COUR INTERNATIONALE DE JUSTICE
RECUEIL DES ARRETS,
AVIS CONSULTATIFS ET ORDONNANCES
RÉPARATION DES DOMMAGES
SUBIS AU SERVICE
DES NATIONS UNIES
AVIS CONSULTATIFDU 11AVRIL 1949
INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE
REPORTS OF JUDGMENTS,
ADVISORY OPINIONS AND ORDERS
REPARATION FOR INJURIES
SUFFERED IN THE SERVICE
OF THE UNITED NATIONS
ADVISORYOPINION OF APRIL llth, 1949
LEYDE LEYDEN
SOCIÉTÉ D'ÉDITIONSA. W. SIJTHOFF'S
A. W. SIJTHOFII PUBLISHCOMPANY Leprésent avis doit êtrecité comme suit:
a Rkfiaration des dommages subis au service desNations Unies,
Avis consultatif: JRecuei1949fi174.))
This Opinion should be cited a: follows
"Reparation for inj~rieinthe serviceof the United Nations,
Advisory OpiniI.C.JRepo~t1949,. 174."
NO de vente :
1mes ,umkr 1 7 1 INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE
ApriI9th.
General List
YEAR 1949. No. 4.
April llt1949.
REPARATION FOR INJURIES
SUFFERED IN THE SERVICE
OF THE UNITED NAl-IONS
l~tjrivies sttgered by agents of United Nations in course of per-
formance of dttties.-Dato United Nations.-Daffo agents.
-Capacity of United Natioto bring claims for re#avation due
in respect of both.-Internapersonaliof United Nattons.-
Capacity as necessary implication arising from CAnrtev and actiaities
of United Nations.-Functiprotection of agents.-against
a Mevnber of the United 1Vations.-against n non-~izew~bcv.-
Reconciliation of claim by ?zutional State and claim by United Natzons.
-Clailnby United Nations ngainst agent's national Statr.
ADVISORY OPINION.
Present: President BASDEVAN ;T Vice-PresidenGUERRER ;O
Judges ALVAREZ F,ABELAH, ACKWORT WHI,NIARSKI,
ZORICIDCE, VISSCHER Si,r ArnoldMCNAIRK,LAESTAD,
BADAWP IASHAK , RYLOV R,EAD,HSUMO,AZEVEDO. OPIN. OF II IV 49 (REP.IKATIOS FOR ISJCKIICS SCPFERED) I7j
THE COURT,
composed as above,
gives the folloming ad1-içory opinion :
On Decenlber 3rd, 1948, the General Xssc.mbl'- of th, Uilitccl
Nations adopted the following Kcsolution :
"LVhereas the series of tragic el*ents ahicli 1iax.elately befallen
agents of the United Nations engaged in the performance of tlieir
duties raises, with greater urgency than ever, the question of
the arrangements to be made by the l-nited Sations with a view
to ensuring to its agents the fiillest Ineasiire of protection in the
future and ensiiring that reparation be made for the injuries
suffered ;and
\Vhereas it is highly desirable tliat the Secretar\.-Gc~itral slioiiltl
be able to act withoiit question as eificacioiisly as possible \vit11
a view to obtaining any reparation dile; tlieretore
The General Assenlbly
Decides to siibmit the following legal questions to tlie Inter-
national Court of Justice for an acivisor>- opinion :
'1. In the event of an agent of the United Xatioiis in the
performance of his duties suffering injury in circiimstances
iilvolving the responsibility of a State, has the United Sations,
as an Or-ganization, the capacity to bring an interiiatio~ia:
claim against the responsible de jure or de facto governilient
with a view to obtaining the reparation due in respect of tlie
clamage caused (a) to the United Xations, (h) to tlie \ictini
or to perçons entitled tlirough him ?
II. In the event of an affirmative reply on point 1 (b), how
is action by the United Nations to be reconcilecl \vit11 siicli
rights as niay be possessed hy the State of wliicli the xictini
is a national ?'
Instructs the Secretary-General, after the Court lias gi\-en its
opinion, to prepare proposais in the liglit of tliat opinion, and to
submit thein to the General Assembly at its nest regiilar session."
In a letter of December 4th, 1948, filed in the Registry on
December 7th, the Secretary-General of the United ,Vations for-
warded to the Court a certified true copy of the liesoliitioiiof
the General Assembly. On December ~oth, i11 accor(1ance nith
paragraph I of Article 66 of the Statute, the Kegistrar gave notice
of the Request to al1 States entitled to appear before the Court.
On Ilecember r~th, by ineans of a special and direct commiini-
cation as provided in paragraph 2 of Article 66, he informed these
States thnt, in an Ortler made on the sanie date, the Court had
5stated that it was prepared to receive written statements on the
questions before February qth, 1949, and to hear oral statements
on March 7th, 1949.
Written statements were received from the following States :
India, China, United States of Amenca, United Kingdom of
Great Bntain and Northern Ireland, and France. These state-
ments were communicated to al1States entitled to appear before the
Court and to the Secretary-General of the United Nations. 111
the meantime, the Secretary-General of the United Nations,
having regard to Article 65 of the Statute (paragraph 2 of which
provides that every-question submitted for an opinion shall be
accompanied by al1 documents likely to throw light upon it), had
sent to the Registrar the documents whkh are enumerated in the
list annexed to this Opinion.
Furthermore, the Secretary-General of the United Nations and
the Governments of the French Republic, of the United Kingdom
and of the Kingdom of Belgium informed the Court that they
had designated representatives to present oral statements.
In the course of public sittings held on March 7th, 8th and gth,
1949, the Court heard the oral statements presented
on bel-ialf of the Secretary-General of the United Nations by
Mr. Ivan Kerno, Assistant Secretary-General in charge of the
Legal Department as his Representative, and by Mr. A. H. Feller,
Principal Director of that Department, as Counsel ;
on behalf of the Government of the Kingdom of Kelgiurn, by
M. Georges Kaeckenbeeck, D.C.L., Minister Plenipotentiary of
His Majesty the King of the Belgians, Head of the Divisioii for
Peace Conferences and International Organization at the JIinistry
for Foreign Affairs, Member of the Permanent Court of Xrbitration ;
on behalf of the Government of the French Iiepublic, by
M. Charles Chaumont, Professor of Public International Law at
the Faculty of Law, Nancy ; Legai Adviser to the Ministry for
Foreign Affairs ;
on behalf of the Government of the United Kingdom of Great
Britain and Northern Ireland by Mr. G. G. Fitzmaurice, Second
Legal Adviser to the Foreign Office.
The first question asked of the Court is as folbws :
"In the event of an agent of the Cnited Sations in tlie per-
the responsibilitytofsa State, has the United Xations, as anolving
Organization, the capacit!. to bring an internationaclnini:igain.;t
O the responsible de jure or de incfo government with a view to
obtaining the reparation due in respect of the damage caused
(a)to the United Nations, (b)to the victim or to perçons entitled
throiigh him ?"
It will be useful to make the follolving preliminary observations :
(a) The Organization of the United Kations \vil1be referred to
usually, but not invariably, as "the Organization".
(b) Questions 1 (a) and 1 (b) refer to "an international claim
against the responsible de iure or de facto government". The Court
understands that these questions are directed to claims against a
State, and will, therefore, in this opinion, use the expression "State"
or "clefendant State".
The Court uilderstands the word "agent" in the most liberal
(c)
sense, that is to say, any person who, whether a paid officia1or not,
and whether permariently employed or not, has been charged by
an organ of the Organization with carrying out, or helping to carry
out, one of its functions-in short, any person through ~vhomit acts.
(d) As this question assumes an injury suffered in such circum-
stances as to involve a State's responsibility, it must be supposed,
for the purpose of this Opinion, that the damage results from a
failure by the State to perform obligations of which the purpose
is to protect the agents of the Organization iil the performance of
their duties.
The position of a defendant State which is not a member of
the Organization is dealt with later, and for the present the Court
willassume that the defendant State isa Member of the Organization.
The questions asked of the Court relate to the "capacity to bring
an international claim" ; accordingly, ive must begin by defining
what is meant by that ccipacitj', and coiisider the characteristics
of the Organization, so as to determine whether, in general, these
characteristics do, or do not, iiicIiide for the Organization a right to
present an international claim.
Competence to bring an international claim is, for those possessirig
it, the capacity to resort to the customary methods recognized by
international law for the establishment, the preseritation and the
settlement of claims. Among these inethods inay be nit,iitioned
protest, request for an enquiry, negotiation, and reqiiest for sub-
mission to an arbitral tribunal or to the Court in so far as this may
be authorized by the Statute.
This capacity certainly belongs to the State ;a Statcl cari briiig an
international claim against another State. Such a claim takes the
form of a claim between two political entitit.5, cqiiaiilla\\., similar OPIN. OF II IV 49 (REPSRATION FOR INJURIES SGFFERED) 178
in form, and both the direct subjects of international law. It is
dealt with by means of negotiation, and cannot, in the present state
of the law asto international jurisdiction, be submitted to a tribunal,
except with the consent of the States concerned.
When the Organization brings a claim against one of its Members,
this claim will be presented in the same manner, and regulated
by the same procedure. It may, when necessary, be supported
by the political means at the disposa1 of the Organization. In
these ways the Orgznization would find a method for securing
the observance of its rights by the Member against which it has
a claim.
But, in the international sphere, has the Organization such
a nature as involves the capacity to bring an international clnim ?
In order to answer this question, the Court must first enquire
whether the Charter has given the Organization such a position
that it possesses, in regard to its Members, rights which its entitled
to ask them to respect. In other words, does the Organization
possess international personality ? This is no doubt a doctrinal
expression, which has so,netimes given rise to controversy. But
it will be used here to mean that if the Organization is recognized
as having that personality, it is an entity capable of availing itself
of obligations incumbent upon its Members.
To answer this question, which is not settled by the actual
terms of the Charter, we must consider what characteristics it
was intended thereby to give to the Organization.
The subjects of law in any legal system are not necessarily
identical in their nature or in the extent of their rights, and their
nature depends upon the needs of the community. Throughout
its history,r;ie development of international law has been influenced
by the requirements of international life, and the progressive
increase in the collective activities of Stateshas already given rise
to instances of action upon the international plane by certain
entities which are not States. This development culminated
in the establishment in June 1945 of an international organization
whose purposes and principles are specified in the Charter of the
United Nations. But to achieve these ends the attribution of
international personality is indispensable.
The Charter has not been content to make the Organization
created by it merely a centre "for harmonizing the actions ofnations
in the attainment of these common ends" (Article 1, para. 3).
It has equipped that centre with organs, and has given it special
tasks. It has defined the position of the Members in relation to
the Organization by requiring them to give it every assistance in
any action undertaken by it (Article 2, para. 5),and to accept and
carry out the decisions of the Security Council ;by authorizing the
General Assembly to make recornmendations to the Members ;
Sdamage caused by the injury of an agent of the Organization in
the course of the performance of his duties. Whereas a State
possesses the totality of international nghts and duties recognized
by international law, the rights and duties of an entity such as
the Organization must depend upon its purposes and functions
as specified or implied in its constituent documents and developed
in practice. The functions of the Organization are of such a
character that they could not be effectively discharged if they
involved the concurrent action, on the international plane, of
fifty-eight or more Foreign Offices, and the Court concludes that
the Members ha~e endowed the Organization with capacity to
bring international claims when necessitated by the discharge of
its functions.
What is the position as regards the claims mentioned in the
request for an opinion ? Question 1 is divided into two points.
which must be considered in turn.
Question 1 (a) is as follows :
"In the event of an agent of the United Nations in the per-
formance of his duties sufferinginjury in circumstances involving
the responsibility of a State, has the United' Nations, as an
Organization, the capacity to bring an international claimagainst
the responsible de jure or de factogovernment with a view to
obtaining the reparation due in respect of the damage caused
(a)to the United Nations ...?"
