Judgment of 13 July 2009

Document Number
133-20090713-JUD-01-00-EN
Document Type
Date of the Document
Document File
Bilingual Document File

INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE

REPORTS OF JUDGMENTS,
ADVISORY OPINIONS AND ORDERS

DISPUTE REGARDING NAVIGATIONAL
AND RELATED RIGHTS

(COSTA RICA v. NICARAGUA)

JUDGMENT OF 13 JULY 2009

2009

COUR INTERNATIONALE DE JUSTICE

RECUEIL DES A|TS,
AVIS CONSULTATIFS ET ORDONNANCES

DIFFuREND RELATIF A v DES DROITS
DE NAVIGATION ET DES DROITS CONNEXES

(COSTA RICA c. NICARAGUA)

ARR|T DU 13 JUILLET 2009 Official citation:
Dispute regarding Navigational and Related Rights
(Costa Rica v. Nicaragua), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2009 ,p.213

Mode officiel de citation:
Différend relatif à des droits de navigation et des droits connexes
(Costa Rica c. Nicaragua), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2009 ,p.213

Sales number
ISSN 0074-4441 N de vente: 959
ISBN 978-92-1-071068-8 13 JULY 2009

JUDGMENT

DISPUTE REGARDING NAVIGATIONAL

AND RELATED RIGHTS
(COSTA RICA v. NICARAGUA)

DIFFEuREND RELATIF Av DES DROITS
DE NAVIGATION ET DES DROITS CONNEXES

(COSTA RICA c. NICARAGUA)

13 JUILLET 2009

ARRÊT TABLE OF CONTENTS

Paragraphs

CHRONOLOGY OF THE PROCEDURE 1-14

I. GEOGRAPHICAL AND H ISTORICALC ONTEXT AND O RIGIN OF THE
D ISPUTE 15-29

II.COSTA RICA’SR IGHT OFFREE NAVIGATION ON THESAN JUAN R IVER 30-84

1. The legal basis of the right of free navigation 32-41
2. The extent of the right of free navigation attributed to Costa
Rica 42-84

(a) The meaning and scope of the expression“libre navegación
. . . con objetos de comercio” 43-71
(i) Preliminary observations 47-49

(ii) The meaning of the phrase “con objetos” 50-56
(iii) The meaning of the word “commerce” 57-71
(b) The activities covered by the right of free navigation
belonging to Costa Rica 72-84

(i) Private navigation 73-79
(ii) “Official vessels” 80-84

III. NICARAGUAS POWER OF REGULATION OF NAVIGATION 85-133
1. General observations 86-101

(a) Characteristics 87-90
(b) Notification 91-97
(c) The factual context 98-101

2. The legality of the specific Nicaraguan measures challenged
by Costa Rica 102-133

(a) Requirement to stop and identification 103-107
(b) Departure clearance certificates 108-110
(c) Visas and tourist cards 111-119
(d) Charges 120-124
(e) Timetabling 125-129
(f) Flags 130-132

(g) Conclusion 133
IV. SUBSISTENCEFISHING 134-144

V. THE CLAIMS M ADE BY THEPARTIES IN THEIFINAL SUBMISSIONS 145-155

1. The claims of Costa Rica 145-150
2. The claims of Nicaragua 151-155

O PERATIVECLAUSE 156

4 INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE

2009 YEAR 2009
13 July
General List
No. 133 13 July 2009

DISPUTE REGARDING NAVIGATIONAL

AND RELATED RIGHTS

(COSTA RICA v. NICARAGUA)

Geographical and historical context and origin of the dispute.
The San Juan River — Border between Costa Rica and Nicaragua — History
of Costa Rica and Nicaragua after independence — War on the filibusters —
1858 Treaty of Limits — 1888 Cleveland Award — Demarcation of the bound-
ary — 1916 decision of the Central American Court of Justice — 1956
Fournier-Sevilla Agreement — Incidents relating to navigation on the San

Juan — 1995 Cuadra-Castro Communiqué — Prohibition by Nicaragua of
navigation of Costa Rican police vessels — 1998 Cuadra-Lizano Communi-
qué — 2002 Tovar-Caldera Agreement — Proceedings instituted before the
Court by Costa Rica — No objections to the jurisdiction of the Court raised by
Nicaragua.

*

Costa Rica’s right of free navigation on the San Juan River.
Legal basis of the right of free navigation — No need for the Court to decide
whether the San Juan is an “international river” — The 1858 Treaty is suffi-
cient to settle the question of the extent of Costa Rica’s right of free naviga-
tion — Costa Rica’s right of free navigation mainly based on Article VI of the
1858 Treaty — Relevance of the Cleveland Award, the 1916 decision of the
Central American Court of Justice and the Fournier-Sevilla Agreement.
Disagreement between the Parties as to the types of navigation covered by the
1858 Treaty — Interpretation of the expression “con objetos de comercio” in
Article VI of the Treaty — Treaty provisions establishing limitations on sov-
ereignty — General rules of interpretation applicable — No intention by
authors of 1858 Treaty to establish any hierarchy as between Nicaragua’s sov-
ereignty over the San Juan and Costa Rica’s right of free navigation — None of
the points under examination in the case was settled by the Cleveland Award of
1888 or by the decision of the Central American Court of Justice of 1916.

Meaning of the phrase “con objetos” — Necessity to be able to give the sen-

5tence coherent meaning — Additional arguments — Meaning of the word
“objetos” in Article VIII of the 1858 Treaty — 1857 “Cañas-Martinez” Peace
Treaty — English translations of the 1858 Treaty submitted by each Party to
President Cleveland — The expression “con objetos de comercio” means “for
the purposes of commerce”.
Meaning of the word “commerce” — Evolving meaning of generic terms in a

treaty — Present meaning of the notion of “commerce” must be accepted for
purposes of applying the Treaty — The right of free navigation applies to the
transport of persons as well as the transport of goods — Navigation by vessels
used in the performance of governmental activities or to provide public services
which are not commercial in nature cannot be regarded as falling within the
“purposes of commerce” under Article VI.
Types of navigation covered by the right of free navigation “for the purposes
of commerce” pursuant to Article VI of the 1858 Treaty — Navigation of ves-
sels belonging to Costa Rican riparians in order to meet the basic requirements
of everyday life does not fall within the scope of Article VI of the Treaty —
Navigation covered by other provisions of the Treaty — Population inhabiting
the south bank of the San Juan Costa Rican commonly used the river for travel
at the time of the conclusion of the Treaty — Presumption that the Parties

intended to preserve the right of riparians to use the river to meet their essential
requirements — Right to be inferred from the provisions of the Treaty as a
whole.
No special régime for “official vessels” established in Article VI of the 1858
Treaty — “Official vessels” navigating for the “purposes of commerce” —
“Official vessels” used for public order activities — Question of revenue service
vessels settled by the 1888 Cleveland Award — Navigation of official Costa
Rican vessels used for public order activities and public services lies outside the
scope of Article VI of the 1858 Treaty — Right of navigation of certain Costa
Rican official vessels for the purpose of providing services to population is
inferred from the provisions of the Treaty as a whole.

*

Nicaragua’s power of regulation of navigation on the San Juan River.
Characteristics of regulations — Environmental protection as a legitimate
purpose of a regulation — Lack of any specific provision in the Treaty relating
to notification of regulatory measures — Factors imposing an obligation of noti-
fication — 1956 Agreement — Particular situation of a river in which two
States have rights — Notification implicit in the nature of regulation — Obliga-
tion of Nicaragua to notify Costa Rica of regulations — Costa Rica’s obligation
to establish unreasonableness and allegedly disproportionate impact of reg-
ulations.

Requirement to stop and identification — Right of Nicaragua to know the

identity of persons entering and leaving its territory — Nicaraguan requirement
that vessels stop on entering and leaving the San Juan is lawful — No legal
justification for the requirement to stop at any intermediate point — Failure of
Costa Rica to show that the regulation is unreasonable.

Departure clearance certificates — Purposes invoked by Nicaragua are legiti-
mate — Requirement for departure clearance certificates does not appear to

6have imposed any significant impediment to freedom of navigation — No sug-
gestion from Costa Rica that it would be in a position to issue departure clear-
ance certificates — No instance of navigation being impeded by an arbitrary
refusal of a certificate.
Visas and tourist cards — Distinction to be made between requiring visas and
requiring tourist cards — The power of a State to issue or refuse visas entails

discretion — Titleholder and beneficiaries of the right of free navigation —
Nicaragua may not impose a visa requirement on persons who benefit from
Costa Rica’s right of free navigation — Imposition of a visa requirement con-
stitutes a breach of the Treaty right — Legal situation remains unaffected even
if no impediment to the freedom of navigation resulting from visa require-
ment — Tourist cards are not intended to facilitate control over entry into the
San Juan River — No legitimate purpose — Purchase of tourist cards is incon-
sistent with the freedom of navigation.

Charges — No service provided by issuance of departure clearance certifi-
cates — Requirement to pay is unlawful.
Timetabling — Prohibition of night time navigation — Measure is not
impediment to the freedom of navigation — Purpose pursued is legitimate —

Unreasonableness not established.
Flags — Nicaragua may require certain Costa Rican vessels to fly its flag —
No impediment to the exercise of the freedom of navigation — No evidence that
Costa Rican vessels have been prevented from navigation on the San Juan River
as a result of this requirement.

*

Subsistence fishing by riparians of the Costa Rican bank.

Question of admissibility raised by Nicaragua — The Court’s power of appre-
ciation — The alleged interferences by Nicaragua with the claimed right of sub-
sistence fishing post-date the filing of the Application — A sufficiently close

connection exists between the claim relating to subsistence fishing and the
Application — Nicaragua has not been disadvantaged by Costa Rica’s failure to
give notice of the claim in the Application — Nor has the Court been disadvan-
taged in its understanding of the issues — Objection to admissibility cannot be
upheld.
Merits of the claim — Dispute solely concerns subsistence fishing — Practice
long established — Failure of Nicaragua to deny existence of a right arising
from such a practice — Costa Rica has a customary right — Nicaragua may
take regulatory measures adopted for proper purposes — Customary right does
not extend to fishing from vessels on the river.

*

Claims made by the Parties in their final submissions.
The claims of Costa Rica upheld or dismissed in the operative part of the
Judgment — A finding of wrongfulness regarding the conduct of a State entails
an obligation to cease that conduct — Cessation of a violation of a continuing
character and the consequent restoration of the legal situation constitute a form
of reparation — No evidence that Costa Rica has suffered a financially assess-

7able injury — Assurances and guarantees of non-repetition ordered only if the
circumstances so warrant — No reason to suppose that a State will repeat act

or conduct declared wrongful.

Nicaragua’s claim to be upheld to the extent that it corresponds to the rea-
soning in respect of Costa Rica’s claims — Nicaragua’s request for a declara-
tion as to certain rights and obligations of the Parties not upheld.

JUDGMENT

Present: President O WADA ; Judges S HI,K OROMA ,A L-KHASAWNEH ,B UER -

GENTHAL ,A BRAHAM ,K EITH,SEPÚLVEDA -AMOR ,B ENNOUNA ,SKOTNIKOV ,
C ANÇADO TRINDADE ,Y USUF,G REENWOOD ; Judge ad hoc GUILLAUME ;
Registrar COUVREUR .

In the case concerning the dispute regarding navigational and related rights,

between

the Republic of Costa Rica,

represented by
H.E. Mr. Edgar Ugalde-Alvarez, Ambassador, Vice-Minister of Foreign
Affairs of Costa Rica,

as Agent;
Mr. James Crawford, S.C., F.B.A., Whewell Professor of International Law,
University of Cambridge, member of the Institut de droit international,

Mr. Lucius Caflisch, Emeritus Professor of International Law, Graduate
Institute of International and Development Studies, Geneva, member of
the International Law Commission, member of the Institut de droit inter-
national,
Mr. Marcelo G. Kohen, Professor of International Law, Graduate Institute

of International and Development Studies, associate member of the Insti-
tut de droit international,
Mr. Sergio Ugalde, Senior Adviser to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of
Costa Rica, member of the Permanent Court of Arbitration,
Mr. Arnoldo Brenes, Senior Adviser to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of
Costa Rica,

Ms Kate Parlett, Special Adviser to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Costa
Rica, Solicitor (Australia), PhD candidate, University of Cambridge (Jesus
College),
as Counsel and Advocates;

H.E. Mr. Francisco José Aguilar-de Beauvilliers Urbina, Ambassador of
Costa Rica to the Kingdom of the Netherlands,
Mr. Ricardo Otarola, Chief of Staff to the Vice-Minister of Foreign Affairs
of Costa Rica,

8 Mr. Sergio Vinocour, Minister and Consul General of Costa Rica in the
French Republic,
Mr. Norman Lizano, Consul General of Costa Rica in the Kingdom of the
Netherlands,
Mr. Carlos Garbanzo, Counsellor at the Permanent Mission of Costa Rica
to the United Nations Office at Geneva,

Mr. Fouad Zarbiev, PhD candidate, Graduate Institute of International and
Development Studies, Geneva,
Mr. Leonardo Salazar, National Geographic Institute of Costa Rica,
as Advisers;

Mr. Allan Solis, Third Secretary at the Embassy of Costa Rica in the King-
dom of the Netherlands,
as Assistant Adviser,

and

the Republic of Nicaragua,
represented by
H.E. Mr. Carlos José Argüello Gómez, Ambassador of Nicaragua to the
Kingdom of the Netherlands,

as Agent and Counsel;
Mr. Ian Brownlie, C.B.E., Q.C., F.B.A., member of the English Bar, former
Chairman of the International Law Commission, Emeritus Chichele Pro-
fessor of Public International Law, University of Oxford, member of the
Institut de Droit international, Distinguished Fellow, All Souls College,

Oxford,
Mr. Stephen C. McCaffrey, Professor of International Law at the University
of the Pacific, McGeorge School of Law, Sacramento, United States of
America, former member of the International Law Commission,
Mr. Alain Pellet, Professor at the University of Paris Ouest, Nanterre-
La Défense, member and former Chairman of the International Law Com-
mission, associate member of the Institut de droit international,
Mr. Paul Reichler, Attorney at Law, Foley Hoag LLP, Washington D.C.,
member of the Bar of the United States Supreme Court, member of the
Bar of the District of Columbia,
Mr. Antonio Remiro Brotóns, Professor of International Law, Universidad
Autónoma, Madrid, associate member of the Institut de droit interna-
tional,

as Counsel and Advocates;
Ms Irene Blázquez Navarro, Doctor of Public International Law, Universi-
dad Autónoma, Madrid,
Ms Clara E. Brillenbourg, Foley Hoag LLP, member of the Bars of the Dis-
trict of Columbia and New York,

Mr. Lawrence H. Martin, Attorney at Law, Foley Hoag LLP, Washington
D.C., member of the Bar of the United States Supreme Court, member of
the Massachusetts Bar, member of the Bar of the District of Columbia,
Mr. Walner Molina Pérez, Juridical Adviser, Ministry of Foreign Affairs of
Nicaragua,
Mr. Daniel Müller, Researcher at the Centre de droit international de Nan-
terre (CEDIN), University of Paris Ouest, Nanterre-La Défense,

9 Ms Tania Elena Pacheco Blandino, Counsellor, Embassy of Nicaragua in the
Kingdom of the Netherlands,
Mr. Julio César Saborio, Juridical Adviser, Ministry of Foreign Affairs of
Nicaragua,
Mr. César Vega Masís, Director of Juridical Affairs, Sovereignty and Terri-

tory, Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Nicaragua,
as Assistant Counsel,

T HE C OURT,

composed as above,
after deliberation,

delivers the following Judgment:
1. On 29 September 2005 the Republic of Costa Rica (hereinafter “Costa
Rica”) filed in the Registry of the Court an Application of the same date, insti-

tuting proceedings against the Republic of Nicaragua (hereinafter “Nicara-
gua”) with regard to a “dispute concerning navigational and related rights of
Costa Rica on the San Juan River”.
In its Application, Costa Rica seeks to found the jurisdiction of the Court on
the declaration it made on 20 February 1973 under Article 36, paragraph 2, of
the Statute, as well as on the declaration which Nicaragua made on 24 Septem-
ber 1929 under Article 36 of the Statute of the Permanent Court of Interna-
tional Justice and which is deemed, pursuant to Article 36, paragraph 5, of the
Statute of the present Court, for the period which it still has to run, to be
acceptance of the compulsory jurisdiction of this Court. Costa Rica also seeks
to found the jurisdiction of the Court on the Tovar-Caldera Agreement signed

between the Parties on 26 September 2002. In addition, Costa Rica invokes as
a basis of the Court’s jurisdiction the provisions of Article XXXI of the Ameri-
can Treaty on Pacific Settlement, officially designated, according to Article LX
thereof, as the “Pact of Bogotá”.
2. Pursuant to Article 40, paragraph 2, of the Statute, the Registrar imme-
diately communicated a certified copy of the Application to the Government of
Nicaragua; and, in accordance with paragraph 3 of that Article, all States enti-
tled to appear before the Court were notified of the Application.

3. Pursuant to the instructions of the Court under Article 43 of the Rules of
Court, the Registrar addressed to States parties to the Pact of Bogotá the noti-

fications provided for in Article 63, paragraph 1, of the Statute of the Court. In
accordance with the provisions of Article 69, paragraph 3, of the Rules of
Court, the Registrar moreover addressed to the Organization of American
States the notification provided for in Article 34, paragraph 3, of the Statute of
the Court, and asked that organization whether or not it intended to furnish
observations in writing within the meaning of Article 69, paragraph 3, of the
Rules of Court.
4. Since the Court included upon the Bench no judge of the nationality of
either of the Parties, each Party proceeded to exercise its right conferred by
Article 31, paragraph 3, of the Statute to choose a judge ad hoc to sit in the
case. Costa Rica chose Mr. Antônio Cançado Trindade and Nicaragua Mr. Gil-

bert Guillaume. Mr. Cançado Trindade was subsequently elected as a Member
of the Court. Costa Rica informed the Court that it had decided not to choose
a new judge ad hoc.

10 5. By an Order dated 29 November 2005, the Court fixed 29 August 2006
and 29 May 2007, respectively, as the time-limits for the filing of the Memorial
of Costa Rica and the Counter-Memorial of Nicaragua; those pleadings were
duly filed within the time-limits so prescribed.
6. Referring to Article 53, paragraph 1, of the Rules of Court, the Govern-
ment of the Republic of Ecuador and the Government of the Republic of

Colombia respectively asked to be furnished with copies of the pleadings and
documents annexed. Having ascertained the views of the Parties pursuant to
that Article, the Court decided not to grant these requests. The Registrar com-
municated the Court’s decision to the Government of the Republic of Ecuador
and the Government of the Republic of Colombia, as well as to the Parties.

7. By an Order of 9 October 2007, the Court authorized the submission of a
Reply by Costa Rica and a Rejoinder by Nicaragua, and fixed 15 January 2008
and 15 July 2008 as the respective time-limits for the filing of those pleadings.
The Reply and the Rejoinder were duly filed within the time-limits so pre-
scribed.
8. By letter of 27 November 2008, the Agent of Costa Rica expressed his
Government’s desire to produce five new documents, in accordance with Arti-

cle 56 of the Rules of Court. As provided for in paragraph 1 of that Article,
those documents were communicated to Nicaragua. By letter of 10 Decem-
ber 2008, the Agent of Nicaragua informed the Court that his Government did
not give its consent to the production of the requested documents.

The Court decided, pursuant to Article 56, paragraph 2, of the Rules, to
authorize the production of four of the five documents submitted by Costa
Rica, it being understood that Nicaragua would have the opportunity, pursu-
ant to paragraph 3 of that Article, to comment subsequently thereon and to
submit documents in support of those comments. That decision was commu-
nicated to the Parties by letters from the Registrar dated 18 December 2008.

9. In accordance with Article 53, paragraph 2, of the Rules of Court, the

Court decided, after ascertaining the views of the Parties, that copies of the
pleadings and documents annexed would be made available to the public as
from the opening of the oral proceedings.
10. Public hearings were held between 2 and 12 March 2009, at which the
Court heard the oral arguments and replies of:

For Costa Rica: H.E. Mr. Edgar Ugalde-Alvarez,
Mr. Arnoldo Brenes,
Mr. Sergio Ugalde,
Mr. Lucius Caflisch,

Mr. Marcelo G. Kohen,
Mr. James Crawford,
Ms Kate Parlett.

For Nicaragua: H.E. Mr. Carlos José Argüello Gómez,
Mr. Ian Brownlie,
Mr. Antonio Remiro Brotóns,
Mr. Alain Pellet,
Mr. Paul Reichler,
Mr. Stephen C. McCaffrey.

11 11. At the hearings, Members of the Court put questions to the Parties, to
which replies were given in writing, within the time-limit fixed by the President
in accordance with Article 61, paragraph 4, of the Rules of Court. Pursuant to
Article 72 of the Rules of Court, each of the Parties submitted comments on the
written replies provided by the other.

*

12. In its Application, the following claims were made by Costa Rica:

“For these reasons, and reserving the right to supplement, amplify or
amend the present Application, as well as to request the Court to establish
provisional measures which might be necessary to protect its rights and to
prevent the aggravation of the dispute, Costa Rica requests the Court to
adjudge and declare that Nicaragua is in breach of its international obli-
gations as referred to in paragraph 1 of this Application in denying to
Costa Rica the free exercise of its rights of navigation and associated rights
on the San Juan River. In particular the Court is requested to adjudge and
declare that, by its conduct, Nicaragua has violated:

(a) the obligation to facilitate and expedite traffic on the San Juan River
within the terms of the Treaty of 15 April 1858 and its interpretation
given by arbitration on 22 March 1888;
(b) the obligation to allow Costa Rican boats and their passengers to
navigate freely and without impediment on the San Juan River for
commercial purposes, including the transportation of passengers and
tourism;
(c) the obligation to allow Costa Rican boats and their passengers while
engaged in such navigation to moor freely on any of the San Juan
River banks without paying any charges, unless expressly agreed by
both Governments;
(d) the obligation not to require Costa Rican boats and their passengers

to stop at any Nicaraguan post along the river;
(e) the obligation not to impose any charges or fees on Costa Rican
boats and their passengers for navigating on the river;

(f) the obligation to allow Costa Rica the right to navigate the river in
accordance with Article Second of the Cleveland Award;

(g) the obligation to allow Costa Rica the right to navigate the San Juan
River in official boats for supply purposes, exchange of personnel of
the border posts along the right bank of the San Juan River, with
their official equipment, including the necessary arms and ammuni-
tions, and for the purposes of protection, as established in the perti-
nent instruments;

(h) the obligation to collaborate with Costa Rica in order to carry out
those undertakings and activities which require a common effort by
both States in order to facilitate and expedite traffic in the San Juan
River within the terms of the Treaty of Limits and its interpretation
given by the Cleveland Award, and other pertinent instruments;

(i) the obligation not to aggravate and extend the dispute by adopting

12 measures against Costa Rica, including unlawful economic sanctions
contrary to treaties in force or general international law, or involving
further changes in the régime of navigation and associated rights on
the San Juan River not permitted by the instruments referred to
above.

Further, the Court is requested to determine the reparation which must
be made by Nicaragua, in particular in relation to any measures of the
kind referred to in paragraph 10 above.”
Paragraph 10 of the Application reads as follows:

“Costa Rica seeks the cessation of this Nicaraguan conduct which pre-
vents the free and full exercise and enjoyment of the rights that Costa Rica
possesses on the San Juan River, and which also prevents Costa Rica from
fulfilling its responsibilities under Article II of the 1956 Agreement and
otherwise. In the event that Nicaragua imposes the economic sanctions
referred to above, or any other unlawful sanctions, or otherwise takes
steps to aggravate and extend the present dispute, Costa Rica further seeks

the cessation of such conduct and full reparation for losses suffered.”

13. In the written proceedings, the following submissions were presented by
the Parties:

On behalf of the Government of Costa Rica,
in the Memorial and in the Reply:

“1. For these reasons, and reserving the right to supplement, amplify or
amend the present submissions, Costa Rica requests the Court to adjudge
and declare that Nicaragua is in breach of its international obligations in
denying to Costa Rica the free exercise of its rights of navigation and
related rights on the San Juan.
2. In particular the Court is requested to adjudge and declare that, by
its conduct, Nicaragua has violated:

(a) the obligation to allow all Costa Rican vessels and their passengers to
navigate freely on the San Juan for purposes of commerce, including
communication and the transportation of passengers and tourism;

(b) the obligation not to impose any charges or fees on Costa Rican ves-
sels and their passengers for navigating on the River;

(c) the obligation not to require persons exercising the right of free navi-
gation on the River to carry passports or obtain Nicaraguan visas;

(d) the obligation not to require Costa Rican vessels and their passengers
to stop at any Nicaraguan post along the River;

(e) the obligation not to impose other impediments on the exercise of the
right of free navigation, including timetables for navigation and con-
ditions relating to flags;
(f) the obligation to allow Costa Rican vessels and their passengers while
engaged in such navigation to land on any part of the bank where
navigation is common without paying any charges, unless expressly
agreed by both Governments;

13 (g) the obligation to allow Costa Rican official vessels the right to navi-
gate the San Juan, including for the purposes of re-supply and
exchange of personnel of the border posts along the right bank of the
River with their official equipment, including service arms and ammu-
nition, and for the purposes of protection as established in the
relevant instruments, and in particular Article 2 of the Cleveland

Award;
(h) the obligation to facilitate and expedite traffic on the San Juan,
within the terms of the Treaty of 15 April 1858 and its interpretation
by the Cleveland Award of 1888, in accordance with Article 1 of the
bilateral Agreement of 9 January 1956;
(i) the obligation to permit riparians of the Costa Rican bank to fish in
the River for subsistence purposes.
3. Further, the Court is requested to adjudge and declare that by reason

of the above violations, Nicaragua is obliged:
(a) immediately to cease all the breaches of obligations which have a con-
tinuing character;
(b) to make reparation to Costa Rica for all injuries caused to Costa
Rica by the breaches of Nicaragua’s obligations referred to above, in
the form of the restoration of the situation prior to the Nicaraguan
breaches and compensation in an amount to be determined in a sepa-
rate phase of these proceedings; and

(c) to give appropriate assurances and guarantees that it shall not repeat
its unlawful conduct, in such form as the Court may order.”

On behalf of the Government of Nicaragua,

in the Counter-Memorial:
“OnthebasisofthefactsandlegalconsiderationssetforthintheCounter-
Memorial, the Court is requested:
To adjudge and declare that the requests of Costa Rica in her Memorial

are rejected, on the following bases:
(a) either because there is no breach of the provisions of the Treaty of
15 April 1858 on the facts;
(b) or, as appropriate, because the obligation breach of which is alleged
is not included in the provisions of the Treaty of 15 April 1858.

Moreover, the Court is also requested to make a formal declaration on
the issues raised by Nicaragua in Section 2 of Chapter 7.”

The relevant part of Section 2 of Chapter 7 of the Counter-Memorial reads
as follows:

“Finally, in view of the above considerations, and in particular those
indicated in Chapter 2 (E), Nicaragua requests the Court to declare that:

(i) Costa Rica is obliged to comply with the regulations for navigation
(and landing) in the San Juan imposed by Nicaraguan authorities
in particular related to matters of health and security;

(ii) Costa Rica has to pay for any special services provided by Nicara-

14 gua in the use of the San Juan either for navigation or landing on
the Nicaraguan banks;

(iii) Costa Rica has to comply with all reasonable charges for modern
improvements in the navigation of the river with respect to its situ-
ation in 1858;

(iv) revenue service boats may only be used during and with special ref-
erence to actual transit of the merchandise authorized by Treaty;

(v) Nicaragua has the right to dredge the San Juan in order to return
the flow of water to that obtaining in 1858 even if this affects the
flow of water to other present day recipients of this flow such as the
Colorado River.”
in the Rejoinder:

“OnthebasisofthefactsandlegalconsiderationssetforthintheCounter-
Memorial and the Rejoinder, the Court is requested:
To adjudge and declare that the requests of Costa Rica in her Memorial
and Reply are rejected in general, and in particular, on the following
bases:
(a) either because there is no breach of the provisions of the Treaty of

Limits of 15 April 1858 or any other international obligation of Nica-
ragua;
(b) or, as appropriate, because the obligation breach of which is alleged,
is not an obligation under the provisions of the Treaty of Limits of
15 April 1858 or under general international law.
Moreover, the Court is also requested to make a formal declaration on
the issues raised by Nicaragua in Section II of Chapter VII of her Counter-
Memorial and reiterated in Chapter VI, Section I, of her Rejoinder.”

The relevant part of Chapter VI, Section I, of the Rejoinder reads as follows:
“(i) Costa Rica is obliged to comply with the regulations for navigation
(and landing) in the San Juan imposed by Nicaraguan authorities in
particular related to matters of health and security;

(ii) Costa Rica has to pay for any special services provided by Nicaragua
in the use of the San Juan either for navigation or landing on the
Nicaraguan banks;

(iii) Costa Rica has to comply with all reasonable charges for modern
improvements in the navigation of the river with respect to its situa-
tion in 1858;
(iv) revenue service boats may only be used during and with special ref-
erence to actual transit of the merchandise authorized by Treaty;

(v) Nicaragua has the right to dredge the San Juan in order to return the
flow of water to that obtaining in 1858 even if this affects the flow of
water to other present day recipients of this flow such as the Colorado
River.”

14. At the oral proceedings, the following submissions were presented by the
Parties:

15On behalf of the Government of Costa Rica,

at the hearing of 9 March 2009:
“Having regard to the written and oral pleadings and to the evidence
submitted by the Parties, may it please the Court to adjudge and declare
that, by its conduct, the Republic of Nicaragua has violated:

(a) the obligation to allow all Costa Rican vessels and their passengers to
navigate freely on the San Juan for purposes of commerce, including
communication and the transportation of passengers and tourism;

(b) the obligation not to impose any charges or fees on Costa Rican ves-
sels and their passengers for navigating on the River;
(c) the obligation not to require persons exercising the right of free navi-
gation on the River to carry passports or obtain Nicaraguan visas;

(d) the obligation not to require Costa Rican vessels and their passengers
to stop at any Nicaraguan post along the River;

(e) the obligation not to impose other impediments on the exercise of the
right of free navigation, including timetables for navigation and con-
ditions relating to flags;
(f) the obligation to allow Costa Rican vessels and their passengers while
engaged in such navigation to land on any part of the bank where
navigation is common without paying any charges, unless expressly
agreed by both Governments;
(g) the obligation to allow Costa Rican official vessels the right to navi-
gate the San Juan, including for the purposes of re-supply and
exchange of personnel of the border posts along the right bank of the

River with their official equipment, including service arms and ammu-
nition, and for the purposes of protection as established in the rele-
vant instruments, and in particular the Second article of the Cleve-
land Award;
(h) the obligation to facilitate and expedite traffic on the San Juan,
within the terms of the Treaty of 15 April 1858 and its interpretation
by the Cleveland Award of 1888, in accordance with Article 1 of the
bilateral Agreement of 9 January 1956;
(i) the obligation to permit riparians of the Costa Rican bank to fish in
the River for subsistence purposes.

Further, the Court is requested to adjudge and declare that by reason of
the above violations, Nicaragua is obliged:

(a) immediately to cease all the breaches of obligations which have a con-
tinuing character;
(b) to make reparation to Costa Rica for all injuries caused to Costa

Rica by the breaches of Nicaragua’s obligations referred to above, in
the form of the restoration of the situation prior to the Nicaraguan
breaches and compensation in an amount to be determined in a sepa-
rate phase of these proceedings; and
(c) to give appropriate assurances and guarantees that it shall not repeat
its unlawful conduct, in such form as the Court may order.

16 The Court is requested to reject Nicaragua’s request for a declaration.”

On behalf of the Government of Nicaragua,
at the hearing of 12 March 2009:

“OnthebasisofthefactsandlegalconsiderationssetforthintheCounter-
Memorial, Rejoinder and oral pleadings,

May it please the Court to adjudge and declare that:
The requests of Costa Rica in her Memorial, Reply and oral pleadings
are rejected in general, and in particular, on the following bases:

(a) either because there is no breach of the provisions of the Treaty of
Limits of 15 April 1858 or any other international obligation of Nica-
ragua;
(b) or, as appropriate, because the obligation breach of which is alleged,
is not an obligation under the provisions of the Treaty of Limits of

15 April 1858 or under general international law.
Moreover the Court is also requested to make a formal declaration on
the issues raised by Nicaragua in Section II of Chapter VII of her Counter-
Memorial, in Section I, Chapter VI, of her Rejoinder and as reiterated in

these oral pleadings.”

* * *

I. GEOGRAPHICAL AND H ISTORICAL CONTEXT
AND O RIGIN OF THE D ISPUTE

15. The San Juan River runs approximately 205 kilometres from Lake
Nicaragua to the Caribbean Sea (see sketch-maps Nos. 1 and 2). Some
19 kilometres from the Caribbean Sea it divides into two branches: the
San Juan itself continues as the northerly of the two branches and empties

into the Caribbean Sea at the bay of San Juan del Norte; the Colorado
River is the southern and larger of the two branches and runs entirely
within Costa Rica reaching the Caribbean Sea at Barra de Colorado.
16. Part of the border between Costa Rica and Nicaragua runs along

the right bank (i.e. the Costa Rican side) of the San Juan River from a
point three English miles below Castillo Viejo, a small town in Nicara-
gua, to the end of Punta de Castilla, where the river enters the Caribbean
Sea. Between Lake Nicaragua and the point below Castillo Viejo, the

river runs entirely through Nicaraguan territory.

17. Both Costa Rica and Nicaragua, which had been under Spanish
colonial rule, became independent States in 1821. Shortly after independ-
ence, Costa Rica and Nicaragua, together with El Salvador, Guatemala

and Honduras, decided to constitute the Federal Republic of Central
America. In 1824 the people living in the district of Nicoya on the Pacific
coast, originally within Nicaragua, opted by plebiscite to become part of

17 o
d
a
Bay San JuanDel Norte
lo
Punta de Castilla
CARIBBEAN SEA

a
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J uqip
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Sa S

Castillo Viejo so
lr
NICARAGUA aC
na
S

COSTA RICA
Lake Nicaragua
Nicoya

Salinas Bay

(11°N)
WGS 84

MANAGUA
Mercator Projection
Sketch-map No. 1: for illustrative purposes only.
and boundary between This sketch-map has been prepared
PACIFIC OCEAN Costa Rica and Nicaragua

General geographical context

18 C6

C5 o
C4
d
a
(11°N) Punta de Castilla r
o
WGS 84 N7 l
C o
N6
C3
Sketch-map No. 2:ercator Projection
route and river posts
Course of the boundary
COSTA RICA
along the San Juan, tourist

N5

C2
í u qi p a
r a S

n
a
u
J

n
a
S N4
C1

NICARAGUA

N3
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Castillo Viejo nr e na
if n S
I

N2

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Riverseorun1aC3: Delta CN1: SN4N: 5BNcS:anrSaaJparulinoqasunJíudaenl Norte

for illustrative purposes only.
This sketch-map has been prepared

19Costa Rica. On 9 December 1825 the Federal Congress of Central
America issued a decree which provided that Nicoya would be “for the

time being . . . separated from the State of Nicaragua and annexed to
that of Costa Rica”. The situation regarding Nicoya remained unchanged
at the time of the dissolution of the Federal Republic of Central America
in 1839. Thereafter, Nicaragua did not however recognize Nicoya as
belonging to Costa Rica.

18. During the mid-1850s, Nicaragua underwent a period of internal
conflict which involved a group of American adventurers, known as “fili-
busters” (“filibusteros”), led by William Walker. The Government of
Costa Rica as well as those of El Salvador, Guatemala and Honduras
joined Nicaragua’s efforts to defeat the filibusters. In May 1857, Walker

capitulated and abandoned Nicaraguan territory. Following the defeat of
the filibusters, war broke out between Costa Rica and Nicaragua. At the
end of those hostilities, the two countries engaged in negotiations to settle
outstanding bilateral matters between them, relating, inter alia, to their
common boundary, to the navigational régime on the San Juan River,
and to the possibility of building an inter-oceanic canal across the Cen-

tral American isthmus.
19. On 6 July 1857 a Treaty of Limits was signed, dealing with terri-
torial limits and the status of the San Juan River, but was not ratified by
Costa Rica. On 8 December 1857 a Treaty of Peace was signed by the
Parties but was not ratified by either Costa Rica or Nicaragua. Through

the mediation of the Salvadoran Minister for Foreign Affairs, the Gov-
ernments of Costa Rica and Nicaragua reached agreement on
15 April 1858 on a Treaty of Limits, which was ratified by Costa Rica on
16 April 1858 and by Nicaragua on 26 April 1858. The 1858 Treaty of
Limits fixed the course of the boundary between Costa Rica and Nica-

ragua from the Pacific Ocean to the Caribbean Sea. According to the
boundary thus drawn the district of Nicoya lay within the territory of
Costa Rica. Between a point three English miles from Castillo Viejo and
the Caribbean Sea, the Treaty fixed the boundary along the right bank of
the San Juan River. It established Nicaragua’s dominion and sovereign

jurisdiction over the waters of the San Juan River, but at the same time
affirmed Costa Rica’s navigational rights “con objetos de comercio” on
the lower course of the river (Article VI). The 1858 Treaty established
other rights and obligations for both parties, including, inter alia,an
obligation to contribute to the defence of the common bays of San Juan
del Norte and Salinas as well as to the defence of the San Juan River in

case of external aggression (Article IV), an obligation on behalf of Nica-
ragua to consult with Costa Rica before entering into any canalization or
transit agreements regarding the San Juan River (Article VIII) and an
obligation not to commit acts of hostility against each other (Article IX).
20. Following challenges by Nicaragua on various occasions to the

validity of the 1858 Treaty, the Parties submitted the question to arbitra-
tion by the President of the United States. The Parties agreed in addition
that if the 1858 Treaty were found to be valid, President Cleveland

20should also decide whether Costa Rica could navigate the San Juan River
with vessels of war or of the revenue service. In his Award rendered on

22 March 1888, President Cleveland held that the 1858 Treaty was valid.
He further stated, with reference to Article VI of the 1858 Treaty, that
Costa Rica did not have the right of navigation on the San Juan River
with vessels of war, but that it could navigate with such vessels of the
Revenue Service as may be connected to navigation “for the purposes of

commerce”.
21. Following the Cleveland Award, a boundary commission was
established to demarcate the boundary line. An engineer, Mr. Edward
Alexander, was charged with the task of resolving any “disputed point or
points” which might arise in the field during the demarcation process,

which began in 1897 and was concluded in 1900. Mr. Alexander rendered
five awards to this end.
22. On 5 August 1914, Nicaragua signed a treaty with the United
States (the Chamorro-Bryan Treaty) which granted the United States
perpetual and “exclusive proprietary rights” for the construction and
maintenance of an inter-oceanic canal through the San Juan River. On

24 March 1916 Costa Rica filed a case against Nicaragua before the Cen-
tral American Court of Justice claiming that Nicaragua had breached its
obligation to consult with Costa Rica prior to entering into any canaliza-
tion project in accordance with Article VIII of the 1858 Treaty. On
30 September 1916, the Central American Court of Justice ruled that, by

not consulting Costa Rica, Nicaragua had violated the rights guaranteed
to the latter by the 1858 Treaty of Limits and the 1888 Cleveland Award.
23. On 9 January 1956 Costa Rica and Nicaragua concluded an Agree-
ment (the Fournier-Sevilla Agreement) according to the terms of which the
Parties agreed to facilitate and expedite traffic in particular through the

San Juan River and agreed to co-operate to safeguard the common border.
24. In the 1980s various incidents started to occur relating to the navi-
gational régime of the San Juan River. During that period Nicaragua
introduced certain restrictions on Costa Rican navigation on the San
Juan River which it justified as temporary, exceptional measures to pro-

tect Nicaragua’s national security in the context of an armed conflict.
Some of the restrictions were suspended when Costa Rica protested.
During the mid-1990s further measures were introduced by Nicaragua,
including the charging of fees for passengers travelling on Costa Rican
vessels navigating on the San Juan River and the requirement for Costa
Rican vessels to stop at Nicaraguan Army posts along the river.

25. On 8 September 1995 the Commander-in-Chief of the Nicaraguan
Army and the Costa Rican Minister of Public Security signed a docu-
ment, known as the Cuadra-Castro Joint Communiqué, which provided

for the co-ordination of operations in the border areas of the two States
against the illegal trafficking of persons, vehicles and contraband.

21 26. In July 1998 further disagreements between the Parties regarding
the extent of Costa Rica’s navigational rights on the San Juan River led

to the adoption by Nicaragua of certain measures. In particular, on
14 July 1998, Nicaragua prohibited the navigation of Costa Rican vessels
that transported members of Costa Rica’s police force. On 30 July 1998,
the Nicaraguan Minister of Defence and the Costa Rican Minister of
Public Security signed a document, known as the Cuadra-Lizano Joint

Communiqué. The text allowed for Costa Rican armed police vessels to
navigate on the river to re-supply their boundary posts on the Costa Rican
side, provided that the Costa Rican agents in those vessels only carried
their service arms and prior notice was given to the Nicaraguan authori-
ties, which could decide on whether the Costa Rican vessels should be

accompanied by a Nicaraguan escort. On 11 August 1998, Nicaragua
declared that it considered the Cuadra-Lizano Joint Communiqué to be
legally null and void. Costa Rica did not accept this unilateral declara-
tion. Differences regarding the navigational régime on the San Juan
River persisted between the Parties.

27. On 24 October 2001, Nicaragua made a reservation to its declara-
tion accepting the jurisdiction of the Court (see paragraph 1 above),
according to which it would no longer accept the jurisdiction of the
Court in regard to “any matter or claim based on interpretations of trea-
ties or arbitral awards that were signed and ratified or made, respectively,

prior to 31 December 1901”. Under the Tovar-Caldera Agreement, signed
by the Parties on 26 September 2002, Nicaragua agreed to a three year
moratorium with regard to the reservation it had made in 2001 to its dec-
laration accepting the jurisdiction of the Court. For its part, Costa Rica
agreed that during the same three year period it would not initiate any

action before the International Court of Justice nor before any other
authority on any matter or protest mentioned in treaties or agreements
currently in force between both countries.
28. Once the agreed three year period had elapsed without the Parties
having been able to settle their differences, Costa Rica, on 29 Septem-

ber 2005, instituted proceedings before the Court against Nicaragua with
regard to its disputed navigational and related rights on the San Juan
River (see paragraph 1 above). Nicaragua has not raised any objections
to the jurisdiction of the Court to entertain the case.

*

29. Taking account of the subject of the dispute as summarized above
and of the Parties’ submissions and arguments, the Court will proceed in
the following manner.

It will first determine the extent of Costa Rica’s right of free navigation
on the San Juan River (II).
It will next ascertain whether, and to what extent, within the ambit of

22the right thus defined, Nicaragua has the power to regulate navigation by

Costa Rican boats and whether the specific measures it has decided and
put into effect to this end during the period of the dispute are compatible
with Costa Rica’s rights (III).

It will then consider the question of the right which Costa Rica claims
for inhabitants of the Costa Rican bank of the river to engage in subsist-
ence fishing (IV).
Finally, in the light of its reasoning on the preceding points, it will con-

sider the Parties’ claims as presented to it in their final submissions, in
respect in particular of the appropriate remedies (V).

II. COSTA R ICAS RIGHT OF F REE N AVIGATION
ON THE S AN JUAN R IVER

30. The Parties agree that Costa Rica possesses a right of free naviga-
tion on the section of the San Juan River where the right bank, i.e. the
Costa Rican side, marks the border between the two States by virtue of
the Treaty of Limits (the Jerez-Cañas Treaty) concluded between them

on 15 April 1858. This is the part of the river which runs from a point
three English miles below Castillo Viejo, a town in Nicaraguan territory,
to the mouth of the river at the Caribbean Sea (see paragraph 16 above).

Upstream from the point referred to above, the San Juan flows entirely
in Nicaraguan territory from its source in Lake Nicaragua, in the sense
that both its banks belong to Nicaragua. The section of the river in which
the right bank belongs to Costa Rica, the section at issue in this dispute,

is some 140 kilometres long.
31. While it is not contested that the section of the river thus defined
belongs to Nicaragua, since the border lies on the Costa Rican bank,
with Costa Rica possessing a right of free navigation, the Parties differ

both as to the legal basis of that right and, above all, as to its precise
extent, in other words as to the types of navigation which it covers.

1. The Legal Basis of the Right of Free Navigation

32. According to Costa Rica, its right of free navigation on the part of

the San Juan River that is in dispute derives on the one hand from certain
treaty provisions in force between the Parties, primarily but not exclu-
sively the Treaty of Limits of 15 April 1858, and on the other hand from
the rules of general international law that are applicable, even in the

absence of treaty provisions, to navigation on “international rivers”. The
San Juan is said to fall into this category, at least as regards the section

23whose course follows the border, with Costa Rica thus possessing a cus-
tomary right of free navigation in its capacity as a riparian State.

33. According to Nicaragua, on the contrary, the San Juan is not an
“international river”, since it flows entirely within the territory of a single
country by virtue of the provisions of the 1858 Treaty of Limits, which
establish the border in such a way that no part of the river falls under the

sovereignty of a State other than Nicaragua. Moreover, Nicaragua chal-
lenges the existence of a general régime that might be applicable, under
customary international law, to rivers whose course, or one of whose
banks, constitutes the border between two States, and more widely to
“international rivers”. Lastly, according to Nicaragua, even if such a

régime were to exist, it would be superseded in this case by the treaty pro-
visions which define the status of the San Juan River and govern the
riparian States’ right of navigation. It is these special provisions which
should be applied in order to settle the present dispute, in any event that
part of it relating to the right of navigation on the river.

34. The Court does not consider that it is required to take a position in
this case on whether and to what extent there exists, in customary inter-
national law, a régime applicable to navigation on “international rivers”,
either of universal scope or of a regional nature covering the geographi-
cal area in which the San Juan is situated. Nor does it consider, as a

result, that it is required to settle the question of whether the San Juan
falls into the category of “international rivers”, as Costa Rica maintains,
or is a national river which includes an international element, that being
the argument of Nicaragua.
35. Indeed, even if categorization as an “international river” would be

legally relevant in respect of navigation, in that it would entail the appli-
cation of rules of customary international law to that question, such rules
could only be operative, at the very most, in the absence of any treaty
provisions that had the effect of excluding them, in particular because
those provisions were intended to define completely the régime applicable

to navigation, by the riparian States on a specific river or a section of it.

36. That is precisely the case in this instance. The 1858 Treaty of
Limits completely defines the rules applicable to the section of the
San Juan River that is in dispute in respect of navigation. Interpreted
in the light of the other treaty provisions in force between the Parties,

and in accordance with the arbitral or judicial decisions rendered
on it, that Treaty is sufficient to settle the question of the extent of
Costa Rica’s right of free navigation which is now before the Court.
Consequently, the Court has no need to consider whether, if these
provisions did not exist, Costa Rica could nevertheless have relied for

this purpose on rules derived from international, universal or regional
custom.
37. The main provision which founds Costa Rica’s right of free navi-

24gation is contained in Article VI of the 1858 Treaty (see paragraphs 43
and 44 below); this has been the focus of the arguments exchanged

between the Parties as to the extent of the right of navigation on the
San Juan.
Article VI, after conferring on Nicaragua full and exclusive sover-
eignty (“exclusivamente el dominio y sumo imperio”) over the whole of
the San Juan, from its source in the lake to its mouth at the sea, grants

Costa Rica, on the section of the river which follows the border between
the two States (see paragraph 30 above), a perpetual right (“los dere-
chos perpetuos”) of free navigation “con objetos de comercio”, accord-
ing to the terms of the Spanish version of the Treaty, which is the only
authoritative one, the meaning of which the Court will be required to

return to below. In addition, Article VI gives vessels of both riparian
countries the right to land freely on either bank without being subject to
any taxes (“ninguna clase de impuestos”), unless agreed by both Gov-
ernments.
38. Other provisions of the 1858 Treaty, though of less importance for
the purposes of the present case, are not without relevance as regards the

right of navigation on the river. This applies in particular to Article IV,
which obliges Costa Rica to contribute to the security of the river “for
the part that belongs to her of the banks”, to Article VIII, which obliges
Nicaragua to consult Costa Rica before entering into any agreements
with a third State for canalization or transit on the river, and of course to

Article II, which establishes the border as the Costa Rican bank on the
section of the river which is at issue in this dispute.
39. Besides the 1858 Treaty, mention should be made, among the
treaty instruments likely to have an effect on determining the right of
navigation on the river and the conditions for exercising it, of the agree-

ment concluded on 9 January 1956 between the two States (known as the
Fournier-Sevilla Agreement), whereby the Parties agreed to collaborate
to the best of their ability, in particular in order to facilitate and expedite
traffic on the San Juan in accordance with the 1858 Treaty and the Arbi-
tral Award made by President Cleveland in 1888 (for the text of the rele-

vant provision of the 1956 Agreement, see paragraph 94 below).

40. Costa Rica has also invoked before the Court the joint ministerial
communiqués published on 8 September 1995 (known as the Cuadra-
Castro Joint Communiqué; see paragraph 25 above) and 30 July 1998
(known as the Cuadra-Lizano Joint Communiqué; see paragraph 26

above). In the Court’s view, however, these statements issued by the min-
isters responsible, on each side, for matters of defence and public secu-
rity, cannot be included in the conventional basis of the right of free
navigation granted to Costa Rica. Rather, these are practical arrange-
ments, in part aimed at implementing previous treaty commitments,

including in particular the obligation of co-operation referred to in the
Agreement of 9 January 1956 (see paragraph 23 above and paragraph 94
below). The legal effects of such arrangements are more limited than the

25conventional acts themselves: modalities for co-operation which they put
in place are likely to be revised in order to suit the Parties. Furthermore,

the second of them was promptly declared null and void by Nicaragua
(see paragraph 26 above).

41. The above-mentioned treaty instruments must be understood in
the light of two important decisions which settled differences that emerged

between the Parties in determining their respective rights and obligations:
the Arbitral Award made by the President of the United States on
22 March 1888 (known as the Cleveland Award); and the decision ren-
dered, on the application of Costa Rica, by the Central American Court
of Justice on 30 September 1916.

The first of these two decisions settled several questions concerning the
interpretation of the 1858 Treaty which divided the Parties in that case;
the second found that Nicaragua, by concluding an agreement with the
United States permitting the construction and maintenance of an inter-
oceanic canal through the San Juan River, had disregarded Costa Rica’s
right under Article VIII of that Treaty to be consulted before the conclu-

sion of any agreement of that nature.
Although neither of these decisions directly settles the questions that
are now before the Court, they contain certain indications which it will
be necessary to take into account for the purposes of the present case.

2. The Extent of the Right of Free Navigation
Attributed to Costa Rica

42. Having thus defined the legal basis of the right which Costa Rica
argues has been partly disregarded by Nicaragua, the Court must now
determine its precise extent, in other words, its field of application. The

Parties disagree considerably over the definition of this field of applica-
tion, i.e., as to the types of navigation which are covered by the “per-
petual right” granted to Costa Rica by the 1858 Treaty. Their difference
essentially concerns the interpretation of the words “libre navegación . . .
con objetos de comercio” in Article VI of the Treaty of Limits; this

brings with it a major disagreement as to the definition of the activities
covered by the right in question and of those which, not being thus cov-
ered, are subject to Nicaragua’s sovereign power to authorize and regu-
late as it sees fit any activity that takes place on its territory, of which the
river forms part.

(a) The meaning and scope of the expression “libre navegación . . . con
objetos de comercio”

43. In its Spanish version, which is the only authoritative one, Arti-
cle VI of the Treaty of Limits of 1858 reads as follows:

“La República de Nicaragua tendrá exclusivamente el dominio y

26 sumo imperio sobre las aguas del río de San Juan desde su salida del
Lago, hasta su desembocadura en el Atlántico; pero la República de

Costa Rica tendrá en dichas aguas los derechos perpetuos de libre
navegación, desde la expresada desembocadura hasta tres millas
inglesas antes de llegar al Castillo Viejo, con objetos de comercio, ya
sea con Nicaragua ó al interior de Costa Rica por los ríos de San
Carlos ó Sarapiquí, ó cualquiera otra vía procedente de la parte que

en la ribera del San Juan se establece corresponder á esta República.
Las embarcaciones de uno ú otro país podrán indistintamente atracar
en las riberas del río, en la parte en que la navegación es común, sin
cobrarse ninguna clase de impuestos, á no ser que se establezcan de
acuerdo entre ambos Gobiernos.”

44. Leaving aside for the moment the phrase whose interpretation,
and indeed translation into English and French, divides the Parties, this

article may be translated thus:

“The Republic of Nicaragua shall have exclusive dominium and
imperium over the waters of the San Juan River from its origin in the
lake to its mouth at the Atlantic Ocean; the Republic of Costa Rica
shall however have a perpetual right of free navigation on the said
waters between the mouth of the river and a point located three Eng-

lish miles below Castillo Viejo, [con objetos de comercio] , whether
with Nicaragua or with the interior of Costa Rica by the rivers San
Carlos or Sarapiquí or any other waterway starting from the section
of the bank of the San Juan established as belonging to that Repub-
lic. The vessels of both countries may land indiscriminately on either

bank of the section of the river where navigation is common, with-
out paying any taxes, unless agreed by both Governments.” [Trans-
lation by the Court.]

45. The Parties’ disagreement is greatest on the meaning of the words
“con objetos de comercio”. For Nicaragua, this expression must be trans-

lated into French as “avec des marchandises de commerce” and into Eng-
lish as “with articles of trade”; in other words, the “objetos” in question
here are objects in the concrete and material sense of the term. Conse-
quently, the freedom of navigation guaranteed to Costa Rica by Arti-
cle VI relates only to the transport of goods intended to be sold in a
commercial exchange. For Costa Rica, on the contrary, the expression

means in French “à des fins de commerce” and in English “for the pur-
poses of commerce”; the “objetos” in the original text are therefore said
to be objects in the abstract sense of ends and purposes. Consequently,
according to Costa Rica, the freedom of navigation given to it by the
Treaty must be attributed the broadest possible scope, and in any event

encompasses not only the transport of goods but also the transport of
passengers, including tourists.

27 46. Before directly addressing the question which has been submitted
to it, the Court will make three preliminary observations of a more gen-

eral nature. It will then consider what is to be understood by “con
objetos” and then by “comercio” within the meaning of Article VI, since
there is in fact a twofold disagreement between the Parties.

