Judgment of 23 May 2008

Document Number
130-20080523-JUD-01-00-EN
Document Type
Date of the Document
Document File
Bilingual Document File

INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE

REPORTS OF JUDGMENTS,
ADVISORY OPINIONS AND ORDERS

CASE CONCERNING SOVEREIGNTY OVER
PEDRA BRANCA/PULAU BATU PUTEH,

MIDDLE ROCKS AND SOUTH LEDGE
(MALAYSIA/SINGAPORE)

JUDGMENT OF 23 MAY 2008

2008

COUR INTERNATIONALE DE JUSTICE

AVIS CONSULTATIFS ET ORDONNANCES

AFFAIRE RELATIVE A v LA SOUVERAINETÉ

SUR PEDRA BRANCA/PULAU BATU PUTEH,
MIDDLE ROCKS ET SOUTH LEDGE

(MALAISIE/SINGAPOUR)

ARR|T DU 23 MAI 2008 Official citation:
Sovereignty over Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh,
Middle Rocks and South Ledge (Malaysia/Singapore),
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2008 ,p.12

Mode officiel de citation:
Souveraineté sur Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh,
Middle Rocks et South Ledge (Malaisie/Singapour),
arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2008 ,p.12

Sales number
ISSN 0074-4441 o
N de vente: 937
ISBN 978-92-1-071046-6 23 MAY 2008

JUDGMENT

SOVEREIGNTY OVER PEDRA BRANCA/
PULAU BATU PUTEH, MIDDLE ROCKS

AND SOUTH LEDGE
(MALAYSIA/SINGAPORE)

SOUVERAINETÉ SUR PEDRA BRANCA/
PULAU BATU PUTEH, MIDDLE ROCKS
ET SOUTH LEDGE

(MALAISIE/SINGAPOUR)

23 MAI 2008

ARRE|T TABLE OF CONTENTS
Paragraphs

1. CHRONOLOGY OF THE P ROCEDURE 1-15

2. GEOGRAPHICAL L OCATION AND CHARACTERISTICS 16-19

3. GENERAL H ISTORICALBACKGROUND 20-29
4. HISTORY OF THED ISPUTE 30-36

5. SOVEREIGNTY OVER PEDRA B RANCA/PULAU B ATU PUTEH 37-277

5.1. Arguments of the Parties 37-42
5.2. The question of the burden of proof 43-45
5.3. Legal status of Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh before the
1840s 46-117

5.3.1. Original title to Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh 46-80
5.3.2. The legal significance of the 1824 Anglo-Dutch Treat81-101
5.3.3. The relevance of the 1824 Crawfurd Treaty 102-107
5.3.4. The legal significance of the letter “of donation” of 1825 108-116
5.3.5. Conclusion 117

5.4. Legal status of Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh after the 1840s 118-272

5.4.1. Applicable law 118-125

5.4.2. The process for the selection of the site for Horsburgh
lighthouse 126-148
5.4.3. The construction and commissioning of Horsburgh
lighthouse, 1850-1851 149-163
5.4.4. The conduct of the Parties, 1852-1952 164-191

(a) Straits lights system and related British and Singa-
pore legislation 166-180
(b) Constitutional developments and official descrip-
tions of Singapore and Malaysia 181-189
(c) Johor regulation of fisheries in the 1860s 190-191

5.4.5. The 1953 correspondence 192-230
5.4.6. The conduct of the Parties after 1953 231-272

(a) Investigation by Singapore of shipwrecks in the
waters around Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh 231-234

(b) Visits to Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh 235-239
(c) Naval patrols and exercises around Pedra Branca/
Pulau Batu Puteh by Malaysia and Singapore 240-243

(d) The display of the British and Singapore ensigns
on Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh 244-246
(e) The installation by Singapore of military commu-
nications equipment on the island in 1977 247-248

4 (f) Proposed reclamation by Singapore to extend the
island 249-250
(g) A Malaysian Petroleum Agreement 1968 251-253

(h) The delimitation of Malaysia’s territorial sea 1969 254-256

(i) Indonesia-Malaysia Continental Shelf Agreement
1969 and Territorial Sea Agreement 1970 257-258

(j) The Indonesia-Singapore Territorial Sea Agree-
ment 1973 259
(k) Inter-State co-operation in the Straits of Singapore
260

(l) Official publications 261-266
(m) Official maps 267-272

5.5. Conclusion 273-277
6. SOVEREIGNTY OVER M IDDLER OCKS AND SOUTH LEDGE 278-299

6.1. Arguments of the Parties 278-287
6.2. Legal status of Middle Rocks 288-290
6.3. Legal status of South Ledge 291-299

7. OPERATIVE CLAUSE 300

5 INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE

2008 YEAR 2008
23 May
General List
No. 130 23 May 2008

CASE CONCERNING SOVEREIGNTY OVER

PEDRA BRANCA/PULAU BATU PUTEH,

MIDDLE ROCKS AND SOUTH LEDGE

(MALAYSIA/SINGAPORE)

JUDGMENT

Present: Vice-PresidentL-K HASAWNEH, Acting President ; JudgeANJEVA,

SHI,K OROMA,P ARRA-A RANGUREN,B UERGENTHAL ,O WADA ,S IMMA,
T OMKA,A BRAHAM ,K EIT,S EPÚLVEDA-AMOR,B ENNOUNA,S KOTNIKOV;
Judges ad hoc DUGARD ,SREENIVASAR AO; RegistrarOUVREUR .

In the case concerning sovereignty over Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh,

Middle Rocks and South Ledge,

between

Malaysia,
represented by

H.E. Tan Sri Abdul Kadir Mohamad, Ambassador-at-Large, Ministry of
Foreign Affairs of Malaysia, Adviser for Foreign Affairs to the Prime
Minister,
as Agent;

H.E. Dato’ Noor Farida Ariffin, Ambassador of Malaysia to the Kingdom
of the Netherlands,

as Co-Agent;
H.E. Dato’ Seri Syed Hamid Albar, Minister for Foreign Affairs of Malay-
sia,

6 H.E. Tan Sri Abdul Gani Patail, Attorney-General of Malaysia,
Sir Elihu Lauterpacht, C.B.E., Q.C., Honorary Professor of International
Law, University of Cambridge, member of the Institut de droit interna-
tional, member of the Permanent Court of Arbitration,
Mr. James Crawford, S.C., F.B.A., Whewell Professor of International Law,
University of Cambridge, member of the Institut de droit international,

Mr. Nicolaas Jan Schrijver, Professor of Public International Law, Leiden
University, associate member of the Institut de droit international,
Mr. Marcelo G. Kohen, Professor of International Law, Graduate Institute
of International Studies, Geneva, associate member of the Institut de droit
international,
Ms Penelope Nevill, college lecturer, Downing College, University of Cam-
bridge,
as Counsel and Advocates;

Datuk Azailiza Mohd Ahad, Head of International Affairs Division, Cham-
bers of the Attorney-General of Malaysia,
Datin Almalena Sharmila Johan Thambu, Deputy Head 1, International
Affairs Division, Chambers of the Attorney-General of Malaysia,

Ms Suraya Harun, Senior Federal Counsel, International Affairs Division,
Chambers of the Attorney-General of Malaysia,
Mr. Mohd Normusni Mustapa Albakri, Federal Counsel, International
Affairs Division, Chambers of the Attorney-General of Malaysia,
Mr. Faezul Adzra Tan Sri Gani Patail, Federal Counsel, International

Affairs Division, Chambers of the Attorney-General of Malaysia,
Ms Michelle Bradfield, Research Fellow, Lauterpacht Centre for Interna-
tional Law, University of Cambridge, Solicitor (Australia),
as Counsel;
Dato’ Hamsan bin Saringat, Director, State Economic Planning Unit, Johor
State,

Mr. Abd. Rahim Hussin, Under-Secretary, Maritime Security Policy Divi-
sion, National Security Council, Department of the Prime Minister of
Malaysia,
Mr. Raja Aznam Nazrin, Under-Secretary, Adjudication and Arbitration,
Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Malaysia,
Capt. Sahak Omar, Director General, Department of Hydrography, Royal
Malaysian Navy,
Mr. Tuan Haji Obet bin Tawil, Deputy Director 1, Land and Mines Office of
Johor,
Dr. Hajah Samsiah Muhamad, Director of Acquisition, Documentation and
Audiovisual Centre, National Archives,
Cdr. Samsuddin Yusoff, State Officer 1, Department of Hydrography, Royal
Malaysian Navy,

Mr. Roslee Mat Yusof, Director of Marine, Northern Region, Marine
Department Peninsular Malaysia,
Mr. Azmi Zainuddin, Minister-Counsellor, Embassy of Malaysia in the
Kingdom of the Netherlands,
Ms Sarah Albakri Devadason, Principal Assistant Secretary, Adjudication
and Arbitration Division, Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Malaysia,

7 Mr. Mohamad Razdan Jamil, Special Officer to the Minister for Foreign
Affairs of Malaysia,
Ms Haznah Md. Hashim, Principal Assistant Secretary, Adjudication and
Arbitration Division, Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Malaysia,

as Advisers;
Professor Dato’ Dr. Shaharil Talib, Head of Special Research Unit, Cham-
bers of the Attorney-General of Malaysia,

as Consultant;
Mr. Tan Ah Bah, Director of Survey (Boundary Affairs Section), Depart-
ment of Survey and Mapping,
Professor Dr. Sharifah Mastura Syed Abdullah, Dean of the Faculty of
Social Sciences and Humanities, National University of Malaysia,
Professor Dr. Nik Anuar Nik Mahmud, Director of the Institute for Malay-
sian and International Studies, National University of Malaysia,
Mr. Ahmad Aznan bin Zakaria, Principal Assistant Director of Survey
(Boundary Affairs Section), Department of Survey and Mapping,
Mr. Hasnan bin Hussin, Senior Technical Assistant (Boundary Affairs Sec-

tion), Department of Survey and Mapping,
as Technical Advisers,

and
the Republic of Singapore,
represented by

H.E. Mr. Tommy Koh, Ambassador-at-Large, Ministry of Foreign Affairs
of the Republic of Singapore, Professor of Law at the National University
of Singapore,
as Agent;

H.E. Mr. Anil Kumar s/o N T Nayar, Ambassador of the Republic of Sing-
apore to the Kingdom of the Netherlands,
as Co-Agent;
H.E. Mr. S. Jayakumar, Deputy Prime Minister, Co-ordinating Minister for

National Security and Minister for Law, Professor of Law at the National
University of Singapore,
H.E. Mr. Chan Sek Keong, Chief Justice of the Republic of Singapore,
H.E. Mr. Chao Hick Tin, Attorney-General of the Republic of Singapore,
Mr. Ian Brownlie, C.B.E., Q.C., F.B.A., member of the English Bar, Chair-
man of the United Nations International Law Commission, Emeritus
Chichele Professor of Public International Law, University of Oxford,
member of the Institut de droit international, Distinguished Fellow, All
Souls College, Oxford,
Mr. Alain Pellet, Professor at the University of Paris X-Nanterre, member
and former Chairman of the United Nations International Law Commis-
sion, associate member of the Institut de droit international,
Mr. Rodman R. Bundy, avocat à la Cour d’appel de Paris, member of the

New York Bar, Frere Cholmeley/Eversheds, Paris,
Ms Loretta Malintoppi, avocat à la Cour d’appel de Paris, member of the
Rome Bar, Frere Cholmeley/Eversheds, Paris,
as Counsel and Advocates;

8 Mr. S. Tiwari, Principal Senior State Counsel, Chambers of the Attorney-
General of the Republic of Singapore,
Mr. Lionel Yee, Senior State Counsel, Chambers of the Attorney-General of
the Republic of Singapore,
Mr. Tan Ken Hwee, Senior Assistant Registrar, Supreme Court of Singa-

pore,
Mr. Pang Khang Chau, Deputy Senior State Counsel, Chambers of the
Attorney-General of the Republic of Singapore,
Mr. Daren Tang, State Counsel, Chambers of the Attorney-General of the
Republic of Singapore,
Mr. Ong Chin Heng, State Counsel, Chambers of the Attorney-General of
the Republic of Singapore,
Mr. Daniel Müller, Researcher at the Centre de droit international de Nan-
terre (CEDIN), University of Paris X-Nanterre,

as Counsel;
Mr. Parry Oei, Chief Hydrographer, Maritime and Port Authority of Singa-
pore,

Ms Foo Chi Hsia, Deputy Director, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Republic of
Singapore,
Mr. Philip Ong, Assistant Director, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Republic of
Singapore,
Ms Yvonne Elizabeth Chee, Second Secretary (Political), Embassy of the
Republic of Singapore in the Netherlands,
Ms Wu Ye-Min, Country Officer, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Republic of
Singapore,

as Advisers,

T HE COURT ,

composed as above,

after deliberation,

delivers the following Judgment:
1. By joint letter dated 24 July 2003, filed in the Registry of the Court on the

same day, the Ministers for Foreign Affairs of Malaysia and the Republic of
Singapore (hereinafter “Singapore”) notified to the Registrar a Special Agree-
ment between the two States, signed at Putrajaya on 6 February 2003 and
having entered into force on 9 May 2003, the date of the exchange of instru-
ments of ratification.
2. The text of the Special Agreement reads as follows:

“The Government of Malaysia and the Government of the Republic of
Singapore (hereinafter referred to as ‘the Parties’);
Considering that a dispute has arisen between them regarding sover-
eignty over Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh, Middle Rocks and South

Ledge;
Desiring that this dispute should be settled by the International Court of
Justice (hereinafter referred to as ‘the Court’);

Have agreed as follows:

9 Article 1

Submission of Dispute
The Parties agree to submit the dispute to the Court under the terms of

Article 36 (1) of its Statute.
Article 2

Subject of the Litigation

The Court is requested to determine whether sovereignty over:
(a) Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh;
(b) Middle Rocks;
(c) South Ledge,

belongs to Malaysia or the Republic of Singapore.

Article 3
Order of Names

For the purposes of this Special Agreement the order of the use of the
names Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh or vice versa shall not be treated as
having any relevance to the question of sovereignty to be determined by
the Court.

Article 4

Procedure

1. The proceedings shall consist of written pleadings and oral hearings.
2. Without prejudice to any question as to the burden of proof, the
Parties agree, having regard to Article 46 of the Rules of Court, that the
written proceedings should consist of:
(a) a Memorial presented by each of the Parties not later than 8 months

after the notification of this Special Agreement to the Registry of the
International Court of Justice;
(b) a Counter-Memorial presented by each of the Parties not later than
10 months after the date on which each has received the certified copy
of the Memorial of the other Party;
(c) a Reply presented by each of the Parties not later than 10 months
after the date on which each has received the certified copy of the
Counter-Memorial of the other Party;
(d) a Rejoinder, if the Parties so agree or if the Court decides ex officio or
at the request of one of the Parties that this part of the proceedings is
necessary, and the Court authorizes or prescribes the presentation of

a Rejoinder.
3. The above-mentioned parts of the written proceedings and their
annexes presented to the Registrar will not be transmitted to the other
Party until the Registrar has received the part of the proceedings cor-
responding to the said Party.
4. The question of the order of speaking at the oral hearings shall be

decided by mutual agreement between the Parties but in all cases the order
of speaking adopted shall be without prejudice to any question of the bur-
den of proof.

10 Article 5
Applicable Law

The principles and rules of international law applicable to the dispute
shall be those recognized in the provisions of Article 38, paragraph 1, of
the Statute of the International Court of Justice.

Article 6
Judgment of the Court

The Parties agree to accept the Judgment of the Court given pursuant to
this Special Agreement as final and binding upon them.
Article 7

Entry into Force
1. This Special Agreement shall enter into force upon the exchange of
instruments of ratification on a date to be determined through diplomatic
channels.
2. This Special Agreement shall be registered with the Secretariat of the
United Nations pursuant to Article 102 of the United Nations Charter,
jointly or by either of the Parties.

Article 8
Notification

In accordance with Article 40 of the Statute of the Court, this Special
Agreement shall be notified to the Registrar of the Court by a joint letter
from the Parties as soon as possible after it has entered into force.
In witness whereof the undersigned, being duly authorized thereto by
their respective Governments, have signed the present Special Agreement.

Done in triplicate at Putrajaya on the 6th day of February 2003.”
3. Pursuant to Article 40, paragraph 3, of the Statute of the Court, all States
entitled to appear before the Court were notified of the Special Agreement.

4. By an Order dated 1 September 2003, the President of the Court, having
regard to the provisions of the Special Agreement concerning the written plead-
ings, fixed 25 March 2004 and 25 January 2005 as the respective time-limits for
the filing by each of the Parties of a Memorial and a Counter-Memorial. Those
pleadings were duly filed within the time-limits so prescribed.
5. Having regard to Article 4, paragraph 2 (c), of the Special Agreement, by
an Order dated 1 February 2005, the Court fixed 25 November 2005 as the
time-limit for the filing by each of the Parties of a Reply. Those pleadings were
duly filed within the time-limit so prescribed.
6. In view of the fact that the Special Agreement provided for the possible
filing of a fourth pleading by each of the Parties, by a joint letter dated 23 Janu-
ary 2006, the Parties informed the Court that they had agreed that it was not
necessary to exchange Rejoinders. The Court having decided that no further

written pleadings were necessary, the written proceedings in the case were thus
closed.
7. Since the Court included upon the Bench no judge of the nationality of
either of the Parties, each Party proceeded to exercise the right conferred by
Article 31, paragraph 3, of the Statute to choose a judge ad hoc to sit in the
case: Malaysia chose Mr. Christopher John Robert Dugard and Singapore
Mr. Pemmaraju Sreenivasa Rao.

11 8. Prior to her election as President of the Court, Judge Higgins, referring to
Article 17, paragraph 2, of the Statute, recused herself from participating in the
present case. It therefore fell upon the Vice-President, Judge Al-Khasawneh, to
exercise the functions of the presidency for the purposes of the case, in accord-
ance with Article 13, paragraphs 1 and 2, of the Rules of Court. The Vice-Presi-
dent, Acting President, held a meeting on 12 April 2006 with the representatives

of the Parties, in conformity with Article 31 of the Rules of Court. During that
meeting the Agent of Singapore and the Co-Agent of Malaysia made known
the views of their Governments with regard to various aspects relating to the
organization of the oral proceedings. In particular the Parties proposed to the
Court an agreed calendar for hearings and requested that the Court decide the
order in which they would be heard, it being understood that the decision
would not imply, that one party could be considered as an applicant and the
other party as a respondent, nor that the decision would have any effect on
questions concerning the burden of proof.
9. By letter dated 22 September 2006, the Deputy-Registrar informed the
Parties that the Court, which did not on the basis of the pleadings see any par-
ticular reason for one Party to be heard before the other, had decided to deter-
mine the question by drawing lots. On that basis Singapore was heard first.

10. On 21 August 2007, the Agent of Singapore provided the Registry with
a new document which his Government wished to produce under Article 56 of
the Rules of Court. On 26 September 2007, the Co-Agent of Malaysia informed
the Court that Malaysia did not object to the production of the new document
by Singapore on condition that Malaysia’s response to the document produced
by Singapore would also be admitted into the record. The Registrar, on
11 October 2007, informed the Parties that the Court had decided to authorize
the production of the document requested by Singapore and that, in accord-
ance with Article 56, paragraph 3, of the Rules of Court, the document sub-
mitted by Malaysia in support of its comments on Singapore’s new document
would also be added to the case file.
11. Pursuant to Article 53, paragraph 2, of the Rules of Court, the Court,

after ascertaining the views of the Parties, decided that copies of the pleadings
and documents annexed would be made accessible to the public on the opening
of the oral proceedings.
12. Public hearings were held from 6 to 23 November 2007, at which the
Court heard the oral arguments and replies of:

For Singapore: H.E. Mr. Tommy Koh,
H.E. Mr. Chao Hick Tin,
H.E. Mr. Chan Sek Keong,
Mr. Alain Pellet,
Mr. Ian Brownlie,
Mr. Rodman R. Bundy,
Ms Loretta Malintoppi,
H.E. Mr. S. Jayakumar.

For Malaysia: H.E. Tan Sri Abdul Kadir Mohamad,
H.E. Dato’ Noor Farida Ariffin,
H.E. Tan Sri Abdul Gani Patail,
Sir Elihu Lauterpacht,
Mr. James Crawford,
Mr. Nicolaas Jan Schrijver,

12 Mr. Marcelo G. Kohen,
Ms Penelope Nevill.

13. At the hearings, a Member of the Court put questions to the Parties, to
which replies were given orally and in writing, in accordance with Article 61,
paragraph 4, of the Rules of Court. Pursuant to Article 72 of the Rules of
Court, each of the Parties submitted comments on the written replies provided
by the other and received by the Court after the closure of the oral proceedings.

*
14. In the course of the written proceedings, the following submissions were
presented by the Parties:

On behalf of the Government of Malaysia,

in the Memorial, Counter-Memorial and Reply:
“In the light of the considerations set out above, Malaysia respectfully
requests the Court to adjudge and declare that sovereignty over

(a) Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh;
(b) Middle Rocks;
(c) South Ledge,
belongs to Malaysia.”

On behalf of the Government of the Republic of Singapore,
in the Memorial, Counter-Memorial and Reply:

“For the reasons set out in [Singapore’s Memorial, Counter-Memorial
and Reply], the Republic of Singapore requests the Court to adjudge and
declare that:
(a) the Republic of Singapore has sovereignty over Pedra Branca/Pulau

Batu Puteh;
(b) the Republic of Singapore has sovereignty over Middle Rocks; and
(c) the Republic of Singapore has sovereignty over South Ledge.”
15. At the oral proceedings, the following submissions were presented by the
Parties:

On behalf of the Government of Singapore,

at the hearing of 20 November 2007:
“The Government of the Republic of Singapore requests the Court to
adjudge and declare that:

(a) the Republic of Singapore has sovereignty over Pedra Branca/Pulau
Batu Puteh;
(b) the Republic of Singapore has sovereignty over Middle Rocks; and
(c) the Republic of Singapore has sovereignty over South Ledge.”

On behalf of the Government of Malaysia,
at the hearing of 23 November 2007:

“In accordance with Article 60, paragraph 2, of the Rules of Court,
[Malaysia] respectfully request[s] the Court to adjudge and declare that
sovereignty over:

13 (a) Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh;
(b) Middle Rocks;
(c) South Ledge,

belongs to Malaysia.”

*
* *
2. G EOGRAPHICAL LOCATION AND C HARACTERISTICS

16. Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh is a granite island, measuring
137 m long, with an average width of 60 m and covering an area of about
8,560 sq. m at low tide. It is situated at the eastern entrance of the Straits
of Singapore, at the point where the Straits open up into the South China

Sea. Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh is located at 1°19′48″N and
104°24′27″E. It lies approximately 24 nautical miles to the east of Sing-
apore, 7.7 nautical miles to the south of the Malaysian State of Johor and
7.6 nautical miles to the north of the Indonesian island of Bintan.

17. The names Pedra Branca and Batu Puteh mean “white rock” in
Portuguese and Malay respectively. On the island stands Horsburgh
lighthouse, which was erected in the middle of the nineteenth century.

18. Middle Rocks and South Ledge are the two maritime features clos-
est to Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh. Middle Rocks is located 0.6 nau-
tical miles to the south and consists of two clusters of small rocks about
250 m apart that are permanently above water and stand 0.6 to 1.2 m high.

South Ledge, at 2.2 nautical miles to the south-south-west of Pedra
Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh, is a rock formation only visible at low-tide.

19. At the eastern entrance to the Straits of Singapore there are three

navigational channels, namely North Channel, Middle Channel (which is
the main shipping channel) and South Channel. Pedra Branca/Pulau
Batu Puteh, Middle Rocks and South Ledge lie between Middle Channel
and South Channel. (For the general geography of the area, see sketch-

map No. 1, p. 23, and for the location of Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu
Puteh, Middle Rocks and South Ledge, see sketch-map No. 2, p. 24.)

3. G ENERAL H ISTORICAL BACKGROUND

20. The Sultanate of Johor was established following the capture of
Malacca by the Portuguese in 1511. Portugal’s dominance in the 1500s as
a colonial Power in the East Indies began to wane in the 1600s. By the
mid-1600s the Netherlands had wrested control over various regions in
the area from Portugal. In 1795, France occupied the Netherlands which

prompted the British to establish rule over several Dutch possessions in
the Malay archipelago. In 1813, the French left the Netherlands. Under
the terms of the Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1814 (also known as the Conven-

141516tion of London) the United Kingdom agreed to return the former Dutch

possessions in the Malay archipelago to the Netherlands.

21. In 1819, on the initiative of Sir Stamford Raffles (Governor-Gen-
eral of Bengkulu), a British “factory” (a term used for trading stations

established by the British in India and south-east Asia) was established
on Singapore island (which belonged to Johor) by the East India Com-
pany, which acted as an agent of the British Government in various Brit-
ish possessions from the second half of the seventeenth century to the

second half of the nineteenth century. Two treaties were entered into
establishing this “factory”, one dated 30 January 1819 between the East
India Company and the Temenggong of Johor and the other dated
6 February 1819 between Sir Stamford Raffles and Sultan Hussein of
1
Johor and the Temenggong of Johor. These two Treaties further exac-
erbated the tension between the United Kingdom and the Netherlands
arising out of their competing colonial ambitions in the region. This situ-
ation led to negotiations beginning in 1820 which culminated in the sign-

ing, on 17 March 1824, of a treaty between the United Kingdom and the
Netherlands (entitled “Treaty between His Britannic Majesty and the
King of the Netherlands, Respecting Territory and Commerce in the East
Indies” and hereinafter referred to as “the 1824 Anglo-Dutch Treaty”).

Under the terms of this Treaty, the Dutch withdrew their opposition to
the occupation of Singapore by the United Kingdom and the latter
agreed not to establish any trading post on any islands south of the
Straits of Singapore. The Treaty had the practical effect of broadly estab-

lishing the spheres of influence of the two colonial Powers in the East
Indies. As a consequence, one part of the Sultanate of Johor fell within a
British sphere of influence while the other fell within a Dutch sphere of
influence.

22. On 2 August 1824 a Treaty of Friendship and Alliance was signed
between the East India Company and the Sultan of Johor and Temeng-
gong of Johor (hereinafter “the Crawfurd Treaty”, named after the Brit-
ish Resident of Singapore), providing for the full cession of Singapore to

the East India Company, along with all islands within 10 geographical
miles of Singapore (see paragraph 102 below).

23. Since the death of Sultan Mahmud III in 1812, his two sons, Hus-

sein and Abdul Rahman had held competing claims to succession to the
Johor Sultanate. The United Kingdom had recognized as the heir the
elder son Hussein (who was based in Singapore), whereas the Nether-
lands had recognized as the heir the younger son Abdul Rahman (who

1A “Temenggong” was a high-ranking official in traditional Malay states. In Johor, in
the first half of the nineteenth century, as a result of the internal rivalry between the Sul-
tan and the Temenggong, third states wishing to enter into important transactions tended
to seek the consent of both. In 1855, full authority in Johor was transferred by the Sultan
to the Temenggong.

17was based in Riau, present day Pulau Bintan in Indonesia). Following
the signing of the 1824 Anglo-Dutch Treaty, Sultan Abdul Rahman sent

a letter dated 25 June 1825 to his brother, in which, “in complete agree-
ment with the spirit and the content of the treaty concluded between their
Majesties, the Kings of the Netherlands and Great Britain” whereby “the
division of the lands of Johor, Pahang, Riau and Lingga [was] stipu-
lated”, he donated to Sultan Hussein “[t]he part of the lands assigned to

[the latter]”. Sultan Abdul Rahman wrote to his brother that:
“Your territory, thus, extends over Johor and Pahang on the

mainland or on the Malay Peninsula. The territory of Your Brother
[Abdul Rahman] extends out over the islands of Lingga, Bintan,
Galang, Bulan, Karimon and all other islands. Whatsoever may be
in the sea, this is the territory of Your Brother, and whatever is situ-

ated on the mainland is yours.”
24. In 1826 the East India Company established the Straits Settle-

ments, a grouping of the company’s territories consisting, inter alia,of
Penang, Singapore and Malacca.
25. Between March 1850 and October 1851 a lighthouse was con-
structed on Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh. The circumstances of its
construction will be considered later in this Judgment.

26. In 1867 the Straits Settlements became a British crown colony,
making the Settlements answerable directly to the Colonial Office in Lon-
don. In 1885 the British Government and the State of Johor concluded
the Johor Treaty which gave the United Kingdom overland trade and
transit rights through the State of Johor and responsibility for its foreign

relations, as well as providing for British protection of its territorial
integrity. In 1895 the British Government established the Federated
Malay States, a federation of four protectorates (Selangor, Perak, Negeri
Sembilan and Pahang) on the Malay peninsula. Johor formed part of the
“Unfederated Malay States”, an expression used not to denote a single

entity but rather to describe those States which were not comprised
within the Federated Malay States or the Straits Settlements.

27. In 1914, British influence in Johor was formalized and increased

through the appointment of a British Adviser.
28. On 19 October 1927 the Governor of the Straits Settlements and
the Sultan of Johor signed the “Straits Settlement and Johor Territorial
Waters Agreement” (hereinafter “the 1927 Agreement”). This Agreement
provided for the retrocession of certain “seas, straits and islets” that had

originally been ceded by Johor to the East India Company under the
Crawfurd Treaty.
29. The Straits Settlements were dissolved in 1946; that same year the
Malayan Union was created, comprising part of the former Straits Set-

tlements (excluding Singapore), the Federated Malay States and five
Unfederated Malay States (including Johor). From 1946, Singapore was

18administered as a British Crown Colony in its own right. In 1948 the
Malayan Union became the Federation of Malaya, a grouping of British

colonies and Malay States under the protection of the British. The Fed-
eration of Malaya gained independence from Britain in 1957, with Johor
as a constituent state of the Federation. In 1958 Singapore became a self-
governing colony. In 1963 the Federation of Malaysia was established,

formed by the merger of the Federation of Malaya with the former Brit-
ish colonies of Singapore, Sabah (then North Borneo) and Sarawak. In
1965 Singapore left the Federation and became a sovereign and inde-
pendent State.

4. H ISTORY OF THE D ISPUTE

30. On 21 December 1979 Malaysia published a map entitled “Terri-
torial Waters and Continental Shelf Boundaries of Malaysia” (published

by the Director of National Mapping, Malaysia) (hereinafter “the
1979 map”), which showed the outer limits and co-ordinates of the ter-
ritorial sea and continental shelf claimed by Malaysia. The map depicted
the island of Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh as lying within Malaysia’s
territorial waters. By a diplomatic Note dated 14 February 1980 Singa-

pore rejected Malaysia’s “claim” to Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh and
requested that the 1979 map be corrected.

31. Singapore’s Note of 14 February 1980 led to an exchange of corre-

spondence and subsequently to a series of intergovernmental talks in
1993-1994 which did not bring a resolution of the matter. During the first
round of talks in February 1993 the question of the appurtenance of
Middle Rocks and South Ledge was also raised. In view of the lack of
progress in the bilateral negotiations, the Parties agreed to submit the dis-

pute for resolution by the International Court of Justice. The Special
Agreement was signed in February 2003, and notified to the Court
in July 2003 (see paragraph 1 above).

*

32. The Court recalls that, in the context of a dispute related to sov-
ereignty over land such as the present one, the date upon which the dis-
pute crystallized is of significance. Its significance lies in distinguishing

between those acts which should be taken into consideration for the pur-
pose of establishing or ascertaining sovereignty and those acts occurring
after such date,

“which are in general meaningless for that purpose, having been car-
ried out by a State which, already having claims to assert in a legal
dispute, could have taken those actions strictly with the aim of but-
tressing those claims” (Territorial and Maritime Dispute between
Nicaragua and Honduras in the Caribbean Sea (Nicaragua v. Hon-

duras), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2007 , pp. 697-698, para. 117).

19As the Court explained in the Indonesia/Malaysia case,

“it cannot take into consideration acts having taken place after
the date on which the dispute between the Parties crystallized unless
such acts are a normal continuation of prior acts and are not under-

taken for the purpose of improving the legal position of the Party
which relies on them” (Sovereignty over Pulau Ligitan and Pulau
Sipadan (Indonesia/Malaysia), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2002 ,
p. 682, para. 135).

*

33. The Parties are agreed that, with regard to Pedra Branca/Pulau
Batu Puteh, the dispute crystallized in 1980, when Singapore and Malay-
sia formally opposed each other’s claims to the island. According to
Malaysia, “[t]he Protest Note of 14 February 1980 crystallized the dis-
pute. On this basis the critical date for the dispute over Pulau Batu Puteh

is 14 February 1980.” For its part, Singapore claims that “it was only in
1979 that Malaysia made a formal claim to the island through the pub-
lication of its map”, which Singapore protested against through its dip-
lomatic Note of 14 February 1980. Singapore thus refers to “the 1979-
1980 critical date”.

34. In the view of the Court, it was on 14 February 1980, the time of
Singapore’s protest in response to Malaysia’s publication of the 1979 map,
that the dispute as to sovereignty over Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh
crystallized.
35. With regard to Middle Rocks and South Ledge, the Court notes

that the Parties disagree as to the date when the dispute crystallized.
According to Malaysia, it was on 6 February 1993, when Singapore alleg-
edly “for the first time during the first round of bilateral discussions
between the Parties . . . included Middle Rocks and South Ledge in addi-
tion to its claim to Pulau Batu Puteh”. Singapore does not deny that it

asserted a claim to Middle Rocks and South Ledge on 6 February 1993
but explains that this “claim” was made in “response to Malaysia’s state-
ment made a day earlier describing Middle Rocks and South Ledge as
two Malaysian islands” (emphasis in the original). Singapore stresses that
its long held position is that Middle Rocks and South Ledge cannot be

considered as distinct from Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh and thus “[i]t
follows that the critical date for all three features must naturally be the
same”.

36. The Court observes that Singapore’s Note of 14 February 1980

refers explicitly only to Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh. Moreover, Sing-
apore has not provided any contemporaneous evidence that it intended
to include Middle Rocks and South Ledge within the scope of this Note.
In the circumstances, the Court concludes that the dispute as to sover-

eignty over Middle Rocks and South Ledge crystallized on 6 February
1993.

20 5. SOVEREIGNTY OVER PEDRA BRANCA /PULAU B ATU P UTEH

5.1. Arguments of the Parties

37. Malaysia states its position on the question of title to Pedra
Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh in its Memorial as follows:

“Malaysia has an original title to Pulau Batu Puteh of long stand-
ing. Pulau Batu Puteh is, and has always been, part of the Malaysian

State of Johor. Nothing has happened to displace Malaysia’s sov-
ereignty over it. Singapore’s presence on the island for the sole pur-
pose of constructing and maintaining a lighthouse there — with the
permission of the territorial sovereign — is insufficient to vest sov-
ereignty in it.”

38. According to Malaysia,

“PBP could not at any relevant time be considered as terra nullius
and hence susceptible to acquisition through occupation. There is

nothing to demonstrate that Johor had lost its title since there is no
evidence that at any time it had the intention of ceding, let alone
abandoning its sovereignty over the island.”

39. In its Memorial Singapore formulates its case on the question of
title to Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh in the following terms:

“Singapore’s case is that the events of 1847 to 1851 . . . constituted a

taking of lawful possession of Pedra Branca by agents of the British
Crown. In the years that followed, the British Crown, and subse-
quently, Singapore continually exercised acts of State authority in
respect of Pedra Branca. This effective and peaceful exercise of State
authority confirmed and maintained the title gained in the period

1847 to 1851 by the taking of lawful possession on behalf of the
Crown.”

Singapore sums up its position as follows:

“The basis of Singapore’s title to Pedra Branca can be analysed as
follows:
(a) The selection of Pedra Branca as the site for building of the

lighthouse with the authorization of the British Crown consti-
tuted a classic taking of possession à titre de souverain.
(b) Title was acquired by the British Crown in accordance with the
legal principles governing acquisition of territory in 1847-1851.

(c) The title acquired in 1847-1851 has been maintained by the
British Crown and its lawful successor, the Republic of Singa-
pore.”

40. It is to be noted that, initially, in Singapore’s Memorial and Coun-

21ter-Memorial, no reference is made expressly to the status of Pedra
Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh as terra nullius. In its Reply Singapore expressly

indicated that “[i]t is obvious that the status of Pedra Branca in 1847 was
that of terra nullius”. At the stage of the oral pleadings Singapore also
referred to the legal status of Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh as terra nul-
lius. In his statement, the Agent of Singapore contended as follows:

“Singapore’s title to Pedra Branca is based upon the taking of
lawful possession of the island by the British authorities in Singa-

pore during the period 1847 to 1851. Malaysia claims that, prior to
1847, Pedra Branca was under the sovereignty of Johor. However,
there is absolutely no evidence to support Malaysia’s claim.
Mr. President, the truth is that, prior to 1847, Pedra Branca was

terra nullius, and had never been the subject of a prior claim, or any
manifestation of sovereignty by any sovereign entity.”

41. In its oral pleadings Singapore advanced, as an alternative to its
claim that Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh was terra nullius, the argu-
ment that the legal status of the island was indeterminate at the time of
the United Kingdom’s taking possession of it. It did not pursue this

further.
42. However put, Singapore’s contentions, including its alternative
argument mentioned above, are premised on its view that Malaysia’s
claim of title to Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh, based on its alleged
ancient original title to the island since the days of the Sultanate of

Johor, cannot stand. The Court notes therefore that the issue is reduced
to whether Malaysia can establish its original title dating back to the
period before Singapore’s activities of 1847 to 1851, and conversely
whether Singapore can establish its claim that it took “lawful possession
of Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh” at some stage from the middle of the

nineteenth century when the construction of the lighthouse by agents of
the British Crown started.

5.2. The question of the burden of proof

43. On the question of the burden of proof, Singapore states:

“The burden remains at all times on Malaysia to produce specific
proof that old Johor had sovereignty over Pedra Branca and carried

out acts of a sovereign nature on or over the island. Malaysia has
produced no evidence whatever in this regard.”

Further, citing the Judgment of this Court in the Temple of Preah Vihear
case, Singapore argues as follows:

22 “Malaysia appears to forget that ‘the burden of proof in respect of
[the facts and contentions on which the respective claims of the

Parties are based] will of course lie on the Party asserting or putting
them forward’ (Temple of Preah Vihear (Cambodia v. Thailand),
Merits, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1962 , p. 16); it is thus for Malay-
sia to show that Johor could demonstrate some title to Pedra Branca,
yet it has done no such thing.”

44. Malaysia agrees that the burden of proof lies with the Party assert-
ing a fact. It therefore contends that Singapore must establish that the

taking of possession of Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh was possible
because Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh was terra nullius at the relevant
time. Malaysia further asserts that Singapore’s “terra nullius claim” rests
on inference and that Singapore remained silent or failed to produce the
“inconvertible legal evidence” in support of its claim.

45. It is a general principle of law, confirmed by the jurisprudence of
this Court, that a party which advances a point of fact in support of its
claim must establish that fact (Application of the Convention on the Pre-
vention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and Herze-

govina v. Serbia and Montenegro), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2007 ,p.75,
para. 204, citing Military and Paramilitary Activities in and against Nica-
ragua (Nicaragua v. United States of America), Jurisdiction and Admis-
sibility, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1984 , p. 437, para. 101).

5.3. Legal status of Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh before the 1840s

5.3.1. Original title to Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh

46. In light of the respective claims of the Parties in the present case,

the Court will first examine whether Malaysia, which contends that its
predecessor — the Sultanate of Johor — held original title to Pedra
Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh and retained it up to the 1840s, has established
its claim.
47. Malaysia argues that

“[t]he Sultanate [of Johor] covered all the islands within this large
area, including all those in the Singapore Straits, such as Pulau Batu

Puteh and the islands to the north and south of the Straits, taking in
Singapore Island and the adjacent islands”
and points to the fact that “Pulau Batu Puteh, sitting at the eastern

entrance of the Singapore Straits, lies right in the middle of the old Sul-
tanate of Johor”.
48. In support of its claim, Malaysia asserts that the island in question
had always been part of the territory of the Sultan of Johor since the

kingdom came into existence and could not at any relevant time be con-
sidered as terra nullius and hence susceptible of acquisition through occu-

23pation. It claims that “rather it is the case that from time immemorial
Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh was under the sovereignty of the Sultan-

ate of Johor”. According to Malaysia, its situation is similar to that
depicted in the award rendered in the Meerauge arbitration, from which
it quotes the following:

“Possession immemorial is that which has lasted for such a long
time that it is impossible to provide evidence of a different situation
and of which anybody recalls having heard talk.” (Meerauge Arbi-
tral Award (Austria/Hungary) , 13 September 1902, German origi-

nal text in Nouveau recueil général de traités, 3rd Series, Vol. III,
p. 80; translation into English provided by Malaysia from the French
translation in Revue de droit international et de législation comparée ,
Tome VIII, 2nd Series (1906), p. 207.)

49. By contrast, Singapore advances its contention that Pedra Branca/
Pulau Batu Puteh, prior to 1847, had been terra nullius susceptible of the

lawful taking of possession by the United Kingdom in 1847-1851. As for
Malaysia’s position that Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh was part of the
Sultanate of “Old Johor”, Singapore contends that there is no evidence
that the Johor Sultanate claimed or exercised authority over Pedra
Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh, during its first period (1512-1641) which began

in 1512 with the fall of the Malacca Sultanate to the Portuguese, and dur-
ing which Old Johor was constantly harried by the Portuguese and the
Kingdom of Aceh, during its second period (1641-1699), when the Dutch,
in alliance with Johor drove the Portuguese out of Malacca and when the
power and influence of Johor was at its height, during its third period

(1699-1784) when the death of Sultan Mahmud II without a clear heir led
to a period of internal strife and instability during which many vassals
broke away from the Johor Sultanate, or during the fourth period (1784-
1824), when “the old empire was in a state of dissolution”.

50. Thus Singapore concludes that “there is no evidence that Pedra
Branca belonged to the Johor Sultanate at any point in its history and
certainly not at the beginning of the nineteenth century”.

51. Singapore has offered no further specific evidence to substantiate
its claim relating to the status of Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh as
terra nullius prior to the construction of the lighthouse on it in 1847.
Instead, it emphasizes that Malaysia, for its part, has submitted hardly

any evidence to prove that the Sultanate of Johor had indeed effective
control in the region, and specifically over the island of Pedra Branca/
Pulau Batu Puteh. Singapore, quoting from the official 1949 Annual
Report published by the Government of the State of Johor, according to

which by the beginning of the nineteenth century “the old empire was in
a state of dissolution”, concludes that “[t]his was the political condition

24of the Sultanate in 1819 when the British arrived in Singapore, and on the
eve of the signing of the Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1824”.

*

52. Regarding the question as to whether “[t]he Sultanate [of Johor]
covered all the islands within this large area [of its territory], including all

those in the Singapore Straits, such as Pulau Batu Puteh . . .”, the Court
starts by observing that it is not disputed that the Sultanate of Johor,
since it came into existence in 1512, established itself as a sovereign State
with a certain territorial domain under its sovereignty in this part of

southeast Asia.
53. Thus already at the beginning of the seventeenth century,
Hugo Grotius, commenting on the military conflict between the Sultan-
ate of Johor and Portugal, stated that:

“There is in India a kingdom called Johore, which has long been
considered a sovereign principality [supremi principatus], so that its
ruler clearly possessed the authority necessary to conduct a public

war [against the Portuguese].” (Hugo Grotius, De Jure Praedae,
Vol. I Translation, 1950 (Gwladys L. Williams), Classics of Inter-
national Law, p. 314.)

54. In the middle of the seventeenth century, the Dutch Governor of
Malacca wrote a letter to the Dutch East India Company proposing that
the Dutch East India Company send two boats to the Straits of Singa-
pore to “cruise to the south of Singapore Straits under the Hook of Bar-

bukit and in the vicinity of Pedra Branca” in order to prevent Chinese
traders from entering Johor River. The proposal made in the letter was
pursued, and two junks were taken in the Straits and diverted to Malacca.
However, this incident led to a protest from the Sultan. According to the
report of the Governor-General in Batavia to the Dutch East India Com-

pany in Amsterdam:
“The king of Johor ha[d] sent an envoy to the governor of Melaka to

indicate his great displeasure regarding the seizure of the above-
mentioned two junks, not without using offensive and threatening
terms in the event that the same thing occurs in the future.”

55. It is the view of the Court that this incident is a clear indication of
the Sultan of Johor’s position that the seizure of the junks in the waters
in question was an infringement of his right as sovereign in the area con-
cerned.

56. Coming to the early decades of the nineteenth century, the Court
notes that three letters, all from 1824, written by the British Resident in
Singapore, John Crawfurd, are of particular relevance. First, in his report
of 10 January 1824 to the Government of India, John Crawfurd recalled

that in 1819, when the Settlement of Singapore was established, the Sul-
tanate of Johor extended on the Continent from Malacca to the extrem-

25ity of the peninsula on both coasts and embraced “all the islands in the
Mouth of the Straits of Malacca with all those in the China Seas as far as

the Natunas” (emphasis added). The Natunas islands are a long way to
the east of the Straits of Singapore, at approximately 4° North and
109° East or roughly north of the west coast of Borneo. Second, in a let-
ter of 3 August 1824 reporting on the Treaty signed the previous day,
Crawfurd stated that the cession by Johor was not only of the main

island “but extends to the Seas, Straits and Islets (the latter probably not
less than 50 in number) within ten geographical miles of its
coasts . . .” (emphasis in the original). Third, in a letter of 1 October
1824 to the Government of India, he commented on the possible

inconvenience of the exclusion imposed by the 1824 Anglo-Dutch
Treaty on the British Government from entering into political
relations with the chiefs of all the islands lying South to the Straits of
Singapore, in the following terms:

“It does not upon the whole appear to me that the occupation of
Rhio could be beneficial to the British Government, yet its retention
on the part of the Netherlands Government, and our exclusion from
entering into political relations with the Chiefs of all the islands
lying South to the Straits of Singapore and between the peninsula

and Sumatra may prove a matter of some inconvenience to us, as it
is in fact virtually amounts to a dismemberment of the Principality
of Johor, and must thus be productive of some embarrassment and
confusion. This may be easily illustrated by an example. The Cari-
mon Islands and the Malayan Settlement of Bulang are two of the

principal possessions of the Tumongong of Johor or Singapore, and
his claim to them is not only allowed by the rival chiefs but satisfac-
torily ascertained by the voluntary and cheerful allegiance yielded to
him by the inhabitants. By the present Treaty, however, he must
either forego all claims to these possessions, or removing to them,

renounce his connection with the British Government.” (Emphasis
added.)

The Court observes that, as confirmed by the above documents, the sen-
ior British official in the region understood that, before it was divided,
the Sultanate of Johor had an extensive maritime component which
included “all” the islands in the region of the Straits of Singapore.

57. In an article from the Singapore Free Press, dated 25 May 1843
and reporting on “[t]he frequent and regular occurrence of acts of Piracy
in the immediate neighbourhood of Singapore”, it was stated as follows:

“The places and Islands near which these piracies are most fre-

quently committed and where the pirates go for shelter and conceal-
ment, such as Pulo Tinghie, Batu Puteh, Point Romania & c, are all

26 within the territories of our well beloved ally and pensionary, the
Sultan of Johore, or rather of the Tomungong of Johore, for he is

the real Sovereign.”
58. The Court notes that Singapore rejects this last piece of evidence

on the grounds that “its probative value is highly suspect considering it
does not indicate the source of the information or even the name of its
author”. However, the Court considers the probative value of this report
to lie in the fact that it corroborates other evidence that Johor had sov-
ereignty over the area in question.

59. Thus from at least the seventeenth century until early in the nine-
teenth it was acknowledged that the territorial and maritime domain of
the Kingdom of Johor comprised a considerable portion of the Malaya
Peninsula, straddled the Straits of Singapore and included islands and
islets in the area of the Straits. Specifically, this domain included the area

where Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh is located.

*

60. It now falls to the Court, after having described the general un-
derstanding at the relevant time of the extent of Johor, to ascertain

whether the original title to Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh claimed by
Malaysia is founded in law.
61. Of significance in the present context is the fact that Pedra Branca/
Pulau Batu Puteh had always been known as a navigational hazard in the
Straits of Singapore, an important channel for international navigation

in east-west trade connecting the Indian Ocean with the South China Sea.
It is therefore impossible that the island could have remained unknown
or undiscovered by the local community. Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh
evidently was not terra incognita. It is thus reasonable to infer that Pedra
Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh was viewed as one of the islands lying within

the general geographical scope of the Sultanate of Johor.

62. Another factor of significance which the Court has to take into
consideration in assessing the issue of the original title in the present case
is the fact that throughout the entire history of the old Sultanate of

Johor, there is no evidence that any competing claim had ever been
advanced over the islands in the area of the Straits of Singapore.
63. It is appropriate to recall the pronouncement made by the Perma-
nent Court of International Justice in the case concerning the Legal Sta-
tus of Eastern Greenland , on the significance of the absence of rival

claims. In that case it was the Danish contention that “Denmark pos-
sessed full and entire sovereignty over the whole of Greenland and that
Norway had recognized that sovereignty”, whereas the Norwegian con-
tention was that all the parts of Greenland “which had not been occupied

in such a manner as to bring them effectively under the administration of
the Danish Government” were “terrae nullius, and that if they ceased to

27be terrae nullius they must pass under Norwegian sovereignty” (Legal
Status of Eastern Greenland, Judgment, 1933, P.C.I.J., Series A/B,

No. 53, p. 39).
64. Against this background the Court stated:

“Another circumstance which must be taken into account by any
tribunal which has to adjudicate upon a claim to sovereignty over a
particular territory, is the extent to which the sovereignty is also
claimed by some other Power. In most of the cases involving claims
to territorial sovereignty which have come before an international

tribunal, there have been two competing claims to the sovereignty,
and the tribunal has had to decide which of the two is the stronger.
One of the peculiar features of the present case is that up to 1931
there was no claim by any Power other than Denmark to the sov-
ereignty over Greenland. Indeed, up till 1921, no Power disputed the

Danish claim to sovereignty.” (Ibid., p. 46.)

65. On this basis, the Court came to the following conclusion:
“bearing in mind the absence of any claim to sovereignty by another

Power, and the Arctic and inaccessible character of the uncolonized
parts of the country, the King of Denmark and Norway displayed . . .
in 1721 to 1814 his authority to an extent sufficient to give his coun-
try a valid claim to sovereignty, and that his rights over Greenland
were not limited to the colonized area” (ibid., pp. 50-51).

66. If this conclusion was valid with reference to the thinly populated

and unsettled territory of Eastern Greenland, it should also apply to the
present case involving a tiny uninhabited and uninhabitable island, to
which no claim of sovereignty had been made by any other Power
throughout the years from the early sixteenth century until the middle of
the nineteenth century.