The question is concerned solely with the reparation of damage
caused to the Organization when one of its agents suffers injury at
the same tirne. It cannot be doubted that the Organization has the
capacity to bnng an international claim against one of its Mem-
bers which has caused injury to it by a breach of its international
obligations towards it. The damage specified in Question 1 (a)
means exclusively damage caused to the interests of the Organiza-
tion itself, to its administrative machine, to its property and
assets, and to the interests of which it is the guardian. It is clear
that the Organization has the capacity to bring a claim for tliis
damage. As the claim is based on the breach of an international
obligation on the part of the Member held responsible by the Organ-
ization, the Member cannot contend that this obligation is governed
by municipal law, and the Organization is justified in giving its
claim the character of an international claim.
When the Organization has sustained damage resulting from a
breach by a Member of its international obligations, it is impossible
to see how it can obtain reparation unless it possesses capacity to
bring an international claim. It cannot be supposed that in such
an event al1the Members of the Organization, Save the defendant
IO OPIN. OF II IV 49 (REPARATION FOR INJURIES SUFFERED)
181
State, must combine to bring a claim against the defendant for the
damage suffered by the Organization.
The Court is not called upon to determine the precise extent of
the reparation which the Organization would be entitled to recover.
It may, however, be said that the measure of the reparation should
depend upon the amount of the damage which the Organization
has suffered as the result of the wrongful act or omission of the
defendant State and should be calculated in accordance with the
rules of international law. Amongst other things, this damage
would include the reimbursement of any reasonable compensation
which the Organization had to pay to its agent or to persons entitled
through him. Again, the death or disablement of one of its agents
engaged upon a distant mission might involve very considerable
expenditure in replacing him. These are mere illustrations, and
the Court cannot pretend to forecast al1the kinds of damage which
the Organization itself might sustain.
Question 1 (b) is as follows:
...has the United Nations, as an Organization,,the capacity to
bring an international claim .... inrespect of the damage caiised
...(b) to the victim or to persons entitled through him ?"
In dealing with the question of law which arises out of Question
1 (b),it is unnecessary to repeat the consideïations which led to an
affirmative answer being given to Question 1 (a). It can now be
assumed that the Organization has the capacity to bring a claim on
the international plane, to negotiate, toconclude a special agreement
and to prosecute a claim before an international tribunal. The only
legal question which remains to be considered is whether, in the
course of bringing an international claim of this kind, the Organiza-
tion can recover "the reparation due in respect of the damage caused
....to the victim ....".
The traditional rule that diplomatic protection is exercised by
the national State does not involve the giving of a negative answer
to Question 1 (b).
In the first place, this rule applies to claims brought by a State.
But here we have the different and new case of a claim that would
be brought by the Orgaiiization.
In the secondplace, even in inter-State relations, there are impor-
tant exceptions to the rule, for there are cases in which protection
may be exercised by a State on behalf of perçons not having its
nationalit y.
In the third place, the rule rests on two bases. The first is that
the defendant State has broken an obligation towards the national
State in respect of its nationals. The second is that only the pnrtyto whom an international obligation is due can bring a claim in
respect of its breach. This is precisely what happens when the
Organization, in bringing a claim for damage suffered by its agent,
does so by i~lvoking the breach of an obligation towards itself.
Thus, the rule of the nationality of claims affords no reason against
recognizing that the Organization has the right to bring a claim for
the damage referred to in Question 1 (b). On the contrary, the
principle underlying this rule leads to the recognition of thiscapacity
as belonging to the Organization, when the Organization invokes, as
the ground of its claim, a breach of an obligation towards itself.
Nor does the analogy of the traditional riile of diplomatic protec-
tion of nationals abroad justify in itself an affirmative reply. It
is not possible, by a strained use of the concept of allegiance,
to assimilate the legal bond nrhich exists, under -Article IOO of
the Charter, between the Organization on the one hand, and the
Secretary-General and the staff on the other, to the bond of
nationality existing between a State and its ~lationals.
The Court is here faced with a new situation. The questions
to which it gives rise can only be solved bp realizing that the situa-
tion is donlinated by the provisions of the Charter considered in
the light of the principles of international law.
The question lies within the limits already established; that is
to Say it presupposes that the injury for which the reparation is
demanded arises from a brearh of an obligation designed to help an
agent of the Organization in the performance of his duties. lt is
not a case in which the wrongful act or omission would merely
constitute a breach of the general obligations of a State concerning
the position of aliens; claims made under this head \vould be within
the cornpetence of the national State and not, as a gcneral rule,
within that of the Organizat'ion.
The Charter does not expressly confer upon the Organization
the capacity to include, in its claim for reparation, damage caiised
tothe victim or to perçons entitled through him. 'I'heCourt must
therefore begin by enqiiiring whether the provisions of the Charter
concerning the functions of the Organization, and the part played
by its agents in the performance of those functions, imply for
the Organization power to afford its agents the limited protection
that would consist in the bringing of a claim on their behalf for
reparation for damage suffered in such circumstances. Under
international law, the Organization must be deemed to have those
powers which, though not expressly provided in the Charter, are
conferred iipon it by necessary implication. as being essential to
the performance of its duties. This principle of law was applied
by the Permanent Court of International Justice to the International
Labour Organization in its -4dvisory Opinion No. 13 of July 23rd,
12 1926 (Series B.,No. 13, p.18), and must be applied to the United
Nations.
Having regard to its purposes and functioris already referred
to, the Organization may find it necessary, and has in fact found
it necessary, to entrust its agents with important missions to
be performed in disturbed parts of the world. Many missions,
from their very nature, involve the agents in unusual dangers
to which ordinary persons are not exposed. For the same reason,
the injuries suffered by its agents in these circumstances will
sometimes have occurred in such a manner that their national
State would not be justified in bringing a claim for reparation
on the ground of diplomatic protection, or, at any rate, would
not feel disposed to do so. Both to ensure the efficient and
independent performance of these missions and to afford effective
support to its agents, the Organization must provide them with
adequate protection.
This need of protection for the agents of the Organization,
as a condition of the performance of its functions, has already
been realized, and the Preamble to the Resolution of December 3rd,
1948 (suprap ,. 175), shows that this was the unanimous view of
the General Assembly.
For this purpose, the Members of the Organization have entered
into certain undertakings, some of which are in the Charter and
others in complementary agreements. The content of these
undertakings need not be described here ;but the Court must
stress the importance of the duty to render to the Organization
"every assistance" which is accepted by the Rlembers in Article 2,
paragraph 5,of the Charter. It must be noted that the effective
working of the Organization-the accomplishment of its task,
andthe independence and effectiveness of the work of its agents-
require that these undertakings should be strictly observed.
For that purpose, it is necessary that, when an infringement
occurs, the Organization should be able to cal1upon the responsible
State to remedy its default, and, in particular, to obtain from
the State reparation for the damage that the default may have
caused to its agent.
In order that the agent may perform his duties satisfactorily,
he must feel that this protection is assured to him by the Organi-
zation, and that he may count on it. To ensure the independence
of the agent, and, consequently, the independent action of the
Organization itself, it is essential that in performing his duties
he need not have to rely on any other protection than that of
the Orginization (save of course for the more direct and immediate
protection due from the State in whose territory he may be).
In particular, lie should not have to rely on the protection of his
own State. If he had to rcly on thnt State, his independence
might w-eil be compi-omised, contrary to the principle applied
by Article ~oo of the Charter. And lastly, it is essential that- whether the agent belongs to a powerful or to a weak State;to
one more affected or less affected, by the complications of inter-
national life; to one in syrnpathy or#not in sympathy with the
mission of the agent-he should know that in the performance
of his duties heis under the protection of the Organization. This
assurance is even more necessary when the agent is stateless.
Upon examination of the character of the functions entrusted
to the Organization and of the nature of the missions of its agents,
it becomes clear that the capacity of the Organization to exercise
a measure of functional protection of its agents arises by necessary
intendment out of the Charter.
The obligations entered into by States to enable the agents of
the Organization to perform their duties are undertaken not in
the interest of the agents, but in that of the Organization. Il'hen
it clairns redress for a breach of these obligations, the Organization
is invoking its own right, the right that trie obligations due to it
should be respected. On this ground, it asks for reparation of
the injury suffered, for "it is a principle of international laïv that
the breach of an engagement involves an obligation to make
reparation in an adequate form"; as was stated bv the Permanent
Court in its Judgment No. 8 of July 26th, 1927 (Series A., No. g,
p. 21). In claiming reparation based oii the injury suffered by
its agent, the Organization does not represent the agent, but is
asserting its own right, the right to secure respect for undertakings
entered into towards the Organization.
Having regard to the foregoing considerations, and to the un-
deniable right of the Organization to demand tliat its Members
shall fulfil the obligations entered into by them in the interest of
the good working of the Organization, the Court is of the opinion
that, in the case of a breach of these obligations, the Organization
has the capacity to claim ad.equate reparation, and that in assessing
this reparation it is authorized to include the darnage suffered by
the victini or by persons entitled through him.
The question remains whether the Organization has"the capacity
to bring an international claim against the responsible de jure or
de facto government with a view to obtaining the reparation due
in respect of the damage caused (a) to the United Nations, (b)
to the victim or to persons entitled through him" when the defen-
dant State is not a member of the Organization.
In considering this aspect of Question 1 (a)and (b), it is neces-
sary to keep in mind the reasons which liave led the Court to
give an affirmative answer to it when the defendant State is a
Member of the Organization. It has now been established that
the Organization has capacity to bring ciaims on the internationalplane, arid that it possesses a right of functio~ial protection in
respect of its agents. Here again the Court is authorized to assume
that the damage suffered involves the responsibility of a State,
and it is not called upon to express an opinion upon the various
ways in which that responsibility might be engaged. Accordingly
the question is whether the Organization has capacity to bring a
claim against the defendant State to recover reparation in respect
of that damage or whether, on the contrary, the defendant State,
not being a member, is justified in raising the objection that the
Organization lacks the capacity to bring an international claim.
On this point, the Court's opinion is that fifty States, rcpresenting
the vast majority of the members of the international community,
had the power, in conformity with international law, to bring into
being an entity possessing objective international personality, and
not merely personality recognized by them alone, together with
capacity to bring international claims.
Accordingly, the Court arrives at the conclusion that ail affir-
mative answer should be given to Question 1 (a) and (b) whether
or not the defendant State is a Member of the United Xations.
Question II is as follo~vs :
"In the event of an affirmative reply on point 1 (O), Iiow is
action by the Cnited Xations to be reconciled uith siicli rightas
may be possessedby the State of which tlievictim is a national?"
The affirmative reply given by the Court on point 1 (b) obliges
it now to examine Question II. When the victim has a ilationality,
cases can clearly occur in which the injury suffered by him may
engage the interest both of his national State and of the Organ-
ization. In such an event, competition between the State's right
of diplomatic protection and the Organization's right of functional
protection might arise, and this is the only case with which the
Court is invited to deal.
In such a case, there is no rule of lan n:hich assigns priority
to the one or to the other, or which compels either the State or
the Organization to refrain from bri~ging an international claim.The Court sees no reason why the parties concerned should not
find solutions inspired by goodwill and common sense, and as
between the Organization and its Members it draws attention to
their duty to render "every assistance" provided by -4rticle 2,
paragraph 5, of the Charter.
hlthoiigh the bases of the two claims are different, that doeî
not mean that the defendant State can be compelled to pay the
reparation due in respect of the damage twice over. International
tribunals are already familiar with the problem of a claim in which
two or more national States are interested. and thev know how to
protect the defendant State in such a case.
The risk of competition between the Organization and the
national State can be reduced or eliminated either by a general
convention or by agreements entered into in each particular case.
There is no doubt that in due course a practice will be developed,
and it is worthy of note that already certain States whose nationals
have been iniured in the ~erformance of missions undertaken for
the Organization have shown a reasonable and CO-operativedisposi-
tion to find a practical solution.
The question of reconciling action by the Organizatiori with the
rights of a national State may arise in another wdy ; that is to say,
when the agent bears the nationality of the defendant State.
The ordinary practice whereby a State does not exercise protcc-
tion on behalf of one of its nationals against a State which regards
him as its own national, does not constitute a precedent which is
relevant here. The action of the Organization is in fact based not
upon the nationality of the victim but upon his status as agent of
the Organization. Therefore it does not inatter whether or not
the State to which the claim is addressed regards him as its own
national, because the question of nationality is not pertinent to
the admissibility of the claim.