(i) Preliminary observations

47. In the first place, it is for the Court to interpret the provisions of a
treaty in the present case. It will do so in terms of customary interna-
tional law on the subject, as reflected in Articles 31 and 32 of the
1969 Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, as the Court has stated

on several occasions (see Application of the Convention on the Prevention
and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v.
Serbia and Montenegro), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2007 (I) , pp. 109-
110, para. 160; see also Territorial Dispute (Libyan Arab Jamahiriya/
Chad), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1994 , pp. 21-22, para. 41.)
Consequently, neither the circumstance that Nicaragua is not a party

to the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties nor the fact that the
treaty which is to be interpreted here considerably pre-dates the drafting
of the said Convention has the effect of preventing the Court from refer-
ring to the principles of interpretation set forth in Articles 31 and 32 of
the Vienna Convention.

48. In the second place, the Court is not convinced by Nicaragua’s
argument that Costa Rica’s right of free navigation should be interpreted
narrowly because it represents a limitation of the sovereignty over the
river conferred by the Treaty on Nicaragua, that being the most impor-
tant principle set forth by Article VI.

While it is certainly true that limitations of the sovereignty of a State
over its territory are not to be presumed, this does not mean that treaty
provisions establishing such limitations, such as those that are in issue in
the present case, should for this reason be interpreted a priori in a restric-
tive way. A treaty provision which has the purpose of limiting the sov-

ereign powers of a State must be interpreted like any other provision of a
treaty, i.e. in accordance with the intentions of its authors as reflected by
the text of the treaty and the other relevant factors in terms of interpreta-
tion.
A simple reading of Article VI shows that the Parties did not intend to
establish any hierarchy as between Nicaragua’s sovereignty over the river

and Costa Rica’s right of free navigation, characterized as “perpetual”,
with each of these affirmations counter-balancing the other. Nicaragua’s
sovereignty is affirmed only to the extent that it does not prejudice the
substance of Costa Rica’s right of free navigation in its domain, the
establishment of which is precisely the point at issue; the right of free

navigation, albeit “perpetual”, is granted only on condition that it does
not prejudice the key prerogatives of territorial sovereignty.

28 There are thus no grounds for supposing, a priori, that the words
“libre navegación . . . con objetos de comercio” should be given a spe-

cially restrictive interpretation, any more than an extensive one.
49. Lastly, the Court observes that none of the points under examina-
tion in this case was settled by the Cleveland Award of 1888 or by the
decision of the Central American Court of Justice of 1916. Each of the
Parties has sought to use these previous decisions as an argument to sup-

port its own case. However, these attempts do not convince the Court
one way or the other.
The Cleveland Award confined itself to settling the questions of inter-
pretation which the Parties had expressly submitted to the arbitrator.
Those questions did not concern the meaning of the words “con objetos de

comercio”; it is therefore futile to seek in the Award the answer to a ques-
tion that was not put before the arbitrator. Consequently, while the Award
declares that Costa Rica does not have the right, under the Treaty, to navi-
gate on the San Juan with vessels of war, whereas it does have the right to
do so with vessels of its revenue service, there is nothing to be inferred
from this with regard to vessels belonging to the State and not falling into

either of those two categories. Likewise, while the arbitrator used the
words “for the purposes of commerce” and placed them in quotation
marks, it may be supposed that this was simply because that was the Eng-
lish translation of the words “con objetos de comercio” which both Parties
had supplied to the arbitrator, who did not wish, in his interpretation of

the Treaty, to go beyond the questions which had been put before him.
As for the decision of the Central American Court of Justice of 1916,
however important this might be, its operative part was based only on the
application of the express provisions of Article VIII of the Treaty, which
are not at issue in the present case.

(ii) The meaning of the phrase “con objetos”

50. It is now appropriate to consider the issue of the meaning of the
phrase “con objetos de” as used in Article VI of the 1858 Treaty, specifi-

cally whether it means “for the purposes of” — as Costa Rica con-
tends — or “with articles of” — as Nicaragua contends.
51. It should first be observed that the Spanish word “objetos” can,
depending on its context, have either of the two meanings put forward.
Thus, the context must be examined to ascertain the meaning to be
ascribed here. The two meanings — one concrete and the other abstract —

are sufficiently different that examination of the context will generally
allow for a firm conclusion to be reached.
52. Having conducted this examination, the Court is of the view that
the interpretation advocated by Nicaragua cannot be upheld.
The main reason for this is that ascribing the meaning “with goods” or

“with articles” to the phrase “con objetos” results in rendering meaning-
less the entire sentence in which the phrase appears.

29 The part of Article VI which is relevant in this connection reads:
“Costa Rica tendrá . . . los derechos perpetuos de libre navegación . . .,

con objetos de comercio, ya sea con Nicaragua ó al interior de Costa
Rica.”
If Nicaragua’s interpretation were to be accepted, there would be no
intelligible relationship between the clause following the phrase “con
objetos de comercio”, i.e., “ya sea con Nicaragua ó al interior de

Costa Rica” (“whether with Nicaragua or with the interior of Costa
Rica”), and the preceding part of the sentence.
Either the words “with Nicaragua” would relate to “objetos de com-
ercio”, which would hardly make sense, since it would not be meaningful
to speak of “goods (or articles) of trade with Nicaragua”; or these words

relate to “navegación” and that would make even less sense, because the
expression “navegación . . . con Nicaragua” would simply be incompre-
hensible.
By contrast, Costa Rica’s interpretation of the words “con objetos”
allows the entire sentence to be given coherent meaning. If the phrase
means “purposes of commerce”, then the immediately following clause,

“ya sea con Nicaragua . . .”, plainly relates to “comercio” (“for the pur-
poses of commerce with Nicaragua . . .”), and the sentence then conveys
a perfectly comprehensible idea.

Thus, in the present instance a literal analysis of the sentence contain-

ing the words requiring interpretation leads to one of the proposed mean-
ings being preferred over the other.
53. The preceding finding is supported by three additional arguments
which all point to the same conclusion.
54. First, “objetos” is used in another article of the 1858 Treaty, Arti-

cle VIII, in which context it can only have the abstract meaning of
“purposes” or “subjects”: “Nicaragua se compromete á no concluir otro
(contrato) sobre los expresados objetos . . .” (“Nicaragua engages not to
conclude any other contract for those purposes . . .”).
It is reasonable to infer that the Parties tended to understand “objetos”

in its abstract sense, or, at least, that this meaning was familiar to them in
their treaty practice.
55. Second, a further indication may be deduced from the “Cañas-
Martinez” Peace Treaty signed by the Parties on 8 December 1857 but
which was never ratified and hence did not enter into force. On the ques-
tion of navigation on the San Juan, this instrument, replaced by the

1858 Treaty of Limits, which repeats some of the earlier provisions,
included the expression “artículos de comercio”, which undoubtedly
translates as “articles” or “goods” of commerce. This would tend to show
that when the Parties at the time wished to refer to physical property
giving rise to commercial transactions, they used a term other than

“objetos de comercio”, a term having the advantage of being unambigu-
ous. Further, it is reasonable to believe that the Parties’ replacement of
one word with another in two successive instruments, the second of

30which was drafted shortly after the first, indicates that the Parties wished
in the second to refer to something different from that in the first and

that the two terms used must not be taken to mean the same thing.

56. Finally, the Court also considers it significant that in 1887, when
the two Parties each submitted an English translation of the 1858 Treaty
to President Cleveland for use in the arbitration proceedings he was

asked to conduct, even though their translations were not identical on all
points, they did use the same phrase to render the original “con objetos
de comercio”: “for the purposes of commerce”.

By itself, this argument is undoubtedly not conclusive, because the

only authoritative version of the instrument is the Spanish one and at the
time the Parties might have made the same mistake in translation, which
cannot be treated as an implicit amendment of the 1858 Treaty. It is also
no doubt true that Nicaragua might have paid insufficient heed to the
meaning of the term “objetos de comercio”, which was not at issue in the
questions submitted to the arbitrator; this could be the explanation for a

translation done by it in haste. It nonetheless remains the case that this
concurrence, occurring relatively soon after the Treaty was concluded, is
a significant indication that at the time both Parties understood “con
objetos de comercio” to mean “for the purposes of commerce”.
This is the meaning accepted by the Court.

(iii) The meaning of the word “commerce”

57. The preceding finding does not entirely resolve the issue of inter-
pretation argued by the Parties. Now that it has been determined that

“con objetos de comercio” means “for the purposes of commerce”, the
meaning to be ascribed to the word “commerce” in the context of Arti-
cle VI remains to be determined, so that the exact extent of the right of
free navigation can be defined. On this point as well, the Parties disagree.
58. In Nicaragua’s view, for purposes of the Treaty, “commerce” cov-

ers solely the purchase and sale of merchandise, of physical goods, and
excludes all services, such as passenger transport. This interpretation is
clearly consistent with Nicaragua’s contention, just rejected, that “con
objetos” means “with merchandise”. But, Nicaragua argues, even if the
phrase is translated as “for the purposes of commerce”, the result is the
same, because in 1858 the word “commerce” necessarily meant trade in

goods and did not extend to services, the inclusion of services being a
very recent development. Nicaragua admits that passengers were already
being transported on the San Juan in 1858, and even that this was an
especially profitable activity, but it adds that this activity did not fall
within the scope of what was commonly called “commerce” at that time.

As for the transport of tourists, there was no such activity at the time in
the area in question.

31 Nicaragua contends that it is important to give the words used in the
Treaty the meaning they had at the time the Treaty was concluded, not

their current meaning, which can be quite different, because this is the
only way to remain true to the intent of the drafters of the Treaty; and
determining that intent is the main task in the work of interpretation.
59. Costa Rica argues that “commerce” as used in the Treaty takes in
any activity in pursuit of commercial purposes and includes, inter alia,

the transport of passengers, tourists among them, as well as of goods.
The Applicant adds that “commerce” is a broad concept which extends
even beyond for-profit activities; in this regard it cites the nineteenth-
century editions of the Dictionary of the Royal Spanish Academy , which
gives the word “comercio” the second meaning of “comunicación y trato

de unas gentes ó pueblos con otros”, or communication and dealings of
some persons or peoples with others. It follows, argues Costa Rica, that
“commerce” includes movement and contact between inhabitants of the
villages on the Costa Rican bank of the San Juan River, and the use of
the river for purposes of navigation by Costa Rican public officials pro-
viding the local population with essential services, in areas such as health,

education and security.

60. The Court can subscribe to neither the particularly broad interpre-
tation advocated by Costa Rica nor the excessively narrow one put for-
ward by Nicaragua.

61. In respect of the first, the Court observes that, were it to be
accepted, the result would be to bring within the ambit of “navigation for
the purposes of commerce” all, or virtually all, forms of navigation on
the river. If that had been the intent of the parties to the Treaty, it would
be difficult to see why they went to the trouble of specifying that the right

of free navigation was guaranteed “for the purposes of commerce”, given
that this language would have had virtually no effect. While Costa Rica
did maintain in the hearings that the phrase “for the purposes of com-
merce” in the context of Article VI did not result in restricting the scope
of the “right of free navigation” granted earlier in the same sentence, but

rather was intended to enlarge that right, the Court cannot adopt this
view: expressly stating the purpose for which a right may be exercised
implies in principle the exclusion of all other purposes and, consequently,
imposes the limitation thus defined on the field of application of the right
in question — subject to the possibility that the right may be exercisable
beyond that scope on separate legal bases.

Thus, the language found in Article VI means that the right of free
navigation granted to Costa Rica in that provision applies exclusively
within the ambit of navigation “for the purposes of commerce” and
ceases to apply beyond that ambit; the bounds of which it is now for the
Court to determine. This determination is without effect on the existence

of any right of navigation which Costa Rica may enjoy pursuant to pro-
visions other than Article VI.
62. In respect of the narrow interpretation advanced by Nicaragua,

32the Court observes that it is supported mainly by two arguments: the first
is based on the Respondent’s interpretation of the phrase “con objetos”,

which has just been rejected; the second is based on the assertion that
“commerce” should be given the narrow meaning it had when the Treaty
was entered into.
63. The Court does not agree with this second argument.
It is true that the terms used in a treaty must be interpreted in light of

what is determined to have been the parties’ common intention, which is,
by definition, contemporaneous with the treaty’s conclusion. That may
lead a court seised of a dispute, or the parties themselves, when they seek
to determine the meaning of a treaty for purposes of good-faith compli-
ance with it, to ascertain the meaning a term had when the treaty was

drafted, since doing so can shed light on the parties’ common intention.
The Court has so proceeded in certain cases requiring it to interpret a
term whose meaning had evolved since the conclusion of the treaty at
issue, and in those cases the Court adhered to the original meaning (to
this effect, see, for example, the Judgment of 27 August 1952 in the case
concerning Rights of Nationals of the United States of America in

Morocco (France v. United States of America) (I.C.J. Reports 1952,
p. 176), on the question of the meaning of “dispute” in the context of a
treaty concluded in 1836, the Court having determined the meaning of
this term in Morocco when the treaty was concluded; the Judgment of
13 December 1999 in the case concerning Kasikili/Sedudu Island (Bot-

swana/Namibia) (I.C.J. Reports 1999 (II) , p. 1062, para. 25) in respect
of the meaning of “centre of the main channel” and “thalweg” when the
Anglo-German Agreement of 1890 was concluded).
64. This does not however signify that, where a term’s meaning is no
longer the same as it was at the date of conclusion, no account should

ever be taken of its meaning at the time when the treaty is to be inter-
preted for purposes of applying it.
On the one hand, the subsequent practice of the parties, within the
meaning of Article 31 (3) (b) of the Vienna Convention, can result in a
departure from the original intent on the basis of a tacit agreement

between the parties. On the other hand, there are situations in which the
parties’ intent upon conclusion of the treaty was, or may be presumed to
have been, to give the terms used — or some of them — a meaning or
content capable of evolving, not one fixed once and for all, so as to make
allowance for, among other things, developments in international law. In
such instances it is indeed in order to respect the parties’ common inten-

tion at the time the treaty was concluded, not to depart from it, that
account should be taken of the meaning acquired by the terms in ques-
tion upon each occasion on which the treaty is to be applied.
65. A good illustration of this reasoning is found in the Judgment
handed down by the Court on 18 December 1978 in the case concerning

Aegean Sea Continental Shelf (Greece v. Turkey) (I.C.J. Reports 1978,
p. 3).
Called upon to interpret a State’s reservation to a treaty excluding

33from the Court’s jurisdiction “disputes relating to territorial status” of
that State, where the meaning of “territorial status” was contested, the

Court stated:

“Once it is established that the expression ‘the territorial status of
Greece’ was used in Greece’s instrument of accession [to the General
Act of 1928] as a generic term denoting any matters comprised
within the concept of territorial status under general international
law, the presumption necessarily arises that its meaning was intended

to follow the evolution of the law and to correspond with the mean-
ing attached to the expression by the law in force at any given time.
This presumption, in the view of the Court, is even more compelling
when it is recalled that the 1928 Act was a convention for the pacific
settlement of disputes designed to be of the most general kind and of
continuing duration, for it hardly seems conceivable that in such a

convention terms like ‘domestic jurisdiction’ and ‘territorial status’
were intended to have a fixed content regardless of the subsequent
evolution of international law.” (Aegean Sea Continental Shelf
(Greece v. Turkey), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1978 , p. 32, para. 77.)

66. Though adopted in connection with the interpretation of a reserva-
tion to a treaty, the Court’s reasoning in that case is fully transposable

for purposes of interpreting the terms themselves of a treaty.

It is founded on the idea that, where the parties have used generic
terms in a treaty, the parties necessarily having been aware that the
meaning of the terms was likely to evolve over time, and where the treaty

has been entered into for a very long period or is “of continuing dura-
tion”, the parties must be presumed, as a general rule, to have intended
those terms to have an evolving meaning.
67. This is so in the present case in respect of the term “comercio” as
used in Article VI of the 1858 Treaty. First, this is a generic term, refer-

ring to a class of activity. Second, the 1858 Treaty was entered into for an
unlimited duration; from the outset it was intended to create a legal
régime characterized by its perpetuity.
68. This last observation is buttressed by the object itself of the Treaty,
which was to achieve a permanent settlement between the parties of their
territorial disputes. The territorial rules laid down in treaties of this type

are, by nature, particularly marked in their permanence, for, as the Court
has recently recalled:

“[I]t is a principle of international law that a territorial régime
established by treaty ‘achieves a permanence which the treaty itself
does not necessarily enjoy’ and the continued existence of that
régime is not dependent upon the continuing life of the treaty under

which the régime is agreed” T ( erritorial and Maritime Dispute (Nica-
ragua v. Colombia), Preliminary Objections, I.C.J. Reports 2007 (II),
p. 861, para. 89).

34 69. This is true as well of the right of free navigation guaranteed to
Costa Rica by Article VI. This right, described as “perpetual”, is so

closely linked with the territorial settlement defined by the Treaty — to
such an extent that it can be considered an integral part of it — that it is
characterized by the same permanence as the territorial régime stricto
sensu itself.
70. The Court concludes from the foregoing that the terms by which

the extent of Costa Rica’s right of free navigation has been defined,
including in particular the term “comercio”, must be understood to have
the meaning they bear on each occasion on which the Treaty is to be
applied, and not necessarily their original meaning.
Thus, even assuming that the notion of “commerce” does not have

the same meaning today as it did in the mid-nineteenth century, it is the
present meaning which must be accepted for purposes of applying the
Treaty.
71. Accordingly, the Court finds that the right of free navigation in
question applies to the transport of persons as well as the transport of
goods, as the activity of transporting persons can be commercial in

nature nowadays. This is the case if the carrier engages in the activity for
profit-making purposes. A decisive consideration in this respect is
whether a price (other than a token price) is paid to the carrier — the
boat operator — by the passengers or on their behalf. If so, then the
carrier’s activity is commercial in nature and the navigation in question

must be regarded as “for the purposes of commerce” within the meaning
of Article VI. The Court sees no persuasive reason to exclude the trans-
port of tourists from this category, subject to fulfilment of the same
condition.

On the other hand, any navigation not carried out either to transport
goods intended to form the subject of commercial transactions or to
transport passengers in exchange for money paid by them or on their
behalf cannot be regarded as falling within the “purposes of commerce”
under Article VI. That is the case, in particular, of navigation by vessels

used in the performance of governmental activities or to provide public
services which are not commercial in nature.

(b) The activities covered by the right of free navigation belonging to

Costa Rica

72. Based on the foregoing, the Court is now in a position to deter-
mine with greater precision the types of activities which are covered by
Costa Rica’s right of free navigation, and those which are not.

For the sake of convenience, the Court, in addressing this issue, will

distinguish between private navigation — that is to say navigation by ves-
sels belonging to private owners — and that of “official (or public)
vessels” — that is to say vessels which are the property of the Republic of

35Costa Rica including all its public authorities —, although this distinc-
tion, as will be explained below, is of only limited relevance.

(i) Private navigation

73. As has just been said, two types of private navigation are certainly
covered by the right of free navigation pursuant to Article VI of the

1858 Treaty: the navigation of vessels carrying goods intended for com-
mercial transactions; and that of vessels carrying passengers who pay a
price other than a token price (or for whom a price is paid) in exchange
for the service thus provided.

In the first instance, the commercial activity is conducted by persons
who are the owners of the goods intended for sale. These persons may
themselves be carried on the vessel: they can also entrust their goods for
carriage to the vessel’s operator for an agreed price or free of charge.
This last aspect is of no relevance: in any event, navigation which is car-
ried out in order to transport goods intended for sale, or goods that have

just been purchased, in the context of a commercial exchange must be
regarded as taking place “for the purposes of commerce”, whether or not
the owner of the goods is onboard the vessel, and whether or not the ves-
sel’s operator has been paid to provide carriage. It is understood that
navigation “for the purposes of commerce” also includes the return jour-

ney of persons who have transported goods intended for sale.

In the second instance, however, the fact that the vessel’s owner
receives payment for his activity is critical. Indeed, if the carriage of pas-
sengers is considered, it is not the passengers themselves who are exercis-

ing a commercial activity (unless they are travelling in order to transport
goods, in which case the journey falls under the previous instance), it is
the carrier, provided that he does so to make a profit.

74. The question was raised as to whether the navigation of vessels

belonging to the inhabitants of the villages on the Costa Rican bank of
the river in order to meet the basic requirements of everyday life, such as
taking children to school or in order to give or receive medical treatment,
was protected by the right of free navigation when it is carried out free of
charge. The Parties discussed the issue: according to Nicaragua the
answer is no, since the Respondent considers that only the carriage of

goods benefits from the guarantee provided by Article VI of the Treaty;
according to Costa Rica the answer is yes, based on the particularly
broad definition of “commerce” adopted by the Applicant.

75. The Court has already indicated that it could not subscribe to a

definition of the word “commerce” as broad as the one put forward by
Costa Rica. It has also indicated (in paragraph 71 above) that the car-
riage of passengers free of charge, or the movement of persons on their

36own vessels for purposes other than the conduct of commercial transac-
tions, could not fall within the scope of “navigation for the purposes of

commerce” within the meaning of Article VI of the 1858 Treaty.
76. It does not necessarily follow that such activities are not at all cov-
ered by freedom of navigation: other provisions of the 1858 Treaty may
have the effect of guaranteeing the right of the inhabitants of the
Costa Rican bank to navigate on the river, within certain limits, even

when they are not doing so within the context of commercial activities.

77. In this regard, the Court is of the opinion that there is reason to
take into account the provisions of the Treaty as a whole, especially those
fixing the boundary between the two States, in order to draw, if need be,

certain necessary implications. In other words, even if no provision
expressly guaranteeing a right of non-commercial navigation to the inhab-
itants of the Costa Rican bank can be found in the Treaty, the question
must be asked whether such a right does not flow from other provisions
with a different purpose, but of which it may, to a certain extent, be the
necessary consequence.

78. As has been said, the two States decided, by the Treaty of Limits,
to fix their common boundary on the south bank of the San Juan River
along the whole stretch of the river running from its mouth to a point
located three English miles downstream from Castillo Viejo. This was
decided in Article II of the 1858 Treaty. At the time, there was already a

population inhabiting the Costa Rican side of the boundary thus defined,
that is to say living on the bank of the river or not far from it. In view of
the great difficulty of travelling inland, due to the limited inland commu-
nications network, that population commonly used and still uses the river
for travel for the purpose of meeting the essential needs of everyday life

which require expeditious transportation, such as transport to and from
school or for medical care.

79. The Court is of the opinion that it cannot have been the intention
of the authors of the 1858 Treaty to deprive the inhabitants of the

Costa Rican bank of the river, where that bank constitutes the boundary
between the two States, of the right to use the river to the extent neces-
sary to meet their essential requirements, even for activities of a non-
commercial nature, given the geography of the area. While choosing, in
Article II of the Treaty, to fix the boundary on the river bank, the parties
must be presumed, in view of the historical background to the conclusion

of this Treaty and of the Treaty’s object and purpose as defined by the
Preamble and Article I, to have intended to preserve for the Costa
Ricans living on that bank a minimal right of navigation for the purposes
of continuing to live a normal life in the villages along the river. The
Court considers that while such a right cannot be derived from the

express language of Article VI, it can be inferred from the provisions
of the Treaty as a whole and, in particular, the manner in which the
boundary is fixed.

37 (ii) “Official vessels”

80. It is clear that the 1858 Treaty does not establish, in its Article VI,
any special régime for “official” (or “public”) vessels.
The only criterion provided for by Article VI is based not on the public
or private ownership of the vessel but on the purpose of navigation:
either it is undertaken for the “purposes of commerce” and benefits from

the freedom established; or it is undertaken for purposes other than
“commerce” and it does not. From this point of view the distinction
between public and private vessels is devoid of legal significance. In the
same way that a part of private navigation is not covered by the “per-
petual right of free navigation” (in the case of pleasure craft for example),

conversely, it is not inconceivable that “public vessels” might sail for the
“purposes of commerce”, if they met the conditions on which such a
characterization depends.
81. In reality, when debating the question of “official vessels” the
Parties particularly had in mind those used by the Costa Rican authori-
ties for the exercise of public order activities — such as the police and

customs — or for the provision of public services having no object of
financial gain and therefore no commercial character.
82. As has already been noted (paragraph 49 above), the Cleveland
Award only came to a decision regarding Costa Rican vessels of war and
revenue service vessels, by denying the former the right to navigate on the

San Juan and authorizing the navigation of the latter “as may be related
and connected to her enjoyment of the ‘purposes of commerce’ accorded
to her in said article [Article VI] or as may be necessary to the protection
of said enjoyment”. Nothing can thus be inferred from this regarding the
navigation of other Costa Rican official vessels.

83. In the light of the foregoing, the Court is of the opinion that, as a
general rule, the navigation of Costa Rican vessels for the purposes of
public order activities and public services with no object of financial gain,
in particular police vessels, lies outside the scope of Article VI of the
1858 Treaty, with the exception of revenue service vessels, the question of

which was settled by the 1888 arbitration. Further, it is not convinced
that a right for Costa Rica to sail such vessels can be inferred from Arti-
cle IV of the Treaty, according to which “Costa Rica shall also be
obliged, for the part that belongs to her of the banks of the San Juan
River . . . to contribute to the security thereof in the same manner as the
two Republics shall contribute to its defence in case of aggression from

abroad”. This provision, contrary to what Costa Rica contends, does not
accord it any right of navigation in ordinary circumstances. It places an
obligation upon it to “safeguard” the river from within its own territory.

Moreover, the Court considers that, in any event, Costa Rica has not

proved its assertion that river transport is the only means to supply its
police posts located along the river bank or to carry out the relief of the
personnel stationed in them. Indeed, the materials in the case file show

38that the posts in question are accessible, for example, by using the Costa

Rican rivers communicating with the San Juan, in proximity of which
they are located.

Lastly, for the reasons set out above (paragraph 40), Costa Rica can-
not invoke the “Cuadra-Lizano” Joint Communiqué of 30 July 1998 in

order to claim a right to navigate with official vessels which are armed or
transporting arms.
84. Nonetheless, the Court is of the opinion that the reasons given
above (in paragraphs 78 and 79) with regard to private vessels which

navigate the river in order to meet the essential requirements of the popu-
lation living on the river bank, where expeditious transportation is a con-
dition for meeting those requirements, are also valid for certain Costa
Rican official vessels which in specific situations are used solely for the

purpose of providing that population with what it needs in order to meet
the necessities of daily life, as defined in paragraph 78 above.

Consequently, this particular aspect of navigation by “official vessels”

is covered by the right of navigation defined in paragraph 79 above: this
right is not guaranteed by Article VI of the Treaty but is inferred from
the provisions of the Treaty as a whole, in particular from the fixing of
the boundary along the river bank.

III. N ICARAGUA ’S POWER OF R EGULATION OF N AVIGATION

85. In this part of the Judgment the Court addresses the power of

Nicaragua to regulate the navigation of that part of the San Juan River
in which Costa Rica has the right of navigation as determined in Part II
of the Judgment. In respect of matters lying outside the scope of Costa
Rica’s right of free navigation, and in respect of other parts of the river,

which are not subject to the régime of the 1858 Treaty, Nicaragua, as
sovereign, has complete power of regulation.

1. General Observations

86. In their written pleadings, the Parties disagreed about the extent or
even the very existence of the power of Nicaragua to regulate the use of

the river so far as Costa Rica was concerned. In the course of the oral
proceedings that difference of positions largely disappeared. However,
the Parties continue to disagree on the extent of the regulatory power of
Nicaragua and on certain measures which Nicaragua has adopted and
continues to apply.

In the first part of the oral proceedings, Nicaragua states that whatever
the precise nature and extent of Costa Rica’s rights within the provisions
of the Treaty of Limits and the Cleveland Award, Nicaragua

39 “must have the exclusive competence to exercise the following regu-
latory powers: (a) the protection and maintenance of the right of

navigation, that is to say, the power to maintain public order and
standards of safety in respect of navigation; (b) the protection of
the border, including resort to immigration procedures in respect of
foreign nationals navigating in Nicaragua’s territorial waters; (c) the
exercise of normal police powers; (d) the protection of the environ-

ment and natural resources; and (e) the maintenance of the treaty
provisions prescribing the conditions of navigation in accordance
with the Treaty”.

Costa Rica, while accepting that Nicaragua does have a power of regu-
lation, asserts that Nicaragua’s sovereignty over the San Juan must be
seen as a part — an important part — of the fluvial régime established in
1858 and that the regulations enacted by Nicaragua must not infringe

Costa Rica’s perpetual right of free navigation. It states that the regula-
tions must be lawful, public, reasonable, non-arbitrary and non-discrimi-
natory and adopted to fulfil a legitimate public purpose. Nicaragua
accepts Costa Rica’s statement of principle.

The Parties disagree whether Nicaragua is obliged to notify Costa Rica

about the regulations it has made or to consult Costa Rica in advance
about proposed regulations. The Court rules on these differences in the
course of this part of the Judgment.

(a) Characteristics

87. For essentially the reasons given by the Parties, the Court con-
cludes that Nicaragua has the power to regulate the exercise by Costa Rica
of its right to freedom of navigation under the 1858 Treaty. That power

is not unlimited, being tempered by the rights and obligations of the
Parties. A regulation in the present case is to have the following charac-
teristics:

(1) it must only subject the activity to certain rules without rendering
impossible or substantially impeding the exercise of the right of free
navigation;
(2) it must be consistent with the terms of the Treaty, such as the pro-
hibition on the unilateral imposition of certain taxes in Article VI;

(3) it must have a legitimate purpose, such as safety of navigation, crime
prevention and public safety and border control;

(4) it must not be discriminatory and in matters such as timetabling
must apply to Nicaraguan vessels if it applies to Costa Rican ones;

(5) it must not be unreasonable, which means that its negative impact on
the exercise of the right in question must not be manifestly excessive

40 when measured against the protection afforded to the purpose
invoked.

88. Costa Rica has challenged the role of environmental protection as
a reason for Nicaragua’s regulations, indicating that it is a pretext to
impose other requirements. But in the course of the oral proceedings
Costa Rica itself emphasized environmental matters. For its part, Nica-

ragua points to the evidence it presented showing that the San Juan River
and the Nicaraguan shore adjacent to it are extremely important and
gravely threatened natural reserves. It also refers to related international
obligations arising under the 1971 Ramsar Convention on Wetlands, the
1973 Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild

Fauna and Flora and the 1992 Convention on Biodiversity Conservation
and Protection of Priority Wild Areas in Central America.

89. The Court considers that, over the course of the century and a half

since the 1858 Treaty was concluded, the interests which are to be pro-
tected through regulation in the public interest may well have changed in
ways that could never have been anticipated by the Parties at the time:
protecting the environment is a notable example. As will appear from the
rulings made later in this Judgment (see paragraphs 104, 109, 118, 127

and 141), Nicaragua, in adopting certain measures which have been chal-
lenged, in the Court’s opinion, is pursuing the legitimate purpose of pro-
tecting the environment.

90. The Parties mentioned two other matters relating to regulation
making by Nicaragua. Costa Rica suggested that Nicaragua had not

adopted the measures and regulations being challenged in accordance
with Nicaraguan law. It did not, however, put before the Court the rele-
vant Nicaraguan constitutional and other requirements, and it did not
begin to indicate how such non-compliance with Nicaraguan law, assum-
ing it to have occurred, could have significance in international law.

Nicaragua contended that it had the power to regulate to “maintain
the discipline of the Treaty”. It did not however indicate how that would
extend its regulatory powers in the present context.

Because the Parties did not develop these two contentions, the Court
does not take them any further.

(b) Notification

91. The Court now turns to the question whether Nicaragua has a

legal obligation to notify Costa Rica of the measures it adopts to regulate
navigation on the river, or to give notice and consult with Costa Rica
prior to the adoption by Nicaragua of such measures. In answer to a

41question from a Member of the Court, Nicaragua said that, as the exclu-
sive holder of sovereign authority and title over the river, under the

Treaty or otherwise, it had no obligation to consult with or inform
Costa Rica before making such regulations. Nicaragua states that never-
theless, in the interests of good neighbourliness and as a courtesy, it had
regularly consulted with, informed and engaged in dialogue with
Costa Rica about the measures. It then documented that claim by refer-

ence to the disputed measures. Costa Rica’s answer to the question
reviews actions taken by Nicaragua and concludes that notice was not
given. Costa Rica, in its comments on Nicaragua’s answer, rejects Nica-
ragua’s position that it was under no legal obligation to consult, referring
to what it says is the plain meaning of the text of Article VI of the Treaty.

92. However, the part of the text of Article VI on which Costa Rica
depends concerns only the imposition of certain charges. Because that
provision does not extend to the full range of measures taken to regulate

navigation on the river, it cannot be read as imposing a general obliga-
tion of notification and consultation, and the Court need not consider
that argument further. The remainder of Costa Rica’s comments and the
whole of Nicaragua’s addressed the contacts which each had had with the
other relating to the various measures.

93. The Treaty imposes no express general obligation on either of the
Parties to notify the other about measures it is taking relating to naviga-
tion on the river. It contains a requirement of agreement in Article VI
and a requirement of consultation in Article VIII which imply prior con-

tact between the Parties. Under Article VI the two Parties are required to
agree if they wish to impose any taxes in the situation contemplated by
that provision. Under Article VIII, if the Government of Nicaragua is
proposing to enter into an arrangement for canalization or transit on the
San Juan, it must first consult with the Government of Costa Rica about

the disadvantages the project might occasion between the two Parties.

94. Despite the lack of any specific provision in the Treaty relating to
notification, the Court sees three factors as together imposing an obliga-
tion of notification of regulations in the circumstances of this case. The
first is to be found in the 1956 Agreement under which the Parties agreed

as follows:

“The two Parties, acting in the spirit which should move the mem-
bers of the Central American family of nations, shall collaborate to
the best of their ability in order to carry out those undertakings and

activities which require a common effort by both States and are of
mutual benefit and, in particular, in order to facilitate and expedite
traffic on the Pan American Highway and on the San Juan River

42 within the terms of the Treaty of 15 April 1858 and its interpretation
given by arbitration on 22 March 1888, and also in order to facilitate

those transport services which may be provided to the territory of
one Party by enterprises which are nationals of the other.”

It is difficult to see how the obligation, set out under the terms of the
1956 Agreement, to collaborate to facilitate traffic on the San Juan and
to facilitate transport services being provided in the territory of one coun-
try by the nationals of the other could be met without Nicaragua notify-
ing Costa Rica of relevant regulations which it adopts.

95. The second factor indicating that Nicaragua is obliged to notify
the adoption of the regulations lies in its very subject-matter: navigation
on a river in which two States have rights, the one as sovereign, the other
to freedom of navigation. Such a requirement arises from the practical

necessities of navigation on such a waterway. If the various purposes of
navigation are to be achieved, it must be subject to some discipline, a dis-
cipline which depends on proper notification of the relevant regulations.

96. The third factor lies in the very nature of regulation. If the regula-
tion is to subject the activity in question to rules, those undertaking that
activity must be informed of those rules. Notification will assist in the
better application of the regulation and the more effective pursuit of its
purposes. Notification will also enable those subject to the regulation to
bring facts within their particular knowledge to the attention of the

appropriate authority and to suggest other ways of pursuing and achiev-
ing the relevant purpose.
97. The Court concludes that Nicaragua is under an obligation to
notify Costa Rica of the regulations which it makes regarding the navi-
gational régime on the San Juan River. That obligation does not however

extend to notice or consultation prior to the adoption by Nicaragua of
such regulations.

(c) The factual context

98. The Court considers it necessary to provide a factual context for
the assessment which follows of the particular Nicaraguan regulations
and actions challenged by Costa Rica. For this purpose, the Court recalls

information presented to it about the population on the Costa Rican
bank, the tourists using the river, and Costa Rican access to the area.
According to Costa Rica, about 450 people, about half of them Nicara-
guans, live along the approximately 140 kilometres of the Costa Rican
bank. Nicaragua does not challenge these figures.

99. According to Nicaragua, with an exception in 1982 when war time
emergency measures applied, Costa Rican tourist navigation has not

43been prevented. Its figures show an increase from 711 in 1998 to 2,590 in
2004. Costa Rica does not challenge those figures nor, especially, their

increase. Indeed, it drew on one of the Nicaraguan sources to show the
increase in tourist numbers. Rather, its arguments about the impeding of
tourism are general, depending in large part on the drawing of adverse
inferences from the Nicaraguan requirements relating to the stopping and
inspecting of vessels, the registering of passengers, the issue of visas and

tourist cards, and the charging of fees. The evidence before the Court
indicates that much of that travel by tourists begins or ends within
Costa Rica, in the Sarapiquí and Colorado Rivers and includes only the
approximately 25 kilometres of the San Juan River between the points
where those two rivers join it. The vessels in which the tourists travel,

according to the limited record before the Court, appear to provide for
about ten passengers.

100. The Parties have provided the Court with information about

measures Nicaragua has undertaken, and to this day continues to under-
take, in regulating the use of the river. Costa Rica contends that the
information shows that Nicaragua is acting unlawfully, not for legitimate
purposes but for reasons of harassment, and unreasonably and in a dis-
criminatory way. Nicaragua submits the opposite.

101. The Court notes that Costa Rica, in support of its claim of un-
lawful action, advances points of fact about unreasonableness by refer-
ring to the allegedly disproportionate impact of the regulations. The
Court recalls that in terms of well established general principle it is for

Costa Rica to establish those points (cf. Maritime Delimitation in the
Black Sea (Romania v. Ukraine), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2009 ,p.86,
para. 68, and cases cited there). Further, a court examining the reasona-
bleness of a regulation must recognize that the regulator, in this case the
State with sovereignty over the river, has the primary responsibility for

assessing the need for regulation and for choosing, on the basis of its
knowledge of the situation, the measure that it deems most appropriate
to meet that need. It will not be enough in a challenge to a regulation
simply to assert in a general way that it is unreasonable. Concrete and
specific facts will be required to persuade a court to come to that
conclusion.

2. The Legality of the Specific Nicaraguan Measures
Challenged by Costa Rica

102. The Court now considers the measures adopted by Nicaragua
which are challenged by Costa Rica.

44(a) Requirement to stop and identification

103. Costa Rica, in its final submissions, requests the Court to declare
that Nicaragua has the obligation not to require Costa Rican vessels to
stop at any Nicaraguan post along the river, and not to require their pas-
sengers to carry passports. Costa Rica contends that the requirements of
stopping and registering have the practical effect of rendering near impos-

sible the exercise of Costa Rica’s treaty rights of free navigation and that
they do not have much of a preventive effect. They cannot be regarded as
reasonable or lawful. Nicaragua says that, since before the 1960s, it has
required boat operators, including Nicaraguans, travelling on the river to
stop and identify themselves, their passengers and their cargoes. The

requirement, it says, is a fundamental element of its law enforcement
efforts in the area. It considers it quite telling that Costa Rica has, since
at least the 1960s, found it necessary to implement the same requirement
on its own rivers. Nicaragua explains that its army posts are spread
widely, leaving vast stretches of the river far removed from law enforce-
ment officials, and that it is only by keeping track of vessels as they enter

and leave the river that it can effectively monitor them to ensure that they
do not engage in unlawful activities. Nicaragua also cites environmental
protection and navigational safety as reasons for these requirements.

104. So far as the lawfulness of the requirement is concerned, the
Court is of the opinion that Nicaragua, as sovereign, has the right to
know the identity of those entering its territory and also to know that

they have left. The power to require the production of a passport or iden-
tity document of some kind is a legitimate part of the exercise of such a
power. Nicaragua also has related responsibilities in respect of law
enforcement and environmental protection. To that extent, the Nicara-
guan requirement that vessels stop on entering the river and leaving it

and that they be subject to search is lawful. The Court cannot, however,
see any legal justification for a general requirement that vessels continu-
ing along the San Juan River, for example, from the San Carlos River to
the Colorado River, stop at any intermediate point, in that case at Sara-
piquí.
105. In its Memorial, Costa Rica also called attention to the right

which the vessels of Costa Rica and Nicaragua have under Article VI to
land on either side of the river, which it cited in support of the proposi-
tion that “[n]owhere is it stipulated that Costa Rican vessels have an
obligation to land on the Nicaraguan bank and report to the Nicara-
guan authorities”. Costa Rica provides no elaboration of this argument.

That is hardly surprising. The right of individual boatmen to tie up on
the opposite bank for their own reasons and the power and responsi-
bility of the State which is sovereign over the river to regulate it, in the

45public interest, are two distinct matters. They may operate in complete
harmony.

106. Costa Rica submits that more frequent Nicaraguan patrolling of
the river would be reasonable, lawful and sufficiently effective. However,
it provides no evidence to demonstrate that such patrolling would achieve
the purposes for which the requirement in question was introduced, nor

any specific evidence to show that this requirement actually interferes
with tourist traffic, in particular through the delays allegedly resulting
from its application. The Court recalls that it has been established that
the number of tourists on the river has increased over the years the
requirement has been in force. In the Court’s opinion, Costa Rica has

failed to show that the regulation is unreasonable.

107. Accordingly, the Court concludes that Costa Rica’s challenge to
the requirement that vessels stop and their crew members and passengers
register and carry identity documents fails.

(b) Departure clearance certificates

108. Costa Rica challenges the departure clearance certificate which
Nicaragua requires be issued to vessels navigating on the river. As will
appear, it also challenges the associated fee or charge. According to

Costa Rica, before 1979, the practice was that Costa Rican boat opera-
tors would obtain a departure clearance certificate from their own authori-
ties (in Barra del Colorado or Puerto Viejo de Sarapiquí) and would
show it on request to the Nicaraguan authorities when entering the San
Juan. In the early 1980s the Nicaraguan authorities introduced their own
certificates and a related fee. The matter is now the subject of the 2001

Action Plan for Issuance of Departure Clearance Certificates in the San
Juan River of the Nicaraguan Army which provides as follows:

“1. Vessels navigating in between the Military Control Posts over
the San Juan River shall be issued a courtesy departure clearance
certificate.
2. The vessels and Nicaraguans whose domicile is close to the
bank of the San Juan River and Costa Ricans whose domicile is

located in the adjacent proximities shall be issued a courtesy depar-
ture clearance certificate, which shall be valid for one month and
must be renewed one day before the expiration date. These shall
report to the Military Control Posts located along the San Juan
River.

3. The Port Captaincy in San Juan del Norte is hereby authorized
to issue international departure clearance certificates to tourist ves-
sels at a cost of US10.00 (ten dollars). These certificates may be

46 issued by the Military Control Posts in Boca de Sarapiquí and
El Delta only where vessels attempt to evade the Port Captaincy.

.............................

5. Costa Rican vessels domiciled inland in Costa Rican territory
that use the San Juan River as a transit route shall be issued an
international departure clearance certificate in San Juan del Norte,
subject to a symbolic fee equivalent to US5.00 (five dollars).”

Nicaragua says that on entry into the river, vessels are inspected to
ensure that they are seaworthy, are free of fuel leaks that might pollute
the river and are not carrying illegal cargo. In support of the regulation
Nicaragua also cites the minutes of a 1997 meeting of the Binational
Nicaragua-Costa Rica Commission:

“With respect to the movement of vessels, it was considered nec-
essary that they navigate only if duly registered by the posts that
issue corresponding navigation certificates; in this case, the posts at
San Juan del Norte, San Carlos and Sarapiquí.”

Nicaragua considers that in this minute Costa Rica accepted that there
was good reason for the registration and clearance requirements imposed
by Nicaragua. For Costa Rica, the minute was concerned with drug traf-
ficking and the passage meant only that the certificates should be obtained
by vessels from their respective countries.

109. The Court considers that the purposes invoked by Nicaragua,
i.e., navigational safety, environmental protection and criminal law
enforcement, are legitimate ones. Further, the requirement for departure
clearance certificates does not appear to have imposed any significant

impediment on the exercise of Costa Rica’s freedom of navigation.

The question may also be asked whether in terms of the earlier practice
the inspection and certification should be undertaken by the State of
nationality of the boat operators, on the analogy of maritime navigation.
There is however no suggestion from Costa Rica that it would be in a

position to take up this responsibility. Nor does it point to a single case
where navigation has been impeded by an arbitrary refusal of a certifi-
cate.
110. Accordingly Costa Rica’s claim that Costa Rican vessels need not
obtain departure clearance certificates cannot be upheld. The Court con-

siders the claim in respect of charges later (see paragraphs 120 to 124
below).

47(c) Visas and tourist cards

111. In its final submissions, Costa Rica requests the Court to declare
that Nicaragua has the obligation not to require persons exercising the
right of free navigation to obtain Nicaraguan visas. Its claim also extends
to tourist cards. Nicaragua states that, since at least 1979, all non-
nationals have been required to obtain tourist cards when they enter

Nicaragua, a requirement which includes entry into Nicaragua via the
San Juan River. It says that it makes an exception for residents of
Costa Rica riparian communities and for Costa Rican merchants who
regularly use the river to transport goods from one community to another.
It notes that those exemptions also apply to visas. Further, many of the

tourists have the benefit of a visa waiver made by Nicaragua. Costa Rica
points to some evidence which puts in question the operation of the
exemptions for riparians.

112. Costa Rica contends that the visa and tourist card requirements
are a breach of its right of free navigation. They impose unlawful limits

on the freedom. The exercise of the power would mean that the right to
freedom of navigation becomes a privilege to be granted or denied at the
discretion of Nicaragua. For Nicaragua, the power to issue such docu-
ments is a simple consequence of its sovereignty over the river. Just as it
can require that such permissions be sought by non-nationals as they

enter its territory at Managua Airport, so too can it impose that require-
ment when non-nationals seek to enter the river over which it is sovereign.

113. The Court observes at the outset that a distinction must be drawn
between requiring visas and requiring tourist cards. The power of a State
to issue or refuse visas is a practical expression of the prerogative which
each State has to control entry by non-nationals into its territory.

114. The requirement that passengers on Costa Rican vessels exercis-
ing freedom of navigation, other than riparians and certain Costa Rican
merchants, have visas issued to them raises the question of who is entitled
to and who may benefit from the right of freedom of navigation for com-
mercial purposes stated in Article VI of the 1858 Treaty. Under Article
VI of the Treaty the titleholder of the right of free navigation is Costa

Rica. Owners and operators of Costa Rican vessels benefit from that
right when navigating on the San Juan River for commercial purposes.
Passengers on vessels exercising Costa Rica’s right of free navigation also
benefit from that right, even if such passengers are not Costa Rican
nationals.

115. The Court recalls that the power of a State to issue or refuse a
visa entails discretion. However in the present case Nicaragua may not
impose a visa requirement on those persons who, in line with what was

48stated in the preceding paragraph, may benefit from Costa Rica’s right of
free navigation. If that benefit is denied, the freedom of navigation would

be hindered. In these circumstances, an imposition of a visa requirement
is a breach of the Treaty right.

116. The Court observes that in fact the number of tourists travelling
on the river in Costa Rican vessels has increased in the period these

requirements have been in force (see paragraph 99 above). Further, Costa
Rica has provided no evidence of arbitrary refusals of visas to tourists
and Nicaragua points out that it does not require nationals from coun-
tries which are the source of most of the tourists visiting the San Juan to
obtain visas. Furthermore, it makes exceptions for residents of Costa

Rican riparian communities and Costa Rican merchants who regularly
use the river. None of this, however, affects the legal situation just stated.

117. The Court accordingly concludes that Nicaragua may not require

persons travelling on Costa Rican vessels which are exercising their free-
dom of navigation on the river to obtain visas. It would of course be
another matter were they wishing to enter the land territory of Nicaragua
from the river or to travel up the river beyond its shared part towards
Lake Nicaragua.

118. The Court adds one point to that conclusion. It has already recog-
nized that Nicaragua has the right to know the identity of those wishing
to enter the river, for reasons, among others, of law enforcement and
environmental protection (paragraph 104 above). One measure which it

may properly take to protect such interests is to refuse entry to a particu-
lar person for good reasons relating to that purpose. It can do that at the
point that the person identifies him or herself (see paragraphs 103 to 107
above). If such an action was justified in terms of the relevant purpose,
no breach of the freedom would be involved. A similar analysis may well

be available in terms of an emergency derogation of the right to navigate.

119. With regard to the requirement by Nicaragua that tourist cards
be obtained, this does not appear to be intended to facilitate its control
over entry into the San Juan River. In the course of the proceedings

Nicaragua did no more than give some factual information about the
operation of the tourist cards and the exemptions already mentioned. It
referred to no legitimate purpose as justification for imposing this require-
ment. The requirement that passengers wishing to travel on Costa Rican
vessels which are exercising Costa Rica’s freedom of navigation on the

river must first purchase tourist cards is inconsistent with that right to
freedom of navigation. The Court accordingly concludes that Nicaragua
may not require persons travelling on Costa Rican vessels which are exer-

49cising Costa Rica’s freedom of navigation on the river to purchase a tour-
ist card.

(d) Charges

120. Costa Rica, in its final submissions, requests the Court to declare
that Nicaragua has an obligation not to impose any charges or fees on
Costa Rican vessels and their passengers for navigating on the river. The
claims relate to payments required in respect of departure clearance cer-

tificates for vessels and visas and tourist cards for passengers. According
to Nicaragua, they are not payments for navigating on the river, but for
the service involved in the issue of the various documents. If Nicaragua
has no legal power to require the issuing of such documents, as the Court
has already held in respect of visas, then no charge or fee may of course

be required. The Court has dealt with the question of the payment for
tourist cards in the previous paragraph. The matter does, however,
remain in respect of the issue of departure clearance certificates.
Costa Rica contends that the requirement is prohibited by the Treaty. In
1982 it protested against the imposition of a charge for the issuing of a

departure clearance certificate as a tax that is excluded by Article VI of
the Treaty. In a later exchange, in 2001, Nicaragua contended that the
sum being charged was

“not for navigating the San Juan River, nor does it constitute any
type of tax, but is, rather, the amount charged for providing the
departure clearance certificate service that both Nicaraguan and for-
eign vessels in any Nicaraguan port, including those located in the

said river, are charged when travelling to another State”.

Nicaragua recalls that, by decision of the President of Nicaragua and “to

strengthen the ties” between the two countries and Governments,
Costa Rican vessels, other than tourist vessels and those using the port of
San Juan del Norte, were to be issued with the certificate without pay-
ment. In response, Costa Rica again referred to Article VI, quoting the
last part of that provision, and contended that in effect no service was

rendered corresponding to the departure clearance certificate. Nicaragua,
says Costa Rica, ignores the plain text of Article VI of the Treaty of Lim-
its which provides that neither country may impose charges on the other,
except when there is agreement by both Governments.

121. The final sentence of Article VI in its original Spanish text pro-
vides as follows:
“Las embarcaciones de uno ú otro pais podrán indistintamente

atracar en las riberas del rio en la parte en que la navegación es
común, sin cobrarse ninguna clase de impuestos, á no ser que se
establezcan de acuerdo entre ambos Gobiernos.” (For the full

50 text of Article VI in the Spanish original, see paragraph 43
above.)

The English translations of that sentence provided to President Cleveland
by the Parties were respectively as follows:

“The vessels of both countries shall have the power to land indis-
criminately on either side of the river, at the portion thereof where

the navigation is common; and no charges of any kind, or duties,
shall be collected unless when levied by mutual consent of both Gov-
ernments.” (Costa Rica)

and

“The vessels of both countries may indiscriminately approach the
shores (atracar) of the river where the navigation is common to
both, without the collection of any class of impost unless so estab-
lished by the two Governments.” (Nicaragua)

122. In the Court’s view, the final sentence of Article VI has two ele-
ments. It first confers a right on the vessels of each Party to land on the
bank of the other. Second, that sentence provides that the exercise of that
particular right is not to be the subject of an impost or tax. Just as the
exercise of the right of navigation on the river is to be free and not the

subject of any payment, so is stopping on the other bank. The Court does
not read the provision as extending beyond that particular situation and
as prohibiting charges for services lawfully and properly required by
Nicaragua and rendered to vessels navigating on the river.

123. The Court now turns to the issue raised by Costa Rica in its cor-
respondence with Nicaragua in 2001 (see paragraph 120 above): what is
the service being rendered for the certificate and the charge. As the Court
understands the situation, Costa Rica does not challenge the right of
Nicaragua to inspect vessels on the river for safety, environmental and
law enforcement reasons; as noted, it accepted it in respect of drug traf-

ficking in 1997. In the Court’s opinion, that right would in any event be
an aspect of Nicaraguan sovereignty over the river. But those actions of
policing by the sovereign do not include the provision of any service to
boat operators. In respect of Costa Rican vessels exercising freedom of
navigation on the river, the payment must be seen as unlawful.

51 124. Accordingly, Costa Rica’s claim in respect of the charge for the
departure clearance certificate for those vessels must be upheld.

(e) Timetabling

125. In its final submissions, Costa Rica requests the Court to declare

that Nicaragua has the obligation not to impose impediments to the exer-
cise of the right of free navigation, inter alia, by timetables for naviga-
tion. Nicaragua, according to Costa Rica, in 1999 restricted navigation
on the San Juan River from 6.00 a.m. to 5.30 p.m. Costa Rica in 2001
protested against “this unilateral restriction . . ., given that it is not stipu-

lated by any agreement between the two States”. In its response, Nicara-
gua noted “its right and obligation, as the sovereign State, to adopt the
regulations necessary to guarantee the safety of the people and vessels
travelling along the river and avoid all manner of criminal activities”.
Costa Rica replied that Nicaragua could not establish these limitations
unilaterally since none of the instruments in force between the two coun-

tries established that it may do so. In the course of 2001 the Action Plan
of the Army of Nicaragua for issuance of Departure Clearance Certifi-
cates on the River set out this requirement: “As a measure for protecting
human life and safe navigation, navigation over the San Juan River
remains suspended between 5.00 p.m. and 5.00 a.m.” Costa Rica con-

tends that the prohibition is a violation of a right which is “perpetual”
and “free”.
126. The Court recalls that the exercise of a power to regulate may
legitimately include placing limits on the activity in question. The limited
evidence before the Court does not demonstrate any extensive use of the

river for night time navigation: tourist vessels, understandably, use the
river during daylight hours; emergencies are acknowledged by Nicaragua
to be an exception; and, according to the Nicaraguan Military Com-
mander in the area between 1992 and 1995, “by long standing custom
night time navigation of the river has not been practised, except in emer-

gency situations”. He explained that the prohibition “applies to everyone,
Nicaraguans included. The river is treacherous to navigate at night, since
there are no lights, and fallen logs and sandbars, invisible in the dark, are
prevalent, as are crocodiles.” The limited interference with Costa Rica’s
freedom to navigate does not, in the Court’s opinion, amount to an un-
lawful impediment to that freedom, particularly when the purposes of the

regulation are considered.