67. The Court further recalls that, as expounded in the Eastern Green-
land case (see paragraph 64 above), international law is satisfied with
varying degrees in the display of State authority, depending on the spe-
cific circumstances of each case.
Moreover, as pointed out in the Island of Palmas case, State authority

should not necessarily be displayed “in fact at every moment on every
point of a territory” (Island of Palmas Case (Netherlands/United States
of America), Award of 4 April 1928, RIAA, Vol. II (1949), p. 840). It was
further stated in the Award that:

“[I]n the exercise of territorial sovereignty there are necessarily
gaps, intermittence in time and discontinuity in space . . . The fact

that a state cannot prove display of sovereignty as regards such a
portion of territory cannot forthwith be interpreted as showing that

28 sovereignty is inexistent. Each case must be appreciated in accord-
ance with the particular circumstances.” (Island of Palmas Case

(Netherlands/United States of America) , Award of 4 April 1928,
RIAA, Vol. II (1949), p. 855.)

68. Having considered the actual historical and geographical context
of the present case relating to the old Sultanate of Johor, the Court con-
cludes that as far as the territorial domain of the Sultanate of Johor was
concerned, it did cover in principle all the islands and islets within the

Straits of Singapore, which lay in the middle of this kingdom, and did
thus include the island of Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh. This posses-
sion of the islands by the old Sultanate of Johor was never challenged by
any other Power in the region and can in all the circumstances be seen as

satisfying the condition of “continuous and peaceful display of territorial
sovereignty (peaceful in relation to other States)” (ibid., p. 839).

69. The Court thus concludes that the Sultanate of Johor had original
title to Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh.

*

70. Malaysia further argues that the title of the Sultanate of Johor to
Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh is confirmed by the ties of loyalty that

existed between the Sultanate and the Orang Laut, “the people of the
sea”. The Orang Laut were engaged in various activities such as fishing
and piratical activities in the waters in the Straits of Singapore, including
in the area of Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh.
71. Malaysia has provided evidence from the nineteenth century which

shows that the Orang Laut, a nomadic people of the sea, made the mari-
time areas in the Straits of Singapore their habitat and quite frequently
visited the island, as appears from the following letter from J. T. Thom-
son, the Government Surveyor of Singapore, reporting in November 1850
after the first year of construction of Horsburgh lighthouse on the need

to exclude the Orang Laut from the construction site:
“strict rules should be carried out against those half fishing half

piratical sect the orang Ryot or Laut, being allowed to obtain admit-
tance into the building — they frequently visit the rock so their visits
should never be encouraged nor any trust put in them . . . In the
straits and islets of the neighbouring shores and islands many lives
are taken by these people.”

72. Furthermore John Crawfurd, the British Resident of Singapore,

recorded in his journal of 1828 a visit he had received from “some indi-
viduals of the race of Malays, called Orang Laut, — that is, ‘men of the
sea’”, and stated as follows:

“They have a rough exterior, and their speech is awkward and un-

29 couth, but, in other respects, I could observe little essential differ-
ence between them and other Malays. These people have adopted

the Mohammedan religion. They are divided into, at least, twenty
tribes, distinguished usually by the straits or narrow seas they prin-
cipally frequent. A few of them have habitations on shore, but by far
the greater number live constantly in their boats, and nearly their
sole occupation is fishing . . . They are subjects of the King of

Johore, and the same people who have been called Orang Selat or,
‘men of the Straits’ — the straits here alluded to being, not the great
Straits of Malacca, which are extensive beyond their comprehension,
but the narrow guts running among the little islets that are so abun-

dantly strewed over its eastern entrance. Under this appellation they
have been notorious for their piracies, from the earliest knowledge
of Europeans respecting these countries.” (Emphasis added.)

73. Another British official in Singapore and contemporary of
John Crawfurd, Edward Presgrave, the Registrar of Imports and Exports
of the British administration in Singapore, also stated in his Report of

1828 on the subject of piracy to the Resident Counsellor as follows:

“The subjects of the Sultan of Johor who inhabit the Islands are
usually by the Malays termed Orang Rayat — the common oriental
word signifying a subject generally, but is here restricted to one class
of the Sultan’s subjects . They live in small and detached communi-

ties or settlements on the several islands under the immediate control
of two officers called Orang Kaya and Batin, the latter being subor-
dinate to the former, these officers are appointed by the Sultan of
Johore.
.............................

Differences arising among the parties which cannot be settled by
the Panglima [i.e., Captain] are reserved for the decision of the
Chief, or of the Sultan himself on their return . . .

Such are the habits and mode of life of the Rayats of Johor. The
Sultan of Johor can on emergency (such as a war with a neighbour-
ing Chief) command their services . On such an occasion it is said he
can assemble from the several Islands and places under his authority
from three hundred to four hundred prows.” (Emphasis added.)

74. The Court considers that these descriptions of the nature and the

level of the ties of relationship between the Sultan of Johor and the
Orang Laut in contemporary official reports by British officials operating
in the region have a high probative value in establishing the existence of
sufficient political authority by the Sultan of Johor to qualify him as

exercising sovereign authority over the Orang Laut. The Court observes
that these statements showed an understanding by the responsible British

30officials in Singapore that the Orang Laut were subjects of the Sultan of
Johor and acted under his authority when need arose.

75. Given the above, the Court finds that the nature and degree of the
Sultan of Johor’s authority exercised over the Orang Laut who inhabited
the islands in the Straits of Singapore, and who made this maritime area
their habitat, confirms the ancient original title of the Sultanate of Johor
to those islands, including Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh.

*

76. Singapore, in support of its assertion that the Sultan of Johor did
not have sovereignty over Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh, advances

another argument based on what it describes as “the traditional Malay
concept of sovereignty”. Thus it contends:

“Malaysia has glossed over . . . the traditional Malay concept of sov-
ereignty. This concept undermines Malaysia’s claim to an original
title. It is based mainly on control over people, and not control over
territory. Traditional Malay sovereignty is people-centric and not

territory-centric.”

77. Relying on some writings of scholars on Malay political culture,
Singapore develops this argument into the following assertion:

“What it means is that the only reliable way to determine whether
a particular territory belonged to a ruler is to find out whether the
inhabitants pledged allegiance to that ruler . . .
. . . the concept also means that it was difficult to determine with
accuracy the territorial extent of the Johor Sultanate at any time . . .

This would certainly be the case with regard to barren, isolated
and uninhabited islands, such as Pedra Branca. Therefore, unless
Malaysia can produce clear evidence of a direct claim to or the
actual exercise of sovereign authority over Pedra Branca, any attempt

to argue that the island belonged to old Johor is totally devoid of
merit.”

78. Malaysia disputes this argument even as a valid theory applicable
to Malay political history. It states as follows:

“Authority in States throughout the world has characteristically
been based on a combination of control over people and over terri-
tory. This applies to the Malay States as well as any other. The fact
that Singapore can demonstrate shifting political fortunes and even

division within the royal household of Johor does not undermine
conceptions of continuity in a Malay polity . . . Ever since the estab-

31 lishment of the Sultanate of Johor in the early 16th century, there
have always been rulers who were recognized as such and who com-

manded the allegiance of the people accordingly and thereby held
sway over the territory where those people lived.”

79. With regard to Singapore’s assertion about the existence of a “tra-
ditional Malay concept of sovereignty” based on control over people
rather than on control over territory, the Court observes that sovereignty
comprises both elements, personal and territorial. In any event, it need
not deal with this matter any further as the Court has already found that

Johor had territorial sovereignty over Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh
(see paragraph 69 above), and has found confirmation of this title in the
Sultan of Johor’s exercise of authority over the Orang Laut, who inhab-
ited or visited the islands in the Straits of Singapore, including Pedra

Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh (see paragraph 75 above).

*

80. The Court, having found that in 1824 the Sultan of Johor had title
to Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh, will now turn to the question whether
this title was affected by the developments in the period 1824 to 1840.

5.3.2. The legal significance of the 1824 Anglo-Dutch Treaty

81. An argument advanced by Singapore against Johor’s sovereignty
over Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh is that “in the period relevant to
Malaysia’s claim, there were two different political entities in the region

that were called ‘Johor’”.

82. Singapore argues that Malaysia’s claim to Pedra Branca/Pulau
Batu Puteh, which is based on two propositions — the first that Pedra
Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh had belonged to old Johor, and the second that

Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh became part of new Johor — cannot be
accepted, since “[t]he first proposition is not supported by any evidence”,
and “[t]he second proposition is therefore irrelevant”.

83. On this second proposition of Malaysia, namely that Pedra Branca/

Pulau Batu Puteh became part of the new Johor, Singapore contends
that:

“Malaysia tries to prove this proposition by arguing that the effect
of the Anglo-Dutch Treaty was to split the Johor Sultanate into two
parts and to place Pedra Branca in the northern part within the Brit-
ish sphere of influence, thus allocating it to new Johor. This is a mis-

representation of the Treaty.”

32 84. Thus, Singapore disputes that the Sultanate of Johor had contin-
ued since 1512 through the whole period relevant to the present case as

the same sovereign entity. It claims that the “new Sultanate of Johor”,
which came into existence in the context of the division of the “old Sul-
tanate of Johor”, is to be distinguished from the “old Sultanate of Johor”
(alias the “Sultanate of Johor-Riau-Lingga”). In support of this argu-
ment, Singapore, quoting a historian of the region, argues that old Johor,

the maritime Malay empire that succeeded Malacca, began in 1512 when
the defeated Sultan of Malacca established a capital on the Johor River,
and gradually disintegrated in the eighteenth century, whereas modern
Johor occupies the southern tip of the Malay Peninsula, is one of the

11 states of the Federation of Malaysia, and dates from the mid-nine-
teenth century.
85. In assessing the relevance of the argument thus presented by Sing-
apore to the issue of title to Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh, it is neces-
sary to distinguish two different issues: one is whether the sovereign

entity of the Sultanate of Johor continued to exist as the same legal entity
after the division; and the other whether the territorial domain of the
“new Sultanate of Johor” included Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh.

86. In relation to the first question, the Court concludes from the

documentary evidence submitted by Malaysia, that the Sultanate of
Johor continued to exist as the same sovereign entity throughout the
period 1512 to 1824, in spite of changes in the precise geographical scope
of its territorial domain and vicissitudes of fortune in the Sultanate
through the ages, and that these changes and vicissitudes did not affect

the legal situation in relation to the area of the Singapore Straits, which
always remained within the territorial domain of the Sultanate of Johor.

87. On that basis the Court observes that as long as it is established
that the old Sultanate of Johor continued as the same legal entity that

became the subject of the division in 1824, the issue of whether the new
Sultanate of Johor under Sultan Hussein and the Temenggong or the new
Sultanate in Riau under Sultan Abdul Rahman was the legal continuator
in title of the “old Sultanate of Johor” before the break, is immaterial in
the present case. Whatever position the Parties may take in this respect,

the island in question, i.e., Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh, had to come
under the sovereignty of one or other of the Sultanates (see paragraph 100
below).

88. In relation to the second question, the Court notes that it is com-

mon ground between the Parties that the “old Sultanate of Johor” came
to be divided in the context of the dynastic rivalry between the two sons
of the late Sultan Mahmud III (see paragraph 23 above) and the com-
peting interests of the United Kingdom and the Netherlands in the

region.
89. It is also common ground between Singapore and Malaysia that

33the 1824 Treaty had the effect, according to Singapore, of “divid[ing] the
region into two spheres of influence” or, according to Malaysia, of

“divid[ing] the Sultanate of Johor into two separate spheres of influ-
ence” — one belonging to the Dutch sphere of influence covering the ter-
ritorial domain of the Riau-Lingga Sultanate under Abdul Rahman, and
the other falling under the British sphere of influence covering the terri-
torial domain of the Sultanate of Johor under Hussein.

90. However, upon closer examination of this apparent agreement
between Malaysia and Singapore, there emerges a fundamental diver-
gence of views between them concerning the legal significance of the rele-
vant provisions of the 1824 Treaty.

91. The 1824 Anglo-Dutch Treaty, concluded on 17 March 1824, pro-
vided in its Article 12 as follows:
“His Netherlands Majesty withdraws the objections which have

been made to the occupation of the Island of Singapore, by the Sub-
jects of His Britannick Majesty.
His Britannick Majesty, however, engages, that no British Estab-
lishment shall be made on the Carimon Isles, or on the Islands of
Battam, Bintang, Lingin, or on any of the other Islands south of the

Straights of Singapore, nor any Treaty concluded by British Author-
ity with the Chiefs of those Islands.”

92. The conclusion to be drawn from this provision, according to
counsel for Malaysia, is that:
“The Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 17 March 1824 resulted in the split of

the Johor-Riau-Lingga Sultanate. It divided the Sultanate of Johor
into two separate spheres of influence: islands south of the Straits of
Singapore were left within the Dutch sphere of influence — that was
the Riau-Lingga Sultanate — while the territory and all islands in
the Straits of Singapore and to the north of the Straits were placed

within the British sphere of influence — and that was the Johor Sul-
tanate.”

93. By contrast, the interpretation advanced by Singapore of Arti-
cle 12 is the following:
“the Anglo-Dutch Treaty did not contemplate any demarcation line.

This is clear from the negotiating history of the Treaty. An earlier
draft of the Treaty inserted an article providing for a demarcation
line. But this article was omitted when the text of the Treaty was
finalized.
The text of the Anglo-Dutch Treaty also confirms that there is no

line...ArticleXexcludestheDutchfrom‘anypartofthePeninsula
of Malacca’, that is the Malay Peninsula, while Article XII excludes
the British from ‘any of the islands South of the Straights of Singa-
pore’. There is no provision excluding either State from any part of

the straits or any islands within the Strait. In other words, the Treaty
did not divide up the Strait between the two Powers. The width of

34 the entire Strait was left open for access by both States, as was
intended.”

94. In sum, the argument that Singapore is advancing is that the
1824 Anglo-Dutch Treaty left the entire Straits, including the islands and
islets therein, except for the islands specifically referred to in Article 12,
open for access, and that since Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh, accord-
ing to Singapore, had always remained terra nullius or had become

terra nullius as a result of the disappearance of the “old Sultanate of
Johor” by the division of the kingdom, there was a legal vacuum with
regard to sovereignty over Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh, thus leaving
room for the “lawful possession” of Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh by

the British during the period 1847-1851.
95. The object and purpose of the 1824 Anglo-Dutch Treaty are stated
in its Preamble. The two Sovereigns of the United Kingdom and the
Netherlands,

“desiring to place upon a footing, mutually beneficial, Their respec-
tive Possessions and the Commerce of Their Subjects in the East

Indies, so that the welfare and prosperity of both Nations may be
promoted, in all time to come, without those differences and jealous-
ies which have, in former times, interrupted the harmony which
ought always to subsist between Them; . . . and in order to determine
certain questions which have occurred in the execution of the Conven-

tion made at London on the 13th of August, 1814, in so far as it
respects the Possessions His Netherlands Majesty in the East ”
(emphasis added),

came to conclude this Treaty.
In the view of the Court it is difficult to read this language to signify
that the Parties intended the 1824 Anglo-Dutch Treaty to leave certain

areas of the Straits of Singapore, which had been part of the territorial
and maritime domain of the old Sultanate of Johor, undetermined in
their legal status and thus open for occupation.

96. The Court observes from the reading of this preambular language,

as well as the substantive provisions of Articles 8 to 12 which provide for
a set of mutual territorial adjustments, that the 1824 Anglo-Dutch Treaty
was concluded to settle once and for all the disputes that had developed
between the United Kingdom and the Netherlands relating to their
respective possessions as well as commercial interests in the East Indies

during and in the aftermath of the Napoleonic Wars in Europe. What
emerges from this overall picture is that whereas the earlier Convention
of 13 August 1814 between the United Kingdom and the Netherlands
relative to the Dutch Colonies was somewhat general in its treatment of

the territorial possessions of the two Powers, the settlement reached in
this 1824 Treaty is much more specific, covering all the territories thus far

35claimed to be in the possession or under the sphere of influence of one or
the other of these two Powers and identifying their respective spheres of

influence in this part of the East Indies. Against this background, it is
most unlikely that the parties intentionally left these maritime features
within the Straits of Singapore outside the sphere of influence of either of
the two parties and open for eventual occupation by one of the parties or
another power.

97. Furthermore, when the whole arrangement contained in this Treaty
is read against the background of the feud which had developed between
the two brothers, sons of the late Sultan Mahmud III of the old Sultanate
of Johor, it is contrary to common sense to suppose that the two rival

Sultanates of Johor and of Riau-Lingga, competing for sovereignty over
certain territories in the region, decided to leave this area in the Straits on
their border undivided and unclaimed. The Court is of the view that
whatever may have been the legal effect of the 1824 Anglo-Dutch Treaty
upon the concrete issue of where the dividing line between the respective

spheres of influence of the United Kingdom and the Netherlands might
lie in the region, it is impossible to accept that the treaty had left the issue
of the territorial title to the islands lying in the Straits totally unaffected.

98. In light of this analysis, in the context of the history surrounding

the conclusion of the 1824 Anglo-Dutch Treaty, the Court is led to con-
clude that the division of the old Sultanate of Johor and the creation of
the two Sultanates of Johor and of Riau-Lingga were part of the overall
scheme agreed upon by the United Kingdom and the Netherlands that
came to be reflected in the 1824 Anglo-Dutch Treaty. In other words, the

Treaty was the legal reflection of a political settlement reached between
the two colonial Powers, vying for hegemony for many years in this part
of the world, to divide the territorial domain of the old Sultanate of
Johor into two sultanates to be placed under their respective spheres of
influence. Thus in this scheme there was no possibility for any legal

vacuum left for freedom of action to take lawful possession of an island
in between these two spheres of influence. This political settlement signi-
fied at the same time that the territorial division between the two Sultan-
ates of Johor and of Riau-Lingga was made definitive by the conclusion
of this Anglo-Dutch Treaty.

99. The question as to which side of the dividing line any particular
island or other maritime feature in the Straits of Singapore came to fall as
a result was a matter that the 1824 Anglo-Dutch Treaty did not find it
necessary to specify, other than those islands expressly mentioned in

Article 12 of the Treaty.
100. The general reference in Article 12 of the 1824 Anglo-Dutch
Treaty to “the other Islands south of the Straights of Singapore” would
suggest that all the islands and islets within the Straits fell on the British

side of the dividing line of the spheres of influence. This naturally covered
the island of Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh whose legal status thus

36remained as it had been, i.e. part of the territorial domain of what con-
tinued to be called the “Sultanate of Johor” after the division of the old

Sultanate.
101. A letter from the Government of India to John Crawfurd dated
4 March 1825, following the conclusion of the Crawfurd Treaty of 1824,
can be taken as a confirmation by the British side of this interpretation,
namely that all the islands within the Straits of Singapore fell within the

British sphere of influence and not of the Dutch. The letter states as fol-
lows:

“[O]ur acquisition of these Islets [under the Crawfurd Treaty] is
not at variance with the obligations of the Treaty concluded at Lon-
don in March last [i.e., the Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1824], as they are
all situated North of the Southern limits of the Straights of
Singapore . . .” (Emphasis added.)

It is clear from this sentence that the British Government of India
thought that the dividing line between what belonged to the sphere of

influence of the United Kingdom and what belonged to that of the Neth-
erlands in accordance with the 1824 Anglo-Dutch Treaty was “the South-
ern limits of the Straits of Singapore” (emphasis added) and that every
island north of that line came within the territorial domain belonging to
the sphere of influence of the United Kingdom.

5.3.3. The relevance of the 1824 Crawfurd Treaty

102. A few months after the conclusion of the 1824 Anglo-Dutch
Treaty, the East India Company and the Sultan and the Temenggong of
Johor entered into a new Treaty of Friendship and Alliance of 2 August

1824, known as the “Crawfurd Treaty”. By this Treaty the Sultan and
Temenggong of Johor ceded the island of Singapore to the East India
Company. The Crawfurd Treaty specifies the geographical scope of the
cession of the island of Singapore, together with adjacent seas, straits and
islets, to the extent of 10 geographical miles from the coast of Singapore.

103. Specifically, Article II of the Crawfurd Treaty provided as fol-
lows:
“Their Highnesses the Sultan Hussain Mahomed Shah and

Datu Tumungong Abdul Rahman Sri Maharajah hereby cede in full
sovereignty and property to the Honourable the English East India
Company, their heirs and successors for ever, the Island of Singa-
pore, situated in the Straits of Malacca, together with the adjacent
seas, straits, and islets, to the extent of ten geographical miles, from

the coast of the said main Island of Singapore.”
104. On the basis of this provision, Malaysia argues that “Johor could

not have ceded the territory of Singapore Island and islets situated within
ten geographical (i.e. nautical) miles to the English East India Company

37if Johor did not have title to it”. Thus, according to Malaysia, “the fact
that it had a title which it was capable of ceding shows that the Johor title

to the area before 1824 included both PBP and sovereignty over Singa-
pore”.
105. In the view of Malaysia, even though Singapore agrees that the
cession of Singapore by the Sultan and Temenggong of Johor was
effected by the Crawfurd Treaty, Singapore nevertheless fails to appreci-

ate that this important constitutive document on the establishment of
Singapore also confirms formal British recognition of prior and continu-
ing sovereignty of the Sultanate of Johor over all other islands in and
around the Straits of Singapore. The Crawfurd Treaty provides, in

unequivocal terms, that the cession is confined to the islands of Singapore
itself and the area, including seas, straits and islets, within 10 geographi-
cal miles of the mainland of Singapore. Malaysia thus contends that title
to other territories and sea areas remained where it was, namely with the
Sultanate of Johor.

106. Singapore accepts that its claim to sovereignty over Pedra Branca/
Pulau Batu Puteh “is not based on the Treaty of Cession of 1824” since
“[t]hat Treaty dealt only with the main island of Singapore and its imme-
diate vicinity [and] did not extend to the area around Pedra Branca”

(emphasis in the original). However, Singapore dismisses the Crawfurd
Treaty of 1824 as simply “irrelevant” to the issue of title to Pedra Branca/
Pulau Batu Puteh, rejecting the argument advanced by Malaysia that by
accepting this cession the British recognized the authority of the Sultan
and the Temenggong of Johor to effect a transfer of title in relation to

islands in the Straits of Singapore.

107. The Court agrees that the Crawfurd Treaty cannot be relied on as
establishing “British recognition of prior and continuing sovereignty of

the Sultanate of Johor over all other islands in and around the Strait of
Singapore” as Malaysia claims. Article II speaks only of the cession of
“the Island of Singapore . . . together with the adjacent seas, straits, and
islets to the extent of ten geographical miles” and cannot, in and by itself,
be interpreted as formal recognition by the United Kingdom that the Sul-

tan and the Temenggong of Johor had “prior and continuing sover-
eignty” over any and all of the islands in the Straits of Singapore, includ-
ing Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh. On the other hand neither does this
finding signify a contrario that the islands in the Straits of Singapore fall-
ing outside the scope of Article II of this Treaty were terrae nullius and

could be subject to appropriation through “lawful occupation”. This lat-
ter point can only be judged in the context of what legal effect the divi-
sion of the old Sultanate of Johor had upon the islands in the area of the
Straits of Singapore, in particular in light of the 1824 Anglo-Dutch

Treaty (see above, paragraphs 95-101) and in light of the legal relevance,
vel non, of the so-called letter “of donation” of 1825 sent from Sul-

38tan Abdul Rahman of Riau-Lingga to his brother Sultan Hussein of
Johor (see below, paragraphs 108-116).

5.3.4. The legal significance of the letter “of donation” of 1825

108. Singapore claims that “The Anglo-Dutch Treaty did not, by its
terms, effect a division of the Johor-Riau-Lingga Sultanate.” According

to Singapore,
“the subsequent dismemberment of the Sultanate resulted from the
practical fact that Sultan Abdul Rahman (who in the eyes of the

locals was the legitimate ruler of the Johor-Riau-Lingga
Sultanate) . . . could no longer exert effective power in the Malay
Peninsula (which had fallen within the British sphere) . . . The terri-
torial extent of the northern breakaway fragments (i.e., peninsular
Johor and Pahang) is not determined by the terms of the Anglo-

Dutch Treaty but by subsequent acts of and dealings amongst the
relevant Malay rulers.”

109. Singapore argues that instead of the 1824 Anglo-Dutch Treaty, it
was the letter “of donation” (see paragraph 23 above) from Sultan Abdul
Rahman to his brother Hussein which had the legal effect of transferring
the title to the territory included in that letter “of donation”. Thus it
claims:

“One example of such dealing was the express donation of terri-
tory by Sultan Abdul Rahman to Sultan Hussein one year after the
Anglo-Dutch Treaty was signed. This donation was made on the

advice of the Dutch, who wished to avoid any confusion over which
territories remained under the control of Sultan Abdul Rahman in
the post Anglo-Dutch Treaty period. In 1825, they sent an official . . .
to explain to the Sultan the implications of the Anglo-Dutch Treaty
and to advise him to formally cede the mainland territories of Johor
and Pahang to his brother Hussein.”

110. Sultan Abdul Rahman’s letter reads as follows:

“Your brother sends you this letter . . . to give you notice of the
conclusion of a treaty between His Majesty the King of the Nether-
lands and His Majesty the King of Great Britain, whereby the divi-

sion of the lands of Johor, Pahang, Riau and Lingga is stipulated.
The part of the lands assigned to you, My Brother, I donate to you
with complete satisfaction, and sincere affection, for we are brothers
and the only children left behind by our father.
.............................

Your territory, thus, extends over Johor and Pahang on the main-
land or on the Malay Peninsula. The territory of Your Brother

39 extends out over the Islands of Lingga, Bintan, Galang, Bulan, Kari-
mon and all other islands. Whatsoever may be in the sea, this is the

territory of Your Brother, and whatever is situated on the mainland
is yours. On the basis of these premises I earnestly beseech you that
your notables, the Paduka Bendahara of Pahang and Temeng-
gong Abdul Rahman, will not in the slightest concern themselves
with the islands that belong to Your Brother.”

111. On this basis, Singapore argues that

“[t]he nature and terms of Sultan Abdul Rahman’s donation of ter-
ritories to Sultan Hussein is another impediment to Malaysia’s claim
that original title to Pedra Branca is derived from the Johor-Riau-
Lingga Sultanate”.

The argument of Singapore is that from the terms of that letter, it is clear

that Sultan Abdul Rahman donated only the mainland territories to his
brother Sultan Hussein, and retained for himself all islands in the sea.
Singapore further argues that “even if Pedra Branca was a possession
of the Johor-Riau-Lingga Sultanate (which it was not), it would have
been retained by Sultan Abdul Rahman and not become part of the

State of Johor”.
112. Malaysia challenges this argument as follows:

“In its Counter-Memorial Singapore suggests that it was not the
Anglo-Dutch Treaty that determined the extent of the Johor Sultan-
ate but instead the donation by Sultan Abdul Rahman by letter of
25 June 1825 of mainland territories in peninsular Malaya to his
brother Sultan Hussain in 1825 . . .

The ‘donation’ of Sultan Abdul Rahman must be read in the con-
text of what is stipulated under Article XII of the Anglo-Dutch
Treaty of 1824. By no means does it serve as Johor’s title to its ter-
ritory. The territories specified by Sultan Abdul Rahman to be his
own (the one under the Dutch sphere of influence) in the letter of

25 June 1825 comprise ‘the Islands of Lingga, Bintan, Galang,
Bulan, Karimon and all other islands’. Out of these five specified
islands, three were mentioned in Article XII of the Anglo-Dutch
Treaty of 1824 (namely, the Carimon Islands, Bintang and Lingga)
while the remaining two (Galang and Bulan) are islands clearly lying

south of the Strait of Singapore. The phrase ‘all other islands’ refers
to all other islands lying within the Dutch sphere of influence and
not named explicitly in the letter, e.g. Batam and Singkep. To sum
up, this letter was not a ‘donation’ but was instead a formal recogni-
tion that Sultan Abdul Rahman did not claim sovereignty over

Johor.”

113. The Court considers the fundamental question to be whether the
“donation” described in the letter of Sultan Abdul Rahman can be

40regarded as having the legal effect of conveying title to the territories
referred to therein. In order for this to be the case, it has to be established

that the territories in question had been under the sovereignty of the Sul-
tan of Riau-Lingga. In this respect, Singapore claims that Sul-
tan Abdul Rahman “in the eyes of the locals was the legitimate ruler of
the Johor-Riau-Lingga Sultanate” and that he followed the advice of a
Dutch official “to formally cede the mainland territories of Johor and

Pahang to his brother Hussein”.

114. The letter no doubt was an expression of Sultan Abdul Rahman’s
definitive intention to renounce his claim to title to these territories and

as such could produce that legal effect. However, with regard to territo-
ries referred to expressly or by implication in his letter “of donation”, but
over which he held no title proven to the satisfaction of the Court, his
donation was without effect.

115. The Court concludes that the old Sultanate of Johor was divided
in 1824 into the Sultanate of Johor with Sultan Hussein as its sovereign
and the Sultanate of Riau-Lingga with Sultan Abdul Rahman as its sov-
ereign although the dividing line between them remained somewhat un-
clear. The 1824 Anglo-Dutch Treaty reflected the division as between the

United Kingdom and the Netherlands in the form of their respective
spheres of influence (see paragraphs 81-101 above). The so-called letter
“of donation” from Sultan Abdul Rahman to his brother Hussein con-
firmed that division.
116. Moreover, the cession of Singapore and the other islands by the

Sultan and the Temenggong of Johor in 1824 would have been possible
only if the Sultanate of Johor had had valid title to them. This act of
cession took place soon after the conclusion of the 1824 Anglo-Dutch
Treaty, but before the act of “donation” of the territories that included
those referred to in the Crawfurd Treaty as the object of the cession. This

sequence of events can only be understood as reinforcing the interpreta-
tion of the act of “donation” given above. Were the Court to accept
Singapore’s argument (see paragraph 109 above) there would have
been no legal basis on which Sultan Hussein and the Temenggong of
Johor could have ceded the island of Singapore to the East India

Company in 1824.

5.3.5. Conclusion

117. In the light of the foregoing, the Court concludes that Malaysia
has established to the satisfaction of the Court that as of the time when
the British started their preparations for the construction of the light-

house on Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh in 1844, this island was under
the sovereignty of the Sultan of Johor.

41 5.4. Legal status of Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh
after the 1840s

5.4.1. Applicable law

118. As the Court has shown in the preceding part of this Judgment,
Johor had sovereignty over Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh at the time

the planning for the construction of the lighthouse on the island began.
Singapore does not contend that anything had happened before then
which could provide any basis for an argument that it or its predecessors
had acquired sovereignty. But Singapore does of course contend that it

has acquired sovereignty over Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh since
1844. The Singapore argument is based on the construction and opera-
tion of Horsburgh lighthouse and the many other actions it took on, and
in relation to Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh, as well as on the conduct
of Johor and its successors. By contrast, Malaysia contends that all of

those actions of the United Kingdom were simply actions of the operator
of the lighthouse, being carried out precisely in terms of the permission
which Johor granted in the circumstances which the Court will soon con-
sider.
119. Whether Malaysia has retained sovereignty over Pedra Branca/

Pulau Batu Puteh following 1844 or whether sovereignty has since passed
to Singapore can be determined only on the basis of the Court’s assess-
ment of the relevant facts as they occurred since 1844 by reference to the
governing principles and rules of international law. The relevant facts
consist mainly of the conduct of the Parties during that period.

120. Any passing of sovereignty might be by way of agreement between
the two States in question. Such an agreement might take the form of a
treaty, as with the 1824 Crawfurd Treaty and the 1927 Agreement
referred to earlier (paragraphs 22, 28 and 102). The agreement might

instead be tacit and arise from the conduct of the Parties. International
law does not, in this matter, impose any particular form. Rather it places
its emphasis on the parties’ intentions (cf. e.g. Temple of Preah Vihear
(Cambodia v. Thailand), Preliminary Objections, I.C.J. Reports 1961 ,
pp. 17, 31).

121. Under certain circumstances, sovereignty over territory might
pass as a result of the failure of the State which has sovereignty to
respond to conduct à titre de souverain of the other State or, as
Judge Huber put it in the Island of Palmas case, to concrete manifesta-
tions of the display of territorial sovereignty by the other State (Island of

Palmas Case (Netherlands/United States of America) , Award of
4 April 1928, RIAA, Vol. II, (1949) p. 839). Such manifestations of the
display of sovereignty may call for a response if they are not to be oppos-
able to the State in question. The absence of reaction may well amount to

acquiescence. The concept of acquiescence

42 “is equivalent to tacit recognition manifested by unilateral conduct
which the other party may interpret as consent . . .” (Delimitation of

the Maritime Boundary in the Gulf of Maine Area (Canada/United
States of America), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1984 , p. 305,
para. 130).

That is to say, silence may also speak, but only if the conduct of the other

State calls for a response.
122. Critical for the Court’s assessment of the conduct of the Parties is
the central importance in international law and relations of State sover-
eignty over territory and of the stability and certainty of that sovereignty.

Because of that, any passing of sovereignty over territory on the basis of
the conduct of the Parties, as set out above, must be manifested clearly
and without any doubt by that conduct and the relevant facts. That is
especially so if what may be involved, in the case of one of the Parties, is
in effect the abandonment of sovereignty over part of its territory.

123. One feature of the arguments on the law presented by the Parties
should be mentioned at this point. Singapore, as has already been dis-
cussed, contended that Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh was terra nullius

in 1847 (see paragraph 40 above). Recognizing however that the Court
might reject that contention, Singapore submitted that even in that event,
that is to say on the basis that “Malaysia could somehow show an his-
toric title over the island, Singapore would still possess sovereignty over
Pedra Branca since Singapore has exercised continuous sovereignty over

the island while Malaysia has done nothing”. It is true that it had shortly
before said that “the notion of prescription . . . has no role to play in the
present case” but that was said on the basis that, as Singapore saw the
case, Malaysia had not made out its historic title.

124. Malaysia, in response to this argument on prescription, recog-
nized that Singapore may have been intending to give the impression that
there was “still some way in which the Court can override Johor’s title on
the basis of Britain’s post-1851 conduct”. While Malaysia considered
that that conduct could not properly be taken into account — Johor had

the historic title and Singapore “quite properly acknowledge[d] that ‘an
argument . . . predicated on the notion of prescription . . . has no role to
play in the present case’” — Malaysia in its oral argument, as in its writ-
ten pleadings, nevertheless addressed that post-1851 conduct at length, as
of course did Singapore for which it was an essential part of its case,

whatever the outcome of the submissions about historic title and terra
nullius. And the “acknowledgment” by Singapore, to which Malaysia
referred, was stated on the hypothesis that Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu
Puteh was terra nullius.

125. The Court accordingly will now examine the relevant facts, par-

43ticularly the conduct of the Parties, relating to Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu
Puteh, to determine whether or not sovereignty over it has passed and is

now with Singapore.

5.4.2. The process for the selection of the site for Horsburgh lighthouse

126. James Horsburgh, who as hydrographer to the East Indies Com-

pany had prepared many charts and sailing instructions for the East
Indies, China, New Holland, the Cape of Good Hope and intermediate
ports, died in May 1836. Merchants and mariners resolved, initially in
Canton, that the appropriate memorial and testimony of gratitude would

be the construction and operation of one or more lighthouses. As early
as November 1836 “Pedra Branca” was identified as a preferred location
and, although other possibilities were mentioned in the following years,
when Jardine Matheson & Co., Treasurer to the China Fund for a testi-
monial of the late James Horsburgh, first wrote to the Governor of Sing-

apore, on 1 March 1842, “Pedra Branca” was the only locality they spe-
cifically mentioned. That letter is the first formal communication on
behalf of the subscribers to the British authorities. The Treasurer advised
the Governor that:

“At a general meeting of the subscribers, a wish was expressed

that the contributions should, if possible, be devoted to the building
of a Light House, bearing the name of Horsburgh, on Pedra Branca,
at the entrance of the China Sea, but nothing definitive was resolved
on.
As this is a design which can only be carried into effect and main-

tained under the immediate auspices of the British Government, we
beg to express our readiness to hand over the above amount to you
in the hope that you will have the goodness to cause a Light House
(called after Horsburgh) to be erected either on Pedra Branca, or on
such other locality as the Government of the Hon’ble East India

Company may deem preferable.
The amount is far from adequate; but we trust the well known
munificience of the Hon’ble Company will supply what additional
funds may be wanting for an object of such eminent public utility,
intended at the same time, to do Honor to the memory of one of the

most meritorious of their servants.”
The Court notes the recognition by the private commercial interests that

the British Government would have to carry the proposal into effect and
provide the further funds.
127. In his reply of 4 April 1842, the Governor indicated his prefer-
ence, which he had recommended to the Governor-General of India

Council, for Tree Island or such other locality as the East India Com-
pany may deem feasible. (Tree Island, at the western end of the Straits,

44had been suggested in December 1836 by a number of merchants and
mariners, along with Pedra Branca, in a memorial to the Government of

India.) By July 1842 his preferred location was Barn Island, which was
about 16 miles from Singapore, on the basis of a proposal by John Thom-
son, the newly appointed Government Surveyor at Singapore. That pro-
posal, as recommended to the Government of India, had associated with
it the imposition of a charge on vessels anchoring in Singapore Roads.

Because the East India Company opposed the levying of harbour and
anchorage duties and the British mercantile community, with the Com-
pany, attached importance to the preservation of the perfect freedom of
trade at Singapore, the proposal was not even considered.

128. October and November of 1844 saw a number of significant
developments. On 1 October Captain Sir Edward Belcher reported to
W. J. Butterworth, who had become Governor of the Straits Settlements

in 1843, his firm opinion that the Romania Outer Island was the most
eligible site. The Parties agree that the island so identified is Peak Rock.
On 20 November, Thomson reported in detail to the Governor on the
structure of a lighthouse on Peak Rock, the method of constructing it, an
estimate of the cost and an undertaking by a contractor to build the light-

house according to the plan. Just days later Governor Butterworth
received replies to letters which he had written to the Sultan and Temeng-
gong of Johor. Notwithstanding the Parties’ extensive research, the Gov-
ernor’s letters have not been found, but the Parties did provide to the
Court copies of the translations of the replies, both dated 25 November

1844. The Sultan wrote as follows:

“I have received my friend’s letter, and in reply desire to acquaint
my friend, that I perfectly understand his wishes, and I am exceed-
ingly pleased at the intention expressed therein, as it (a Light House)
will enable Traders and others to enter and leave this Port with

greater Confidence.”

The Temenggong said rather more:

“I have duly received my friend’s communication, and understand
the contents. My friend is desirous of erecting a Light House near
Point Romania. I can have no possible objection to such a measure,
indeed I am much pleased that such an undertaking is in contempla-
tion. I wish to be guided in all matters by the Government, so much

so, that the company are at full liberty to put up a Light House
there, or any spot deemed eligible.
Myself and family for many years have derived support from Sing-
apore, our dependence is wholly on the English Government, and we

hope to merit the protection of, and be favoured by the Company on
all occasions consistent with propriety.”

45 129. Three days later, on 28 November 1844, the Governor wrote to
the Secretary of the Government of India. He recalled the rejection of the

Barn Island proposal because of the “restrictive measure on the freedom
of the Port” involved in the proposed charges. The Governor then
referred to the Belcher and Thomson reports, which he enclosed:

“The funds adverted to, amounting to 5513 Dollars or 12,978.84
Company’s Rupees, being still forthcoming, as will be perceived by
the enclosed copy of a letter from Messrs. John Purvis & Co. (A),
and feeling persuaded of the very great necessity for a Light House

and the advantage it would prove to the growing Trade with China,
I took upon myself to submit the subject for the consideration of
Captain Sir Edward Belcher C.B. in the hope that some site might be
determined upon which would be free from the objections referred

to, and meet the object in view. The report (B) of that Scientific
Officer I desire to lay before the Right Hon’ble the Governor Gen-
eral of India with the Plan and Section of the Rock therein alluded
to, prepared by Mr. Thomson the Surveyor, together with an outline
chart, shewing its position with reference to Pedra Branca, the main

land of Johore, and Island of Romania situated about 32 miles in an
E by N direction from Singapore. This Rock is part of the Territo-
ries of the Rajah of Johore, who with the Tamongong (C) have will-
ingly consented to cede it gratuitously to the East India Company.”

The two replies from the Sultan and Temenggong of 25 November were
also enclosed.
130. The Governor then listed vessels “Lost or injured by touching on

the Rock in the vicinity of the site selected”, summarized the enclosed
report from his Government Surveyor, mentioned the “opening of the
four Ports in China and the Establishment of a Colony at Hong Kong”,
discussed the arrangements for and costs of the operation of the light-
house and concluded as follows:

“Trusting I have said sufficient to interest the Right Hon’ble the
Governor General on a subject of such vast importance to the Trade

of our country and the safety of the mariner, European and native,
I venture most respectfully to entreat His Honor’s support to the
measure with the Hon’ble Court of Directors, who may then be
induced probably in conjunction with Her Majesty’s Govt, to fur-
nish the additional sum required and order a Lantern to be at once

constructed. In the meantime, if permitted, I will move the Trading
Community in aid of a work which will perpetuate their gratitude,
for the facilities afforded to the Navigation of these seas, by the
indefatigable researches of James Horsburgh Esquire.”

131. Two central issues arise from this correspondence. The first is

whether the correspondence extended to Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh
or was limited to Peak Rock. The second is whether, in terms of the

46replies, the sovereignty of Johor over any place under its sovereignty
which was chosen for the lighthouse was ceded or only a permission to

build, maintain and operate a lighthouse was granted.

132. The Parties do agree that Peak Rock is “the Rock” referred to in
the last paragraph of the Governor’s letter to the Government of India
quoted in paragraph 129 above. But, Malaysia says, the consent by the

Johor authorities was not limited to that Rock alone. Rather the
responses, particularly from the Temenggong, were in general terms: the
lighthouse might be erected near Point Romania or any spot deemed eli-
gible. The East India Company, according to Malaysia’s reading of the

correspondence, was free to choose between erecting the lighthouse near
Point Romania or anywhere else on the territory of Johor considered
suitable by the Singapore authorities for the purpose of providing guid-
ance to shipping going to or leaving Singapore. Singapore responds that
the contents of the Governor’s letter of 28 November 1844 and its ante-

cedents indicate with certainty that the site which was the subject of his
proposal was Peak Rock.

133. The Court is in no doubt that the proposal which the Governor
put to the Government of India related to Peak Rock. Without knowing

the contents of the Governor’s earlier letters to the Sultan and Temeng-
gong, the Court is however left in real doubt about what the Governor
proposed. Judging from the two replies, it would appear more likely than
not that his letters were in general terms. While Peak Rock was clearly
the site he and his advisers had in mind, the final site of the lighthouse

had yet to be decided upon. That decision was to be taken in due course
by the Government of India and the Court of Directors of the East India
Company, following such further consultation as they considered appro-
priate. And, as Singapore accepts in its Reply, the British authorities had
in mind possible locations other than Peak Rock.

134. Given the conclusion which the Court has already reached earlier
in this Judgment — that Johor was sovereign over Pedra Branca/Pulau
Batu Puteh in the period before the planning for and construction of the

lighthouse began — it does not consider it need rule on Malaysia’s argu-
ment that in the 1844 correspondence the Governor acknowledged Johor’s
sovereignty over the island. That sovereignty rests on the evidence of
earlier periods which the Court has already reviewed (see in particular
paragraphs 52-69 above). The Court would note in any event that the

Malaysian contention about that acknowledgment faces the difficulty
that the correspondence appears to be in the most general terms, in all
likelihood without specifically identifying Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu
Puteh.

135. The Court accordingly turns to the second issue it identified

47above (see paragraph 131) which is whether Johor ceded sovereignty over
the particular piece of territory which the United Kingdom would select

for the construction and operation of the lighthouse for the stated pur-
pose or granted permission only to that construction and operation. The
correspondence could not be more inconclusive. The Sultan is “exceed-
ingly pleased at the intention expressed [by Governor Butterworth]”
because a lighthouse will allow for greater confidence; and the Temeng-

gong had “no possible objection to” the erecting of a lighthouse; “wish-
ing to be guided in all matters by the Government, so much so, that the
Company are at full liberty to put up a Light House . . .”. That wording
may be read, as Malaysia would have the Court read it, as limited to a
permission to build and operate. The Sultan simply expresses pleasure

and, so far as the Temenggong is concerned, the East India Company is
at “full liberty” to put up a lighthouse.

136. While Governor Butterworth understood that the letters
amounted to a gratuitous “cession” (see paragraph 129 above), the Court
observes that that understanding was not communicated to the Sultan

and Temenggong. Further, the Court would not give significant weight to
the choice of just one word in the present context.

137. The Court notes, however, that, by the time of the correspond-
ence, State practice in the South East Asian region, as beyond, recog-

nized the various legal rights and interests that could be held over land
and the associated maritime areas. The Court now gives some instances
of that recognition.
138. Under the 1819 Agreements between Sir Stamford Raffles
and the Temenggong and the Sultan of Johor for the establishment of a

“factory” at Singapore, the East India Company agreed to pay 8,000
Spanish dollars annually so long as it maintained a “factory” on any
part of the Sultan’s hereditary dominions; and arrangements were
made or contemplated for the government and administration of justice
over those belonging to the English factory or those settling in its

vicinity, for the protection and regulation of the Port, and for the distri-
bution of certain duties. It is apparent that the Johor authorities retain-
ed their sovereignty over all of the island of Singapore (see paragraph
21 above). Five years later, under the Crawfurd Treaty, they “ceded . . .
in full sovereignty and property” to the East India Company the
island of Singapore (see paragraph 22 above). The arrangements

made in the Treaty in respect of the rights of the property held by the
Sultan and Temenggong on the island, their followers and retainers also
recognize the distinction between sovereignty and regular rights of
property. Such distinctions are recognized as well in the final article of
the Crawfurd Treaty which “abrogate[s] and annul[s] all earlier Conven-

tions, Treaties and Agreements” between the parties, “with the excep-
tion of such prior conditions as have conferred on the Honourable the
English East India Company any right or title to the occupation or pos-

48session of the Island of Singapore and its dependencies, as above-men-
tioned”.

139. The long established distinction between sovereignty and prop-
erty rights was also to be found in nineteenth century arrangements made
in respect of lighthouses. The arrangements relating to lighthouses to
which the Court was referred related to those on Cape Rachado (1860)
and on Pulau Pisang (1885/1900) and that proposed for Pulau Aur (1901)

(not in fact constructed), all involving the Governor of the Straits Settle-
ments and the Sultan concerned. For Malaysia, the permission in those
cases, including Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh, all shared a similar pat-
tern. The Governor wrote to the authorities having sovereignty over the

envisaged territory and those authorities gave permission. Malaysia
argues that the exchanges cannot be called “informal” permissions, as
Singapore characterizes them. These lighthouse arrangements character-
ized by Malaysia as “formalities” are the same in all four instances. They
constituted an adequate basis for the construction of lighthouses by the

United Kingdom in foreign territory. “They were not subordinated to
any other formality.” For Singapore, by contrast a sharp division is to be
made between the Rachado and Pulau Pisang cases on the one side and
the Peak Rock and Pulau Aur cases on the other, with land grants being
obtained in the former, but informal permissions in the latter not being

followed up by formal grants because the British did not proceed with
those two projects.

140. The Court observes that the documentation for the Cape Rach-

ado and Pulau Pisang lighthouses is much more elaborate and precise
than in the other cases. The first was the subject of a series of exchanges,
including a proclamation of 23 August 1860, which has a formal style in
which the Sultan of Selangor under his Royal Seal made over to the Brit-
ish Government Cape Rachado within his territory. That grant was

matched by this reciprocal undertaking:

“That the English Government do covenant and agree to build
and keep a Light house for the benefit of all nations in relation to
their ships or boats upon the said Cape Rachado (commonly called
Tanjong Tuan) and in the event of the English Government failing
to abide by the said agreement, then and in such case, the cession

upon my part to be null and void.”
141. The arrangements for Pulau Pisang consist of an agreement of

1885 between the Sultan of Johor and the Governor of the Straits Settle-
ments followed by a five page Indenture of 1900 signed, sealed and deliv-
ered by the Sultan and Governor and registered in the Johor Registry of
Deeds. The Sultan had earlier in the year, at the time of the correspon-

dence relating to Pulau Aur discussed in the next paragraph, informed
the Governor that he would be glad to execute the necessary formal

49grant, which should have been made under the terms of the 1885 Agree-
ment. The preamble to the 1900 Indenture, making the formal grant,

recalls that:

“Whereas in or about the month of February, 1885, it was agreed
by and between His late Highness Abu Bakar, then Maharajah of
Johore, and the Governor of the Straits Settlements that the said
Maharajah should grant to the Government of the Straits Settle-
ments a plot of ground in the Island of Pulau Pisang in the Straits of

Malacca as a site for a Lighthouse and a roadway thereto from the
beach and that the said Government should build and effectively
maintain a Lighthouse upon the said Island, such grant as aforesaid
to be void if a lighthouse was not erected within a reasonable time

from the date of such grant or if the said Government neglected
properly to keep and maintain such lighthouse when it was built.”

The preamble then recites that the Singapore Government in pursuance
of the Agreement had built the lighthouse and had properly kept and
maintained it but no grant had been made and that it was expedient that
a grant be made. The Indenture accordingly proceeded to make the grant

and set out the conditions which, among other things, required the Gov-
ernment to use the land only for the operation of the lighthouse and
accorded the Sultan a right to repossess the land if the Government
ceased to keep the lighthouse in good order and properly managed and
worked.

142. The Pulau Aur proposal was raised in February 1900 by the Gov-
ernment of the Straits Settlements with the Sultan of Johor with the alter-
native proposals that, as that island lay within his territory of Johor, the
Sultan would either erect a lighthouse there or permit the Straits Settle-
ments Government (if the Secretary of State for the Colonies and the leg-

islature agreed) to take that action. The Sultan supported the second
option, and suggested that the arrangement should be the same as for the
Pulau Pisang lighthouse. That arrangement and a deed of indenture were
in fact not concluded since the British authorities decided not to proceed
with the construction.

143. The Court was also referred to the Convention for the Cape
Spartel lighthouse concluded in 1865 between Morocco and a number of
maritime Powers which regulates in some detail the rights and obliga-
tions of the parties. Article I distinguishes between the Sultan’s sover-
eignty and proprietary right, on the one hand, and the direction of

administration of the lighthouse by the other parties, on the other. The
Convention was to continue in force for ten years and thereafter year by
year, subject to a right of withdrawal on notice.

