Judgment of 3 February 2012

Document Number
143-20120203-JUD-01-00-EN
Document Type
Date of the Document
Document File
Bilingual Document File

COUR INTERNATIONALE DE JUSTICE

RECUEIL DES ARRÊTS,
AVIS CONSULTATIFS ET ORDONNANCES

IMMUNITÉS JURIDICTIONNELLES

DE L’ÉTAT

(ALLEMAGNE c. ITALIE ; GRÈCE (intervenant))

ARRÊT DU 3 FÉVRIER 2012

2012

INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE

REPORTS OF JUDGMENTS,
ADVISORY OPINIONS AND ORDERS

JURISDICTIONAL IMMUNITIES

OF THE STATE

(GERMANY v. ITALY : GREECE intervening)

JUDGMENT OF 3 FEBRUARY 2012

6 CIJ1031.indb 1 22/11/13 12:25 Mode officiel de citation :
Immunités juridictionnelles de l’Etat (Allemagne c. Italie ;
Grèce (intervenant)), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2012, p. 99

Official citation :

Jurisdictional Immunities of the State (Germany v. Italy :
Greece intervening), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2012, p. 99

o
N de vente:
ISSN 0074-4441 Sales number 1031
ISBN 978-92-1-071145-6

6 CIJ1031.indb 2 22/11/13 12:25 3 FÉVRIER 2012

ARRÊT

IMMUNITÉS JURIDICTIONNELLES

DE L’ÉTAT

(ALLEMAGNE c. ITALIE ; GRÈCE (intervenant))

JURISDICTIONAL IMMUNITIES

OF THE STATE

(GERMANY v. ITALY : GREECE intervening)

3 FEBRUARY 2012

JUDGMENT

6 CIJ1031.indb 3 22/11/13 12:25 99

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Paragraphs

Chronology of the Procepdure 1-19

I. Historical and Factualp Background 20-36
1. The Peace Treaty of 1947 22

2. The Federal Compensation Law of 1953 23
3. The 1961 Agreements 24-25
4. Law establishing the “Remembrance, Responsibility and

Future” Foundation 26
5. Proceedings before Italian courts 27-36

A. Cases involving Italian nationals 27-29
B. Cases involving Greek nationals 30-36

II. The Subject-Matter of thpe Dispute and the Jurisdpiction of
the Court 37-51

III. Alleged Violation of Germany’s Jurisdictional Immunity

in the Proceedings Broupght by the Italian Claipmants 52-108

1. The issues before the Court 52-61
2. Italy’s first argument : the territorial tort principle 62-79

3. Italy’s second argument : the subject-matter and circum -
stances of the claims in the Italian courts 80-106

A. The gravity of the violations 81-91
B. The relationship between jus cogens and the rule of State

immunity 92-97
C. The “last resort” argument 98-104
D. The combined effect of the circumstances relied upon by

Italy 105-106
4. Conclusions 107-108

IV. The Measures of Constrapint Taken against Propeprty

Belonging to Germany Locpated on Italian Territopry 109-120

V. The Decisions of the Itaplian Courts Declaring Epnforce -
able in Italy Decisionps of Greek Courts Upholdipng Civil
Claims against Germanyp 121-133

VI. Germany’s Final Submispsions and the Remediesp Sought 134-138

Operative Clause 139

4

6 CIJ1031.indb 5 22/11/13 12:25 100

INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE

YEAR 2012
2012
3 February
3 February 2012 General List
No. 143

JURISDICTIONAL IMMUNITIES

OF THE STATE

(GERMANY v. ITALY: GREECE intervening)

Historical and factual background.
Peace Treaty of 1947 — Federal Compensation Law of 1953 — 1961 Agree ‑
ments — 2000 Federal Law establishing the “Remembrance, Responsibility and

Future” Foundation — Proceedings before Italian courts — Cases involving Ital ‑
ian nationals — Cases involving Greek nationals.

*

Subject‑matter of dispute and jurisdiction of the Court.
Subject‑matter of dispute delimited by claims of Germany and Italy — No
objection to jurisdiction of the Court or admissibility of Application raised by
Italy — Article 1 of the European Convention for the Peaceful Settlement of Dis

putes as basis of jurisdiction — Limitation ratione temporis not applicable — The
Court has jurisdiction — The Court is not called upon to rule on questions of repa
ration — Relationship between duty of reparation and State immunity — No other
question with regard to the Court’s jurisdiction.

*

Alleged violation of Germany’s jurisdictional immunity in proceedings▯ brought
by Italian claimants.
Issues before the Court — Origins of proceedings in Italian courts — Existence

of customary rule of international law conferring immunity on States — Sources
of State practice and opinio juris — State practice and opinio juris generally
recognize State immunity — Rule of State immunity derives from principle of sov
ereign equality of States — Need to distinguish between relevant acts of Germany
and those of Italy — Procedural nature of law of immunity — The Court must
examine and apply the law on State immunity as it existed at time of Ita▯lian pro

ceedings — Acta jure gestionis and acta jure imperii — Acts of armed forces of

5

6 CIJ1031.indb 7 22/11/13 12:25 jurisdictional immunpities of the state (jupdgment) 101

German Reich were acta jure imperii — State immunity in respect of acta jure
imperii — Contention by Italy that Germany not entitled to immunity in respect of▯
cases before Italian courts.

Italy’s first argument : territorial tort principle — Acts committed on territory
of forum State by armed forces of a foreign State in conduct of armed co▯nflict —
Article 11 of European Convention on State Immunity — Article 12 of United
Nations Convention on Jurisdictional Immunities of States and Their Prop▯erty —
State practice : national legislation and judgments of national courts — State

immunity for acta jure imperii extends to civil proceedings for acts occasioning
death, personal injury or damage to property, committed by armed forces ▯in con ‑
duct of armed conflict — Opinio juris — Absence of contrary jurisprudence or
contrary statements by States — Decisions of Italian courts cannot be justified on
basis of territorial tort principle.

Italy’s second argument : subject‑matter and circumstances of claims in Italian
courts — Gravity of violations — Contention that international law does not
accord immunity to a State for serious violations of law of armed confli▯ct —
National court is required to determine entitlement to immunity before i▯t can hear

merits of case — No State practice to support proposition that a State is deprived
of immunity in cases of serious violations of international humanitarian▯ law —
Neither has proposition been accepted by European Court of Human Rights —
State not deprived of immunity because it is accused of serious violatio▯ns of inter‑
national humanitarian law.

Relationship between jus cogens and rule of State immunity — Alleged conflict
between jus cogens rules and immunity of Germany — No conflict exists between
jus cogens and immunity of a State — Argument about jus cogens displacing

State immunity has been rejected by national courts — State immunity not affected
by violation of jus cogens.
The “last resort” argument — Contention that Italian courts were justified in
denying Germany immunity because of failure of all other attempts to sec▯ure com ‑
pensation — State immunity not dependent upon existence of effective alternative

means of redress — Italy’s argument rejected — Further negotiation between Ger ‑
many and Italy.

Combined effect of circumstances relied upon by Italy — None of three strands
justify action of Italian courts — No effect if taken together — State practice —

Balancing different factors would disregard nature of State immunity — Immunity
cannot be dependent upon outcome of balancing exercise by national court▯.

Action of Italian courts in denying Germany immunity constitutes a breac▯h of
obligations owed by Italy to Germany — No need to consider other questions

raised by the Parties.

*

Measures of constraint taken against property belonging to Germany locat▯ed on
Italian territory.

6

6 CIJ1031.indb 9 22/11/13 12:25 jurisdictional immunpities of the state (jupdgment) 102

Legal charge against Villa Vigoni — Charge in question suspended by Italy to
take account of proceedings before the Court — Distinction between rules of cus ‑
tomary international law governing immunity from enforcement and those g▯overn ‑
ing jurisdictional immunity — No need to determine whether decisions of Greek
courts awarding pecuniary damages against Germany were in breach of that▯

State’s jurisdictional immunity — Article 19 of United Nations Convention on
Jurisdictional Immunities of States and Their Property — Property which was
subject of measure of constraint being used for non‑commercial governmen▯tal pur ‑
poses — Germany not having expressly consented to taking of legal charge in
question or allocated Villa Vigoni for satisfaction of judicial claims a▯gainst it —
Registration of legal charge on Villa Vigoni constitutes a violation by ▯Italy of its

obligation to respect immunity owed to Germany.

*

Decisions of Italian courts declaring enforceable in Italy decisions of Greek
courts upholding civil claims against Germany.

Germany’s contention that its jurisdictional immunity was violated by▯ these
decisions — Request for exequatur — Whether Italian courts respected Germa ‑
ny’s immunity from jurisdiction in upholding request for exequatur — Purpose of
exequatur proceedings — Exequatur proceedings must be regarded as being
directed against State which was subject of foreign judgment — Question of immu ‑

nity precedes consideration of request for exequatur — No need to rule on ques ‑
tion whether Greek courts violated Germany’s immunity — Decisions of Florence
Court of Appeal constitute violation by Italy of its obligation to respe▯ct jurisdic ‑
tional immunity of Germany.

*

Germany’s final submissions and the remedies sought.
Germany’s six requests presented to the Court — First three submissions

upheld — Violation by Italy of Germany’s jurisdictional immunity — Fourth sub ‑
mission — Request for declaration that Italy’s international responsibility is▯
engaged — No need for express declaration — Responsibility automatically
inferred from finding that certain obligations have been violated — Fourth submis ‑
sion not upheld — Fifth submission — Request that Italy be ordered to take, by

means of its own choosing, any and all steps to ensure that all decision▯s of its
courts and other judicial authorities infringing Germany’s sovereign immunity
cease to have effect — Fifth submission upheld — Result to be achieved by enact ‑
ing appropriate legislation or by other methods having the same effect — Sixth
submission — Request that Italy be ordered to provide assurances of non‑repeti ‑

tion — No reason to suppose that a State whose conduct has been declared wrong▯ ‑
ful by the Court will repeat that conduct in future — No circumstances justifying
assurances of non‑repetition — Sixth submission not upheld.

7

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JUDGMENT

Present: President Owada ; Vice‑President Tomka ; Judges Koroma, Simma,
Abraham, Keith, Sepúlvedap-Amor, Bennouna, Skotnikopv, Cançado
Trindade, Yusuf, Greenwoopd, Xue, Donoghue ; Judge ad hoc

Gaja ; Registrar Couvreur.

In the case concerning jurisdictional immunities of the State,

between

the Federal Republic of Germany,

represented by
H.E. Ms Susanne Wasum-Rainer, Ambassador, Director-General for Legal
Affairs and Legal Adviser, Federal Foreign Office,

H.E. Mr. Heinz-Peter Behr, Ambassador of the Federal Republic of Ger -
many to the Kingdom of the Netherlands,
Mr. Christian Tomuschat, former Member and Chairman of the Interna -
tional Law Commission, Professor emeritus of Public International Law atp
the Humboldt University of Berlin,

as Agents ;
Mr. Andrea Gattini, Professor of Public International Law at the University p

of Padua,
Mr. Robert Kolb, Professor of Public International Law at the University of p
Geneva,

as Counsel and Advocates ;
Mr. Guido Hildner, Head of the Public International Law Division, Federal
Foreign Office,

Mr. Götz Schmidt-Bremme, Head of the International Civil, Trade and Tax
Law Division, Federal Foreign Office,
Mr. Felix Neumann, Embassy of the Federal Republic of Germany in the
Kingdom of the Netherlands,
Mr. Gregor Schotten, Federal Foreign Office,

Mr. Klaus Keller, Embassy of the Federal Republic of Germany in the King -
dom of the Netherlands,
Ms Susanne Achilles, Embassy of the Federal Republic of Germany in the
Kingdom of the Netherlands,
Ms Donate Arz von Straussenburg, Embassy of the Federal Republic of Ger -

many in the Kingdom of the Netherlands,
as Advisers ;

Ms Fiona Kaltenborn,
as Assistant,

and

the Italian Republic,

represented by
H.E. Mr. Paolo Pucci di Benisichi, Ambassador and State Counsellor,

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6 CIJ1031.indb 13 22/11/13 12:25 jurisdictional immunpities of the state (jupdgment) 104

as Agent ;
Mr. Giacomo Aiello, State Advocate,

H.E. Mr. Franco Giordano, Ambassador of the Italian Republic to the King -
dom of the Netherlands,
as Co-Agents ;

Mr. Luigi Condorelli, Professor of International Law, University of Florence,

Mr. Pierre-Marie Dupuy, Professor of International Law, Graduate Institute

of International and Development Studies, Geneva, and University of
Paris II (Panthéon-Assas),
Mr. Paolo Palchetti, Associate Professor of International Law, University of
Macerata,

Mr. Salvatore Zappalà, Professor of International Law, University of
Catania, Legal Adviser, Permanent Mission of Italy to the United Nationsp,

as Counsel and Advocates ;
Mr. Giorgio Marrapodi, Minister Plenipotentiary, Head of the Service for
Legal Affairs, Ministry of Foreign Affairs,

Mr. Guido Cerboni, Minister Plenipotentiary, Co-ordinator for the countries
of Central and Western Europe, Directorate-General for the European
Union, Ministry of Foreign Affairs,
Mr. Roberto Bellelli, Legal Adviser, Embassy of Italy in the Kingdom of the

Netherlands,
Ms Sarah Negro, First Secretary, Embassy of Italy in the Kingdom of the p
Netherlands,
Mr. Mel Marquis, Professor of Law, European University Institute, Flo-

rence,
Ms Francesca De Vittor, International Law Researcher, University of Mace-
rata,

as Advisers,

with, as State permitted to intervene in the case,

the Hellenic Republic,
represented by

Mr. Stelios Perrakis, Professor of International and European Institutions, p
Panteion University of Athens,

as Agent ;
H.E. Mr. Ioannis Economides, Ambassador of the Hellenic Republic to the

Kingdom of the Netherlands,
as Deputy-Agent ;

Mr. Antonis Bredimas, Professor of International Law, National and Kapo -
distrian University of Athens,

as Counsel and Advocate ;
Ms Maria-Daniella Marouda, Lecturer in International Law, Panteion Uni -
versity of Athens,

as Counsel,

9

6 CIJ1031.indb 15 22/11/13 12:25 jurisdictional immunpities of the state (jupdgment) 105

The Court,

composed as above,

after deliberation,

delivers the following Judgment :

1. On 23 December 2008, the Federal Republic of Germany (hereinafter
“Germany”) filed in the Registry of the Court an Application inpstituting pro -
ceedings against the Italian Republic (hereinafter “Italy”) in respect of a dispute
originating in “violations of obligations under international law”p allegedly com -
mitted by Italy through its judicial practice “in that it has failed pto respect the

jurisdictional immunity which . . . Germany enjoys under international law”.

As a basis for the jurisdiction of the Court, Germany, in its Applicatiopn,
invoked Article 1 of the European Convention for the Peaceful Settlement of

Disputes of 29 April 1957.
2. Under Article 40, paragraph 2, of the Statute, the Registrar immediately
communicated the Application to the Government of Italy ; and, pursuant to
paragraph 3 of that Article, all other States entitled to appear before the Court p
were notified of the Application.

3. Since the Court included upon the Bench no judge of Italian nationality,
Italy exercised its right under Article 31, paragraph 2, of the Statute to choose a
judge ad hoc to sit in the case : it chose Mr. Giorgio Gaja.

4. By an Order of 29April 2009, the Court fixed 23June 2009 as the time-limit
for the filing of the Memorial of Germany and 23 December 2009 as the
time-limit for the filing of the Counter-Memorial of Italy ; those pleadings were
duly filed within the time-limits so prescribed. The Counter-Memorial of Italy
included a counter-claim “with respect to the question of the reparation owed to

Italian victims of grave violations of international humanitarian law copmmitted
by forces of the German Reich”.
5. By an Order of 6 July 2010, the Court decided that the counter-claim pre -
sented by Italy was inadmissible as such under Article 80, paragraph 1, of the
Rules of Court. By the same Order, the Court authorized Germany to submipt a

Reply and Italy to submit a Rejoinder, and fixed 14 October 2010 and 14 Janu-
ary 2011 respectively as the time-limits for the filing of those pleadings ; those
pleadings were duly filed within the time-limits so prescribed.

6. On 13 January 2011, the Hellenic Republic (hereinafter “Greece”) filped in
the Registry an Application for permission to intervene in the case purspuant to
Article 62 of the Statute. In its Application, Greece indicated that it “[did] not
seek to become a party to the case”.
7. In accordance with Article 83, paragraph 1, of the Rules of Court, the

Registrar, by letters dated 13 January 2011, transmitted certified copies of the
Application for permission to intervene to the Government of Germany andp the
Government of Italy, which were informed that the Court had fixed 1 April 2011
as the time-limit for the submission of their written observations on that Appli -
cation. The Registrar also transmitted, under paragraph 2 of the same Article, a

copy of the Application to the Secretary-General of the United Nations.
8. Germany and Italy each submitted written observations on Greece’s
Application for permission to intervene within the time-limit thus fixed. The

10

6 CIJ1031.indb 17 22/11/13 12:25 jurisdictional immunpities of the state (jupdgment) 106

Registry transmitted to each Party a copy of the other’s observationsp, and cop-
ies of the observations of both Parties to Greece.
9. In light of Article 84, paragraph 2, of the Rules of Court, and taking into
account the fact that neither Party filed an objection, the Court decipded that it
was not necessary to hold hearings on the question whether Greece’s Appplica -

tion for permission to intervene should be granted. The Court neverthelepss
decided that Greece should be given an opportunity to comment on the obsperva -
tions of the Parties and that the latter should be allowed to submit addpitional
written observations on the question. The Court fixed 6 May 2011 as the
time-limit for the submission by Greece of its own written observations on thpose

of the Parties, and 6 June 2011 as the time-limit for the submission by the Par -
ties of additional observations on Greece’s written observations. The observa -
tions of Greece and the additional observations of the Parties were submpitted
within the time-limits thus fixed. The Registry duly transmitted to the Parties a
copy of the observations of Greece ; it transmitted to each of the Parties a copy

of the other’s additional observations and to Greece copies of the additional
observations of both Parties.
10. By an Order of 4 July 2011, the Court authorized Greece to intervene in the
case as a non-party, in so far as this intervention was limited to the decisions of
Greek courts which were declared by Italian courts as enforceable in Itaply. The

Court further fixed the following time-limits for the filing of the written statement
and the written observations referred to in Article 85, paragraph 1, of the Rules of
Court: 5 August 2011 for the written statement of Greece and 5 September 2011
for the written observations of Germany and Italy on that statement.
11. The written statement of Greece and the written observations of Germany

were duly filed within the time-limits so fixed. By a letter dated 1 September 2011,
the Agent of Italy indicated that the Italian Republic would not be prespenting
observations on the written statement of Greece at that stage of the propceedings,
but reserved “its position and right to address certain points raised in the written
statement, as necessary, in the course of the oral proceedings”. The pRegistry duly

transmitted to the Parties a copy of the written statement of Greece ; it transmit -
ted to Italy and Greece a copy of the written observations of Germany.
12. Under Article 53, paragraph 2, of its Rules, the Court, after ascertaining
the views of the Parties, decided that copies of the pleadings and documpents
annexed would be made available to the public at the opening of the oralp pro -

ceedings. After consulting the Parties and Greece, the Court decided thapt the
same should apply to the written statement of the intervening State and pthe
written observations of Germany on that statement.
13. Public hearings were held from 12 to 16 September 2011, at which the
Court heard the oral arguments and replies of :

For Germany : Ms Susanne Wasum-Rainer,
Mr. Christian Tomuschat,

Mr. Andrea Gattini,
Mr. Robert Kolb.
For Italy : Mr. Giacomo Aiello,

Mr. Luigi Condorelli,
Mr. Salvatore Zappalà,
Mr. Paolo Palchetti,
Mr. Pierre-Marie Dupuy.

For Greece : Mr. Stelios Perrakis,
Mr. Antonis Bredimas.

11

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14. At the hearings, questions were put by Members of the Court to the Par -
ties and to Greece, as intervening State, to which replies were given inp writing.
The Parties submitted written comments on those written replies.

*

15. In its Application, Germany made the following requests :

“Germany prays the Court to adjudge and declare that the Italian Repupb -
lic :

(1) by allowing civil claims based on violations of international humani -
tarian law by the German Reich during World War II from September
1943 to May 1945, to be brought against the Federal Republic of Ger -
many, committed violations of obligations under international law in

that it has failed to respect the jurisdictional immunity which the Fed -
eral Republic of Germany enjoys under international law ;
(2) by taking measures of constraint against ‘Villa Vigoni’, German Stpate
property used for government non-commercial purposes, also commit -
ted violations of Germany’s jurisdictional immunity ;

(3) by declaring Greek judgments based on occurrences similar to those
defined above in request No.1 enforceable in Italy, committed a further
breach of Germany’s jurisdictional immunity.

Accordingly, the Federal Republic of Germany prays the Court to
adjudge and declare that

(4) the Italian Republic’s international responsibility is engaged ;
(5) the Italian Republic must, by means of its own choosing, take any and

all steps to ensure that all the decisions of its courts and other judicpial
authorities infringing Germany’s sovereign immunity become unenfor-
ceable ;
(6) the Italian Republic must take any and all steps to ensure that in the
future Italian courts do not entertain legal actions against Germany

founded on the occurrences described in request No. 1 above.”

16. In the course of the written proceedings the following submissions were
presented by the Parties :

On behalf of the Government of Germany,
in the Memorial and in the Reply :

“Germany prays the Court to adjudge and declare that the Italian Repupb -
lic :

(1) by allowing civil claims based on violations of international humani -
tarian law by the German Reich during World War II from September
1943 to May 1945, to be brought against the Federal Republic of Ger -

many, committed violations of obligations under international law in
that it has failed to respect the jurisdictional immunity which the Fed -
eral Republic of Germany enjoys under international law ;

12

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(2) by taking measures of constraint against ‘Villa Vigoni’, German State
property used for government non-commercial purposes, also commit-
ted violations of Germany’s jurisdictional immunity ;

(3) by declaring Greek judgments based on occurrences similar to those

defined above in request No.1 enforceable in Italy, committed a further
breach of Germany’s jurisdictional immunity.

Accordingly, the Federal Republic of Germany prays the Court to adjudge
and declare that

(4) the Italian Republic’s international responsibility is engaged ;
(5) the Italian Republic must, by means of its own choosing, take any and
all steps to ensure that all the decisions of its courts and other judicpial

authorities infringing Germany’s sovereign immunity become unenfor-
ceable ;
(6) the Italian Republic must take any and all steps to ensure that in the
future Italian courts do not entertain legal actions against Germany
founded on the occurrences described in request No. 1 above.”

On behalf of the Government of Italy,

in the Counter-Memorial and in the Rejoinder :

“On the basis of the facts and arguments set out [in Italy’s Countper-
Memorial and Rejoinder], and reserving its right to supplement or amend p
these Submissions, Italy respectfully requests that the Court adjudge anpd
declare that all the claims of Germany are rejected.”

17. At the oral proceedings, the following submissions were presented by thep
Parties :

On behalf of the Government of Germany,

“Germany respectfully requests the Court to adjudge and declare that p
the Italian Republic :

(1) by allowing civil claims based on violations of international humani -
tarian law by the German Reich during World War II between Septem-

ber 1943 and May 1945 to be brought against the Federal Republic of
Germany, committed violations of obligations under international law
in that it has failed to respect the jurisdictional immunity which the
Federal Republic of Germany enjoys under international law ;

(2) by taking measures of constraint against ‘Villa Vigoni’, German Stpate
property used for government non-commercial purposes, also commit-
ted violations of Germany’s jurisdictional immunity ;

(3) by declaring Greek judgments based on occurrences similar to those

defined above in request No.1 enforceable in Italy, committed a further
breach of Germany’s jurisdictional immunity.

Accordingly, the Federal Republic of Germany respectfully requests the
Court to adjudge and declare that :

13

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(4) the Italian Republic’s international responsibility is engaged ;

(5) the Italian Republic must, by means of its own choosing, take any and
all steps to ensure that all the decisions of its courts and other judicpial
authorities infringing Germany’s sovereign immunity become unen -
forceable ; and
(6) the Italian Republic must take any and all steps to ensure that in the
future Italian courts do not entertain legal actions against Germany

founded on the occurrences described in request No. 1 above.”
On behalf of the Government of Italy,

“[F]or the reasons given in [its] written and oral pleadings, [Italy prequests]
that the Court adjudge and hold the claims of the Applicant to be unfounp -

ded. This request is subject to the qualification that . . . Italy has no objec-
tion to any decision by the Court obliging Italy to ensure that the mortpgage
on Villa Vigoni inscribed at the land registry is cancelled.”

*

18. At the end of the written statement submitted by it in accordance with
Article 85, paragraph 1, of the Rules of Court, Greece stated inter alia

“that the effect of the judgment that the ICJ will hand down in this case
concerning the jurisdictional immunity of the State will be of major imppor -
tance to the Italian legal order and certainly to the Greek legal order.p

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . p. .
Further, an ICJ decision on the effects of the principle of jurisdictiponal
immunity of States when faced with a jus cogens rule of international
law — such as the prohibition on violation of fundamental rules of huma -

nitarian law — will guide the Greek courts in this regard. It will thus have
a significant effect on pending and potential lawsuits brought by inpdivi -
duals before those courts.”

19. At the end of the oral observations submitted by it with respect to the p
subject-matter of the intervention in accordance with Article 85, paragraph 3, of
the Rules of Court, Greece stated inter alia :

“A decision of the International Court of Justice on the effects ofp the
principle of jurisdictional immunity of States when faced with a jus cogens
rule of international law — such as the prohibition on violation of funda -

mental rules of humanitarian law — will guide the Greek courts . . . It will
thus have a significant effect on pending and potential lawsuits brought by
individuals before those courts.

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . p. .

The Greek Government considers that the effect of the judgment that
[the] Court will hand down in this case concerning jurisdictional immunity
will be of major importance, primarily to the Italian legal order and cepr -
tainly to the Greek legal order.”

*
* *

14

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I. Historical and Factualp Background

20. The Court finds it useful at the outset to describe briefly the his -
torical and factual background of the case which is largely uncontested p
between the Parties.
21. In June 1940, Italy entered the Second World War as an ally of the
German Reich. In September 1943, following the removal of Mussolini

from power, Italy surrendered to the Allies and, the following month,
declared war on Germany. German forces, however, occupied much of
Italian territory and, between October 1943 and the end of the War, per -
petrated many atrocities against the population of that territory, inclupd -
ing massacres of civilians and the deportation of large numbers of civilpians

for use as forced labour. In addition, German forces took prisoner, bothp
inside Italy and elsewhere in Europe, several hundred thousand members
of the Italian armed forces. Most of these prisoners (hereinafter the “pItal -
ian military internees”) were denied the status of prisoner of war apnd

deported to Germany and German-occupied territories for use as forced
labour.

1. The Peace Treaty of 1947

22. On 10 February 1947, in the aftermath of the Second World War,

the Allied Powers concluded a Peace Treaty with Italy, regulating, in papr -
ticular, the legal and economic consequences of the war with Italy. Artip -
cle 77 of the Peace Treaty reads as follows :

“1. From the coming into force of the present Treaty property in
Germany of Italy and of Italian nationals shall no longer be treated
as enemy property and all restrictions based on such treatment shall

be removed.
2. Identifiable property of Italy and of Italian nationals removed
by force or duress from Italian territory to Germany by German
forces or authorities after September 3, 1943, shall be eligible for res-
titution.

3. The restoration and restitution of Italian property in Germany
shall be effected in accordance with measures which will be deter -
mined by the Powers in occupation of Germany.

4. Without prejudice to these and to any other dispositions in

favour of Italy and Italian nationals by the Powers occupying
Germany, Italy waives on its own behalf and on behalf of Italian
nationals all claims against Germany and German nationals out -
standing on May 8, 1945, except those arising out of contracts and
other obligations entered into, and rights acquired, before Septem -

ber 1, 1939. This waiver shall be deemed to include debts, all inter-
governmental claims in respect of arrangements entered into in the

15

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course of the war, and all claims for loss or damage arising during
the war.”

2. The Federal Compensation Law of 1953

23. In 1953, the Federal Republic of Germany adopted the Federal
Compensation Law concerning Victims of National Socialist Persecution

(Bundesentschädigungsgesetz (BEG)) in order to compensate certain cat-
egories of victims of Nazi persecution. Many claims by Italian nationalsp
under the Federal Compensation Law were unsuccessful, either because
the claimants were not considered victims of national Socialist persecu -
tion within the definition of the Federal Compensation Law, or becausep

they had no domicile or permanent residence in Germany, as required by
that Law. The Federal Compensation Law was amended in 1965 to cover
claims by persons persecuted because of their nationality or their mem -
bership in a non-German ethnic group, while requiring that the persons
in question had refugee status on 1 October 1953. Even after the Law was
amended in 1965, many Italian claimants still did not qualify for compenp -

sation because they did not have refugee status on 1 October 1953.
Because of the specific terms of the Federal Compensation Law as origip -
nally adopted and as amended in 1965, claims brought by victims having
foreign nationality were generally dismissed by the German courts.

3. The 1961 Agreements

24. On 2 June 1961, two Agreements were concluded between the Fed -
eral Republic of Germany and Italy. The first Agreement, which enteredp
into force on 16 September 1963, concerned the “settlement of certain
property-related, economic and financial questions”. Under Article 1 of

that Agreement, Germany paid compensation to Italy for “outstanding
questions of an economic nature”. Article 2 of the Agreement provided as
follows :

“(1) The Italian Government declares all outstanding claims on the part
of the Italian Republic or Italian natural or legal persons against
the Federal Republic of Germany or German natural or legal per -
sons to be settled to the extent that they are based on rights and

circumstances which arose during the period from 1 September 1939
to 8 May 1945.

(2) The Italian Government shall indemnify the Federal Republic of
Germany and German natural or legal persons for any possible
judicial proceedings or other legal action by Italian natural or

legal persons in relation to the above-mentioned claims.”

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25. The second Agreement, which entered into force on 31 July 1963,
concerned “compensation for Italian nationals subjected to National-

Socialist measures of persecution”. By virtue of this Agreement, the pFed-
eral Republic of Germany undertook to pay compensation to Italian
nationals affected by those measures. Under Article 1 of that Agreement,
Germany agreed to pay Italy forty million Deutsche marks

“for the benefit of Italian nationals who, on grounds of their racep,
faith or ideology were subjected to National-Socialist measures of

persecution and who, as a result of those persecution measures, suf -
fered loss of liberty or damage to their health, and for the benefit opf
the dependents of those who died in consequence of such measures”.

Article 3 of that Agreement provided as follows :

“Without prejudice to any rights of Italian nationals based on
German compensation legislation, the payment provided for in
Article 1 shall constitute final settlement between the Federal Repu -

blic of Germany and the Italian Republic of all questions governed
by the present Treaty.”

4. Law Establishing the “Remembrance, Responsibility
and Future” Foundation

26. On 2 August 2000, a federal law was adopted in Germany, estab -
lishing a “Remembrance, Responsibility and Future” Foundation (hepre-
inafter the “2000 Federal Law”) to make funds available to individuals

who had been subjected to forced labour and “other injustices from thpe
National Socialist period” (Sec. 2, para. 1). The Foundation did not pro -
vide money directly to eligible individuals under the 2000 Federal Law
but instead to “partner organizations”, including the Internationapl Orga -
nization for Migration in Geneva. Article 11 of the 2000 Federal Law

placed certain limits on entitlement to compensation. One effect of thpis
provision was to exclude from the right to compensation those who had
had the status of prisoner of war, unless they had been detained in con -
centration camps or came within other specified categories. The reason
given in the official commentary to this provision, which accompanied tphe
draft law, was that prisoners of war “may, according to the rules of pinter -

national law, be put to work by the detaining power” [translation by the
Registry] (Bundestagsdrucksache 14/3206, 13 April 2000).

Thousands of former Italian military internees, who, as noted above,
had been denied the status of prisoner of war by the German Reich (see p

paragraph 21), applied for compensation under the 2000 Federal Law. In
2001, the German authorities took the view that, under the rules of intepr -

17

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national law, the German Reich had not been able unilaterally to change p
the status of the Italian military internees from prisoners of war to thpat of

civilian workers. Therefore, according to the German authorities, the
Italian military internees had never lost their prisoner-of-war status, with
the result that they were excluded from the benefits provided under thpe
2000 Federal Law. On this basis, an overwhelming majority of requests
for compensation lodged by Italian military internees was rejected.

Attempts by former Italian military internees to challenge that decisionp
and seek redress in the German courts were unsuccessful. In a number of p
decisions, German courts ruled that the individuals in question were not
entitled to compensation under the 2000 Federal Law because they had
been prisoners of war. On 28 June 2004, a Chamber of the German Con -
stitutional Court (Bundesverfassungsgericht) held that Article 11, para -

graph 3, of the 2000 Federal Law, which excluded reparation for prisoners
of war, did not violate the right to equality before the law guaranteed pby
the German Constitution, and that public international law did not estab -
lish an individual right to compensation for forced labour.
A group of former Italian military internees filed an application agaipnst

Germany before the European Court of Human Rights on 20 Decem -
ber 2004. On 4 September 2007, a Chamber of that Court declared that
the application was “incompatible ratione materiae” with the provisions
of the Convention on the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental
Freedoms and its protocols and therefore was declared inadmissible

(Associazione Nazionale Reduci and 275 Others v. Germany, decision of
4 September 2007, application No. 45563/04).

5. Proceedings before Italian Courts

A. Cases involving Italian nationals

27. On 23 September 1998, Mr. Luigi Ferrini, an Italian national who
had been arrested in August 1944 and deported to Germany, where he
was detained and forced to work in a munitions factory until the end of p
the war, instituted proceedings against the Federal Republic of Germany p

in the Court of Arezzo (Tribunale di Arezzo) in Italy. On 3 Novem -
ber 2000, the Court of Arezzo decided that Mr. Luigi Ferrini’s claim was
inadmissible because Germany, as a sovereign State, was protected by
jurisdictional immunity. By a judgment of 16 November 2001, registered
on 14 January 2002, the Court of Appeal of Florence (Corte di Appello di

Firenze) dismissed the appeal of the claimant on the same grounds. On
11 March 2004, the Italian Court of Cassation (Corte di Cassazione) held
that Italian courts had jurisdiction over the claims for compensation
brought against Germany by Mr. Luigi Ferrini on the ground that immu -
nity does not apply in circumstances in which the act complained of con -
stitutes an international crime (Ferrini v. Federal Republic of Germany,

decision No. 5044/2004 (Rivista di diritto internazionale, Vol. 87, 2004,
p. 539 ;International Law Reports (ILR), Vol. 128, p. 658)). The case was

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then referred back to the Court of Arezzo, which held in a judgment
dated 12 April 2007 that, although it had jurisdiction to entertain the

case, the claim to reparation was time-barred. The judgment of the Court
of Arezzo was reversed on appeal by the Court of Appeal of Florence,
which held in a judgment dated 17 February 2011 that Germany should
pay damages to Mr. Luigi Ferrini as well as his case-related legal costs
incurred in the course of the judicial proceedings in Italy. In particulpar,

the Court of Appeal of Florence held that jurisdictional immunity is notp
absolute and cannot be invoked by a State in the face of acts by that Stpate
which constitute crimes under international law.
28. Following the Ferrini judgment of the Italian Court of Cassation
dated 11 March 2004, twelve claimants brought proceedings against Ger -
many in the Court of Turin (Tribunale di Torino) on 13 April 2004 in the

case concerning Giovanni Mantelli and Others. On 28 April 2004, Libe-
rato Maietta filed a case against Germany before the Court of Sciacca
(Tribunale di Sciacca). In both cases, which relate to acts of deportation
to, and forced labour in, Germany which took place between 1943 and
1945, an interlocutory appeal requesting a declaration of lack of jurisdpic -

tion (“regolamento preventivo di giurisdizione”) was filed by pGermany
before the Italian Court of Cassation. By two orders of 29 May 2008
issued in the Giovanni Mantelli and Others and the Liberato Maietta cases
(order No. 14201 (Mantelli), Foro italiano, Vol. 134, 2009, I, p. 1568 ;
order No. 14209 (Maietta), Rivista di diritto internazionale, Vol. 91, 2008,

p. 896), the Italian Court of Cassation confirmed that the Italian courtps
had jurisdiction over the claims against Germany. A number of similar
claims against Germany are currently pending before Italian courts.

29. The Italian Court of Cassation also confirmed the reasoning of the

Ferrini judgment in a different context in proceedings brought against
Mr. Max Josef Milde, a member of the “Hermann Göring” division of
the German armed forces, who was charged with participation in massa -
cres committed on 29 June 1944 in Civitella (Val di Chiana), Cornia and
San Pancrazio in Italy. The Military Court of La Spezia (Tribunale Mili ‑

tare di La Spezia) sentenced Mr. Milde in absentia to life imprisonment
and ordered Mr. Milde and Germany, jointly and severally, to pay repa -
ration to the successors in title of the victims of the massacre who
appeared as civil parties in the proceedings (judgment of 10 October 2006
(registered on 2 February 2007)). Germany appealed to the Military

Court of Appeals in Rome (Corte Militare di Appello di Roma) against
that part of the decision, which condemned it. On 18 December 2007 the
Military Court of Appeals dismissed the appeal. In a judgment of
21 October 2008 (registered on 13 January 2009), the Italian Court of
Cassation rejected Germany’s argument of lack of jurisdiction and conp -
firmed its reasoning in the Ferrini judgment that in cases of crimes under

international law, the jurisdictional immunity of States should be set
aside (Rivista di diritto internazionale, Vol. 92, 2009, p. 618).

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B. Cases involving Greek nationals

30. On 10 June 1944, during the German occupation of Greece, Ger -

man armed forces committed a massacre in the Greek village of Distomo,
involving many civilians. In 1995, relatives of the victims of the massacre
who claimed compensation for loss of life and property commenced pro -
ceedings against Germany. The Greek Court of First Instance (Proto ‑
dikeio) of Livadia rendered a judgment in default on 25 September 1997
(and read out in court on 30 October 1997) against Germany and awarded

damages to the successors in title of the victims of the massacre. Germa -
ny’s appeal of that judgment was dismissed by the Hellenic Supreme
Court (Areios Pagos) on 4 May 2000 (Prefecture of Voiotia v. Federal
Republic of Germany, case No. 11/2000 (ILR, Vol. 129, p. 513) (the Dis ‑
tomo case)). Article 923 of the Greek Code of Civil Procedure requires

authorization from the Minister for Justice to enforce a judgment againspt
a foreign State in Greece. That authorization was requested by the claimp-
ants in the Distomo case but was not granted. As a result, the judgments
against Germany have remained unexecuted in Greece.

31. The claimants in the Distomo case brought proceedings against
Greece and Germany before the European Court of Human Rights alleg -
ing that Germany and Greece had violated Article 6, paragraph 1, of the
Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Free -
doms and Article 1 of Protocol No. 1 to that Convention by refusing to

comply with the decision of the Court of First Instance of Livadia datedp
25 September 1997 (as to Germany) and failing to permit execution of
that decision (as to Greece). In its decision of 12 December 2002, the
European Court of Human Rights, referring to the rule of State immu -
nity, held that the claimants’ application was inadmissible (Kalogeropou ‑

lou and Others v. Greece and Germany, application No. 59021/00, decision
of 12 December 2002, ECHR Reports 2002-X, p. 417 ; ILR, Vol. 129,
p. 537).

32. The Greek claimants brought proceedings before the German

courts in order to enforce in Germany the judgment rendered on 25 Sep -
tember 1997 by the Greek Court of First Instance of Livadia, as con -
firmed on 4 May 2000 by the Hellenic Supreme Court. In its judgment of
26 June 2003, the German Federal Supreme Court (Bundesgerichtshof)
held that those Greek judicial decisions could not be recognized within

the German legal order because they had been given in breach of Ger -
many’s entitlement to State immunity (Greek Citizens v. Federal Republic
of Germany, case No. III ZR 245/98, Neue Juristische Wochenschrift
(NJW), 2003, p. 3488 ; ILR, Vol. 129, p. 556).
33. The Greek claimants then sought to enforce the judgments of the
Greek courts in the Distomo case in Italy. The Court of Appeal of Flo-

rence held in a decision dated 2 May 2005 (registered on 5 May 2005)
that the order contained in the judgment of the Hellenic Supreme Court,

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imposing an obligation on Germany to reimburse the legal expenses for
the judicial proceedings before that Court, was enforceable in Italy. Inp a

decision dated 6 February 2007 (registered on 22 March 2007), the Court
of Appeal of Florence rejected the objection raised by Germany against
the decision of 2 May 2005 (Foro italiano, Vol. 133, 2008, I, p. 1308).
The Italian Court of Cassation, in a judgment dated 6 May 2008
(registered on 29 May 2008), confirmed the ruling of the Court of

Appeal of Florence (Rivista di diritto internazionale, Vol. 92, 2009,
p. 594).
34. Concerning the question of reparations to be paid to Greek claim -
ants by Germany, the Court of Appeal of Florence declared, by a decisionp
dated 13 June 2006 (registered on 16 June 2006), that the judgment of the
Court of First Instance of Livadia dated 25 September 1997 was enforce -

able in Italy. In a judgment dated 21 October 2008 (registered on 25Novem-
ber 2008), the Court of Appeal of Florence rejected the objection by the
German Government against the decision of 13 June 2006. The Italian
Court of Cassation, in a judgment dated 12 January 2011 (registered on
20 May 2011), confirmed the ruling of the Court of Appeal of Florence.

35. On 7 June 2007, the Greek claimants, pursuant to the decision by
the Court of Appeal of Florence of 13June 2006, registered with the Como
provincial office of the Italian Land Registry (Agenzia del Territorio) a
legal charge (ipoteca giudiziale) over Villa Vigoni, a property of the Ger -

man State near Lake Como. The State Legal Service for the District of
Milan (Avvocatura Distrettuale dello Stato di Milano), in a submission
dated 6 June 2008 and made before the Court of Como (Tribunale di
Como), maintained that the charge should be cancelled. Under Decree-Law
No. 63 of 28 April 2010, Law No. 98 of 23 June 2010 and Decree-Law
No. 216 of 29 December 2011, the legal charge was suspended pending the

decision of the International Court of Justice in the present case.

36. Following the institution of proceedings in the Distomo case in
1995, another case was brought against Germany by Greek nationals
before Greek courts — referred to as the Margellos case — involving

claims for compensation for acts committed by German forces in the
Greek village of Lidoriki in 1944. In 2001, the Hellenic Supreme Court
referred that case to the Special Supreme Court (Anotato Eidiko
Dikastirio), which, in accordance with Article 100 of the Constitution of
Greece, has jurisdiction in relation to “the settlement of controverspies

regarding the determination of generally recognized rules of international
law” [translation by the Registry], requesting it to decide whether the
rules on State immunity covered acts referred to in the Margellos case. By
a decision of 17 September 2002, the Special Supreme Court found that,
in the present state of development of international law, Germany was
entitled to State immunity (Margellos v. Federal Republic of Germany,

case No. 6/2002, ILR, Vol. 129, p. 525).

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II. The Subject-Matter of thpe Dispute
and the Jurisdiction opf the Court

37. The submissions presented to the Court by Germany have remained
unchanged throughout the proceedings (see paragraphs 15, 16 and 17 above).
Germany requests the Court, in substance, to find that Italy has failepd
to respect the jurisdictional immunity which Germany enjoys under inter -

national law by allowing civil claims to be brought against it in the Itpalian
courts, seeking reparation for injuries caused by violations of interna -
tional humanitarian law committed by the German Reich during the Sec -
ond World War ; that Italy has also violated Germany’s immunity by
taking measures of constraint against Villa Vigoni, German State prop -
erty situated in Italian territory ; and that it has further breached Ger -

many’s jurisdictional immunity by declaring enforceable in Italy decisions
of Greek civil courts rendered against Germany on the basis of acts simip -
lar to those which gave rise to the claims brought before Italian courtsp.
Consequently, the Applicant requests the Court to declare that Italy’ps
international responsibility is engaged and to order the Respondent to

take various steps by way of reparation.

38. Italy, for its part, requests the Court to adjudge Germany’s claims
to be unfounded and therefore to reject them, apart from the submission p
regarding the measures of constraint taken against Villa Vigoni, on whicph

point the Respondent indicates to the Court that it would have no objec -
tion to the latter ordering it to bring the said measures to an end.

In its Counter-Memorial, Italy submitted a counter-claim “with respect
to the question of the reparation owed to Italian victims of grave violap -
tions of international humanitarian law committed by forces of the Ger -

man Reich”; this claim was dismissed by the Court’s Order of 6 July 2010,
on the grounds that it did not fall within the jurisdiction of the Courtp and
was consequently inadmissible under Article 80, paragraph 1, of the Rules
of Court (see paragraph 5 above).

*

39. The subject-matter of a dispute brought before the Court is delim -
ited by the claims submitted to it by the parties. In the present case, psince

there is no longer any counter-claim before the Court and Italy has
requested the Court to “adjudge Germany’s claims to be unfounded”p, it
is those claims that delimit the subject-matter of the dispute which the
Court is called upon to settle. It is in respect of those claims that thpe
Court must determine whether it has jurisdiction to entertain the case.

40. Italy has raised no objection of any kind regarding the jurisdiction
of the Court or the admissibility of the Application.

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Nevertheless, according to well-established jurisprudence, the Court
“must . . . always be satisfied that it has jurisdiction, and must if neces -

sary go into the matter proprio motu” (Appeal relating to the Jurisdiction
of the ICAO Council (India v. Pakistan), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1972,
p. 52, para. 13).
41. Germany’s Application was filed on the basis of the jurisdiction
conferred on the Court by Article 1 of the European Convention for the

Peaceful Settlement of Disputes, under the terms of which :
“The High Contracting Parties shall submit to the judgement of
the International Court of Justice all international legal disputes

which may arise between them including, in particular, those concer -
ning :

(a) the interpretation of a treaty ;
(b) any question of international law ;
(c) the existence of any fact which, if established, would constitute a
breach of an international obligation ;
(d) the nature or extent of the reparation to be made for the breach
of an international obligation.”

42. Article 27, subparagraph (a), of the same Convention limits the
scope of that instrument ratione temporis by stating that it shall not apply

to “disputes relating to facts or situations prior to the entry into pforce of
this Convention as between the parties to the dispute”. The Conventiopn
entered into force as between Germany and Italy on 18 April 1961.

43. The claims submitted to the Court by Germany certainly relate to
“international legal disputes” within the meaning of Article 1 as cited

above, between two States which, as has just been said, were both partieps
to the Convention on the date when the Application was filed, and indeped
continue to be so.
44. The clause in the above-mentioned Article 27 imposing a limitation
ratione temporis is not applicable to Germany’s claims : the dispute which
those claims concern does not “relat[e] to facts or situations prior pto the

entry into force of th[e] Convention as between the parties to the dis -
pute”, i.e., prior to 18 April 1961. The “facts or situations” which have
given rise to the dispute before the Court are constituted by Italian judi -
cial decisions that denied Germany the jurisdictional immunity which it p
claimed, and by measures of constraint applied to property belonging to p
Germany. Those decisions and measures were adopted between 2004 and

2011, thus well after the European Convention for the Peaceful Settle -
ment of Disputes entered into force as between the Parties. It is true tphat
the subject-matter of the disputes to which the judicial proceedings in
question relate is reparation for the injury caused by actions of the Gepr -
man armed forces in 1943-1945. Germany’s complaint before the Court,

however, is not about the treatment of that subject-matter in the judg -
ments of the Italian courts ; its complaint is solely that its immunities
from jurisdiction and enforcement have been violated. Defined in such p

23

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terms, the dispute undoubtedly relates to “facts or situations” ocpcurring
entirely after the entry into force of the Convention as between the Parp -

ties. Italy has thus rightly not sought to argue that the dispute broughpt
before the Court by Germany falls wholly or partly within the limitationp
ratione temporis under the above-mentioned Article 27. The Court has
jurisdiction to deal with the dispute.

45. The Parties, who have not disagreed on the analysis set out above,

have on the other hand debated the extent of the Court’s jurisdictionp in a
quite different context, that of some of the arguments put forward by p
Italy in its defence and relating to the alleged non-performance by Ger -
many of its obligation to make reparation to the Italian and Greek vic -
tims of the crimes committed by the German Reich in 1943-1945.

According to Italy, a link exists between the question of Germany’s
performance of its obligation to make reparation to the victims and that
of the jurisdictional immunity which Germany might rely on before the
foreign courts to which those victims apply, in the sense that a State
which fails to perform its obligation to make reparation to the victims pof

grave violations of international humanitarian law, and which offers
those victims no effective means of claiming the reparation to which tphey
may be entitled, would be deprived of the right to invoke its jurisdictiponal
immunity before the courts of the State of the victims’ nationality.

46. Germany has contended that the Court could not rule on such an
argument, on the basis that it concerned the question of reparation
claims, which relate to facts prior to 18 April 1961. According to Ger -
many, “facts occurring before the date of the entry into force of thep Euro -
pean Convention for the Peaceful Settlement of Disputes as between Italyp

and Germany clearly lie outside the jurisdiction of the Court”, and “prepa -
ration claims do not fall within the subject-matter of the present dispute
and do not form part of the present proceedings”. Germany relies in tphis
respect on the Order whereby the Court dismissed Italy’s counter-claim,
which precisely asked the Court to find that Germany had violated its p
obligation of reparation owed to Italian victims of war crimes and crimes

against humanity committed by the German Reich (see paragraph 38).
Germany points out that this dismissal was based on the fact that the sapid
counter-claim fell outside the jurisdiction of the Court, because of the
clause imposing a limitation ratione temporis in the above-mentioned
Article 27 of the European Convention for the Peaceful Settlement of

Disputes, the question of reparation claims resulting directly from the p
acts committed in 1943-1945.

47. Italy has responded to this objection that, while the Order of
6 July 2010 certainly prevents it from pursuing its counter-claim in the pres -

ent case, it does not on the other hand prevent it from using the argumepnts
on which it based that counter-claim in its defence against Germany’s

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claims; that the question of the lack of appropriate reparation is, in its
view, crucial for resolving the dispute over immunity; and that the Court’s

jurisdiction to take cognizance of it incidentally is thus indisputable.p

48. The Court notes that, since the dismissal of Italy’s counter-claim, it
no longer has before it any submissions asking it to rule on the question

of whether Germany has a duty of reparation towards the Italian victims p
of the crimes committed by the German Reich and whether it has com -
plied with that obligation in respect of all those victims, or only somep of
them. The Court is therefore not called upon to rule on those questions.p

49. However, in support of its submission that it has not violated Ger -

many’s jurisdictional immunity, Italy contends that Germany stands
deprived of the right to invoke that immunity in Italian courts before
which civil actions have been brought by some of the victims, because ofp
the fact that it has not fully complied with its duty of reparation.

50. The Court must determine whether, as Italy maintains, the failure
of a State to perform completely a duty of reparation which it allegedlyp
bears is capable of having an effect, in law, on the existence and scoppe of
that State’s jurisdictional immunity before foreign courts. This quesption is
one of law on which the Court must rule in order to determine the cus -

tomary international law applicable in respect of State immunity for thep
purposes of the present case.

Should the preceding question be answered in the affirmative, the sec -
ond question would be whether, in the specific circumstances of the capse,
taking account in particular of Germany’s conduct on the issue of reppara -

tion, the Italian courts had sufficient grounds for setting aside Germapny’s
immunity. It is not necessary for the Court to satisfy itself that it haps
jurisdiction to respond to this second question until it has responded tpo
the first.
The Court considers that, at this stage, no other question arises with

regard to the existence or scope of its jurisdiction.

*

51. The Court will first address the issues raised by Germany’s firstp

submission, namely whether, by exercising jurisdiction over Germany
with regard to the claims brought before them by the various Italian
claimants, the Italian courts acted in breach of Italy’s obligation tpo accord
jurisdictional immunity to Germany. It will then turn, in Section IV, to
the measures of constraint adopted in respect of Villa Vigoni and, in Sepc -
tion V, to the decisions of the Italian courts declaring enforceable in Italyp

the judgments of the Greek courts.

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III. Alleged Violation of Gerpmany’s
Jurisdictional Immunipty in the Proceedings Brpought

by the Italian Claimanpts

1. The Issues before the Court

52. The Court begins by observing that the proceedings in the Italian
courts have their origins in acts perpetrated by German armed forces andp

other organs of the German Reich. Germany has fully acknowledged the
“untold suffering inflicted on Italian men and women in particulapr during
massacres, and on former Italian military internees” (Joint Declaratpion of
Germany and Italy, Trieste, 18 November 2008), accepts that these acts
were unlawful and stated before this Court that it “is fully aware ofp [its]

responsibility in this regard”. The Court considers that the acts in pques -
tion can only be described as displaying a complete disregard for the
“elementary considerations of humanity” (Corfu Channel (United King‑
dom v. Albania), Merits, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1949, p. 22 ; Military
and Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v. United

States of America), Merits, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1986, p. 112). One
category of cases involved the large-scale killing of civilians in occupied
territory as part of a policy of reprisals, exemplified by the massacrpes
committed on 29 June 1944 in Civitella (Val di Chiana), Cornia and San
Pancrazio by members of the “Hermann Göring” division of the Geprman
armed forces involving the killing of 203 civilians taken as hostages after

resistance fighters had killed four German soldiers a few days earlierp
(Max Josef Milde case, Military Court of La Spezia, judgment of 10 Octo-
ber 2006 (registered on 2 February 2007)). Another category involved
members of the civilian population who, like Mr. Luigi Ferrini, were
deported from Italy to what was in substance slave labour in Germany.

The third concerned members of the Italian armed forces who were
denied the status of prisoner of war, together with the protections which
that status entailed, to which they were entitled and who were similarlyp
used as forced labourers. The Court considers that there can be no doubtp
that this conduct was a serious violation of the international law of arpmed

conflict applicable in 1943-1945. Article 6 (b) of the Charter of the Inter -
national Military Tribunal, 8 August 1945 (United Nations, Treaty Series
(UNTS), Vol. 82, p. 279), convened at Nuremberg included as war crimes
“murder, ill-treatment, or deportation to slave labour or for any other
purpose of civilian population of or in occupied territory”, as well pas

“murder or ill-treatment of prisoners of war”. The list of crimes against
humanity in Article 6 (c) of the Charter included “murder, extermina -
tion, enslavement, deportation, and other inhumane acts committed
against any civilian population, before or during the war”. The murder of
civilian hostages in Italy was one of the counts on which a number of wapr
crimes defendants were condemned in trials immediately after the Second p

World War (e.g., Von Mackensen and Maelzer (1946), Annual Digest,
Vol. 13, p. 258 ; Kesselring (1947), Annual Digest, Vol. 13, p. 260 ; and

26

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Kappler (1948), Annual Digest, Vol. 15, p. 471). The principles of the
Nuremberg Charter were confirmed by the General Assembly of the

United Nations in resolution 95 (I) of 11 December 1946.

53. However, the Court is not called upon to decide whether these acts
were illegal, a point which is not contested. The question for the Courtp is
whether or not, in proceedings regarding claims for compensation arisingp
out of those acts, the Italian courts were obliged to accord Germany
immunity. In that context, the Court notes that there is a considerable p

measure of agreement between the Parties regarding the applicable law.
In particular, both Parties agree that immunity is governed by interna -
tional law and is not a mere matter of comity.

54. As between Germany and Italy, any entitlement to immunity can

be derived only from customary international law, rather than treaty.
Although Germany is one of the eight States parties to the European
Convention on State Immunity of 16 May 1972 (Council of Europe,Euro‑
pean Treaty Series (ETS), No. 74; UNTS, Vol. 1495, p. 182) (hereinafter
the “European Convention”), Italy is not a party and the Conventipon is

accordingly not binding upon it. Neither State is party to the United
Nations Convention on Jurisdictional Immunities of States and Their
Property, adopted on 2 December 2004 (hereinafter the “United Nations
Convention”), which is not yet in force in any event. As of 1 Febru -
ary 2012, the United Nations Convention had been signed by twenty-

eight States and obtained thirteen instruments of ratification, acceptance,
approval or accession. Article 30 of the Convention provides that it will
enter into force on the thirtieth day after deposit of the thirtieth sucph
instrument. Neither Germany nor Italy has signed the Convention.

55. It follows that the Court must determine, in accordance with Arti -
cle 38 (1) (b) of its Statute, the existence of “international custom, as
evidence of a general practice accepted as law” conferring immunity opn
States and, if so, what is the scope and extent of that immunity. To do so,
it must apply the criteria which it has repeatedly laid down for identifpying

a rule of customary international law. In particular, as the Court made p
clear in the North Sea Continental Shelf cases, the existence of a rule of
customary international law requires that there be “a settled practicpe”
together with opinio juris (North Sea Continental Shelf (Federal Republic
of Germany/Denmark ; Federal Republic of Germany/Netherlands), Judg ‑

ment, I.C.J. Reports 1969, p. 44, para. 77). Moreover, as the Court has
also observed,

“[i]t is of course axiomatic that the material of customary internatiponal
law is to be looked for primarily in the actual practice and opinio juris

27

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of States, even though multilateral conventions may have an impor -
tant role to play in recording and defining rules deriving from customp,

or indeed in developing them” (Continental Shelf (Libyan Arab Jama‑
hiriya/Malta), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1985, pp. 29-30, para. 27).

In the present context, State practice of particular significance is tpo be
found in the judgments of national courts faced with the question whethepr
a foreign State is immune, the legislation of those States which have
enacted statutes dealing with immunity, the claims to immunity advanced p

by States before foreign courts and the statements made by States, firpst in
the course of the extensive study of the subject by the International Lapw
Commission and then in the context of the adoption of the United
Nations Convention. Opinio juris in this context is reflected in particular
in the assertion by States claiming immunity that international law

accords them a right to such immunity from the jurisdiction of other
States; in the acknowledgment, by States granting immunity, that inter -
national law imposes upon them an obligation to do so ; and, conversely,
in the assertion by States in other cases of a right to exercise jurisdipction
over foreign States. While it may be true that States sometimes decide tpo

accord an immunity more extensive than that required by international
law, for present purposes, the point is that the grant of immunity in supch
a case is not accompanied by the requisite opinio juris and therefore sheds
no light upon the issue currently under consideration by the Court.