In law, therefore, it does not seem that the fact of the possession
of the nationality of the defendant State by the agent constitutes
any obstacle to a claim brought by the Organization for a breach of
obligations towards it occurring in relation to the performance of
his mission by that agent. The Court is of opinion
On Question I (a) :
(i) unaiiimously,
That, in the event of an agent of the United Nations in the
performance of his duties suffering injury in circumstances
involving the responsibility of a Member State, the United Nations
as an Organization has the capacity to bring an international claim
against the responsible dejzwe or defactogovernmentwith a view to
obtainingthe reparation due in respect of the damage Cause to the
United Nations.
(ii) unanimously,
That, in the event of an agent of the United Nations in the
performance of hisduties suffering injury in circumstances involving
the responsibilitÿ of ii Statc which is not a member, the United
Nations as an Organization has the capacity to bring an inter-
national claim against the responsible dejure or defactogovernment
with a view to obtaining the reparation duc in respect of the damage
caused to the United Nations.
On QuestionI (b) :
(i) by eleven votes agairist four,
That, in the event of an agent of the United Xations iiithe
performance of his duties suffering injury in circumstances iiivol\.ing
the responsibility of a Member Statc, the United Satioiis as an
Organization ha.; the capacity to bring an international claim
against the responsible de jure or ti'efactoovernment nith a view
to obtaining the reparation due in respect of the darnage caused
to the victim or to persons entitled through him.
(ii) by eleven votes against four,
That, in the event of an agent of the United Nations in the
performance of his duties sufferingiiijury in circumstances involving
the responsibility of a State which is not a member, the United
Nations as an Organization has the capacity to bring an inter-
national claim against the responsible dejure or de/act geovernment
with a view to obtaining the reparation duc in respect of the
damage caused to the victim or to persons entitled through him. OPIK. OF II IV 49 (REPAR- TI OOSR ISJCKIES SCFFI~RI~D) 188
On QuestionII :
By ten votes against fi~ve,
IVhen the United Nations as an Organization is bringing a claim
for reparation of damage caused to its agent, it can only do so
by basing its claim upon n breach of obligations due to itself ;
respect for this rule wrill usually prevent a conflict between the
action of the United Sations and such rights as the agent's
national State may possess, and thus bring about a reconciliation
between their clairns ; moreovcr, this reconciliation must depend
upon considerations applicable to each particular case, and upon
agreements to be made between the Organization and individual
States, either generally or in each case.
Done in English and French, thc English test being nuthoritntive,
at the Peace Palace, The Hague, thiseleventh day of .-\pril, one
thousaiid nine huridred and forty-nine, in t~vocopie<, onc of n-hich
will bc placed in the girchivez of the Court and the othrr trans-
mitted to the Secretary-General of the Cnited S:ition<.
(Signed) BASDEVASS,
President .
(Signed) E. HAJIBKO,
Registrar. OPIN. OF II IV 49 (REPARATION FOR INJURIES SUFFERED) 189
Judge WINIARSK Itates with regret that he is unable to concur
in the reply given by the Court to Question 1 (b). In general,
he shares the views expressed in Judge Hackworth's dissenting
opinion.
Judges ALVAREZ and AZEVEDO w,hilst concurring in the Opinion
of the Court, have availed themselves of the right conferred on
them by Article 57 of the Statute and appended to the Opinion
statements of their individual opinion.
Judges HACKWORTH B,ADAWIPASHAand KRYLOV, declaring
that they are unable to concur in the Opinion of the Court, have
availed themselves of the right conferred on them by Article57
of the Statute and appended to the Opinion statements of their
dissenting opinion. ANNEX.
LIST OF DOCUMENTS SUBMITTED TO THE COURT.
DOCUMENTS SUBMITTED BY THE SECRETARY-GEKERA OL THE
UXITEDNATIONS IN THE COURSE OF THE IVRITTEN PROCEEDINGS.
I. Document of the General Assembly (A/674, October 7th, 1948).
z. Record of Plenary Meeting of General Assembly (AiPV 169, Decem-
ber 3rd, 1948).
Documents of Sixth Committee of the GeneraI .4ssembIy.
3. AIC.61275. AIC.61282.
,, 275IRev. I. ,.,283.
,, 276. ,, 284.
,, 277. ,, 285.
,, 278. ,, 286.
,> 279. ,, 287.
,, 279/c0JT. 1. ,, 291-
,, 280. ,, 292.
,, 281. ,, 293.
,, 281JRev. I. ,, 294.
,, 281IRev. 2.
4. Report of Sixth Committee of the General Assembly (A1749,
December 2nd' 1948), Corr. 1, French text, and Corr. 2, English
text.
5. Records of Sixth Committee of the General Assembly.
AIC.6ISR 118.
,, 119.
,, 120.
,, 121.
,, 124.
,, 124, Corr. 1, Engl. text.
COUR INTERNATIONALE DE JUSTICE
RECUEIL DES ARRETS,
AVIS CONSULTATIFS ET ORDONNANCES
RÉPARATION DES DOMMAGES
SUBIS AU SERVICE
DES NATIONS UNIES
AVIS CONSULTATIFDU 11AVRIL 1949
INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE
REPORTS OF JUDGMENTS,
ADVISORY OPINIONS AND ORDERS
REPARATION FOR INJURIES
SUFFERED IN THE SERVICE
OF THE UNITED NATIONS
ADVISORYOPINION OF APRIL llth, 1949
LEYDE LEYDEN
SOCIÉTÉ D'ÉDITIONSA. W. SIJTHOFF'S
A. W. SIJTHOFII PUBLISHCOMPANY Leprésent avis doit êtrecité comme suit:
a Rkfiaration des dommages subis au service desNations Unies,
Avis consultatif: JRecuei1949fi174.))
This Opinion should be cited a: follows
"Reparation for inj~rieinthe serviceof the United Nations,
Advisory OpiniI.C.JRepo~t1949,. 174."
NO de vente :
1mes ,umkr 1 7 1 COUR INTERNATIONALE DE JUSTICE
LeII9avril.
R61gBn6ral
no4 ANNÉE 1949
il avri1949
KÉPARATION DES DOMMAGES
SUBIS AU SERVICE
DES NATIONS UNIES
Dommages subis par les agents des Nations Unies dans l'exercice
de leurs foncti-nDommage causé aux Nations Uni-s.Dom-
mage causé aux agen-s.Qualité des Nations Unies pour présenter
cies réclamations en vue d'obtenir la réparation de ces deux catégories
de dommages- Personnalité internationale des Natio-s Unies.
Qualité déduite nécessairementde la Charte et de l'activitédes Nations
Unies- Protection fonctionnelle de- aRéclamations contre
un Membre de l'Organisation des Nattons U-ieRéclamation
contre un État non membr-.Conciliation de la réclamation de
l'État national et de la réclamationdes N-tiRéclamation
des Nations Unies contre l'État national de l'agent
AVIS CONSULTATIF
Présent: M. BASDEVANP Tr,ésidet M. GUERRERO V,ice-Prési-
de.;tMM.ALVAREF Z, BELAH,ACKWORT WHI,NIARSKI,
ZORICID C, VISSCHE i,ArnoldMCNAIR M, .KLAESTAD,
BADAWP IACHA M,M.KRYLOV R,EADH, SUMO,AZEVEDO,
juges. INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE
ApriI9th.
General List
YEAR 1949. No. 4.
April llt1949.
REPARATION FOR INJURIES
SUFFERED IN THE SERVICE
OF THE UNITED NAl-IONS
l~tjrivies sttgered by agents of United Nations in course of per-
formance of dttties.-Dato United Nations.-Daffo agents.
-Capacity of United Natioto bring claims for re#avation due
in respect of both.-Internapersonaliof United Nattons.-
Capacity as necessary implication arising from CAnrtev and actiaities
of United Nations.-Functiprotection of agents.-against
a Mevnber of the United 1Vations.-against n non-~izew~bcv.-
Reconciliation of claim by ?zutional State and claim by United Natzons.
-Clailnby United Nations ngainst agent's national Statr.
ADVISORY OPINION.
Present: President BASDEVAN ;T Vice-PresidenGUERRER ;O
Judges ALVAREZ F,ABELAH, ACKWORT WHI,NIARSKI,
ZORICIDCE, VISSCHER Si,r ArnoldMCNAIRK,LAESTAD,
BADAWP IASHAK , RYLOV R,EAD,HSUMO,AZEVEDO. ainsi coinposée,
donne l'avis consultatif suivant :
-4 la date du 3 décembrtt 1948, 1'Assembléc générale dcç Xations
TJnies a adopté la Résolution ci-après :
cConsidérant que la &rie d'incidents tragiques affectant ces
derniers temps des agents des Nations Ivnies dans l'exercice de
leurs fonctions soulè\.e, ci'iine façon pliis urgente que jamais, la
question des dispositions à prendre par les Nations linies pour
assurer à 1'al7enir h leurs agents iine protection rnasimu~il et la
réparation des dommages subis,
Considérant comme liautetnent soiiliaitable qire le Çecrctaire
généralpuisse, sans conteste, agir de la 1nanii.r~ la plus efficace
en vile d'obtenir toute réparation due,
LJ.Sssernb1éegénérale
Décide de demander à la Coiir internationale de Justice iin
avis consiiltatif siir les questions juridiqiies siii~.ant:s
s 1.XII cas où un agent des Xations Cnies subit, dans l'eser-
cice de ses fonctions, un dommage dans,des conditions tlc
nature à engager la responsabilité d'un Etat , l'organisation
des Sations Unies a-t-elle clilalité pour prbsenter contre le
gouvernement de lure ou de facto responsable une rbclamation
internationale en vue d'obtenir la réparation des donlniages
causes a) aus Xations Vnies, h) à la victime ou à ses ayants
droit ?
II. En cas de réponse affirmative sur le point 1 h), comment
l'action de l'organisation des Kations Unies doii-elle se concilier
a\-ec les' droits que 1'Etat dont la irictimc est ressortissant
poiirrait posséder ?1)
Charge le Secrétaire général,Iorsqiie Ia Coiir aura donné son
avis, de préparer, à la lumière de cet avis, des propositions et
de les présenter à l'Assembléegénérale lors desa prochaine session
ordinaire.1)
Par une lettre du 4 décembre 1948, enregistrée au Greffe le
7 décembre, le Secrétaire général des Nations Unies a transmis
à la Cour copie certifice conforme de la Résolution de l'Assemblée
générale. Le IO décembre, conformément au paragraphe I de
l'article66 du Statut, le Greffier notifia la requête à tous les Etats
admis à ester en justice devant la Cour; le II décembre, par
une communication spéciale directe se référant au paragraphe 2
dudit article, il fit connaître à ces même<Etats que, par ordon-
nance du mbme jour, la Cour s'était déclarce disposée à recevoir OPIN. OF II IV 49 (REP.IKATIOS FOR ISJCKIICS SCPFERED) I7j
THE COURT,
composed as above,
gives the folloming ad1-içory opinion :
On Decenlber 3rd, 1948, the General Xssc.mbl'- of th, Uilitccl
Nations adopted the following Kcsolution :
"LVhereas the series of tragic el*ents ahicli 1iax.elately befallen
agents of the United Nations engaged in the performance of tlieir
duties raises, with greater urgency than ever, the question of
the arrangements to be made by the l-nited Sations with a view
to ensuring to its agents the fiillest Ineasiire of protection in the
future and ensiiring that reparation be made for the injuries
suffered ;and
\Vhereas it is highly desirable tliat the Secretar\.-Gc~itral slioiiltl
be able to act withoiit question as eificacioiisly as possible \vit11
a view to obtaining any reparation dile; tlieretore
The General Assenlbly
Decides to siibmit the following legal questions to tlie Inter-
national Court of Justice for an acivisor>- opinion :
'1. In the event of an agent of the United Xatioiis in the
performance of his duties suffering injury in circiimstances
iilvolving the responsibility of a State, has the United Sations,
as an Or-ganization, the capacity to bring an interiiatio~ia:
claim against the responsible de jure or de facto governilient
with a view to obtaining the reparation due in respect of tlie
clamage caused (a) to the United Xations, (h) to tlie \ictini
or to perçons entitled tlirough him ?