127. Costa Rica’s challenge to the regulation also applies to one of
those purposes, environmental protection. As already indicated, the Court

considers that that is a legitimate purpose and accordingly rejects this
ground for attacking the night time prohibition.

52 128. Finally, Costa Rica submits that the regulation is unreasonable.
The purposes could have been better achieved by other means, it says, in

particular by requiring boats travelling at night to have lights and to have
dangerous places marked by lights. Costa Rica does not address the prac-
ticality of such measures, including their cost, nor their effectiveness. It
proceeds only by way of assertion. It has not, in the Court’s opinion,
come near to establishing that the regulation is unreasonable.

129. Accordingly, Costa Rica’s claim in respect of timetabling cannot
be upheld.

(f) Flags

130. In its final submissions, Costa Rica requests the Court to declare
that Nicaragua has an obligation not to impose an impediment on the
exercise of the right of free navigation, inter alia, by conditions relating
to flags. Costa Rica claims that the right of its vessels to fly its own flag
and not to fly the Nicaraguan flag is a corollary right to the right of free

navigation under the Treaty. For Nicaragua, the requirement that vessels
fly its flag when navigating in its waters, including in the San Juan, is an
attribute of Nicaragua’s sovereignty, and is a matter of international cus-
tom and practice. It is a reasonable and non-burdensome requirement.

131. The Parties also disagree on the facts. While Costa Rica suggests
that Nicaragua requires all of its vessels to fly the Nicaraguan flag, it has,
in the Court’s view, provided no persuasive evidence of this. Further, the
relevant Nicaraguan document, the Action Plan of the Army of Nicara-
gua for Issuance of Departure Clearance Certificates in the San Juan

River, while requiring its flag to be flown, adds an important qualifica-
tion: “If vessels have no flag pole, they shall fly the flag on the stern
turret if they have one.” Nicaragua’s counsel said that that limit meant
the regulation was inapplicable to the vast majority of Costa Rican
boats that use the river which are almost all small wooden “pangas” or

simple boats with a small outboard motor and no means to
display flags. Costa Rica also contends that Nicaragua does not allow
its vessels to fly the Costa Rican flag. Nicaragua provides evidence from
a military officer who had responsibility in the San Juan area from
2002 to 2005 that Costa Rican vessels could fly the Costa Rican flag so
long as they flew the Nicaraguan flag as well; in practice, that meant only

that the Costa Rican tourist boats kept a Nicaraguan flag on board
and hoisted it during the times they were on the San Juan. Finally,
as counsel for Costa Rica accepts, there is no evidence of any Costa
Rican vessel being prevented from navigating on the river for breach of
this requirement.

53 132. The Court considers that Nicaragua, which has sovereignty over
the San Juan River, may, in the exercise of its sovereign powers, require

Costa Rican vessels fitted with masts or turrets navigating on the river to
fly its flag. This requirement cannot in any respect be considered an
impediment to the exercise of the freedom of navigation of Costa Rican
vessels under the 1858 Treaty. The Court observes, moreover, that it has
not been presented with any evidence that Costa Rican vessels have been

prevented from navigation on the San Juan River as a result of Nicara-
gua’s flag requirement. Accordingly, Costa Rica’s claim that Nicaragua
has violated its obligation not to impose impediments on the exercise of
the right of free navigation by establishing conditions relating to flags

cannot be upheld.

(g) Conclusion

133. It follows from the above that Nicaragua has exercised its powers
of regulation regarding the matters discussed under subsections (2) (a),
(b), (e) and (f) of Section III above in conformity with the 1858 Treaty;
but that it is not acting in conformity with the obligations under the
1858 Treaty when it implements measures requiring visas and tourist

cards and the payment of charges in respect of vessels, boat operators
and their passengers exercising the freedom of navigation (paragraphs 111
to 124 above).

IV. S UBSISTENCE F ISHING

134. In its final submissions, Costa Rica requests the Court to declare
that Nicaragua has the obligation to permit riparians of the Costa Rican
bank to fish in the river for subsistence purposes. Nicaragua, in addition

to challenging this claim on the merits, has also said that it is inadmissi-
ble. The Court considers that issue first.
135. Costa Rica did not include the claim in respect of fishing in its
Application. It did however include it in its Memorial, explaining that it
was only after the institution of the proceedings that Nicaragua had

begun to prevent the riparians from engaging in fishing. In its Counter-
Memorial, Nicaragua asserted that the 1858 Treaty did not provide for
any fishing rights; it also challenged the existence of any customary right
of subsistence fishing by Costa Rican riparians. It was only in its Rejoin-
der that Nicaragua submitted that the claim was not admissible on the

ground that this particular claim was not included nor was it implicit in
the Application. Nicaragua also asserts that this claim did not arise
directly out of the subject-matter of the Application.
136. Costa Rica in the first round of the oral hearings, as well as dis-

cussing the merits of the claim, addressed its admissibility in some detail.
Itsubmitted,first,thatNicaragua,bypleadingtothemeritsintheCounter-

54Memorial, implicitly accepted the admissibility of the fisheries claim; sec-
ond, that Nicaragua was to be taken as having consented to the jurisdic-

tion of the Court and is debarred from raising the issue; third,
that Costa Rica had reserved the right to supplement and modify its
Application; fourth, that the claim was implicitly included as being
“a step to aggravate and extend the dispute”, a matter included in the
Application; and, fifth, the claim fell within “other applicable rules

of international law” also referred to in the Application. Nicaragua
did not respond to the specific elements of those arguments and, except
for a brief reference back to its written pleadings, confined itself to the
merits, denying that Costa Rica had established the existence of a
customary right.

137. The Court recalls at the outset that admissibility is distinct from
jurisdiction. In the current instance the Court is dealing with the question
of admissibility. It is further recalled that it is for the Court to determine
in the light of the circumstances of each case whether an application is

admissible (Certain Phosphate Lands in Nauru (Nauru v. Australia),
Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1992 , p. 240). Under
Article 40, paragraph 1, of the Statute of the Court, the “subject of
the dispute” must be indicated in the Application; as established in
the Court’s jurisprudence, an additional claim must have been implicit in the

Application (Temple of Preah Vihear (Cambodia v. Thailand), Merits,
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1962 , p. 36) or must arise “directly out of the
question which is the subject-matter of that Application” (Fisheries Juris-
diction (Federal Republic of Germany v. Iceland), Merits, Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 1974, p. 203, para. 72).

With regard to Nicaragua’s argument that Costa Rica’s claim relating
to subsistence fishing is inadmissible on the grounds that Costa Rica
failed to include, even implicitly, the claim in its Application, the Court
notes that the alleged interferences by Nicaragua with the claimed right
of subsistence fishing post-date the filing of the Application. As to Nica-

ragua’s second argument that the claim does not arise directly out of the
subject-matter of the Application, the Court considers that in the circum-
stances of this case, given the relationship between the riparians and the
river and the terms of the Application, there is a sufficiently close connec-
tion between the claim relating to subsistence fishing and the Applica-
tion, in which Costa Rica, in addition to the 1858 Treaty, invoked “other

applicable rules and principles of international law”.

138. In addition, the Court observes that, as appears from the argu-
ments on the merits which the Respondent has presented in the two
rounds of written pleadings and in two rounds of oral hearings, Nicara-

gua has not been disadvantaged by Costa Rica’s failure to give notice in
the Application. Similarly, in terms of its responsibility for the due
administration of justice, the Court does not consider itself to have been

55disadvantaged in its understanding of the issues by the lack of explicit
reference to the claim in respect of fisheries in the Application.

139. Accordingly, Nicaragua’s objection to admissibility cannot be
upheld.
140. The Court now turns to the merits of Costa Rica’s claim regard-
ing subsistence fishing rights. Costa Rica submits that there has long been

a practice allowing the inhabitants of the Costa Rican bank of the
San Juan to fish in that river for subsistence purposes. That practice sur-
vived the Treaty of 1858. It is a customary right according to Costa Rica.
In support, it refers to a Royal Ordinance of 1540 under which the upper
part of the river, from the lake for 15 leagues, belonged to Nicaragua and

the lower part to the Caribbean Sea to Costa Rica; for the purposes of
navigation and fishing, the river and lake were to be common. It empha-
sizes the continuing practice of Costa Rican riparians of fishing for sub-
sistence purposes, which, according to Costa Rica, was not challenged by
Nicaragua until after the present proceedings were instituted. Nicaragua
responds that Costa Rica has failed to prove that the custom is estab-

lished in such a manner that it has become binding on Nicaragua. While
it is true that it has usually tolerated the limited use of the San Juan for
non-commercial fishing by Costa Rican riparians, this tolerance cannot
be seen as a source of a legal right. Moreover, Costa Rica, according to
Nicaragua, has constantly accepted that it has no rights except for those

stemming from the treaties and not from customary law. Finally, at the
hearings, Nicaragua reiterated that it “has absolutely no intention of pre-
venting Costa Rican residents from engaging in subsistence fishing activi-
ties”. Costa Rica, in its final statement on the matter, asked the Court in
the operative part of its Judgment to record and give effect to Nicara-

gua’s stated position that subsistence fishing will not be impeded.

141. The Court recalls that the Parties are agreed that all that is in dis-

pute is fishing by Costa Rican riparians for subsistence purposes. There is
no question of commercial or sport fishing. The Court also notes that the
Parties have not attempted to define subsistence fishing (except by those
exclusions) nor have they asked the Court to provide a definition. Sub-
sistence fishing has without doubt occurred over a very long period.
Leaving aside for the moment the issue of fishing in the river from boats,

a point to which the Court will return, the Parties agree that the practice
of subsistence fishing is long established. They disagree however whether
the practice has become binding on Nicaragua thereby entitling the ripar-
ians as a matter of customary right to engage in subsistence fishing from
the bank. The Court observes that the practice, by its very nature, espe-

cially given the remoteness of the area and the small, thinly spread popu-
lation, is not likely to be documented in any formal way in any official
record. For the Court, the failure of Nicaragua to deny the existence of a

56right arising from the practice which had continued undisturbed and

unquestioned over a very long period, is particularly significant. The
Court accordingly concludes that Costa Rica has a customary right. That
right would be subject to any Nicaraguan regulatory measures relating to
fishing adopted for proper purposes, particularly for the protection of

resources and the environment.

142. The Court does not agree with Nicaragua’s contention that
Costa Rica accepted in the course of these proceedings that it had no

rights except those stemming from the treaties. Any statement that has
been made in that sense related solely to disputed navigation rights under
the 1858 Treaty and other binding instruments; the fisheries claim, from
the outset, was based on custom.

143. The Court does not however consider that the customary right
extends to fishing from vessels on the river. There is only limited and
recent evidence of such a practice. Moreover that evidence is principally
of the rejection of such fishing by the Nicaraguan authorities.

144. Accordingly, the Court concludes that fishing by the inhabitants
of the Costa Rican bank of the San Juan River for subsistence purposes
from that bank is to be respected by Nicaragua as a customary right.

V. T HE CLAIMS M ADE BY THE PARTIES IN
THEIR F INAL SUBMISSIONS

1. The Claims of Costa Rica

145. In its final submissions to the Court at the end of the oral argu-

ment, Costa Rica made a number of distinct claims (see above, para-
graph 14).
146. The principal purpose of its Application is to obtain from the
Court a declaration that Nicaragua has a certain number of obligations

towards Costa Rica, Costa Rican vessels and their passengers, and the
inhabitants of the Costa Rican bank of the San Juan River, and that
Nicaragua has violated these obligations which are listed under points (a)
to (i) of the final submissions.

The Court will uphold elements of this claim in the operative part of
this Judgment to the extent that they correspond to the preceding rea-
soning and will dismiss the others.
147. Costa Rica presents three further submissions: it requests the

Court to order Nicaragua to cease all the breaches of its obligations
which have a continuing character; to find that Nicaragua should make

57reparation to Costa Rica for the injury caused to it by the breaches iden-
tified, in the form of the restoration of the prior situation and compensa-

tion in an amount to be determined at a later stage; and finally to give
assurances and guarantees that it will not repeat its unlawful conduct.

148. As far as the first of these three submissions is concerned, it
should be recalled that when the Court has found that the conduct of a

State is of a wrongful nature, and in the event that this conduct persists
on the date of the judgment, the State concerned is obliged to cease it
immediately. This obligation to cease wrongful conduct derives both
from the general obligation of each State to conduct itself in accordance
with international law and from the specific obligation upon States

parties to disputes before the Court to comply with its judgments, pur-
suant to Article 59 of its Statute.
It is not necessary, and it serves no useful purpose as a general rule, for
the Court to recall the existence of this obligation in the operative para-
graphs of the judgments it renders: the obligation incumbent on the State
concerned to cease such conduct derives by operation of law from the

very fact that the Court establishes the existence of a violation of a con-
tinuing character.
The Court may consider it appropriate, in special circumstances, to
mention that obligation expressly in the operative part of its judgment. It
sees no particular reason to do so in the present case.

149. As for the second submission set forth in paragraph 147 above, it
should be recalled that the cessation of a violation of a continuing chara-
cter and the consequent restoration of the legal situation constitute a
form of reparation for the injured State. With regard to the claim for
compensation, the Court notes that Costa Rica has not submitted any

evidence capable of demonstrating that it has suffered a financially
assessable injury. The Court therefore will not uphold that part of the
submissions.
150. Finally, while the Court may order, as it has done in the past, a
State responsible for internationally wrongful conduct to provide the

injured State with assurances and guarantees of non-repetition, it will only
do so if the circumstances so warrant, which it is for the Court to assess.
As a general rule, there is no reason to suppose that a State whose act
or conduct has been declared wrongful by the Court will repeat that act
or conduct in the future, since its good faith must be presumed (see Fac-
tory at Chorzów, Merits, Judgment No. 13, 1928, P.C.I.J., Series A,

No. 17,p.3; Nuclear Tests (Australia v. France), Judgment, I.C.J.
Reports 1974, p. 272, para. 60; Nuclear Tests (New Zealand v. France),
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1974 , p. 477, para. 63; and Military and Para-
military Activities in and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v. United States
of America), Jurisdiction and Admissibility, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports

1984, p. 437, para. 101). There is thus no reason, except in special cir-
cumstances of which the Court is not aware in the present case, to order
a measure such as that requested by Costa Rica.

58 2. The Claims of Nicaragua

151. In its final submissions, Nicaragua also submitted several claims

to the Court.
152. First of all, it requests the Court to dismiss all of Costa Rica’s
claims, either because the Respondent has not breached the obligations
incumbent upon it, or because the obligations allegedly breached do not
derive from any rule of international law.

The Court will uphold this claim to the extent that it corresponds to
the reasoning set out in the present Judgment in respect of Costa Rica’s
claims.
153. Nicaragua adds a further submission. It requests the Court “to
make a formal declaration on the issues raised by Nicaragua in Section II

of Chapter VII of her Counter-Memorial, [and] in Section I, Chapter VI
of her Rejoinder”.
The declaration requested is the following:

“(i) Costa Rica is obliged to comply with the regulations for naviga-
tion (and landing) in the San Juan imposed by Nicaraguan
authorities in particular related to matters of health and secu-
rity;

(ii) Costa Rica has to pay for any special services provided by
Nicaragua in the use of the San Juan either for navigation or
landing on the Nicaraguan banks;

(iii) Costa Rica has to comply with all reasonable charges for mod-

ern improvements in the navigation of the river with respect to
its situation in 1858;

(iv) revenue service boats may only be used during and with special
reference to actual transit of the merchandise authorized by
Treaty;

(v) Nicaragua has the right to dredge the San Juan in order to
return the flow of water to that obtaining in 1858 even if this
affects the flow of water to other present day recipients of this
flow such as the Colorado River.”

The Court notes in this respect that Nicaragua indicated in the course
of the hearings that it would be satisfied to see such a “declaration”
appear in any part of the Judgment, either in the operative paragraph or

simply in the reasoning. It is therefore doubtful whether these can now be
viewed as formal submissions. The Court notes however that, in stating
his final submissions, the Agent of Nicaragua reiterated the Respondent’s
request on this point.
154. In any case, the Court notes that the first two and the fourth

points on which Nicaragua has requested the “declaration” in reality
concern questions raised by Costa Rica and discussed by the Parties
throughout the proceedings. The reasoning of the present Judgment is

59therefore sufficient to respond to Nicaragua’s wish that Costa Rica’s
obligations towards it should be stated by the Court.

155. As for the fifth point to be addressed in the requested “declara-
tion”, on the assumption that it is in the nature of a counter-claim,
Costa Rica has cast doubt on its admissibility, arguing that it is not
“directly connected” with the subject-matter of Costa Rica’s claim, within

the meaning of Article 80 of the Rules of Court. The same issue could
arise in respect of the third point.
In any event it suffices for the Court to observe that the two questions
thus raised were settled in the decision made in the Cleveland Award. It
was determined in paragraphs 4 to 6 of the third clause of the Award that

Costa Rica is not bound to share in the expenses necessary to improve
navigation on the San Juan River and that Nicaragua may execute such
works of improvement as it deems suitable, provided that such works do
not seriously impair navigation on tributaries of the San Juan belonging

to Costa Rica.
As Nicaragua has offered no explanation why the Award does not suf-
fice to make clear the Parties’ rights and obligations in respect of these
matters, its claim in this regard must be rejected.

* * *

156. For these reasons,

T HE C OURT ,

(1) As regards Costa Rica’s navigational rights on the San Juan River
under the 1858 Treaty, in that part where navigation is common,

(a) Unanimously,

Finds that Costa Rica has the right of free navigation on the San Juan
River for purposes of commerce;

(b) Unanimously,

Finds that the right of navigation for purposes of commerce enjoyed by
Costa Rica includes the transport of passengers;

(c) Unanimously,

Finds that the right of navigation for purposes of commerce enjoyed by
Costa Rica includes the transport of tourists;

(d) By nine votes to five,
Finds that persons travelling on the San Juan River on board

Costa Rican vessels exercising Costa Rica’s right of free navigation are
not required to obtain Nicaraguan visas;
IN FAVOUR : President Owada; Judges Shi, Buergenthal, Abraham, Keith,
Bennouna, Cançado Trindade, Yusuf, Greenwood;

60 AGAINST: Judges Koroma, Al-Khasawneh, Sepúlveda-Amor, Skotnikov;
Judge ad hoc Guillaume;

(e) Unanimously,

Finds that persons travelling on the San Juan River on board
Costa Rican vessels exercising Costa Rica’s right of free navigation are
not required to purchase Nicaraguan tourist cards;

(f) By thirteen votes to one,

Finds that the inhabitants of the Costa Rican bank of the San Juan
River have the right to navigate on the river between the riparian com-
munities for the purposes of the essential needs of everyday life which

require expeditious transportation;
IN FAVOUR : President Owada; Judges Shi, Koroma, Al-Khasawneh, Buer-
genthal, Abraham, Keith, Sepúlveda-Amor, Bennouna, Skotnikov,
Cançado Trindade, Yusuf, Greenwood;

AGAINST: Judge ad hoc Guillaume;
(g) By twelve votes to two,

Finds that Costa Rica has the right of navigation on the San Juan
River with official vessels used solely, in specific situations, to provide

essential services for the inhabitants of the riparian areas where expedi-
tious transportation is a condition for meeting the inhabitants’ require-
ments;

IN FAVOUR : President Owada; Judges Shi, Koroma, Al-Khasawneh,
Buergenthal, Abraham, Keith, Sepúlveda-Amor, Bennouna, Cançado
Trindade, Yusuf, Greenwood;
AGAINST: Judge Skotnikov; Judge ad hoc Guillaume;

(h) Unanimously,

Finds that Costa Rica does not have the right of navigation on the San
Juan River with vessels carrying out police functions;

(i) Unanimously,
Finds that Costa Rica does not have the right of navigation on the San

Juan River for the purposes of the exchange of personnel of the police
border posts along the right bank of the river and of the re-supply of
these posts, with official equipment, including service arms and ammuni-
tion;

(2) As regards Nicaragua’s right to regulate navigation on the San
Juan River, in that part where navigation is common,

(a) Unanimously,

Finds that Nicaragua has the right to require Costa Rican vessels and
their passengers to stop at the first and last Nicaraguan post on their
route along the San Juan River;

(b) Unanimously,

61 Finds that Nicaragua has the right to require persons travelling on the
San Juan River to carry a passport or an identity document;

(c) Unanimously,

Finds that Nicaragua has the right to issue departure clearance certifi-
cates to Costa Rican vessels exercising Costa Rica’s right of free naviga-

tion but does not have the right to request the payment of a charge for
the issuance of such certificates;

(d) Unanimously,
Finds that Nicaragua has the right to impose timetables for navigation

on vessels navigating on the San Juan River;
(e) Unanimously,

Finds that Nicaragua has the right to require Costa Rican vessels fitted
with masts or turrets to display the Nicaraguan flag;

(3) As regards subsistence fishing,

By thirteen votes to one,
Finds that fishing by the inhabitants of the Costa Rican bank of the

San Juan River for subsistence purposes from that bank is to be respected
by Nicaragua as a customary right;
IN FAVOUR : President Owada; Judges Shi, Koroma, Al-Khasawneh, Buer-
genthal, Abraham, Keith, Bennouna, Skotnikov, Cançado Trindade,

Yusuf, Greenwood; Judge ad hoc Guillaume;
AGAINST: Judge Sepúlveda-Amor;

(4) As regards Nicaragua’s compliance with its international obliga-
tions under the 1858 Treaty,
(a) By nine votes to five,

Finds that Nicaragua is not acting in accordance with its obligations
under the 1858 Treaty when it requires persons travelling on the San

Juan River on board Costa Rican vessels exercising Costa Rica’s right of
free navigation to obtain Nicaraguan visas;

IN FAVOUR : President Owada; Judges Shi, Buergenthal, Abraham, Keith,
Bennouna, Cançado Trindade, Yusuf, Greenwood;
AGAINST: Judges Koroma, Al-Khasawneh, Sepúlveda-Amor, Skotnikov;
Judge ad hoc Guillaume;

(b) Unanimously,

Finds that Nicaragua is not acting in accordance with its obligations
under the 1858 Treaty when it requires persons travelling on the San
Juan River on board Costa Rican vessels exercising Costa Rica’s right of
free navigation to purchase Nicaraguan tourist cards;

62(c) Unanimously,

Finds that Nicaragua is not acting in accordance with its obligations
under the 1858 Treaty when it requires the operators of vessels exercising

Costa Rica’s right of free navigation to pay charges for departure clear-
ance certificates;

(5) Unanimously,

Rejects all other submissions presented by Costa Rica and Nicaragua.

Done in English and in French, the English text being authoritative, at

the Peace Palace, The Hague, this thirteenth day of July, two thousand
and nine, in three copies, one of which will be placed in the archives of
the Court and the others transmitted to the Government of the Republic
of Costa Rica and the Government of the Republic of Nicaragua, respec-

tively.

(Signed) President. (Signed) Hisashi O WADA ,

President.

(Signed) Philippe C OUVREUR ,
Registrar.

Judges S EPÚLVEDA -A MOR and S KOTNIKOV append separate opinions to
the Judgment of the Court; Judge ad hoc G UILLAUME appends a declara-
tion to the Judgment of the Court.

(Initialled) H.O.
(Initialled) Ph.C.

63

Bilingual Content

INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE

REPORTS OF JUDGMENTS,
ADVISORY OPINIONS AND ORDERS

DISPUTE REGARDING NAVIGATIONAL
AND RELATED RIGHTS

(COSTA RICA v. NICARAGUA)

JUDGMENT OF 13 JULY 2009

2009

COUR INTERNATIONALE DE JUSTICE

RECUEIL DES A|TS,
AVIS CONSULTATIFS ET ORDONNANCES

DIFFuREND RELATIF A v DES DROITS
DE NAVIGATION ET DES DROITS CONNEXES

(COSTA RICA c. NICARAGUA)

ARR|T DU 13 JUILLET 2009 Official citation:
Dispute regarding Navigational and Related Rights
(Costa Rica v. Nicaragua), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2009 ,p.213

Mode officiel de citation:
Différend relatif à des droits de navigation et des droits connexes
(Costa Rica c. Nicaragua), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2009 ,p.213

Sales number
ISSN 0074-4441 N de vente: 959
ISBN 978-92-1-071068-8 13 JULY 2009

JUDGMENT

DISPUTE REGARDING NAVIGATIONAL

AND RELATED RIGHTS
(COSTA RICA v. NICARAGUA)

DIFFEuREND RELATIF Av DES DROITS
DE NAVIGATION ET DES DROITS CONNEXES

(COSTA RICA c. NICARAGUA)

13 JUILLET 2009

ARRÊT TABLE OF CONTENTS

Paragraphs

CHRONOLOGY OF THE PROCEDURE 1-14

I. GEOGRAPHICAL AND H ISTORICALC ONTEXT AND O RIGIN OF THE
D ISPUTE 15-29

II.COSTA RICA’SR IGHT OFFREE NAVIGATION ON THESAN JUAN R IVER 30-84

1. The legal basis of the right of free navigation 32-41
2. The extent of the right of free navigation attributed to Costa
Rica 42-84

(a) The meaning and scope of the expression“libre navegación
. . . con objetos de comercio” 43-71
(i) Preliminary observations 47-49

(ii) The meaning of the phrase “con objetos” 50-56
(iii) The meaning of the word “commerce” 57-71
(b) The activities covered by the right of free navigation
belonging to Costa Rica 72-84

(i) Private navigation 73-79
(ii) “Official vessels” 80-84

III. NICARAGUAS POWER OF REGULATION OF NAVIGATION 85-133
1. General observations 86-101

(a) Characteristics 87-90
(b) Notification 91-97
(c) The factual context 98-101

2. The legality of the specific Nicaraguan measures challenged
by Costa Rica 102-133

(a) Requirement to stop and identification 103-107
(b) Departure clearance certificates 108-110
(c) Visas and tourist cards 111-119
(d) Charges 120-124
(e) Timetabling 125-129
(f) Flags 130-132

(g) Conclusion 133
IV. SUBSISTENCEFISHING 134-144

V. THE CLAIMS M ADE BY THEPARTIES IN THEIFINAL SUBMISSIONS 145-155

1. The claims of Costa Rica 145-150
2. The claims of Nicaragua 151-155

O PERATIVECLAUSE 156

4 TABLE DES MATIÈRES

Paragraphes

Q UALITÉS 1-14

I. CONTEXTE GÉOGRAPHIQUE ET HISTORIQUE ET GENÈSE DU DIFFÉREND 15-29

II. DU DROIT DE LIBRE NAVIGATION DUCOSTA R ICA SUR LE FLEUVESAN
JUAN 30-84
1. Le fondement juridique du droit de libre navigation 32-41
2. L’étendue du droit de libre navigation reconnu au Costa Rica 42-84

a) Le sens et la portée de l’expression «libre navegación ...
con objetos de comercio» 43-71

i) Observations liminaires 47-49
ii) Le sens des mots «con objetos» 50-56
iii) Le sens du mot «commerce» 57-71
b) Les activités couvertes par le droit de libre navigation pos-
sédé par le Costa Rica 72-84

i) La navigation privée 73-79
ii) Les «bateaux officiels» 80-84

III. LE POUVOIR DUN ICARAGUA DE RÉGLEMENTER LA NAVIGATION 85-133
1. Observations générales 86-101

a) Caractéristiques 87-90
b) Notification 91-97
c) Le contexte factuel 98-101
2. La licéité des mesures nicaraguayennes spécifiques contestées

par le Costa Rica 102-133
a) Obligation de faire halte et identification 103-107
b) Certificats d’appareillage 108-110
c) Visas et cartes de touriste 111-119
d) Acquittement de droits 120-124

e) Horaires de navigation 125-129
f) Pavillons 130-132
g) Conclusion 133

IV. PÊCHE DE SUBSISTANCE 134-144
V. L ES DEMANDES PRÉSENTÉES PAR LEPARTIES DANS LEURS CONCLUSIONS

FINALES 145-155
1. Les demandes du Costa Rica 145-150
2. Les demandes du Nicaragua 151-155

D ISPOSITIF 156

4 INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE

2009 YEAR 2009
13 July
General List
No. 133 13 July 2009

DISPUTE REGARDING NAVIGATIONAL

AND RELATED RIGHTS

(COSTA RICA v. NICARAGUA)

Geographical and historical context and origin of the dispute.
The San Juan River — Border between Costa Rica and Nicaragua — History
of Costa Rica and Nicaragua after independence — War on the filibusters —
1858 Treaty of Limits — 1888 Cleveland Award — Demarcation of the bound-
ary — 1916 decision of the Central American Court of Justice — 1956
Fournier-Sevilla Agreement — Incidents relating to navigation on the San

Juan — 1995 Cuadra-Castro Communiqué — Prohibition by Nicaragua of
navigation of Costa Rican police vessels — 1998 Cuadra-Lizano Communi-
qué — 2002 Tovar-Caldera Agreement — Proceedings instituted before the
Court by Costa Rica — No objections to the jurisdiction of the Court raised by
Nicaragua.

*

Costa Rica’s right of free navigation on the San Juan River.
Legal basis of the right of free navigation — No need for the Court to decide
whether the San Juan is an “international river” — The 1858 Treaty is suffi-
cient to settle the question of the extent of Costa Rica’s right of free naviga-
tion — Costa Rica’s right of free navigation mainly based on Article VI of the
1858 Treaty — Relevance of the Cleveland Award, the 1916 decision of the
Central American Court of Justice and the Fournier-Sevilla Agreement.
Disagreement between the Parties as to the types of navigation covered by the
1858 Treaty — Interpretation of the expression “con objetos de comercio” in
Article VI of the Treaty — Treaty provisions establishing limitations on sov-
ereignty — General rules of interpretation applicable — No intention by
authors of 1858 Treaty to establish any hierarchy as between Nicaragua’s sov-
ereignty over the San Juan and Costa Rica’s right of free navigation — None of
the points under examination in the case was settled by the Cleveland Award of
1888 or by the decision of the Central American Court of Justice of 1916.

Meaning of the phrase “con objetos” — Necessity to be able to give the sen-

5 COUR INTERNATIONALE DE JUSTICE

ANNÉE 2009 2009
13 juillet
Rôlo général
13 juillet 2009 n 133

DIFFE uREND RELATIF A v DES DROITS

DE NAVIGATION ET DES DROITS CONNEXES

(COSTA RICA c. NICARAGUA)

Contexte géographique et historique et genèse du différend.
Le fleuve San Juan — Frontière entre le Costa Rica et le Nicaragua — His-
toire du Costa Rica et du Nicaragua après l’indépendance — Guerre contre les
flibustiers — Traité de limites de 1858 — Sentence Cleveland de 1888 — Démar-
cation de la frontière — Décision de la Cour de justice centraméricaine
de 1916 — Accord Fournier-Sevilla de 1956 — Incidents relatifs à la navigation

sur le San Juan — Communiqué Cuadra-Castro de 1995 — Interdiction par le
Nicaragua de la navigation des bateaux de police costa-riciens — Communiqué
Cuadra-Lizano de 1998 — Accord Tovar-Caldera de 2002 — Instance intro-
duite devant la Cour par le Costa Rica — Absence d’exception du Nicaragua à
la compétence de la Cour.

*

Droit de libre navigation du Costa Rica sur le fleuve San Juan.
Fondement juridique du droit de libre navigation — Nul besoin pour la Cour
de déterminer si le San Juan est un «fleuve international» — Le traité de 1858
suffit à trancher la question de l’étendue du droit de libre navigation du Costa
Rica — Droit de libre navigation du Costa Rica principalement fondé sur l’ar-
ticle VI du traité de 1858 — Pertinence de la sentence Cleveland, de la décision
de la Cour de justice centraméricaine de 1916 et de l’accord Fournier-Sevilla.
Désaccord entre les Parties quant aux types de navigation visés par le traité
de 1858 — Interprétation de l’expression «con objetos de comercio» figurant à
l’article VI du traité — Dispositions conventionnelles limitant la souveraineté
— Règles générales d’interprétation applicables — Auteurs du traité de 1858
n’ayant pas eu l’intention d’établir une hiérarchie entre la souveraineté du Nica-
ragua sur le San Juan et le droit de libre navigation du Costa Rica — Aucun des
points examinés en l’affaire n’a été tranché par la sentence Cleveland de 1888
ou par la décision de la Cour de justice centraméricaine de 1916.

Sens des mots «con objetos» — Nécessité de pouvoir donner à la phrase un

5tence coherent meaning — Additional arguments — Meaning of the word
“objetos” in Article VIII of the 1858 Treaty — 1857 “Cañas-Martinez” Peace
Treaty — English translations of the 1858 Treaty submitted by each Party to
President Cleveland — The expression “con objetos de comercio” means “for
the purposes of commerce”.
Meaning of the word “commerce” — Evolving meaning of generic terms in a

treaty — Present meaning of the notion of “commerce” must be accepted for
purposes of applying the Treaty — The right of free navigation applies to the
transport of persons as well as the transport of goods — Navigation by vessels
used in the performance of governmental activities or to provide public services
which are not commercial in nature cannot be regarded as falling within the
“purposes of commerce” under Article VI.
Types of navigation covered by the right of free navigation “for the purposes
of commerce” pursuant to Article VI of the 1858 Treaty — Navigation of ves-
sels belonging to Costa Rican riparians in order to meet the basic requirements
of everyday life does not fall within the scope of Article VI of the Treaty —
Navigation covered by other provisions of the Treaty — Population inhabiting
the south bank of the San Juan Costa Rican commonly used the river for travel
at the time of the conclusion of the Treaty — Presumption that the Parties

intended to preserve the right of riparians to use the river to meet their essential
requirements — Right to be inferred from the provisions of the Treaty as a
whole.
No special régime for “official vessels” established in Article VI of the 1858
Treaty — “Official vessels” navigating for the “purposes of commerce” —
“Official vessels” used for public order activities — Question of revenue service
vessels settled by the 1888 Cleveland Award — Navigation of official Costa
Rican vessels used for public order activities and public services lies outside the
scope of Article VI of the 1858 Treaty — Right of navigation of certain Costa
Rican official vessels for the purpose of providing services to population is
inferred from the provisions of the Treaty as a whole.

*

Nicaragua’s power of regulation of navigation on the San Juan River.
Characteristics of regulations — Environmental protection as a legitimate
purpose of a regulation — Lack of any specific provision in the Treaty relating
to notification of regulatory measures — Factors imposing an obligation of noti-
fication — 1956 Agreement — Particular situation of a river in which two
States have rights — Notification implicit in the nature of regulation — Obliga-
tion of Nicaragua to notify Costa Rica of regulations — Costa Rica’s obligation
to establish unreasonableness and allegedly disproportionate impact of reg-
ulations.

Requirement to stop and identification — Right of Nicaragua to know the

identity of persons entering and leaving its territory — Nicaraguan requirement
that vessels stop on entering and leaving the San Juan is lawful — No legal
justification for the requirement to stop at any intermediate point — Failure of
Costa Rica to show that the regulation is unreasonable.

Departure clearance certificates — Purposes invoked by Nicaragua are legiti-
mate — Requirement for departure clearance certificates does not appear to

6sens cohérent — Autres arguments — Sens du mot «objetos» à l’article VIII
du traité de 1858 — Traité de paix Cañas-Martinez de 1857 — Traduc-
tions anglaises du traité de 1858 communiquées par les Parties au président
Cleveland — L’expression «con objetos de comercio» signifie «à des fins de
commerce».
Sens du mot «commerce» — Sens évolutif des termes de nature générique

d’un traité — Le sens actuel de la notion de «commerce» doit être retenu aux
fins de l’application du traité — Le droit de libre navigation s’applique au trans-
port de personnes ainsi qu’au transport de marchandises — La navigation des
bateaux utilisés à des fins d’activités de puissance publique ou de service public
dépourvu de nature commerciale ne peut être considérée comme répondant à des
«fins de commerce» au sens de l’article VI.
Types de navigation couverts par le droit de libre navigation «à des fins de
commerce» au titre de l’article VI du traité de 1858 — La navigation des
bateaux appartenant aux riverains costa-riciens destinée à subvenir aux néces-
sités de la vie courante n’entre pas dans le champ de l’article VI du traité — Navi-
gation régie par d’autres dispositions du traité — La population habitant sur la
rive droite du San Juan empruntait ordinairement la voie fluviale pour ses dépla-
cements à l’époque de la conclusion du traité — Présomption que les Parties ont

entendu maintenir le droit des riverains d’utiliser le fleuve pour subvenir à leurs
besoins essentiels — Droit devant être déduit de l’ensemble des dispositions du
traité.
Aucun régime particulier pour les «bateaux officiels» institué par l’article VI
du traité de 1858 — «Bateaux officiels» naviguant à des «fins de com-
merce» — «Bateaux officiels» utilisés pour des activités de puissance publique
— Question des bateaux du service des douanes tranchée par la sentence
Cleveland de 1888 — La navigation des bateaux officiels costa-riciens utilisés
pour des activités de puissance publique et de service public n’entre pas dans le
champ de l’article VI du traité de 1858 — Le droit de navigation de certains
bateaux officiels costa-riciens aux fins de fournir des services à la population se
déduit de l’ensemble des dispositions du traité.

*

Pouvoir du Nicaragua de réglementer la navigation sur le fleuve San Juan.
Caractéristiques des mesures de réglementation — Protection de l’environne-
ment en tant que but légitime d’une mesure de réglementation — Absence de
disposition particulière dans le traité relativement à la notification des mesures
de réglementation — Eléments imposant une obligation de notification — Accord
de 1956 — Cas particulier d’un cours d’eau sur lequel deux Etats détiennent des
droits — Notification découlant implicitement de la nature de la réglementa-
tion — Obligation incombant au Nicaragua de notifier au Costa Rica ses me-
sures de réglementation — Obligation incombant au Costa Rica d’établir que
les mesures de réglementation ont un effet déraisonnable et disproportionné.
Obligation de faire halte et identification — Droit du Nicaragua de connaître

l’identité des personnes entrant sur son territoire et en sortant — L’obligation
de faire halte imposée par le Nicaragua aux bateaux lorsqu’ils entrent sur le
San Juan et le quittent est licite — Absence de justification juridique à l’obliga-
tion de faire halte en un quelconque point intermédiaire — Costa Rica n’ayant
pas démontré que la mesure de réglementation était déraisonnable.
Certificats d’appareillage — Les buts invoqués par le Nicaragua sont légi-
times — Obligation d’obtenir des certificats d’appareillage ne semblant pas

6have imposed any significant impediment to freedom of navigation — No sug-
gestion from Costa Rica that it would be in a position to issue departure clear-
ance certificates — No instance of navigation being impeded by an arbitrary
refusal of a certificate.
Visas and tourist cards — Distinction to be made between requiring visas and
requiring tourist cards — The power of a State to issue or refuse visas entails

discretion — Titleholder and beneficiaries of the right of free navigation —
Nicaragua may not impose a visa requirement on persons who benefit from
Costa Rica’s right of free navigation — Imposition of a visa requirement con-
stitutes a breach of the Treaty right — Legal situation remains unaffected even
if no impediment to the freedom of navigation resulting from visa require-
ment — Tourist cards are not intended to facilitate control over entry into the
San Juan River — No legitimate purpose — Purchase of tourist cards is incon-
sistent with the freedom of navigation.

Charges — No service provided by issuance of departure clearance certifi-
cates — Requirement to pay is unlawful.
Timetabling — Prohibition of night time navigation — Measure is not
impediment to the freedom of navigation — Purpose pursued is legitimate —

Unreasonableness not established.
Flags — Nicaragua may require certain Costa Rican vessels to fly its flag —
No impediment to the exercise of the freedom of navigation — No evidence that
Costa Rican vessels have been prevented from navigation on the San Juan River
as a result of this requirement.

*

Subsistence fishing by riparians of the Costa Rican bank.

Question of admissibility raised by Nicaragua — The Court’s power of appre-
ciation — The alleged interferences by Nicaragua with the claimed right of sub-
sistence fishing post-date the filing of the Application — A sufficiently close

connection exists between the claim relating to subsistence fishing and the
Application — Nicaragua has not been disadvantaged by Costa Rica’s failure to
give notice of the claim in the Application — Nor has the Court been disadvan-
taged in its understanding of the issues — Objection to admissibility cannot be
upheld.
Merits of the claim — Dispute solely concerns subsistence fishing — Practice
long established — Failure of Nicaragua to deny existence of a right arising
from such a practice — Costa Rica has a customary right — Nicaragua may
take regulatory measures adopted for proper purposes — Customary right does
not extend to fishing from vessels on the river.

*

Claims made by the Parties in their final submissions.
The claims of Costa Rica upheld or dismissed in the operative part of the
Judgment — A finding of wrongfulness regarding the conduct of a State entails
an obligation to cease that conduct — Cessation of a violation of a continuing
character and the consequent restoration of the legal situation constitute a form
of reparation — No evidence that Costa Rica has suffered a financially assess-

7avoir constitué une entrave substantielle à la liberté de navigation — Costa Rica
ne laissant pas entendre qu’il serait en mesure de délivrer des certificats d’appa-
reillage — Aucun cas où un bateau aurait été empêché de naviguer pour s’être
vu refuser arbitrairement un certificat.
Visas et cartes de touriste — Distinction devant être établie entre l’obligation
d’obtenir un visa et l’obligation d’obtenir une carte de touriste — Le pouvoir

d’un Etat de délivrer ou de refuser des visas est discrétionnaire — Titulaire et
bénéficiaires du droit de libre navigation — Le Nicaragua ne saurait exiger des
personnes qui bénéficient du droit de libre navigation du Costa Rica qu’elles
obtiennent un visa — Imposition d’un visa constituant une violation du droit
découlant du traité — Situation juridique demeurant inchangée même si l’obli-
gation d’obtenir un visa n’entrave pas la liberté de navigation — Les cartes de
touriste n’ont pas pour objet de faciliter le contrôle des entrées sur le San
Juan — Absence de but légitime — L’achat de cartes de touriste est contraire à
la liberté de navigation.
Acquittement de droits — Aucun service rendu en contrepartie de la déli-
vrance de certificats d’appareillage — Paiement exigé illicite.
Horaires de navigation — Interdiction de la navigation de nuit — Mesures
n’entravant pas la liberté de navigation — But poursuivi légitime — Caractère

déraisonnable non établi.
Pavillons — Le Nicaragua peut exiger de certains bateaux costa-riciens qu’ils
arborent son pavillon — Absence d’entrave à l’exercice de la liberté de naviga-
tion — Pas de preuve que des bateaux costa-riciens aient été empêchés de navi-
guer sur le San Juan du fait de cette exigence.

*

Pêche à des fins de subsistance pratiquée par les habitants de la rive costa-
ricienne.
Question de recevabilité soulevée par le Nicaragua — Pouvoir d’appréciation
de la Cour — Les prétendues entraves nicaraguayennes au droit allégué de pra-
tiquer la pêche à des fins de subsistance sont postérieures au dépôt de la

requête — Il existe un lien suffisamment étroit entre la demande relative à la
pêche à des fins de subsistance et la requête — Le Nicaragua n’a pas été désa-
vantagé par le fait que le Costa Rica n’a pas énoncé cette demande dans la
requête — La Cour ne l’a pas été non plus dans sa compréhension des questions
en cause — Exception d’irrecevabilité ne pouvant être accueillie.
Fond de la demande — Différend portant uniquement sur la pêche à des fins
de subsistance — Pratique établie de longue date — Nicaragua n’ayant pas nié
l’existence d’un droit découlant d’une telle pratique — Le Costa Rica jouit d’un
droit coutumier — Le Nicaragua peut prendre des mesures de réglementation à
des fins légitimes — Droit coutumier ne s’étendant pas à la pêche pratiquée à
bord de bateaux sur le fleuve.

*

Demandes présentées par les Parties dans leurs conclusions finales.
Demandes costa-riciennes accueillies ou rejetées dans le dispositif de
l’arrêt — Le constat d’illicéité du comportement d’un Etat entraîne l’obligation
de faire cesser ce comportement — La cessation d’une violation présentant un
caractère continu et le rétablissement de la situation juridique qui en découle
constituent une forme de réparation — Absence de preuve que le Costa Rica

7able injury — Assurances and guarantees of non-repetition ordered only if the
circumstances so warrant — No reason to suppose that a State will repeat act

or conduct declared wrongful.

Nicaragua’s claim to be upheld to the extent that it corresponds to the rea-
soning in respect of Costa Rica’s claims — Nicaragua’s request for a declara-
tion as to certain rights and obligations of the Parties not upheld.

JUDGMENT

Present: President O WADA ; Judges S HI,K OROMA ,A L-KHASAWNEH ,B UER -

GENTHAL ,A BRAHAM ,K EITH,SEPÚLVEDA -AMOR ,B ENNOUNA ,SKOTNIKOV ,
C ANÇADO TRINDADE ,Y USUF,G REENWOOD ; Judge ad hoc GUILLAUME ;
Registrar COUVREUR .

In the case concerning the dispute regarding navigational and related rights,

between

the Republic of Costa Rica,

represented by
H.E. Mr. Edgar Ugalde-Alvarez, Ambassador, Vice-Minister of Foreign
Affairs of Costa Rica,

as Agent;
Mr. James Crawford, S.C., F.B.A., Whewell Professor of International Law,
University of Cambridge, member of the Institut de droit international,

Mr. Lucius Caflisch, Emeritus Professor of International Law, Graduate
Institute of International and Development Studies, Geneva, member of
the International Law Commission, member of the Institut de droit inter-
national,
Mr. Marcelo G. Kohen, Professor of International Law, Graduate Institute

of International and Development Studies, associate member of the Insti-
tut de droit international,
Mr. Sergio Ugalde, Senior Adviser to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of
Costa Rica, member of the Permanent Court of Arbitration,
Mr. Arnoldo Brenes, Senior Adviser to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of
Costa Rica,

Ms Kate Parlett, Special Adviser to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Costa
Rica, Solicitor (Australia), PhD candidate, University of Cambridge (Jesus
College),
as Counsel and Advocates;

H.E. Mr. Francisco José Aguilar-de Beauvilliers Urbina, Ambassador of
Costa Rica to the Kingdom of the Netherlands,
Mr. Ricardo Otarola, Chief of Staff to the Vice-Minister of Foreign Affairs
of Costa Rica,

8aurait subi un préjudice susceptible d’évaluation financière — Des assurances et
garanties de non-répétition ne peuvent être exigées que lorsqu’elles sont justi-

fiées par les circonstances — Nulle raison de supposer qu’un Etat reproduira un
acte ou un comportement déclaré illicite.
Demande du Nicaragua accueillie dans la mesure correspondant aux motifs
relatifs aux demandes du Costa Rica — Demande par le Nicaragua d’une décla-
ration quant à certains droits et obligations des Parties non accueillie.

ARRÊT

Présents: M. O WADA , président ; MM. S HI,K OROMA ,A L-K HASAWNEH ,

B UERGENTHAL ,A BRAHAM ,K EITH,S EPÚLVEDA -AMOR ,B ENNOUNA ,
SKOTNIKOV ,C ANÇADO T RINDADE,Y USUF ,G REENWOOD , juges;
M. G UILLAUME , juge ad hoc; M. OUVREUR , greffier.

En l’affaire du différend relatif à des droits de navigation et des droits
connexes,

entre

la République du Costa Rica,

représentée par
S. Exc. M. Edgar Ugalde-Alvarez, ambassadeur, vice-ministre des affaires
étrangères du Costa Rica,

comme agent;
M. James Crawford, S.C., F.B.A., professeur de droit international à l’Uni-
versité de Cambridge, titulaire de la chaire Whewell, membre de l’Institut

de droit international,
M. Lucius Caflisch, professeur émérite de droit international de l’Institut de
hautes études internationales et du développement de Genève, membre de
la Commission du droit international, membre de l’Institut de droit inter-
national,
M. Marcelo G. Kohen, professeur de droit international à l’Institut de hautes

études internationales et du développement de Genève, membre associé de
l’Institut de droit international,
M. Sergio Ugalde, conseiller principal auprès du ministère des affaires étran-
gères du Costa Rica, membre de la Cour permanente d’arbitrage,
M. Arnoldo Brenes, conseiller principal auprès du ministère des affaires
étrangères du Costa Rica,
me
M Kate Parlett, conseiller spécial auprès du ministère des affaires étran-
gères du Costa Rica, Solicitor (Australie), doctorante à l’Université de
Cambridge (Jesus College),
comme conseils et avocats;

S. Exc. M. Francisco José Aguilar-de Beauvilliers Urbina, ambassadeur du
Costa Rica auprès du Royaume des Pays-Bas,
M. Ricardo Otarola, chef d’état-major auprès du vice-ministre des affaires
étrangères du Costa Rica,

8 Mr. Sergio Vinocour, Minister and Consul General of Costa Rica in the
French Republic,
Mr. Norman Lizano, Consul General of Costa Rica in the Kingdom of the
Netherlands,
Mr. Carlos Garbanzo, Counsellor at the Permanent Mission of Costa Rica
to the United Nations Office at Geneva,

Mr. Fouad Zarbiev, PhD candidate, Graduate Institute of International and
Development Studies, Geneva,
Mr. Leonardo Salazar, National Geographic Institute of Costa Rica,
as Advisers;

Mr. Allan Solis, Third Secretary at the Embassy of Costa Rica in the King-
dom of the Netherlands,
as Assistant Adviser,

and

the Republic of Nicaragua,
represented by
H.E. Mr. Carlos José Argüello Gómez, Ambassador of Nicaragua to the
Kingdom of the Netherlands,

as Agent and Counsel;
Mr. Ian Brownlie, C.B.E., Q.C., F.B.A., member of the English Bar, former
Chairman of the International Law Commission, Emeritus Chichele Pro-
fessor of Public International Law, University of Oxford, member of the
Institut de Droit international, Distinguished Fellow, All Souls College,

Oxford,
Mr. Stephen C. McCaffrey, Professor of International Law at the University
of the Pacific, McGeorge School of Law, Sacramento, United States of
America, former member of the International Law Commission,
Mr. Alain Pellet, Professor at the University of Paris Ouest, Nanterre-
La Défense, member and former Chairman of the International Law Com-
mission, associate member of the Institut de droit international,
Mr. Paul Reichler, Attorney at Law, Foley Hoag LLP, Washington D.C.,
member of the Bar of the United States Supreme Court, member of the
Bar of the District of Columbia,
Mr. Antonio Remiro Brotóns, Professor of International Law, Universidad
Autónoma, Madrid, associate member of the Institut de droit interna-
tional,

as Counsel and Advocates;
Ms Irene Blázquez Navarro, Doctor of Public International Law, Universi-
dad Autónoma, Madrid,
Ms Clara E. Brillenbourg, Foley Hoag LLP, member of the Bars of the Dis-
trict of Columbia and New York,

Mr. Lawrence H. Martin, Attorney at Law, Foley Hoag LLP, Washington
D.C., member of the Bar of the United States Supreme Court, member of
the Massachusetts Bar, member of the Bar of the District of Columbia,
Mr. Walner Molina Pérez, Juridical Adviser, Ministry of Foreign Affairs of
Nicaragua,
Mr. Daniel Müller, Researcher at the Centre de droit international de Nan-
terre (CEDIN), University of Paris Ouest, Nanterre-La Défense,

9 M. Sergio Vinocour, ministre et consul général du Costa Rica en République
française,
M. Norman Lizano, consul général du Costa Rica au Royaume des Pays-
Bas,
M. Carlos Garbanzo, conseiller à la mission permanente du Costa Rica

auprès de l’Office des Nations Unies à Genève,
M. Fouad Zarbiev, doctorant à l’Institut de hautes études internationales et
du développement de Genève,
M. Leonardo Salazar, Institut géographique national du Costa Rica,
comme conseillers;

M. Allan Solis, troisième secrétaire à l’ambassade du Costa Rica au Royaume
des Pays-Bas,
comme conseiller adjoint,

et

la République du Nicaragua,
représentée par

S. Exc. M. Carlos José Argüello Gómez, ambassadeur du Nicaragua auprès
du Royaume des Pays-Bas,
comme agent et conseil;

M. Ian Brownlie, C.B.E., Q.C., F.B.A., membre du barreau d’Angleterre,
ancien président de la Commission du droit international, professeur émé-
rite de droit international public (chaire Chichele) de l’Université d’Oxford,
membre de l’Institut de droit international, Distinguished Fellow de l’All
Souls College à Oxford,
M. Stephen C. McCaffrey, professeur de droit international à la McGeorge
School of Law de l’Université du Pacifique à Sacramento (Etats-Unis
d’Amérique), ancien membre de la Commission du droit international,
M. Alain Pellet, professeur à l’Université de Paris Ouest, Nanterre-La
Défense, membre et ancien président de la Commission du droit inter-
national, membre associé de l’Institut de droit international,

M. Paul Reichler, avocat au cabinet Foley Hoag LLP, Washington D.C.,
membre des barreaux de la Cour suprême des Etats-Unis d’Amérique et
du district de Columbia,
M. Antonio Remiro Brotóns, professeur de droit international à l’Universi-
dad Autónoma de Madrid, membre associé de l’Institut de droit inter-
national,
comme conseils et avocats;
me
M Irene Blázquez Navarro, docteur en droit international public, Univer-
sidad Autónoma de Madrid,
M me Clara E. Brillenbourg, cabinet Foley Hoag LLP, membre des barreaux
du district de Columbia et de New York,
M. Lawrence H. Martin, avocat au cabinet Foley Hoag LLP, Washington
D.C., membre des barreaux de la Cour suprême des Etats-Unis d’Amé-
rique, du Massachusetts et du district de Columbia,
M. Walner Molina Pérez, conseiller juridique au ministère des affaires étran-

gères du Nicaragua,
M. Daniel Müller, chercheur au Centre de droit international de Nanterre
(CEDIN), Université de Paris Ouest, Nanterre-La Défense,

9 Ms Tania Elena Pacheco Blandino, Counsellor, Embassy of Nicaragua in the
Kingdom of the Netherlands,
Mr. Julio César Saborio, Juridical Adviser, Ministry of Foreign Affairs of
Nicaragua,
Mr. César Vega Masís, Director of Juridical Affairs, Sovereignty and Terri-

tory, Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Nicaragua,
as Assistant Counsel,

T HE C OURT,

composed as above,
after deliberation,

delivers the following Judgment:
1. On 29 September 2005 the Republic of Costa Rica (hereinafter “Costa
Rica”) filed in the Registry of the Court an Application of the same date, insti-

tuting proceedings against the Republic of Nicaragua (hereinafter “Nicara-
gua”) with regard to a “dispute concerning navigational and related rights of
Costa Rica on the San Juan River”.
In its Application, Costa Rica seeks to found the jurisdiction of the Court on
the declaration it made on 20 February 1973 under Article 36, paragraph 2, of
the Statute, as well as on the declaration which Nicaragua made on 24 Septem-
ber 1929 under Article 36 of the Statute of the Permanent Court of Interna-
tional Justice and which is deemed, pursuant to Article 36, paragraph 5, of the
Statute of the present Court, for the period which it still has to run, to be
acceptance of the compulsory jurisdiction of this Court. Costa Rica also seeks
to found the jurisdiction of the Court on the Tovar-Caldera Agreement signed

between the Parties on 26 September 2002. In addition, Costa Rica invokes as
a basis of the Court’s jurisdiction the provisions of Article XXXI of the Ameri-
can Treaty on Pacific Settlement, officially designated, according to Article LX
thereof, as the “Pact of Bogotá”.
2. Pursuant to Article 40, paragraph 2, of the Statute, the Registrar imme-
diately communicated a certified copy of the Application to the Government of
Nicaragua; and, in accordance with paragraph 3 of that Article, all States enti-
tled to appear before the Court were notified of the Application.