56. Although there has been much debate regarding the origins of
State immunity and the identification of the principles underlying that
immunity in the past, the International Law Commission concluded in
1980 that the rule of State immunity had been “adopted as a general rpule
of customary international law solidly rooted in the current practice ofp

States” (Yearbook of the International Law Commission, 1980, Vol. II (2),
p. 147, para. 26). That conclusion was based upon an extensive survey of
State practice and, in the opinion of the Court, is confirmed by the rpecord
of national legislation, judicial decisions, assertions of a right to immu -
nity and the comments of States on what became the United Nations

Convention. That practice shows that, whether in claiming immunity for
themselves or according it to others, States generally proceed on the bapsis
that there is a right to immunity under international law, together with a
corresponding obligation on the part of other States to respect and givep
effect to that immunity.

57. The Court considers that the rule of State immunity occupies an
important place in international law and international relations. It derpives
from the principle of sovereign equality of States, which, as Article 2,
paragraph 1, of the Charter of the United Nations makes clear, is one of

the fundamental principles of the international legal order. This principple
has to be viewed together with the principle that each State possesses spov -

28

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ereignty over its own territory and that there flows from that sovereipgnty
the jurisdiction of the State over events and persons within that territpory.

Exceptions to the immunity of the State represent a departure from the
principle of sovereign equality. Immunity may represent a departure fromp
the principle of territorial sovereignty and the jurisdiction which flpows
from it.

58. The Parties are thus in broad agreement regarding the validity and
importance of State immunity as a part of customary international law.
They differ, however, as to whether (as Germany contends) the law top be
applied is that which determined the scope and extent of State immunity p
in 1943-1945, i.e., at the time that the events giving rise to the proceedings
in the Italian courts took place, or (as Italy maintains) that which appplied

at the time the proceedings themselves occurred. The Court observes thatp,
in accordance with the principle stated in Article 13 of the International
Law Commission Articles on Responsibility of States for Internationally p
Wrongful Acts, the compatibility of an act with international law can be
determined only by reference to the law in force at the time when the acpt

occurred. In that context, it is important to distinguish between the reple -
vant acts of Germany and those of Italy. The relevant German acts —
which are described in paragraph 52 — occurred in 1943-1945, and it is,
therefore, the international law of that time which is applicable to thepm.
The relevant Italian acts — the denial of immunity and exercise of juris -

diction by the Italian courts — did not occur until the proceedings in the
Italian courts took place. Since the claim before the Court concerns thep
actions of the Italian courts, it is the international law in force at tphe time
of those proceedings which the Court has to apply. Moreover, as the
Court has stated (in the context of the personal immunities accorded byp
international law to foreign ministers), the law of immunity is essentipally

procedural in nature (Arrest Warrant of 1 April 2000 (Democratic Repub ‑
lic of the Congo v. Belgium), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2002, p. 25,
para. 60). It regulates the exercise of jurisdiction in respect of particularp
conduct and is thus entirely distinct from the substantive law which detper -
mines whether that conduct is lawful or unlawful. For these reasons, thep

Court considers that it must examine and apply the law on State immu -
nity as it existed at the time of the Italian proceedings, rather than tphat
which existed in 1943-1945.

59. The Parties also differ as to the scope and extent of the rule of Statpe
immunity. In that context, the Court notes that many States (including p
both Germany and Italy) now distinguish between acta jure gestionis, in
respect of which they have limited the immunity which they claim for
themselves and which they accord to others, and acta jure imperii. That
approach has also been followed in the United Nations Convention and

the European Convention (see also the draft Inter-American Convention
on Jurisdictional Immunity of States drawn up by the Inter-American

29

6 CIJ1031.indb 55 22/11/13 12:25 jurisdictional immunpities of the state (jupdgment) 125

Juridical Committee of the Organization of American States in 1983
(ILM, Vol. 22, p. 292)).

60. The Court is not called upon to address the question of how inter -
national law treats the issue of State immunity in respect of acta jure
gestionis. The acts of the German armed forces and other State organs
which were the subject of the proceedings in the Italian courts clearly p
constituted acta jure imperii. The Court notes that Italy, in response to a

question posed by a Member of the Court, recognized that those acts had p
to be characterized as acta jure imperii, notwithstanding that they were
unlawful. The Court considers that the terms “jure imperii” and “jure ges ‑
tionis” do not imply that the acts in question are lawful but refer rather to
whether the acts in question fall to be assessed by reference to the lawp
governing the exercise of sovereign power (jus imperii) or the law con -

cerning non-sovereign activities of a State, especially private and com -
mercial activities (jus gestionis). To the extent that this distinction is
significant for determining whether or not a State is entitled to immunity
from the jurisdiction of another State’s courts in respect of a partipcular
act, it has to be applied before that jurisdiction can be exercised, whepreas

the legality or illegality of the act is something which can be determinped
only in the exercise of that jurisdiction. Although the present case is
unusual in that the illegality of the acts at issue has been admitted byp
Germany at all stages of the proceedings, the Court considers that this
fact does not alter the characterization of those acts as acta jure imperii.

61. Both Parties agree that States are generally entitled to immunity in
respect of acta jure imperii. That is the approach taken in the United
Nations, European and draft Inter-American Conventions, the national
legislation in those States which have adopted statutes on the subject apnd
the jurisprudence of national courts. It is against that background that

the Court must approach the question raised by the present proceedings, p
namely whether that immunity is applicable to acts committed by the
armed forces of a State (and other organs of that State acting in co-oper -
ation with the armed forces) in the course of conducting an armed con -
flict. Germany maintains that immunity is applicable and that there isp no

relevant limitation on the immunity to which a State is entitled in resppect
of acta jure imperii. Italy, in its pleadings before the Court, maintains that
Germany is not entitled to immunity in respect of the cases before the
Italian courts for two reasons : first, that immunity as to acta jure imperii
does not extend to torts or delicts occasioning death, personal injury or

damage to property committed on the territory of the forum State, and,
secondly, that, irrespective of where the relevant acts took place, Ger -
many was not entitled to immunity because those acts involved the most
serious violations of rules of international law of a peremptory charactper
for which no alternative means of redress was available. The Court will p
consider each of Italy’s arguments in turn.

30

6 CIJ1031.indb 57 22/11/13 12:25 jurisdictional immunpities of the state (jupdgment) 126

2. Italy’s First Argument :
The Territorial Tort Principle

62. The essence of the first Italian argument is that customary interna -
tional law has developed to the point where a State is no longer entitlepd
to immunity in respect of acts occasioning death, personal injury or damp-
age to property on the territory of the forum State, even if the act in pque-s
tion was performed jure imperii. Italy recognizes that this argument is
applicable only to those of the claims brought before the Italian courtsp

which concern acts that occurred in Italy and not to the cases of Italiapn
military internees taken prisoner outside Italy and transferred to Ger -
many or other territories outside Italy as forced labour. In support of pits
argument, Italy points to the adoption of Article 11 of the European
Convention and Article 12 of the United Nations Convention and to the

fact that nine of the ten States it identified which have adopted legipslation
specifically dealing with State immunity (the exception being Pakistapn)
have enacted provisions similar to those in the two Conventions. Italy
acknowledges that the European Convention contains a provision to the
effect that the Convention is not applicable to the acts of foreign arpmed

forces (Art. 31) but maintains that this provision is merely a saving
clause aimed primarily at avoiding conflicts between the Convention and
instruments regulating the status of visiting forces present with the copn -
sent of the territorial sovereign and that it does not show that States pare
entitled to immunity in respect of the acts of their armed forces in anopther

State. Italy dismisses the significance of certain statements (discuspsed in
paragraph 69 below) made during the process of adoption of the United
Nations Convention suggesting that that Convention did not apply to the p
acts of armed forces. Italy also notes that two of the national statutesp
(those of the United Kingdom and Singapore) are not applicable to the p

acts of foreign armed forces but argues that the other seven (those of p
Argentina, Australia, Canada, Israel, Japan, South Africa and the Unitedp
States of America) amount to significant State practice asserting jurpisdic-
tion over torts occasioned by foreign armed forces.

63. Germany maintains that, in so far as they deny a State immunity in

respect of acta jure imperii, neither Article 11 of the European Conven -
tion, nor Article 12 of the United Nations Convention reflects customary
international law. It contends that, in any event, they are irrelevant tpo the
present proceedings, because neither provision was intended to apply to p
the acts of armed forces. Germany also points to the fact that, with thep
exception of the Italian cases and the Distomo case in Greece, no national

court has ever held that a State was not entitled to immunity in respectp of
acts of its armed forces, in the context of an armed conflict and thatp, by

31

6 CIJ1031.indb 59 22/11/13 12:25 jurisdictional immunpities of the state (jupdgment) 127

contrast, the courts in several States have expressly declined jurisdictpion
in such cases on the ground that the respondent State was entitled to

immunity.

*

64. The Court begins by observing that the notion that State immunity
does not extend to civil proceedings in respect of acts committed on the
territory of the forum State causing death, personal injury or damage top
property originated in cases concerning road traffic accidents and othepr
“insurable risks”. The limitation of immunity recognized by some npational
courts in such cases was treated as confined to acta jure gestionis (see, e.g.,

the judgment of the Supreme Court of Austria in Holubek v. Government
of the United States of America (Juristische Blätter (Vienna), Vol. 84, 1962,
p. 43 ; ILR, Vol. 40, p. 73)). The Court notes, however, that none of the
national legislation which provides for a “territorial tort exceptionp” to
immunity expressly distinguishes between acta jure gestionis and acta jure

imperii. The Supreme Court of Canada expressly rejected the suggestion
that the exception in the Canadian legislation was subject to such a disp -
tinction (Schreiber v. Federal Republic of Germany and the Attorney Gen ‑
eral of Canada, [2002] Supreme Court Reports (SCR), Vol. 3, p. 269,
paras. 33-36). Nor is such a distinction featured in either Article 11 of the

European Convention or Article 12 of the United Nations Convention.
The International Law Commission’s commentary on the text of what
became Article 12 of the United Nations Convention makes clear that
this was a deliberate choice and that the provision was not intended to pbe
restricted to acta jure gestionis (Yearbook of the International Law Com ‑
mission, 1991, Vol. II (2), p. 45, para. 8). Germany has not, however, been

alone in suggesting that, in so far as it was intended to apply to acta jure
imperii, Article 12 was not representative of customary international law.
In criticizing the International Law Commission’s draft of what becampe
Article 12, China commented in 1990 that “the article had gone even fur -
ther than the restrictive doctrine, for it made no distinction between spov-

ereign acts and private law acts” (United Nations doc. A/C.6/45/SR.25,
p. 2) and the United States, commenting in 2004 on the draft United
Nations Convention, stated that Article 12 “must be interpreted and
applied consistently with the time-honoured distinction between acts jure
imperii and acts jure gestionis” since to extend jurisdiction without regard

to that distinction “would be contrary to the existing principles of pinter -
national law” (United Nations doc. A/C.6/59/SR.13, p. 10, para. 63).

65. The Court considers that it is not called upon in the present pro -
ceedings to resolve the question whether there is in customary interna -

32

6 CIJ1031.indb 61 22/11/13 12:25 jurisdictional immunpities of the state (jupdgment) 128

tional law a “tort exception” to State immunity applicable to acta jure
imperii in general. The issue before the Court is confined to acts commit -

ted on the territory of the forum State by the armed forces of a foreignp
State, and other organs of State working in co-operation with those
armed forces, in the course of conducting an armed conflict.
66. The Court will first consider whether the adoption of Article 11 of
the European Convention or Article 12 of the United Nations Conven -

tion affords any support to Italy’s contention that States are no lponger
entitled to immunity in respect of the type of acts specified in the ppreced -
ing paragraph. As the Court has already explained (see paragraph 54
above), neither Convention is in force between the Parties to the presepnt
case. The provisions of these Conventions are, therefore, relevant only pin

so far as their provisions and the process of their adoption and implemepn -
tation shed light on the content of customary international law.

67. Article 11 of the European Convention states the territorial tort

principle in broad terms,
“A Contracting State cannot claim immunity from the jurisdiction

of a court of another Contracting State in proceedings which relate to
redress for injury to the person or damage to tangible property, if the
facts which occasioned the injury or damage occurred in the territory
of the State of the forum, and if the author of the injury or damage
was present in that territory at the time when those facts occurred.”p

That provision must, however, be read in the light of Article 31, which
provides,

“Nothing in this Convention shall affect any immunities or privile -
ges enjoyed by a Contracting State in respect of anything done or

omitted to be done by, or in relation to, its armed forces when on the
territory of another Contracting State.”

Although one of the concerns which Article 31 was intended to address
was the relationship between the Convention and the various agreements
on the status of visiting forces, the language of Article 31 makes clear that
it is not confined to that matter and excludes from the scope of the Cpon -

vention all proceedings relating to acts of foreign armed forces, irresppec-
tive of whether those forces are present in the territory of the forum wpith
the consent of the forum State and whether their acts take place in peacpe -
time or in conditions of armed conflict. The Explanatory Report on thep
Convention, which contains a detailed commentary prepared as part of

the negotiating process, states in respect of Article 31,

“The Convention is not intended to govern situations which may
arise in the event of armed conflict ; nor can it be invoked to resolve

33

6 CIJ1031.indb 63 22/11/13 12:25 jurisdictional immunpities of the state (jupdgment) 129

problems which may arise between allied States as a result of the
stationing of forces. These problems are generally dealt with by spe -

cial agreements (cf. Art. 33).
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . p . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
[Article 31] prevents the Convention being interpreted as having
any influence upon these matters.” (Para. 116 ; emphasis added.)

68. The Court agrees with Italy that Article 31 takes effect as a “saving

clause”, with the result that the immunity of a State for the acts ofp its
armed forces falls entirely outside the Convention and has to be deter -
mined by reference to customary international law. The consequence,
however, is that the inclusion of the “territorial tort principle”p in Arti -
cle 11 of the Convention cannot be treated as support for the argument

that a State is not entitled to immunity for torts committed by its armepd
forces. As the Explanatory Report states, the effect of Article 31 is that
the Convention has no influence upon that question. Courts in Belgium
(judgment of the Court of First Instance of Ghent in Botelberghe v. Ger ‑
man State, 18 February 2000), Ireland (judgment of the Supreme Court in

McElhinney v. Williams, 15 December 1995, [1995] 3 Irish Reports 382 ;
ILR, Vol. 104, p. 691), Slovenia (case No. Up-13/99, Constitutional
Court, para. 13), Greece (Margellos v. Federal Republic of Germany, case
No. 6/2002, ILR, Vol. 129, p. 529) and Poland (judgment of the Supreme
Court of Poland, Natoniewski v. Federal Republic of Germany, Polish

Yearbook of International Law, Vol. XXX, 2010, p. 299) have concluded
that Article 31 means that the immunity of a State for torts committed by
its armed forces is unaffected by Article 11 of the Convention.

69. Article 12 of the United Nations Convention provides,

“Unless otherwise agreed between the States concerned, a State
cannot invoke immunity from jurisdiction before a court of another
State which is otherwise competent in a proceeding which relates to
pecuniary compensation for death or injury to the person, or damage
to or loss of tangible property, caused by an act or omission which is

alleged to be attributable to the State, if the act or omission occurredp
in whole or in part in the territory of that other State and if the
author of the act or omission was present in that territory at the time p
of the act or omission.”

Unlike the European Convention, the United Nations Convention con -
tains no express provision excluding the acts of armed forces from its
scope. However, the International Law Commission’s commentary on the p

text of Article 12 states that that provision does not apply to “situations
involving armed conflicts” (Yearbook of the International Law Commis ‑

34

6 CIJ1031.indb 65 22/11/13 12:25 jurisdictional immunpities of the state (jupdgment) 130

sion, 1991, Vol. II (2), p. 46, para. 10). Moreover, in presenting to the
Sixth Committee of the General Assembly the Report of the Ad Hoc

Committee on Jurisdictional Immunities of States and Their Property
(United Nations doc. A/59/22), the Chairman of the Ad Hoc Committee
stated that the draft Convention had been prepared on the basis of a genp-
eral understanding that military activities were not covered (United
Nations doc. A/C.6/59/SR.13, p. 6, para. 36).

No State questioned this interpretation. Moreover, the Court notes
that two of the States which have so far ratified the Convention, Norwpay
and Sweden, made declarations in identical terms stating their under -
standing that “the Convention does not apply to military activities, p
including the activities of armed forces during an armed conflict, as pthose

terms are understood under international humanitarian law, and activi -
ties undertaken by military forces of a State in the exercise of their official
duties” (United Nations doc. C.N.280.2006.TREATIES-2 and United
Nations doc. C.N.912.2009.TREATIES-1). In the light of these various
statements, the Court concludes that the inclusion in the Convention of p

Article 12 cannot be taken as affording any support to the contention
that customary international law denies State immunity in tort proceed -
ings relating to acts occasioning death, personal injury or damage to
property committed in the territory of the forum State by the armed
forces and associated organs of another State in the context of an armed

conflict.
70. Turning to State practice in the form of national legislation, the
Court notes that nine of the ten States referred to by the Parties whichp
have legislated specifically for the subject of State immunity have adopted
provisions to the effect that a State is not entitled to immunity in rpespect
of torts occasioning death, personal injury or damage to property occur -

ring on the territory of the forum State (United States of America For -
eign Sovereign Immunities Act 1976, 28 USC, Sect. 1605 (a) (5) ; United
Kingdom State Immunity Act 1978, Sect. 5 ; South Africa Foreign States
Immunities Act 1981, Sect. 6 ; Canada State Immunity Act 1985, Sect. 6 ;
Australia Foreign States Immunities Act 1985, Sect. 13 ; Singapore State

Immunity Act 1985, Sect. 7 ; Argentina Law No. 24.488 (Statute on
the Immunity of Foreign States before Argentine Tribunals) 1995,
Art.2 (e); Israel Foreign State Immunity Law 2008, Sect. 5 ; and Japan,
Act on the Civil Jurisdiction of Japan with respect to a Foreign State, p
2009, Art. 10). Only Pakistan’s State Immunity Ordinance 1981 contains

no comparable provision.

71. Two of these statutes (the United Kingdom State Immunity
Act 1978, Section 16 (2) and the Singapore State Immunity Act 1985, Sec -

35

6 CIJ1031.indb 67 22/11/13 12:25 jurisdictional immunpities of the state (jupdgment) 131

tion 19 (2) (a)) contain provisions that exclude proceedings relating to
the acts of foreign armed forces from their application. The correspond -

ing provisions in the Canadian, Australian and Israeli statutes exclude p
only the acts of visiting forces present with the consent of the host Stpate
or matters covered by legislation regarding such visiting forces (Canadpa
State Immunity Act 1985, Section 16 ; Australia Foreign States Immuni -
ties Act 1985, Section 6; Israel Foreign State Immunity Law 2008, Sec -

tion 22). The legislation of South Africa, Argentina and Japan contains
no exclusion clause. However, the Japanese statute (in Article 3) states
that its provisions “shall not affect the privileges or immunities penjoyed
by a foreign State . . . based on treaties or the established international
law”.

The United States Foreign Sovereign Immunities Act 1976 contains no
provision specifically addressing claims relating to the acts of foreipgn
armed forces but its provision that there is no immunity in respect of
claims “in which money damages are sought against a foreign State forp

personal injury or death, or damage to or loss of property, occurring in
the United States and caused by the tortious act or omission of that forp -
eign State” (Sec. 1605 (a) (5)) is subject to an exception for “any claim
based upon the exercise or performance or the failure to exercise or
perform a discretionary function regardless of whether the discretion bep

abused” (Sec. 1605 (a) (5) (A)). Interpreting this provision, which has no
counterpart in the legislation of other States, a court in the United States
has held that a foreign State whose agents committed an assassination
in the United States was not entitled to immunity (Letelier v. Republic of
Chile (1980), Federal Supplement (F. Supp.), Vol. 488, p. 665 ; ILR,
Vol. 63, p. 378 (United States District Court, District of Columbia)).

However, the Court is not aware of any case in the United States where
the courts have been called upon to apply this provision to acts performped
by the armed forces and associated organs of foreign States in the courspe
of an armed conflict.
Indeed, in none of the seven States in which the legislation contains nop

general exclusion for the acts of armed forces, have the courts been calpled
upon to apply that legislation in a case involving the armed forces of ap
foreign State, and associated organs of State, acting in the context of pan
armed conflict.
72. The Court next turns to State practice in the form of the judgments

of national courts regarding State immunity in relation to the acts of
armed forces. The question whether a State is entitled to immunity in
proceedings concerning torts allegedly committed by its armed forces
when stationed on or visiting the territory of another State, with the cpon -
sent of the latter, has been considered by national courts on a number opf
occasions. Decisions of the courts of Egypt (Bassionni Amrane v. John,

Gazette des Tribunaux mixtes d’Egypte, January 1934, p. 108 ; Annual
Digest, Vol. 7, p. 187), Belgium (S.A. Eau, gaz, électricité et applications v.

36

6 CIJ1031.indb 69 22/11/13 12:25 jurisdictional immunpities of the state (jupdgment) 132

Office d’aide mutuelle, Cour d’appel, Brussels, Pasicrisie belge, 1957,
Vol. 144, 2nd Part, p. 88 ; ILR, Vol. 23, p. 205) and Germany (Immunity

of the United Kingdom, Court of Appeal of Schleswig, Jahrbuch für Inter ‑
nationales Recht, 1957, Vol. 7, p. 400 ; ILR, Vol. 24, p. 207) are earlier
examples of national courts according immunity where the acts of foreignp
armed forces were characterized as acta jure imperii. Since then, several
national courts have held that a State is immune with respect to damage

caused by warships (United States of America v. Eemshaven Port Author ‑
ity, Supreme Court of the Netherlands, Nederlandse Jurisprudentie, 2001,
No. 567 ; ILR, Vol. 127, p. 225 ; Allianz Via Insurance v. United States of
America (1999), Cour d’appel, Aix-en-Provence, 2nd Chamber, judgment
of 3 September 1999, ILR, Vol. 127, p. 148) or military exercises
(FILT‑CGIL Trento v. United States of America, Italian Court of Cassa -

tion, Rivista di diritto internazionale, Vol. 83, 2000, p. 1155; ILR, Vol. 128,
p. 644). The United Kingdom courts have held that customary interna -
tional law required immunity in proceedings for torts committed by for -
eign armed forces on United Kingdom territory if the acts in question
were acta jure imperii (Littrell v. United States of America (No. 2), Court

of Appeal, [1995] 1 Weekly Law Reports (WLR) 82 ; ILR, Vol. 100,
p. 438 ; Holland v. Lampen‑Wolfe, House of Lords, [2000] 1 WLR 1573 ;
ILR, Vol. 119, p. 367).

The Supreme Court of Ireland held that international law required that
a foreign State be accorded immunity in respect of acts jure imperii car -
ried out by members of its armed forces even when on the territory of thpe
forum State without the forum State’s permission (McElhinney v. Wil ‑
liams, [1995] 3 Irish Reports 382 ; ILR, Vol. 104, p. 691). The Grand
Chamber of the European Court of Human Rights later held that this

decision reflected a widely held view of international law so that the grant
of immunity could not be regarded as incompatible with the European
Convention on Human Rights (McElhinney v. Ireland [GC], application
No. 31253/96, judgment of 21 November 2001, ECHR Reports 2001-XI,
p. 39 ; ILR, Vol. 123, p. 73, para. 38).

While not directly concerned with the specific issue which arises in tphe
present case, these judicial decisions, which do not appear to have beenp
contradicted in any other national court judgments, suggest that a Statep
is entitled to immunity in respect of acta jure imperii committed by its

armed forces on the territory of another State.

73. The Court considers, however, that for the purposes of the present
case the most pertinent State practice is to be found in those national p
judicial decisions which concerned the question whether a State was entip -
tled to immunity in proceedings concerning acts allegedly committed by

its armed forces in the course of an armed conflict. All of those caseps, the
facts of which are often very similar to those of the cases before the

37

6 CIJ1031.indb 71 22/11/13 12:25 jurisdictional immunpities of the state (jupdgment) 133

Italian courts, concern the events of the Second World War. In this con -
text, the Cour de cassation in France has consistently held that Germany

was entitled to immunity in a series of cases brought by claimants who had
been deported from occupied French territory during the Second World
War (No. 02-45961, 16 December 2003, Bull. civ., 2003, I, No. 258, p. 206
(the Bucheron case) ; No. 03-41851, 2 June 2004, Bull. civ., 2004, I,
No. 158, p. 132 (the X case) and No. 04-47504, 3 January 2006 (the Grosz

case)). The Court also notes that the European Court of Human Rights
held in Grosz v. France (application No. 14717/06, decision of
16 June 2009) that France had not contravened the European Convention
on Human Rights in the proceedings which were the subject of the 2006
Cour de cassation judgment (judgment No. 04-47504), because the Cour
de cassation had given effect to an immunity required by international

law.
74. The highest courts in Slovenia and Poland have also held that Ger -
many was entitled to immunity in respect of unlawful acts perpetrated onp
their territory by its armed forces during the Second World War. In 2001
the Constitutional Court of Slovenia ruled that Germany was entitled to p

immunity in an action brought by a claimant who had been deported to
Germany during the German occupation and that the Supreme Court of
Slovenia had not acted arbitrarily in upholding that immunity (case
No. Up-13/99, judgment of 8 March 2001). The Supreme Court of Poland
held, in Natoniewski v. Federal Republic of Germany (judgment of

29 October 2010, Polish Yearbook of International Law, Vol. XXX, 2010,
p. 299), that Germany was entitled to immunity in an action brought by
a claimant who in 1944 had suffered injuries when German forces burnedp
his village in occupied Poland and murdered several hundred of its inhab -
itants. The Supreme Court, after an extensive review of the decisions inp
Ferrini, Distomo and Margellos, as well as the provisions of the European

Convention and the United Nations Convention and a range of other
materials, concluded that States remained entitled to immunity in respecpt
of torts allegedly committed by their armed forces in the course of an
armed conflict. Judgments by lower courts in Belgium (judgment of thep
Court of First Instance of Ghent in 2000 in Botelberghe v. German State),

Serbia (judgment of the Court of First Instance of Leskovac, 1 Novem -
ber 2001) and Brazil (Barreto v. Federal Republic of Germany, Federal
Court, Rio de Janeiro, judgment of 9 July 2008 holding Germany immune
in proceedings regarding the sinking of a Brazilian fishing vessel by pa
German submarine in Brazilian waters) have also held that Germany was

immune in actions for acts of war committed on their territory or in thepir
waters.

75. Finally, the Court notes that the German courts have also con -
cluded that the territorial tort principle did not remove a State’s epntitle -

38

6 CIJ1031.indb 73 22/11/13 12:25 jurisdictional immunpities of the state (jupdgment) 134

ment to immunity under international law in respect of acts committed byp
its armed forces, even where those acts took place on the territory of tphe

forum State (judgment of the Federal Supreme Court of 26 June 2003
(Greek Citizens v. Federal Republic of Germany, case No. III ZR 245/98,
NJW, 2003, p. 3488 ; ILR, Vol. 129, p. 556), declining to give effect in
Germany to the Greek judgment in the Distomo case on the ground that
it had been given in breach of Germany’s entitlement to immunity).

76. The only State in which there is any judicial practice which appears
to support the Italian argument, apart from the judgments of the Italian
courts which are the subject of the present proceedings, is Greece. The p
judgment of the Hellenic Supreme Court in the Distomo case in 2000 con -
tains an extensive discussion of the territorial tort principle without pany

suggestion that it does not extend to the acts of armed forces during anp
armed conflict. However, the Greek Special Supreme Court, in its judg -
ment in Margellos v. Federal Republic of Germany (case No. 6/2002,
ILR, Vol. 129, p. 525), repudiated the reasoning of the Supreme Court in
Distomo and held that Germany was entitled to immunity. In particular,

the Special Supreme Court held that the territorial tort principle was npot
applicable to the acts of the armed forces of a State in the conduct of p
armed conflict. While that judgment does not alter the outcome in the p
Distomo case, a matter considered below, Greece has informed the Court
that courts and other bodies in Greece faced with the same issue of

whether immunity is applicable to torts allegedly committed by foreign
armed forces in Greece are required to follow the stance taken by the
Special Supreme Court in its decision in Margellos unless they consider
that customary international law has changed since the Margellos judg -
ment. Germany has pointed out that, since the judgment in Margellos
was given, no Greek court has denied immunity in proceedings brought

against Germany in respect of torts allegedly committed by German
armed forces during the Second World War and in a 2009 decision (deci -
sion No. 853/2009), the Supreme Court, although deciding the case on a
different ground, approved the reasoning in Margellos. In view of the
judgment in Margellos and the dictum in the 2009 case, as well as the

decision of the Greek Government not to permit enforcement of the Dis ‑
tomo judgment in Greece itself and the Government’s defence of that
decision before the European Court of Human Rights in Kalogeropoulou
and Others v. Greece and Germany (application No. 59021/00, decision of
12 December 2002, ECHR Reports 2002-X, p. 417; ILR, Vol. 129, p. 537),

the Court concludes that Greek State practice taken as a whole actually p
contradicts, rather than supports, Italy’s argument.

77. In the Court’s opinion, State practice in the form of judicial deci -
sions supports the proposition that State immunity for acta jure imperii

39

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continues to extend to civil proceedings for acts occasioning death, per -
sonal injury or damage to property committed by the armed forces and

other organs of a State in the conduct of armed conflict, even if the prele -
vant acts take place on the territory of the forum State. That practice pis
accompanied by opinio juris, as demonstrated by the positions taken by
States and the jurisprudence of a number of national courts which have
made clear that they considered that customary international law requirepd

immunity. The almost complete absence of contrary jurisprudence is also p
significant, as is the absence of any statements by States in connectipon
with the work of the International Law Commission regarding State
immunity and the adoption of the United Nations Convention or, so far
as the Court has been able to discover, in any other context asserting that
customary international law does not require immunity in such cases.

78. In light of the foregoing, the Court considers that customary inter -
national law continues to require that a State be accorded immunity in
proceedings for torts allegedly committed on the territory of another

State by its armed forces and other organs of State in the course of conp -
ducting an armed conflict. That conclusion is confirmed by the judgmpents
of the European Court of Human Rights to which the Court has referred
(see paragraphs 72, 73 and 76).
79. The Court therefore concludes that, contrary to what had been

argued by Italy in the present proceedings, the decision of the Italian p
courts to deny immunity to Germany cannot be justified on the basis ofp
the territorial tort principle.

3. Italy’s Second Argument : The Subject‑Matter and Circumstances

of the Claims in the Italian Courts

80. Italy’s second argument, which, unlike its first argument, applies pto
all of the claims brought before the Italian courts, is that the denial of
immunity was justified on account of the particular nature of the actsp
forming the subject-matter of the claims before the Italian courts and the
circumstances in which those claims were made. There are three strands

to this argument. First, Italy contends that the acts which gave rise top the
claims constituted serious violations of the principles of internationalp law
applicable to the conduct of armed conflict, amounting to war crimes apnd
crimes against humanity. Secondly, Italy maintains that the rules of intper -
national law thus contravened were peremptory norms (jus cogens).

Thirdly, Italy argues that the claimants having been denied all other
forms of redress, the exercise of jurisdiction by the Italian courts wasp nec -
essary as a matter of last resort. The Court will consider each of these
strands in turn, while recognizing that, in the oral proceedings, Italy palso
contended that its courts had been entitled to deny State immunity

because of the combined effect of these three strands.

40

6 CIJ1031.indb 77 22/11/13 12:25 jurisdictional immunpities of the state (jupdgment) 136

A. The gravity of the violations

81. The first strand is based upon the proposition that international

law does not accord immunity to a State, or at least restricts its rightp to
immunity, when that State has committed serious violations of the law ofp
armed conflict (international humanitarian law as it is more commonlyp
termed today, although the term was not used in 1943-1945). In the pres -
ent case, the Court has already made clear (see paragraph 52 above) that
the actions of the German armed forces and other organs of the German

Reich giving rise to the proceedings before the Italian courts were seripous
violations of the law of armed conflict which amounted to crimes underp
international law. The question is whether that fact operates to deprive
Germany of an entitlement to immunity.
82. At the outset, however, the Court must observe that the proposition

that the availability of immunity will be to some extent dependent upon pthe
gravity of the unlawful act presents a logical problem. Immunity from
jurisdiction is an immunity not merely from being subjected to an adverspe
judgment but from being subjected to the trial process. It is, thereforep, nec-
essarily preliminary in nature. Consequently, a national court is requirped to

determine whether or not a foreign State is entitled to immunity as a matter
of international law before it can hear the merits of the case brought bpefore
it and before the facts have been established. If immunity were to be deppen -
dent upon the State actually having committed a serious violation of intpe -r
national human rights law or the law of armed conflict, then it would

become necessary for the national court to hold an enquiry into the meripts
in order to determine whether it had jurisdiction. If, on the other hand, the
mere allegation that the State had committed such wrongful acts were to pbe
sufficient to deprive the State of its entitlement to immunity, immunitpy
could, in effect be negated simply by skilful construction of the claipm.

83. That said, the Court must nevertheless inquire whether customary
international law has developed to the point where a State is not entitled
to immunity in the case of serious violations of human rights law or thep
law of armed conflict. Apart from the decisions of the Italian courts p
which are the subject of the present proceedings, there is almost no Stapte

practice which might be considered to support the proposition that a
State is deprived of its entitlement to immunity in such a case. Althougph
the Hellenic Supreme Court in the Distomo case adopted a form of that
proposition, the Special Supreme Court in Margellos repudiated that
approach two years later. As the Court has noted in paragraph 76 above,
under Greek law it is the stance adopted in Margellos which must be fol -

lowed in later cases unless the Greek courts find that there has been pa
change in customary international law since 2002, which they have not
done. As with the territorial tort principle, the Court considers that Greek
practice, taken as a whole, tends to deny that the proposition advanced p
by Italy has become part of customary international law.

41

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84. In addition, there is a substantial body of State practice from other
countries which demonstrates that customary international law does not

treat a State’s entitlement to immunity as dependent upon the gravityp of
the act of which it is accused or the peremptory nature of the rule whicph
it is alleged to have violated.
85. That practice is particularly evident in the judgments of national
courts. Arguments to the effect that international law no longer requipred

State immunity in cases of allegations of serious violations of interna -
tional human rights law, war crimes or crimes against humanity have
been rejected by the courts in Canada (Bouzari v. Islamic Republic of Iran,
Court of Appeal of Ontario, [2004] Dominion Law Reports (DLR),
4th Series, Vol. 243, p. 406; ILR, Vol. 128, p. 586 ; allegations of torture),
France (judgment of the Court of Appeal of Paris, 9 September 2002, and

Cour de cassation, No. 02-45961, 16 December 2003, Bulletin civil de la
Cour de cassation (Bull. civ.), 2003, I, No. 258, p. 206 (the Bucheron
case) ; Cour de cassation, No. 03-41851, 2 June 2004, Bull. civ., 2004, I,
No. 158, p. 132 (the X case) and Cour de cassation, No. 04-47504, 3 Janu -
ary 2006 (the Grosz case) ; allegations of crimes against humanity), Slove-

nia (case No. Up-13/99, Constitutional Court of Slovenia ; allegations of
war crimes and crimes against humanity), New Zealand (Fang v. Jiang,
High Court, [2007] New Zealand Administrative Reports (NZAR), p. 420;
ILR, Vol. 141, p. 702 ; allegations of torture), Poland (Natoniewski,
Supreme Court, 2010, Polish Yearbook of International Law, Vol. XXX,

2010, p. 299 ; allegations of war crimes and crimes against humanity)
and the United Kingdom (Jones v. Saudi Arabia, House of Lords, [2007]
1 Appeal Cases (AC) 270 ;ILR, Vol. 129, p. 629 ; allegations of torture).

86. The Court notes that, in its response to a question posed by a
Member of the Court, Italy itself appeared to demonstrate uncertainty

about this aspect of its case. Italy commented,
“Italy is aware of the view according to which war crimes and

crimes against humanity could not be considered to be sovereign acts
for which the State is entitled to invoke the defence of sovereign
immunity . . . While Italy acknowledges that in this area the law of
State immunity is undergoing a process of change, it also recognizes
that it is not clear at this stage whether this process will result in ap

new general exception to immunity — namely a rule denying immu -
nity with respect to every claim for compensation arising out [of]
international crimes.”

A similar uncertainty is evident in the orders of the Italian Court of Cpas-
sation in Mantelli and Maietta (orders of 29 May 2008).

87. The Court does not consider that the United Kingdom judgment in

Pinochet (No. 3) ([2000] 1 AC 147 ; ILR, Vol. 119, p. 136) is relevant,
notwithstanding the reliance placed on that judgment by the Italian Courpt

42

6 CIJ1031.indb 81 22/11/13 12:25 jurisdictional immunpities of the state (jupdgment) 138

of Cassation in Ferrini. Pinochet concerned the immunity of a former
Head of State from the criminal jurisdiction of another State, not the

immunity of the State itself in proceedings designed to establish its lipabil-
ity to damages. The distinction between the immunity of the official inp the
former type of case and that of the State in the latter case was emphasipzed
by several of the judges in Pinochet (Lord Hutton at pp. 254 and 264,
Lord Millett at p. 278 and Lord Phillips at pp. 280-281). In its later judg -

ment in Jones v. Saudi Arabia ([2007] 1 AC 270 ; ILR, Vol. 129, p. 629),
the House of Lords further clarified this distinction, Lord Bingham
describing the distinction between criminal and civil proceedings as “pfun -
damental to the decision” in Pinochet (para. 32). Moreover, the rationale
for the judgment in Pinochet was based upon the specific language of the
1984 United Nations Convention against Torture, which has no bearing

on the present case.

88. With reference to national legislation, Italy referred to an amend -
ment to the United States Foreign Sovereign Immunities Act, first

adopted in 1996. That amendment withdraws immunity for certain speci -
fied acts (for example, torture and extra-judicial killings) if allegedly per -
formed by a State which the United States Government has “designated p
as a State sponsor of terrorism” (28 USC 1605A). The Court notes that
this amendment has no counterpart in the legislation of other States.

None of the States which has enacted legislation on the subject of State
immunity has made provision for the limitation of immunity on the
grounds of the gravity of the acts alleged.
89. It is also noticeable that there is no limitation of State immunity by
reference to the gravity of the violation or the peremptory character ofp
the rule breached in the European Convention, the United Nations Con -

vention or the draft Inter-American Convention. The absence of any such
provision from the United Nations Convention is particularly significant,
because the question whether such a provision was necessary was raised
at the time that the text of what became the Convention was under con -
sideration. In 1999 the International Law Commission established a

Working Group which considered certain developments in practice
regarding some issues of State immunity which had been identified by tphe
Sixth Committee of the General Assembly. In an appendix to its report,
the Working Group referred, as an additional matter, to developments
regarding claims “in the case of death or personal injury resulting fprom

acts of a State in violation of human rights norms having the character pof
jus cogens” and stated that this issue was one which should not be ignored,
although it did not recommend any amendment to the text of the Inter -
national Law Commission Articles (Yearbook of the International Law
Commission, 1999, Vol. II (2), pp. 171-172). The matter was then consid -
ered by the Working Group established by the Sixth Committee of the

General Assembly, which reported later in 1999 that it had decided not tpo
take up the matter as “it did not seem to be ripe enough for the Workping

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Group to engage in a codification exercise over it” and commented that it
was for the Sixth Committee to decide what course of action, if any,

should be taken (United Nations doc. A/C.6/54/L.12, p. 7, para. 13). Dur-
ing the subsequent debates in the Sixth Committee no State suggested
that a jus cogens limitation to immunity should be included in the Con -
vention. The Court considers that this history indicates that, at the tipme
of adoption of the United Nations Convention in 2004, States did not

consider that customary international law limited immunity in the man -
ner now suggested by Italy.

90. The European Court of Human Rights has not accepted the prop -
osition that States are no longer entitled to immunity in cases regardinpg

serious violations of international humanitarian law or human rights lawp.
In 2001, the Grand Chamber of that Court, by the admittedly narrow
majority of nine to eight, concluded that,

“Notwithstanding the special character of the prohibition of torture
in international law, the Court is unable to discern in the internationapl
instruments, judicial authorities or other materials before it any firpm

basis for concluding that, as a matter of international law, a State no
longer enjoys immunity from civil suit in the courts of another State
where acts of torture are alleged.” (Al‑Adsani v. United Kingdom
[GC], application No. 35763/97, judgment of 21 November 2001,
ECHR Reports 2001-XI, p. 101, para. 61; ILR, Vol. 123, p. 24.)

The following year, in Kalogeropoulou and Others v. Greece and Germany,
the European Court of Human Rights rejected an application relating to

the refusal of the Greek Government to permit enforcement of the Dis ‑
tomo judgment and said that,

“The Court does not find it established, however, that there is yetp
acceptance in international law of the proposition that States are not
entitled to immunity in respect of civil claims for damages brought
against them in another State for crimes against humanity.” (Appli -
cation No. 59021/00, decision of 12 December 2002, ECHR Reports

2002-X, p. 417 ; ILR, Vol. 129, p. 537.)
91. The Court concludes that, under customary international law as it

presently stands, a State is not deprived of immunity by reason of the fpact
that it is accused of serious violations of international human rights law
or the international law of armed conflict. In reaching that conclusiopn,
the Court must emphasize that it is addressing only the immunity of the p
State itself from the jurisdiction of the courts of other States; the question
of whether, and if so to what extent, immunity might apply in criminal

proceedings against an official of the State is not in issue in the prepsent
case.

44

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B. The relationship between jus cogens and the rule of State immunity

92. The Court now turns to the second strand in Italy’s argument,

which emphasizes the jus cogens status of the rules which were violated by
Germany during the period 1943-1945. This strand of the argument rests
on the premise that there is a conflict between jus cogens rules forming
part of the law of armed conflict and according immunity to Germany.
Since jus cogens rules always prevail over any inconsistent rule of interna -
tional law, whether contained in a treaty or in customary international p

law, so the argument runs, and since the rule which accords one State
immunity before the courts of another does not have the status of jus
cogens, the rule of immunity must give way.
93. This argument therefore depends upon the existence of a conflict
between a rule, or rules, of jus cogens, and the rule of customary law

which requires one State to accord immunity to another. In the opinion
of the Court, however, no such conflict exists. Assuming for this purppose
that the rules of the law of armed conflict which prohibit the murder pof
civilians in occupied territory, the deportation of civilian inhabitantsp to
slave labour and the deportation of prisoners of war to slave labour are

rules of jus cogens, there is no conflict between those rules and the rules
on State immunity. The two sets of rules address different matters. Thpe
rules of State immunity are procedural in character and are confined tpo
determining whether or not the courts of one State may exercise jurisdicp-
tion in respect of another State. They do not bear upon the question

whether or not the conduct in respect of which the proceedings are
brought was lawful or unlawful. That is why the application of the con -
temporary law of State immunity to proceedings concerning events which
occurred in 1943-1945 does not infringe the principle that law should not
be applied retrospectively to determine matters of legality and responsip -

bility (as the Court has explained in paragraph 58 above). For the same
reason, recognizing the immunity of a foreign State in accordance with
customary international law does not amount to recognizing as lawful a
situation created by the breach of a jus cogens rule, or rendering aid and
assistance in maintaining that situation, and so cannot contravene the

principle in Article 41 of the International Law Commission’s Articles on
State Responsibility.

94. In the present case, the violation of the rules prohibiting murder,
deportation and slave labour took place in the period 1943-1945. The

illegality of these acts is openly acknowledged by all concerned. The
application of rules of State immunity to determine whether or not the
Italian courts have jurisdiction to hear claims arising out of those viopla -
tions cannot involve any conflict with the rules which were violated. pNor
is the argument strengthened by focusing upon the duty of the wrongdo -
ing State to make reparation, rather than upon the original wrongful actp.

The duty to make reparation is a rule which exists independently of thospe
rules which concern the means by which it is to be effected. The law opf

45

6 CIJ1031.indb 87 22/11/13 12:25 jurisdictional immunpities of the state (jupdgment) 141

State immunity concerns only the latter ; a decision that a foreign State is
immune no more conflicts with the duty to make reparation than it doesp

with the rule prohibiting the original wrongful act. Moreover, against the
background of a century of practice in which almost every peace treaty or
post-war settlement has involved either a decision not to require the pay -
ment of reparations or the use of lump sum settlements and set-offs, it is
difficult to see that international law contains a rule requiring the ppay -

ment of full compensation to each and every individual victim as a rule
accepted by the international community of States as a whole as one fromp
which no derogation is permitted.
95. To the extent that it is argued that no rule which is not of the status p
of jus cogens may be applied if to do so would hinder the enforcement of
a jus cogens rule, even in the absence of a direct conflict, the Court sees no

basis for such a proposition. A jus cogens rule is one from which no dero -
gation is permitted but the rules which determine the scope and extent opf
jurisdiction and when that jurisdiction may be exercised do not derogatep
from those substantive rules which possess jus cogens status, nor is there
anything inherent in the concept of jus cogens which would require their

modification or would displace their application. The Court has taken p
that approach in two cases, notwithstanding that the effect was that a
means by which a jus cogens rule might be enforced was rendered unavail -
able. In Armed Activities, it held that the fact that a rule has the status of
jus cogens does not confer upon the Court a jurisdiction which it would

not otherwise possess (Armed Activities on the Territory of the Congo
(New Application: 2002) (Democratic Republic of the Congo v. Rwanda),
Jurisdiction and Admissibility, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2006, p. 32,
para. 64, and p. 52, para. 125). In Arrest Warrant, the Court held, albeit
without express reference to the concept of jus cogens, that the fact that a
Minister for Foreign Affairs was accused of criminal violations of rules

which undoubtedly possess the character of jus cogens did not deprive the
Democratic Republic of the Congo of the entitlement which it possessed
as a matter of customary international law to demand immunity on his
behalf (Arrest Warrant of 11 April 2000 (Democratic Republic of the Congo
v. Belgium), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2002, p. 24, para. 58, and p. 33,

para. 78). The Court considers that the same reasoning is applicable
to the application of the customary international law regarding the immu -
nity of one State from proceedings in the courts of another.

96. In addition, this argument about the effect of jus cogens displacing

the law of State immunity has been rejected by the national courts of thpe
United Kingdom (Jones v. Saudi Arabia, House of Lords, [2007] 1 AC
270 ; ILR, Vol. 129, p. 629), Canada (Bouzari v. Islamic Republic of Iran,
Court of Appeal of Ontario, DLR, 4th Series, Vol. 243, p. 406 ; ILR,
Vol. 128, p. 586), Poland (Natoniewski, Supreme Court, Polish Yearbook
of International Law, Vol. XXX, 2010, p. 299), Slovenia (case No. Up-13/99,

Constitutional Court of Slovenia), New Zealand (Fang v. Jiang, High
Court, [2007] NZAR, p. 420 ; ILR, Vol. 141, p. 702) and Greece (Margel ‑

46

6 CIJ1031.indb 89 22/11/13 12:25 jurisdictional immunpities of the state (jupdgment) 142

los, Special Supreme Court, ILR, Vol. 129, p. 525), as well as by the
European Court of Human Rights in Al‑Adsani v. United Kingdom and

Kalogeropoulou and Others v. Greece and Germany (which are discussed in
paragraph 90 above), in each case after careful consideration. The Court
does not consider the judgment of the French Cour de cassation of
9 March 2011 in La Réunion aérienne v. Libyan Arab Jamahiriya (case
No. 09-14743, 9 March 2011, Bull. civ., March 2011, No. 49, p. 49) as

supporting a different conclusion. The Cour de cassation in that case
stated only that, even if a jus cogens norm could constitute a legitimate
restriction on State immunity, such a restriction could not be justifiped on
the facts of that case. It follows, therefore, that the judgments of thep Ital-
ian courts which are the subject of the present proceedings are the onlyp

decisions of national courts to have accepted the reasoning on which thips
part of Italy’s second argument is based. Moreover, none of the natiopnal
legislation on State immunity considered in paragraphs 70-71 above, has
limited immunity in cases where violations of jus cogens are alleged.

97. Accordingly, the Court concludes that even on the assumption that
the proceedings in the Italian courts involved violations of jus cogens
rules, the applicability of the customary international law on State immpu -
nity was not affected.

C. The “last resort” argument

98. The third and final strand of the Italian argument is that the Italianp
courts were justified in denying Germany the immunity to which it woulpd
otherwise have been entitled, because all other attempts to secure com -
pensation for the various groups of victims involved in the Italian pro -

ceedings had failed. Germany’s response is that in the aftermath of tphe
Second World War it made considerable financial and other sacrificesp by
way of reparation in the context of a complex series of inter-State arrange-
ments under which, reflecting the economic realities of the time, no Apllied
State received compensation for the full extent of the losses which its p

people had suffered. It also points to the payments which it made to Iptaly
under the terms of the two 1961 Agreements and to the payments made
more recently under the 2000 Federal Law to various Italians who had
been unlawfully deported to forced labour in Germany. Italy maintains,
however, that large numbers of Italian victims were nevertheless left wipth -

out any compensation.

*

99. The Court notes that Germany has taken significant steps to ensure

47

6 CIJ1031.indb 91 22/11/13 12:25 jurisdictional immunpities of the state (jupdgment) 143

that a measure of reparation was made to Italian victims of war crimes
and crimes against humanity. Nevertheless, Germany decided to exclude

from the scope of its national compensation scheme most of the claims byp
Italian military internees on the ground that prisoners of war were not p
entitled to compensation for forced labour (see paragraph 26 above). The
overwhelming majority of Italian military internees were, in fact, deniepd
treatment as prisoners of war by the Nazi authorities. Notwithstanding

that history, in 2001 the German Government determined that those
internees were ineligible for compensation because they had had a legal p
entitlement to prisoner-of-war status. The Court considers that it is a p
matter of surprise — and regret — that Germany decided to deny com -
pensation to a group of victims on the ground that they had been entitled
to a status which, at the relevant time, Germany had refused to recognizpe,

particularly since those victims had thereby been denied the legal protec -
tion to which that status entitled them.

100. Moreover, as the Court has said, albeit in the different context of

the immunity of State officials from criminal proceedings, the fact that
immunity may bar the exercise of jurisdiction in a particular case does pnot
alter the applicability of the substantive rules of international law (pArrest
Warrant of 11 April 2000 (Democratic Republic of the Congo v. Belgium),
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2002, p. 25, para. 60 ; see also Certain Questions

of Mutual Assistance in Criminal Matters (Djibouti v. France), Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 2008, p. 244, para. 196). In that context, the Court would
point out that whether a State is entitled to immunity before the courtsp of
another State is a question entirely separate from whether the interna -
tional responsibility of that State is engaged and whether it has an oblpiga -
tion to make reparation.

101. That notwithstanding, the Court cannot accept Italy’s contention
that the alleged shortcomings in Germany’s provisions for reparation pto
Italian victims entitled the Italian courts to deprive Germany of jurisdpic -
tional immunity. The Court can find no basis in the State practice fropm
which customary international law is derived that international law makeps

the entitlement of a State to immunity dependent upon the existence of
effective alternative means of securing redress. Neither in the nationpal leg -
islation on the subject, nor in the jurisprudence of the national courtsp
which have been faced with objections based on immunity, is there any
evidence that entitlement to immunity is subjected to such a preconditiopn.

States also did not include any such condition in either the European
Convention or the United Nations Convention.

102. Moreover, the Court cannot fail to observe that the application of
any such condition, if it indeed existed, would be exceptionally difficult in
practice, particularly in a context such as that of the present case, when

claims have been the subject of extensive intergovernmental discussion. pIf
one follows the Italian argument, while such discussions were still ongoping

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6 CIJ1031.indb 93 22/11/13 12:25 jurisdictional immunpities of the state (jupdgment) 144

and had a prospect of achieving a successful outcome, then it seems thatp
immunity would still prevail, whereas, again according to this argument,p

immunity would presumably cease to apply at some point when prospects
for an inter-State settlement were considered to have disappeared. Yet
national courts in one of the countries concerned are unlikely to be welpl
placed to determine when that point has been reached. Moreover, if a lumpp
sum settlement has been made — which has been the normal practice in the

aftermath of war, as Italy recognizes — then the determination of whether
a particular claimant continued to have an entitlement to compensation
would entail an investigation by the court of the details of that settlepment
and the manner in which the State which had received funds (in this caspe
the State in which the court in question is located) has distributed those

funds. Where the State receiving funds as part of what was intended as ap
comprehensive settlement in the aftermath of an armed conflict has elepcted
to use those funds to rebuild its national economy and infrastructure,
rather than distributing them to individual victims amongst its nationalps, it
is difficult to see why the fact that those individuals had not receivepd a
share in the money should be a reason for entitling them to claim againspt

the State that had transferred money to their State of nationality.
103. The Court therefore rejects Italy’s argument that Germany could
be refused immunity on this basis.
104. In coming to this conclusion, the Court is not unaware that the
immunity from jurisdiction of Germany in accordance with international

law may preclude judicial redress for the Italian nationals concerned.

It considers however that the claims arising from the treatment of the
Italian military internees referred to in paragraph 99, together with other
claims of Italian nationals which have allegedly not been settled — and

which formed the basis for the Italian proceedings — could be the subject
of further negotiation involving the two States concerned, with a view tpo
resolving the issue.

D. The combined effect of the circumstances relied upon by Italy

105. In the course of the oral proceedings, counsel for Italy maintained
that the three strands of Italy’s second argument had to be viewed
together; it was because of the cumulative effect of the gravity of the vio -
lations, the status of the rules violated and the absence of alternativep
means of redress that the Italian courts had been justified in refusinpg to

accord immunity to Germany.
106. The Court has already held that none of the three strands of the
second Italian argument would, of itself, justify the action of the Italpian
courts. It is not persuaded that they would have that effect if taken
together. Nothing in the examination of State practice lends support to p
the proposition that the concurrent presence of two, or even all three, pof

these elements would justify the refusal by a national court to accord tpo a
respondent State the immunity to which it would otherwise be entitled.

49

6 CIJ1031.indb 95 22/11/13 12:25 jurisdictional immunpities of the state (jupdgment) 145

In so far as the argument based on the combined effect of the circum -
stances is to be understood as meaning that the national court should

balance the different factors, assessing the respective weight, on thep one
hand, of the various circumstances that might justify the exercise of its
jurisdiction, and, on the other hand, of the interests attaching to the ppro -
tection of immunity, such an approach would disregard the very nature
of State immunity. As explained in paragraph 56 above, according to

international law, State immunity, where it exists, is a right of the foreign
State. In addition, as explained in paragraph 82 of this Judgment, national
courts have to determine questions of immunity at the outset of the pro -
ceedings, before consideration of the merits. Immunity cannot, thereforep,
be made dependent upon the outcome of a balancing exercise of the spe -

cific circumstances of each case to be conducted by the national courtp
before which immunity is claimed.

4. Conclusions

107. The Court therefore holds that the action of the Italian courts in

denying Germany the immunity to which the Court has held it was enti -
tled under customary international law constitutes a breach of the obligpa -
tions owed by the Italian State to Germany.
108. It is, therefore, unnecessary for the Court to consider a number of
questions which were discussed at some length by the Parties. In particup -
lar, the Court need not rule on whether, as Italy contends, internationapl

law confers upon the individual victim of a violation of the law of armepd
conflict a directly enforceable right to claim compensation. Nor need pit
rule on whether, as Germany maintains, Article 77, paragraph 4, of the
Treaty of Peace or the provisions of the 1961 Agreements amounted to a
binding waiver of the claims which are the subject of the Italian proceepd -

ings. That is not to say, of course, that these are unimportant questionps,
only that they are not ones which fall for decision within the limits ofp the
present case. The question whether Germany still has a responsibility
towards Italy, or individual Italians, in respect of war crimes and crimpes
against humanity committed by it during the Second World War does not

affect Germany’s entitlement to immunity. Similarly, the Court’sp ruling
on the issue of immunity can have no effect on whatever responsibilityp
Germany may have.

IV. The Measures of Constrapint Taken against Propeprty
Belonging to Germany Locpated on Italian Territopry

109. On 7 June 2007, certain Greek claimants, in reliance on a decision
of the Florence Court of Appeal of 13 June 2006, declaring enforceable in

50

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Italy the judgment rendered by the Court of First Instance of Livadia, in
Greece, which had ordered Germany to pay them compensation, entered

in the Land Registry of the Province of Como a legal charge against Villpa
Vigoni, a property of the German State located near Lake Como (see
above, paragraph 35).
110. Germany argued before the Court that such a measure of con -
straint violates the immunity from enforcement to which it is entitled

under international law. Italy has not sought to justify that measure ; on
the contrary, it indicated to the Court that it “has no objection to pany
decision by the Court obliging Italy to ensure that the mortgage on Villpa
Vigoni inscribed at the land registry is cancelled”.
111. As a result of Decree-Law No. 63 of 28 April 2010, Law No. 98 of
23 June 2010 and Decree-Law No. 216 of 29 December 2011, the charge in

question was suspended in order to take account of the pending proceedinpgs
before the Court in the present case. It has not, however, been cancellepd.
112. The Court considers that, notwithstanding the above-mentioned
suspension, and the absence of any argument by Italy seeking to establisph
the international legality of the measures of constraint in question, a pdis -

pute still exists between the Parties on this issue, the subject of whicph has
not disappeared. Italy has not formally admitted that the legal charge opn
Villa Vigoni constituted a measure contrary to its international obliga -
tions. Nor, as just stated, has it put an end to the effects of that mpeasure,
but has merely suspended them. It has told the Court, through its Agent,p

that the decisions of the Italian courts rendered against Germany have
been suspended by legislation pending the decision of this Court, and thpat
execution of those decisions “will only occur should the Court decidep that
Italy has not committed the wrongful acts complained of by Germany”. p
That implies that the charge on Villa Vigoni might be reactivated, shoulpd
the Court conclude that it is not contrary to international law. Withoutp

asking the Court to reach such a conclusion, Italy does not exclude it, pand
awaits the Court’s ruling before taking the appropriate action thereopn.

It follows that the Court should rule, as both Parties wish it to do, onp
the second of Germany’s submissions, which concerns the dispute over p

the measure of constraint taken against Villa Vigoni.