144. Against that background of extensive legal regulation in agree-
ments between the sovereign of the territory where the lighthouse was to

50operate and European States, the Court observes the lack, in the case of
Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh, of any written agreement between the

Johor and the British authorities regulating in some detail the relation-
ship between them and their related rights and obligations. The Johor
authorities did not provide for instance for the maintenance of their sov-
ereignty and their rights to repossess the land in the event that conditions
relating to the operation of the lighthouse were not satisfied. Further,

while at the hearing before the Court the Agent of Malaysia stated that
“Malaysia has always respected the position of Singapore as operator of
Horsburgh lighthouse and I would like to place formally on record that
Malaysia will continue to do so”, Malaysia has at no time attempted to

spell out in any detail at all the rights and obligations of “Singapore as
operator”.

145. Given the lack of a written agreement relating to the lighthouse
and the island on which it was to be constructed, the Court is not in a

position to resolve the second issue raised in paragraph 131 above about
the content of any agreement reached in November 1844. In any event, as
will appear, what is decisive for the Court is the conduct of the authori-
ties in Singapore (and India) and in Johor following the 1844 exchanges
of correspondence.

146. In 1845 the choice of the site for the lighthouse was the subject of
a further exchange between Singapore and the Government of India. On
22 August 1845 Governor Butterworth, referring to earlier correspond-
ence which indicated support by the Government of India in a recom-
mendation to the Court of Directors of the East India Company for the

Peak Rock proposal, confirmed that preference and, given the number of
vessels that had been wrecked in the vicinity of Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu
Puteh and Point Romania, trusted that construction would soon begin
“as a light in that quarters is becoming daily of more paramount impor-
tance”. On 15 October 1845 the Court of Directors of the Company

authorized the Governor General of India in Council to provide for the
levying of lighthouse dues at Singapore in support of a lighthouse on
Peak Rock and in January 1846 Thomson attempted to land there to
build brick pillars to help determine the method of constructing a light-
house, but the violence of the seas prevented his landing.

147. But later in 1846 things changed. In April of that year the Court
of Directors of the East India Company was informed that the Lords of
the Admiralty in London were inclined to think that Pedra Branca/Pulau
Batu Puteh was the best point for the lighthouse for reasons they stated.

The Government Surveyor and Captain S. Congalton, commander of the
East India Company’s steamer, the Hooghly, undertook surveys in May
and August, the latter following receipt of the letter setting out the Admi-
ralty’s opinion. In their report of 25 August they said they were “decid-

edly of opinion that Pedra Branca is the only proper position for a Light
to be placed . . . for the safety of Shipping whether entering or departing

51for the Straits of Singapore . . .”. The following day the Governor in a
handwritten letter to the Government of India stated that the Govern-

ment “will at once perceive that Pedra Branca is the only true position”
for the lighthouse. One word in this letter is unclear and was the subject
of opposing expert opinions submitted by each of the Parties. The dis-
puted word is either “care” or “case” and appears in the following sen-
tence, in which the Governor stated that “the whole of the details for the

care/case of Light Houses as set forth” in his letter of 28 November 1844
relating to the proposal for a lighthouse on Peak Rock (paragraphs 129-
130 above) “will be equally applicable to the new Position”. As
mentioned, the Parties disagree on their reading of the word “care” or

“case”. Did the Governor refer to the whole of the details “for the
care” of the lighthouse or “for the case” of the lighthouse? Singapore
supports the former reading and Malaysia the latter. For Singapore
the word “care” carries the implication that it was only the details of
the earlier despatch relating to the care, maintenance and operation

of the lighthouse that would apply to Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu
Puteh, now that it had been chosen. Malaysia, by contrast, considers
that the “whole of the details for the case of Light Houses” includes
the permission granted by the Johor authorities for the construction
of the lighthouse. The Court does not find it necessary to resolve

the clash of expert opinions on this matter. On 30 October 1846, the
President in Council in India approved Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu
Puteh as the site, on 24 February 1847 the Court of Directors informed
the Indian Government of its approval, and on 10 May 1847 the
Government of India requested Governor Butterworth to take measures

for the construction of a lighthouse on Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu
Puteh according to the Plan and Estimates submitted with the letter of
28 November 1844.

148. The Court observes that there is nothing at all in the record
before it to suggest that the authorities in Singapore considered it neces-
sary or even desirable to inform the Johor authorities of the decision

about the siting of the lighthouse or to seek any consent in respect
of it. That conduct may be interpreted in one of two ways: it may
indicate, as Malaysia contends, that what it sees as Johor’s 1844 consent
to the building and operation of a lighthouse on one of its islands
simply applied to Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh as it would have to

any of its islands. Or it may indicate, as Singapore contends, that the
Johor authorities had no rights in respect of this project and that such
was the perception in 1847 of the responsible British authorities. On
the basis of the case file, the Court is not in a position to reach a

conclusion on that issue.

525.4.3. The construction and commissioning of Horsburgh lighthouse,
1850-1851

149. The facts about the construction and commissioning of the light-
house on Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh — and indeed for the most
part its operation over the many years since — are not themselves the
subject of significant dispute between the Parties. They also agree on the

law: it “requires an intention to acquire sovereignty, a permanent inten-
tion to do so and overt action to implement the intention and to make
the intention to acquire manifest to other States”. There is some disagree-
ment on whether practice also requires elements of formality. Symbolic

acts accompanying the acquisition of territory are very common both
generally and in British practice. They are not however always present.
The Court does not consider that the practice demonstrates a require-
ment that there be a symbolic act. Rather the intention to acquire sov-
ereignty may appear from the conduct of the Parties, particularly con-

duct occurring over a long period.

150. The Parties do however dispute the evaluation of the facts. Malay-
sia’s basic position is that essentially everything that the United Kingdom

and Singapore did was no more than constructing and commissioning the
lighthouse and later operating it, within the very consent conferred by the
Sultan of Johor and the Temenggong in November 1844. They were not
actions on the basis of which Singapore could claim sovereignty over
Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh. There is no evidence, says Malaysia, of

a British intention to acquire sovereignty and it did not claim sovereignty
during the construction of the lighthouse at its commissioning and or at
any time during its operation. Singapore, by contrast, says that the
United Kingdom acquired title to Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh in the
period of 1847-1851 when it took lawful possession of the island in con-

nection with building the lighthouse on it. According to Singapore, there-
after, for over 150 years the United Kingdom and later Singapore engaged
in the effective administration and control of Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu
Puteh as sovereign and not simply as the operator of the lighthouse for
over 150 years. The Court now turns to the facts.

151. The planning for the construction and the construction itself were
in the hands of the Government Surveyor of Singapore, John Thomson,
who was appointed as Architect of the project by Governor Butterworth.

To meet the deficiency in the funds available in Singapore, the Govern-
ment of India, in agreement with the Court of Directors of the East India
Company, on 12 November 1849 authorized the preparation of a law by
Governor Butterworth imposing a duty on shipping and requested him to

take immediate measures to begin constructing the lighthouse. It will be
observed that the opposition to the levying of the harbour and anchorage

53duties expressed in 1842 and earlier (see paragraph 127 above) was no
longer an issue, and had not been for some years (see paragraph 146

above); indeed as early as 1842, when the Horsburgh lighthouse proposal
was first raised with the Government, it was contemplated that govern-
ment money would be needed (see paragraph 126 above).

152. In December 1849 the Government Surveyor began organizing

the construction which was to begin on Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh
in late March or early April 1850 and to continue with a break over the
following monsoon season into 1851. In the course of the construction up
to 50 workmen were to be on the island. The organization included

arranging shipping to supply the island and to protect the supplies from
pirates, the quarrying of the granite and other stone needed, and arrang-
ing the construction and shipping of the lantern and related equipment.

153. In February 1850 Governor Butterworth forwarded to the Gov-

ernment of India a draft Act for the levy of dues on vessels entering Sing-
apore alone (but not other ports). That statute was enacted by the Gov-
ernor-General of India in Council on 30 January 1852 and is discussed
later (see paragraphs 170-172 below). The Preamble to the Act recites
that the sums of money subscribed by private individuals were insuffi-

cient to defray the costs of the building, that the East India Company
agreed to build the lighthouse and to advance certain sums to complete it
on condition that they were repaid by a levy on ships entering Singapore
harbour, that the lighthouse had been built and it was desirable that the
expense of building it and maintaining the light should be defrayed out of

the monies arising from the toll, and that other lights or beacons might
be established in the Straits of Malacca or nearby. The Act provided for
the payment of the toll by ship owners and operators, the ownership and
management of the lighthouse, and the prospect of the building of
further lights or beacons and their operation from the toll once the

advance from the East India Company had been repaid and after the cur-
rent expenses of maintaining Horsburgh lighthouse had been met.

154. The work had progressed to the point that on 24 May 1850,
Queen Victoria’s birthday, the foundation stone was laid. Malaysia
stresses that it was the Master of the Masonic Lodge Zetland in the East
No. 749 who with his brethren laid the stone, it was not an official gov-
ernmental occasion and there was no proclamation of British sovereignty

or any other formal act. Singapore, by contrast, emphasizes that it was
the Governor who invited the Master and members of the Lodge to un-
dertake the task and who arranged their transport from Singapore to the
Rock. Governor Butterworth also invited the Naval Commander in

Chief of the East India Station and Thomas Church, the Resident Coun-
cillor at Singapore and Thomson’s immediate supervisor, to accompany

54him. Also present, at the Governor’s invitation, were several foreign con-
suls, merchants and civil and military members of the Singapore commu-

nity. The members of the Lodge were received on Pedra Branca/Pulau
Batu Puteh by the Governor who requested them to proceed with the cer-
emony which they did. The Master in his address praised the Governor,
the merchants and mariners who had provided the nucleus of the fund,
the East India Company for advancing the balance and James Hors-

burgh. The opening lines of the inscription on the plate gave the date by
reference to the year of the Queen’s reign, named the Governor-General,
recorded that the Foundation Stone was laid by the Master and Brethren
of the Lodge in the presence of the Governor and others and ends with

“J. T. Thomson, Architect”.

155. The Court observes that no Johor authorities were present at the
ceremony. There is no indication that they were even invited by the Gov-

ernor to attend. That might suggest — the Court puts it no higher than
that — consistently with the references to the Queen and the role of the
Singapore Governor, Architect and the East India Company, that the
British and Singapore authorities did not consider it necessary to apprise
Johor of their activities on Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh. That they

were alert to matters of Johor sovereignty at that very time appears from
the rejection of a proposal made by Thomson to Church later in Novem-
ber 1850. In his report of 2 November 1850 on the completion of the sea-
son’s operations on Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh for the construction
of the lighthouse, which had now reached a height of 64 feet, Thomson

proposed, referring to shore support arrangements for British lighthouse
keepers and the local threat of piracy, the establishment of a station near
Point Romania. Church, in reporting to the Governor, doubted that:

“such is absolutely necessary, or commensurate with the permanent
expense which such an establishment must necessarily occasion.

Romania moreover belongs to the Sovereign of Johore, where the
British possess no legal jurisdiction; it will of course, be necessary
for the Steamer or Gun Boats to visit Pedro Branca weekly; some
benefits would also accrue by requesting His Highness the Tumon-
gong to form a village at Romania under the control of a respectable

Panghuloo to render assistance to the inmates of the Light House in
a case of emergency.”

The matter was not taken any further, with Thomson communicating to
Church the following July that access to Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh
was not going to be closed for four or five months, as earlier supposed,
and that the establishment of a station at Point Romania was conse-

quently unnecessary.
156. Nine days after the laying of the foundation stone on 24 May 1850

55the Temenggong of Johor did visit the rock, accompanied by 30 of his
followers. Thomson referred to him as “the most powerful native chief in

these parts, allied to British interests. He remained at my house for two
days, employing his leisure in fishing . . .” That is the only visit by either
the Sultan or the Temenggong and their successors recorded in the evi-
dence before the Court.

157. The building of the lighthouse continued through the middle of
1850 until 21 October. After the monsoon, work resumed in April 1851.
On 8 July the Resident Councillor in Singapore and his party “minutely”
inspected all the works, and during August the lantern, machinery and

apparatus arrived in Singapore and in September were hoisted to the top
of the tower which was about 95 feet high.
158. Thomson gave this account of the final official act on Pedra
Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh before the permanent lighting of Horsburgh
lighthouse on 15 October 1851:

“On the 27th September, the Honorable Colonel Butterworth
C.B., Governor of the Straits Settlements, with a party consisting of

Sir William Jeffcott, Recorder of the Straits Settlements, Colonel
Messitter, commanding the troops, Captain Barker, H.M.S. ‘Ama-
zon’, Mr. Purvis and the principal merchants of Singapore, together
with several military officers, arrived off the rock at 1 p.m. when
they landed and minutely inspected the Pharos.”

159. On 15 October the light was shown, as had been advertised in two

Singapore newspapers by way of a Notice to Mariners which set out the
specification of the lighthouse by “Mr. J. T. Thomson, Government Sur-
veyor” and which was signed by W. J. Butterworth as Governor. By
2 November the two gun boats had provided the lighthouse with stores
to last until the end of March and on 17 November the Hooghly arrived

and Thomson departed on it for Singapore on 18 November 1851. He
had been on Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh supervising the construction
of the lighthouse for much of the periods from April to October 1850 and
from April to November 1851. When the construction was underway in
the course of those periods, supplies, especially of building materials,

were brought by the Hooghly, the two gun boats and two lighters. From
time to time, particularly when Thomson was needed elsewhere, for
instance at the quarry, his roles were taken over by his foreman, Mr. Ben-
nett.
160. Thomson concluded his Account of the Horsburgh Lighthouse

(1852), published in the Journal of the Indian Archipelago and Eastern
Asia (Vol. 6, p. 376), with an appendix “particularly [about] the measures
taken by Government to advance the views of the promoters of this pub-
lic work”. He mentioned the principal subscribers and said this in the

final paragraph of Appendix VII to his Account:

56 “The remainder of the funds necessary to the completion of the
Testimonial was advanced by the Government, to be repaid by a

Light-house due on shipping. There was otherwise extensive aid
afforded in the employment of their Steamers, gun-boats and offic-
ers, none of the expense of which was charged against the works. I
have already had the pleasure of mentioning the highly gratifying
assistance of the Dutch Authorities of Rhio, in placing gun-boats as

tenders to the operations.”

161. Again it may be said that these actions, too, are primarily directed
at the construction of the lighthouse, but the “extensive aid” mentioned
in the Appendix VII of Thomson’s Account quoted above may be seen as
having a sovereign character — British Government vessels made a
major contribution to the whole process of the construction of the light-

house, a contribution which was at no charge to the potential commercial
users of the light. That sovereign characterization may also be applied to
the tablet in the Visitors Room on which is inscribed the names of
W. J. Butterworth as “Governor” and J. T. Thomson as “Architect”.
John Horsburgh is also mentioned and again reference is made to “the

enterprize of British merchants and . . . the liberal aid of the East India
Company”. As at the laying of the foundation stone, the Sultan of Johor
and Temenggong of Johor had no role. But, as also on that occasion, no
specific acts of proclamation of sovereignty, as frequently appeared in
British practice, were to be seen.

162. The Court does not draw any conclusions about sovereignty
based on the construction and commissioning of the lighthouse. Rather it

sees those events as bearing on the issue of the evolving views of the
authorities in Johor and in Singapore about sovereignty over Pedra
Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh. Malaysia contends that Johor, having permit-
ted the building of the lighthouse, had no reason to have any involvement
in its construction and commissioning. The Court however notes that the

only time the Johor authorities were present throughout that process was
the two-day visit of the Temenggong and his followers in early June 1850.

163. In light of the above, the Court will now consider the conduct of
the Parties after the construction of the lighthouse on Pedra Branca/Pu-

lau Batu Puteh to ascertain whether this provides a basis for concluding
that sovereignty over the island was passed from Johor to the United
Kingdom, Singapore’s predecessor.

5.4.4. The conduct of the Parties, 1852-1952

164. The Parties refer to activities undertaken by them and their pred-

ecessors in title between 1852 and 1980, and indeed beyond. Given the
nature of the conduct, the changing constitutional position of the Parties

57and their predecessors and an exchange of correspondence in 1953 to
which the Parties have given a great deal of attention, the Court finds it

convenient to divide the conduct between events occurring before 1953
and those occurring after. The division is not precise since some conduct
runs through the whole period.

165. At this stage it is also convenient for the Court to put to one side

as not relevant to sovereignty over Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh a
number of matters mentioned by Singapore but which relate essentially
to the maintenance and operation of the lighthouse and nothing more —
the improvement of the lighthouse, the exercise of authority over its per-

sonnel, and the collection of meteorological information (on the last mat-
ter see also paragraph 265).

(a) Straits lights system and related British and Singapore legislation

166. The British and Singapore legislation relating to Horsburgh light-
house and others in the region is to be seen in the broader context of the
law and practice relating to lighthouses and in the more specific context
of the Straits lights system. As a matter of law, a lighthouse may be built

on the territory of one State and administered by another State — with
the consent of the first State. As a matter of fact that has happened not
infrequently, as instanced by the Middle East Navigation Aids Service, a
non-profit corporation registered in the United Kingdom, which owns
and administers lighthouses and other aids to navigation in Kuwait, the

United Arab Emirates, Qatar and elsewhere in the region, and the Cape
Spartel Treaty and the Pulau Pisang and Cape Rachado lighthouses dis-
cussed earlier in this Judgment (see paragraphs 139-143 above).

167. As indicated, a central element in Malaysia’s argument is that

because Horsburgh lighthouse was built on an island over which Johor
was sovereign — a proposition which the Court accepts, as appears ear-
lier in this Judgment — all the actions of the British authorities and, fol-
lowing them, the Singaporean authorities are simply actions pursued in
the normal course of the operation of the lighthouse. Malaysia includes

among such actions the investigation of marine hazards and the pub-
lication of notices to mariners, regulation of activities associated with the
lighthouse, adding additional structures and facilities, permission to un-
dertake scientific and technical surveys, control of access to lighthouses
and their associated facilities, and the flying of ensigns. Singapore, by

contrast, says that some of the actions are not matters simply of the
operation of the lighthouse but are, in whole or part, acts à titre de sou-
verain. The Court considers them in following sections of this Judgment.
First, it turns its attention to the legislation, invoked by Singapore, rel-

ating to the lighthouses in the Straits area, particularly Horsburgh light-
house.

58 168. Singapore, in support of its contention that it has continuously
exercised state and sovereign authority over Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu

Puteh, refers to legislation which it and its predecessors in title enacted
specifically relating to the island. The legislation regulated the defraying
of costs of establishing and operating the lighthouse, vesting control of it
under various governmental bodies, and regulating the activities of per-
sons residing, visiting and working on Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh.

All the measures were open and notorious and drew no protests from
Malaysia.
169. Malaysia replies that it and its predecessors had no need to
respond. The actions to which Singapore refers are yet again an aspect of

the Straits lights system administered by Singapore, a system which
included lights which had no territorial connection with Singapore. The
system was not about sovereignty but about the maintenance and opera-
tion of the lights system. Moreover, the legislation was about private law
matters and not about sovereignty over Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh

as a matter of international law. And in some respects, says Malaysia, the
enactments are a recognition by Singapore that it does not have jurisdic-
tion over the island.

170. Singapore refers to the Light Dues Act 1852 (India), the Light
Dues Act 1854 (India) which replaced that of 1852, the Light-Houses
Ordinance 1912 (Straits Settlements) which repealed the 1854 Act and an
amendment to it, the Light Dues Ordinance 1957 (Singapore) establish-
ing the Singapore Light Dues Board and the Light Dues Repeal Act 1973

which transferred the assets, liabilities and employees of the Board to the
Port of Singapore Authority and repealed the 1957 ordinance.

171. The 1852, 1854 and 1912 enactments expressly mention the light-
house at Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh. They deal with property in the
lighthouse and the 1912 measure adds “all such lighthouses as are now
established in or near to the Straits of Malacca or Singapore”. The light-
houses and appurtenances were the property of and vested in the East

India Company (1852 and 1854) and Singapore (1912). The statutes also
dealt with the management and control not only of the lighthouses but
also of the Straits lights such as that on the 2.5 fathom bank in the
Malacca Strait (1854 Act): management and control were vested in and
maintained by the Government. The enactments are exercises of wide

law-making power which, it was understood, could extend to such mat-
ters of property, management and control beyond the territories of India
and Singapore.

172. Taken as a whole, the enactments do not, in the Court’s view,
demonstrate British sovereignty over the areas to which they apply. For

59one thing the ownership provision in the 1912 ordinance applies equally
to the lighthouses on Pulau Pisang and at Cape Rachado — both un-

doubtedly on Johor territory — as it does to that on Pedra Branca/Pulau
Batu Puteh. For another, they extend to lights operating on the high seas.
And the provisions say nothing expressly about sovereignty as opposed
to ownership and management and control, each of which they specifi-
cally regulate.

173. Malaysia, the Court recalls, contends that the legislation supports
its position for two reasons. The first relates to a 1958 amendment to the
1957 Ordinance and the 1969 Light Dues Act which incorporated the

same provisions. The 1957 Ordinance required the Light Dues Board to
spend money from the fund it administered on the maintenance and
improvement of “navigational aids in the waters of the Colony”, defined
as “those parts of the territorial waters of the Colony which are outside
the limits of any port”. In 1958, the definition of “waters of the colony”

was deleted and the phrase just quoted from the 1957 provision was
replaced by “lighthouses, buoys, beacons and other navigational aids in
Singapore including those at Pedra Branca (Horsburgh) and at Pulau Pis-
ang”. For Malaysia, the references to the lighthouse at Pedra Branca/Pu-
lau Batu Puteh along with that on Pulau Pisang indicate that Singapore

recognized that the former island is not part of Singapore. Singapore
replies that under the 1957 Ordinance the Board had been authorized to
spend moneys on the maintenance of navigational aids only if they were
in the waters of the colony but not within any port. The purpose of the
amendment was to remove that limit, enabling the Board to spend mon-

eys on “lights and navigational aids within the port limits and on the
maintenance of the light at Pulau Pisang which is not within territorial
waters” (emphasis added). Further, the drafting history includes an
express statement that Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh is Singapore’s.

174. In the Court’s view, the original 1957 wording is not clear in
respect of the present issue since it appears to include both lighthouses
“in Singapore” and that is wrong at least so far as Pulau Pisang is con-

cerned. The 1958 wording, by contrast, gradually expands its geographi-
cal scope, from the port of Singapore, to its approaches, and to the two
named lighthouses. The Court considers that the change, particularly
given the express reference to Pulau Pisang in the statement of purpose
and the statement that Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh is Singapore’s in

the drafting history, does give support to Singapore’s contentions.

175. Malaysia’s second reason for contending that in its legislation

Singapore recognizes that Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh is not within
its sovereignty turns on the Foreign Jurisdiction Act of 1843, the first in

60a series of Foreign Jurisdiction Acts — Acts which were invoked only at
the oral stage of the proceedings. These statutes of the Imperial Parlia-

ment at Westminster were enacted “to remove doubts as to the exercise
of Power and Jurisdiction by Her Majesty within diverse Countries and
Places out of Her Majesty’s Dominions, and to render the same more
effectual”. Those powers and jurisdictions, the 1843 Act recites, were
conferred “by treaty, capitulation, grant, usage, sufferance and any other

lawful means”. In terms of the Act and later Acts it was

“lawful for Her Majesty to hold, exercise, and enjoy any Power or
Jurisdiction which Her Majesty now hath or may at any Time here-
after have within any Country or Place out of Her Majesty’s Domin-
ions, in the same and as ample a Manner as if Her Majesty had

acquired such Power or Jurisdiction by the Cession or Conquest of
Territory”.

Malaysia contends that the Indian and Singapore statutes, in so far as
they relate to Horsburgh lighthouse, were enacted under that authority
and accordingly they recognize that Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh was
“out of Her Majesty’s Dominions”; while they do not expressly refer to
that authority, a point made by Singapore in response, British law, says

Malaysia, does not require such reference. Singapore also argues that no
instrument — treaty, capitulation — of the kind referred to in the 1843
and following Acts exists.

176. The 1843 Foreign Jurisdiction Act, the Court understands, was
particularly directed at doubts which had arisen in respect of the powers
of British consuls in the Ottoman Empire and especially about the limits
that might be imposed by English law on the powers, rather than about
the existence of the powers themselves. The Court’s understanding is also

that the power conferred by the 1843 and later Acts was exercised, not by
an enactment of a particular colonial legislature, but by some formal
Royal instrument such as an Order in Council or Letters Patent. There is
no indication at all that the Crown delegated to the Indian or Straits Set-
tlements legislature, under the 1843 or later Acts, the powers in issue

here. Further, there is strong support for the proposition that the Act did
not extend the jurisdiction of the Crown at all; it provided only for the
manner of exercising it. (See the authorities, including Sobhuza II v.
Miller [1926] AC 518 and Secretary of State v. Sardar Rustan Khan
(1941) LR 68 IA 109, decisions of the British Privy Council, and Nyali v.

Attorney-General [1956] 1 QB 1, a decision of the English Court of
Appeal, as well as the official Report which appears to have led to the
enactment of the 1843 Statute, conveniently gathered by Sir Kenneth Rob-
erts-Wray, Q.C., in Commonwealth and Colonial Law (1966), pp. 185-

203.)
177. Accordingly the Court is unable to see any sufficient basis for

61Malaysia’s contentions based on the 1843 Act and later Acts.

178. The Court does however see some significance in one proposal
relating to the funding and administration of the lights. After 1912 the
duties levied on ships passing through the Straits were abolished and the
States concerned defrayed the costs of the lights on a co-operative basis.
Singapore refers to the fact that in 1913 the Chief Secretary of the Gov-

ernment of the Federated Malay States proposed an appropriation to
meet a share of the costs of the Cape Rachado Light and the One
Fathom Bank Light but not for Horsburgh lighthouse. But, as Malaysia
points out, Johor was not at that time one of those States. What is of

some significance however is that in 1952 the Director of Marine of the
Federation of Malaya of which Johor was then a part raised the question
whether the Federation should assume responsibility for the Pulau Pisang
lighthouse, “as it is close to the coast of the Federation” but made no
such suggestion in respect of Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh.

179. Singapore, when referring to legislation relating to Pedra Branca/
Pulau Batu Puteh, also cites the Protected Places Order 1991 which pro-
hibits entry, without permit, to that island. According to Malaysia this
action comes long after the critical date and is not “a normal continua-

tion of prior acts” (Sovereignty over Pulau Ligitan and Pulau Sipadan
(Indonesia/Malaysia), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2002 , p. 682, para. 135).
Singapore contends that it is a “normal continuation” since it is simply
one more element in a long stream of governmental authority exercised
over Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh.

180. In the Court’s opinion, Singapore puts the matter far too broadly
when it contends it may rely on what it characterizes as one more element
of the exercise of governmental authority occurring after the date the dis-
pute crystallized. The conduct in question must be the same as, or of the
same kind as, the prior acts which are being invoked. The 1991 Order is

clearly distinct from the other conduct on which Singapore relies occur-
ring before the date the dispute crystallized. Accordingly, the Court does
not give any weight to the 1991 Order.

(b) Constitutional developments and official descriptions of Singapore
and Malaysia

181. In terms of constitutional developments, Malaysia begins with
the 1927 Straits Settlement and Johor Territorial Waters Agreement
between the Straits Settlements and Johor. The 1927 Agreement amends

the 1824 Crawfurd Treaty concluded soon after the Settlement of Singa-
pore was established and discussed earlier in this Judgment (see para-
graphs 102-107 above); and it is convenient to begin a brief account of
the constitutional development from that time. In 1826 Singapore and

the other British Settlements in the Malay Peninsula were amalgamated
into a single unit known as the Strait Settlements (see paragraph 24

62above). It was governed by the East India Company as a dependency of
the Bengal Government of India. In 1867 the responsibility passed to the

Colonial Office in London, with the Straits Settlements becoming a
Crown Colony. The statutory territorial description of the Colony
included “and their Dependencies”.

182. The 1927 Agreement had as its stated purpose to “retrocede” to
the Sultan of Johor certain of the seas, straits and islets which had been
ceded to the East India Company in 1824. The boundary between the
territorial waters of the Settlement of Singapore and those of the State

and Territory of Johor was to be the line following the centre of the deep-
water channel between the mainland of Johor and the northern shore of
the island of Singapore and three smaller named islands immediately to
its north and east. Islands on the Johor side of the line were retroceded if
they were under British sovereignty. Malaysia contends that the retroces-

sion arrangements did not concern Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh since
it was never part of the territory of Singapore. The 1927 Agreement, with
its link back to that of 1824, is evidence of the continuing appreciation
that Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh and its surrounding waters were not
part of the territory of Singapore.

183. The creation of the separate Colony of Singapore in 1946 (also
described as including “its dependencies”), with the other Straits Settle-
ments joining the Malay States to form the Malayan Union (from 1948

the Malayan Federation), made no changes, according to Malaysia, in
respect of territory and in particular in respect of Pedra Branca/Pulau
Batu Puteh; it remained part of Johor and accordingly of the new Union
and the Federation which became independent in 1957.

184. In 1959 the Colony of Singapore was granted self government as
the State of Singapore, comprising the territories included in the Colony
of Singapore immediately before the passing of the Act.
185. In 1963 Singapore became part of the newly formed Federation
of Malaysia. It withdrew in 1965. The Parties agree that these changes

are of no consequence for the present proceedings.
186. The Court considers that the various constitutional changes do
not help resolve the question of sovereignty over Pedra Branca/Pulau
Batu Puteh. The constitutional documents refer to the island of Singa-
pore and “its dependencies” or to “all islands and places which on [a

specific date] were administered as part of [the Colony of] Singapore”.
That wording refers the Court back to the question of whether Pedra
Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh may be seen as a dependency of Singapore or
administered by it. It does not assist in finding the answer to those

questions.

63 187. The geographical description in the 1927 Agreement is of course
specific and it does not expressly mention Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu

Puteh. Malaysia contends that that provides a significant recognition at
that time by Singapore that it (or the United Kingdom) did not have sov-
ereignty over Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh.
188. The Court observes that the Agreement has to be read as a whole
and in context. As its preamble says the purpose was to “retrocede”

certain of the said seas, straits and islets to Johor, that is certain of the
areas that were ceded by Johor to the East India Company in 1824,
and those areas were all within 10 miles of the main island of Singapore.
They could not have included Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh; it

was simply not within the scope of the Agreement. Accordingly the
Court concludes that the 1927 Agreement does not assist the Malaysian
case.

189. Malaysia also refers the Court to a Curfew Order made in Singa-

pore in 1948 in response to civil unrest in the Colony. No one was to be
in the specified area between 6.30 p.m. and 6.30 a.m. without a police
permit. The specified area was defined in the same terms as in the
1927 Agreement, that is without including Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu
Puteh. But as Singapore points out, there was no reason in terms of its

purpose for extending the ban to such a distant island anymore than
there was for extending it to the Cocos and Christmas Islands, some great
distance away in the Indian Ocean, which at the time were part of the
Colony of Singapore.

(c) Johor regulation of fisheries in the 1860s

190. Malaysia contends that the Temenggong continued to control
fishing in the neighbourhood of Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh after the
construction of the lighthouse, granting licences and exercising criminal

jurisdiction there, and that that exercise of authority showed the island
was Johor’s territory. The Parties refer in particular to an exchange of
correspondence between Johor and the British authorities in Singapore in
1861.
191. The Court observes that the exchange relates in part to events

occurring within 10 miles of the island of Singapore and nothing can be
made of the fact that the Singapore authorities did not in that context
refer to jurisdiction over the waters of Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu
Puteh. Another incident occurred further along the Johor coast and
involved Singapore fishermen returning from fishing in the neigh-

bourhood of Horsburgh lighthouse. In the Court’s opinion, on the
basis of the available records, the facts cannot be clearly established
and the wording of the Singapore reports are too vague to provide
any assistance in determining the understanding at that time by the

authorities in Singapore of sovereignty over Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu
Puteh.

645.4.5. The 1953 correspondence

192. On 12 June 1953 the Colonial Secretary of Singapore wrote as
follows to the British Adviser to the Sultan of Johor:

“I am directed to ask for information about the rock some 40
miles from Singapore known as Pedra Branca on which the Hors-
burgh Lighthouse stands. The matter is relevant to the determina-
tion of the boundaries of the Colony’s territorial waters. It appears
this rock is outside the limits ceded by Sultan Hussain and the

Dato Tumunggong to the East India Company with the island of
Singapore in the Treaty of 1824 (extract at ‘A’). It was however men-
tioned in a despatch from the Governor of Singapore on 28th Novem-
ber 1844 (extract at ‘B’). The lighthouse was built in 1850 by the
Colony Government who have maintained it ever since. This by

international usage no doubt confers some rights and obligations on
the Colony.

2. In the case of Pulau Pisang which is also outside the Treaty
limits of the colony it has been possible to trace an indenture in the

Johore Registry of Deeds dated 6th October, 1900. This shows that
a part of Pulau Pisang was granted to the Crown for the purposes of
building a lighthouse. Certain conditions were attached and it is
clear that there was no abrogation of the sovereignty of Johore. The

status of Pisang is quite clear.
3. It is how [now] desired to clarify the status of Pedra Branca. I
would therefore be most grateful to know whether there is any docu-
ment showing a lease or grant of the rock or whether it has been
ceded by the Government of the State of Johore or in any other way

disposed of.
4. A copy of this letter is being sent to the Chief Secretary, Kuala
Lumpur.”

193. The extract from the 1824 Treaty which was attached to the letter
set out the title and Article II. Under that Article, Johor ceded the island
of Singapore to the East India Company “together with adjacent seas,
straits and islets, to the extent of ten geographical miles, from the coast of

the said main island of Singapore” (see paragraph 102 above). The
extract from the despatch of 28 November 1844 (see paragraph 129
above), as attached, read as follows: “This Rock [i.e. Pedra Branca] is
part of a territory of the Rajah of Johore who with the Tumunggong has
willingly consented to cede it gratuitously to the East India Company.”

194. The expression “[i.e. Pedra Branca]” appeared in handwriting in
the attached typewritten copy of the extract from the 1844 despatch.
That explains why the letter of 12 June expressly says that “Pedra

Branca” was mentioned in the 1844 despatch.
195. Later in June 1953 the Secretary to the British Adviser to the Sul-

65tan of Johor advised the Colonial Secretary that the Adviser had passed
the letter to the State Secretary of Johor who would

“doubtless wish to consult with the Commissioner for Lands and

Mines and Chief Surveyor and any existing archives before forward-
ing the views of the State Government to the Chief Secretary”.

196. Three months later, in a letter dated 21 September 1953, the Act-
ing State Secretary of Johor replied as follows:

“I have the honour to refer to your letter . . . dated 12th June
1953, addressed to the British Adviser, Johore, on the question of
the status of Pedra Branca Rock some 40 miles from Singapore and

to inform you that the Johore Government does not claim owner-
ship of Pedra Branca.”

No further correspondence followed and the Singapore authorities
took no public action. That was so although, as mentioned later, officials
of Singapore did consider the matter in an internal memorandum (see
paragraph 224 below).
197. In their pleadings before the Court the Parties take sharply dif-

ferent positions on the significance of this correspondence. Malaysia
places most emphasis on the initial Singapore letter. According to Malay-
sia, the enquiry in that letter indicated the absence of any conviction on
Singapore’s part that Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh was part of its ter-
ritory; it wished to clarify Singapore’s rights and obligations regarding

the management and control of the lighthouse. The letter, Malaysia con-
tinues, “clearly references the Crawfurd Treaty of 1824 as determining
the relevant territorial limits of Singapore, and the 1844 permission of
Johor to the building of the lighthouse”. Malaysia also calls attention to
virtually contemporaneous correspondence between Singapore officials

about territorial waters, referring to the 1824 Treaties and the 1927 Agree-
ment, as showing that the Singapore authorities had a very precise un-
derstanding of the extent of the Colony’s sovereignty, that this flowed
from the 1824 Treaties, and that it did not extend to Pedra Branca/Pulau
Batu Puteh. Next, the reference to the position of Pulau Pisang indicates,

Malaysia says, an understanding on the part of the Colonial Secretary
that the management of the lighthouse was distinct from and not deter-
minative of the sovereign status on the territory on which is was
constructed.

198. The reply from Johor, Malaysia continues, is not “a model of
clarity”. In any event it is about ownership, not about sovereignty over
Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh. Malaysia also contends that the Acting
State Secretary was “definitely not authorized” and did not have “the

legal capacity to write the 1953 letter”.

66 199. Finally, Malaysia calls attention to the actions of the Singapore
authorities following the receipt of the Johor letter and particularly their

failure to take steps to claim Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh.

200. Singapore sees the correspondence quite differently. It admits
that in its initial letter it was seeking information to assist it to clarify the
status of Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh. The enquiry concerned the

determination of the colony’s territorial waters. The Treaties of 1824 and
the 1927 Agreement were irrelevant to that matter. The 1844 despatch
could not be read as a showing that permission was sought from Johor to
build a lighthouse on the island. So far as the reference to Pulau Pisang

was concerned, Singapore accepts that the management of the lighthouse
and the status of the territory on which it is built can be different, but the
author of the Singapore letter was making a comparison in which he
acknowledges Johor’s sovereignty over Pulau Pisang but not over Pedra
Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh.

201. For Singapore the Johor reply is crystal clear and straightfor-
ward. In the context it is clear that ownership refers to title. Singapore
rejects Malaysia’s argument that the Acting Secretary of State of Johor
did not have authority to write the letter.

202. The internal Singapore correspondence, after the Johor letter was
received, simply meant that Singapore could now authoritatively regard
Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh as Singapore territory since Johor’s
“express disclaimer of title” had removed all doubts arising from the
incomplete state of the Singapore archives.

203. The Court considers that this correspondence and its interpreta-
tion are of central importance for determining the developing under-
standing of the two Parties about sovereignty over Pedra Branca/Pulau
Batu Puteh. The Court gives its primary attention to those matters of

which they both had notice — the initial letter, the interim reply and the
final reply.
204. The Singapore letter of 12 June 1953 seeks information about
“the rock” as a whole and not simply about the lighthouse. The informa-
tion, the letter says, is relevant to the determination of the Colony’s ter-

ritorial waters, a matter, the Court observes, which is dependent on sov-
ereignty over the island.

205. The immediately following reference to the Crawfurd Treaty
shows the same focus on sovereignty: the rock appears not to be among

the territories ceded by the Treaty by the Sultan and Temenggong. The
apparent irrelevance of the Treaty provides one reason for seeking infor-
mation. The next sentence says that the rock was however mentioned in
the 1844 despatch, in the extract attached to the letter. That statement is

not accurate (see paragraphs 129-132 above) but whether it is accurate or
not the Johor authorities were put on notice that in 1953 the Singapore

67authorities understood, as indicated in the annotated extract from the
1844 letter which was attached (see paragraph 193 above), that their

predecessors thought that Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh had been
ceded “gratuitously” by the Sultan and the Temenggong to the East
India Company.

206. The letter next calls attention to the building in 1850 and main-

taining ever since of the lighthouse, this activity by “international usage
no doubt conferr[ing] some rights and obligations on the Colony”. That
comment appears to the Court to be equivocal since, as Singapore
accepts, a distinction is to be drawn between the maintenance and opera-

tion of a lighthouse and the sovereignty over the territory on which it
stands.
207. More significant is the following particular reference to Pulau Pis-
ang where the same distinction is at play. The Singapore authorities
report that they have traced in the Johor Registry of Deeds the indenture

of 1900 relating to the lighthouse on that island. Under that indenture,
or, as already discussed, under the agreement of 1885 which preceded it,
part of the island was granted to the Crown for the purpose of building
a lighthouse; it is clear, says Singapore in its 1953 letter, “that there was
no abrogation of the sovereignty of Johore. The status of [Pulau] Pisang

is quite clear.” That is, it remained under Johor’s sovereignty.

208. It was against that background that Singapore decided to clarify
the status of Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh and accordingly asked the

Johor Government whether there was “any document showing a lease or
grant of the rock or whether it had been ceded by the Government of the
State of Johore or in any other way disposed of”.
209. The Court recalls that, according to Malaysia, the Singapore
enquiry implied the absence of any conviction on its part that Pedra

Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh was part of its territory. The Court reads the
letter of enquiry about the status of the island as showing that the Sing-
apore authorities were not clear about events occurring over a century
earlier and that they were not sure that their records were complete, a
caution which is understandable in the circumstances.

210. The interim reply from the British Adviser anticipates that the
State Secretary of Johor, the senior official in its Government, would
consult with the Commissioner for Lands and Mines and the Chief Sur-
veyor and research the matter in any existing archives. While Malaysia

submits that the two officers would be concerned with such matters as
leases and property under local law, the Court attaches little signifi-
cance to that, given Singapore’s reference to the Pulau Pisang indenture
and its request for any document showing a lease or grant of the rock;

further, the archives which would also be consulted might well have
thrown light not only on those issues but also on the matter of any ces-

68sion or other disposal of Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh. It will be
noted that the Singapore letter gives no indication at all that the initial

letters from Governor Butterworth to the Sultan and Temenggong had
been located.

211. The Court now turns to the reply from the Acting State Secretary
of Johor. It first considers the Malaysian contention that the Acting State
Secretary “was definitely not authorized” and did not have

“the legal capacity to write the 1953 letter, or to renounce, disclaim,
or confirm title of any part of the territories of Johore”.

Malaysia invokes provisions of two Agreements of 21 January 1948
which were in force in 1953: the Johor Agreement between the British
Crown and the Sultan of Johor (one of nine almost identical treaties with
each of the Malay States) and the Federation of Malaya Agreement
between the British Crown and nine Malay States (including Johor).

Under the 1948 treaties, says Malaysia, “Johor, a sovereign State, trans-
ferred to Great Britain all its rights, powers and jurisdiction on matters
relating to defence and external affairs”. Those powers and authorities
rested only with the (federal) High Commissioner, appointed by the
United Kingdom, and not with the State Secretary. Under Clause 3 of

the Johor Agreement the British Crown had complete control of the
defence and of all the external affairs of the State of Johor and the Sultan
undertook that:

“without the knowledge and consent of His Majesty’s Government,
he will not make any treaty, enter into any engagement, deal in or
correspond on political matters with, or send envoys to, any foreign

State”.

Clause 15, entitled “Sovereignty of the Ruler”, provided that:
“The prerogatives, power and jurisdiction of His Highness within

the State of Johore shall be those which His Highness the Sultan of
Johore possessed on the first day of December, 1941, subject never-
theless to the provisions of the Federation Agreement and this
Agreement.”

212. Malaysia indicates that Clause 4 of the Federation of Malaya
Agreement, like Clause 3 of the Johor Agreement, provided that the Brit-

ish Crown had “complete control of the defence and of all the external
affairs of the Federation”. Clause 16 of the Federation of Malaya Agree-

69ment provided that the executive authority of the Federation extended
among their matters to “external affairs” including:

“(a) the implementing of treaties, conventions and agreements with

other countries or international organizations;
(b) obligations of the Federation in relation to the British Empire
and any part thereof”.

Malaysia adds that the legislative power of the (Federal) Legislative
Council also included those matters. Under Clause 48 it had power “to
make laws for the peace, order and good government of the Federation

with respect to the matters set out in the Second Schedule to this Agree-
ment and subject to any qualifications therein”.

213. Malaysia emphasizes the final phrase of this provision and the
fact that the schedule in its second column does not provide for the con-

ferral on the States or Settlements of authority in respect of external
affairs. For Malaysia, these provisions meant that Johor “had no power,
no competence to deal with matters pertaining to external affairs or to
promulgate such laws”.
214. For Singapore the issue is not whether the Acting State Secretary

had the power to renounce, disclaim, or confirm title of any part of the
territories of Johor. Rather its contention is “simply that, by declaring
that Johor did not claim Pedra Branca, the . . . letter had the effect of
confirming Singapore’s title to Pedra Branca and of confirming that
Johor had no title, historic or otherwise, to the island”. It recalls that, as

it said in its Memorial the “disclaimer” to which it refers can only be
regarded as unequivocal recognition by Johor of Singapore’s title. The
solemn declaration by Johor was clear evidence supporting Singapore’s
sovereignty.

215. Nothing, says Singapore, turns on the Johor Agreement
since the United Kingdom was not a “foreign State” in terms
of its Clause 3 (2) and it would be absurd to require Johor to seek

Britain’s permission to correspond with Britain itself. Nor did
the external affairs provision of Clause 4 of, and the second schedule
to, the Federation of Malaya Agreement assist: there was no
authoritative interpretation of the expression “external affairs”
and in practice during the period of the Agreement Johor officials

continued to correspond routinely with their counterparts in Sing-
apore on matters under their charge. “By the same token, the 1953
letter did not encroach on the external affairs power of the Fed-
eration”. Nor could it be seen as an exercise of “executive authority”

over “External Affairs”. None of the five high officials involved saw
any problem with the Acting State Secretary handling the matter;

70the maxim omnia praesumuntur rite esse acta applies to the 1953
letter.

216. Singapore also calls attention to the decision in 1952 of the Judi-
cial Committee of the British Privy Council given on appeal from the
Court of Appeal of Singapore based on a letter from the responsible Brit-
ish Minister, in which the Minister “categorically asserted” that the Rul-

ers of the Malay States, including the Sultan of Johor, were independent
sovereigns (Sultan of Johor v. Tunku Abubakar [1952] AC 318) and to
Clause 155 of the Federation of Malaya Agreement which, like Clause 15
of the Johor Agreement (see paragraph 211 above), contains a provision

about the “Sovereignty and jurisdiction of their Highnesses the Rulers”:
“Save as expressed herein, this Agreement shall not affect the sovereignty
and jurisdiction of Their Highnesses the Rulers in their several States.”

217. Malaysia’s argument did not make it clear, according to Singa-
pore, whether Malaysia was relying on the Federation of Malaya Agree-
ment as a constitution or treaty. In either event, says Singapore, the effect
of the 1953 letter in international law remains unchanged.

218. The Court considers that the Johor Agreement is not relevant
since the correspondence was initiated by a representative of Her Britan-
nic Majesty’s Government which at that time was not to be seen as a for-
eign State and no question of its having to consent could arise; further, it
was the British Adviser to the Sultan of Johor who passed the initial let-

ter on to the Secretary of State of the Sultanate.

219. The Court is also of the view that the Federation of Malaya
Agreement does not assist the Malaysian argument because the action of
responding to a request for information is not an “exercise” of “executive

authority”. Moreover, the failure of Malaysia to invoke this argument,
both throughout the whole period of bilateral negotiations with Singa-
pore and in the present proceedings until late in the oral phase, lends sup-
port to the presumption of regularity invoked by Singapore.
220. As a consequence, the Court cannot uphold the Malaysian argu-

ment that the Acting State Secretary did not have the authority and
capacity to write the 1953 letter. The Court now turns its attention to the
contents of that letter.
221. The reply of Johor does not provide any document “relevant to
the determination of the boundaries of the Colony’s territorial waters” —

the very reason, the Court recalls, for Singapore’s request. In particular,
Johor does not provide any documents relating to Pedra Branca/Pulau
Batu Puteh or the lighthouse, specifically of lease, grant, cession or dis-
posal. It does not challenge in any way whatever action the Colony might

have been contemplating to propose in relation to the determination of
its territorial waters around Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh. Rather it

71refers to the rock (7.7 miles from its coast) as some 40 miles from Singa-
pore (words used in Singapore’s letter). It then, crucially, “inform[s]” the

Colonial Secretary “that the Johore Government does not claim owner-
ship of Pedra Branca”.

222. It is true of course that in law “ownership” is distinct from “sov-
ereignty”, but the enquiry here was directed at Singapore’s sovereignty

over Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh. Johor does not put that matter in
doubt in any way at all. In international litigation “ownership” over ter-
ritory has sometimes been used as equivalent to “sovereignty” (see, e.g.
Territorial Sovereignty and Scope of the Dispute, Eritrea/Yemen (1998)

22 RIAA, pp. 209, 219, para. 19 and pp. 317-318, para. 474).

223. In the Court’s view, the Johor reply is clear in its meaning: Johor
does not claim ownership over Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh. That

response relates to the island as a whole and not simply to the lighthouse.
When the Johor letter is read in the context of the request by Singapore for
elements of information bearing on the status of Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu
Puteh, as discussed above (see paragraphs 204-209), it becomes evident
that the letter addresses the issue of sovereignty over the island. The Court

accordingly concludes that Johor’s reply shows that as of 1953 Johor un-
derstood that it did not have sovereignty over Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu
Puteh. In light of Johor’s reply, the authorities in Singapore had no reason
to doubt that the United Kingdom had sovereignty over the island.
224. As already indicated, the Court has given its primary attention in

considering the 1953 correspondence to those matters of which both
Parties had notice at the time — the Singapore request, the interim reply
and the final Johor response. The steps taken by the Singapore authori-
ties in reaction to the final response were not known to the Johor
authorities and have limited significance for the Court’s assessment of

any evolving understanding shared by the Parties. The case file shows
that, on receipt of the Johor reply, the Colonial Secretary of Singapore,
on 1 October 1953, sent an internal memorandum to the Attorney-Gen-
eral saying that he thought that “[o]n the strength of [the reply], we can
claim Pedra Branca . . .”. The Attorney-General stated that he agreed

and the Master Attendant, Marine, who had raised the issue on 6 Feb-
ruary 1953, following earlier internal memoranda of 1952, was informed.
The Singapore authorities, so far as the case file shows, took no further
action. They had already received related communications from London,
to which the Court now turns.

225. Internal Singapore correspondence of July 1953 indicates that the
Foreign Office and Colonial Office in London were involved in a wider

examination of issues relating to territorial waters, with the then recent
Judgment of this Court in theFisheries case (United Kingdom v. Norway)

72(Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1951 , p. 116) constituting an important ele-
ment (that Judgment was rendered on 11 December 1951). The conclu-

sion reached in Singapore by the Colonial Secretary was that because of
geographical circumstances, the colony would gain very little from the
new methods of defining territorial waters. On the other hand, “an appli-
cation of the new principles by neighbouring countries” could “only
result in an undesirable restriction to fishing grounds normally used by

Singapore fishermen”. “For general reasons also any enclosure of the
high seas by foreign States is contrary to the interest of this densely popu-
lated maritime Colony dependent on sea-borne trade.” The internal letter
of July 1953 concluded by mentioning an understanding reached on the

former methods of defining territorial waters with Indonesia in July 1951,
and a concern not to disturb the relationship which then existed between
the Colony and Indonesia. In all the circumstances, the fact that the
authorities in Singapore — or in London for that is where the final deci-
sion-making power lay — took no action at that time is not at all

surprising.

226. To conclude its consideration of the 1953 correspondence, the
Court refers to three related aspects of the way in which counsel for Sing-
apore presented its submissions based on it. First, Singapore referred to

the Johor reply as a “formal” or “express disclaimer of title”; second, it
invoked estoppel; and, third, it contended that the reply was a binding
unilateral undertaking.

227. Regarding the first submission, the Court does not consider the
Johor reply as having a constitutive character in the sense that it had a
conclusive legal effect on Johor. Rather it is a response to an enquiry
seeking information. It will be seen that, in the circumstances, this sub-
mission is closely related to the third.