3. Pursuant to the instructions of the Court under Article 43 of the Rules of
Court, the Registrar addressed to States parties to the Pact of Bogotá the noti-

fications provided for in Article 63, paragraph 1, of the Statute of the Court. In
accordance with the provisions of Article 69, paragraph 3, of the Rules of
Court, the Registrar moreover addressed to the Organization of American
States the notification provided for in Article 34, paragraph 3, of the Statute of
the Court, and asked that organization whether or not it intended to furnish
observations in writing within the meaning of Article 69, paragraph 3, of the
Rules of Court.
4. Since the Court included upon the Bench no judge of the nationality of
either of the Parties, each Party proceeded to exercise its right conferred by
Article 31, paragraph 3, of the Statute to choose a judge ad hoc to sit in the
case. Costa Rica chose Mr. Antônio Cançado Trindade and Nicaragua Mr. Gil-

bert Guillaume. Mr. Cançado Trindade was subsequently elected as a Member
of the Court. Costa Rica informed the Court that it had decided not to choose
a new judge ad hoc.

10 M meTania Elena Pacheco Blandino, conseiller à l’ambassade du Nicaragua
au Royaume des Pays-Bas,
M. Julio César Saborio, conseiller juridique au ministère des affaires étran-
gères du Nicaragua,
M. César Vega Masís, directeur, direction des affaires juridiques, de la sou-

veraineté et du territoire, ministère des affaires étrangères du Nicaragua,
comme conseils adjoints,

L A COUR ,

ainsi composée,
après délibéré en chambre du conseil,

rend l’arrêt suivant:
1. Le 29 septembre 2005, la République du Costa Rica (dénommée ci-après
le «Costa Rica») a déposé au Greffe de la Cour une requête introductive d’ins-

tance datée du même jour contre la République du Nicaragua (dénommée ci-
après le «Nicaragua») au sujet d’un «différend relatif aux droits de navigation
et droits connexes du Costa Rica sur le fleuve San Juan».
Dans sa requête, le Costa Rica entend fonder la compétence de la Cour sur la
déclaration qu’il a faite le 20 février 1973 en vertu du paragraphe 2 de l’arti-
cle 36 du Statut, ainsi que sur la déclaration que le Nicaragua a faite le 24 sep-
tembre 1929 en vertu de l’article 36 du Statut de la Cour permanente de Justice
internationale et qui, aux termes du paragraphe 5 de l’article 36 du Statut de la
présente Cour, est considérée, pour la durée restant à courir, comme compor-
tant acceptation de la juridiction obligatoire de celle-ci. Le Costa Rica entend
également fonder la compétence de la Cour sur l’accord Tovar-Caldera signé

par les Parties le 26 septembre 2002. Il invoque en outre comme base de com-
pétence les dispositions de l’article XXXI du traité américain de règlement paci-
fique des différends, désigné officiellement en son article LX sous le nom de
«pacte de Bogotá».
2. Conformément au paragraphe 2 de l’article 40 du Statut, le greffier a
immédiatement communiqué au Gouvernement du Nicaragua une copie certi-
fiée conforme de la requête; d’autre part, en application du paragraphe 3 du
même article, tous les Etats admis à ester devant la Cour ont été informés de la
requête.
3. Sur les instructions données par la Cour en vertu de l’article 43 de son
Règlement, le greffier a adressé aux Etats parties au pacte de Bogotá les noti-

fications prévues au paragraphe 1 de l’article 63 du Statut de la Cour. Confor-
mément aux dispositions du paragraphe 3 de l’article 69 du Règlement de la
Cour, le greffier a en outre adressé à l’Organisation des Etats américains la
notification prévue au paragraphe 3 de l’article 34 du Statut, en demandant à
cette organisation de lui faire savoir si elle entendait présenter des observations
écrites au sens du paragraphe 3 de l’article 69 du Règlement.

4. La Cour ne comptant sur le siège aucun juge de la nationalité des Parties,
chacune d’elles s’est prévalue du droit que lui confère le paragraphe 3 de l’ar-
ticle 31 du Statut de procéder à la désignation d’un juge ad hoc pour siéger en
l’affaire. Le Costa Rica a désigné M. Antônio Cançado Trindade et le Nicara-

gua M. Gilbert Guillaume. M. Cançado Trindade a ensuite été élu membre de
la Cour. Le Costa Rica a informé la Cour qu’il avait décidé de ne pas désigner
de nouveau juge ad hoc.

10 5. By an Order dated 29 November 2005, the Court fixed 29 August 2006
and 29 May 2007, respectively, as the time-limits for the filing of the Memorial
of Costa Rica and the Counter-Memorial of Nicaragua; those pleadings were
duly filed within the time-limits so prescribed.
6. Referring to Article 53, paragraph 1, of the Rules of Court, the Govern-
ment of the Republic of Ecuador and the Government of the Republic of

Colombia respectively asked to be furnished with copies of the pleadings and
documents annexed. Having ascertained the views of the Parties pursuant to
that Article, the Court decided not to grant these requests. The Registrar com-
municated the Court’s decision to the Government of the Republic of Ecuador
and the Government of the Republic of Colombia, as well as to the Parties.

7. By an Order of 9 October 2007, the Court authorized the submission of a
Reply by Costa Rica and a Rejoinder by Nicaragua, and fixed 15 January 2008
and 15 July 2008 as the respective time-limits for the filing of those pleadings.
The Reply and the Rejoinder were duly filed within the time-limits so pre-
scribed.
8. By letter of 27 November 2008, the Agent of Costa Rica expressed his
Government’s desire to produce five new documents, in accordance with Arti-

cle 56 of the Rules of Court. As provided for in paragraph 1 of that Article,
those documents were communicated to Nicaragua. By letter of 10 Decem-
ber 2008, the Agent of Nicaragua informed the Court that his Government did
not give its consent to the production of the requested documents.

The Court decided, pursuant to Article 56, paragraph 2, of the Rules, to
authorize the production of four of the five documents submitted by Costa
Rica, it being understood that Nicaragua would have the opportunity, pursu-
ant to paragraph 3 of that Article, to comment subsequently thereon and to
submit documents in support of those comments. That decision was commu-
nicated to the Parties by letters from the Registrar dated 18 December 2008.

9. In accordance with Article 53, paragraph 2, of the Rules of Court, the

Court decided, after ascertaining the views of the Parties, that copies of the
pleadings and documents annexed would be made available to the public as
from the opening of the oral proceedings.
10. Public hearings were held between 2 and 12 March 2009, at which the
Court heard the oral arguments and replies of:

For Costa Rica: H.E. Mr. Edgar Ugalde-Alvarez,
Mr. Arnoldo Brenes,
Mr. Sergio Ugalde,
Mr. Lucius Caflisch,

Mr. Marcelo G. Kohen,
Mr. James Crawford,
Ms Kate Parlett.

For Nicaragua: H.E. Mr. Carlos José Argüello Gómez,
Mr. Ian Brownlie,
Mr. Antonio Remiro Brotóns,
Mr. Alain Pellet,
Mr. Paul Reichler,
Mr. Stephen C. McCaffrey.

11 5. Par ordonnance en date du 29 novembre 2005, la Cour a fixé au
29 août 2006 et au 29 mai 2007, respectivement, les dates d’expiration des délais
pour le dépôt du mémoire du Costa Rica et du contre-mémoire du Nicaragua;
ces pièces ont été dûment déposées dans les délais ainsi prescrits.
6. Se référant au paragraphe 1 de l’article 53 du Règlement de la Cour, le

Gouvernement de la République de l’Equateur et celui de la République de
Colombie ont respectivement demandé à obtenir des exemplaires des pièces de
procédure et des documents annexés en l’espèce. S’étant renseignée auprès des
Parties conformément à l’article susvisé, la Cour a décidé de ne pas accéder à
ces demandes. Le greffier a notifié la décision de la Cour au Gouvernement de
la République de l’Equateur et à celui de la République de Colombie, ainsi
qu’aux Parties.
7. Par ordonnance en date du 9 octobre 2007, la Cour a autorisé la présenta-
tion d’une réplique par le Costa Rica et d’une duplique par le Nicaragua, et fixé
respectivement au 15 janvier 2008 et au 15 juillet 2008 les dates d’expiration des
délais pour le dépôt de ces pièces, qui ont été dûment produites dans les délais

ainsi prescrits.
8. Par lettre du 27 novembre 2008, l’agent du Costa Rica a exprimé le sou-
hait de son gouvernement de produire cinq documents nouveaux, conformé-
ment à l’article 56 du Règlement de la Cour. Ainsi qu’il est prévu au para-
graphe 1 de cet article, ces documents ont été communiqués au Nicaragua. Par
lettre du 10 décembre 2008, l’agent du Nicaragua a informé la Cour que son
gouvernement ne donnait pas son assentiment à la production des documents
en question.
La Cour, en application du paragraphe 2 de l’article 56 de son Règlement, a
décidé d’autoriser la production de quatre des cinq documents soumis par le
Costa Rica, étant entendu que le Nicaragua aurait la possibilité, ménagée au

paragraphe 3 de l’article précité, de présenter par la suite des observations à
leur sujet et de soumettre des documents à l’appui de ces observations. Les
Parties ont été informées de cette décision par des lettres du greffier datées du
18 décembre 2008.
9. Conformément au paragraphe 2 de l’article 53 de son Règlement, la Cour
a décidé, après s’être renseignée auprès des Parties, que des exemplaires des piè-
ces de procédure et des documents annexés seraient rendus accessibles au public
à l’ouverture de la procédure orale.
10. Des audiences publiques ont été tenues du 2 au 12 mars 2009, au cours
desquelles ont été entendus en leurs plaidoiries et réponses:

Pour le Costa Rica: S. Exc. M. Edgar Ugalde-Alvarez,
M. Arnoldo Brenes,
M. Sergio Ugalde,
M. Lucius Caflisch,
M. Marcelo G. Kohen,
M. James Crawford,
M me Kate Parlett.

Pour le Nicaragua: S. Exc. M. Carlos José Argüello Gómez,
M. Ian Brownlie,
M. Antonio Remiro Brotóns,

M. Alain Pellet,
M. Paul Reichler,
M. Stephen C. McCaffrey.

11 11. At the hearings, Members of the Court put questions to the Parties, to
which replies were given in writing, within the time-limit fixed by the President
in accordance with Article 61, paragraph 4, of the Rules of Court. Pursuant to
Article 72 of the Rules of Court, each of the Parties submitted comments on the
written replies provided by the other.

*

12. In its Application, the following claims were made by Costa Rica:

“For these reasons, and reserving the right to supplement, amplify or
amend the present Application, as well as to request the Court to establish
provisional measures which might be necessary to protect its rights and to
prevent the aggravation of the dispute, Costa Rica requests the Court to
adjudge and declare that Nicaragua is in breach of its international obli-
gations as referred to in paragraph 1 of this Application in denying to
Costa Rica the free exercise of its rights of navigation and associated rights
on the San Juan River. In particular the Court is requested to adjudge and
declare that, by its conduct, Nicaragua has violated:

(a) the obligation to facilitate and expedite traffic on the San Juan River
within the terms of the Treaty of 15 April 1858 and its interpretation
given by arbitration on 22 March 1888;
(b) the obligation to allow Costa Rican boats and their passengers to
navigate freely and without impediment on the San Juan River for
commercial purposes, including the transportation of passengers and
tourism;
(c) the obligation to allow Costa Rican boats and their passengers while
engaged in such navigation to moor freely on any of the San Juan
River banks without paying any charges, unless expressly agreed by
both Governments;
(d) the obligation not to require Costa Rican boats and their passengers

to stop at any Nicaraguan post along the river;
(e) the obligation not to impose any charges or fees on Costa Rican
boats and their passengers for navigating on the river;

(f) the obligation to allow Costa Rica the right to navigate the river in
accordance with Article Second of the Cleveland Award;

(g) the obligation to allow Costa Rica the right to navigate the San Juan
River in official boats for supply purposes, exchange of personnel of
the border posts along the right bank of the San Juan River, with
their official equipment, including the necessary arms and ammuni-
tions, and for the purposes of protection, as established in the perti-
nent instruments;

(h) the obligation to collaborate with Costa Rica in order to carry out
those undertakings and activities which require a common effort by
both States in order to facilitate and expedite traffic in the San Juan
River within the terms of the Treaty of Limits and its interpretation
given by the Cleveland Award, and other pertinent instruments;

(i) the obligation not to aggravate and extend the dispute by adopting

12 11. A l’audience, des membres de la Cour ont posé aux Parties des questions,
auxquelles celles-ci ont répondu par écrit, dans le délai fixé par le président
conformément au paragraphe 4 de l’article 61 du Règlement de la Cour. En
application de l’article 72 du Règlement, chacune des Parties a présenté des
observations sur les réponses écrites fournies par la Partie adverse.

*

12. Dans la requête, les demandes ci-après ont été formulées par le Costa
Rica:

«Pour ces motifs, tout en se réservant le droit de compléter, préciser ou
modifier la présente requête ainsi que de prier la Cour d’indiquer les mesu-
res conservatoires éventuellement nécessaires pour protéger ses droits et
empêcher l’aggravation du différend, le Costa Rica prie la Cour de dire et
juger que le Nicaragua enfreint les obligations internationales visées au
paragraphe 1 de la présente requête en refusant au Costa Rica la possibi-
lité d’exercer librement ses droits de navigation et ses droits connexes sur le
fleuve San Juan. En particulier, le Costa Rica prie la Cour de dire et juger
que, par son comportement, le Nicaragua a enfreint:

a) l’obligation de faciliter et d’accélérer la circulation sur le fleuve San Juan
conformément aux dispositions du traité du 15 avril 1858 et à son
interprétation par voie d’arbitrage du 22 mars 1888;
b) l’obligation de permettre aux bateaux du Costa Rica et à leurs passa-
gers d’emprunter librement et sans entrave le fleuve San Juan à des fins
commerciales, notamment pour les besoins du transport de passagers
et du tourisme;
c) l’obligation de permettre aux bateaux du Costa Rica et à leurs passa-
gers empruntant le fleuve San Juan d’accoster librement sur l’une ou
l’autre rive du fleuve sans acquitter aucun droit, sauf accord exprès des
deux gouvernements;
d) l’obligation de ne contraindre les bateaux du Costa Rica et leurs pas-

sagers à faire halte à aucun poste nicaraguayen situé le long du fleuve;
e) l’obligation de n’imposer aux bateaux du Costa Rica et à leurs pas-
sagers le versement d’aucun droit ou redevance pour naviguer sur le
fleuve;
f) l’obligation de laisser au Costa Rica le droit de naviguer sur le fleuve
conformément aux dispositions de l’article 2 de la sentence arbitrale
Cleveland;
g) l’obligation de laisser aux bateaux officiels du Costa Rica le droit de
naviguer sur le fleuve San Juan à des fins de ravitaillement ou pour
assurer la relève du personnel des postes frontaliers établis le long de la
rive droite du San Juan, avec leur équipement officiel, notamment les
armes et munitions nécessaires, ainsi qu’à des fins de protection, comme
il est prévu dans les instruments pertinents;

h) l’obligation de coopérer avec le Costa Rica en vue d’exécuter les enga-
gements et activités demandant un effort commun de la part des deux
Etats, afin de faciliter et d’accélérer la circulation sur le fleuve San Juan
conformément aux dispositions du traité de limites et à l’interprétation
qui en a été donnée par la sentence Cleveland, et à d’autres instruments
pertinents;
i) l’obligation de ne pas aggraver ou étendre le différend par l’adoption

12 measures against Costa Rica, including unlawful economic sanctions
contrary to treaties in force or general international law, or involving
further changes in the régime of navigation and associated rights on
the San Juan River not permitted by the instruments referred to
above.

Further, the Court is requested to determine the reparation which must
be made by Nicaragua, in particular in relation to any measures of the
kind referred to in paragraph 10 above.”
Paragraph 10 of the Application reads as follows:

“Costa Rica seeks the cessation of this Nicaraguan conduct which pre-
vents the free and full exercise and enjoyment of the rights that Costa Rica
possesses on the San Juan River, and which also prevents Costa Rica from
fulfilling its responsibilities under Article II of the 1956 Agreement and
otherwise. In the event that Nicaragua imposes the economic sanctions
referred to above, or any other unlawful sanctions, or otherwise takes
steps to aggravate and extend the present dispute, Costa Rica further seeks

the cessation of such conduct and full reparation for losses suffered.”

13. In the written proceedings, the following submissions were presented by
the Parties:

On behalf of the Government of Costa Rica,
in the Memorial and in the Reply:

“1. For these reasons, and reserving the right to supplement, amplify or
amend the present submissions, Costa Rica requests the Court to adjudge
and declare that Nicaragua is in breach of its international obligations in
denying to Costa Rica the free exercise of its rights of navigation and
related rights on the San Juan.
2. In particular the Court is requested to adjudge and declare that, by
its conduct, Nicaragua has violated:

(a) the obligation to allow all Costa Rican vessels and their passengers to
navigate freely on the San Juan for purposes of commerce, including
communication and the transportation of passengers and tourism;

(b) the obligation not to impose any charges or fees on Costa Rican ves-
sels and their passengers for navigating on the River;

(c) the obligation not to require persons exercising the right of free navi-
gation on the River to carry passports or obtain Nicaraguan visas;

(d) the obligation not to require Costa Rican vessels and their passengers
to stop at any Nicaraguan post along the River;

(e) the obligation not to impose other impediments on the exercise of the
right of free navigation, including timetables for navigation and con-
ditions relating to flags;
(f) the obligation to allow Costa Rican vessels and their passengers while
engaged in such navigation to land on any part of the bank where
navigation is common without paying any charges, unless expressly
agreed by both Governments;

13 de mesures à l’encontre du Costa Rica, y compris des sanctions éco-
nomiques illicites qui seraient contraires aux traités en vigueur ou au
droit international général, ou apporteraient de nouvelles modifica-
tions non autorisées par les instruments visés plus haut au régime de la
navigation sur le fleuve San Juan et aux droits connexes.

En outre, la Cour est priée de déterminer les réparations dues par le
Nicaragua à raison, en particulier, de toutes mesures du type de celles qui
sont mentionnées au paragraphe 10 de la requête.»
Le paragraphe 10 de la requête est ainsi libellé:

«Le Costa Rica demande la cessation de ce comportement de la part du
Nicaragua, qui l’empêche de faire usage et de jouir librement et pleinement
des droits qu’il détient sur le fleuve San Juan et qui l’empêche également de
s’acquitter des responsabilités que lui confèrent l’article II de l’accord
de 1956 et d’autres instruments. Pour le cas où le Nicaragua prendrait les
sanctions économiques visées ci-dessus, ou toute autre sanction illicite, ou
toute autre mesure propre à aggraver ou à étendre le présent différend, le

Costa Rica demande en outre la cessation de ce comportement et la répa-
ration intégrale des pertes subies.»
13. Au cours de la procédure écrite, les conclusions ci-après ont été formu-
lées par les Parties:

Au nom du Gouvernement du Costa Rica,
dans le mémoire et dans la réplique:

«1. Pour ces motifs, tout en se réservant le droit de compléter, préciser
ou modifier les présentes conclusions, le Costa Rica prie la Cour de dire et
juger que le Nicaragua enfreint ses obligations internationales en lui contes-
tant la possibilité d’exercer librement ses droits de navigation et ses droits
connexes sur le San Juan.
2. En particulier, le Costa Rica prie la Cour de dire et juger que le Nica-
ragua a, par son comportement, violé:

a) l’obligation de permettre à tous les bateaux costa-riciens et à leurs pas-
sagers de naviguer librement sur le San Juan à des fins de commerce,
y compris pour les déplacements, les transports de passagers et le
tourisme;
b) l’obligation de n’imposer aux bateaux du Costa Rica et à leurs pas-
sagers le versement d’aucun droit ou redevance pour naviguer sur le
fleuve;
c) l’obligation de ne pas exiger des personnes exerçant le droit de libre
navigation sur le fleuve qu’elles soient munies de passeports et qu’elles
obtiennent un visa du Nicaragua;
d) l’obligation de ne pas exiger des bateaux costa-riciens et de leurs pas-
sagers qu’ils fassent halte à un quelconque poste nicaraguayen situé le
long du fleuve;

e) l’obligation de ne pas mettre d’autres entraves à l’exercice du droit de
libre navigation, notamment sous la forme d’horaires de navigation et
de conditions relatives aux pavillons;
f) l’obligation de permettre aux bateaux costa-riciens et à leurs passagers
empruntant le San Juan d’accoster librement en tout point du fleuve
où la navigation est commune sans acquitter aucun droit, sauf accord
exprès des deux gouvernements;

13 (g) the obligation to allow Costa Rican official vessels the right to navi-
gate the San Juan, including for the purposes of re-supply and
exchange of personnel of the border posts along the right bank of the
River with their official equipment, including service arms and ammu-
nition, and for the purposes of protection as established in the
relevant instruments, and in particular Article 2 of the Cleveland

Award;
(h) the obligation to facilitate and expedite traffic on the San Juan,
within the terms of the Treaty of 15 April 1858 and its interpretation
by the Cleveland Award of 1888, in accordance with Article 1 of the
bilateral Agreement of 9 January 1956;
(i) the obligation to permit riparians of the Costa Rican bank to fish in
the River for subsistence purposes.
3. Further, the Court is requested to adjudge and declare that by reason

of the above violations, Nicaragua is obliged:
(a) immediately to cease all the breaches of obligations which have a con-
tinuing character;
(b) to make reparation to Costa Rica for all injuries caused to Costa
Rica by the breaches of Nicaragua’s obligations referred to above, in
the form of the restoration of the situation prior to the Nicaraguan
breaches and compensation in an amount to be determined in a sepa-
rate phase of these proceedings; and

(c) to give appropriate assurances and guarantees that it shall not repeat
its unlawful conduct, in such form as the Court may order.”

On behalf of the Government of Nicaragua,

in the Counter-Memorial:
“OnthebasisofthefactsandlegalconsiderationssetforthintheCounter-
Memorial, the Court is requested:
To adjudge and declare that the requests of Costa Rica in her Memorial

are rejected, on the following bases:
(a) either because there is no breach of the provisions of the Treaty of
15 April 1858 on the facts;
(b) or, as appropriate, because the obligation breach of which is alleged
is not included in the provisions of the Treaty of 15 April 1858.

Moreover, the Court is also requested to make a formal declaration on
the issues raised by Nicaragua in Section 2 of Chapter 7.”

The relevant part of Section 2 of Chapter 7 of the Counter-Memorial reads
as follows:

“Finally, in view of the above considerations, and in particular those
indicated in Chapter 2 (E), Nicaragua requests the Court to declare that:

(i) Costa Rica is obliged to comply with the regulations for navigation
(and landing) in the San Juan imposed by Nicaraguan authorities
in particular related to matters of health and security;

(ii) Costa Rica has to pay for any special services provided by Nicara-

14 g) l’obligation de reconnaître aux bateaux officiels du Costa Rica le droit
de naviguer sur le San Juan, notamment pour ravitailler et relever le
personnel des postes frontière établis sur la rive droite du fleuve, avec
leur équipement officiel, leurs armes de service et des munitions, ainsi
qu’à des fins de protection comme il est prévu dans les instruments per-
tinents, en particulier l’article 2 de la sentence Cleveland;

h) l’obligation de faciliter et d’accélérer la circulation sur le San Juan, au
sens du traité du 15 avril 1858 tel qu’interprété par la sentence Cleve-
land de 1888, conformément à l’article premier de l’accord bilatéral du
9 janvier 1956; et
i) l’obligation de permettre aux habitants de la rive costa-ricienne de
pêcher dans le fleuve pour leur subsistance.
3. En outre, la Cour est priée de juger et dire que, en raison des viola-

tions énoncées ci-dessus, le Nicaragua est tenu:
a) de cesser immédiatement toutes les violations des obligations revêtant
un caractère continu;
b) de dédommager le Costa Rica pour tous les préjudices subis par
celui-ci en raison des violations des obligations du Nicaragua dénon-
cées plus haut, sous la forme du rétablissement de la situation anté-
rieure auxdites violations et d’une indemnisation dont le montant sera
fixé lors d’une autre phase de la présente instance;

c) de fournir des assurances et des garanties appropriées de non-
répétition de son comportement illicite, sous la forme que la Cour
voudra bien ordonner.»
Au nom du Gouvernement du Nicaragua,

dans le contre-mémoire:
«Sur la base des considérations de fait et de droit exposées dans le
contre-mémoire, la Cour est priée:
De dire et juger que les demandes qu’a formulées le Costa Rica dans son

mémoire sont rejetées pour les motifs suivants:
a) soit parce qu’il n’y a d’après les faits aucune violation des dispositions
du traité du 15 avril 1858;
b) soit, le cas échéant, parce que l’obligation dont le non-respect est allé-
gué n’est pas visée par les dispositions du traité du 15 avril 1858.

En outre, la Cour est également priée d’adopter une déclaration formelle
concernant les questions soulevées par le Nicaragua à la section 2 du cha-
pitre 7.»
La partie pertinente de cette section du contre-mémoire est ainsi libellée:

«Enfin, compte tenu des considérations qui précèdent et, en particulier,
de celles qui sont exposées au chapitre 2 E), le Nicaragua prie la Cour de
déclarer que:

i) le Costa Rica est tenu de se conformer aux règles de navigation (et
d’accostage) sur le San Juan qui sont imposées par les autorités
nicaraguayennes, en particulier à celles qui concernent les questions
de santé et de sécurité;
ii) le Costa Rica doit s’acquitter des sommes dues au titre de tous les

14 gua in the use of the San Juan either for navigation or landing on
the Nicaraguan banks;

(iii) Costa Rica has to comply with all reasonable charges for modern
improvements in the navigation of the river with respect to its situ-
ation in 1858;

(iv) revenue service boats may only be used during and with special ref-
erence to actual transit of the merchandise authorized by Treaty;

(v) Nicaragua has the right to dredge the San Juan in order to return
the flow of water to that obtaining in 1858 even if this affects the
flow of water to other present day recipients of this flow such as the
Colorado River.”
in the Rejoinder:

“OnthebasisofthefactsandlegalconsiderationssetforthintheCounter-
Memorial and the Rejoinder, the Court is requested:
To adjudge and declare that the requests of Costa Rica in her Memorial
and Reply are rejected in general, and in particular, on the following
bases:
(a) either because there is no breach of the provisions of the Treaty of

Limits of 15 April 1858 or any other international obligation of Nica-
ragua;
(b) or, as appropriate, because the obligation breach of which is alleged,
is not an obligation under the provisions of the Treaty of Limits of
15 April 1858 or under general international law.
Moreover, the Court is also requested to make a formal declaration on
the issues raised by Nicaragua in Section II of Chapter VII of her Counter-
Memorial and reiterated in Chapter VI, Section I, of her Rejoinder.”

The relevant part of Chapter VI, Section I, of the Rejoinder reads as follows:
“(i) Costa Rica is obliged to comply with the regulations for navigation
(and landing) in the San Juan imposed by Nicaraguan authorities in
particular related to matters of health and security;

(ii) Costa Rica has to pay for any special services provided by Nicaragua
in the use of the San Juan either for navigation or landing on the
Nicaraguan banks;

(iii) Costa Rica has to comply with all reasonable charges for modern
improvements in the navigation of the river with respect to its situa-
tion in 1858;
(iv) revenue service boats may only be used during and with special ref-
erence to actual transit of the merchandise authorized by Treaty;

(v) Nicaragua has the right to dredge the San Juan in order to return the
flow of water to that obtaining in 1858 even if this affects the flow of
water to other present day recipients of this flow such as the Colorado
River.”

14. At the oral proceedings, the following submissions were presented by the
Parties:

15 services spéciaux assurés par le Nicaragua dans le cadre de l’utilisa-
tion du San Juan, que ce soit pour la navigation ou pour l’accostage
sur les rives nicaraguayennes;
iii) le Costa Rica doit s’acquitter de toutes les charges raisonnables à
régler au titre des améliorations apportées aux conditions de naviga-
tion sur le fleuve par rapport aux conditions de 1858;

iv) les bateaux du service des douanes peuvent être utilisés uniquement
pendant le transit effectif de marchandises tel qu’autorisé par le
traité et dans le strict cadre de ce transit;
v) le Nicaragua a le droit de draguer le San Juan afin de rétablir le
débit d’eau qui existait en 1858, même si cela modifie le débit
d’autres cours d’eau récepteurs comme le Colorado.»

dans la duplique:

«Sur la base des faits et considérations de droit exposées dans le contre-
mémoire et dans la duplique, la Cour est priée:
De dire et juger que les demandes présentées par le Costa Rica dans son
mémoire et dans sa réplique sont rejetées en général et, en particulier, pour
les motifs suivants:
a) soit parce que le Nicaragua n’a violé ni les dispositions du traité de

limites du 15 avril 1858 ni aucune autre obligation internationale lui
incombant;
b) soit, le cas échéant, parce que l’obligation dont le non-respect est allé-
gué n’est une obligation ni en vertu des dispositions du traité de limites
du 15 avril 1858 ni au regard du droit international général.
En outre, la Cour est priée de faire une déclaration formelle sur les ques-
tions que le Nicaragua a soulevées à la section II du chapitre VII de son
contre-mémoire et mentionnées à nouveau à la section I du chapitre VI de
sa duplique.»

La partie pertinente de cette section de la duplique est ainsi libellée:
«i) le Costa Rica est tenu de se conformer aux règles de navigation (et
d’accostage) sur le San Juan qui sont imposées par les autorités nica-
raguayennes, en particulier à celles qui concernent les questions de
santé et de sécurité;

ii) le Costa Rica doit s’acquitter des sommes dues au titre de tous les ser-
vices spéciaux assurés par le Nicaragua dans le cadre de l’utilisation
du San Juan, que ce soit pour la navigation ou pour l’accostage sur les
rives nicaraguayennes;
iii) le Costa Rica doit s’acquitter de toutes les charges raisonnables à
régler au titre des améliorations apportées aux conditions de naviga-
tion sur le fleuve par rapport aux conditions de 1858;
iv) les bateaux du service des douanes peuvent être utilisés uniquement
pendant le transit effectif de marchandises tel qu’autorisé par le traité
et dans le strict cadre de ce transit;
v) le Nicaragua a le droit de draguer le San Juan afin de rétablir le débit
d’eau qui existait en 1858, même si cela modifie le débit d’autres cours
d’eau récepteurs comme le Colorado.»

14. A l’audience, les conclusions ci-après ont été formulées par les Parties:

15On behalf of the Government of Costa Rica,

at the hearing of 9 March 2009:
“Having regard to the written and oral pleadings and to the evidence
submitted by the Parties, may it please the Court to adjudge and declare
that, by its conduct, the Republic of Nicaragua has violated:

(a) the obligation to allow all Costa Rican vessels and their passengers to
navigate freely on the San Juan for purposes of commerce, including
communication and the transportation of passengers and tourism;

(b) the obligation not to impose any charges or fees on Costa Rican ves-
sels and their passengers for navigating on the River;
(c) the obligation not to require persons exercising the right of free navi-
gation on the River to carry passports or obtain Nicaraguan visas;

(d) the obligation not to require Costa Rican vessels and their passengers
to stop at any Nicaraguan post along the River;

(e) the obligation not to impose other impediments on the exercise of the
right of free navigation, including timetables for navigation and con-
ditions relating to flags;
(f) the obligation to allow Costa Rican vessels and their passengers while
engaged in such navigation to land on any part of the bank where
navigation is common without paying any charges, unless expressly
agreed by both Governments;
(g) the obligation to allow Costa Rican official vessels the right to navi-
gate the San Juan, including for the purposes of re-supply and
exchange of personnel of the border posts along the right bank of the

River with their official equipment, including service arms and ammu-
nition, and for the purposes of protection as established in the rele-
vant instruments, and in particular the Second article of the Cleve-
land Award;
(h) the obligation to facilitate and expedite traffic on the San Juan,
within the terms of the Treaty of 15 April 1858 and its interpretation
by the Cleveland Award of 1888, in accordance with Article 1 of the
bilateral Agreement of 9 January 1956;
(i) the obligation to permit riparians of the Costa Rican bank to fish in
the River for subsistence purposes.

Further, the Court is requested to adjudge and declare that by reason of
the above violations, Nicaragua is obliged:

(a) immediately to cease all the breaches of obligations which have a con-
tinuing character;
(b) to make reparation to Costa Rica for all injuries caused to Costa

Rica by the breaches of Nicaragua’s obligations referred to above, in
the form of the restoration of the situation prior to the Nicaraguan
breaches and compensation in an amount to be determined in a sepa-
rate phase of these proceedings; and
(c) to give appropriate assurances and guarantees that it shall not repeat
its unlawful conduct, in such form as the Court may order.

16Au nom du Gouvernement du Costa Rica,

à l’audience du 9 mars 2009:
«Au vu des exposés écrits et oraux et des éléments de preuve présentés
par les Parties, la République du Costa Rica prie la Cour de dire et juger
que la République du Nicaragua a, par son comportement, violé:

a) l’obligation de permettre à tous les bateaux costa-riciens et à leurs pas-
sagers de naviguer librement sur le San Juan à des fins de commerce,
y compris pour les communications, le transport de passagers et le
tourisme;
b) l’obligation de n’imposer aux bateaux costa-riciens et à leurs passagers
le versement d’aucun droit ou redevance pour naviguer sur le fleuve;
c) l’obligation de ne pas exiger des personnes exerçant le droit de libre
navigation sur le fleuve qu’elles soient munies de passeports et qu’elles
obtiennent un visa du Nicaragua;

d) l’obligation de ne pas exiger des bateaux costa-riciens et de leurs pas-
sagers qu’ils fassent halte à un quelconque poste nicaraguayen situé le
long du fleuve;
e) l’obligation de ne pas mettre d’autres entraves à l’exercice du droit de
libre navigation, notamment sous la forme d’horaires de navigation et
de conditions relatives aux pavillons;
f) l’obligation de permettre aux bateaux costa-riciens et à leurs passagers
empruntant le San Juan d’accoster librement en tout point du fleuve où
la navigation est commune sans acquitter aucun droit, sauf accord
exprès des deux gouvernements;
g) l’obligation de reconnaître aux bateaux officiels du Costa Rica le droit
de naviguer sur le San Juan, notamment pour ravitailler et relever les
membres du personnel des postes frontière établis sur la rive droite du

fleuve, munis de leur équipement officiel, de leurs armes de service et
de munitions, ainsi qu’à des fins de protection comme il est prévu dans
les instruments pertinents, en particulier l’article 2 de la sentence
Cleveland;
h) l’obligation de faciliter et d’accélérer la circulation sur le San Juan, au
sens du traité du 15 avril 1858 tel qu’interprété par la sentence Cleve-
land de 1888, conformément à l’article premier de l’accord bilatéral du
9 janvier 1956;
i) l’obligation de permettre aux habitants de la rive costa-ricienne de pra-
tiquer la pêche de subsistance.

En outre, la République du Costa Rica prie la Cour de dire et juger que,
en raison des violations des obligations énoncées ci-dessus, le Nicaragua
est tenu:
a) de cesser immédiatement toutes les violations des obligations revêtant
un caractère continu;
b) de dédommager le Costa Rica de tous les préjudices subis par celui-ci

en raison des violations des obligations du Nicaragua mentionnées
plus haut, sous la forme du rétablissement de la situation antérieure
auxdites violations et d’une indemnisation dont le montant sera fixé
lors d’une phase ultérieure de la présente instance; et
c) de fournir des assurances et garanties appropriées de non-répétition de
son comportement illicite, sous la forme que la Cour voudra bien
ordonner.

16 The Court is requested to reject Nicaragua’s request for a declaration.”

On behalf of the Government of Nicaragua,
at the hearing of 12 March 2009:

“OnthebasisofthefactsandlegalconsiderationssetforthintheCounter-
Memorial, Rejoinder and oral pleadings,

May it please the Court to adjudge and declare that:
The requests of Costa Rica in her Memorial, Reply and oral pleadings
are rejected in general, and in particular, on the following bases:

(a) either because there is no breach of the provisions of the Treaty of
Limits of 15 April 1858 or any other international obligation of Nica-
ragua;
(b) or, as appropriate, because the obligation breach of which is alleged,
is not an obligation under the provisions of the Treaty of Limits of

15 April 1858 or under general international law.
Moreover the Court is also requested to make a formal declaration on
the issues raised by Nicaragua in Section II of Chapter VII of her Counter-
Memorial, in Section I, Chapter VI, of her Rejoinder and as reiterated in

these oral pleadings.”

* * *

I. GEOGRAPHICAL AND H ISTORICAL CONTEXT
AND O RIGIN OF THE D ISPUTE

15. The San Juan River runs approximately 205 kilometres from Lake
Nicaragua to the Caribbean Sea (see sketch-maps Nos. 1 and 2). Some
19 kilometres from the Caribbean Sea it divides into two branches: the
San Juan itself continues as the northerly of the two branches and empties

into the Caribbean Sea at the bay of San Juan del Norte; the Colorado
River is the southern and larger of the two branches and runs entirely
within Costa Rica reaching the Caribbean Sea at Barra de Colorado.
16. Part of the border between Costa Rica and Nicaragua runs along

the right bank (i.e. the Costa Rican side) of the San Juan River from a
point three English miles below Castillo Viejo, a small town in Nicara-
gua, to the end of Punta de Castilla, where the river enters the Caribbean
Sea. Between Lake Nicaragua and the point below Castillo Viejo, the

river runs entirely through Nicaraguan territory.

17. Both Costa Rica and Nicaragua, which had been under Spanish
colonial rule, became independent States in 1821. Shortly after independ-
ence, Costa Rica and Nicaragua, together with El Salvador, Guatemala

and Honduras, decided to constitute the Federal Republic of Central
America. In 1824 the people living in the district of Nicoya on the Pacific
coast, originally within Nicaragua, opted by plebiscite to become part of

17 Le Costa Rica prie la Cour de rejeter la demande de déclaration présen-
tée par le Nicaragua.»

Au nom du Gouvernement du Nicaragua,
à l’audience du 12 mars 2009:

«Sur la base des éléments de fait et de droit exposés dans le contre-
mémoire, dans la duplique et à l’audience,

Le Nicaragua prie la Cour de dire et juger que:
Les demandes présentées par le Costa Rica dans son mémoire, dans sa
réplique et à l’audience sont rejetées en général et, en particulier, pour les
motifs suivants:

a) soit parce que le Nicaragua n’a violé ni les dispositions du traité de
limites du 15 avril 1858 ni aucune autre obligation internationale lui
incombant;
b) soit, le cas échéant, parce que l’obligation dont le non-respect est allé-
gué n’est une obligation ni en vertu des dispositions du traité de limites
du 15 avril 1858 ni au regard du droit international général.

En outre, le Nicaragua prie la Cour de faire une déclaration formelle sur
les questions qu’il a soulevées à la section II du chapitre VII de son contre-
mémoire et à la section I du chapitre VI de sa duplique, et qu’il a men-
tionnées à nouveau à l’audience.»

*
* *

I. C ONTEXTE GÉOGRAPHIQUE ET HISTORIQUE
ET GENÈSE DU DIFFÉREND

15. Le fleuve San Juan coule sur une distance d’environ 205 kilomètres
entre le lac Nicaragua et la mer des Caraïbes (voir croquis n os 1 et 2). A

quelque 19 kilomètres de la mer, il se divise en deux: le San Juan propre-
ment dit, qui constitue le bras septentrional, se jette dans la mer des
Caraïbes au niveau de la baie de San Juan del Norte, tandis qu’au sud le
Colorado, qui est le plus large des deux bras, coule tout du long en ter-

ritoire costa-ricien avant de se jeter dans la mer à Barra de Colorado.
16. Une partie de la frontière entre le Costa Rica et le Nicaragua suit
la rive droite (c’est-à-dire la rive costa-ricienne) du San Juan, à partir
d’un point situé à une distance de 3 milles anglais en aval de Castillo
Viejo, petite ville du Nicaragua, jusqu’à l’extrémité de Punta de Castilla,

où le fleuve se jette dans la mer des Caraïbes. Entre le lac Nicaragua et le
point situé en aval de Castillo Viejo, le fleuve coule exclusivement en ter-
ritoire nicaraguayen.
17. Anciennes colonies espagnoles, le Costa Rica et le Nicaragua accé-

dèrent tous deux à l’indépendance en 1821. Peu après, ils décidèrent de
former la République fédérale d’Amérique centrale avec El Salvador, le
Guatemala et le Honduras. En 1824, les habitants du district de Nicoya,
situé sur la façade pacifique, qui se rattachait initialement au Nicaragua,
choisirent par plébiscite de faire partie du Costa Rica. Le 9 décembre

17 o
d
a
Bay San JuanDel Norte
lo
Punta de Castilla
CARIBBEAN SEA

a
u í
J uqip
n ara SAN JOSÉ
Sa S

Castillo Viejo so
lr
NICARAGUA aC
na
S

COSTA RICA
Lake Nicaragua
Nicoya

Salinas Bay

(11°N)
WGS 84

MANAGUA
Mercator Projection
Sketch-map No. 1: for illustrative purposes only.
and boundary between This sketch-map has been prepared
PACIFIC OCEAN Costa Rica and Nicaragua

General geographical context

18 o
d
a
r
MERCARAÏBES Baie de SanJuandel Norte
Punta de Castilla

n
a
u íu
J i pa
an raS SAN JOSÉ
S

Castillo Viejo sl
NICARAGUA r a
C
na
S

COSTA RICA

Lac Nicaragua Nicoya

Baie de Salinas

(11°N)
WGS 84

MANAGUA Croquis n°1:
Ce à seule fin d'illustration.
et frontière entre
Projection de Mercator

OCÉAN PACIFIQUE
le Costa Rica et le Nicaragua
Contexte géographique général

18 C6

C5 o
C4
d
a
(11°N) Punta de Castilla r
o
WGS 84 N7 l
C o
N6
C3
Sketch-map No. 2:ercator Projection
route and river posts
Course of the boundary
COSTA RICA
along the San Juan, tourist

N5

C2
í u qi p a
r a S

n
a
u
J

n
a
S N4
C1

NICARAGUA

N3
s
ol
o ra
ti C
Castillo Viejo nr e na
if n S
I

N2

N1

Riverseorun1aC3: Delta CN1: SN4N: 5BNcS:anrSaaJparulinoqasunJíudaenl Norte

for illustrative purposes only.
This sketch-map has been prepared

19 C6
C5
o
C4d

a
Punta de Castilla r
l
(11°N) N7 o
WGS 84 C
N6
Croquis n°2: C3

Tracé de la frontièrection de Mercator
itinéraire touristique et COSTA RICA

postes situés le long du fleuve

N5

C2
í u qi
p a r a S

n
a

u
J
n
a
S N4

C1

NICARAGUA

N3
s
ol
ra
oti C
Castillo Viejo nr e na
if S
nI

N2

N1

Cours d'eauéiC3: Delta CosNta1NN5N: 6caelStaarSapainquJíuante

Ce croquis a été établi
à seule fin d'illustration.

19Costa Rica. On 9 December 1825 the Federal Congress of Central
America issued a decree which provided that Nicoya would be “for the

time being . . . separated from the State of Nicaragua and annexed to
that of Costa Rica”. The situation regarding Nicoya remained unchanged
at the time of the dissolution of the Federal Republic of Central America
in 1839. Thereafter, Nicaragua did not however recognize Nicoya as
belonging to Costa Rica.

18. During the mid-1850s, Nicaragua underwent a period of internal
conflict which involved a group of American adventurers, known as “fili-
busters” (“filibusteros”), led by William Walker. The Government of
Costa Rica as well as those of El Salvador, Guatemala and Honduras
joined Nicaragua’s efforts to defeat the filibusters. In May 1857, Walker

capitulated and abandoned Nicaraguan territory. Following the defeat of
the filibusters, war broke out between Costa Rica and Nicaragua. At the
end of those hostilities, the two countries engaged in negotiations to settle
outstanding bilateral matters between them, relating, inter alia, to their
common boundary, to the navigational régime on the San Juan River,
and to the possibility of building an inter-oceanic canal across the Cen-

tral American isthmus.
19. On 6 July 1857 a Treaty of Limits was signed, dealing with terri-
torial limits and the status of the San Juan River, but was not ratified by
Costa Rica. On 8 December 1857 a Treaty of Peace was signed by the
Parties but was not ratified by either Costa Rica or Nicaragua. Through

the mediation of the Salvadoran Minister for Foreign Affairs, the Gov-
ernments of Costa Rica and Nicaragua reached agreement on
15 April 1858 on a Treaty of Limits, which was ratified by Costa Rica on
16 April 1858 and by Nicaragua on 26 April 1858. The 1858 Treaty of
Limits fixed the course of the boundary between Costa Rica and Nica-

ragua from the Pacific Ocean to the Caribbean Sea. According to the
boundary thus drawn the district of Nicoya lay within the territory of
Costa Rica. Between a point three English miles from Castillo Viejo and
the Caribbean Sea, the Treaty fixed the boundary along the right bank of
the San Juan River. It established Nicaragua’s dominion and sovereign

jurisdiction over the waters of the San Juan River, but at the same time
affirmed Costa Rica’s navigational rights “con objetos de comercio” on
the lower course of the river (Article VI). The 1858 Treaty established
other rights and obligations for both parties, including, inter alia,an
obligation to contribute to the defence of the common bays of San Juan
del Norte and Salinas as well as to the defence of the San Juan River in

case of external aggression (Article IV), an obligation on behalf of Nica-
ragua to consult with Costa Rica before entering into any canalization or
transit agreements regarding the San Juan River (Article VIII) and an
obligation not to commit acts of hostility against each other (Article IX).
20. Following challenges by Nicaragua on various occasions to the

validity of the 1858 Treaty, the Parties submitted the question to arbitra-
tion by the President of the United States. The Parties agreed in addition
that if the 1858 Treaty were found to be valid, President Cleveland

201825, le Congrès fédéral d’Amérique centrale publia un décret indiquant
que Nicoya serait «pour l’heure ... séparé[e] de l’Etat du Nicaragua et

annexé[e] à celui du Costa Rica». Telle était toujours la situation de
Nicoya lorsque la République fédérale d’Amérique centrale éclata
en 1839. Par la suite, le Nicaragua ne reconnut cependant pas Nicoya
comme appartenant au Costa Rica.

18. Au milieu des années 1850, le Nicaragua traversa une période de
guerre intestine à laquelle participa un groupe d’aventuriers américains
appelés «flibustiers» («filibusteros»), menés par William Walker. Le
Gouvernement du Costa Rica ainsi que ceux d’El Salvador, du Guate-
mala et du Honduras joignirent leurs efforts à ceux du Nicaragua afin de

vaincre ces derniers. En mai 1857, Walker capitula et quitta le territoire
nicaraguayen. A la suite de la défaite des flibustiers, une guerre éclata
entre le Costa Rica et le Nicaragua. Après la fin des hostilités, les deux
pays engagèrent des négociations en vue de régler les questions bilatérales
restées en suspens entre eux, concernant notamment leur frontière com-
mune, le régime de la navigation sur le San Juan et la construction éven-

tuelle d’un canal interocéanique traversant l’isthme centraméricain.
19. Un traité de limites, qui portait sur les limites territoriales et le sta-
tut du San Juan, fut signé le 6 juillet 1857 mais ne fut pas ratifié par le
Costa Rica. Un traité de paix fut signé le 8 décembre 1857 mais ne fut
ratifié ni par le Costa Rica ni par le Nicaragua. Grâce à la médiation du

ministre salvadorien des affaires étrangères, les Gouvernements costa-
ricien et nicaraguayen se mirent d’accord le 15 avril 1858 sur un traité de
limites qui fut ratifié par le Costa Rica le 16 avril 1858 et par le Nicara-
gua le 26 avril 1858. Le traité de limites de 1858 fixait le tracé de la fron-
tière entre le Costa Rica et le Nicaragua depuis l’océan Pacifique jusqu’à

la mer des Caraïbes. Selon le tracé de la frontière, le district de Nicoya se
trouvait en territoire costa-ricien. Entre un point situé à 3 milles anglais
en aval de Castillo Viejo et la mer des Caraïbes, le traité fixait la frontière
le long de la rive droite du San Juan. Il établissait l’autorité et la juridic-
tion souveraine du Nicaragua sur les eaux du San Juan, mais affirmait en

même temps le droit de navigation «con objetos de comercio» du
Costa Rica sur le cours inférieur du fleuve (article VI). Le traité de 1858
énonçait d’autres droits et obligations des deux parties, notamment l’obli-
gation de contribuer à la défense des baies communes de San Juan del
Norte et de Salinas ainsi qu’à la défense du San Juan en cas d’agression
extérieure (article IV), l’obligation pour le Nicaragua de consulter le

Costa Rica avant de conclure tout accord de canalisation ou de passage
concernant le San Juan (article VIII) et l’interdiction pour les parties de
se livrer à des actes d’hostilité l’une envers l’autre (article IX).

20. Après que le Nicaragua eut, à plusieurs reprises, contesté la vali-

dité du traité de 1858, les Parties soumirent la question à l’arbitrage du
président des Etats-Unis. Elles convinrent en outre que, s’il venait à
conclure à la validité du traité de 1858, le président Cleveland devrait

20should also decide whether Costa Rica could navigate the San Juan River
with vessels of war or of the revenue service. In his Award rendered on

22 March 1888, President Cleveland held that the 1858 Treaty was valid.
He further stated, with reference to Article VI of the 1858 Treaty, that
Costa Rica did not have the right of navigation on the San Juan River
with vessels of war, but that it could navigate with such vessels of the
Revenue Service as may be connected to navigation “for the purposes of

commerce”.
21. Following the Cleveland Award, a boundary commission was
established to demarcate the boundary line. An engineer, Mr. Edward
Alexander, was charged with the task of resolving any “disputed point or
points” which might arise in the field during the demarcation process,

which began in 1897 and was concluded in 1900. Mr. Alexander rendered
five awards to this end.
22. On 5 August 1914, Nicaragua signed a treaty with the United
States (the Chamorro-Bryan Treaty) which granted the United States
perpetual and “exclusive proprietary rights” for the construction and
maintenance of an inter-oceanic canal through the San Juan River. On

24 March 1916 Costa Rica filed a case against Nicaragua before the Cen-
tral American Court of Justice claiming that Nicaragua had breached its
obligation to consult with Costa Rica prior to entering into any canaliza-
tion project in accordance with Article VIII of the 1858 Treaty. On
30 September 1916, the Central American Court of Justice ruled that, by

not consulting Costa Rica, Nicaragua had violated the rights guaranteed
to the latter by the 1858 Treaty of Limits and the 1888 Cleveland Award.
23. On 9 January 1956 Costa Rica and Nicaragua concluded an Agree-
ment (the Fournier-Sevilla Agreement) according to the terms of which the
Parties agreed to facilitate and expedite traffic in particular through the

San Juan River and agreed to co-operate to safeguard the common border.
24. In the 1980s various incidents started to occur relating to the navi-
gational régime of the San Juan River. During that period Nicaragua
introduced certain restrictions on Costa Rican navigation on the San
Juan River which it justified as temporary, exceptional measures to pro-

tect Nicaragua’s national security in the context of an armed conflict.
Some of the restrictions were suspended when Costa Rica protested.
During the mid-1990s further measures were introduced by Nicaragua,
including the charging of fees for passengers travelling on Costa Rican
vessels navigating on the San Juan River and the requirement for Costa
Rican vessels to stop at Nicaraguan Army posts along the river.

25. On 8 September 1995 the Commander-in-Chief of the Nicaraguan
Army and the Costa Rican Minister of Public Security signed a docu-
ment, known as the Cuadra-Castro Joint Communiqué, which provided

for the co-ordination of operations in the border areas of the two States
against the illegal trafficking of persons, vehicles and contraband.