II. In the event of an affirmative reply on point 1 (b), how
is action by the United Nations to be reconcilecl \vit11 siicli
rights as niay be possessed hy the State of wliicli the xictini
is a national ?'
Instructs the Secretary-General, after the Court lias gi\-en its
opinion, to prepare proposais in the liglit of tliat opinion, and to
submit thein to the General Assembly at its nest regiilar session."
In a letter of December 4th, 1948, filed in the Registry on
December 7th, the Secretary-General of the United ,Vations for-
warded to the Court a certified true copy of the liesoliitioiiof
the General Assembly. On December ~oth, i11 accor(1ance nith
paragraph I of Article 66 of the Statute, the Kegistrar gave notice
of the Request to al1 States entitled to appear before the Court.
On Ilecember r~th, by ineans of a special and direct commiini-
cation as provided in paragraph 2 of Article 66, he informed these
States thnt, in an Ortler made on the sanie date, the Court had
5176 AVIS DV 11 If-49 (RÉPAKATIOX DES DOJIMAGES SUBIS)
d'eux des exposésécrits avant le 14 f6vrier1949, et à entendre
des exposes oraux le 7 mars 1949.
Des exposés écrits furent reçus de la part des États suivants :
Inde, Chine, États-Unis d'Amérique, Royaume-Uni de Grande-
Bretagne et d'Irlande du Nord, France. Ils furent communiqués
à tous les États admis à ester en justice devant la Cour, ainsi
qu'au Secrétaire généraldes Nations Unies. Entre temps, le
Secretaire général desNations Unies avait fait tenir au Greffier,
en se référant à l'article 65 du Statut (dont le paragraphe 2
prescrit qu'à la question soumise pour avis soit joint tout docu-
ment pouvant servir à l'élucider),les documents qui sont énumérés
au bordereau annexé au présent avis.
D'autre part, le Secrétaire général desNations Unies, ainsi
que les Gouvernements de la République française, du Royaume-
Uni et du' Royaume de Belgique, firent savoir à la Cour qu'ils
avaient désigné des représentants chargés de prunoncer des
exposés oraux.
J-ors des audiences publiques tenues les 7, 8 et 9 mars 1949,
la Cour entendit les exposés oraux présentés
au nom du Secrétaire généraldes Nations Unies, -ar son
représentant, M. Ivan Kerno, Secrétaire généraladjoir, :Llargé
du Département juridique, et par M. A. H. Feller, directeur
principal de ce Département, conseil ;
au nom du Gouvernement du Royaume de Belgique, par
M. Georges Kaeckenbeeck, D. C. L., ministre plénipotentiaire de
S. M. le Roi des Belges, chef du Service des Conférencesde Paix
et de l'Organisation internationale au ministère des Affaires étran-
gères, membre de la Cour permanente d'Arbitrage ;
au nom du Gouvernement de la liépublique française, par
M. Charles Chaumont, professeur de droit international public
à la Faculté de droit de Nancy, jurisconsulte au ministère des
Affaires étrangères;
au nom du Gouvernement du Royaume-Uni de Grande-Bre-
tagne et d'Irlande du Nord, par M. G. G. Fitzmaurice, deuxième
conseiller juridique du Foreign Oflce.
La première question poséeà la Cour-est ainsi conçue :
«Ail cas où un agent des Nations Unies subit, dans l'exercice
engager la responsabilitéd'un Etat, l'organisation des Nations
C'nies a-t-elle qualité pourprbsenter contre le goilvernement
6stated that it was prepared to receive written statements on the
questions before February qth, 1949, and to hear oral statements
on March 7th, 1949.
Written statements were received from the following States :
India, China, United States of Amenca, United Kingdom of
Great Bntain and Northern Ireland, and France. These state-
ments were communicated to al1States entitled to appear before the
Court and to the Secretary-General of the United Nations. 111
the meantime, the Secretary-General of the United Nations,
having regard to Article 65 of the Statute (paragraph 2 of which
provides that every-question submitted for an opinion shall be
accompanied by al1 documents likely to throw light upon it), had
sent to the Registrar the documents whkh are enumerated in the
list annexed to this Opinion.
Furthermore, the Secretary-General of the United Nations and
the Governments of the French Republic, of the United Kingdom
and of the Kingdom of Belgium informed the Court that they
had designated representatives to present oral statements.
In the course of public sittings held on March 7th, 8th and gth,
1949, the Court heard the oral statements presented
on bel-ialf of the Secretary-General of the United Nations by
Mr. Ivan Kerno, Assistant Secretary-General in charge of the
Legal Department as his Representative, and by Mr. A. H. Feller,
Principal Director of that Department, as Counsel ;
on behalf of the Government of the Kingdom of Kelgiurn, by
M. Georges Kaeckenbeeck, D.C.L., Minister Plenipotentiary of
His Majesty the King of the Belgians, Head of the Divisioii for
Peace Conferences and International Organization at the JIinistry
for Foreign Affairs, Member of the Permanent Court of Xrbitration ;
on behalf of the Government of the French Iiepublic, by
M. Charles Chaumont, Professor of Public International Law at
the Faculty of Law, Nancy ; Legai Adviser to the Ministry for
Foreign Affairs ;
on behalf of the Government of the United Kingdom of Great
Britain and Northern Ireland by Mr. G. G. Fitzmaurice, Second
Legal Adviser to the Foreign Office.
The first question asked of the Court is as folbws :
"In the event of an agent of the Cnited Sations in tlie per-
the responsibilitytofsa State, has the United Xations, as anolving
Organization, the capacit!. to bring an internationaclnini:igain.;t
O de jure ou de facto responsable une réclamation internationale
en \-ued'obtenir la réparationdes dommages causés a) aux Kations
Cnies, h) A la victime oii à ses ayants droit ?»
11 est utile de présenter, à titre préliminaire, les observations
suivantes :
a) L'Organisation des Nations Unies sera, dans le cours du
présent avis, désignéed'ordinaire mais non toujours par le terme
((l'Organisation ».
b) Les questions 1 a) et 1 b) visent ((une réclamation interna-
tionale introduite contre le gouvernement de jure ou de facto
responsable 1).La Cour consigère ,que ces questions visent une
réclamation dirigée contre un Etat. En conséquence, on se servira,
dans le présent avis, des termes ((Etat ))ou ((Etat défendeur )).
c) La Cour comprend le terme ((agent ))dans le sens le plus
large, entendant par là quiconque, fonctionnaire rémunéré ou non,
ernploy6 à titre permanent ou non, a étéchargépar un organe de
l'organisation d'exercer, ou d'aider à exercer, l'une des fonctions
de celle-ci, bref, toute personne par qui l'Organisation agit.
d) Cette question étant posée pour le cas d'un dommage subi
dans des conditions de nature à engager la responsabilité d'un
État, on doit, en l'exami~nt, supposer que le dommage résulte
(lu manquement, par cct Etat, à des obligations dont l'objet est
de protéger les agents de l'Organisation des Nations Unies dans
l'exercice de leurs fonct jons.
e) La situation d'un Etat défendeur qui ne fait pas partie de
1'Organisatiori est examinée plus loin et, pour le moment, la Cour
supposera que le défendeur est Membre de l'Organisation.
Les que5tion.s posées à la Cour se réfèrent à la ((qualité pour
présenter ....une réclamation internationale ));par conséquent, il
convient de préciser tout d'abord ce que l'on entend par cette
qiialité et de considérer les caractères de l'organisation en vue
de déterminer si, d'une manière générale,ces caractères compor-
tent ou excluent pour elle la faculté de présenter une réclamation
internationale.
I,a qualité pour présenter une réclamation internationale c'est,
pour qui en est revêtu, la capacité de recourir aux méthodes
habituelles reconnues par le droit internationalpour l'établissement,
la présentation et le règlement de réclamations. Parmi ces méthodes,
on peut mentionner la protestation, la demande d'enquête, la
négociation et la demande de soumettre l'affaire à un tribunal
arbitral ou à la Cour, dans la mesure où sqn Statut le permet.
Cette qualité appartient assurément à 1'Etat ; un Etat peut
présenter à un autre Etat une réclamation internationate. Une
telle réclamation se présente comme une réclamation entre deux the responsible de jure or de incfo government with a view to
obtaining the reparation due in respect of the damage caused
(a)to the United Nations, (b)to the victim or to perçons entitled
throiigh him ?"
It will be useful to make the follolving preliminary observations :
(a) The Organization of the United Kations \vil1be referred to
usually, but not invariably, as "the Organization".
(b) Questions 1 (a) and 1 (b) refer to "an international claim
against the responsible de iure or de facto government". The Court
understands that these questions are directed to claims against a
State, and will, therefore, in this opinion, use the expression "State"
or "clefendant State".
The Court uilderstands the word "agent" in the most liberal
(c)
sense, that is to say, any person who, whether a paid officia1or not,
and whether permariently employed or not, has been charged by
an organ of the Organization with carrying out, or helping to carry
out, one of its functions-in short, any person through ~vhomit acts.
(d) As this question assumes an injury suffered in such circum-
stances as to involve a State's responsibility, it must be supposed,
for the purpose of this Opinion, that the damage results from a
failure by the State to perform obligations of which the purpose
is to protect the agents of the Organization iil the performance of
their duties.
The position of a defendant State which is not a member of
the Organization is dealt with later, and for the present the Court
willassume that the defendant State isa Member of the Organization.
The questions asked of the Court relate to the "capacity to bring
an international claim" ; accordingly, ive must begin by defining
what is meant by that ccipacitj', and coiisider the characteristics
of the Organization, so as to determine whether, in general, these
characteristics do, or do not, iiicIiide for the Organization a right to
present an international claim.
Competence to bring an international claim is, for those possessirig
it, the capacity to resort to the customary methods recognized by
international law for the establishment, the preseritation and the
settlement of claims. Among these inethods inay be nit,iitioned
protest, request for an enquiry, negotiation, and reqiiest for sub-
mission to an arbitral tribunal or to the Court in so far as this may
be authorized by the Statute.
This capacity certainly belongs to the State ;a Statcl cari briiig an
international claim against another State. Such a claim takes the
form of a claim between two political entitit.5, cqiiaiilla\\., similar1;s AVIS DU II IV 49 (RÉPARATIOK DES DOMMAGES SUBIS)
entitéspolitiques, égales endroit, de structure semblable et relevant
toutes deux directement du droit international. Elle est traitée
par voie de négociations, et, en l'état actuel du droit concernant
la juridiction internationale, ne peut êtredéférée à un tribunal
international que du consentement des Etats en cause.
Si l'organisation adresseà l'un de ses Membres une réclamation,
celle-ci sera présentée dela mêmemanière et sera traitée par les
mêmes procédésE .lle pourra, le cas échéant,êtreappuyée par les
moyens politiques dont dispose l'organisation.
De cette façon, lJOrgaiiisation trouvera là le moyen d'assurer le
respect de ses droits par l'État Membre contre lequel elle élève
une réclamation.
Mais, dans l'ordre international, l'organisation a-t-elle une
nature qui comporte la qualité pour présenter une réclamation
internationale ?Pour répondreà cette question, il faut tout d'abord
déterminer si la Charte a donnéà l'Organisation une condition telle
qu'elle ait vis-à-vis de ses Membres des droits dont elle ait qualité
pour leur demander le respect. En d'autres termes, l'organisation
est-elle revêtue de la personnalité internationale ? Cette dernière
expression est, sans doute, une expression de doctrine qui, parfois,
a étécontestée. Mais elle sera employée ici pour exprimer que
l'Organisation, si elle est reconnue comme possédant cette person-
nalité, est une entité capable d'être bénéficiaire d'obligations
incombant à ses Membres.
Pour répor-lre à cette question, qui'n'est pas tranchée par les
termes mê~n r Jc la Charte, il faut considérer les Earactères que
celle-cia entendu donner à l'organisation.