228. Regarding the second submission, the Court points out that a
party relying on an estoppel must show, among other things, that it has
taken distinct acts in reliance on the other party’s statement (North Sea
Continental Shelf, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1969 , p. 26, para. 30). The

Court observes that Singapore did not point to any such acts. To the con-
trary, it acknowledges in its Reply that, after receiving the letter, it had
no reason to change its behaviour; the actions after 1953 to which it
refers were a continuation and development of the actions it had taken
over the previous century. While some of the conduct in the 1970s, which

the Court next reviews, has a different character, Singapore does not con-
tend that those actions were taken in reliance on the Johor response given
in its letter of 1953. The Court accordingly need not consider whether
other requirements of estoppel are met.

73 229. Finally, on the third submission about the Johor reply amounting
to a binding unilateral undertaking, the Court recalls that when it is

claimed that “States make statements by which their freedom of action is
to be limited, a restrictive interpretation is called for” (Nuclear Tests
(Australia v. France), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1974 , p. 267, para. 44;
Nuclear Tests (New Zealand v. France), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1974 ,
p. 473, para. 47). The Court also observes that the statement was not

made in response to a claim made by Singapore or in the context of a
dispute between them, as was the case in the authorities on which Singa-
pore relies. To return to the discussion of the first submission, Johor was
simply asked for information. Its denial of ownership was made in that

context. That denial cannot be interpreted as a binding undertaking.

230. The above findings on Singapore’s three additional arguments
relating to the 1953 correspondence do not affect the Court’s conclusion

stated in paragraph 223 that as of 1953 Johor understood that it did not
have sovereignty over Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh and that in light
of Johor’s reply, the authorities in Singapore had no reason to doubt that
the United Kingdom had sovereignty over the island.

5.4.6. The conduct of the Parties after 1953

(a) Investigation by Singapore of shipwrecks in the waters around

Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh

231. Singapore contends that it and its predecessors have exercised
sovereign authority over Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh by investigating
and reporting on maritime hazards and shipwrecks within the island’s
territorial waters. It says that the only Malaysian protest against this con-

duct was in 2003. It also refers to two notices to mariners issued in 1981
and 1983.
232. Malaysia responds that the United Nations Convention on the
Law of the Sea and the Convention on the Safety of Life at Sea impose
duties in respect of the investigation of hazards to the safety of naviga-

tion and the publication of information about such hazards. Inasmuch as
Singapore acted to investigate and publish, it was acting in accordance
with best practice and not à titre de souverain in respect of the island.
Further, a lighthouse operator has certain responsibilities in those mat-
ters. Next, the circumstances of the particular investigations meant that

the ability of Singapore to carry them out was not based on its sover-
eignty over the island. Finally, a number of the investigations occurred
after 1980, when the dispute crystallized, and given the insubstantial
nature of the earlier practice they cannot provide a foundation for Sing-

apore’s claim.
233. The first investigation to which Singapore refers was into a colli-

74sion within 2 miles of the island in 1920 between British and Dutch ves-
sels. (This is one of the instances referred to in paragraph 164 above

where it is convenient to consider pre-1953 conduct at this stage.) The
report of the investigation does not identify the jurisdictional basis on
which it was undertaken. Of some significance for the Court is that the
enquiry was undertaken by Singapore and not Johor. The next investiga-
tion Singapore invokes was into the grounding of a British vessel on a

reef adjacent to the island in 1963, when, it will be recalled, Singapore
was part of the Federation of Malaysia. According to Singapore, the only
basis on which it could undertake the enquiry under its Merchant Ship-
ping Ordinance was that the shipping casualty had occurred “on or near

the coast of [Singapore]” which must be understood to be the island,
given the distance from the grounding to the main island of Singapore.
Malaysia responds in a general way, mentioning that the Ordinance pro-
vides other grounds of jurisdiction. While the points of Singapore law
may be subject to dispute, again the Court would note that it was the

authorities in Singapore, rather than those in Johor, that undertook the
investigation. The last marine casualty occurring before 1980 and inves-
tigated by Singapore was the running aground of a Panamanian vessel
off the island in 1979. The Court considers that this enquiry in particular
assists Singapore’s contention that it was acting à titre de souverain. This

conduct, supported to some extent by that of 1920 and 1963, provides a
proper basis for the Court also to have regard to the enquiries into the
grounding of five vessels (three of foreign registry) between 1985 and
1993, all within 1,000 m of the island.

234. The Court accordingly concludes that this conduct gives signifi-
cant support to the Singapore case. It also recalls that it was only in June
2003, after the Special Agreement submitting the dispute to the Court
had come into force, that Malaysia protested against this category of Sing-

apore conduct.

(b) Visits to Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh

235. Singapore invokes in support of its claim its exercise of exclusive

control over visits to Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh and the use of the
island. When appropriate, it has authorized access to the island by offi-
cials from Singapore as well as from other States including Malaysia.
Among those visiting from Singapore were ministers, including the Min-
ister of Communications and the Minister of Home Affairs, a member of

Parliament, and military and police officials, activities which took place
without any objection from Malaysia. Singapore gives particular empha-
sis to visits by Malaysian officials wishing to conduct scientific surveys.
At no point, says Singapore, did Malaysia protest against Singapore’s

requiring those officials to obtain permits from it. Malaysia responds that
this control is no more than the control regularly and properly exercised

75by a lighthouse keeper over access to the lighthouse and its environs. The
Standing Orders and Instructions relating to access to which Singapore

refers are, Malaysia emphasizes, Orders and Instructions relating to every
lighthouse operated by Singapore, including, for instance, that on Pulau
Pisang.

236. The Court agrees with Malaysia that many of the visits by Singa-

porean personnel related to the maintenance and operation of the light-
house and are not significant in the present case. As indicated, however,
Singapore gives emphasis to visits by Malaysian officials, particularly in
1974 and 1978.

237. The 1974 case concerned a tidal survey by a team from Indonesia,
Japan, Malaysia and Singapore over a seven to eight week period. An
officer of the Port of Singapore Authority wrote to the Commanding
Officer of the Royal Malaysian Navy survey vessel, K.D. Perantau. “In

order to facilitate the necessary approval from the various government
ministries concerned . . .”, he asked for a list of the Malaysian members
who would be staying at the lighthouse, seeking their names, passport
numbers, nationality and the duration of their stay. They had in fact
already arrived and interim permission was granted in the letter. The

Malaysian Commanding Officer provided four names and their details.
They would be at the lighthouse for another three months and were man-
ning the Responder and Auditor and carrying out tide readings. Others
would come for brief periods to replenish the Tide Team with food and
water, to provide emergency repairs for the Responder and to carry out

triangulation. Since it was a joint survey, a participant from the Port of
Singapore Authority would be present at all times.

238. In 1978 the Malaysian High Commission in Singapore sought
clearance for a Government vessel “to enter Singapore territorial waters”
and inspect tide gauges over the course of three weeks. Among the points
identified was Horsburgh lighthouse station. The project was consonant
with the memorandum of understanding between Malaysia, Indonesia

and Singapore on joint studies in the Straits of Malacca and Singapore.
The Singapore Ministry of Foreign Affairs acceded to the request. Just a
few weeks earlier, the light keeper “politely informed” two people who
claimed to be from the Survey Department, West Malaysia and whose
purpose was to carry out triangulation observations that they could not

remain unless prior permission had been obtained from the Port of Sing-
apore Authority. They left. Malaysia made no protest. The action did
however cause concern in Kuala Lumpur. On 13 April 1978 the Coun-
sellor in the Singapore High Commission there reported to his Ministry

that a Principal Assistant Secretary at the Malaysian Ministry of Foreign
Affairs had informed him that the Malaysian Government was “some-

76what upset” over certain actions of Singapore concerning Horsburgh
lighthouse island: “Firstly, Singapore had flown the Singapore flag over

the island. Secondly, when certain Malaysian marine boats tried to dock
on the island recently for some survey work, they were refused permis-
sion to land.” The Malaysian official told his counterpart that his Gov-
ernment would be writing officially claiming sovereignty over Pedra
Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh. As the Singapore Counsellor mentioned to his

Ministry, this communication followed Singapore’s agreement to the
conduct of the joint survey.

239. In the Court’s opinion, this Singaporean conduct is to be seen as
conduct à titre de souverain. The permission granted or not granted by
Singapore to Malaysian officials was not simply about the maintenance
and operation of the lighthouse and in particular its protection. Singa-

pore’s decisions in these cases related to the survey by Malaysian officials
of the waters surrounding the island. The conduct of Singapore in giving
permission for these visits does give significant support to Singapore’s
claim to sovereignty over Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh.

(c) Naval patrols and exercises around Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu
Puteh by Malaysia and Singapore

240. Both Parties contend that their naval patrols and exercises around
Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh since the formation of their respective
navies constitute displays of their sovereign rights over the island. Malay-
sia and Singapore both argue that these activities demonstrate each Par-
ty’s understanding that the island was under its respective sovereignty.

The Royal Malayan Navy, later to become the Royal Malaysian Navy,
came under the control of the Malayan Government in 1958 following
the independence of Malaya in the previous year. It continued to be
based at the Woodlands Naval Base in Singapore Harbour until 1997.
The Republic of Singapore Navy was formed in 1975 from units of the

Maritime Command of the Singapore Armed Forces. Ships from both
navies patrolled in the area of Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh.

241. The Court does not see this activity as significant on one side or

the other. It first observes that naval vessels operating from Singapore
harbour would as a matter of geographical necessity often have to pass
near Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh. Next, patrols would frequently
have been undertaken under (1) the 1957 Agreement between the United

Kingdom and Malaya, with which Australia and New Zealand were
associated, and under which Malaya had responsibilities in respect of the

77defence of Singapore, (2) the 1965 Agreement relating to the Separation
of Singapore from Malaysia under which Malaysia would afford reason-

able and adequate assistance to the external defence of Singapore which
in turn would afford to Malaysia its right to operate its bases in Singa-
pore, and (3) the five power arrangements between Malaysia, Singapore,
the United Kingdom, Australia and New Zealand. The integrated co-
operative nature of this naval and other military activity is illustrated by

the communiqué of the 1968 Conference of those five States which was
called following the United Kingdom’s decision to withdraw its troops
from Malaysia and Singapore by 31 December 1971. It included this
declaration:

“The representatives of Singapore and Malaysia declared that the

defence of the two countries was indivisible and required close and
continuing co-operation between them. This declaration was wel-
comed by the representatives of the other three Governments. All
representatives at the Conference regarded it as an indispensable
basis for future defence co-operation. The representative of Malay-

sia and Singapore said that their Governments were resolved to do
their utmost for their own defence and they would welcome the co-
operation and assistance of the other three Governments.”

The Court observes that patrols by the navies of both States and others
which are described by the Parties only in general terms, cannot in these
circumstances assist the one or the other in support of its position.

242. Malaysia also placed weight on an internal confidential document
entitled “Letter of Promulgation” issued on 16 July 1968 by the Chief of
the Malaysian navy, attached to which were charts indicating the outer
limits of Malaysian territorial waters. One of the charts attached to the

letter showed Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh and also Middle Rocks
and South Ledge as within Malaysia’s territorial waters. Singapore made
a related reference to the 1975 Operations Instructions of the Singapore
navy designating a patrol area in the vicinity of Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu
Puteh.

243. The Court observes that the Malaysian chart and the Singa-
porean Instructions were acts of one Party, which were unknown to the
other Party, the documents were classified and they were not made public
until these proceedings were brought. The Court considers that, like the
patrols themselves, neither can be given weight.

(d) The display of the British and Singapore ensigns on Pedra

Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh

244. For Singapore, the flying of the British and Singapore ensigns

78from Horsburgh lighthouse from the time of its commissioning to the
present day is a clear display of sovereignty. This contention is sup-

ported, it says, by its positive response to a request in 1968 made by
Malaysia that it “bring down the Singapore flag from Malaysian soil at
Pulau Pisang”. By contrast, no such request was made in respect of the
flag on Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh.

245. Malaysia responds that the flying of an ensign, associated with
maritime matters, is to be distinguished from the flying of the national
flag. Ensigns are not marks of sovereignty but of nationality. Moreover,
there must also be a showing of sovereign intent and Singapore has not
demonstrated that here. The Pulau Pisang incident involved a matter of

domestic political sensibility and it was resolved between the two Parties.
It was not an acknowledgment of sovereignty in relation to an issue not
under dispute, far removed from the location. Malaysia also makes the
point that Pulau Pisang is much larger than Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu
Puteh and has a small local population.

246. The Court accepts the argument of Malaysia that the flying of an
ensign is not in the usual case a manifestation of sovereignty and that the
difference in size of the two islands must be taken into account. It con-
siders that some weight may nevertheless be given to the fact that Malay-

sia, having been alerted to the issue of the flying of ensigns by the Pulau
Pisang incident, did not make a parallel request in respect of the ensign
flying at Horsburgh lighthouse. As already mentioned the Malaysian
authorities did in 1978 express concern about the flag at Horsburgh light-
house (see paragraph 238 above).

(e) The installation by Singapore of military communications
equipment on the island in 1977

247. In July 1976 the Singapore Navy explained to the Port of Singa-
pore Authority its need, shared by the Singapore Air Force, for a military
rebroadcast station on Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh to overcome
communication difficulties. It wished to install two radio sets in the light-
house, with a power source, and requested the co-operation of the
Authority “in order that communications needs for both security and

defence could be met”. The Port Authority responded positively, making
it clear that it had no responsibility for operating or maintaining the relay
station: the station was exclusively for the use of the Navy which was
responsible for its establishment and maintenance. The relay station was
installed on 30 May 1977. Singapore says that the installation was carried

out openly, involving the transportation of equipment by military heli-
copters which have also been involved in the maintenance of the station.
This action, says Singapore, was obviously an exercise of their authority

79disconnected from the operation of the lighthouse. Malaysia does not
dispute that characterization; on the contrary this conduct by Singapore,

in Malaysia’s opinion “has raised serious concerns about Singapore’s use
of Horsburgh lighthouse for non-light (and especially military) pur-
poses”. In its Agent’s words “[t]his conduct does not fall within the con-
sent given for the construction and operation of the lighthouse”. Malay-
sia also says that the installation was undertaken secretly and that it

became aware of it only on receipt of Singapore’s Memorial.

248. The Court is not able to assess the strength of the assertions made
on the two sides about Malaysia’s knowledge of the installation. What is
significant for the Court is that Singapore’s action is an act à titre de sou-
verain. The conduct is inconsistent with Singapore recognizing any limit

on its freedom of action.

(f) Proposed reclamation by Singapore to extend the island

249. In 1978 the Port of Singapore Authority, on the direction of the
Government of Singapore studied the possibilities, which had also been
considered in 1972, 1973 and 1974, of reclaiming areas around Pedra

Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh. The Authority’s survey contemplated a recla-
mation of 5,000 sq m of land — the island is about 8,560 sq m at low tide.
At that time the communications tower for the Vessel Traffic Informa-
tion System (VTIS) and the helipad which today occupy much of the
eastern half of the island had not been constructed. The Authority sought

tenders for “Reclamation and Shore Protection works at Horsburgh
lighthouse” in a newspaper advertisement. Although three companies
tendered for the project, the proposal was not taken further. According
to Singapore, this was classic conduct à titre de souverain. Malaysia
emphasizes the fact that the proposal was not taken further and the fact

that some of the documentation on which Singapore relies was secret and
could not have prompted any reaction from Malaysia. The Malaysian
Agent makes the point that Singapore “does not need a bigger island for
a better lighthouse. What does it need a bigger island for?” He then raises
questions about the effect on the environment and on navigation and

especially about security arrangements at the eastern entry to the Straits.

250. The Court observes that while the reclamation was not proceeded

with and some of the documents were not public, the tender advertise-
ment was public and attracted replies. Further, as the Malaysian Agent

80recognizes, the proposed action, as advertised, did go beyond the main-
tenance and operation of the lighthouse. It is conduct which supports

Singapore’s case.

(g) A Malaysian Petroleum Agreement 1968

251. In 1968 the Government of Malaysia and the Continental Oil

Company of Malaysia concluded an agreement which authorized the
Company to explore for petroleum in the whole of the area of the con-
tinental shelf off the east coast of West Malaysia south of latitude
5°00′00″ North “extending to the International Boundaries wherever
they may be established”; the southern limits of the area were defined at

“1°13′” and “1°17′ (approx.)”, “but excluding the islands of the States
[of Johore, Pahang and Trengganu] and an area three miles from the base
lines from which the territorial waters of such islands are measured”.
According to counsel for Malaysia, the limits broadly followed the antici-
pated boundaries of the 1969 Indonesia-Malaysia Continental Shelf
Agreement.

252. Malaysia submits that the Agreement is evidence of its apprecia-
tion that the entire concession area fell within its continental shelf, that it
is actual conduct, conduct à titre de souverain, and that the agreement
was concluded openly and was widely published; Singapore nevertheless

made no protest. Singapore replies that it had no reason to protest. The
map did not show Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh, not a matter of sur-
prise since islands and their territorial waters were expressly excluded.
Moreover, the description of the area covered was without prejudice to
the question of boundaries where they had not been agreed. Further, the

co-ordinates were not published and no exploration ever occurred in the
area near Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh, an area which was part of a
larger portion of the concession relinquished by the oil company.

253. Given the territorial limits and qualifications in the concession
and the lack of publicity of the co-ordinates, the Court does not consider
that weight can be given to the concession.

(h) The delimitation of Malaysia’s territorial sea 1969

254. By legislation of 1969 Malaysia extended its territorial waters
from 3 to 12 nautical miles. The Ordinance declared that breadth was
to be measured in accordance with provisions of the 1958 Geneva
Convention on the Territorial Sea which were scheduled. Provisions
were made for the publication by the Government of a large scale

map indicating the low water marks, the base lines, the outer limits
and the areas of territorial water of Malaysia, and for the
modification of the areas of territorial waters in accordance with

81any agreement concluded between Malaysia and any other coastal
State.

255. Malaysia says that the legislation
“extended Malaysian territorial waters to and beyond Pulau Batu

Puteh. There was no sense at the time that Pulau Batu Puteh and its
surrounding waters were anything other than Malaysian territory.
The legislation drew no protest from Singapore.”

Singapore answers that it had absolutely no reason to protest since the
legislation did not identify in any way the territories, baselines, outer lim-
its and areas of territorial waters. As soon as a chart was published, in
1979, relating in fact to the continental shelf rather than the territorial

sea, Singapore did protest.
256. In the Court’s opinion the very generality of the 1969 legislation
means that Malaysia’s argument based on it must fail. It does not iden-
tify the areas to which it is to apply except in the most general sense: it
says only that it applies “throughout Malaysia”. In terms of the legisla-

tion, necessary precision would come only with the publication “as soon
hereafter as may be possible” of the large-scale map for which the legisla-
tion provided.

(i) Indonesia-Malaysia Continental Shelf Agreement 1969 and
Territorial Sea Agreement 1970

257. Malaysia calls attention to the fact that one of the agreed bound-
ary points in the 1969 Indonesia-Malaysia Continental Shelf Agreement
was only 6.4 nautical miles from Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh. In a
related press release the delegations of the two States recognized the need

for their governments to discuss related problems of territorial sea
boundaries, a matter the subject of a Territorial Sea Agreement con-
cluded the following year. Singapore, Malaysia continues, did not at any
point assert any interest in or raise any objection to this maritime delimi-
tation. Singapore again says it was not obliged to react: the Agreement

was res inter alios acta and, more significantly, the Agreement “carefully
avoided any intrusion into the area in the vicinity of [Pedra Branca/Pulau
Batu Puteh]”. It also emphasizes that the press release clearly excludes
the Strait of Singapore and for good reason: it was not possible for Indo-
nesia and Malaysia to delimit their respective maritime areas in the Strait

without the participation of Singapore “which has sovereignty over [Pedra
Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh] and the adjacent features”.

258. While Malaysia had, very recently, extended its territorial waters

to 12 nautical miles, Singapore had not yet taken that step. Given that
fact and the fact that the line stops 6.4 nautical miles to the east of Pedra
Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh and begins again beyond the western end of the

82Straits of Singapore, the Court does not consider that the 1970 Territo-
rial Sea Agreement can have any significance in this case.

(j) The Indonesia-Singapore Territorial Sea Agreement 1973

259. The 1973 Indonesia-Singapore Territorial Sea Agreement deter-
mines a boundary line in the Straits of Singapore in the area south of the
main island of Singapore but not extending for its full length. It does not
refer to Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh or delimit the territorial sea

between it and the Indonesian island of Pulau Bintan which lies 7.5 nau-
tical miles to its south. For Malaysia this Agreement supports the conclu-
sion that in 1973 Singapore did not consider it had sovereignty over
Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh. It took no steps in the Agreement or by
way of any statement to reserve its position in respect of the island. Sing-

apore in reply contends that the agreement affects only a partial delimita-
tion within the Straits of Singapore, one of the busiest shipping channels
in the world. Further, a full delimitation would have required tripartite
negotiations, involving Malaysia as well, and it was significant that the
1970 Indonesia-Malaysia Territorial Sea Agreement similarly did not

deal with the area around Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh, as would have
been expected had Malaysia considered the island to be part of its terri-
tory. The Court does not consider that the 1973 Agreement can be given
any weight in respect of sovereignty over Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu
Puteh. Like the Malaysia-Indonesia Agreements in 1969 and 1970, the

issue is not covered in the 1973 Indonesia-Singapore Territorial Sea
Agreement.

(k) Inter-State co-operation in the Straits of Singapore

260. Singapore invokes the joint statement relating to co-operation in
the Straits of Malacca and Singapore adopted in 1971 by Indonesia,
Malaysia and Singapore, and the new routing system adopted in 1977 by

the Assembly of the Intergovernmental Maritime Consultative Organi-
zation. Singapore contends that the failure of Malaysia, when those
documents were adopted, to express or reserve a claim to Pedra Branca/
Pulau Batu Puteh is significant. The Court agrees with Malaysia’s
submission that the documents are not concerned with territorial

rights but with the facilitation and safety of navigation through
the Straits as a whole. The Court similarly does not see as significant
for the purposes of the present proceedings the co-operation of the
two Parties, in some cases with Indonesia and other States, in the

Straits of Singapore, in implementing the traffic separation scheme,
conducting joint hydrographic surveys, and promoting environ-

83mental protection; that is not conduct concerned with territorial
rights.

(l) Official publications

261. According to Malaysia, official publications of the Government
of Singapore which describe its territory are notable for their absence of

any reference to Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh among the approxi-
mately 60 islands that are included in those descriptions. The lists in Sing-
apore Facts and Pictures 1972 include islands which are even smaller, are
uninhabited and which have lighthouses on them. It was not until 1992
that Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh was first included in that pub-

lication. Similarly the Annual Reports of the Rural Board of Singapore
from 1953 to 1956 did not include it. In the 1927 Agreement, the Curfew
Order of 1948 and the published lists, all official texts extending over
53 years to the critical date, when the Singapore authorities have evi-
dently paid very close attention to the extent of their territory, there was

never any indication that Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh was part of
Singapore. Singapore replies that Singapore Facts and Pictures does not
provide a legally comprehensive description of its territory but is a pub-
lication giving general information, providing a broad overview. Neither
the 1972 nor 1992 editions were comprehensive, nor are they designed to

be authoritative; they are for reference rather than having an adminis-
trative effect. Further, the 1972 list was of small islands “within the ter-
ritorial waters” of the island of Singapore and omitted at least eight other
islands which belonged to Singapore. The Rural Board Report of 1953
was intended to include all the neighbouring islands, some neighbouring

islands were in fact omitted, and the impetus for the 1953 extension of
the Board’s jurisdiction was the revision of electoral boundaries.
That was not relevant for the lighthouse crew who were stationed
on Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh on rotation, a month at a time;
and the other functions of the Rural Board were also not relevant to

the island. Singapore points out in addition that Malaysia conveniently
overlooks the fact that it cannot point to any contemporaneous
official document in which Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh is listed as
belonging to it. On the contrary, in 1953, the very year of the Rural

Board’s report which, Malaysia cites, its predecessor, Johor, expressly
disclaimed ownership of Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh in official
correspondence.

262. Given the purpose of the publications and their non-authoritative
and essentially descriptive character, even if official, the Court does not

consider that they can be given any weight.

84 263. The same is also true of a passage which Malaysia quotes from a
monograph by J. A. L. Pavitt who was for many years the Director of

Marine, Singapore. The book is First Pharos of the Eastern Seas: Hors-
burgh Lighthouse, published by the Singapore Light Dues Board in 1966.
The passage reads in part as follows:

“The Board, formed by statute in 1957, is responsible for the pro-
vision and upkeep of all ship navigational aids in Singapore waters,
and for the outlying stations at Pedra Branca (Horsburgh) in the

South China Sea and Pulau Pisang in the Malacca Strait. Within
Singapore waters, the Board maintains Raffles, Sultan Shoal and
Fullerton Lighthouses, 33 light beacons, 29 unlit beacons, 15 light
buoys, and 8 unlit buoys.”

Malaysia stresses that this undoubted authority distinguished between

“aids ‘in Singapore waters’” and “‘the outlying stations’” of Horsburgh
and Pulau Pisang and that he linked together those two lighthouses, sug-
gesting they have a common status.

264. The Court agrees with Singapore’s reading of the passage that the

descriptions are simply geographical, the aids in “Singapore waters”, are
those in territorial and internal waters of the main island of Singapore,
and they are contrasted with “outlying” stations, an apt description for
facilities which are 33 and 43 miles distant from Singapore by contrast to
Raffles and Sultan Shoal which are only 11 and 13 miles distant.

265. Singapore calls to the Court’s attention the way in which Malaya
and Malaysia referred in official publications to Singapore’s collection of
meteorological information on Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh. The

Court has already observed that the fact of collection is no more than an
aspect of the administration of a lighthouse (see paragraph 165 above).
As Singapore points out, Malaya in 1959 listed Horsburgh lighthouse as
one of the “Singapore” Stations, along with the Sultan Shoal and Raffles
lighthouses. It further adds that Malaysia and Singapore listed Hors-

burgh lighthouse in the same way in a joint publication in 1966 (the year
after Singapore had withdrawn from the Federation). By contrast Malay-
sia omitted any reference to it in 1967 when the two Parties began report-
ing meteorological information separately. The three reports list a number
of stations in Johor. (Pulau Pisang does not appear in any of the lists.)

Malaysia responds that Horsburgh lighthouse was a Singapore rainfall
station; this is not an acknowledgment of sovereignty.

266. The Court does consider as significant in Singapore’s favour
the inclusion of Horsburgh lighthouse as a “Singapore” Station in the

851959 and 1966 reports and its omission from the 1967 Malaysian
report.

(m) Official maps

267. The Parties referred the Court to nearly 100 maps. They agreed

that none of the maps establish title in the way, for instance, that a map
attached to a boundary delimitation agreement may. They do contend
however that some of the maps issued by the two Parties or their pre-
decessors have a role as indicating their views about sovereignty or as

confirming their claims.

268. Malaysia emphasizes that of all the maps before the Court only
one published by the Singapore Government included Pedra Branca/Pu-
lau Batu Puteh as within its territory and that map was not published

until 1995. Malaysia also refers to three maps published in 1926 and 1932
by the Surveyor-General of the Federation of Malay States and Straits
Settlements which may indicate that the island is within Johor. If those
maps have any significance, which the Court is inclined to doubt, that
significance is by far outweighed by the more recent maps published by

Malaya and Malaysia to which the Court now turns.

269. Singapore places considerable weight on six maps published by
the Malayan and Malaysian Surveyor General and Director of National
Mapping in 1962 (two maps), 1965, 1970, 1974 and 1975. Those maps

include Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh with four lines of information
under it:

“Lighthouse 28,
P. Batu Puteh,
(Horsburgh),
(SINGAPORE) or (SINGAPURA).”

Exactly the same designation “(SINGAPORE)” or “(SINGAPURA)”
appears on the maps under the name of another island which unques-

tionably is under Singapore’s sovereignty. Further, in a map in the same
series relating to Pulau Pisang, the site of the other Singapore adminis-
tered lighthouse, no similar annotation appears, that omission indicating
that its inclusion has nothing to do with ownership or management of the
lighthouse. Singapore argues that the six maps are significant admissions

against interest by Malaysia.
270. Malaysia responds that (1) the annotating may be assessed differ-
ently, (2) maps do not create title, (3) maps can never amount to admis-
sions except when incorporated in treaties or used in inter-State negotia-

tions and (4) the maps in issue contained a disclaimer.

86 271. On Malaysia’s first contention it does appear to the Court that
the annotations are clear and support Singapore’s position. On the sec-

ond point, the Court sees strength in Singapore’s more limited argument
that the maps give a good indication of Malaysia’s official position rather
than being creative of title. On the third there is authority for the propo-
sition that admissions may appear in other circumstances (e.g. Frontier
Dispute (Benin/Niger), I.C.J. Report 2005 , p. 119, para. 44). The dis-

claimer, the subject of the fourth Malaysian contention, says that the
map must not be considered an authority on the delimitation of interna-
tional or other boundaries. (The 1974 formula is a little different.) The
Court is not here concerned with a boundary but with a distinct island

and in any event as the Boundary Commission in the Eritrea/Ethiopia
case said:

“The map still stands as a statement of geographical fact, espe-
cially when the State adversely affected has itself produced and dis-

seminated it, even against its own interest.” (Decision regarding
Delimitation of the Border between the State of Eritrea and the Fed-
eral Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, 13 April 2002, p. 28,
para. 3.28.)

272. The Court recalls that Singapore did not, until 1995, publish any
map including Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh within its territory. But
that failure to act is in the view of the Court of much less weight than the

weight to be accorded to the maps published by Malaya and Malaysia
between 1962 and 1975. The Court concludes that those maps tend to
confirm that Malaysia considered that Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh
fell under the sovereignty of Singapore.

5.5. Conclusion

273. The question to which the Court must now respond is whether in
the light of the principles and rules of international law it stated earlier

and of the assessment it has undertaken of the relevant facts, particularly
the conduct of the Parties, sovereignty over Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu
Puteh passed to the United Kingdom or Singapore.
274. The conduct of the United Kingdom and Singapore was, in many
respects, conduct as operator of Horsburgh lighthouse, but that was not

the case in all respects. Without being exhaustive, the Court recalls their
investigation of marine accidents, their control over visits, Singapore’s
installation of naval communication equipment and its reclamation plans,
all of which include acts à titre de souverain, the bulk of them after 1953.

Malaysia and its predecessors did not respond in any way to that con-
duct, or the other conduct with that character identified earlier in this

87Judgment, of all of which (but for the installation of the naval commu-

nication equipment) it had notice.

275. Further, the Johor authorities and their successors took no action
at all on Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh from June 1850 for the whole of

the following century or more. And, when official visits (in the 1970s for
instance) were made, they were subject to express Singapore permission.
Malaysia’s official maps of the 1960s and 1970s also indicate an apprecia-
tion by it that Singapore had sovereignty. Those maps, like the conduct

of both Parties which the Court has briefly recalled, are fully consistent
with the final matter the Court recalls. It is the clearly stated position of
the Acting Secretary of the State of Johor in 1953 that Johor did not
claim ownership of Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh. That statement has

major significance.

276. The Court is of the opinion that the relevant facts, including the

conduct of the Parties, previously reviewed and summarized in the two
preceding paragraphs, reflect a convergent evolution of the positions of
the Parties regarding title to Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh. The Court
concludes, especially by reference to the conduct of Singapore and its

predecessors à titre de souverain, taken together with the conduct of
Malaysia and its predecessors including their failure to respond to the
conduct of Singapore and its predecessors, that by 1980 sovereignty over
Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh had passed to Singapore.

277. For the foregoing reasons, the Court concludes that sovereignty
over Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh belongs to Singapore.

6. SOVEREIGNTY OVER M IDDLE R OCKS AND SOUTH L EDGE

6.1. Arguments of the Parties

278. As stated earlier (see paragraph 18 above), Middle Rocks and

South Ledge are maritime features located respectively at 0.6 and 2.2 nau-
tical miles from Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh and 8.0 and 7.9 nauti-
cal miles from the Malaysian mainland. It is common ground between
the Parties that Middle Rocks consist of some rocks that are permanently

above water and stand 0.6 to 1.2 m high, whereas South Ledge is a low-
tide elevation.

279. Singapore’s position is that sovereignty in respect of Middle
Rocks and South Ledge goes together with sovereignty over Pedra

Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh. Thus, according to Singapore, whoever owns
Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh owns Middle Rocks and South Ledge,
which, it claims, are dependencies of the island of Pedra Branca/Pulau

88Batu Puteh and form with the latter a single group of maritime features.
Singapore advances specifically the following two theses:

“(a) first, both Middle Rocks and South Ledge form geographi-
cally and morphologically a single group of maritime features;

and
(b) second, Malaysia is unable to show that it has appropriated
these maritime features through any acts of sovereignty. Since
these uninhabited, unoccupied reefs have never been inde-
pendently appropriated by Malaysia, they belong to Singa-

pore by virtue of them falling within Singapore’s territorial
waters generated by Pedra Branca.”

280. In support of the first argument, Singapore quotes the following
dictum from the Island of Palmas case:

“As regards groups of islands, it is possible that a group may un-
der certain circumstances be regarded as in law a unit, and that the
fate of the principal part may involve the rest.” (Island of Palmas
Case (Netherlands/United States of America) , Award of
4 April 1928, RIAA, Vol. II (1949), p. 855.)

281. It further cites the Judgment of a Chamber of this Court in the
El Salvador/Honduras case, where the Chamber stated, in applying the

test of “effective possession and control”, that:
“As regards Meanguerita the Chamber does not consider it pos-

sible, in the absence of evidence on the point, that the legal position
of that island could have been other than identical with that of
Meanguera.” (Land, Island and Maritime Frontier Dispute (El Sal-
vador/Honduras: Nicaragua intervening), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports
1992, p. 579, para. 367.)

282. As a further justification for treating Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu
Puteh and its dependencies as a group, Singapore relies upon the geo-

morphological evidence that the three features of Pedra Branca/Pulau
Batu Puteh, Middle Rocks and South Ledge form a single physical unit.
It claims that geological examination of rock samples taken from Pedra
Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh, Middle Rocks and South Ledge shows that
the three features are constituted with the same rock type (namely, a
light, coarse-grained biotite granite), which shows that the three features

belong to the same rock body.

283. In support of the second argument, Singapore argues that both
Middle Rocks and South Ledge are not capable of independent appro-
priation, and that even if Middle Rocks can be regarded as “islands capa-

ble of autonomous appropriation, quod non”, Malaysia is “unable to
show any exercise of sovereignty over Middle Rocks to establish a title to
them”, while Singapore claims that it has constantly and consistently

89exercised sovereign authority in the surrounding waters. In such circum-
stances, Singapore concludes that as sovereignty over Pedra Branca/Pu-

lau Batu Puteh clearly belongs to Singapore, so does sovereignty over
Middle Rocks and South Ledge which fall within the territorial waters of
Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh.

284. Malaysia on the other hand argues that these three features of
Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh, Middle Rocks, and South Ledge do not
constitute one identifiable group of islands in historical or geomorpho-
logical terms. It specifically claims that the historical record shows that

these three features were never formally described as a group or as an
island and its appurtenant rocks, nor were they ever given a collective
title, while the three features were identified as a danger to shipping
which should be avoided by sailing well to the north or south.

285. On this basis, Malaysia claims that Middle Rocks and South
Ledge have always been considered as features falling within Johor/Ma-
laysian jurisdiction. According to Malaysia, they were under Johor sov-
ereignty at the time of the 1824 Anglo-Dutch Treaty and fell within the
British sphere of influence under that Treaty.

286. With regard to the exercise of sovereignty over them by Malaysia,
Malaysia argues that it exercised consistent acts of sovereignty over
them, within the limits of their character. By way of illustration, it refers
to the use of and the granting of oil concessions by the Malaysian Gov-

ernment in 1968 which extended to the area of South Ledge and Middle
Rocks, to the fact that South Ledge was taken as a base point in defining
the outer limit of Malaysian territorial waters in the chartlet attached to
the Letter of Promulgation dated 16 July 1968 by the Chief of Navy (see
paragraphs 242 and 251-252 above). It also refers to the fact that the fea-

tures were included within Malaysian fisheries waters under the 1985 Fish-
eries Act.
287. Malaysia contends that by contrast Singapore not only failed to
protest against Malaysia’s manifestations of sovereignty, as mentioned
above, but did not advance any claims of its own to Middle Rocks and

South Ledge either, even after Singapore began to assert that Pedra
Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh was Singaporean. Thus it argues that on the
occasion when Singapore claimed sovereignty over Pedra Branca/Pulau
Batu Puteh for the first time in 1980, no reference was made to South
Ledge and Middle Rocks — although both features clearly appeared

within Malaysian territorial waters in the map published by Malaysia on
21 December 1979 — and that as the same situation was repeated later
when Malaysia issued a reprint of the same map in 1984, Singapore’s
protest against the map in 1989 was exclusively limited to Pedra Branca/

Pulau Batu Puteh.

90 6.2. Legal status of Middle Rocks

288. With respect to these contentions of the two sides, the Court
wishes to observe first of all that the issue of the legal status of Middle

Rocks is to be assessed in the context of the Court’s reasoning on the
principal issue in the present case, namely the legal grounds on which the
Court has come to decide on the issue of title to Pedra Branca/Pulau
Batu Puteh, as stated above.
289. As the Court has stated above (see paragraphs 273-277), it has

reached the conclusion that sovereignty over Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu
Puteh rests with Singapore under the particular circumstances surround-
ing the present case. However these circumstances clearly do not apply to
other maritime features in the vicinity of Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh,
i.e., Middle Rocks and South Ledge. None of the conduct reviewed in the

preceding part of the Judgment which has led the Court to the conclusion
that sovereignty over Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh passed to Singa-
pore or its predecessor before 1980 has any application to the cases of
Middle Rocks and South Ledge.

290. Since Middle Rocks should be understood to have had the same
legal status as Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh as far as the ancient origi-
nal title held by the Sultan of Johor was concerned, and since the par-
ticular circumstances which have come to effect the passing of title to
Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh to Singapore do not apply to this mari-

time feature, original title to Middle Rocks should remain with Malaysia
as the successor to the Sultan of Johor, unless proven otherwise, which
the Court finds Singapore has not done.

6.3. Legal status of South Ledge

291. With regard to South Ledge, however, there are special problems
to be considered, inasmuch as South Ledge, as distinct from Middle

Rocks, presents a special geographical feature as a low-tide elevation.

292. Article 13 of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the
Sea provides as follows:

“1. A low-tide elevation is a naturally formed area of land which
is surrounded by and above water at low tide but submerged at high
tide. Where a low-tide elevation is situated wholly or partly at a dis-

tance not exceeding the breadth of the territorial sea from the main-
land or an island, the low-water line on that elevation may be used
as the baseline for measuring the breadth of the territorial sea.

2. Where a low-tide elevation is wholly situated at a distance

exceeding the breadth of the territorial sea from the mainland or an
island, it has no territorial sea of its own.”

293. Malaysia asserts the fact that South Ledge, which lies 1.7 nautical

91miles from Middle Rocks and 2.2 miles from Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu
Puteh, would attach to Middle Rocks rather than to Pedra Branca/Pulau

Batu Puteh, for the simple reason that it is located within the territorial
sea appertaining to Middle Rocks. Malaysia, citing the following passage
from the Judgment in the case concerning Maritime Delimitation and
Territorial Questions between Qatar and Bahrain (Qatar v. Bahrain):“a
coastal State has sovereignty over low-tide elevations which are situated

within its territorial sea, since it has sovereignty over the territorial sea
itself . . .” (Merits, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2001 , p. 101, para. 204),
claims that it has sovereignty over South Ledge.
294. Singapore argues that “contrary to Middle Rocks, South Ledge is

a low-tide elevation which, as such, cannot be subject to separate appro-
priation”. In its support, Singapore also cites a passage from the Judg-
ment in the case concerning Maritime Delimitation and Territorial Ques-
tions between Qatar and Bahrain (Qatar v. Bahrain), as confirmed in the
recent Judgment of the Court in the case concerning Territorial and

Maritime Dispute between Nicaragua and Honduras in the Caribbean Sea
(Nicaragua v. Honduras) (Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2007 , p. 704,
para. 144).
295. The Court notes that the issue of whether a low-tide elevation is
susceptible of appropriation or not has come up in its jurisprudence in

the past. Thus in the Qatar v. Bahrain case, the Court made the following
observation:

“a coastal State has sovereignty over low-tide elevations which are
situated within its territorial sea, since it has sovereignty over the ter-
ritorial sea itself . . . The decisive question for the present case is
whether a State can acquire sovereignty by appropriation over a
low-tide elevation situated within the breadth of its territorial sea

when that same low-tide elevation lies also within the breadth of the
territorial sea of another State.” (Maritime Delimitation and Terri-
torial Questions between Qatar and Bahrain (Qatar v. Bahrain),
Merits, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2001 , p. 101, para. 204.)

296. The Court went on to say as follows:

“International treaty law is silent on the question whether low-tide
elevations can be considered to be ‘territory’. Nor is the Court aware
of a uniform and widespread State practice which might have given

rise to a customary rule which unequivocally permits or excludes
appropriation of low-tide elevations . . .

The few existing rules do not justify a general assumption that
low-tide elevations are territory in the same sense as islands. It has
never been disputed that islands constitute terra firma, and are sub-

ject to the rules and principles of territorial acquisition; the differ-
ence in effects which the law of the sea attributes to islands and low-

92 tide elevations is considerable. It is thus not established that in the

absence of other rules and legal principles, low-tide elevations can,
from the viewpoint of the acquisition of sovereignty, be fully assimi-
lated with islands or other land territory.” (Maritime Delimitation
and Territorial Questions between Qatar and Bahrain (Qatar v. Bah-
rain), Merits, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2001 , pp. 101-102,

paras. 205-206.)

297. In view of its previous jurisprudence and the arguments of the
Parties, as well as the evidence presented before it, the Court will proceed
on the basis of whether South Ledge lies within the territorial waters gen-
erated by Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh, which belongs to Singapore,

or within those generated by Middle Rocks, which belongs to Malaysia.
In this regard the Court notes that South Ledge falls within the appar-
ently overlapping territorial waters generated by the mainland of Malay-
sia, Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh and Middle Rocks.

298. The Court recalls that in the Special Agreement and in the final
submissions it has been specifically asked to decide the matter of sover-
eignty separately for each of the three maritime features. At the same

time the Court has not been mandated by the Parties to draw the line of
delimitation with respect to the territorial waters of Malaysia and Singa-
pore in the area in question.
299. In these circumstances, the Court concludes that for the reasons
explained above sovereignty over South Ledge, as a low-tide elevation,

belongs to the State in the territorial waters of which it is located.

*
* *

7. OPERATIVE CLAUSE

300. For these reasons,

T HE C OURT ,
(1) By twelve votes to four,

Finds that sovereignty over Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh belongs to
the Republic of Singapore;

IN FAVOUR : Vice-President, Acting President, Al-Khasawneh; Judges Ran-
jeva, Shi, Koroma, Buergenthal, Owada, Tomka, Keith, Sepúlveda-Amor,
Bennouna, Skotnikov; Judge ad hoc Sreenivasa Rao;

AGAINST: Judges Parra-Aranguren, Simma, Abraham; Judge ad hoc Dug-
ard;
(2) By fifteen votes to one,

Finds that sovereignty over Middle Rocks belongs to Malaysia;

93 IN FAVOUR: Vice-President, Acting President, Al-Khasawneh; Judges Ran-
jeva, Shi, Koroma, Parra-Aranguren, Buergenthal, Owada, Simma,

Tomka, Abraham, Keith, Sepúlveda-Amor, Bennouna, Skotnikov; Judge
ad hoc Dugard;
AGAINST: Judge ad hoc Sreenivasa Rao;

(3) By fifteen votes to one,

Finds that sovereignty over South Ledge belongs to the State in the ter-
ritorial waters of which it is located.

IN FAVOUR: Vice-President, Acting President, Al-Khasawneh; Judges Ran-
jeva, Shi, Koroma, Buergenthal, Owada, Simma, Tomka, Abraham, Keith,
Sepúlveda-Amor, Bennouna, Skotnikov; Judges ad hoc Dugard,

Sreenivasa Rao;
AGAINST: Judge Parra-Aranguren.

Done in English and in French, the English text being authoritative, at
the Peace Palace, The Hague, this twenty-third day of May, two thou-
sand and eight, in three copies, one of which will be placed in the archives

of the Court and the others transmitted to the Government of Malaysia
and the Government of the Republic of Singapore, respectively.

(Signed) President. (Signed) Awn Shawkat A L-K HASAWNEH ,
President.

(Signed) Philippe COUVREUR ,

Registrar.

Judge R ANJEVA appends a declaration to the Judgment of the Court;
Judge P ARRA -ARANGUREN appends a separate opinion to the Judgment

of the Court; Judges S IMMA and A BRAHAM append a joint dissenting
opinion to the Judgment of the Court; Judge B ENNOUNA appends a dec-
laration to the Judgment of the Court; Judge ad hoc DUGARD appends a
dissenting opinion to the Judgment of the Court; Judge ad hoc

SREENIVASA R AO appends a separate opinion to the Judgment of the
Court.

(Initialled) A.K.
(Initialled) Ph.C.

94

Bilingual Content

INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE

REPORTS OF JUDGMENTS,
ADVISORY OPINIONS AND ORDERS

CASE CONCERNING SOVEREIGNTY OVER
PEDRA BRANCA/PULAU BATU PUTEH,

MIDDLE ROCKS AND SOUTH LEDGE
(MALAYSIA/SINGAPORE)

JUDGMENT OF 23 MAY 2008

2008

COUR INTERNATIONALE DE JUSTICE

AVIS CONSULTATIFS ET ORDONNANCES

AFFAIRE RELATIVE A v LA SOUVERAINETÉ

SUR PEDRA BRANCA/PULAU BATU PUTEH,
MIDDLE ROCKS ET SOUTH LEDGE

(MALAISIE/SINGAPOUR)

ARR|T DU 23 MAI 2008 Official citation:
Sovereignty over Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh,
Middle Rocks and South Ledge (Malaysia/Singapore),
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2008 ,p.12

Mode officiel de citation:
Souveraineté sur Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh,
Middle Rocks et South Ledge (Malaisie/Singapour),
arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2008 ,p.12

Sales number
ISSN 0074-4441 o
N de vente: 937
ISBN 978-92-1-071046-6 23 MAY 2008

JUDGMENT

SOVEREIGNTY OVER PEDRA BRANCA/
PULAU BATU PUTEH, MIDDLE ROCKS

AND SOUTH LEDGE
(MALAYSIA/SINGAPORE)

SOUVERAINETÉ SUR PEDRA BRANCA/
PULAU BATU PUTEH, MIDDLE ROCKS
ET SOUTH LEDGE

(MALAISIE/SINGAPOUR)

23 MAI 2008

ARRE|T TABLE OF CONTENTS
Paragraphs

1. CHRONOLOGY OF THE P ROCEDURE 1-15

2. GEOGRAPHICAL L OCATION AND CHARACTERISTICS 16-19

3. GENERAL H ISTORICALBACKGROUND 20-29
4. HISTORY OF THED ISPUTE 30-36

5. SOVEREIGNTY OVER PEDRA B RANCA/PULAU B ATU PUTEH 37-277

5.1. Arguments of the Parties 37-42
5.2. The question of the burden of proof 43-45
5.3. Legal status of Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh before the
1840s 46-117

5.3.1. Original title to Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh 46-80
5.3.2. The legal significance of the 1824 Anglo-Dutch Treat81-101
5.3.3. The relevance of the 1824 Crawfurd Treaty 102-107
5.3.4. The legal significance of the letter “of donation” of 1825 108-116
5.3.5. Conclusion 117

5.4. Legal status of Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh after the 1840s 118-272

5.4.1. Applicable law 118-125

5.4.2. The process for the selection of the site for Horsburgh
lighthouse 126-148
5.4.3. The construction and commissioning of Horsburgh
lighthouse, 1850-1851 149-163
5.4.4. The conduct of the Parties, 1852-1952 164-191

(a) Straits lights system and related British and Singa-
pore legislation 166-180
(b) Constitutional developments and official descrip-
tions of Singapore and Malaysia 181-189
(c) Johor regulation of fisheries in the 1860s 190-191

5.4.5. The 1953 correspondence 192-230
5.4.6. The conduct of the Parties after 1953 231-272

(a) Investigation by Singapore of shipwrecks in the
waters around Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh 231-234

(b) Visits to Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh 235-239
(c) Naval patrols and exercises around Pedra Branca/
Pulau Batu Puteh by Malaysia and Singapore 240-243

(d) The display of the British and Singapore ensigns
on Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh 244-246
(e) The installation by Singapore of military commu-
nications equipment on the island in 1977 247-248

4 TABLE DES MATIÈRES

paragraphes

1. QUALITÉS 1-15

2. SITUATION GÉOGRAPHIQUE ET CARACTÉRISTIQUES 16-19
3. LE CONTEXTE HISTORIQUE GÉNÉRAL 20-29

4. H ISTORIQUE DU DIFFÉREND 30-36

5. LA SOUVERAINETÉ SUR P EDRA BRANCA /PULAU BATU PUTEH 37-277
5.1. Argumentation des Parties 37-42
5.2. La question de la charge de la preuve 43-45
5.3. Statut juridique de Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh avant les

années 1840 46-117
5.3.1. Titre originaire sur Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh 46-80
5.3.2. La portée juridique du traité anglo-néerlandais de 1824 81-101
5.3.3. La pertinence du traité Crawfurd de 1824 102-107
5.3.4. La portée juridique de la lettre «de donation» de 1825 108-116

5.3.5. Conclusion 117
5.4. Statut juridique de Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh après les
années 1840 118-272

5.4.1. Le droit applicable 118-125
5.4.2. Le processus de sélection de l’emplacement du phare
Horsburgh 126-148
5.4.3. La construction et la mise en service du phare Hors-
burgh entre 1850 et 1851 149-163
5.4.4. Le comportement des Parties entre 1852 et 1952 164-191

a) Le système des phares des détroits et la législation
britannique et singapourienne y afférente 166-180
b) Evolution constitutionnelle et descriptions officielles
de Singapour et de la Malaisie 181-189
c) La réglementation de la pêche par le Johor dans les
années 1860 190-191

5.4.5. La correspondance de 1953 192-230
5.4.6. Le comportement des Parties après 1953 231-272
a) Enquêtes menées par Singapour sur les naufrages

survenus dans les eaux entourant Pedra Branca/
Pulau Batu Puteh 231-234
b) Visites sur Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh 235-239
c) Patrouilles et exercices effectués autour de Pedra
Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh par les marines malai-
sienne et singapourienne 240-243
d) Le déploiement des pavillons britannique et singa-
pourien sur Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh 244-246
e) L’installation de matériel de communication mili-
taire par Singapour sur l’île en 1977 247-248

4 (f) Proposed reclamation by Singapore to extend the
island 249-250
(g) A Malaysian Petroleum Agreement 1968 251-253

(h) The delimitation of Malaysia’s territorial sea 1969 254-256

(i) Indonesia-Malaysia Continental Shelf Agreement
1969 and Territorial Sea Agreement 1970 257-258

(j) The Indonesia-Singapore Territorial Sea Agree-
ment 1973 259
(k) Inter-State co-operation in the Straits of Singapore
260

(l) Official publications 261-266
(m) Official maps 267-272

5.5. Conclusion 273-277
6. SOVEREIGNTY OVER M IDDLER OCKS AND SOUTH LEDGE 278-299

6.1. Arguments of the Parties 278-287
6.2. Legal status of Middle Rocks 288-290
6.3. Legal status of South Ledge 291-299

7. OPERATIVE CLAUSE 300

5 f) Projet singapourien de récupération de terres en vue
d’agrandir l’île 249-250
g) Accord pétrolier conclu par la Malaisie en 1968 251-253

h) La délimitation de la mer territoriale malaisienne en
1969 254-256
i) Accord de 1969 relatif au plateau continental et
accord de 1970 relatif à la mer territoriale conclus
entre l’Indonésie et la Malaisie 257-258
j) L’accord de 1973 entre l’Indonésie et Singapour rela-
tif à la mer territoriale 259
k) Coopération interétatique dans le détroit de Singa-

pour 260
l) Publications officielles 261-266
m) Cartes officielles 267-272

5.5. Conclusion 273-277
6. LA SOUVERAINETÉ SUR M IDDLE ROCKS ET SOUTH LEDGE 278-299

6.1. Argumentation des Parties 278-287
6.2. Statut juridique de Middle Rocks 288-290
6.3. Statut juridique de South Ledge 291-299

7. D ISPOSITIF 300

5 INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE

2008 YEAR 2008
23 May
General List
No. 130 23 May 2008

CASE CONCERNING SOVEREIGNTY OVER

PEDRA BRANCA/PULAU BATU PUTEH,

MIDDLE ROCKS AND SOUTH LEDGE

(MALAYSIA/SINGAPORE)

JUDGMENT

Present: Vice-PresidentL-K HASAWNEH, Acting President ; JudgeANJEVA,

SHI,K OROMA,P ARRA-A RANGUREN,B UERGENTHAL ,O WADA ,S IMMA,
T OMKA,A BRAHAM ,K EIT,S EPÚLVEDA-AMOR,B ENNOUNA,S KOTNIKOV;
Judges ad hoc DUGARD ,SREENIVASAR AO; RegistrarOUVREUR .

