-compliance with its international obligations
with respect to nuclear disarmament and the cessation of the nuclear arms race.
Part III has outlined the legal basis for this case. The conduct of the Respondent
will now be analysed very briefly in light of the relevant law.
A. Breach of Customary International Law
1. Nuclear disarmament
52. As set forth above, the Court has provided an authoritative analysis of the
obligation of nuclear disarmament. With respect to Article VI of the NPT, it has
held that “the obligation involved here is an obligation to achieve a precise result —
nuclear disarmament in all its aspects — by adopting a particular course of
conduct, namely, the pursuit of negotiations on the matter in good faith” 93. In the
dispositif of its Advisory Opinion the Court concluded unanimously : “There exists
an obligation to pursue in good faith and bring to a conclusion negotiations
leading
to nuclear disarmament in all its aspects under strict and effective international
control.” 94
53. Although Pakistan expressly supports the commencement of nuclear disarmament
negotiations and participated in the Open-Ended Working Group 95, it
has breached this obligation of customary international law by engaging in a
course of conduct, the quantitative build-up and qualitative improvement of its
nuclear forces, contrary to the objective of nuclear disarmament 96.
2. Cessation of the nuclear arms race at an early date
54. The customary international law obligation of cessation of the nuclear arms
race at an early date is rooted in Article VI of the NPT and resolutions of the
General
Assembly and the Security Council and is inherent in the obligation of
nuclear disarmament enunciated by the Court. The Respondent is failing to comply
with this obligation ; on the contrary, it is engaged in all-out nuclear arms racing.
55. Its conduct, set forth in Part II of this Application, in quantitatively
building
up its nuclear forces, qualitatively improving and diversifying them, and
planning and preparing to maintain them for the indefinite future, and in blocking
negotiations on a Fissile Materials Cut-off Treaty, is clear evidence of Pakistan’s
ongoing breach of the obligation regarding the cessation of the nuclear arms race
at an early date.
B. Breach of the Obligation to Perform Its Obligations in Good Faith
56. In the previous Section, the Applicant has submitted that the Respondent
has breached and continues to breach its obligations under customary international
law regarding nuclear disarmament and cessation of the nuclear arms race
93 See supra note 1, para. 99.
94 Ibid., para. 105, point 2F.
95 See supra Part II D.
96 See supra Part II.
35
IV. Les obligations dont le Pakistan manque de s’acquitter
51. Dans la deuxième partie de la présente requête, nous avons brièvement
exposé les faits pertinents pour l’évaluation du non‑respect, par le défendeur, des
obligations internationales qui lui incombent en ce qui concerne le désarmement
nucléaire et la cessation de la course aux armements nucléaires. Dans la troisième
partie, nous avons exposé les grandes lignes du fondement juridique de l’espèce.
Nous allons à présent analyser très succinctement le comportement du défendeur à
la lumière du droit applicable.
A. Manquement au droit international coutumier
1. Désarmement nucléaire
52. Comme cela a été rappelé plus haut, la Cour a eu l’occasion de fournir de
l’obligation de désarmement nucléaire une analyse qui fait autorité. S’agissant de
l’article VI du TNP, elle a jugé que « l’obligation en cause … [était] celle de parvenir
à un résultat précis — le désarmement nucléaire dans tous ses aspects — par
l’adoption d’un comportement déterminé, à savoir la poursuite de bonne foi de
négociations en la matière » 93. Dans le dispositif de son avis consultatif, la Cour a
conclu à l’unanimité qu’« [i]l exist[ait] une obligation de poursuivre de bonne foi et
de mener à terme des négociations conduisant au désarmement nucléaire dans tous
ses aspects, sous un contrôle international strict et efficace » 94.
53. Même si le Pakistan a soutenu expressément l’ouverture de négociations sur
le désarmement nucléaire et a pris part au groupe de travail à composition non
limitée 95, il a manqué à l’obligation que lui imposait le droit international coutumier
en adoptant une ligne de conduite qui, en visant à accroître et à améliorer ses
forces nucléaires, est contraire à l’objectif du désarmement nucléaire 96.
2. Cessation de la course aux armements nucléaires à une date rapprochée
54. L’obligation de droit international coutumier relative à la cessation de la
course aux armements nucléaires à une date rapprochée est ancrée dans l’article VI
du TNP et dans les résolutions de l’Assemblée générale et du Conseil de sécurité ;
elle est par ailleurs inhérente à l’obligation de désarmement nucléaire énoncée par
la Cour. Or le défendeur manque de s’en acquitter et est, au contraire, engagé dans
une course effrénée aux armements nucléaires.