113. Before considering whether the claims of the Applicant on this
point are well-founded, the Court observes that the immunity from
enforcement enjoyed by States in regard to their property situated on fopr -

eign territory goes further than the jurisdictional immunity enjoyed by p
those same States before foreign courts. Even if a judgment has been lawp -
fully rendered against a foreign State, in circumstances such that the lpat -
ter could not claim immunity from jurisdiction, it does not follow ipso
facto that the State against which judgment has been given can be the
subject of measures of constraint on the territory of the forum State orp on

that of a third State, with a view to enforcing the judgment in questionp.
Similarly, any waiver by a State of its jurisdictional immunity before ap

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foreign court does not in itself mean that that State has waived its immpu-
nity from enforcement as regards property belonging to it situated in fopr-

eign territory.
The rules of customary international law governing immunity from
enforcement and those governing jurisdictional immunity (understood
stricto sensu as the right of a State not to be the subject of judicial pro -
ceedings in the courts of another State) are distinct, and must be applpied

separately.
114. In the present case, this means that the Court may rule on the
issue of whether the charge on Villa Vigoni constitutes a measure of con -
straint in violation of Germany’s immunity from enforcement, without p
needing to determine whether the decisions of the Greek courts awarding p
pecuniary damages against Germany, for purposes of whose enforcement

that measure was taken, were themselves in breach of that State’s jurpisdic -
tional immunity.
Likewise, the issue of the international legality of the measure of con -
straint in question, in light of the rules applicable to immunity from
enforcement, is separate — and may therefore be considered separately —

from that of the international legality, under the rules applicable to jpuris-
dictional immunity, of the decisions of the Italian courts which declarepd
enforceable on Italian territory the Greek judgments against Germany.
This latter question, which is the subject of the third of the submissiopns
presented to the Court by Germany (see above paragraph 17), will be
addressed in the following section of this Judgment.

115. In support of its claim on the point under discussion here, Ger -
many cited the rules set out in Article 19 of the United Nations Conven -
tion. That Convention has not entered into force, but in Germany’s vipew
it codified, in relation to the issue of immunity from enforcement, thpe
existing rules under general international law. Its terms are therefore psaid

to be binding, inasmuch as they reflect customary law on the matter.

116. Article 19, entitled “State immunity from post-judgment measures
of constraint”, reads as follows :

“No post-judgment measures of constraint, such as attachment,
arrest or execution, against property of a State may be taken in con -
nection with a proceeding before a court of another State unless and
except to the extent that :

(a) the State has expressly consented to the taking of such measures
as indicated :

(i) by international agreement ;
(ii) by an arbitration agreement or in a written contract ; or
(iii) by a declaration before the court or by a written communi -
cation after a dispute between the parties has arisen ; or

(b) the State has allocated or earmarked property for the satisfaction
of the claim which is the object of that proceeding ; or

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(c) it has been established that the property is specifically in use or
intended for use by the State for other than government non-com -

mercial purposes and is in the territory of the State of the
forum, provided that post-judgment measures of constraint may
only be taken against property that has a connection with the
entity against which the proceeding was directed.”

117. When the United Nations Convention was being drafted, these

provisions gave rise to long and difficult discussions. The Court considers
that it is unnecessary for purposes of the present case for it to decidep
whether all aspects of Article 19 reflect current customary international
law.
118. Indeed, it suffices for the Court to find that there is at least one
condition that has to be satisfied before any measure of constraint mapy be

taken against property belonging to a foreign State : that the property in
question must be in use for an activity not pursuing government non-com -
mercial purposes, or that the State which owns the property has expresslpy
consented to the taking of a measure of constraint, or that that State hpas
allocated the property in question for the satisfaction of a judicial clpaim

(an illustration of this well-established practice is provided by the deci-
sion of the German Constitutional Court (Bundesverfassungsgericht) of
14 December 1977 (BVerfGE, Vol. 46, p. 342; ILR, Vol. 65, p. 146), by the
judgment of the Swiss Federal Tribunal of 30 April 1986 in Kingdom of
Spain v. Société X ( Annuaire suisse de droit international, Vol. 43, 1987,

p. 158 ;ILR, Vol. 82, p. 44), as well as the judgment of the House of Lords
of 12 April 1984 in Alcom Ltd. v. Republic of Colombia ([1984] 1 AC 580 ;
ILR, Vol. 74, p. 170) and the judgment of the Spanish Constitutional
Court of 1 July 1992 in Abbott v. Republic of South Africa ( Revista espa ‑
ñola de derecho internacional, Vol. 44, 1992, p. 565; ILR, Vol. 113, p. 414)).

119. It is clear in the present case that the property which was the sub -
ject of the measure of constraint at issue is being used for governmentapl
purposes that are entirely non-commercial, and hence for purposes falling
within Germany’s sovereign functions. Villa Vigoni is in fact the seat of a
cultural centre intended to promote cultural exchanges between Germany

and Italy. This cultural centre is organized and administered on the baspis
of an agreement between the two Governments concluded in the form of
an exchange of notes dated 21 April 1986. Before the Court, Italy
described the activities in question as a “centre of excellence for the Ital -
ian-German co-operation in the fields of research, culture and educa -

tion”, and recognized that Italy was directly involved in “its peculiar
bi-national . . . managing structure”. Nor has Germany in any way
expressly consented to the taking of a measure such as the legal charge pin
question, or allocated Villa Vigoni for the satisfaction of the judicialp
claims against it.
120. In these circumstances, the Court finds that the registration of a

legal charge on Villa Vigoni constitutes a violation by Italy of its oblpiga -
tion to respect the immunity owed to Germany.

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V. The Decisions of the Itaplian Courts Declaring Epnforceable
in Italy Decisions of Greepk Courts Upholding

Civil Claims against Gerpmany

121. In its third submission, Germany complains that its jurisdictional
immunity was also violated by decisions of the Italian courts declaring
enforceable in Italy judgments rendered by Greek courts against Ger -

many in proceedings arising out of the Distomo massacre. In 1995, suc -
cessors in title of the victims of that massacre, committed by the Germapn
armed forces in a Greek village in June 1944, brought proceedings for
compensation against Germany before the Greek courts. By a judgment
of 25 September 1997, the Court of First Instance of Livadia, which had
territorial jurisdiction, ordered Germany to pay compensation to the

claimants. The appeal by Germany against that judgment was dismissed
by a decision of the Hellenic Supreme Court of 4 May 2000, which ren -
dered final the judgment of the Court of First Instance, and at the sapme
time ordered Germany to pay the costs of the appeal proceedings. The
successful Greek claimants under the first-instance and Supreme Court p

judgments applied to the Italian courts for exequatur of those judgments,
so as to be able to have them enforced in Italy, since it was impossiblep to
enforce them in Greece or in Germany (see above, paragraphs 30 and 32).
It was on those applications that the Florence Court of Appeal ruled,
allowing them by a decision of 13 June 2006, which was confirmed, fol -

lowing an objection by Germany, on 21 October 2008 as regards the
pecuniary damages awarded by the Court of First Instance of Livadia,
and by a decision of 2 May 2005, confirmed, following an objection by
Germany, on 6 February 2007 as regards the award of costs made by the
Hellenic Supreme Court. This latter decision was confirmed by the Italian
Court of Cassation on 6 May 2008. As regards the decision confirming

the exequatur granted in respect of the judgment of the Court of First
Instance of Livadia, it has also been appealed to the Italian Court of Cpas -
sation, which dismissed that appeal on 12 January 2011.

122. According to Germany, the decisions of the Florence Court of

Appeal declaring enforceable the judgments of the Livadia court and the p
Hellenic Supreme Court constitute violations of its jurisdictional immu -
nity, since, for the same reasons as those invoked by Germany in relation
to the Italian proceedings concerning war crimes committed in Italy
between 1943 and 1945, the decisions of the Greek courts were themselvesp

rendered in violation of that jurisdictional immunity.
123. According to Italy, on the contrary, and for the same reasons as
those set out and discussed in Section III of the present Judgment, there
was no violation of Germany’s jurisdictional immunity, either by the p
decisions of the Greek courts or by those of the Italian courts which
declared them enforceable in Italy.

124. It should first be noted that the claim in Germany’s third submis -
sion is entirely separate and distinct from that set out in the preceding

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one, which has been discussed in Section IV above (paragraphs 109 to
120). The Court is no longer concerned here to determine whether a mea -

sure of constraint — such as the legal charge on Villa Vigoni — violated
Germany’s immunity from enforcement, but to decide whether the Italiapn
judgments declaring enforceable in Italy the pecuniary awards pro -
nounced in Greece did themselves — independently of any subsequent
measure of enforcement — constitute a violation of the Applicant’s

immunity from jurisdiction. While there is a link between these two
aspects — since the measure of constraint against Villa Vigoni could only
have been imposed on the basis of the judgment of the Florence Court of p
Appeal according exequatur in respect of the judgment of the Greek court
in Livadia — the two issues nonetheless remain clearly distinct. That dis -
cussed in the preceding section related to immunity from enforcement ;

that which the Court will now consider addresses immunity from jurisdic -
tion. As recalled above, these two forms of immunity are governed by
different sets of rules.
125. The Court will then explain how it views the issue of jurisdictional
immunity in relation to a judgment which rules not on the merits of a

claim brought against a foreign State, but on an application to have a
judgment rendered by a foreign court against a third State declared
enforceable on the territory of the State of the court where that applicpa -
tion is brought (a request for exequatur). The difficulty arises from the
fact that, in such cases, the court is not being asked to give judgment p

directly against a foreign State invoking jurisdictional immunity, but tpo
enforce a decision already rendered by a court of another State, which ips
deemed to have itself examined and applied the rules governing the jurisp -
dictional immunity of the respondent State.
126. In the present case, the two Parties appear to have argued on the
basis that, in such a situation, the question whether the court seised opf the

application for exequatur had respected the jurisdictional immunity of the
third State depended simply on whether that immunity had been respected
by the foreign court having rendered the judgment on the merits against p
the third State. In other words, both Parties appeared to make the ques -
tion whether or not the Florence Court of Appeal had violated Germa -

ny’s jurisdictional immunity in declaring enforceable the Livadia andp
Hellenic Supreme Court decisions dependent on whether those decisions
had themselves violated the jurisdictional immunity on which Germany
had relied in its defence against the proceedings brought against it in p
Greece.

127. There is nothing to prevent national courts from ascertaining,
before granting exequatur, that the foreign judgment was not rendered in
breach of the immunity of the respondent State. However, for the purposeps
of the present case, the Court considers that it must address the issue pfrom
a significantly different viewpoint. In its view, it is unnecessary,p in order to
determine whether the Florence Court of Appeal violated Germany’s jurpis -

dictional immunity, to rule on the question of whether the decisions of the
Greek courts did themselves violate that immunity — something, more -

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over, which it could not do, since that would be to rule on the rights apnd
obligations of a State, Greece, which does not have the status of party pto

the present proceedings (see Monetary Gold Removed from Rome in 1943
(Italy v. France; United Kingdom and United States of America), Prelimi ‑
nary Question, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1954, p. 32; East Timor (Portu‑
gal v. Australia), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1995, p. 105, para. 34).
The relevant question, from the Court’s point of view and for the purp -

poses of the present case, is whether the Italian courts did themselves p
respect Germany’s immunity from jurisdiction in allowing the applicatpion
for exequatur, and not whether the Greek court having rendered the judg -
ment of which exequatur is sought had respected Germany’s jurisdictional
immunity. In a situation of this kind, the replies to these two questionps
may not necessarily be the same ; it is only the first question which the

Court needs to address here.
128. Where a court is seised, as in the present case, of an application
for exequatur of a foreign judgment against a third State, it is itself being
called upon to exercise its jurisdiction in respect of the third State ipn ques
tion. It is true that the purpose of exequatur proceedings is not to decide

on the merits of a dispute, but simply to render an existing judgment
enforceable on the territory of a State other than that of the court whipch
ruled on the merits. It is thus not the role of the exequatur court to
re-examine in all its aspects the substance of the case which has been
decided. The fact nonetheless remains that, in granting or refusing exe‑

quatur, the court exercises a jurisdictional power which results in the for -
eign judgment being given effects corresponding to those of a judgmentp
rendered on the merits in the requested State. The proceedings brought
before that court must therefore be regarded as being conducted against p
the third State which was the subject of the foreign judgment.
129. In this regard, the Court notes that, under the terms of Article 6,

paragraph 2, of the United Nations Convention :
“A proceeding before a court of a State shall be considered to have

been instituted against another State if that other State :
(a) is named as a party to that proceeding ; or
(b) is not named as a party to the proceeding but the proceeding in
effect seeks to affect the property, rights, interests or activities of
that other State.”

When applied to exequatur proceedings, that definition means that such
proceedings must be regarded as being directed against the State which was

the subject of the foreign judgment. That is indeed why Germany was entip -
tled to object to the decisions of the Florence Court of Appeal grantingp
exequatur — although it did so without success— and to appeal to the Ital -
ian Court of Cassation against the judgments confirming those decisionps.
130. It follows from the foregoing that the court seised of an application
for exequatur of a foreign judgment rendered against a third State has to

ask itself whether the respondent State enjoys immunity from jurisdic -
tion — having regard to the nature of the case in which that judgment was p

56

6 CIJ1031.indb 109 22/11/13 12:25 jurisdictional immunpities of the state (jupdgment) 152

given — before the courts of the State in which exequatur proceedings have
been instituted. In other words, it has to ask itself whether, in the evpent

that it had itself been seised of the merits of a dispute identical to that
which was the subject of the foreign judgment, it would have been obliged
under international law to accord immunity to the respondent State (see
to this effect the judgment of the Supreme Court of Canada in Kuwait
Airways Corp. v. Iraq ([2010] SCR, Vol. 2, p. 571), and the judgment of

the United Kingdom Supreme Court in NML Capital Limited v. Republic
of Argentina ([2011] UKSC 31).
131. In light of this reasoning, it follows that the Italian courts which
declared enforceable in Italy the decisions of Greek courts rendered against
Germany have violated the latter’s immunity. For the reasons set out pin
Section III above of the present Judgment, the Italian courts would have

been obliged to grant immunity to Germany if they had been seised of thep
merits of a case identical to that which was the subject of the decisionps of
the Greek courts which it was sought to declare enforceable (namely, thpe
case of the Distomo massacre). Accordingly, they could not grant exequa ‑
tur without thereby violating Germany’s jurisdictional immunity.

132. In order to reach such a decision, it is unnecessary to rule on the
question whether the Greek courts did themselves violate Germany’s
immunity, a question which is not before the Court, and on which, more -
over, it cannot rule, for the reasons recalled earlier. The Court will cpon -

fine itself to noting, in general terms, that it may perfectly well happpen, in
certain circumstances, that the judgment rendered on the merits did not
violate the jurisdictional immunity of the respondent State, for examplep
because the latter had waived its immunity before the courts hearing thep
case on the merits, but that the exequatur proceedings instituted in
another State are barred by the respondent’s immunity. That is why thpe

two issues are distinct, and why it is not for this Judgment to rule on pthe
legality of the decisions of the Greek courts.
133. The Court accordingly concludes that the above-mentioned deci -
sions of the Florence Court of Appeal constitute a violation by Italy of its
obligation to respect the jurisdictional immunity of Germany.

VI. Germany’s Final Submispsions
and the Remedies Sought

134. In its final submissions at the close of the oral proceedings, Ger -
many presented six requests to the Court, of which the first three werpe
declaratory and the final three sought to draw the consequences, in teprms
of reparation, of the established violations (see paragraph 17 above). It is
on those requests that the Court is required to rule in the operative part
of this Judgment.

135. For the reasons set out in Sections III, IV and V above, the Court
will uphold Germany’s first three requests, which ask it to declarep, in

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turn, that Italy has violated the jurisdictional immunity which Germany p
enjoys under international law by allowing civil claims based on viola -

tions of international humanitarian law by the German Reich between
1943 and 1945 ; that Italy has also committed violations of the immunity
owed to Germany by taking enforcement measures against Villa Vigoni ;
and, lastly, that Italy has violated Germany’s immunity by declaring p
enforceable in Italy Greek judgments based on occurrences similar to

those referred to above.

136. In its fourth submission, Germany asks the Court to adjudge and
declare that, in view of the above, Italy’s international responsibility is
engaged.

There is no doubt that the violation by Italy of certain of its interna -
tional legal obligations entails its international responsibility and plpaces
upon it, by virtue of general international law, an obligation to make fpull
reparation for the injury caused by the wrongful acts committed. The
substance, in the present case, of that obligation to make reparation wipll

be considered below, in connection with Germany’s fifth and sixth spub -
missions. The Court’s ruling thereon will be set out in the operativep
clause. On the other hand, the Court does not consider it necessary to
include an express declaration in the operative clause that Italy’s ipnterna -
tional responsibility is engaged ; to do so would be entirely redundant,

since that responsibility is automatically inferred from the finding tphat
certain obligations have been violated.
137. In its fifth submission, Germany asks the Court to order Italy to
take, by means of its own choosing, any and all steps to ensure that allp
the decisions of its courts and other judicial authorities infringing Gepr -
many’s sovereign immunity become unenforceable. This is to be under -

stood as implying that the relevant decisions should cease to have effpect.

According to general international law on the responsibility of States
for internationally wrongful acts, as expressed in this respect by Arti -

cle 30 (a) of the International Law Commission’s Articles on the subject,
the State responsible for an internationally wrongful act is under an obpli -
gation to cease that act, if it is continuing. Furthermore, even if the pact in
question has ended, the State responsible is under an obligation to
re-establish, by way of reparation, the situation which existed before the

wrongful act was committed, provided that re-establishment is not mate -
rially impossible and that it does not involve a burden for that State oput
of all proportion to the benefit deriving from restitution instead of pcom -
pensation. This rule is reflected in Article 35 of the International Law
Commission’s Articles.
It follows accordingly that the Court must uphold Germany’s fifth spub -

mission. The decisions and measures infringing Germany’s jurisdictionpal
immunities which are still in force must cease to have effect, and thep

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effects which have already been produced by those decisions and mea -
sures must be reversed, in such a way that the situation which existed

before the wrongful acts were committed is re-established. It has not been
alleged or demonstrated that restitution would be materially impossible p
in this case, or that it would involve a burden for Italy out of all proppor -
tion to the benefit deriving from it. In particular, the fact that sompe of the
violations may have been committed by judicial organs, and some of the

legal decisions in question have become final in Italian domestic law,p does
not lift the obligation incumbent upon Italy to make restitution. On thep
other hand, the Respondent has the right to choose the means it considerps
best suited to achieve the required result. Thus, the Respondent is undepr
an obligation to achieve this result by enacting appropriate legislationp or
by resorting to other methods of its choosing having the same effect.

138. Finally, in its sixth submission, Germany asks the Court to order
Italy to take any and all steps to ensure that in the future Italian couprts
do not entertain legal actions against Germany founded on the occur -

rences described in its first submission (namely violations of international
humanitarian law committed by the German Reich between 1943
and 1945).
As the Court has stated in previous cases (see, in particular, Dispute
regarding Navigational and Related Rights (Costa Rica v. Nicaragua),

Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2009, p. 267, para. 150), as a general rule, there
is no reason to suppose that a State whose act or conduct has been
declared wrongful by the Court will repeat that act or conduct in the
future, since its good faith must be presumed. Accordingly, while the
Court may order the State responsible for an internationally wrongful acpt
to offer assurances of non-repetition to the injured State, or to take spe -

cific measures to ensure that the wrongful act is not repeated, it mayp only
do so when there are special circumstances which justify this, which thep
Court must assess on a case-by-case basis.

In the present case, the Court has no reason to believe that such cir -

cumstances exist. Therefore, it will not uphold the last of Germany’sp final
submissions.

*
* *

139. For these reasons,

The Court,

(1) By twelve votes to three,

Finds that the Italian Republic has violated its obligation to respect the
immunity which the Federal Republic of Germany enjoys under interna -

59

6 CIJ1031.indb 115 22/11/13 12:25 jurisdictional immunpities of the state (jupdgment) 155

tional law by allowing civil claims to be brought against it based on vipola -
tions of international humanitarian law committed by the German Reich
between 1943 and 1945 ;

in favour :President Owada ;Vice‑President Tomka ;Judges Koroma, Simma,
Abraham, Keith, Sepúlveda-Amor, Bennouna, Skotnikov, Greenwood,
Xue, Donoghue ;
against : Judges Cançado Trindade, Yusuf ; Judge ad hoc Gaja ;

(2) By fourteen votes to one,

Finds that the Italian Republic has violated its obligation to respect the
immunity which the Federal Republic of Germany enjoys under interna -

tional law by taking measures of constraint against Villa Vigoni ;

in favour : President Owada ; Vice‑President Tomka ; Judges Koroma,
Simma, Abraham, Keith, Sepúlveda-Amor, Bennouna, Skotnikov, Yusuf,
Greenwood, Xue, Donoghue ; Judge ad hoc Gaja ;
against : Judge Cançado Trindade ;

(3) By fourteen votes to one,

Finds that the Italian Republic has violated its obligation to respect the
immunity which the Federal Republic of Germany enjoys under interna -
tional law by declaring enforceable in Italy decisions of Greek courts

based on violations of international humanitarian law committed in
Greece by the German Reich ;
in favour : President Owada ; Vice‑President Tomka ; Judges Koroma,
Simma, Abraham, Keith, Sepúlveda-Amor, Bennouna, Skotnikov, Yusuf,

Greenwood, Xue, Donoghue ; Judge ad hoc Gaja ;
against : Judge Cançado Trindade ;

(4) By fourteen votes to one,

Finds that the Italian Republic must, by enacting appropriate legisla -
tion, or by resorting to other methods of its choosing, ensure that the
decisions of its courts and those of other judicial authorities infringipng the
immunity which the Federal Republic of Germany enjoys under interna -

tional law cease to have effect ;
in favour : President Owada ; Vice‑President Tomka ; Judges Koroma,
Simma, Abraham, Keith, Sepúlveda-Amor, Bennouna, Skotnikov, Yusuf,
Greenwood, Xue, Donoghue ; Judge ad hoc Gaja ;

against : Judge Cançado Trindade ;

(5) Unanimously,

Rejects all other submissions made by the Federal Republic of Ger -
many.

Done in French and in English, the French text being authoritative, at
the Peace Palace, The Hague, this third day of February, two thousand

60

6 CIJ1031.indb 117 22/11/13 12:25 jurisdictional immunpities of the state (jupdgment) 156

and twelve, in four copies, one of which will be placed in the archives pof
the Court and the others transmitted to the Government of the Federal
Republic of Germany, the Government of the Italian Republic and the
Government of the Hellenic Republic, respectively.

(Signed) Hisashi Owada,
President.

(Signed) Philippe Couvreur,

Registrar.

Judges Koroma, Keith and Bennouna append separate opinions to
the Judgment of the Court ; Judges Cançado Trindade and Yusuf
append dissenting opinions to the Judgment of the Court ; Judge ad hoc
Gaja appends a dissenting opinion to the Judgment of the Court.

(Initialled) H.O.

(Initialled) Ph.C.

61

6 CIJ1031.indb 119 22/11/13 12:25

Bilingual Content

COUR INTERNATIONALE DE JUSTICE

RECUEIL DES ARRÊTS,
AVIS CONSULTATIFS ET ORDONNANCES

IMMUNITÉS JURIDICTIONNELLES

DE L’ÉTAT

(ALLEMAGNE c. ITALIE ; GRÈCE (intervenant))

ARRÊT DU 3 FÉVRIER 2012

2012

INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE

REPORTS OF JUDGMENTS,
ADVISORY OPINIONS AND ORDERS

JURISDICTIONAL IMMUNITIES

OF THE STATE

(GERMANY v. ITALY : GREECE intervening)

JUDGMENT OF 3 FEBRUARY 2012

6 CIJ1031.indb 1 22/11/13 12:25 Mode officiel de citation :
Immunités juridictionnelles de l’Etat (Allemagne c. Italie ;
Grèce (intervenant)), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2012, p. 99

Official citation :

Jurisdictional Immunities of the State (Germany v. Italy :
Greece intervening), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2012, p. 99

o
N de vente:
ISSN 0074-4441 Sales number 1031
ISBN 978-92-1-071145-6

6 CIJ1031.indb 2 22/11/13 12:25 3 FÉVRIER 2012

ARRÊT

IMMUNITÉS JURIDICTIONNELLES

DE L’ÉTAT

(ALLEMAGNE c. ITALIE ; GRÈCE (intervenant))

JURISDICTIONAL IMMUNITIES

OF THE STATE

(GERMANY v. ITALY : GREECE intervening)

3 FEBRUARY 2012

JUDGMENT

6 CIJ1031.indb 3 22/11/13 12:25 99

TABLE DES MATIÈRES

Paragraphes

Qualités 1-19

I. Contexte historique ept factuel 20-36
1. Le traité de paix de 1947 22

2. La loi fédérale d’indemnisation de 1953 23
3. Les accords de 1961 24-25
4. La loi portant création de la fondation « Mémoire, respon -

sabilité et avenir » 26
5. Les procédures engagées devant les juridictions italiennes 27-36

A. Les actions introduites par des ressortissants italiens 27-29
B. Les actions introduites par des ressortissants grecs 30-36

II. L’objet du différend etp la compétence de la Coupr 37-51

III. Les violations de l’impmunité de juridictionp de l’Allemagne

qui auraient été commpises dans le cadre des pprocédures
engagées par les requéprants italiens 52-108

1. Les questions soumises à la Cour 52-61
2. Le premier argument de l’Italie : les dommages ont été cau-

sés sur le territoire de l’Etat du for 62-79
3. Le second argument de l’Italie : l’objet et les circonstances
des demandes présentées aux juridictions italiennes 80-106

A.La gravité des violations 81-91
B.La relation entre le jus cogens et la règle de l’immunité

de l’Etat 92-97
C.L’argument du « dernier recours» 98-104
D.L’effet combiné des circonstances invoquées par l’Italie 105-106

4. Conclusions 107-108

IV. Les mesures de contraipnte prises à l’égard deps biens

appartenant à l’Allemapgne en territoire itaplien 109-120

V. Les décisions judiciaipres italiennes déclaprant exécutoires
en Italie des décisions de juridictions grecques prononçant
des condamnations civpiles à l’encontre de lp’Allemagne 121-133

VI. Les conclusions finalpes de l’Allemagne et leps réparations
sollicitées 134-138

Dispositif 139

4

6 CIJ1031.indb 4 22/11/13 12:25 99

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Paragraphs

Chronology of the Procepdure 1-19

I. Historical and Factualp Background 20-36
1. The Peace Treaty of 1947 22

2. The Federal Compensation Law of 1953 23
3. The 1961 Agreements 24-25
4. Law establishing the “Remembrance, Responsibility and

Future” Foundation 26
5. Proceedings before Italian courts 27-36

A. Cases involving Italian nationals 27-29
B. Cases involving Greek nationals 30-36

II. The Subject-Matter of thpe Dispute and the Jurisdpiction of
the Court 37-51

III. Alleged Violation of Germany’s Jurisdictional Immunity

in the Proceedings Broupght by the Italian Claipmants 52-108

1. The issues before the Court 52-61
2. Italy’s first argument : the territorial tort principle 62-79

3. Italy’s second argument : the subject-matter and circum -
stances of the claims in the Italian courts 80-106

A. The gravity of the violations 81-91
B. The relationship between jus cogens and the rule of State

immunity 92-97
C. The “last resort” argument 98-104
D. The combined effect of the circumstances relied upon by

Italy 105-106
4. Conclusions 107-108

IV. The Measures of Constrapint Taken against Propeprty

Belonging to Germany Locpated on Italian Territopry 109-120

V. The Decisions of the Itaplian Courts Declaring Epnforce -
able in Italy Decisionps of Greek Courts Upholdipng Civil
Claims against Germanyp 121-133

VI. Germany’s Final Submispsions and the Remediesp Sought 134-138

Operative Clause 139

4

6 CIJ1031.indb 5 22/11/13 12:25 100

COUR INTERNATIONALE DE JUSTICE

2012 ANNÉE 2012
3 février
Rôle général
n 143 3 février 2012

IMMUNITÉS JURIDICTIONNELLES

DE L’ÉTAT

(ALLEMAGNE c. ITALIE; GRÈCE (intervenant))

Contexte historique et factuel.

Traité de paix de 1947 — Loi fédérale d’indemnisation de 1953 — Accords de
1961 — Loi fédérale de 2000 portant création de la fondation « Mémoire, respon‑
sabilité et avenir » — Procédures engagées devant les juridictions ita ‑
liennes — Actions introduites par des ressortissants italiens — Actions introduites
par des ressortissants grecs.

*

Objet du différend et compétence de la Cour.

Objet du différend circonscrit par les demandes de l’Allemagne et ▯de l’Ita‑
lie — Absence d’objection de l’Italie à la compétence de la Cour e▯t à la recevabilité
de la requête — Article premier de la convention européenne pour le règlement
pacifique des différends en tant que base de compétence — Limitation ratione
temporis non applicable — Cour ayant compétence — Cour n’étant pas appelée à

statuer sur des questions de réparation — Lien entre obligation de réparation et
immunité de l’Etat — Aucune autre question concernant la compétence de la Cour.

*

Violations de l’immunité de juridiction de l’Allemagne qui aura▯ient été commises
dans le cadre des procédures engagées par les requérants italie▯ns.
Questions soumises à la Cour — Origine des actions intentées devant les juridic‑
tions italiennes — Existence d’une règle coutumière de droit international con‑é▯

rant l’immunité à l’Etat — Sources de la pratique étatique et de l’opinio
juris — Pratique étatique et opinio juris reconnaissant, d’une manière générale,
l’immunité de l’Etat — Règle de l’immunité de l’Etat procédant du principe de
l’égalité souveraine des Etats — Nécessité d’établir une distinction entre les actes
pertinents de l’Allemagne et ceux de l’Italie — Caractère procédural du droit de
l’immunité — Cour devant examiner et appliquer le droit de l’immunité de l’E▯tat

5

6 CIJ1031.indb 6 22/11/13 12:25 100

INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE

YEAR 2012
2012
3 February
3 February 2012 General List
No. 143

JURISDICTIONAL IMMUNITIES

OF THE STATE

(GERMANY v. ITALY: GREECE intervening)

Historical and factual background.
Peace Treaty of 1947 — Federal Compensation Law of 1953 — 1961 Agree ‑
ments — 2000 Federal Law establishing the “Remembrance, Responsibility and

Future” Foundation — Proceedings before Italian courts — Cases involving Ital ‑
ian nationals — Cases involving Greek nationals.

*

Subject‑matter of dispute and jurisdiction of the Court.
Subject‑matter of dispute delimited by claims of Germany and Italy — No
objection to jurisdiction of the Court or admissibility of Application raised by
Italy — Article 1 of the European Convention for the Peaceful Settlement of Dis

putes as basis of jurisdiction — Limitation ratione temporis not applicable — The
Court has jurisdiction — The Court is not called upon to rule on questions of repa
ration — Relationship between duty of reparation and State immunity — No other
question with regard to the Court’s jurisdiction.

*

Alleged violation of Germany’s jurisdictional immunity in proceedings▯ brought
by Italian claimants.
Issues before the Court — Origins of proceedings in Italian courts — Existence

of customary rule of international law conferring immunity on States — Sources
of State practice and opinio juris — State practice and opinio juris generally
recognize State immunity — Rule of State immunity derives from principle of sov
ereign equality of States — Need to distinguish between relevant acts of Germany
and those of Italy — Procedural nature of law of immunity — The Court must
examine and apply the law on State immunity as it existed at time of Ita▯lian pro

ceedings — Acta jure gestionis and acta jure imperii — Acts of armed forces of

5

6 CIJ1031.indb 7 22/11/13 12:25 101 immunités juridictiopnnelles de l’état (arrpêt)

tel qu’il existait à l’époque des procédures italiennes — Actes jure gestionis et
actes jure imperii — Actes des forces armées du Reich allemand étant des actes
jure imperii — Immunité de l’Etat en ce qui concerne les actes jure impe -
rii — Argument de l’Italie selon lequel l’Allemagne n’est pas fondé▯e à bénéficier de
l’immunité dans les procédures qui ont été engagées de▯vant les tribunaux italiens.

Premier argument de l’Italie: l’exception territoriale — Actes commis sur le ter ‑
ritoire de l’Etat du for par les forces armées d’un Etat étra▯ nger dans le cadre d’un
conflit armé — Article 11 de la convention européenne sur l’immunité des
Etats — Article 12 de la convention des Nations Unies sur l’immunité juridictionnel▯ le
des Etats et de leurs biens — Pratique étatique: législations nationales et décisions

de juridictions nationales —Etat jouissant, dans le cadre d’instances civiles, de l’im ‑
munité à raison d’actes jure imperii lorsque sont en cause des actes ayant entraîné la
mort, un préjudice corporel ou un préjudice matériel commis par▯ ses forces armées
dans le cadre d’un conflit armé — Opinio juris — Absence de jurisprudence ou de
déclarations contraires de la part des Etats —Décisions des juridictions italiennes ne

pouvant être justifiées sur la base de l’exception territoriale.▯
Second argument de l’Italie: objet et circonstances des demandes présentées aux
juridictions italiennes — Gravité des violations — Affirmation selon laquelle le
droit international n’accorde pas l’immunité à un Etat dans ▯le cas de violations
graves du droit des conflits armés — Tribunal national saisi devant déterminer

si un Etat peut prétendre à l’immunité avant de pouvoir examine▯r le fond de
l’affaire— Absence de pratique étatique étayant la proposition selon laquelle▯ un
Etat serait privé de l’immunité dans le cas de violations grave▯s du droit inter‑
national humanitaire — Proposition n’ayant pas non plus été retenue par la
Cour européenne des droits de l’homme — Etat n’étant pas privé de l’immunité

pour la seule raison qu’il est accusé de violations graves du droi▯t international
humanitaire.
Relation entre jus cogens et règle de l’immunité de l’Etat —Conflit allégué entre
règles de jus cogens et immunité de l’Allemagne — Jus cogens n’entrant pas en
conflit avec l’immunité de l’Etat — Argument tiré de la primauté du jus cogens sur

le droit de l’immunité des Etats ayant été écarté par l▯ es tribunaux nationaux —Immu ‑
nité de l’Etat ne se trouvant pas affectée par une violation du▯ jus cogens.
Argument du « dernier recours» — Affirmation selon laquelle les tribunaux ita ‑
liens ont à juste titre refusé de reconnaître l’immunité ▯de l’Allemagne au motif
qu’avaient échoué toutes les autres tentatives d’obtenir réparation — Droit d’un

Etat à l’immunité ne dépendant pas de l’existence d’au▯tres voies effectives de répa ‑
ration — Cour rejetant l’argument de l’Italie — Nouvelles négociations entre
l’Allemagne et l’Italie.
Effet combiné des circonstances invoquées par l’Italie — Aucun des trois volets
ne justifiant le comportement des tribunaux italiens — Absence d’effets si considé ‑

rés conjointement — Pratique étatique — Mise en balance de différents facteurs
méconnaissant la nature même de l’immunité de l’Etat — Immunité ne pouvant
dépendre d’une telle mise en balance par un tribunal national.
Refus des tribunaux italiens de reconnaître l’immunité de l’▯Allemagne consti ‑
tuant un manquement aux obligations auxquelles l’Italie était tenu▯e envers

celle‑ci — Nul besoin d’examiner les autres questions soulevées par les Parti▯es.

*

Mesures de contrainte prises à l’égard de biens appartenant à▯ l’Allemagne en
territoire italien.

6

6 CIJ1031.indb 8 22/11/13 12:25 jurisdictional immunpities of the state (jupdgment) 101

German Reich were acta jure imperii — State immunity in respect of acta jure
imperii — Contention by Italy that Germany not entitled to immunity in respect of▯
cases before Italian courts.

Italy’s first argument : territorial tort principle — Acts committed on territory
of forum State by armed forces of a foreign State in conduct of armed co▯nflict —
Article 11 of European Convention on State Immunity — Article 12 of United
Nations Convention on Jurisdictional Immunities of States and Their Prop▯erty —
State practice : national legislation and judgments of national courts — State

immunity for acta jure imperii extends to civil proceedings for acts occasioning
death, personal injury or damage to property, committed by armed forces ▯in con ‑
duct of armed conflict — Opinio juris — Absence of contrary jurisprudence or
contrary statements by States — Decisions of Italian courts cannot be justified on
basis of territorial tort principle.

Italy’s second argument : subject‑matter and circumstances of claims in Italian
courts — Gravity of violations — Contention that international law does not
accord immunity to a State for serious violations of law of armed confli▯ct —
National court is required to determine entitlement to immunity before i▯t can hear

merits of case — No State practice to support proposition that a State is deprived
of immunity in cases of serious violations of international humanitarian▯ law —
Neither has proposition been accepted by European Court of Human Rights —
State not deprived of immunity because it is accused of serious violatio▯ns of inter‑
national humanitarian law.

Relationship between jus cogens and rule of State immunity — Alleged conflict
between jus cogens rules and immunity of Germany — No conflict exists between
jus cogens and immunity of a State — Argument about jus cogens displacing

State immunity has been rejected by national courts — State immunity not affected
by violation of jus cogens.
The “last resort” argument — Contention that Italian courts were justified in
denying Germany immunity because of failure of all other attempts to sec▯ure com ‑
pensation — State immunity not dependent upon existence of effective alternative

means of redress — Italy’s argument rejected — Further negotiation between Ger ‑
many and Italy.

Combined effect of circumstances relied upon by Italy — None of three strands
justify action of Italian courts — No effect if taken together — State practice —

Balancing different factors would disregard nature of State immunity — Immunity
cannot be dependent upon outcome of balancing exercise by national court▯.

Action of Italian courts in denying Germany immunity constitutes a breac▯h of
obligations owed by Italy to Germany — No need to consider other questions

raised by the Parties.

*

Measures of constraint taken against property belonging to Germany locat▯ed on
Italian territory.

6

6 CIJ1031.indb 9 22/11/13 12:25 102 immunités juridictiopnnelles de l’état (arrpêt)

Hypothèque judiciaire sur la Villa Vigoni — Hypothèque en question suspendue
par l’Italie pour tenir compte de la procédure devant la Cour — Distinction entre
les règles du droit international coutumier relatives à l’immunité d’exécution et
celles qui gouvernent l’immunité de juridiction — Nul besoin de déterminer si les
décisions des tribunaux grecs prononçant des condamnations pécu▯niaires à l’égard

de l’Allemagne ont été rendues en violation de l’immunité▯ de juridiction de cet Etat
— Article 19 de la convention des Nations Unies sur l’immunité juridictionnelle des
Etats et de leurs biens — Bien ayant fait l’objet d’une mesure de contrainte étant
utilisé à des fins de service public non commerciales — Allemagne n’ayant
pas expressément consenti à l’application de la mesure en cause, ni▯ réservé la

Villa Vigoni à la satisfaction des demandes en justice dirigées contre e▯lle — Ins ‑
cription d’une hypothèque judiciaire sur la Villa Vigoni constituant une violation
par l’Italie de son obligation de respecter l’immunité due à▯ l’Allemagne.

*

Décisions judiciaires italiennes déclarant exécutoires en Itali▯e des décisions
de juridictions grecques prononçant des condamnations civiles à l’▯encontre de
l’Allemagne.

Argument de l’Allemagne selon lequel son immunité de juridiction a▯ été violée
par ces décisions — Demande d’exequatur — Question de savoir si les tribunaux
italiens ont respecté l’immunité de juridiction de l’Allemag▯ne en accordant l’exe -
quatur — Objet de la procédure d’exequatur — Procédure d’exequatur devant

être regardée comme intentée contre l’Etat condamné par l▯e jugement étran ‑
ger — Question de l’immunité devant être examinée avant la demande▯ d’exequa -
tur — Nul besoin de trancher la question de savoir si les tribunaux grecs ont ▯violé
l’immunité de l’Allemagne — Arrêts de la Cour d’appel de Florence ayant violé
l’obligation de l’Italie de respecter l’immunité de juridict▯ion de l’Allemagne.

*

Conclusions finales de l’Allemagne et réparations sollicitées.

Six chefs de conclusions ayant été soumis à la Cour par l’Allemagne — Cour
faisant droit aux trois premiers chefs de conclusions — Violation par l’Italie de
l’immunité de juridiction de l’Allemagne — Quatrième chef de conclu ‑
sions — Demande tendant à ce que la Cour dise que la responsabilité intern▯atio ‑
nale de l’Italie est engagée — Nul besoin d’une déclaration spécifique — Respon ‑

sabilité se déduisant automatiquement du constat de la violation d▯e certaines
obligations — Cour ne faisant pas droit au quatrième chef de conclusions — Cin ‑
quième chef de conclusions — Demande tendant à ce que la Cour ordonne à l’Italie
de prendre, par les moyens de son choix, toutes les mesures nécessair▯es pour faire
en sorte que l’ensemble des décisions de ses tribunaux et autres a▯utorités judiciaires

qui contreviennent à l’immunité souveraine de l’Allemagne so▯ient privées d’ef ‑
fet — Cour faisant droit au cinquième chef de conclusions — Résultat devant être
atteint par la promulgation d’une législation appropriée ou par▯ le recours à toute
autre méthode capable de produire cet effet — Sixième chef de conclu ‑
sions — Demande tendant à ce que la Cour ordonne à l’Italie d’offrir▯ desassurances

de non‑répétition — Aucune raison de supposer qu’un Etat dont le comportement
a été déclaré illicite par la Cour répétera à l’▯avenir ce comportement — Absence
de circonstances justifiant des assurances de non‑répétition — Cour ne faisant pas
droit au sixième chef de conclusions.

7

6 CIJ1031.indb 10 22/11/13 12:25 jurisdictional immunpities of the state (jupdgment) 102

Legal charge against Villa Vigoni — Charge in question suspended by Italy to
take account of proceedings before the Court — Distinction between rules of cus ‑
tomary international law governing immunity from enforcement and those g▯overn ‑
ing jurisdictional immunity — No need to determine whether decisions of Greek
courts awarding pecuniary damages against Germany were in breach of that▯

State’s jurisdictional immunity — Article 19 of United Nations Convention on
Jurisdictional Immunities of States and Their Property — Property which was
subject of measure of constraint being used for non‑commercial governmen▯tal pur ‑
poses — Germany not having expressly consented to taking of legal charge in
question or allocated Villa Vigoni for satisfaction of judicial claims a▯gainst it —
Registration of legal charge on Villa Vigoni constitutes a violation by ▯Italy of its

obligation to respect immunity owed to Germany.

*

Decisions of Italian courts declaring enforceable in Italy decisions of Greek
courts upholding civil claims against Germany.

Germany’s contention that its jurisdictional immunity was violated by▯ these
decisions — Request for exequatur — Whether Italian courts respected Germa ‑
ny’s immunity from jurisdiction in upholding request for exequatur — Purpose of
exequatur proceedings — Exequatur proceedings must be regarded as being
directed against State which was subject of foreign judgment — Question of immu ‑

nity precedes consideration of request for exequatur — No need to rule on ques ‑
tion whether Greek courts violated Germany’s immunity — Decisions of Florence
Court of Appeal constitute violation by Italy of its obligation to respe▯ct jurisdic ‑
tional immunity of Germany.

*

Germany’s final submissions and the remedies sought.
Germany’s six requests presented to the Court — First three submissions

upheld — Violation by Italy of Germany’s jurisdictional immunity — Fourth sub ‑
mission — Request for declaration that Italy’s international responsibility is▯
engaged — No need for express declaration — Responsibility automatically
inferred from finding that certain obligations have been violated — Fourth submis ‑
sion not upheld — Fifth submission — Request that Italy be ordered to take, by

means of its own choosing, any and all steps to ensure that all decision▯s of its
courts and other judicial authorities infringing Germany’s sovereign immunity
cease to have effect — Fifth submission upheld — Result to be achieved by enact ‑
ing appropriate legislation or by other methods having the same effect — Sixth
submission — Request that Italy be ordered to provide assurances of non‑repeti ‑

tion — No reason to suppose that a State whose conduct has been declared wrong▯ ‑
ful by the Court will repeat that conduct in future — No circumstances justifying
assurances of non‑repetition — Sixth submission not upheld.

7

6 CIJ1031.indb 11 22/11/13 12:25 103 immunités juridictiopnnelles de l’état (arrpêt)

ARRÊT

Présents : M. Owada, président ; M. Tomka, vice‑président ; MM.Koroma,

Simma, Abraham, Keith, Seppúlveda-Amor, Bennomes, Skpotnikov,
Cançado Trindade, Yusuf, Greenwoopd, M Xue, Donoghue,
juges ; M. Gaja, juge adhoc ; M. Couvreur, greffier.

En l’affaire relative aux immunités juridictionnelles de l’Etpat,

entre

la République fédérale d’Allemagne,
représentée par
me
S. Exc. M Susanne Wasum-Rainer, ambassadeur, directeur général des affaires
juridiques et conseiller juridique du ministère fédéral des affpaires étrangères,
S. Exc. M. Heinz-Peter Behr, ambassadeur de la République fédérale d’Alle
magne auprès du Royaume des Pays-Bas,

M. Christian Tomuschat, ancien membre et président de la Commission du
droit international, professeur émérite de droit international pubplic à l’Uni
versité Humboldt de Berlin,

comme agents ;
M. Andrea Gattini, professeur de droit international public à l’Universitép de

Padoue,
M. Robert Kolb, professeur de droit international public à l’Université dpe
Genève,

comme conseils et avocats ;
M. Guido Hildner, chef de la division du droit international public au minis
tère fédéral des affaires étrangères,

M. Götz Schmidt-Bremme, chef de la division du droit international en matière
civile, commerciale et fiscale au ministère fédéral des affpaires étrangères,
M. Felix Neumann, ambassade de la République fédérale d’Allemagne au p
Royaume des Pays-Bas,

M. Gregor Schotten, ministère fédéral des affaires étrangères,
M. Klaus Keller, ambassade de la République fédérale d’Allemagne au
Royaume des Pays-Bas,
M me Susanne Achilles, ambassade de la République fédérale d’Allemagne aup
Royaume des Pays-Bas,
me
M Donate Arz von Straussenburg, ambassade de la République fédérale
d’Allemagne au Royaume des Pays-Bas,
comme conseillers ;

M me Fiona Kaltenborn,

comme assistante,

et

la République italienne,
représentée par

S. Exc. M. Paolo Pucci di Benisichi, ambassadeur et conseiller d’Etat,

8

6 CIJ1031.indb 12 22/11/13 12:25 jurisdictional immunpities of the state (jupdgment) 103

JUDGMENT

Present: President Owada ; Vice‑President Tomka ; Judges Koroma, Simma,
Abraham, Keith, Sepúlvedap-Amor, Bennouna, Skotnikopv, Cançado
Trindade, Yusuf, Greenwoopd, Xue, Donoghue ; Judge ad hoc

Gaja ; Registrar Couvreur.

In the case concerning jurisdictional immunities of the State,

between

the Federal Republic of Germany,

represented by
H.E. Ms Susanne Wasum-Rainer, Ambassador, Director-General for Legal
Affairs and Legal Adviser, Federal Foreign Office,

H.E. Mr. Heinz-Peter Behr, Ambassador of the Federal Republic of Ger -
many to the Kingdom of the Netherlands,
Mr. Christian Tomuschat, former Member and Chairman of the Interna -
tional Law Commission, Professor emeritus of Public International Law atp
the Humboldt University of Berlin,

as Agents ;
Mr. Andrea Gattini, Professor of Public International Law at the University p

of Padua,
Mr. Robert Kolb, Professor of Public International Law at the University of p
Geneva,

as Counsel and Advocates ;
Mr. Guido Hildner, Head of the Public International Law Division, Federal
Foreign Office,

Mr. Götz Schmidt-Bremme, Head of the International Civil, Trade and Tax
Law Division, Federal Foreign Office,
Mr. Felix Neumann, Embassy of the Federal Republic of Germany in the
Kingdom of the Netherlands,
Mr. Gregor Schotten, Federal Foreign Office,

Mr. Klaus Keller, Embassy of the Federal Republic of Germany in the King -
dom of the Netherlands,
Ms Susanne Achilles, Embassy of the Federal Republic of Germany in the
Kingdom of the Netherlands,
Ms Donate Arz von Straussenburg, Embassy of the Federal Republic of Ger -

many in the Kingdom of the Netherlands,
as Advisers ;

Ms Fiona Kaltenborn,
as Assistant,

and

the Italian Republic,

represented by
H.E. Mr. Paolo Pucci di Benisichi, Ambassador and State Counsellor,

8

6 CIJ1031.indb 13 22/11/13 12:25 104 immunités juridictiopnnelles de l’état (arrpêt)

comme agent ;
M. Giacomo Aiello, avocat de l’Etat,

S. Exc. M. Franco Giordano, ambassadeur de la République italienne auprès
du Royaume des Pays-Bas,

comme coagents ;
M. Luigi Condorelli, professeur de droit international à l’Université dep Flo
rence,

M. Pierre-Marie Dupuy, professeur de droit international à l’Institut univer
sitaire de hautes études internationales et du développement de Gepnève et
à l’Université de Paris II (Panthéon-Assas),
M. Paolo Palchetti, professeur associé de droit international à l’Univerpsité de

Macerata,
M. Salvatore Zappalà, professeur de droit international à l’Université dep
Catane, conseiller juridique à la mission permanente de l’Italie auprès de
l’Organisation des Nations Unies,

comme conseils et avocats ;

M. Giorgio Marrapodi, ministre plénipotentiaire, chef du département juri -
dique du ministère des affaires étrangères,
M. Guido Cerboni, ministre plénipotentiaire, coordinateur pour les pays
d’Europe centrale et occidentale à la direction générale de pl’Union euro

péenne au ministère des affaires étrangères,
M. Roberto Bellelli, conseiller juridique à l’ambassade d’Italie au Royaumpe
des Pays-Bas,
M meSarah Negro, premier secrétaire à l’ambassade d’Italie au Ropyaume des

Pays-Bas,
M. Mel Marquis, professeur de droit à l’Institut universitaire européepn de
Florence,
M me Francesca De Vittor, chercheur en droit international à l’Université de

Macerata,
comme conseillers,

avec, comme Etat autorisé à intervenir dans l’instance,

la République hellénique,

représentée par

M. Stelios Perrakis, professeur des institutions internationales et européennes p
à l’Université Panteion d’Athènes,
comme agent ;

S. Exc. M. Ioannis Economides, ambassadeur de la République hellénique
auprès du Royaume des Pays-Bas,

comme agent adjoint ;

M. Antonis Bredimas, professeur de droit international à l’Université natio
nale et capodistrienne d’Athènes,
comme conseil et avocat ;

M meMaria-Daniella Marouda, maître de conférences en droit internationpal à
l’Université Panteion d’Athènes,

comme conseil,

9

6 CIJ1031.indb 14 22/11/13 12:25 jurisdictional immunpities of the state (jupdgment) 104

as Agent ;
Mr. Giacomo Aiello, State Advocate,

H.E. Mr. Franco Giordano, Ambassador of the Italian Republic to the King -
dom of the Netherlands,
as Co-Agents ;

Mr. Luigi Condorelli, Professor of International Law, University of Florence,

Mr. Pierre-Marie Dupuy, Professor of International Law, Graduate Institute

of International and Development Studies, Geneva, and University of
Paris II (Panthéon-Assas),
Mr. Paolo Palchetti, Associate Professor of International Law, University of
Macerata,

Mr. Salvatore Zappalà, Professor of International Law, University of
Catania, Legal Adviser, Permanent Mission of Italy to the United Nationsp,

as Counsel and Advocates ;
Mr. Giorgio Marrapodi, Minister Plenipotentiary, Head of the Service for
Legal Affairs, Ministry of Foreign Affairs,

Mr. Guido Cerboni, Minister Plenipotentiary, Co-ordinator for the countries
of Central and Western Europe, Directorate-General for the European
Union, Ministry of Foreign Affairs,
Mr. Roberto Bellelli, Legal Adviser, Embassy of Italy in the Kingdom of the

Netherlands,
Ms Sarah Negro, First Secretary, Embassy of Italy in the Kingdom of the p
Netherlands,
Mr. Mel Marquis, Professor of Law, European University Institute, Flo-

rence,
Ms Francesca De Vittor, International Law Researcher, University of Mace-
rata,

as Advisers,

with, as State permitted to intervene in the case,

the Hellenic Republic,
represented by

Mr. Stelios Perrakis, Professor of International and European Institutions, p
Panteion University of Athens,

as Agent ;
H.E. Mr. Ioannis Economides, Ambassador of the Hellenic Republic to the

Kingdom of the Netherlands,
as Deputy-Agent ;

Mr. Antonis Bredimas, Professor of International Law, National and Kapo -
distrian University of Athens,

as Counsel and Advocate ;
Ms Maria-Daniella Marouda, Lecturer in International Law, Panteion Uni -
versity of Athens,

as Counsel,

9

6 CIJ1031.indb 15 22/11/13 12:25 105 immunités juridictiopnnelles de l’état (arrpêt)

La Cour,

ainsi composée,

après délibéré en chambre du conseil,

rend l’arrêt suivant :

1. Le 23 décembre 2008, la République fédérale d’Allemagne (dénommée
ci-après l’«Allemagne») a déposé au Greffe de la Cour une requête introductivep
d’instance contre la République italienne (dénommée ci-aprèps l’« Italie») au
sujet d’un différend ayant son origine dans des « violations d’obligations juri -
diques internationales» qu’aurait commises l’Italie « en ne respectant pas » dans

sa pratique judiciaire « l’immunité de juridiction reconnue à [l’Allemagne] par le
droit international ».
Pour fonder la compétence de la Cour, l’Allemagne invoque dans sa prequête
l’article premier de la convention européenne pour le règlementp pacifique des

différends du 29 avril 1957.
2. Conformément au paragraphe 2 de l’article 40 du Statut, la requête a été
immédiatement communiquée au Gouvernement italien par le greffier ; confor -
mément au paragraphe 3 de cet article, tous les autres Etats admis à ester devant
la Cour ont été informés du dépôt de la requête.

3. La Cour ne comptant sur le siège aucun juge de nationalité italienpne, l’Ita-
lie s’est prévalue du droit que lui confère le paragraphe 2 de l’article 31 du Statut
de procéder à la désignation d’un juge ad hoc pour siéger en l’affaire : elle a
désigné M. Giorgio Gaja.

4. Par ordonnance du 29 avril 2009, la Cour a fixé au 23 juin 2009 et au
23 décembre 2009, respectivement, les dates d’expiration des délais pour le dépôt
du mémoire de l’Allemagne et du contre-mémoire de l’Italie ; ces pièces de pro -
cédure ont été dûment déposées dans les délais ainspi prescrits. Le contre-
mémoire de l’Italie comprenait une demande reconventionnelle « sur la question

des réparations dues aux victimes italiennes des graves violations du dropit inter-
national humanitaire commises par les forces du Reich allemand ».
5. Par ordonnance du 6 juillet 2010, la Cour a décidé que la demande recon -
ventionnelle de l’Italie était irrecevable comme telle au titre dup paragraphe 1 de
l’article 80 de son Règlement. Par la même ordonnance, elle a autorisé l’Alle -

magne à présenter une réplique et l’Italie, une duplique, etp a fixé au 14 oc-
tobre 2010 et au 14 janvier 2011, respectivement, les dates d’expiration des
délais pour le dépôt de ces pièces de procédure ; celles-ci ont été dûment dépo -
sées dans les délais ainsi prescrits.

6. Le 13 janvier 2011, la République hellénique (dénommée ci-après la
«Grèce») a, en vertu de l’article 62 du Statut, déposé au Greffe une requête à fin
d’intervention en l’affaire. Dans sa requête, la Grèce indiquait qu’elle « ne
cherch[ait] pas à intervenir en tant qu’Etat partie à l’instpance».
7. Conformément au paragraphe 1 de l’article 83 du Règlement, le greffier, sous

le couvert de lettres en date du 13 janvier 2011, a transmis des copies certifiées
conformes de la requête à fin d’intervention aux Gouvernementps allemand et ita -
lien, en les informant que la Cour avait fixé au 1 avril 2011 la date d’expiration du
délai dans lequel ils pouvaient présenter leurs observations écrites sur cette requête.
Conformément au paragraphe 2 de ce même article, il a également transmis copie

de ladite requête au Secrétaire général de l’Organisationp des Nations Unies.
8. L’Allemagne et l’Italie ont l’une et l’autre présenté pdes observations écrites
sur la requête à fin d’intervention de la Grèce dans les dpélais ainsi fixés. Le

10

6 CIJ1031.indb 16 22/11/13 12:25 jurisdictional immunpities of the state (jupdgment) 105

The Court,

composed as above,

after deliberation,

delivers the following Judgment :

1. On 23 December 2008, the Federal Republic of Germany (hereinafter
“Germany”) filed in the Registry of the Court an Application inpstituting pro -
ceedings against the Italian Republic (hereinafter “Italy”) in respect of a dispute
originating in “violations of obligations under international law”p allegedly com -
mitted by Italy through its judicial practice “in that it has failed pto respect the

jurisdictional immunity which . . . Germany enjoys under international law”.

As a basis for the jurisdiction of the Court, Germany, in its Applicatiopn,
invoked Article 1 of the European Convention for the Peaceful Settlement of

Disputes of 29 April 1957.
2. Under Article 40, paragraph 2, of the Statute, the Registrar immediately
communicated the Application to the Government of Italy ; and, pursuant to
paragraph 3 of that Article, all other States entitled to appear before the Court p
were notified of the Application.

3. Since the Court included upon the Bench no judge of Italian nationality,
Italy exercised its right under Article 31, paragraph 2, of the Statute to choose a
judge ad hoc to sit in the case : it chose Mr. Giorgio Gaja.