In the case concerning sovereignty over Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh,

Middle Rocks and South Ledge,

between

Malaysia,
represented by

H.E. Tan Sri Abdul Kadir Mohamad, Ambassador-at-Large, Ministry of
Foreign Affairs of Malaysia, Adviser for Foreign Affairs to the Prime
Minister,
as Agent;

H.E. Dato’ Noor Farida Ariffin, Ambassador of Malaysia to the Kingdom
of the Netherlands,

as Co-Agent;
H.E. Dato’ Seri Syed Hamid Albar, Minister for Foreign Affairs of Malay-
sia,

6 COUR INTERNATIONALE DE JUSTICE

ANNÉE 2008 2008
23 mai
Rôlo général
23 mai 2008 n 130

AFFAIRE RELATIVE A v LA SOUVERAINETE u

SUR PEDRA BRANCA/PULAU BATU PUTEH,

MIDDLE ROCKS ET SOUTH LEDGE

(MALAISIE/SINGAPOUR)

ARRE |T

Présents: M. AL-KHASAWNEH, vice-président, faisant fonction de président en
l’affaireMM. RANJEVA,S H,K OROMA ,P ARRA-ARANGUREN,
BUERGENTHAL,O WADA,S IMMA ,T OMKA,A BRAHAM,K EIT,
SEPÚLVEDA-AMOR,B ENNOUNA,S KOTNIKOV, juges; MM. D UGARD,

SREENIVASAR AO, juges ad hoc; MOUVREUR, greffier.

En l’affaire relative à la souveraineté sur Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh,
Middle Rocks et South Ledge,

entre

la Malaisie,
représentée par

S. Exc. M. Tan Sri Abdul Kadir Mohamad, ambassadeur en mission extra-
ordinaire, ministère des affaires étrangères de la Malaisie, conseiller auprès
du premier ministre pour les affaires étrangères,

comme agent;
S. Exc. Me Dato’ Noor Farida Ariffin, ambassadeur de la Malaisie auprès
du Royaume des Pays-Bas,

comme coagent;

S. Exc. M. Dato’ Seri Syed Hamid Albar, ministre des affaires étrangères de
la Malaisie,

6 H.E. Tan Sri Abdul Gani Patail, Attorney-General of Malaysia,
Sir Elihu Lauterpacht, C.B.E., Q.C., Honorary Professor of International
Law, University of Cambridge, member of the Institut de droit interna-
tional, member of the Permanent Court of Arbitration,
Mr. James Crawford, S.C., F.B.A., Whewell Professor of International Law,
University of Cambridge, member of the Institut de droit international,

Mr. Nicolaas Jan Schrijver, Professor of Public International Law, Leiden
University, associate member of the Institut de droit international,
Mr. Marcelo G. Kohen, Professor of International Law, Graduate Institute
of International Studies, Geneva, associate member of the Institut de droit
international,
Ms Penelope Nevill, college lecturer, Downing College, University of Cam-
bridge,
as Counsel and Advocates;

Datuk Azailiza Mohd Ahad, Head of International Affairs Division, Cham-
bers of the Attorney-General of Malaysia,
Datin Almalena Sharmila Johan Thambu, Deputy Head 1, International
Affairs Division, Chambers of the Attorney-General of Malaysia,

Ms Suraya Harun, Senior Federal Counsel, International Affairs Division,
Chambers of the Attorney-General of Malaysia,
Mr. Mohd Normusni Mustapa Albakri, Federal Counsel, International
Affairs Division, Chambers of the Attorney-General of Malaysia,
Mr. Faezul Adzra Tan Sri Gani Patail, Federal Counsel, International

Affairs Division, Chambers of the Attorney-General of Malaysia,
Ms Michelle Bradfield, Research Fellow, Lauterpacht Centre for Interna-
tional Law, University of Cambridge, Solicitor (Australia),
as Counsel;
Dato’ Hamsan bin Saringat, Director, State Economic Planning Unit, Johor
State,

Mr. Abd. Rahim Hussin, Under-Secretary, Maritime Security Policy Divi-
sion, National Security Council, Department of the Prime Minister of
Malaysia,
Mr. Raja Aznam Nazrin, Under-Secretary, Adjudication and Arbitration,
Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Malaysia,
Capt. Sahak Omar, Director General, Department of Hydrography, Royal
Malaysian Navy,
Mr. Tuan Haji Obet bin Tawil, Deputy Director 1, Land and Mines Office of
Johor,
Dr. Hajah Samsiah Muhamad, Director of Acquisition, Documentation and
Audiovisual Centre, National Archives,
Cdr. Samsuddin Yusoff, State Officer 1, Department of Hydrography, Royal
Malaysian Navy,

Mr. Roslee Mat Yusof, Director of Marine, Northern Region, Marine
Department Peninsular Malaysia,
Mr. Azmi Zainuddin, Minister-Counsellor, Embassy of Malaysia in the
Kingdom of the Netherlands,
Ms Sarah Albakri Devadason, Principal Assistant Secretary, Adjudication
and Arbitration Division, Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Malaysia,

7S. Exc. M. Tan Sri Abdul Gani Patail, Attorney-General de la Malaisie,
Sir Elihu Lauterpacht, C.B.E., Q.C., professeur honoraire de droit interna-
tional à l’Université de Cambridge, membre de l’Institut de droit interna-

tional, membre de la Cour permanente d’arbitrage,
M. James Crawford, S.C., F.B.A., professeur de droit international à l’Uni-
versité de Cambridge, titulaire de la chaire Whewell, membre de l’Institut
de droit international,
M. Nicolaas Jan Schrijver, professeur de droit international public à l’Uni-
versité de Leyde, membre associé de l’Institut de droit international,
M. Marcelo G. Kohen, professeur de droit international à l’Institut univer-
sitaire de hautes études internationales de Genève, membre associé de
l’Institut de droit international,
me
M Penelope Nevill, chargée de cours au Downing College de l’Université
de Cambridge,
comme conseils et avocats;
M. Datuk Azailiza Mohd Ahad, chef du département des affaires internatio-

meles, cabinet de l’Attorney-General de la Malaisie,
M Datin Almalena Sharmila Johan Thambu, première adjointe au chef du
département des affaires internationales, cabinet de l’Attorney-General de
la Malaisie,
M me Suraya Harun, conseiller fédéral principal au département des affaires
internationales, cabinet de l’Attorney-General de la Malaisie,
M. Mohd Normusni Mustapa Albakri, conseiller fédéral au département des
affaires internationales, cabinet de l’Attorney-General de la Malaisie,

M. Faezul Adzra Tan Sri Gani Patail, conseiller fédéral au département des
mefaires internationales, cabinet de l’Attorney-General de la Malaisie,
M Michelle Bradfield, Research Fellow au Lauterpacht Research Center
for International Law de l’Université de Cambridge, Solicitor (Australie),
comme conseils;

M. Dato’ Hamsan bin Saringat, directeur de l’unité de planification écono-
mique de l’Etat du Johor,
M. Abd. Rahim Hussin, sous-secrétaire au département de la politique de
sécurité maritime, conseil de la sécurité nationale, services du premier mi-
nistre de la Malaisie,
M. Raja Aznam Nazrin, sous-secrétaire au département des affaires judi-
ciaires et d’arbitrage, ministère des affaires étrangères de la Malaisie,

Le capitaine Sahak Omar, directeur général du service hydrographique de la
marine royale malaisienne,
M. Tuan Haji Obet bin Tawil, premier directeur adjoint du bureau de l’amé-
nagement du territoire et des mines du Johor,
M me Hajah Samsiah Muhamad, directrice des acquisitions, centre des res-
sources documentaires et audiovisuelles des archives nationales,
Le commandant Samsuddin Yusoff, premier officier du service hydrogra-
phique de la marine royale malaisienne,
M. Roslee Mat Yusof, directeur de la marine pour la région septentrionale,

département de la marine de la Malaisie péninsulaire,
M. Azmi Zainuddin, ministre conseiller à l’ambassade de la Malaisie aux
Pays-Bas,
M me Sarah Albakri Devadason, secrétaire adjointe principale au départe-
ment des affaires judiciaires et d’arbitrage, ministère des affaires étrangères
de la Malaisie,

7 Mr. Mohamad Razdan Jamil, Special Officer to the Minister for Foreign
Affairs of Malaysia,
Ms Haznah Md. Hashim, Principal Assistant Secretary, Adjudication and
Arbitration Division, Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Malaysia,

as Advisers;
Professor Dato’ Dr. Shaharil Talib, Head of Special Research Unit, Cham-
bers of the Attorney-General of Malaysia,

as Consultant;
Mr. Tan Ah Bah, Director of Survey (Boundary Affairs Section), Depart-
ment of Survey and Mapping,
Professor Dr. Sharifah Mastura Syed Abdullah, Dean of the Faculty of
Social Sciences and Humanities, National University of Malaysia,
Professor Dr. Nik Anuar Nik Mahmud, Director of the Institute for Malay-
sian and International Studies, National University of Malaysia,
Mr. Ahmad Aznan bin Zakaria, Principal Assistant Director of Survey
(Boundary Affairs Section), Department of Survey and Mapping,
Mr. Hasnan bin Hussin, Senior Technical Assistant (Boundary Affairs Sec-

tion), Department of Survey and Mapping,
as Technical Advisers,

and
the Republic of Singapore,
represented by

H.E. Mr. Tommy Koh, Ambassador-at-Large, Ministry of Foreign Affairs
of the Republic of Singapore, Professor of Law at the National University
of Singapore,
as Agent;

H.E. Mr. Anil Kumar s/o N T Nayar, Ambassador of the Republic of Sing-
apore to the Kingdom of the Netherlands,
as Co-Agent;
H.E. Mr. S. Jayakumar, Deputy Prime Minister, Co-ordinating Minister for

National Security and Minister for Law, Professor of Law at the National
University of Singapore,
H.E. Mr. Chan Sek Keong, Chief Justice of the Republic of Singapore,
H.E. Mr. Chao Hick Tin, Attorney-General of the Republic of Singapore,
Mr. Ian Brownlie, C.B.E., Q.C., F.B.A., member of the English Bar, Chair-
man of the United Nations International Law Commission, Emeritus
Chichele Professor of Public International Law, University of Oxford,
member of the Institut de droit international, Distinguished Fellow, All
Souls College, Oxford,
Mr. Alain Pellet, Professor at the University of Paris X-Nanterre, member
and former Chairman of the United Nations International Law Commis-
sion, associate member of the Institut de droit international,
Mr. Rodman R. Bundy, avocat à la Cour d’appel de Paris, member of the

New York Bar, Frere Cholmeley/Eversheds, Paris,
Ms Loretta Malintoppi, avocat à la Cour d’appel de Paris, member of the
Rome Bar, Frere Cholmeley/Eversheds, Paris,
as Counsel and Advocates;

8 M. Mohamad Razdan Jamil, assistant spécial du ministre des affaires étran-
gères de la Malaisie,
M me Haznah Md. Hashim, secrétaire adjointe principale au département des
affaires judiciaires et d’arbitrage, ministère des affaires étrangères de la

Malaisie,
comme conseillers;
M. Dato’ Shaharil Talib, professeur, directeur du service des études spéciales
du cabinet de l’Attorney-General de la Malaisie,

comme consultant;
M. Tan Ah Bah, directeur de la topographie, service des frontières, départe-
ment de la topographie et de la cartographie,
M me Sharifah Mastura Syed Abdullah, professeur, doyenne de la faculté des

sciences sociales et humaines de l’Université nationale de la Malaisie,
M. Nik Anuar Nik Mahmud, professeur, directeur de l’Institut d’études
malaisiennes et internationales de l’Université nationale de la Malaisie,
M. Ahmad Aznan bin Zakaria, directeur adjoint principal de la topographie,
service des frontières, département de la topographie et de la cartographie,
M. Hasnan bin Hussin, assistant technique principal du service des fron-
tières, département de la topographie et de la cartographie,

comme conseillers techniques,
et

la République de Singapour,
représentée par

S. Exc. M. Tommy Koh, ambassadeur en mission extraordinaire, ministère
des affaires étrangères de la République de Singapour, professeur de droit
à l’Université nationale de Singapour,
comme agent;

S. Exc. M. Anil Kumar s/o N T Nayar, ambassadeur de la République de
Singapour auprès du Royaume des Pays-Bas,
comme coagent;
S. Exc. M. S. Jayakumar, vice-premier ministre, ministre coordinateur pour

la sécurité nationale et ministre de la justice, professeur de droit à l’Uni-
versité nationale de Singapour,
S. Exc. M. Chan Sek Keong, Chief Justice de la République de Singapour,
S. Exc. M. Chao Hick Tin, Attorney-General de la République de Singapour,
M. Ian Brownlie, C.B.E., Q.C., F.B.A., membre du barreau d’Angleterre,
président de la Commission du droit international des Nations Unies, pro-
fesseur émérite de droit international public, titulaire de la chaire Chichele
à l’Université d’Oxford, membre de l’Institut de droit international, Dis-
tinguished Fellow de l’All Souls College d’Oxford,
M. Alain Pellet, professeur à l’Université de Paris X-Nanterre, membre et

ancien président de la Commission du droit international des Nations
Unies, membre associé de l’Institut de droit international,
M. Rodman R. Bundy, avocat à la Cour d’appel de Paris, membre du bar-
reau de New York, cabinet Frere Cholmeley/Eversheds, Paris,
M me Loretta Malintoppi, avocat à la Cour d’appel de Paris, membre du bar-
reau de Rome, cabinet Frere Cholmeley/Eversheds, Paris,
comme conseils et avocats;

8 Mr. S. Tiwari, Principal Senior State Counsel, Chambers of the Attorney-
General of the Republic of Singapore,
Mr. Lionel Yee, Senior State Counsel, Chambers of the Attorney-General of
the Republic of Singapore,
Mr. Tan Ken Hwee, Senior Assistant Registrar, Supreme Court of Singa-

pore,
Mr. Pang Khang Chau, Deputy Senior State Counsel, Chambers of the
Attorney-General of the Republic of Singapore,
Mr. Daren Tang, State Counsel, Chambers of the Attorney-General of the
Republic of Singapore,
Mr. Ong Chin Heng, State Counsel, Chambers of the Attorney-General of
the Republic of Singapore,
Mr. Daniel Müller, Researcher at the Centre de droit international de Nan-
terre (CEDIN), University of Paris X-Nanterre,

as Counsel;
Mr. Parry Oei, Chief Hydrographer, Maritime and Port Authority of Singa-
pore,

Ms Foo Chi Hsia, Deputy Director, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Republic of
Singapore,
Mr. Philip Ong, Assistant Director, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Republic of
Singapore,
Ms Yvonne Elizabeth Chee, Second Secretary (Political), Embassy of the
Republic of Singapore in the Netherlands,
Ms Wu Ye-Min, Country Officer, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Republic of
Singapore,

as Advisers,

T HE COURT ,

composed as above,

after deliberation,

delivers the following Judgment:
1. By joint letter dated 24 July 2003, filed in the Registry of the Court on the

same day, the Ministers for Foreign Affairs of Malaysia and the Republic of
Singapore (hereinafter “Singapore”) notified to the Registrar a Special Agree-
ment between the two States, signed at Putrajaya on 6 February 2003 and
having entered into force on 9 May 2003, the date of the exchange of instru-
ments of ratification.
2. The text of the Special Agreement reads as follows:

“The Government of Malaysia and the Government of the Republic of
Singapore (hereinafter referred to as ‘the Parties’);
Considering that a dispute has arisen between them regarding sover-
eignty over Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh, Middle Rocks and South

Ledge;
Desiring that this dispute should be settled by the International Court of
Justice (hereinafter referred to as ‘the Court’);

Have agreed as follows:

9 M. S. Tiwari, Principal Senior State Counsel au cabinet de l’Attorney-Gene-
ral de la République de Singapour,
M. Lionel Yee, Senior State Counsel au cabinet de l’Attorney-General de la

République de Singapour,
M. Tan Ken Hwee, premier greffier adjoint de la Cour suprême de Singa-
pour,
M. Pang Khang Chau, Deputy Senior State Counsel au cabinet de l’Attor-
ney-General de la République de Singapour,
M. Daren Tang, State Counsel au cabinet de l’Attorney-General de la Répu-
blique de Singapour,
M. Ong Chin Heng, State Counsel au cabinet de l’Attorney-General de la
République de Singapour,

M. Daniel Müller, chercheur au centre de droit international de Nanterre
(CEDIN), Université de Paris X-Nanterre,
comme conseils;

M. Parry Oei, hydrographe en chef de l’autorité maritime et portuaire de Sin-
gapour,
M me Foo Chi Hsia, directeur adjoint au ministère des affaires étrangères de
la République de Singapour,
M. Philip Ong, sous-directeur au ministère des affaires étrangères de la
République de Singapour,
me
M Yvonne Elizabeth Chee, deuxième secrétaire (affaires politiques) à
meambassade de la République de Singapour aux Pays-Bas,
M Wu Ye-Min, chargée de mission au ministère des affaires étrangères de
la République de Singapour,
comme conseillers,

L AC OUR,

ainsi composée,

après délibéré en chambre du conseil,

rend l’arrêt suivant:
1. Par lettre conjointe en date du 24 juillet 2003, déposée au Greffe de la

Cour le même jour, les ministres des affaires étrangères de la Malaisie et de la
République de Singapour (ci-après dénommée «Singapour») ont notifié au
greffier un compromis entre les deux Etats, signé à Putrajaya le 6 février 2003 et
entré en vigueur le 9 mai 2003, date de l’échange des instruments de ratification.

2. Le texte du compromis se lit comme suit:

«Le Gouvernement de la Malaisie et le Gouvernement de la République
de Singapour (ci-après dénommés les «Parties»);

Considérant qu’un différend s’est élevé entre eux concernant la souve-
raineté sur Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh, Middle Rocks et South Ledge;

Désirant que ce différend soit réglé par la Cour internationale de Justice
(ci-après dénommée la «Cour»);
Sont convenus de ce qui suit:

9 Article 1

Submission of Dispute
The Parties agree to submit the dispute to the Court under the terms of

Article 36 (1) of its Statute.
Article 2

Subject of the Litigation

The Court is requested to determine whether sovereignty over:
(a) Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh;
(b) Middle Rocks;
(c) South Ledge,

belongs to Malaysia or the Republic of Singapore.

Article 3
Order of Names

For the purposes of this Special Agreement the order of the use of the
names Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh or vice versa shall not be treated as
having any relevance to the question of sovereignty to be determined by
the Court.

Article 4

Procedure

1. The proceedings shall consist of written pleadings and oral hearings.
2. Without prejudice to any question as to the burden of proof, the
Parties agree, having regard to Article 46 of the Rules of Court, that the
written proceedings should consist of:
(a) a Memorial presented by each of the Parties not later than 8 months

after the notification of this Special Agreement to the Registry of the
International Court of Justice;
(b) a Counter-Memorial presented by each of the Parties not later than
10 months after the date on which each has received the certified copy
of the Memorial of the other Party;
(c) a Reply presented by each of the Parties not later than 10 months
after the date on which each has received the certified copy of the
Counter-Memorial of the other Party;
(d) a Rejoinder, if the Parties so agree or if the Court decides ex officio or
at the request of one of the Parties that this part of the proceedings is
necessary, and the Court authorizes or prescribes the presentation of

a Rejoinder.
3. The above-mentioned parts of the written proceedings and their
annexes presented to the Registrar will not be transmitted to the other
Party until the Registrar has received the part of the proceedings cor-
responding to the said Party.
4. The question of the order of speaking at the oral hearings shall be

decided by mutual agreement between the Parties but in all cases the order
of speaking adopted shall be without prejudice to any question of the bur-
den of proof.

10 Article premier

Soumission d’un différend
Les Parties conviennent de soumettre le différend à la Cour conformé-

ment au paragraphe 1 de l’article 36 de son Statut.
Article 2

Objet du litige

La Cour est priée de déterminer si la souveraineté sur
a) Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh;
b) Middle Rocks;
c) South Ledge,

appartient à la Malaisie ou à la République de Singapour.

Article 3
Ordre des noms

Pour les besoins du présent compromis, l’ordre dans lequel seront
employés les noms Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh, ou vice versa, sera
considéré comme sans importance pour la question de souveraineté sur
laquelle la Cour aura été appelée à statuer.

Article 4

Procédure

1. La procédure comportera une phase écrite et une phase orale.
2. Sans préjuger en rien de la charge de la preuve, les Parties convien-
nent, conformément à l’article 46 du Règlement de la Cour, que les pièces
de procédure consisteront en:
a) un mémoire présenté par chacune des Parties au plus tard huit mois

après la date de la notification du présent compromis au Greffe de la
Cour internationale de Justice;
b) un contre-mémoire présenté par chacune des Parties au plus tard dix
mois après la date à laquelle chacune aura reçu la copie certifiée
conforme du mémoire de l’autre Partie;
c) une réplique présentée par chacune des Parties au plus tard dix mois
après la date à laquelle chacune aura reçu la copie certifiée conforme
du contre-mémoire de l’autre Partie;
d) une duplique, si les Parties en décident ainsi d’un commun accord ou si
la Cour décide d’office ou à la demande de l’une des Parties que cette
pièce de procédure est nécessaire et qu’elle en autorise ou en prescrit la

présentation.
3. Les pièces de procédure susmentionnées et leurs annexes, déposées
auprès du greffier, ne seront pas transmises à l’autre Partie tant que le gref-
fier n’aura pas reçu de ladite Partie la pièce de procédure correspondante.

4. La question de l’ordre de parole dans les plaidoiries sera résolue d’un

commun accord entre les deux Parties, l’ordre adopté ne préjugeant en rien
de la charge de la preuve.

10 Article 5
Applicable Law

The principles and rules of international law applicable to the dispute
shall be those recognized in the provisions of Article 38, paragraph 1, of
the Statute of the International Court of Justice.

Article 6
Judgment of the Court

The Parties agree to accept the Judgment of the Court given pursuant to
this Special Agreement as final and binding upon them.
Article 7

Entry into Force
1. This Special Agreement shall enter into force upon the exchange of
instruments of ratification on a date to be determined through diplomatic
channels.
2. This Special Agreement shall be registered with the Secretariat of the
United Nations pursuant to Article 102 of the United Nations Charter,
jointly or by either of the Parties.

Article 8
Notification

In accordance with Article 40 of the Statute of the Court, this Special
Agreement shall be notified to the Registrar of the Court by a joint letter
from the Parties as soon as possible after it has entered into force.
In witness whereof the undersigned, being duly authorized thereto by
their respective Governments, have signed the present Special Agreement.

Done in triplicate at Putrajaya on the 6th day of February 2003.”
3. Pursuant to Article 40, paragraph 3, of the Statute of the Court, all States
entitled to appear before the Court were notified of the Special Agreement.

4. By an Order dated 1 September 2003, the President of the Court, having
regard to the provisions of the Special Agreement concerning the written plead-
ings, fixed 25 March 2004 and 25 January 2005 as the respective time-limits for
the filing by each of the Parties of a Memorial and a Counter-Memorial. Those
pleadings were duly filed within the time-limits so prescribed.
5. Having regard to Article 4, paragraph 2 (c), of the Special Agreement, by
an Order dated 1 February 2005, the Court fixed 25 November 2005 as the
time-limit for the filing by each of the Parties of a Reply. Those pleadings were
duly filed within the time-limit so prescribed.
6. In view of the fact that the Special Agreement provided for the possible
filing of a fourth pleading by each of the Parties, by a joint letter dated 23 Janu-
ary 2006, the Parties informed the Court that they had agreed that it was not
necessary to exchange Rejoinders. The Court having decided that no further

written pleadings were necessary, the written proceedings in the case were thus
closed.
7. Since the Court included upon the Bench no judge of the nationality of
either of the Parties, each Party proceeded to exercise the right conferred by
Article 31, paragraph 3, of the Statute to choose a judge ad hoc to sit in the
case: Malaysia chose Mr. Christopher John Robert Dugard and Singapore
Mr. Pemmaraju Sreenivasa Rao.

11 Article 5

Droit applicable
Les principes et règles de droit international applicables au différend
seront ceux reconnus dans les dispositions du paragraphe 1 de l’article 38
du Statut de la Cour internationale de Justice.

Article 6
Arrêt de la Cour

Les Parties s’engagent à reconnaître l’arrêt que la Cour rendra confor-
mément au présent compromis comme définitif et obligatoire pour elles.

Article 7
Entrée en vigueur
1. Le présent compromis entrera en vigueur dès qu’auront été échangés

les instruments de ratification, à une date qui sera fixée par la voie diplo-
matique.
2. Le présent compromis sera enregistré auprès du Secrétariat de l’Orga-
nisation des Nations Unies conformément à l’article 102 de la Charte des
Nations Unies, conjointement ou par l’une des Parties.

Article 8
Notification

En application de l’article 40 du Statut de la Cour, le présent compromis
sera notifié au greffier de la Cour par lettre conjointe des Parties dans les
meilleurs délais après son entrée en vigueur.
En foi de quoi, les soussignés, dûment autorisés à cette fin par leurs gou-
vernements respectifs, ont signé le présent compromis.

Fait en trois exemplaires le 6 février 2003 à Putrajaya.»
3. Conformément au paragraphe 3 de l’article 40 du Statut de la Cour, tous
les Etats admis à ester devant la Cour ont été informés du compromis.
4. Par ordonnance en date du 1 erseptembre 2003, le président de la Cour, eu

égard aux dispositions du compromis relatives aux pièces de procédure, a fixé
au 25 mars 2004 et au 25 janvier 2005, respectivement, les dates d’expiration du
délai pour le dépôt d’un mémoire et d’un contre-mémoire par chaque Partie.
Ces pièces ont été dûment déposées dans le délai ainsi fixé.
5. Vu le paragraphe 2, alinéa c), de l’article 4 du compromis, la Cour, par
ordonnance en date du 1 erfévrier 2005, a fixé au 25 novembre 2005 la date
d’expiration du délai pour le dépôt d’une réplique par chaque Partie. Ces pièces
ont été dûment déposées dans le délai ainsi fixé.
6. Etant donné que le compromis ménageait l’éventualité du dépôt d’une

quatrième pièce de procédure par chacune des Parties, celles-ci ont, par une
lettre conjointe en date du 23 janvier 2006, informé la Cour qu’elles étaient
convenues qu’il n’était pas nécessaire d’échanger des dupliques. La Cour a
décidé qu’aucune pièce supplémentaire n’était nécessaire et que la procédure
écrite en l’affaire était donc close.
7. La Cour ne comptant sur le siège aucun juge de la nationalité des Parties,
chacune d’elles s’est prévalue du droit que lui confère le paragraphe 3 de l’ar-
ticle 31 du Statut de procéder à la désignation d’un juge ad hoc pour siéger en
l’affaire. La Malaisie a désigné M. Christopher John Robert Dugard et Singa-
pour M. Pemmaraju Sreenivasa Rao.

11 8. Prior to her election as President of the Court, Judge Higgins, referring to
Article 17, paragraph 2, of the Statute, recused herself from participating in the
present case. It therefore fell upon the Vice-President, Judge Al-Khasawneh, to
exercise the functions of the presidency for the purposes of the case, in accord-
ance with Article 13, paragraphs 1 and 2, of the Rules of Court. The Vice-Presi-
dent, Acting President, held a meeting on 12 April 2006 with the representatives

of the Parties, in conformity with Article 31 of the Rules of Court. During that
meeting the Agent of Singapore and the Co-Agent of Malaysia made known
the views of their Governments with regard to various aspects relating to the
organization of the oral proceedings. In particular the Parties proposed to the
Court an agreed calendar for hearings and requested that the Court decide the
order in which they would be heard, it being understood that the decision
would not imply, that one party could be considered as an applicant and the
other party as a respondent, nor that the decision would have any effect on
questions concerning the burden of proof.
9. By letter dated 22 September 2006, the Deputy-Registrar informed the
Parties that the Court, which did not on the basis of the pleadings see any par-
ticular reason for one Party to be heard before the other, had decided to deter-
mine the question by drawing lots. On that basis Singapore was heard first.

10. On 21 August 2007, the Agent of Singapore provided the Registry with
a new document which his Government wished to produce under Article 56 of
the Rules of Court. On 26 September 2007, the Co-Agent of Malaysia informed
the Court that Malaysia did not object to the production of the new document
by Singapore on condition that Malaysia’s response to the document produced
by Singapore would also be admitted into the record. The Registrar, on
11 October 2007, informed the Parties that the Court had decided to authorize
the production of the document requested by Singapore and that, in accord-
ance with Article 56, paragraph 3, of the Rules of Court, the document sub-
mitted by Malaysia in support of its comments on Singapore’s new document
would also be added to the case file.
11. Pursuant to Article 53, paragraph 2, of the Rules of Court, the Court,

after ascertaining the views of the Parties, decided that copies of the pleadings
and documents annexed would be made accessible to the public on the opening
of the oral proceedings.
12. Public hearings were held from 6 to 23 November 2007, at which the
Court heard the oral arguments and replies of:

For Singapore: H.E. Mr. Tommy Koh,
H.E. Mr. Chao Hick Tin,
H.E. Mr. Chan Sek Keong,
Mr. Alain Pellet,
Mr. Ian Brownlie,
Mr. Rodman R. Bundy,
Ms Loretta Malintoppi,
H.E. Mr. S. Jayakumar.

For Malaysia: H.E. Tan Sri Abdul Kadir Mohamad,
H.E. Dato’ Noor Farida Ariffin,
H.E. Tan Sri Abdul Gani Patail,
Sir Elihu Lauterpacht,
Mr. James Crawford,
Mr. Nicolaas Jan Schrijver,

12 8. Avant son élection à la présidence de la Cour, le juge Higgins, invoquant
le paragraphe 2 de l’article 17 du Statut, s’est récusé en la présente instance. Il
a donc incombé au vice-président, le juge Al-Khasawneh, d’exercer la prési-
dence aux fins de la présente affaire, conformément aux paragraphes 1 et 2 de
l’article 13 du Règlement du la Cour. Le 12 avril 2006, le vice-président de la

Cour, faisant fonction de président en l’affaire, a tenu une réunion avec les
représentants des Parties, conformément à l’article 31 du Règlement. Au cours
de cette réunion, l’agent de Singapour et le coagent de la Malaisie ont fait
connaître les vues de leurs gouvernements sur divers aspects de l’organisation
de la procédure orale. Les Parties ont en particulier proposé à la Cour un calen-
drier arrêté d’un commun accord pour les audiences et prié celle-ci de détermi-
ner l’ordre dans lequel elles comparaîtraient, étant entendu que cette décision,
d’une part, n’impliquerait pas que l’une d’entre elles serait considérée comme le
demandeur et l’autre comme le défendeur et, d’autre part, n’aurait aucune inci-
dence sur les questions relatives à la charge de la preuve.
9. Par lettre en date du 22 septembre 2006, le greffier adjoint a informé les

Parties que la Cour, ne voyant, sur la base des pièces de procédure, aucune rai-
son particulière pour que l’une soit entendue avant l’autre, avait décidé de tran-
cher la question par tirage au sort. C’est ainsi que Singapour a comparu en
premier.
10. Le 21 août 2007, l’agent de Singapour a communiqué au Greffe un nou-
veau document que son gouvernement souhaitait produire en application de
l’article 56 du Règlement. Le 26 septembre 2007, le coagent de la Malaisie a fait
savoir à la Cour que la Malaisie ne s’opposait pas à la production de ce nou-
veau document par Singapour, à condition que les observations de la Malaisie
s’y rapportant soient également versées au dossier. Le 11 octobre 2007, le gref-
fier a informé les Parties que la Cour avait décidé d’autoriser la production du

document de Singapour et que, conformément au paragraphe 3 de l’article 56
du Règlement, le document soumis par la Malaisie à l’appui de ses observations
sur le nouveau document de Singapour serait pareillement versé au dossier de
l’affaire.
11. Conformément au paragraphe 2 de l’article 53 de son Règlement, la
Cour, après s’être renseignée auprès des Parties, a décidé que des exemplaires
des pièces de procédure et documents annexés seraient rendus accessibles au
public à l’ouverture de la procédure orale.
12. Des audiences publiques ont été tenues entre le 6 et le 23 novembre 2007,
au cours desquelles ont été entendus en leurs plaidoiries et réponses:

Pour Singapour: S. Exc. M. Tommy Koh,
S. Exc. M. Chao Hick Tin,
S. Exc. M. Chan Sek Keong,
M. Alain Pellet,
M. Ian Brownlie,

M.meodman R. Bundy,
M Loretta Malintoppi,
S. Exc. M. S. Jayakumar.
Pour la Malaisie: S. Exc. M. Tan Sri Abdul Kadir Mohamad,
S. Exc. M me Dato’ Noor Farida Ariffin,
S. Exc. M. Tan Sri Abdul Gani Patail,

Sir Elihu Lauterpacht,
M. James Crawford,
M. Nicolaas Jan Schrijver,

12 Mr. Marcelo G. Kohen,
Ms Penelope Nevill.

13. At the hearings, a Member of the Court put questions to the Parties, to
which replies were given orally and in writing, in accordance with Article 61,
paragraph 4, of the Rules of Court. Pursuant to Article 72 of the Rules of
Court, each of the Parties submitted comments on the written replies provided
by the other and received by the Court after the closure of the oral proceedings.

*
14. In the course of the written proceedings, the following submissions were
presented by the Parties:

On behalf of the Government of Malaysia,

in the Memorial, Counter-Memorial and Reply:
“In the light of the considerations set out above, Malaysia respectfully
requests the Court to adjudge and declare that sovereignty over

(a) Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh;
(b) Middle Rocks;
(c) South Ledge,
belongs to Malaysia.”

On behalf of the Government of the Republic of Singapore,
in the Memorial, Counter-Memorial and Reply:

“For the reasons set out in [Singapore’s Memorial, Counter-Memorial
and Reply], the Republic of Singapore requests the Court to adjudge and
declare that:
(a) the Republic of Singapore has sovereignty over Pedra Branca/Pulau

Batu Puteh;
(b) the Republic of Singapore has sovereignty over Middle Rocks; and
(c) the Republic of Singapore has sovereignty over South Ledge.”
15. At the oral proceedings, the following submissions were presented by the
Parties:

On behalf of the Government of Singapore,

at the hearing of 20 November 2007:
“The Government of the Republic of Singapore requests the Court to
adjudge and declare that:

(a) the Republic of Singapore has sovereignty over Pedra Branca/Pulau
Batu Puteh;
(b) the Republic of Singapore has sovereignty over Middle Rocks; and
(c) the Republic of Singapore has sovereignty over South Ledge.”

On behalf of the Government of Malaysia,
at the hearing of 23 November 2007:

“In accordance with Article 60, paragraph 2, of the Rules of Court,
[Malaysia] respectfully request[s] the Court to adjudge and declare that
sovereignty over:

13 M. Marcelo G. Kohen,
M me Penelope Nevill.

13. A l’audience, des questions ont été posées aux Parties par un membre de
la Cour, auxquelles il a été répondu oralement et par écrit, conformément au
paragraphe 4 de l’article 61 du Règlement. En vertu de l’article 72 du Règle-
ment, chacune des Parties a présenté des observations sur les réponses écrites
qui avaient été fournies par l’autre Partie et reçues par la Cour après la clôture
de la procédure orale.

*
14. Au cours de la procédure écrite, les conclusions ci-après ont été présen-
tées par les Parties:

Au nom du Gouvernement de la Malaisie,

dans le mémoire, le contre-mémoire et la réplique:
«A la lumière des considérations exposées ci-dessus, la Malaisie prie res-
pectueusement la Cour de dire et juger que la souveraineté sur

a) Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh;
b) Middle Rocks;
c) South Ledge,
appartient à la Malaisie.»

Au nom du Gouvernement de la République de Singapour,
dans le mémoire, le contre-mémoire et la réplique:

«Pour les raisons exposées dans [le mémoire, le contre-mémoire et la
réplique de Singapour], la République de Singapour prie la Cour de dire et
juger que:
a) la République de Singapour a souveraineté sur Pedra Branca/Pulau

Batu Puteh;
b) la République de Singapour a souveraineté sur Middle Rocks; et
c) la République de Singapour a souveraineté sur South Ledge.»
15. Lors de la procédure orale, les conclusions finales ci-après ont été pré-
sentées par les Parties:

Au nom du Gouvernement de Singapour,

à l’audience du 20 novembre 2007,
«Le Gouvernement de la République de Singapour prie la Cour de dire
et juger que:

a) la République de Singapour a souveraineté sur Pedra Branca/Pulau
Batu Puteh;
b) la République de Singapour a souveraineté sur Middle Rocks; et
c) la République de Singapour a souveraineté sur South Ledge.»

Au nom du Gouvernement de la Malaisie,
à l’audience du 23 novembre 2007,

«Conformément au paragraphe 2 de l’article 60 du Règlement de la
Cour, [la Malaisie] prie respectueusement la Cour de dire et juger que la
souveraineté sur

13 (a) Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh;
(b) Middle Rocks;
(c) South Ledge,

belongs to Malaysia.”

*
* *
2. G EOGRAPHICAL LOCATION AND C HARACTERISTICS

16. Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh is a granite island, measuring
137 m long, with an average width of 60 m and covering an area of about
8,560 sq. m at low tide. It is situated at the eastern entrance of the Straits
of Singapore, at the point where the Straits open up into the South China

Sea. Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh is located at 1°19′48″N and
104°24′27″E. It lies approximately 24 nautical miles to the east of Sing-
apore, 7.7 nautical miles to the south of the Malaysian State of Johor and
7.6 nautical miles to the north of the Indonesian island of Bintan.

17. The names Pedra Branca and Batu Puteh mean “white rock” in
Portuguese and Malay respectively. On the island stands Horsburgh
lighthouse, which was erected in the middle of the nineteenth century.

18. Middle Rocks and South Ledge are the two maritime features clos-
est to Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh. Middle Rocks is located 0.6 nau-
tical miles to the south and consists of two clusters of small rocks about
250 m apart that are permanently above water and stand 0.6 to 1.2 m high.

South Ledge, at 2.2 nautical miles to the south-south-west of Pedra
Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh, is a rock formation only visible at low-tide.

19. At the eastern entrance to the Straits of Singapore there are three

navigational channels, namely North Channel, Middle Channel (which is
the main shipping channel) and South Channel. Pedra Branca/Pulau
Batu Puteh, Middle Rocks and South Ledge lie between Middle Channel
and South Channel. (For the general geography of the area, see sketch-

map No. 1, p. 23, and for the location of Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu
Puteh, Middle Rocks and South Ledge, see sketch-map No. 2, p. 24.)

3. G ENERAL H ISTORICAL BACKGROUND

20. The Sultanate of Johor was established following the capture of
Malacca by the Portuguese in 1511. Portugal’s dominance in the 1500s as
a colonial Power in the East Indies began to wane in the 1600s. By the
mid-1600s the Netherlands had wrested control over various regions in
the area from Portugal. In 1795, France occupied the Netherlands which

prompted the British to establish rule over several Dutch possessions in
the Malay archipelago. In 1813, the French left the Netherlands. Under
the terms of the Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1814 (also known as the Conven-

14 a) Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh;
b) Middle Rocks;
c) South Ledge,

appartient à la Malaisie.»

*
* *

2. SITUATION GÉOGRAPHIQUE ET CARACTÉRISTIQUES

16. Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh est une île granitique d’une lon-
gueur de 137 mètres et d’une largeur moyenne de 60 mètres; sa superficie
est d’environ 8560 mètres carrés à marée basse. Située à l’entrée est du

détroit de Singapour, à l’endroit où celui-ci s’ouvre sur la mer de Chine
méridionale, Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh a pour coordonnées
1°19′48″ de latitude nord et 104°24′27″ de longitude est. Elle se trouve à
environ 24 milles marins à l’est de Singapour, 7,7 milles marins au sud de

l’Etat malaisien du Johor et 7,6 milles marins au nord de l’île indoné-
sienne de Bintan.
17. Les noms de Pedra Branca et de Batu Puteh signifient «pierre
blanche», respectivement en portugais et en malais. Un phare, le phare
e
Horsburgh, y a été érigé au milieu du XIX siècle.
18. Middle Rocks et South Ledge sont les deux formations maritimes
les plus proches de Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh. Middle Rocks,
à 0,6 mille marin au sud, est constituée de deux ensembles de petits

rochers distants d’environ 250 mètres l’un de l’autre et découverts de
manière permanente; leur élévation est comprise entre 0,6 et 1,2 mètre.
South Ledge, à 2,2 milles marins au sud-sud-ouest de Pedra Branca/
Pulau Batu Puteh, est une formation rocheuse uniquement visible à

marée basse.
19. L’entrée est du détroit de Singapour compte trois chenaux naviga-
bles, à savoir North Channel, Middle Channel (qui constitue le chenal
navigable principal) et South Channel. Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh,

Middle Rocks et South Ledge se situent entre Middle Channel et South o
Channel. (Pour la géographie générale de la zone, voir le croquis n 1,
p. 23, et, pour la situation de Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh, Middle
Rocks et South Ledge, voir le croquis n 2, p. 24.)

3. L E CONTEXTE HISTORIQUE GÉNÉRAL

20. Le Sultanat de Johor fut établi à la suite de la prise de Malacca
par les Portugais en 1511. Le Portugal, principale puissance coloniale
e
dans les Indes orientales ae cours du XVI siècle, commença à perdre
de son influence au XVII siècle et, vers le milieu de celui-ci, les Pays-
Bas lui avaient ravi le contrôle sur différentes zones de la région. En
1795, la France occupa les Pays-Bas, ce qui incita les Britanniques à

établir leur autorité sur plusieurs possessions néerlandaises de l’archi-
pel malais. En 1813, les Français quittèrent les Pays-Bas, et, par le traité

1415 1516tion of London) the United Kingdom agreed to return the former Dutch

possessions in the Malay archipelago to the Netherlands.

21. In 1819, on the initiative of Sir Stamford Raffles (Governor-Gen-
eral of Bengkulu), a British “factory” (a term used for trading stations

established by the British in India and south-east Asia) was established
on Singapore island (which belonged to Johor) by the East India Com-
pany, which acted as an agent of the British Government in various Brit-
ish possessions from the second half of the seventeenth century to the

second half of the nineteenth century. Two treaties were entered into
establishing this “factory”, one dated 30 January 1819 between the East
India Company and the Temenggong of Johor and the other dated
6 February 1819 between Sir Stamford Raffles and Sultan Hussein of
1
Johor and the Temenggong of Johor. These two Treaties further exac-
erbated the tension between the United Kingdom and the Netherlands
arising out of their competing colonial ambitions in the region. This situ-
ation led to negotiations beginning in 1820 which culminated in the sign-

ing, on 17 March 1824, of a treaty between the United Kingdom and the
Netherlands (entitled “Treaty between His Britannic Majesty and the
King of the Netherlands, Respecting Territory and Commerce in the East
Indies” and hereinafter referred to as “the 1824 Anglo-Dutch Treaty”).

Under the terms of this Treaty, the Dutch withdrew their opposition to
the occupation of Singapore by the United Kingdom and the latter
agreed not to establish any trading post on any islands south of the
Straits of Singapore. The Treaty had the practical effect of broadly estab-

lishing the spheres of influence of the two colonial Powers in the East
Indies. As a consequence, one part of the Sultanate of Johor fell within a
British sphere of influence while the other fell within a Dutch sphere of
influence.

22. On 2 August 1824 a Treaty of Friendship and Alliance was signed
between the East India Company and the Sultan of Johor and Temeng-
gong of Johor (hereinafter “the Crawfurd Treaty”, named after the Brit-
ish Resident of Singapore), providing for the full cession of Singapore to

the East India Company, along with all islands within 10 geographical
miles of Singapore (see paragraph 102 below).

23. Since the death of Sultan Mahmud III in 1812, his two sons, Hus-

sein and Abdul Rahman had held competing claims to succession to the
Johor Sultanate. The United Kingdom had recognized as the heir the
elder son Hussein (who was based in Singapore), whereas the Nether-
lands had recognized as the heir the younger son Abdul Rahman (who

1A “Temenggong” was a high-ranking official in traditional Malay states. In Johor, in
the first half of the nineteenth century, as a result of the internal rivalry between the Sul-
tan and the Temenggong, third states wishing to enter into important transactions tended
to seek the consent of both. In 1855, full authority in Johor was transferred by the Sultan
to the Temenggong.

17anglo-néerlandais de 1814 (également appelé convention de Londres), le

Royaume-Uni accepta de restituer aux Pays-Bas leurs anciennes pos-
sessions dans l’archipel malais.
21. En 1819, à l’initiative de sir Stamford Raffles (gouverneur général
de Bengkulu), une «factorerie» (le terme anglais «factory» servant à

désigner un comptoir britannique aux Indes et en Asie du Sud-Est) fut
établie par les Britanniques sur l’île de Singapour (laquelle appartenait au
Johor) par la Compagnie des Indes orientales, agent du Gouvernement

britanniqee dans plusieurs possessions britannieues de la seconde moitié
du XVII siècle à la seconde moitié du XIX siècle. Deux traités furent à
l’origine de la création de cette «factorerie», le premier conclu le 30 jan-
vier 1819 entre la Compagnie des Indes orientales et le temenggong de

Johor, le second conclu le 6 février 1819 entre, d’une part, sir Stamford
Raffles et, d’autre part, le sultan Hussein de Johor et le temenggong de 1
Johor. Les deux traités exacerbèrent les tensions entre le Royaume-Uni et

les Pays-Bas, nées de leurs ambitions coloniales concurrentes dans la
région. Cette situation conduisit en 1820 à l’ouverture de négociations
qui débouchèrent sur la signature, le 17 mars 1824, d’un traité entre le
Royaume-Uni et les Pays-Bas (le «traité de commerce et d’échange signé

à Londres le 17 mars 1824 entre Sa Majesté de Grande-Bretagne et le roi
des Pays-Bas», ci-après dénommé le «traité anglo-néerlandais de 1824»).
Aux termes de ce traité, les Néerlandais cessaient de s’opposer à l’occu-

pation de Singapour par le Royaume-Uni, cependant que celui-ci accep-
tait de ne pas établir de comptoir sur les îles situées au sud du détroit de
Singapour. Ce traité eut pour conséquence concrète de fixer, dans les
grandes lignes, les sphères d’influence des deux puissances coloniales aux

Indes orientales: une partie du Sultanat de Johor se trouva ainsi placée
dans la sphère d’influence britannique, l’autre dans la sphère d’influence
néerlandaise.

22. Le 2 août 1824, un traité d’amitié et d’alliance fut signé entre,
d’une part, la Compagnie des Indes orientales et, d’autre part, le sultan
de Johor et le temenggong de Johor (ci-après dénommé «le traité
Crawfurd», du nom du résident britannique à Singapour), qui prévoyait

la cession pleine et entière à la Compagnie des Indes orientales de Singa-
pour et de toutes les îles situées dans un rayon de 10 milles géographiques
de celle-ci (voir paragraphe 102 ci-dessous).

23. La mort, en 1812, du sultan Mahmud III avait donné lieu au sein
du Sultanat de Johor à un conflit de succession entre ses deux fils, Hus-
sein et Abdul Rahman. Alors que le Royaume-Uni avait reconnu l’aîné,
Hussein (qui était installé à Singapour), comme héritier, les Pays-Bas

considéraient comme tel le cadet, Abdul Rahman (installé à Riau

1Le temenggong était, dans les anciens Etats malais, un haut fonctionnaire. Au Johor,
durant la première moitié du XIXiècle, en raison des rivalités internes entre le sultan et
le temenggong, les Etats souhaitant effectuer des transactions importantes tendaient à
rechercher l’approbation de l’un et de l’autre. En 1855, le sultan transféra au temenggong
l’ensemble de son autorité au Johor.