21également déterminer si le Costa Rica pouvait faire naviguer sur le
San Juan ses bateaux de guerre ou ceux de son service des douanes. Dans

sa sentence du 22 mars 1888, le président Cleveland décida que le traité
de 1858 était valide. Il indiqua aussi, au sujet de l’article VI du traité, que
le Costa Rica n’avait pas le droit de faire naviguer ses bateaux de guerre
sur le San Juan, mais que les bateaux de son service des douanes pou-
vaient, eux, emprunter le fleuve dès lors qu’ils naviguaient «for the

purposes of commerce».
21. A la suite de la sentence Cleveland, une commission frontalière
chargée de démarquer la ligne frontière fut établie. Un ingénieur, Edward
Alexander, eut pour mission de résoudre tous «points litigieux» pouvant
s’élever sur le terrain pendant le processus de démarcation, qui com-

mença en 1897 et s’acheva en 1900. Alexander rendit cinq sentences à
cette fin.
22. Le 5 août 1914, le Nicaragua signa avec les Etats-Unis un traité (le
traité Chamorro-Bryan) accordant à ces derniers des «droits de propriété
exclusifs» et perpétuels pour le percement et l’entretien d’un canal
interocéanique empruntant le San Juan. Le 24 mars 1916, le Costa Rica

introduisit devant la Cour de justice centraméricaine une instance contre
le Nicaragua, qu’il accusait d’avoir manqué à son obligation de le consul-
ter préalablement à tout projet de canalisation, ainsi qu’il était prévu à
l’article VIII du traité de 1858. Le 30 septembre 1916, la Cour de justice
centraméricaine déclara que, en manquant de consulter le Costa Rica, le

Nicaragua avait violé les droits reconnus à ce dernier dans le traité de
limites de 1858 et dans la sentence Cleveland de 1888.
23. Le 9 janvier 1956, le Costa Rica et le Nicaragua conclurent un
accord (l’accord Fournier-Sevilla) dans le cadre duquel ils convenaient de
faciliter et d’accélérer la circulation notamment sur le San Juan et s’enga-

geaient à coopérer pour assurer la garde de la frontière commune.
24. Divers incidents liés au régime de la navigation sur le San Juan
commencèrent à se produire dans les années 1980. A cette époque, le
Nicaragua mit en place certaines restrictions applicables à la navigation
costa-ricienne sur le San Juan, restrictions qu’il justifia en les présentant

comme des mesures temporaires et exceptionnelles visant à protéger sa
sécurité nationale dans un contexte de conflit armé. Certaines de ces res-
trictions furent suspendues après que le Costa Rica eut protesté. Au
milieu des années 1990, le Nicaragua prit de nouvelles mesures, instituant
notamment le paiement de certaines sommes pour les passagers qui
empruntaient le San Juan à bord de bateaux costa-riciens et l’obligation,

pour les bateaux costa-riciens, de faire halte aux postes militaires nicara-
guayens situés le long du fleuve.
25. Le 8 septembre 1995, le commandant en chef de l’armée nicara-
guayenne et le ministre costa-ricien de la sécurité publique signèrent un
document, dit «communiqué conjoint Cuadra-Castro», qui prévoyait la

coordination des opérations menées dans les zones frontalières des
deux Etats contre le trafic illicite de personnes et de véhicules et la contre-
bande.

21 26. In July 1998 further disagreements between the Parties regarding
the extent of Costa Rica’s navigational rights on the San Juan River led

to the adoption by Nicaragua of certain measures. In particular, on
14 July 1998, Nicaragua prohibited the navigation of Costa Rican vessels
that transported members of Costa Rica’s police force. On 30 July 1998,
the Nicaraguan Minister of Defence and the Costa Rican Minister of
Public Security signed a document, known as the Cuadra-Lizano Joint

Communiqué. The text allowed for Costa Rican armed police vessels to
navigate on the river to re-supply their boundary posts on the Costa Rican
side, provided that the Costa Rican agents in those vessels only carried
their service arms and prior notice was given to the Nicaraguan authori-
ties, which could decide on whether the Costa Rican vessels should be

accompanied by a Nicaraguan escort. On 11 August 1998, Nicaragua
declared that it considered the Cuadra-Lizano Joint Communiqué to be
legally null and void. Costa Rica did not accept this unilateral declara-
tion. Differences regarding the navigational régime on the San Juan
River persisted between the Parties.

27. On 24 October 2001, Nicaragua made a reservation to its declara-
tion accepting the jurisdiction of the Court (see paragraph 1 above),
according to which it would no longer accept the jurisdiction of the
Court in regard to “any matter or claim based on interpretations of trea-
ties or arbitral awards that were signed and ratified or made, respectively,

prior to 31 December 1901”. Under the Tovar-Caldera Agreement, signed
by the Parties on 26 September 2002, Nicaragua agreed to a three year
moratorium with regard to the reservation it had made in 2001 to its dec-
laration accepting the jurisdiction of the Court. For its part, Costa Rica
agreed that during the same three year period it would not initiate any

action before the International Court of Justice nor before any other
authority on any matter or protest mentioned in treaties or agreements
currently in force between both countries.
28. Once the agreed three year period had elapsed without the Parties
having been able to settle their differences, Costa Rica, on 29 Septem-

ber 2005, instituted proceedings before the Court against Nicaragua with
regard to its disputed navigational and related rights on the San Juan
River (see paragraph 1 above). Nicaragua has not raised any objections
to the jurisdiction of the Court to entertain the case.

*

29. Taking account of the subject of the dispute as summarized above
and of the Parties’ submissions and arguments, the Court will proceed in
the following manner.

It will first determine the extent of Costa Rica’s right of free navigation
on the San Juan River (II).
It will next ascertain whether, and to what extent, within the ambit of

22 26. Au mois de juillet 1998, par suite de nouveaux désaccords entre les
Parties quant à l’étendue des droits de navigation du Costa Rica sur le

San Juan, le Nicaragua adopta certaines mesures. Le 14 juillet 1998, en
particulier, le Nicaragua interdit la navigation des bateaux costa-riciens
transportant des membres des forces de police du Costa Rica. Le
30 juillet 1998, le ministre nicaraguayen de la défense et le ministre costa-
ricien de la sécurité publique signèrent un accord, dit «communiqué

conjoint Cuadra-Lizano». Le texte ménageait aux bateaux costa-riciens
transportant des policiers en armes à leur bord la possibilité de naviguer
sur le fleuve pour ravitailler les postes frontière situés du côté costa-
ricien, à condition toutefois que les agents costa-riciens embarqués sur ces
bateaux portent uniquement leur arme de service et que les autorités nica-

raguayennes soient préalablement informées, celles-ci pouvant décider de
leur adjoindre une escorte nicaraguayenne. Le 11 août 1998, le Nicaragua
déclara que, selon lui, le communiqué conjoint Cuadra-Lizano était nul
et non avenu. Cette déclaration unilatérale ne fut pas acceptée par le
Costa Rica. Ainsi les Parties sont-elles restées divisées sur le régime de la
navigation sur le fleuve San Juan.

27. Le 24 octobre 2001, le Nicaragua a assorti sa déclaration d’accep-
tation de la juridiction de la Cour d’une réserve (voir paragraphe 1 ci-
dessus) indiquant qu’il ne reconnaîtrait plus la compétence de celle-ci à
l’égard «d’aucune affaire ni d’aucune requête qui auraient pour origine
l’interprétation de traités, signés ou ratifiés, ou de sentences arbitrales

rendues, avant le 31 décembre 1901». Dans l’accord Tovar-Caldera,
signé par les Parties le 26 septembre 2002, le Nicaragua a accepté que sa
réserve de 2001 à sa déclaration d’acceptation de la juridiction de la Cour
fasse l’objet d’un moratoire de trois ans. Pour sa part, le Gouvernement
du Costa Rica s’est engagé, pour la même période de trois ans, à n’inten-

ter d’action ni devant la Cour internationale de Justice ni devant aucune
autre instance au sujet d’une affaire ou d’une réclamation mentionnées
dans des traités ou accords actuellement en vigueur entre les deux Etats.
28. Le 29 septembre 2005, une fois écoulé ce délai convenu de trois ans
sans que les Parties soient parvenues à régler leurs divergences, le

Costa Rica a introduit une instance devant la Cour à l’encontre du Nica-
ragua au sujet du différend relatif à ses droits de navigation et droits
connexes sur le San Juan (voir paragraphe 1 ci-dessus). Le Nicaragua n’a
pas soulevé d’exception à la compétence de la Cour pour connaître de ce
différend.

*

29. Compte tenu de l’objet du différend tel qu’il est résumé ci-dessus,
et des conclusions et moyens des Parties, la Cour procédera de la manière
suivante.

Elle déterminera d’abord l’étendue du droit de libre navigation que
possède le Costa Rica sur le fleuve San Juan (II).
Elle se demandera en deuxième lieu si et dans quelle mesure, dans le

22the right thus defined, Nicaragua has the power to regulate navigation by

Costa Rican boats and whether the specific measures it has decided and
put into effect to this end during the period of the dispute are compatible
with Costa Rica’s rights (III).

It will then consider the question of the right which Costa Rica claims
for inhabitants of the Costa Rican bank of the river to engage in subsist-
ence fishing (IV).
Finally, in the light of its reasoning on the preceding points, it will con-

sider the Parties’ claims as presented to it in their final submissions, in
respect in particular of the appropriate remedies (V).

II. COSTA R ICAS RIGHT OF F REE N AVIGATION
ON THE S AN JUAN R IVER

30. The Parties agree that Costa Rica possesses a right of free naviga-
tion on the section of the San Juan River where the right bank, i.e. the
Costa Rican side, marks the border between the two States by virtue of
the Treaty of Limits (the Jerez-Cañas Treaty) concluded between them

on 15 April 1858. This is the part of the river which runs from a point
three English miles below Castillo Viejo, a town in Nicaraguan territory,
to the mouth of the river at the Caribbean Sea (see paragraph 16 above).

Upstream from the point referred to above, the San Juan flows entirely
in Nicaraguan territory from its source in Lake Nicaragua, in the sense
that both its banks belong to Nicaragua. The section of the river in which
the right bank belongs to Costa Rica, the section at issue in this dispute,

is some 140 kilometres long.
31. While it is not contested that the section of the river thus defined
belongs to Nicaragua, since the border lies on the Costa Rican bank,
with Costa Rica possessing a right of free navigation, the Parties differ

both as to the legal basis of that right and, above all, as to its precise
extent, in other words as to the types of navigation which it covers.

1. The Legal Basis of the Right of Free Navigation

32. According to Costa Rica, its right of free navigation on the part of

the San Juan River that is in dispute derives on the one hand from certain
treaty provisions in force between the Parties, primarily but not exclu-
sively the Treaty of Limits of 15 April 1858, and on the other hand from
the rules of general international law that are applicable, even in the

absence of treaty provisions, to navigation on “international rivers”. The
San Juan is said to fall into this category, at least as regards the section

23champ d’application du droit ainsi défini, le Nicaragua a le pouvoir de

réglementer la navigation des bateaux costa-riciens, et si les mesures par-
ticulières qu’il a décidées et mises en Œuvre à cette fin au cours de la
période écoulée depuis la naissance du différend sont compatibles avec les
droits du Costa Rica (III).
Elle examinera ensuite la question du droit des habitants de la rive

costa-ricienne du fleuve de pratiquer la pêche de subsistance, que reven-
dique le Costa Rica (IV).
Enfin, à la lumière des motifs qui auront été adoptés sur les points pré-
cédents, elle examinera les demandes que les Parties lui ont présentées

dans leurs conclusions finales concernant notamment les réparations
appropriées (V).

II. DU DROIT DE LIBRE NAVIGATION DU C OSTA R ICA
SUR LE FLEUVE SAN JUAN

30. Les deux Parties conviennent que le Costa Rica possède un droit

de libre navigation sur la portion du fleuve San Juan dont la rive droite,
celle qui se trouve du côté costa-ricien, marque la frontière entre les deux
Etats en vertu du traité de limites (dit «traité Jerez-Cañas») conclu entre
eux le 15 avril 1858. Il s’agit de la partie du fleuve qui va d’un point situé

à une distance de 3 milles anglais en aval de Castillo Viejo, ville située en
territoire nicaraguayen, jusqu’à l’embouchure du fleuve sur la mer des
Caraïbes (voir paragraphe 16 ci-dessus).
En amont du point précédemment désigné, le San Juan coule entière-
ment, depuis le lac Nicaragua où il prend sa source, en territoire nicara-

guayen, en ce sens que ses deux rives appartiennent au Nicaragua. La
partie du fleuve dont la rive droite appartient au Costa Rica, celle qui est
en cause dans le présent différend, est longue d’environ 140 kilomètres.
31. S’il n’est pas discuté que sur la portion du fleuve ainsi définie la

souveraineté appartient au Nicaragua, puisque la frontière se situe à la
rive costa-ricienne, tandis que le Costa Rica possède un droit de libre
navigation, les positions des Parties divergent, en revanche, à la fois
quant au fondement juridique de ce droit et surtout quant à son étendue

exacte, c’est-à-dire quant aux types de navigation qui sont couverts par
lui.

1. Le fondement juridique du droit de libre navigation

32. Selon le Costa Rica, le droit de libre navigation qu’il possède sur la
partie en litige du fleuve San Juan résulte, d’une part, de certaines dispo-
sitions conventionnelles en vigueur entre les deux Parties, à savoir prin-
cipalement, mais non exclusivement, le traité de limites du 15 avril 1858,

et, d’autre part, des règles du droit international général applicables,
même en l’absence de dispositions conventionnelles, à la navigation sur
les «fleuves internationaux». Le San Juan entrerait dans cette catégorie,

23whose course follows the border, with Costa Rica thus possessing a cus-
tomary right of free navigation in its capacity as a riparian State.

33. According to Nicaragua, on the contrary, the San Juan is not an
“international river”, since it flows entirely within the territory of a single
country by virtue of the provisions of the 1858 Treaty of Limits, which
establish the border in such a way that no part of the river falls under the

sovereignty of a State other than Nicaragua. Moreover, Nicaragua chal-
lenges the existence of a general régime that might be applicable, under
customary international law, to rivers whose course, or one of whose
banks, constitutes the border between two States, and more widely to
“international rivers”. Lastly, according to Nicaragua, even if such a

régime were to exist, it would be superseded in this case by the treaty pro-
visions which define the status of the San Juan River and govern the
riparian States’ right of navigation. It is these special provisions which
should be applied in order to settle the present dispute, in any event that
part of it relating to the right of navigation on the river.

34. The Court does not consider that it is required to take a position in
this case on whether and to what extent there exists, in customary inter-
national law, a régime applicable to navigation on “international rivers”,
either of universal scope or of a regional nature covering the geographi-
cal area in which the San Juan is situated. Nor does it consider, as a

result, that it is required to settle the question of whether the San Juan
falls into the category of “international rivers”, as Costa Rica maintains,
or is a national river which includes an international element, that being
the argument of Nicaragua.
35. Indeed, even if categorization as an “international river” would be

legally relevant in respect of navigation, in that it would entail the appli-
cation of rules of customary international law to that question, such rules
could only be operative, at the very most, in the absence of any treaty
provisions that had the effect of excluding them, in particular because
those provisions were intended to define completely the régime applicable

to navigation, by the riparian States on a specific river or a section of it.

36. That is precisely the case in this instance. The 1858 Treaty of
Limits completely defines the rules applicable to the section of the
San Juan River that is in dispute in respect of navigation. Interpreted
in the light of the other treaty provisions in force between the Parties,

and in accordance with the arbitral or judicial decisions rendered
on it, that Treaty is sufficient to settle the question of the extent of
Costa Rica’s right of free navigation which is now before the Court.
Consequently, the Court has no need to consider whether, if these
provisions did not exist, Costa Rica could nevertheless have relied for

this purpose on rules derived from international, universal or regional
custom.
37. The main provision which founds Costa Rica’s right of free navi-

24au moins quant à sa partie dont le tracé suit la frontière, et, par suite, le
Costa Rica posséderait un droit coutumier de libre navigation en sa qua-

lité d’Etat riverain.
33. Selon le Nicaragua, au contraire, le San Juan n’a pas le caractère
d’un «fleuve international», puisqu’il coule entièrement à l’intérieur du
territoire d’un même pays, du fait des dispositions du traité de limites
de 1858 qui fixent la frontière d’une façon telle qu’aucune portion du

fleuve ne relève de la souveraineté d’un Etat autre que le Nicaragua. En
outre, le Nicaragua conteste qu’il existe un régime général qui serait
applicable, en vertu du droit international coutumier, aux fleuves dont le
cours, ou l’une des rives, constitue la frontière entre deux Etats, et plus
généralement aux «fleuves internationaux». Enfin, selon le Nicaragua,

quand bien même un tel régime existerait, il serait supplanté en l’espèce
par les dispositions conventionnelles qui définissent le statut du fleuve
San Juan et régissent le droit des Etats riverains à la navigation. Ce sont
ces dispositions spéciales qu’il conviendrait d’appliquer pour résoudre le
présent différend, en tout cas dans sa partie relative au droit de naviga-
tion sur le fleuve.

34. La Cour ne croit pas devoir prendre parti, dans la présente affaire,
sur la question de savoir si et dans quelle mesure il existe, en droit inter-
national coutumier, un régime applicable à la navigation sur les «fleuves
internationaux», soit de portée universelle, soit de caractère régional en
ce qui concerne la zone géographique où se situe le San Juan. Elle ne croit

pas non plus, par voie de conséquence, devoir trancher la question de
savoir si le San Juan entre dans la catégorie des «fleuves internationaux»
— comme le soutient le Costa Rica — ou constitue un fleuve national
comportant un élément international — ce qui est la thèse du Nicaragua.
35. En effet, quand bien même la qualification de «fleuve internatio-

nal» serait juridiquement pertinente en matière de navigation en ce
qu’elle entraînerait l’application sur cette question de règles de droit
international coutumier, de telles règles ne pourraient produire effet, tout
au plus, qu’en l’absence de dispositions conventionnelles ayant pour
résultat de les écarter, notamment parce qu’elles viseraient à définir de

manière complète le régime applicable à la navigation par les Etats rive-
rains sur un fleuve déterminé ou une portion de celui-ci.
36. Tel est précisément le cas en l’espèce. Le traité de limites de 1858
définit de manière complète les règles applicables à la portion en litige du
fleuve San Juan en matière de navigation. Interprété à la lumière des
autres dispositions conventionnelles en vigueur entre les deux Parties, et

en conformité avec les décisions arbitrales ou judiciaires rendues à son
sujet, ce traité suffit à résoudre la question de l’étendue du droit du
Costa Rica à la libre navigation qui est présentement soumise à la Cour.
En conséquence, la Cour n’a pas besoin de se demander si, dans l’hypo-
thèse où ces dispositions n’auraient pas existé, le Costa Rica aurait néan-

moins pu se prévaloir à cette fin de règles tirées de la coutume interna-
tionale, universelle ou régionale.
37. La principale disposition qui fonde le droit du Costa Rica à la libre

24gation is contained in Article VI of the 1858 Treaty (see paragraphs 43
and 44 below); this has been the focus of the arguments exchanged

between the Parties as to the extent of the right of navigation on the
San Juan.
Article VI, after conferring on Nicaragua full and exclusive sover-
eignty (“exclusivamente el dominio y sumo imperio”) over the whole of
the San Juan, from its source in the lake to its mouth at the sea, grants

Costa Rica, on the section of the river which follows the border between
the two States (see paragraph 30 above), a perpetual right (“los dere-
chos perpetuos”) of free navigation “con objetos de comercio”, accord-
ing to the terms of the Spanish version of the Treaty, which is the only
authoritative one, the meaning of which the Court will be required to

return to below. In addition, Article VI gives vessels of both riparian
countries the right to land freely on either bank without being subject to
any taxes (“ninguna clase de impuestos”), unless agreed by both Gov-
ernments.
38. Other provisions of the 1858 Treaty, though of less importance for
the purposes of the present case, are not without relevance as regards the

right of navigation on the river. This applies in particular to Article IV,
which obliges Costa Rica to contribute to the security of the river “for
the part that belongs to her of the banks”, to Article VIII, which obliges
Nicaragua to consult Costa Rica before entering into any agreements
with a third State for canalization or transit on the river, and of course to

Article II, which establishes the border as the Costa Rican bank on the
section of the river which is at issue in this dispute.
39. Besides the 1858 Treaty, mention should be made, among the
treaty instruments likely to have an effect on determining the right of
navigation on the river and the conditions for exercising it, of the agree-

ment concluded on 9 January 1956 between the two States (known as the
Fournier-Sevilla Agreement), whereby the Parties agreed to collaborate
to the best of their ability, in particular in order to facilitate and expedite
traffic on the San Juan in accordance with the 1858 Treaty and the Arbi-
tral Award made by President Cleveland in 1888 (for the text of the rele-

vant provision of the 1956 Agreement, see paragraph 94 below).

40. Costa Rica has also invoked before the Court the joint ministerial
communiqués published on 8 September 1995 (known as the Cuadra-
Castro Joint Communiqué; see paragraph 25 above) and 30 July 1998
(known as the Cuadra-Lizano Joint Communiqué; see paragraph 26

above). In the Court’s view, however, these statements issued by the min-
isters responsible, on each side, for matters of defence and public secu-
rity, cannot be included in the conventional basis of the right of free
navigation granted to Costa Rica. Rather, these are practical arrange-
ments, in part aimed at implementing previous treaty commitments,

including in particular the obligation of co-operation referred to in the
Agreement of 9 January 1956 (see paragraph 23 above and paragraph 94
below). The legal effects of such arrangements are more limited than the

25navigation figure à l’article VI du traité de 1858 (voir paragraphes 43
et 44 ci-après); c’est celle qui s’est trouvée au centre des arguments échan-

gés par les Parties quant à l’étendue du droit de navigation sur le
San Juan.
L’article VI, après avoir conféré au Nicaragua la pleine et exclusive
souveraineté («exclusivamente el dominio y sumo imperio») sur la tota-
lité du San Juan, depuis sa source dans le lac jusqu’à son embouchure

dans la mer, reconnaît au Costa Rica, sur la portion du fleuve qui suit la
frontière entre les deux Etats (voir paragraphe 30 ci-dessus), un droit per-
pétuel («los derechos perpetuos») de libre navigation «con objetos de
comercio», selon les termes de la version espagnole du traité, qui seule
fait foi, et sur la signification desquels la Cour aura à revenir plus loin.

En outre, le même article VI reconnaît aux bateaux des deux pays rive-
rains le droit d’accoster librement sur l’une ou l’autre rive sans être sou-
mis à aucune taxe («ninguna clase de impuestos»), sauf accord entre les
deux gouvernements.
38. D’autres dispositions du traité de 1858, quoique de moindre impor-
tance aux fins de la présente affaire, ne sont pas dépourvues de pertinence

en ce qui concerne le droit de navigation sur le fleuve. Il en va ainsi
notamment de l’article IV, qui oblige le Costa Rica à concourir à la garde
du fleuve «pour la partie qui lui revient des rives» de celui-ci, de l’ar-
ticle VIII, qui oblige le Nicaragua à consulter le Costa Rica avant la
conclusion de tout accord de canalisation ou de passage sur le fleuve avec

un Etat tiers, et bien sûr de l’article II, qui fixe la frontière à la rive costa-
ricienne sur la partie du fleuve qui est en cause dans le présent différend.
39. Outre le traité de 1858, il y a lieu de mentionner, au titre des ins-
truments conventionnels susceptibles d’exercer un effet sur la définition
du droit de navigation sur le fleuve et les conditions de son exercice,

l’accord conclu le 9 janvier 1956 entre les deux Etats (dit «accord
Fournier-Sevilla»), par lequel les Parties convenaient de coopérer
dans toute la mesure de leurs possibilités afin, notamment, de faciliter et
d’accélérer la circulation sur le San Juan en conformité avec le traité
de 1858 et la sentence arbitrale rendue par le président Cleveland en

1888 (pour le libellé de la disposition pertinente de l’accord de 1956, voir
paragraphe 94 ci-après).
40. Le Costa Rica s’est également prévalu, devant la Cour, des com-
muniqués ministériels conjoints publiés le 8 septembre 1995 (dit «com-
muniqué conjoint Cuadra-Castro» ; voir paragraphe 25 ci-dessus) et le
30 juillet 1998 (dit «communiqué conjoint Cuadra-Lizano»; voir para-

graphe 26 ci-dessus). Toutefois, de l’avis de la Cour, ces déclarations,
émanant des ministres chargés de part et d’autre des questions de défense
et de sécurité publique, ne sauraient être englobées dans la base conven-
tionnelle du droit de libre navigation reconnu au Costa Rica. Il s’agit plu-
tôt d’arrangements pratiques destinés, pour partie, à mettre en Œuvre des

engagements antérieurs, en particulier l’obligation de coopération men-
tionnée dans l’accord du 9 janvier 1956 (voir paragraphe 23 ci-dessus et
paragraphe 94 ci-après). De tels arrangements ont une portée plus limitée

25conventional acts themselves: modalities for co-operation which they put
in place are likely to be revised in order to suit the Parties. Furthermore,

the second of them was promptly declared null and void by Nicaragua
(see paragraph 26 above).

41. The above-mentioned treaty instruments must be understood in
the light of two important decisions which settled differences that emerged

between the Parties in determining their respective rights and obligations:
the Arbitral Award made by the President of the United States on
22 March 1888 (known as the Cleveland Award); and the decision ren-
dered, on the application of Costa Rica, by the Central American Court
of Justice on 30 September 1916.

The first of these two decisions settled several questions concerning the
interpretation of the 1858 Treaty which divided the Parties in that case;
the second found that Nicaragua, by concluding an agreement with the
United States permitting the construction and maintenance of an inter-
oceanic canal through the San Juan River, had disregarded Costa Rica’s
right under Article VIII of that Treaty to be consulted before the conclu-

sion of any agreement of that nature.
Although neither of these decisions directly settles the questions that
are now before the Court, they contain certain indications which it will
be necessary to take into account for the purposes of the present case.

2. The Extent of the Right of Free Navigation
Attributed to Costa Rica

42. Having thus defined the legal basis of the right which Costa Rica
argues has been partly disregarded by Nicaragua, the Court must now
determine its precise extent, in other words, its field of application. The

Parties disagree considerably over the definition of this field of applica-
tion, i.e., as to the types of navigation which are covered by the “per-
petual right” granted to Costa Rica by the 1858 Treaty. Their difference
essentially concerns the interpretation of the words “libre navegación . . .
con objetos de comercio” in Article VI of the Treaty of Limits; this

brings with it a major disagreement as to the definition of the activities
covered by the right in question and of those which, not being thus cov-
ered, are subject to Nicaragua’s sovereign power to authorize and regu-
late as it sees fit any activity that takes place on its territory, of which the
river forms part.

(a) The meaning and scope of the expression “libre navegación . . . con
objetos de comercio”

43. In its Spanish version, which is the only authoritative one, Arti-
cle VI of the Treaty of Limits of 1858 reads as follows:

“La República de Nicaragua tendrá exclusivamente el dominio y

26que les actes conventionnels proprement dits: les modalités de la coopé-
ration qu’ils organisent sont susceptibles d’être revisées selon les conve-

nances des parties. Au surplus, le second d’entre eux a été rapidement
déclaré nul et non avenu par la partie nicaraguayenne (voir paragra-
phe 26 ci-dessus).
41. Les instruments conventionnels susmentionnés doivent être com-
pris à la lumière de deux décisions importantes ayant tranché des diver-

gences apparues entre les Parties dans la définition de leurs droits et
obligations respectifs: la sentence arbitrale rendue par le président des
Etats-Unis d’Amérique le 22 mars 1888 (dite «sentence Cleveland»);
l’arrêt rendu, sur la requête du Costa Rica, par la Cour de justice centra-
méricaine le 30 septembre 1916.

La première de ces deux décisions a tranché plusieurs questions rela-
tives à l’interprétation du traité de 1858 qui divisaient les parties dans
l’affaire en cause; la seconde a constaté que le Nicaragua, en concluant
avec les Etats-Unis d’Amérique un accord autorisant le percement et
l’entretien d’un canal interocéanique empruntant le San Juan, avait
méconnu le droit que le Costa Rica tenait de l’article VIII du même traité

d’être consulté avant la conclusion de tout accord de ce genre.
Bien qu’aucune de ces deux décisions ne tranche directement les ques-
tions qui sont à présent soumises à la Cour, elles comportent certaines
indications dont il y aura lieu de tenir compte pour les besoins de la pré-
sente affaire.

2. L’étendue du droit de libre navigation
reconnu au Costa Rica

42. Ayant ainsi défini le fondement juridique du droit dont le
Costa Rica soutient qu’il est en partie méconnu par le Nicaragua, la Cour
doit à présent en délimiter l’étendue exacte ou, en d’autres termes, le

champ d’application. Les Parties divergent en effet considérablement
quant à la définition de ce champ, c’est-à-dire quant aux types de naviga-
tion qui sont couverts par le «droit perpétuel» consenti au Costa Rica
par le traité de 1858. La divergence porte essentiellement sur l’interpréta-
tion des mots «libre navegación ... con objetos de comercio», à l’ar-

ticle VI du traité de limites; elle entraîne un désaccord important quant à
la définition des activités couvertes par le droit en cause et de celles qui,
ne l’étant pas, sont subordonnées au pouvoir souverain du Nicaragua
d’autoriser et de réglementer comme bon lui semble toute activité qui
prend place sur son territoire, dont le fleuve fait partie.

a) Le sens et la portée de l’expression «libre navegación ... con objetos
de comercio»

43. Dans sa version espagnole, la seule qui fasse foi, l’article VI du
traité de limites du 15 avril 1858 se lit ainsi:

«La República de Nicaragua tendrá exclusivamente el dominio y

26 sumo imperio sobre las aguas del río de San Juan desde su salida del
Lago, hasta su desembocadura en el Atlántico; pero la República de

Costa Rica tendrá en dichas aguas los derechos perpetuos de libre
navegación, desde la expresada desembocadura hasta tres millas
inglesas antes de llegar al Castillo Viejo, con objetos de comercio, ya
sea con Nicaragua ó al interior de Costa Rica por los ríos de San
Carlos ó Sarapiquí, ó cualquiera otra vía procedente de la parte que

en la ribera del San Juan se establece corresponder á esta República.
Las embarcaciones de uno ú otro país podrán indistintamente atracar
en las riberas del río, en la parte en que la navegación es común, sin
cobrarse ninguna clase de impuestos, á no ser que se establezcan de
acuerdo entre ambos Gobiernos.”

44. Leaving aside for the moment the phrase whose interpretation,
and indeed translation into English and French, divides the Parties, this

article may be translated thus:

“The Republic of Nicaragua shall have exclusive dominium and
imperium over the waters of the San Juan River from its origin in the
lake to its mouth at the Atlantic Ocean; the Republic of Costa Rica
shall however have a perpetual right of free navigation on the said
waters between the mouth of the river and a point located three Eng-

lish miles below Castillo Viejo, [con objetos de comercio] , whether
with Nicaragua or with the interior of Costa Rica by the rivers San
Carlos or Sarapiquí or any other waterway starting from the section
of the bank of the San Juan established as belonging to that Repub-
lic. The vessels of both countries may land indiscriminately on either

bank of the section of the river where navigation is common, with-
out paying any taxes, unless agreed by both Governments.” [Trans-
lation by the Court.]

45. The Parties’ disagreement is greatest on the meaning of the words
“con objetos de comercio”. For Nicaragua, this expression must be trans-

lated into French as “avec des marchandises de commerce” and into Eng-
lish as “with articles of trade”; in other words, the “objetos” in question
here are objects in the concrete and material sense of the term. Conse-
quently, the freedom of navigation guaranteed to Costa Rica by Arti-
cle VI relates only to the transport of goods intended to be sold in a
commercial exchange. For Costa Rica, on the contrary, the expression

means in French “à des fins de commerce” and in English “for the pur-
poses of commerce”; the “objetos” in the original text are therefore said
to be objects in the abstract sense of ends and purposes. Consequently,
according to Costa Rica, the freedom of navigation given to it by the
Treaty must be attributed the broadest possible scope, and in any event

encompasses not only the transport of goods but also the transport of
passengers, including tourists.

27 sumo imperio sobre las aguas del río de San Juan desde su salida del
Lago, hasta su desembocadura en el Atlántico; pero la República de

Costa Rica tendrá en dichas aguas los derechos perpetuos de libre
navegación, desde la expresada desembocadura hasta tres millas
inglesas antes de llegar al Castillo Viejo, con objetos de comercio, ya
sea con Nicaragua ó al interior de Costa Rica por los ríos de San
Carlos ó Sarapiquí, ó cualquiera otra vía procedente de la parte que

en la ribera del San Juan se establece corresponder á esta República.
Las embarcaciones de uno ú otro país podrán indistintamente atra-
car en las riberas del río, en la parte en que la navegación es común,
sin cobrarse ninguna clase de impuestos, á no ser que se establezcan
de acuerdo entre ambos Gobiernos.»

44. Si l’on fait abstraction, pour l’instant, du membre de phrase dont
l’interprétation, et la traduction même en français comme en anglais,

divisent les Parties, cet article peut être ainsi traduit:

«La République du Nicaragua aura le dominium et l’imperium
exclusifs sur les eaux du fleuve San Juan depuis son origine dans le
lac jusqu’à son embouchure dans l’océan Atlantique; la République
du Costa Rica aura toutefois un droit perpétuel de libre navigation
sur lesdites eaux, entre l’embouchure du fleuve et un point situé à

trois milles anglais en aval de Castillo Viejo, [con objetos de comer-
cio], soit avec le Nicaragua soit avec l’intérieur du Costa Rica par la
rivière San Carlos, la rivière Sarapiquí ou toute autre voie de naviga-
tion partant de la portion de la rive du San Juan établie comme
appartenant à cette république. Les bateaux des deux pays pourront

accoster indistinctement sur l’une ou l’autre rive de la portion du
fleuve où la navigation est commune, sans qu’aucune taxe ne soit
perçue, sauf accord entre les deux gouvernements.» [Traduction de
la Cour.]

45. C’est sur le sens des mots «con objetos de comercio» que les
Parties se divisent le plus profondément. Pour le Nicaragua, cette expres-

sion doit se traduire en français par «avec des marchandises de com-
merce» — et en anglais par «with articles of trade»; en d’autres termes,
les «objetos» dont il est ici question sont des objets au sens concret,
matériel du terme. Il en résulte que la liberté de navigation garantie par
l’article VI au Costa Rica ne concerne que le transport de marchandises
destinées à être vendues dans le cadre d’un échange commercial. Pour le

Costa Rica, au contraire, l’expression signifie en français «à des fins de
commerce» — et en anglais «for the purposes of commerce»; les «obje-
tos» du texte original seraient donc des objets au sens abstrait de finali-
tés, d’objectifs. Il en résulte, selon le Costa Rica, que la liberté de naviga-
tion qui lui est reconnue par le traité doit se voir conférer la portée la plus

large, et en tout cas qu’elle englobe non seulement le transport de mar-
chandises mais aussi le transport de personnes, y compris, entre autres,
de touristes.

27 46. Before directly addressing the question which has been submitted
to it, the Court will make three preliminary observations of a more gen-

eral nature. It will then consider what is to be understood by “con
objetos” and then by “comercio” within the meaning of Article VI, since
there is in fact a twofold disagreement between the Parties.

(i) Preliminary observations

47. In the first place, it is for the Court to interpret the provisions of a
treaty in the present case. It will do so in terms of customary interna-
tional law on the subject, as reflected in Articles 31 and 32 of the
1969 Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, as the Court has stated

on several occasions (see Application of the Convention on the Prevention
and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v.
Serbia and Montenegro), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2007 (I) , pp. 109-
110, para. 160; see also Territorial Dispute (Libyan Arab Jamahiriya/
Chad), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1994 , pp. 21-22, para. 41.)
Consequently, neither the circumstance that Nicaragua is not a party

to the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties nor the fact that the
treaty which is to be interpreted here considerably pre-dates the drafting
of the said Convention has the effect of preventing the Court from refer-
ring to the principles of interpretation set forth in Articles 31 and 32 of
the Vienna Convention.

48. In the second place, the Court is not convinced by Nicaragua’s
argument that Costa Rica’s right of free navigation should be interpreted
narrowly because it represents a limitation of the sovereignty over the
river conferred by the Treaty on Nicaragua, that being the most impor-
tant principle set forth by Article VI.

While it is certainly true that limitations of the sovereignty of a State
over its territory are not to be presumed, this does not mean that treaty
provisions establishing such limitations, such as those that are in issue in
the present case, should for this reason be interpreted a priori in a restric-
tive way. A treaty provision which has the purpose of limiting the sov-

ereign powers of a State must be interpreted like any other provision of a
treaty, i.e. in accordance with the intentions of its authors as reflected by
the text of the treaty and the other relevant factors in terms of interpreta-
tion.
A simple reading of Article VI shows that the Parties did not intend to
establish any hierarchy as between Nicaragua’s sovereignty over the river

and Costa Rica’s right of free navigation, characterized as “perpetual”,
with each of these affirmations counter-balancing the other. Nicaragua’s
sovereignty is affirmed only to the extent that it does not prejudice the
substance of Costa Rica’s right of free navigation in its domain, the
establishment of which is precisely the point at issue; the right of free

navigation, albeit “perpetual”, is granted only on condition that it does
not prejudice the key prerogatives of territorial sovereignty.

28 46. Avant d’aborder directement la question qui lui est soumise, la
Cour fera trois observations préalables, de caractère plus général. Elle se

demandera ensuite ce qu’il faut entendre par «con objetos», puis par
«comercio», au sens de l’article VI précité, puisque c’est en réalité un
double désaccord qui oppose les Parties.

i) Observations liminaires

47. En premier lieu, il revient à la Cour en l’espèce d’interpréter les
termes d’un traité. Elle le fera en se référant au droit international cou-
tumier en la matière, tel qu’il est reflété aux articles 31 et 32 de la conven-
tion de Vienne de 1969 sur le droit des traités, comme elle l’a affirmé à

plusieurs reprises (voir Application de la convention pour la prévention et
la répression du crime de génocide (Bosnie-Herzégovine c. Serbie-et-
Monténégro), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2007 (I) , p. 109-110, par. 160; voir
également Différend territorial (Jamahiriya arabe libyenne/Tchad), arrêt,
C.I.J. Recueil 1994, p. 21-22, par. 41).
En conséquence, ni la circonstance que le Nicaragua n’est pas partie à

la convention de Vienne sur le droit des traités, ni le fait que le traité qu’il
s’agit ici d’interpréter est bien antérieur à l’élaboration de ladite conven-
tion, n’ont pour effet d’empêcher la Cour de se référer aux principes
d’interprétation énoncés aux articles 31 et 32 de la convention de Vienne.

48. En deuxième lieu, la Cour n’est pas convaincue par l’argument du
Nicaragua selon lequel le droit de libre navigation du Costa Rica devrait
recevoir une interprétation étroite dès lors qu’il représente une limite à la
souveraineté que le traité confère au Nicaragua sur le fleuve, laquelle
constituerait le principe le plus important affirmé par l’article VI.

S’il est bien exact que les limites à la souveraineté d’un Etat sur son
territoire ne se présument pas, il n’en résulte pas pour autant que des dis-
positions conventionnelles instituant de telles limites, telles que celles qui
sont en cause dans la présente espèce, devraient recevoir pour cette raison
une interprétation étroite a priori. La disposition d’un traité qui a pour

objet de limiter les pouvoirs souverains d’un Etat doit être interprétée
comme toute autre disposition conventionnelle, à savoir conformément
aux intentions de ses auteurs telles qu’elles sont révélées par le texte du
traité et les autres éléments pertinents en matière d’interprétation.
Or, la simple lecture de l’article VI fait apparaître que les Parties n’ont
pas entendu établir une hiérarchie entre la souveraineté du Nicaragua sur

le fleuve et le droit, qualifié de «perpétuel», de libre navigation du Costa
Rica, chacune de ces deux affirmations faisant contrepoids à l’autre. La
souveraineté du Nicaragua n’est affirmée que pour autant qu’elle ne
porte pas atteinte à la substance même du droit de libre navigation du
Costa Rica dans le domaine qui est le sien, et qu’il s’agit précisément de

déterminer; le droit de libre navigation, pour «perpétuel» qu’il soit, n’est
reconnu que sous réserve qu’il ne porte pas atteinte aux prérogatives
essentielles du souverain territorial.

28 There are thus no grounds for supposing, a priori, that the words
“libre navegación . . . con objetos de comercio” should be given a spe-

cially restrictive interpretation, any more than an extensive one.
49. Lastly, the Court observes that none of the points under examina-
tion in this case was settled by the Cleveland Award of 1888 or by the
decision of the Central American Court of Justice of 1916. Each of the
Parties has sought to use these previous decisions as an argument to sup-

port its own case. However, these attempts do not convince the Court
one way or the other.
The Cleveland Award confined itself to settling the questions of inter-
pretation which the Parties had expressly submitted to the arbitrator.
Those questions did not concern the meaning of the words “con objetos de

comercio”; it is therefore futile to seek in the Award the answer to a ques-
tion that was not put before the arbitrator. Consequently, while the Award
declares that Costa Rica does not have the right, under the Treaty, to navi-
gate on the San Juan with vessels of war, whereas it does have the right to
do so with vessels of its revenue service, there is nothing to be inferred
from this with regard to vessels belonging to the State and not falling into

either of those two categories. Likewise, while the arbitrator used the
words “for the purposes of commerce” and placed them in quotation
marks, it may be supposed that this was simply because that was the Eng-
lish translation of the words “con objetos de comercio” which both Parties
had supplied to the arbitrator, who did not wish, in his interpretation of

the Treaty, to go beyond the questions which had been put before him.
As for the decision of the Central American Court of Justice of 1916,
however important this might be, its operative part was based only on the
application of the express provisions of Article VIII of the Treaty, which
are not at issue in the present case.

(ii) The meaning of the phrase “con objetos”

50. It is now appropriate to consider the issue of the meaning of the
phrase “con objetos de” as used in Article VI of the 1858 Treaty, specifi-

cally whether it means “for the purposes of” — as Costa Rica con-
tends — or “with articles of” — as Nicaragua contends.
51. It should first be observed that the Spanish word “objetos” can,
depending on its context, have either of the two meanings put forward.
Thus, the context must be examined to ascertain the meaning to be
ascribed here. The two meanings — one concrete and the other abstract —

are sufficiently different that examination of the context will generally
allow for a firm conclusion to be reached.
52. Having conducted this examination, the Court is of the view that
the interpretation advocated by Nicaragua cannot be upheld.
The main reason for this is that ascribing the meaning “with goods” or

“with articles” to the phrase “con objetos” results in rendering meaning-
less the entire sentence in which the phrase appears.

29 Il n’y a donc pas lieu de supposer, a priori, que les termes de «libre
navegación ... con objetos de comercio» devraient recevoir une interpré-

tation spécialement restrictive, pas plus qu’une interprétation extensive.
49. Enfin, la Cour relève qu’aucun des points qui se trouvent présen-
tement soumis à son examen n’a été tranché par la sentence Cleveland
de 1888 ou par l’arrêt de la Cour de justice centraméricaine de 1916. Cha-
cune des Parties a cherché à tirer argument de ces décisions antérieures au

soutien de ses propres thèses. Mais ces tentatives ne convainquent la
Cour ni dans un sens ni dans l’autre.
La sentence Cleveland s’est bornée à trancher les questions d’interpré-
tation que les Parties avaient expressément soumises à l’arbitre. Au nom-
bre de ces questions ne figurait pas celle du sens des termes «con objetos

de comercio»; il est donc vain de chercher dans la sentence la réponse à
une question qui n’était pas posée à l’arbitre. Ainsi, si la sentence déclare
que le Costa Rica n’a pas le droit, en vertu du traité, de faire naviguer sur
le San Juan ses navires de guerre, tandis qu’il a le droit d’y faire circuler
ses bateaux du service des douanes, il n’y a rien à en déduire quant aux
bateaux appartenant à l’Etat et ne relevant d’aucune de ces deux catégo-

ries. De même, si l’arbitre a employé les mots «aux fins du commerce»
(«for the purposes of commerce») en les plaçant entre guillemets, on peut
supposer que c’est simplement parce que telle était la traduction en
anglais des termes «con objetos de comercio» que les deux Parties
avaient fournie à l’arbitre, et que ce dernier ne souhaitait pas aller, dans

l’interprétation du traité, au-delà des questions qui lui étaient soumises.
Quant à l’arrêt de la Cour de justice centraméricaine de 1916, pour
important qu’il fût, il s’est borné à fonder son dispositif sur l’application
des stipulations expresses de l’article VIII du traité, qui ne sont pas en
cause dans la présente affaire.

ii) Le sens des mots «con objetos»

50. Il convient à présent d’examiner la question de savoir quel est le
sens des mots «con objetos de» tels qu’employés à l’article VI du traité de

1858, et plus précisément s’ils signifient «aux fins de» — thèse du
Costa Rica — ou «avec des marchandises de» — thèse du Nicaragua.
51. Il y a lieu de relever d’abord que le mot espagnol «objetos» peut
revêtir l’une ou l’autre des deux significations en cause, selon le contexte où
il est employé. C’est donc vers ce contexte qu’il faut se tourner pour déter-
miner le sens à retenir. Les deux sens — le sens concret et le sens abs-

trait — sont suffisamment éloignés l’un de l’autre pour que, en règle géné-
rale, l’examen du contexte permette de parvenir à une conclusion sûre.
52. Procédant à un tel examen, la Cour est d’avis que l’interprétation
suggérée par le Nicaragua ne saurait être retenue.
La raison principale en est que le fait d’attribuer aux mots «con obje-

tos» la signification de «avec des marchandises» ou «avec des articles»
aboutit à priver de sens l’ensemble de la phrase dans laquelle ces mots
s’insèrent.

29 The part of Article VI which is relevant in this connection reads:
“Costa Rica tendrá . . . los derechos perpetuos de libre navegación . . .,

con objetos de comercio, ya sea con Nicaragua ó al interior de Costa
Rica.”
If Nicaragua’s interpretation were to be accepted, there would be no
intelligible relationship between the clause following the phrase “con
objetos de comercio”, i.e., “ya sea con Nicaragua ó al interior de

Costa Rica” (“whether with Nicaragua or with the interior of Costa
Rica”), and the preceding part of the sentence.
Either the words “with Nicaragua” would relate to “objetos de com-
ercio”, which would hardly make sense, since it would not be meaningful
to speak of “goods (or articles) of trade with Nicaragua”; or these words

relate to “navegación” and that would make even less sense, because the
expression “navegación . . . con Nicaragua” would simply be incompre-
hensible.
By contrast, Costa Rica’s interpretation of the words “con objetos”
allows the entire sentence to be given coherent meaning. If the phrase
means “purposes of commerce”, then the immediately following clause,

“ya sea con Nicaragua . . .”, plainly relates to “comercio” (“for the pur-
poses of commerce with Nicaragua . . .”), and the sentence then conveys
a perfectly comprehensible idea.

Thus, in the present instance a literal analysis of the sentence contain-

ing the words requiring interpretation leads to one of the proposed mean-
ings being preferred over the other.
53. The preceding finding is supported by three additional arguments
which all point to the same conclusion.
54. First, “objetos” is used in another article of the 1858 Treaty, Arti-

cle VIII, in which context it can only have the abstract meaning of
“purposes” or “subjects”: “Nicaragua se compromete á no concluir otro
(contrato) sobre los expresados objetos . . .” (“Nicaragua engages not to
conclude any other contract for those purposes . . .”).
It is reasonable to infer that the Parties tended to understand “objetos”

in its abstract sense, or, at least, that this meaning was familiar to them in
their treaty practice.
55. Second, a further indication may be deduced from the “Cañas-
Martinez” Peace Treaty signed by the Parties on 8 December 1857 but
which was never ratified and hence did not enter into force. On the ques-
tion of navigation on the San Juan, this instrument, replaced by the

1858 Treaty of Limits, which repeats some of the earlier provisions,
included the expression “artículos de comercio”, which undoubtedly
translates as “articles” or “goods” of commerce. This would tend to show
that when the Parties at the time wished to refer to physical property
giving rise to commercial transactions, they used a term other than

“objetos de comercio”, a term having the advantage of being unambigu-
ous. Further, it is reasonable to believe that the Parties’ replacement of
one word with another in two successive instruments, the second of

30 La partie de l’article VI à considérer à cette fin est la suivante:
«Costa Rica tendrá ... los derechos perpetuos de libre navegación ..., con

objetos de comercio, ya sea con Nicaragua ó al interior de Costa Rica.»

Si l’on retenait l’interprétation du Nicaragua, le membre de phrase qui
suit les mots «con objetos de comercio», à savoir «ya sea con Nicaragua
ó al interior de Costa Rica» («soit avec le Nicaragua soit avec l’intérieur

du Costa Rica»), ne pourrait pas se rattacher de manière intelligible à la
partie qui le précède.
Ou bien les mots «con Nicaragua» se rapporteraient à «objetos de
comercio», ce qui n’aurait guère de sens, car on ne saurait parler de
«marchandises (ou articles) de commerce avec le Nicaragua»; ou bien ces

mots se rapporteraient à «navegación» et cela en aurait encore moins,
car l’expression «navegación ... con Nicaragua» serait tout simplement
incompréhensible.
Au contraire, l’interprétation des mots «con objetos» défendue par le
Costa Rica permet de donner à l’ensemble de la phrase un sens cohérent.
S’il s’agit des «fins du commerce» («purposes of commerce»), alors les

mots «ya sea con Nicaragua...», qui suivent immédiatement, se rap-
portent clairement à «comercio» («aux fins du commerce avec
le Nicaragua...»), et la phrase exprime alors une idée qui se comprend
parfaitement.
Ainsi, c’est en l’espèce l’analyse littérale de la phrase dans laquelle

s’insèrent les mots soumis à interprétation qui conduit à donner une pré-
férence à l’une des interprétations proposées par rapport à l’autre.
53. La conclusion qui précède est confortée par trois arguments sup-
plémentaires allant tous dans le même sens.
54. En premier lieu, le mot «objetos» est employé dans un autre article

du traité de 1858, l’article VIII, dans le contexte duquel il ne peut avoir
que le sens abstrait de «fins» ou de «sujets»: «Nicaragua se compromete
á no concluir otro (contrato) sobre los expresados objetos...» («Le Nica-
ragua s’engage à ne pas conclure d’autre contrat aux mêmes fins...»).
On peut raisonnablement en déduire que les Parties avaient tendance à

comprendre «objetos» dans son sens abstrait, ou en tout cas que dans
leur pratique conventionnelle ce sens leur était familier.
55. En deuxième lieu, une indication peut être tirée du traité de paix
dit «Cañas-Martinez», signé le 8 décembre 1857 par les deux Parties mais
qui n’est jamais entré en vigueur faute d’avoir été ratifié par elles. Ce
texte, auquel s’est substitué le traité de limites de 1858 qui en reprend cer-

taines dispositions, comportait sur la question de la navigation sur le
San Juan l’expression «artículos de comercio», qui se traduit sans doute
possible par «articles» ou «marchandises» de commerce. Cela tendrait à
démontrer que lorsque les Parties, à l’époque, voulaient désigner les biens
matériels donnant lieu à des opérations de commerce, elles avaient recours

à une autre expression que «objetos de comercio», présentant l’avantage
de ne pas laisser place à l’ambiguïté. De même, on peut penser que la
substitution d’un mot à un autre dans deux textes successifs dont le

30which was drafted shortly after the first, indicates that the Parties wished
in the second to refer to something different from that in the first and

that the two terms used must not be taken to mean the same thing.

56. Finally, the Court also considers it significant that in 1887, when
the two Parties each submitted an English translation of the 1858 Treaty
to President Cleveland for use in the arbitration proceedings he was

asked to conduct, even though their translations were not identical on all
points, they did use the same phrase to render the original “con objetos
de comercio”: “for the purposes of commerce”.

By itself, this argument is undoubtedly not conclusive, because the

only authoritative version of the instrument is the Spanish one and at the
time the Parties might have made the same mistake in translation, which
cannot be treated as an implicit amendment of the 1858 Treaty. It is also
no doubt true that Nicaragua might have paid insufficient heed to the
meaning of the term “objetos de comercio”, which was not at issue in the
questions submitted to the arbitrator; this could be the explanation for a

translation done by it in haste. It nonetheless remains the case that this
concurrence, occurring relatively soon after the Treaty was concluded, is
a significant indication that at the time both Parties understood “con
objetos de comercio” to mean “for the purposes of commerce”.
This is the meaning accepted by the Court.

(iii) The meaning of the word “commerce”

57. The preceding finding does not entirely resolve the issue of inter-
pretation argued by the Parties. Now that it has been determined that

“con objetos de comercio” means “for the purposes of commerce”, the
meaning to be ascribed to the word “commerce” in the context of Arti-
cle VI remains to be determined, so that the exact extent of the right of
free navigation can be defined. On this point as well, the Parties disagree.
58. In Nicaragua’s view, for purposes of the Treaty, “commerce” cov-

ers solely the purchase and sale of merchandise, of physical goods, and
excludes all services, such as passenger transport. This interpretation is
clearly consistent with Nicaragua’s contention, just rejected, that “con
objetos” means “with merchandise”. But, Nicaragua argues, even if the
phrase is translated as “for the purposes of commerce”, the result is the
same, because in 1858 the word “commerce” necessarily meant trade in

goods and did not extend to services, the inclusion of services being a
very recent development. Nicaragua admits that passengers were already
being transported on the San Juan in 1858, and even that this was an
especially profitable activity, but it adds that this activity did not fall
within the scope of what was commonly called “commerce” at that time.

As for the transport of tourists, there was no such activity at the time in
the area in question.

31second a été rédigé peu de temps après le premier signifie que les Parties
ont voulu désigner, dans le second de ces textes, autre chose que dans le

premier, et que les deux termes employés ne doivent pas être pris dans le
même sens.
56. Enfin, la Cour ne peut manquer de relever que lorsqu’en 1887 les
deux Parties ont chacune fourni au président Cleveland, pour les besoins
de l’arbitrage qu’il était appelé à rendre, une traduction en anglais du

traité de 1858, et bien que les traductions préparées par l’une et l’autre ne
fussent pas identiques sur tous les points, elles ont employé les mêmes
termes pour rendre l’original «con objetos de comercio»: «for the pur-
poses of commerce».
Sans doute l’argument n’est-il pas décisif à lui seul, puisque seule la ver-

sion espagnole du texte fait foi, et que les Parties pourraient avoir commis
à l’époque la même erreur de traduction, sans que cela puisse être assimilé
à une revision implicite du traité de 1858. Sans doute aussi le Nicaragua
peut-il ne pas avoir prêté alors une attention suffisante au sens des mots
«objetos de comercio», qui n’étaient pas en cause dans les questions sou-
mises à l’arbitre, ce qui pourrait expliquer, de sa part, une traduction

hâtive. Il n’en reste pas moins que cette convergence, qui s’est produite
relativement peu de temps après la conclusion du traité, constitue un indice
non négligeable que les Parties comprenaient à l’époque l’une et l’autre les
mots «con objetos de comercio» dans le sens de «aux fins du commerce».
C’est ce sens que la Cour retient.

iii) Le sens du mot «commerce»

57. La conclusion qui précède ne règle pas entièrement la question
d’interprétation débattue entre les Parties. Une fois établi que «con obje-

tos de comercio» signifie «aux fins du commerce», il reste à déterminer,
pour définir l’étendue exacte du droit de libre navigation, le sens à attri-
buer au mot «commerce» dans le contexte de l’article VI. Sur ce point
également les Parties divergent.
58. Selon le Nicaragua, la notion de «commerce» au sens du traité ne

vise que l’achat et la vente de marchandises, de biens matériels, à l’exclu-
sion de toute activité de services, telle que le transport de passagers. Cette
interprétation est évidemment cohérente avec la thèse du Nicaragua, qui
vient d’être écartée, selon laquelle «con objetos» signifie «avec des mar-
chandises». Mais, selon le Nicaragua, même si l’on traduit l’expression
par «aux fins du commerce», cela ne change rien, car en 1858 le mot

«commerce» signifiait nécessairement commerce de biens et n’englobait
pas les services, une telle inclusion étant un phénomène très récent. Le
Nicaragua admet qu’en 1858 le transport de passagers sur le San Juan
existait déjà, et qu’il s’agissait même d’une activité particulièrement lucra-
tive, mais ajoute que cette activité n’entrait pas dans le champ de ce que

l’on appelait à l’époque le «commerce» dans l’usage courant. Quant au
transport de touristes, c’était une activité inconnue à l’époque dans la
région considérée.