4. By an Order of 29April 2009, the Court fixed 23June 2009 as the time-limit
for the filing of the Memorial of Germany and 23 December 2009 as the
time-limit for the filing of the Counter-Memorial of Italy ; those pleadings were
duly filed within the time-limits so prescribed. The Counter-Memorial of Italy
included a counter-claim “with respect to the question of the reparation owed to

Italian victims of grave violations of international humanitarian law copmmitted
by forces of the German Reich”.
5. By an Order of 6 July 2010, the Court decided that the counter-claim pre -
sented by Italy was inadmissible as such under Article 80, paragraph 1, of the
Rules of Court. By the same Order, the Court authorized Germany to submipt a

Reply and Italy to submit a Rejoinder, and fixed 14 October 2010 and 14 Janu-
ary 2011 respectively as the time-limits for the filing of those pleadings ; those
pleadings were duly filed within the time-limits so prescribed.

6. On 13 January 2011, the Hellenic Republic (hereinafter “Greece”) filped in
the Registry an Application for permission to intervene in the case purspuant to
Article 62 of the Statute. In its Application, Greece indicated that it “[did] not
seek to become a party to the case”.
7. In accordance with Article 83, paragraph 1, of the Rules of Court, the

Registrar, by letters dated 13 January 2011, transmitted certified copies of the
Application for permission to intervene to the Government of Germany andp the
Government of Italy, which were informed that the Court had fixed 1 April 2011
as the time-limit for the submission of their written observations on that Appli -
cation. The Registrar also transmitted, under paragraph 2 of the same Article, a

copy of the Application to the Secretary-General of the United Nations.
8. Germany and Italy each submitted written observations on Greece’s
Application for permission to intervene within the time-limit thus fixed. The

10

6 CIJ1031.indb 17 22/11/13 12:25 106 immunités juridictiopnnelles de l’état (arrpêt)

Greffe leur a transmis à chacune copie des observations de l’autpre, et il a égale -
ment communiqué copie des observations des deux Parties à la Grèpce.
9. A la lumière du paragraphe 2 de l’article 84 de son Règlement, et compte
tenu de l’absence d’objection des deux Parties, la Cour a estimé qu’il n’était pas
nécessaire de tenir des audiences sur la question de l’admission dpe la requête à

fin d’intervention de la Grèce. Elle a néanmoins considéré que celle-ci devait
avoir la possibilité d’exposer ses vues sur les observations des Pparties, qui
devaient quant à elles être autorisées à soumettre des obserpvations écrites addi -
tionnelles sur la question. La Cour a fixé au 6 mai 2011 la date d’expiration du
délai accordé à la Grèce pour présenter ses propres observations écrites sur

celles des Parties, et au 6 juin 2011 la date d’expiration du délai accordé aux
Parties pour faire part de leurs observations additionnelles sur les observations
écrites de la Grèce. Les observations de la Grèce et les observpations addition -
nelles des Parties ont été présentées dans les délais ainsi fixés. Le Greffe a dûment
transmis aux Parties copie des observations de la Grèce ; il a en outre communi -

qué à chacune copie des observations additionnelles de l’autre pet, à la Grèce,
copie des observations additionnelles des deux Parties.
10. Par ordonnance du 4 juillet 2011, la Cour a autorisé la Grèce à intervenir
en tant que non-partie, dans la mesure où son intervention se limiterpait aux déci -
sions grecques déclarées exécutoires en Italie. La Cour a égpalement fixé comme

suit les dates d’expiration des délais pour le dépôt de la dpéclaration écrite et des
observations écrites visées au paragraphe 1 de l’article 85 du Règlement : pour la
déclaration écrite de la Grèce, le 5 août 2011, et pour les observations écrites de
l’Allemagne et de l’Italie sur cette déclaration, le 5 septembre 2011.
11. La déclaration écrite de la Grèce et les observations écriteps de l’Allemagne
er
ont été dûment déposées dans les délais ainsi fixés. Par lettre datée du 1 sep-
tembre 2011, l’agent de l’Italie a indiqué que la République italiepnne ne présent-e
rait pas d’observations sur la déclaration écrite de la Grècpe à ce stade de la proc-é
dure, tout en réservant cependant « sa position et son droit d’aborder, le cas
échéant, certains points soulevés dans la déclaration écrpite au cours des audien»c.es

Le Greffe a dûment transmis aux Parties copie de la déclaration pécrite de la Grè;ce
il a transmis à l’Italie et à la Grèce copie des observationps écrites de l’Allemagne.
12. Conformément au paragraphe 2 de l’article 53 du Règlement, la Cour,
après s’être renseignée auprès des Parties, a décidép que des exemplaires des pièces
de procédure et des documents annexés seraient rendus accessibles au public à

l’ouverture de la procédure orale. Après avoir consulté les pParties et la Grèce, la
Cour a décidé qu’il en irait de même pour la déclaration pécrite de l’Etat interve -
nant et les observations écrites de l’Allemagne sur ladite déclparation.
13. Des audiences publiques ont été tenues du 12 au 16 septembre 2011, au
cours desquelles ont été entendus en leurs plaidoiries et réponpses:

Pour l’Allemagne : M me Susanne Wasum-Rainer,
M. Christian Tomuschat,

M. Andrea Gattini,
M. Robert Kolb.
Pour l’Italie : M. Giacomo Aiello,

M. Luigi Condorelli,
M. Salvatore Zappalà,
M. Paolo Palchetti,
M. Pierre-Marie Dupuy.

Pour la Grèce : M. Stelios Perrakis,
M. Antonis Bredimas.

11

6 CIJ1031.indb 18 22/11/13 12:25 jurisdictional immunpities of the state (jupdgment) 106

Registry transmitted to each Party a copy of the other’s observationsp, and cop-
ies of the observations of both Parties to Greece.
9. In light of Article 84, paragraph 2, of the Rules of Court, and taking into
account the fact that neither Party filed an objection, the Court decipded that it
was not necessary to hold hearings on the question whether Greece’s Appplica -

tion for permission to intervene should be granted. The Court neverthelepss
decided that Greece should be given an opportunity to comment on the obsperva -
tions of the Parties and that the latter should be allowed to submit addpitional
written observations on the question. The Court fixed 6 May 2011 as the
time-limit for the submission by Greece of its own written observations on thpose

of the Parties, and 6 June 2011 as the time-limit for the submission by the Par -
ties of additional observations on Greece’s written observations. The observa -
tions of Greece and the additional observations of the Parties were submpitted
within the time-limits thus fixed. The Registry duly transmitted to the Parties a
copy of the observations of Greece ; it transmitted to each of the Parties a copy

of the other’s additional observations and to Greece copies of the additional
observations of both Parties.
10. By an Order of 4 July 2011, the Court authorized Greece to intervene in the
case as a non-party, in so far as this intervention was limited to the decisions of
Greek courts which were declared by Italian courts as enforceable in Itaply. The

Court further fixed the following time-limits for the filing of the written statement
and the written observations referred to in Article 85, paragraph 1, of the Rules of
Court: 5 August 2011 for the written statement of Greece and 5 September 2011
for the written observations of Germany and Italy on that statement.
11. The written statement of Greece and the written observations of Germany

were duly filed within the time-limits so fixed. By a letter dated 1 September 2011,
the Agent of Italy indicated that the Italian Republic would not be prespenting
observations on the written statement of Greece at that stage of the propceedings,
but reserved “its position and right to address certain points raised in the written
statement, as necessary, in the course of the oral proceedings”. The pRegistry duly

transmitted to the Parties a copy of the written statement of Greece ; it transmit -
ted to Italy and Greece a copy of the written observations of Germany.
12. Under Article 53, paragraph 2, of its Rules, the Court, after ascertaining
the views of the Parties, decided that copies of the pleadings and documpents
annexed would be made available to the public at the opening of the oralp pro -

ceedings. After consulting the Parties and Greece, the Court decided thapt the
same should apply to the written statement of the intervening State and pthe
written observations of Germany on that statement.
13. Public hearings were held from 12 to 16 September 2011, at which the
Court heard the oral arguments and replies of :

For Germany : Ms Susanne Wasum-Rainer,
Mr. Christian Tomuschat,

Mr. Andrea Gattini,
Mr. Robert Kolb.
For Italy : Mr. Giacomo Aiello,

Mr. Luigi Condorelli,
Mr. Salvatore Zappalà,
Mr. Paolo Palchetti,
Mr. Pierre-Marie Dupuy.

For Greece : Mr. Stelios Perrakis,
Mr. Antonis Bredimas.

11

6 CIJ1031.indb 19 22/11/13 12:25 107 immunités juridictiopnnelles de l’état (arrpêt)

14. A l’audience, des membres de la Cour ont posé aux Parties et, en tpant
qu’Etat intervenant, à la Grèce des questions auxquelles il a épté répondu par
écrit. Les Parties ont présenté leurs observations écrites spur ces réponses écrites.

*

15. Dans sa requête, l’Allemagne a formulé les demandes suivantes :

«[L’]Allemagne prie la Cour de dire et juger que :

1) en permettant que soient intentées à son encontre des actions civiles fondées
sur des violations du droit international humanitaire commises par le Repich
allemand au cours de la seconde guerre mondiale de septembre 1943 à
mai1945, la République italienne a commis des violations de ses obligations

juridiques internationales en ne respectant pas l’immunité de juripdiction
reconnue à la République fédérale d’Allemagne par le droipt internation ;al
2) en prenant des mesures d’exécution forcée visant la «Villa Vigoni», pro -
priété de l’Etat allemand utilisée par le gouvernement de cep dernier à
des fins non commerciales, la République italienne a également violép
l’immunité de juridiction de l’Allemagne ;

3) en déclarant exécutoires sur le sol italien des décisions judicpiaires
grecques fondées sur des faits comparables à ceux qui sont mentionpnés
au point 1 ci-dessus, la République italienne a commis une autre viola -
tion de l’immunité de juridiction de l’Allemagne.

En conséquence, la République fédérale d’Allemagne prie lpa Cour de
dire et juger que :

4) la responsabilité internationale de la République italienne est enpgagée;
5) la République italienne prendra, par les moyens de son choix, toutes ples

mesures nécessaires pour faire en sorte que l’ensemble des décipsions de
ses juridictions et d’autres autorités judiciaires qui contreviennpent à l’im
munité souveraine de l’Allemagne ne puissent être exécutépes;
6) la République italienne prendra toutes les mesures nécessaires poupr faire
en sorte que ses juridictions s’abstiennent à l’avenir de connaître

d’actions intentées contre l’Allemagne à raison des faits mepntionnés au
point 1 ci-dessus. »

16. Au cours de la procédure écrite, les conclusions ci-après ont épté présen -
tées par les Parties :

Au nom du Gouvernement de l’Allemagne,
dans le mémoire et dans la réplique :

«[L’]Allemagne prie la Cour de dire et juger que :

1) en permettant que soient intentées à son encontre des actions civiples
fondées sur des violations du droit international humanitaire commises
par le Reich allemand au cours de la seconde guerre mondiale, de sep -

tembre 1943 à mai 1945, la République italienne a commis des violations
de ses obligations juridiques internationales en tant qu’elle n’a ppas res -
pecté l’immunité de juridiction reconnue à la République pfédérale
d’Allemagne par le droit international ;

12

6 CIJ1031.indb 20 22/11/13 12:25 jurisdictional immunpities of the state (jupdgment) 107

14. At the hearings, questions were put by Members of the Court to the Par -
ties and to Greece, as intervening State, to which replies were given inp writing.
The Parties submitted written comments on those written replies.

*

15. In its Application, Germany made the following requests :

“Germany prays the Court to adjudge and declare that the Italian Repupb -
lic :

(1) by allowing civil claims based on violations of international humani -
tarian law by the German Reich during World War II from September
1943 to May 1945, to be brought against the Federal Republic of Ger -
many, committed violations of obligations under international law in

that it has failed to respect the jurisdictional immunity which the Fed -
eral Republic of Germany enjoys under international law ;
(2) by taking measures of constraint against ‘Villa Vigoni’, German Stpate
property used for government non-commercial purposes, also commit -
ted violations of Germany’s jurisdictional immunity ;

(3) by declaring Greek judgments based on occurrences similar to those
defined above in request No.1 enforceable in Italy, committed a further
breach of Germany’s jurisdictional immunity.

Accordingly, the Federal Republic of Germany prays the Court to
adjudge and declare that

(4) the Italian Republic’s international responsibility is engaged ;
(5) the Italian Republic must, by means of its own choosing, take any and

all steps to ensure that all the decisions of its courts and other judicpial
authorities infringing Germany’s sovereign immunity become unenfor-
ceable ;
(6) the Italian Republic must take any and all steps to ensure that in the
future Italian courts do not entertain legal actions against Germany

founded on the occurrences described in request No. 1 above.”

16. In the course of the written proceedings the following submissions were
presented by the Parties :

On behalf of the Government of Germany,
in the Memorial and in the Reply :

“Germany prays the Court to adjudge and declare that the Italian Repupb -
lic :

(1) by allowing civil claims based on violations of international humani -
tarian law by the German Reich during World War II from September
1943 to May 1945, to be brought against the Federal Republic of Ger -

many, committed violations of obligations under international law in
that it has failed to respect the jurisdictional immunity which the Fed -
eral Republic of Germany enjoys under international law ;

12

6 CIJ1031.indb 21 22/11/13 12:25 108 immunités juridictiopnnelles de l’état (arrpêt)

2) en prenant des mesures d’exécution forcée visant la «Villa Vigoni», pro-
priété de l’Etat allemand utilisée par le gouvernement de ce dernier à des
fins non commerciales, la République italienne a également violép l’im -
munité de juridiction de l’Allemagne ;
3) en déclarant exécutoires sur le sol italien des décisions judicpiaires

grecques fondées sur des faits comparables à ceux qui sont mentionpnés
au point 1 ci-dessus, la République italienne a une nouvelle fois violé
l’immunité de juridiction de l’Allemagne.

En conséquence, la République fédérale d’Allemagne prie lpa Cour de dire
et juger que:

4) la responsabilité internationale de la République italienne est enpgagée;
5) la République italienne prendra, par les moyens de son choix, toutes ples
mesures nécessaires pour faire en sorte que l’ensemble des décipsions de

ses tribunaux et autres autorités judiciaires qui contreviennent àp l’im -
munité souveraine de l’Allemagne ne puissent être exécutépes;
6) la République italienne prendra toutes les mesures nécessaires poupr faire
en sorte que ses tribunaux s’abstiennent à l’avenir de connaîptre d’actions
intentées contre l’Allemagne à raison des faits mentionnés apu point 1

ci-dessus. »
Au nom du Gouvernement de l’Italie,

dans le contre-mémoire et dans la duplique :

«Sur la base des faits et des moyens exposés [dans son contre-mémoipre
et dans sa duplique], et tout en se réservant le droit de complétepr ou de
modifier cette conclusion, l’Italie prie la Cour de dire et juger qpue toutes les
demandes de l’Allemagne sont rejetées. »

17. A l’audience, les conclusions ci-après ont été présentépes par les Parties:

Au nom du Gouvernement de l’Allemagne,

«L’Allemagne prie la Cour de dire et juger que :

1) en permettant que soient intentées à son encontre des actions civiples
fondées sur des violations du droit international humanitaire commises

par le Reich allemand au cours de la seconde guerre mondiale, de sep -
tembre 1943 à mai 1945, la République italienne a commis des violations
de ses obligations juridiques internationales en tant qu’elle n’a ppas res -
pecté l’immunité de juridiction reconnue à la République pfédérale
d’Allemagne par le droit international ;

2) en prenant des mesures d’exécution forcée visant la «Villa Vigoni», pro -
priété de l’Etat allemand utilisée par le gouvernement de ce dernier à des
fins non commerciales, la République italienne a également violép l’im -
munité de juridiction de l’Allemagne ;
3) en déclarant exécutoires sur le sol italien des décisions judicpiaires

grecques fondées sur des faits comparables à ceux qui sont mentionpnés
au point 1 ci-dessus, la République italienne a une nouvelle fois violé
l’immunité de juridiction de l’Allemagne.

En conséquence, la République fédérale d’Allemagne prie lpa Cour de
dire et juger que :

13

6 CIJ1031.indb 22 22/11/13 12:25 jurisdictional immunpities of the state (jupdgment) 108

(2) by taking measures of constraint against ‘Villa Vigoni’, German State
property used for government non-commercial purposes, also commit-
ted violations of Germany’s jurisdictional immunity ;

(3) by declaring Greek judgments based on occurrences similar to those

defined above in request No.1 enforceable in Italy, committed a further
breach of Germany’s jurisdictional immunity.

Accordingly, the Federal Republic of Germany prays the Court to adjudge
and declare that

(4) the Italian Republic’s international responsibility is engaged ;
(5) the Italian Republic must, by means of its own choosing, take any and
all steps to ensure that all the decisions of its courts and other judicpial

authorities infringing Germany’s sovereign immunity become unenfor-
ceable ;
(6) the Italian Republic must take any and all steps to ensure that in the
future Italian courts do not entertain legal actions against Germany
founded on the occurrences described in request No. 1 above.”

On behalf of the Government of Italy,

in the Counter-Memorial and in the Rejoinder :

“On the basis of the facts and arguments set out [in Italy’s Countper-
Memorial and Rejoinder], and reserving its right to supplement or amend p
these Submissions, Italy respectfully requests that the Court adjudge anpd
declare that all the claims of Germany are rejected.”

17. At the oral proceedings, the following submissions were presented by thep
Parties :

On behalf of the Government of Germany,

“Germany respectfully requests the Court to adjudge and declare that p
the Italian Republic :

(1) by allowing civil claims based on violations of international humani -
tarian law by the German Reich during World War II between Septem-

ber 1943 and May 1945 to be brought against the Federal Republic of
Germany, committed violations of obligations under international law
in that it has failed to respect the jurisdictional immunity which the
Federal Republic of Germany enjoys under international law ;

(2) by taking measures of constraint against ‘Villa Vigoni’, German Stpate
property used for government non-commercial purposes, also commit-
ted violations of Germany’s jurisdictional immunity ;

(3) by declaring Greek judgments based on occurrences similar to those

defined above in request No.1 enforceable in Italy, committed a further
breach of Germany’s jurisdictional immunity.

Accordingly, the Federal Republic of Germany respectfully requests the
Court to adjudge and declare that :

13

6 CIJ1031.indb 23 22/11/13 12:25 109 immunités juridictiopnnelles de l’état (arrpêt)

4) la responsabilité internationale de la République italienne est enpgagée;

5) la République italienne prendra, par les moyens de son choix, toutes ples
mesures nécessaires pour faire en sorte que l’ensemble des décipsions de
ses tribunaux et autres autorités judiciaires qui contreviennent àp l’im -
munité souveraine de l’Allemagne ne puissent être exécutépes;
6) la République italienne prendra toutes les mesures nécessaires poupr faire en
sorte que ses tribunaux s’abstiennent à l’avenir de connaîtrpe d’actions inten

tées contre l’Allemagne à raison des faits mentionnés au poipnt 1 ci-des» sus.
Au nom du Gouvernement de l’Italie,

«[P]our les raisons exposées dans [ses] écritures et lors de [ses] pplaidoi -
ries, [l’Italie prie] la Cour [de] di[r]e et juge[r] que les demandesp de l’Alle -

magne sont sans fondement. Il est toutefois entendu … que l’Italie n’aurait
aucune objection à ce que la Cour décide de lui ordonner d’obtepnir la
mainlevée de l’hypothèque inscrite sur la Villa Vigoni. »

*

18. En conclusion de la déclaration écrite qu’elle a présentépe en vertu du
paragraphe 1 de l’article 85 du Règlement, la Grèce a notamment indiqué

«que l’effet du jugement que la CIJ prononcera dans cette affaire pconcernant
l’immunité juridictionnelle de l’Etat sera d’une grande impoprtance pour
l’ordre juridique italien et cert[ainement] pour l’ordre juridiquep hellénique.

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . p. .
En plus, une décision de la CIJ sur les effets du principe de l’pimmunité
juridictionnelle des Etats lorsqu’il est confronté avec une règple du droit
international de caractère jus cogens — comme l’interdiction de violation

des règles fondamentales du droit humanitaire — guidera le juge grec
en la matière. Cela aura, ainsi, des effets importants sur des actionsp juri -
diques pendantes ou potentielles de la part des individus devant ces
tribunaux.»

19. En conclusion des observations orales qu’elle a présentées sur pl’objet de
l’intervention en vertu du paragraphe 3 de l’article 85 du Règlement, la Grèce a
notamment indiqué ce qui suit :

«Une décision de la Cour internationale de Justice sur les effets dup prin -
cipe de l’immunité juridictionnelle des Etats lorsqu’il est conpfronté avec
une règle du droit international de caractère jus cogens — comme l’inter-

diction de violation des règles fondamentales du droit humanitaire — gui -
dera le juge grec… Cela aura ainsi des effets importants sur des acptions
juridiques qui sont pendantes ou potentielles de la part des individus dpevant
ces tribunaux.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . p . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Le Gouvernement hellénique considère que l’effet du jugement pque [la]
Cour prononcera dans cette affaire concernant l’immunité juridicptionnelle
sera d’une grande importance d’abord pour l’ordre juridique itaplien et,
certes, pour l’ordre juridique hellénique. »

*
* *

14

6 CIJ1031.indb 24 22/11/13 12:25 jurisdictional immunpities of the state (jupdgment) 109

(4) the Italian Republic’s international responsibility is engaged ;

(5) the Italian Republic must, by means of its own choosing, take any and
all steps to ensure that all the decisions of its courts and other judicpial
authorities infringing Germany’s sovereign immunity become unen -
forceable ; and
(6) the Italian Republic must take any and all steps to ensure that in the
future Italian courts do not entertain legal actions against Germany

founded on the occurrences described in request No. 1 above.”
On behalf of the Government of Italy,

“[F]or the reasons given in [its] written and oral pleadings, [Italy prequests]
that the Court adjudge and hold the claims of the Applicant to be unfounp -

ded. This request is subject to the qualification that . . . Italy has no objec-
tion to any decision by the Court obliging Italy to ensure that the mortpgage
on Villa Vigoni inscribed at the land registry is cancelled.”

*

18. At the end of the written statement submitted by it in accordance with
Article 85, paragraph 1, of the Rules of Court, Greece stated inter alia

“that the effect of the judgment that the ICJ will hand down in this case
concerning the jurisdictional immunity of the State will be of major imppor -
tance to the Italian legal order and certainly to the Greek legal order.p

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . p. .
Further, an ICJ decision on the effects of the principle of jurisdictiponal
immunity of States when faced with a jus cogens rule of international
law — such as the prohibition on violation of fundamental rules of huma -

nitarian law — will guide the Greek courts in this regard. It will thus have
a significant effect on pending and potential lawsuits brought by inpdivi -
duals before those courts.”

19. At the end of the oral observations submitted by it with respect to the p
subject-matter of the intervention in accordance with Article 85, paragraph 3, of
the Rules of Court, Greece stated inter alia :

“A decision of the International Court of Justice on the effects ofp the
principle of jurisdictional immunity of States when faced with a jus cogens
rule of international law — such as the prohibition on violation of funda -

mental rules of humanitarian law — will guide the Greek courts . . . It will
thus have a significant effect on pending and potential lawsuits brought by
individuals before those courts.

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . p. .

The Greek Government considers that the effect of the judgment that
[the] Court will hand down in this case concerning jurisdictional immunity
will be of major importance, primarily to the Italian legal order and cepr -
tainly to the Greek legal order.”

*
* *

14

6 CIJ1031.indb 25 22/11/13 12:25 110 immunités juridictiopnnelles de l’état (arrpêt)

I. Contexte historique ept factuel

20. La Cour juge utile d’exposer brièvement le contexte historique
et factuel de l’affaire. Celui-ci n’est, pour l’essentiel, pas cpontesté par les
Parties.
21. En juin 1940, l’Italie entra en guerre en tant qu’alliée du Reich alle -

mand. En septembre 1943, après la destitution de Mussolini, elle se rendit
aux Alliés et, le mois suivant, déclara la guerre à l’Allemapgne. Les forces
allemandes, qui occupaient cependant une grande partie du territoire itap -
lien, se livrèrent, entre le mois d’octobre 1943 et la fin de la guerre, à de

nombreuses atrocités contre la population des régions concernéeps ; des
civils furent ainsi massacrés, et de nombreux autres, déportés pet astreints
au travail forcé. Plusieurs centaines de milliers de soldats italiensp furent
en outre faits prisonniers par les forces allemandes, tant sur le sol itpalien
que dans d’autres parties d’Europe. La plupart de ces détenus (pci-après les

«internés militaires italiens ») se virent dénier le statut de prisonnier de
guerre, et furent déportés en Allemagne ou dans les territoires ocpcupés
par celle-ci pour y être soumis au travail forcé.

1. Le traité de paix de 1947

22. Le 10 février 1947, au lendemain de la seconde guerre mondiale,
les Puissances alliées conclurent un traité de paix avec l’Italpie aux fins
de régler, en particulier, les conséquences juridiques et éconopmiques
de la guerre avec cet Etat. L’article 77 du traité de paix se lit comme

suit :

«1. A dater de l’entrée en vigueur du présent Traité, les biepns en
Allemagne de l’Etat et des ressortissants italiens ne seront plus conpsi -
dérés comme biens ennemis et toutes les restrictions résultant pde leur
caractère ennemi seront levées.
2. Les biens identifiables de l’Etat et des ressortissants italiens qupe

les forces armées ou les autorités allemandes ont enlevés, par pforce
ou par contrainte, du territoire italien et emportés en Allemagne
après le 3 septembre 1943, donneront lieu à restitution.
3. Le rétablissement des droits de propriété ainsi que la restitu -
tion des biens italiens en Allemagne seront effectués conformé -

ment aux mesures qui seront arrêtées par les Puissances occupant
l’Allemagne.
4. Sans préjudice de ces dispositions et de toutes autres qui seraient
prises en faveur de l’Italie et des ressortissants italiens par les Ppuis -

sances occupant l’Allemagne, l’Italie renonce, en son nom et au nopm
des ressortissants italiens, à toutes réclamations contre l’Allemagne
et les ressortissants allemands, qui n’étaient pas réglées apu 8 mai 1945,
à l’exception de celles qui résultent de contrats et d’autreps obligations
qui étaient en vigueur, ainsi que de droits qui étaient acquis avapnt
er
le 1 septembre 1939. Cette renonciation sera considérée comme

15

6 CIJ1031.indb 26 22/11/13 12:25 jurisdictional immunpities of the state (jupdgment) 110

I. Historical and Factualp Background

20. The Court finds it useful at the outset to describe briefly the his -
torical and factual background of the case which is largely uncontested p
between the Parties.
21. In June 1940, Italy entered the Second World War as an ally of the
German Reich. In September 1943, following the removal of Mussolini

from power, Italy surrendered to the Allies and, the following month,
declared war on Germany. German forces, however, occupied much of
Italian territory and, between October 1943 and the end of the War, per -
petrated many atrocities against the population of that territory, inclupd -
ing massacres of civilians and the deportation of large numbers of civilpians

for use as forced labour. In addition, German forces took prisoner, bothp
inside Italy and elsewhere in Europe, several hundred thousand members
of the Italian armed forces. Most of these prisoners (hereinafter the “pItal -
ian military internees”) were denied the status of prisoner of war apnd

deported to Germany and German-occupied territories for use as forced
labour.

1. The Peace Treaty of 1947

22. On 10 February 1947, in the aftermath of the Second World War,

the Allied Powers concluded a Peace Treaty with Italy, regulating, in papr -
ticular, the legal and economic consequences of the war with Italy. Artip -
cle 77 of the Peace Treaty reads as follows :

“1. From the coming into force of the present Treaty property in
Germany of Italy and of Italian nationals shall no longer be treated
as enemy property and all restrictions based on such treatment shall

be removed.
2. Identifiable property of Italy and of Italian nationals removed
by force or duress from Italian territory to Germany by German
forces or authorities after September 3, 1943, shall be eligible for res-
titution.

3. The restoration and restitution of Italian property in Germany
shall be effected in accordance with measures which will be deter -
mined by the Powers in occupation of Germany.

4. Without prejudice to these and to any other dispositions in

favour of Italy and Italian nationals by the Powers occupying
Germany, Italy waives on its own behalf and on behalf of Italian
nationals all claims against Germany and German nationals out -
standing on May 8, 1945, except those arising out of contracts and
other obligations entered into, and rights acquired, before Septem -

ber 1, 1939. This waiver shall be deemed to include debts, all inter-
governmental claims in respect of arrangements entered into in the

15

6 CIJ1031.indb 27 22/11/13 12:25 111 immunités juridictiopnnelles de l’état (arrpêt)

s’appliquant aux créances, à toutes les réclamations de caractère
intergouvernemental relatives à des accords conclus au cours de la
guerre et à toutes les réclamations portant sur des pertes ou des dom-
mages survenus pendant la guerre. »

2. La loi fédérale d’indemnisation de 1953

23. En 1953, la République fédérale d’Allemagne adopta la loi fépdérale
relative à l’indemnisation des victimes de la persécution natiopnal-
socialiste (Bundesentschädigungsgesetz (BEG)) dans le but d’indemniser
certaines catégories de victimes. De nombreux ressortissants italiens qui

engagèrent des actions sur le fondement de cette loi n’obtinrent ppas gain
de cause, soit parce qu’ils n’entraient pas dans la catégorie des victimes de
la persécution national-socialiste, telle que définie par la BEG, soit parce
qu’ils n’avaient pas de domicile ou de résidence permanente en pAlle -
magne, comme le requérait cette loi. Celle-ci fut modifiée en 1965 afin de

couvrir les réclamations des personnes qui avaient été persépcutées en rai -
son de leur nationalité ou de leur appartenance à un groupe ethniqpue
non allemand, à condition toutefois qu’elles aient eu le statut de répfugié
au 1er octobre 1953. Même après cette modification, de nombreux requé -

rants italiens ne purenerobtenir réparation au motif qu’ils n’apvaient pas le
statut de réfugié au 1 octobre 1953. En raison de la manière dont la loi
fédérale — telle qu’initialement adoptée puis modifiée en 1965 — était
libellée, les actions en justice introduites par des victimes de nationalité
étrangère furent généralement rejetées par les juridictiopns allemandes.

3. Les accords de 1961

24. Le 2 juin 1961, la République fédérale d’Allemagne et l’Italie
conclurent deux accords. Le premier (entré en vigueur le 16 sep -
tembre 1963) portait sur le « règlement de certaines questions d’ordre

patrimonial, économique et financier ». L’Allemagne, en application de
l’article premier, versa des indemnités à l’Italie au titre pde «questions éco -
nomiques pendantes». L’article 2 de cet accord était ainsi libellé :

«1. Le Gouvernement italien déclare que toutes les réclamations pen -
dantes de la République italienne ou de personnes physiques ou

morales italiennes contre la République fédérale d’Allemagnep ou
contre des personnes physiques ou morales allemandes sont réglées,p
pour autant qu’elles soient fondées sur des droits et situations
de fait nés au cours de la période allant du 1 erseptembre 1939 au
8 mai 1945.

2. Le Gouvernement italien garantira la République fédérale d’Aplle -
magne et les personnes physiques ou morales allemandes contre
toute poursuite judiciaire ou autre action engagée par des per -
sonnes physiques ou morales italiennes ayant un rapport avec les
réclamations susmentionnées. »[Traduction du Greffe.]

16

6 CIJ1031.indb 28 22/11/13 12:25 jurisdictional immunpities of the state (jupdgment) 111

course of the war, and all claims for loss or damage arising during
the war.”

2. The Federal Compensation Law of 1953

23. In 1953, the Federal Republic of Germany adopted the Federal
Compensation Law concerning Victims of National Socialist Persecution

(Bundesentschädigungsgesetz (BEG)) in order to compensate certain cat-
egories of victims of Nazi persecution. Many claims by Italian nationalsp
under the Federal Compensation Law were unsuccessful, either because
the claimants were not considered victims of national Socialist persecu -
tion within the definition of the Federal Compensation Law, or becausep

they had no domicile or permanent residence in Germany, as required by
that Law. The Federal Compensation Law was amended in 1965 to cover
claims by persons persecuted because of their nationality or their mem -
bership in a non-German ethnic group, while requiring that the persons
in question had refugee status on 1 October 1953. Even after the Law was
amended in 1965, many Italian claimants still did not qualify for compenp -

sation because they did not have refugee status on 1 October 1953.
Because of the specific terms of the Federal Compensation Law as origip -
nally adopted and as amended in 1965, claims brought by victims having
foreign nationality were generally dismissed by the German courts.

3. The 1961 Agreements

24. On 2 June 1961, two Agreements were concluded between the Fed -
eral Republic of Germany and Italy. The first Agreement, which enteredp
into force on 16 September 1963, concerned the “settlement of certain
property-related, economic and financial questions”. Under Article 1 of

that Agreement, Germany paid compensation to Italy for “outstanding
questions of an economic nature”. Article 2 of the Agreement provided as
follows :

“(1) The Italian Government declares all outstanding claims on the part
of the Italian Republic or Italian natural or legal persons against
the Federal Republic of Germany or German natural or legal per -
sons to be settled to the extent that they are based on rights and

circumstances which arose during the period from 1 September 1939
to 8 May 1945.

(2) The Italian Government shall indemnify the Federal Republic of
Germany and German natural or legal persons for any possible
judicial proceedings or other legal action by Italian natural or

legal persons in relation to the above-mentioned claims.”

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6 CIJ1031.indb 29 22/11/13 12:25 112 immunités juridictiopnnelles de l’état (arrpêt)

25. Le second accord (entré en vigueur le 31 juillet 1963) portait sur
l’«indemnisation des ressortissants italiens ayant fait l’objet de mesurpes

de persécution sous le régime national-socialiste ». En vertu de cet accord,
la République fédérale d’Allemagne s’engagea à verser pdes indemnités
aux ressortissants italiens victimes de telles mesures. Aux termes de l’par -
ticle premier de cet accord, l’Allemagne accepta de verser à l’pItalie la
somme de quarante millions de marks allemands

«en faveur des ressortissants italiens qui, en raison de leur race,
croyance ou idéologie, [avaie]nt fait l’objet de mesures de persécution

sous le régime national-socialiste et qui, à la suite de ces mesurpes
de persécution, [avaie]nt subi une privation de liberté ou des atteintes
à leur santé, ainsi qu’en faveur des ayants droit des personnesp
qui [étaient] décédées à la suite de telles mesures » [traduction du
Greffe].

L’article 3 de cet accord se lit comme suit :

«Le paiement prévu à l’article premier porte règlement défipnitif
entre la République fédérale d’Allemagne et la Républiquep italienne
de toutes les questions faisant l’objet du présent traité, sansp préjudice

des droits éventuels de ressortissants italiens fondés sur la lépgislation
allemande en matière d’indemnisation. » [Traduction du Greffe.]

4. La loi portant création de la fondation
«Mémoire, responsabilité et avenir »

26. Le 2 août 2000 fut adoptée en Allemagne une loi fédérale portant
création d’une fondation « Mémoire, responsabilité et avenir » (ci-après la
«loi fédérale de 2000 »), en vue d’indemniser les personnes qui avaient été

soumises au travail forcé « et à d’autres injustices au cours de la période
national-socialiste» (art. 2, par. 1). La fondation ne versait pas directe -
ment d’argent aux bénéficiaires de ladite loi, mais effectupait des verse -
ments à des « organisations partenaires », parmi lesquelles l’Organisation
internationale pour les migrations à Genève. L’article 11 de ce même

texte assortissait le droit à réparation de certaines limites. L’pun des effets
de cette disposition était d’exclure de ce droit les personnes ayant eu le
statut de prisonnier de guerre, à moins qu’elles n’aient étép détenues dans
des camps de concentration ou n’entraient dans d’autres catégorpies parti -
culières. La raison donnée dans le commentaire officiel de cette pdisposi -
tion dont était assorti le projet de loi était que les prisonniersp de guerre

«p[ouvaient], en vertu des règles du droit international, être astrpeints au
travail par la puissance détentrice » [traduction du Greffe] (Bundestags ‑
drucksache 14/3206, en date du 13 avril 2000).
Des milliers d’anciens internés militaires italiens qui, ainsi quep cela a été
précisé ci-dessus, s’étaient vu refuser le statut de prisonnpier de guerre par

le Reich allemand (voir paragraphe 21) présentèrent des demandes
d’indemnisation au titre de la loi fédérale de 2000. En 2001, les autorités

17

6 CIJ1031.indb 30 22/11/13 12:25 jurisdictional immunpities of the state (jupdgment) 112

25. The second Agreement, which entered into force on 31 July 1963,
concerned “compensation for Italian nationals subjected to National-

Socialist measures of persecution”. By virtue of this Agreement, the pFed-
eral Republic of Germany undertook to pay compensation to Italian
nationals affected by those measures. Under Article 1 of that Agreement,
Germany agreed to pay Italy forty million Deutsche marks

“for the benefit of Italian nationals who, on grounds of their racep,
faith or ideology were subjected to National-Socialist measures of

persecution and who, as a result of those persecution measures, suf -
fered loss of liberty or damage to their health, and for the benefit opf
the dependents of those who died in consequence of such measures”.

Article 3 of that Agreement provided as follows :

“Without prejudice to any rights of Italian nationals based on
German compensation legislation, the payment provided for in
Article 1 shall constitute final settlement between the Federal Repu -

blic of Germany and the Italian Republic of all questions governed
by the present Treaty.”

4. Law Establishing the “Remembrance, Responsibility
and Future” Foundation

26. On 2 August 2000, a federal law was adopted in Germany, estab -
lishing a “Remembrance, Responsibility and Future” Foundation (hepre-
inafter the “2000 Federal Law”) to make funds available to individuals

who had been subjected to forced labour and “other injustices from thpe
National Socialist period” (Sec. 2, para. 1). The Foundation did not pro -
vide money directly to eligible individuals under the 2000 Federal Law
but instead to “partner organizations”, including the Internationapl Orga -
nization for Migration in Geneva. Article 11 of the 2000 Federal Law

placed certain limits on entitlement to compensation. One effect of thpis
provision was to exclude from the right to compensation those who had
had the status of prisoner of war, unless they had been detained in con -
centration camps or came within other specified categories. The reason
given in the official commentary to this provision, which accompanied tphe
draft law, was that prisoners of war “may, according to the rules of pinter -

national law, be put to work by the detaining power” [translation by the
Registry] (Bundestagsdrucksache 14/3206, 13 April 2000).

Thousands of former Italian military internees, who, as noted above,
had been denied the status of prisoner of war by the German Reich (see p

paragraph 21), applied for compensation under the 2000 Federal Law. In
2001, the German authorities took the view that, under the rules of intepr -

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6 CIJ1031.indb 31 22/11/13 12:25 113 immunités juridictiopnnelles de l’état (arrpêt)

allemandes estimèrent que, au regard des règles du droit internatiponal, le

Reich allemand n’avait pas pu, de manière unilatérale, modifiper le statut
de prisonnier de guerre des internés militaires italiens pour leur conférer
celui de travailleur civil. Selon elles, les internés militaires italiens n’avaient
donc jamais perdu leur statut premier et étaient dès lors exclus dpu béné -
fice de la loi fédérale de 2000. En conséquence, la majorité des demandes

d’indemnisation présentées par des internés militaires italipens furent reje -
tées. Certains d’entre eux tentèrent vainement de contester cetpte décision et
d’obtenir réparation devant les juridictions allemandes. Celles-cip jugèrent,
à plusieurs reprises, que les intéressés n’avaient pas droitp à réparation en
vertu de la loi fédérale de 2000 au motif qu’ils étaient d’panciens prison -

niers de guerre. Le 28 juin 2004, une chambre de la Cour constitutionnelle
allemande (Bundesverfassungsgericht) estima que le paragraphe 3 de l’ar -
ticle 11 de la loi fédérale de 2000, qui excluait les prisonniers de guerre du
bénéfice de l’indemnisation, ne violait pas le droit à l’pégalité devant la loi
garanti par la Constitution allemande et qu’il n’existait pas en dproit inter -

national public de droit individuel à réparation pour cause de travail forpcé.
Le 20 décembre 2004, un groupe d’anciens internés militaires italiens
déposa une requête contre l’Allemagne devant la Cour européepnne des
droits de l’homme. Le 4 septembre 2007, une chambre de la Cour euro -
péenne déclara la requête irrecevable au motif qu’elle était « incompatible

ratione materiae » avec les dispositions de la convention européenne de
sauvegarde des droits de l’homme et des libertés fondamentales et pde ses
protocoles (Associazione nazionale reduci et 275 autres c. Allemagne, déci -
sion du 4 septembre 2007, requête n 45563/04).

5. Les procédures engagées devant les juridictions italiennes

A. Les actions introduites par des ressortissants italiens

27. Le 23 septembre 1998, M. Luigi Ferrini, ressortissant italien arrêté

en août 1944 et déporté en Allemagne, où il fut détenu et contraint pde
travailler dans une usine de munitions jusqu’à la fin de la guerpre, intenta
une action contre la République fédérale d’Allemagne devant ple tribunal
d’Arezzo (Tribunale di Arezzo) en Italie. Le 3 novembre 2000, le tribunal
d’Arezzo débouta M. Luigi Ferrini de sa demande, jugée irrecevable au

motif que, en tant qu’Etat souverain, l’Allemagne était protépgée par son
immunité juridictionnelle. Dans un arrêt en date du 16 novembre 2001,
enregistré le 14 janvier 2002, la Cour d’appel de Florence (Corte di
Appello di Firenze) rejeta pour les mêmes motifs le recours formé par le
demandeur. Le 11 mars 2004, toutefois, la Cour de cassation italienne

(Corte di Cassazione), considérant que l’immunité ne s’appliquait pas
lorsque l’acte incriminé constituait un crime international, dépcidait que
les juridictions italiennes pouvaient connaître de l’action en répparation
engagée à l’encontre de l’Allemagne par M. Luigi Ferrini (Ferrini c. Répu ‑
blique fédérale d’Allemagne, décision n 5044/2004, Rivista di diritto inter ‑

nazionale, vol. 87, 2004, p. 539; International Law Reports (ILR), vol. 128,

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national law, the German Reich had not been able unilaterally to change p
the status of the Italian military internees from prisoners of war to thpat of

civilian workers. Therefore, according to the German authorities, the
Italian military internees had never lost their prisoner-of-war status, with
the result that they were excluded from the benefits provided under thpe
2000 Federal Law. On this basis, an overwhelming majority of requests
for compensation lodged by Italian military internees was rejected.

Attempts by former Italian military internees to challenge that decisionp
and seek redress in the German courts were unsuccessful. In a number of p
decisions, German courts ruled that the individuals in question were not
entitled to compensation under the 2000 Federal Law because they had
been prisoners of war. On 28 June 2004, a Chamber of the German Con -
stitutional Court (Bundesverfassungsgericht) held that Article 11, para -

graph 3, of the 2000 Federal Law, which excluded reparation for prisoners
of war, did not violate the right to equality before the law guaranteed pby
the German Constitution, and that public international law did not estab -
lish an individual right to compensation for forced labour.
A group of former Italian military internees filed an application agaipnst

Germany before the European Court of Human Rights on 20 Decem -
ber 2004. On 4 September 2007, a Chamber of that Court declared that
the application was “incompatible ratione materiae” with the provisions
of the Convention on the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental
Freedoms and its protocols and therefore was declared inadmissible

(Associazione Nazionale Reduci and 275 Others v. Germany, decision of
4 September 2007, application No. 45563/04).

5. Proceedings before Italian Courts

A. Cases involving Italian nationals

27. On 23 September 1998, Mr. Luigi Ferrini, an Italian national who
had been arrested in August 1944 and deported to Germany, where he
was detained and forced to work in a munitions factory until the end of p
the war, instituted proceedings against the Federal Republic of Germany p

in the Court of Arezzo (Tribunale di Arezzo) in Italy. On 3 Novem -
ber 2000, the Court of Arezzo decided that Mr. Luigi Ferrini’s claim was
inadmissible because Germany, as a sovereign State, was protected by
jurisdictional immunity. By a judgment of 16 November 2001, registered
on 14 January 2002, the Court of Appeal of Florence (Corte di Appello di

Firenze) dismissed the appeal of the claimant on the same grounds. On
11 March 2004, the Italian Court of Cassation (Corte di Cassazione) held
that Italian courts had jurisdiction over the claims for compensation
brought against Germany by Mr. Luigi Ferrini on the ground that immu -
nity does not apply in circumstances in which the act complained of con -
stitutes an international crime (Ferrini v. Federal Republic of Germany,

decision No. 5044/2004 (Rivista di diritto internazionale, Vol. 87, 2004,
p. 539 ;International Law Reports (ILR), Vol. 128, p. 658)). The case was

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p. 658). L’affaire fut alors renvoyée devant le tribunal d’Arezpzo qui, dans

une décision en date du 12 avril 2007, conclut qu’il avait effectivement
compétence pour connaître de l’affaire mais que l’action epn réparation
était forclose. La décision du tribunal d’Arezzo fut ultériepurement infir -
mée par la Cour d’appel de Florence qui, dans un arrêt du 17 février 2011,
décida que l’Allemagne devait verser des dommages-intérêts àp M. Luigi

Ferrini. L’Allemagne fut en outre condamnée aux dépens. La Courp d’ap -
pel considéra en particulier que l’immunité juridictionnelle n’pavait pas un
caractère absolu et ne pouvait être invoquée par un Etat ayant pcommis
des actes constituant des crimes au regard du droit international.
28. A la suite de l’arrêt Ferrini de la Cour de cassation italienne du

11 mars 2004, douze plaignants engagèrent une procédure contre l’Alle -
magne devant le tribunal de Turin (Tribunale di Torino) le 13 avril 2004
en l’affaire Giovanni Mantelli et autres. Le 28 avril 2004, M. Liberato
Maietta introduisait une instance contre l’Allemagne devant le tribunal
de Sciacca (Tribunale di Sciacca). Dans ces deux affaires, qui ont trait à

des actes de déportation et de travail forcé en Allemagne entre 1943
et 1945, l’Allemagne forma un recours devant la Cour de cassation ita -
lienne, avant qu’une décision ne soit rendue sur le fond, afin que cette
Cour déclare incompétentes les juridictions italiennes (« regolamento pre -
ventivo di giurisdizione »). Par deux ordonnances rendues le 29 mai 2008

dans lesoaffaires Giovanni Mantelli et autres et Liberato Maietta (ordon -
nance n 14201 (Mantelli), Foro italiano, vol. 134, 2009, I, p. 1568; ordon-
nance n 14209 (Maietta), Rivista di diritto internazionale, vol. 91, 2008,
p. 896), la Cour de cassation italienne confirma que les tribunaux italipens
étaient compétents pour connaître des demandes introduites contpre

l’Allemagne. Un certain nombre de demandes similaires introduites contre
l’Allemagne sont actuellement pendantes devant la justice italienne.
29. La Cour de cassation italienne confirma également le raisonnement
de l’arrêt Ferrini dans un contexte différent, celui des poursuites engagées
contre M. Max Josef Milde, membre de la division « Hermann Göring »

au sein des forces armées allemandes, pour sa participation aux massacres
perpétrés le 29 juin 1944 à Civitella (Val di Chiana), Cornia et San
Pancrazio en Italie. Le tribunal militaire de La Spezia (Tribunale Militare
di La Spezia) avait jugé M. Milde par contumace, prononcé à son
encontre une peine de réclusion à perpétuité et l’avait cpondamné, avec

l’Allemagne, à verser des indemnités aux ayants droit des victimes du
massacre qui s’étaient constitués parties civiles (décisionp du 10 octobre 2006
(enregistrée le 2 février 2007)). L’Allemagne avait interjeté appel de cette
décision, en tant qu’elle la condamnait, devant la Cour militaire pd’appel
de Rome (Corte Militare di Appello di Roma). Cet appel fut rejeté le

18 décembre 2007. Dans un arrêt rendu le 21 octobre 2008 (enregistré le
13 janvier 2009), la Cour de cassation italienne rejeta l’exception d’incom -
pétence invoquée par l’Allemagne et confirma son raisonnementp dans
l’arrêt Ferrini, selon lequel l’immunité juridictionnelle devait être levéep
lorsqu’un Etat avait commis des actes constituant des crimes au regarpd du

droit international (Rivista di diritto internazionale, vol. 92, 2009, p. 618).

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then referred back to the Court of Arezzo, which held in a judgment
dated 12 April 2007 that, although it had jurisdiction to entertain the

case, the claim to reparation was time-barred. The judgment of the Court
of Arezzo was reversed on appeal by the Court of Appeal of Florence,
which held in a judgment dated 17 February 2011 that Germany should
pay damages to Mr. Luigi Ferrini as well as his case-related legal costs
incurred in the course of the judicial proceedings in Italy. In particulpar,

the Court of Appeal of Florence held that jurisdictional immunity is notp
absolute and cannot be invoked by a State in the face of acts by that Stpate
which constitute crimes under international law.
28. Following the Ferrini judgment of the Italian Court of Cassation
dated 11 March 2004, twelve claimants brought proceedings against Ger -
many in the Court of Turin (Tribunale di Torino) on 13 April 2004 in the

case concerning Giovanni Mantelli and Others. On 28 April 2004, Libe-
rato Maietta filed a case against Germany before the Court of Sciacca
(Tribunale di Sciacca). In both cases, which relate to acts of deportation
to, and forced labour in, Germany which took place between 1943 and
1945, an interlocutory appeal requesting a declaration of lack of jurisdpic -

tion (“regolamento preventivo di giurisdizione”) was filed by pGermany
before the Italian Court of Cassation. By two orders of 29 May 2008
issued in the Giovanni Mantelli and Others and the Liberato Maietta cases
(order No. 14201 (Mantelli), Foro italiano, Vol. 134, 2009, I, p. 1568 ;
order No. 14209 (Maietta), Rivista di diritto internazionale, Vol. 91, 2008,

p. 896), the Italian Court of Cassation confirmed that the Italian courtps
had jurisdiction over the claims against Germany. A number of similar
claims against Germany are currently pending before Italian courts.

29. The Italian Court of Cassation also confirmed the reasoning of the

Ferrini judgment in a different context in proceedings brought against
Mr. Max Josef Milde, a member of the “Hermann Göring” division of
the German armed forces, who was charged with participation in massa -
cres committed on 29 June 1944 in Civitella (Val di Chiana), Cornia and
San Pancrazio in Italy. The Military Court of La Spezia (Tribunale Mili ‑

tare di La Spezia) sentenced Mr. Milde in absentia to life imprisonment
and ordered Mr. Milde and Germany, jointly and severally, to pay repa -
ration to the successors in title of the victims of the massacre who
appeared as civil parties in the proceedings (judgment of 10 October 2006
(registered on 2 February 2007)). Germany appealed to the Military

Court of Appeals in Rome (Corte Militare di Appello di Roma) against
that part of the decision, which condemned it. On 18 December 2007 the
Military Court of Appeals dismissed the appeal. In a judgment of
21 October 2008 (registered on 13 January 2009), the Italian Court of
Cassation rejected Germany’s argument of lack of jurisdiction and conp -
firmed its reasoning in the Ferrini judgment that in cases of crimes under

international law, the jurisdictional immunity of States should be set
aside (Rivista di diritto internazionale, Vol. 92, 2009, p. 618).

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B. Les actions introduites par des ressortissants grecs

30. Le 10 juin 1944, alors que la Grèce était occupée par l’Allemagne, les
forces armées allemandes perpétrèrent un massacre dans le villapge de Dis -
tomo, tuant de nombreux civils. En 1995, les ayants droit des victimes de ce
massacre engagèrent une action contre l’Allemagne afin d’obtepnir répara-

tion des pertes humaines et matérielles subies. Dans un jugement rendpu par
défaut le 25 septembre 1997 (et lu en audience publique le 30 octobre 1997),
le tribunal grec de première instance (Protodikeio) de Livadia condamna
l’Allemagne et accorda des dommages-intérêts aux ayants droit dpes vic -
times. Le 4 mai 2000, la Cour de cassation grecque (Areios Pagos) rejeta le

pourvoi formé par l’Allemagne (Préfecture de Voiotia c. République fédérale
d’Allemagne, affaire n 11/2000, ILR, vol. 129, p. 513 (l’affaire Distomo)).
Cependant, aux termes de l’article 923 du code de procédure civile grec, une
décision rendue contre un Etat étranger ne peut être exécutépe en Grèce

qu’avec l’autorisation du ministre de la justice. Bien que solliciptée, cette
autorisation ne fut pas accordée en l’affaire Distomo. Les décisions ren -
dues à l’encontre de l’Allemagne sont donc demeurées inexépcutées en
Grèce.
31. Les requérants en l’affaire Distomo introduisirent une instance

contre la Grèce et l’Allemagne devant la Cour européenne des drpoits de
l’homme, alléguant que ces Etats avaient violé le paragraphe 1 de l’ar -
ticle 6 de la Convention de sauvegarde des droits de l’homme et des liber -
tés fondamentales ainsi que l’article premier du protocole n o1 à cette

convention en refusant de se conformer à la décision du tribunal de pre -
mière instance de Livadia en date du 25 septembre 1997 (en ce qui
concerne l’Allemagne) et en ne permettant pas que soit exécutépe cette
décision (en ce qui concerne la Grèce). Dans sa décision du 1p2 décem-
bre 2002, la Cour européenne des droits de l’homme, se référant pau

principe de l’immunité de l’Etat, déclara irrecevable la reqpuête que les
requérants lui avaient soumise (Kalogeropoulou et autres c. Grèce et
Allemagne, requête n 59021/00, décision du 12 décembre 2002, CEDH
Recueil 2002-X, p. 391 ; ILR, vol. 129, p. 537).

32. Les requérants grecs saisirent la justice allemande afin de rendre p
exécutoire en Allemagne le jugement prononcé le 25 septembre 1997 par
le tribunal grec de première instance de Livadia, tel que confirmép le
4 mai 2000 par la Cour de cassation grecque. Dans son arrêt du
26 juin 2003, la Cour suprême fédérale allemande (Bundesgerichtshof)

considéra que les décisions de justice grecques susvisées ne pouvaient être
reconnues dans l’ordre juridique allemand car elles avaient étép rendues en
violation du droit de l’Allemagne à l’immunité (Ressortissants grecs
c. République fédérale d’Allemagne, affaire n o III ZR 245/98, Neue Juris‑

tische Wochenschrift (NJW), 2003, p. 3488 ; ILR, vol. 129, p. 556).
33. Les requérants grecs cherchèrent ensuite à rendre exécutoireps sur le
sol italien les décisions de justice grecques rendues en l’affaire Distomo.
La Cour d’appel de Florence rendit une décision datée du 2 mai 2005

(enregistrée le 5 mai 2005) déclarant exécutoire en Italie l’arrêt de la Cour

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B. Cases involving Greek nationals

30. On 10 June 1944, during the German occupation of Greece, Ger -

man armed forces committed a massacre in the Greek village of Distomo,
involving many civilians. In 1995, relatives of the victims of the massacre
who claimed compensation for loss of life and property commenced pro -
ceedings against Germany. The Greek Court of First Instance (Proto ‑
dikeio) of Livadia rendered a judgment in default on 25 September 1997
(and read out in court on 30 October 1997) against Germany and awarded

damages to the successors in title of the victims of the massacre. Germa -
ny’s appeal of that judgment was dismissed by the Hellenic Supreme
Court (Areios Pagos) on 4 May 2000 (Prefecture of Voiotia v. Federal
Republic of Germany, case No. 11/2000 (ILR, Vol. 129, p. 513) (the Dis ‑
tomo case)). Article 923 of the Greek Code of Civil Procedure requires

authorization from the Minister for Justice to enforce a judgment againspt
a foreign State in Greece. That authorization was requested by the claimp-
ants in the Distomo case but was not granted. As a result, the judgments
against Germany have remained unexecuted in Greece.

31. The claimants in the Distomo case brought proceedings against
Greece and Germany before the European Court of Human Rights alleg -
ing that Germany and Greece had violated Article 6, paragraph 1, of the
Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Free -
doms and Article 1 of Protocol No. 1 to that Convention by refusing to

comply with the decision of the Court of First Instance of Livadia datedp
25 September 1997 (as to Germany) and failing to permit execution of
that decision (as to Greece). In its decision of 12 December 2002, the
European Court of Human Rights, referring to the rule of State immu -
nity, held that the claimants’ application was inadmissible (Kalogeropou ‑

lou and Others v. Greece and Germany, application No. 59021/00, decision
of 12 December 2002, ECHR Reports 2002-X, p. 417 ; ILR, Vol. 129,
p. 537).

32. The Greek claimants brought proceedings before the German

courts in order to enforce in Germany the judgment rendered on 25 Sep -
tember 1997 by the Greek Court of First Instance of Livadia, as con -
firmed on 4 May 2000 by the Hellenic Supreme Court. In its judgment of
26 June 2003, the German Federal Supreme Court (Bundesgerichtshof)
held that those Greek judicial decisions could not be recognized within

the German legal order because they had been given in breach of Ger -
many’s entitlement to State immunity (Greek Citizens v. Federal Republic
of Germany, case No. III ZR 245/98, Neue Juristische Wochenschrift
(NJW), 2003, p. 3488 ; ILR, Vol. 129, p. 556).
33. The Greek claimants then sought to enforce the judgments of the
Greek courts in the Distomo case in Italy. The Court of Appeal of Flo-

rence held in a decision dated 2 May 2005 (registered on 5 May 2005)
that the order contained in the judgment of the Hellenic Supreme Court,

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de cassation grecque en tant qu’il condamnait l’Allemagne aux déppens.
Par une décision datée du 6 février 2007 (enregistrée le 22 mars 2007), la
Cour d’appel de Florence rejeta l’opposition formée par l’Alplemagne
contre la décision du 2 mai 2005 (Foro italiano, vol. 133, 2008, I, p. 1308).
Dans un arrêt daté du 6 mai 2008 (enregistré le 29 mai 2008), la Cour de

cassation italienne confirma la décision de la Cour d’appel de Fplorence
(Rivista di diritto internazionale, vol. 92, 2009, p. 594).

34. S’agissant de la question des indemnités à verser aux requérpants

grecs par l’Allemagne, la Cour d’appel de Florence déclara, dans une déci -
sion du 13 juin 2006 (enregistrée le 16 juin 2006), que le jugement rendu
par le tribunal de première instance de Livadia le 25 septembre 1997 était
exécutoire en Italie. Dans un arrêt daté du 21 octobre 2008 (enregistré

le 25 novembre 2008), cette même Cour d’appel rejeta l’opposition for -
mée par le Gouvernement allemand contre la décision rendue le 13 juin
2006. Dans un arrêt du 12 janvier 2011 (enregistré le 20 mai 2011),
la Cour de cassation italienne confirma la décision de la Cour d’appel de
Florence.