Les sujets de droit, dans un système juridique, ne sont pas
nécessairement identiques quant à leur nature ou à l'étendue
de leurs droits; et leur nature dépend des besoins de la commu-
nauté. Le développement du droit international, au cours de
son histoire, a étéinfluencé par les exigences de la vie inter-
nationale, et l'accroissement progressif des activités collectives des
États a déjà fait surgir des exemples d'action exercéesur le plan
international par certaines entités qui ne sont pas des États. Ce
développement aboutit, en juin 1945 , la création d'une organi-
sation internationale dont les buts et les principes sont énoncés
dans la Charte des Nations Unies. Pour atteindre ces buts, il est
indispensable que l'organisation ait la personnalité internationale.
La Charte ne s'est pas bornée à faire simplement de l'Organisa-
tion crééepar elle un centre ou s'harmoniseraient les efforts des
nations vers les fins communes définiespar elle (article premier,
par. 4).Elle lui a donné des organes ; elle lui a assigné unemission
propre. Elle a définila position des Membres par rapportàl'organi-
sation en leur prescrivant de lui donner pleine assistance danstoute
action entreprise par elle (articlepar.5),d'accepter et d'appliquer
les décisions du Conseil de Sécurité, en autorisant l'Assemblée
générale à leur adresser des recommandations, en octroyant à
8 OPIN. OF II IV 49 (REPSRATION FOR INJURIES SGFFERED) 178
in form, and both the direct subjects of international law. It is
dealt with by means of negotiation, and cannot, in the present state
of the law asto international jurisdiction, be submitted to a tribunal,
except with the consent of the States concerned.
When the Organization brings a claim against one of its Members,
this claim will be presented in the same manner, and regulated
by the same procedure. It may, when necessary, be supported
by the political means at the disposa1 of the Organization. In
these ways the Orgznization would find a method for securing
the observance of its rights by the Member against which it has
a claim.
But, in the international sphere, has the Organization such
a nature as involves the capacity to bring an international clnim ?
In order to answer this question, the Court must first enquire
whether the Charter has given the Organization such a position
that it possesses, in regard to its Members, rights which its entitled
to ask them to respect. In other words, does the Organization
possess international personality ? This is no doubt a doctrinal
expression, which has so,netimes given rise to controversy. But
it will be used here to mean that if the Organization is recognized
as having that personality, it is an entity capable of availing itself
of obligations incumbent upon its Members.
To answer this question, which is not settled by the actual
terms of the Charter, we must consider what characteristics it
was intended thereby to give to the Organization.
The subjects of law in any legal system are not necessarily
identical in their nature or in the extent of their rights, and their
nature depends upon the needs of the community. Throughout
its history,r;ie development of international law has been influenced
by the requirements of international life, and the progressive
increase in the collective activities of Stateshas already given rise
to instances of action upon the international plane by certain
entities which are not States. This development culminated
in the establishment in June 1945 of an international organization
whose purposes and principles are specified in the Charter of the
United Nations. But to achieve these ends the attribution of
international personality is indispensable.
The Charter has not been content to make the Organization
created by it merely a centre "for harmonizing the actions ofnations
in the attainment of these common ends" (Article 1, para. 3).
It has equipped that centre with organs, and has given it special
tasks. It has defined the position of the Members in relation to
the Organization by requiring them to give it every assistance in
any action undertaken by it (Article 2, para. 5),and to accept and
carry out the decisions of the Security Council ;by authorizing the
General Assembly to make recornmendations to the Members ;
Sl'Organisation une capacité juridique, des privilèges et immunités
sur le territoire de chacun de ses Membres, en faisant prévisioii
d'accords à conclure entre l'organisation et ses Membres. La
pratique, notamment par la conclusion de conventions auxquelles
l'Organisation est partie, a confirméce caractère d'une Organisation
placée, à certains égards, en face de ses Membres, et qui, le cas
échcant, a le devoir de rappeler à ceux-ci certaines obligations. A
cela s'ajoute que les Nations Unies sont une Organisation politique,
ayant une mission politique d'un caractère très important et à
domaine très large : mainte~ir la paix et la sécurité internationales,
d6velopper les relations amicales entre les nations, réaliser la
coopération internationale dans l'ordre économique, social, intel-
lectuel 01.1humanitaire (article premier), et qu'elle agit par des
moyens politiques vis-à-vis de ses Membres. La ((Convention sur
les priviliges et immunités des Nations Unies », de 1946, créedes
droits et des devoirs entre chacun des signataires et l'Organisation
(voir notamment section 35). Or, il serait difficile de concevoir
comment une telle convention pourrait déployer ses etiets sinon
sur le plan international et entre parties possédant la personnalité
internationale.
De l'avis de la Cour, l'organisation était destinée à exercer des
fonctions et à jouir de droits - et elle l'a fait- qui ne peuvent
s'expliquer que si l'Organisation possède une large mesiire de person-
nalité internationale et la capacité d'agir sur le plan interiiatioiinl.
Elle est actuellement le type le plus élevéd'organisation intenia-
tionale, ct elle ric pourrait répondreaux intentions de ses fondateurs
si elle était dépourvile de la personnalité internationale. On doit
iidmettrc que ses Membres, en lui assignant certaines fonctions, avec
les devoirs t?tles responsabilités qui les accompagnent, l'ont revêtue
de la compétence nécessairepour lui permettre de s'acquitter effec-
tivement de ccs fonctions.
En conséquence,la Cour arrive à la conc1uc;ionque l'Organisation
est une personne internationale. Ceci n'équivaut pas à dire que
l'organisation soit un Etat, ce qii'elle n'est certainement pas, ou
que sa personnalité juridique, ses droits et ses devoirs soient les
mêmesque ceux d'un Etat. Encore moins cela équivaut-il à dire
(lue l'Organisation soit un (super-Etat n,quel que soit le selis de
cette expression. Cela n'implique mêmepas que tous les droits et
devoirs del'organisation doivent setrouver sur le plan international,
pis plus que tous les droits et devoirs d'un Etat ne doivent s'y
trouver placés.Cela signifie que l'organisation est un sujet de droit
international, qu'elle a capacité d'être titulaire de droits et devoirs
iiiternntioiiaux et qu'elle a capacité de se prévaloir de ses droits
par voie de réclamation internationale.
La question à examiner ensuite est celle de savoir si la somme des
droits internationaux de l'Organisation comprend le droit de pré-
senter des réclamations iiiternationales de la nature de cclles visées
(1:ins1:ipri.i;ciitt.t1~m;iriclcd'avis. Il s'agit ci'unc recla~nation contre
9 un État pour obtenir réparation à raison du préjudice provenant
d'un dommage causé à un agent de l'Organisation dans l'exercice
de ses fonctions. Alors qu'un Etat possède, dans leur totalité, les
droits et devoirs internationaux reconnus par le droit international,
les droits et devoirs d'une entité telle que l'organisation doivent
dépendredes buts et des fonctions de celle-ci, énoncésou impliqués
par son acte constitutif et développésdans lapratique. Les fonctions
de l'organisation sont d'un caractère tel qu'elles ne pourraient être
effectivement remplies si elles impliquaient l'action commune sur
le plan international de cinquante-huit ministères des Maires
étrangèresou plus ; la Cour en conclut que les Membres ont conféré
à l'organisation qualité pour présenter les réclamations internatio-
nales que nécessiterait l'exercice de ses fonctions.
Qu'en est-il des réclamations visées dans la demande d'avis ?
La question 1 se subdivise en deux points qu'il faut examiner
successivement.
La question 1 a) est ainsi conçue
IAu cas où un agent des Nations Unies subit, dans l'exercice
de ses fonctions, un dommage dans des conditions de nature à
engager la responsabilité d'un État, l'organisation des Kations
Unies a-t-elle qualité pour 'présenter contre le gouvernement
de jure ou de facto responsable une réclamation internationale
en vue d'obtenir la réparation des dommages causés a) aus
Nations LJnies.: ?))
Cette question concerne uniquement la réparation du dommage
causé à l'Organisation quand il y a eu en mêmetemps dommage
causé à l'un de ses agents. On ne peut douter que l'Organisation
a qualité pour présenter une réclamation internationale contre un
de ses Membres qui, par un manquement à des obligations inter-
nationales envers elle, lui a causé un dommage. Les dommages
viséspar la question 1 a) sont exclusivement les dommages causés
aux intérêtspropres de l'organisation, à ses moyens de fonction-
nement, à son patrimoine et aux intérêts dont elle a la garde. Il
est évident que l'Organisation a qualité pour présenter une récla-
mation pour ces dommages. La réclamation étant fondée sur un
manquement à une obligation internationale, manquement dont
l'Organisation impute la responsabilité à l'un de ses Membres, ce
Membre ne peut prétendre que cette obligation est régiepar son
droit national, et l'Organisation est fondée à donner à sa réclama-
tion le caractère d'une réclamation internationale.
Lorsque l'Organisation a subi un dommage résultant du man-
quement par un Membre à ses obligations internationales, il est
impossible de voir comment elle pourrait en obtenir réparation
si elle n'avait pas qualité pour présenter une réclamation inter-
nationale. On ne saurait supposer que dans ce cas tous les Membres "damage caused by the injury of an agent of the Organization in
the course of the performance of his duties. Whereas a State
possesses the totality of international nghts and duties recognized
by international law, the rights and duties of an entity such as
the Organization must depend upon its purposes and functions
as specified or implied in its constituent documents and developed
in practice. The functions of the Organization are of such a
character that they could not be effectively discharged if they
involved the concurrent action, on the international plane, of
fifty-eight or more Foreign Offices, and the Court concludes that
the Members ha~e endowed the Organization with capacity to
bring international claims when necessitated by the discharge of
its functions.
What is the position as regards the claims mentioned in the
request for an opinion ? Question 1 is divided into two points.
which must be considered in turn.
Question 1 (a) is as follows :
"In the event of an agent of the United Nations in the per-
formance of his duties sufferinginjury in circumstances involving
the responsibility of a State, has the United' Nations, as an
Organization, the capacity to bring an international claimagainst
the responsible de jure or de factogovernment with a view to
obtaining the reparation due in respect of the damage caused
(a)to the United Nations ...?"
The question is concerned solely with the reparation of damage
caused to the Organization when one of its agents suffers injury at
the same tirne. It cannot be doubted that the Organization has the
capacity to bnng an international claim against one of its Mem-
bers which has caused injury to it by a breach of its international
obligations towards it. The damage specified in Question 1 (a)
means exclusively damage caused to the interests of the Organiza-
tion itself, to its administrative machine, to its property and
assets, and to the interests of which it is the guardian. It is clear
that the Organization has the capacity to bring a claim for tliis
damage. As the claim is based on the breach of an international
obligation on the part of the Member held responsible by the Organ-
ization, the Member cannot contend that this obligation is governed
by municipal law, and the Organization is justified in giving its
claim the character of an international claim.
When the Organization has sustained damage resulting from a
breach by a Member of its international obligations, it is impossible
to see how it can obtain reparation unless it possesses capacity to
bring an international claim. It cannot be supposed that in such
an event al1the Members of the Organization, Save the defendant
IOde l'Organisation, à l'exception de l'État défendeur, devraient
s'unir pour présenter une réclamation contre celui-ci pour le
dommage subi par l'organisation.
La Cour n'est pas appelée à déterminer la mesure précise de
la réparation que l'organisation sera fondée à obtenir. On peut
dire cependant que le montant de la réparation dépendra de
l'étendue du dommage subi à raison de l'acte illicite ou de l'omis-
sion imputable à l'État défendeur, ce montant étant calculéconfor-
mément aux règles du droit international. Dans l'évaluation de
ce dommage interviendrait, entre autres éléments, le rembour-
sement de toute indemnité raisonnable que l'organisation aurait
eu à verser àison agent ou à ses ayants droit. En outre, le décès
ou l'invalidité d'un agent accomplissant une mission lointaine
pourrait entrainer des dépenses considtrables lorsqu'il s'agirait de
le remplacer. C.erie sont là que des exemples, et la Cour n'entend
pas pr6Voir toutes les catégories de dommages que pourrait subir
l'organisation elle-même.