17was based in Riau, present day Pulau Bintan in Indonesia). Following
the signing of the 1824 Anglo-Dutch Treaty, Sultan Abdul Rahman sent

a letter dated 25 June 1825 to his brother, in which, “in complete agree-
ment with the spirit and the content of the treaty concluded between their
Majesties, the Kings of the Netherlands and Great Britain” whereby “the
division of the lands of Johor, Pahang, Riau and Lingga [was] stipu-
lated”, he donated to Sultan Hussein “[t]he part of the lands assigned to

[the latter]”. Sultan Abdul Rahman wrote to his brother that:
“Your territory, thus, extends over Johor and Pahang on the

mainland or on the Malay Peninsula. The territory of Your Brother
[Abdul Rahman] extends out over the islands of Lingga, Bintan,
Galang, Bulan, Karimon and all other islands. Whatsoever may be
in the sea, this is the territory of Your Brother, and whatever is situ-

ated on the mainland is yours.”
24. In 1826 the East India Company established the Straits Settle-

ments, a grouping of the company’s territories consisting, inter alia,of
Penang, Singapore and Malacca.
25. Between March 1850 and October 1851 a lighthouse was con-
structed on Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh. The circumstances of its
construction will be considered later in this Judgment.

26. In 1867 the Straits Settlements became a British crown colony,
making the Settlements answerable directly to the Colonial Office in Lon-
don. In 1885 the British Government and the State of Johor concluded
the Johor Treaty which gave the United Kingdom overland trade and
transit rights through the State of Johor and responsibility for its foreign

relations, as well as providing for British protection of its territorial
integrity. In 1895 the British Government established the Federated
Malay States, a federation of four protectorates (Selangor, Perak, Negeri
Sembilan and Pahang) on the Malay peninsula. Johor formed part of the
“Unfederated Malay States”, an expression used not to denote a single

entity but rather to describe those States which were not comprised
within the Federated Malay States or the Straits Settlements.

27. In 1914, British influence in Johor was formalized and increased

through the appointment of a British Adviser.
28. On 19 October 1927 the Governor of the Straits Settlements and
the Sultan of Johor signed the “Straits Settlement and Johor Territorial
Waters Agreement” (hereinafter “the 1927 Agreement”). This Agreement
provided for the retrocession of certain “seas, straits and islets” that had

originally been ceded by Johor to the East India Company under the
Crawfurd Treaty.
29. The Straits Settlements were dissolved in 1946; that same year the
Malayan Union was created, comprising part of the former Straits Set-

tlements (excluding Singapore), the Federated Malay States and five
Unfederated Malay States (including Johor). From 1946, Singapore was

18— aujourd’hui Pulau Bintan, en Indonésie). A la suite de la signature du
traité anglo-néerlandais de 1824, le sultan Abdul Rahman envoya le

25 juin 1825 une lettre à son frère aux termes de laquelle, «conformément
à l’esprit et au contenu du traité conclu entre Leurs Majestés le roi des
Pays-Bas et le roi d’Angleterre», par lequel avaient été «partagés les ter-
ritoires du Johor et du Pahang, de Riau et de Lingga», il cédait au sultan
Hussein «les parties de territoire qui ... [avaient] été attribuées» à ce der-

nier. Il y indiquait:
«Votre territoire, donc, s’étend sur le Johor et le Pahang, sur le

continent, ou la péninsule malaise. Le territoire de votre frère [Abdul
Rahman] s’étend au large des côtes sur les îles de Lingga, Bintan,
Galang, Bulan, Karimon et toutes les autres îles. Tout ce qui se
trouve en mer appartient à votre frère et tout ce qui se trouve sur le

continent vous appartient.»
24. En 1826, la Compagnie des Indes orientales créa les Etablissements

des détroits, un regroupement de territoires de la Compagnie constitué
notamment de Penang, Singapour et Malacca.
25. Entre mars 1850 et octobre 1851, un phare fut érigé sur Pedra
Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh. Les circonstances de sa construction seront
examinées plus loin.

26. En 1867, les Etablissements des détroits devinrent une colonie de la
Couronne britannique; ils relevaient donc désormais directement du
Colonial Office (ministère britannique des colonies) à Londres. En 1885,
le Gouvernement britannique et l’Etat du Johor conclurent le traité de
Johor, qui reconnaissait au Royaume-Uni des droits de transit et de com-

merce terrestres dans l’Etat du Johor, lui conférait la responsabilité des
relations extérieures de ce dernier et lui confiait la tâche de protéger
l’intégrité du territoire. En 1895, le Gouvernement britannique créa les
Etats malais fédérés, fédération de quatre protectorats (Selangor, Perak,
Negeri Sembilan et Pahang) de la péninsule malaise. Le Johor pour sa

part relevait des «Etats malais non fédérés», expression désignant non
pas une entité en tant que telle, mais simplement ceux des Etats qui ne
faisaient partie ni des Etats malais fédérés ni des Etablissements des
détroits.
27. En 1914, l’influence britannique au Johor fut officialisée et renfor-

cée par la nomination d’un conseiller britannique.
28. Le 19 octobre 1927, le gouverneur des Etablissements des détroits
et le sultan de Johor signèrent un «accord relatif aux eaux territoriales
des Etablissements des détroits et du Johor» (ci-après l’«accord de 1927»).
Cet accord prévoyait la rétrocession au Johor d’une partie des «eaux,

détroits et îlots» que celui-ci avait initialement cédés à la Compagnie
anglaise des Indes orientales par le traité Crawfurd.
29. Les Etablissements des détroits furent dissous en 1946. Cette même
année fut créée l’Union malaise, qui comprenait une partie des anciens

Etablissements des détroits (à l’exception de Singapour), les Etats malais
fédérés et cinq Etats malais non fédérés (dont le Johor). A partir de 1946,

18administered as a British Crown Colony in its own right. In 1948 the
Malayan Union became the Federation of Malaya, a grouping of British

colonies and Malay States under the protection of the British. The Fed-
eration of Malaya gained independence from Britain in 1957, with Johor
as a constituent state of the Federation. In 1958 Singapore became a self-
governing colony. In 1963 the Federation of Malaysia was established,

formed by the merger of the Federation of Malaya with the former Brit-
ish colonies of Singapore, Sabah (then North Borneo) and Sarawak. In
1965 Singapore left the Federation and became a sovereign and inde-
pendent State.

4. H ISTORY OF THE D ISPUTE

30. On 21 December 1979 Malaysia published a map entitled “Terri-
torial Waters and Continental Shelf Boundaries of Malaysia” (published

by the Director of National Mapping, Malaysia) (hereinafter “the
1979 map”), which showed the outer limits and co-ordinates of the ter-
ritorial sea and continental shelf claimed by Malaysia. The map depicted
the island of Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh as lying within Malaysia’s
territorial waters. By a diplomatic Note dated 14 February 1980 Singa-

pore rejected Malaysia’s “claim” to Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh and
requested that the 1979 map be corrected.

31. Singapore’s Note of 14 February 1980 led to an exchange of corre-

spondence and subsequently to a series of intergovernmental talks in
1993-1994 which did not bring a resolution of the matter. During the first
round of talks in February 1993 the question of the appurtenance of
Middle Rocks and South Ledge was also raised. In view of the lack of
progress in the bilateral negotiations, the Parties agreed to submit the dis-

pute for resolution by the International Court of Justice. The Special
Agreement was signed in February 2003, and notified to the Court
in July 2003 (see paragraph 1 above).

*

32. The Court recalls that, in the context of a dispute related to sov-
ereignty over land such as the present one, the date upon which the dis-
pute crystallized is of significance. Its significance lies in distinguishing

between those acts which should be taken into consideration for the pur-
pose of establishing or ascertaining sovereignty and those acts occurring
after such date,

“which are in general meaningless for that purpose, having been car-
ried out by a State which, already having claims to assert in a legal
dispute, could have taken those actions strictly with the aim of but-
tressing those claims” (Territorial and Maritime Dispute between
Nicaragua and Honduras in the Caribbean Sea (Nicaragua v. Hon-

duras), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2007 , pp. 697-698, para. 117).

19Singapour fut gouvernée comme une colonie de la Couronne britannique
à part entière. En 1948, l’Union malaise devint la Fédération de Malaya,

un groupement de colonies britanniques et d’Etats malais sous protection
britannique. La Fédération de Malaya obtint son indépendance de la
Grande-Bretagne en 1957, le Johor constituant l’un des Etats membres de
la Fédération. En 1958, Singapour devint une colonie autonome. En 1963
fut créée la Fédération de Malaisie, issue d’une fusion entre la Fédération

de Malaya et les anciennes colonies britanniques de Singapour, du Sabah
(qui était alors le Nord-Bornéo) et du Sarawak. En 1965, Singapour
abandonna la Fédération pour devenir un Etat souverain et indépendant.

4. H ISTORIQUE DU DIFFÉREND

30. Le 21 décembre 1979, la Malaisie a publié une carte intitulée
«Eaux territoriales et limites du plateau continental de la Malaisie» (édi-
tée par le directeur de l’Institut national de cartographie de la Malaisie)
(dénommée ci-après la «carte de 1979») et représentant les limites exté-

rieures de la mer territoriale et du plateau continental revendiqués par la
Malaisie ainsi que les coordonnées de leurs points d’inflexion. La carte
situe l’île de Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh dans les eaux territoriales de
la Malaisie. Par une note diplomatique datée du 14 février 1980, Singa-

pour a rejeté la «revendication» de la Malaisie sur Pedra Branca/Pulau
Batu Puteh et a demandé que la carte de 1979 soit corrigée.
31. La note de Singapour du 14 février 1980 a conduit à un échange de
correspondance puis, entre 1993 et 1994, à une série de pourparlers entre
les deux gouvernements, qui n’ont pas permis de régler la question. La

question de l’appartenance de Middle Rocks et de South Ledge a égale-
ment été soulevée lors des premiers pourparlers, en février 1993. Par
suite de l’échec des négociations bilatérales, les Parties sont convenues
de soumettre le différend à la Cour internationale de Justice. Le com-
promis a été signé en février 2003 et notifié à la Cour en juillet 2003 (voir

paragraphe 1 ci-dessus).

*
32. La Cour rappelle que, dans le contexte d’un différend relatif, comme

en l’espèce, à la souveraineté sur un territoire, la date à laquelle le différend
s’est cristallisé est importante. Cette importance réside en ceci qu’elle per-
met de faire la part entre les actes qui doivent être pris en considération
aux fins d’établir ou de prouver la souveraineté et ceux qui sont postérieurs
à cette date,

«lesquels ne sont généralement pas pertinents en tant qu’ils sont le
fait d’un Etat qui, ayant déjà à faire valoir certaines revendications
dans le cadre d’un différend juridique, pourrait avoir accompli les

actes en question dans le seul but d’étayer celles-ci» (Différend ter-
ritorial et maritime entre le Nicaragua et le Honduras dans la mer
des Caraïbes (Nicaragua c. Honduras) , arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2007 ,
p. 697-698, par. 117).

19As the Court explained in the Indonesia/Malaysia case,

“it cannot take into consideration acts having taken place after
the date on which the dispute between the Parties crystallized unless
such acts are a normal continuation of prior acts and are not under-

taken for the purpose of improving the legal position of the Party
which relies on them” (Sovereignty over Pulau Ligitan and Pulau
Sipadan (Indonesia/Malaysia), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2002 ,
p. 682, para. 135).

*

33. The Parties are agreed that, with regard to Pedra Branca/Pulau
Batu Puteh, the dispute crystallized in 1980, when Singapore and Malay-
sia formally opposed each other’s claims to the island. According to
Malaysia, “[t]he Protest Note of 14 February 1980 crystallized the dis-
pute. On this basis the critical date for the dispute over Pulau Batu Puteh

is 14 February 1980.” For its part, Singapore claims that “it was only in
1979 that Malaysia made a formal claim to the island through the pub-
lication of its map”, which Singapore protested against through its dip-
lomatic Note of 14 February 1980. Singapore thus refers to “the 1979-
1980 critical date”.

34. In the view of the Court, it was on 14 February 1980, the time of
Singapore’s protest in response to Malaysia’s publication of the 1979 map,
that the dispute as to sovereignty over Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh
crystallized.
35. With regard to Middle Rocks and South Ledge, the Court notes

that the Parties disagree as to the date when the dispute crystallized.
According to Malaysia, it was on 6 February 1993, when Singapore alleg-
edly “for the first time during the first round of bilateral discussions
between the Parties . . . included Middle Rocks and South Ledge in addi-
tion to its claim to Pulau Batu Puteh”. Singapore does not deny that it

asserted a claim to Middle Rocks and South Ledge on 6 February 1993
but explains that this “claim” was made in “response to Malaysia’s state-
ment made a day earlier describing Middle Rocks and South Ledge as
two Malaysian islands” (emphasis in the original). Singapore stresses that
its long held position is that Middle Rocks and South Ledge cannot be

considered as distinct from Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh and thus “[i]t
follows that the critical date for all three features must naturally be the
same”.

36. The Court observes that Singapore’s Note of 14 February 1980

refers explicitly only to Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh. Moreover, Sing-
apore has not provided any contemporaneous evidence that it intended
to include Middle Rocks and South Ledge within the scope of this Note.
In the circumstances, the Court concludes that the dispute as to sover-

eignty over Middle Rocks and South Ledge crystallized on 6 February
1993.

20Ainsi qu’elle l’a expliqué dans l’affaire Indonésie/Malaisie, la Cour

«ne saurait prendre en considération des actes qui se sont produits
après la date à laquelle le différend entre les Parties s’est cristallisé, à
moins que ces activités ne constituent la continuation normale d’acti-

vités antérieures et pour autant qu’elles n’aient pas été entreprises en
vue d’améliorer la position juridique des Parties qui les invoquent»
(Souveraineté sur Pulau Ligitan et Pulau Sipadan (Indonésie/Malai-
sie), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2002 , p. 682, par. 135).

*

33. Les Parties conviennent que, s’agissant de Pedra Branca/Pulau
Batu Puteh, le différend s’est cristallisé en 1980, lorsque Singapour et la
Malaisie ont formellement contesté leurs revendications respectives sur
l’île. Selon la Malaisie, «[c]’est [la] note de protestation du 14 février 1980
qui [a] cristallis[é] le différend. La date critique pour le différend sur

Pulau Batu Puteh est donc le 14 février 1980». Singapour, pour sa part,
prétend que «ce n’est qu’en 1979 [que la Malaisie] a officiellement for-
mulé une revendication sur l’île en publiant la carte» contre laquelle Sin-
gapour a protesté dans sa note diplomatique du 14 février 1980. Singa-
pour parle donc de «la date critique de 1979-1980».

34. De l’avis de la Cour, c’est le 14 février 1980, date à laquelle Sin-
gapour a protesté contre la publication par la Malaisie de la carte
de 1979, que s’est cristallisé le différend relatif à la souveraineté sur Pedra
Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh.
35. S’agissant de Middle Rocks et de South Ledge, la Cour constate

que les Parties sont en désaccord sur la date à laquelle le différend s’est
cristallisé. La Malaisie estime qu’il s’agit du 6 février 1993, date à laquelle
Singapour aurait «pour la première fois, pendant la première série de dis-
cussions bilatérales entre les Parties, ... ajout[é] Middle Rocks et South
Ledge à ses prétentions sur Pulau Batu Puteh». Singapour ne conteste

pas avoir formulé des prétentions sur Middle Rocks et South Ledge le
6 février 1993, mais précise que ces «prétentions» constituaient «[s]a ré-
ponse à la déclaration faite la veille par la Malaisie et présentant Middle
Rocks et South Ledge comme deux îles malaisiennes» (les italiques
sont dans l’original). Singapour fait valoir qu’elle a toujours soutenu que

Middle Rocks et South Ledge ne sauraient être considérées comme des
formations distinctes de Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh et qu’«[i]l en
résulte que la date critique pour chacune de ces trois formations doit
naturellement être la même».
36. La Cour fait observer que la note de Singapour du 14 février 1980

ne mentionne explicitement que Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh. En
outre, Singapour n’a produit aucun élément de l’époque prouvant qu’elle
entendait couvrir par cette note Middle Rocks et South Ledge. Dans ces
circonstances, la Cour conclut que le différend relatif à la souverai-

neté sur Middle Rocks et South Ledge s’est cristallisé le 6 février
1993.

20 5. SOVEREIGNTY OVER PEDRA BRANCA /PULAU B ATU P UTEH

5.1. Arguments of the Parties

37. Malaysia states its position on the question of title to Pedra
Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh in its Memorial as follows:

“Malaysia has an original title to Pulau Batu Puteh of long stand-
ing. Pulau Batu Puteh is, and has always been, part of the Malaysian

State of Johor. Nothing has happened to displace Malaysia’s sov-
ereignty over it. Singapore’s presence on the island for the sole pur-
pose of constructing and maintaining a lighthouse there — with the
permission of the territorial sovereign — is insufficient to vest sov-
ereignty in it.”

38. According to Malaysia,

“PBP could not at any relevant time be considered as terra nullius
and hence susceptible to acquisition through occupation. There is

nothing to demonstrate that Johor had lost its title since there is no
evidence that at any time it had the intention of ceding, let alone
abandoning its sovereignty over the island.”

39. In its Memorial Singapore formulates its case on the question of
title to Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh in the following terms:

“Singapore’s case is that the events of 1847 to 1851 . . . constituted a

taking of lawful possession of Pedra Branca by agents of the British
Crown. In the years that followed, the British Crown, and subse-
quently, Singapore continually exercised acts of State authority in
respect of Pedra Branca. This effective and peaceful exercise of State
authority confirmed and maintained the title gained in the period

1847 to 1851 by the taking of lawful possession on behalf of the
Crown.”

Singapore sums up its position as follows:

“The basis of Singapore’s title to Pedra Branca can be analysed as
follows:
(a) The selection of Pedra Branca as the site for building of the

lighthouse with the authorization of the British Crown consti-
tuted a classic taking of possession à titre de souverain.
(b) Title was acquired by the British Crown in accordance with the
legal principles governing acquisition of territory in 1847-1851.

(c) The title acquired in 1847-1851 has been maintained by the
British Crown and its lawful successor, the Republic of Singa-
pore.”

40. It is to be noted that, initially, in Singapore’s Memorial and Coun-

21 5. LA SOUVERAINETÉ SUR P EDRA B RANCA /PULAU BATU PUTEH

5.1. Argumentation des Parties

37. La Malaisie, dans son mémoire, expose en ces termes sa position
quant à la question du titre sur Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh:

«[L]a Malaisie a sur Pulau Batu Puteh un titre originaire ancien.
Pulau Batu Puteh fait partie, et a toujours fait partie, de l’Etat

malaisien du Johor. Il ne s’est rien passé qui ait entraîné un transfert
du titre détenu par la Malaisie. La présence de Singapour sur l’île à
seule fin d’y construire et d’y entretenir un phare — avec l’autorisa-
tion du souverain territorial — ne suffit pas à lui conférer la souve-
raineté sur celle-ci.»

38. Selon la Malaisie,

«PBP n’a à aucun moment pertinent pu être considérée comme
terra nullius ni, en conséquence, comme susceptible d’acquisition par

voie d’occupation. Rien ne permet d’établir que le Johor a perdu son
titre puisque rien n’atteste qu’il ait jamais eu l’intention de céder, ni
à plus forte raison d’abandonner, sa souveraineté sur l’île.»

39. Singapour, dans son mémoire, développe son argumentation
concernant la question du titre sur Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh dans
les termes suivants:

«Singapour considère les faits survenus entre 1847 et 1851

... comme constituant une prise de possession licite de Pedra Bran-
ca par les agents de la Couronne britannique. Dans les années qui
suivirent, la Couronne britannique et, par la suite, Singapour ne
cessèrent d’accomplir des actes d’autorité étatique à l’égard de Pedra
Branca. Cet exercice effectif et pacifique de l’autorité étatique

confirma et préserva le titre acquis entre 1847 et 1851 par la prise
de possession licite au nom de la Couronne.»

Singapour résume ainsi sa position:

«Le fondement du titre de Singapour sur Pedra Branca peut être
analysé comme suit:
a) Le choix, avec l’autorisation de la Couronne britannique, de

Pedra Branca comme site pour la construction du phare consti-
tua une prise de possession classique à titre de souverain.
b) Le titre fut acquis par la Couronne britannique conformément
aux principes juridiques régissant l’acquisition territoriale dans

la période allant de 1847 à 1851.
c) Le titre acquis entre 1847 et 1851 a depuis été conservé par
la Couronne britannique et son successeur, la République de
Singapour.»

40. Il est à noter qu’au départ, dans le mémoire et le contre-mémoire

21ter-Memorial, no reference is made expressly to the status of Pedra
Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh as terra nullius. In its Reply Singapore expressly

indicated that “[i]t is obvious that the status of Pedra Branca in 1847 was
that of terra nullius”. At the stage of the oral pleadings Singapore also
referred to the legal status of Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh as terra nul-
lius. In his statement, the Agent of Singapore contended as follows:

“Singapore’s title to Pedra Branca is based upon the taking of
lawful possession of the island by the British authorities in Singa-

pore during the period 1847 to 1851. Malaysia claims that, prior to
1847, Pedra Branca was under the sovereignty of Johor. However,
there is absolutely no evidence to support Malaysia’s claim.
Mr. President, the truth is that, prior to 1847, Pedra Branca was

terra nullius, and had never been the subject of a prior claim, or any
manifestation of sovereignty by any sovereign entity.”

41. In its oral pleadings Singapore advanced, as an alternative to its
claim that Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh was terra nullius, the argu-
ment that the legal status of the island was indeterminate at the time of
the United Kingdom’s taking possession of it. It did not pursue this

further.
42. However put, Singapore’s contentions, including its alternative
argument mentioned above, are premised on its view that Malaysia’s
claim of title to Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh, based on its alleged
ancient original title to the island since the days of the Sultanate of

Johor, cannot stand. The Court notes therefore that the issue is reduced
to whether Malaysia can establish its original title dating back to the
period before Singapore’s activities of 1847 to 1851, and conversely
whether Singapore can establish its claim that it took “lawful possession
of Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh” at some stage from the middle of the

nineteenth century when the construction of the lighthouse by agents of
the British Crown started.

5.2. The question of the burden of proof

43. On the question of the burden of proof, Singapore states:

“The burden remains at all times on Malaysia to produce specific
proof that old Johor had sovereignty over Pedra Branca and carried

out acts of a sovereign nature on or over the island. Malaysia has
produced no evidence whatever in this regard.”

Further, citing the Judgment of this Court in the Temple of Preah Vihear
case, Singapore argues as follows:

22de Singapour, il n’est pas expressément affirmé que Pedra Branca/Pulau
Batu Puteh aurait été terra nullius. Dans sa réplique, Singapour déclare

expressément qu’«[i]l est évident que, en 1847, Pedra Branca était terra
nullius». A l’audience, Singapour a également employé l’expression
terra nullius pour qualifier le statut juridique de Pedra Branca/Pulau
Batu Puteh. Dans son exposé, l’agent de Singapour a présenté la thèse
suivante:

«Singapour fonde son titre sur Pedra Branca sur la prise de pos-
session licite de l’île par les autorités britanniques de Singapour au

cours de la période allant de 1847 à 1851. La Malaisie affirme que,
jusqu’en 1847, Pedra Branca relevait de la souveraineté du Johor. Il
n’existe cependant aucun élément de preuve qui vienne appuyer cette
affirmation. En réalité, monsieur le Président, Pedra Branca était

jusqu’en 1847 terra nullius et aucune entité souveraine ne l’avait
jamais revendiquée ou n’avait accompli d’actes attestant sa souve-
raineté sur elle.»

41. A l’audience, Singapour a fait valoir, à titre subsidiaire par rapport
à sa prétention selon laquelle Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh était terra
nullius, l’argument selon lequel le statut juridique de l’île était indéter-
miné à l’époque où le Royaume-Uni en prit possession. Elle n’a pas déve-

loppé davantage cet argument.
42. De quelque manière qu’ils soient formulés, les arguments de Sin-
gapour, y compris celui qu’elle a fait valoir à titre subsidiaire et dont il
vient d’être fait état, reposent sur la thèse singapourienne qui voudrait
que ne puisse être retenue la revendication par la Malaisie de la souve-

raineté sur Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh fondée sur le titre originaire
ancien que celle-ci aurait détenu sur l’île depuis l’époque du Sultanat de
Johor. La Cour note par conséquent que la question se limite à savoir si
la Malaisie peut établir son titre originaire à compter de la période qui a
précédé les activités de Singapour entre 1847 et 1851 et si, inversement,

Singapour peut apporter la preuve de son affirmation selon laquelle
il y aurait eu de sa part prise de «possession licite de Pedra Branca/
Pulau Batu Puteh» à un moment ou à un autre à partir du milieu du
XIX siècle, époque à laquelle les agents de la Couronne britannique
entreprirent la construction du phare.

5.2. La question de la charge de la preuve

43. Sur la question de la charge de la preuve, Singapour déclare:

«La Malaisie est en tout état de cause tenue d’apporter la preuve
spécifique que l’ancien Johor avait souveraineté sur Pedra Branca et

qu’il a exercé des actes à caractère souverain sur cette île ou à son
égard. La Malaisie n’a produit aucune preuve en ce sens.»

Citant l’arrêt de la Cour en l’affaire du Temple de Préah Vihéar, Singa-
pour déclare en outre que:

22 “Malaysia appears to forget that ‘the burden of proof in respect of
[the facts and contentions on which the respective claims of the

Parties are based] will of course lie on the Party asserting or putting
them forward’ (Temple of Preah Vihear (Cambodia v. Thailand),
Merits, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1962 , p. 16); it is thus for Malay-
sia to show that Johor could demonstrate some title to Pedra Branca,
yet it has done no such thing.”

44. Malaysia agrees that the burden of proof lies with the Party assert-
ing a fact. It therefore contends that Singapore must establish that the

taking of possession of Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh was possible
because Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh was terra nullius at the relevant
time. Malaysia further asserts that Singapore’s “terra nullius claim” rests
on inference and that Singapore remained silent or failed to produce the
“inconvertible legal evidence” in support of its claim.

45. It is a general principle of law, confirmed by the jurisprudence of
this Court, that a party which advances a point of fact in support of its
claim must establish that fact (Application of the Convention on the Pre-
vention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and Herze-

govina v. Serbia and Montenegro), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2007 ,p.75,
para. 204, citing Military and Paramilitary Activities in and against Nica-
ragua (Nicaragua v. United States of America), Jurisdiction and Admis-
sibility, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1984 , p. 437, para. 101).

5.3. Legal status of Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh before the 1840s

5.3.1. Original title to Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh

46. In light of the respective claims of the Parties in the present case,

the Court will first examine whether Malaysia, which contends that its
predecessor — the Sultanate of Johor — held original title to Pedra
Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh and retained it up to the 1840s, has established
its claim.
47. Malaysia argues that

“[t]he Sultanate [of Johor] covered all the islands within this large
area, including all those in the Singapore Straits, such as Pulau Batu

Puteh and the islands to the north and south of the Straits, taking in
Singapore Island and the adjacent islands”
and points to the fact that “Pulau Batu Puteh, sitting at the eastern

entrance of the Singapore Straits, lies right in the middle of the old Sul-
tanate of Johor”.
48. In support of its claim, Malaysia asserts that the island in question
had always been part of the territory of the Sultan of Johor since the

kingdom came into existence and could not at any relevant time be con-
sidered as terra nullius and hence susceptible of acquisition through occu-

23 «la Malaisie semble oublier que «la charge de ... prouver [les faits et
allégations qui fondent les prétentions respectives des Parties]

incombe évidemment à la Partie qui les affirme ou les avance» (Tem-
ple de Préah Vihéar (Cambodge c. Thaïlande), fond, arrêt, C.I.J.
Recueil 1962, p. 16); c’est donc à la Malaisie de montrer que Johor
pouvait faire état d’un titre quelconque sur Pedra Branca, or elle n’a
rien fait de tel».

44. La Malaisie convient qu’il incombe à la Partie qui allègue un fait
d’en rapporter la preuve. Elle soutient donc que Singapour doit établir

que la prise de possession de Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh était
possible parce que Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh était terra nullius à
l’époque pertinente. La Malaisie affirme en outre que l’argument de
Singapour selon lequel l’île était terra nullius repose sur une présomp-
tion et que Singapour est à cet égard restée muette ou n’a pas produit

de «preuve juridique irréfutable» étayant sa prétention.
45. Il est un principe général de droit, confirmé par la jurisprudence de
la Cour, selon lequel une partie qui avance un élément de fait à l’appui de
sa prétention doit établir celui-ci (Application de la convention pour la
prévention et la répression du crime de génocide (Bosnie-Herzégovine

c. Serbie-et-Monténégro), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2007 , p. 75, par. 204,
citant l’affaire relative aux Activités militaires et paramilitaires au Nica-
ragua et contre celui-ci (Nicaragua c. Etats-Unis d’Amérique), compé-
tence et recevabilité, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1984 , p. 437, par. 101).

5.3. Statut juridique de Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh
avant les années 1840

5.3.1. Titre originaire sur Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh

46. Au vu des prétentions respectives des Parties en l’espèce, la Cour

recherchera tout d’abord si la Malaisie, qui affirme que son prédécesseur
— le Sultanat de Johor — détenait un titre originaire sur Pedra Branca/
Pulau Batu Puteh et le conserva jusque dans les années 1840, a démontré
le bien-fondé de sa prétention.
47. La Malaisie soutient que

«[l]e Sultanat [de Johor] englobait toutes les îles comprises dans cette
vaste zone, y compris toutes celles situées dans le détroit de Singa-

pour, comme Pulau Batu Puteh, et celles situées au nord et au sud
du détroit, dont l’île de Singapour et les îles adjacentes»,
et fait observer que «Pulau Batu Puteh, qui est située à l’entrée est du

détroit de Singapour, se trouve en plein cŒur de l’ancien Sultanat de
Johor».
48. A l’appui de sa prétention, la Malaisie affirme que, depuis que le
royaume a vu le jour, l’île en question a toujours fait partie du territoire

du sultan de Johor et n’a à aucun moment pertinent pu être considérée
comme terra nullius ni, partant, comme susceptible d’acquisition par voie

23pation. It claims that “rather it is the case that from time immemorial
Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh was under the sovereignty of the Sultan-

ate of Johor”. According to Malaysia, its situation is similar to that
depicted in the award rendered in the Meerauge arbitration, from which
it quotes the following:

“Possession immemorial is that which has lasted for such a long
time that it is impossible to provide evidence of a different situation
and of which anybody recalls having heard talk.” (Meerauge Arbi-
tral Award (Austria/Hungary) , 13 September 1902, German origi-

nal text in Nouveau recueil général de traités, 3rd Series, Vol. III,
p. 80; translation into English provided by Malaysia from the French
translation in Revue de droit international et de législation comparée ,
Tome VIII, 2nd Series (1906), p. 207.)

49. By contrast, Singapore advances its contention that Pedra Branca/
Pulau Batu Puteh, prior to 1847, had been terra nullius susceptible of the

lawful taking of possession by the United Kingdom in 1847-1851. As for
Malaysia’s position that Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh was part of the
Sultanate of “Old Johor”, Singapore contends that there is no evidence
that the Johor Sultanate claimed or exercised authority over Pedra
Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh, during its first period (1512-1641) which began

in 1512 with the fall of the Malacca Sultanate to the Portuguese, and dur-
ing which Old Johor was constantly harried by the Portuguese and the
Kingdom of Aceh, during its second period (1641-1699), when the Dutch,
in alliance with Johor drove the Portuguese out of Malacca and when the
power and influence of Johor was at its height, during its third period

(1699-1784) when the death of Sultan Mahmud II without a clear heir led
to a period of internal strife and instability during which many vassals
broke away from the Johor Sultanate, or during the fourth period (1784-
1824), when “the old empire was in a state of dissolution”.

50. Thus Singapore concludes that “there is no evidence that Pedra
Branca belonged to the Johor Sultanate at any point in its history and
certainly not at the beginning of the nineteenth century”.

51. Singapore has offered no further specific evidence to substantiate
its claim relating to the status of Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh as
terra nullius prior to the construction of the lighthouse on it in 1847.
Instead, it emphasizes that Malaysia, for its part, has submitted hardly

any evidence to prove that the Sultanate of Johor had indeed effective
control in the region, and specifically over the island of Pedra Branca/
Pulau Batu Puteh. Singapore, quoting from the official 1949 Annual
Report published by the Government of the State of Johor, according to

which by the beginning of the nineteenth century “the old empire was in
a state of dissolution”, concludes that “[t]his was the political condition

24d’occupation. Elle affirme que, «en réalité, Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu

Puteh se trouvait sous la souveraineté du Sultanat de Johor depuis des
temps immémoriaux». Selon la Malaisie, sa situation s’apparente à celle
décrite dans la sentence rendue en l’affaire Meerauge, dont elle cite le
passage suivant:

«La possession immémoriale est celle qui dure depuis si longtemps
qu’il est impossible de fournir la preuve d’une situation différente et

qu’aucune personne ne se souvient d’en avoir entendu parler.» (Sen-
tence arbitrale Meerauge (Autriche/Hongrie) , 13 septembre 1902,
texte original allemand dans Nouveau recueil général de traités ,
3 série, vol. III, p. 80; traduction française in Revue de droit inter-
e
national et de législation comparée ,2 série, t. VIII, 1906, p. 207.)

49. Singapour soutient quant à elle que Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu
Puteh était, avant 1847, une terra nullius dont il était loisible au Royau-
me-Uni de prendre possession de manière licite entre 1847 et 1851.
A l’allégation de la Malaisie selon laquelle Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu

Puteh faisait partie de l’«ancien» Sultanat de Johor, Singapour répond
qu’il n’existe aucune preuve que le Sultanat de Johor ait revendiqué ou
exercé une autorité sur Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh durant la
première période (1512-1641) — qui débuta lorsque le Sultanat de

Malacca tomba aux mains des Portugais, et au cours de laquelle l’ancien
Johor fut constamment en butte aux attaques des Portugais et du
royaume d’Aceh —, pas davantage que durant la deuxième période
(1641-1699) — qui vit, après que les Néerlandais, alliés au Johor, eurent
chassé les Portugais de Malacca, la puissance et l’influence du Sultanat

atteindre leur apogée —, la troisième période (1699-1784) — époque
d’instabilité et de luttes internes provoquées par la mort du sultan
Mahmud II sans héritier clairement désigné, durant laquelle de nombreux
vassaux se détournèrent du Sultanat de Johor — ou la quatrième

période (1784-1824) — quand «l’ancien empire se trouvait en état de
déliquescence».
50. Singapour conclut en conséquence qu’«[a]ucun élément de
preuve n’atteste que Pedra Branca ait appartenu, à une époque quel-
e
conque, et certainement pas au début du XIX siècle, au Sultanat de
Johor».
51. Singapour n’a fourni aucun autre élément spécifique à l’appui de
la thèse selon laquelle Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh était terra nullius

avant la construction du phare en 1847. Elle souligne en revanche que la
Malaisie n’a guère présenté, pour sa part, d’éléments tendant à prouver
que le Sultanat de Johor exerçait bien un contrôle réel sur la région, et en
particulier sur l’île de Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh. Singapour, citant
le rapport annuel officiel de 1949 publié par le gouvernement de l’Etat
e
du Johor, selon lequel, au début du XIX siècle, «l’ancien empire se
trouvait en état de déliquescence», conclut que «[t]elle était la situation
politique du Sultanat en 1819 lorsque les Britanniques débarquèrent à

24of the Sultanate in 1819 when the British arrived in Singapore, and on the
eve of the signing of the Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1824”.

*

52. Regarding the question as to whether “[t]he Sultanate [of Johor]
covered all the islands within this large area [of its territory], including all

those in the Singapore Straits, such as Pulau Batu Puteh . . .”, the Court
starts by observing that it is not disputed that the Sultanate of Johor,
since it came into existence in 1512, established itself as a sovereign State
with a certain territorial domain under its sovereignty in this part of

southeast Asia.
53. Thus already at the beginning of the seventeenth century,
Hugo Grotius, commenting on the military conflict between the Sultan-
ate of Johor and Portugal, stated that:

“There is in India a kingdom called Johore, which has long been
considered a sovereign principality [supremi principatus], so that its
ruler clearly possessed the authority necessary to conduct a public

war [against the Portuguese].” (Hugo Grotius, De Jure Praedae,
Vol. I Translation, 1950 (Gwladys L. Williams), Classics of Inter-
national Law, p. 314.)

54. In the middle of the seventeenth century, the Dutch Governor of
Malacca wrote a letter to the Dutch East India Company proposing that
the Dutch East India Company send two boats to the Straits of Singa-
pore to “cruise to the south of Singapore Straits under the Hook of Bar-

bukit and in the vicinity of Pedra Branca” in order to prevent Chinese
traders from entering Johor River. The proposal made in the letter was
pursued, and two junks were taken in the Straits and diverted to Malacca.
However, this incident led to a protest from the Sultan. According to the
report of the Governor-General in Batavia to the Dutch East India Com-

pany in Amsterdam:
“The king of Johor ha[d] sent an envoy to the governor of Melaka to

indicate his great displeasure regarding the seizure of the above-
mentioned two junks, not without using offensive and threatening
terms in the event that the same thing occurs in the future.”

55. It is the view of the Court that this incident is a clear indication of
the Sultan of Johor’s position that the seizure of the junks in the waters
in question was an infringement of his right as sovereign in the area con-
cerned.

56. Coming to the early decades of the nineteenth century, the Court
notes that three letters, all from 1824, written by the British Resident in
Singapore, John Crawfurd, are of particular relevance. First, in his report
of 10 January 1824 to the Government of India, John Crawfurd recalled

that in 1819, when the Settlement of Singapore was established, the Sul-
tanate of Johor extended on the Continent from Malacca to the extrem-

25Singapour, ainsi qu’à la veille de la signature du traité anglo-néerlandais

de 1824».

*

52. En ce qui concerne la question de savoir si «[l]e Sultanat [de Johor]

englobait toutes les îles comprises dans [la] vaste zone [correspondant à
son territoire], y compris toutes celles situées dans le détroit de Singapour
comme Pulau Batu Puteh», la Cour commencera par faire observer qu’il
n’est pas contesté que le Sultanat de Johor, après sa naissance en 1512, se

soit constitué en un Etat souverain doté d’un domaine territorial spéci-
fique dans cette partie de l’Asie du Sud-Est.
53. Ainsi, au début du XVII siècle déjà, en commentant le conflit
militaire qui opposait le Sultanat de Johor au Portugal, Hugo Grotius

écrivait:
«Il y a aux Indes un empire qui se nomme Johore, considéré

depuis longtemps comme une principauté importante [supremi prin-
cipatus], d’où il résulte que le roi a le pouvoir de faire officiellement
la guerre [contre les Portugais].» (Hugo Grotius, Le droit de prise,
traduction française de H. Houwens Post, 1936, p. 341.)

e
54. Au milieu du XVII siècle, le gouverneur néerlandais de Malacca,
dans une lettre adressée à la Compagnie néerlandaise des Indes orien-
tales, proposa à celle-ci d’envoyer deux navires «croiser au sud du détroit
de Singapour sous le «Hook of Barbukit» et au voisinage de Pedra
Branca» pour empêcher les commerçants chinois de s’engager sur le

fleuve Johor. Cette proposition fut suivie et deux jonques furent saisies
dans le détroit et déroutées vers Malacca, mais cet incident amena le sul-
tan à protester. Le rapport du gouverneur général à Batavia adressé à la
Compagnie néerlandaise des Indes orientales à Amsterdam indiquait:

«Le roi de Johor a dépêché un envoyé auprès du gouverneur de

Melaka pour faire état du profond déplaisir que lui a causé la saisie
des deux jonques susmentionnées, non sans user d’invectives et de
menaces pour le cas où la même chose se reproduirait.»

55. La Cour estime que cet incident est une indication claire de la posi-
tion du sultan de Johor, selon laquelle la saisie desdites jonques dans les

eaux en question portait atteinte à ses droits en qualité de souverain dans
la zone considérée.
56. S’agissant des premières décennies du XIX siècle, la Cour relève
que trois lettres — toutes datées de 1824 — du résident britannique à Sin-
gapour, John Crawfurd, revêtent une importance particulière. Première-

ment, dans un rapport en date du 10 janvier 1824 adressé au Gouverne-
ment des Indes, John Crawfurd indiquait que, en 1819 — lorsque fut créé
l’Etablissement de Singapour —, le Sultanat de Johor couvrait l’ensemble

25ity of the peninsula on both coasts and embraced “all the islands in the
Mouth of the Straits of Malacca with all those in the China Seas as far as

the Natunas” (emphasis added). The Natunas islands are a long way to
the east of the Straits of Singapore, at approximately 4° North and
109° East or roughly north of the west coast of Borneo. Second, in a let-
ter of 3 August 1824 reporting on the Treaty signed the previous day,
Crawfurd stated that the cession by Johor was not only of the main

island “but extends to the Seas, Straits and Islets (the latter probably not
less than 50 in number) within ten geographical miles of its
coasts . . .” (emphasis in the original). Third, in a letter of 1 October
1824 to the Government of India, he commented on the possible

inconvenience of the exclusion imposed by the 1824 Anglo-Dutch
Treaty on the British Government from entering into political
relations with the chiefs of all the islands lying South to the Straits of
Singapore, in the following terms:

“It does not upon the whole appear to me that the occupation of
Rhio could be beneficial to the British Government, yet its retention
on the part of the Netherlands Government, and our exclusion from
entering into political relations with the Chiefs of all the islands
lying South to the Straits of Singapore and between the peninsula

and Sumatra may prove a matter of some inconvenience to us, as it
is in fact virtually amounts to a dismemberment of the Principality
of Johor, and must thus be productive of some embarrassment and
confusion. This may be easily illustrated by an example. The Cari-
mon Islands and the Malayan Settlement of Bulang are two of the

principal possessions of the Tumongong of Johor or Singapore, and
his claim to them is not only allowed by the rival chiefs but satisfac-
torily ascertained by the voluntary and cheerful allegiance yielded to
him by the inhabitants. By the present Treaty, however, he must
either forego all claims to these possessions, or removing to them,

renounce his connection with the British Government.” (Emphasis
added.)

The Court observes that, as confirmed by the above documents, the sen-
ior British official in the region understood that, before it was divided,
the Sultanate of Johor had an extensive maritime component which
included “all” the islands in the region of the Straits of Singapore.

57. In an article from the Singapore Free Press, dated 25 May 1843
and reporting on “[t]he frequent and regular occurrence of acts of Piracy
in the immediate neighbourhood of Singapore”, it was stated as follows:

“The places and Islands near which these piracies are most fre-

quently committed and where the pirates go for shelter and conceal-
ment, such as Pulo Tinghie, Batu Puteh, Point Romania & c, are all

26de la péninsule, de la latitude de Malacca jusqu’à son extrémité, et com-
prenait «toutes les îles situées au débouché du détroit de Malacca ainsi

que toutes celles des mers de Chine, jusqu’aux Natuna» (les italiques sont
de la Cour), lesquelles se trouvent très à l’est du détroit de Singapour, par
environ 4° de latitude nord et 109° de longitude est, soit approximati-
vement au nord de la côte occidentale de Bornéo. Deuxièmement, dans
une lettre en date du 3 août 1824 relative au traité signé la veille,

John Crawfurd indiquait que la cession effectuée par le Johor ne se limitait
pas à l’île principale, mais «s’étend[ait] aux eaux, détroits et îlots (qui
n’[étaient] probablement pas moins de cinquante), dans les 10 milles
géographiques de ses côtes» (les italiques sont dans l’original). Troi-
er
sièmement, dans une lettre en date du 1 octobre 1824 adressée au
Gouvernement des Indes, John Crawfurd évoquait comme suit les
inconvénients susceptibles de découler de l’interdiction imposée au
Gouvernement britannique par le traité anglo-néerlandais de 1824 de
nouer des relations politiques avec les chefs de toute île située au sud

du détroit de Singapour:

«D’une façon générale, je n’ai pas le sentiment que l’occupation
de Rhio pourrait être utile au Gouvernement britannique. Toutefois,
que le Gouvernement néerlandais conserve ce territoire et que nous
soyons exclus de relations politiques avec les chefs de toutes les îles
situées au sud du détroit de Singapour ainsi qu’entre la péninsule et

Sumatra pourrait se révéler gênant pour nous. En effet, cela revien-
drait presque à un démembrement de la principauté de Johor, ce qui
ne pourrait que causer embarras et confusion. L’exemple suivant le
montre bien: les îles Carimon et l’établissement malais de Bulang
sont deux des principales possessions du tumungong de Johor ou

Singapour, et sa revendication sur ces territoires est non seulement
vue d’un bon Œil par les chefs rivaux, mais surtout acceptée par les
habitants, qui se sont volontairement ralliés à lui, avec enthou-
siasme. En vertu du présent traité, toutefois, le tumungong devrait
soit renoncer à toute prétention sur ces possessions, soit renoncer à

ses liens avec le Gouvernement britannique.» (Les italiques sont de
la Cour.)

La Cour observe que, ainsi que les documents susmentionnés le confir-
ment, le plus haut responsable britannique dans la région considérait
que, avant d’être scindé, le Sultanat de Johor comportait une importante
composante maritime comprenant «toutes» les îles de la région du détroit

de Singapour.
57. Dans un article du Singapore Free Press en date du 25 mai 1843
qui portait sur «le caractère fréquent et régulier des actes de piraterie
dans les environs immédiats de Singapour», il était exposé ce qui suit:

«Les lieux et îles dans le voisinage desquels ces actes de piraterie

sont le plus fréquemment commis et qui servent de repaires aux pi-
rates, tels que Pulo Tinghie, Batu Puteh, Point Romania, etc., sont

26 within the territories of our well beloved ally and pensionary, the
Sultan of Johore, or rather of the Tomungong of Johore, for he is

the real Sovereign.”
58. The Court notes that Singapore rejects this last piece of evidence

on the grounds that “its probative value is highly suspect considering it
does not indicate the source of the information or even the name of its
author”. However, the Court considers the probative value of this report
to lie in the fact that it corroborates other evidence that Johor had sov-
ereignty over the area in question.

59. Thus from at least the seventeenth century until early in the nine-
teenth it was acknowledged that the territorial and maritime domain of
the Kingdom of Johor comprised a considerable portion of the Malaya
Peninsula, straddled the Straits of Singapore and included islands and
islets in the area of the Straits. Specifically, this domain included the area

where Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh is located.

*

60. It now falls to the Court, after having described the general un-
derstanding at the relevant time of the extent of Johor, to ascertain

whether the original title to Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh claimed by
Malaysia is founded in law.
61. Of significance in the present context is the fact that Pedra Branca/
Pulau Batu Puteh had always been known as a navigational hazard in the
Straits of Singapore, an important channel for international navigation

in east-west trade connecting the Indian Ocean with the South China Sea.
It is therefore impossible that the island could have remained unknown
or undiscovered by the local community. Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh
evidently was not terra incognita. It is thus reasonable to infer that Pedra
Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh was viewed as one of the islands lying within

the general geographical scope of the Sultanate of Johor.

62. Another factor of significance which the Court has to take into
consideration in assessing the issue of the original title in the present case
is the fact that throughout the entire history of the old Sultanate of

Johor, there is no evidence that any competing claim had ever been
advanced over the islands in the area of the Straits of Singapore.
63. It is appropriate to recall the pronouncement made by the Perma-
nent Court of International Justice in the case concerning the Legal Sta-
tus of Eastern Greenland , on the significance of the absence of rival

claims. In that case it was the Danish contention that “Denmark pos-
sessed full and entire sovereignty over the whole of Greenland and that
Norway had recognized that sovereignty”, whereas the Norwegian con-
tention was that all the parts of Greenland “which had not been occupied

in such a manner as to bring them effectively under the administration of
the Danish Government” were “terrae nullius, and that if they ceased to

27 tous situés dans les territoires de notre bien-aimé allié et pension-
naire, le sultan de Johore, ou plutôt le tomungong de Johore, car

c’est lui le véritable souverain.»
58. La Cour note que Singapour conteste ce dernier élément de preuve

au motif que «sa valeur probante est fort douteuse étant donné qu’il
n’indique ni la source de l’information ni même le nom de son auteur».
La Cour estime cependant que la valeur probante de cet article réside
dans le fait qu’il corrobore d’autres éléments montrant que le Johor déte-

nait la souveraineté sur la zone en question.
59. Ainsi, à partir du XVII siècle au moins et jusqu’au début du
XIX siècle, il était reconnu que le domaine terrestre et maritime du
royaume de Johor englobait une portion considérable de la péninsule
malaise, s’étendait de part et d’autre du détroit de Singapour et compre-

nait des îles et îlots situés dans la zone du détroit. Ce domaine couvrait
en particulier la zone dans laquelle se trouve Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu
Puteh.

*
60. La Cour ayant rapporté ci-dessus quelle était la perception géné-

rale, à l’époque pertinente, quant à l’étendue du Johor, il lui appartient à
présent de vérifier si le titre originaire sur Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh
que revendique la Malaisie est fondé en droit.
61. Il est révélateur, dans le présent contexte, que Pedra Branca/Pulau

Batu Puteh ait toujours été considérée comme un danger pour la naviga-
tion dans le détroit de Singapour, chenal important reliant l’océan Indien
à la mer de Chine méridionale et utilisé par la navigation internationale
pour le commerce entre l’Orient et l’Occident. Il est donc impossible que
l’île soit demeurée inconnue de la communauté locale ou que celle-ci ne

l’ait pas découverte. Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh n’était pas, à l’évi-
dence, terra incognita. Il est donc raisonnable d’en déduire que Pedra
Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh était considérée comme l’une des îles situées
dans les limites géographiques générales du Sultanat de Johor.

62. Un autre facteur d’importance dont la Cour doit tenir compte
lorsqu’elle analyse la question du titre originaire en l’espèce réside en ceci
que rien n’atteste que, pendant toute l’histoire de l’ancien Sultanat de
Johor, une revendication concurrente ait jamais été formulée sur les îles
situées dans la région du détroit de Singapour.

63. Il convient de rappeler ce qu’a déclaré la Cour permanente de Jus-
tice internationale dans son arrêt rendu en l’affaire du Statut juridique du
Groënland oriental au sujet des conséquences à tirer d’une absence de
prétentions concurrentes. Dans cette affaire, la thèse du Danemark était

que «le Gouvernement danois [avait] la souveraineté pleine et entière sur
l’ensemble du Groënland et [que] ... la Norvège [avait] reconnu cette sou-
veraineté», tandis que, selon la thèse norvégienne, «toutes les parties du
Groënland qui n’avaient pas été occupées de manière à être effecti-
vement placées sous l’administration du Gouvernement danois» étaient

27be terrae nullius they must pass under Norwegian sovereignty” (Legal
Status of Eastern Greenland, Judgment, 1933, P.C.I.J., Series A/B,

No. 53, p. 39).
64. Against this background the Court stated:

“Another circumstance which must be taken into account by any
tribunal which has to adjudicate upon a claim to sovereignty over a
particular territory, is the extent to which the sovereignty is also
claimed by some other Power. In most of the cases involving claims
to territorial sovereignty which have come before an international

tribunal, there have been two competing claims to the sovereignty,
and the tribunal has had to decide which of the two is the stronger.
One of the peculiar features of the present case is that up to 1931
there was no claim by any Power other than Denmark to the sov-
ereignty over Greenland. Indeed, up till 1921, no Power disputed the

Danish claim to sovereignty.” (Ibid., p. 46.)