35. En application de la décision de la Cour d’appel de Florence en
date du 13 juin 2006, les requérants grecs firent enregistrer auprès du
cadastre (Agenzia del Territorio) de la province de Côme, le 7 juin 2007,
une hypothèque judiciaire (ipoteca giudiziale) sur la Villa Vigoni, bien de

l’Etat allemand situé près du lac de Côme. Dans ses réquipsitions du
6 juin 2008 devant le tribunal de Côme (Tribunale di Como), l’avocat
général du ressort de la Cour d’appel de Milan (Avvocatura Distrettuale
dello Stato di Milano) soutint que cette hypothèque devait être levée. Par
l’effet du décret-loi n 63 du 28 avril 2010, de la loi n o 98 du 23 juin 2010
o
et du décret-loi n 216 du 29 décembre 2011, celle-ci fut suspendue dans
l’attente de la décision de la Cour internationale de Justice en lpa présente
espèce.
36. A la suite de l’introduction, en 1995, de l’instance Distomo, des
ressortissants grecs portèrent devant des juridictions grecques une aputre

affaire contre l’Allemagne, l’affaire Margellos, laquelle avait trait à des
demandes d’indemnisation à raison d’actes perpétrés par lpes forces alle -
mandes dans le village grec de Lidoriki en 1944. En 2001, la Cour de cas -
sation grecque renvoya cette affaire devant le Tribunal supérieur spécial

(Anotato Eidiko Dikastirio) — lequel a, en vertu de l’article 100 de la
Constitution grecque, compétence pour « le règlement des contestations
relatives à la détermination des règles de droit international pgénéralement
reconnues »[traduction du Greffe] —, le priant de trancher la question de
savoir si les règles relatives à l’immunité de l’Etat couvraient les actes en

cause dans l’affaire Margellos. Par une décision en date du 17 sep -
tembre 2002, le Tribunal supérieur spécial estima que, en l’état acptuel du
droit international, l’Etat allemand bénéficiait de l’immupnité (Margellos
c. République fédérale d’Allemagne, affaire n o 6/2002, ILR, vol. 129,
p. 525).

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imposing an obligation on Germany to reimburse the legal expenses for
the judicial proceedings before that Court, was enforceable in Italy. Inp a

decision dated 6 February 2007 (registered on 22 March 2007), the Court
of Appeal of Florence rejected the objection raised by Germany against
the decision of 2 May 2005 (Foro italiano, Vol. 133, 2008, I, p. 1308).
The Italian Court of Cassation, in a judgment dated 6 May 2008
(registered on 29 May 2008), confirmed the ruling of the Court of

Appeal of Florence (Rivista di diritto internazionale, Vol. 92, 2009,
p. 594).
34. Concerning the question of reparations to be paid to Greek claim -
ants by Germany, the Court of Appeal of Florence declared, by a decisionp
dated 13 June 2006 (registered on 16 June 2006), that the judgment of the
Court of First Instance of Livadia dated 25 September 1997 was enforce -

able in Italy. In a judgment dated 21 October 2008 (registered on 25Novem-
ber 2008), the Court of Appeal of Florence rejected the objection by the
German Government against the decision of 13 June 2006. The Italian
Court of Cassation, in a judgment dated 12 January 2011 (registered on
20 May 2011), confirmed the ruling of the Court of Appeal of Florence.

35. On 7 June 2007, the Greek claimants, pursuant to the decision by
the Court of Appeal of Florence of 13June 2006, registered with the Como
provincial office of the Italian Land Registry (Agenzia del Territorio) a
legal charge (ipoteca giudiziale) over Villa Vigoni, a property of the Ger -

man State near Lake Como. The State Legal Service for the District of
Milan (Avvocatura Distrettuale dello Stato di Milano), in a submission
dated 6 June 2008 and made before the Court of Como (Tribunale di
Como), maintained that the charge should be cancelled. Under Decree-Law
No. 63 of 28 April 2010, Law No. 98 of 23 June 2010 and Decree-Law
No. 216 of 29 December 2011, the legal charge was suspended pending the

decision of the International Court of Justice in the present case.

36. Following the institution of proceedings in the Distomo case in
1995, another case was brought against Germany by Greek nationals
before Greek courts — referred to as the Margellos case — involving

claims for compensation for acts committed by German forces in the
Greek village of Lidoriki in 1944. In 2001, the Hellenic Supreme Court
referred that case to the Special Supreme Court (Anotato Eidiko
Dikastirio), which, in accordance with Article 100 of the Constitution of
Greece, has jurisdiction in relation to “the settlement of controverspies

regarding the determination of generally recognized rules of international
law” [translation by the Registry], requesting it to decide whether the
rules on State immunity covered acts referred to in the Margellos case. By
a decision of 17 September 2002, the Special Supreme Court found that,
in the present state of development of international law, Germany was
entitled to State immunity (Margellos v. Federal Republic of Germany,

case No. 6/2002, ILR, Vol. 129, p. 525).

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6 CIJ1031.indb 39 22/11/13 12:25 117 immunités juridictiopnnelles de l’état (arrpêt)

II. L’objet du différend
et la compétence de lap Cour

37. Les conclusions présentées à la Cour par l’Allemagne sont repstées iden -
tiques tout au long de la procédure (voir paragraphes15, 16 et17 ci-dessus).
L’Allemagne prie la Cour, en substance, de dire que l’Italie n’pa pas
respecté l’immunité de juridiction que lui reconnaît le droipt international

en permettant que des actions civiles soient intentées contre elle devant
des tribunaux italiens, tendant à la réparation de dommages causés par
des violations du droit international humanitaire commises par le Reich p
allemand au cours de la seconde guerre mondiale; que l’Italie a aussi violé
l’immunité de l’Allemagne en prenant des mesures d’exécution forcée
visant la Villa Vigoni, propriété de l’Etat allemand située en territoire ita -

lien; qu’elle a également méconnu l’immunité de juridiction dpe l’Alle -
magne en déclarant exécutoires en Italie des décisions judiciaires grecques
condamnant civilement l’Allemagne pour des faits comparables à ceupx
ayant donné lieu aux actions intentées devant des tribunaux italiepns. En
conséquence, la demanderesse prie la Cour de déclarer que la respopnsabi -

lité internationale de l’Italie est engagée, et d’ordonner à la défenderesse
de prendre diverses mesures à titre de réparations.
38. L’Italie, pour sa part, prie la Cour de juger que les demandes de
l’Allemagne sont dépourvues de fondement, et en conséquence de ples reje -
ter, à l’exception du chef de conclusions relatif aux mesures d’exécution

prises à l’égard de la Villa Vigoni, au sujet duquel la défenderesse indique
à la Cour qu’elle n’aurait pas d’objection à ce qu’ellpe lui ordonne de
mettre fin auxdites mesures.
Dans son contre-mémoire, l’Italie avait présenté une demande recon -
ventionnelle « portant sur la question des réparations dues aux victimes
italiennes des graves violations du droit international humanitaire

commises par les forces du Reich allemand »; cette demande a été rejetée
par l’ordonnance de la Cour en date du 6 juillet 2010 au motif qu’elle ne
relevait pas de sa compétence et que, par suite, elle était irrecevable au
titre du paragraphe 1 de l’article 80 du Règlement (voir paragraphe 5
ci-dessus).

*

39. L’objet d’un différend soumis à la Cour est délimitép par les
demandes qui lui sont présentées par les parties. En la présentpe espèce,

puisque la Cour n’est plus saisie d’aucune demande reconventionnelple et
que l’Italie la prie de « juger que les demandes de l’Allemagne sont sans
fondement», ce sont ces dernières qui délimitent l’objet du difféprend que
la Cour est appelée à trancher. C’est au regard de ces demandesp qu’il
appartient à la Cour de rechercher si elle est compétente pour connaître
de l’affaire.

40. L’Italie s’est abstenue de soulever une quelconque objection relatpi -
vement à la compétence de la Cour et à la recevabilité de lap requête.

22

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II. The Subject-Matter of thpe Dispute
and the Jurisdiction opf the Court

37. The submissions presented to the Court by Germany have remained
unchanged throughout the proceedings (see paragraphs 15, 16 and 17 above).
Germany requests the Court, in substance, to find that Italy has failepd
to respect the jurisdictional immunity which Germany enjoys under inter -

national law by allowing civil claims to be brought against it in the Itpalian
courts, seeking reparation for injuries caused by violations of interna -
tional humanitarian law committed by the German Reich during the Sec -
ond World War ; that Italy has also violated Germany’s immunity by
taking measures of constraint against Villa Vigoni, German State prop -
erty situated in Italian territory ; and that it has further breached Ger -

many’s jurisdictional immunity by declaring enforceable in Italy decisions
of Greek civil courts rendered against Germany on the basis of acts simip -
lar to those which gave rise to the claims brought before Italian courtsp.
Consequently, the Applicant requests the Court to declare that Italy’ps
international responsibility is engaged and to order the Respondent to

take various steps by way of reparation.

38. Italy, for its part, requests the Court to adjudge Germany’s claims
to be unfounded and therefore to reject them, apart from the submission p
regarding the measures of constraint taken against Villa Vigoni, on whicph

point the Respondent indicates to the Court that it would have no objec -
tion to the latter ordering it to bring the said measures to an end.

In its Counter-Memorial, Italy submitted a counter-claim “with respect
to the question of the reparation owed to Italian victims of grave violap -
tions of international humanitarian law committed by forces of the Ger -

man Reich”; this claim was dismissed by the Court’s Order of 6 July 2010,
on the grounds that it did not fall within the jurisdiction of the Courtp and
was consequently inadmissible under Article 80, paragraph 1, of the Rules
of Court (see paragraph 5 above).

*

39. The subject-matter of a dispute brought before the Court is delim -
ited by the claims submitted to it by the parties. In the present case, psince

there is no longer any counter-claim before the Court and Italy has
requested the Court to “adjudge Germany’s claims to be unfounded”p, it
is those claims that delimit the subject-matter of the dispute which the
Court is called upon to settle. It is in respect of those claims that thpe
Court must determine whether it has jurisdiction to entertain the case.

40. Italy has raised no objection of any kind regarding the jurisdiction
of the Court or the admissibility of the Application.

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6 CIJ1031.indb 41 22/11/13 12:25 118 immunités juridictiopnnelles de l’état (arrpêt)

Selon une jurisprudence bien établie, cependant, la Cour « n’en doit pas
moins toujours s’assurer de sa compétence et … doit, s’il y a lieu, l’exami -

ner d’office» (Appel concernant la compétence du Conseil de l’OACI (Inde
c. Pakistan), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1972, p. 52, par. 13).

41. La requête de l’Allemagne a été introduite sur la base de lap compé-
tence attribuée à la Cour par l’article premier de la convention euro -

péenne pour le règlement pacifique des différends, aux termpes duquel:
«Les hautes parties contractantes soumettront pour jugement à la
Cour internationale de Justice tous les différends juridiques relevpant

du droit international qui s’élèveraient entre elles et notammepnt ceux
ayant pour objet :

a) l’interprétation d’un traité ;
b) tout point de droit international ;
c) la réalité de tout fait qui, s’il était établi, constitueprait la violation
d’une obligation internationale ;
d) la nature ou l’étendue de la réparation due pour rupture d’upne
obligation internationale. »

42. L’alinéa a) de l’article 27 de la même convention limite le champ
d’application ratione temporis de cet instrument en excluant son appli-

cabilité « aux différends concernant des faits ou situations antérieurs àp
l’entrée en vigueur de la … convention entre les parties au différend ».
La convention est entrée en vigueur entre l’Allemagne et l’Italie ple
18 avril 1961.
43. Les demandes soumises par l’Allemagne à la Cour sont assurémentp
relatives à des « différends juridiques relevant du droit international », au

sens de l’article premier précité, opposant deux Etats qui, ainsi qu’il vient
d’être dit, étaient l’un et l’autre parties à la convepntion européenne à la
date d’introduction de la requête, et le sont d’ailleurs toujouprs.
44. La clause de limitation ratione temporis de l’article 27 précité n’est
pas applicable aux demandes de l’Allemagne. En effet, le difféprend auquel
ces demandes se rapportent ne « concern[e] [pas] des faits ou situations

antérieurs à l’entrée en vigueur de la … convention entre les parties au
différend», c’est-à-dire antérieurs au 18 avril 1961. Les « faits ou situa-
tions» qui ont donné naissance au différend dont la Cour est saisipe sont
constitués par les décisions judiciaires italiennes ayant dénié àl’Allemagne
l’immunité de juridiction qu’elle revendiquait, et par des mesupres de
contrainte exécutées sur des biens appartenant à l’Allemagnep. Ces déci -

sions et mesures ont été adoptées entre 2004 et 2011, soit bien après l’en -
trée en vigueur entre les Parties de la convention européenne pourp le
règlement pacifique des différends. Il est vrai que les litigeps auxquels se
rapportent les procédures judiciaires en cause ont pour objet la réppara -
tion des dommages causés par des actes des forces armées allemandeps

en 1943-1945. Mais, devant la Cour, l’Allemagne ne se plaint pas de ce
qu’ont décidé sur le fond, à ce sujet, les tribunaux italienps ; elle se plaint
seulement de ce que ses immunités de juridiction et d’exécutionp auraient

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6 CIJ1031.indb 42 22/11/13 12:25 jurisdictional immunpities of the state (jupdgment) 118

Nevertheless, according to well-established jurisprudence, the Court
“must . . . always be satisfied that it has jurisdiction, and must if neces -

sary go into the matter proprio motu” (Appeal relating to the Jurisdiction
of the ICAO Council (India v. Pakistan), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1972,
p. 52, para. 13).
41. Germany’s Application was filed on the basis of the jurisdiction
conferred on the Court by Article 1 of the European Convention for the

Peaceful Settlement of Disputes, under the terms of which :
“The High Contracting Parties shall submit to the judgement of
the International Court of Justice all international legal disputes

which may arise between them including, in particular, those concer -
ning :

(a) the interpretation of a treaty ;
(b) any question of international law ;
(c) the existence of any fact which, if established, would constitute a
breach of an international obligation ;
(d) the nature or extent of the reparation to be made for the breach
of an international obligation.”

42. Article 27, subparagraph (a), of the same Convention limits the
scope of that instrument ratione temporis by stating that it shall not apply

to “disputes relating to facts or situations prior to the entry into pforce of
this Convention as between the parties to the dispute”. The Conventiopn
entered into force as between Germany and Italy on 18 April 1961.

43. The claims submitted to the Court by Germany certainly relate to
“international legal disputes” within the meaning of Article 1 as cited

above, between two States which, as has just been said, were both partieps
to the Convention on the date when the Application was filed, and indeped
continue to be so.
44. The clause in the above-mentioned Article 27 imposing a limitation
ratione temporis is not applicable to Germany’s claims : the dispute which
those claims concern does not “relat[e] to facts or situations prior pto the

entry into force of th[e] Convention as between the parties to the dis -
pute”, i.e., prior to 18 April 1961. The “facts or situations” which have
given rise to the dispute before the Court are constituted by Italian judi -
cial decisions that denied Germany the jurisdictional immunity which it p
claimed, and by measures of constraint applied to property belonging to p
Germany. Those decisions and measures were adopted between 2004 and

2011, thus well after the European Convention for the Peaceful Settle -
ment of Disputes entered into force as between the Parties. It is true tphat
the subject-matter of the disputes to which the judicial proceedings in
question relate is reparation for the injury caused by actions of the Gepr -
man armed forces in 1943-1945. Germany’s complaint before the Court,

however, is not about the treatment of that subject-matter in the judg -
ments of the Italian courts ; its complaint is solely that its immunities
from jurisdiction and enforcement have been violated. Defined in such p

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été méconnues. Ainsi défini, le différend concerne inpdiscutablement des
«faits ou situations » qui se situent entièrement après l’entrée en vigueur

de la convention entre les Parties. C’est donc à juste titre que lp’Italie n’a
pas cherché à soutenir que le différend soumis à la Cour ppar l’Allemagne
tomberait, en tout ou en partie, sous le coup de la limitation ratione
temporis de l’article 27 précité. La Cour est compétente pour en
connaître.
45. Les Parties, qui ne se sont pas opposées sur l’analyse qui précède,

ont en revanche débattu de l’étendue de la compétence de la pCour dans
un contexte tout à fait différent, celui de certains des arguments avancéps
par l’Italie dans sa défense, et relatifs à la prétendue inepxécution par
l’Allemagne de son obligation de réparation à l’égard desp victimes ita -
liennes et grecques des crimes commis par le Reich allemand en 1943-

1945.
Selon l’Italie, il existerait un lien entre la question de l’exépcution par
l’Allemagne de son obligation de réparation à l’égard desp victimes et celle
de l’immunité de juridiction dont cet Etat pourrait se prévaloipr devant les
tribunaux étrangers saisis par les victimes, en ce sens qu’un Etatp qui s’abs -
tient d’exécuter son obligation de réparation à l’égarpd des victimes de vio -

lations graves du droit international humanitaire, et qui n’offre apuxdites
victimes aucun recours effectif leur permettant de réclamer la réparation
à laquelle elles peuvent prétendre, serait privé du droit d’pinvoquer son
immunité de juridiction devant les tribunaux de l’Etat de nationalpité des
victimes.

46. L’Allemagne a fait valoir que la Cour ne pouvait pas se prononcer
sur une telle argumentation, au motif qu’elle était relative à pla question
des demandes de réparation, lesquelles se rapportent à des faits apntérieurs
au 18 avril 1961. En effet, selon l’Allemagne, « les faits qui se sont pro -
duits avant la date d’entrée en vigueur de la convention européenne pour

le règlement pacifique des différends entre l’Italie et l’pAllemagne ne
relèvent clairement pas de la compétence de la Cour » et «le présent diffé -
rend ne porte pas sur les demandes de réparation, lesquelles n’entprent
donc pas dans le cadre de la présente instance ». L’Allemagne s’appuie à
cet égard sur l’ordonnance par laquelle la Cour a rejeté la dempande recon -
ventionnelle de l’Italie, qui tendait précisément à ce que lpa Cour déclare

que l’Allemagne avait violé son obligation de réparation enversp les vic -
times italiennes de crimes de guerre et de crimes contre l’humanité perpé -
trés par le Reich allemand (voir paragraphe 38). L’Allemagne souligne
que ce rejet a été motivé par le fait que ladite demande reconventionnelle
échappait à la compétence de la Cour, en raison de la clause dep limitation

ratione temporis de l’article 27, précité, de la convention européenne pour
le règlement pacifique des différends, la question des demandeps de répara -
tion découlant directement des actes commis en 1943-1945.
47. A cette objection, l’Italie a répondu que, si l’ordonnance du 6p juil -
let 2010 l’empêche assurément de maintenir sa demande reconvention -

nelle dans la présente instance, elle ne fait pas obstacle, en revancphe, à ce
qu’elle utilise les arguments sur lesquels elle avait fondé laditep demande

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6 CIJ1031.indb 44 22/11/13 12:25 jurisdictional immunpities of the state (jupdgment) 119

terms, the dispute undoubtedly relates to “facts or situations” ocpcurring
entirely after the entry into force of the Convention as between the Parp -

ties. Italy has thus rightly not sought to argue that the dispute broughpt
before the Court by Germany falls wholly or partly within the limitationp
ratione temporis under the above-mentioned Article 27. The Court has
jurisdiction to deal with the dispute.

45. The Parties, who have not disagreed on the analysis set out above,

have on the other hand debated the extent of the Court’s jurisdictionp in a
quite different context, that of some of the arguments put forward by p
Italy in its defence and relating to the alleged non-performance by Ger -
many of its obligation to make reparation to the Italian and Greek vic -
tims of the crimes committed by the German Reich in 1943-1945.

According to Italy, a link exists between the question of Germany’s
performance of its obligation to make reparation to the victims and that
of the jurisdictional immunity which Germany might rely on before the
foreign courts to which those victims apply, in the sense that a State
which fails to perform its obligation to make reparation to the victims pof

grave violations of international humanitarian law, and which offers
those victims no effective means of claiming the reparation to which tphey
may be entitled, would be deprived of the right to invoke its jurisdictiponal
immunity before the courts of the State of the victims’ nationality.

46. Germany has contended that the Court could not rule on such an
argument, on the basis that it concerned the question of reparation
claims, which relate to facts prior to 18 April 1961. According to Ger -
many, “facts occurring before the date of the entry into force of thep Euro -
pean Convention for the Peaceful Settlement of Disputes as between Italyp

and Germany clearly lie outside the jurisdiction of the Court”, and “prepa -
ration claims do not fall within the subject-matter of the present dispute
and do not form part of the present proceedings”. Germany relies in tphis
respect on the Order whereby the Court dismissed Italy’s counter-claim,
which precisely asked the Court to find that Germany had violated its p
obligation of reparation owed to Italian victims of war crimes and crimes

against humanity committed by the German Reich (see paragraph 38).
Germany points out that this dismissal was based on the fact that the sapid
counter-claim fell outside the jurisdiction of the Court, because of the
clause imposing a limitation ratione temporis in the above-mentioned
Article 27 of the European Convention for the Peaceful Settlement of

Disputes, the question of reparation claims resulting directly from the p
acts committed in 1943-1945.

47. Italy has responded to this objection that, while the Order of
6 July 2010 certainly prevents it from pursuing its counter-claim in the pres -

ent case, it does not on the other hand prevent it from using the argumepnts
on which it based that counter-claim in its defence against Germany’s

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reconventionnelle dans sa défense visant à réfuter les demandesp de l’Alle-
magne; que la question de l’absence de réparation adéquate est, àp ses

yeux, cruciale pour le règlement du différend relatif à l’pimmunité; et que,
en conséquence, la compétence de la Cour pour examiner cette questpion à
titre incident est incontestable.
48. La Cour note que, depuis le rejet de la demande reconventionnelle
de l’Italie, elle n’est plus saisie de conclusions tendant à cep qu’elle statue

sur la question de savoir si l’Allemagne a une obligation de réparpation
envers les victimes italiennes des crimes commis par le Reich allemand et
si elle a satisfait à cette obligation à l’égard de toutes cpes victimes, ou de
certaines d’entre elles seulement. La Cour n’est donc pas appelée à statuer
sur ces questions.
49. Cependant, à l’appui de sa conclusion selon laquelle elle n’a ppas

violé l’immunité de juridiction de l’Allemagne, l’Italie psoutient que l’Alle -
magne s’est trouvée privée du droit d’invoquer ladite immunipté devant les
tribunaux italiens saisis des actions civiles intentées par certainesp des vic -
times, en raison du fait qu’elle n’a pas satisfait pleinement àp son obliga -
tion de réparation.

50. Il appartient à la Cour de déterminer si, comme le soutient l’Iptalie,
l’absence d’exécution complète par un Etat d’une obligatipon de répara -
tion qui lui incomberait est susceptible d’avoir une incidence, en drpoit, sur
l’existence et la portée de l’immunité de juridiction de cetp Etat devant les
tribunaux d’un autre Etat. Il s’agit là d’une question de drpoit sur laquelle

la Cour devra se prononcer en vue de déterminer le droit internationapl
coutumier applicable en matière d’immunité des Etats pour les bpesoins de
la présente affaire.
En cas de réponse affirmative à la question précédente, la pseconde ques -
tion serait de savoir si, dans les circonstances particulières de l’espèce,
notamment compte tenu du comportement de l’Allemagne sur la question p

des réparations, les tribunaux italiens avaient des motifs suffisantps pour
écarter l’immunité de cette dernière. Il n’est pas nécpessaire à la Cour de
s’assurer de sa compétence pour répondre à cette seconde quepstion tant
qu’elle n’a pas répondu à la première.
La Cour considère qu’à ce stade aucune autre question ne se pospe rela -

tivement à l’existence et à l’étendue de sa compétencep.

*

51. La Cour examinera tout d’abord le premier chef de conclusions de

l’Allemagne, c’est-à-dire la question de savoir si, en exerçpant leur compé -
tence à l’égard de celle-ci dans le cadre des actions intentépes devant elles
par les différents requérants italiens, les juridictions italienpnes ont agi en
violation de l’obligation faite à l’Italie d’accorder à lp’Allemagne l’immu -
nité de juridiction. Elle se prononcera ensuite, dans la section IV, sur les
mesures de contrainte prises à l’égard de la Villa Vigoni puis, dans la sec -

tion V, abordera les décisions judiciaires italiennes déclarant exécutoires
en Italie des jugements rendus en Grèce.

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claims; that the question of the lack of appropriate reparation is, in its
view, crucial for resolving the dispute over immunity; and that the Court’s

jurisdiction to take cognizance of it incidentally is thus indisputable.p

48. The Court notes that, since the dismissal of Italy’s counter-claim, it
no longer has before it any submissions asking it to rule on the question

of whether Germany has a duty of reparation towards the Italian victims p
of the crimes committed by the German Reich and whether it has com -
plied with that obligation in respect of all those victims, or only somep of
them. The Court is therefore not called upon to rule on those questions.p

49. However, in support of its submission that it has not violated Ger -

many’s jurisdictional immunity, Italy contends that Germany stands
deprived of the right to invoke that immunity in Italian courts before
which civil actions have been brought by some of the victims, because ofp
the fact that it has not fully complied with its duty of reparation.

50. The Court must determine whether, as Italy maintains, the failure
of a State to perform completely a duty of reparation which it allegedlyp
bears is capable of having an effect, in law, on the existence and scoppe of
that State’s jurisdictional immunity before foreign courts. This quesption is
one of law on which the Court must rule in order to determine the cus -

tomary international law applicable in respect of State immunity for thep
purposes of the present case.

Should the preceding question be answered in the affirmative, the sec -
ond question would be whether, in the specific circumstances of the capse,
taking account in particular of Germany’s conduct on the issue of reppara -

tion, the Italian courts had sufficient grounds for setting aside Germapny’s
immunity. It is not necessary for the Court to satisfy itself that it haps
jurisdiction to respond to this second question until it has responded tpo
the first.
The Court considers that, at this stage, no other question arises with

regard to the existence or scope of its jurisdiction.

*

51. The Court will first address the issues raised by Germany’s firstp

submission, namely whether, by exercising jurisdiction over Germany
with regard to the claims brought before them by the various Italian
claimants, the Italian courts acted in breach of Italy’s obligation tpo accord
jurisdictional immunity to Germany. It will then turn, in Section IV, to
the measures of constraint adopted in respect of Villa Vigoni and, in Sepc -
tion V, to the decisions of the Italian courts declaring enforceable in Italyp

the judgments of the Greek courts.

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III. Les violations de l’impmunité de juridictionp de l’Allemagne
qui auraient été commpises dans le cadre des pprocédures engagées

par les requérants itpaliens

1. Les questions soumises à la Cour

52. La Cour commencera par relever que les actions intentées devant
les juridictions italiennes ont pour origine des actes perpétrés par les

forces armées et autres organes du Reich allemand. L’Allemagne a ppleine -
ment reconnu « les souffrances indicibles infligées aux hommes et aux
femmes d’Italie, en particulier lors des massacres, ainsi qu’aux apnciens
internés militaires italiens » (déclaration conjointe de l’Allemagne et de
l’Italie, Trieste, 18 novembre 2008) ; elle convient que ces actes étaient illi-

cites et a déclaré devant la Cour qu’elle était « tout à fait consciente de sa
responsabilité à cet égard ». La Cour estime que les actes en cause ont
incontestablement été commis au mépris le plus total des « considérations
élémentaires d’humanité » (Détroit de Corfou (Royaume‑Uni c. Albanie),
fond, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1949, p. 22; Activités militaires et paramilitaires

au Nicaragua et contre celui‑ci (Nicaragua c. Etats‑Unis d’Amérique),
fond, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1986, p. 112). Une première catégorie d’affaires
se rapporte à des massacres de nombreux civils perpétrés en territoire
occupé en guise de représailles, tels que celui commis le 29 juin 1944 à
Civitella (Val di Chiana), Cornia et San Pancrazio par des membres de la
division « Hermann Göring » des forces armées allemandes contre

203 civils pris en otages après l’assassinat de quatre soldats allemanpds,
quelques jours plus tôt, par des résistants (affaire Max Josef Milde, déci -
sion du 10 octobre 2006 (enregistrée le 2 février 2007), rendue par le tri -
bunal militaire de La Spezia). La deuxième concerne des cas de civilps qui,
à l’instar de M. Luigi Ferrini, avaient été déportés d’Italie vers l’Alle -

magne pour s’y trouver de fait astreints au travail forcé. Le troipsième type
d’affaires a trait au cas de membres des forces armées italienneps qui
s’étaient vu refuser le statut de prisonnier de guerre — ainsi que les pro -
tections associées à ce statut — auquel ils avaient droit, et avaient, eux
aussi, été soumis au travail forcé. La Cour estime que ce compoprtement

était, à n’en pas douter, constitutif d’une grave violation pdu droit interna-
tional applicable aux conflits armés en 1943-1945. Le Statut du Tripbunal
militaire international de Nuremberg, en date du 8 août 1945
(Nations Unies, Recueil des traités (RTNU), vol. 82, p. 285), incluait
parmi les crimes de guerre, au litt. b) de son article 6, « l’assassinat, les

mauvais traitements et la déportation pour des travaux forcés ou ppour
tout autre but, des populations civiles dans les territoires occupés », ainsi
que « l’assassinat ou les mauvais traitements des prisonniers de guerre ».
Parmi les crimes contre l’humanité énumérés au litt. c) de ce même article
figuraient « l’assassinat, l’extermination, la réduction en esclavage, la
déportation, et tout autre acte inhumain commis contre toutes popula -

tions civiles, avant ou pendant la guerre ». L’assassinat d’otages civils
en Italie fut d’ailleurs l’un des chefs au titre desquels un certain pnombre

26

6 CIJ1031.indb 48 22/11/13 12:25 jurisdictional immunpities of the state (jupdgment) 121

III. Alleged Violation of Gerpmany’s
Jurisdictional Immunipty in the Proceedings Brpought

by the Italian Claimanpts

1. The Issues before the Court

52. The Court begins by observing that the proceedings in the Italian
courts have their origins in acts perpetrated by German armed forces andp

other organs of the German Reich. Germany has fully acknowledged the
“untold suffering inflicted on Italian men and women in particulapr during
massacres, and on former Italian military internees” (Joint Declaratpion of
Germany and Italy, Trieste, 18 November 2008), accepts that these acts
were unlawful and stated before this Court that it “is fully aware ofp [its]

responsibility in this regard”. The Court considers that the acts in pques -
tion can only be described as displaying a complete disregard for the
“elementary considerations of humanity” (Corfu Channel (United King‑
dom v. Albania), Merits, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1949, p. 22 ; Military
and Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v. United

States of America), Merits, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1986, p. 112). One
category of cases involved the large-scale killing of civilians in occupied
territory as part of a policy of reprisals, exemplified by the massacrpes
committed on 29 June 1944 in Civitella (Val di Chiana), Cornia and San
Pancrazio by members of the “Hermann Göring” division of the Geprman
armed forces involving the killing of 203 civilians taken as hostages after

resistance fighters had killed four German soldiers a few days earlierp
(Max Josef Milde case, Military Court of La Spezia, judgment of 10 Octo-
ber 2006 (registered on 2 February 2007)). Another category involved
members of the civilian population who, like Mr. Luigi Ferrini, were
deported from Italy to what was in substance slave labour in Germany.

The third concerned members of the Italian armed forces who were
denied the status of prisoner of war, together with the protections which
that status entailed, to which they were entitled and who were similarlyp
used as forced labourers. The Court considers that there can be no doubtp
that this conduct was a serious violation of the international law of arpmed

conflict applicable in 1943-1945. Article 6 (b) of the Charter of the Inter -
national Military Tribunal, 8 August 1945 (United Nations, Treaty Series
(UNTS), Vol. 82, p. 279), convened at Nuremberg included as war crimes
“murder, ill-treatment, or deportation to slave labour or for any other
purpose of civilian population of or in occupied territory”, as well pas

“murder or ill-treatment of prisoners of war”. The list of crimes against
humanity in Article 6 (c) of the Charter included “murder, extermina -
tion, enslavement, deportation, and other inhumane acts committed
against any civilian population, before or during the war”. The murder of
civilian hostages in Italy was one of the counts on which a number of wapr
crimes defendants were condemned in trials immediately after the Second p

World War (e.g., Von Mackensen and Maelzer (1946), Annual Digest,
Vol. 13, p. 258 ; Kesselring (1947), Annual Digest, Vol. 13, p. 260 ; and

26

6 CIJ1031.indb 49 22/11/13 12:25 122 immunités juridictiopnnelles de l’état (arrpêt)

d’accusés devant répondre de crimes de guerre furent condamnéps au len-

demain de la seconde guerre mondiale (voir, par exemple, Von Mackensen
et Maelzer (1946), Annual Digest, vol. 13, p. 258 ; Kesselring (1947),
Annual Digest, vol. 13, p. 260 ; et Kappler (1948), Annual Digest, vol. 15,
p. 471). Les principes énoncés dans le Statut de Nuremberg furent copnfir-
més par l’Assemblée générale des Nations Unies dans sa résolution 95 (I)

en date du 11 décembre 1946.
53. Toutefois, la Cour n’est pas appelée à se prononcer sur la quesption
de savoir si ces actes étaient illicites, point qui n’est pas contpesté. La que-
tion qu’il lui incombe de trancher est en effet celle de savoir si,p dans le

cadre des actions en réparation engagées sur le fondement de ces actes, la
justice italienne était tenue d’accorder l’immunité à l’pAllemagne. A cet
égard, la Cour constate qu’il existe un très large accord entre les Parties
quant au droit applicable, celles-ci convenant en particulier que l’ipmmu -
nité est régie par le droit international et ne relève pas simpplement de la

courtoisie.
54. Dans les rapports entre l’Allemagne et l’Italie, c’est seulemenpt le
droit international coutumier qui fonde le droit à l’immunité, pet non pas
des dispositions conventionnelles. Si l’Allemagne est l’un des huit Etats
parties à la convention européenne sur l’immunité des Etats pdu 16 mai
o
1972 (Conseil de l’Europe, Série des traités européens (STE), n 74 ;
RTNU, vol. 1495, p. 182) (ci-après la « convention européenne »), tel
n’est pas le cas de l’Italie, que cet instrument ne lie donc pas. Par ailleurs,
aucun des deux Etats n’est partie à la convention des Nations Unies sur

l’immunité juridictionnelle des Etats et de leurs biens, adoptépe le
2 décembre 2004 (ci-après la « convention des Nations Unies »), laquelle
n’est, en tout état de cause, pas encore entrée en vigueur. Au p1 erfévrier
2012, cette convention avait été signée par vingt-huit Etats, et treize
instruments de ratification, d’acceptation, d’approbation ou d’padhésion

avaient été déposés ; or il est stipulé, en son article 30, qu’elle entrera en
vigueur le trentième jour suivant la date du dépôt du trentième de ces
instruments. Ni l’Allemagne ni l’Italie n’ont signé la convepntion.
55. La Cour doit donc, conformément à l’alinéa b) du paragraphe 1 de
l’article 38 de son Statut, déterminer l’existence d’une « coutume interna-

tionale comme preuve d’une pratique générale acceptée comme pétant le
droit» conférant l’immunité à l’Etat et, le cas échéant, quelles en sont la
portée et l’étendue. Elle appliquera pour ce faire les critèpres, qu’elle a
maintes fois énoncés, permettant d’identifier une règle dep droit internatio -

nal coutumier. Ainsi qu’elle l’a clairement indiqué dans les affpaires du
Plateau continental de la mer du Nord, une « pratique effective » assortie
d’une opinio juris est en particulier requise pour qu’existe une telle règle
(Plateau continental de la mer du Nord (République fédérale d’▯Allemagne/
Danemark; République fédérale d’Allemagne/Pays‑Bas), arrêt, C.I.J.

Recueil 1969, p. 44, par. 77). La Cour a en outre relevé ce qui suit :
«[i]l est bien évident que la substance du droit international coutu -

mier doit être recherchée en premier lieu dans la pratique effecptive et

27

6 CIJ1031.indb 50 22/11/13 12:25 jurisdictional immunpities of the state (jupdgment) 122

Kappler (1948), Annual Digest, Vol. 15, p. 471). The principles of the
Nuremberg Charter were confirmed by the General Assembly of the

United Nations in resolution 95 (I) of 11 December 1946.

53. However, the Court is not called upon to decide whether these acts
were illegal, a point which is not contested. The question for the Courtp is
whether or not, in proceedings regarding claims for compensation arisingp
out of those acts, the Italian courts were obliged to accord Germany
immunity. In that context, the Court notes that there is a considerable p

measure of agreement between the Parties regarding the applicable law.
In particular, both Parties agree that immunity is governed by interna -
tional law and is not a mere matter of comity.

54. As between Germany and Italy, any entitlement to immunity can

be derived only from customary international law, rather than treaty.
Although Germany is one of the eight States parties to the European
Convention on State Immunity of 16 May 1972 (Council of Europe,Euro‑
pean Treaty Series (ETS), No. 74; UNTS, Vol. 1495, p. 182) (hereinafter
the “European Convention”), Italy is not a party and the Conventipon is

accordingly not binding upon it. Neither State is party to the United
Nations Convention on Jurisdictional Immunities of States and Their
Property, adopted on 2 December 2004 (hereinafter the “United Nations
Convention”), which is not yet in force in any event. As of 1 Febru -
ary 2012, the United Nations Convention had been signed by twenty-

eight States and obtained thirteen instruments of ratification, acceptance,
approval or accession. Article 30 of the Convention provides that it will
enter into force on the thirtieth day after deposit of the thirtieth sucph
instrument. Neither Germany nor Italy has signed the Convention.

55. It follows that the Court must determine, in accordance with Arti -
cle 38 (1) (b) of its Statute, the existence of “international custom, as
evidence of a general practice accepted as law” conferring immunity opn
States and, if so, what is the scope and extent of that immunity. To do so,
it must apply the criteria which it has repeatedly laid down for identifpying

a rule of customary international law. In particular, as the Court made p
clear in the North Sea Continental Shelf cases, the existence of a rule of
customary international law requires that there be “a settled practicpe”
together with opinio juris (North Sea Continental Shelf (Federal Republic
of Germany/Denmark ; Federal Republic of Germany/Netherlands), Judg ‑

ment, I.C.J. Reports 1969, p. 44, para. 77). Moreover, as the Court has
also observed,

“[i]t is of course axiomatic that the material of customary internatiponal
law is to be looked for primarily in the actual practice and opinio juris

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6 CIJ1031.indb 51 22/11/13 12:25 123 immunités juridictiopnnelles de l’état (arrpêt)

l’opinio juris des Etats, même si les conventions multilatérales peuvent
avoir un rôle important à jouer en enregistrant et définissanpt les règles

dérivées de la coutume ou même en les développant » (Plateau conti‑
nental (Jamahiriya arabe libyenne/Malte), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1985,
p. 29-30, par. 27).

Dans le cas d’espèce, une pratique étatique particulièrementp importante
se dégage de la jurisprudence des tribunaux internes qui ont étép amenés à
se prononcer sur l’immunité d’un Etat étranger, des lois adopptées par
ceux des Etats qui ont légiféré en la matière, de l’invocpation de l’immunité

par certains Etats devant des tribunaux étrangers, ainsi que des dépclara -
tions faites par les Etats à l’occasion de l’examen approfondi pde cette
question par la Commission du droit international puis de l’adoption pde
la convention des Nations Unies. Dans ce contexte, l’opinio juris est reflé -
tée notamment par l’affirmation, de la part des Etats qui invoquent l’im -

munité de juridiction devant les tribunaux d’autres Etats, qu’ipls sont, en
vertu du droit international, fondés à en bénéficier; par la reconnaissance,
de la part des Etats qui accordent cette immunité, qu’il s’agit d’une obli -
gation que leur impose le droit international ; et, inversement, par l’affir -
mation par des Etats, dans d’autres affaires, de leur droit d’expercer leur

juridiction à l’égard d’Etats étrangers. S’il est vraip que les Etats décident
parfois d’accorder une immunité plus large que ne l’impose le dproit inter-
national, le fait est que, aux fins de la présente instance, la recponnaissance
de l’immunité en pareil cas n’est pas assortie de l’opinio juris requise et,
partant, n’éclaire pas la question dont la Cour est saisie.

56. Quoique la question des origines de l’immunité des Etats et des
principes qui la sous-tendent ait fait l’objet de longs débats, lap Commis -
sion du droit international a, en 1980, constaté que la règle de l’immunité
des Etats avait « été adoptée en tant que règle générale du droit internpa -
tional coutumier solidement enracinée dans la pratique contemporaine p

des Etats» (Annuaire de la Commission du droit international, 1980, vol. II,
deuxième partie, p. 144, par. 26). La Cour estime que cette conclusion,
qui reposait sur une analyse exhaustive de la pratique des Etats, a depupis
lors été confirmée par un ensemble de lois nationales, de décisions judi -
ciaires, d’affirmations d’un droit à l’immunité, ainsi qpue par les commen-

taires des Etats sur ce qui allait devenir la convention des Nations Unies.
Il ressort de cette pratique que les Etats, que ce soit lorsqu’ils inpvoquent
l’immunité pour leur propre compte ou qu’ils l’accordent àp d’autres,
partent généralement du principe qu’il existe en droit internatpional un
droit à l’immunité de l’Etat étranger, dont découle popur les autres Etats

l’obligation de le respecter et de lui donner effet.
57. La Cour considère que la règle de l’immunité de l’Etat jopue un rôle
important en droit international et dans les relations internationales. pElle
procède du principe de l’égalité souveraine des Etats qui, apinsi que cela
ressort clairement du paragraphe 1 de l’article 2 de la Charte des

Nations Unies, est l’un des principes fondamentaux de l’ordre juridique
international. Ce principe doit être considéré conjointement avpec celui en

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of States, even though multilateral conventions may have an impor -
tant role to play in recording and defining rules deriving from customp,

or indeed in developing them” (Continental Shelf (Libyan Arab Jama‑
hiriya/Malta), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1985, pp. 29-30, para. 27).

In the present context, State practice of particular significance is tpo be
found in the judgments of national courts faced with the question whethepr
a foreign State is immune, the legislation of those States which have
enacted statutes dealing with immunity, the claims to immunity advanced p

by States before foreign courts and the statements made by States, firpst in
the course of the extensive study of the subject by the International Lapw
Commission and then in the context of the adoption of the United
Nations Convention. Opinio juris in this context is reflected in particular
in the assertion by States claiming immunity that international law

accords them a right to such immunity from the jurisdiction of other
States; in the acknowledgment, by States granting immunity, that inter -
national law imposes upon them an obligation to do so ; and, conversely,
in the assertion by States in other cases of a right to exercise jurisdipction
over foreign States. While it may be true that States sometimes decide tpo

accord an immunity more extensive than that required by international
law, for present purposes, the point is that the grant of immunity in supch
a case is not accompanied by the requisite opinio juris and therefore sheds
no light upon the issue currently under consideration by the Court.

56. Although there has been much debate regarding the origins of
State immunity and the identification of the principles underlying that
immunity in the past, the International Law Commission concluded in
1980 that the rule of State immunity had been “adopted as a general rpule
of customary international law solidly rooted in the current practice ofp

States” (Yearbook of the International Law Commission, 1980, Vol. II (2),
p. 147, para. 26). That conclusion was based upon an extensive survey of
State practice and, in the opinion of the Court, is confirmed by the rpecord
of national legislation, judicial decisions, assertions of a right to immu -
nity and the comments of States on what became the United Nations

Convention. That practice shows that, whether in claiming immunity for
themselves or according it to others, States generally proceed on the bapsis
that there is a right to immunity under international law, together with a
corresponding obligation on the part of other States to respect and givep
effect to that immunity.

57. The Court considers that the rule of State immunity occupies an
important place in international law and international relations. It derpives
from the principle of sovereign equality of States, which, as Article 2,
paragraph 1, of the Charter of the United Nations makes clear, is one of

the fundamental principles of the international legal order. This principple
has to be viewed together with the principle that each State possesses spov -

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6 CIJ1031.indb 53 22/11/13 12:25 124 immunités juridictiopnnelles de l’état (arrpêt)

vertu duquel chaque Etat détient la souveraineté sur son propre teprritoire,
souveraineté dont découle pour lui un pouvoir de juridiction à pl’égard des

faits qui se produisent sur son sol et des personnes qui y sont présepntes.
Les exceptions à l’immunité de l’Etat constituent une dérpogation au prin-
cipe de l’égalité souveraine. L’immunité peut constituer pune dérogation
au principe de la souveraineté territoriale et au pouvoir de juridictpion qui
en découle.

58. Les Parties sont donc largement d’accord quant à l’existence etp à
l’importance de l’immunité de l’Etat en tant qu’élépment du droit interna -
tional coutumier. Leurs vues divergent toutefois sur le point de savoir psi le
droit qu’il convient d’appliquer est (comme le soutient l’Allemagne) celui
qui déterminait la portée et l’étendue de l’immunité dpe l’Etat en 1943-1945
— autrement dit, à l’époque des faits qui sont à l’origine pdes actions inten -

tées devant les juridictions italiennes — ou (comme l’avance l’Italie) celui
qui était en vigueur au moment où ces actions ont été engagépes. La Cour
relève que, conformément au principe énoncé à l’articlpe 13 des articles de
la Commission du droit international sur la responsabilité de l’Etpat pour
fait internationalement illicite, la conformité d’un acte au droitp interna-

tional ne peut être déterminée qu’au regard du droit en vigupeur au moment
où cet acte s’est produit. Il importe donc d’établir une disptinction entre les
actes pertinents de l’Allemagne et ceux de l’Italie. Les actes pertinents de
l’Allemagne — qui sont décrits au paragraphe 52 — se sont produits
en 1943-1945 et, partant, c’est le droit en vigueur à cette époquep qui leur

est applicable. Les actes pertinents de l’Italie — le refus de l’immunité par
les juridictions italiennes et l’exercice, par celles-ci, de leur compétence —
ne se sont produits que lorsque les procédures italiennes ont eu lieu. Dès
lors que la question dont est saisie la Cour a trait aux actes des juridpictions
italiennes, c’est le droit international en vigueur à l’époqpue desdites procé -
dures que la Cour doit appliquer. En outre, ainsi que la Cour l’a prépcisé

(dans le contexte des immunités personnelles dont jouissent les minipstres
des affaires étrangères en vertu du droit international), le drpoit de l’immu -
nité revêt un caractère essentiellement procédural (Mandat d’arrêt du
11 avril 2000 (République démocratique du Congo c. Belgique), arrêt,
C.I.J. Recueil 2002, p. 25, par. 60). Il régit l’exercice du pouvoir de juridic-

tion à l’égard d’un comportement donné, et est ainsi totaplement distinct
du droit matériel qui détermine si ce comportement est licite ou non.p En
conséquence, la Cour estime qu’il lui faut examiner et appliquer lpe droit
de l’immunité des Etats tel qu’il existait au moment des procédpures
italiennes et non tel qu’il était en vigueur en 1943-1945.

59. Les Parties sont également en désaccord quant à la portée etp à l’éten -
due de la règle de l’immunité de l’Etat. A cet égard, la pCour relève que de
nombreux Etats (y compris l’Allemagne et l’Italie) opèrent aupjourd’hui une
distinction entre les actes jure gestionis — à l’égard desquels ils ont limité
l’immunité qu’ils revendiquent pour eux-mêmes et accordent apux autres —
et les actes jure imperii. Cette approche est également celle de la convention

des Nations Unies et de la convention européenne (voir également le projet
de convention interaméricaine sur l’immunité juridictionnelle dpes Etats

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6 CIJ1031.indb 54 22/11/13 12:25 jurisdictional immunpities of the state (jupdgment) 124

ereignty over its own territory and that there flows from that sovereipgnty
the jurisdiction of the State over events and persons within that territpory.

Exceptions to the immunity of the State represent a departure from the
principle of sovereign equality. Immunity may represent a departure fromp
the principle of territorial sovereignty and the jurisdiction which flpows
from it.

58. The Parties are thus in broad agreement regarding the validity and
importance of State immunity as a part of customary international law.
They differ, however, as to whether (as Germany contends) the law top be
applied is that which determined the scope and extent of State immunity p
in 1943-1945, i.e., at the time that the events giving rise to the proceedings
in the Italian courts took place, or (as Italy maintains) that which appplied

at the time the proceedings themselves occurred. The Court observes thatp,
in accordance with the principle stated in Article 13 of the International
Law Commission Articles on Responsibility of States for Internationally p
Wrongful Acts, the compatibility of an act with international law can be
determined only by reference to the law in force at the time when the acpt

occurred. In that context, it is important to distinguish between the reple -
vant acts of Germany and those of Italy. The relevant German acts —
which are described in paragraph 52 — occurred in 1943-1945, and it is,
therefore, the international law of that time which is applicable to thepm.
The relevant Italian acts — the denial of immunity and exercise of juris -

diction by the Italian courts — did not occur until the proceedings in the
Italian courts took place. Since the claim before the Court concerns thep
actions of the Italian courts, it is the international law in force at tphe time
of those proceedings which the Court has to apply. Moreover, as the
Court has stated (in the context of the personal immunities accorded byp
international law to foreign ministers), the law of immunity is essentipally

procedural in nature (Arrest Warrant of 1 April 2000 (Democratic Repub ‑
lic of the Congo v. Belgium), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2002, p. 25,
para. 60). It regulates the exercise of jurisdiction in respect of particularp
conduct and is thus entirely distinct from the substantive law which detper -
mines whether that conduct is lawful or unlawful. For these reasons, thep

Court considers that it must examine and apply the law on State immu -
nity as it existed at the time of the Italian proceedings, rather than tphat
which existed in 1943-1945.

59. The Parties also differ as to the scope and extent of the rule of Statpe
immunity. In that context, the Court notes that many States (including p
both Germany and Italy) now distinguish between acta jure gestionis, in
respect of which they have limited the immunity which they claim for
themselves and which they accord to others, and acta jure imperii. That
approach has also been followed in the United Nations Convention and

the European Convention (see also the draft Inter-American Convention
on Jurisdictional Immunity of States drawn up by the Inter-American

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6 CIJ1031.indb 55 22/11/13 12:25 125 immunités juridictiopnnelles de l’état (arrpêt)

établi par le Comité juridique interaméricain de l’Organisatpion des Etats
américains en 1983 (ILM, vol. 22, p. 292)).

60. La Cour n’est pas appelée, en l’espèce, à se prononcer supr la
manière dont le droit international règle la question de l’immupnité des
Etats lorsque les actes en cause sont des actes jure gestionis. Les actes des
forces armées et d’autres organes de l’Etat allemand en cause dpevant la
justice italienne étaient assurément des actes jure imperii. La Cour relève

que, en réponse à une question posée par un membre de la Cour, pl’Italie
a reconnu que les actes concernés devaient être qualifiés d’pactes jure impe ‑
rii, et ce, malgré leur caractère illicite. La Cour considère que ples expres -
sions « jure imperii » et « jure gestionis » n’impliquent en rien que les actes
visés soient licites, mais indiquent seulement s’ils doivent êtpre appréciés au
regard du droit régissant l’exercice du pouvoir souverain (jus imperii) ou

du droit régissant les activités non souveraines de l’Etat, en pparticulier
celles d’ordre privé et commercial (jus gestionis). Dans la mesure où cette
distinction est pertinente aux fins de déterminer si un Etat est fopndé à
bénéficier de l’immunité de juridiction devant les tribunapux d’un autre
Etat à propos d’un acte donné, elle doit être prise en consipdération avant

que les tribunaux en question ne puissent exercer leur compétence, alpors
que la question de savoir si cet acte est licite ou non ne peut être ptranchée
que dans l’exercice de cette compétence. Bien que la présente epspèce ait
ceci d’inhabituel que l’illicéité des actes en cause a étpé admise par l’Alle -
magne à toutes les étapes de la procédure, la Cour estime que cpela est sans

incidence sur leur qualification en tant qu’actes jure imperii.
61. Les Parties s’accordent à considérer que les Etats jouissent, epn règle
générale, de l’immunité dans le cas d’actes jure imperii. Telle est l’approche
adoptée dans la convention des Nations Unies, la convention européenne
et le projet de convention interaméricaine, ainsi que dans les lois apdoptées
par ceux des Etats qui ont légiféré sur la question et dans la pjurisprudence

des tribunaux nationaux. C’est en gardant cela à l’esprit que lpa Cour doit
considérer la question que soulève la présente instance, c’epst-à-dire celle de
savoir si l’immunité est applicable aux actes commis par les forceps armées
d’un Etat (et d’autres organes de celui-ci agissant en coopéraption avec ces
forces) dans le cadre d’un conflit armé. L’Allemagne soutienpt que l’immu -

nité est applicable et qu’aucune des exceptions à l’immunité dont jouit un
Etat à l’égard des actes jure imperii ne trouve ici à s’appliquer. L’Italie,
quant à elle, fait valoir que l’Allemagne n’est pas fondée àp bénéficier de
l’immunité dans les procédures qui ont été engagées devant ses tribunaux
au double motif que, premièrement, cette immunité ne s’étendp pas, en ce

qui concerne les actes jure imperii, aux actes dommageables ou délictueux
ayant entraîné la mort, un préjudice corporel ou un préjudice matériel
commis sur le territoire de l’Etat du for et que, deuxièmement, inpdépen -
damment du lieu où se sont produits les actes en question, l’Allempagne ne
saurait en bénéficier parce que ceux-ci étaient constitutifs pdes violations les
plus graves de règles de droit international à caractère impépratif, et qu’il

n’existait, pour y remédier, aucune autre voie de recours. La Courp exami -
nera tour à tour chacun des arguments de l’Italie.

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Juridical Committee of the Organization of American States in 1983
(ILM, Vol. 22, p. 292)).

60. The Court is not called upon to address the question of how inter -
national law treats the issue of State immunity in respect of acta jure
gestionis. The acts of the German armed forces and other State organs
which were the subject of the proceedings in the Italian courts clearly p
constituted acta jure imperii. The Court notes that Italy, in response to a

question posed by a Member of the Court, recognized that those acts had p
to be characterized as acta jure imperii, notwithstanding that they were
unlawful. The Court considers that the terms “jure imperii” and “jure ges ‑
tionis” do not imply that the acts in question are lawful but refer rather to
whether the acts in question fall to be assessed by reference to the lawp
governing the exercise of sovereign power (jus imperii) or the law con -

cerning non-sovereign activities of a State, especially private and com -
mercial activities (jus gestionis). To the extent that this distinction is
significant for determining whether or not a State is entitled to immunity
from the jurisdiction of another State’s courts in respect of a partipcular
act, it has to be applied before that jurisdiction can be exercised, whepreas

the legality or illegality of the act is something which can be determinped
only in the exercise of that jurisdiction. Although the present case is
unusual in that the illegality of the acts at issue has been admitted byp
Germany at all stages of the proceedings, the Court considers that this
fact does not alter the characterization of those acts as acta jure imperii.

61. Both Parties agree that States are generally entitled to immunity in
respect of acta jure imperii. That is the approach taken in the United
Nations, European and draft Inter-American Conventions, the national
legislation in those States which have adopted statutes on the subject apnd
the jurisprudence of national courts. It is against that background that

the Court must approach the question raised by the present proceedings, p
namely whether that immunity is applicable to acts committed by the
armed forces of a State (and other organs of that State acting in co-oper -
ation with the armed forces) in the course of conducting an armed con -
flict. Germany maintains that immunity is applicable and that there isp no

relevant limitation on the immunity to which a State is entitled in resppect
of acta jure imperii. Italy, in its pleadings before the Court, maintains that
Germany is not entitled to immunity in respect of the cases before the
Italian courts for two reasons : first, that immunity as to acta jure imperii
does not extend to torts or delicts occasioning death, personal injury or

damage to property committed on the territory of the forum State, and,
secondly, that, irrespective of where the relevant acts took place, Ger -
many was not entitled to immunity because those acts involved the most
serious violations of rules of international law of a peremptory charactper
for which no alternative means of redress was available. The Court will p
consider each of Italy’s arguments in turn.