La question 1 b) est la suivante
(...l'organisation des Sations Cnies a-t-elleqiialitépour présenter
...une réclamation internationale en vue d'obtenir la réparation
desdomrnagescai1st.s ...h) 5 lavictime ou 5 ses ayants droit? ))
Lorsque l'on examine le point de droit auquel donne naissance
la question 1 b), il est inutile de répéterles considérations qui ont
conduit la Cour à répondre affirmativement à la question 1 a).
011 peut maintenant admettre que I'Orgaiiisation a qualité pour
présenter une réclamation sur le plan international, pour négocier,
pour conclure un compromis et pour exercer une action devant
un tribunal international. La seule. question juridique qu'il reste
à examiner est celle de savoir si, en présentant une réclamation
internationale de cette sorte, l'Organisation peut ((obtenir la
réparation des dommages causés ... à la victime ... )).
La règle traditionnelle selon laquelle la protectio~l diplomatique
est exercéepar 1'Etat iiational n'implique pas une réponse négative
à la question 1 b).
Tout d'abord, cette règles'applique aux r6clamations présentées
par un État. Or, ici, il s'agit du cas différent et nouveau d'une
récla.mationqui serait présentéepar l'Organisation.
En second lieu, mêmedans les rapports entre Etats, cette règle
comporte ct'importantes exceptions, car il existe des cas dans
lesquels la protection peut êtreexercee par un État au profit de
personnes qui n'ont pas sa nationalité.
Eri troisième lieu, la règle repose sur deux bases. Preiniérement,
l'État dbfendeur a manqué à une obligation envers 1'Etat national,
à l'6gard de ses ressortissants. Deuxièmement, seule la partie envers
11 OPIN. OF II IV 49 (REPARATION FOR INJURIES SUFFERED)
181
State, must combine to bring a claim against the defendant for the
damage suffered by the Organization.
The Court is not called upon to determine the precise extent of
the reparation which the Organization would be entitled to recover.
It may, however, be said that the measure of the reparation should
depend upon the amount of the damage which the Organization
has suffered as the result of the wrongful act or omission of the
defendant State and should be calculated in accordance with the
rules of international law. Amongst other things, this damage
would include the reimbursement of any reasonable compensation
which the Organization had to pay to its agent or to persons entitled
through him. Again, the death or disablement of one of its agents
engaged upon a distant mission might involve very considerable
expenditure in replacing him. These are mere illustrations, and
the Court cannot pretend to forecast al1the kinds of damage which
the Organization itself might sustain.
Question 1 (b) is as follows:
...has the United Nations, as an Organization,,the capacity to
bring an international claim .... inrespect of the damage caiised
...(b) to the victim or to persons entitled through him ?"
In dealing with the question of law which arises out of Question
1 (b),it is unnecessary to repeat the consideïations which led to an
affirmative answer being given to Question 1 (a). It can now be
assumed that the Organization has the capacity to bring a claim on
the international plane, to negotiate, toconclude a special agreement
and to prosecute a claim before an international tribunal. The only
legal question which remains to be considered is whether, in the
course of bringing an international claim of this kind, the Organiza-
tion can recover "the reparation due in respect of the damage caused
....to the victim ....".
The traditional rule that diplomatic protection is exercised by
the national State does not involve the giving of a negative answer
to Question 1 (b).
In the first place, this rule applies to claims brought by a State.
But here we have the different and new case of a claim that would
be brought by the Orgaiiization.
In the secondplace, even in inter-State relations, there are impor-
tant exceptions to the rule, for there are cases in which protection
may be exercised by a State on behalf of perçons not having its
nationalit y.
In the third place, the rule rests on two bases. The first is that
the defendant State has broken an obligation towards the national
State in respect of its nationals. The second is that only the pnrty laquelle une obligation internationale existe peut présenter une
r6clamation à raison de la violation de celle-ci. Tel sera précisément
le cassi, lorsque'organisation internationale présente une réclama-
tion pour dommages subis par son agent, elle le fait en invoquant
un manquement à une obligation existant envers elle. Ainsi, la
règlede la nationalité de la réclamation ne fournit aucune objection
à la reconnaissance à l'organisation du droit de présenter une
réclamation pour les dommages visés par la question 1 b). Au
contraire, le principe qui est à la base de cette règle conduit à
lui reconnaître cette qualité si l'Organisation invoque comme
motif de sa réclamation un manquement à une obligation existant
envers elle.
Il'autre part, l'analogie tirée de la règle traditionnelle relative
à la protection diplomatique des ressortissantsà l'étranger ne peut,
par elle-même, justifierune réponse affirmative.l n'est pas possible,
par un recours exagéré à l'idéed'allégeance,d'assimiler au lien de
nationalité qui existe entre l'État et son ressortissant le lien juridique
qui, selon l'articleIOO de la Charte, existe entre l'organisation,
d'une part, et le Secrétaire généralet le personnel du Secrétariat,
d'autre part.
1-a Cour se trouve ici en présenced'une situation nouvelle. On ne
peut répondre à la question qui nait de cette situation qu'en déter-
minant de quelle manière elle est régléepar les dispositions de la
Charte interprétées à la lumière des principes du droit international.
La question est comprise dans les limites déjàétablies.c'est-à-dire
qu'elle présiippose que le dommage à raison duquel est demandée
la rPparation nait du manquement à une obligation destinée à
aider un agent de l'organisation dans l'exercice de ses fonctions.
Il ne s'agit pas d'un cas dans lequel l'acte ou l'omission illicite
constitueraient seulement une violation d_esobligations générales
incombant à 1'Etat à l'égard de la condition des étrangers ; les
réclamations présentées à ce titre ressortiraient à la compétence
de l'État national et non en règlegénérale à celle de l'Organisation.
I,a Charte ne confère pas expressément à l'Organisation qualité
pour comprendre, dans sa demande de réparation, les dommages
causés à la victime ou à ses ayants droit. La Cour doit donc
commencer par rechercher si les dispositions de la Charte afférentes
aux fonctions de l'Organisation età la part prise par les agents de
celle-ci à l'exercice desdites fonctions impliquent, pour l'Organisa-
tion, le pouvoir d'assurer à ses agents la protection limitée qui
consisteraità présenter une demande à leur profit, afin d'obtenir
réparation des dommages subis en de telles circonstances. Selon le
droit international, l'organisation doit être considérée comme
possédant ces pouvoirs qui, s'ils ne sont pas expressément Pnoncés
dans la Charte, sont, par une conséquence nécessaire, conferés
à l'Organisation en tant qu'essentiels à l'exercice des fonctions de
celle-ci. Ce principe de droit a étéappliqué à I'Orgailisation inter-
nationale du Travail par la Cour permanente deJustice internationaleto whom an international obligation is due can bring a claim in
respect of its breach. This is precisely what happens when the
Organization, in bringing a claim for damage suffered by its agent,
does so by i~lvoking the breach of an obligation towards itself.
Thus, the rule of the nationality of claims affords no reason against
recognizing that the Organization has the right to bring a claim for
the damage referred to in Question 1 (b). On the contrary, the
principle underlying this rule leads to the recognition of thiscapacity
as belonging to the Organization, when the Organization invokes, as
the ground of its claim, a breach of an obligation towards itself.
Nor does the analogy of the traditional riile of diplomatic protec-
tion of nationals abroad justify in itself an affirmative reply. It
is not possible, by a strained use of the concept of allegiance,
to assimilate the legal bond nrhich exists, under -Article IOO of
the Charter, between the Organization on the one hand, and the
Secretary-General and the staff on the other, to the bond of
nationality existing between a State and its ~lationals.
The Court is here faced with a new situation. The questions
to which it gives rise can only be solved bp realizing that the situa-
tion is donlinated by the provisions of the Charter considered in
the light of the principles of international law.
The question lies within the limits already established; that is
to Say it presupposes that the injury for which the reparation is
demanded arises from a brearh of an obligation designed to help an
agent of the Organization in the performance of his duties. lt is
not a case in which the wrongful act or omission would merely
constitute a breach of the general obligations of a State concerning
the position of aliens; claims made under this head \vould be within
the cornpetence of the national State and not, as a gcneral rule,
within that of the Organizat'ion.
The Charter does not expressly confer upon the Organization
the capacity to include, in its claim for reparation, damage caiised
tothe victim or to perçons entitled through him. 'I'heCourt must
therefore begin by enqiiiring whether the provisions of the Charter
concerning the functions of the Organization, and the part played
by its agents in the performance of those functions, imply for
the Organization power to afford its agents the limited protection
that would consist in the bringing of a claim on their behalf for
reparation for damage suffered in such circumstances. Under
international law, the Organization must be deemed to have those
powers which, though not expressly provided in the Charter, are
conferred iipon it by necessary implication. as being essential to
the performance of its duties. This principle of law was applied
by the Permanent Court of International Justice to the International
Labour Organization in its -4dvisory Opinion No. 13 of July 23rd,
12 dans son Avis consultatif no 13, du 23 juillet 1926 (Série B, no 13,
p. 18) ,t il doit l'êtreaux Nations Unies.
Eu égard àses butset fonctions précédemment indiqués,llOrgaiii-
sation peut constater la nécessité-et a en fait constatéla nécessitC
- de confier à ses agents des missions importantes qui doivent être
effectuées dans des régionstroublées du monde. De telles missions,
par leur nature, exposent souvent les agents à des dangers excep-
tionnels auxquels les personries ne sont pas exposées d'ordinaire.
Pour cette mêmeraison, les dommages subis par ces agents dans
ces conditions se produiront parfois de telle manière que leur Etat
national ne serait pasfond6 à introduire une demande en réparation
sur la base de la protection diplomatique ou, tout au moins, ne
serait pas disposé à le faire. Tant afin d'assurer l'exercice efficace
et indépendant de ses fonctions que pour procurer à ses agents
un appui effectif, l'organisation doit leur fournir une protection
appropriée.
On s'est déjàrendu compte de ce besoin de protection des agents
de l'organisation, en tant que condition dont dépend l'exercice des
fonctions de celle-ci; il ressort du préambule de la Résolution du
3 décembre 1948 (supra, p. 175) que telle était l'opinion unanime
de l'Assembléegénérale.
A cet effet, les Membres de l'Organisation ont contracté certains
engagements, dont les uns figurent dans la Charte et d'autres dans
des accords complémentaires. Il n'est pas besoin.de décrire ici le
contenu de ces accords, mais la Cour doit insister sur l'importance
du devoir de donner à l'Organisation ((pleine assistance »,accepté
par ses Membres dans l'article 2, paragraphe j, de la Charte. Il
faut se souvenir que le fonctionnement efficace de l'organisation,
l'accomplissement de ses devoirs, l'indépendance et l'efficacitéde
l'Œuvre de ses agents exigent le strict respect de ces engagements.
A cette fin, il est nécessaireque, lorsqu'un manquement se produit,
l'organisation soit en mesure d'inviter l'État responsable à remédier
à ce manquement et, notamment, d'obtenir de cet Etat réparation
des dommages que ce manquement peut avoir caus6s à l'agent de
l'organisation.
Pour que l'agent puisse s'acquitter de ses devoirs de fa<;onsatis-
faisante, il faut qu'il sente que cette protection lui est assurée par
l'organisation et qu'il peut compter sur elle. Afin de garantir l'indé-
pendance de l'agent et, en conséquence, l'action indépendante de
llOrganisatioii elle-même,il est essentiel que l'agent, dans l'exercice
de sesfonctions, n'ait pas besoin de coilipter sur une autre protection
que celle dc l'Organisation (sauf, bien entendu, la protection plus
directe et plus immédiate due par 1'Etat sur le territoire duquel il
peut se trouver). En particuliey, il ne doit pas avoir à s'en remettre
à la protection de son propre Etat. Si tel était le cas, son indépcii-
dance pourrdit, contrdirement au principe qu'applique l'article IOO
de 1:i Chartch, se trouver compromise. Enfin, il cst essentiel que 1926 (Series B.,No. 13, p.18), and must be applied to the United
Nations.