31 Nicaragua contends that it is important to give the words used in the
Treaty the meaning they had at the time the Treaty was concluded, not

their current meaning, which can be quite different, because this is the
only way to remain true to the intent of the drafters of the Treaty; and
determining that intent is the main task in the work of interpretation.
59. Costa Rica argues that “commerce” as used in the Treaty takes in
any activity in pursuit of commercial purposes and includes, inter alia,

the transport of passengers, tourists among them, as well as of goods.
The Applicant adds that “commerce” is a broad concept which extends
even beyond for-profit activities; in this regard it cites the nineteenth-
century editions of the Dictionary of the Royal Spanish Academy , which
gives the word “comercio” the second meaning of “comunicación y trato

de unas gentes ó pueblos con otros”, or communication and dealings of
some persons or peoples with others. It follows, argues Costa Rica, that
“commerce” includes movement and contact between inhabitants of the
villages on the Costa Rican bank of the San Juan River, and the use of
the river for purposes of navigation by Costa Rican public officials pro-
viding the local population with essential services, in areas such as health,

education and security.

60. The Court can subscribe to neither the particularly broad interpre-
tation advocated by Costa Rica nor the excessively narrow one put for-
ward by Nicaragua.

61. In respect of the first, the Court observes that, were it to be
accepted, the result would be to bring within the ambit of “navigation for
the purposes of commerce” all, or virtually all, forms of navigation on
the river. If that had been the intent of the parties to the Treaty, it would
be difficult to see why they went to the trouble of specifying that the right

of free navigation was guaranteed “for the purposes of commerce”, given
that this language would have had virtually no effect. While Costa Rica
did maintain in the hearings that the phrase “for the purposes of com-
merce” in the context of Article VI did not result in restricting the scope
of the “right of free navigation” granted earlier in the same sentence, but

rather was intended to enlarge that right, the Court cannot adopt this
view: expressly stating the purpose for which a right may be exercised
implies in principle the exclusion of all other purposes and, consequently,
imposes the limitation thus defined on the field of application of the right
in question — subject to the possibility that the right may be exercisable
beyond that scope on separate legal bases.

Thus, the language found in Article VI means that the right of free
navigation granted to Costa Rica in that provision applies exclusively
within the ambit of navigation “for the purposes of commerce” and
ceases to apply beyond that ambit; the bounds of which it is now for the
Court to determine. This determination is without effect on the existence

of any right of navigation which Costa Rica may enjoy pursuant to pro-
visions other than Article VI.
62. In respect of the narrow interpretation advanced by Nicaragua,

32 Or, selon le Nicaragua, il importe de donner aux mots employés dans
le traité le sens qu’ils possédaient à l’époque de la conclusion de celui-ci et

non leur sens actuel, qui peut en être plus ou moins éloigné, car c’est la
seule manière de rester fidèle à l’intention des auteurs du traité, dont la
recherche doit être le principal critère dans le travail d’interprétation.
59. Pour le Costa Rica, au contraire, le «commerce» au sens du traité
englobe toute activité poursuivant des fins commerciales et inclut, entre

autres, le transport de passagers, y compris de touristes, aussi bien que de
marchandises. Le demandeur ajoute que le «commerce» est une notion
large qui s’étend même au-delà des activités poursuivant une finalité
lucrative: il se réfère à cet égard au Dictionnaire de l’Académie royale
e
espagnole, dans ses éditions du XIX siècle, qui donne au mot «comer-
cio» le second sens de «comunicación y trato de unas gentes ó pueblos
con otros», soit la communication et les relations entre des personnes ou
entre des peuples. Il en résulte, toujours selon le Costa Rica, que le «com-
merce» inclut notamment la circulation et les contacts entre habitants des

villages situés sur la rive costa-ricienne du fleuve San Juan, ainsi que l’uti-
lisation du fleuve à des fins de navigation par les agents publics costa-
riciens qui fournissent à la population locale des services essentiels, par
exemple en matière de santé, d’éducation et de sécurité.
60. La Cour ne peut souscrire ni à l’interprétation particulièrement

large proposée par le Costa Rica, ni à l’interprétation excessivement
étroite défendue par le Nicaragua.
61. En ce qui concerne la première, la Cour observe que, si elle était
retenue, elle aboutirait à englober dans la «navigation aux fins du com-
merce» toute forme, ou presque, de navigation sur le fleuve. Si telle avait

été l’intention des parties au traité, on comprend mal qu’elles aient pris
soin de préciser que le droit de libre navigation était garanti «aux fins du
commerce», cette dernière mention étant alors pratiquement dépourvue
de portée. Il est vrai que le Costa Rica a soutenu lors des audiences que
les mots «aux fins du commerce», dans le contexte de l’article VI, n’ont

pas pour effet de restreindre la portée du «droit de libre navigation»
reconnu précédemment dans la même phrase, mais auraient plutôt pour
objet d’étendre le droit en cause. Mais la Cour ne saurait souscrire à un
tel point de vue: le fait d’indiquer expressément l’objet en vue duquel un
droit peut être exercé implique en principe l’exclusion de tous autres

objets et, par suite, limite dans la mesure ainsi définie le domaine d’appli-
cation du droit en cause — sans préjudice de ce que le même droit puisse
s’exercer hors de ce domaine sur des fondements juridiques distincts.
Ainsi, la formule employée à l’article VI signifie que le droit de libre
navigation reconnu au Costa Rica par cette disposition ne s’applique que

dans le domaine de la navigation «aux fins du commerce» et cesse de
s’appliquer en dehors de ce domaine, dont il appartient maintenant à la
Cour de déterminer l’étendue. Cette détermination est sans préjudice de
l’existence, le cas échéant, d’un droit de navigation qui serait conféré au

Costa Rica par l’effet d’autres dispositions que l’article VI.
62. En ce qui concerne l’interprétation étroite proposée par le Nicara-

32the Court observes that it is supported mainly by two arguments: the first
is based on the Respondent’s interpretation of the phrase “con objetos”,

which has just been rejected; the second is based on the assertion that
“commerce” should be given the narrow meaning it had when the Treaty
was entered into.
63. The Court does not agree with this second argument.
It is true that the terms used in a treaty must be interpreted in light of

what is determined to have been the parties’ common intention, which is,
by definition, contemporaneous with the treaty’s conclusion. That may
lead a court seised of a dispute, or the parties themselves, when they seek
to determine the meaning of a treaty for purposes of good-faith compli-
ance with it, to ascertain the meaning a term had when the treaty was

drafted, since doing so can shed light on the parties’ common intention.
The Court has so proceeded in certain cases requiring it to interpret a
term whose meaning had evolved since the conclusion of the treaty at
issue, and in those cases the Court adhered to the original meaning (to
this effect, see, for example, the Judgment of 27 August 1952 in the case
concerning Rights of Nationals of the United States of America in

Morocco (France v. United States of America) (I.C.J. Reports 1952,
p. 176), on the question of the meaning of “dispute” in the context of a
treaty concluded in 1836, the Court having determined the meaning of
this term in Morocco when the treaty was concluded; the Judgment of
13 December 1999 in the case concerning Kasikili/Sedudu Island (Bot-

swana/Namibia) (I.C.J. Reports 1999 (II) , p. 1062, para. 25) in respect
of the meaning of “centre of the main channel” and “thalweg” when the
Anglo-German Agreement of 1890 was concluded).
64. This does not however signify that, where a term’s meaning is no
longer the same as it was at the date of conclusion, no account should

ever be taken of its meaning at the time when the treaty is to be inter-
preted for purposes of applying it.
On the one hand, the subsequent practice of the parties, within the
meaning of Article 31 (3) (b) of the Vienna Convention, can result in a
departure from the original intent on the basis of a tacit agreement

between the parties. On the other hand, there are situations in which the
parties’ intent upon conclusion of the treaty was, or may be presumed to
have been, to give the terms used — or some of them — a meaning or
content capable of evolving, not one fixed once and for all, so as to make
allowance for, among other things, developments in international law. In
such instances it is indeed in order to respect the parties’ common inten-

tion at the time the treaty was concluded, not to depart from it, that
account should be taken of the meaning acquired by the terms in ques-
tion upon each occasion on which the treaty is to be applied.
65. A good illustration of this reasoning is found in the Judgment
handed down by the Court on 18 December 1978 in the case concerning

Aegean Sea Continental Shelf (Greece v. Turkey) (I.C.J. Reports 1978,
p. 3).
Called upon to interpret a State’s reservation to a treaty excluding

33gua, la Cour observe qu’elle est principalement justifiée par deux argu-
ments: le premier est tiré de l’interprétation donnée par le défendeur des

mots «con objetos», qui vient d’être écartée; le second est tiré de ce
que le mot «commerce» devrait recevoir le sens étroit qu’il possédait à
l’époque de la conclusion du traité.
63. La Cour ne souscrit pas à ce dernier argument.
Il est vrai que les termes employés dans un traité doivent être inter-

prétés sur la base d’une recherche de la commune intention des parties,
laquelle est, par définition, contemporaine de la conclusion du traité.
Cela peut conduire le juge, lorsqu’il est saisi d’un différend, ou les parties
elles-mêmes, lorsqu’elles cherchent à comprendre le sens du traité en vue
de l’appliquer de bonne foi, à rechercher la signification qu’un terme pos-

sédait au moment où le traité a été rédigé, une telle recherche étant sus-
ceptible d’éclairer la commune intention des parties. C’est ainsi que la
Cour a procédé dans certaines affaires dans lesquelles il s’agissait d’inter-
préter un terme dont le sens avait évolué depuis la conclusion du traité en
cause, et dans ces affaires la Cour s’en est tenue au sens originaire (voir
en ce sens, par exemple, l’arrêt du 27 août 1952 en l’affaire relative aux

Droits des ressortissants des Etats-Unis au Maroc (France c. Etats-Unis
d’Amérique) (C.I.J. Recueil 1952, p. 176), à propos du sens du terme
«différend» dans le contexte d’un traité conclu en 1836, la Cour ayant
recherché quel pouvait être le sens de ce terme au Maroc à l’époque de la
conclusion du traité; l’arrêt du 13 décembre 1999 en l’affaire de l’Ile de

Kasikili/Sedudu (Botswana/Namibie) (C.I.J. Recueil 1999 (II) , p. 1062,
par. 25) à propos du sens des termes «centre du chenal principal» et
«thalweg» à l’époque de la conclusion du traité anglo-allemand de 1890).
64. Toutefois, cela ne signifie pas qu’il ne faille jamais tenir compte du
sens que possède un terme au moment où le traité doit être interprété en

vue d’être appliqué, lorsque ce sens n’est plus le même que celui qu’il pos-
sédait à la date de la conclusion.
D’une part, la prise en compte de la pratique ultérieure des parties, au
sens de l’article 31-3-b) de la convention de Vienne, peut conduire à
s’écarter de l’intention originaire sur la base d’un accord tacite entre les

parties. D’autre part, il existe des cas où l’intention des parties au
moment même de la conclusion du traité a été, ou peut être présumée
avoir été, de conférer aux termes employés — ou à certains d’entre eux —
un sens ou un contenu évolutif et non pas intangible, pour tenir compte
notamment de l’évolution du droit international. En pareil cas, c’est pré-
cisément pour se conformer à la commune intention des parties lors de la

conclusion du traité, et non pas pour s’en écarter, qu’il conviendra de
tenir compte du sens que les termes en question ont pu acquérir à chacun
des moments où l’application du traité doit avoir lieu.
65. Une bonne illustration du raisonnement qui précède est fournie
par l’arrêt qu’a rendu la Cour le 18 décembre 1978 en l’affaire du

Plateau continental de la mer Egée (Grèce c. Turquie) (C.I.J. Recueil
1978, p. 3).
Appelée à interpréter une réserve faite par un Etat à un traité et

33from the Court’s jurisdiction “disputes relating to territorial status” of
that State, where the meaning of “territorial status” was contested, the

Court stated:

“Once it is established that the expression ‘the territorial status of
Greece’ was used in Greece’s instrument of accession [to the General
Act of 1928] as a generic term denoting any matters comprised
within the concept of territorial status under general international
law, the presumption necessarily arises that its meaning was intended

to follow the evolution of the law and to correspond with the mean-
ing attached to the expression by the law in force at any given time.
This presumption, in the view of the Court, is even more compelling
when it is recalled that the 1928 Act was a convention for the pacific
settlement of disputes designed to be of the most general kind and of
continuing duration, for it hardly seems conceivable that in such a

convention terms like ‘domestic jurisdiction’ and ‘territorial status’
were intended to have a fixed content regardless of the subsequent
evolution of international law.” (Aegean Sea Continental Shelf
(Greece v. Turkey), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1978 , p. 32, para. 77.)

66. Though adopted in connection with the interpretation of a reserva-
tion to a treaty, the Court’s reasoning in that case is fully transposable

for purposes of interpreting the terms themselves of a treaty.

It is founded on the idea that, where the parties have used generic
terms in a treaty, the parties necessarily having been aware that the
meaning of the terms was likely to evolve over time, and where the treaty

has been entered into for a very long period or is “of continuing dura-
tion”, the parties must be presumed, as a general rule, to have intended
those terms to have an evolving meaning.
67. This is so in the present case in respect of the term “comercio” as
used in Article VI of the 1858 Treaty. First, this is a generic term, refer-

ring to a class of activity. Second, the 1858 Treaty was entered into for an
unlimited duration; from the outset it was intended to create a legal
régime characterized by its perpetuity.
68. This last observation is buttressed by the object itself of the Treaty,
which was to achieve a permanent settlement between the parties of their
territorial disputes. The territorial rules laid down in treaties of this type

are, by nature, particularly marked in their permanence, for, as the Court
has recently recalled:

“[I]t is a principle of international law that a territorial régime
established by treaty ‘achieves a permanence which the treaty itself
does not necessarily enjoy’ and the continued existence of that
régime is not dependent upon the continuing life of the treaty under

which the régime is agreed” T ( erritorial and Maritime Dispute (Nica-
ragua v. Colombia), Preliminary Objections, I.C.J. Reports 2007 (II),
p. 861, para. 89).

34excluant de la compétence de la Cour les «différends ayant trait au statut
territorial» de cet Etat, le sens des mots «statut territorial» étant contro-

versé, la Cour s’est exprimée ainsi:

«Une fois admis que l’expression «le statut territorial de la Grèce»
a été employée dans l’instrument d’adhésion grec [à l’Acte général de
1928] comme une formule générique englobant toutes les questions
qui relèvent de la notion de statut territorial en droit international
général, il faut nécessairement présumer que son sens était censé évo-

luer avec le droit et revêtir à tout moment la signification que pour-
raient lui donner les règles en vigueur. Selon la Cour, cette présomp-
tion s’impose encore plus si l’on se rappelle que l’Acte de 1928 était
une convention de règlement pacifique des différends conçue comme
devant être de la portée la plus générale et sans limite de durée; car
il ne semble guère concevable que dans un instrument semblable on

ait voulu donner à des expressions comme «compétence exclusive»
et «statut territorial» un contenu invariable quelle que soit l’évolu-
tion ultérieure du droit international.» (Plateau continental de la mer
Egée (Grèce c. Turquie), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1978, p. 32, par. 77.)

66. Bien qu’adopté à propos de l’interprétation d’une réserve à un
traité, le raisonnement suivi par la Cour dans cette affaire est parfaite-

ment transposable pour les besoins de l’interprétation des termes mêmes
d’un traité.
Il repose sur l’idée que lorsque les parties ont employé dans un traité
certains termes de nature générique, dont elles ne pouvaient pas ignorer
que le sens était susceptible d’évoluer avec le temps, et que le traité en

cause a été conclu pour une très longue période ou «sans limite de
durée», les parties doivent être présumées, en règle générale, avoir eu
l’intention de conférer aux termes en cause un sens évolutif.
67. Tel est le cas, en l’espèce, en ce qui concerne le terme «comercio»
employé à l’article VI du traité de 1858. D’une part, il s’agit d’un terme

générique, qui se réfère à une catégorie d’activités. D’autre part, le traité
de 1858 a été conclu sans limite de durée; il était destiné, dès l’origine, à
créer un régime juridique caractérisé par la pérennité.
68. Ce dernier constat est renforcé par l’objet même du traité, qui était
de parvenir à un règlement définitif entre les parties de leurs différends
territoriaux. Les règles territoriales définies par un tel traité possèdent,

par nature, un caractère de permanence particulièrement marqué, puis-
que, comme la Cour l’a rappelé récemment:

«[C]’est un principe de droit international qu’un régime territorial
établi par traité «acquiert une permanence que le traité lui-même ne
connaît pas nécessairement» et que la persistance de ce régime ne
dépend pas de la durée du traité par lequel ledit régime a été

convenu.» (Différend territorial et maritime (Nicaragua c. Colom-
bie), exceptions préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2007 (II) , p. 861,
par. 89.)

34 69. This is true as well of the right of free navigation guaranteed to
Costa Rica by Article VI. This right, described as “perpetual”, is so

closely linked with the territorial settlement defined by the Treaty — to
such an extent that it can be considered an integral part of it — that it is
characterized by the same permanence as the territorial régime stricto
sensu itself.
70. The Court concludes from the foregoing that the terms by which

the extent of Costa Rica’s right of free navigation has been defined,
including in particular the term “comercio”, must be understood to have
the meaning they bear on each occasion on which the Treaty is to be
applied, and not necessarily their original meaning.
Thus, even assuming that the notion of “commerce” does not have

the same meaning today as it did in the mid-nineteenth century, it is the
present meaning which must be accepted for purposes of applying the
Treaty.
71. Accordingly, the Court finds that the right of free navigation in
question applies to the transport of persons as well as the transport of
goods, as the activity of transporting persons can be commercial in

nature nowadays. This is the case if the carrier engages in the activity for
profit-making purposes. A decisive consideration in this respect is
whether a price (other than a token price) is paid to the carrier — the
boat operator — by the passengers or on their behalf. If so, then the
carrier’s activity is commercial in nature and the navigation in question

must be regarded as “for the purposes of commerce” within the meaning
of Article VI. The Court sees no persuasive reason to exclude the trans-
port of tourists from this category, subject to fulfilment of the same
condition.

On the other hand, any navigation not carried out either to transport
goods intended to form the subject of commercial transactions or to
transport passengers in exchange for money paid by them or on their
behalf cannot be regarded as falling within the “purposes of commerce”
under Article VI. That is the case, in particular, of navigation by vessels

used in the performance of governmental activities or to provide public
services which are not commercial in nature.

(b) The activities covered by the right of free navigation belonging to

Costa Rica

72. Based on the foregoing, the Court is now in a position to deter-
mine with greater precision the types of activities which are covered by
Costa Rica’s right of free navigation, and those which are not.

For the sake of convenience, the Court, in addressing this issue, will

distinguish between private navigation — that is to say navigation by ves-
sels belonging to private owners — and that of “official (or public)
vessels” — that is to say vessels which are the property of the Republic of

35 69. Cela vaut également pour le droit de libre navigation garanti au
Costa Rica par l’article VI. Ce droit, d’ailleurs qualifié de «perpétuel»,

est si étroitement lié au règlement territorial défini par le traité — au
point que l’on pourrait le considérer comme en faisant partie inté-
grante — qu’il possède le même caractère de permanence que le régime
territorial stricto sensu lui-même.
70. La Cour déduit de ce qui précède que les termes par lesquels a été

définie l’étendue du droit de libre navigation du Costa Rica, et notam-
ment le terme «comercio», doivent être compris dans le sens qui est le
leur à chaque moment où il est fait application du traité, et pas nécessai-
rement dans leur sens originaire.

Dès lors, à supposer que la notion de «commerce» n’eit plus
aujourd’hui le même contenu qu’au milieu du XIX siècle, c’est son sens
actuel qui doit être retenu aux fins de l’application du traité.

71. En conséquence, la Cour estime que le droit de libre navigation en

question s’applique au transport de personnes aussi bien qu’au transport
de marchandises, le transport de personnes étant susceptible, à l’heure
actuelle, de revêtir la nature d’une activité commerciale. Tel est le cas si
cette activité est exercée, par le transporteur, à des fins lucratives. Une
considération déterminante à cet égard est de savoir si un prix (autre que

purement symbolique) est payé au transporteur — l’exploitant du
bateau — par les passagers ou en leur nom. Si la réponse à cette question
est affirmative, alors l’activité du transporteur revêt une nature commer-
ciale, et la navigation en cause doit être regardée comme «aux fins du
commerce» au sens de l’article VI. La Cour n’aperçoit aucune raison

convaincante d’exclure de cette catégorie le transport de touristes, sous la
même condition.
En revanche, toute navigation qui n’est effectuée ni en vue du trans-
port de marchandises destinées à donner lieu à des actes de commerce, ni
en vue du transport de passagers moyennant un prix payé par eux ou en

leur nom, ne peut être regardée comme répondant à des «fins de com-
merce» au sens de l’article VI. Tel est le cas, notamment, de la navigation
des bateaux utilisés à des fins d’activités de puissance publique ou de ser-
vice public dépourvu de nature commerciale.

b) Les activités couvertes par le droit de libre navigation possédé par le
Costa Rica

72. Sur la base des motifs qui précèdent, la Cour est à présent en
mesure de déterminer de façon plus précise les types d’activités qui sont

couverts par le droit de libre navigation du Costa Rica, et ceux qui ne le
sont pas.
Par simple commodité, la Cour distinguera, dans le cadre de cet examen,
entre la navigation privée — c’est-à-dire celle de bateaux appartenant à des

propriétaires privés — et celle des «bateaux officiels» (ou «publics»)
— c’est-à-dire ceux qui sont la propriété de la République du Costa Rica,

35Costa Rica including all its public authorities —, although this distinc-
tion, as will be explained below, is of only limited relevance.

(i) Private navigation

73. As has just been said, two types of private navigation are certainly
covered by the right of free navigation pursuant to Article VI of the

1858 Treaty: the navigation of vessels carrying goods intended for com-
mercial transactions; and that of vessels carrying passengers who pay a
price other than a token price (or for whom a price is paid) in exchange
for the service thus provided.

In the first instance, the commercial activity is conducted by persons
who are the owners of the goods intended for sale. These persons may
themselves be carried on the vessel: they can also entrust their goods for
carriage to the vessel’s operator for an agreed price or free of charge.
This last aspect is of no relevance: in any event, navigation which is car-
ried out in order to transport goods intended for sale, or goods that have

just been purchased, in the context of a commercial exchange must be
regarded as taking place “for the purposes of commerce”, whether or not
the owner of the goods is onboard the vessel, and whether or not the ves-
sel’s operator has been paid to provide carriage. It is understood that
navigation “for the purposes of commerce” also includes the return jour-

ney of persons who have transported goods intended for sale.

In the second instance, however, the fact that the vessel’s owner
receives payment for his activity is critical. Indeed, if the carriage of pas-
sengers is considered, it is not the passengers themselves who are exercis-

ing a commercial activity (unless they are travelling in order to transport
goods, in which case the journey falls under the previous instance), it is
the carrier, provided that he does so to make a profit.

74. The question was raised as to whether the navigation of vessels

belonging to the inhabitants of the villages on the Costa Rican bank of
the river in order to meet the basic requirements of everyday life, such as
taking children to school or in order to give or receive medical treatment,
was protected by the right of free navigation when it is carried out free of
charge. The Parties discussed the issue: according to Nicaragua the
answer is no, since the Respondent considers that only the carriage of

goods benefits from the guarantee provided by Article VI of the Treaty;
according to Costa Rica the answer is yes, based on the particularly
broad definition of “commerce” adopted by the Applicant.

75. The Court has already indicated that it could not subscribe to a

definition of the word “commerce” as broad as the one put forward by
Costa Rica. It has also indicated (in paragraph 71 above) that the car-
riage of passengers free of charge, or the movement of persons on their

36y compris ses collectivités publiques —, bien que cette distinction, comme
il sera expliqué plus loin, ne possède qu’une pertinence limitée.

i) La navigation privée

73. Ainsi qu’il vient d’être dit, deux types de navigation privée sont
certainement couverts par le droit de libre navigation au titre de l’ar-

ticle VI du traité de 1858: la navigation des bateaux transportant des
marchandises destinées à donner lieu à des actes de commerce; et celle
des bateaux transportant des passagers qui acquittent un prix autre que
symbolique (ou pour le compte desquels est acquitté un tel prix) en
contrepartie du service qui leur est ainsi fourni.

Dans la première hypothèse, l’activité commerciale est le fait des per-
sonnes qui sont propriétaires des marchandises destinées à être vendues.
Ces personnes peuvent être elles-mêmes transportées à bord; elles peu-
vent aussi confier leurs marchandises à l’exploitant du bateau, moyen-
nant un prix convenu ou à titre gratuit. Ce dernier élément est sans
pertinence: dans tous les cas, une navigation qui est effectuée en vue du

transport de marchandises destinées à la vente, ou de marchandises qui
viennent d’être acquises dans le cadre d’un échange commercial, doit être
considérée comme ayant lieu «aux fins du commerce», que le propriétaire
des marchandises se trouve ou non à bord, et que l’exploitant du bateau
soit ou non payé pour effectuer ce transport. Il est entendu que la navi-

gation «aux fins du commerce» comprend également le retour des
personnes ayant transporté des marchandises destinées à la vente.
Dans la seconde hypothèse, en revanche, il est décisif que l’exploitant
du bateau perçoive un prix en contrepartie de son activité. En effet, si
l’on considère le transport de passagers, ce ne sont pas les passagers eux-

mêmes qui exercent une activité commerciale (sauf s’ils voyagent en vue
de transporter des marchandises; on est alors dans l’hypothèse précé-
dente), c’est le transporteur, à condition qu’il exerce son activité à des fins
lucratives.
74. On s’est demandé si la navigation des bateaux appartenant aux

habitants des villages de la rive costa-ricienne du fleuve, et destinée à sub-
venir aux nécessités de la vie courante — par exemple pour transporter
des enfants se rendant à l’école, ou pour prodiguer ou recevoir des soins
médicaux —, était protégée par le droit de libre navigation lorsqu’elle
a lieu à titre gratuit. Les Parties en ont débattu: selon le Nicaragua,
la réponse est négative, puisque le défendeur considère que seul le trans-

port de marchandises bénéficie de la garantie conférée par l’article VI
du traité; selon le Costa Rica, la réponse est affirmative, sur la base
de la définition particulièrement large du «commerce» que retient le
demandeur.
75. La Cour a déjà indiqué qu’elle ne pouvait souscrire à une défini-

tion du mot «commerce» aussi large que celle qu’a proposée le Costa Rica.
Elle a aussi indiqué (au paragraphe 71 ci-dessus) qu’un transport de pas-
sagers effectué à titre gratuit, ou le déplacement de personnes sur leurs

36own vessels for purposes other than the conduct of commercial transac-
tions, could not fall within the scope of “navigation for the purposes of

commerce” within the meaning of Article VI of the 1858 Treaty.
76. It does not necessarily follow that such activities are not at all cov-
ered by freedom of navigation: other provisions of the 1858 Treaty may
have the effect of guaranteeing the right of the inhabitants of the
Costa Rican bank to navigate on the river, within certain limits, even

when they are not doing so within the context of commercial activities.

77. In this regard, the Court is of the opinion that there is reason to
take into account the provisions of the Treaty as a whole, especially those
fixing the boundary between the two States, in order to draw, if need be,

certain necessary implications. In other words, even if no provision
expressly guaranteeing a right of non-commercial navigation to the inhab-
itants of the Costa Rican bank can be found in the Treaty, the question
must be asked whether such a right does not flow from other provisions
with a different purpose, but of which it may, to a certain extent, be the
necessary consequence.

78. As has been said, the two States decided, by the Treaty of Limits,
to fix their common boundary on the south bank of the San Juan River
along the whole stretch of the river running from its mouth to a point
located three English miles downstream from Castillo Viejo. This was
decided in Article II of the 1858 Treaty. At the time, there was already a

population inhabiting the Costa Rican side of the boundary thus defined,
that is to say living on the bank of the river or not far from it. In view of
the great difficulty of travelling inland, due to the limited inland commu-
nications network, that population commonly used and still uses the river
for travel for the purpose of meeting the essential needs of everyday life

which require expeditious transportation, such as transport to and from
school or for medical care.

79. The Court is of the opinion that it cannot have been the intention
of the authors of the 1858 Treaty to deprive the inhabitants of the

Costa Rican bank of the river, where that bank constitutes the boundary
between the two States, of the right to use the river to the extent neces-
sary to meet their essential requirements, even for activities of a non-
commercial nature, given the geography of the area. While choosing, in
Article II of the Treaty, to fix the boundary on the river bank, the parties
must be presumed, in view of the historical background to the conclusion

of this Treaty and of the Treaty’s object and purpose as defined by the
Preamble and Article I, to have intended to preserve for the Costa
Ricans living on that bank a minimal right of navigation for the purposes
of continuing to live a normal life in the villages along the river. The
Court considers that while such a right cannot be derived from the

express language of Article VI, it can be inferred from the provisions
of the Treaty as a whole and, in particular, the manner in which the
boundary is fixed.

37propres embarcations pour un autre objet que d’effectuer des actes de
commerce, ne pouvaient entrer dans le champ de la «navigation à des fins

de commerce» au sens de l’article VI du traité de 1858.
76. Il n’en résulte pas nécessairement, pour autant, que de telles acti-
vités ne sont aucunement couvertes par la liberté de navigation: d’autres
dispositions du traité de 1858 peuvent avoir pour effet de garantir le droit
des habitants de la rive costa-ricienne de naviguer dans certaines limites

sur le fleuve, même lorsqu’ils ne naviguent pas dans le cadre d’activités
commerciales.
77. A cet égard, la Cour considère qu’il y a lieu de prendre en compte
l’ensemble des dispositions du traité, et spécialement celles qui fixent la
frontière entre les deux Etats, afin d’en déduire, le cas échéant, certaines

implications nécessaires. En d’autres termes, même si l’on ne trouve dans
le traité aucune disposition expresse garantissant en faveur des riverains
costa-riciens un droit à la navigation non commerciale, il faut se deman-
der si un tel droit ne peut pas découler de dispositions ayant un objet
différent mais dont il serait, dans une certaine mesure, la conséquence
nécessaire.

78. Ainsi qu’il a été dit, les deux Etats ont décidé, par le traité de li-
mites, de fixer leur frontière commune à la rive droite du fleuve San Juan
sur toute la portion du fleuve allant de l’embouchure à un point situé à
3 milles anglais en aval de Castillo Viejo. Ainsi en décide l’article II du
traité de 1858. A l’époque, il existait déjà une population riveraine du

côté costa-ricien de la frontière ainsi définie, c’est-à-dire habitant au bord
du fleuve ou non loin de la rive. Compte tenu du caractère très difficile
des déplacements à l’intérieur des terres, en raison de la faiblesse du
réseau de communication intérieur, cette population empruntait ordinai-
rement, et emprunte toujours, la voie fluviale pour ses déplacements des-

tinés à subvenir aux besoins essentiels de la vie ordinaire qui nécessitent
des déplacements dans de brefs délais, tels que le transport scolaire ou les
soins médicaux.
79. La Cour estime qu’il n’a pas pu être dans l’intention des auteurs du
traité de 1858 de dénier aux habitants de la rive costa-ricienne du fleuve,

là où cette rive constitue la frontière entre les deux Etats, le droit
d’emprunter le fleuve dans la mesure nécessaire à la satisfaction de leurs
besoins essentiels, compte tenu de la configuration des lieux, et en dehors
même de toute activité de nature commerciale. Tout en choisissant, en
vertu de l’article II du traité, de fixer la frontière à la rive, les parties
doivent être présumées, eu égard au contexte historique de la conclu-

sion de ce traité, ainsi qu’à son objet et à son but tels que définis par le
préambule et l’article premier, avoir entendu maintenir au profit des
riverains costa-riciens un droit minimal de navigation afin qu’ils
puissent continuer à mener une vie normale dans les villages qui
longent le fleuve. La Cour considère qu’un tel droit, s’il ne peut découler

des termes exprès de l’article VI, peut en revanche être déduit des
dispositions du traité dans son ensemble et notamment de la manière
dont celui-ci définit la frontière.

37 (ii) “Official vessels”

80. It is clear that the 1858 Treaty does not establish, in its Article VI,
any special régime for “official” (or “public”) vessels.
The only criterion provided for by Article VI is based not on the public
or private ownership of the vessel but on the purpose of navigation:
either it is undertaken for the “purposes of commerce” and benefits from

the freedom established; or it is undertaken for purposes other than
“commerce” and it does not. From this point of view the distinction
between public and private vessels is devoid of legal significance. In the
same way that a part of private navigation is not covered by the “per-
petual right of free navigation” (in the case of pleasure craft for example),

conversely, it is not inconceivable that “public vessels” might sail for the
“purposes of commerce”, if they met the conditions on which such a
characterization depends.
81. In reality, when debating the question of “official vessels” the
Parties particularly had in mind those used by the Costa Rican authori-
ties for the exercise of public order activities — such as the police and

customs — or for the provision of public services having no object of
financial gain and therefore no commercial character.
82. As has already been noted (paragraph 49 above), the Cleveland
Award only came to a decision regarding Costa Rican vessels of war and
revenue service vessels, by denying the former the right to navigate on the

San Juan and authorizing the navigation of the latter “as may be related
and connected to her enjoyment of the ‘purposes of commerce’ accorded
to her in said article [Article VI] or as may be necessary to the protection
of said enjoyment”. Nothing can thus be inferred from this regarding the
navigation of other Costa Rican official vessels.

83. In the light of the foregoing, the Court is of the opinion that, as a
general rule, the navigation of Costa Rican vessels for the purposes of
public order activities and public services with no object of financial gain,
in particular police vessels, lies outside the scope of Article VI of the
1858 Treaty, with the exception of revenue service vessels, the question of

which was settled by the 1888 arbitration. Further, it is not convinced
that a right for Costa Rica to sail such vessels can be inferred from Arti-
cle IV of the Treaty, according to which “Costa Rica shall also be
obliged, for the part that belongs to her of the banks of the San Juan
River . . . to contribute to the security thereof in the same manner as the
two Republics shall contribute to its defence in case of aggression from

abroad”. This provision, contrary to what Costa Rica contends, does not
accord it any right of navigation in ordinary circumstances. It places an
obligation upon it to “safeguard” the river from within its own territory.

Moreover, the Court considers that, in any event, Costa Rica has not

proved its assertion that river transport is the only means to supply its
police posts located along the river bank or to carry out the relief of the
personnel stationed in them. Indeed, the materials in the case file show

38 ii) Les «bateaux officiels»

80. Il est clair que le traité de 1858 n’institue, dans son article VI,
aucun régime particulier pour les bateaux «officiels» (ou «publics»).
Le seul critère que prévoit l’article VI repose non pas sur la qualité
publique ou privée du propriétaire du bateau, mais sur la finalité de la
navigation: ou bien elle est effectuée à des «fins de commerce» et elle

bénéficie de la liberté; ou bien elle est effectuée à des fins étrangères au
«commerce» et elle n’en bénéficie pas. De ce point de vue, la distinction
entre bateaux publics et bateaux privés est dépourvue de pertinence juri-
dique. De même qu’une partie de la navigation privée n’est pas couverte
par le «droit perpétuel de libre navigation» (la navigation de plaisance,

par exemple), de même, mais en sens inverse, il ne serait pas inconcevable
que des bateaux publics naviguent à des «fins de commerce» s’ils répon-
dent aux conditions auxquelles est subordonnée une telle qualification.
81. En réalité, en débattant de la question des «bateaux officiels», les
Parties ont surtout eu en vue ceux qui sont utilisés par les autorités du
Costa Rica pour des activités de puissance publique — telles que la police

et la douane — ou de service public lorsque celui-ci est dépourvu de toute
finalité lucrative et, par suite, de toute nature commerciale.
82. Comme cela a déjà été relevé (voir paragraphe 49 ci-dessus), la sen-
tence Cleveland ne s’est prononcée que sur le cas des navires de guerre
costa-riciens et sur celui des bateaux du service des douanes, en déniant

aux premiers le droit de naviguer sur le San Juan et en permettant la
navigation des seconds «dans l’exercice du droit d’usage de ce fleuve
«aux fins du commerce» que lui reconnaît [l’article VI], ou dans les cas
nécessaires à la protection de ce droit d’usage». On ne peut rien en
déduire quant à la navigation des autres bateaux officiels du Costa Rica.

83. A la lumière des motifs qui sont énoncés plus haut, la Cour estime
qu’en règle générale la navigation des bateaux du Costa Rica affectés à
des activités de puissance publique ou de service public dépourvu de fina-
lité lucrative, notamment ceux des services de police, se situe hors du
champ de l’article VI du traité de 1858, réserve faite des embarcations du

service des douanes dont le cas a été réglé par l’arbitrage de 1888. Elle
n’est pas convaincue, par ailleurs, qu’un droit pour le Costa Rica de faire
naviguer de tels bateaux pourrait se déduire de l’article IV du traité, aux
termes duquel, «pour la partie qui lui revient des rives du fleuve San Juan,
le Costa Rica sera tenu de concourir à la garde de celui-ci, ... de même
que les deux républiques concourront à sa défense en cas d’agression

extérieure». Cette disposition, contrairement à ce que soutient le
Costa Rica, ne lui confère aucun droit de navigation en temps ordinaire.
Elle lui impose une obligation de «garde» du fleuve à partir de son
propre territoire.
En outre, la Cour estime que le Costa Rica n’a pas établi, en tout état

de cause, le bien-fondé de son affirmation selon laquelle le transport flu-
vial constituait la seule manière d’approvisionner ses postes de police se
trouvant le long de la rive, ou d’assurer la relève des fonctionnaires qui y

38that the posts in question are accessible, for example, by using the Costa

Rican rivers communicating with the San Juan, in proximity of which
they are located.

Lastly, for the reasons set out above (paragraph 40), Costa Rica can-
not invoke the “Cuadra-Lizano” Joint Communiqué of 30 July 1998 in

order to claim a right to navigate with official vessels which are armed or
transporting arms.
84. Nonetheless, the Court is of the opinion that the reasons given
above (in paragraphs 78 and 79) with regard to private vessels which

navigate the river in order to meet the essential requirements of the popu-
lation living on the river bank, where expeditious transportation is a con-
dition for meeting those requirements, are also valid for certain Costa
Rican official vessels which in specific situations are used solely for the

purpose of providing that population with what it needs in order to meet
the necessities of daily life, as defined in paragraph 78 above.

Consequently, this particular aspect of navigation by “official vessels”

is covered by the right of navigation defined in paragraph 79 above: this
right is not guaranteed by Article VI of the Treaty but is inferred from
the provisions of the Treaty as a whole, in particular from the fixing of
the boundary along the river bank.

III. N ICARAGUA ’S POWER OF R EGULATION OF N AVIGATION

85. In this part of the Judgment the Court addresses the power of

Nicaragua to regulate the navigation of that part of the San Juan River
in which Costa Rica has the right of navigation as determined in Part II
of the Judgment. In respect of matters lying outside the scope of Costa
Rica’s right of free navigation, and in respect of other parts of the river,

which are not subject to the régime of the 1858 Treaty, Nicaragua, as
sovereign, has complete power of regulation.

1. General Observations

86. In their written pleadings, the Parties disagreed about the extent or
even the very existence of the power of Nicaragua to regulate the use of

the river so far as Costa Rica was concerned. In the course of the oral
proceedings that difference of positions largely disappeared. However,
the Parties continue to disagree on the extent of the regulatory power of
Nicaragua and on certain measures which Nicaragua has adopted and
continues to apply.

In the first part of the oral proceedings, Nicaragua states that whatever
the precise nature and extent of Costa Rica’s rights within the provisions
of the Treaty of Limits and the Cleveland Award, Nicaragua

39sont affectés. Il ressort en effet des éléments du dossier que les postes en
question sont notamment accessibles en empruntant les rivières costa-

riciennes communiquant avec le San Juan, à proximité desquelles ils se
trouvent.
Enfin, pour les raisons déjà exposées (voir paragraphe 40 ci-dessus),
le Costa Rica ne saurait se prévaloir du communiqué conjoint Cuadra-
Lizano du 30 juillet 1998 pour revendiquer un droit à faire naviguer

des bateaux officiels armés ou transportant des armes.
84. Toutefois, la Cour estime que les motifs énoncés plus haut (aux
paragraphes 78 et 79) à propos des bateaux privés dont la circulation sur
le fleuve vise à satisfaire les besoins essentiels de la population riveraine,

lorsque la rapidité du déplacement est une condition de la satisfaction
desdits besoins, valent aussi pour les bateaux publics costa-riciens lors-
que, dans des cas particuliers, certains d’entre eux sont exclusivement
employés en vue de fournir à cette population ce dont elle a besoin pour
faire face aux nécessités de la vie courante, telles que définies au para-

graphe 78 ci-dessus.
En conséquence, cet aspect particulier de la navigation par des «bateaux
officiels» est couvert par le droit de navigation défini au paragraphe 79
ci-dessus: ce droit n’est pas garanti par l’article VI du traité, mais il se
déduit de l’ensemble des dispositions de celui-ci et en particulier de la

fixation de la frontière à la rive.

III. LE POUVOIR DU N ICARAGUA DE RÉGLEMENTER LA NAVIGATION

85. Dans cette partie de l’arrêt, la Cour examinera le pouvoir du Nica-
ragua de réglementer la navigation dans la portion du San Juan où le
Costa Rica jouit, ainsi que cela a été établi dans la partie II de l’arrêt,
d’un droit de navigation. En ce qui concerne les questions n’entrant pas
dans le champ du droit de libre navigation du Costa Rica, et à l’égard des

autres portions du fleuve, qui ne sont pas soumises au régime du traité de
1858, le Nicaragua jouit en tant que souverain d’un pouvoir entier de
réglementation.

1. Observations générales

86. Dans leurs écritures, les Parties ont exposé des vues divergentes
quant à l’étendue, voire à l’existence même du pouvoir du Nicaragua de
réglementer l’utilisation du fleuve lorsque cela a une incidence sur le
Costa Rica. A l’audience, cette divergence de vues s’est, dans une large

mesure, dissipée. Les Parties demeurent toutefois en désaccord sur l’éten-
due du pouvoir de réglementation du Nicaragua et sur certaines mesures
que celui-ci a prises et continue d’appliquer.
Lors du premier tour de plaidoiries, le Nicaragua a indiqué que, quel-

les que soient la nature et l’étendue précises des droits que le Costa Rica
tient des dispositions du traité de limites et de la sentence Cleveland, il

39 “must have the exclusive competence to exercise the following regu-
latory powers: (a) the protection and maintenance of the right of

navigation, that is to say, the power to maintain public order and
standards of safety in respect of navigation; (b) the protection of
the border, including resort to immigration procedures in respect of
foreign nationals navigating in Nicaragua’s territorial waters; (c) the
exercise of normal police powers; (d) the protection of the environ-

ment and natural resources; and (e) the maintenance of the treaty
provisions prescribing the conditions of navigation in accordance
with the Treaty”.

Costa Rica, while accepting that Nicaragua does have a power of regu-
lation, asserts that Nicaragua’s sovereignty over the San Juan must be
seen as a part — an important part — of the fluvial régime established in
1858 and that the regulations enacted by Nicaragua must not infringe

Costa Rica’s perpetual right of free navigation. It states that the regula-
tions must be lawful, public, reasonable, non-arbitrary and non-discrimi-
natory and adopted to fulfil a legitimate public purpose. Nicaragua
accepts Costa Rica’s statement of principle.

The Parties disagree whether Nicaragua is obliged to notify Costa Rica

about the regulations it has made or to consult Costa Rica in advance
about proposed regulations. The Court rules on these differences in the
course of this part of the Judgment.

(a) Characteristics

87. For essentially the reasons given by the Parties, the Court con-
cludes that Nicaragua has the power to regulate the exercise by Costa Rica
of its right to freedom of navigation under the 1858 Treaty. That power

is not unlimited, being tempered by the rights and obligations of the
Parties. A regulation in the present case is to have the following charac-
teristics:

(1) it must only subject the activity to certain rules without rendering
impossible or substantially impeding the exercise of the right of free
navigation;
(2) it must be consistent with the terms of the Treaty, such as the pro-
hibition on the unilateral imposition of certain taxes in Article VI;

(3) it must have a legitimate purpose, such as safety of navigation, crime
prevention and public safety and border control;

(4) it must not be discriminatory and in matters such as timetabling
must apply to Nicaraguan vessels if it applies to Costa Rican ones;

(5) it must not be unreasonable, which means that its negative impact on
the exercise of the right in question must not be manifestly excessive

40 «d[evait] avoir la compétence exclusive pour exercer les pouvoirs de
réglementation suivants: a) la protection et la garantie du droit de

navigation, à savoir le pouvoir de maintenir l’ordre public et d’assu-
rer le respect des normes de sécurité en matière de navigation; b) la
protection de la frontière, y compris la mise en Œuvre de moyens de
contrôle des ressortissants étrangers qui empruntent les eaux territo-
riales du Nicaragua; c) l’exercice des pouvoirs de police générale;

d) la protection de l’environnement et des ressources naturelles; et
e) la garantie de l’application des dispositions du traité énonçant les
conditions de navigation».

Le Costa Rica, tout en reconnaissant que le Nicaragua a effectivement
un pouvoir de réglementation, affirme que la souveraineté de ce dernier
sur le San Juan doit être considérée comme une partie — une partie
importante — du régime fluvial établi en 1858 et que les mesures prises

par le Nicaragua ne doivent pas porter atteinte à son droit perpétuel de
libre navigation. Il soutient que les mesures de réglementation doivent
être licites, publiques, raisonnables, non arbitraires et non discrimina-
toires et qu’elles doivent viser un objectif public légitime. Le Nicaragua
souscrit à cette position de principe.
Les Parties sont en désaccord quant à la question de savoir si le Nica-

ragua est tenu de notifier au Costa Rica les mesures de réglementation
qu’il a prises ou de le consulter au sujet de mesures qu’il entend prendre.
La Cour se prononcera sur ces points dans la présente partie de l’arrêt.

a) Caractéristiques

87. C’est essentiellement pour les raisons exposées par les Parties que
la Cour conclut que le Nicaragua a le pouvoir de réglementer l’exercice
par le Costa Rica du droit de libre navigation qu’il tient du traité de 1858.

Ce pouvoir n’est pas illimité, puisqu’il est subordonné aux droits et obli-
gations des Parties. Dans la présente affaire, une mesure de réglementa-
tion doit présenter les caractéristiques suivantes:

1) elle doit seulement assujettir l’activité en cause à certaines règles, sans
rendre impossible ni entraver de façon substantielle l’exercice du droit
de libre navigation;
2) elle doit être compatible avec les termes du traité, par exemple avec
l’interdiction d’instituer unilatéralement certaines taxes contenues
dans l’article VI;

3) elle doit poursuivre un but légitime, tel que la sécurité de la naviga-
tion, la prévention de la criminalité, la sécurité publique et le contrôle
des frontières;
4) elle ne doit pas être discriminatoire et, sur des questions telles que les
horaires de navigation, doit s’appliquer aux bateaux du Nicaragua au

même titre qu’à ceux du Costa Rica;
5) elle ne doit pas être déraisonnable, ce qui signifie que son incidence
négative sur l’exercice du droit en question ne doit pas être mani-

40 when measured against the protection afforded to the purpose
invoked.

88. Costa Rica has challenged the role of environmental protection as
a reason for Nicaragua’s regulations, indicating that it is a pretext to
impose other requirements. But in the course of the oral proceedings
Costa Rica itself emphasized environmental matters. For its part, Nica-

ragua points to the evidence it presented showing that the San Juan River
and the Nicaraguan shore adjacent to it are extremely important and
gravely threatened natural reserves. It also refers to related international
obligations arising under the 1971 Ramsar Convention on Wetlands, the
1973 Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild

Fauna and Flora and the 1992 Convention on Biodiversity Conservation
and Protection of Priority Wild Areas in Central America.

89. The Court considers that, over the course of the century and a half

since the 1858 Treaty was concluded, the interests which are to be pro-
tected through regulation in the public interest may well have changed in
ways that could never have been anticipated by the Parties at the time:
protecting the environment is a notable example. As will appear from the
rulings made later in this Judgment (see paragraphs 104, 109, 118, 127

and 141), Nicaragua, in adopting certain measures which have been chal-
lenged, in the Court’s opinion, is pursuing the legitimate purpose of pro-
tecting the environment.

90. The Parties mentioned two other matters relating to regulation
making by Nicaragua. Costa Rica suggested that Nicaragua had not

adopted the measures and regulations being challenged in accordance
with Nicaraguan law. It did not, however, put before the Court the rele-
vant Nicaraguan constitutional and other requirements, and it did not
begin to indicate how such non-compliance with Nicaraguan law, assum-
ing it to have occurred, could have significance in international law.

Nicaragua contended that it had the power to regulate to “maintain
the discipline of the Treaty”. It did not however indicate how that would
extend its regulatory powers in the present context.

Because the Parties did not develop these two contentions, the Court
does not take them any further.

(b) Notification

91. The Court now turns to the question whether Nicaragua has a

legal obligation to notify Costa Rica of the measures it adopts to regulate
navigation on the river, or to give notice and consult with Costa Rica
prior to the adoption by Nicaragua of such measures. In answer to a

41 festement excessive par rapport au bénéfice qu’elle présente pour
atteindre le but recherché.

88. Le Costa Rica a contesté que la protection de l’environnement
puisse justifier les mesures de réglementation nicaraguayennes, affirmant
qu’il s’agissait d’un prétexte pour imposer d’autres obligations. A
l’audience, il a cependant lui-même insisté sur les questions environne-

mentales. Pour sa part, le Nicaragua appelle l’attention sur les éléments
de preuve qu’il a présentés et qui attestent que le San Juan et la rive nica-
raguayenne de ce fleuve sont des réserves naturelles extrêmement impor-
tantes et gravement menacées. Il fait également référence aux obligations
internationales découlant de la convention de Ramsar de 1971 sur les

zones humides, de la convention de 1973 sur le commerce international
des espèces de faune et de flore sauvages menacées d’extinction et de la
convention de 1992 pour la conservation de la diversité biologique et la
protection des régions fauniques prioritaires d’Amérique centrale.
89. La Cour estime que, au cours des cent cinquante ans qui se sont

écoulés depuis la conclusion du traité de 1858, les intérêts devant être
protégés au moyen d’une réglementation prise dans l’intérêt public peu-
vent tout à fait avoir évolué d’une manière qui, à l’époque, ne pouvait
être prévue par les Parties; la protection de l’environnement en est un
excellent exemple. Ainsi que cela ressortira des conclusions formulées

plus loin dans le présent arrêt (voir paragraphes 104, 109, 118, 127 et
141), la Cour considère que, en adoptant certaines mesures contestées, le
Nicaragua poursuit l’objectif légitime que constitue la protection de
l’environnement.
90. Les Parties ont mentionné deux autres points concernant le pou-
voir de réglementation du Nicaragua. Le Costa Rica a avancé que

l’adoption par le Nicaragua des mesures et réglementations contestées
n’était pas conforme au droit nicaraguayen. Il n’a cependant pas indiqué
à la Cour quelles étaient les dispositions nicaraguayennes, constitution-
nelles ou autres, pertinentes à cet égard et n’a pas formulé le moindre
argument démontrant en quoi cette inobservation du droit nicaraguayen,

si tant est qu’elle ait eu lieu, pourrait avoir des conséquences au regard du
droit international.
Le Nicaragua a soutenu qu’il pouvait exercer son pouvoir de réglemen-
tation aux fins «d’assurer la bonne application des dispositions du traité».
Il n’a cependant pas précisé en quoi cela lui permettrait d’étendre ses

pouvoirs de réglementation dans le présent contexte.
Les Parties n’ayant pas développé ces deux arguments, la Cour ne les
examinera pas plus avant.

b) Notification

91. La Cour en vient maintenant à la question de savoir si le Nicaragua

est juridiquement tenu de notifier au Costa Rica les mesures qu’il prend
aux fins de réglementer la navigation sur le fleuve, ou de le prévenir et de le
consulter avant l’adoption de telles mesures. Dans sa réponse à une ques-

41question from a Member of the Court, Nicaragua said that, as the exclu-
sive holder of sovereign authority and title over the river, under the

Treaty or otherwise, it had no obligation to consult with or inform
Costa Rica before making such regulations. Nicaragua states that never-
theless, in the interests of good neighbourliness and as a courtesy, it had
regularly consulted with, informed and engaged in dialogue with
Costa Rica about the measures. It then documented that claim by refer-

ence to the disputed measures. Costa Rica’s answer to the question
reviews actions taken by Nicaragua and concludes that notice was not
given. Costa Rica, in its comments on Nicaragua’s answer, rejects Nica-
ragua’s position that it was under no legal obligation to consult, referring
to what it says is the plain meaning of the text of Article VI of the Treaty.

92. However, the part of the text of Article VI on which Costa Rica
depends concerns only the imposition of certain charges. Because that
provision does not extend to the full range of measures taken to regulate

navigation on the river, it cannot be read as imposing a general obliga-
tion of notification and consultation, and the Court need not consider
that argument further. The remainder of Costa Rica’s comments and the
whole of Nicaragua’s addressed the contacts which each had had with the
other relating to the various measures.