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6 CIJ1031.indb 57 22/11/13 12:25 126 immunités juridictiopnnelles de l’état (arrpêt)

2. Le premier argument de l’Italie : les dommages ont été causés
sur le territoire de l’Etat du for

62. Le premier argument de l’Italie consiste, en substance, à soutenirp
que le droit international coutumier a évolué de telle sorte que lpes Etats
ne peuvent plus, aujourd’hui, prétendre à l’immunité àp l’égard d’actes
ayant entraîné la mort, un préjudice corporel ou un préjudicpe matériel sur
le territoire de l’Etat du for, et ce, même si les actes en questipon ont été
accomplis jure imperii. L’Italie reconnaît que cet argument ne vaut qu’en

ce qui concerne celles des réclamations portées devant la justice itaplienne
qui ont trait à des actes survenus en Italie et non en ce qui concernpe les
internés militaires italiens faits prisonniers ailleurs qu’en Italpie et transfé-
rés en Allemagne — ou vers tout autre territoire que l’Italie — pour y être
astreints au travail forcé. A l’appui de cet argument, l’Italie invoque

l’adoption de l’article 11 de la convention européenne et de l’article 12 de
la convention des Nations Unies, ainsi que le fait que neuf des dix Etats
recensés par elle qui ont promulgué des lois portant spécifiqpuement sur
l’immunité des Etats étrangers ont adopté des dispositions spemblables à
celles de ces deux conventions (l’exception étant le Pakistan). pL’Italie

reconnaît que la convention européenne contient une disposition enp vertu
de laquelle cet instrument ne saurait s’appliquer aux actes des forceps
armées étrangères (art. 31); elle soutient cependant qu’il ne s’agit que
d’une clause de sauvegarde ayant essentiellement pour objet d’épviter tout
conflit entre la convention et les instruments régissant le statut des forces

étrangères présentes sur le territoire d’un Etat avec le consentement de
celui-ci, et qu’il n’en ressort pas que les Etats bénéficipent de l’immunité à
l’égard des actes commis par leurs forces armées sur le territopire d’un
autre Etat. L’Italie conteste la portée de certaines déclaratiopns (qui seront
examinées ci-après, au paragraphe 69) faites dans le cadre du processus

d’adoption de la convention des Nations Unies, qui donnent à penser que
cet instrument ne s’applique pas aux actes des forces armées. Enfipn, tout
en relevant que deux des lois nationales (celles du Royaume-Uni et de
Singapour) ne sont pas applicables aux actes des forces armées étprangères,
l’Italie soutient que les sept autres (celles de l’Afrique du Sudp, de l’Argen-

tine, de l’Australie, du Canada, des Etats-Unis d’Amérique, d’pIsraël et du
Japon) constituent une pratique étatique significative reconnaissapnt la
compétence des tribunaux nationaux pour connaître des actes domma -
geables commis par des forces armées étrangères.
63. L’Allemagne fait valoir que, en tant qu’ils écartent l’immunpité de

l’Etat pour des actes jure imperii, ni l’article 11 de la convention euro -
péenne ni l’article 12 de la convention des Nations Unies ne reflètent le
droit international coutumier. Elle soutient que ces deux dispositions
sont, en tout état de cause, dépourvues de pertinence en la prépsente ins -
tance puisque aucune d’elles n’est censée s’appliquer aux acptes des forces
armées. L’Allemagne fait également observer que non seulement aucun

tribunal national n’a jamais — hormis dans les affaires soumises à la jus -
tice italienne et dans l’affaire Distomo en Grèce — jugé qu’un Etat ne

31

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2. Italy’s First Argument :
The Territorial Tort Principle

62. The essence of the first Italian argument is that customary interna -
tional law has developed to the point where a State is no longer entitlepd
to immunity in respect of acts occasioning death, personal injury or damp-
age to property on the territory of the forum State, even if the act in pque-s
tion was performed jure imperii. Italy recognizes that this argument is
applicable only to those of the claims brought before the Italian courtsp

which concern acts that occurred in Italy and not to the cases of Italiapn
military internees taken prisoner outside Italy and transferred to Ger -
many or other territories outside Italy as forced labour. In support of pits
argument, Italy points to the adoption of Article 11 of the European
Convention and Article 12 of the United Nations Convention and to the

fact that nine of the ten States it identified which have adopted legipslation
specifically dealing with State immunity (the exception being Pakistapn)
have enacted provisions similar to those in the two Conventions. Italy
acknowledges that the European Convention contains a provision to the
effect that the Convention is not applicable to the acts of foreign arpmed

forces (Art. 31) but maintains that this provision is merely a saving
clause aimed primarily at avoiding conflicts between the Convention and
instruments regulating the status of visiting forces present with the copn -
sent of the territorial sovereign and that it does not show that States pare
entitled to immunity in respect of the acts of their armed forces in anopther

State. Italy dismisses the significance of certain statements (discuspsed in
paragraph 69 below) made during the process of adoption of the United
Nations Convention suggesting that that Convention did not apply to the p
acts of armed forces. Italy also notes that two of the national statutesp
(those of the United Kingdom and Singapore) are not applicable to the p

acts of foreign armed forces but argues that the other seven (those of p
Argentina, Australia, Canada, Israel, Japan, South Africa and the Unitedp
States of America) amount to significant State practice asserting jurpisdic-
tion over torts occasioned by foreign armed forces.

63. Germany maintains that, in so far as they deny a State immunity in

respect of acta jure imperii, neither Article 11 of the European Conven -
tion, nor Article 12 of the United Nations Convention reflects customary
international law. It contends that, in any event, they are irrelevant tpo the
present proceedings, because neither provision was intended to apply to p
the acts of armed forces. Germany also points to the fact that, with thep
exception of the Italian cases and the Distomo case in Greece, no national

court has ever held that a State was not entitled to immunity in respectp of
acts of its armed forces, in the context of an armed conflict and thatp, by

31

6 CIJ1031.indb 59 22/11/13 12:25 127 immunités juridictiopnnelles de l’état (arrpêt)

pouvait prétendre à l’immunité à l’égard d’actesp commis par ses forces
armées dans le cadre d’un conflit armé, mais encore que les jpuridictions de

plusieurs Etats se sont expressément déclarées incompétentesp en pareils
cas, au motif que l’Etat défendeur jouissait de cette immunité.p

*

64. La Cour fera tout d’abord observer que l’idée selon laquelle l’pimmu -
nité de l’Etat étranger ne vaudrait pas dans le cadre d’instpances civiles se
rapportant à des actes commis sur le territoire de l’Etat du for apyant
entraîné la mort, un préjudice corporel ou un préjudice matépriel est appa -
rue à l’origine dans le cadre d’affaires ayant trait à desp accidents de la cir-
culation et à d’autres « risques assurables». La restriction à l’immunité,

reconnue par certaines juridictions nationales dans ce type d’affaipres, a été
considérée comme limitée aux actes jure gestionis (voir, par exemple, l’arrêt
rendu par la Cour suprême d’Autriche en l’affaire Holubek c. Gouvernement
des Etats‑Unis d’Amérique J (uristische Blätter (Vienne), vol. 84, 1962, p. 43)).
La Cour relève cependant qu’aucune des législations nationales pprévoyant

une « exception territoriale» à l’immunité n’opère de distinction expresse
entre actes jure gestionis et actes jure imperii. La Cour suprême du Canada
a expressément rejeté l’idée que l’exception contenue dans la loi canadienne
puisse être subordonnée à pareille distinction (Schreiber c. République fédé ‑
rale d’Allemagne, [2002] Recueil de la Cour suprême (RCS), vol. 3, p. 269,

par. 33-36). L’article 11 de la convention européenne et l’article 12 de la
convention des Nations Unies n’établissent pas non plus une telle distinc -
tion. Or, il ressort clairement du commentaire de la Commission du droitp
international relatif à ce qu’est devenu l’article 12 de la convention des
Nations Unies qu’il s’agissait là d’un choix délibéré et qupe cette disposition
ne devait pas être limitée aux actes jure gestionis ( Annuaire de la Commis ‑

sion du droit international, 1991, vol. II, deuxième partie, p. 47, par. 8).
Néanmoins, l’Allemagne n’a pas été la seule à avancer pque, pour autant
qu’il devait s’appliquer aux actes jure imperii, l’article 12 ne reflétait pas le
droit international coutumier. Dans le cadre des critiques qu’elle a formu -
lées en 1990 sur le projet — établi par la Commission du droit internatio -

nal — de ce qui allait devenir l’article 12, la Chine a indiqué que « cet article
[allait] plus loin que ce qui [était] admis par la doctrine restrictipve, puisqu’il
n’établi[ssait] pas de distinction entre les actes de souverainetép et les actes
relevant du droit privé » (Nations Unies, doc. A/C.6/45/SR.25, p. 2); les
Etats-Unis d’Amérique ont quant à eux indiqué, lorsqu’ilsp ont formulé

en 2004 leurs observations sur le projet de convention des Nations Unies,
que l’article 12 « d[evait] être interprété et appliqué systématiquement parp
référence à la distinction classique entre les actes jure imperii et les actes jure
gestionis», car le fait d’étendre la juridiction sans tenir compte de cette dis -
tinction «serait contraire aux principes du droit international en vigueur »
(Nations Unies, doc. A/C.6/59/SR.13, p. 10, par. 63).

65. La Cour estime qu’elle n’est pas, en l’espèce, appelée àp trancher la
question de savoir s’il existe, en droit international coutumier, unep

32

6 CIJ1031.indb 60 22/11/13 12:25 jurisdictional immunpities of the state (jupdgment) 127

contrast, the courts in several States have expressly declined jurisdictpion
in such cases on the ground that the respondent State was entitled to

immunity.

*

64. The Court begins by observing that the notion that State immunity
does not extend to civil proceedings in respect of acts committed on the
territory of the forum State causing death, personal injury or damage top
property originated in cases concerning road traffic accidents and othepr
“insurable risks”. The limitation of immunity recognized by some npational
courts in such cases was treated as confined to acta jure gestionis (see, e.g.,

the judgment of the Supreme Court of Austria in Holubek v. Government
of the United States of America (Juristische Blätter (Vienna), Vol. 84, 1962,
p. 43 ; ILR, Vol. 40, p. 73)). The Court notes, however, that none of the
national legislation which provides for a “territorial tort exceptionp” to
immunity expressly distinguishes between acta jure gestionis and acta jure

imperii. The Supreme Court of Canada expressly rejected the suggestion
that the exception in the Canadian legislation was subject to such a disp -
tinction (Schreiber v. Federal Republic of Germany and the Attorney Gen ‑
eral of Canada, [2002] Supreme Court Reports (SCR), Vol. 3, p. 269,
paras. 33-36). Nor is such a distinction featured in either Article 11 of the

European Convention or Article 12 of the United Nations Convention.
The International Law Commission’s commentary on the text of what
became Article 12 of the United Nations Convention makes clear that
this was a deliberate choice and that the provision was not intended to pbe
restricted to acta jure gestionis (Yearbook of the International Law Com ‑
mission, 1991, Vol. II (2), p. 45, para. 8). Germany has not, however, been

alone in suggesting that, in so far as it was intended to apply to acta jure
imperii, Article 12 was not representative of customary international law.
In criticizing the International Law Commission’s draft of what becampe
Article 12, China commented in 1990 that “the article had gone even fur -
ther than the restrictive doctrine, for it made no distinction between spov-

ereign acts and private law acts” (United Nations doc. A/C.6/45/SR.25,
p. 2) and the United States, commenting in 2004 on the draft United
Nations Convention, stated that Article 12 “must be interpreted and
applied consistently with the time-honoured distinction between acts jure
imperii and acts jure gestionis” since to extend jurisdiction without regard

to that distinction “would be contrary to the existing principles of pinter -
national law” (United Nations doc. A/C.6/59/SR.13, p. 10, para. 63).

65. The Court considers that it is not called upon in the present pro -
ceedings to resolve the question whether there is in customary interna -

32

6 CIJ1031.indb 61 22/11/13 12:25 128 immunités juridictiopnnelles de l’état (arrpêt)

«exception territoriale » à l’immunité de l’Etat applicable aux actes jure
imperii en général. Il lui faut seulement se prononcer sur les actes commpis,

sur le territoire de l’Etat du for, par les forces armées d’un pEtat étranger
et d’autres organes de celui-ci agissant en coopération avec lesdites forces
dans le cadre d’un conflit armé.
66. La Cour examinera tout d’abord la question de savoir si l’adoptionp
de l’article 11 de la convention européenne ou de l’article 12 de la conven-

tion des Nations Unies étaye d’une quelconque manière l’argument de
l’Italie selon lequel les Etats ne peuvent plus aujourd’hui invoquper l’im -
munité de juridiction à l’égard des actes tels que défipnis dans le para -
graphe précédent. Ainsi qu’il a déjà été indiquép (voir paragraphe 54
ci-dessus), aucun de ces deux instruments n’est en vigueur entre lesp Parties

à la présente affaire. Ils ne sont donc pertinents que dans la mpesure où
leurs dispositions, le processus qui a conduit à leur adoption et leupr mise
en œuvre apportent un éclairage sur le contenu du droit international
coutumier.
67. L’article 11 de la convention européenne énonce l’exception terri -

toriale en des termes généraux :
«Un Etat contractant ne peut invoquer l’immunité de juridiction

devant un tribunal d’un autre Etat contractant lorsque la procédurpe
a trait à la réparation d’un préjudice corporel ou matéripel résultant
d’un fait survenu sur le territoire de l’Etat du for et que l’auteur du
dommage y était présent au moment où ce fait est survenu. »

Cette disposition doit cependant être lue à la lumière de l’particle 31, qui
est ainsi libellé :

«Aucune disposition de la présente convention ne porte atteinte
aux immunités et privilèges dont un Etat contractant jouit en ce qpui

concerne tout acte ou omission de ses forces armées ou en relation
avec celles-ci lorsqu’elles se trouvent sur le territoire d’un autpre Etat
contractant. »

Bien que l’article 31 ait notamment pour objet de traiter la question des
rapports entre la convention et les divers accords relatifs au statut deps
forces armées étrangères qu’un Etat accueille sur son territoire, il ressort
clairement de son libellé qu’il ne se limite pas à cela et exclput du champ

d’application de la convention toute procédure se rapportant aux apctes
des forces armées étrangères, que celles-ci soient présentesp sur le territoire
de l’Etat du for avec ou sans le consentement de ce dernier, et que lpeurs
actes aient été accomplis en temps de paix ou en temps de guerre. pLe rap -
port explicatif de la convention — qui contient un commentaire détaillé

rédigé dans le cadre du processus de négociation — précise ce qui suit en
ce qui concerne l’article 31 :

«La Convention n’est pas destinée à régler les situations quip
peuvent se présenter en cas de conflit armé. Elle ne peut pas seprvir

33

6 CIJ1031.indb 62 22/11/13 12:25 jurisdictional immunpities of the state (jupdgment) 128

tional law a “tort exception” to State immunity applicable to acta jure
imperii in general. The issue before the Court is confined to acts commit -

ted on the territory of the forum State by the armed forces of a foreignp
State, and other organs of State working in co-operation with those
armed forces, in the course of conducting an armed conflict.
66. The Court will first consider whether the adoption of Article 11 of
the European Convention or Article 12 of the United Nations Conven -

tion affords any support to Italy’s contention that States are no lponger
entitled to immunity in respect of the type of acts specified in the ppreced -
ing paragraph. As the Court has already explained (see paragraph 54
above), neither Convention is in force between the Parties to the presepnt
case. The provisions of these Conventions are, therefore, relevant only pin

so far as their provisions and the process of their adoption and implemepn -
tation shed light on the content of customary international law.

67. Article 11 of the European Convention states the territorial tort

principle in broad terms,
“A Contracting State cannot claim immunity from the jurisdiction

of a court of another Contracting State in proceedings which relate to
redress for injury to the person or damage to tangible property, if the
facts which occasioned the injury or damage occurred in the territory
of the State of the forum, and if the author of the injury or damage
was present in that territory at the time when those facts occurred.”p

That provision must, however, be read in the light of Article 31, which
provides,

“Nothing in this Convention shall affect any immunities or privile -
ges enjoyed by a Contracting State in respect of anything done or

omitted to be done by, or in relation to, its armed forces when on the
territory of another Contracting State.”

Although one of the concerns which Article 31 was intended to address
was the relationship between the Convention and the various agreements
on the status of visiting forces, the language of Article 31 makes clear that
it is not confined to that matter and excludes from the scope of the Cpon -

vention all proceedings relating to acts of foreign armed forces, irresppec-
tive of whether those forces are present in the territory of the forum wpith
the consent of the forum State and whether their acts take place in peacpe -
time or in conditions of armed conflict. The Explanatory Report on thep
Convention, which contains a detailed commentary prepared as part of

the negotiating process, states in respect of Article 31,

“The Convention is not intended to govern situations which may
arise in the event of armed conflict ; nor can it be invoked to resolve

33

6 CIJ1031.indb 63 22/11/13 12:25 129 immunités juridictiopnnelles de l’état (arrpêt)

non plus à résoudre les problèmes que le stationnement de troupes

peut faire surgir entre Etats alliés ; ces problèmes font, en général,
l’objet d’accords spéciaux (cf. art. 33).
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . p . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
[L’article 31] empêche que la Convention soit interprétée comme

ayant quelque influence sur ces questions. » (Par. 116, les italiques
sont de la Cour.)

68. La Cour estime, comme l’Italie, que l’article 31 a l’effet d’une
«clause de sauvegarde », la question de l’immunité de l’Etat à raison des
actes de ses forces armées sortant, dès lors, entièrement du champ
d’application de la convention et devant être tranchée au regarpd du droit

international coutumier. Il s’ensuit toutefois que l’on ne sauraitp considé -
rer que le fait que l’exception territoriale soit prévue à l’article 11 de la
convention européenne corrobore l’argument selon lequel un Etat nep peut
prétendre à l’immunité en ce qui concerne les actes dommageapblec sommis
par ses forces armées. Comme indiqué dans le rapport explicatif, ipl résulte

de l’article 31 que la convention n’a aucune incidence sur cette question.
Ainsi, le juge belge (jugement du tribunal de première instance de Gand
en l’affaire Botelberghe c. Allemagne, 18 février 2000), de même que les
juges irlandais (arrêt de la Cour suprême en l’affaire McElhinney c.
Williams, 15 décembre 1995, [1995] 3 Irish Reports 382 ; ILR, vol. 104,
o
p. 691), slovène (arrêt de la Cour constitutionnelle en l’affapire n Up-13/99,
par. 13), grec (Margellos c. République fédérale d’Allemagne, affaire
n o6/2002, ILR, vol. 129, p. 529) et polonais (arrêt de la Cour suprême
de Pologne en l’affaire Natoniewski c. République fédérale d’Allemagne,
Polish Yearbook of International Law, vol. XXX, 2010, p. 299) ont conclu

que, aux termes de l’article 31, l’immunité de l’Etat à raison d’actes dom -
mageables commis par ses forces armées n’était pas affectépe par l’ar -
ticle 11 de la convention.
69. L’article 12 de la convention des Nations Unies est ainsi rédigé :

«A moins que les Etats concernés n’en conviennent autrement, un
Etat ne peut invoquer l’immunité de juridiction devant un tribunalp

d’un autre Etat, compétent en l’espèce, dans une procédurpe se rap -
portant à une action en réparation pécuniaire en cas de décèps ou
d’atteinte à l’intégrité physique d’une personne, ou epn cas de dom -
mage ou de perte d’un bien corporel, dus à un acte ou à une omipssion
prétendument attribuables à l’Etat, si cet acte ou cette omissipon se

sont produits, en totalité ou en partie, sur le territoire de cet autpre
Etat et si l’auteur de l’acte ou de l’omission était préspent sur ce terri
toire au moment de l’acte ou de l’omission. »

Contrairement à la convention européenne, la convention des Nationps
Unies ne contient aucune disposition expresse excluant de son champ
d’application les actes des forces armées. Cependant, il est indiqpué dans le
commentaire de l’article 12 de la Commission du droit international que

celui-ci ne s’applique pas aux « situations liées à des conflits armés »

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problems which may arise between allied States as a result of the
stationing of forces. These problems are generally dealt with by spe -

cial agreements (cf. Art. 33).
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . p . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
[Article 31] prevents the Convention being interpreted as having
any influence upon these matters.” (Para. 116 ; emphasis added.)

68. The Court agrees with Italy that Article 31 takes effect as a “saving

clause”, with the result that the immunity of a State for the acts ofp its
armed forces falls entirely outside the Convention and has to be deter -
mined by reference to customary international law. The consequence,
however, is that the inclusion of the “territorial tort principle”p in Arti -
cle 11 of the Convention cannot be treated as support for the argument

that a State is not entitled to immunity for torts committed by its armepd
forces. As the Explanatory Report states, the effect of Article 31 is that
the Convention has no influence upon that question. Courts in Belgium
(judgment of the Court of First Instance of Ghent in Botelberghe v. Ger ‑
man State, 18 February 2000), Ireland (judgment of the Supreme Court in

McElhinney v. Williams, 15 December 1995, [1995] 3 Irish Reports 382 ;
ILR, Vol. 104, p. 691), Slovenia (case No. Up-13/99, Constitutional
Court, para. 13), Greece (Margellos v. Federal Republic of Germany, case
No. 6/2002, ILR, Vol. 129, p. 529) and Poland (judgment of the Supreme
Court of Poland, Natoniewski v. Federal Republic of Germany, Polish

Yearbook of International Law, Vol. XXX, 2010, p. 299) have concluded
that Article 31 means that the immunity of a State for torts committed by
its armed forces is unaffected by Article 11 of the Convention.

69. Article 12 of the United Nations Convention provides,

“Unless otherwise agreed between the States concerned, a State
cannot invoke immunity from jurisdiction before a court of another
State which is otherwise competent in a proceeding which relates to
pecuniary compensation for death or injury to the person, or damage
to or loss of tangible property, caused by an act or omission which is

alleged to be attributable to the State, if the act or omission occurredp
in whole or in part in the territory of that other State and if the
author of the act or omission was present in that territory at the time p
of the act or omission.”

Unlike the European Convention, the United Nations Convention con -
tains no express provision excluding the acts of armed forces from its
scope. However, the International Law Commission’s commentary on the p

text of Article 12 states that that provision does not apply to “situations
involving armed conflicts” (Yearbook of the International Law Commis ‑

34

6 CIJ1031.indb 65 22/11/13 12:25 130 immunités juridictiopnnelles de l’état (arrpêt)

(Annuaire de la Commission du droit international, 1991, vol. II, deuxième

partie, p. 48, par. 10). Lorsqu’il a présenté le rapport du comité spécial spur
les immunités juridictionnelles des Etats et de leur biens (Nations Unies,
doc. A/59/22) à la Sixième Commission de l’Assemblée générpale, le pré -
sident de ce comité a en outre indiqué que le projet de conventionp avait
été établi en partant du principe généralement admis que ples activités mili -

taires n’entraient pas dans le champ de cet instrument (Nations Unies,
doc. A/C.6/59/SR.13, p. 6, par. 36).
Aucun Etat n’a contesté cette interprétation. De plus, la Cour prelève que
deux des Etats ayant, à ce jour, ratifié la convention — la Norvège et la
Suède — ont fait des déclarations identiques indiquant que, selon elles,pl« a

Convention ne s’appliqu[ait] pas aux activités militaires, y comprpis les acti -
vités des forces armées pendant un conflit armé, selon la dépfinition donnée
à ces termes en vertu du droit international humanitaire, et les activités
entreprises par les forces militaires d’un Etat dans l’exercice dep leurs fonc -
tions officielles » (Nations Unies, doc. C.N.280.2006.TREATIES-2, et

Nations Unies, doc. C.N.912.2009.TREATIES-1). A la lumière de ces dif -
férentes déclarations, la Cour conclut que l’inclusion de l’particle 12 dans la
convention ne peut être considérée comme venant au soutien de lp’argu -
ment selon lequel le droit international coutumier ne reconnaît pas àp un
Etat l’immunité dans des procédures ayant trait à des actes pdommageables

ayant entraîné la mort, un préjudice corporel ou un préjudice matériel
commis sur le territoire de l’Etat du for par les forces armées etp organes
associés d’un autre Etat dans le cadre d’un conflit armé.
70. La Cour en vient à la pratique des Etats telle que reflétée ppar les
législations nationales, et relève que neuf des dix Etats auxquels les Parties

se sont référées, qui ont spécifiquement légiférép en la matière, ont adopté
des dispositions prévoyant qu’un Etat ne peut invoquer l’immunipté en ce
qui concerne des actes dommageables ayant entraîné la mort, un prépjudice
corporel ou un préjudice matériel sur le territoire de l’Etat dpu for (Etats-
Unis d’Amérique: Foreign Sovereign Immunities Act 1976 (loi de1976 sur

l’immunité des Etats étrangers), 28 USC, art. 1605 a) 5) ; Royaume-Uni :
State Immunity Act 1978 (loi de 1978 sur l’immunité des Etats), art. 5 ;
Afrique du Sud: Foreign States Immunities Act 1981 (loi de 1981 sur l’im -
munité des Etats étrangers), art. 6; Canada: State Immunity Act 1985 (loi
de 1985 sur l’immunité des Etats), art. 6; Australie: Foreign States Immu -

nities Act 1985 (loi de 1985 sur l’immunité des Etats étrangers), art. 13 ;
Singapour: State Immunity Act 1985 (loi de 1985 sur l’immunité des
Etats), art. 7 ; Argentine : loi no 24.488 (loi de 1995 sur l’immunité des
Etats étrangers devant les tribunaux argentins), art. 2 e) ; Israël : Foreign
State Immunity Law 2008 (loi de 2008 sur l’immunité des Etats étrangers),

art. 5; et Japon : Act on the Civil Jurisdiction of Japan with respect to a
Foreign State (loi de 2009 sur la juridiction civile du Japon à l’égard d’un
Etat étranger), art. 10). Seule l’ordonnance de 1981 relative à l’immunité
des Etats du Pakistan ne contient aucune disposition analogue.
71. Deux de ces textes — les lois sur l’immunité des Etats adoptées

par le Royaume-Uni en 1978 (art. 16.2) et par Singapour en 1985

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6 CIJ1031.indb 66 22/11/13 12:25 jurisdictional immunpities of the state (jupdgment) 130

sion, 1991, Vol. II (2), p. 46, para. 10). Moreover, in presenting to the
Sixth Committee of the General Assembly the Report of the Ad Hoc

Committee on Jurisdictional Immunities of States and Their Property
(United Nations doc. A/59/22), the Chairman of the Ad Hoc Committee
stated that the draft Convention had been prepared on the basis of a genp-
eral understanding that military activities were not covered (United
Nations doc. A/C.6/59/SR.13, p. 6, para. 36).

No State questioned this interpretation. Moreover, the Court notes
that two of the States which have so far ratified the Convention, Norwpay
and Sweden, made declarations in identical terms stating their under -
standing that “the Convention does not apply to military activities, p
including the activities of armed forces during an armed conflict, as pthose

terms are understood under international humanitarian law, and activi -
ties undertaken by military forces of a State in the exercise of their official
duties” (United Nations doc. C.N.280.2006.TREATIES-2 and United
Nations doc. C.N.912.2009.TREATIES-1). In the light of these various
statements, the Court concludes that the inclusion in the Convention of p

Article 12 cannot be taken as affording any support to the contention
that customary international law denies State immunity in tort proceed -
ings relating to acts occasioning death, personal injury or damage to
property committed in the territory of the forum State by the armed
forces and associated organs of another State in the context of an armed

conflict.
70. Turning to State practice in the form of national legislation, the
Court notes that nine of the ten States referred to by the Parties whichp
have legislated specifically for the subject of State immunity have adopted
provisions to the effect that a State is not entitled to immunity in rpespect
of torts occasioning death, personal injury or damage to property occur -

ring on the territory of the forum State (United States of America For -
eign Sovereign Immunities Act 1976, 28 USC, Sect. 1605 (a) (5) ; United
Kingdom State Immunity Act 1978, Sect. 5 ; South Africa Foreign States
Immunities Act 1981, Sect. 6 ; Canada State Immunity Act 1985, Sect. 6 ;
Australia Foreign States Immunities Act 1985, Sect. 13 ; Singapore State

Immunity Act 1985, Sect. 7 ; Argentina Law No. 24.488 (Statute on
the Immunity of Foreign States before Argentine Tribunals) 1995,
Art.2 (e); Israel Foreign State Immunity Law 2008, Sect. 5 ; and Japan,
Act on the Civil Jurisdiction of Japan with respect to a Foreign State, p
2009, Art. 10). Only Pakistan’s State Immunity Ordinance 1981 contains

no comparable provision.

71. Two of these statutes (the United Kingdom State Immunity
Act 1978, Section 16 (2) and the Singapore State Immunity Act 1985, Sec -

35

6 CIJ1031.indb 67 22/11/13 12:25 131 immunités juridictiopnnelles de l’état (arrpêt)

(art. 19.2. a)) — contiennent des dispositions prévoyant qu’ils ne s’ap -
pliquent pas aux instances relatives aux actes des forces armées éptran -

gères. Les dispositions de même nature qui figurent dans les loips en
vigueur en Australie, au Canada et en Israël excluent uniquement les p
actes des forces étrangères présentes sur le territoire de l’pEtat avec le
consentement de celui-ci ou les questions régies par la législatiopn relative
à ces forces (loi sur l’immunité des Etats adoptée par le Cpanada en 1985,

art. 16; loi sur l’immunité des Etats étrangers adoptée par l’Australie en
1985, art. 6 ; loi sur l’immunité des Etats étrangers adoptée par Israëpl
en 2008, art. 22). Les lois en vigueur en Afrique du Sud, en Argentine et
au Japon ne contiennent aucune clause d’exclusion. Cependant, la loi p
japonaise prévoit (en son article 3) qu’elle « ne portera pas atteinte aux
privilèges ou immunités dont jouissent les Etats étrangers … en vertu des

traités ou des règles établies du droit international ».
Quant à la loi des Etats-Unis sur l’immunité des Etats étranpgers de 1976,
elle ne contient aucune disposition expresse concernant les instances repla -
tives aux actes de forces armées étrangères, mais prévoit unpe exception à la
disposition selon laquelle l’immunité ne saurait être invoquépe «lorsqu’une

action en réparation est intentée contre un Etat étranger à raison de dom -
mages corporels, d’un décès, de dommages matériels ou de perptes de biens
survenus aux Etats-Unis et causés par un acte dommageable ou une omis -
sion de cet Etat étranger » (art. 1605 a ) 5)) ; cette exception s’applique à
«toute demande fondée sur l’exercice, ou le défaut d’exercicep, de pouvoirs

discrétionnaires, qu’il y ait eu ou non abus de pouvoir » (art. 1605 a) 5) A)).
Interprétant cette disposition, qui n’a pas d’équivalent danps les législations
des autres Etats, une juridiction américaine a jugé qu’un Etat pétranger
dont les agents avaient commis un assassinat aux Etats-Unis ne pouvait
jouir de l’immunité (Letelier c. République du Chili (1980), tribunal fédéral
du district de Columbia (Etats-Unis d’Amérique), Federal Supplement

(F. Supp.), vol. 488, p. 665; ILR, vol. 63, p. 378). La Cour n’a cependant
connaissance d’aucune affaire aux Etats-Unis dans laquelle les juripdictions
ont eu à appliquer cette disposition à des actes accomplis par lesp forces
armées et organes associés d’Etats étrangers au cours d’upn conflit armé.
En effet, dans aucun des sept Etats dont la législation ne prévoit pas

d’exception générale en ce qui concerne les actes des forces arpmées, les
tribunaux n’ont été appelés à appliquer la législationp en question dans
une affaire mettant en cause les forces armées et organes associéps d’un
Etat étranger ayant agi dans le cadre d’un conflit armé.
72. La Cour en vient à présent à la pratique des Etats, telle que rpeflétée

par les décisions des juridictions nationales, relativement à l’pimmunité de
l’Etat en ce qui concerne les actes de forces armées. La question pde savoir
si un Etat peut prétendre à l’immunité dans des procédureps ayant trait à
des actes dommageables que ses forces armées auraient commis alors
qu’elles étaient stationnées, ou se déplaçaient, sur le tperritoire d’un autre
Etat avec le consentement de celui-ci a été maintes fois examinée par

des juridictions nationales. Les décisions rendues par certaines juridic -
tions égyptienne (Bassionni Amrane c. John, Gazette des Tribunaux mixtes

36

6 CIJ1031.indb 68 22/11/13 12:25 jurisdictional immunpities of the state (jupdgment) 131

tion 19 (2) (a)) contain provisions that exclude proceedings relating to
the acts of foreign armed forces from their application. The correspond -

ing provisions in the Canadian, Australian and Israeli statutes exclude p
only the acts of visiting forces present with the consent of the host Stpate
or matters covered by legislation regarding such visiting forces (Canadpa
State Immunity Act 1985, Section 16 ; Australia Foreign States Immuni -
ties Act 1985, Section 6; Israel Foreign State Immunity Law 2008, Sec -

tion 22). The legislation of South Africa, Argentina and Japan contains
no exclusion clause. However, the Japanese statute (in Article 3) states
that its provisions “shall not affect the privileges or immunities penjoyed
by a foreign State . . . based on treaties or the established international
law”.

The United States Foreign Sovereign Immunities Act 1976 contains no
provision specifically addressing claims relating to the acts of foreipgn
armed forces but its provision that there is no immunity in respect of
claims “in which money damages are sought against a foreign State forp

personal injury or death, or damage to or loss of property, occurring in
the United States and caused by the tortious act or omission of that forp -
eign State” (Sec. 1605 (a) (5)) is subject to an exception for “any claim
based upon the exercise or performance or the failure to exercise or
perform a discretionary function regardless of whether the discretion bep

abused” (Sec. 1605 (a) (5) (A)). Interpreting this provision, which has no
counterpart in the legislation of other States, a court in the United States
has held that a foreign State whose agents committed an assassination
in the United States was not entitled to immunity (Letelier v. Republic of
Chile (1980), Federal Supplement (F. Supp.), Vol. 488, p. 665 ; ILR,
Vol. 63, p. 378 (United States District Court, District of Columbia)).

However, the Court is not aware of any case in the United States where
the courts have been called upon to apply this provision to acts performped
by the armed forces and associated organs of foreign States in the courspe
of an armed conflict.
Indeed, in none of the seven States in which the legislation contains nop

general exclusion for the acts of armed forces, have the courts been calpled
upon to apply that legislation in a case involving the armed forces of ap
foreign State, and associated organs of State, acting in the context of pan
armed conflict.
72. The Court next turns to State practice in the form of the judgments

of national courts regarding State immunity in relation to the acts of
armed forces. The question whether a State is entitled to immunity in
proceedings concerning torts allegedly committed by its armed forces
when stationed on or visiting the territory of another State, with the cpon -
sent of the latter, has been considered by national courts on a number opf
occasions. Decisions of the courts of Egypt (Bassionni Amrane v. John,

Gazette des Tribunaux mixtes d’Egypte, January 1934, p. 108 ; Annual
Digest, Vol. 7, p. 187), Belgium (S.A. Eau, gaz, électricité et applications v.

36

6 CIJ1031.indb 69 22/11/13 12:25 132 immunités juridictiopnnelles de l’état (arrpêt)

d’Egypte, janvier 1934, p. 108), belge (S.A. Eau, gaz, électricité et applica‑

tions c. Office deaide mutuelle, Cour d’appel de Bruxelles, Pasicrisie belge,
1957, vol. 144, 2 partie, p. 88) et allemande (Immunité du Royaume‑Uni,
Cour d’appel du Schleswig, Jahrbuch für Internationales Recht, 1957,
vol. 7, p. 400) témoignaient de ce que les tribunaux nationaux accordaient
l’immunité lorsque les actes des forces armées étrangèresp avaient le carac -

tère d’actes jure imperii. Depuis lors, plusieurs juridictions nationales ont
jugé qu’un Etat jouissait de l’immunité en ce qui concerne dpes dommages
causés par des navires de guerre (Etats‑Unis d’Amérique c. Autorités por ‑
tuaires d’Eemshaven, Cour suprême des Pays-Bas, Nederlandse Jurispru ‑
dentie, 2001, n 567 ;Allianz Via Insurance c. Etats‑Unis d’Amérique, Cour

d’appel d’Aix-en-Provence, deuxième chambre, arrêt du 3 septembre 1999,
ILR, vol. 127, p. 148) ou dans le cadre d’exercices militaires (FILT‑CGIL
Trento c. Etats‑Unis d’Amérique, Cour de cassation italienne, Rivista di
diritto internazionale, vol. 83, 2000, p. 1155). Au Royaume-Uni, les juri -
dictions nationales ont estimé que le droit international coutumier lpeur

faisait obligation d’accorder l’immunité dans le cadre d’insptances se rap -
portant à des actes dommageables commis par des forces armées éptran -
gères sur le territoire du Royaume-Uni si les actes incriminés éptaient des
actes jure imperii (Littrell c. Etats‑Unis d’Amérique (n° 2), Cour d’appel,
[1995] 1 Weekly Law Reports (WLR) 82 ; ILR, vol. 100, p. 438 ; Hol ‑

land c. Lampen‑Wolfe, Chambre des lords, [2000] 1 WLR 1573 ; ILR,
vol. 119, p. 367).
La Cour suprême d’Irlande a considéré que le droit internatiponal pres -
crivait d’accorder l’immunité à un Etat étranger pour des actes accomplis
jure imperii par des membres de ses forces armées, y compris lorsque ces

forces se trouvaient sur le territoire de l’Etat du for sans le consepntement
de celui-ci (McElhinney c. Williams, [1995] 3 Irish Reports 382 ; ILR,
vol. 104, p. 691). La Grande Chambre de la Cour européenne des droits de
l’homme a par la suite jugé que la décision McElhinney c. Williams reflétait
une interprétation du droit international largement admise, de telle psorte

que l’octroi de l’immunité ne pouvait être considéré cpomme incompatible
avec la convention européenne des droits de l’homme ( McElhinney
c. Irlande [GC], requête n o 31253/96, arrêt du 21 novembre 2001, CEDH
Recueil 2001-XI, p. 59).
Quoiqu’elles n’aient pas directement trait à la question particulière qui

se pose en la présente affaire, ces décisions judiciaires, qui npe semblent pas
avoir été infirmées par des décisions rendues par d’autpres juridictions
nationales, tendent à indiquer qu’un Etat jouit de l’immunitép en ce qui
concerne des actes jure imperii commis par ses forces armées sur le terri -
toire d’un autre Etat.

73. La Cour considère cependant que, aux fins de la présente affaipre, la
pratique la plus pertinente réside dans les décisions rendues par ples juridic-
tions internes qui ont eu à trancher la question de savoir si un Etatp pouvait
prétendre à l’immunité dans des instances relatives à desp actes que ses forces
armées auraient commis lors d’un conflit armé. Toutes ces affaires, souvent

très similaires sur le plan factuel à celles qui ont été portées devant la justice

37

6 CIJ1031.indb 70 22/11/13 12:25 jurisdictional immunpities of the state (jupdgment) 132

Office d’aide mutuelle, Cour d’appel, Brussels, Pasicrisie belge, 1957,
Vol. 144, 2nd Part, p. 88 ; ILR, Vol. 23, p. 205) and Germany (Immunity

of the United Kingdom, Court of Appeal of Schleswig, Jahrbuch für Inter ‑
nationales Recht, 1957, Vol. 7, p. 400 ; ILR, Vol. 24, p. 207) are earlier
examples of national courts according immunity where the acts of foreignp
armed forces were characterized as acta jure imperii. Since then, several
national courts have held that a State is immune with respect to damage

caused by warships (United States of America v. Eemshaven Port Author ‑
ity, Supreme Court of the Netherlands, Nederlandse Jurisprudentie, 2001,
No. 567 ; ILR, Vol. 127, p. 225 ; Allianz Via Insurance v. United States of
America (1999), Cour d’appel, Aix-en-Provence, 2nd Chamber, judgment
of 3 September 1999, ILR, Vol. 127, p. 148) or military exercises
(FILT‑CGIL Trento v. United States of America, Italian Court of Cassa -

tion, Rivista di diritto internazionale, Vol. 83, 2000, p. 1155; ILR, Vol. 128,
p. 644). The United Kingdom courts have held that customary interna -
tional law required immunity in proceedings for torts committed by for -
eign armed forces on United Kingdom territory if the acts in question
were acta jure imperii (Littrell v. United States of America (No. 2), Court

of Appeal, [1995] 1 Weekly Law Reports (WLR) 82 ; ILR, Vol. 100,
p. 438 ; Holland v. Lampen‑Wolfe, House of Lords, [2000] 1 WLR 1573 ;
ILR, Vol. 119, p. 367).

The Supreme Court of Ireland held that international law required that
a foreign State be accorded immunity in respect of acts jure imperii car -
ried out by members of its armed forces even when on the territory of thpe
forum State without the forum State’s permission (McElhinney v. Wil ‑
liams, [1995] 3 Irish Reports 382 ; ILR, Vol. 104, p. 691). The Grand
Chamber of the European Court of Human Rights later held that this

decision reflected a widely held view of international law so that the grant
of immunity could not be regarded as incompatible with the European
Convention on Human Rights (McElhinney v. Ireland [GC], application
No. 31253/96, judgment of 21 November 2001, ECHR Reports 2001-XI,
p. 39 ; ILR, Vol. 123, p. 73, para. 38).

While not directly concerned with the specific issue which arises in tphe
present case, these judicial decisions, which do not appear to have beenp
contradicted in any other national court judgments, suggest that a Statep
is entitled to immunity in respect of acta jure imperii committed by its

armed forces on the territory of another State.

73. The Court considers, however, that for the purposes of the present
case the most pertinent State practice is to be found in those national p
judicial decisions which concerned the question whether a State was entip -
tled to immunity in proceedings concerning acts allegedly committed by

its armed forces in the course of an armed conflict. All of those caseps, the
facts of which are often very similar to those of the cases before the

37

6 CIJ1031.indb 71 22/11/13 12:25 133 immunités juridictiopnnelles de l’état (arrpêt)

italienne, ont trait à des événements de la seconde guerre mondiale. A cet
égard, la Cour de cassation française a systématiquement reconnpu à l’Alle -
magne son immunité dans une série d’affaires introduites par pdes requé -
rants qui avaient été déportés du territoire français occpupé pendant la
o
seconde guerre moodiale (pourvoi n 02-45961, 16 décembre 2003o Bull.
civ., 2003, I, n 258, p. 206 (l’affaire Bucheron) ; pourvoi n 03-41851,
2 juin 2004, Bull. civ., 2004, I, n o158, p. 132 (l’affaire X ); et pour -
voi n 04-47504, 3 janvier 2006 (l’affaire Grosz)). La Cour relève également
o
que, dans l’affaire Grosz c. France (requête n 14717/06, décision du
16 juin 2009), la Cour européenne des droits de l’homme a conclu que la
France n’avait pas contrevenu à la convention européenne des drpoits de
l’homme dans le cadre de la procédure ayant fait l’objet de l’parrêt de la
Cour de cassation française de 2006 (arrêt n o 04-47504), au motif que

celle-ci avait donné effet à une immunité prescrite par le drpoit international.
74. Les plus hautes juridictions de Slovénie et de Pologne ont, elles
aussi, jugé que l’Allemagne jouissait de l’immunité à l’pégard d’actes illi -
cites commis sur le territoire de ces Etats par ses forces armées au pcours

de la seconde guerre mondiale. En 2001, la Cour constitutionnelle de Slo -
vénie a ainsi jugé que l’Allemagne jouissait de l’immunité à l’égard d’une
action intentée par un requérant qui avait été déportép en Allemagne pen -
dant l’occupation, et que la Cour suprême slovène n’avait paps agi de
o
manière arbitraire en retenant cette immunité (affaire n Up-13/99, arrêt
du 8 mars 2001). Dans l’arrêt qu’elle a rendu le 29 octobre 2010 en l’af -
faire Natoniewski c. République fédérale d’Allemagne (Polish Yearbook of
International Law, vol. XXX, 2010, p. 299), la Cour suprême de Pologne
a, pour sa part, conclu à l’immunité de l’Allemagne à l’égard d’une action

engagée par un requérant qui avait été blessé en 1944 lorsque les forces
allemandes avaient incendié son village situé en Pologne occupépe et tué
plusieurs centaines de villageois. La Cour suprême, après s’êptre livrée à un
examen approfondi des décisions rendues dans les affaires Ferrini, Dis ‑

tomo et Margellos, ainsi que des dispositions de la convention européenne,
de la convention des Nations Unies et de divers autres éléments, a conclu
que les Etats continuaient de jouir de l’immunité pour les actes dpomma -
geables que leurs forces armées étaient accusées d’avoir compmis au cours

d’un conflit armé. Des décisions reconnaissant l’immunitép de l’Allemagne
dans le cadre d’actions engagées relativement à des actes de guperre perpé -
trés sur le territoire ou dans les eaux des Etats concernés ont épgalement
été rendues par des juridictions inférieures en Belgique (jugepment rendu
par le tribunal de première instance de Gand en l’affaire Botelberghe

c. Allemagne (2000)), en Serbie (jugement du tribunal de première ins -
tance de Leskovac en date du 1 ernovembre 2001) et au Brésil (Barreto
c. République fédérale d’Allemagne, Cour fédérale de Rio de Janeiro, arrêt
du 9 juillet 2008 ayant retenu l’immunité de l’Allemagne dans le cadre

d’une procédure engagée à raison de la destruction, par un spous-marin
allemand, d’un navire de pêche brésilien dans les eaux du Brépsil).
75. Enfin, la Cour relève que les juridictions allemandes ont, elles aupssi,
conclu que l’exception territoriale ne privait pas l’Etat de l’pimmunité que

38

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Italian courts, concern the events of the Second World War. In this con -
text, the Cour de cassation in France has consistently held that Germany

was entitled to immunity in a series of cases brought by claimants who had
been deported from occupied French territory during the Second World
War (No. 02-45961, 16 December 2003, Bull. civ., 2003, I, No. 258, p. 206
(the Bucheron case) ; No. 03-41851, 2 June 2004, Bull. civ., 2004, I,
No. 158, p. 132 (the X case) and No. 04-47504, 3 January 2006 (the Grosz

case)). The Court also notes that the European Court of Human Rights
held in Grosz v. France (application No. 14717/06, decision of
16 June 2009) that France had not contravened the European Convention
on Human Rights in the proceedings which were the subject of the 2006
Cour de cassation judgment (judgment No. 04-47504), because the Cour
de cassation had given effect to an immunity required by international

law.
74. The highest courts in Slovenia and Poland have also held that Ger -
many was entitled to immunity in respect of unlawful acts perpetrated onp
their territory by its armed forces during the Second World War. In 2001
the Constitutional Court of Slovenia ruled that Germany was entitled to p

immunity in an action brought by a claimant who had been deported to
Germany during the German occupation and that the Supreme Court of
Slovenia had not acted arbitrarily in upholding that immunity (case
No. Up-13/99, judgment of 8 March 2001). The Supreme Court of Poland
held, in Natoniewski v. Federal Republic of Germany (judgment of

29 October 2010, Polish Yearbook of International Law, Vol. XXX, 2010,
p. 299), that Germany was entitled to immunity in an action brought by
a claimant who in 1944 had suffered injuries when German forces burnedp
his village in occupied Poland and murdered several hundred of its inhab -
itants. The Supreme Court, after an extensive review of the decisions inp
Ferrini, Distomo and Margellos, as well as the provisions of the European

Convention and the United Nations Convention and a range of other
materials, concluded that States remained entitled to immunity in respecpt
of torts allegedly committed by their armed forces in the course of an
armed conflict. Judgments by lower courts in Belgium (judgment of thep
Court of First Instance of Ghent in 2000 in Botelberghe v. German State),

Serbia (judgment of the Court of First Instance of Leskovac, 1 Novem -
ber 2001) and Brazil (Barreto v. Federal Republic of Germany, Federal
Court, Rio de Janeiro, judgment of 9 July 2008 holding Germany immune
in proceedings regarding the sinking of a Brazilian fishing vessel by pa
German submarine in Brazilian waters) have also held that Germany was

immune in actions for acts of war committed on their territory or in thepir
waters.

75. Finally, the Court notes that the German courts have also con -
cluded that the territorial tort principle did not remove a State’s epntitle -

38

6 CIJ1031.indb 73 22/11/13 12:25 134 immunités juridictiopnnelles de l’état (arrpêt)

lui reconnaît le droit international en ce qui concerne les actes compmis
par ses forces armées, quand bien même ceux-ci auraient été pcommis sur
le territoire de l’Etat du for (arrêt de la Cour suprême fépdérale du
26 juin 2003 (Ressortissants grecs c. République fédérale d’Allemagne,
affaire n III ZR 245/98, NJW, 2003, p. 3488 ; ILR, vol. 129, p. 556),

déclarant non exécutoire en Allemagne le jugement grec dans l’apffaire
Distomo au motif qu’il avait été rendu en violation du droit de l’Aplle -
magne à l’immunité).
76. Le seul Etat dans lequel une certaine pratique judiciaire semble
étayer l’argument de l’Italie — si l’on excepte les décisions des juridictions

italiennes qui font l’objet de la présente instance — est la Grèce. Dans
l’arrêt qu’elle a rendu en 2000 en l’affaire Distomo, la Cour de cassation
grecque s’est livrée à une analyse approfondie de l’exception territoriale
sans jamais laisser entendre que celle-ci ne valait pas également poupr les

actes commis par les forces armées dans le cadre d’un conflit arpmé. Cepen -
dant, dans la décision qu’il a rendue en l’affaire Margellos c. République
fédérale d’Allemagne (affaire n o6/2002, ILR, vol. 129, p. 525), le Tribunal
supérieur spécial grec a contredit le raisonnement de la Cour de cassation
grecque dans l’affaire Distomo et conclu que l’Allemagne jouissait de l’im -

munité. Il a notamment indiqué que l’exception territoriale n’pétait pas
applicable aux actes perpétrés par les forces armées d’un Etpat au cours
d’un conflit armé. Quoique cette décision ne change rien àp l’issue de l’af -
faire Distomo, point sur lequel la Cour reviendra plus loin, la Grèce a

toutefois indiqué devant la Cour que les tribunaux et autres organes pgrecs
ayant à se prononcer sur l’applicabilité de l’immunité dapns le cas d’actes
dommageables qui auraient été commis par des forces armées éptrangères
sur son sol étaient désormais tenus de se conformer à la positipon du Tri -
bunal supérieur spécial dans sa décision en l’affaire Margellos, sauf s’ils

considéraient que le droit international coutumier avait évolué depuis que
cette décision avait été rendue. L’Allemagne a fait observerp que, depuis le
prononcé de la décision en l’affaire Margellos, aucune juridiction grecque
n’avait refusé de lui reconnaître l’immunité dans le cadrpe d’une action
engagée à son encontre à raison d’actes dommageables qu’apuraient com -

mis ses forces armées pendant la seconde guerre mondiale et que, dansp un
arrêt rendu en 2009 (arrêt n o853/2009), la Cour de cassation grecque,
tout en fondant sa décision sur des motifs différents, avait appprouvé le
raisonnement suivi dans l’affaire Margellos. Eu égard à la décision rendue

en l’affaire Margellos, au dictum formulé dans cet arrêt de 2009, ainsi qu’à
la décision du Gouvernement grec de ne pas autoriser l’exécutiopn de l’ar -
rêt Distomo sur le sol même de la Grèce — refus que ce Gouvernement a
défendu devant la Cour européenne des droits de l’homme en l’affaire
Kalogeropoulou et autres c. Grèce et Allemagne (requête n o 59021/00, déci-

sion du 12 décembre 2002, CEDH Recueil 2002-X, p. 391) —, la Cour
conclut que la pratique suivie par l’Etat grec, considérée dansp son
ensemble, contredit plutôt qu’elle n’étaye l’argument de pl’Italie.
77. De l’avis de la Cour, la pratique étatique qui ressort des décisions
judiciaires atteste qu’un Etat continue de jouir, dans le cadre d’pinstances

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6 CIJ1031.indb 74 22/11/13 12:25 jurisdictional immunpities of the state (jupdgment) 134

ment to immunity under international law in respect of acts committed byp
its armed forces, even where those acts took place on the territory of tphe

forum State (judgment of the Federal Supreme Court of 26 June 2003
(Greek Citizens v. Federal Republic of Germany, case No. III ZR 245/98,
NJW, 2003, p. 3488 ; ILR, Vol. 129, p. 556), declining to give effect in
Germany to the Greek judgment in the Distomo case on the ground that
it had been given in breach of Germany’s entitlement to immunity).

76. The only State in which there is any judicial practice which appears
to support the Italian argument, apart from the judgments of the Italian
courts which are the subject of the present proceedings, is Greece. The p
judgment of the Hellenic Supreme Court in the Distomo case in 2000 con -
tains an extensive discussion of the territorial tort principle without pany

suggestion that it does not extend to the acts of armed forces during anp
armed conflict. However, the Greek Special Supreme Court, in its judg -
ment in Margellos v. Federal Republic of Germany (case No. 6/2002,
ILR, Vol. 129, p. 525), repudiated the reasoning of the Supreme Court in
Distomo and held that Germany was entitled to immunity. In particular,

the Special Supreme Court held that the territorial tort principle was npot
applicable to the acts of the armed forces of a State in the conduct of p
armed conflict. While that judgment does not alter the outcome in the p
Distomo case, a matter considered below, Greece has informed the Court
that courts and other bodies in Greece faced with the same issue of

whether immunity is applicable to torts allegedly committed by foreign
armed forces in Greece are required to follow the stance taken by the
Special Supreme Court in its decision in Margellos unless they consider
that customary international law has changed since the Margellos judg -
ment. Germany has pointed out that, since the judgment in Margellos
was given, no Greek court has denied immunity in proceedings brought

against Germany in respect of torts allegedly committed by German
armed forces during the Second World War and in a 2009 decision (deci -
sion No. 853/2009), the Supreme Court, although deciding the case on a
different ground, approved the reasoning in Margellos. In view of the
judgment in Margellos and the dictum in the 2009 case, as well as the

decision of the Greek Government not to permit enforcement of the Dis ‑
tomo judgment in Greece itself and the Government’s defence of that
decision before the European Court of Human Rights in Kalogeropoulou
and Others v. Greece and Germany (application No. 59021/00, decision of
12 December 2002, ECHR Reports 2002-X, p. 417; ILR, Vol. 129, p. 537),

the Court concludes that Greek State practice taken as a whole actually p
contradicts, rather than supports, Italy’s argument.

77. In the Court’s opinion, State practice in the form of judicial deci -
sions supports the proposition that State immunity for acta jure imperii

39

6 CIJ1031.indb 75 22/11/13 12:25 135 immunités juridictiopnnelles de l’état (arrpêt)

civiles, de l’immunité à raison d’actes jure imperii lorsque sont en cause
des actes ayant entraîné la mort, un préjudice corporel ou un ppréjudice

matériel commis par ses forces armées et autres organes dans le capdre
d’un conflit armé, même lorsque les actes en question ont eu plieu sur le
territoire de l’Etat du for. Cette pratique est assortie de l’opinio juris, ainsi
que l’attestent les positions de divers Etats et la jurisprudence d’pun certain
nombre de juridictions nationales, qui ont clairement indiqué qu’elles

considéraient que le droit international coutumier exigeait de reconnpaître
l’immunité. L’absence presque totale de toute jurisprudence contraire est
également significative, tout comme le fait qu’aucun Etat n’ap jamais
déclaré — que ce soit dans le cadre des travaux de la Commission du
droit international sur l’immunité de l’Etat, de l’adoption pde la conven -
tion des Nations Unies ou dans tout autre contexte dont la Cour pourrait

avoir connaissance — que le droit international coutumier ne prescrirait
pas l’immunité dans ce type d’affaires.
78. A la lumière de ce qui précède, la Cour estime que le droit interna -
tional coutumier impose toujours de reconnaître l’immunité àp l’Etat dont
les forces armées ou d’autres organes sont accusés d’avoir cpommis sur le

territoire d’un autre Etat des actes dommageables au cours d’un conflit
armé. Cette conclusion est confirmée par les décisions de la pCour euro -
péenne des droits de l’homme dont il a été fait mention ci-dpessus (voir
paragraphes 72, 73 et 76).
79. En conséquence, la Cour conclut que, contrairement à ce qu’a sopu -

tenu l’Italie dans le cadre de la présente instance, la décisiopn des juridic -
tions italiennes de ne pas accorder l’immunité à l’Allemagnep ne saurait
être justifiée sur la base de l’exception territoriale.

3. Le second argument de l’Italie : l’objet et les circonstances

des demandes présentées aux juridictions italiennes

80. Le second argument de l’Italie, qui, à la différence du premiper,
s’applique à toutes les réclamations portées devant la justice italienne,
consiste à soutenir que le refus de l’immunité était justifipé en raison de la
nature particulière des actes qui faisaient l’objet de ces réclpamations et
compte tenu des circonstances dans lesquelles celles-ci s’inscrivaienpt. Cet

argument comporte trois volets. Tout d’abord, l’Italie fait valoirp que les
actes qui ont donné lieu auxdites réclamations constituaient des vpiola -
tions graves des principes du droit international applicables à la copnduite
des conflits armés, à savoir des crimes de guerre et des crimes pcontre l’hu -
manité. Ensuite, elle soutient que les règles du droit internationpal ainsi

violées étaient des règles impératives (jus cogens). Enfin, elle allègue que,
dès lors que les requérants s’étaient vu refuser toute autrep forme de répa -
ration, l’exercice par les juridictions italiennes de leur compétepnce était
nécessaire à titre de dernier recours. La Cour examinera tour àp tour cha -
cun de ces volets, tout en relevant que l’Italie a aussi, à l’audience, fait

valoir que ses juridictions avaient été fondées à refuser l’pimmunité à
l’Allemagne en raison de l’effet combiné de ces trois volets.p

40

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continues to extend to civil proceedings for acts occasioning death, per -
sonal injury or damage to property committed by the armed forces and

other organs of a State in the conduct of armed conflict, even if the prele -
vant acts take place on the territory of the forum State. That practice pis
accompanied by opinio juris, as demonstrated by the positions taken by
States and the jurisprudence of a number of national courts which have
made clear that they considered that customary international law requirepd

immunity. The almost complete absence of contrary jurisprudence is also p
significant, as is the absence of any statements by States in connectipon
with the work of the International Law Commission regarding State
immunity and the adoption of the United Nations Convention or, so far
as the Court has been able to discover, in any other context asserting that
customary international law does not require immunity in such cases.

78. In light of the foregoing, the Court considers that customary inter -
national law continues to require that a State be accorded immunity in
proceedings for torts allegedly committed on the territory of another

State by its armed forces and other organs of State in the course of conp -
ducting an armed conflict. That conclusion is confirmed by the judgmpents
of the European Court of Human Rights to which the Court has referred
(see paragraphs 72, 73 and 76).
79. The Court therefore concludes that, contrary to what had been

argued by Italy in the present proceedings, the decision of the Italian p
courts to deny immunity to Germany cannot be justified on the basis ofp
the territorial tort principle.

3. Italy’s Second Argument : The Subject‑Matter and Circumstances

of the Claims in the Italian Courts

80. Italy’s second argument, which, unlike its first argument, applies pto
all of the claims brought before the Italian courts, is that the denial of
immunity was justified on account of the particular nature of the actsp
forming the subject-matter of the claims before the Italian courts and the
circumstances in which those claims were made. There are three strands

to this argument. First, Italy contends that the acts which gave rise top the
claims constituted serious violations of the principles of internationalp law
applicable to the conduct of armed conflict, amounting to war crimes apnd
crimes against humanity. Secondly, Italy maintains that the rules of intper -
national law thus contravened were peremptory norms (jus cogens).

Thirdly, Italy argues that the claimants having been denied all other
forms of redress, the exercise of jurisdiction by the Italian courts wasp nec -
essary as a matter of last resort. The Court will consider each of these
strands in turn, while recognizing that, in the oral proceedings, Italy palso
contended that its courts had been entitled to deny State immunity

because of the combined effect of these three strands.