Having regard to its purposes and functioris already referred
to, the Organization may find it necessary, and has in fact found
it necessary, to entrust its agents with important missions to
be performed in disturbed parts of the world. Many missions,
from their very nature, involve the agents in unusual dangers
to which ordinary persons are not exposed. For the same reason,
the injuries suffered by its agents in these circumstances will
sometimes have occurred in such a manner that their national
State would not be justified in bringing a claim for reparation
on the ground of diplomatic protection, or, at any rate, would
not feel disposed to do so. Both to ensure the efficient and
independent performance of these missions and to afford effective
support to its agents, the Organization must provide them with
adequate protection.
This need of protection for the agents of the Organization,
as a condition of the performance of its functions, has already
been realized, and the Preamble to the Resolution of December 3rd,
1948 (suprap ,. 175), shows that this was the unanimous view of
the General Assembly.
For this purpose, the Members of the Organization have entered
into certain undertakings, some of which are in the Charter and
others in complementary agreements. The content of these
undertakings need not be described here ;but the Court must
stress the importance of the duty to render to the Organization
"every assistance" which is accepted by the Rlembers in Article 2,
paragraph 5,of the Charter. It must be noted that the effective
working of the Organization-the accomplishment of its task,
andthe independence and effectiveness of the work of its agents-
require that these undertakings should be strictly observed.
For that purpose, it is necessary that, when an infringement
occurs, the Organization should be able to cal1upon the responsible
State to remedy its default, and, in particular, to obtain from
the State reparation for the damage that the default may have
caused to its agent.
In order that the agent may perform his duties satisfactorily,
he must feel that this protection is assured to him by the Organi-
zation, and that he may count on it. To ensure the independence
of the agent, and, consequently, the independent action of the
Organization itself, it is essential that in performing his duties
he need not have to rely on any other protection than that of
the Orginization (save of course for the more direct and immediate
protection due from the State in whose territory he may be).
In particular, lie should not have to rely on the protection of his
own State. If he had to rcly on thnt State, his independence
might w-eil be compi-omised, contrary to the principle applied
by Article ~oo of the Charter. And lastly, it is essential that-l'agent - qu'il appartienne à un État puissant ou faible, à un État
plus ou moins touchépar les complications de la vie internationale,
à un Etat en sympathie ou non avec sa mission - sache que, dans
l'exercice de ses fonctions, il est placésous la protection de l'organi-
satioii. (Cette assurance est encore plus nécessaire si l'agent est un
apatride.)
A coiisidérer lc caractère des fonctions confiéesà l'organisation
et la nature des. inissions de ses agents, il devient évident que la
qualité de l'organisation pour exercer, dans une certaine mesure,
iine protection foiictionnelle de ses agents, est nécessairement impli-
quéepar la Charte.
Les obligations contractées par les États, afin de permettre aux
agents de l'organisation de s'acquitter de leurs devoirs, sont sous-
crites non dans l'intérêt desagentsmais dans celui de l'organisation.
Quand celle-ci demande réparation àraison d'un manquement àces
obligations, elle invoque son propre droit, le droit de voir respecter
les obligations assumées enyers elle. Sur cette base, l'organisation
demande répciration du préjudice subi, car (c'est un principe du
droit international que la violation d'un engagement entraîne l'obli-
gation de réparer dans une forme adéquate »,ainsi que l'a dit la
Cour permanente de Justice internationale dans son Arrêt no 8, du
26 juillet 1927 (Série A, no 9, p. 21). En demandant une réparation
fondéesur le préjudice subi par son agent, l'organisation ne repré-
sente pas cet agent ;elle affirme son propre droit, le droit de garantir
le respect des engagements contractés envers l'organisation.
Eu égard aux considérations qui précèdent et au .droit incon-
testable de l'organisation d'exiger que ses Membres remplissent les
obligations contractées par eux dans l'intérêd t u bon fonctionnement
de l'organisation, la Cour estime qu'en cas de manquement à ces
obligations, l'Organisation a qualité pour demaricler une réparation
appropriée et que, dans l'évaluation du montant de cette réparation,
l'organisation a le droit de faire figurer le dommage subi par la
victime ou par ses ayants droit.
Il resteà savoir si lJOrgaiiisation « qualité pour préseilter contre
le gouvernement de jure ou de facto responsable une réclamation
internationale en vue d'obtenir la réparation des dommages causés
~r)~auxNations Unies, b) à la victime oii à ses ayants droit »quand
1'Etat défendeur n'est pas membre de lJOrganis ,t'ion.
Lorsque 1'011examine cet aspect de la question 1 a) et b), on
doit avoir présents à l'esprit les motifs qui ont conduit la Covr à
donner à cette question une réponse affirmative quand 1'Etat
défendeur est un Membre de l'Organisation. Il a étéétabli que
l'organisation a qualité pour présenter des réclaniations sur le
14 whether the agent belongs to a powerful or to a weak State;to
one more affected or less affected, by the complications of inter-
national life; to one in syrnpathy or#not in sympathy with the
mission of the agent-he should know that in the performance
of his duties heis under the protection of the Organization. This
assurance is even more necessary when the agent is stateless.
Upon examination of the character of the functions entrusted
to the Organization and of the nature of the missions of its agents,
it becomes clear that the capacity of the Organization to exercise
a measure of functional protection of its agents arises by necessary
intendment out of the Charter.
The obligations entered into by States to enable the agents of
the Organization to perform their duties are undertaken not in
the interest of the agents, but in that of the Organization. Il'hen
it clairns redress for a breach of these obligations, the Organization
is invoking its own right, the right that trie obligations due to it
should be respected. On this ground, it asks for reparation of
the injury suffered, for "it is a principle of international laïv that
the breach of an engagement involves an obligation to make
reparation in an adequate form"; as was stated bv the Permanent
Court in its Judgment No. 8 of July 26th, 1927 (Series A., No. g,
p. 21). In claiming reparation based oii the injury suffered by
its agent, the Organization does not represent the agent, but is
asserting its own right, the right to secure respect for undertakings
entered into towards the Organization.
Having regard to the foregoing considerations, and to the un-
deniable right of the Organization to demand tliat its Members
shall fulfil the obligations entered into by them in the interest of
the good working of the Organization, the Court is of the opinion
that, in the case of a breach of these obligations, the Organization
has the capacity to claim ad.equate reparation, and that in assessing
this reparation it is authorized to include the darnage suffered by
the victini or by persons entitled through him.
The question remains whether the Organization has"the capacity
to bring an international claim against the responsible de jure or
de facto government with a view to obtaining the reparation due
in respect of the damage caused (a) to the United Nations, (b)
to the victim or to persons entitled through him" when the defen-
dant State is not a member of the Organization.
In considering this aspect of Question 1 (a)and (b), it is neces-
sary to keep in mind the reasons which liave led the Court to
give an affirmative answer to it when the defendant State is a
Member of the Organization. It has now been established that
the Organization has capacity to bring ciaims on the internationalplan international et qu'elle possèdeun droit de protection fonction-
nelle à l'égard de ses agents. Ici encore la Cour est autorisée à
sypposer que le dommage subi engage la responsabilité d'un
Etat, et elle n'est pas appelée à exprimer une opinion sur les
différentes manières dont pareille responsabilité pourrait être
engagée. Par conséquent, la question qui se pose est celle de
savoir si pl'Organisation a qualité pour présenter une réclamation
contre 1'Etat défendeur afin d'obtenir réparation à raison de ce
dommage, ou si, au contraire, cet Etat, s'il n'est pas membre de
l'Organisation, est fondé à objecter que la qualité pour présenter
une réclamation internationale fait défaut à l'organisation. A cet
égard, la Cour est d'avis que cinquante États, représentant une
très large majorité des membres de la communauté internationale,
avaient le pouvoir, conformément au droit international, de créer
une entité possédant une personnalité internationale objective -
et non pas simplement une personnalité reconnue par eux seuls -
ainsi que la qualité de présenter des réclamations internationales.
En conséquence, la Cour arrive à la conclusion qu'il y a Jieu
de répondre affirmativement à la question 1 a) et b), que 1'Etat
défendeur soit ou nGn Membre des Nations Unies.
La question II est ainsi conçue :
«En cas de réponse affirmative sur le point 1 b), comment
l'action de l'Organis?tion des Nations Unies doit-elle se concilier
avec les droits que'Etat dont la victime est essort tissantpoürrait
posséder ? ))
La réponseaffirmative, donnée par la Cour à la question 1 b),
l'oblige à examiner maintenant la question II. Lorsque la victime
possède une nationalité, il peut évidemment se présenter des cas
dans lesquels l'acte dommageable qui l'a atteinte peut intéresser
tant son État national que l'organisation. Lorsque cela se produit,
le droit de protection diplomatique appartenant à 1'Etat et le droit
de protection fonctionnelle appartenant à l'organisation peuvent
se trouver en concurrence ;c'est là le seul cas que la Cour soit invitée
à traiter.
En pareil cas, il n'existe pas de règle de droit qui attribue une
priorité à l'un ouà l'autre, ou qui oblige soit 1'Etat soitl'Organisation
à s'abstenir de présenter une réclamation internationale. La Courplane, arid that it possesses a right of functio~ial protection in
respect of its agents. Here again the Court is authorized to assume
that the damage suffered involves the responsibility of a State,
and it is not called upon to express an opinion upon the various
ways in which that responsibility might be engaged. Accordingly
the question is whether the Organization has capacity to bring a
claim against the defendant State to recover reparation in respect
of that damage or whether, on the contrary, the defendant State,
not being a member, is justified in raising the objection that the
Organization lacks the capacity to bring an international claim.
On this point, the Court's opinion is that fifty States, rcpresenting
the vast majority of the members of the international community,
had the power, in conformity with international law, to bring into
being an entity possessing objective international personality, and
not merely personality recognized by them alone, together with
capacity to bring international claims.
Accordingly, the Court arrives at the conclusion that ail affir-
mative answer should be given to Question 1 (a) and (b) whether
or not the defendant State is a Member of the United Xations.
Question II is as follo~vs :
"In the event of an affirmative reply on point 1 (O), Iiow is
action by the Cnited Xations to be reconciled uith siicli rightas
may be possessedby the State of which tlievictim is a national?"
The affirmative reply given by the Court on point 1 (b) obliges
it now to examine Question II. When the victim has a ilationality,
cases can clearly occur in which the injury suffered by him may
engage the interest both of his national State and of the Organ-
ization. In such an event, competition between the State's right
of diplomatic protection and the Organization's right of functional
protection might arise, and this is the only case with which the
Court is invited to deal.
In such a case, there is no rule of lan n:hich assigns priority
to the one or to the other, or which compels either the State or
the Organization to refrain from bri~ging an international claim.ne conçoit pas pourquoi les parties intéresséesne pourraient trouver
des solutions inspirées par la bonne volonté et le bon sens ; et, pour
les rapports entre l'organisation et ses Membres, elle attire l'atten-
tion sur le devoir de ceux-ci de donner (pleine assistance I)devoir
prévupar l'article 2,paragraphe 5, de la Charte.
Bien que les bases des deux réclamations soient différentes, cela
ne signifie pas que 1'Etat défendeur puisse êtrecontraint à payer
deux fois la réparation due à raison du dommage. Les tribunaux
internationaux connaissent bien le problème que pose une réclama-
tion à laquelle sont intéressésdeux ou plusieurs Etats nationaux,
et ils savent comment protéger, en pareil cas, 1'Etat défendeur.
Le risque de concurrence entre l'organisation et l'État national
peut être réduit ou éliminé, soitpar une convention générale,soit
par des accords conclus dans chaquecas d'espèce.Il n'est pas douteux
qu'avec le temps une prati-que se développera, et il convient de se
rappeler que déjà certains Etats, dont les ressortissants ont subi des
dommages, au cours de missions entreprises par euxpour le compte
de l'organisation, se sont montrés raisonnablement disposés à
rechercher, dans un esprit de coopération, une solution pratique.
La question relative à la conciljation de l'action exercée par
l'organisation avec les droits de 1'Etat national peut se présenter
d'une autre manière : savoir quand l'agent possède la nationalité
de l'État défendeur.