55. Son comportement, exposé dans la deuxième partie de la présente requête et
qui consiste à accroître, améliorer et diversifier ses forces nucléaires, à préparer
leur conservation pour une durée illimitée et à bloquer les négociations relatives à
un traité sur l’arrêt de la production de matières fissiles, démontre clairement que
le Pakistan manque actuellement de s’acquitter de l’obligation relative à la cessation
de la course aux armements nucléaires à une date rapprochée.
B. Manquement à l’obligation de s’acquitter de bonne foi de ses obligations
56. Dans la section précédente, le demandeur a soutenu que le défendeur avait
manqué et continuait de manquer aux obligations que lui imposait le droit international
coutumier concernant le désarmement nucléaire et la cessation de la course
93 Voir supra note 1, par. 99.
94 Ibid., par. 105, point 2F.
95 Voir supra IIe partie, D.
96 Voir supra IIe partie.
36
at an early date. The Respondent is especially failing to act in good faith as far as
its performance of those obligations is concerned.
57. As set forth in Part II of this Application, the Respondent is engaged in the
quantitative build-up, diversification, and qualitative improvement of its nuclear
arsenal, and is blocking negotiations on a Fissile Materials Cut-off Treaty. This
constitutes vertical nuclear proliferation that clearly conflicts with the Respondent’s
obligations of nuclear disarmament and cessation of the nuclear arms race at
an early date. It also encourages other States possessing nuclear weapons to follow
suit and may induce non-nuclear-weapon States to reconsider their non-nuclear
posture.
58. The Respondent’s plans and policies also manifest an intention to rely on its
nuclear arsenal for decades to come.
59. In short, by engaging in conduct that directly conflicts with the obligations
of nuclear disarmament and cessation of the nuclear arms race at an early date, the
Respondent has breached and continues to breach its legal duty to perform its
obligations under customary international law in good faith.
V. Jurisdiction of the Court
60. In accordance with the provisions of Article 36, paragraph 2, of the Statute,
jurisdiction exists by virtue of the operation of the Declaration of the Marshall
Islands dated 15 March 2013 (and deposited 24 April 2013), and the Declaration
of Pakistan dated 12 September 1960 (and deposited 13 September 1960), each
Declaration without pertinent reservation.
VI. Final Observations
61. Pursuant to Article 31 of the Statute of the Court and Article 35, paragraph
1, of its Rules, the Applicant will exercise the power conferred by Article 31
of the Statute and choose a person to sit as judge ad hoc and will so inform the
Court in due course.
62. The Applicant reserves the right to modify and extend the terms of this
Application, the grounds invoked and the Remedies requested.
Remedies
On the basis of the foregoing statement of facts and law, the Republic of the
Marshall Islands requests the Court
to adjudge and declare
(a) that Pakistan has violated and continues to violate its international obligations
under customary international law, by failing to pursue in good faith
and bring to a conclusion negotiations leading to nuclear disarmament in all
its aspects under strict and effective international control, in particular by
engaging a course of conduct, the quantitative buildup and qualitative improvement
of its nuclear forces, contrary to the objective of nuclear disarmament ;
37
aux armements nucléaires à une date rapprochée. S’agissant de l’exécution de ces
obligations, le défendeur manque notamment d’agir de bonne foi.
57. Comme nous l’avons exposé dans la deuxième partie de la présente requête,
le défendeur procède à l’accroissement, à la diversification et à l’amélioration de
son arsenal nucléaire et bloque les négociations relatives à un traité sur l’arrêt de la
production de matières fissiles, ce qui constitue une prolifération nucléaire verticale,
laquelle contrevient de toute évidence aux obligations de désarmement
nucléaire et de cessation de la course aux armements nucléaires à une date rapprochée
qui lui incombent. Ce comportement encourage en outre d’autres Etats possédant
des armes nucléaires à faire de même et peut inciter les Etats non dotés
d’armes nucléaires à reconsidérer leur position en la matière.
58. Les programmes et politiques adoptés par le défendeur démontrent également
son intention de s’appuyer sur son arsenal nucléaire pendant les décennies à venir.
59. En bref, en adoptant un comportement contrevenant directement aux obligations
de désarmement nucléaire et de cessation de la course aux armements
nucléaires à une date rapprochée, le défendeur a manqué de s’acquitter et continue
de ne pas s’acquitter de son obligation juridique consistant à exécuter de bonne foi
les prescriptions du droit international coutumier.
V. Compétence de la Cour
60. Conformément aux dispositions du paragraphe 2 de l’article 36 de son Statut,
la Cour est compétente pour connaître du présent différend par l’effet de la
déclaration d’acceptation faite le 15 mars 2013 (et déposée le 24 avril 2013) par la
République des Iles Marshall et de celle faite le 12 septembre 1960 (et déposée le
13 septembre 1960) par le Pakistan, toutes deux sans aucune réserve pertinente en
l’espèce.