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A. La gravité des violations

81. Le premier volet est fondé sur l’idée que le droit internationapl n’ac-

corde pas l’immunité à un Etat ayant commis des violations gravpes du droit
des conflits armés (ou droit international humanitaire, pour reprendre l’ex-
pression communément utilisée aujourd’hui, qui n’était toputefois pas
employée dans les années 1943-1945) ou, à tout le moins, restreint son droit
à l’immunité. Dans la présente affaire, la Cour a déjà clairement indiqué
(voir paragraphe 52 ci-dessus) que les actes des forces armées allemandes et

d’autres organes du Reich allemand qui sont à l’origine des insptances portées
devant les juridictions italiennes étaient des violations graves du dproit des
conflits armés, constitutives de crimes en droit international. La pquestion est
de savoir si, de ce fait, l’Allemagne est privée de son droit àp l’immunité.
82. La Cour se doit toutefois d’observer d’emblée que l’idée pde subor-

donner, dans une certaine mesure, le droit à l’immunité à la gravité de
l’acte illicite en cause pose un problème de logique. L’immunitpé de juri -
diction permet d’échapper non seulement à un jugement défavoprable mais
aussi au procès lui-même. Elle revêt donc nécessairement un pcaractère
préliminaire. C’est par conséquent avant de pouvoir examiner lep fond de

l’affaire portée devant lui et avant que les faits aient étép établis que le tri-
bunal national saisi doit déterminer si, au regard du droit internatiponal,
un Etat peut ou non prétendre à l’immunité. Si l’immunitép devait être
fonction du point de savoir si l’Etat a véritablement commis une vpiolation
grave du droit international des droits de l’homme ou du droit des conflits

armés, le tribunal interne saisi devrait se livrer à un examen au fond pour
déterminer s’il a compétence. Si, en revanche, il suffisait d’paccuser l’Etat
d’avoir commis des actes illicites de cet ordre pour le priver de sonp droit
à l’immunité, une présentation habile de la réclamation ppourrait à elle
seule avoir pour effet de faire échec à l’immunité.

83. Cela étant dit, la Cour doit néanmoins rechercher si le droit intepr -
national coutumier a évolué au point d’interdire à un Etat de se prévaloir
de son immunité en cas de violations graves des droits de l’homme pou du
droit des conflits armés. Hormis les décisions de la justice itaplienne qui
font l’objet de la présente instance, il n’existe quasiment aucune pratique

étatique qui puisse être considérée comme étayant la propposition selon
laquelle un Etat serait privé de son droit à l’immunité en pareil cas. Bien
que, en l’affaire Distomo, la Cour de cassation grecque ait retenu une
variante de cette proposition, le Tribunal supérieur spécial a écarté cette
approche deux ans plus tard dans l’affaire Margellos. Ainsi que la Cour
l’a noté au paragraphe 76 ci-dessus, en vertu du droit grec, c’est la posi
-
tion adoptée en l’affaire Margellos qui doit être suivie dans les affaires
ultérieures, à moins que les juridictions grecques ne constatent upne évolu-
tion du droit international coutumier depuis 2002, ce que, à ce jour, elles
n’ont pas fait. La Cour considère que, comme en ce qui concerne l’pexcep-
tion territoriale, la pratique grecque, considérée dans son ensembple, tend

à infirmer l’idée que la proposition avancée par l’Italpie reflète l’état actuel
du droit international coutumier.

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6 CIJ1031.indb 78 22/11/13 12:25 jurisdictional immunpities of the state (jupdgment) 136

A. The gravity of the violations

81. The first strand is based upon the proposition that international

law does not accord immunity to a State, or at least restricts its rightp to
immunity, when that State has committed serious violations of the law ofp
armed conflict (international humanitarian law as it is more commonlyp
termed today, although the term was not used in 1943-1945). In the pres -
ent case, the Court has already made clear (see paragraph 52 above) that
the actions of the German armed forces and other organs of the German

Reich giving rise to the proceedings before the Italian courts were seripous
violations of the law of armed conflict which amounted to crimes underp
international law. The question is whether that fact operates to deprive
Germany of an entitlement to immunity.
82. At the outset, however, the Court must observe that the proposition

that the availability of immunity will be to some extent dependent upon pthe
gravity of the unlawful act presents a logical problem. Immunity from
jurisdiction is an immunity not merely from being subjected to an adverspe
judgment but from being subjected to the trial process. It is, thereforep, nec-
essarily preliminary in nature. Consequently, a national court is requirped to

determine whether or not a foreign State is entitled to immunity as a matter
of international law before it can hear the merits of the case brought bpefore
it and before the facts have been established. If immunity were to be deppen -
dent upon the State actually having committed a serious violation of intpe -r
national human rights law or the law of armed conflict, then it would

become necessary for the national court to hold an enquiry into the meripts
in order to determine whether it had jurisdiction. If, on the other hand, the
mere allegation that the State had committed such wrongful acts were to pbe
sufficient to deprive the State of its entitlement to immunity, immunitpy
could, in effect be negated simply by skilful construction of the claipm.

83. That said, the Court must nevertheless inquire whether customary
international law has developed to the point where a State is not entitled
to immunity in the case of serious violations of human rights law or thep
law of armed conflict. Apart from the decisions of the Italian courts p
which are the subject of the present proceedings, there is almost no Stapte

practice which might be considered to support the proposition that a
State is deprived of its entitlement to immunity in such a case. Althougph
the Hellenic Supreme Court in the Distomo case adopted a form of that
proposition, the Special Supreme Court in Margellos repudiated that
approach two years later. As the Court has noted in paragraph 76 above,
under Greek law it is the stance adopted in Margellos which must be fol -

lowed in later cases unless the Greek courts find that there has been pa
change in customary international law since 2002, which they have not
done. As with the territorial tort principle, the Court considers that Greek
practice, taken as a whole, tends to deny that the proposition advanced p
by Italy has become part of customary international law.

41

6 CIJ1031.indb 79 22/11/13 12:25 137 immunités juridictiopnnelles de l’état (arrpêt)

84. La pratique d’autres Etats attestant que, en droit international
coutumier, le droit à l’immunité n’est pas fonction de la gravité de l’acte
dont l’Etat est accusé ou du caractère impératif de la règle qu’il aurait
violée est en outre fort importante.

85. Cette pratique ressort clairement des décisions des juridictions
nationales. L’argument selon lequel le droit international n’imposperait
plus l’immunité à un Etat lorsque sont en cause des allégations de viola -

tions graves du droit international des droits de l’homme, des crimesp
de guerre ou des crimes contre l’humanité a été rejeté par lpa justice cana -
dienne (Bouzari c. République islamique d’Iran, Cour d’appel de l’Ontario,
[2004] Dominion Law Reports (DLR), 4th Series, vol. 243, p. 406 ;
ILR, vol. 128, p. 586 ; allégations de torture), française (arrêt de la Cour

d’appel de Paris, 9 septembre 2002, et arrêt de la Cour de cassation, pour -
voi n 02-45961, 16 décembre 2003, Bull. civ., 2003, I, n o258, p. 206
(l’affaireBucheron); arrêts de la Cour de cassation, pourvoi n o 03-41851,
2 juin 2004, Bull. civ., 2004, I, n o 158, p. 132 (l’affaire X), et pour -
o
voi n 04-47504, 3 janvier 2006 (l’affaireoGrosz) ; allégations de crimes
contre l’humanité), slovène (affaire n Up-13/99, Cour constitutionnelle
de Slovénie ; allégations de crimes de guerre et de crimes contre l’huma -
nité), néo-zélandaise (Fang c. Jiang, Haute Cour, [2007] New Zealand

Administrative Reports (NZAR), p. 420 ; ILR, vol. 141, p. 702 ; alléga -
tions de torture), polonaise (arrêt de la Cour suprême de Pologne en l’af -
faire Natoniewski, Polish Yearbook of International Law, vol. XXX, 2010,
p. 299; allégations de crimes de guerre et de crimes contre l’humanitép) et
britannique (Jones c. Arabie saoudite, Chambre des lords, [2007] 1 Appeal

Cases (AC) 270 ;ILR, vol. 129, p. 629 ; allégations de torture).
86. La Cour relève que, dans sa réponse à une question que lui a popsée
un membre de la Cour, l’Italie elle-même a semblé douter de cetp aspect de
sa défense. L’Italie a, en effet, indiqué ce qui suit :

«L’Italie sait que d’aucuns estiment que les crimes de guerre et leps
crimes contre l’humanité ne sauraient être considérés compme des

actes de souveraineté pour lesquels l’Etat est en droit d’invoqpuer
l’immunité souveraine comme moyen de défense… Si l’Italie recon -
naît que, dans ce domaine, le droit de l’immunité des Etats estp en
pleine évolution, elle admet également qu’on ne peut dire à pce stade

si cette évolution aboutira à une nouvelle exception généralpe à l’im -
munité — à savoir une règle permettant de refuser de reconnaître
l’immunité dans le cas de toute demande d’indemnisation à rapison de
crimes internationaux. »

Pareil doute ressort également des ordonnances rendues par la Cour dep
cassation italienne dans les affaires Mantelli et Maietta (ordonnances du

29 mai 2008).
87. La Cour ne considère pas que la décision rendue au Royaume-Uni
en l’affaire Pinochet (n o 3) ([2000] 1 AC 147 ; ILR, vol. 119, p. 136) soit
pertinente, et ce, bien que la Cour de cassation italienne l’ait invopquée en

42

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84. In addition, there is a substantial body of State practice from other
countries which demonstrates that customary international law does not

treat a State’s entitlement to immunity as dependent upon the gravityp of
the act of which it is accused or the peremptory nature of the rule whicph
it is alleged to have violated.
85. That practice is particularly evident in the judgments of national
courts. Arguments to the effect that international law no longer requipred

State immunity in cases of allegations of serious violations of interna -
tional human rights law, war crimes or crimes against humanity have
been rejected by the courts in Canada (Bouzari v. Islamic Republic of Iran,
Court of Appeal of Ontario, [2004] Dominion Law Reports (DLR),
4th Series, Vol. 243, p. 406; ILR, Vol. 128, p. 586 ; allegations of torture),
France (judgment of the Court of Appeal of Paris, 9 September 2002, and

Cour de cassation, No. 02-45961, 16 December 2003, Bulletin civil de la
Cour de cassation (Bull. civ.), 2003, I, No. 258, p. 206 (the Bucheron
case) ; Cour de cassation, No. 03-41851, 2 June 2004, Bull. civ., 2004, I,
No. 158, p. 132 (the X case) and Cour de cassation, No. 04-47504, 3 Janu -
ary 2006 (the Grosz case) ; allegations of crimes against humanity), Slove-

nia (case No. Up-13/99, Constitutional Court of Slovenia ; allegations of
war crimes and crimes against humanity), New Zealand (Fang v. Jiang,
High Court, [2007] New Zealand Administrative Reports (NZAR), p. 420;
ILR, Vol. 141, p. 702 ; allegations of torture), Poland (Natoniewski,
Supreme Court, 2010, Polish Yearbook of International Law, Vol. XXX,

2010, p. 299 ; allegations of war crimes and crimes against humanity)
and the United Kingdom (Jones v. Saudi Arabia, House of Lords, [2007]
1 Appeal Cases (AC) 270 ;ILR, Vol. 129, p. 629 ; allegations of torture).

86. The Court notes that, in its response to a question posed by a
Member of the Court, Italy itself appeared to demonstrate uncertainty

about this aspect of its case. Italy commented,
“Italy is aware of the view according to which war crimes and

crimes against humanity could not be considered to be sovereign acts
for which the State is entitled to invoke the defence of sovereign
immunity . . . While Italy acknowledges that in this area the law of
State immunity is undergoing a process of change, it also recognizes
that it is not clear at this stage whether this process will result in ap

new general exception to immunity — namely a rule denying immu -
nity with respect to every claim for compensation arising out [of]
international crimes.”

A similar uncertainty is evident in the orders of the Italian Court of Cpas-
sation in Mantelli and Maietta (orders of 29 May 2008).

87. The Court does not consider that the United Kingdom judgment in

Pinochet (No. 3) ([2000] 1 AC 147 ; ILR, Vol. 119, p. 136) is relevant,
notwithstanding the reliance placed on that judgment by the Italian Courpt

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6 CIJ1031.indb 81 22/11/13 12:25 138 immunités juridictiopnnelles de l’état (arrpêt)

l’affaire Ferrini. L’affaire Pinochet avait en effet trait à l’immunité de juri -
diction pénale d’un ancien chef d’Etat devant les tribunaux d’pun autre

Etat, et non à l’immunité de l’Etat lui-même, dans le cadre d’une procé -
dure visant à établir son obligation de réparer des dommages. Cette dis -
tinction entre l’immunité d’un représentant de l’Etat et pcelle de l’Etat
lui-même a été soulignée par plusieurs juges ayant siégép en l’affaire Pino ‑
chet (lord Hutton (p. 254 et 264), lord Millett (p. 278) et lord Phillips

(p. 280-281)). Dans la décision qu’elle a ultérieurement rendue en l’paffaire
Jones c. Arabie saoudite ([2007] 1 AC 270 ; ILR, vol. 129, p. 629), la
Chambre des lords a apporté un nouvel éclairage sur cette distinctpion,
lord Bingham ayant qualifié la différence entre les procédures ppénales et
les procédures civiles de «fondamentale aux fins de la décision» rendue en
l’affaire Pinochet (par. 32). La Cour relève en outre que la décision rendue

en l’affaire Pinochet était fondée sur les dispositions particulières de la
convention des Nations Unies contre la torture de 1984, qui n’a aucune
incidence en la présente espèce.
88. En ce qui concerne la législation nationale, l’Italie s’est répférée à un
amendement à la loi des Etats-Unis sur l’immunité des Etats éptrangers

adopté à l’origine en 1996. Cet amendement exclut l’immunité pour
certains actes déterminés (par exemple, les actes de torture et lpes exécu -
tions extrajudiciaires) qui auraient été commis par un Etat que lpe Gouve-r
nement des Etats-Unis a « désigné comme soutien du terrorisme »
(28 USC 1605A). La Cour relève que cet amendement n’a pas d’équiva -

lent dans la législation d’autres Etats. Aucun des Etats qui a lépgiféré sur
la question de l’immunité de l’Etat n’a pris de disposition ppour limiter
celle-ci en raison de la gravité des actes allégués.
89. La Cour relève également qu’aucune limitation à l’immunitpé de
l’Etat fondée sur la gravité de la violation ou sur le caractère impératif de
la règle violée ne figure dans la convention européenne, la cponvention des

Nations Unies ou le projet de convention interaméricaine. La question
de savoir si une disposition à cet effet était nécessaire ayant pété soulevée
lors de l’élaboration du texte de ce qui est devenu la convention pdes
Nations Unies, il est particulièrement significatif que cet instrument ne
contienne pas de clause de cette nature. En 1999, la Commission du droit

international a constitué un groupe de travail qui a examiné diverses évo -
lutions dans la pratique relative à certaines questions se rapportantp à l’im -
munité de l’Etat, telles que mises en évidence par la Sixièmpe Commission
de l’Assemblée générale. Dans un appendice de son rapport, ce groupe de
travail a évoqué, à titre complémentaire, certaines évoluptions ayant trait

aux réclamations « en cas de décès ou de dommages corporels résultant
d’actes commis par un Etat en violation des normes relatives aux droipts
de l’homme ayant le caractère de jus cogens», et précisé que cette question
ne devait pas être négligée, bien qu’il n’ait pas recommapndé d’amender le
texte des articles de la Commission du droit international (Annuaire de la
Commission du droit international, 1999, vol. II, deuxième partie,

p. 180-181). La question a ensuite été examinée par le groupe de travpail
établi par la Sixième Commission de l’Assemblée généraple, qui, en 1999, a

43

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of Cassation in Ferrini. Pinochet concerned the immunity of a former
Head of State from the criminal jurisdiction of another State, not the

immunity of the State itself in proceedings designed to establish its lipabil-
ity to damages. The distinction between the immunity of the official inp the
former type of case and that of the State in the latter case was emphasipzed
by several of the judges in Pinochet (Lord Hutton at pp. 254 and 264,
Lord Millett at p. 278 and Lord Phillips at pp. 280-281). In its later judg -

ment in Jones v. Saudi Arabia ([2007] 1 AC 270 ; ILR, Vol. 129, p. 629),
the House of Lords further clarified this distinction, Lord Bingham
describing the distinction between criminal and civil proceedings as “pfun -
damental to the decision” in Pinochet (para. 32). Moreover, the rationale
for the judgment in Pinochet was based upon the specific language of the
1984 United Nations Convention against Torture, which has no bearing

on the present case.

88. With reference to national legislation, Italy referred to an amend -
ment to the United States Foreign Sovereign Immunities Act, first

adopted in 1996. That amendment withdraws immunity for certain speci -
fied acts (for example, torture and extra-judicial killings) if allegedly per -
formed by a State which the United States Government has “designated p
as a State sponsor of terrorism” (28 USC 1605A). The Court notes that
this amendment has no counterpart in the legislation of other States.

None of the States which has enacted legislation on the subject of State
immunity has made provision for the limitation of immunity on the
grounds of the gravity of the acts alleged.
89. It is also noticeable that there is no limitation of State immunity by
reference to the gravity of the violation or the peremptory character ofp
the rule breached in the European Convention, the United Nations Con -

vention or the draft Inter-American Convention. The absence of any such
provision from the United Nations Convention is particularly significant,
because the question whether such a provision was necessary was raised
at the time that the text of what became the Convention was under con -
sideration. In 1999 the International Law Commission established a

Working Group which considered certain developments in practice
regarding some issues of State immunity which had been identified by tphe
Sixth Committee of the General Assembly. In an appendix to its report,
the Working Group referred, as an additional matter, to developments
regarding claims “in the case of death or personal injury resulting fprom

acts of a State in violation of human rights norms having the character pof
jus cogens” and stated that this issue was one which should not be ignored,
although it did not recommend any amendment to the text of the Inter -
national Law Commission Articles (Yearbook of the International Law
Commission, 1999, Vol. II (2), pp. 171-172). The matter was then consid -
ered by the Working Group established by the Sixth Committee of the

General Assembly, which reported later in 1999 that it had decided not tpo
take up the matter as “it did not seem to be ripe enough for the Workping

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indiqué qu’il avait décidé de ne pas la traiter étant donpné qu’«elle ne sem-

blait pas assez mûre pour justifier que le Groupe de travail amorcep une
œuvre de codification à son sujet » et qu’il incombait à la Sixième Com -
mission de décider, le cas échéant, de la marche à suivre (pNations Unies,
doc. A/C.6/54/L.12, p. 7, par. 13). Lors des débats ultérieurs au sein de la
Sixième Commission, aucun Etat n’a suggéré de faire figurepr une limita -

tion découlant du jus cogens dans la convention. La Cour estime que ces
éléments tirés de la genèse de cet instrument indiquent que,p au moment de
l’adoption de la convention des Nations Unies en 2004, les Etats ne consi -
déraient pas que le droit international coutumier limitait l’immunpité de la
manière que prétend aujourd’hui l’Italie.

90. La Cour européenne des droits de l’homme n’a pas accepté l’pidée
selon laquelle les Etats ne jouiraient plus de l’immunité dans desp affaires
se rapportant à des violations graves du droit international humanitaire
ou des droits de l’homme. En 2001, la Grande Chambre de cette Cour est
parvenue — certes à une faible majorité, par neuf voix contre huit — à la

conclusion suivante :
«Nonobstant le caractère particulier que le droit international

reconnaît à la prohibition de la torture, la Cour n’aperçoitp dans les
instruments internationaux, les décisions judiciaires ou les autres
documents en sa possession aucun élément solide lui permettant de
conclure qu’en droit international un Etat ne jouit plus de l’immupnité
d’une action civile devant les cours et tribunaux d’un autre Etat

devant lesquels sont formulées des aloégations de torture.» (Al‑Adsani
c. Royaume‑Uni [GC], requête n 35763/97, arrêt du 21 novembre
2001, CEDH Recueil 2001-XI, p. 141, par. 61.)

L’année suivante, la Cour européenne des droits de l’homme ap jugé irre -
cevable la requête par laquelle avait été introduite l’affpaire Kalogeropou ‑
lou et autres c.Grèce et Allemagne, qui portait sur le refus du Gouvernement
grec de permettre l’exécution de l’arrêt Distomo, en affirmant ce qui suit :

«Toutefois, la Cour ne juge pas établi qu’il soit déjà admis pen droit
international que les Etats ne peuvent prétendre à l’immunitép en cas

d’actions civiles en dommages-intérêts pour crimes contre l’phuoanité
qui sont introduites sur le sol d’un autre Etat.» (Requête n 59021/00,
décision du 12 décembre 2002, CEDH Recueil 2002-X, p. 391.)

91. La Cour conclut que, en l’état actuel du droit international coutup-
mier, un Etat n’est pas privé de l’immunité pour la seule rapison qu’il est
accusé de violations graves du droit international des droits de l’phomme

ou du droit international des conflits armés. En formulant cette copnclu -
sion, la Cour tient à souligner qu’elle ne se prononce que sur l’immunité
de juridiction de l’Etat lui-même devant les tribunaux d’un autre Etat ; la
question de savoir si et, le cas échéant, dans quelle mesure l’pimmunité
peut s’appliquer dans le cadre de procédures pénales engagées contre un

représentant de l’Etat n’est pas posée en l’espèce.

44

6 CIJ1031.indb 84 22/11/13 12:25 jurisdictional immunpities of the state (jupdgment) 139

Group to engage in a codification exercise over it” and commented that it
was for the Sixth Committee to decide what course of action, if any,

should be taken (United Nations doc. A/C.6/54/L.12, p. 7, para. 13). Dur-
ing the subsequent debates in the Sixth Committee no State suggested
that a jus cogens limitation to immunity should be included in the Con -
vention. The Court considers that this history indicates that, at the tipme
of adoption of the United Nations Convention in 2004, States did not

consider that customary international law limited immunity in the man -
ner now suggested by Italy.

90. The European Court of Human Rights has not accepted the prop -
osition that States are no longer entitled to immunity in cases regardinpg

serious violations of international humanitarian law or human rights lawp.
In 2001, the Grand Chamber of that Court, by the admittedly narrow
majority of nine to eight, concluded that,

“Notwithstanding the special character of the prohibition of torture
in international law, the Court is unable to discern in the internationapl
instruments, judicial authorities or other materials before it any firpm

basis for concluding that, as a matter of international law, a State no
longer enjoys immunity from civil suit in the courts of another State
where acts of torture are alleged.” (Al‑Adsani v. United Kingdom
[GC], application No. 35763/97, judgment of 21 November 2001,
ECHR Reports 2001-XI, p. 101, para. 61; ILR, Vol. 123, p. 24.)

The following year, in Kalogeropoulou and Others v. Greece and Germany,
the European Court of Human Rights rejected an application relating to

the refusal of the Greek Government to permit enforcement of the Dis ‑
tomo judgment and said that,

“The Court does not find it established, however, that there is yetp
acceptance in international law of the proposition that States are not
entitled to immunity in respect of civil claims for damages brought
against them in another State for crimes against humanity.” (Appli -
cation No. 59021/00, decision of 12 December 2002, ECHR Reports

2002-X, p. 417 ; ILR, Vol. 129, p. 537.)
91. The Court concludes that, under customary international law as it

presently stands, a State is not deprived of immunity by reason of the fpact
that it is accused of serious violations of international human rights law
or the international law of armed conflict. In reaching that conclusiopn,
the Court must emphasize that it is addressing only the immunity of the p
State itself from the jurisdiction of the courts of other States; the question
of whether, and if so to what extent, immunity might apply in criminal

proceedings against an official of the State is not in issue in the prepsent
case.

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B. La relation entre le jus cogens et la règle de l’immunité de l’Etat

92. La Cour en vient maintenant au deuxième volet de l’argument de

l’Italie, selon lequel les règles violées par l’Allemagne enptre 1943 et 1945
relèveraient du jus cogens. Cet aspect de la défense italienne repose sur
l’hypothèse qu’il existerait un conflit entre les règles dpe jus cogens qui font
partie du droit des conflits armés et la reconnaissance de l’immpunité de
l’Allemagne. Selon l’Italie, les règles de jus cogens prévalent toujours sur
toute règle contraire du droit international, qu’elle figure danps un traité

ou relève du droit international coutumier ; la règle en vertu de laquelle
un Etat jouit de l’immunité devant les juridictions d’un autre pEtat n’ayant
pas le statut de jus cogens, elle devrait donc être écartée.
93. Par conséquent, cet argument repose sur l’existence d’un conflpit
entre une règle, ou des règles, de jus cogens et la règle de droit coutumier

qui fait obligation à un Etat d’accorder l’immunité à un pautre. Or, de
l’avis de la Cour, pareil conflit n’existe pas. A supposer, aux pfins du pré -
sent examen, que les règles du droit des conflits armés qui inteprdisent de
tuer des civils en territoire occupé ou de déporter des civils ou pdes prison-
niers de guerre pour les astreindre au travail forcé soient des normeps de

jus cogens, ces règles n’entrent pas en conflit avec celles qui régissepnt l’im-
munité de l’Etat. Ces deux catégories de règles se rapportenpt en effet à des
questions différentes. Celles qui régissent l’immunité de pl’Etat sont de
nature procédurale et se bornent à déterminer si les tribunaux pd’un Etat
sont fondés à exercer leur juridiction à l’égard d’un pautre. Elles sont sans

incidence sur la question de savoir si le comportement à l’égarpd duquel les
actions ont été engagées était licite ou illicite. C’est ppourquoi le fait d’ap-
pliquer le droit contemporain de l’immunité de l’Etat à une pinstance rela-
tive à des événements survenus entre 1943 et 1945 ne porte pas atteinte au
principe selon lequel les tribunaux ne doivent pas appliquer le droit dep

manière rétroactive aux fins de se prononcer sur des questions dpe licéité
et de responsabilité (comme la Cour l’a expliqué au paragraphe 58 ci-
dessus). Pour la même raison, le fait de reconnaître l’immunitpé d’un Etat
étranger conformément au droit international coutumier ne revient ppas à
juger licite une situation créée par la violation d’une règlpe de jus cogens, ni

à prêter aide ou assistance au maintien de cette situation, et ne psaurait
donc contrevenir au principe énoncé à l’article 41 des articles de la Com -
mission du droit international sur la responsabilité de l’Etat.
94. En l’espèce, la violation des règles interdisant le meurtre, lap déporta -
tion et le travail forcé a eu lieu entre 1943 et 1945. Tous les intéressés s’ac-

cordent à reconnaître le caractère illicite de ces actes. L’application des règles
de l’immunité de l’Etat aux fins de déterminer si les juripdictions italiennes
peuvent connaître de réclamations fondées sur pareilles violatipons ne saurait
créer le moindre conflit avec les règles qui ont été violépes. Mettre l’accent sur
l’obligation de réparation de l’Etat responsable plutôt que psur le fait illicite
initial ne rend pas l’argument plus convaincant. L’obligation de rpéparation

est une règle qui existe indépendamment des règles régissantp les moyens par
lesquels il doit lui être donné effet. Or, le droit de l’immupnité de l’Etat ne

45

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B. The relationship between jus cogens and the rule of State immunity

92. The Court now turns to the second strand in Italy’s argument,

which emphasizes the jus cogens status of the rules which were violated by
Germany during the period 1943-1945. This strand of the argument rests
on the premise that there is a conflict between jus cogens rules forming
part of the law of armed conflict and according immunity to Germany.
Since jus cogens rules always prevail over any inconsistent rule of interna -
tional law, whether contained in a treaty or in customary international p

law, so the argument runs, and since the rule which accords one State
immunity before the courts of another does not have the status of jus
cogens, the rule of immunity must give way.
93. This argument therefore depends upon the existence of a conflict
between a rule, or rules, of jus cogens, and the rule of customary law

which requires one State to accord immunity to another. In the opinion
of the Court, however, no such conflict exists. Assuming for this purppose
that the rules of the law of armed conflict which prohibit the murder pof
civilians in occupied territory, the deportation of civilian inhabitantsp to
slave labour and the deportation of prisoners of war to slave labour are

rules of jus cogens, there is no conflict between those rules and the rules
on State immunity. The two sets of rules address different matters. Thpe
rules of State immunity are procedural in character and are confined tpo
determining whether or not the courts of one State may exercise jurisdicp-
tion in respect of another State. They do not bear upon the question

whether or not the conduct in respect of which the proceedings are
brought was lawful or unlawful. That is why the application of the con -
temporary law of State immunity to proceedings concerning events which
occurred in 1943-1945 does not infringe the principle that law should not
be applied retrospectively to determine matters of legality and responsip -

bility (as the Court has explained in paragraph 58 above). For the same
reason, recognizing the immunity of a foreign State in accordance with
customary international law does not amount to recognizing as lawful a
situation created by the breach of a jus cogens rule, or rendering aid and
assistance in maintaining that situation, and so cannot contravene the

principle in Article 41 of the International Law Commission’s Articles on
State Responsibility.

94. In the present case, the violation of the rules prohibiting murder,
deportation and slave labour took place in the period 1943-1945. The

illegality of these acts is openly acknowledged by all concerned. The
application of rules of State immunity to determine whether or not the
Italian courts have jurisdiction to hear claims arising out of those viopla -
tions cannot involve any conflict with the rules which were violated. pNor
is the argument strengthened by focusing upon the duty of the wrongdo -
ing State to make reparation, rather than upon the original wrongful actp.

The duty to make reparation is a rule which exists independently of thospe
rules which concern the means by which it is to be effected. The law opf

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6 CIJ1031.indb 87 22/11/13 12:25 141 immunités juridictiopnnelles de l’état (arrpêt)

concerne que les secondes. Une décision tendant à reconnaître lp’immunité à

un Etat n’entre donc pas davantage en conflit avec l’obligation pde répara-
tion qu’avec la règle interdisant le fait illicite commis à l’porigine. De surcroît,
pendant un siècle, la quasi-totalité des traités de paix ou rèpglements d’après
guerre ont reflété le choix soit de ne pas exiger le versement dp’indemnités,
soit de recourir à titre de compensation au versement d’une somme pforfai -

taire. Compte tenu de cette pratique, il est difficile d’apercevoir en droit
international une règle imposant une indemnisation complète pour chacune
des victimes, dont la communauté internationale des Etats dans son
ensemble s’accorderait à estimer qu’elle ne peut souffrir aucpune dérogation.
95. Pour autant qu’il serait soutenu qu’une règle n’ayant pas lep carac -

tère de jus cogens ne saurait être appliquée si cela devait affaiblir la mise
en œuvre d’une règle de cette nature — même en l’absence de conflit
direct entre elles —, la Cour ne voit rien qui vienne fonder pareille asser -
tion. Une règle de jus cogens est une règle qui ne souffre aucune déroga -
tion, mais les règles qui déterminent la portée et l’étenpdue de la juridiction,

ainsi que les conditions dans lesquelles cette juridiction peut être pexercée,
ne dérogent pas aux règles de nature matérielle ayant valeur dep jus cogens,
et il n’est rien d’intrinsèque à la notion de jus cogens qui imposerait de les
modifier ou d’en écarter l’application. Telle est l’approcphe qu’a retenue la
Cour dans deux affaires, alors même que sa décision avait pour epffet

d’écarter un moyen par lequel une règle de jus cogens aurait pu être mise
en œuvre. Dans l’affaire des Activités armées, elle a ainsi estimé que la
valeur de jus cogens reconnue à une règle ne lui conférait pas une compé -
tence qu’elle ne posséderait pas autrement (Activités armées sur le terri ‑
toire du Congo (nouvelle requête : 2002) (République démocratique du

Congo c. Rwanda), compétence et recevabilité, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2006,
p. 32, par. 64, et p. 52, para. 125). Dans l’affaire du Mandat d’arrêt,
quoique sans mentionner expressément la notion de jus cogens, elle a jugé
que le fait qu’un ministre des affaires étrangères était apccusé de crimes
contraires à des règles ayant indubitablement valeur de jus cogens n’inter -

disait pas à la République démocratique du Congo de demander, cpomme
l’y autorisait le droit international coutumier, à ce que l’intpéressé bénéficie
de l’immunité (Mandat d’arrêt du 11 avril 2000 (République démocratique
du Congo c. Belgique), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2002, p. 24, par. 58, et p. 33,
par. 78). La Cour estime que le même raisonnement vaut pour l’applica -

tion du droit international coutumier relatif à l’immunité d’pun Etat pour-
suivi devant les tribunaux d’un autre Etat.
96. En outre, cet argument tiré de la primauté du jus cogens sur le droit
de l’immunité des Etats a été écarté par les tribunauxp nationaux du
Royaume-Uni (Jones c. Arabie saoudite, Chambre des lords, [2007] 1 AC

270 ; ILR, vol. 129, p. 629), du Canada (Bouzari c. République islamique
d’Iran, Cour d’appel de l’Ontario, DLR, 4th Series, vol. 243, p. 406 ; ILR,
vol. 128, p. 586), de la Pologne (Natoniewski, Cour suprême, Polish Year ‑
book of International Law, vol. XXX, 2010, p. 299), de la Slovénie (arrêt de
la Cour constitutionnelle en l’affaire n oUp-13/99), de la Nouvelle-Zélande

(Fang c. Jiang, Haute Cour, [2007] NZAR, p. 420 ; ILR, vol. 141, p. 702)

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State immunity concerns only the latter ; a decision that a foreign State is
immune no more conflicts with the duty to make reparation than it doesp

with the rule prohibiting the original wrongful act. Moreover, against the
background of a century of practice in which almost every peace treaty or
post-war settlement has involved either a decision not to require the pay -
ment of reparations or the use of lump sum settlements and set-offs, it is
difficult to see that international law contains a rule requiring the ppay -

ment of full compensation to each and every individual victim as a rule
accepted by the international community of States as a whole as one fromp
which no derogation is permitted.
95. To the extent that it is argued that no rule which is not of the status p
of jus cogens may be applied if to do so would hinder the enforcement of
a jus cogens rule, even in the absence of a direct conflict, the Court sees no

basis for such a proposition. A jus cogens rule is one from which no dero -
gation is permitted but the rules which determine the scope and extent opf
jurisdiction and when that jurisdiction may be exercised do not derogatep
from those substantive rules which possess jus cogens status, nor is there
anything inherent in the concept of jus cogens which would require their

modification or would displace their application. The Court has taken p
that approach in two cases, notwithstanding that the effect was that a
means by which a jus cogens rule might be enforced was rendered unavail -
able. In Armed Activities, it held that the fact that a rule has the status of
jus cogens does not confer upon the Court a jurisdiction which it would

not otherwise possess (Armed Activities on the Territory of the Congo
(New Application: 2002) (Democratic Republic of the Congo v. Rwanda),
Jurisdiction and Admissibility, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2006, p. 32,
para. 64, and p. 52, para. 125). In Arrest Warrant, the Court held, albeit
without express reference to the concept of jus cogens, that the fact that a
Minister for Foreign Affairs was accused of criminal violations of rules

which undoubtedly possess the character of jus cogens did not deprive the
Democratic Republic of the Congo of the entitlement which it possessed
as a matter of customary international law to demand immunity on his
behalf (Arrest Warrant of 11 April 2000 (Democratic Republic of the Congo
v. Belgium), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2002, p. 24, para. 58, and p. 33,

para. 78). The Court considers that the same reasoning is applicable
to the application of the customary international law regarding the immu -
nity of one State from proceedings in the courts of another.

96. In addition, this argument about the effect of jus cogens displacing

the law of State immunity has been rejected by the national courts of thpe
United Kingdom (Jones v. Saudi Arabia, House of Lords, [2007] 1 AC
270 ; ILR, Vol. 129, p. 629), Canada (Bouzari v. Islamic Republic of Iran,
Court of Appeal of Ontario, DLR, 4th Series, Vol. 243, p. 406 ; ILR,
Vol. 128, p. 586), Poland (Natoniewski, Supreme Court, Polish Yearbook
of International Law, Vol. XXX, 2010, p. 299), Slovenia (case No. Up-13/99,

Constitutional Court of Slovenia), New Zealand (Fang v. Jiang, High
Court, [2007] NZAR, p. 420 ; ILR, Vol. 141, p. 702) and Greece (Margel ‑

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6 CIJ1031.indb 89 22/11/13 12:25 142 immunités juridictiopnnelles de l’état (arrpêt)

et de la Grèce (Margellos, Tribunal supérieur spécial, ILR, vol. 129,

p. 525), ainsi que par la Cour européenne des droits de l’homme dansp les
affaires Al‑Adsani c. Royaume‑Uni et Kalogeropoulou et autres c. Grèce et
Allemagne (qui sont examinées au paragraphe 90 ci-dessus) ; chaque fois,
l’argument a été écarté après un examen attentif. La Cpour n’estime pas
qu’une conclusion différente puisse être tirée de l’arrêt rendu le 9mars 2011

par la Cour de cassation française enol’affaire La Réunion aérienne c. Jama ‑
hiriya arabe libyenne (pourvoi n 09-14743, 9 mars 2011, Bull. civ.,
mars 2011, n o49, p. 49). Dans cette affaire, la Cour de cassation a seule -
ment décidé que, en admettant qu’une norme de jus cogens puisse consti -
tuer une restriction légitime à l’immunité de l’Etat, lesp faits de l’espèce ne

justifiaient pas pareille restriction. Il en résulte que les décpisions des tribu
naux italiens qui font l’objet de la présente instance sont les sepules déci -
sions de juridictions nationales dans lesquelles a été retenu le rpaisonnement
sur lequel est fondée cette partie du deuxième argument de l’Itpalie. En
outre, aucune des lois nationales relatives à l’immunité de l’pEtat qui ont

été examinées aux paragraphes 70 et 71 ci-dessus n’a limité l’immunité de
l’Etat dans les cas où sont en cause des violations du jus cogens.
97. En conséquence, la Cour conclut que, même en admettant que les
actions intentées devant les juridictions italiennes mettaient en cause des
-
violations de règles de jus cogens, l’application du droit international cou
tumier relatif à l’immunité des Etats ne s’en trouvait pas apffectée.

C. L’argument du « dernier recours»

98. Le troisième et dernier volet du second argument de l’Italie consipste

à affirmer que c’est à juste titre que les tribunaux italiens pont refusé de
reconnaître à l’Allemagne l’immunité à laquelle elle aurait pu autrement
prétendre, au motif qu’avaient échoué toutes les autres tentpatives d’obte -
nir réparation pour les divers groupes de victimes qui avaient engagép les
actions intentées devant des juridictions italiennes. En réponse àp cet argu -

ment, l’Allemagne a avancé que, au lendemain de la seconde guerre pmon-
diale, elle avait consenti des sacrifices financiers et autres consipdérables
afin que soit accordée réparation dans le cadre d’une séripe complexe d’ac -
cords interétatiques au titre desquels, en raison des réalités péconomiques
de l’époque, aucun Etat allié n’avait été indemnisép à la mesure des pertes

subies par sa population. L’Allemagne fait également état des versements
qu’elle a effectués au profit de l’Italie en application deps deux accords de
1961 ainsi que des versements effectués plus récemment, au titre de sa loi
fédérale adoptée en 2000, au profit de divers ressortissants italiens qui
avaient été illégalement déportés en Allemagne pour y êptre astreints au

travail forcé. L’Italie soutient toutefois que de très nombreuspes victimes
italiennes n’en ont pas moins été exclues de tout régime de préparation.

*

99. La Cour relève que l’Allemagne a pris des mesures importantes

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6 CIJ1031.indb 90 22/11/13 12:25 jurisdictional immunpities of the state (jupdgment) 142

los, Special Supreme Court, ILR, Vol. 129, p. 525), as well as by the
European Court of Human Rights in Al‑Adsani v. United Kingdom and

Kalogeropoulou and Others v. Greece and Germany (which are discussed in
paragraph 90 above), in each case after careful consideration. The Court
does not consider the judgment of the French Cour de cassation of
9 March 2011 in La Réunion aérienne v. Libyan Arab Jamahiriya (case
No. 09-14743, 9 March 2011, Bull. civ., March 2011, No. 49, p. 49) as

supporting a different conclusion. The Cour de cassation in that case
stated only that, even if a jus cogens norm could constitute a legitimate
restriction on State immunity, such a restriction could not be justifiped on
the facts of that case. It follows, therefore, that the judgments of thep Ital-
ian courts which are the subject of the present proceedings are the onlyp

decisions of national courts to have accepted the reasoning on which thips
part of Italy’s second argument is based. Moreover, none of the natiopnal
legislation on State immunity considered in paragraphs 70-71 above, has
limited immunity in cases where violations of jus cogens are alleged.

97. Accordingly, the Court concludes that even on the assumption that
the proceedings in the Italian courts involved violations of jus cogens
rules, the applicability of the customary international law on State immpu -
nity was not affected.

C. The “last resort” argument

98. The third and final strand of the Italian argument is that the Italianp
courts were justified in denying Germany the immunity to which it woulpd
otherwise have been entitled, because all other attempts to secure com -
pensation for the various groups of victims involved in the Italian pro -

ceedings had failed. Germany’s response is that in the aftermath of tphe
Second World War it made considerable financial and other sacrificesp by
way of reparation in the context of a complex series of inter-State arrange-
ments under which, reflecting the economic realities of the time, no Apllied
State received compensation for the full extent of the losses which its p

people had suffered. It also points to the payments which it made to Iptaly
under the terms of the two 1961 Agreements and to the payments made
more recently under the 2000 Federal Law to various Italians who had
been unlawfully deported to forced labour in Germany. Italy maintains,
however, that large numbers of Italian victims were nevertheless left wipth -

out any compensation.

*

99. The Court notes that Germany has taken significant steps to ensure

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pour faire en sorte que les victimes italiennes de crimes de guerre et dpe
crimes contre l’humanité bénéficient d’une certaine forme de réparation.

L’Allemagne a toutefois décidé d’exclure du champ d’applipcation de son
régime national de réparation la plupart des demandes formuléesp par les
internés militaires italiens, au motif que les prisonniers de guerre pne pou-
vaient prétendre à réparation pour avoir été astreints aup travail forcé
(voir paragraphe 26 ci-dessus). Or, dans les faits, la très grande majorité

des internés militaires italiens s’étaient vu dénier le statput de prisonnier de
guerre par les autorités nazies. Ce nonobstant, le Gouvernement allempand
a, en 2001, décidé que ces internés militaires ne pouvaient bénépficier d’une
réparation, puisqu’ils auraient pu prétendre, en droit, au statut de prison -
nier de guerre. La Cour considère qu’il est surprenant — et regrettable —
que l’Allemagne ait refusé d’accorder réparation à un gropupe de victimes

au motif que celles-ci auraient eu droit à un statut que, à l’éppoque perti -
nente, elle a refusé de leur reconnaître, particulièrement parcpe que ces
victimes se sont vues, de ce fait, privées de la protection juridiquep à
laquelle ce statut leur donnait droit.
100. En outre, ainsi que la Cour l’a précisé, quoique dans le contexpte

différent de l’immunité de juridiction des représentants dpe l’Etat en matière
pénale, le fait que l’immunité puisse faire obstacle à l’pexercice de la compé -
tence judiciaire dans une affaire donnée est sans incidence sur l’papplicabilité
des règles matérielles du droit international (Mandat d’arrêt du 11 avril 2000
(République démocratique du Congo c. Belgique), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2002,

p. 25, par. 60; voir également Certaines questions concernant l’entraide judi ‑
ciaire en matière pénale (Djibouti c. France), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2008,
p. 244, par. 196). A cet égard, la Cour souligne que la question de savoir si
un Etat peut jouir de l’immunité devant les juridictions d’un aputre Etat est
entièrement distincte de celle de savoir si la responsabilité inteprnationale de
cet Etat est engagée et si une obligation de réparation lui incombpe.

101. Ce nonobstant, la Cour ne saurait faire droit à l’argument de
l’Italie selon lequel les tribunaux italiens étaient fondés àp refuser à l’Alle -
magne l’immunité de juridiction en raison des insuffisances des dpisposi -
tions adoptées par celle-ci en vue d’accorder réparation aux vipctimes
italiennes. Elle ne voit, dans la pratique des Etats dont découle le droit inter-

national coutumier, aucun élément permettant d’affirmer que lep droit
international ferait dépendre le droit d’un Etat à l’immunité pde l’existence
d’autres voies effectives permettant d’obtenir réparation. Nip le droit in-
terne relatif à ces questions ni la jurisprudence des tribunaux interpnes qui
ont eu à connaître d’exceptions fondées sur l’immunité ne permettent de

conclure que le droit à une telle immunité serait subordonné àp pareille
condition préalable. Les Etats n’ont pas davantage énoncé une telle condi-
tion dans la convention européenne ou la convention des Nations Unies.
102. En outre, la Cour ne saurait manquer de relever que l’application
de pareille condition, si elle existait, serait en pratique extrêmemepnt difficile,
notamment dans un contexte tel que celui de la présente affaire, c’est-à-dire

lorsque les réclamations en cause ont fait l’objet de discussions approfon -
dies entre gouvernements. Si l’on suivait l’argument de l’Italipe, dans le cas

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6 CIJ1031.indb 92 22/11/13 12:25 jurisdictional immunpities of the state (jupdgment) 143

that a measure of reparation was made to Italian victims of war crimes
and crimes against humanity. Nevertheless, Germany decided to exclude

from the scope of its national compensation scheme most of the claims byp
Italian military internees on the ground that prisoners of war were not p
entitled to compensation for forced labour (see paragraph 26 above). The
overwhelming majority of Italian military internees were, in fact, deniepd
treatment as prisoners of war by the Nazi authorities. Notwithstanding

that history, in 2001 the German Government determined that those
internees were ineligible for compensation because they had had a legal p
entitlement to prisoner-of-war status. The Court considers that it is a p
matter of surprise — and regret — that Germany decided to deny com -
pensation to a group of victims on the ground that they had been entitled
to a status which, at the relevant time, Germany had refused to recognizpe,

particularly since those victims had thereby been denied the legal protec -
tion to which that status entitled them.

100. Moreover, as the Court has said, albeit in the different context of

the immunity of State officials from criminal proceedings, the fact that
immunity may bar the exercise of jurisdiction in a particular case does pnot
alter the applicability of the substantive rules of international law (pArrest
Warrant of 11 April 2000 (Democratic Republic of the Congo v. Belgium),
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2002, p. 25, para. 60 ; see also Certain Questions

of Mutual Assistance in Criminal Matters (Djibouti v. France), Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 2008, p. 244, para. 196). In that context, the Court would
point out that whether a State is entitled to immunity before the courtsp of
another State is a question entirely separate from whether the interna -
tional responsibility of that State is engaged and whether it has an oblpiga -
tion to make reparation.

101. That notwithstanding, the Court cannot accept Italy’s contention
that the alleged shortcomings in Germany’s provisions for reparation pto
Italian victims entitled the Italian courts to deprive Germany of jurisdpic -
tional immunity. The Court can find no basis in the State practice fropm
which customary international law is derived that international law makeps

the entitlement of a State to immunity dependent upon the existence of
effective alternative means of securing redress. Neither in the nationpal leg -
islation on the subject, nor in the jurisprudence of the national courtsp
which have been faced with objections based on immunity, is there any
evidence that entitlement to immunity is subjected to such a preconditiopn.

States also did not include any such condition in either the European
Convention or the United Nations Convention.

102. Moreover, the Court cannot fail to observe that the application of
any such condition, if it indeed existed, would be exceptionally difficult in
practice, particularly in a context such as that of the present case, when

claims have been the subject of extensive intergovernmental discussion. pIf
one follows the Italian argument, while such discussions were still ongoping

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où ces discussions seraient encore en cours et présenteraient quelpque pers -
pective d’aboutir, l’immunité continuerait d’être applicapble. Elle cesserait

en revanche de l’être, toujours selon cet argument, dès lors qupe les perspec -
tives d’un règlement interétatique apparaîtraient caduques. pIl est toutefois
douteux que les tribunaux internes de l’un des pays concernés soiepnt bien
placés pour déterminer si tel est le cas. De plus, si un règlempent forfaitaire
a été effectué — pratique habituelle après la seconde guerre mondiale, ainsi

que l’Italie le reconnaît —, déterminer si un requérant en particulier a tou-
jours droit à réparation exigerait de la part de l’organe judicpiaire concerné
qu’il examine les détails dudit règlement et la manière dontp l’Etat ayant
perçu les sommes en question (à savoir, en l’occurrence, l’pEtat dans lequel
se trouve cette juridiction) les a affectées. Lorsque l’Etat aypant perçu ces

sommes dans le cadre de ce qui devait constituer un règlement global pà
l’issue d’un conflit armé a décidé de les affecter àp la reconstruction de son
économie nationale et de ses infrastructures plutôt que de les répartir entre
ceux de ses nationaux qui ont été victimes, il est difficile de dpéterminer dans
quelle mesure le fait que les intéressés n’aient pas perçu upne part des sommes
en question les autoriserait à intenter une action à l’encontre de l’Etat ayant

versé ces sommes à celui dont ils sont ressortissants.
103. En conséquence, la Cour rejette l’argument de l’Italie selon lepquel
l’immunité pouvait être refusée à l’Allemagne pour ce pmotif.
104. En formulant cette conclusion, la Cour n’ignore pas que l’immu -
nité de juridiction reconnue à l’Allemagne conformément au dproit inter -

national pourrait empêcher les ressortissants italiens concernés dp’obtenir
une réparation judiciaire.
Elle considère cependant que les demandes résultant du traitement pdes
internés militaires italiens mentionnées au paragraphe 99, ainsi que
d’autres réclamations de nationaux italiens qui resteraient à régler — qui

ont été à l’origine des procédures italiennes —, pourraient faire l’objet de
nouvelles négociations impliquant les deux Etats en vue de parvenir àp une
solution.

D. L’effet combiné des circonstances invoquées par l’Italie

105. A l’audience, le conseil de l’Italie a affirmé que les trois vpolets du
second argument de l’Italie devaient être examinés conjointement ; autre-
ment dit, que c’était en raison de l’effet cumulé de la grpavité des viola -
tions, du statut des règles violées et de l’absence d’autresp voies effectives
de réparation que la décision des tribunaux italiens de dénier pà l’Alle -

magne l’immunité était justifiée.
106. La Cour a déjà établi qu’aucun des trois volets du second argument
de l’Italie ne peut justifier à lui seul le comportement des tripbunaux italiens.
Elle n’est pas convaincue que ces éléments auraient pareil effpet même si on
les considère conjointement. Rien dans l’examen de la pratique desp Etats ne
vient corroborer la thèse selon laquelle, si deux de ces élémenpts ou même

tous les trois se trouvaient réunis, cela justifierait qu’un tripbunal national
dénie à l’Etat étranger mis en cause devant lui son droit àp l’immunité.

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and had a prospect of achieving a successful outcome, then it seems thatp
immunity would still prevail, whereas, again according to this argument,p

immunity would presumably cease to apply at some point when prospects
for an inter-State settlement were considered to have disappeared. Yet
national courts in one of the countries concerned are unlikely to be welpl
placed to determine when that point has been reached. Moreover, if a lumpp
sum settlement has been made — which has been the normal practice in the

aftermath of war, as Italy recognizes — then the determination of whether
a particular claimant continued to have an entitlement to compensation
would entail an investigation by the court of the details of that settlepment
and the manner in which the State which had received funds (in this caspe
the State in which the court in question is located) has distributed those

funds. Where the State receiving funds as part of what was intended as ap
comprehensive settlement in the aftermath of an armed conflict has elepcted
to use those funds to rebuild its national economy and infrastructure,
rather than distributing them to individual victims amongst its nationalps, it
is difficult to see why the fact that those individuals had not receivepd a
share in the money should be a reason for entitling them to claim againspt

the State that had transferred money to their State of nationality.
103. The Court therefore rejects Italy’s argument that Germany could
be refused immunity on this basis.
104. In coming to this conclusion, the Court is not unaware that the
immunity from jurisdiction of Germany in accordance with international

law may preclude judicial redress for the Italian nationals concerned.

It considers however that the claims arising from the treatment of the
Italian military internees referred to in paragraph 99, together with other
claims of Italian nationals which have allegedly not been settled — and

which formed the basis for the Italian proceedings — could be the subject
of further negotiation involving the two States concerned, with a view tpo
resolving the issue.

D. The combined effect of the circumstances relied upon by Italy

105. In the course of the oral proceedings, counsel for Italy maintained
that the three strands of Italy’s second argument had to be viewed
together; it was because of the cumulative effect of the gravity of the vio -
lations, the status of the rules violated and the absence of alternativep
means of redress that the Italian courts had been justified in refusinpg to

accord immunity to Germany.
106. The Court has already held that none of the three strands of the
second Italian argument would, of itself, justify the action of the Italpian
courts. It is not persuaded that they would have that effect if taken
together. Nothing in the examination of State practice lends support to p
the proposition that the concurrent presence of two, or even all three, pof

these elements would justify the refusal by a national court to accord tpo a
respondent State the immunity to which it would otherwise be entitled.

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Pour autant que l’argument tiré de l’effet combiné des cirpconstances
doive se comprendre comme signifiant que le tribunal national devrait p

mettre en balance l’ensemble des facteurs, en évaluant le poids respectif,
d’une part, des circonstances qui justifieraient qu’il exerce sap juridiction
et, d’autre part, de l’intérêt qui s’attache à la protpection de l’immunité,
une telle approche méconnaîtrait la nature même de l’immunitpé. Comme
il a été dit au paragraphe 56 ci-avant, l’immunité, lorsqu’elle existe,

constitue selon le droit international un droit pour l’Etat étrangper. De
surcroît, comme il a été expliqué au paragraphe 82 du présent arrêt, les
juridictions nationales doivent se prononcer sur les questions d’immupnité
à titre liminaire, avant d’examiner le bien-fondé de la demandep. L’immu-
nité ne saurait par conséquent dépendre de la mise en balance, ppar le

tribunal national devant lequel elle est invoquée, des circonstances pparti-
culières de chaque affaire.

4. Conclusions

107. Dès lors, la Cour considère que le refus des tribunaux italiens dep

reconnaître l’immunité à laquelle elle a conclu que l’Allpemagne pouvait
prétendre au titre du droit international coutumier constitue un manqpue-
ment aux obligations auxquelles l’Etat italien était tenu envers cpelle-ci.
108. Un certain nombre de questions sur lesquelles les Parties se sont
exprimées de manière relativement détaillée n’appellent dponc pas d’exa -

men de la part de la Cour. En particulier, point n’est besoin pour celle-ci
de trancher la question de savoir si, comme l’affirme l’Italie, lpe droit inte-
national confère aux victimes de violations du droit des conflits aprmés un
droit individuel à réparation directement opposable. Point n’espt besoin
non plus pour elle de se prononcer sur la question de savoir si, comme
l’affirme l’Allemagne, le paragraphe 4 de l’article 77 du traité de paix ou

les dispositions des accords de 1961 emportaient renonciation automa -
tique aux réclamations qui font l’objet des procédures intentépes devant la
justice italienne. Non qu’il s’agisse là, bien évidemment, dpe questions sans
importance; elles n’appellent simplement aucune décision dans le cadre
de la présente affaire. La question de savoir si l’Allemagne encpourt

aujourd’hui encore, envers l’Italie ou envers des ressortissants italiens,
une responsabilité au titre des crimes de guerre et des crimes contrep l’hu-
manité commis par elle durant la seconde guerre mondiale n’affecte pas
son droit à l’immunité. De la même manière, la décisiopn de la Cour rela -
tive à la question de l’immunité ne saurait avoir d’incidencpe sur quelque

responsabilité que pourrait encourir l’Allemagne.

IV. Les mesures de contraipnte prises à l’égard deps biens
appartenant à l’Allemapgne en territoire itaplien

109. Le 7 juin 2007, des requérants grecs, se fondant sur une décision
de la Cour d’appel de Florence du 13 juin 2006 déclarant exécutoire en

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In so far as the argument based on the combined effect of the circum -
stances is to be understood as meaning that the national court should

balance the different factors, assessing the respective weight, on thep one
hand, of the various circumstances that might justify the exercise of its
jurisdiction, and, on the other hand, of the interests attaching to the ppro -
tection of immunity, such an approach would disregard the very nature
of State immunity. As explained in paragraph 56 above, according to

international law, State immunity, where it exists, is a right of the foreign
State. In addition, as explained in paragraph 82 of this Judgment, national
courts have to determine questions of immunity at the outset of the pro -
ceedings, before consideration of the merits. Immunity cannot, thereforep,
be made dependent upon the outcome of a balancing exercise of the spe -

cific circumstances of each case to be conducted by the national courtp
before which immunity is claimed.

4. Conclusions

107. The Court therefore holds that the action of the Italian courts in

denying Germany the immunity to which the Court has held it was enti -
tled under customary international law constitutes a breach of the obligpa -
tions owed by the Italian State to Germany.
108. It is, therefore, unnecessary for the Court to consider a number of
questions which were discussed at some length by the Parties. In particup -
lar, the Court need not rule on whether, as Italy contends, internationapl

law confers upon the individual victim of a violation of the law of armepd
conflict a directly enforceable right to claim compensation. Nor need pit
rule on whether, as Germany maintains, Article 77, paragraph 4, of the
Treaty of Peace or the provisions of the 1961 Agreements amounted to a
binding waiver of the claims which are the subject of the Italian proceepd -

ings. That is not to say, of course, that these are unimportant questionps,
only that they are not ones which fall for decision within the limits ofp the
present case. The question whether Germany still has a responsibility
towards Italy, or individual Italians, in respect of war crimes and crimpes
against humanity committed by it during the Second World War does not

affect Germany’s entitlement to immunity. Similarly, the Court’sp ruling
on the issue of immunity can have no effect on whatever responsibilityp
Germany may have.