La pratique généralementsuivie selon laquelle un État n'exerce
pas sa protection au profit d'un de ses nationaux contre un Etat
qui considère celui-ci comme son propre national ne constitue pas
un précédentdont on puisse se prévaloirici. En effet, l'action exercée
par l'organisation ne se fonde pas sur la nationalité de la victime
mais sur sa qualité d'agent de l'Organisation. Il est donc ici indif-
férentde savoir si 1'Etat auauel s'adresse la réclamation le considère
ou non comme son national, car la question de sa nationalité
n'est pas pertinente pour l'admissibilité de la réclamation.
En droit, il ne semble donc pas que la circonstance que l'agent
possède la nationalité de 1'Etat défendeur constitue un obstacle
à une réclamation présentéepar l'organisation, à raison d'un man-
quement aux obligations existant envers elle, qui s'est produit
dans l'exercice, par cet agent, de sa mission.The Court sees no reason why the parties concerned should not
find solutions inspired by goodwill and common sense, and as
between the Organization and its Members it draws attention to
their duty to render "every assistance" provided by -4rticle 2,
paragraph 5, of the Charter.
hlthoiigh the bases of the two claims are different, that doeî
not mean that the defendant State can be compelled to pay the
reparation due in respect of the damage twice over. International
tribunals are already familiar with the problem of a claim in which
two or more national States are interested. and thev know how to
protect the defendant State in such a case.
The risk of competition between the Organization and the
national State can be reduced or eliminated either by a general
convention or by agreements entered into in each particular case.
There is no doubt that in due course a practice will be developed,
and it is worthy of note that already certain States whose nationals
have been iniured in the ~erformance of missions undertaken for
the Organization have shown a reasonable and CO-operativedisposi-
tion to find a practical solution.
The question of reconciling action by the Organizatiori with the
rights of a national State may arise in another wdy ; that is to say,
when the agent bears the nationality of the defendant State.
The ordinary practice whereby a State does not exercise protcc-
tion on behalf of one of its nationals against a State which regards
him as its own national, does not constitute a precedent which is
relevant here. The action of the Organization is in fact based not
upon the nationality of the victim but upon his status as agent of
the Organization. Therefore it does not inatter whether or not
the State to which the claim is addressed regards him as its own
national, because the question of nationality is not pertinent to
the admissibility of the claim.
In law, therefore, it does not seem that the fact of the possession
of the nationality of the defendant State by the agent constitutes
any obstacle to a claim brought by the Organization for a breach of
obligations towards it occurring in relation to the performance of
his mission by that agent. 187 AVIS DU II IV 49 (IIÉPARATION DES DOMMAGES SURIS)
La Cour est d'avis,
S.IIYla question I a):
i) à l'unanimitd,
Qu'au cas où un agent des Nations Unies subit, dans l'exercice
de ses fonctions, un dommage dans des conditions de nature à
engager la responsabilité d'un État Membre de l'Organisation, celle-
ci a qualité pour présenter contre le gouvernement de jure ou de
facto responsable une réclamation internationale en vue d'obtenir
la réparation des dommages causés aux Nations Unies.
ii) à l'unanimité,
Qu'au cas où un agent des Nations Unies subit, dans l'exercice
de ses fonctions, un dommage dans des conditions de nature à
engager la responsabilité d'un État qui n'est pas membre de l'Orga-
nisation, celle-ci a qualité pour présenter contre le gouvernement
de jure ou de facto responsable une réclamation internationale en
vue d'obtenir la réparation des dommages causés aux Nations
Unies.
Sztr la qztestioI b) :
i) par onze voix contre quatre,
Qu'au cas où un agent des Nations Unies subit, dans l'exercice
de ses fonctions, un dommage dans des conditions de nature à
engager la responsabilité d'un État Membre de l'organisation,
celle-ci a qualité pour présenter contre le gouvernement de jure
ou de facto responsable une réclamation internationale en vue
d'obtenir la réparation du dommage causé à la victime ou à ses
ayants droit.
ii) par onze voix contre quatre,
Qu'au cas où un agent des Nations Unies subit, dans l'exercice
de ses fonctions, un dommage dans des conditions de nature à enga-
ger la responsabilité d'un É.tat qui n'est pas membre de l'organi-
sation, celle-ci a qualité pour présenter contre le gouvernement
de jzwe ou de facto responsable une réclamation internationale en
vue d'obtenir la réparation des dommages causés à la victime ou
à ses ayants droit. The Court is of opinion
On Question I (a) :
(i) unaiiimously,
That, in the event of an agent of the United Nations in the
performance of his duties suffering injury in circumstances
involving the responsibility of a Member State, the United Nations
as an Organization has the capacity to bring an international claim
against the responsible dejzwe or defactogovernmentwith a view to
obtainingthe reparation due in respect of the damage Cause to the
United Nations.
(ii) unanimously,
That, in the event of an agent of the United Nations in the
performance of hisduties suffering injury in circumstances involving
the responsibilitÿ of ii Statc which is not a member, the United
Nations as an Organization has the capacity to bring an inter-
national claim against the responsible dejure or defactogovernment
with a view to obtaining the reparation duc in respect of the damage
caused to the United Nations.
On QuestionI (b) :
(i) by eleven votes agairist four,
That, in the event of an agent of the United Xations iiithe
performance of his duties suffering injury in circumstances iiivol\.ing
the responsibility of a Member Statc, the United Satioiis as an
Organization ha.; the capacity to bring an international claim
against the responsible de jure or ti'efactoovernment nith a view
to obtaining the reparation due in respect of the darnage caused
to the victim or to persons entitled through him.
(ii) by eleven votes against four,
That, in the event of an agent of the United Nations in the
performance of his duties sufferingiiijury in circumstances involving
the responsibility of a State which is not a member, the United
Nations as an Organization has the capacity to bring an inter-
national claim against the responsible dejure or de/act geovernment
with a view to obtaining the reparation duc in respect of the
damage caused to the victim or to persons entitled through him.188 AVIS DU II IV 49 (RÉPARATION DES DONM.4GES SUBIS)
Sur lnquestion II:
Par dix voix contre cinq,
Quand l'organisation des Nations Unies présente une recla-
mation en vue d'obtenir la réparation des dommages causés à son
agent, elle ne peut le faire qu'en se fondant sur un manquement
à des obligations existant envers elle ; le respect de cette règle aura
d'ordinaire pour conséquence de prévenir un conflit entre l'action
de l'organisation et les droits que pourrait posséder1'Etat dont la
victime est ressortissant et, de la sorte, d'assurer la conciliation
de ces réclamations ; cette conciliation dépendra pour le surplus
de considérations propres ri chaque cas d'espèce et d'accords à
conclure entre l'organisation et les divers Etats individuellement,
soit en général, soitdans chaque cas d'espèce.
Fait en anglais et en franqais, le texte anglais faisant foi, au
Palais de la Paix, à La Haye, le onze avril niil neuf cent quarante-
neuf, en deus exemplaires, dont l'un restera dépose aux archives
de la Cour et dont l'autre sera transmis au Secretaire g6néral des
Nations Unies.
Le Prksident de la Cour,
(Sig~é BASDEVANT.
Le Greffier de la Cour,
[Siglzé)E. HAVBRO. OPIK. OF II IV 49 (REPAR- TI OOSR ISJCKIES SCFFI~RI~D) 188
On QuestionII :
By ten votes against fi~ve,
IVhen the United Nations as an Organization is bringing a claim
for reparation of damage caused to its agent, it can only do so
by basing its claim upon n breach of obligations due to itself ;
respect for this rule wrill usually prevent a conflict between the
action of the United Sations and such rights as the agent's
national State may possess, and thus bring about a reconciliation
between their clairns ; moreovcr, this reconciliation must depend
upon considerations applicable to each particular case, and upon
agreements to be made between the Organization and individual
States, either generally or in each case.
Done in English and French, thc English test being nuthoritntive,
at the Peace Palace, The Hague, thiseleventh day of .-\pril, one
thousaiid nine huridred and forty-nine, in t~vocopie<, onc of n-hich
will bc placed in the girchivez of the Court and the othrr trans-
mitted to the Secretary-General of the Cnited S:ition<.
(Signed) BASDEVASS,
President .
(Signed) E. HAJIBKO,
Registrar.189 AVIS DU II IV49 (RÉPARATIOX DES DOXIMAGES SUBIS)
M. M'INIAHSKIi,uge, déclare qu'à son regret, il n'est pas à
mêmede se rallier àla réponse donnéepar la Cour à la question
1 b). D'une manière générale,il partage les vues exprimées dans
l'opinion dissidente du juge Hackworth.
MM. ALVAKEZ et AZEVEDOj,uges, tout en souscrivant à l'avis
de la Cour, se prévalent du droit que leur confère l'ar57cdu
Statutet joignent audit avis les exposésde leur opinion individuelle.
M. HACI~WORTB H, DAWPI ACHA etM. KRYLOVj,uges, déclarant
ne pas pouvoir se rallier l'avis de la Cour et se prévalant du
droit que leur confère l'arti57edu Statut,joignent audit avis
les expos6s de leur opinion dissidente.
(Paraphé)J. B.
(Paraphé)E. H. OPIN. OF II IV 49 (REPARATION FOR INJURIES SUFFERED) 189
Judge WINIARSK Itates with regret that he is unable to concur
in the reply given by the Court to Question 1 (b). In general,
he shares the views expressed in Judge Hackworth's dissenting
opinion.
Judges ALVAREZ and AZEVEDO w,hilst concurring in the Opinion
of the Court, have availed themselves of the right conferred on
them by Article 57 of the Statute and appended to the Opinion
statements of their individual opinion.
Judges HACKWORTH B,ADAWIPASHAand KRYLOV, declaring
that they are unable to concur in the Opinion of the Court, have
availed themselves of the right conferred on them by Article57
of the Statute and appended to the Opinion statements of their
dissenting opinion. ANNEXE
BORDEREAU DES DOCUMENTS SOUMISA LA COUR
I. Dscument de l'Assembléegénérale(A/674, 7 octobre 1948).
2. Compte rendu d'une séance plénière de l'Assemblée générale
(AIPV 169, 3 décembre 1948).
3. Documents de la Sixième Commission de l'Assembléegénérale. .
A/C.6/275. A/C.6/282.
)) z75/Rev. I. )) 283.
» 276. )) 284.
)) 277. » 285.
» 278. )) 286.
)) 279. » 287.
» 27g/Corr. I. » 291.
» 280. » 292.
a 281. )) 293.
» z811Rev. I. )) 294.
s 281/Rev. 2.
4. Rapport de la Sixième Commission de l'Assembléegénérale(A/749,
2 décembre 1948), Corr. 1, teste français, et Corr. 2, teste anglais.
5. Comptes rendus des séances de la Sixième Commission de l'As-
sembléegénérale.
A/C.6/SR. 112. A!C.6/SR. 118.
» 113. » 119.
» 114. )) 120.
» 115. 1) 121.
» 116. » 124.
1) 117. » 124,Corr. 1, texte anglais.. ANNEX.
LIST OF DOCUMENTS SUBMITTED TO THE COURT.
DOCUMENTS SUBMITTED BY THE SECRETARY-GEKERA OL THE
UXITEDNATIONS IN THE COURSE OF THE IVRITTEN PROCEEDINGS.
I. Document of the General Assembly (A/674, October 7th, 1948).
z. Record of Plenary Meeting of General Assembly (AiPV 169, Decem-
ber 3rd, 1948).
Documents of Sixth Committee of the GeneraI .4ssembIy.
3. AIC.61275. AIC.61282.
,, 275IRev. I. ,.,283.
,, 276. ,, 284.
,, 277. ,, 285.
,, 278. ,, 286.
,> 279. ,, 287.
,, 279/c0JT. 1. ,, 291-
,, 280. ,, 292.
,, 281. ,, 293.
,, 281JRev. I. ,, 294.
,, 281IRev. 2.
4. Report of Sixth Committee of the General Assembly (A1749,
December 2nd' 1948), Corr. 1, French text, and Corr. 2, English
text.
5. Records of Sixth Committee of the General Assembly.
AIC.6ISR 118.
,, 119.
,, 120.
,, 121.
,, 124.
,, 124, Corr. 1, Engl. text.
(including the text of the declaration of Judge Winiarski)
Advisory Opinion of 11 April 1949