93. The Treaty imposes no express general obligation on either of the
Parties to notify the other about measures it is taking relating to naviga-
tion on the river. It contains a requirement of agreement in Article VI
and a requirement of consultation in Article VIII which imply prior con-

tact between the Parties. Under Article VI the two Parties are required to
agree if they wish to impose any taxes in the situation contemplated by
that provision. Under Article VIII, if the Government of Nicaragua is
proposing to enter into an arrangement for canalization or transit on the
San Juan, it must first consult with the Government of Costa Rica about

the disadvantages the project might occasion between the two Parties.

94. Despite the lack of any specific provision in the Treaty relating to
notification, the Court sees three factors as together imposing an obliga-
tion of notification of regulations in the circumstances of this case. The
first is to be found in the 1956 Agreement under which the Parties agreed

as follows:

“The two Parties, acting in the spirit which should move the mem-
bers of the Central American family of nations, shall collaborate to
the best of their ability in order to carry out those undertakings and

activities which require a common effort by both States and are of
mutual benefit and, in particular, in order to facilitate and expedite
traffic on the Pan American Highway and on the San Juan River

42tion posée par l’un des membres de la Cour, le Nicaragua a indiqué que, en
tant que détenteur exclusif de l’autorité souveraine et du titre sur le fleuve,

il n’était pas tenu — que ce soit en vertu du traité ou de toute autre règle —
de consulter le Costa Rica ou de l’informer avant de prendre des mesures
de réglementation. Le Nicaragua précise qu’il a néanmoins, dans l’intérêt
des relations de bon voisinage et pour des raisons de courtoisie, régulière-
ment consulté le Costa Rica, l’a informé et a engagé avec lui un dialogue

sur les mesures de réglementation. Il a par ailleurs produit des éléments
établissant qu’il avait ainsi procédé en ce qui concerne les différentes me-
sures en litige. Dans sa réponse à cette même question, le Costa Rica passe
en revue les mesures prises par le Nicaragua et affirme qu’il n’en a pas reçu
notification. Le Costa Rica, se référant à ce qu’il dit être les termes mêmes

de l’article VI du traité, conteste, dans ses observations sur la réponse du
Nicaragua, la thèse de celui-ci selon laquelle aucune obligation juridique ne
lui incombait de procéder à des consultations.
92. Cependant, la partie de l’article VI sur laquelle se fonde le
Costa Rica porte uniquement sur l’imposition de certains droits. Cette
disposition ne s’appliquant pas à l’ensemble des mesures prises pour

réglementer la navigation sur le fleuve, elle ne saurait être interprétée
comme imposant une obligation générale de notification et de consulta-
tion, et la Cour n’a pas à examiner cet argument plus avant. Le reste des
observations du Costa Rica ainsi que l’intégralité de celles du Nicaragua
portent sur les contacts qu’ont eus les Parties au sujet des différentes

mesures.
93. Le traité n’impose expressément aux Parties aucune obligation
générale de notification des mesures prises relativement à la navigation
sur le fleuve. Il contient seulement l’exigence d’un accord en son ar-
ticle VI et une obligation de consultation en son article VIII, qui impli-

quent des contacts préalables entre les Parties. En vertu de l’article VI, les
deux Parties sont tenues de se mettre d’accord si elles souhaitent instituer
une taxe dans la situation visée par cette disposition. En vertu de l’ar-
ticle VIII, si le Gouvernement du Nicaragua envisage de conclure des
accords de canalisation ou de passage sur le San Juan, il doit préalable-

ment consulter le Gouvernement du Costa Rica à propos des inconvé-
nients que pourrait avoir le projet pour les deux Parties.
94. Nonobstant l’absence, dans le traité, de toute disposition expresse
concernant la notification, la Cour estime que trois éléments imposent
conjointement, en la présente espèce, une obligation de notification des
mesures de réglementation. Le premier découle de l’accord de 1956, en

vertu duquel les Parties sont convenues de ce qui suit:

«Les deux parties, fidèles à l’esprit qui doit animer les membres
de la famille des nations centraméricaines, collaboreront dans toute
la mesure du possible pour mener à bien les entreprises et réalisa-

tions exigeant un commun effort des deux Etats et avantageuses
pour tous deux, notamment pour faciliter et accélérer la circulation
sur la route interaméricaine ainsi que sur le fleuve San Juan, confor-

42 within the terms of the Treaty of 15 April 1858 and its interpretation
given by arbitration on 22 March 1888, and also in order to facilitate

those transport services which may be provided to the territory of
one Party by enterprises which are nationals of the other.”

It is difficult to see how the obligation, set out under the terms of the
1956 Agreement, to collaborate to facilitate traffic on the San Juan and
to facilitate transport services being provided in the territory of one coun-
try by the nationals of the other could be met without Nicaragua notify-
ing Costa Rica of relevant regulations which it adopts.

95. The second factor indicating that Nicaragua is obliged to notify
the adoption of the regulations lies in its very subject-matter: navigation
on a river in which two States have rights, the one as sovereign, the other
to freedom of navigation. Such a requirement arises from the practical

necessities of navigation on such a waterway. If the various purposes of
navigation are to be achieved, it must be subject to some discipline, a dis-
cipline which depends on proper notification of the relevant regulations.

96. The third factor lies in the very nature of regulation. If the regula-
tion is to subject the activity in question to rules, those undertaking that
activity must be informed of those rules. Notification will assist in the
better application of the regulation and the more effective pursuit of its
purposes. Notification will also enable those subject to the regulation to
bring facts within their particular knowledge to the attention of the

appropriate authority and to suggest other ways of pursuing and achiev-
ing the relevant purpose.
97. The Court concludes that Nicaragua is under an obligation to
notify Costa Rica of the regulations which it makes regarding the navi-
gational régime on the San Juan River. That obligation does not however

extend to notice or consultation prior to the adoption by Nicaragua of
such regulations.

(c) The factual context

98. The Court considers it necessary to provide a factual context for
the assessment which follows of the particular Nicaraguan regulations
and actions challenged by Costa Rica. For this purpose, the Court recalls

information presented to it about the population on the Costa Rican
bank, the tourists using the river, and Costa Rican access to the area.
According to Costa Rica, about 450 people, about half of them Nicara-
guans, live along the approximately 140 kilometres of the Costa Rican
bank. Nicaragua does not challenge these figures.

99. According to Nicaragua, with an exception in 1982 when war time
emergency measures applied, Costa Rican tourist navigation has not

43 mément aux dispositions du traité du 15 avril 1858 et de son inter-
prétation par voie d’arbitrage du 22 mars 1888, et pour faciliter

également le fonctionnement des services de transport effectués sur
le territoire de l’une des parties par des entreprises ayant la natio-
nalité de l’autre.»

Il est difficile de voir comment pourrait être respectée l’obligation,
énoncée dans l’accord de 1956, de collaborer pour faciliter la circulation
sur le San Juan et le fonctionnement des services de transport effectués
sur le territoire de l’une des Parties par des entreprises ayant la nationa-
lité de l’autre si le Nicaragua ne notifie pas au Costa Rica les mesures

qu’il adopte.
95. Le deuxième élément au soutien de l’obligation pour le Nicaragua
de notifier l’adoption des mesures de réglementation réside dans l’objet
même de celles-ci, à savoir la navigation sur un cours d’eau sur lequel
deux Etats détiennent des droits, l’un ayant la souveraineté, l’autre un

droit de libre navigation. Cette obligation découle des nécessités prati-
ques de la navigation sur un tel cours d’eau. Si l’on veut que les différents
objectifs de la navigation soient réalisés, celle-ci doit être soumise à une
certaine discipline, et il faut pour cela que les mesures pertinentes soient
dûment notifiées.

96. Le troisième élément réside dans la nature même de la réglementa-
tion. Si celle-ci a pour objet d’assujettir l’activité visée à certaines règles,
les personnes se livrant à cette activité doivent en être informées. La noti-
fication permettra une meilleure application de la réglementation et une
réalisation plus efficace de ses objectifs. Elle permettra également aux
personnes visées de porter à l’attention de l’autorité compétente les élé-

ments de fait dont elles ont connaissance, ainsi que de suggérer d’autres
moyens de poursuivre et de réaliser le but pertinent.
97. La Cour conclut que le Nicaragua a l’obligation de notifier au
Costa Rica les mesures de réglementation qu’il prend relativement à la
navigation sur le San Juan. Le Nicaragua n’a cependant pas l’obliga-

tion d’informer ou de consulter le Costa Rica avant d’adopter de telles
mesures.

c) Le contexte factuel

98. La Cour juge nécessaire de replacer dans leur contexte les diffé-
rentes mesures et actions du Nicaragua contestées par le Costa Rica. A
cet effet, la Cour rappellera les éléments d’information qui lui ont été

présentés au sujet de la population de la rive costa-ricienne du San Juan,
des touristes qui empruntent le fleuve et de l’accès du Costa Rica à la
zone considérée. Selon ce dernier, environ 450 personnes — dont à
peu près la moitié sont nicaraguayennes — vivent sur les quelque
140 kilomètres de la rive costa-ricienne. Le Nicaragua ne conteste pas

ces chiffres.
99. Le Nicaragua expose que, à l’exception de l’année 1982, au cours
de laquelle des mesures d’urgence de temps de guerre ont été appliquées,

43been prevented. Its figures show an increase from 711 in 1998 to 2,590 in
2004. Costa Rica does not challenge those figures nor, especially, their

increase. Indeed, it drew on one of the Nicaraguan sources to show the
increase in tourist numbers. Rather, its arguments about the impeding of
tourism are general, depending in large part on the drawing of adverse
inferences from the Nicaraguan requirements relating to the stopping and
inspecting of vessels, the registering of passengers, the issue of visas and

tourist cards, and the charging of fees. The evidence before the Court
indicates that much of that travel by tourists begins or ends within
Costa Rica, in the Sarapiquí and Colorado Rivers and includes only the
approximately 25 kilometres of the San Juan River between the points
where those two rivers join it. The vessels in which the tourists travel,

according to the limited record before the Court, appear to provide for
about ten passengers.

100. The Parties have provided the Court with information about

measures Nicaragua has undertaken, and to this day continues to under-
take, in regulating the use of the river. Costa Rica contends that the
information shows that Nicaragua is acting unlawfully, not for legitimate
purposes but for reasons of harassment, and unreasonably and in a dis-
criminatory way. Nicaragua submits the opposite.

101. The Court notes that Costa Rica, in support of its claim of un-
lawful action, advances points of fact about unreasonableness by refer-
ring to the allegedly disproportionate impact of the regulations. The
Court recalls that in terms of well established general principle it is for

Costa Rica to establish those points (cf. Maritime Delimitation in the
Black Sea (Romania v. Ukraine), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2009 ,p.86,
para. 68, and cases cited there). Further, a court examining the reasona-
bleness of a regulation must recognize that the regulator, in this case the
State with sovereignty over the river, has the primary responsibility for

assessing the need for regulation and for choosing, on the basis of its
knowledge of the situation, the measure that it deems most appropriate
to meet that need. It will not be enough in a challenge to a regulation
simply to assert in a general way that it is unreasonable. Concrete and
specific facts will be required to persuade a court to come to that
conclusion.

2. The Legality of the Specific Nicaraguan Measures
Challenged by Costa Rica

102. The Court now considers the measures adopted by Nicaragua
which are challenged by Costa Rica.

44la navigation des touristes costa-riciens n’a jamais été entravée. Les chif-
fres qu’il a présentés montrent que le nombre de touristes est passé de 711

en 1998 à 2590 en 2004. Le Costa Rica ne conteste pas ces chiffres ni, plus
particulièrement, leur augmentation. Il s’est d’ailleurs lui-même appuyé
sur une des sources nicaraguayennes pour illustrer cette augmentation.
En réalité, sa thèse relative à l’entrave au tourisme est d’ordre général, et
elle repose en grande partie sur les conséquences défavorables qui, selon

lui, découleraient des mesures nicaraguayennes consistant à exiger des
bateaux qu’ils fassent halte et se soumettent à une inspection, et à impo-
ser l’enregistrement des passagers, l’obtention de visas et de cartes de tou-
riste ainsi que le paiement de certaines sommes. Il ressort des éléments de
preuve qui ont été présentés à la Cour que la plupart des bateaux de tou-

risme commencent ou achèvent leur trajet au Costa Rica, sur le Sarapiquí
et sur le Colorado, et n’empruntent le San Juan que sur les quelque
25 kilomètres qui séparent les points de jonction avec ces deux cours
d’eau. Au vu des éléments d’information limités dont dispose la Cour, les
bateaux de tourisme peuvent accueillir une dizaine de passagers.
100. Les Parties ont communiqué à la Cour des éléments d’infor-

mation relatifs à des mesures que le Nicaragua a prises et continue de
prendre pour réglementer l’utilisation du fleuve. Le Costa Rica affirme
qu’il ressort de ces éléments que le Nicaragua agit non de manière licite
et en poursuivant des objectifs légitimes, mais à des fins de harcèlement,
d’une manière déraisonnable et discriminatoire. Le Nicaragua soutient

le contraire.
101. La Cour note que le Costa Rica, à l’appui de sa thèse selon
laquelle l’action du Nicaragua est illicite, avance des éléments de fait
visant à en démontrer le caractère déraisonnable en invoquant l’incidence
prétendument disproportionnée des mesures en question. La Cour rap-

pelle que, selon un principe général bien établi, c’est au Costa Rica qu’il
incombe d’établir ces éléments (cf. Délimitation maritime en mer Noire
(Roumanie c. Ukraine), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2009 , p. 86, par. 68 et affai-
res qui y sont citées). En outre, une juridiction qui examine le caractère
raisonnable d’une réglementation doit reconnaître que c’est à l’autorité

de réglementation, en l’occurrence à l’Etat qui jouit de la souveraineté sur
le fleuve, que revient la responsabilité principale d’apprécier la nécessité
de réglementer et, en se fondant sur sa connaissance de la situation, de
retenir à cette fin la mesure qu’il estime la plus appropriée. Il ne suffit pas,
pour contester une réglementation, d’affirmer en termes généraux qu’elle
est déraisonnable; pour qu’une juridiction fasse droit à une telle contesta-

tion, des faits concrets et spécifiques doivent lui être présentés.

2. La licéité des mesures nicaraguayennes
spécifiques contestées par le Costa Rica

102. La Cour examinera maintenant les mesures adoptées par le Nica-
ragua que le Costa Rica conteste.

44(a) Requirement to stop and identification

103. Costa Rica, in its final submissions, requests the Court to declare
that Nicaragua has the obligation not to require Costa Rican vessels to
stop at any Nicaraguan post along the river, and not to require their pas-
sengers to carry passports. Costa Rica contends that the requirements of
stopping and registering have the practical effect of rendering near impos-

sible the exercise of Costa Rica’s treaty rights of free navigation and that
they do not have much of a preventive effect. They cannot be regarded as
reasonable or lawful. Nicaragua says that, since before the 1960s, it has
required boat operators, including Nicaraguans, travelling on the river to
stop and identify themselves, their passengers and their cargoes. The

requirement, it says, is a fundamental element of its law enforcement
efforts in the area. It considers it quite telling that Costa Rica has, since
at least the 1960s, found it necessary to implement the same requirement
on its own rivers. Nicaragua explains that its army posts are spread
widely, leaving vast stretches of the river far removed from law enforce-
ment officials, and that it is only by keeping track of vessels as they enter

and leave the river that it can effectively monitor them to ensure that they
do not engage in unlawful activities. Nicaragua also cites environmental
protection and navigational safety as reasons for these requirements.

104. So far as the lawfulness of the requirement is concerned, the
Court is of the opinion that Nicaragua, as sovereign, has the right to
know the identity of those entering its territory and also to know that

they have left. The power to require the production of a passport or iden-
tity document of some kind is a legitimate part of the exercise of such a
power. Nicaragua also has related responsibilities in respect of law
enforcement and environmental protection. To that extent, the Nicara-
guan requirement that vessels stop on entering the river and leaving it

and that they be subject to search is lawful. The Court cannot, however,
see any legal justification for a general requirement that vessels continu-
ing along the San Juan River, for example, from the San Carlos River to
the Colorado River, stop at any intermediate point, in that case at Sara-
piquí.
105. In its Memorial, Costa Rica also called attention to the right

which the vessels of Costa Rica and Nicaragua have under Article VI to
land on either side of the river, which it cited in support of the proposi-
tion that “[n]owhere is it stipulated that Costa Rican vessels have an
obligation to land on the Nicaraguan bank and report to the Nicara-
guan authorities”. Costa Rica provides no elaboration of this argument.

That is hardly surprising. The right of individual boatmen to tie up on
the opposite bank for their own reasons and the power and responsi-
bility of the State which is sovereign over the river to regulate it, in the

45a) Obligation de faire halte et identification

103. Dans ses conclusions finales, le Costa Rica prie la Cour de dire
que le Nicaragua a l’obligation de ne pas exiger des bateaux costa-riciens
qu’ils fassent halte à un quelconque poste nicaraguayen situé le long
du fleuve et de leurs passagers qu’ils soient munis de passeports. Le
Costa Rica soutient que les obligations de faire halte et de s’enregistrer

ont, en pratique, pour effet de rendre presque impossible l’exercice de ses
droits conventionnels de libre navigation et qu’elles n’ont qu’un effet pré-
ventif fort limité. Selon lui, elles ne sauraient être considérées comme rai-
sonnables ou licites. Le Nicaragua indique que, dès avant les années 1960,
il a commencé à exiger des exploitants de bateaux — y compris nicara-

guayens — empruntant le fleuve qu’ils fassent halte, fassent connaître
leur identité et celle de leurs passagers et déclarent leurs marchandises.
Selon lui, cette obligation est un aspect fondamental de son action en
matière de répression des infractions dans la zone considérée. Il considère
qu’il est fort révélateur que le Costa Rica ait, depuis les années 1960 au
moins, jugé nécessaire d’instaurer cette même obligation sur ses propres

cours d’eau. Le Nicaragua précise que ses postes militaires sont très éloi-
gnés les uns des autres, de vastes secteurs du fleuve échappant à toute
présence des agents de la force publique, et que ce n’est qu’en contrôlant
les bateaux entrant sur le fleuve et en sortant qu’il peut les surveiller effi-
cacement pour s’assurer qu’ils ne se livrent pas à des activités illicites.

Pour justifier les mesures qu’il a prises, le Nicaragua invoque également
la protection de l’environnement et la sécurité de la navigation.
104. S’agissant de la licéité des obligations en question, la Cour est
d’avis que le Nicaragua, en tant que souverain, a le droit de connaître
l’identité des personnes entrant sur son territoire et de savoir si elles en

sont sorties. Le pouvoir d’exiger la présentation d’un passeport ou d’une
pièce d’identité fait légitimement partie de l’exercice de ce droit. Le Nica-
ragua a également des responsabilités connexes en matière de maintien de
l’ordre et de protection de l’environnement. Dès lors, l’obligation qu’il
impose aux bateaux de faire halte lorsqu’ils entrent sur le fleuve et le quit-

tent et de se soumettre à des inspections est licite. En revanche, la Cour
ne voit aucune justification juridique à l’obligation générale qui est faite
aux bateaux empruntant le San Juan pour se rendre, par exemple, de la
rivière San Carlos au Colorado, de faire halte en un quelconque point
intermédiaire, en l’occurrence à Sarapiquí.
105. Dans son mémoire, le Costa Rica a également appelé l’attention

sur le droit d’accoster indistinctement sur l’une ou l’autre rive du fleuve
que les deux Parties tiennent de l’article VI, droit qu’il invoque à l’appui
de l’argument selon lequel «[i]l n’est nulle part stipulé que les navires
costa-riciens ont l’obligation d’accoster sur la rive nicaraguayenne et de se
faire connaître aux autorités nicaraguayennes». Le Costa Rica ne déve-

loppe toutefois pas cet argument. Cela n’est guère surprenant. Le droit
qu’ont certains bateliers d’accoster sur la rive opposée pour des raisons
qui leur sont propres, et le pouvoir et la responsabilité de l’Etat qui

45public interest, are two distinct matters. They may operate in complete
harmony.

106. Costa Rica submits that more frequent Nicaraguan patrolling of
the river would be reasonable, lawful and sufficiently effective. However,
it provides no evidence to demonstrate that such patrolling would achieve
the purposes for which the requirement in question was introduced, nor

any specific evidence to show that this requirement actually interferes
with tourist traffic, in particular through the delays allegedly resulting
from its application. The Court recalls that it has been established that
the number of tourists on the river has increased over the years the
requirement has been in force. In the Court’s opinion, Costa Rica has

failed to show that the regulation is unreasonable.

107. Accordingly, the Court concludes that Costa Rica’s challenge to
the requirement that vessels stop and their crew members and passengers
register and carry identity documents fails.

(b) Departure clearance certificates

108. Costa Rica challenges the departure clearance certificate which
Nicaragua requires be issued to vessels navigating on the river. As will
appear, it also challenges the associated fee or charge. According to

Costa Rica, before 1979, the practice was that Costa Rican boat opera-
tors would obtain a departure clearance certificate from their own authori-
ties (in Barra del Colorado or Puerto Viejo de Sarapiquí) and would
show it on request to the Nicaraguan authorities when entering the San
Juan. In the early 1980s the Nicaraguan authorities introduced their own
certificates and a related fee. The matter is now the subject of the 2001

Action Plan for Issuance of Departure Clearance Certificates in the San
Juan River of the Nicaraguan Army which provides as follows:

“1. Vessels navigating in between the Military Control Posts over
the San Juan River shall be issued a courtesy departure clearance
certificate.
2. The vessels and Nicaraguans whose domicile is close to the
bank of the San Juan River and Costa Ricans whose domicile is

located in the adjacent proximities shall be issued a courtesy depar-
ture clearance certificate, which shall be valid for one month and
must be renewed one day before the expiration date. These shall
report to the Military Control Posts located along the San Juan
River.

3. The Port Captaincy in San Juan del Norte is hereby authorized
to issue international departure clearance certificates to tourist ves-
sels at a cost of US10.00 (ten dollars). These certificates may be

46détient la souveraineté sur le fleuve de réglementer ce droit dans l’intérêt
public, sont deux questions distinctes. Ils peuvent être exercés de manière

tout à fait harmonieuse.
106. Le Costa Rica soutient qu’il serait raisonnable, licite et suffisam-
ment efficace que le Nicaragua effectue des patrouilles plus fréquentes sur
le fleuve. Il ne présente cependant aucun élément de preuve de nature à
établir que de telles patrouilles permettraient de réaliser l’objectif en vue

duquel ont été instituées les obligations en cause, ni aucun élément précis
de nature à démontrer que lesdites obligations constituent effectivement
une entrave à la circulation des touristes, notamment du fait des retards
qui résulteraient de leur application. La Cour rappelle qu’il est établi que
le nombre de touristes empruntant le fleuve a augmenté dans les années

durant lesquelles l’obligation a été en vigueur. Selon elle, le Costa Rica
n’est donc pas parvenu à démontrer que la réglementation en question
était déraisonnable.
107. En conséquence, la Cour conclut qu’elle ne saurait faire droit à la
contestation par le Costa Rica de l’obligation imposée aux bateaux de
faire halte et de celle, imposée à leurs membres d’équipage et passagers,

de s’enregistrer et d’être munis de pièces d’identité.

b) Certificats d’appareillage

108. Le Costa Rica conteste l’obligation d’obtenir un certificat d’appa-
reillage que le Nicaragua impose aux bateaux empruntant le fleuve.
Comme on le verra, il conteste également le paiement de la redevance ou

du droit y afférent. Selon lui, avant 1979, les exploitants de bateaux
costa-riciens se voyaient délivrer un certificat d’appareillage par les autori-
tés costa-riciennes (à Barra del Colorado ou à Puerto Viejo de Sarapiquí)
et le présentaient, à la demande des autorités nicaraguayennes, en entrant
sur le San Juan. Au début des années 1980, les autorités nicaraguayennes
ont instauré leurs propres certificats et le paiement d’une somme à ce

titre. Cette question est désormais régie par le plan d’action relatif à la
délivrance de certificats d’appareillage sur le fleuve San Juan établi par
l’armée nicaraguayenne en 2001, lequel dispose ce qui suit:

«1. Les bateaux qui naviguent entre les postes de contrôle mili-
taires sur le fleuve San Juan se verront délivrer un certificat d’appa-
reillage de courtoisie.
2. Les bateaux et les Nicaraguayens dont le point d’attache/domi-
cile est proche de la rive du fleuve San Juan ainsi que les Costa-

Riciens dont le domicile est situé dans les zones adjacentes se
verront délivrer un certificat d’appareillage de courtoisie qui sera
valable un mois et devra être renouvelé un jour avant la date
d’expiration. Ces bateaux et personnes se présenteront aux postes de
contrôle militaires situés le long du fleuve San Juan.

3. La capitainerie du port de San Juan del Norte est autorisée par
le présent plan d’action à délivrer des certificats d’appareillage inter-
nationaux aux bateaux de tourisme, au prix de $10 (dix dollars des

46 issued by the Military Control Posts in Boca de Sarapiquí and
El Delta only where vessels attempt to evade the Port Captaincy.

.............................

5. Costa Rican vessels domiciled inland in Costa Rican territory
that use the San Juan River as a transit route shall be issued an
international departure clearance certificate in San Juan del Norte,
subject to a symbolic fee equivalent to US5.00 (five dollars).”

Nicaragua says that on entry into the river, vessels are inspected to
ensure that they are seaworthy, are free of fuel leaks that might pollute
the river and are not carrying illegal cargo. In support of the regulation
Nicaragua also cites the minutes of a 1997 meeting of the Binational
Nicaragua-Costa Rica Commission:

“With respect to the movement of vessels, it was considered nec-
essary that they navigate only if duly registered by the posts that
issue corresponding navigation certificates; in this case, the posts at
San Juan del Norte, San Carlos and Sarapiquí.”

Nicaragua considers that in this minute Costa Rica accepted that there
was good reason for the registration and clearance requirements imposed
by Nicaragua. For Costa Rica, the minute was concerned with drug traf-
ficking and the passage meant only that the certificates should be obtained
by vessels from their respective countries.

109. The Court considers that the purposes invoked by Nicaragua,
i.e., navigational safety, environmental protection and criminal law
enforcement, are legitimate ones. Further, the requirement for departure
clearance certificates does not appear to have imposed any significant

impediment on the exercise of Costa Rica’s freedom of navigation.

The question may also be asked whether in terms of the earlier practice
the inspection and certification should be undertaken by the State of
nationality of the boat operators, on the analogy of maritime navigation.
There is however no suggestion from Costa Rica that it would be in a

position to take up this responsibility. Nor does it point to a single case
where navigation has been impeded by an arbitrary refusal of a certifi-
cate.
110. Accordingly Costa Rica’s claim that Costa Rican vessels need not
obtain departure clearance certificates cannot be upheld. The Court con-

siders the claim in respect of charges later (see paragraphs 120 to 124
below).

47 Etats-Unis). Ces certificats peuvent être délivrés par les postes mili-
taires de Boca de Sarapiquí et d’El Delta uniquement lorsque les

navires tentent de contourner la capitainerie du port.
.............................

5. Les bateaux costa-riciens dont le point d’attache est situé sur le
territoire costa-ricien et qui empruntent le fleuve San Juan comme
voie de transit se verront délivrer un certificat d’appareillage inter-
national à San Juan del Norte, moyennant paiement d’un droit sym-

bolique de $5 (cinq dollars des Etats-Unis).»

Le Nicaragua indique que, lorsqu’ils entrent sur le fleuve, les bateaux
sont soumis à une inspection visant à s’assurer qu’ils sont en état de navi-
guer, ne présentent pas de fuites de carburant susceptibles de polluer les
eaux et ne transportent pas de marchandises illégales. Pour justifier cette
réglementation, le Nicaragua cite également le compte rendu d’une réu-

nion tenue en 1997 par la commission binationale Nicaragua-Costa Rica:

«En ce qui concerne les mouvements de bateaux, il a été jugé
nécessaire que ceux-ci naviguent uniquement s’ils ont été dûment
enregistrés par les postes qui délivrent les certificats de navigation
correspondants, en l’espèce les postes de San Juan del Norte, de San

Carlos et de Sarapiquí.»

Selon le Nicaragua, le Costa Rica a, dans ce compte rendu, reconnu
que les mesures que le Nicaragua avait imposées en matière d’enregistre-
ment et d’appareillage étaient justifiées. Le Costa Rica, quant à lui, consi-
dère que ce compte rendu portait sur le trafic de stupéfiants et que le
passage précité signifiait uniquement que les bateaux devaient obtenir les

certificats en question auprès de leurs pays respectifs.
109. La Cour considère que les objectifs invoqués par le Nicaragua, à
savoir la sécurité de la navigation, la protection de l’environnement et la
répression des infractions pénales, sont légitimes. Par ailleurs, l’obliga-
tion qui est faite d’obtenir un certificat d’appareillage ne semble pas avoir

constitué une entrave substantielle à l’exercice par le Costa Rica de sa
liberté de navigation.
La question se pose aussi de savoir si, conformément à la pratique
antérieure, l’inspection et la délivrance d’un certificat doivent, comme
c’est le cas en matière de navigation maritime, être effectuées par l’Etat de
nationalité des exploitants des bateaux. Le Costa Rica n’a cependant pas

laissé entendre qu’il était en mesure d’assumer cette responsabilité. Il ne
mentionne pas non plus le moindre cas où l’un de ses bateaux aurait été
empêché de naviguer pour s’être vu refuser arbitrairement un certificat.
110. En conséquence, la demande du Costa Rica tendant à ce que ses
bateaux ne soient pas tenus de se procurer des certificats d’appareillage

ne saurait être accueillie. La Cour examinera plus loin la demande rela-
tive aux droits devant être acquittés (voir paragraphes 120 à 124 ci-
après).

47(c) Visas and tourist cards

111. In its final submissions, Costa Rica requests the Court to declare
that Nicaragua has the obligation not to require persons exercising the
right of free navigation to obtain Nicaraguan visas. Its claim also extends
to tourist cards. Nicaragua states that, since at least 1979, all non-
nationals have been required to obtain tourist cards when they enter

Nicaragua, a requirement which includes entry into Nicaragua via the
San Juan River. It says that it makes an exception for residents of
Costa Rica riparian communities and for Costa Rican merchants who
regularly use the river to transport goods from one community to another.
It notes that those exemptions also apply to visas. Further, many of the

tourists have the benefit of a visa waiver made by Nicaragua. Costa Rica
points to some evidence which puts in question the operation of the
exemptions for riparians.

112. Costa Rica contends that the visa and tourist card requirements
are a breach of its right of free navigation. They impose unlawful limits

on the freedom. The exercise of the power would mean that the right to
freedom of navigation becomes a privilege to be granted or denied at the
discretion of Nicaragua. For Nicaragua, the power to issue such docu-
ments is a simple consequence of its sovereignty over the river. Just as it
can require that such permissions be sought by non-nationals as they

enter its territory at Managua Airport, so too can it impose that require-
ment when non-nationals seek to enter the river over which it is sovereign.

113. The Court observes at the outset that a distinction must be drawn
between requiring visas and requiring tourist cards. The power of a State
to issue or refuse visas is a practical expression of the prerogative which
each State has to control entry by non-nationals into its territory.

114. The requirement that passengers on Costa Rican vessels exercis-
ing freedom of navigation, other than riparians and certain Costa Rican
merchants, have visas issued to them raises the question of who is entitled
to and who may benefit from the right of freedom of navigation for com-
mercial purposes stated in Article VI of the 1858 Treaty. Under Article
VI of the Treaty the titleholder of the right of free navigation is Costa

Rica. Owners and operators of Costa Rican vessels benefit from that
right when navigating on the San Juan River for commercial purposes.
Passengers on vessels exercising Costa Rica’s right of free navigation also
benefit from that right, even if such passengers are not Costa Rican
nationals.

115. The Court recalls that the power of a State to issue or refuse a
visa entails discretion. However in the present case Nicaragua may not
impose a visa requirement on those persons who, in line with what was

48c) Visas et cartes de touriste

111. Dans ses conclusions finales, le Costa Rica prie la Cour de dire
que le Nicaragua a l’obligation de ne pas exiger des personnes exerçant le
droit de libre navigation qu’elles obtiennent un visa du Nicaragua. Sa
demande porte également sur les cartes de touriste. Le Nicaragua indique
que, depuis 1979 au moins, tout non-national est tenu d’obtenir une carte

de touriste lorsqu’il entre au Nicaragua, y compris par le San Juan. Il
ajoute qu’une dérogation est accordée aux membres des communautés
costa-riciennes riveraines et aux commerçants costa-riciens qui utilisent
régulièrement le fleuve pour transporter des marchandises d’une commu-
nauté à une autre. Il précise que ces dérogations valent également en

matière de visas. De plus, de nombreux touristes bénéficient d’une dis-
pense de visa accordée par le Nicaragua. Le Costa Rica présente certains
éléments de preuve qui mettent en doute l’application des dérogations
aux riverains.
112. Le Costa Rica soutient que les obligations imposées en matière de
visas et de cartes de touriste constituent des violations de son droit de

libre navigation. Selon lui, elles imposent des restrictions illicites à l’exer-
cice de ce droit. Que le Nicaragua puisse exercer un tel pouvoir revien-
drait à transformer le droit de libre navigation en un privilège qu’il pour-
rait accorder ou refuser de manière discrétionnaire. Selon le Nicaragua, le
pouvoir de délivrer de tels documents découle tout simplement de la sou-

veraineté qu’il détient sur le fleuve. De la même manière qu’il peut exiger
que de telles autorisations soient présentées par des non-nationaux qui
souhaitent entrer sur son territoire à l’aéroport de Managua, il peut
imposer cette obligation lorsque des non-nationaux veulent entrer sur le
fleuve sur lequel il détient la souveraineté.

113. La Cour fait observer, à titre liminaire, qu’une distinction doit
être établie entre l’obligation d’obtenir un visa et l’obligation d’obtenir
une carte de touriste. La faculté qu’a chaque Etat de délivrer ou de refu-
ser des visas est une expression concrète des prérogatives dont il jouit afin
de contrôler l’entrée des non-nationaux sur son territoire.

114. L’obligation qui est faite aux passagers des bateaux costa-riciens
exerçant le droit de libre navigation — autres que les riverains et certains
marchands costa-riciens — d’être munis de visas pose la question de
savoir qui est le titulaire du droit de libre navigation à des fins de com-
merce énoncé à l’article VI du traité de 1858, et qui peut en bénéficier. En
vertu de cette disposition, le titulaire du droit de libre navigation est le

Costa Rica. Les propriétaires et exploitants de bateaux costa-riciens
bénéficient de ce droit lorsqu’ils empruntent le San Juan à des fins de
commerce. Les passagers des bateaux exerçant le droit de libre navigation
détenu par le Costa Rica en bénéficient également, même s’ils ne sont pas
ressortissants du Costa Rica.

115. La Cour rappelle que la faculté qu’a chaque Etat de délivrer ou
de refuser des visas est de nature discrétionnaire. En l’espèce cependant,
le Nicaragua ne saurait imposer l’obligation d’être munies d’un visa aux

48stated in the preceding paragraph, may benefit from Costa Rica’s right of
free navigation. If that benefit is denied, the freedom of navigation would

be hindered. In these circumstances, an imposition of a visa requirement
is a breach of the Treaty right.

116. The Court observes that in fact the number of tourists travelling
on the river in Costa Rican vessels has increased in the period these

requirements have been in force (see paragraph 99 above). Further, Costa
Rica has provided no evidence of arbitrary refusals of visas to tourists
and Nicaragua points out that it does not require nationals from coun-
tries which are the source of most of the tourists visiting the San Juan to
obtain visas. Furthermore, it makes exceptions for residents of Costa

Rican riparian communities and Costa Rican merchants who regularly
use the river. None of this, however, affects the legal situation just stated.

117. The Court accordingly concludes that Nicaragua may not require

persons travelling on Costa Rican vessels which are exercising their free-
dom of navigation on the river to obtain visas. It would of course be
another matter were they wishing to enter the land territory of Nicaragua
from the river or to travel up the river beyond its shared part towards
Lake Nicaragua.

118. The Court adds one point to that conclusion. It has already recog-
nized that Nicaragua has the right to know the identity of those wishing
to enter the river, for reasons, among others, of law enforcement and
environmental protection (paragraph 104 above). One measure which it

may properly take to protect such interests is to refuse entry to a particu-
lar person for good reasons relating to that purpose. It can do that at the
point that the person identifies him or herself (see paragraphs 103 to 107
above). If such an action was justified in terms of the relevant purpose,
no breach of the freedom would be involved. A similar analysis may well

be available in terms of an emergency derogation of the right to navigate.

119. With regard to the requirement by Nicaragua that tourist cards
be obtained, this does not appear to be intended to facilitate its control
over entry into the San Juan River. In the course of the proceedings

Nicaragua did no more than give some factual information about the
operation of the tourist cards and the exemptions already mentioned. It
referred to no legitimate purpose as justification for imposing this require-
ment. The requirement that passengers wishing to travel on Costa Rican
vessels which are exercising Costa Rica’s freedom of navigation on the

river must first purchase tourist cards is inconsistent with that right to
freedom of navigation. The Court accordingly concludes that Nicaragua
may not require persons travelling on Costa Rican vessels which are exer-

49personnes qui, conformément à ce qui a été dit au paragraphe précédent,
peuvent bénéficier du droit de libre navigation détenu par le Costa Rica.

Si ce bénéfice leur était refusé, la liberté de navigation serait entravée.
Dans ces conditions, l’institution d’un visa obligatoire est une violation
du droit consacré par le traité.
116. La Cour fait observer que le nombre de touristes voyageant sur le
fleuve à bord de bateaux costa-riciens a, en réalité, augmenté au cours de

la période pendant laquelle cette obligation était en vigueur (voir para-
graphe 99 ci-dessus). Par ailleurs, le Costa Rica n’a présenté aucun élé-
ment de preuve attestant que des touristes se seraient vu arbitrairement
refuser la délivrance d’un visa, et le Nicaragua précise qu’il n’impose pas
aux ressortissants des pays d’où proviennent la plupart des touristes

empruntant le San Juan d’obtenir des visas. En outre, des dérogations
ont été accordées par le Nicaragua aux membres des communautés costa-
riciennes riveraines et à certains commerçants costa-riciens qui utilisent
régulièrement le fleuve. Tout cela n’a cependant pas d’incidence sur la
situation juridique exposée ci-dessus.
117. En conséquence, la Cour conclut que le Nicaragua n’a pas le

droit d’exiger des personnes voyageant à bord de bateaux costa-riciens
qui exercent leur droit de libre navigation sur le fleuve qu’elles se procu-
rent des visas. Il en irait bien entendu autrement si ces personnes souhai-
taient entrer sur le territoire terrestre du Nicaragua depuis le fleuve ou
remonter ce dernier en direction du lac Nicaragua, au-delà du secteur où

la navigation est commune.
118. La Cour ajoute un élément à cette conclusion. Elle a d’ores et
déjà confirmé que le Nicaragua avait le droit de connaître, notamment
pour des raisons liées au maintien de l’ordre et à la protection de l’envi-
ronnement, l’identité des personnes souhaitant s’engager sur le fleuve

(voir paragraphe 104 ci-dessus). L’une des mesures que le Nicaragua
pourrait légitimement prendre pour protéger de tels intérêts consisterait à
refuser l’entrée sur le fleuve à une personne pour des raisons valables au
regard de l’objectif poursuivi. Il peut agir ainsi lorsque l’intéressé fait
connaître son identité (voir paragraphes 103 à 107 ci-dessus). Si cette

mesure est justifiée au regard de l’objectif poursuivi, il n’y a pas violation
du droit de libre navigation. Cette analyse pourrait valoir également dans
l’hypothèse d’une mesure d’urgence dérogatoire au droit de navigation.
119. En ce qui concerne les cartes de touriste exigées par le Nicaragua,
elles ne semblent pas destinées à faciliter le contrôle par cet Etat de
l’accès au San Juan. Au cours de l’instance, le Nicaragua s’est contenté de

présenter certaines informations d’ordre factuel relatives au système des
cartes de touriste et aux dispenses, dont il a déjà été fait mention. Il n’a
invoqué la poursuite d’aucun objectif légitime à l’appui de cette exigence.
L’obligation faite aux personnes souhaitant emprunter des bateaux
costa-riciens qui exercent le droit de libre navigation du Costa Rica sur

le fleuve d’acheter des cartes de touriste est incompatible avec ce droit. En
conséquence, la Cour conclut que le Nicaragua ne saurait exiger des per-
sonnes qui voyagent à bord de bateaux costa-riciens exerçant le droit de

49cising Costa Rica’s freedom of navigation on the river to purchase a tour-
ist card.

(d) Charges

120. Costa Rica, in its final submissions, requests the Court to declare
that Nicaragua has an obligation not to impose any charges or fees on
Costa Rican vessels and their passengers for navigating on the river. The
claims relate to payments required in respect of departure clearance cer-

tificates for vessels and visas and tourist cards for passengers. According
to Nicaragua, they are not payments for navigating on the river, but for
the service involved in the issue of the various documents. If Nicaragua
has no legal power to require the issuing of such documents, as the Court
has already held in respect of visas, then no charge or fee may of course

be required. The Court has dealt with the question of the payment for
tourist cards in the previous paragraph. The matter does, however,
remain in respect of the issue of departure clearance certificates.
Costa Rica contends that the requirement is prohibited by the Treaty. In
1982 it protested against the imposition of a charge for the issuing of a

departure clearance certificate as a tax that is excluded by Article VI of
the Treaty. In a later exchange, in 2001, Nicaragua contended that the
sum being charged was

“not for navigating the San Juan River, nor does it constitute any
type of tax, but is, rather, the amount charged for providing the
departure clearance certificate service that both Nicaraguan and for-
eign vessels in any Nicaraguan port, including those located in the

said river, are charged when travelling to another State”.

Nicaragua recalls that, by decision of the President of Nicaragua and “to

strengthen the ties” between the two countries and Governments,
Costa Rican vessels, other than tourist vessels and those using the port of
San Juan del Norte, were to be issued with the certificate without pay-
ment. In response, Costa Rica again referred to Article VI, quoting the
last part of that provision, and contended that in effect no service was

rendered corresponding to the departure clearance certificate. Nicaragua,
says Costa Rica, ignores the plain text of Article VI of the Treaty of Lim-
its which provides that neither country may impose charges on the other,
except when there is agreement by both Governments.

121. The final sentence of Article VI in its original Spanish text pro-
vides as follows:
“Las embarcaciones de uno ú otro pais podrán indistintamente

atracar en las riberas del rio en la parte en que la navegación es
común, sin cobrarse ninguna clase de impuestos, á no ser que se
establezcan de acuerdo entre ambos Gobiernos.” (For the full

50libre navigation du Costa Rica sur le fleuve qu’elles achètent des cartes de
touriste.

d) Acquittement de droits

120. Le Costa Rica, dans ses conclusions finales, prie la Cour de dire
que le Nicaragua a l’obligation de n’imposer aucun droit ou redevance
aux bateaux costa-riciens et à leurs passagers naviguant sur le fleuve. Il
fait référence aux sommes demandées en contrepartie de la délivrance de

certificats d’appareillage pour les bateaux, et de visas et cartes de touriste
pour leurs passagers. Selon le Nicaragua, ces sommes sont perçues au titre
non de la navigation sur le fleuve, mais du service en contrepartie duquel
ces différents documents sont délivrés. Dès lors que le Nicaragua n’est pas
fondé à exiger des intéressés qu’ils se procurent de tels documents, comme

l’a dit plus haut la Cour à propos des visas, aucun droit ni redevance n’est
bien entendu dû à ce titre. La Cour a traité de la question de l’achat des
cartes de touriste dans le paragraphe précédent. La question demeure,
toutefois, en ce qui concerne la délivrance de certificats d’appareillage. Le
Costa Rica soutient que l’obligation en question est proscrite par le traité.

En 1982, il avait protesté contre l’institution d’un droit à acquitter pour la
délivrance de certificats d’appareillage, l’assimilant à une taxe exclue par
l’article VI du traité. Dans un échange de correspondance ultérieur,
en 2001, le Nicaragua fit valoir que la somme perçue ne l’était pas

«au titre de la navigation sur le fleuve San Juan — et ne constitu[ait]
donc nullement une taxe — mais au titre de la délivrance du certifi-
cat d’appareillage qu’aussi bien les navires nicaraguayens que les
navires étrangers d[evaient] acquitter dans tout port nicaraguayen, y

compris tout port situé sur ledit fleuve, lorsqu’ils se rend[aient] dans
un autre Etat».
Le Nicaragua rappelle que, sur décision du président du Nicaragua, et

afin de «renforcer les relations» entre les deux pays et gouvernements, le
certificat d’appareillage devait être accordé gratuitement aux bateaux
costa-riciens, à l’exception de ceux qui étaient employés à des activités de
tourisme ou qui utilisaient le port de San Juan del Norte. En réponse, le
Costa Rica renvoya une fois de plus à l’article VI, dont il citait la dernière

partie, soutenant qu’aucun service en fait n’était rendu en contrepartie du
certificat d’appareillage. Le Nicaragua, soutient le Costa Rica, méconnaît
le libellé clair de l’article VI du traité de limites, qui interdit à chacune des
Parties d’imposer à l’autre l’acquittement de droits, si ce n’est avec le
consentement de leurs deux gouvernements.

121. Dans sa version originale espagnole, la dernière phrase de l’ar-
ticle VI se lit comme suit:
«Las embarcaciones de uno ú otro país podrán indistintamente

atracar en las riberas del río, en la parte en que la navegación es
común, sin cobrarse ninguna clase de impuestos, á no ser que se
establezcan de acuerdo entre ambos Gobiernos.» (Pour le texte inté-

50 text of Article VI in the Spanish original, see paragraph 43
above.)

The English translations of that sentence provided to President Cleveland
by the Parties were respectively as follows:

“The vessels of both countries shall have the power to land indis-
criminately on either side of the river, at the portion thereof where

the navigation is common; and no charges of any kind, or duties,
shall be collected unless when levied by mutual consent of both Gov-
ernments.” (Costa Rica)

and

“The vessels of both countries may indiscriminately approach the
shores (atracar) of the river where the navigation is common to
both, without the collection of any class of impost unless so estab-
lished by the two Governments.” (Nicaragua)

122. In the Court’s view, the final sentence of Article VI has two ele-
ments. It first confers a right on the vessels of each Party to land on the
bank of the other. Second, that sentence provides that the exercise of that
particular right is not to be the subject of an impost or tax. Just as the
exercise of the right of navigation on the river is to be free and not the

subject of any payment, so is stopping on the other bank. The Court does
not read the provision as extending beyond that particular situation and
as prohibiting charges for services lawfully and properly required by
Nicaragua and rendered to vessels navigating on the river.

123. The Court now turns to the issue raised by Costa Rica in its cor-
respondence with Nicaragua in 2001 (see paragraph 120 above): what is
the service being rendered for the certificate and the charge. As the Court
understands the situation, Costa Rica does not challenge the right of
Nicaragua to inspect vessels on the river for safety, environmental and
law enforcement reasons; as noted, it accepted it in respect of drug traf-

ficking in 1997. In the Court’s opinion, that right would in any event be
an aspect of Nicaraguan sovereignty over the river. But those actions of
policing by the sovereign do not include the provision of any service to
boat operators. In respect of Costa Rican vessels exercising freedom of
navigation on the river, the payment must be seen as unlawful.

51 gral de l’article VI dans sa version originale espagnole, voir le para-
graphe 43 ci-dessus.)

Les traductions anglaises de cette phrase fournies par les Parties au pré-
sident Cleveland étaient respectivement les suivantes:

«The vessels of both countries shall have the power to land indis-
criminately on either side of the river, at the portion thereof where the

navigation is common ; and no charges of any kind, or duties, shall be
collected unless when levied by mutual consent of both Governments.»
(«Les bateaux des deux pays auront le droit d’accoster indistinctement
l’une ou l’autre rive de la portion du fleuve où la navigation est com-
mune sans qu’aucun droit ou redevance soit perçu, sauf accord entre
les deux gouvernements.»[Traduction du Greffe.]) (Costa Rica)

et

«The vessels of both countries may indiscriminately approach the
shores (atracar) of the river where the navigation is common to
both, without the collection of any class of impost unless so esta-
blished by the two Governments.» («Les bateaux des deux pays
seront autorisés à accoster (atracar) indistinctement l’une ou l’autre
rive de la partie du fleuve où la navigation est commune, sans

qu’aucune taxe soit perçue, sauf accord entre les deux gouverne-
ments.» [Traduction du Greffe.] ) (Nicaragua)

122. La Cour considère que la dernière phrase de l’article VI recouvre
deux éléments. En premier lieu, elle confère aux bateaux de chacune des
Parties le droit d’accoster sur la rive de l’autre. En second lieu, elle dis-
pose que l’exercice de ce droit spécifique ne doit pas donner lieu à paie-
ment d’une taxe. De même que l’exercice du droit de navigation sur le

fleuve, celui de faire halte sur l’autre rive doit être libre et exempt de toute
contrepartie financière. La Cour n’interprète pas la disposition comme
allant au-delà de ce cadre précis et interdisant la facturation de services
exigés de façon licite et régulière par le Nicaragua, et rendus aux bateaux
empruntant le fleuve.

123. La Cour en vient maintenant à la question posée par le Costa Rica
dans sa correspondance de 2001 avec le Nicaragua au sujet du service
rendu en contrepartie du certificat d’appareillage et du droit acquitté
(voir paragraphe 120 ci-dessus). La Cour croit comprendre que le Costa
Rica ne conteste pas au Nicaragua le droit d’inspecter les bateaux emprun-
tant le fleuve pour des raisons en rapport avec la sécurité, l’environne-

ment et le maintien de l’ordre public; ainsi qu’il a été relevé, il l’a accepté
dans le cas du trafic de stupéfiants en 1997. De l’avis de la Cour, ce droit
constituerait en tout état de cause un aspect de la souveraineté nicara-
guayenne sur le fleuve. Cependant, les mesures de police que prend le
souverain ne comprennent la prestation d’aucun service aux exploitants

de bateaux. En ce qui concerne les bateaux du Costa Rica qui exercent le
droit de libre navigation sur le fleuve, le paiement en question doit être
considéré comme illicite.

51 124. Accordingly, Costa Rica’s claim in respect of the charge for the
departure clearance certificate for those vessels must be upheld.

(e) Timetabling

125. In its final submissions, Costa Rica requests the Court to declare

that Nicaragua has the obligation not to impose impediments to the exer-
cise of the right of free navigation, inter alia, by timetables for naviga-
tion. Nicaragua, according to Costa Rica, in 1999 restricted navigation
on the San Juan River from 6.00 a.m. to 5.30 p.m. Costa Rica in 2001
protested against “this unilateral restriction . . ., given that it is not stipu-

lated by any agreement between the two States”. In its response, Nicara-
gua noted “its right and obligation, as the sovereign State, to adopt the
regulations necessary to guarantee the safety of the people and vessels
travelling along the river and avoid all manner of criminal activities”.
Costa Rica replied that Nicaragua could not establish these limitations
unilaterally since none of the instruments in force between the two coun-

tries established that it may do so. In the course of 2001 the Action Plan
of the Army of Nicaragua for issuance of Departure Clearance Certifi-
cates on the River set out this requirement: “As a measure for protecting
human life and safe navigation, navigation over the San Juan River
remains suspended between 5.00 p.m. and 5.00 a.m.” Costa Rica con-

tends that the prohibition is a violation of a right which is “perpetual”
and “free”.
126. The Court recalls that the exercise of a power to regulate may
legitimately include placing limits on the activity in question. The limited
evidence before the Court does not demonstrate any extensive use of the

river for night time navigation: tourist vessels, understandably, use the
river during daylight hours; emergencies are acknowledged by Nicaragua
to be an exception; and, according to the Nicaraguan Military Com-
mander in the area between 1992 and 1995, “by long standing custom
night time navigation of the river has not been practised, except in emer-

gency situations”. He explained that the prohibition “applies to everyone,
Nicaraguans included. The river is treacherous to navigate at night, since
there are no lights, and fallen logs and sandbars, invisible in the dark, are
prevalent, as are crocodiles.” The limited interference with Costa Rica’s
freedom to navigate does not, in the Court’s opinion, amount to an un-
lawful impediment to that freedom, particularly when the purposes of the

regulation are considered.

127. Costa Rica’s challenge to the regulation also applies to one of
those purposes, environmental protection. As already indicated, the Court

considers that that is a legitimate purpose and accordingly rejects this
ground for attacking the night time prohibition.

52 124. En conséquence, la demande du Costa Rica relative à l’acquitte-
ment d’un droit pour la délivrance d’un certificat d’appareillage à ces

bateaux doit être accueillie.

e) Horaires de navigation

125. Dans ses conclusions finales, le Costa Rica prie la Cour de dire

que le Nicaragua a l’obligation de ne pas mettre d’entraves à l’exercice du
droit de libre navigation, notamment sous la forme d’horaires de naviga-
tion. Le Nicaragua, affirme-t-il, a limité en 1999 la navigation sur le
fleuve, ne l’autorisant qu’entre 6 heures et 17 h 30. Le Costa Rica a,
en 2001, protesté contre «[c]ette limitation unilatérale..., étant donné

qu’elle ne résult[ait] pas d’un accord entre les deux Etats». En réponse, le
Nicaragua a noté qu’il avait «le droit et l’obligation, [en tant qu’]Etat
souverain, d’adopter les règlements nécessaires pour garantir la sécurité
des personnes et des bateaux circulant sur le fleuve et prévenir toute acti-
vité criminelle». Le Costa Rica a répliqué que le Nicaragua ne pouvait
établir ces limitations unilatéralement, aucun des instruments en vigueur

entre les deux pays ne lui donnant cette faculté. Au cours de l’année 2001,
la prescription ci-après fut énoncée dans le plan d’action du Nicaragua
relatif à la délivrance de certificats d’appareillage sur le fleuve San Juan:
«Aux fins d’assurer la protection de la vie humaine et la sécurité de la
navigation, la navigation sur le fleuve San Juan demeure suspendue entre

17 et 5 heures». Le Costa Rica soutient que cette interdiction constitue
une violation d’un droit «perpétuel» et «libre».
126. La Cour rappelle que l’exercice d’un pouvoir de réglementation
peut légitimement comporter la limitation de l’activité visée. Les quelques
éléments de preuve soumis à la Cour n’attestent nullement une utilisation

massive du fleuve à des fins de navigation nocturne: les bateaux de tou-
risme, naturellement, l’empruntent de jour; le Nicaragua admet qu’il
soit fait exception à la règle dans les situations d’urgence; et, selon le
commandant militaire nicaraguayen responsable de la région entre
1992 et 1995, «[l]a coutume depuis longtemps [était] de ne pas naviguer

la nuit, sauf en cas d’urgence». Cette interdiction, ajoutait l’officier en
question, «s’applique à tous, Nicaraguayens compris. Le fleuve est dan-
gereux pour la navigation de nuit, puisqu’il n’y a pas d’éclairage et
que les troncs d’arbres et bancs de sable, invisibles dans l’obscurité,
y sont nombreux, tout comme les crocodiles.» L’atteinte limitée qui est
causée à la liberté de navigation du Costa Rica n’est pas, de l’avis de

la Cour, constitutive d’une entrave illicite à cette liberté, tout particu-
lièrement eu égard aux considérations motivant la réglementation en
cause.
127. Le Costa Rica, lorsqu’il conteste cette réglementation, vise égale-
ment l’une de ces motivations, à savoir la protection de l’environnement.