VI. Observations finales
61. Conformément à l’article 31 du Statut de la Cour et au paragraphe 1 de
l’article 35 du Règlement, le demandeur exercera son droit de désigner un juge
ad hoc et informera la Cour de son choix en temps utile.
62. Le demandeur se réserve le droit de modifier et de compléter la présente
requête, ainsi que l’exposé des moyens et les conclusions demandées.
Conclusions demandées
Sur la base de l’exposé des faits et des moyens juridiques qui précède, la République
des Iles Marshall prie la Cour
de dire et juger
a) que le Pakistan a manqué et continue de manquer aux obligations internationales
qui lui incombent en vertu du droit international coutumier en s’abstenant
de poursuivre de bonne foi et de mener à terme des négociations conduisant
à un désarmement nucléaire dans tous ses aspects effectué sous un contrôle
international strict et efficace, et, en particulier, en adoptant une ligne de
conduite qui, en visant à accroître et à améliorer ses forces nucléaires, est
contraire à l’objectif du désarmement nucléaire ;
38
(b) that Pakistan has violated and continues to violate its international obligations
under customary international law with respect to cessation of the
nuclear arms race at an early date, by taking actions to quantitatively build up
its nuclear forces, to qualitatively improve them, and to maintain them for the
indefinite future, and by blocking negotiations on a Fissile Materials Cut-off
Treaty ;
(c) that Pakistan has failed and continues to fail to perform in good faith its obligations
under customary international law by taking actions to quantitatively
build up its nuclear forces, to qualitatively improve them, and to maintain
them for the indefinite future, and by blocking negotiations on a Fissile
Materials
Cut-off Treaty ; and
(d) that Pakistan has failed and continues to fail to perform in good faith its obligations
under customary international law by effectively preventing the great
majority of non-nuclear-weapon States from fulfilling their part of the obligations
under customary international law and Article VI of the NPT with
respect to nuclear disarmament and cessation of the nuclear arms race at an
early date.
In addition, the Republic of the Marshall Islands requests the Court
to order
Pakistan to take all steps necessary to comply with its obligations under customary
international law with respect to cessation of the nuclear arms race at an early date
and nuclear disarmament within one year of the Judgment, including the pursuit,
by initiation if necessary, of negotiations in good faith aimed at the conclusion of
a convention on nuclear disarmament in all its aspects under strict and effective
international control.
Dated this 24th of April 2014.
(Signed) Tony A. deBrum, (Signed) Phon van den Biesen,
Co-Agent and Minister of Foreign Affairs Co-Agent of the Republic
of the Republic of the Marshall Islands. of the Marshall Islands.
39
b) que le Pakistan a manqué et continue de manquer aux obligations internationales
relatives à la cessation de la course aux armements nucléaires à une date
rapprochée qui lui incombent en vertu du droit international coutumier, et ce,
en prenant des mesures visant à accroître, améliorer et conserver pour une
durée illimitée ses forces nucléaires, ainsi qu’en bloquant les négociations relatives
à un traité sur l’arrêt de la production de matières fissiles ;
c) que le Pakistan a manqué de s’acquitter et continue de ne pas s’acquitter de
bonne foi des obligations qui lui incombent en vertu du droit international coutumier
en prenant des mesures visant à accroître, améliorer et conserver pour
une durée illimitée ses forces nucléaires, ainsi qu’en bloquant les négociations
relatives à un traité sur l’arrêt de la production de matières fissiles ;
d) que le Pakistan a manqué de s’acquitter et continue de ne pas s’acquitter de
bonne foi des obligations qui lui incombent en vertu du droit international coutumier
en empêchant de fait la grande majorité des Etats non dotés d’armes
nucléaires de respecter la part des obligations que leur imposent le droit international
coutumier et l’article VI du TNP en ce qui concerne le désarmement
nucléaire et la cessation de la course aux armements nucléaires à une date
rapprochée.
En outre, la République des Iles Marshall prie la Cour
d’ordonner
au Pakistan de prendre toutes les mesures nécessaires pour se conformer, dans un
délai d’un an à compter du prononcé de l’arrêt, aux obligations que lui impose le
droit international coutumier en ce qui concerne la cessation de la course aux
armements nucléaires à une date rapprochée et le désarmement nucléaire, parmi
lesquelles celle de mener des négociations de bonne foi, si nécessaire en engageant
celles‑ci, en vue de conclure une convention relative à un désarmement nucléaire
dans tous ses aspects effectué sous un contrôle international strict et efficace.
Fait ce jour, le 24 avril 2014.
Le coagent et ministre des affaires étrangères Le coagent de la République
de la République des Iles Marshall, des Iles Marshall,
(Signé) Tony A. deBrum. (Signé) Phon van den Biesen.
IMPRIMÉ EN FRANCE – PRINTED IN FRANCE

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