65. On this basis, the Court came to the following conclusion:
“bearing in mind the absence of any claim to sovereignty by another

Power, and the Arctic and inaccessible character of the uncolonized
parts of the country, the King of Denmark and Norway displayed . . .
in 1721 to 1814 his authority to an extent sufficient to give his coun-
try a valid claim to sovereignty, and that his rights over Greenland
were not limited to the colonized area” (ibid., pp. 50-51).

66. If this conclusion was valid with reference to the thinly populated

and unsettled territory of Eastern Greenland, it should also apply to the
present case involving a tiny uninhabited and uninhabitable island, to
which no claim of sovereignty had been made by any other Power
throughout the years from the early sixteenth century until the middle of
the nineteenth century.

67. The Court further recalls that, as expounded in the Eastern Green-
land case (see paragraph 64 above), international law is satisfied with
varying degrees in the display of State authority, depending on the spe-
cific circumstances of each case.
Moreover, as pointed out in the Island of Palmas case, State authority

should not necessarily be displayed “in fact at every moment on every
point of a territory” (Island of Palmas Case (Netherlands/United States
of America), Award of 4 April 1928, RIAA, Vol. II (1949), p. 840). It was
further stated in the Award that:

“[I]n the exercise of territorial sovereignty there are necessarily
gaps, intermittence in time and discontinuity in space . . . The fact

that a state cannot prove display of sovereignty as regards such a
portion of territory cannot forthwith be interpreted as showing that

28«terrae nullius et, cessant d’être terrae nullius, devaient passer sous la
souveraineté norvégienne» (Statut juridique du Groënland oriental, arrêt,
o
1933, C.P.J.I. série A/B n 53, p. 39).
64. A ce sujet, la Cour s’est ainsi exprimée:

«Une autre circonstance, dont doit tenir compte tout tribunal
ayant à trancher une question de souveraineté sur un territoire par-
ticulier, est la mesure dans laquelle la souveraineté est également
revendiquée par une autre Puissance. Dans la plupart des cas com-

portant des prétentions de souveraineté territoriale sur lesquelles
un tribunal international ait eu auparavant à se prononcer, deux
prétentions concurrentes à la souveraineté ont été soumises au tri-
bunal, et ce dernier avait à décider quelle était celle des deux qui était
fondée. Une des caractéristiques de la présente affaire est que,

jusqu’en 1931, aucune autre Puissance que le Danemark n’a reven-
diqué la souveraineté sur le Groënland. Par ailleurs, jusqu’en 1921,
aucune Puissance n’a contesté la prétention du Danemark à la sou-
veraineté.» (Ibid., p. 46.)

65. La Cour est alors parvenue à la conclusion que,

«si l’on garde présentes à l’esprit l’absence de toute prétention à la
souveraineté de la part d’une autre Puissance et la nature arctique et
inaccessible des régions non colonisées du pays, le roi de Danemark
et de Norvège, ... [entre] 1721 [et] 1814, manifesta son autorité dans

une mesure qui suffit à conférer à son pays un titre valable de sou-
veraineté, et que ses droits sur le Groënland n’ont pas été limités à la
région colonisée» (ibid., p. 50-51).

66. Si cette conclusion vaut s’agissant du territoire peu peuplé et non
occupé par des habitants à demeure du Groënland oriental, elle devrait
aussi s’appliquer dans la présente affaire, qui porte sur une île minuscule
inhabitée et inhabitable, dont aucune autre puissance n’a revendiqué la
e
souveraineté durent toute la période allant du début du XVI siècle au
milieu du XIX siècle.
67. La Cour rappelle par ailleurs que, ainsi qu’exposé dans l’arrêt
rendu en l’affaire relative au Groënland oriental (voir paragraphe 64 ci-

dessus), le droit international admet des degrés variables de manifestation
de l’autorité étatique, selon les circonstances propres à chaque espèce.
De surcroît, comme souligné dans la sentence rendue en l’affaire rela-
tive à l’Ile de Palmas, il n’est pas nécessaire que cette autorité étatique se
manifeste «en fait à tout moment sur tout point du territoire» (Ile de Pal-

mas (Pays-Bas/Etats-Unis d’Amérique) , sentence, 4 avril 1928, Revue
générale de droit international public (RGDIP) , t. XLII, 1935, p. 165
[traduction française]). Cette sentence précise par ailleurs:

«[D]ans l’exercice de la souveraineté territoriale, il y a nécessaire-
ment des lacunes, une intermittence dans le temps et une disconti-
nuité dans l’espace... Le fait qu’un Etat ne peut prouver l’exercice de
sa souveraineté sur une telle partie de territoire ne saurait être inter-

28 sovereignty is inexistent. Each case must be appreciated in accord-
ance with the particular circumstances.” (Island of Palmas Case

(Netherlands/United States of America) , Award of 4 April 1928,
RIAA, Vol. II (1949), p. 855.)

68. Having considered the actual historical and geographical context
of the present case relating to the old Sultanate of Johor, the Court con-
cludes that as far as the territorial domain of the Sultanate of Johor was
concerned, it did cover in principle all the islands and islets within the

Straits of Singapore, which lay in the middle of this kingdom, and did
thus include the island of Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh. This posses-
sion of the islands by the old Sultanate of Johor was never challenged by
any other Power in the region and can in all the circumstances be seen as

satisfying the condition of “continuous and peaceful display of territorial
sovereignty (peaceful in relation to other States)” (ibid., p. 839).

69. The Court thus concludes that the Sultanate of Johor had original
title to Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh.

*

70. Malaysia further argues that the title of the Sultanate of Johor to
Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh is confirmed by the ties of loyalty that

existed between the Sultanate and the Orang Laut, “the people of the
sea”. The Orang Laut were engaged in various activities such as fishing
and piratical activities in the waters in the Straits of Singapore, including
in the area of Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh.
71. Malaysia has provided evidence from the nineteenth century which

shows that the Orang Laut, a nomadic people of the sea, made the mari-
time areas in the Straits of Singapore their habitat and quite frequently
visited the island, as appears from the following letter from J. T. Thom-
son, the Government Surveyor of Singapore, reporting in November 1850
after the first year of construction of Horsburgh lighthouse on the need

to exclude the Orang Laut from the construction site:
“strict rules should be carried out against those half fishing half

piratical sect the orang Ryot or Laut, being allowed to obtain admit-
tance into the building — they frequently visit the rock so their visits
should never be encouraged nor any trust put in them . . . In the
straits and islets of the neighbouring shores and islands many lives
are taken by these people.”

72. Furthermore John Crawfurd, the British Resident of Singapore,

recorded in his journal of 1828 a visit he had received from “some indi-
viduals of the race of Malays, called Orang Laut, — that is, ‘men of the
sea’”, and stated as follows:

“They have a rough exterior, and their speech is awkward and un-

29 prété comme démontrant l’inexistence de cette souveraineté. Chaque
cas particulier doit être apprécié à la lumière des circonstances de

l’espèce.» (Ile de Palmas (Pays-Bas/Etats-Unis d’Amérique) , sen-
tence, 4 avril 1928, RGDIP, t. XLII, 1935, p. 182-183 [traduction
française].)

68. Ayant examiné le contexte géographique et historique spécifique
de la présente instance s’agissant de l’ancien Sultanat de Johor, la Cour
conclut que, en ce qui concerne le domaine territorial du Sultanat de
Johor, celui-ci englobait bien en principe l’ensemble des îles et îlots situés

dans le détroit de Singapour, lequel se trouvait au milieu de ce royaume,
et comprenait donc l’île de Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh. Que ces îles
aient été en la possession de l’ancien Sultanat de Johor n’a jamais été
contesté par aucune autre puissance de la région et peut, en tout état de

cause, être considéré comme satisfaisant à la condition d’un «exercice
continu et pacifique de la souveraineté territoriale (pacifique par rapport
aux autres Etats)» (ibid., p. 164).
69. La Cour conclut ainsi que le Sultanat de Johor détenait un titre
originaire sur Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh.

*

70. La Malaisie soutient en outre que le titre du Sultanat de Johor sur
Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh est confirmé par la nature des liens

d’allégeance qui existaient entre le Sultanat et les Orang Laut, le «peuple
de la mer». Ces derniers se livraient à diverses activités comme la pêche et
la piraterie dans les eaux du détroit de Singapour, y compris dans la zone
de Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh.
71. La Malaisie a produit des éléments de preuve datant du XIX siècle

qui montrent que les Orang Laut, un peuple nomade de la mer, s’étaient
établis dans les espaces maritimes du détroit de Singapour et se rendaient
souvent sur l’île, comme il ressort de la lettre citée ci-après de J. T. Thom-
son, géomètre du gouvernement à Singapour, dans laquelle celui-ci expo-
sait en novembre 1850, soit un an après le début des travaux du phare

Horsburgh, la nécessité d’interdire aux Orang Laut l’accès du site:
«il faudrait interdire strictement aux membres de cette secte de mi-

pêcheurs mi-pirates qu’on appelle Orang Ryot ou Laut tout accès à
l’édifice: ils se rendent fréquemment sur le rocher, aussi leur visite ne
devrait-elle jamais être encouragée ni eux-mêmes se voir accorder la
moindre confiance... Ces gens ont semé la mort dans les détroits et
les anses des rivages et îles environnants.»

72. En outre, John Crawfurd, le résident britannique à Singapour,

relate dans son journal de 1828 une visite que lui ont faite «plusieurs
personnes de la race des Malais, appelés Orang Laut — c’est-à-dire
«hommes de la mer»», et déclare ce qui suit:

«Leur aspect est rude, et leur parler maladroit et fruste; mais, à

29 couth, but, in other respects, I could observe little essential differ-
ence between them and other Malays. These people have adopted

the Mohammedan religion. They are divided into, at least, twenty
tribes, distinguished usually by the straits or narrow seas they prin-
cipally frequent. A few of them have habitations on shore, but by far
the greater number live constantly in their boats, and nearly their
sole occupation is fishing . . . They are subjects of the King of

Johore, and the same people who have been called Orang Selat or,
‘men of the Straits’ — the straits here alluded to being, not the great
Straits of Malacca, which are extensive beyond their comprehension,
but the narrow guts running among the little islets that are so abun-

dantly strewed over its eastern entrance. Under this appellation they
have been notorious for their piracies, from the earliest knowledge
of Europeans respecting these countries.” (Emphasis added.)

73. Another British official in Singapore and contemporary of
John Crawfurd, Edward Presgrave, the Registrar of Imports and Exports
of the British administration in Singapore, also stated in his Report of

1828 on the subject of piracy to the Resident Counsellor as follows:

“The subjects of the Sultan of Johor who inhabit the Islands are
usually by the Malays termed Orang Rayat — the common oriental
word signifying a subject generally, but is here restricted to one class
of the Sultan’s subjects . They live in small and detached communi-

ties or settlements on the several islands under the immediate control
of two officers called Orang Kaya and Batin, the latter being subor-
dinate to the former, these officers are appointed by the Sultan of
Johore.
.............................

Differences arising among the parties which cannot be settled by
the Panglima [i.e., Captain] are reserved for the decision of the
Chief, or of the Sultan himself on their return . . .

Such are the habits and mode of life of the Rayats of Johor. The
Sultan of Johor can on emergency (such as a war with a neighbour-
ing Chief) command their services . On such an occasion it is said he
can assemble from the several Islands and places under his authority
from three hundred to four hundred prows.” (Emphasis added.)

74. The Court considers that these descriptions of the nature and the

level of the ties of relationship between the Sultan of Johor and the
Orang Laut in contemporary official reports by British officials operating
in the region have a high probative value in establishing the existence of
sufficient political authority by the Sultan of Johor to qualify him as

exercising sovereign authority over the Orang Laut. The Court observes
that these statements showed an understanding by the responsible British

30 d’autres égards, je n’ai guère observé de différence fondamentale
entre eux et les autres Malais. Ces hommes ont embrassé la religion

mahométane. Ils se divisent en une vingtaine de tribus au moins, les-
quelles se distinguent généralement par les détroits ou bras de mer
qu’elles fréquentent habituellement. Quelques-uns d’entre eux ont une
habitation sur la côte, mais le plus grand nombre, et de loin, vivent en
permanence sur leur bateau et la pêche est presque leur unique occu-

pation… Ce sont des sujets du roi de Johor , et ils appartiennent à ce
peuple que l’on appelle «Orang Sallat» ou «hommes des détroits»;
les détroits en question ne sont pas le grand détroit de Malacca, dont
l’immensité dépasse leur compréhension, mais les goulets étroits

qui séparent les innombrables petits îlots éparpillés à l’extrémité
orientale de celui-ci. Sous ce nom, ils sont bien connus comme
auteurs d’actes de piraterie depuis les premiers temps où les Européens
ont découvert ces contrées.» (Les italiques sont de la Cour.)

73. Un autre fonctionnaire britannique à Singapour et contemporain
de John Crawfurd, Edward Presgrave, le directeur de l’enregistrement des
importations et des exportations de l’administration britannique à Singa-

pour, indique pour sa part, dans un rapport adressé en 1828 au conseiller
résident au sujet de la piraterie:

«Les Malais appellent généralement les sujets du sultan de Johor
qui habitent les îles les Orang Rayat (terme oriental couramment
employé pour désigner un sujet, mais qui désigne ici une seule caté-
gorie des sujets du sultan ). Les Orang Rayat vivent en petites com-

munautés ou établissements isolés situés sur différentes îles placées
sous le contrôle direct de deux officiers, appelés orang kaya et batin,
le second étant subordonné au premier. C’est le sultan de Johor qui
les nomme.
.............................

Les différends survenant entre les membres d’équipage que le pan-
glima [c’est-à-dire le capitaine] ne peut résoudre sont soumis au chef,
voire au sultan lui-même, au retour du navire...

Voilà les habitudes et le mode de vie des Rayat de Johor. Le sultan
de Johor peut, en cas d’urgence (par exemple en cas de guerre avec
un chef voisin), faire appel à leurs services . On dit que, dans de tels
cas, le sultan peut rassembler 300 à 400 pirogues dans les différentes
îles et autres lieux placés sous son autorité.» (Les italiques sont de la

Cour.)
74. La Cour considère que ces descriptions de la nature et de l’intensité

des liens entre le sultan de Johor et les Orang Laut qui figurent dans des
rapports officiels établis à cette époque par des fonctionnaires britanni-
ques en poste dans la région sont d’une valeur probante élevée s’agissant
d’établir que le sultan de Johor exerçait sur les Orang Laut une autorité

politique suffisante pour être qualifiée de souveraine. La Cour relève que
ces déclarations montrent que les fonctionnaires britanniques compétents

30officials in Singapore that the Orang Laut were subjects of the Sultan of
Johor and acted under his authority when need arose.

75. Given the above, the Court finds that the nature and degree of the
Sultan of Johor’s authority exercised over the Orang Laut who inhabited
the islands in the Straits of Singapore, and who made this maritime area
their habitat, confirms the ancient original title of the Sultanate of Johor
to those islands, including Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh.

*

76. Singapore, in support of its assertion that the Sultan of Johor did
not have sovereignty over Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh, advances

another argument based on what it describes as “the traditional Malay
concept of sovereignty”. Thus it contends:

“Malaysia has glossed over . . . the traditional Malay concept of sov-
ereignty. This concept undermines Malaysia’s claim to an original
title. It is based mainly on control over people, and not control over
territory. Traditional Malay sovereignty is people-centric and not

territory-centric.”

77. Relying on some writings of scholars on Malay political culture,
Singapore develops this argument into the following assertion:

“What it means is that the only reliable way to determine whether
a particular territory belonged to a ruler is to find out whether the
inhabitants pledged allegiance to that ruler . . .
. . . the concept also means that it was difficult to determine with
accuracy the territorial extent of the Johor Sultanate at any time . . .

This would certainly be the case with regard to barren, isolated
and uninhabited islands, such as Pedra Branca. Therefore, unless
Malaysia can produce clear evidence of a direct claim to or the
actual exercise of sovereign authority over Pedra Branca, any attempt

to argue that the island belonged to old Johor is totally devoid of
merit.”

78. Malaysia disputes this argument even as a valid theory applicable
to Malay political history. It states as follows:

“Authority in States throughout the world has characteristically
been based on a combination of control over people and over terri-
tory. This applies to the Malay States as well as any other. The fact
that Singapore can demonstrate shifting political fortunes and even

division within the royal household of Johor does not undermine
conceptions of continuity in a Malay polity . . . Ever since the estab-

31de Singapour considéraient les Orang Laut comme des sujets du sultan de
Johor qui, en cas de besoin, agissaient sous l’autorité de celui-ci.

75. Compte tenu de ce qui précède, la Cour conclut que, de par sa
nature et son degré, l’autorité souveraine exercée par le sultan de Johor
sur les Orang Laut, qui vivaient sur les îles du détroit de Singapour et
s’étaient établis dans cet espace maritime, confirme le titre originaire
ancien du Sultanat de Johor sur ces îles, dont Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu

Puteh.

*

76. A l’appui de son affirmation selon laquelle le sultan de Johor ne
possédait pas la souveraineté sur Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh, Singa-

pour avance un autre argument, reposant sur ce qu’elle qualifie de
«conception traditionnelle malaise de la souveraineté». C’est ainsi qu’elle
fait valoir que:

«la Malaisie passe sous silence ... la conception traditionnelle malaise
de la souveraineté. Cette conception affaiblit la prétention de la
Malaisie à un titre originaire, car c’est l’autorité exercée sur les per-
sonnes, et non l’autorité exercée sur le territoire, qui en constitue le

fondement. La conception traditionnelle malaise de la souveraineté
est axée sur l’élément humain et non sur le territoire.»

77. Citant des écrits de spécialistes de la culture politique malaise, Sin-
gapour développe cet argument comme suit:

«Ce qu’elle signifie, c’est que le seul moyen fiable de déterminer si
tel territoire appartenait à un souverain est de rechercher si ses habi-
tants faisaient allégeance à ce souverain...
... cette conception signifie aussi qu’il était difficile de déterminer
avec précision quelle était, à telle ou telle époque, l’étendue territo-

riale du Sultanat de Johor...
Cela valait assurément pour des îles arides, isolées et inhabitées
telles que Pedra Branca. Par conséquent, à moins que la Malaisie ne
puisse présenter des éléments de preuve clairs d’une revendication
directe de souveraineté sur Pedra Branca — ou de l’exercice effectif

de cette souveraineté —, toute tentative d’affirmer que l’île apparte-
nait à l’ancien Johor est totalement dénuée de fondement.»

78. La Malaisie, rejetant cet argument en tant qu’il ne constituerait
pas même une théorie rendant correctement compte de l’histoire politique
malaise, affirme:

«Dans les Etats du monde entier, l’autorité repose classiquement
sur un contrôle combiné du peuple et du territoire. Cela vaut pour
les Etats malais comme pour tout autre Etat. Le fait que Singapour
puisse démontrer des vicissitudes politiques et même des divisions au

sein de la famille royale du Johor ne va nullement à l’encontre d’une
continuité de l’Etat malais... Depuis la création du Sultanat de Johor

31 lishment of the Sultanate of Johor in the early 16th century, there
have always been rulers who were recognized as such and who com-

manded the allegiance of the people accordingly and thereby held
sway over the territory where those people lived.”

79. With regard to Singapore’s assertion about the existence of a “tra-
ditional Malay concept of sovereignty” based on control over people
rather than on control over territory, the Court observes that sovereignty
comprises both elements, personal and territorial. In any event, it need
not deal with this matter any further as the Court has already found that

Johor had territorial sovereignty over Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh
(see paragraph 69 above), and has found confirmation of this title in the
Sultan of Johor’s exercise of authority over the Orang Laut, who inhab-
ited or visited the islands in the Straits of Singapore, including Pedra

Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh (see paragraph 75 above).

*

80. The Court, having found that in 1824 the Sultan of Johor had title
to Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh, will now turn to the question whether
this title was affected by the developments in the period 1824 to 1840.

5.3.2. The legal significance of the 1824 Anglo-Dutch Treaty

81. An argument advanced by Singapore against Johor’s sovereignty
over Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh is that “in the period relevant to
Malaysia’s claim, there were two different political entities in the region

that were called ‘Johor’”.

82. Singapore argues that Malaysia’s claim to Pedra Branca/Pulau
Batu Puteh, which is based on two propositions — the first that Pedra
Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh had belonged to old Johor, and the second that

Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh became part of new Johor — cannot be
accepted, since “[t]he first proposition is not supported by any evidence”,
and “[t]he second proposition is therefore irrelevant”.

83. On this second proposition of Malaysia, namely that Pedra Branca/

Pulau Batu Puteh became part of the new Johor, Singapore contends
that:

“Malaysia tries to prove this proposition by arguing that the effect
of the Anglo-Dutch Treaty was to split the Johor Sultanate into two
parts and to place Pedra Branca in the northern part within the Brit-
ish sphere of influence, thus allocating it to new Johor. This is a mis-

representation of the Treaty.”

32 au début du XVI siècle, il y eut toujours des souverains reconnus
comme tels, qui s’attirèrent l’allégeance de la population et contrô-

lèrent de ce fait le territoire sur lequel cette dernière était établie.»

79. En ce qui concerne la thèse de Singapour relative à l’existence
d’une «conception traditionnelle malaise de la souveraineté» qui associe-
rait cette dernière à un contrôle exercé sur la population plutôt que sur le
territoire, la Cour fait observer que la souveraineté recouvre ces deux élé-
ments d’allégeance personnelle et de territorialité. En tout état de cause,

point n’est besoin pour la Cour d’approfondir cette question puisqu’elle a
déjà conclu que le Johor détenait le titre territorial sur Pedra Branca/Pulau
Batu Puteh (voir paragraphe 69 ci-dessus), et trouvé confirmation de ce
titre dans l’autorité exercée par le sultan de Johor sur les Orang Laut, qui

habitaient ou fréquentaient les îles du détroit de Singapour, notamment
Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh (voir paragraphe 75 ci-dessus).

*

80. La Cour, ayant conclu que, en 1824, le sultan de Johor détenait un
titre sur Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh, se penchera maintenant sur la
question de savoir si les faits survenus entre 1824 et 1840 ont eu quelque
incidence sur ce titre.

5.3.2. La portée juridique du traité anglo-néerlandais de 1824

81. A la thèse d’une souveraineté du Johor sur Pedra Branca/Pulau
Batu Puteh, Singapour oppose un argument selon lequel, «pendant la
période pertinente pour la revendication de la Malaisie, il y a eu dans

cette région deux entités politiques distinctes portant toutes deux le nom
de «Johor»».
82. Singapour soutient que la revendication de la Malaisie à l’égard de
Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh, qui est fondée sur deux propositions
— l’une étant que Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh appartenait à l’ancien

Johor, l’autre que Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh a ensuite fait partie du
Johor moderne —, ne saurait être retenue, parce que «[l]a première ... n’est
appuyée par aucun élément de preuve» et que «[l]a seconde est donc
dénuée de pertinence».
83. En ce qui concerne la seconde proposition de la Malaisie, à savoir

que Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh s’est trouvée rattachée au Johor
moderne, Singapour allègue que:

«La Malaisie tente d[e l’]étayer ... en faisant valoir que le traité
anglo-néerlandais a eu pour conséquence de scinder le Sultanat de
Johor en deux et de placer Pedra Branca dans la partie septentrio-
nale, c’est-à-dire dans la sphère d’influence britannique, l’attribuant

ainsi au nouveau Johor. Il s’agit là d’une interprétation erronée du
traité.»

32 84. Thus, Singapore disputes that the Sultanate of Johor had contin-
ued since 1512 through the whole period relevant to the present case as

the same sovereign entity. It claims that the “new Sultanate of Johor”,
which came into existence in the context of the division of the “old Sul-
tanate of Johor”, is to be distinguished from the “old Sultanate of Johor”
(alias the “Sultanate of Johor-Riau-Lingga”). In support of this argu-
ment, Singapore, quoting a historian of the region, argues that old Johor,

the maritime Malay empire that succeeded Malacca, began in 1512 when
the defeated Sultan of Malacca established a capital on the Johor River,
and gradually disintegrated in the eighteenth century, whereas modern
Johor occupies the southern tip of the Malay Peninsula, is one of the

11 states of the Federation of Malaysia, and dates from the mid-nine-
teenth century.
85. In assessing the relevance of the argument thus presented by Sing-
apore to the issue of title to Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh, it is neces-
sary to distinguish two different issues: one is whether the sovereign

entity of the Sultanate of Johor continued to exist as the same legal entity
after the division; and the other whether the territorial domain of the
“new Sultanate of Johor” included Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh.

86. In relation to the first question, the Court concludes from the

documentary evidence submitted by Malaysia, that the Sultanate of
Johor continued to exist as the same sovereign entity throughout the
period 1512 to 1824, in spite of changes in the precise geographical scope
of its territorial domain and vicissitudes of fortune in the Sultanate
through the ages, and that these changes and vicissitudes did not affect

the legal situation in relation to the area of the Singapore Straits, which
always remained within the territorial domain of the Sultanate of Johor.

87. On that basis the Court observes that as long as it is established
that the old Sultanate of Johor continued as the same legal entity that

became the subject of the division in 1824, the issue of whether the new
Sultanate of Johor under Sultan Hussein and the Temenggong or the new
Sultanate in Riau under Sultan Abdul Rahman was the legal continuator
in title of the “old Sultanate of Johor” before the break, is immaterial in
the present case. Whatever position the Parties may take in this respect,

the island in question, i.e., Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh, had to come
under the sovereignty of one or other of the Sultanates (see paragraph 100
below).

88. In relation to the second question, the Court notes that it is com-

mon ground between the Parties that the “old Sultanate of Johor” came
to be divided in the context of the dynastic rivalry between the two sons
of the late Sultan Mahmud III (see paragraph 23 above) and the com-
peting interests of the United Kingdom and the Netherlands in the

region.
89. It is also common ground between Singapore and Malaysia that

33 84. Singapour conteste donc que le Sultanat de Johor se soit perpétué
comme une seule et même entité souveraine de 1512 jusqu’à la fin de la

période pertinente pour la présente espèce. Elle affirme que le «nouveau
Sultanat de Johor», né de la scission de l’«ancien Sultanat de Johor», est
à distinguer de celui-ci (autrement dit, du «Sultanat de Johor-Riau-
Lingga»). A l’appui de cette thèse, et citant un historien de la région, elle

soutient que l’ancien Johor, c’est-à-dire l’empire maritime malais qui suc-
céda à Malacca, vit le jour en 1512 lorsque, vaincu, le sultan de Malacca
établit une capitale sur le fleuve Johor, et se désagrégea progressivement
au cours du XVIII siècle; alors que le Johor moderne, occupant la
pointe méridionale de la péninsule malaise et constituant l’un des onze
e
Etats de la Fédération de Malaisie, remonte au milieu du XIX siècle.

85. Aux fins de l’examen de cet argument présenté par Singapour
concernant le titre sur Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh, il convient de

faire la part entre deux questions distinctes, l’une étant celle de savoir si,
après la scission, il y a eu continuité de la personnalité juridique de
l’entité souveraine que constituait le Sultanat de Johor, et l’autre, celle de
savoir si le domaine territorial du «nouveau Sultanat de Johor» englo-
bait Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh.

86. En ce qui concerne la première question, la Cour conclut à partir
des preuves documentaires soumises par la Malaisie que le Sultanat de
Johor a constitué une seule et même entité souveraine tout au long de la
période s’étendant de 1512 à 1824, en dépit des variations de l’étendue

géographique exacte de son domaine territorial et des vicissitudes qu’il a
connues au fil des ans, et que ces changements et aléas n’ont pas eu
d’incidence sur la situation juridique en ce qui concerne la région du
détroit de Singapour, qui a toujours relevé du domaine territorial du Sul-
tanat de Johor.

87. Sur cette base, la Cour relève que, dès lors qu’il est établi que
l’ancien Sultanat de Johor s’est perpétué dans l’entité juridique qui a fait
l’objet de la scission de 1824, la question de savoir si le continuateur juri-
dique en titre de ce qui constituait, avant cette séparation, l’«ancien Sul-

tanat de Johor» fut le nouveau Sultanat de Johor, sur lequel régnaient le
sultan Hussein et le temenggong, ou le nouveau Sultanat, à Riau, sur
lequel régnait le sultan Abdul Rahman, n’est pas pertinente en l’espèce:
quelle que soit la position adoptée par les Parties à cet égard, l’île en
question — Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh — s’est nécessairement trou-

vée placée sous la souveraineté de l’un ou de l’autre des sultanats (voir
paragraphe 100 ci-dessous).
88. En ce qui concerne la seconde question, la Cour note que les
Parties admettent toutes deux que l’«ancien Sultanat de Johor» en est

venu à se scinder par suite de la querelle opposant les deux fils du défunt
sultan Mahmud III (voir paragraphe 23 ci-dessus) et des intérêts concur-
rents du Royaume-Uni et des Pays-Bas dans la région.

89. Singapour et la Malaisie admettent également l’une et l’autre que

33the 1824 Treaty had the effect, according to Singapore, of “divid[ing] the
region into two spheres of influence” or, according to Malaysia, of

“divid[ing] the Sultanate of Johor into two separate spheres of influ-
ence” — one belonging to the Dutch sphere of influence covering the ter-
ritorial domain of the Riau-Lingga Sultanate under Abdul Rahman, and
the other falling under the British sphere of influence covering the terri-
torial domain of the Sultanate of Johor under Hussein.

90. However, upon closer examination of this apparent agreement
between Malaysia and Singapore, there emerges a fundamental diver-
gence of views between them concerning the legal significance of the rele-
vant provisions of the 1824 Treaty.

91. The 1824 Anglo-Dutch Treaty, concluded on 17 March 1824, pro-
vided in its Article 12 as follows:
“His Netherlands Majesty withdraws the objections which have

been made to the occupation of the Island of Singapore, by the Sub-
jects of His Britannick Majesty.
His Britannick Majesty, however, engages, that no British Estab-
lishment shall be made on the Carimon Isles, or on the Islands of
Battam, Bintang, Lingin, or on any of the other Islands south of the

Straights of Singapore, nor any Treaty concluded by British Author-
ity with the Chiefs of those Islands.”

92. The conclusion to be drawn from this provision, according to
counsel for Malaysia, is that:
“The Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 17 March 1824 resulted in the split of

the Johor-Riau-Lingga Sultanate. It divided the Sultanate of Johor
into two separate spheres of influence: islands south of the Straits of
Singapore were left within the Dutch sphere of influence — that was
the Riau-Lingga Sultanate — while the territory and all islands in
the Straits of Singapore and to the north of the Straits were placed

within the British sphere of influence — and that was the Johor Sul-
tanate.”

93. By contrast, the interpretation advanced by Singapore of Arti-
cle 12 is the following:
“the Anglo-Dutch Treaty did not contemplate any demarcation line.

This is clear from the negotiating history of the Treaty. An earlier
draft of the Treaty inserted an article providing for a demarcation
line. But this article was omitted when the text of the Treaty was
finalized.
The text of the Anglo-Dutch Treaty also confirms that there is no

line...ArticleXexcludestheDutchfrom‘anypartofthePeninsula
of Malacca’, that is the Malay Peninsula, while Article XII excludes
the British from ‘any of the islands South of the Straights of Singa-
pore’. There is no provision excluding either State from any part of

the straits or any islands within the Strait. In other words, the Treaty
did not divide up the Strait between the two Powers. The width of

34le traité de 1824 a eu pour effet, selon Singapour, de «scinder la région en
deux sphères d’influence» ou, selon la Malaisie, de «scind[er] le Sultanat

de Johor en deux sphères d’influence distinctes» — l’une, la sphère
d’influence néerlandaise, couvrant le domaine territorial du Sultanat de
Riau-Lingga, gouverné par Abdul Rahman, et l’autre, la sphère
d’influence britannique, couvrant celui du Sultanat de Johor, gouverné
par Hussein.

90. Toutefois, un examen approfondi de cet apparent accord entre la
Malaisie et Singapour révèle en fait entre celles-ci une divergence fonda-
mentale quant à la portée juridique des dispositions pertinentes du traité
de 1824.

91. Le traité anglo-néerlandais de 1824, conclu le 17 mars 1824, énonce,
à son article XII:
«S. M. le roi des Pays-Bas se désiste des objections qui ont

été faites contre l’occupation de l’île de Sincapore par les sujets de
S. M. britannique.
Cependant, S. M. britannique promet qu’il ne sera pas formé
d’établissement britannique dans les îles de Carimon ou dans les îles
de Battam, Bintang, Lingin ou dans aucune des autres îles situées au

sud du détroit de Sincapore, et qu’aucun traité ne sera conclu sous
l’autorité britannique avec les chefs de ces îles.»

92. La conclusion qu’il convient d’en tirer, selon le conseil de la Malai-
sie, est que:
«[l]e traité anglo-néerlandais du 17 mars 1824 aboutit à la division

du Sultanat de Johor-Riau-Lingga. Il divisa le Sultanat de Johor en
deux sphères d’influence distinctes: les îles situées au sud du détroit
de Singapour restèrent sous l’influence des Néerlandais — c’était le
Sultanat de Riau-Lingga —, tandis que le territoire continental et
toutes les îles situées au sein du détroit de Singapour et au nord de

celui-ci furent placés sous l’influence des Britanniques — c’était le
Sultanat de Johor.»

93. L’interprétation de l’article XII avancée par Singapour, en re-
vanche, est la suivante:
«le traité anglo-néerlandais n’a établi aucune ligne de séparation.

Cela ressort clairement de l’histoire des négociations de cet instru-
ment. Une ébauche antérieure du traité contenait un article pré-
voyant une ligne de séparation. Mais cet article fut omis lors de
l’élaboration de la version finale du texte.
Le libellé du traité anglo-néerlandais confirme également l’absence

de ligne... L’article X n’autorise la présence des Néerlandais dans
«aucune partie de la presqu’île de Malacca», c’est-à-dire de la pénin-
sule malaise, tandis que l’article XII n’autorise celle des Britanniques
dans «aucune des ... îles situées au sud du détroit de Sincapore». Le

traité ne renferme aucune disposition excluant l’un ou l’autre Etat
d’une quelconque partie du détroit ou d’une quelconque des îles

34 the entire Strait was left open for access by both States, as was
intended.”

94. In sum, the argument that Singapore is advancing is that the
1824 Anglo-Dutch Treaty left the entire Straits, including the islands and
islets therein, except for the islands specifically referred to in Article 12,
open for access, and that since Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh, accord-
ing to Singapore, had always remained terra nullius or had become

terra nullius as a result of the disappearance of the “old Sultanate of
Johor” by the division of the kingdom, there was a legal vacuum with
regard to sovereignty over Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh, thus leaving
room for the “lawful possession” of Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh by

the British during the period 1847-1851.
95. The object and purpose of the 1824 Anglo-Dutch Treaty are stated
in its Preamble. The two Sovereigns of the United Kingdom and the
Netherlands,

“desiring to place upon a footing, mutually beneficial, Their respec-
tive Possessions and the Commerce of Their Subjects in the East

Indies, so that the welfare and prosperity of both Nations may be
promoted, in all time to come, without those differences and jealous-
ies which have, in former times, interrupted the harmony which
ought always to subsist between Them; . . . and in order to determine
certain questions which have occurred in the execution of the Conven-

tion made at London on the 13th of August, 1814, in so far as it
respects the Possessions His Netherlands Majesty in the East ”
(emphasis added),

came to conclude this Treaty.
In the view of the Court it is difficult to read this language to signify
that the Parties intended the 1824 Anglo-Dutch Treaty to leave certain

areas of the Straits of Singapore, which had been part of the territorial
and maritime domain of the old Sultanate of Johor, undetermined in
their legal status and thus open for occupation.

96. The Court observes from the reading of this preambular language,

as well as the substantive provisions of Articles 8 to 12 which provide for
a set of mutual territorial adjustments, that the 1824 Anglo-Dutch Treaty
was concluded to settle once and for all the disputes that had developed
between the United Kingdom and the Netherlands relating to their
respective possessions as well as commercial interests in the East Indies

during and in the aftermath of the Napoleonic Wars in Europe. What
emerges from this overall picture is that whereas the earlier Convention
of 13 August 1814 between the United Kingdom and the Netherlands
relative to the Dutch Colonies was somewhat general in its treatment of

the territorial possessions of the two Powers, the settlement reached in
this 1824 Treaty is much more specific, covering all the territories thus far

35 situées à l’intérieur de celui-ci. Autrement dit, le traité ne partagea
pas le détroit entre les deux puissances. Le détroit resta comme

prévu libre d’accès pour les deux Etats sur toute sa largeur.»

94. En somme, la thèse avancée par Singapour consiste à affirmer que
le traité de 1824 laissa libre d’accès l’ensemble du détroit, y compris ses
îles et îlots, à l’exception des îles expressément visées à l’article XII, et
que, Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh étant, selon Singapour, toujours
restée terra nullius ou l’étant devenue après que la scission du royaume

eut entraîné la disparition de l’«ancien Sultanat de Johor», il existait,
concernant la souveraineté sur Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh, un vide
juridique ouvrant la voie à une «prise de possession licite» de l’île par les
Britanniques au cours de la période comprise entre 1847 et 1851.

95. L’objet et le but du traité anglo-néerlandais de 1824 sont énoncés

dans son préambule, lequel indique que les souverains du Royaume-Uni
et des Pays-Bas ont été amenés, en vue de

«placer sur un pied réciproquement avantageux leurs possessions
respectives et le commerce de leurs sujets aux grandes Indes, de
manière que le bien-être et la prospérité des deux nations y puissent
être favorisés dorénavant en toute occasion, sans exciter ces dissen-

timents et cette jalousie qui, à des époques antérieures, ont troublé
la bonne intelligence qu’il importe de toujours maintenir
entr’elles ... comme aussi à l’effet de décider quelques questions qui se
sont présentées dans l’exécution de la convention faite à Londres le
13 août 1814, en tant qu’elle concerne les possessions orientales de

S.M. le roi des Pays-Bas » (les italiques sont de la Cour),

à conclure cet instrument.
De l’avis de la Cour, il est difficile d’interpréter le libellé du préambule
comme signifiant que, dans l’esprit des parties contractantes, le traité
anglo-néerlandais de 1824 était censé laisser certaines zones du détroit de
Singapour, qui avaient appartenu au domaine territorial et maritime de

l’ancien Sultanat de Johor, sans statut juridique déterminé et donc sus-
ceptibles d’occupation.
96. La Cour observe que la lecture du préambule ainsi libellé et des
dispositions de fond énoncées aux articles VIII à XII, lesquels prévoient
un ensemble d’ajustements territoriaux mutuels, montre bien que le traité
anglo-néerlandais de 1824 fut conclu pour régler définitivement tous les

différends nés au cours et à la suite des guerres napoléoniennes en Europe
entre le Royaume-Uni et les Pays-Bas au sujet de leurs possessions et
intérêts commerciaux respectifs aux Indes orientales. Il ressort de ce
tableau d’ensemble que, alors que la précédente convention du 13 août 1814
entre le Royaume-Uni et les Pays-Bas relative aux colonies néerlandaises

évoquait les possessions territoriales des deux puissances en des termes
assez généraux, l’arrangement arrêté dans ce traité de 1824 était sensible-
ment plus précis, puisqu’il couvrait tous les territoires dont ces puissances

35claimed to be in the possession or under the sphere of influence of one or
the other of these two Powers and identifying their respective spheres of

influence in this part of the East Indies. Against this background, it is
most unlikely that the parties intentionally left these maritime features
within the Straits of Singapore outside the sphere of influence of either of
the two parties and open for eventual occupation by one of the parties or
another power.

97. Furthermore, when the whole arrangement contained in this Treaty
is read against the background of the feud which had developed between
the two brothers, sons of the late Sultan Mahmud III of the old Sultanate
of Johor, it is contrary to common sense to suppose that the two rival

Sultanates of Johor and of Riau-Lingga, competing for sovereignty over
certain territories in the region, decided to leave this area in the Straits on
their border undivided and unclaimed. The Court is of the view that
whatever may have been the legal effect of the 1824 Anglo-Dutch Treaty
upon the concrete issue of where the dividing line between the respective

spheres of influence of the United Kingdom and the Netherlands might
lie in the region, it is impossible to accept that the treaty had left the issue
of the territorial title to the islands lying in the Straits totally unaffected.

98. In light of this analysis, in the context of the history surrounding

the conclusion of the 1824 Anglo-Dutch Treaty, the Court is led to con-
clude that the division of the old Sultanate of Johor and the creation of
the two Sultanates of Johor and of Riau-Lingga were part of the overall
scheme agreed upon by the United Kingdom and the Netherlands that
came to be reflected in the 1824 Anglo-Dutch Treaty. In other words, the

Treaty was the legal reflection of a political settlement reached between
the two colonial Powers, vying for hegemony for many years in this part
of the world, to divide the territorial domain of the old Sultanate of
Johor into two sultanates to be placed under their respective spheres of
influence. Thus in this scheme there was no possibility for any legal

vacuum left for freedom of action to take lawful possession of an island
in between these two spheres of influence. This political settlement signi-
fied at the same time that the territorial division between the two Sultan-
ates of Johor and of Riau-Lingga was made definitive by the conclusion
of this Anglo-Dutch Treaty.

99. The question as to which side of the dividing line any particular
island or other maritime feature in the Straits of Singapore came to fall as
a result was a matter that the 1824 Anglo-Dutch Treaty did not find it
necessary to specify, other than those islands expressly mentioned in

Article 12 of the Treaty.
100. The general reference in Article 12 of the 1824 Anglo-Dutch
Treaty to “the other Islands south of the Straights of Singapore” would
suggest that all the islands and islets within the Straits fell on the British

side of the dividing line of the spheres of influence. This naturally covered
the island of Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh whose legal status thus

36prétendaient qu’ils se trouvaient en leur possession ou dans leur sphère
d’influence et définissait leurs sphères d’influence respectives dans cette

partie des Indes orientales. Il est dès lors fort improbable que lesdites
puissances aient pu intentionnellement laisser ces formations maritimes
situées dans le détroit de Singapour hors de l’une ou de l’autre de leurs
sphères d’influence, et susceptibles d’occupation, à terme, par l’une d’elles
ou par une puissance tierce.

97. En outre, une fois replacée l’intégralité de l’arrangement prévu par
ce traité dans le contexte de la querelle qui en était venue à opposer les
deux fils du défunt souverain Mahmud III de l’ancien Sultanat de Johor,
il n’apparaît guère sensé de supposer que les deux Sultanats rivaux de
Johor et de Riau-Lingga, qui se disputaient la souveraineté sur certains

territoires de la région, aient pu décider de laisser indivise et non reven-
diquée cette zone du détroit située à leur frontière. La Cour est d’avis
que, quel qu’ait pu être l’effet juridique du traité de 1824 en ce qui
concerne la question de savoir où, concrètement, pouvait passer la ligne
de séparation entre les sphères d’influence respectives du Royaume-Uni
et des Pays-Bas, il est impossible d’admettre que le traité n’ait pas eu la

moindre incidence quant à la question du titre territorial sur les îles
situées dans le détroit.
98. A la lumière de cette analyse, la Cour est amenée à déduire, dans le
contexte des événements historiques ayant entouré la conclusion du traité
anglo-néerlandais de 1824, que la scission de l’ancien Sultanat de Johor et

la création des deux sultanats, celui de Johor et celui de Riau-Lingga,
participaient du dispositif d’ensemble décidé d’un commun accord par le
Royaume-Uni et les Pays-Bas et reflété par ce traité. Autrement dit, ce
dernier représentait le pendant juridique du règlement politique auquel
étaient parvenues les deux puissances coloniales — qui, depuis des années,

rivalisaient pour asseoir leur hégémonie dans cette partie du monde —,
règlement consistant à scinder le domaine territorial de l’ancien Sultanat
de Johor en deux sultanats qui relèveraient de leurs sphères d’influence
respectives. Ce dispositif excluait ainsi toute possibilité de vide juridique
susceptible de laisser une marge de manŒuvre permettant la prise de pos-

session licite d’une île située entre ces deux sphères d’influence. Ce règle-
ment politique eut également pour effet de sceller, par la conclusion du
traité anglo-néerlandais, la scission entre les deux Sultanats de Johor et
de Riau-Lingga.
99. Le point de savoir de quel côté de la ligne de séparation s’est alors
trouvée telle ou telle île ou autre formation maritime du détroit de Sin-

gapour est une question que les auteurs du traité anglo-néerlandais de
1824 n’ont pas jugé nécessaire de préciser, si ce n’est dans le cas des îles
expressément visées à son article XII.
100. La référence générale, à l’article XII du traité anglo-néerlandais
de 1824, aux «autres îles situées au sud du détroit de Sincapore» donne

plutôt à penser que toutes les îles et tous les îlots du détroit se sont trou-
vés du côté britannique de la ligne séparant les sphères d’influence. Cela
valait naturellement pour l’île de Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh, dont le

36remained as it had been, i.e. part of the territorial domain of what con-
tinued to be called the “Sultanate of Johor” after the division of the old

Sultanate.
101. A letter from the Government of India to John Crawfurd dated
4 March 1825, following the conclusion of the Crawfurd Treaty of 1824,
can be taken as a confirmation by the British side of this interpretation,
namely that all the islands within the Straits of Singapore fell within the

British sphere of influence and not of the Dutch. The letter states as fol-
lows:

“[O]ur acquisition of these Islets [under the Crawfurd Treaty] is
not at variance with the obligations of the Treaty concluded at Lon-
don in March last [i.e., the Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1824], as they are
all situated North of the Southern limits of the Straights of
Singapore . . .” (Emphasis added.)

It is clear from this sentence that the British Government of India
thought that the dividing line between what belonged to the sphere of

influence of the United Kingdom and what belonged to that of the Neth-
erlands in accordance with the 1824 Anglo-Dutch Treaty was “the South-
ern limits of the Straits of Singapore” (emphasis added) and that every
island north of that line came within the territorial domain belonging to
the sphere of influence of the United Kingdom.

5.3.3. The relevance of the 1824 Crawfurd Treaty

102. A few months after the conclusion of the 1824 Anglo-Dutch
Treaty, the East India Company and the Sultan and the Temenggong of
Johor entered into a new Treaty of Friendship and Alliance of 2 August

1824, known as the “Crawfurd Treaty”. By this Treaty the Sultan and
Temenggong of Johor ceded the island of Singapore to the East India
Company. The Crawfurd Treaty specifies the geographical scope of the
cession of the island of Singapore, together with adjacent seas, straits and
islets, to the extent of 10 geographical miles from the coast of Singapore.

103. Specifically, Article II of the Crawfurd Treaty provided as fol-
lows:
“Their Highnesses the Sultan Hussain Mahomed Shah and

Datu Tumungong Abdul Rahman Sri Maharajah hereby cede in full
sovereignty and property to the Honourable the English East India
Company, their heirs and successors for ever, the Island of Singa-
pore, situated in the Straits of Malacca, together with the adjacent
seas, straits, and islets, to the extent of ten geographical miles, from

the coast of the said main Island of Singapore.”
104. On the basis of this provision, Malaysia argues that “Johor could

not have ceded the territory of Singapore Island and islets situated within
ten geographical (i.e. nautical) miles to the English East India Company

37statut juridique demeurait ainsi inchangé: elle appartenait au domaine
territorial de ce qui, après la scission de l’ancien sultanat, continua d’être

appelé le «Sultanat de Johor».
101. Une lettre que le gouvernement des Indes adressa à John Crawfurd
le 4 mars 1825, après la conclusion du traité Crawfurd de 1824, peut être
considérée comme une confirmation par les Britanniques de cette inter-
prétation selon laquelle toutes les îles du détroit se trouvaient dans la

sphère d’influence britannique, et non néerlandaise. Cette lettre indique
ce qui suit:

«notre acquisition de ces îlots [aux termes du traité Crawfurd] ne
va pas à l’encontre des obligations figurant dans le traité conclu à
Londres au mois de mars de l’an dernier [à savoir le traité anglo-
néerlandais de 1824], les îlots en question étant tous situés au nord
des limites méridionales du détroit de Singapour » (les italiques sont

de la Cour).
Il ressort clairement de cette phrase que le Gouvernement britannique des
Indes estimait que la ligne de séparation entre ce qui faisait partie de la

sphère d’influence du Royaume-Uni et ce qui faisait partie de celle des
Pays-Bas conformément au traité anglo-néerlandais de 1824 corres-
pondait aux «limites méridionales du détroit de Singapour» (les ita-
liques sont de la Cour) et que toute île située au nord de cette ligne se
trouvait dans le domaine territorial ressortissant à la sphère d’influence

du Royaume-Uni.

5.3.3. La pertinence du traité Crawfurd de 1824

102. Le 2 août 1824, quelques mois après la conclusion du traité
anglo-néerlandais de 1824, la Compagnie des Indes orientales, d’une part,
et le sultan et le temenggong de Johor, d’autre part, conclurent un nou-

veau traité d’amitié et d’alliance, dit «traité Crawfurd». Aux termes de ce
traité, le sultan et le temenggong de Johor cédaient l’île de Singapour à la
Compagnie des Indes orientales. Le traité circonscrivait le territoire cédé,
y compris les eaux, détroits et îlots adjacents à l’île de Singapour, à une
distance de 10 milles géographiques à partir des côtes de Singapour.

103. Plus précisément, l’article II du traité Crawfurd disposait:

«Par le présent traité, Leurs Altesses le sultan Hussain Mahomed

Shah et le datu tumungong Abdul Rahman Sri Maharajah cèdent en
pleine souveraineté et propriété, à titre définitif, à l’honorable Com-
pagnie anglaise des Indes orientales, à ses héritiers et successeurs l’île
de Singapour, située dans le détroit de Malacca, ainsi que les eaux,
détroits et îlots adjacents sur une distance de 10 milles géogra-

phiques à partir de la côte de ladite île principale de Singapour.»
104. Sur la base de cette disposition, la Malaisie prétend que «[l]e

Johor n’aurait ... pu céder à la Compagnie anglaise des Indes orientales le
territoire de l’île de Singapour et des îlots situés dans un rayon de 10 milles

37if Johor did not have title to it”. Thus, according to Malaysia, “the fact
that it had a title which it was capable of ceding shows that the Johor title

to the area before 1824 included both PBP and sovereignty over Singa-
pore”.
105. In the view of Malaysia, even though Singapore agrees that the
cession of Singapore by the Sultan and Temenggong of Johor was
effected by the Crawfurd Treaty, Singapore nevertheless fails to appreci-

ate that this important constitutive document on the establishment of
Singapore also confirms formal British recognition of prior and continu-
ing sovereignty of the Sultanate of Johor over all other islands in and
around the Straits of Singapore. The Crawfurd Treaty provides, in

unequivocal terms, that the cession is confined to the islands of Singapore
itself and the area, including seas, straits and islets, within 10 geographi-
cal miles of the mainland of Singapore. Malaysia thus contends that title
to other territories and sea areas remained where it was, namely with the
Sultanate of Johor.