Comme indiqué, la Cour juge qu’il s’agit d’un but légitime et écarte en
conséquence ce motif de contestation de l’interdiction de naviguer de
nuit.

52 128. Finally, Costa Rica submits that the regulation is unreasonable.
The purposes could have been better achieved by other means, it says, in

particular by requiring boats travelling at night to have lights and to have
dangerous places marked by lights. Costa Rica does not address the prac-
ticality of such measures, including their cost, nor their effectiveness. It
proceeds only by way of assertion. It has not, in the Court’s opinion,
come near to establishing that the regulation is unreasonable.

129. Accordingly, Costa Rica’s claim in respect of timetabling cannot
be upheld.

(f) Flags

130. In its final submissions, Costa Rica requests the Court to declare
that Nicaragua has an obligation not to impose an impediment on the
exercise of the right of free navigation, inter alia, by conditions relating
to flags. Costa Rica claims that the right of its vessels to fly its own flag
and not to fly the Nicaraguan flag is a corollary right to the right of free

navigation under the Treaty. For Nicaragua, the requirement that vessels
fly its flag when navigating in its waters, including in the San Juan, is an
attribute of Nicaragua’s sovereignty, and is a matter of international cus-
tom and practice. It is a reasonable and non-burdensome requirement.

131. The Parties also disagree on the facts. While Costa Rica suggests
that Nicaragua requires all of its vessels to fly the Nicaraguan flag, it has,
in the Court’s view, provided no persuasive evidence of this. Further, the
relevant Nicaraguan document, the Action Plan of the Army of Nicara-
gua for Issuance of Departure Clearance Certificates in the San Juan

River, while requiring its flag to be flown, adds an important qualifica-
tion: “If vessels have no flag pole, they shall fly the flag on the stern
turret if they have one.” Nicaragua’s counsel said that that limit meant
the regulation was inapplicable to the vast majority of Costa Rican
boats that use the river which are almost all small wooden “pangas” or

simple boats with a small outboard motor and no means to
display flags. Costa Rica also contends that Nicaragua does not allow
its vessels to fly the Costa Rican flag. Nicaragua provides evidence from
a military officer who had responsibility in the San Juan area from
2002 to 2005 that Costa Rican vessels could fly the Costa Rican flag so
long as they flew the Nicaraguan flag as well; in practice, that meant only

that the Costa Rican tourist boats kept a Nicaraguan flag on board
and hoisted it during the times they were on the San Juan. Finally,
as counsel for Costa Rica accepts, there is no evidence of any Costa
Rican vessel being prevented from navigating on the river for breach of
this requirement.

53 128. Enfin, le Costa Rica soutient que la réglementation est déraison-
nable. L’objectif, affirme-t-il, aurait pu être atteint plus efficacement par

d’autres moyens; ainsi aurait-il pu être requis que les bateaux naviguant
la nuit soient éclairés et les endroits dangereux, indiqués par des feux. Le
Costa Rica n’aborde pas la question de savoir s’il serait matériellement
possible de prendre de telles mesures, eu égard notamment à leur coût ou
à leur efficacité. Il ne procède que par assertions. Il est, selon la Cour,

loin d’avoir établi le caractère déraisonnable de cette réglementation.
129. En conséquence, la demande du Costa Rica relative aux horaires
de navigation ne saurait être accueillie.

f) Pavillons

130. Dans ses conclusions finales, le Costa Rica prie la Cour de dire
que le Nicaragua a l’obligation de ne pas mettre d’entraves à l’exercice
du droit de libre navigation, notamment sous la forme de conditions
relatives aux pavillons. Le Costa Rica soutient que le droit qu’ont ses
bateaux d’arborer le pavillon costa-ricien et non celui du Nicaragua est

un corollaire du droit de libre navigation garanti par le traité. Selon
le Nicaragua, l’obligation faite aux bateaux d’arborer son pavillon
lorsqu’ils naviguent sur ses eaux, celles du San Juan comprises, est un
attribut de sa souveraineté et relève de la pratique et de la coutume inter-
nationales. Elle constitue une obligation raisonnable et peu astreignante.

131. Les Parties sont également en désaccord sur les faits. Le
Costa Rica, s’il donne à entendre que le Nicaragua impose à tous ses
bateaux d’arborer le pavillon nicaraguayen, n’en a, de l’avis de la Cour,
pas fourni de preuves convaincantes. En outre, le document pertinent du
Nicaragua, le plan d’action relatif à la délivrance de certificats d’appa-

reillage pour la navigation sur le fleuve San Juan établi par l’armée nica-
raguayenne, impose bien l’obligation de battre pavillon nicaraguayen,
mais en l’assortissant d’une importante limite: «Les bateaux qui n’ont
pas de mât porte-drapeau arboreront le pavillon sur la tourelle de poupe,
s’ils en ont une.» Le conseil du Nicaragua a indiqué que cette limite ren-

dait la réglementation inapplicable à la grande majorité des bateaux
costa-riciens empruntant le fleuve, lesquels sont presque tous de petits
«pangas» en bois ou de simples embarcations munies d’un petit moteur
hors-bord, qui ne peuvent matériellement arborer un pavillon. Le Costa
Rica prétend aussi que ses bateaux ne sont pas autorisés par le Nicaragua
à arborer le pavillon costa-ricien. Le Nicaragua cite les propos de l’offi-

cier de l’armée responsable de la région du San Juan entre 2002 et 2005,
qui indiquent que les bateaux costa-riciens pouvaient arborer le pavillon
du Costa Rica dès lors qu’ils arboraient aussi celui du Nicaragua — ce
qui, en pratique, signifiait simplement que les bateaux de tourisme costa-
riciens gardaient un pavillon nicaraguayen à bord et le hissaient pendant

qu’ils naviguaient sur le San Juan. Enfin, comme l’a admis le conseil du
Costa Rica, il n’a été fait état d’aucun cas de bateau costa-ricien empêché
d’emprunter le fleuve faute d’avoir honoré cette obligation.

53 132. The Court considers that Nicaragua, which has sovereignty over
the San Juan River, may, in the exercise of its sovereign powers, require

Costa Rican vessels fitted with masts or turrets navigating on the river to
fly its flag. This requirement cannot in any respect be considered an
impediment to the exercise of the freedom of navigation of Costa Rican
vessels under the 1858 Treaty. The Court observes, moreover, that it has
not been presented with any evidence that Costa Rican vessels have been

prevented from navigation on the San Juan River as a result of Nicara-
gua’s flag requirement. Accordingly, Costa Rica’s claim that Nicaragua
has violated its obligation not to impose impediments on the exercise of
the right of free navigation by establishing conditions relating to flags

cannot be upheld.

(g) Conclusion

133. It follows from the above that Nicaragua has exercised its powers
of regulation regarding the matters discussed under subsections (2) (a),
(b), (e) and (f) of Section III above in conformity with the 1858 Treaty;
but that it is not acting in conformity with the obligations under the
1858 Treaty when it implements measures requiring visas and tourist

cards and the payment of charges in respect of vessels, boat operators
and their passengers exercising the freedom of navigation (paragraphs 111
to 124 above).

IV. S UBSISTENCE F ISHING

134. In its final submissions, Costa Rica requests the Court to declare
that Nicaragua has the obligation to permit riparians of the Costa Rican
bank to fish in the river for subsistence purposes. Nicaragua, in addition

to challenging this claim on the merits, has also said that it is inadmissi-
ble. The Court considers that issue first.
135. Costa Rica did not include the claim in respect of fishing in its
Application. It did however include it in its Memorial, explaining that it
was only after the institution of the proceedings that Nicaragua had

begun to prevent the riparians from engaging in fishing. In its Counter-
Memorial, Nicaragua asserted that the 1858 Treaty did not provide for
any fishing rights; it also challenged the existence of any customary right
of subsistence fishing by Costa Rican riparians. It was only in its Rejoin-
der that Nicaragua submitted that the claim was not admissible on the

ground that this particular claim was not included nor was it implicit in
the Application. Nicaragua also asserts that this claim did not arise
directly out of the subject-matter of the Application.
136. Costa Rica in the first round of the oral hearings, as well as dis-

cussing the merits of the claim, addressed its admissibility in some detail.
Itsubmitted,first,thatNicaragua,bypleadingtothemeritsintheCounter-

54 132. La Cour considère que le Nicaragua, qui a la souveraineté sur le
San Juan, peut, dans l’exercice de ses pouvoirs souverains, exiger des

bateaux costa-riciens pourvus de mâts ou de tourelles naviguant sur le
fleuve qu’ils arborent son pavillon. Cette obligation ne saurait être consi-
dérée comme représentant une entrave à l’exercice de la liberté de naviga-
tion garantie aux bateaux costa-riciens par le traité de 1858. La Cour
relève en outre qu’il ne lui a été présenté aucun élément de preuve attes-

tant que les bateaux costa-riciens avaient été empêchés de naviguer sur
le San Juan du fait des conditions relatives aux pavillons imposées par
le Nicaragua. En conséquence, la demande du Costa Rica selon laquelle
le Nicaragua aurait violé son obligation de ne pas mettre d’entraves à

l’exercice du droit de libre navigation en imposant des conditions rela-
tives aux pavillons ne saurait être accueillie.

g) Conclusion

133. Il découle de ce qui précède que le Nicaragua exerce ses pouvoirs
de réglementation dans les domaines examinés ci-dessus aux points a),
b), e) et f) de la partie 2 de la section III conformément au traité de
1858, mais qu’il n’agit pas en conformité avec les obligations qui sont les
siennes en vertu dudit traité lorsqu’il met en Œuvre des mesures imposant

l’obtention de visas et de cartes de touriste ainsi que le paiement de droits
pour les bateaux, exploitants de bateaux et leurs passagers exerçant la
liberté de navigation (voir paragraphes 111 à 124 ci-dessus).

IV. PÊCHE DE SUBSISTANCE

134. Dans ses conclusions finales, le Costa Rica prie la Cour de dire
que le Nicaragua a l’obligation de permettre aux habitants de la rive
costa-ricienne de pratiquer la pêche de subsistance. Le Nicaragua, qui

conteste cette demande au fond, l’a également déclarée irrecevable. La
Cour commencera par examiner ce dernier point.
135. Le Costa Rica n’a pas fait figurer la demande relative à la pêche
dans sa requête. Il l’a fait, toutefois, dans son mémoire, en précisant que
ce n’est qu’après l’introduction de l’instance que le Nicaragua s’était mis

à empêcher les riverains de pratiquer la pêche. Dans son contre-mémoire,
le Nicaragua a affirmé que le traité de 1858 ne prévoyait aucun droit de
pêche; il a également contesté que les riverains costa-riciens bénéficiaient
d’un quelconque droit coutumier de la pêche à des fins de subsistance. Ce
n’est que dans sa duplique que le Nicaragua a affirmé que la demande

n’était pas recevable, au motif qu’elle ne figurait pas dans la requête et
n’y était pas implicitement contenue. Le Nicaragua affirme également
que cette demande ne découlait pas directement de l’objet de la requête.
136. Le Costa Rica, lors de son premier tour de plaidoiries, a traité

non seulement le fond de cette demande, mais également, de façon rela-
tivement détaillée, la question de sa recevabilité. Il a soutenu, première-

54Memorial, implicitly accepted the admissibility of the fisheries claim; sec-
ond, that Nicaragua was to be taken as having consented to the jurisdic-

tion of the Court and is debarred from raising the issue; third,
that Costa Rica had reserved the right to supplement and modify its
Application; fourth, that the claim was implicitly included as being
“a step to aggravate and extend the dispute”, a matter included in the
Application; and, fifth, the claim fell within “other applicable rules

of international law” also referred to in the Application. Nicaragua
did not respond to the specific elements of those arguments and, except
for a brief reference back to its written pleadings, confined itself to the
merits, denying that Costa Rica had established the existence of a
customary right.

137. The Court recalls at the outset that admissibility is distinct from
jurisdiction. In the current instance the Court is dealing with the question
of admissibility. It is further recalled that it is for the Court to determine
in the light of the circumstances of each case whether an application is

admissible (Certain Phosphate Lands in Nauru (Nauru v. Australia),
Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1992 , p. 240). Under
Article 40, paragraph 1, of the Statute of the Court, the “subject of
the dispute” must be indicated in the Application; as established in
the Court’s jurisprudence, an additional claim must have been implicit in the

Application (Temple of Preah Vihear (Cambodia v. Thailand), Merits,
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1962 , p. 36) or must arise “directly out of the
question which is the subject-matter of that Application” (Fisheries Juris-
diction (Federal Republic of Germany v. Iceland), Merits, Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 1974, p. 203, para. 72).

With regard to Nicaragua’s argument that Costa Rica’s claim relating
to subsistence fishing is inadmissible on the grounds that Costa Rica
failed to include, even implicitly, the claim in its Application, the Court
notes that the alleged interferences by Nicaragua with the claimed right
of subsistence fishing post-date the filing of the Application. As to Nica-

ragua’s second argument that the claim does not arise directly out of the
subject-matter of the Application, the Court considers that in the circum-
stances of this case, given the relationship between the riparians and the
river and the terms of the Application, there is a sufficiently close connec-
tion between the claim relating to subsistence fishing and the Applica-
tion, in which Costa Rica, in addition to the 1858 Treaty, invoked “other

applicable rules and principles of international law”.

138. In addition, the Court observes that, as appears from the argu-
ments on the merits which the Respondent has presented in the two
rounds of written pleadings and in two rounds of oral hearings, Nicara-

gua has not been disadvantaged by Costa Rica’s failure to give notice in
the Application. Similarly, in terms of its responsibility for the due
administration of justice, the Court does not consider itself to have been

55ment, qu’en plaidant dans son contre-mémoire la question au fond le
Nicaragua avait implicitement accepté la recevabilité de la demande rela-

tive aux droits de pêche; deuxièmement, que le Nicaragua devait être
réputé avoir consenti à la compétence de la Cour et était empêché de sou-
lever cette question; troisièmement, que le Costa Rica s’était réservé le
droit de compléter ou d’amender sa requête; quatrièmement, que la
demande était implicitement contenue dans la requête, en tant qu’elle a

trait à l’un des cas de figure visés dans celle-ci, celui d’une «mesure pro-
pre à aggraver ou à étendre le ... différend»; et, cinquièmement, que la
demande relevait «d’autres règles ... applicables du droit international»
également visées dans la requête. Le Nicaragua n’a pas répondu aux diffé-
rents points de cette argumentation et, mis à part une brève référence aux

développements présentés dans ses pièces écrites, s’en est tenu au fond,
contestant que le Costa Rica ait établi l’existence d’un droit coutumier.
137. La Cour rappelle tout d’abord que la question de la recevabilité
est distincte de celle de la compétence. C’est ici la première qu’elle exa-
mine. Elle rappelle ensuite qu’il lui appartient d’apprécier, eu égard aux
circonstances de chaque espèce, la recevabilité d’une requête (Certaines

terres à phosphates à Nauru (Nauru c. Australie), exceptions prélimi-
naires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1992 , p. 240). Aux termes du paragraphe 1 de
l’article 40 du Statut de la Cour, «l’objet du différend» doit être indiqué
dans la requête. Par ailleurs, ainsi qu’il a été établi dans la jurisprudence
de la Cour, il convient que la demande additionnelle soit implicitement

contenue dans la requête (Temple de Préah Vihéar (Cambodge
c. Thaïlande), fond, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1962 , p. 36) ou découle «direc-
tement de la question qui fait l’objet de cette requête» (Compétence en
matière de pêcheries (République fédérale d’Allemagne c. Islande), fond,
arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1974 , p. 203, par. 72).

S’agissant de l’argument du Nicaragua selon lequel la demande du
Costa Rica relative à la pêche à des fins de subsistance est irrecevable
parce qu’elle ne figure pas, même implicitement, dans la requête, la Cour
fait observer que les prétendues entraves nicaraguayennes au droit allé-
gué de pratiquer la pêche à des fins de subsistance sont postérieures au

dépôt de ladite requête. S’agissant de l’argument du Nicaragua selon
lequel la demande ne découle pas directement de la question qui fait
l’objet de la requête, la Cour estime que, dans les circonstances de la pré-
sente espèce, compte tenu de la relation que les riverains entretiennent
avec le fleuve et du libellé de la requête, il existe un lien suffisamment
étroit entre la demande relative à la pêche à des fins de subsistance et la

requête, dans laquelle le Costa Rica invoque, outre le traité de 1858,
«d’autres règles et principes applicables du droit international».
138. En outre, la Cour relève, ainsi qu’il ressort des arguments qu’il a
développés sur le fond au cours des deux tours de procédure écrite et des
deux tours de procédure orale, que le Nicaragua n’a pas été désavantagé

par le fait que le Costa Rica n’a pas énoncé cette demande dans sa
requête. De même, en ce qui concerne la responsabilité qui lui incombe
d’assurer une bonne administration de la justice, la Cour estime que, si la

55disadvantaged in its understanding of the issues by the lack of explicit
reference to the claim in respect of fisheries in the Application.

139. Accordingly, Nicaragua’s objection to admissibility cannot be
upheld.
140. The Court now turns to the merits of Costa Rica’s claim regard-
ing subsistence fishing rights. Costa Rica submits that there has long been

a practice allowing the inhabitants of the Costa Rican bank of the
San Juan to fish in that river for subsistence purposes. That practice sur-
vived the Treaty of 1858. It is a customary right according to Costa Rica.
In support, it refers to a Royal Ordinance of 1540 under which the upper
part of the river, from the lake for 15 leagues, belonged to Nicaragua and

the lower part to the Caribbean Sea to Costa Rica; for the purposes of
navigation and fishing, the river and lake were to be common. It empha-
sizes the continuing practice of Costa Rican riparians of fishing for sub-
sistence purposes, which, according to Costa Rica, was not challenged by
Nicaragua until after the present proceedings were instituted. Nicaragua
responds that Costa Rica has failed to prove that the custom is estab-

lished in such a manner that it has become binding on Nicaragua. While
it is true that it has usually tolerated the limited use of the San Juan for
non-commercial fishing by Costa Rican riparians, this tolerance cannot
be seen as a source of a legal right. Moreover, Costa Rica, according to
Nicaragua, has constantly accepted that it has no rights except for those

stemming from the treaties and not from customary law. Finally, at the
hearings, Nicaragua reiterated that it “has absolutely no intention of pre-
venting Costa Rican residents from engaging in subsistence fishing activi-
ties”. Costa Rica, in its final statement on the matter, asked the Court in
the operative part of its Judgment to record and give effect to Nicara-

gua’s stated position that subsistence fishing will not be impeded.

141. The Court recalls that the Parties are agreed that all that is in dis-

pute is fishing by Costa Rican riparians for subsistence purposes. There is
no question of commercial or sport fishing. The Court also notes that the
Parties have not attempted to define subsistence fishing (except by those
exclusions) nor have they asked the Court to provide a definition. Sub-
sistence fishing has without doubt occurred over a very long period.
Leaving aside for the moment the issue of fishing in the river from boats,

a point to which the Court will return, the Parties agree that the practice
of subsistence fishing is long established. They disagree however whether
the practice has become binding on Nicaragua thereby entitling the ripar-
ians as a matter of customary right to engage in subsistence fishing from
the bank. The Court observes that the practice, by its very nature, espe-

cially given the remoteness of the area and the small, thinly spread popu-
lation, is not likely to be documented in any formal way in any official
record. For the Court, the failure of Nicaragua to deny the existence of a

56demande relative aux droits de pêche n’est pas expressément mentionnée
dans la requête, cela n’a cependant pas gêné sa compréhension des ques-

tions en cause.
139. En conséquence, l’exception d’irrecevabilité soulevée par le Nica-
ragua ne saurait être accueillie.
140. La Cour examinera maintenant le fond de la demande du Costa
Rica concernant les droits de pêche à des fins de subsistance. Le

Costa Rica soutient qu’il existe depuis longtemps une pratique autorisant
les habitants de la rive costa-ricienne du San Juan à pêcher dans ce fleuve
pour assurer leur subsistance. Cette pratique aurait survécu au traité
de 1858 et constituerait, selon lui, un droit coutumier. A l’appui de cette
thèse, le Costa Rica renvoie à une ordonnance royale de 1540 en vertu de

laquelle le cours supérieur du fleuve, à partir du lac et sur une distance de
15 lieues, appartient au Nicaragua, et son cours inférieur, jusqu’à la mer
des Caraïbes, au Costa Rica, le fleuve et le lac devant être d’usage com-
mun aux fins de la navigation et de la pêche. Le Costa Rica met en avant
le fait que les riverains ont continué à se livrer à la pêche de subsistance,
pratique qui, selon lui, n’a été contestée par le Nicaragua qu’après

l’ouverture de la présente instance. Le Nicaragua répond que le Costa Rica
n’est pas parvenu à établir que la coutume s’était constituée de telle
manière qu’elle lui était devenue opposable. S’il est vrai que le Nicaragua
a généralement toléré un usage limité par les riverains costa-riciens du
San Juan pour la pêche non commerciale, cette tolérance ne saurait être

considérée comme la source d’un droit. En outre, le Costa Rica a, d’après
le Nicaragua, reconnu de manière constante ne détenir d’autres droits
que ceux découlant des traités, et non du droit coutumier. Enfin, à
l’audience, le Nicaragua a répété qu’il n’avait «nullement l’intention
d’empêcher les résidents costa-riciens de se livrer à la pêche de subsis-

tance». Le Costa Rica, dans sa déclaration finale sur ce point, a prié la
Cour de prendre acte dans le dispositif de l’arrêt, pour suite à donner, de
la position affichée par le Nicaragua selon laquelle la pêche de subsis-
tance pratiquée par les riverains ne devait pas être entravée.
141. La Cour rappelle que les Parties sont d’accord sur le fait que la

seule question en litige est celle de la pêche pratiquée par les riverains
costa-riciens à des fins de subsistance. Il n’est pas question de pêche
commerciale ou sportive. La Cour note également que les Parties n’ont pas
cherché à définir la notion de pêche de subsistance (si ce n’est en excluant
ces autres types de pêche) et n’ont pas davantage demandé à la Cour d’en
fournir une définition. La pêche de subsistance se pratique indubitable-

ment depuis très longtemps. Abstraction faite, pour le moment, de la
question de la pêche pratiquée sur le fleuve à bord de bateaux, sur
laquelle la Cour reviendra, les Parties conviennent que la pratique de la
pêche de subsistance est établie de longue date. Elles sont en désaccord,
en revanche, quant au point de savoir si cette pratique est devenue

contraignante pour le Nicaragua et si, dès lors, les riverains peuvent, en
vertu d’un droit coutumier, se livrer à la pêche de subsistance depuis la
rive du fleuve. La Cour relève qu’il ne faut pas s’attendre qu’une telle pra-

56right arising from the practice which had continued undisturbed and

unquestioned over a very long period, is particularly significant. The
Court accordingly concludes that Costa Rica has a customary right. That
right would be subject to any Nicaraguan regulatory measures relating to
fishing adopted for proper purposes, particularly for the protection of

resources and the environment.

142. The Court does not agree with Nicaragua’s contention that
Costa Rica accepted in the course of these proceedings that it had no

rights except those stemming from the treaties. Any statement that has
been made in that sense related solely to disputed navigation rights under
the 1858 Treaty and other binding instruments; the fisheries claim, from
the outset, was based on custom.

143. The Court does not however consider that the customary right
extends to fishing from vessels on the river. There is only limited and
recent evidence of such a practice. Moreover that evidence is principally
of the rejection of such fishing by the Nicaraguan authorities.

144. Accordingly, the Court concludes that fishing by the inhabitants
of the Costa Rican bank of the San Juan River for subsistence purposes
from that bank is to be respected by Nicaragua as a customary right.

V. T HE CLAIMS M ADE BY THE PARTIES IN
THEIR F INAL SUBMISSIONS

1. The Claims of Costa Rica

145. In its final submissions to the Court at the end of the oral argu-

ment, Costa Rica made a number of distinct claims (see above, para-
graph 14).
146. The principal purpose of its Application is to obtain from the
Court a declaration that Nicaragua has a certain number of obligations

towards Costa Rica, Costa Rican vessels and their passengers, and the
inhabitants of the Costa Rican bank of the San Juan River, and that
Nicaragua has violated these obligations which are listed under points (a)
to (i) of the final submissions.

The Court will uphold elements of this claim in the operative part of
this Judgment to the extent that they correspond to the preceding rea-
soning and will dismiss the others.
147. Costa Rica presents three further submissions: it requests the

Court to order Nicaragua to cease all the breaches of its obligations
which have a continuing character; to find that Nicaragua should make

57tique, par sa nature même, et tout particulièrement au vu de l’isolement
de la région, ainsi que de la faible densité et du caractère clairsemé de sa

population, soit consignée de manière formelle dans un quelconque
compte rendu officiel. De l’avis de la Cour, le fait que le Nicaragua n’ait
pas nié l’existence d’un droit découlant de cette pratique, qui s’était pour-
suivie sans être entravée ni remise en question durant une très longue

période, est particulièrement révélateur. La Cour conclut dès lors que le
Costa Rica jouit d’un droit coutumier. Celui-ci reste subordonné à toute
mesure de réglementation en matière de pêche que le Nicaragua pourrait
prendre à des fins légitimes, notamment pour la protection des ressources
et de l’environnement.

142. La Cour ne souscrit pas à la thèse du Nicaragua selon laquelle le
Costa Rica aurait admis, dans le cadre de cette instance, ne détenir
d’autres droits que ceux qui découlent des traités. Toute déclaration en ce
sens ne portait que sur des droits de navigation contestés au regard du

traité de 1858 et d’autres instruments contraignants; la demande relative
aux droits de pêche était, d’emblée, fondée sur une coutume.
143. La Cour n’estime pas, toutefois, que ce droit coutumier s’étende à
la pêche pratiquée à bord de bateaux sur le fleuve. Les preuves d’une telle
pratique sont rares et récentes. En outre, elles ont principalement trait au

refus de ce type de pêche par les autorités nicaraguayennes.
144. En conséquence, la Cour conclut que la pêche à des fins de sub-
sistance pratiquée par les habitants de la rive costa-ricienne du San Juan
depuis cette rive doit être respectée par le Nicaragua en tant que droit

coutumier.

V. L ES DEMANDES PRÉSENTÉES PAR LES P ARTIES

DANS LEURS CONCLUSIONS FINALES

1. Les demandes du Costa Rica

145. Dans ses conclusions finales présentées à la Cour au terme de ses

plaidoiries, le Costa Rica a présenté plusieurs demandes distinctes (voir
paragraphe 14 ci-dessus).
146. Le principal objet de la requête est d’obtenir de la Cour qu’elle
déclare que le Nicaragua a un certain nombre d’obligations à l’égard du
Costa Rica, des bateaux costa-riciens et de leurs passagers, et des habi-

tants de la rive costa-ricienne du fleuve San Juan, et que le Nicaragua a
violé ces obligations, lesquelles sont présentées aux points a) à i) des
conclusions finales.
Dans le dispositif du présent arrêt, la Cour fera droit à certains élé-

ments de cette demande, dans la mesure où ils correspondent aux motifs
qui précèdent, et rejettera les autres.
147. En outre, le Costa Rica présente trois chefs de conclusions: il
demande à la Cour d’ordonner au Nicaragua de cesser celles des viola-
tions de ses obligations qui présentent un caractère continu; de dire que

57reparation to Costa Rica for the injury caused to it by the breaches iden-
tified, in the form of the restoration of the prior situation and compensa-

tion in an amount to be determined at a later stage; and finally to give
assurances and guarantees that it will not repeat its unlawful conduct.

148. As far as the first of these three submissions is concerned, it
should be recalled that when the Court has found that the conduct of a

State is of a wrongful nature, and in the event that this conduct persists
on the date of the judgment, the State concerned is obliged to cease it
immediately. This obligation to cease wrongful conduct derives both
from the general obligation of each State to conduct itself in accordance
with international law and from the specific obligation upon States

parties to disputes before the Court to comply with its judgments, pur-
suant to Article 59 of its Statute.
It is not necessary, and it serves no useful purpose as a general rule, for
the Court to recall the existence of this obligation in the operative para-
graphs of the judgments it renders: the obligation incumbent on the State
concerned to cease such conduct derives by operation of law from the

very fact that the Court establishes the existence of a violation of a con-
tinuing character.
The Court may consider it appropriate, in special circumstances, to
mention that obligation expressly in the operative part of its judgment. It
sees no particular reason to do so in the present case.

149. As for the second submission set forth in paragraph 147 above, it
should be recalled that the cessation of a violation of a continuing chara-
cter and the consequent restoration of the legal situation constitute a
form of reparation for the injured State. With regard to the claim for
compensation, the Court notes that Costa Rica has not submitted any

evidence capable of demonstrating that it has suffered a financially
assessable injury. The Court therefore will not uphold that part of the
submissions.
150. Finally, while the Court may order, as it has done in the past, a
State responsible for internationally wrongful conduct to provide the

injured State with assurances and guarantees of non-repetition, it will only
do so if the circumstances so warrant, which it is for the Court to assess.
As a general rule, there is no reason to suppose that a State whose act
or conduct has been declared wrongful by the Court will repeat that act
or conduct in the future, since its good faith must be presumed (see Fac-
tory at Chorzów, Merits, Judgment No. 13, 1928, P.C.I.J., Series A,

No. 17,p.3; Nuclear Tests (Australia v. France), Judgment, I.C.J.
Reports 1974, p. 272, para. 60; Nuclear Tests (New Zealand v. France),
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1974 , p. 477, para. 63; and Military and Para-
military Activities in and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v. United States
of America), Jurisdiction and Admissibility, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports

1984, p. 437, para. 101). There is thus no reason, except in special cir-
cumstances of which the Court is not aware in the present case, to order
a measure such as that requested by Costa Rica.

58le Nicaragua devra dédommager le Costa Rica des préjudices subis par
lui en raison des violations constatées, sous la forme du rétablissement de

la situation antérieure et du versement d’une indemnité dont le montant
sera fixé ultérieurement; enfin, de fournir des assurances et garanties de
non-répétition de son comportement illicite.
148. En ce qui concerne le premier de ces trois chefs de conclusions, il
y a lieu de rappeler que, lorsque la Cour a constaté que le comportement

d’un Etat présente un caractère illicite, et dans le cas où ce comportement
se poursuit encore à la date de l’arrêt, l’Etat en cause est tenu d’y mettre
fin immédiatement. Cette obligation de cessation d’un comportement illi-
cite découle tout autant du devoir général qu’a chaque Etat de se com-

porter conformément au droit international que de l’obligation spécifique
qu’ont les Etats parties aux différends portés devant la Cour de se confor-
mer aux arrêts de celle-ci, en vertu de l’article 59 de son Statut.
Il n’est pas nécessaire, et il n’est pas utile en règle générale, que la Cour
rappelle l’existence de cette obligation dans le dispositif des arrêts qu’elle

rend: du seul fait que la Cour constate l’existence d’une violation qui pré-
sente un caractère continu, il découle de plein droit l’obligation de la faire
cesser, à la charge de l’Etat concerné.

La Cour peut estimer opportun, dans des circonstances spéciales, de

mentionner expressément ladite obligation dans le dispositif de son arrêt.
Elle n’aperçoit pas de raison particulière de le faire en l’espèce.
149. En ce qui concerne le deuxième chef de conclusions énoncé au
paragraphe 147 ci-dessus, il y a lieu de rappeler que la cessation d’une
violation qui présente un caractère continu et le rétablissement de la

situation légale qui en découle constituent une forme de réparation au
bénéfice de l’Etat lésé. S’agissant de la demande d’indemnisation, la Cour
relève que le Costa Rica n’a pas fourni d’éléments permettant de démon-
trer qu’il aurait subi un préjudice propre susceptible d’évaluation finan-
cière. La Cour ne fera donc pas droit à cette partie des conclusions.

150. Enfin, si la Cour peut, comme il lui est arrivé de le faire, ordonner
à l’Etat responsable d’un comportement internationalement illicite d’offrir
à l’Etat lésé des assurances et des garanties de non-répétition, c’est seu-
lement si les circonstances le justifient, ce qu’il lui appartient d’apprécier.
En règle générale, il n’y a pas lieu de supposer que l’Etat dont un acte

ou un comportement a été déclaré illicite par la Cour répétera à l’avenir
cet acte ou ce comportement, puisque sa bonne foi doit être présumée
(voir Usine de Chorzów, fond, arrêt n o 13, 1928, C.P.J.I. série A n o 17,
p. 63; Essais nucléaires (Australie c. France), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1974 ,
p. 272, par. 60; Essais nucléaires (Nouvelle-Zélande c. France), arrêt,

C.I.J. Recueil 1974, p. 477, par. 63; et Activités militaires et paramili-
taires au Nicaragua et contre celui-ci (Nicaragua c. Etats-Unis d’Amé-
rique), compétence et recevabilité, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1984 , p. 437,
par. 101). Il n’y a donc pas lieu, sauf circonstances spéciales que la Cour

n’aperçoit pas en la présente espèce, d’ordonner une mesure telle que celle
que réclame le Costa Rica.

58 2. The Claims of Nicaragua

151. In its final submissions, Nicaragua also submitted several claims

to the Court.
152. First of all, it requests the Court to dismiss all of Costa Rica’s
claims, either because the Respondent has not breached the obligations
incumbent upon it, or because the obligations allegedly breached do not
derive from any rule of international law.

The Court will uphold this claim to the extent that it corresponds to
the reasoning set out in the present Judgment in respect of Costa Rica’s
claims.
153. Nicaragua adds a further submission. It requests the Court “to
make a formal declaration on the issues raised by Nicaragua in Section II

of Chapter VII of her Counter-Memorial, [and] in Section I, Chapter VI
of her Rejoinder”.
The declaration requested is the following:

“(i) Costa Rica is obliged to comply with the regulations for naviga-
tion (and landing) in the San Juan imposed by Nicaraguan
authorities in particular related to matters of health and secu-
rity;

(ii) Costa Rica has to pay for any special services provided by
Nicaragua in the use of the San Juan either for navigation or
landing on the Nicaraguan banks;

(iii) Costa Rica has to comply with all reasonable charges for mod-

ern improvements in the navigation of the river with respect to
its situation in 1858;

(iv) revenue service boats may only be used during and with special
reference to actual transit of the merchandise authorized by
Treaty;

(v) Nicaragua has the right to dredge the San Juan in order to
return the flow of water to that obtaining in 1858 even if this
affects the flow of water to other present day recipients of this
flow such as the Colorado River.”

The Court notes in this respect that Nicaragua indicated in the course
of the hearings that it would be satisfied to see such a “declaration”
appear in any part of the Judgment, either in the operative paragraph or

simply in the reasoning. It is therefore doubtful whether these can now be
viewed as formal submissions. The Court notes however that, in stating
his final submissions, the Agent of Nicaragua reiterated the Respondent’s
request on this point.
154. In any case, the Court notes that the first two and the fourth

points on which Nicaragua has requested the “declaration” in reality
concern questions raised by Costa Rica and discussed by the Parties
throughout the proceedings. The reasoning of the present Judgment is

59 2. Les demandes du Nicaragua

151. Dans ses conclusions finales, le Nicaragua présente également

plusieurs demandes à la Cour.
152. Il demande, d’abord, à la Cour de rejeter l’ensemble des deman-
des du Costa Rica, soit parce que le défendeur n’a pas violé les obliga-
tions qui lui incombent, soit parce que les obligations dont la violation
est alléguée ne découlent d’aucune règle de droit international.

La Cour fera droit à cette demande dans la mesure correspondant aux
motifs du présent arrêt qui sont relatifs aux demandes du Costa Rica.

153. Le Nicaragua ajoute un chef de conclusions supplémentaire. Il
demande à la Cour de «faire une déclaration formelle sur les questions

qu’il a soulevées à la section II du chapitre VII de son contre-mémoire et
à la section I du chapitre VI de sa duplique».
La déclaration sollicitée est la suivante:

«i) le Costa Rica est tenu de se conformer aux règles de navigation
(et d’accostage) sur le San Juan qui sont imposées par les auto-
rités nicaraguayennes, en particulier à celles qui concernent les
questions de santé et de sécurité;

ii) le Costa Rica doit s’acquitter des sommes dues au titre de tous
les services spéciaux assurés par le Nicaragua dans le cadre de
l’utilisation du San Juan, que ce soit pour la navigation ou pour
l’accostage sur les rives nicaraguayennes;
iii) le Costa Rica doit s’acquitter de toutes les charges raison-

nables à régler au titre des améliorations apportées aux condi-
tions de navigation sur le fleuve par rapport aux conditions de
1858;
iv) les bateaux du service des douanes peuvent être utilisés unique-
ment pendant le transit effectif de marchandises tel qu’autorisé
par le traité et dans le strict cadre de ce transit;

v) le Nicaragua a le droit de draguer le San Juan afin de rétablir le
débit d’eau qui existait en 1858, même si cela modifie le débit
d’autres cours d’eau récepteurs comme le Colorado.»

La Cour relève, à cet égard, que le Nicaragua a indiqué au cours des
audiences qu’il se satisferait de trouver une telle «déclaration» dans
n’importe quelle partie de l’arrêt, soit dans le dispositif, soit simplement

dans les motifs. Il est donc douteux que l’on se trouve encore, désormais,
en présence de conclusions formelles. La Cour note cependant que l’agent
du Nicaragua a réitéré, dans l’énoncé de ses conclusions finales, la
demande du défendeur sur ce point.
154. En tout état de cause, la Cour relève que les deux premiers et le

quatrième points au sujet desquels le Nicaragua a sollicité la «déclara-
tion» concernent en réalité des questions soulevées par le Costa Rica et
débattues entre les Parties tout au long de la procédure. Les motifs du

59therefore sufficient to respond to Nicaragua’s wish that Costa Rica’s
obligations towards it should be stated by the Court.

155. As for the fifth point to be addressed in the requested “declara-
tion”, on the assumption that it is in the nature of a counter-claim,
Costa Rica has cast doubt on its admissibility, arguing that it is not
“directly connected” with the subject-matter of Costa Rica’s claim, within

the meaning of Article 80 of the Rules of Court. The same issue could
arise in respect of the third point.
In any event it suffices for the Court to observe that the two questions
thus raised were settled in the decision made in the Cleveland Award. It
was determined in paragraphs 4 to 6 of the third clause of the Award that

Costa Rica is not bound to share in the expenses necessary to improve
navigation on the San Juan River and that Nicaragua may execute such
works of improvement as it deems suitable, provided that such works do
not seriously impair navigation on tributaries of the San Juan belonging

to Costa Rica.
As Nicaragua has offered no explanation why the Award does not suf-
fice to make clear the Parties’ rights and obligations in respect of these
matters, its claim in this regard must be rejected.

* * *

156. For these reasons,

T HE C OURT ,

(1) As regards Costa Rica’s navigational rights on the San Juan River
under the 1858 Treaty, in that part where navigation is common,

(a) Unanimously,

Finds that Costa Rica has the right of free navigation on the San Juan
River for purposes of commerce;

(b) Unanimously,

Finds that the right of navigation for purposes of commerce enjoyed by
Costa Rica includes the transport of passengers;

(c) Unanimously,

Finds that the right of navigation for purposes of commerce enjoyed by
Costa Rica includes the transport of tourists;

(d) By nine votes to five,
Finds that persons travelling on the San Juan River on board

Costa Rican vessels exercising Costa Rica’s right of free navigation are
not required to obtain Nicaraguan visas;
IN FAVOUR : President Owada; Judges Shi, Buergenthal, Abraham, Keith,
Bennouna, Cançado Trindade, Yusuf, Greenwood;

60présent arrêt suffisent donc à répondre au souhait du Nicaragua que
soient précisées par la Cour les obligations du Costa Rica à son égard.

155. Quant au cinquième des points devant faire l’objet de la «déclara-
tion» sollicitée, en admettant qu’il ait la nature d’une demande reconven-
tionnelle, le Costa Rica a mis en doute la recevabilité de celle-ci, au motif
qu’elle ne serait pas «en connexion directe» avec l’objet de sa propre
demande au sens de l’article 80 du Règlement de la Cour. La même ques-

tion pourrait être posée en ce qui concerne le troisième point.
En tout état de cause, il suffit à la Cour de relever que les deux ques-
tions ainsi soulevées ont été réglées dans le dispositif de la sentence Cle-
veland. Cette sentence a en effet décidé, dans les points 4 à 6 de la troi-

sième partie, que le Costa Rica n’est pas tenu de contribuer aux dépenses
nécessaires pour améliorer la navigation sur le fleuve San Juan et que le
Nicaragua peut exécuter les travaux d’amélioration qu’il estime conve-
nables, à condition que lesdits travaux ne perturbent pas gravement la
navigation sur les affluents du San Juan appartenant au Costa Rica.

Le Nicaragua n’ayant nullement expliqué en quoi la sentence précitée
ne suffirait pas à préciser les droits et obligations des Parties sur ces ques-
tions, sa demande à cet égard doit être rejetée.

*
* *

156. Par ces motifs,

La C OUR ,
1) S’agissant des droits de navigation que le Costa Rica tient du traité

de 1858 dans la partie du fleuve San Juan où cette navigation est com-
mune,

a) A l’unanimité,
Dit que le Costa Rica a le droit de libre navigation sur le fleuve San

Juan à des fins de commerce;
b) A l’unanimité,

Dit que le droit de naviguer à des fins de commerce dont jouit le Costa
Rica couvre le transport des passagers;

c) A l’unanimité,

Dit que le droit de naviguer à des fins de commerce dont jouit le Costa
Rica couvre le transport des touristes;

d) Par neuf voix contre cinq,

Dit que les personnes qui voyagent sur le fleuve San Juan à bord de
bateaux costa-riciens exerçant le droit de libre navigation du Costa Rica
ne sont pas tenues de se procurer un visa nicaraguayen;

POUR : M. Owada, président ; MM. Shi, Buergenthal, Abraham, Keith,
Bennouna, Cançado Trindade, Yusuf, Greenwood, juges;

60 AGAINST: Judges Koroma, Al-Khasawneh, Sepúlveda-Amor, Skotnikov;
Judge ad hoc Guillaume;

(e) Unanimously,

Finds that persons travelling on the San Juan River on board
Costa Rican vessels exercising Costa Rica’s right of free navigation are
not required to purchase Nicaraguan tourist cards;

(f) By thirteen votes to one,

Finds that the inhabitants of the Costa Rican bank of the San Juan
River have the right to navigate on the river between the riparian com-
munities for the purposes of the essential needs of everyday life which

require expeditious transportation;
IN FAVOUR : President Owada; Judges Shi, Koroma, Al-Khasawneh, Buer-
genthal, Abraham, Keith, Sepúlveda-Amor, Bennouna, Skotnikov,
Cançado Trindade, Yusuf, Greenwood;

AGAINST: Judge ad hoc Guillaume;
(g) By twelve votes to two,

Finds that Costa Rica has the right of navigation on the San Juan
River with official vessels used solely, in specific situations, to provide

essential services for the inhabitants of the riparian areas where expedi-
tious transportation is a condition for meeting the inhabitants’ require-
ments;

IN FAVOUR : President Owada; Judges Shi, Koroma, Al-Khasawneh,
Buergenthal, Abraham, Keith, Sepúlveda-Amor, Bennouna, Cançado
Trindade, Yusuf, Greenwood;
AGAINST: Judge Skotnikov; Judge ad hoc Guillaume;

(h) Unanimously,

Finds that Costa Rica does not have the right of navigation on the San
Juan River with vessels carrying out police functions;

(i) Unanimously,
Finds that Costa Rica does not have the right of navigation on the San

Juan River for the purposes of the exchange of personnel of the police
border posts along the right bank of the river and of the re-supply of
these posts, with official equipment, including service arms and ammuni-
tion;

(2) As regards Nicaragua’s right to regulate navigation on the San
Juan River, in that part where navigation is common,

(a) Unanimously,

Finds that Nicaragua has the right to require Costa Rican vessels and
their passengers to stop at the first and last Nicaraguan post on their
route along the San Juan River;

(b) Unanimously,

61 CONTRE : MM. Koroma, Al-Khasawneh, Sepúlveda-Amor, Skotnikov, juges;
M. Guillaume, juge ad hoc;

e) A l’unanimité,

Dit que les personnes qui voyagent sur le fleuve San Juan à bord de
bateaux costa-riciens exerçant le droit de libre navigation du Costa Rica
ne sont pas tenues d’acheter une carte de touriste nicaraguayenne;

f) Par treize voix contre une,

Dit que les habitants de la rive costa-ricienne du fleuve San Juan ont le
droit de naviguer sur celui-ci entre les communautés riveraines afin de
subvenir aux besoins essentiels de la vie quotidienne qui nécessitent des

déplacements dans de brefs délais;
POUR : M. Owada, président ; MM. Shi, Koroma, Al-Khasawneh, Buergen-
thal, Abraham, Keith, Sepúlveda-Amor, Bennouna, Skotnikov, Cançado
Trindade, Yusuf, Greenwood, juges;

CONTRE : M. Guillaume, juge ad hoc;
g) Par douze voix contre deux,

Dit que le Costa Rica a le droit de navigation sur le fleuve San Juan
avec des bateaux officiels exclusivement employés, dans des cas parti-

culiers, en vue de fournir des services essentiels aux habitants des zones
riveraines lorsque la rapidité du déplacement est une condition de la
satisfaction des besoins de ces habitants;

POUR : M. Owada, président ; MM. Shi, Koroma, Al-Khasawneh, Buergen-
thal, Abraham, Keith, Sepúlveda-Amor, Bennouna, Cançado Trindade,
Yusuf, Greenwood, juges;
CONTRE : M. Skotnikov, juge; M. Guillaume, juge ad hoc;

h) A l’unanimité,

Dit que le Costa Rica n’a pas le droit de navigation sur le fleuve San
Juan avec des bateaux affectés à des fonctions de police;

i) A l’unanimité,
Dit que le Costa Rica n’a pas le droit de navigation sur le fleuve San

Juan aux fins de relever les membres du personnel des postes frontière
de police établis sur la rive droite du fleuve et de pourvoir au ravitaille-
ment de ceux-ci en équipement officiel, armes de service et munitions
comprises;

2) S’agissant du droit du Nicaragua de réglementer la navigation sur le
fleuve San Juan dans la partie où cette navigation est commune,

a) A l’unanimité,

Dit que le Nicaragua a le droit d’exiger que les bateaux costa-riciens et
leurs passagers fassent halte aux premier et dernier postes nicaraguayens
situés sur leur trajet le long du fleuve San Juan;

b) A l’unanimité,

61 Finds that Nicaragua has the right to require persons travelling on the
San Juan River to carry a passport or an identity document;

(c) Unanimously,

Finds that Nicaragua has the right to issue departure clearance certifi-
cates to Costa Rican vessels exercising Costa Rica’s right of free naviga-

tion but does not have the right to request the payment of a charge for
the issuance of such certificates;

(d) Unanimously,
Finds that Nicaragua has the right to impose timetables for navigation

on vessels navigating on the San Juan River;
(e) Unanimously,

Finds that Nicaragua has the right to require Costa Rican vessels fitted
with masts or turrets to display the Nicaraguan flag;

(3) As regards subsistence fishing,

By thirteen votes to one,
Finds that fishing by the inhabitants of the Costa Rican bank of the

San Juan River for subsistence purposes from that bank is to be respected
by Nicaragua as a customary right;
IN FAVOUR : President Owada; Judges Shi, Koroma, Al-Khasawneh, Buer-
genthal, Abraham, Keith, Bennouna, Skotnikov, Cançado Trindade,

Yusuf, Greenwood; Judge ad hoc Guillaume;
AGAINST: Judge Sepúlveda-Amor;

(4) As regards Nicaragua’s compliance with its international obliga-
tions under the 1858 Treaty,
(a) By nine votes to five,

Finds that Nicaragua is not acting in accordance with its obligations
under the 1858 Treaty when it requires persons travelling on the San

Juan River on board Costa Rican vessels exercising Costa Rica’s right of
free navigation to obtain Nicaraguan visas;

IN FAVOUR : President Owada; Judges Shi, Buergenthal, Abraham, Keith,
Bennouna, Cançado Trindade, Yusuf, Greenwood;
AGAINST: Judges Koroma, Al-Khasawneh, Sepúlveda-Amor, Skotnikov;
Judge ad hoc Guillaume;

(b) Unanimously,

Finds that Nicaragua is not acting in accordance with its obligations
under the 1858 Treaty when it requires persons travelling on the San
Juan River on board Costa Rican vessels exercising Costa Rica’s right of
free navigation to purchase Nicaraguan tourist cards;

62 Dit que le Nicaragua a le droit d’exiger la présentation d’un passeport
ou d’un document d’identité par les personnes voyageant sur le fleuve

San Juan;
c) A l’unanimité,

Dit que le Nicaragua a le droit de délivrer des certificats d’appareillage
aux bateaux costa-riciens exerçant le droit de libre navigation du Costa

Rica, mais n’a pas le droit d’exiger l’acquittement d’un droit en contre-
partie de la délivrance de ces certificats;

d) A l’unanimité,
Dit que le Nicaragua a le droit d’imposer des horaires de navigation

aux bateaux empruntant le fleuve San Juan;
e) A l’unanimité,

Dit que le Nicaragua a le droit d’exiger que les bateaux costa-riciens
pourvus de mâts ou de tourelles arborent le pavillon nicaraguayen;

3) S’agissant de la pêche de subsistance,

Par treize voix contre une,
Dit que la pêche à des fins de subsistance pratiquée par les habitants de

la rive costa-ricienne du San Juan depuis cette rive doit être respectée par
le Nicaragua en tant que droit coutumier;
POUR : M. Owada, président ; MM. Shi, Koroma, Al-Khasawneh, Buergen-
thal, Abraham, Keith, Bennouna, Skotnikov, Cançado Trindade, Yusuf,

Greenwood, juges; M. Guillaume, juge ad hoc;
CONTRE : M. Sepúlveda-Amor, juge;

4) S’agissant du respect par le Nicaragua des obligations internatio-
nales qui sont les siennes en vertu du traité de 1858,
a) Par neuf voix contre cinq,

Dit que le Nicaragua n’agit pas en conformité avec les obligations qui
sont les siennes en vertu du traité de 1858 lorsqu’il exige des personnes

qui voyagent sur le fleuve San Juan à bord de bateaux costa-riciens exer-
çant le droit de libre navigation du Costa Rica qu’elles se procurent des
visas nicaraguayens;

POUR : M. Owada, président ; MM. Shi, Buergenthal, Abraham, Keith, Ben-
nouna, Cançado Trindade, Yusuf, Greenwood, juges;
CONTRE : MM. Koroma, Al-Khasawneh, Sepúlveda-Amor, Skotnikov, juges;
M. Guillaume, juge ad hoc;

b) A l’unanimité,

Dit que le Nicaragua n’agit pas en conformité avec les obligations qui
sont les siennes en vertu du traité de 1858 lorsqu’il exige des personnes
qui voyagent sur le fleuve San Juan à bord de bateaux costa-riciens exer-
çant le droit de libre navigation du Costa Rica qu’elles achètent des
cartes de touriste nicaraguayennes;

62(c) Unanimously,

Finds that Nicaragua is not acting in accordance with its obligations
under the 1858 Treaty when it requires the operators of vessels exercising

Costa Rica’s right of free navigation to pay charges for departure clear-
ance certificates;

(5) Unanimously,

Rejects all other submissions presented by Costa Rica and Nicaragua.

Done in English and in French, the English text being authoritative, at

the Peace Palace, The Hague, this thirteenth day of July, two thousand
and nine, in three copies, one of which will be placed in the archives of
the Court and the others transmitted to the Government of the Republic
of Costa Rica and the Government of the Republic of Nicaragua, respec-

tively.

(Signed) President. (Signed) Hisashi O WADA ,

President.

(Signed) Philippe C OUVREUR ,
Registrar.

Judges S EPÚLVEDA -A MOR and S KOTNIKOV append separate opinions to
the Judgment of the Court; Judge ad hoc G UILLAUME appends a declara-
tion to the Judgment of the Court.

(Initialled) H.O.
(Initialled) Ph.C.

63 c) A l’unanimité,

Dit que le Nicaragua n’agit pas en conformité avec les obligations qui
sont les siennes en vertu du traité de 1858 lorsqu’il exige des exploitants

de bateaux exerçant le droit de libre navigation du Costa Rica qu’ils
s’acquittent de droits pour la délivrance de certificats d’appareillage;

5) A l’unanimité,

Rejette le surplus des conclusions du Costa Rica et du Nicaragua.

Fait en anglais et en français, le texte anglais faisant foi, au Palais de la
Paix, à La Haye, le treize juillet deux mille neuf, en trois exemplaires,
dont l’un restera déposé aux archives de la Cour et les autres seront
transmis respectivement au Gouvernement de la République du Costa

Rica et au Gouvernement de la République du Nicaragua.

Le président,

(Signé) Hisashi O WADA .

Le greffier,

(Signé) Philippe C OUVREUR .

MM. les juges S EPÚLVEDA -AMOR et SKOTNIKOV joignent à l’arrêt les
exposés de leur opinion individuelle; M. le juge ad hoc GUILLAUME joint

une déclaration à l’arrêt.

(Paraphé) H.O.

(Paraphé) Ph.C.

63

ICJ document subtitle

Judgment of 13 July 2009

Document file FR
Document Long Title

Judgment of 13 July 2009

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