IV. The Measures of Constrapint Taken against Propeprty
Belonging to Germany Locpated on Italian Territopry

109. On 7 June 2007, certain Greek claimants, in reliance on a decision
of the Florence Court of Appeal of 13 June 2006, declaring enforceable in

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Italie le jugement rendu par le tribunal de première instance de Livadia,

en Grèce, condamnant l’Allemagne à leur verser des indemnitéps, firent
enregistrer auprès du cadastre de la province de Côme une hypothèque
judiciaire sur la Villa Vigoni, bien appartenant à l’Etat allemand situé
près du lac de Côme (voir paragraphe 35 ci-dessus).
110. L’Allemagne soutient devant la Cour que cette mesure de contrainte

viole l’immunité d’exécution qui lui est reconnue par le dropit international.
L’Italie n’a pas cherché à justifier ladite mesure; elle a au contraire indiqué
à la Cour qu’elle « n’aurait aucune objection à ce que la Cour décide de
lui ordonner d’obtenir la mainlevée de l’hypothèque inscrite surp la
Villa Vigoni ».

111o L’hypothèque en question a été suopendue par l’effet dup décret-
loi n 63 du 28 avril 2010, de la loi n 98 du 23 juin 2010 et du décret-loi
no 216 du 29 décembre 2011, pour tenir compte de la procédure pendante
devant la Cour en la présente affaire. Elle n’a cependant pas épté annulée.
112. La Cour estime que, nonobstant la suspension susmentionnée et

en dépit de l’absence de toute argumentation de l’Italie visantp à établir la
licéité internationale de la mesure de contrainte en cause, il subpsiste entre
les Parties, sur ce point, un différend dont l’objet n’a pas pdisparu. L’Italie
n’a pas admis formellement que l’hypothèque judiciaire sur la VillaVigoni
constituait une mesure contraire à ses obligations internationales. Elle n’a

pas non plus mis fin aux effets de cette mesure, mais les a seulemenpt sus -
pendus, comme il vient d’être dit. Elle a fait savoir à la Courp, par la voix
de son agent, que, les décisions italiennes défavorables à l’pAllemagne
ayant été suspendues par la voie législative en attendant l’parrêt de la
Cour, lesdites décisions « ne seront exécutées que si la Cour conclut que

l’Italie n’a pas commis les actes illicites dont l’Allemagne lupi fait grief ».
Cela implique que l’hypothèque inscrite sur la Villa Vigoni est susceptible
de produire à nouveau ses pleins effets dans le cas où la Cour cponclurait
qu’elle n’est pas contraire au droit international. Sans lui demander de
formuler une telle conclusion, l’Italie ne l’exclut pas, et attend que la

Cour se prononce pour en tirer les conséquences appropriées.
En conséquence, il y a lieu pour la Cour de statuer, comme le sou -
haitent les deux Parties, sur le deuxième chef de conclusions de l’pAlle -
magne, qui a pour objet le différend relatif à la mesure de contprainte prise
à l’égard de la Villa Vigoni.

113. Avant d’examiner le bien-fondé des prétentions de la demande -
resse sur ce point, la Cour fera observer que l’immunité d’exépcution dont
jouissent les Etats en ce qui concerne leurs biens situés en territoipre étran -
ger va au-delà de l’immunité de juridiction dont bénéfipcient ces mêmes
Etats devant les tribunaux étrangers. Même si un jugement a étép réguliè -

rement rendu à l’encontre d’un Etat étranger, dans des circonstances
telles que ce dernier ne pouvait pas se prévaloir d’une immunitép de juri -
diction, il n’en résulte pas ipso facto que l’Etat condamné puisse faire
l’objet de mesures de contrainte, sur le territoire de l’Etat du fpor ou sur
celui d’un Etat tiers, en vue de faire exécuter le jugement en caupse. De

même, l’éventuelle renonciation par un Etat à son immunitép de juridiction

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Italy the judgment rendered by the Court of First Instance of Livadia, in
Greece, which had ordered Germany to pay them compensation, entered

in the Land Registry of the Province of Como a legal charge against Villpa
Vigoni, a property of the German State located near Lake Como (see
above, paragraph 35).
110. Germany argued before the Court that such a measure of con -
straint violates the immunity from enforcement to which it is entitled

under international law. Italy has not sought to justify that measure ; on
the contrary, it indicated to the Court that it “has no objection to pany
decision by the Court obliging Italy to ensure that the mortgage on Villpa
Vigoni inscribed at the land registry is cancelled”.
111. As a result of Decree-Law No. 63 of 28 April 2010, Law No. 98 of
23 June 2010 and Decree-Law No. 216 of 29 December 2011, the charge in

question was suspended in order to take account of the pending proceedinpgs
before the Court in the present case. It has not, however, been cancellepd.
112. The Court considers that, notwithstanding the above-mentioned
suspension, and the absence of any argument by Italy seeking to establisph
the international legality of the measures of constraint in question, a pdis -

pute still exists between the Parties on this issue, the subject of whicph has
not disappeared. Italy has not formally admitted that the legal charge opn
Villa Vigoni constituted a measure contrary to its international obliga -
tions. Nor, as just stated, has it put an end to the effects of that mpeasure,
but has merely suspended them. It has told the Court, through its Agent,p

that the decisions of the Italian courts rendered against Germany have
been suspended by legislation pending the decision of this Court, and thpat
execution of those decisions “will only occur should the Court decidep that
Italy has not committed the wrongful acts complained of by Germany”. p
That implies that the charge on Villa Vigoni might be reactivated, shoulpd
the Court conclude that it is not contrary to international law. Withoutp

asking the Court to reach such a conclusion, Italy does not exclude it, pand
awaits the Court’s ruling before taking the appropriate action thereopn.

It follows that the Court should rule, as both Parties wish it to do, onp
the second of Germany’s submissions, which concerns the dispute over p

the measure of constraint taken against Villa Vigoni.

113. Before considering whether the claims of the Applicant on this
point are well-founded, the Court observes that the immunity from
enforcement enjoyed by States in regard to their property situated on fopr -

eign territory goes further than the jurisdictional immunity enjoyed by p
those same States before foreign courts. Even if a judgment has been lawp -
fully rendered against a foreign State, in circumstances such that the lpat -
ter could not claim immunity from jurisdiction, it does not follow ipso
facto that the State against which judgment has been given can be the
subject of measures of constraint on the territory of the forum State orp on

that of a third State, with a view to enforcing the judgment in questionp.
Similarly, any waiver by a State of its jurisdictional immunity before ap

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devant un tribunal étranger ne vaut pas par elle-même renonciationp à son
immunité d’exécution en ce qui concerne les biens qui lui apparptiennent et

qui se trouvent en territoire étranger.
Les règles du droit international coutumier relatives à l’immunpité d’exé -
cution et celles qui gouvernent l’immunité de juridiction (entendpue stricto
sensu comme le droit pour un Etat de ne pas être soumis à une procédpure
judiciaire devant les tribunaux d’un autre Etat) sont distinctes et pdoivent
faire l’objet d’une application séparée.

114. Dans la présente affaire, cela signifie que la Cour peut se pronopn -
cer sur la question de savoir si l’hypothèque inscrite sur la Villpa Vigoni
constitue une mesure de contrainte violant l’immunité d’exécution de
l’Allemagne, sans avoir à se demander si les décisions des tribunaux grecs
prononçant des condamnations pécuniaires à l’égard de l’pAllemagne,

pour l’exécution desquelles cette mesure a été prise, ont épté elles-mêmes
rendues en violation de l’immunité de juridiction de cet Etat.
De même, la question de la licéité internationale de la mesure pde contrainte
en cause, au regard des règles applicables en matière d’immunitpé d’exécu -
tion, est distincte, et peut donc être examinée séparément, pde celle de la
licéité internationale des décisions judiciaires italiennes quip ont déclaré exé

cutoires sur le territoire italien les jugements grecs condamnant l’Apllemagne,
au regard des règles applicables en matière d’immunité de jupridiction. Cette
dernière question, qui forme l’objet du troisième chef de conclusions soumis
à la Cour par l’Allemagne (voir paragraphe 17 ci-dessus), sera abordée dans
la section suivante du présent arrêt.
115. Pour fonder sa demande sur le point qui est à présent examiné, p

l’Allemagne s’est référée aux règles énoncées àp l’article 19 de la conven -
tion des Nations Unies. Ladite convention n’est pas entrée en vigueur,
mais, de l’avis de l’Allemagne, elle a codifié, sur la questipon de l’immu-
nité d’exécution, les règles existant en droit international génépral. Son
contenu s’imposerait donc en tant qu’il refléterait le droit coutumier en la

matière.
116. Intitulé « Immunité des Etats à l’égard des mesures de contrainte
postérieures au jugement », l’article 19 est ainsi rédigé :

«Aucune mesure de contrainte postérieure au jugement, telle que
saisie, saisie-arrêt ou saisie-exécution, ne peut être prise copntre des
biens d’un Etat en relation avec une procédure intentée devant pun
tribunal d’un autre Etat excepté si et dans la mesure où :

a) l’Etat a expressément consenti à l’application de telles mesures
dans les termes indiqués :

i) par un accord international ;
ii) par une convention d’arbitrage ou un contrat écrit ; ou
iii) par une déclaration devant le tribunal ou une communi-
cation écrite faite après la survenance du différend entre les
parties ; ou

b) l’Etat a réservé ou affecté des biens à la satisfactionp de la demande
qui fait l’objet de cette procédure ; ou

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6 CIJ1031.indb 100 22/11/13 12:25 jurisdictional immunpities of the state (jupdgment) 147

foreign court does not in itself mean that that State has waived its immpu-
nity from enforcement as regards property belonging to it situated in fopr-

eign territory.
The rules of customary international law governing immunity from
enforcement and those governing jurisdictional immunity (understood
stricto sensu as the right of a State not to be the subject of judicial pro -
ceedings in the courts of another State) are distinct, and must be applpied

separately.
114. In the present case, this means that the Court may rule on the
issue of whether the charge on Villa Vigoni constitutes a measure of con -
straint in violation of Germany’s immunity from enforcement, without p
needing to determine whether the decisions of the Greek courts awarding p
pecuniary damages against Germany, for purposes of whose enforcement

that measure was taken, were themselves in breach of that State’s jurpisdic -
tional immunity.
Likewise, the issue of the international legality of the measure of con -
straint in question, in light of the rules applicable to immunity from
enforcement, is separate — and may therefore be considered separately —

from that of the international legality, under the rules applicable to jpuris-
dictional immunity, of the decisions of the Italian courts which declarepd
enforceable on Italian territory the Greek judgments against Germany.
This latter question, which is the subject of the third of the submissiopns
presented to the Court by Germany (see above paragraph 17), will be
addressed in the following section of this Judgment.

115. In support of its claim on the point under discussion here, Ger -
many cited the rules set out in Article 19 of the United Nations Conven -
tion. That Convention has not entered into force, but in Germany’s vipew
it codified, in relation to the issue of immunity from enforcement, thpe
existing rules under general international law. Its terms are therefore psaid

to be binding, inasmuch as they reflect customary law on the matter.

116. Article 19, entitled “State immunity from post-judgment measures
of constraint”, reads as follows :

“No post-judgment measures of constraint, such as attachment,
arrest or execution, against property of a State may be taken in con -
nection with a proceeding before a court of another State unless and
except to the extent that :

(a) the State has expressly consented to the taking of such measures
as indicated :

(i) by international agreement ;
(ii) by an arbitration agreement or in a written contract ; or
(iii) by a declaration before the court or by a written communi -
cation after a dispute between the parties has arisen ; or

(b) the State has allocated or earmarked property for the satisfaction
of the claim which is the object of that proceeding ; or

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c) il a été établi que les biens sont spécifiquement utiliséps ou destinés

à être utilisés par l’Etat autrement qu’à des fins dpe service public
non commerciales et sont situés sur le territoire de l’Etat du forp,
à condition que les mesures de contrainte postérieures au jugementp
ne portent que sur des biens qui ont un lien avec l’entité contre p
laquelle la procédure a été intentée. »

117. Lors de l’élaboration de la convention des Nations Unies, ces dis -
positions ont donné lieu à de longues et difficiles discussions. pLa Cour
estime qu’il ne lui est pas nécessaire pour les besoins de la présente affaire
de déterminer si l’article 19 précité reflète dans tous ses éléments le droit
international coutumier en vigueur.

118. En effet, il lui suffit de constater qu’il existe au minimum une
condition qui doit être remplie pour qu’une mesure de contrainte ppuisse
être prise à l’égard d’un bien appartenant à un Etat éptranger: que le bien
en cause soit utilisé pour les besoins d’une activité ne poursupivant pas des
fins de service public non commerciales, ou que l’Etat propriétapire ait

expressément consenti à l’application d’une mesure de contrainte, ou
encore que cet Etat ait réservé le bien en cause à la satisfactpion d’une
demande en justice (une illustration de cette pratique bien établie pest four -
nie par la décision de la Cour constitutionnelle allemande (Bundesverfas ‑
sungsgericht) du 14 décembre 1977 (BverfGE, vol. 46, p. 342), par l’arrêt

du Tribunal fédéral suisse du 30 avril 1986,Royaume d’Espagne c. Société X
(Annuaire suisse de droit international, vol. 43, 1987, p. 158), ainsi que par
l’arrêt de la Chambre des lords du 12 avril 1984, Alcom Ltd. c. République
de Colombie ([1984] 1 AC 580 ;ILR, vol. 74, p. 180), et par l’arrêt du Tri -
er
bunal constitutionnel espagnol du 1 juillet 1992, Abbott c. République
d’Afrique du Sud (Revista española de derecho internacional, vol. 44, 1992,
p. 565)).
119. Or, il est clair en l’espèce que le bien ayant fait l’objet de pla mesure
de contrainte litigieuse est utilisé pour les besoins d’une activité de service

public dépourvue de caractère commercial, donc d’une activitép relevant
des fonctions de souveraineté de l’Allemagne. La Villa Vigoni est en effet
le siège d’un centre culturel destiné à favoriser les échpanges culturels entre
l’Allemagne et l’Italie. Ce centre culturel est organisé et admpinistré sur la
base d’un accord entre les deux gouvernements conclu sous la forme d’pun

échange de lettres en date du 21 avril 1986. Devant la Cour, l’Italie a
qualifié l’activité en cause de « centre d’excellence pour la coopération
italo-germanique dans les domaines de la recherche, de la culture et de p
l’éducation» et reconnu qu’elle était pleinement impliquée dans « sa struc -
ture spéciale de gestion binationale ». Par ailleurs, l’Allemagne n’a d’au -

cune manière expressément consenti à l’application d’une pmesure telle que
l’hypothèque en cause, ni n’a réservé la Villa Vigoni à la satisfaction des
demandes en justice dirigées contre elle.
120. Dans ces conditions, la Cour conclut que l’inscription d’une hypo -
thèque judiciaire sur la Villa Vigoni constitue une violation par l’Italie de

son l’obligation de respecter l’immunité due à l’Allemagnpe.

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(c) it has been established that the property is specifically in use or
intended for use by the State for other than government non-com -

mercial purposes and is in the territory of the State of the
forum, provided that post-judgment measures of constraint may
only be taken against property that has a connection with the
entity against which the proceeding was directed.”

117. When the United Nations Convention was being drafted, these

provisions gave rise to long and difficult discussions. The Court considers
that it is unnecessary for purposes of the present case for it to decidep
whether all aspects of Article 19 reflect current customary international
law.
118. Indeed, it suffices for the Court to find that there is at least one
condition that has to be satisfied before any measure of constraint mapy be

taken against property belonging to a foreign State : that the property in
question must be in use for an activity not pursuing government non-com -
mercial purposes, or that the State which owns the property has expresslpy
consented to the taking of a measure of constraint, or that that State hpas
allocated the property in question for the satisfaction of a judicial clpaim

(an illustration of this well-established practice is provided by the deci-
sion of the German Constitutional Court (Bundesverfassungsgericht) of
14 December 1977 (BVerfGE, Vol. 46, p. 342; ILR, Vol. 65, p. 146), by the
judgment of the Swiss Federal Tribunal of 30 April 1986 in Kingdom of
Spain v. Société X ( Annuaire suisse de droit international, Vol. 43, 1987,

p. 158 ;ILR, Vol. 82, p. 44), as well as the judgment of the House of Lords
of 12 April 1984 in Alcom Ltd. v. Republic of Colombia ([1984] 1 AC 580 ;
ILR, Vol. 74, p. 170) and the judgment of the Spanish Constitutional
Court of 1 July 1992 in Abbott v. Republic of South Africa ( Revista espa ‑
ñola de derecho internacional, Vol. 44, 1992, p. 565; ILR, Vol. 113, p. 414)).

119. It is clear in the present case that the property which was the sub -
ject of the measure of constraint at issue is being used for governmentapl
purposes that are entirely non-commercial, and hence for purposes falling
within Germany’s sovereign functions. Villa Vigoni is in fact the seat of a
cultural centre intended to promote cultural exchanges between Germany

and Italy. This cultural centre is organized and administered on the baspis
of an agreement between the two Governments concluded in the form of
an exchange of notes dated 21 April 1986. Before the Court, Italy
described the activities in question as a “centre of excellence for the Ital -
ian-German co-operation in the fields of research, culture and educa -

tion”, and recognized that Italy was directly involved in “its peculiar
bi-national . . . managing structure”. Nor has Germany in any way
expressly consented to the taking of a measure such as the legal charge pin
question, or allocated Villa Vigoni for the satisfaction of the judicialp
claims against it.
120. In these circumstances, the Court finds that the registration of a

legal charge on Villa Vigoni constitutes a violation by Italy of its oblpiga -
tion to respect the immunity owed to Germany.

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6 CIJ1031.indb 103 22/11/13 12:25 149 immunités juridictiopnnelles de l’état (arrpêt)

V. Les décisions judiciaipres italiennes déclaprant exécutoires
en Italie des décisions dep juridictions grecqueps prononçant

des condamnations civpiles à l’encontre de lp’Allemagne

121. Par son troisième chef de conclusions, l’Allemagne se plaint de cep
que son immunité de juridiction a été également violée papr les décisions
judiciaires italiennes déclarant exécutoires en Italie les condamnpations

civiles prononcées par des tribunaux grecs à l’encontre de l’pAllemagne
dans l’affaire du massacre de Distomo. Les ayants droit des victimes de ce
massacre, commis par les forces armées allemandes dans un village grepc en
juin 1944, ont intenté en 1995 une action en réparation contre l’Allemagne
devant les juridictions grecques. Le tribunal de première instance de Liva -
dia, territorialement compétent, a condamné l’Allemagne à inpdemniser les

requérants, par un jugement du 25 septembre 1997. Le pourvoi formé par
l’Allemagne contre ce jugement a été rejeté par un arrêt pde la Cour de
cassation grecque du 4 mai 2000, qui a rendu définitif le jugement du tri -
bunal régional, et a en même temps condamné l’Allemagne àp supporter la
charge des dépens de la procédure de cassation. Les bénéfipciaires grecs du

jugement de première instance et de l’arrêt de la Cour de cassaption ont
demandé aux juridictions italiennes d’accorder l’exequatur de ces décisions
judiciaires, de manière à pouvoir les faire exécuter en Italie,p leur exécution
en Grèce ou en Allemagne étant impossible (voir paragraphes 30 et 32
ci-dessus). C’est sur ces demandes que la Cour d’appel de Florencpe a

statué, pour y faire droit par un arrêt du 13 juin 2006, confirmé sur oppo -
sition de l’Allemagne le 21 octobre 2008, pour ce qui concerne les
condamnations pécuniaires prononcées par le tribunal de premièrpe ins -
tance de Livadia, et par un arrêt du 2 mai 2005, confirmé sur opposition
de l’Allemagne le 6 février 2007, pour ce qui est de la condamnation aux
dépens prononcée par la Cour de cassation grecque. Le dernier arrêpt cité a

été confirmé par la Cour de cassation italienne le 6 mai 2008. Quant à
l’arrêt qui confirme l’exequatur accordé au jugement du tribunal de pre -
mière instance de Livadia, il a aussi donné lieu à un pourvoi dpevant la
Cour de cassation italienne, qui l’a rejeté le 12 janvier 2011.
122. Selon l’Allemagne, les arrêts de la Cour d’appel de Florence

déclarant exécutoires le jugement du tribunal de Livadia et l’aprrêt de la
Cour de cassation grecque constituent des violations de son immunité pde
juridiction, car les décisions judiciaires grecques ont été ellpes-mêmes ren -
dues en méconnaissance de cette immunité de juridiction, pour les pmêmes
raisons que celles invoquées par l’Allemagne à propos des procépdures ita -

liennes relatives à des crimes de guerre commis en Italie en 1943-194p5.
123. Selon l’Italie, au contraire, il n’y a pas eu violation de l’impmunité
de juridiction de l’Allemagne, ni par les décisions judiciaires grpecques ni
par celles de la juridiction italienne ayant déclaré les précédentes exécu -
toires en Italie, pour les mêmes raisons que celles qui ont étép exposées et
examinées dans la section III du présent arrêt.

124. Il convient de relever d’abord que le grief formulé par l’Allempagne
dans son troisième chef de conclusions ne se confond nullement avec lpe

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6 CIJ1031.indb 104 22/11/13 12:25 jurisdictional immunpities of the state (jupdgment) 149

V. The Decisions of the Itaplian Courts Declaring Epnforceable
in Italy Decisions of Greepk Courts Upholding

Civil Claims against Gerpmany

121. In its third submission, Germany complains that its jurisdictional
immunity was also violated by decisions of the Italian courts declaring
enforceable in Italy judgments rendered by Greek courts against Ger -

many in proceedings arising out of the Distomo massacre. In 1995, suc -
cessors in title of the victims of that massacre, committed by the Germapn
armed forces in a Greek village in June 1944, brought proceedings for
compensation against Germany before the Greek courts. By a judgment
of 25 September 1997, the Court of First Instance of Livadia, which had
territorial jurisdiction, ordered Germany to pay compensation to the

claimants. The appeal by Germany against that judgment was dismissed
by a decision of the Hellenic Supreme Court of 4 May 2000, which ren -
dered final the judgment of the Court of First Instance, and at the sapme
time ordered Germany to pay the costs of the appeal proceedings. The
successful Greek claimants under the first-instance and Supreme Court p

judgments applied to the Italian courts for exequatur of those judgments,
so as to be able to have them enforced in Italy, since it was impossiblep to
enforce them in Greece or in Germany (see above, paragraphs 30 and 32).
It was on those applications that the Florence Court of Appeal ruled,
allowing them by a decision of 13 June 2006, which was confirmed, fol -

lowing an objection by Germany, on 21 October 2008 as regards the
pecuniary damages awarded by the Court of First Instance of Livadia,
and by a decision of 2 May 2005, confirmed, following an objection by
Germany, on 6 February 2007 as regards the award of costs made by the
Hellenic Supreme Court. This latter decision was confirmed by the Italian
Court of Cassation on 6 May 2008. As regards the decision confirming

the exequatur granted in respect of the judgment of the Court of First
Instance of Livadia, it has also been appealed to the Italian Court of Cpas -
sation, which dismissed that appeal on 12 January 2011.

122. According to Germany, the decisions of the Florence Court of

Appeal declaring enforceable the judgments of the Livadia court and the p
Hellenic Supreme Court constitute violations of its jurisdictional immu -
nity, since, for the same reasons as those invoked by Germany in relation
to the Italian proceedings concerning war crimes committed in Italy
between 1943 and 1945, the decisions of the Greek courts were themselvesp

rendered in violation of that jurisdictional immunity.
123. According to Italy, on the contrary, and for the same reasons as
those set out and discussed in Section III of the present Judgment, there
was no violation of Germany’s jurisdictional immunity, either by the p
decisions of the Greek courts or by those of the Italian courts which
declared them enforceable in Italy.

124. It should first be noted that the claim in Germany’s third submis -
sion is entirely separate and distinct from that set out in the preceding

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6 CIJ1031.indb 105 22/11/13 12:25 150 immunités juridictiopnnelles de l’état (arrpêt)

précédent, qui a fait l’objet de la section IV ci-dessus (paragraphes 109
à 120). Il ne s’agit plus ici de savoir si une mesure de contrainte — telle

que l’hypothèque sur la Villa Vigoni — a méconnu l’immunité d’exécu -
tion de l’Allemagne, mais de déterminer si les jugements italiens déclarant
exécutoires en Italie les condamnations pécuniaires prononcées pen Grèce
ont constitué par eux-mêmes — et indépendamment de toute mesure
d’exécution subséquente — une violation de l’immunité de juridiction de

la demanderesse. Bien qu’il existe un lien entre ces deux aspects —p puisque
la mesure de contrainte sur la Villa Vigoni n’a pu être mise à exécution
que sur la base de l’arrêt de la Cour d’appel de Florence accorpdant l’exe ‑
quatur du jugement du tribunal grec de Livadia —, les deux questions
sus-énoncées n’en sont pas moins nettement distinctes. Celle qupi a été exa -
minée à la section précédente avait trait à l’immunitép d’exécution ; celle

sur laquelle la Cour va se pencher à présent a trait à l’immpunité de juri -
diction. Comme il a été rappelé plus haut, ces deux immunitéps sont régies
par des corps de règles différents.
125. La Cour doit ensuite exposer la manière dont elle conçoit la ques -
tion de l’immunité de juridiction appliquée à un jugement qupi statue non

pas sur le fond d’une demande dirigée contre un Etat étranger, pmais sur une
demande tendant à ce qu’un jugement déjà rendu par un tribunpal étranger
à l’égard d’un Etat tiers soit déclaré exécutoire sur le territoire de l’Etat du
juge saisi (une demande d’exequatur). La difficulté provient de ce que, en
pareils cas, le juge n’est pas appelé à prononcer directement upne condamna -

tion à l’égard d’un Etat étranger invoquant une immunitép de juridiction,
mais à rendre exécutoire une condamnation déjà prononcée ppar le tribunal
d’un autre Etat, qui est supposé avoir examiné et appliqué lpui-même les
règles relatives à l’immunité de juridiction de l’Etat dépfendeur.
126. En l’espèce, les deux Parties semblent avoir raisonné, dans lesp
arguments qu’elles ont échangés, comme si dans une telle hypothpèse le

respect de l’immunité de juridiction de l’Etat tiers par le tripbunal saisi de
la demande d’exequatur dépendait simplement du respect de cette immu -
nité par le tribunal étranger qui a rendu le jugement sur le fond pà l’en -
contre de l’Etat tiers. En d’autres termes, les Parties ont paru lp’une et
l’autre faire dépendre la question de savoir si la Cour d’appel de Florence

avait méconnu ou non l’immunité de juridiction de l’Allemagne en décla -
rant exécutoires le jugement de Livadia et l’arrêt de la Cour dpe cassation
grecque de celle de savoir si ces dernières décisions avaient elleps-mêmes
méconnu l’immunité de juridiction que l’Allemagne avait invopquée en
défense dans les actions judiciaires intentées contre elle en Grèpce.

127. Rien ne s’oppose à ce qu’une juridiction nationale vérifiep, avant
d’accorder l’exequatur, que le jugement étranger n’a pas été rendu en
méconnaissance de l’immunité de l’Etat défendeur. Mais, ppour les besoins
de la présente affaire, la Cour estime devoir aborder la question spous un
angle sensiblement différent. Elle considère qu’il n’est ppas nécessaire, pour
déterminer si la Cour d’appel de Florence a méconnu l’immunipté de juri -

diction de l’Allemagne, de se prononcer sur la question de savoir si ples
décisions judiciaires grecques ont elles-mêmes violé cette immupnité — ce

55

6 CIJ1031.indb 106 22/11/13 12:25 jurisdictional immunpities of the state (jupdgment) 150

one, which has been discussed in Section IV above (paragraphs 109 to
120). The Court is no longer concerned here to determine whether a mea -

sure of constraint — such as the legal charge on Villa Vigoni — violated
Germany’s immunity from enforcement, but to decide whether the Italiapn
judgments declaring enforceable in Italy the pecuniary awards pro -
nounced in Greece did themselves — independently of any subsequent
measure of enforcement — constitute a violation of the Applicant’s

immunity from jurisdiction. While there is a link between these two
aspects — since the measure of constraint against Villa Vigoni could only
have been imposed on the basis of the judgment of the Florence Court of p
Appeal according exequatur in respect of the judgment of the Greek court
in Livadia — the two issues nonetheless remain clearly distinct. That dis -
cussed in the preceding section related to immunity from enforcement ;

that which the Court will now consider addresses immunity from jurisdic -
tion. As recalled above, these two forms of immunity are governed by
different sets of rules.
125. The Court will then explain how it views the issue of jurisdictional
immunity in relation to a judgment which rules not on the merits of a

claim brought against a foreign State, but on an application to have a
judgment rendered by a foreign court against a third State declared
enforceable on the territory of the State of the court where that applicpa -
tion is brought (a request for exequatur). The difficulty arises from the
fact that, in such cases, the court is not being asked to give judgment p

directly against a foreign State invoking jurisdictional immunity, but tpo
enforce a decision already rendered by a court of another State, which ips
deemed to have itself examined and applied the rules governing the jurisp -
dictional immunity of the respondent State.
126. In the present case, the two Parties appear to have argued on the
basis that, in such a situation, the question whether the court seised opf the

application for exequatur had respected the jurisdictional immunity of the
third State depended simply on whether that immunity had been respected
by the foreign court having rendered the judgment on the merits against p
the third State. In other words, both Parties appeared to make the ques -
tion whether or not the Florence Court of Appeal had violated Germa -

ny’s jurisdictional immunity in declaring enforceable the Livadia andp
Hellenic Supreme Court decisions dependent on whether those decisions
had themselves violated the jurisdictional immunity on which Germany
had relied in its defence against the proceedings brought against it in p
Greece.

127. There is nothing to prevent national courts from ascertaining,
before granting exequatur, that the foreign judgment was not rendered in
breach of the immunity of the respondent State. However, for the purposeps
of the present case, the Court considers that it must address the issue pfrom
a significantly different viewpoint. In its view, it is unnecessary,p in order to
determine whether the Florence Court of Appeal violated Germany’s jurpis -

dictional immunity, to rule on the question of whether the decisions of the
Greek courts did themselves violate that immunity — something, more -

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6 CIJ1031.indb 107 22/11/13 12:25 151 immunités juridictiopnnelles de l’état (arrpêt)

qu’elle ne pourrait d’ailleurs pas faire, puisqu’elle se prononpcerait, ce fai-
sant, sur les droits et obligations d’un Etat, la Grèce, qui n’a pas la qua -

lité de partie à la présente instance (Or monétaire pris à Rome en 1943
(Italie c. France, Royaume‑Uni et Etats‑Unis d’Amérique), question préli ‑
minaire, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1954, p. 32 ; Timor oriental (Portugal c. Aus‑
tralie), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1995, p. 105, par. 34).
La question pertinente, du point de vue de la Cour et pour les besoins

de la présente affaire, est de savoir si les tribunaux italiens ontp eux-mêmes
respecté l’immunité de juridiction de l’Allemagne en accueilplant la
demande d’exequatur, et non celle de savoir si le tribunal grec ayant rendu
le jugement dont l’exequatur était demandé a respecté l’immunité de juri -
diction de l’Allemagne. Dans une situation de ce genre, les réponspes à ces
deux questions peuvent ne pas nécessairement coïncider ; c’est seulement

la première qui importe ici à la Cour.
128. Lorsqu’un tribunal est saisi, comme en l’espèce, d’une demanpde
tendant à ce qu’il accorde l’exequatur d’un jugement étranger ayant statué
à l’encontre d’un Etat tiers, il est appelé à exercer luip-même sa juridiction
à l’égard de l’Etat tiers en question. Il est vrai que la prpocédure d’exequa ‑

tur n’a pas pour objet de trancher le fond d’un litige, mais seulement de
donner force exécutoire à un jugement déjà rendu, sur le terpritoire d’un
Etat autre que celui du juge qui a statué au fond. Le juge de l’exequatur
n’a donc pas pour rôle de réexaminer dans tous ses aspects le fpond de
l’affaire qui a été jugée. Il n’en reste pas moins que,p en accordant ou en

refusant l’exequatur, il exerce un pouvoir juridictionnel qui aboutit à don -
ner au jugement étranger des effets correspondant à ceux d’unp jugement
rendu au fond dans l’Etat requis. La procédure introduite devant cpe juge
doit, en conséquence, être regardée comme intentée contre l’pEtat tiers
condamné par le jugement étranger.
129. A cet égard, la Cour relève que, selon l’article 6, paragraphe 2, de

la convention des Nations Unies :
«Une procédure devant un tribunal d’un Etat est considérée

comme étant intentée contre un autre Etat lorsque celui-ci :
a) est cité comme partie à la procédure ; ou
b) n’est pas cité comme partie à la procédure, mais que cette pprocé -
dure vise en fait à porter atteinte aux biens, droits, intérêtsp ou
activités de cet autre Etat. »

Appliquée à une procédure d’exequatur, cette définition implique qu’une
telle procédure doit être regardée comme dirigée contre l’Etat qui a été

condamné par le jugement étranger. C’est d’ailleurs bien pouprquoi, en l’es -
pèce, l’Allemagne était recevable à faire opposition aux dépcisions de la
Cour d’appel de Florence accordant l’exequatur — quoiqu’elle l’ait fait
sans succès — puis à se pourvoir en cassation contre les arrêts confirmatpifs.
130. Il résulte de ce qui précède que le juge saisi d’une demandep d’exe ‑
quatur d’un jugement étranger condamnant un Etat tiers est tenu de se

demander si l’Etat défendeur bénéficie d’une immunitép de juridiction,
compte tenu de la nature de l’affaire qui a été jugée, devpant les tribunaux

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over, which it could not do, since that would be to rule on the rights apnd
obligations of a State, Greece, which does not have the status of party pto

the present proceedings (see Monetary Gold Removed from Rome in 1943
(Italy v. France; United Kingdom and United States of America), Prelimi ‑
nary Question, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1954, p. 32; East Timor (Portu‑
gal v. Australia), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1995, p. 105, para. 34).
The relevant question, from the Court’s point of view and for the purp -

poses of the present case, is whether the Italian courts did themselves p
respect Germany’s immunity from jurisdiction in allowing the applicatpion
for exequatur, and not whether the Greek court having rendered the judg -
ment of which exequatur is sought had respected Germany’s jurisdictional
immunity. In a situation of this kind, the replies to these two questionps
may not necessarily be the same ; it is only the first question which the

Court needs to address here.
128. Where a court is seised, as in the present case, of an application
for exequatur of a foreign judgment against a third State, it is itself being
called upon to exercise its jurisdiction in respect of the third State ipn ques
tion. It is true that the purpose of exequatur proceedings is not to decide

on the merits of a dispute, but simply to render an existing judgment
enforceable on the territory of a State other than that of the court whipch
ruled on the merits. It is thus not the role of the exequatur court to
re-examine in all its aspects the substance of the case which has been
decided. The fact nonetheless remains that, in granting or refusing exe‑

quatur, the court exercises a jurisdictional power which results in the for -
eign judgment being given effects corresponding to those of a judgmentp
rendered on the merits in the requested State. The proceedings brought
before that court must therefore be regarded as being conducted against p
the third State which was the subject of the foreign judgment.
129. In this regard, the Court notes that, under the terms of Article 6,

paragraph 2, of the United Nations Convention :
“A proceeding before a court of a State shall be considered to have

been instituted against another State if that other State :
(a) is named as a party to that proceeding ; or
(b) is not named as a party to the proceeding but the proceeding in
effect seeks to affect the property, rights, interests or activities of
that other State.”

When applied to exequatur proceedings, that definition means that such
proceedings must be regarded as being directed against the State which was

the subject of the foreign judgment. That is indeed why Germany was entip -
tled to object to the decisions of the Florence Court of Appeal grantingp
exequatur — although it did so without success— and to appeal to the Ital -
ian Court of Cassation against the judgments confirming those decisionps.
130. It follows from the foregoing that the court seised of an application
for exequatur of a foreign judgment rendered against a third State has to

ask itself whether the respondent State enjoys immunity from jurisdic -
tion — having regard to the nature of the case in which that judgment was p

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de l’Etat dans lequel la procédure d’exequatur a été engagée. En d’autres
termes, il doit se demander si, dans le cas où il aurait été lui-même saisi

au fond d’un litige identique à celui qui a été tranché ppar le jugement
étranger, il aurait été tenu en vertu du droit international d’paccorder l’im-
munité à l’Etat défendeur (voir en ce sens l’arrêt dep la Cour suprême du
Canada Kuwait Airways Corp. c. Irak ([2010] RCS, vol. 2, p. 571), ainsi
que l’arrêt de la Cour suprême du Royaume-Uni NML Capital Limited

c. République d’Argentine ([2011] UKSC 31).

131. Il découle des motifs qui précèdent que les juridictions italiepnnes
qui ont déclaré exécutoires en Italie les décisions judiciaipres grecques ren -
dues contre l’Allemagne ont méconnu l’immunité de cette dernière. En
effet, pour les raisons exposées dans la section III ci-dessus du présent

arrêt, les tribunaux italiens auraient été tenus d’accorder pl’immunité à
l’Allemagne s’ils avaient été saisis au fond d’une affapire identique à celle
sur laquelle les tribunaux grecs ont statué par les décisions dontp l’exequa ‑
tur était sollicité (à savoir l’affaire du massacre de Distopmo). En consé -
quence, ils ne pouvaient pas accorder l’exequatur sans méconnaître de ce

fait l’immunité de juridiction de l’Allemagne.
132. Pour parvenir à une telle conclusion, point n’est besoin de se prop -
noncer sur la question de savoir si les tribunaux grecs ont eux-mêmesp
violé l’immunité de l’Allemagne, question dont la Cour n’pest pas saisie et
sur laquelle elle ne saurait d’ailleurs se prononcer pour les raisonsp rappe -

lées ci-dessus. La Cour se bornera à relever, en termes génépraux, qu’il
peut parfaitement se produire, dans certaines hypothèses, que le jugepment
rendu au fond n’ait pas violé l’immunité de juridiction de lp’Etat défen -
deur, par exemple parce que celui-ci y aurait renoncé devant les tribunaux
saisis de l’action principale, mais que l’action en exequatur engagée dans
un autre Etat se heurte à l’immunité du défendeur. C’est ppourquoi les

deux questions sont distinctes, et que le présent arrêt n’a pasp à se pronon -
cer sur la licéité des décisions judiciaires grecques.
133. La Cour conclut donc que les arrêts susmentionnés de la Cour
d’appel de Florence ont violé l’obligation de l’Italie de repspecter l’immu -
nité de juridiction de l’Allemagne.

VI. Les conclusions finalpes de l’Allemagne
et les réparations sopllicitées

134. Dans ses conclusions finales présentées au terme de la procédpure
orale, l’Allemagne a soumis à la Cour six demandes, les trois prempières
étant de nature déclaratoire et les trois suivantes tendant à cpe que soient
tirées les conséquences, en termes de réparation, des violationps constatées
(voir paragraphe 17 ci-dessus). C’est sur ces demandes qu’il appartient à
la Cour de statuer dans le dispositif du présent arrêt.

135. Pour les raisons exposées dans la motivation figurant dans les
sections III, IV et V ci-dessus, la Cour fera droit aux trois premières

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6 CIJ1031.indb 110 22/11/13 12:25 jurisdictional immunpities of the state (jupdgment) 152

given — before the courts of the State in which exequatur proceedings have
been instituted. In other words, it has to ask itself whether, in the evpent

that it had itself been seised of the merits of a dispute identical to that
which was the subject of the foreign judgment, it would have been obliged
under international law to accord immunity to the respondent State (see
to this effect the judgment of the Supreme Court of Canada in Kuwait
Airways Corp. v. Iraq ([2010] SCR, Vol. 2, p. 571), and the judgment of

the United Kingdom Supreme Court in NML Capital Limited v. Republic
of Argentina ([2011] UKSC 31).
131. In light of this reasoning, it follows that the Italian courts which
declared enforceable in Italy the decisions of Greek courts rendered against
Germany have violated the latter’s immunity. For the reasons set out pin
Section III above of the present Judgment, the Italian courts would have

been obliged to grant immunity to Germany if they had been seised of thep
merits of a case identical to that which was the subject of the decisionps of
the Greek courts which it was sought to declare enforceable (namely, thpe
case of the Distomo massacre). Accordingly, they could not grant exequa ‑
tur without thereby violating Germany’s jurisdictional immunity.

132. In order to reach such a decision, it is unnecessary to rule on the
question whether the Greek courts did themselves violate Germany’s
immunity, a question which is not before the Court, and on which, more -
over, it cannot rule, for the reasons recalled earlier. The Court will cpon -

fine itself to noting, in general terms, that it may perfectly well happpen, in
certain circumstances, that the judgment rendered on the merits did not
violate the jurisdictional immunity of the respondent State, for examplep
because the latter had waived its immunity before the courts hearing thep
case on the merits, but that the exequatur proceedings instituted in
another State are barred by the respondent’s immunity. That is why thpe

two issues are distinct, and why it is not for this Judgment to rule on pthe
legality of the decisions of the Greek courts.
133. The Court accordingly concludes that the above-mentioned deci -
sions of the Florence Court of Appeal constitute a violation by Italy of its
obligation to respect the jurisdictional immunity of Germany.

VI. Germany’s Final Submispsions
and the Remedies Sought

134. In its final submissions at the close of the oral proceedings, Ger -
many presented six requests to the Court, of which the first three werpe
declaratory and the final three sought to draw the consequences, in teprms
of reparation, of the established violations (see paragraph 17 above). It is
on those requests that the Court is required to rule in the operative part
of this Judgment.

135. For the reasons set out in Sections III, IV and V above, the Court
will uphold Germany’s first three requests, which ask it to declarep, in

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demandes de l’Allemagne, tendant à ce qu’elle déclare, respectivement :
que l’Italie a violé l’immunité de juridiction reconnue àp l’Allemagne par le

droit international en permettant que soient intentées à son enconptre des
actions civiles fondées sur des violations du droit international humpani -
taire commises par le Reich allemand entre 1943 et 1945 ; que l’Italie a
également violé l’immunité due à l’Allemagne en prenanpt des mesures
d’exécution forcée visant la Villa Vigoni ; que l’Italie a, enfin, violé

l’immunité de juridiction de l’Allemagne en déclarant exépcutoires sur le
territoire italien des décisions judiciaires grecques fondées sur des faits
comparables à ceux mentionnés ci-dessus.
136. Le quatrième chef de conclusions de l’Allemagne tend à ce que lpa
Cour dise et juge que, en conséquence de ce qui précède, la respponsabilité
internationale de la République italienne est engagée.

Il n’est pas douteux que la violation par l’Italie de certaines dep ses obli -
gations juridiques internationales est de nature à engager sa responspabi -
lité internationale et met à sa charge, en vertu du droit internatpional
général, l’obligation de réparer intégralement le préjudice causé par les
faits illicites commis. Le contenu, en l’espèce, de cette obligatipon de répa -

ration sera examiné ci-après, à propos des cinquième et sixipème chefs de
conclusions de l’Allemagne. Il y sera statué dans le dispositif. La Cour, en
revanche, n’estime pas utile d’inclure dans ce dernier une déclparation spé -
cifique selon laquelle la responsabilité internationale de l’Itaplie est enga -
gée, qui serait purement redondante, puisque cette responsabilité pse déduit

automatiquement du constat de la violation de certaines obligations.

137. Le cinquième chef de conclusions de l’Allemagne tend à ce que lpa
Cour ordonne à l’Italie de prendre, par les moyens de son choix, toutes
les mesures nécessaires pour faire en sorte que l’ensemble des dépcisions de
ses tribunaux et autres autorités judiciaires qui contreviennent àp l’immu -

nité souveraine de l’Allemagne ne puissent être exécutéesp. Cela doit se
comprendre comme signifiant que les décisions en cause doivent être pri -
vées d’effet.
En vertu du droit international général en matière de responsabilité de
l’Etat pour fait internationalement illicite, qu’exprime sur ce popint l’ar -

ticle 30 a) des articles de la Commission du droit international relatifs à
ce sujet, l’Etat responsable d’un tel fait a l’obligation d’py mettre fin si ce
fait présente un caractère continu. En outre, même si le fait epn question a
pris fin, l’Etat responsable est tenu, à titre de réparation,p de rétablir la
situation qui existait avant que le fait illicite ne soit commis, dès lors

qu’un tel rétablissement n’est pas matériellement impossiblep et n’impose
pas à cet Etat une charge hors de proportion avec l’avantage qui rpésulte
d’une restitution plutôt que d’une indemnisation. Cette règlpe est reflétée à
l’article 35 des articles de la Commission du droit international.

Il en découle que la Cour doit faire droit au cinquième chef de conclu -

sions de l’Allemagne. Les décisions et mesures contraires aux immupnités
de juridiction de l’Allemagne qui sont encore en vigueur doivent cessper de

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turn, that Italy has violated the jurisdictional immunity which Germany p
enjoys under international law by allowing civil claims based on viola -

tions of international humanitarian law by the German Reich between
1943 and 1945 ; that Italy has also committed violations of the immunity
owed to Germany by taking enforcement measures against Villa Vigoni ;
and, lastly, that Italy has violated Germany’s immunity by declaring p
enforceable in Italy Greek judgments based on occurrences similar to

those referred to above.

136. In its fourth submission, Germany asks the Court to adjudge and
declare that, in view of the above, Italy’s international responsibility is
engaged.

There is no doubt that the violation by Italy of certain of its interna -
tional legal obligations entails its international responsibility and plpaces
upon it, by virtue of general international law, an obligation to make fpull
reparation for the injury caused by the wrongful acts committed. The
substance, in the present case, of that obligation to make reparation wipll

be considered below, in connection with Germany’s fifth and sixth spub -
missions. The Court’s ruling thereon will be set out in the operativep
clause. On the other hand, the Court does not consider it necessary to
include an express declaration in the operative clause that Italy’s ipnterna -
tional responsibility is engaged ; to do so would be entirely redundant,

since that responsibility is automatically inferred from the finding tphat
certain obligations have been violated.
137. In its fifth submission, Germany asks the Court to order Italy to
take, by means of its own choosing, any and all steps to ensure that allp
the decisions of its courts and other judicial authorities infringing Gepr -
many’s sovereign immunity become unenforceable. This is to be under -

stood as implying that the relevant decisions should cease to have effpect.

According to general international law on the responsibility of States
for internationally wrongful acts, as expressed in this respect by Arti -

cle 30 (a) of the International Law Commission’s Articles on the subject,
the State responsible for an internationally wrongful act is under an obpli -
gation to cease that act, if it is continuing. Furthermore, even if the pact in
question has ended, the State responsible is under an obligation to
re-establish, by way of reparation, the situation which existed before the

wrongful act was committed, provided that re-establishment is not mate -
rially impossible and that it does not involve a burden for that State oput
of all proportion to the benefit deriving from restitution instead of pcom -
pensation. This rule is reflected in Article 35 of the International Law
Commission’s Articles.
It follows accordingly that the Court must uphold Germany’s fifth spub -

mission. The decisions and measures infringing Germany’s jurisdictionpal
immunities which are still in force must cease to have effect, and thep

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produire effet, et les effets de ces décisions et mesures qui se psont déjà
produits doivent être supprimés, de telle sorte que soit rétablpie la situa -

tion qui existait avant que les faits illicites ne soient commis. Il n’pa été ni
allégué ni démontré que la restitution serait en l’espèpce matériellement
impossible ou qu’elle imposerait à l’Italie une charge hors de proportion
avec les avantages d’une telle restitution. En particulier, la circonpstance
que certaines des violations commises soient le fait d’organes judicipaires,

et que certaines des décisions judiciaires en cause aient pu acquéprir du
point de vue du droit interne italien un caractère définitif, n’pest pas de
nature à faire disparaître l’obligation de restitution à la pcharge de l’Italie.
En revanche, la défenderesse a le droit de choisir les moyens qui luip
paraissent les mieux adaptés en vue d’atteindre le résultat quip doit être
obtenu. Ainsi, elle a l’obligation d’atteindre ce résultat par pla promulga -

tion d’une législation appropriée ou par le recours à toute pautre méthode
de son choix également capable de produire cet effet.
138. Enfin, le sixième chef de conclusions de l’Allemagne tend à cpe que
la Cour ordonne à l’Italie de prendre toutes les mesures nécesspaires pour
faire en sorte que ses tribunaux s’abstiennent à l’avenir de copnnaître d’ac -

tions intentées contre l’Allemagne à raison des faits mentionnéps dans son
premier chef de conclusions (c’est-à-dire des violations du droitp interna -
tional humanitaire commises par le Reich allemand entre 1943 et 1945).
Ainsi que la Cour l’a déjà indiqué à l’occasion d’aputres affaires (voir
notamment Différend relatif à des droits de navigation et des droits

connexes (Costa Rica c. Nicaragua), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2009, p. 267,
par. 150), en règle générale, il n’y a pas lieu de supposer que pl’Etat dont
un acte ou un comportement a été déclaré illicite par la Coupr répétera à
l’avenir cet acte ou ce comportement, puisque sa bonne foi doit êtpre pré -
sumée. En conséquence, s’il peut arriver à la Cour d’ordopnner à l’Etat
responsable d’un comportement internationalement illicite d’offrpir à

l’Etat lésé des assurances de non-répétition, ou de prendpre des mesures
spécifiques visant à garantir que le fait illicite ne se répéptera pas, c’est
seulement lorsque des circonstances spéciales le justifient, ce qu’pil lui
appartient d’apprécier dans chaque cas.
Au cas d’espèce, la Cour n’aperçoit aucune raison permettantp de consi -

dérer que l’on se trouverait dans de telles circonstances. Elle nep fera donc
pas droit au dernier chef de conclusions de l’Allemagne.

*
* *

139. Par ces motifs,

La Cour,

1) Par douze voix contre trois,

Dit que la République italienne a manqué à son obligation de respepcter
l’immunité reconnue à la République fédérale d’Allepmagne par le droit

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effects which have already been produced by those decisions and mea -
sures must be reversed, in such a way that the situation which existed

before the wrongful acts were committed is re-established. It has not been
alleged or demonstrated that restitution would be materially impossible p
in this case, or that it would involve a burden for Italy out of all proppor -
tion to the benefit deriving from it. In particular, the fact that sompe of the
violations may have been committed by judicial organs, and some of the

legal decisions in question have become final in Italian domestic law,p does
not lift the obligation incumbent upon Italy to make restitution. On thep
other hand, the Respondent has the right to choose the means it considerps
best suited to achieve the required result. Thus, the Respondent is undepr
an obligation to achieve this result by enacting appropriate legislationp or
by resorting to other methods of its choosing having the same effect.

138. Finally, in its sixth submission, Germany asks the Court to order
Italy to take any and all steps to ensure that in the future Italian couprts
do not entertain legal actions against Germany founded on the occur -

rences described in its first submission (namely violations of international
humanitarian law committed by the German Reich between 1943
and 1945).
As the Court has stated in previous cases (see, in particular, Dispute
regarding Navigational and Related Rights (Costa Rica v. Nicaragua),

Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2009, p. 267, para. 150), as a general rule, there
is no reason to suppose that a State whose act or conduct has been
declared wrongful by the Court will repeat that act or conduct in the
future, since its good faith must be presumed. Accordingly, while the
Court may order the State responsible for an internationally wrongful acpt
to offer assurances of non-repetition to the injured State, or to take spe -

cific measures to ensure that the wrongful act is not repeated, it mayp only
do so when there are special circumstances which justify this, which thep
Court must assess on a case-by-case basis.

In the present case, the Court has no reason to believe that such cir -

cumstances exist. Therefore, it will not uphold the last of Germany’sp final
submissions.

*
* *

139. For these reasons,

The Court,

(1) By twelve votes to three,

Finds that the Italian Republic has violated its obligation to respect the
immunity which the Federal Republic of Germany enjoys under interna -

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international en permettant que soient intentées à son encontre deps
actions civiles fondées sur des violations du droit international humpani -

taire commises par le Reich allemand entre 1943 et 1945 ;
pour : M.Owada, président ; M.Tomka, vice‑président ; MM.Koroma, Simma,
Abraham, Keith, Sepúlveda-Amor, Bennouna, Skotnikov, Greenwood,
mes
M Xue, Donoghue, juges ;
contre : MM.Cançado Trindade, Yusuf, juges ; M.Gaja, juge ad hoc ;

2) Par quatorze voix contre une,

Dit que la République italienne a manqué à son obligation de respepcter
l’immunité reconnue à la République fédérale d’Allepmagne par le droit
international en prenant des mesures d’exécution forcée visant pla

Villa Vigoni ;
pour : M.Owada, président ; M.Tomka, vice‑président ; MM.Koroma,
Simma, Abraham, Keith, Sepúlveda-Amor, Bennouna, Skotnikov, Yusuf,
Greenwood, M mesXue, Donoghue, juges ; M.Gaja, juge ad hoc ;

contre: M. Cançado Trindade, juge ;

3) Par quatorze voix contre une,

Dit que la République italienne a manqué à son obligation de respepcter
l’immunité reconnue à la République fédérale d’Allepmagne par le droit
international en déclarant exécutoires sur le territoire italien dpes décisions

judiciaires grecques fondées sur des violations du droit internationapl
humanitaire commises en Grèce par le Reich allemand ;
pour : M.Owada, président ; M.Tomka, vice‑président ; MM.Koroma,

Simma, Abraham,mesith, Sepúlveda-Amor, Bennouna, Skotnikov, Yusuf,
Greenwood, M Xue, Donoghue, juges ; M.Gaja, juge ad hoc ;
contre: M. Cançado Trindade, juge ;

4) Par quatorze voix contre une,

Dit que la République italienne devra, en promulguant une législationp
appropriée ou en recourant à toute autre méthode de son choix, faire en
sorte que les décisions de ses tribunaux et celles d’autres autoriptés judi

ciaires qui contreviennent à l’immunité reconnue à la Réppublique fédérale
d’Allemagne par le droit international soient privées d’effetp;

pour : M.Owada, président ; M.Tomka, vice‑président ; MM.Koroma,
Simma, Abraham, Keith, Sepúlveda-Amor, Bennouna, Skotnikov, Yusuf,
Greenwood, M mesXue, Donoghue, juges ; M.Gaja, juge ad hoc ;
contre: M. Cançado Trindade, juge ;

5) A l’unanimité,

Rejette le surplus des conclusions de la République fédérale d’Allep -
magne.

Fait en français et en anglais, le texte français faisant foi, au Palais de
la Paix, à La Haye, le trois février deux mille douze, en quatre exem -

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6 CIJ1031.indb 116 22/11/13 12:25 jurisdictional immunpities of the state (jupdgment) 155

tional law by allowing civil claims to be brought against it based on vipola -
tions of international humanitarian law committed by the German Reich
between 1943 and 1945 ;

in favour :President Owada ;Vice‑President Tomka ;Judges Koroma, Simma,
Abraham, Keith, Sepúlveda-Amor, Bennouna, Skotnikov, Greenwood,
Xue, Donoghue ;
against : Judges Cançado Trindade, Yusuf ; Judge ad hoc Gaja ;

(2) By fourteen votes to one,

Finds that the Italian Republic has violated its obligation to respect the
immunity which the Federal Republic of Germany enjoys under interna -

tional law by taking measures of constraint against Villa Vigoni ;

in favour : President Owada ; Vice‑President Tomka ; Judges Koroma,
Simma, Abraham, Keith, Sepúlveda-Amor, Bennouna, Skotnikov, Yusuf,
Greenwood, Xue, Donoghue ; Judge ad hoc Gaja ;
against : Judge Cançado Trindade ;

(3) By fourteen votes to one,

Finds that the Italian Republic has violated its obligation to respect the
immunity which the Federal Republic of Germany enjoys under interna -
tional law by declaring enforceable in Italy decisions of Greek courts

based on violations of international humanitarian law committed in
Greece by the German Reich ;
in favour : President Owada ; Vice‑President Tomka ; Judges Koroma,
Simma, Abraham, Keith, Sepúlveda-Amor, Bennouna, Skotnikov, Yusuf,

Greenwood, Xue, Donoghue ; Judge ad hoc Gaja ;
against : Judge Cançado Trindade ;

(4) By fourteen votes to one,

Finds that the Italian Republic must, by enacting appropriate legisla -
tion, or by resorting to other methods of its choosing, ensure that the
decisions of its courts and those of other judicial authorities infringipng the
immunity which the Federal Republic of Germany enjoys under interna -

tional law cease to have effect ;
in favour : President Owada ; Vice‑President Tomka ; Judges Koroma,
Simma, Abraham, Keith, Sepúlveda-Amor, Bennouna, Skotnikov, Yusuf,
Greenwood, Xue, Donoghue ; Judge ad hoc Gaja ;

against : Judge Cançado Trindade ;

(5) Unanimously,

Rejects all other submissions made by the Federal Republic of Ger -
many.

Done in French and in English, the French text being authoritative, at
the Peace Palace, The Hague, this third day of February, two thousand

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6 CIJ1031.indb 117 22/11/13 12:25 156 immunités juridictiopnnelles de l’état (arrpêt)

plaires, dont l’un restera déposé aux archives de la Cour et leps autres
seront transmis respectivement au Gouvernement de la République fépdé -
rale d’Allemagne, au Gouvernement de la République italienne et aup
Gouvernement de la République hellénique.

Le président,
(Signé) Hisashi Owada.

Le greffier,

(Signé) Philippe Couvreur.

MM. les juges Koroma, Keith et Bennouna joignent à l’arrêt les expo-
sés de leur opinion individuelle ; MM. les juges Cançado Trindade et
Yusuf joignent à l’arrêt les exposés de leur opinion dissidente ; M. le juge
ad hoc Gaja joint à l’arrêt l’exposé de son opinion dissidente.

(Paraphé) H.O.

(Paraphé) Ph.C.

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6 CIJ1031.indb 118 22/11/13 12:25 jurisdictional immunpities of the state (jupdgment) 156

and twelve, in four copies, one of which will be placed in the archives pof
the Court and the others transmitted to the Government of the Federal
Republic of Germany, the Government of the Italian Republic and the
Government of the Hellenic Republic, respectively.

(Signed) Hisashi Owada,
President.

(Signed) Philippe Couvreur,

Registrar.

Judges Koroma, Keith and Bennouna append separate opinions to
the Judgment of the Court ; Judges Cançado Trindade and Yusuf
append dissenting opinions to the Judgment of the Court ; Judge ad hoc
Gaja appends a dissenting opinion to the Judgment of the Court.

(Initialled) H.O.

(Initialled) Ph.C.

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6 CIJ1031.indb 119 22/11/13 12:25

Document file FR
Document Long Title

Judgment of 3 February 2012

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