106. Singapore accepts that its claim to sovereignty over Pedra Branca/
Pulau Batu Puteh “is not based on the Treaty of Cession of 1824” since
“[t]hat Treaty dealt only with the main island of Singapore and its imme-
diate vicinity [and] did not extend to the area around Pedra Branca”

(emphasis in the original). However, Singapore dismisses the Crawfurd
Treaty of 1824 as simply “irrelevant” to the issue of title to Pedra Branca/
Pulau Batu Puteh, rejecting the argument advanced by Malaysia that by
accepting this cession the British recognized the authority of the Sultan
and the Temenggong of Johor to effect a transfer of title in relation to

islands in the Straits of Singapore.

107. The Court agrees that the Crawfurd Treaty cannot be relied on as
establishing “British recognition of prior and continuing sovereignty of

the Sultanate of Johor over all other islands in and around the Strait of
Singapore” as Malaysia claims. Article II speaks only of the cession of
“the Island of Singapore . . . together with the adjacent seas, straits, and
islets to the extent of ten geographical miles” and cannot, in and by itself,
be interpreted as formal recognition by the United Kingdom that the Sul-

tan and the Temenggong of Johor had “prior and continuing sover-
eignty” over any and all of the islands in the Straits of Singapore, includ-
ing Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh. On the other hand neither does this
finding signify a contrario that the islands in the Straits of Singapore fall-
ing outside the scope of Article II of this Treaty were terrae nullius and

could be subject to appropriation through “lawful occupation”. This lat-
ter point can only be judged in the context of what legal effect the divi-
sion of the old Sultanate of Johor had upon the islands in the area of the
Straits of Singapore, in particular in light of the 1824 Anglo-Dutch

Treaty (see above, paragraphs 95-101) and in light of the legal relevance,
vel non, of the so-called letter “of donation” of 1825 sent from Sul-

38géographiques (c’est-à-dire marins) s’il n’avait détenu sur lui un titre».
Dès lors, selon la Malaisie, «le fait que le Johor ait détenu un titre qui

était susceptible de cession prouve que la souveraineté qu’il exerçait
avant 1824 sur la région couvrait aussi bien PBP que Singapour».
105. Selon la Malaisie, Singapour, tout en admettant que c’est par le
traité Crawfurd qu’il a été procédé à la cession de Singapour par le sultan
et le temenggong de Johor, manque toutefois d’apercevoir que cet impor-

tant document constitutif de l’établissement de Singapour confirme éga-
lement la reconnaissance officielle, par les Britanniques, de la souverai-
neté qu’exerçait auparavant et qu’a continué d’exercer le Sultanat de
Johor sur toutes les autres îles situées dans le détroit de Singapour et ses
environs. Le traité Crawfurd dispose, en des termes dénués d’équivoque,

que la cession est limitée à l’île de Singapour proprement dite ainsi
qu’aux eaux, détroits et îlots situés dans un rayon de 10 milles géogra-
phiques de celle-ci. La Malaisie soutient donc que le détenteur du titre sur
les autres territoires et zones maritimes restait le même: le Sultanat de
Johor.
106. Singapour reconnaît que «[s]a revendication [de souveraineté sur

Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh] ne repose pas sur le traité de cession
de 1824», étant donné que «la portée de ce traité ne concerne que l’île
principale de Singapour et ses environs immédiats [et] ne s’étend pas
jusqu’à la zone située autour de Pedra Branca» (les italiques sont dans
l’original). Cependant, Singapour écarte le traité Crawfurd de 1824

comme étant tout simplement «dénué de pertinence» aux fins de la ques-
tion du titre sur Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh et rejette l’argument
avancé par la Malaisie selon lequel, en acceptant cette cession, les
Britanniques auraient reconnu au sultan et au temenggong de Johor le
pouvoir de transférer un titre sur des îles situées dans le détroit de

Singapour.
107. La Cour convient qu’une «reconnaissance, par les Britanniques,
de la souveraineté qu’avait exercée auparavant et que continu[a] d’exercer
le Sultanat de Johor sur toutes les autres îles situées dans le détroit de
Singapour et ses environs» ne saurait être déduite du traité Crawfurd,

contrairement à ce que soutient la Malaisie. L’article II ne prévoit rien
d’autre que la cession de «l’île de Singapour ... ainsi que [des] eaux,
détroits et îlots adjacents situés dans les 10 milles géographiques de celle-
ci» et ne saurait, en soi, être interprété comme une reconnaissance for-
melle par le Royaume-Uni «de la souveraineté qu’avai[en]t exercée aupa-
ravant et que continu[èrent] d’exercer» le sultan et le temenggong de

Johor sur toutes les îles situées dans le détroit de Singapour, dont Pedra
Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh. Mais cette conclusion ne signifie pas non plus
a contrario que les îles du détroit de Singapour ne relevant pas de l’ar-
ticle II dudit traité étaient terrae nullius ni qu’elles pouvaient faire l’objet
d’une appropriation par «occupation licite». Ce dernier point ne peut

être apprécié qu’au regard de l’effet juridique qu’eut la scission de l’ancien
Sultanat de Johor sur les îles situées dans le détroit de Singapour, notam-
ment à la lumière du traité anglo-néerlandais de 1824 (voir paragra-

38tan Abdul Rahman of Riau-Lingga to his brother Sultan Hussein of
Johor (see below, paragraphs 108-116).

5.3.4. The legal significance of the letter “of donation” of 1825

108. Singapore claims that “The Anglo-Dutch Treaty did not, by its
terms, effect a division of the Johor-Riau-Lingga Sultanate.” According

to Singapore,
“the subsequent dismemberment of the Sultanate resulted from the
practical fact that Sultan Abdul Rahman (who in the eyes of the

locals was the legitimate ruler of the Johor-Riau-Lingga
Sultanate) . . . could no longer exert effective power in the Malay
Peninsula (which had fallen within the British sphere) . . . The terri-
torial extent of the northern breakaway fragments (i.e., peninsular
Johor and Pahang) is not determined by the terms of the Anglo-

Dutch Treaty but by subsequent acts of and dealings amongst the
relevant Malay rulers.”

109. Singapore argues that instead of the 1824 Anglo-Dutch Treaty, it
was the letter “of donation” (see paragraph 23 above) from Sultan Abdul
Rahman to his brother Hussein which had the legal effect of transferring
the title to the territory included in that letter “of donation”. Thus it
claims:

“One example of such dealing was the express donation of terri-
tory by Sultan Abdul Rahman to Sultan Hussein one year after the
Anglo-Dutch Treaty was signed. This donation was made on the

advice of the Dutch, who wished to avoid any confusion over which
territories remained under the control of Sultan Abdul Rahman in
the post Anglo-Dutch Treaty period. In 1825, they sent an official . . .
to explain to the Sultan the implications of the Anglo-Dutch Treaty
and to advise him to formally cede the mainland territories of Johor
and Pahang to his brother Hussein.”

110. Sultan Abdul Rahman’s letter reads as follows:

“Your brother sends you this letter . . . to give you notice of the
conclusion of a treaty between His Majesty the King of the Nether-
lands and His Majesty the King of Great Britain, whereby the divi-

sion of the lands of Johor, Pahang, Riau and Lingga is stipulated.
The part of the lands assigned to you, My Brother, I donate to you
with complete satisfaction, and sincere affection, for we are brothers
and the only children left behind by our father.
.............................

Your territory, thus, extends over Johor and Pahang on the main-
land or on the Malay Peninsula. The territory of Your Brother

39phes 95-101 ci-dessus) et de la valeur juridique à accorder ou non à la
lettre de 1825, dite lettre «de donation», que le sultan Abdul Rahman de

Riau-Lingga adressa à son frère le sultan Hussein de Johor (voir para-
graphes 108-116 ci-dessous).

5.3.4. La portée juridique de la lettre «de donation» de 1825

108. Singapour affirme que «[l]e traité anglo-néerlandais n’a pas lui-

même opéré une partition du Sultanat de Johor-Riau-Lingga». Selon
elle,
«le Sultanat fut démembré par la suite ... pour la raison pratique que

le sultan Abdul Rahman (qui, aux yeux de la population locale, était
le souverain légitime du Sultanat de Johor-Riau-Lingga) ... ne pou-
vait plus exercer de pouvoir effectif dans la péninsule malaise (tom-
bée dans la sphère d’influence britannique)... L’étendue territoriale
des fragments qui se sont détachés au nord (le Johor péninsulaire et

le Pahang) est déterminée non pas par les termes du traité anglo-
néerlandais, mais par les actes ultérieurs des souverains malais inté-
ressés et les arrangements qu’ils conclurent entre eux.»

109. Singapour prétend que ce fut la lettre «de donation» (voir para-
graphe 23 ci-dessus) du sultan Abdul Rahman à son frère Hussein, et non
le traité anglo-néerlandais de 1824, qui eut pour effet juridique de trans-
férer le titre sur le territoire mentionné dans ladite lettre. Elle affirme

ainsi:
«Un exemple de ces arrangements est le don exprès de territoire

que le sultan Abdul Rahman consentit au sultan Hussein un an après
la signature du traité anglo-néerlandais. Ce don fut fait sur le conseil
des Néerlandais, qui voulaient éviter toute confusion sur la question
de savoir quels territoires demeuraient sous le contrôle du sultan
Abdul Rahman après la conclusion du traité anglo-néerlandais.

En 1825, ils dépêchèrent un représentant ... pour expliquer au sultan
les incidences du traité anglo-néerlandais et lui conseiller de céder
formellement les territoires continentaux du Johor et du Pahang à son
frère Hussein.»

110. La lettre du sultan Abdul Rahman se lit comme suit:

«Votre frère vous envoie cette lettre ... pour vous informer de la
conclusion d’un traité entre S. M. le roi des Pays-Bas et S. M. le roi
d’Angleterre, par lequel sont partagés les territoires du Johor et du
Pahang, de Riau et de Lingga. Les parties de territoire qui vous ont
été attribuées, mon frère, je vous les donne en toute satisfaction et

avec ma sincère affection, car nous sommes frères et les seuls enfants
laissés par notre père.
.............................

Votre territoire, donc, s’étend sur le Johor et le Pahang sur le
continent, ou péninsule malaise. Le territoire de votre frère s’étend

39 extends out over the Islands of Lingga, Bintan, Galang, Bulan, Kari-
mon and all other islands. Whatsoever may be in the sea, this is the

territory of Your Brother, and whatever is situated on the mainland
is yours. On the basis of these premises I earnestly beseech you that
your notables, the Paduka Bendahara of Pahang and Temeng-
gong Abdul Rahman, will not in the slightest concern themselves
with the islands that belong to Your Brother.”

111. On this basis, Singapore argues that

“[t]he nature and terms of Sultan Abdul Rahman’s donation of ter-
ritories to Sultan Hussein is another impediment to Malaysia’s claim
that original title to Pedra Branca is derived from the Johor-Riau-
Lingga Sultanate”.

The argument of Singapore is that from the terms of that letter, it is clear

that Sultan Abdul Rahman donated only the mainland territories to his
brother Sultan Hussein, and retained for himself all islands in the sea.
Singapore further argues that “even if Pedra Branca was a possession
of the Johor-Riau-Lingga Sultanate (which it was not), it would have
been retained by Sultan Abdul Rahman and not become part of the

State of Johor”.
112. Malaysia challenges this argument as follows:

“In its Counter-Memorial Singapore suggests that it was not the
Anglo-Dutch Treaty that determined the extent of the Johor Sultan-
ate but instead the donation by Sultan Abdul Rahman by letter of
25 June 1825 of mainland territories in peninsular Malaya to his
brother Sultan Hussain in 1825 . . .

The ‘donation’ of Sultan Abdul Rahman must be read in the con-
text of what is stipulated under Article XII of the Anglo-Dutch
Treaty of 1824. By no means does it serve as Johor’s title to its ter-
ritory. The territories specified by Sultan Abdul Rahman to be his
own (the one under the Dutch sphere of influence) in the letter of

25 June 1825 comprise ‘the Islands of Lingga, Bintan, Galang,
Bulan, Karimon and all other islands’. Out of these five specified
islands, three were mentioned in Article XII of the Anglo-Dutch
Treaty of 1824 (namely, the Carimon Islands, Bintang and Lingga)
while the remaining two (Galang and Bulan) are islands clearly lying

south of the Strait of Singapore. The phrase ‘all other islands’ refers
to all other islands lying within the Dutch sphere of influence and
not named explicitly in the letter, e.g. Batam and Singkep. To sum
up, this letter was not a ‘donation’ but was instead a formal recogni-
tion that Sultan Abdul Rahman did not claim sovereignty over

Johor.”

113. The Court considers the fundamental question to be whether the
“donation” described in the letter of Sultan Abdul Rahman can be

40 sur les îles de Lingga, Bintan, Galang, Bulan, Karimon et toutes les
autres îles. Tout ce qui se trouve en mer appartient à votre frère et

tout ce qui se trouve sur le continent vous appartient. Sur cette base,
je vous demande instamment de faire en sorte que vos notables, le
paduka bendahara du Pahang et le temenggong Abdul Rahman, ne
s’occupent en rien des îles appartenant à votre frère.»

111. Singapour se fonde sur cette lettre pour affirmer que

«[l]a nature de cette donation de territoire faite par le sultan
Abdul Rahman au sultan Hussein et les termes dans lesquels elle fut
consentie font aussi obstacle à l’argument de la Malaisie selon lequel
son titre originaire sur Pedra Branca dériverait de celui détenu par le

Sultanat de Johor-Riau-Lingga».
Pour Singapour, il ressort clairement des termes de cette lettre que le

sultan Abdul Rahman ne céda à son frère le sultan Hussein que les terri-
toires continentaux, se réservant toutes les îles situées en mer. Singapour
fait en outre valoir que, «quand bien même Pedra Branca aurait été une
possession du Sultanat de Johor-Riau-Lingga (ce qu’elle n’était pas),
elle serait restée au sultan Abdul Rahman et n’aurait pas été incorporée

à l’Etat du Johor».
112. La Malaisie conteste cet argument de la manière suivante:

«Dans son contre-mémoire, Singapour laisse entendre que ce ne
fut pas le traité anglo-néerlandais qui détermina l’étendue du Sulta-
nat de Johor, mais plutôt la lettre du 25 juin 1825 par laquelle le
sultan Abdul Rahman aurait fait don à son frère le sultan Hussain
des territoires continentaux situés dans la péninsule malaise...

La «donation» du sultan Abdul Rahman doit être envisagée dans
le cadre des dispositions de l’article XII du traité anglo-néerlandais
de 1824. Elle ne constitue en aucun cas le titre du Johor sur son ter-
ritoire. Les territoires que le sultan Abdul Rahman précise être les
siens (ceux qui étaient situés au sein de la sphère d’influence néerlan-

daise) dans la lettre du 25 juin 1825 comprennent «les îles de Lingga,
Bintan, Galang, Bulan, Karimon et toutes les autres îles». Trois de ces
cinq îles nommément désignées étaient mentionnées à l’article XII
du traité anglo-néerlandais de 1824 (à savoir les îles Carimon et
celles de Bintang et de Lingga), les deux autres (Galang et Bulan)

étant clairement situées au sud du détroit de Singapour. L’expres-
sion «toutes les autres îles» vise toutes les autres îles situées au sein
de la sphère d’influence néerlandaise et non désignées expressément
dans la lettre, par exemple Batam et Singkep. Pour résumer, cette
lettre constituait non pas une «donation» mais une reconnaissance

formelle du fait que le sultan Abdul Rahman ne revendiquait pas la
souveraineté sur le Johor.»

113. La Cour estime que la question essentielle est celle de savoir si la
«donation» dont il s’agit dans la lettre du sultan Abdul Rahman peut

40regarded as having the legal effect of conveying title to the territories
referred to therein. In order for this to be the case, it has to be established

that the territories in question had been under the sovereignty of the Sul-
tan of Riau-Lingga. In this respect, Singapore claims that Sul-
tan Abdul Rahman “in the eyes of the locals was the legitimate ruler of
the Johor-Riau-Lingga Sultanate” and that he followed the advice of a
Dutch official “to formally cede the mainland territories of Johor and

Pahang to his brother Hussein”.

114. The letter no doubt was an expression of Sultan Abdul Rahman’s
definitive intention to renounce his claim to title to these territories and

as such could produce that legal effect. However, with regard to territo-
ries referred to expressly or by implication in his letter “of donation”, but
over which he held no title proven to the satisfaction of the Court, his
donation was without effect.

115. The Court concludes that the old Sultanate of Johor was divided
in 1824 into the Sultanate of Johor with Sultan Hussein as its sovereign
and the Sultanate of Riau-Lingga with Sultan Abdul Rahman as its sov-
ereign although the dividing line between them remained somewhat un-
clear. The 1824 Anglo-Dutch Treaty reflected the division as between the

United Kingdom and the Netherlands in the form of their respective
spheres of influence (see paragraphs 81-101 above). The so-called letter
“of donation” from Sultan Abdul Rahman to his brother Hussein con-
firmed that division.
116. Moreover, the cession of Singapore and the other islands by the

Sultan and the Temenggong of Johor in 1824 would have been possible
only if the Sultanate of Johor had had valid title to them. This act of
cession took place soon after the conclusion of the 1824 Anglo-Dutch
Treaty, but before the act of “donation” of the territories that included
those referred to in the Crawfurd Treaty as the object of the cession. This

sequence of events can only be understood as reinforcing the interpreta-
tion of the act of “donation” given above. Were the Court to accept
Singapore’s argument (see paragraph 109 above) there would have
been no legal basis on which Sultan Hussein and the Temenggong of
Johor could have ceded the island of Singapore to the East India

Company in 1824.

5.3.5. Conclusion

117. In the light of the foregoing, the Court concludes that Malaysia
has established to the satisfaction of the Court that as of the time when
the British started their preparations for the construction of the light-

house on Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh in 1844, this island was under
the sovereignty of the Sultan of Johor.

41être considérée comme ayant eu pour effet juridique de transférer au sul-
tan de Johor le titre sur les territoires qui y sont mentionnés. Pour qu’il

en soit ainsi, il doit être établi que les territoires en question relevaient de
la souveraineté du sultan de Riau-Lingga. A cet égard, Singapour fait
valoir que, «aux yeux de la population locale», le sultan Abdul Rahman
«était le souverain légitime du Sultanat de Johor-Riau-Lingga» et que
c’est sur le conseil d’un représentant néerlandais qu’il avait «céd[é] for-

mellement les territoires continentaux du Johor et du Pahang à son frère
Hussein».
114. Cette lettre représentait, à n’en pas douter, l’expression de l’inten-
tion du sultan Abdul Rahman de renoncer définitivement à toute préten-

tion au titre sur ces territoires et pourrait, en tant que telle, avoir produit
cet effet juridique. Toutefois, s’agissant des territoires explicitement ou
implicitement visés dans sa lettre «de donation», mais sur lesquels il ne
détenait aucun titre qui ait été établi à la satisfaction de la Cour, sa dona-
tion fut sans effet.

115. La Cour conclut que l’ancien Sultanat de Johor fut scindé en
1824 entre un Sultanat de Johor gouverné par le sultan Hussein et un
Sultanat de Riau-Lingga gouverné par le sultan Abdul Rahman, bien que
la ligne de séparation entre les deux sultanats soit restée un peu floue.
Dans le traité anglo-néerlandais de 1824, on retrouve cette partition sous

la forme des sphères d’influence respectives du Royaume-Uni et des Pays-
Bas (voir paragraphes 81-101 ci-dessus). La lettre dite «de donation» du
sultan Abdul Rahman à son frère Hussein confirmait cette scission.

116. En outre, la cession de Singapour et des autres îles par le sultan

et le temenggong de Johor en 1824 n’aurait été possible que si le Sulta-
nat de Johor avait détenu sur elles un titre valide. Cet acte de cession
est intervenu peu après la conclusion du traité anglo-néerlandais
de 1824, mais avant l’acte de «donation» des territoires comprenant
ceux qui sont mentionnés dans le traité Crawfurd comme consti-

tuant l’objet de la cession. Cette succession d’événements ne peut se
comprendre que comme venant renforcer l’interprétation donnée plus
haut de l’acte de «donation». Si la Cour devait accepter la position
avancée par Singapour (voir paragraphe 109 ci-dessus), il n’y aurait
eu aucune base juridique sur laquelle le sultan Hussein et le temeng-

gong de Johor auraient pu céder l’île de Singapour à la Compagnie
des Indes orientales en 1824.

5.3.5. Conclusion

117. Compte tenu de ce qui précède, la Cour conclut que la Malaisie a
établi à sa satisfaction que, à l’époque où les Britanniques commencèrent
leurs préparatifs pour la construction du phare sur Pedra Branca/Pulau

Batu Puteh, en 1844, cette île était sous la souveraineté du sultan de
Johor.

41 5.4. Legal status of Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh
after the 1840s

5.4.1. Applicable law

118. As the Court has shown in the preceding part of this Judgment,
Johor had sovereignty over Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh at the time

the planning for the construction of the lighthouse on the island began.
Singapore does not contend that anything had happened before then
which could provide any basis for an argument that it or its predecessors
had acquired sovereignty. But Singapore does of course contend that it

has acquired sovereignty over Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh since
1844. The Singapore argument is based on the construction and opera-
tion of Horsburgh lighthouse and the many other actions it took on, and
in relation to Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh, as well as on the conduct
of Johor and its successors. By contrast, Malaysia contends that all of

those actions of the United Kingdom were simply actions of the operator
of the lighthouse, being carried out precisely in terms of the permission
which Johor granted in the circumstances which the Court will soon con-
sider.
119. Whether Malaysia has retained sovereignty over Pedra Branca/

Pulau Batu Puteh following 1844 or whether sovereignty has since passed
to Singapore can be determined only on the basis of the Court’s assess-
ment of the relevant facts as they occurred since 1844 by reference to the
governing principles and rules of international law. The relevant facts
consist mainly of the conduct of the Parties during that period.

120. Any passing of sovereignty might be by way of agreement between
the two States in question. Such an agreement might take the form of a
treaty, as with the 1824 Crawfurd Treaty and the 1927 Agreement
referred to earlier (paragraphs 22, 28 and 102). The agreement might

instead be tacit and arise from the conduct of the Parties. International
law does not, in this matter, impose any particular form. Rather it places
its emphasis on the parties’ intentions (cf. e.g. Temple of Preah Vihear
(Cambodia v. Thailand), Preliminary Objections, I.C.J. Reports 1961 ,
pp. 17, 31).

121. Under certain circumstances, sovereignty over territory might
pass as a result of the failure of the State which has sovereignty to
respond to conduct à titre de souverain of the other State or, as
Judge Huber put it in the Island of Palmas case, to concrete manifesta-
tions of the display of territorial sovereignty by the other State (Island of

Palmas Case (Netherlands/United States of America) , Award of
4 April 1928, RIAA, Vol. II, (1949) p. 839). Such manifestations of the
display of sovereignty may call for a response if they are not to be oppos-
able to the State in question. The absence of reaction may well amount to

acquiescence. The concept of acquiescence

42 5.4. Statut juridique de Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh
après les années 1840

5.4.1. Le droit applicable

118. Ainsi que la Cour l’a démontré dans la partie précédente de
l’arrêt, le Johor détenait la souveraineté sur Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu

Puteh lorsque fut conçu le projet de construction du phare sur cette île.
Singapour ne soutient pas que, avant cela, il y ait eu quoi que ce soit qui
puisse étayer la thèse selon laquelle elle ou ses prédécesseurs auraient
acquis cette souveraineté. Cependant, Singapour soutient, bien évidem-

ment, avoir acquis la souveraineté sur Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh
depuis 1844. Singapour fonde son argument sur la construction et l’exploi-
tation du phare Horsburgh, et sur les nombreuses autres activités qu’elle
a menées sur Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh et en rapport avec cette île,
ainsi que sur le comportement du Johor et de ses successeurs. La Malaisie

affirme, quant à elle, que toutes ces activités du Royaume-Uni entraient
simplement dans le cadre de l’exploitation du phare et qu’elles étaient
menées précisément selon l’autorisation accordée par le Johor dans des
conditions que la Cour examinera ultérieurement.
119. La réponse à la question de savoir si la Malaisie a conservé la

souveraineté sur Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh après 1844 ou si cette
souveraineté est ensuite passée à Singapour ne peut être apportée qu’à la
lumière de l’appréciation que fera la Cour des faits pertinents qui se sont
produits depuis cette date, au regard des principes et règles applicables du
droit international. Les faits pertinents sont principalement le comporte-

ment des Parties au cours de cette période.
120. Un changement du titulaire de la souveraineté pourrait avoir
résulté d’un accord entre les deux Etats en question, accord qui pourrait
avoir pris la forme d’un traité, comme dans le cas du traité Crawfurd de
1824 ou de l’accord de 1927, mentionnés plus haut (paragraphes 22, 28

et 102), ou avoir été tacite et découler du comportement des Parties.
Le droit international n’impose à cet égard aucune forme particulière. Il
met en revanche l’accent sur les intentions des parties (voir par exemple
Temple de Préah Vihéar (Cambodge c. Thaïlande), arrêt, exceptions
préliminaires, C.I.J. Recueil 1961 , p. 17 et 31).

121. Dans certaines circonstances, la souveraineté sur un territoire
peut passer à un autre Etat en l’absence de réaction de celui qui la dé-
tenait face au comportement de cet autre Etat agissant à titre de souve-
rain, c’est-à-dire, pour reprendre les termes employés par le juge Max
Huber dans l’affaire relative à l’Ile de Palmas, face à des manifestations

concrètes de l’exercice de la souveraineté territoriale (Ile de Palmas
(Pays-Bas/Etats-Unis d’Amérique) sentence, 4 avril 1928, RGDIP,
t. XLII, 1935, p. 164 et 165 [traduction française]). De telles manifesta-
tions peuvent appeler une réponse, en l’absence de laquelle elles devien-

nent opposables à l’Etat en question. L’absence de réaction peut tout à
fait valoir acquiescement. La notion d’acquiescement

42 “is equivalent to tacit recognition manifested by unilateral conduct
which the other party may interpret as consent . . .” (Delimitation of

the Maritime Boundary in the Gulf of Maine Area (Canada/United
States of America), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1984 , p. 305,
para. 130).

That is to say, silence may also speak, but only if the conduct of the other

State calls for a response.
122. Critical for the Court’s assessment of the conduct of the Parties is
the central importance in international law and relations of State sover-
eignty over territory and of the stability and certainty of that sovereignty.

Because of that, any passing of sovereignty over territory on the basis of
the conduct of the Parties, as set out above, must be manifested clearly
and without any doubt by that conduct and the relevant facts. That is
especially so if what may be involved, in the case of one of the Parties, is
in effect the abandonment of sovereignty over part of its territory.

123. One feature of the arguments on the law presented by the Parties
should be mentioned at this point. Singapore, as has already been dis-
cussed, contended that Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh was terra nullius

in 1847 (see paragraph 40 above). Recognizing however that the Court
might reject that contention, Singapore submitted that even in that event,
that is to say on the basis that “Malaysia could somehow show an his-
toric title over the island, Singapore would still possess sovereignty over
Pedra Branca since Singapore has exercised continuous sovereignty over

the island while Malaysia has done nothing”. It is true that it had shortly
before said that “the notion of prescription . . . has no role to play in the
present case” but that was said on the basis that, as Singapore saw the
case, Malaysia had not made out its historic title.

124. Malaysia, in response to this argument on prescription, recog-
nized that Singapore may have been intending to give the impression that
there was “still some way in which the Court can override Johor’s title on
the basis of Britain’s post-1851 conduct”. While Malaysia considered
that that conduct could not properly be taken into account — Johor had

the historic title and Singapore “quite properly acknowledge[d] that ‘an
argument . . . predicated on the notion of prescription . . . has no role to
play in the present case’” — Malaysia in its oral argument, as in its writ-
ten pleadings, nevertheless addressed that post-1851 conduct at length, as
of course did Singapore for which it was an essential part of its case,

whatever the outcome of the submissions about historic title and terra
nullius. And the “acknowledgment” by Singapore, to which Malaysia
referred, was stated on the hypothesis that Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu
Puteh was terra nullius.

125. The Court accordingly will now examine the relevant facts, par-

43 «équiv[aut] à une reconnaissance tacite manifestée par un compor-
tement unilatéral que l’autre partie peut interpréter comme un

consentement» (Délimitation de la frontière maritime dans la région
du golfe du Maine (Canada/Etats-Unis d’Amérique), arrêt, C.I.J.
Recueil 1984, p. 305, par. 130).

Autrement dit, un silence peut aussi être éloquent, mais seulement si le

comportement de l’autre Etat appelle une réponse.
122. Un point déterminant pour l’appréciation que fera la Cour du
comportement des Parties tient à l’importance de premier plan que revê-
tent, en droit international et dans les relations internationales, la souve-

raineté étatique sur un territoire ainsi que le caractère stable et certain de
cette souveraineté. De ce fait, tout changement du titulaire de la souve-
raineté territoriale fondé sur le comportement des Parties, tel qu’exposé
ci-dessus, doit se manifester clairement et de manière dépourvue d’ambi-
guïté au travers de ce comportement et des faits pertinents. Cela vaut tout

particulièrement si ce qui risque d’en découler pour l’une des Parties est
en fait l’abandon de sa souveraineté sur une portion de son territoire.
123. L’un des points de l’argumentation développée par les Parties
quant au droit doit être mentionné à ce stade. Ainsi qu’il a déjà été indi-
qué, Singapour a soutenu que Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh était terra

nullius en 1847 (voir paragraphe 40 ci-dessus). Sachant bien, cependant,
que la Cour pourrait rejeter cet argument, Singapour a avancé que, même
dans une telle hypothèse, à savoir si la «Malaisie p[ouvait] prouver d’une
façon ou d’une autre qu’elle détenait un titre historique sur l’île, Singa-
pour conserverait la souveraineté sur Pedra Branca puisqu’elle a[vait]

exercé des actes continus de souveraineté sur l’île alors que la Malaisie
n’a[vait] rien fait». Il est vrai que, juste auparavant, Singapour avait indi-
qué que «la notion de prescription ... n’a[vait] aucun rôle à jouer en
l’espèce», mais elle se fondait alors sur le fait que, selon elle, la Malaisie
n’avait pas établi son titre historique.

124. Face à cet argument relatif à la prescription, la Malaisie s’est
rendu compte que Singapour avait peut-être souhaité donner l’impres-
sion qu’il «demeur[ait] en quelque sorte possible pour la Cour de passer
outre au titre du Johor sur la base du comportement suivi par la Grande-
Bretagne après 1851». Même si, à son avis, cela ne pouvait être valable-

ment retenu — le Johor détenait le titre historique et Singapour «recon-
n[aissait] fort justement qu’un «argument ... fond[é] ... sur la notion de
prescription ... n’a[vait] aucun rôle à jouer en l’espèce»» —, la Malaisie a
néanmoins, dans ses plaidoiries comme dans ses écritures, longuement
examiné le comportement postérieur à 1851, comme l’avait bien entendu

fait Singapour puisqu’il s’agissait d’un aspect essentiel de son argumenta-
tion, indépendamment du sort réservé aux revendications relatives au
titre historique et à l’argument du territoire sans maître. Par ailleurs, ce
que la Malaisie mentionne comme «admis» par Singapour était fondé

sur l’hypothèse que Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh était terra nullius.
125. Aussi la Cour va-t-elle maintenant examiner les faits pertinents,

43ticularly the conduct of the Parties, relating to Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu
Puteh, to determine whether or not sovereignty over it has passed and is

now with Singapore.

5.4.2. The process for the selection of the site for Horsburgh lighthouse

126. James Horsburgh, who as hydrographer to the East Indies Com-

pany had prepared many charts and sailing instructions for the East
Indies, China, New Holland, the Cape of Good Hope and intermediate
ports, died in May 1836. Merchants and mariners resolved, initially in
Canton, that the appropriate memorial and testimony of gratitude would

be the construction and operation of one or more lighthouses. As early
as November 1836 “Pedra Branca” was identified as a preferred location
and, although other possibilities were mentioned in the following years,
when Jardine Matheson & Co., Treasurer to the China Fund for a testi-
monial of the late James Horsburgh, first wrote to the Governor of Sing-

apore, on 1 March 1842, “Pedra Branca” was the only locality they spe-
cifically mentioned. That letter is the first formal communication on
behalf of the subscribers to the British authorities. The Treasurer advised
the Governor that:

“At a general meeting of the subscribers, a wish was expressed

that the contributions should, if possible, be devoted to the building
of a Light House, bearing the name of Horsburgh, on Pedra Branca,
at the entrance of the China Sea, but nothing definitive was resolved
on.
As this is a design which can only be carried into effect and main-

tained under the immediate auspices of the British Government, we
beg to express our readiness to hand over the above amount to you
in the hope that you will have the goodness to cause a Light House
(called after Horsburgh) to be erected either on Pedra Branca, or on
such other locality as the Government of the Hon’ble East India

Company may deem preferable.
The amount is far from adequate; but we trust the well known
munificience of the Hon’ble Company will supply what additional
funds may be wanting for an object of such eminent public utility,
intended at the same time, to do Honor to the memory of one of the

most meritorious of their servants.”
The Court notes the recognition by the private commercial interests that

the British Government would have to carry the proposal into effect and
provide the further funds.
127. In his reply of 4 April 1842, the Governor indicated his prefer-
ence, which he had recommended to the Governor-General of India

Council, for Tree Island or such other locality as the East India Com-
pany may deem feasible. (Tree Island, at the western end of the Straits,

44et en particulier le comportement des Parties, en ce qui concerne Pedra
Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh, afin de déterminer si la souveraineté sur celle-

ci est passée à Singapour et est à présent détenue par elle.

5.4.2. Le processus de sélection de l’emplacement du phare Horsburgh

126. James Horsburgh, qui, en sa qualité d’hydrographe de la Com-

pagnie des Indes orientales, avait établi de nombreuses cartes marines et
instructions nautiques pour les Indes orientales, la Chine, la Nouvelle-
Hollande, le cap de Bonne-Espérance et certains ports d’escale, mourut
en mai 1836. Des négociants et navigateurs décidèrent — initialement

à Canton — que la construction et l’exploitation d’un ou de plusieurs
phares constitueraient le moyen de lui rendre hommage et de témoigner
leur gratitude. Dès le mois de novembre 1836, le choix se porta sur
«Pedra Branca» et — bien que d’autres emplacements aient été mention-
nés dans les années qui suivirent —, lorsque Jardine Matheson & Co.,

trésorier du fonds chinois pour un hommage à la mémoire de feu James
Horsburgh, écrivit pour la première fois au gouverneur de Singapour, le
1er mars 1842, «Pedra Branca» était le seul emplacement expressément
désigné. Cette lettre est la première communication officielle adressée aux
autorités britanniques au nom des souscripteurs. Le trésorier indiquait

au gouverneur ce qui suit:
«Réunis en assemblée générale, les souscripteurs ont exprimé le

souhait que les contributions soient, dans la mesure du possible,
affectées à la construction d’un phare portant le nom de Horsburgh
sur Pedra Branca, à l’entrée de la mer de Chine, mais ils n’ont pas
pris de décision définitive.
Un tel projet ne pouvant être mis en Œuvre et poursuivi que sous

les auspices directs du Gouvernement britannique, nous voudrions
vous signifier que nous sommes prêts à vous remettre le montant
susmentionné dans l’espoir que vous voudrez bien faire en sorte
qu’un phare (portant le nom de Horsburgh) soit érigé soit sur Pedra
Branca, soit en tout autre endroit que le gouvernement de l’honora-

ble Compagnie des Indes orientales jugerait préférable.
Le montant est loin d’être suffisant, mais nous ne doutons pas que
l’honorable Compagnie, dans sa munificence bien connue, apportera
le complément de fonds nécessaire à la réalisation d’un objet d’une si
grande utilité publique et conçu en même temps pour honorer la

mémoire de l’un de ses serviteurs les plus méritants.»
La Cour relève que les milieux d’affaires reconnaissaient ainsi qu’il reve-

nait au Gouvernement britannique de donner effet à la proposition et
d’apporter le complément de fonds nécessaire.
127. Dans sa réponse en date du 4 avril 1842, le gouverneur indiqua sa
préférence, dont il avait fait part au gouverneur général des Indes en

conseil, pour Tree Island ou tout autre site que la Compagnie des Indes
orientales jugerait pratiquement envisageable. (Tree Island, située à

44had been suggested in December 1836 by a number of merchants and
mariners, along with Pedra Branca, in a memorial to the Government of

India.) By July 1842 his preferred location was Barn Island, which was
about 16 miles from Singapore, on the basis of a proposal by John Thom-
son, the newly appointed Government Surveyor at Singapore. That pro-
posal, as recommended to the Government of India, had associated with
it the imposition of a charge on vessels anchoring in Singapore Roads.

Because the East India Company opposed the levying of harbour and
anchorage duties and the British mercantile community, with the Com-
pany, attached importance to the preservation of the perfect freedom of
trade at Singapore, the proposal was not even considered.

128. October and November of 1844 saw a number of significant
developments. On 1 October Captain Sir Edward Belcher reported to
W. J. Butterworth, who had become Governor of the Straits Settlements

in 1843, his firm opinion that the Romania Outer Island was the most
eligible site. The Parties agree that the island so identified is Peak Rock.
On 20 November, Thomson reported in detail to the Governor on the
structure of a lighthouse on Peak Rock, the method of constructing it, an
estimate of the cost and an undertaking by a contractor to build the light-

house according to the plan. Just days later Governor Butterworth
received replies to letters which he had written to the Sultan and Temeng-
gong of Johor. Notwithstanding the Parties’ extensive research, the Gov-
ernor’s letters have not been found, but the Parties did provide to the
Court copies of the translations of the replies, both dated 25 November

1844. The Sultan wrote as follows:

“I have received my friend’s letter, and in reply desire to acquaint
my friend, that I perfectly understand his wishes, and I am exceed-
ingly pleased at the intention expressed therein, as it (a Light House)
will enable Traders and others to enter and leave this Port with

greater Confidence.”

The Temenggong said rather more:

“I have duly received my friend’s communication, and understand
the contents. My friend is desirous of erecting a Light House near
Point Romania. I can have no possible objection to such a measure,
indeed I am much pleased that such an undertaking is in contempla-
tion. I wish to be guided in all matters by the Government, so much

so, that the company are at full liberty to put up a Light House
there, or any spot deemed eligible.
Myself and family for many years have derived support from Sing-
apore, our dependence is wholly on the English Government, and we

hope to merit the protection of, and be favoured by the Company on
all occasions consistent with propriety.”

45l’extrémité occidentale du détroit, avait été proposée avec Pedra Branca
en décembre 1836 par un certain nombre de négociants et de navigateurs

dans un mémoire adressé au Gouvernement des Indes.) En juillet 1842,
sur la base d’un projet présenté par John Thomson, nouvellement nommé
géomètre du gouvernement à Singapour, le choix du gouverneur s’était
porté sur Barn Island, située à quelque 16 milles de Singapour. Dans ce
projet, tel qu’il fut recommandé au Gouvernement des Indes, il était prévu

de prélever des droits sur les navires mouillant dans la rade de Singapour.
La Compagnie des Indes orientales s’étant opposée à la perception de
droits de port et de mouillage et attachant, tout comme la communauté
marchande britannique, de l’importance à la protection de la liberté

de commerce la plus complète à Singapour, le projet ne fut même pas
examiné.
128. Plusieurs faits marquants eurent lieu en octobre et en novembre
1844. Le 1 octobre, le capitaine sir Edward Belcher déclara à W. J. But-
terworth, qui était devenu gouverneur des Etablissements des détroits

en 1843, être convaincu que l’île Romania, la plus au large, était l’empla-
cement qui convenait le mieux. Les Parties s’accordent à dire que l’île
ainsi désignée est Peak Rock. Le 20 novembre, Thomson adressa au gou-
verneur un rapport détaillé concernant l’édification d’un phare sur Peak
Rock, et exposant la méthode de construction, l’estimation du coût et

l’engagement pris par un entrepreneur de bâtir le phare conformément au
projet. Quelques jours plus tard à peine, le gouverneur Butterworth reçut
des réponses aux lettres qu’il avait adressées au sultan et au temenggong
de Johor. En dépit de recherches approfondies, les Parties ne sont pas
parvenues à retrouver les lettres du gouverneur, mais elles ont communi-

qué à la Cour copie de la traduction des réponses, toutes deux datées du
25 novembre 1844. Le sultan écrivait:

«J’ai reçu la lettre de mon ami, et tiens en réponse à lui faire
connaître que je comprends parfaitement ses souhaits et que je suis
éminemment satisfait de l’intention qu’il y exprime, car cela (un
phare) permettra aux marchands et autres d’entrer dans ce port et

d’en sortir plus aisément.»

Le temenggong en disait plus long:

«J’ai dûment reçu la communication de mon ami et pris connais-
sance de son contenu. Mon ami désire ériger un phare à proximité de
Point Romania; je ne saurais objecter à une telle mesure; en fait, je
suis très heureux qu’une telle entreprise soit envisagée. Je souhaite
être guidé en toutes matières par le gouvernement, si bien que la

Compagnie est entièrement libre de construire un phare à cet endroit,
ou en tout autre lieu qu’elle jugera approprié.
Ma famille et moi-même bénéficions depuis des années du soutien
de Singapour, notre sujétion envers le Gouvernement anglais est

totale et nous espérons mériter la protection et les faveurs de la
Compagnie dans toutes les occasions qu’il siéra.»

45 129. Three days later, on 28 November 1844, the Governor wrote to
the Secretary of the Government of India. He recalled the rejection of the

Barn Island proposal because of the “restrictive measure on the freedom
of the Port” involved in the proposed charges. The Governor then
referred to the Belcher and Thomson reports, which he enclosed:

“The funds adverted to, amounting to 5513 Dollars or 12,978.84
Company’s Rupees, being still forthcoming, as will be perceived by
the enclosed copy of a letter from Messrs. John Purvis & Co. (A),
and feeling persuaded of the very great necessity for a Light House

and the advantage it would prove to the growing Trade with China,
I took upon myself to submit the subject for the consideration of
Captain Sir Edward Belcher C.B. in the hope that some site might be
determined upon which would be free from the objections referred

to, and meet the object in view. The report (B) of that Scientific
Officer I desire to lay before the Right Hon’ble the Governor Gen-
eral of India with the Plan and Section of the Rock therein alluded
to, prepared by Mr. Thomson the Surveyor, together with an outline
chart, shewing its position with reference to Pedra Branca, the main

land of Johore, and Island of Romania situated about 32 miles in an
E by N direction from Singapore. This Rock is part of the Territo-
ries of the Rajah of Johore, who with the Tamongong (C) have will-
ingly consented to cede it gratuitously to the East India Company.”

The two replies from the Sultan and Temenggong of 25 November were
also enclosed.
130. The Governor then listed vessels “Lost or injured by touching on

the Rock in the vicinity of the site selected”, summarized the enclosed
report from his Government Surveyor, mentioned the “opening of the
four Ports in China and the Establishment of a Colony at Hong Kong”,
discussed the arrangements for and costs of the operation of the light-
house and concluded as follows:

“Trusting I have said sufficient to interest the Right Hon’ble the
Governor General on a subject of such vast importance to the Trade

of our country and the safety of the mariner, European and native,
I venture most respectfully to entreat His Honor’s support to the
measure with the Hon’ble Court of Directors, who may then be
induced probably in conjunction with Her Majesty’s Govt, to fur-
nish the additional sum required and order a Lantern to be at once

constructed. In the meantime, if permitted, I will move the Trading
Community in aid of a work which will perpetuate their gratitude,
for the facilities afforded to the Navigation of these seas, by the
indefatigable researches of James Horsburgh Esquire.”

131. Two central issues arise from this correspondence. The first is

whether the correspondence extended to Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh
or was limited to Peak Rock. The second is whether, in terms of the

46 129. Trois jours plus tard, le 28 novembre 1844, le gouverneur écrivit
au secrétaire du gouvernement des Indes. Il rappelait que Barn Island

n’avait pas été retenue en raison de l’«entrave à la liberté du port» qui
résultait de la redevance proposée. Le gouverneur faisait ensuite référence
aux rapports établis par Belcher et Thomson, qu’il joignait à sa lettre:

«Dans la mesure où les fonds — dont le montant est supposé
atteindre 5513 dollars, soit 12 978,84 roupies de la Compagnie — ne
sont pas encore arrivés (comme indiqué dans la copie ci-jointe d’une
lettre de MM. John Purvis et Co.) et où je suis convaincu de la

nécessité impérieuse d’un phare et de ses conséquences favorables à
l’essor du commerce avec la Chine, je prends la liberté de soumettre
la question au capitaine sir Edward Belcher C.B., dans l’espoir qu’il
sera possible de déterminer un site dépourvu des inconvénients men-

tionnés et capable d’atteindre les objectifs énoncés. Je souhaite pré-
senter au très honorable gouverneur général des Indes le rapport de
cet officier, ainsi que le plan et la section du rocher dont il est ques-
tion, établis par M. Thomson, géomètre, assortis d’une carte de réfé-
rence indiquant sa position par rapport à Pedra Branca, au Johor

continental et à l’île de Romania, à quelque 32 milles au nord-est de
Singapour. Ce rocher fait partie des territoires du rajah de Johor,
qui, avec le tamongong, a volontiers consenti à le céder à titre gra-
cieux à la Compagnie des Indes orientales.»

Etaient également jointes les deux réponses du sultan et du temenggong
en date du 25 novembre.
130. Le gouverneur énumérait ensuite les navires «perdus ou avariés

en heurtant le rocher à proximité de l’emplacement retenu», résumait le
rapport, joint à sa lettre, du géomètre du gouvernement, mentionnait
«l’ouverture des quatre ports en Chine et l’établissement d’une colonie à
Hong Kong», examinait les dispositions prises en vue de l’exploitation du
phare ainsi que leur coût et concluait comme suit:

«Persuadé d’avoir assez disserté pour retenir l’intérêt du très
honorable gouverneur général sur un sujet d’une importance aussi

capitale pour le commerce de notre pays et la sécurité des naviga-
teurs, qu’ils soient européens ou indigènes, j’ose respectueusement
solliciter le soutien de Son Honneur à cette mesure et espérer que le
directoire — probablement de conserve avec le gouvernement de Sa
Majesté — fournira la somme complémentaire requise et ordonnera

immédiatement la construction d’une lampe. En l’attente et avec
votre permission, je vais appeler la communauté des marchands à
aider un projet qui perpétuera l’expression de sa gratitude à l’égard
des moyens qui facilitent la navigation dans ces eaux grâce aux tra-

vaux inlassables de James Horsburgh Esquire.»
131. Cette correspondance soulève deux questions essentielles. La pre-

mière est de savoir si ces lettres concernaient aussi Pedra Branca/Pulau
Batu Puteh ou portaient uniquement sur Peak Rock. La seconde est de

46replies, the sovereignty of Johor over any place under its sovereignty
which was chosen for the lighthouse was ceded or only a permission to

build, maintain and operate a lighthouse was granted.

132. The Parties do agree that Peak Rock is “the Rock” referred to in
the last paragraph of the Governor’s letter to the Government of India
quoted in paragraph 129 above. But, Malaysia says, the consent by the

Johor authorities was not limited to that Rock alone. Rather the
responses, particularly from the Temenggong, were in general terms: the
lighthouse might be erected near Point Romania or any spot deemed eli-
gible. The East India Company, according to Malaysia’s reading of the

correspondence, was free to choose between erecting the lighthouse near
Point Romania or anywhere else on the territory of Johor considered
suitable by the Singapore authorities for the purpose of providing guid-
ance to shipping going to or leaving Singapore. Singapore responds that
the contents of the Governor’s letter of 28 November 1844 and its ante-

cedents indicate with certainty that the site which was the subject of his
proposal was Peak Rock.

133. The Court is in no doubt that the proposal which the Governor
put to the Government of India related to Peak Rock. Without knowing

the contents of the Governor’s earlier letters to the Sultan and Temeng-
gong, the Court is however left in real doubt about what the Governor
proposed. Judging from the two replies, it would appear more likely than
not that his letters were in general terms. While Peak Rock was clearly
the site he and his advisers had in mind, the final site of the lighthouse

had yet to be decided upon. That decision was to be taken in due course
by the Government of India and the Court of Directors of the East India
Company, following such further consultation as they considered appro-
priate. And, as Singapore accepts in its Reply, the British authorities had
in mind possible locations other than Peak Rock.

134. Given the conclusion which the Court has already reached earlier
in this Judgment — that Johor was sovereign over Pedra Branca/Pulau
Batu Puteh in the period before the planning for and construction of the

lighthouse began — it does not consider it need rule on Malaysia’s argu-
ment that in the 1844 correspondence the Governor acknowledged Johor’s
sovereignty over the island. That sovereignty rests on the evidence of
earlier periods which the Court has already reviewed (see in particular
paragraphs 52-69 above). The Court would note in any event that the

Malaysian contention about that acknowledgment faces the difficulty
that the correspondence appears to be in the most general terms, in all
likelihood without specifically identifying Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu
Puteh.

135. The Court accordingly turns to the second issue it identified

47déterminer si, aux termes des réponses qu’elles suscitèrent, la souverai-
neté du Johor était cédée sur tout lieu qui serait retenu pour l’installation

du phare ou si c’était seulement une autorisation de construire, d’entre-
tenir et d’exploiter ce phare qui était accordée.
132. Les Parties conviennent que le «rocher» mentionné dans le der-
nier paragraphe de la lettre adressée par le gouverneur au Gouvernement
des Indes — laquelle est citée au paragraphe 129 ci-dessus — est bien

Peak Rock. La Malaisie affirme cependant que le consentement donné
par les autorités du Johor ne portait pas sur ce seul rocher, mais que les
réponses, et tout particulièrement celle du temenggong, étaient formulées
en des termes généraux: le phare pouvait être érigé à proximité de Point
Romania ou en tout lieu jugé approprié. Selon l’interprétation que la

Malaisie fait de cette correspondance, la Compagnie des Indes orientales
était libre de construire le phare à proximité de Point Romania ou en tout
autre point du territoire du Johor où les autorités de Singapour le juge-
raient utile pour guider les navires en direction ou en partance de Singa-
pour. Singapour répond que le contenu de la lettre du gouverneur du
28 novembre 1844 et de la correspondance à laquelle elle fait suite in-

dique de manière certaine que le site proposé était Peak Rock.
133. La Cour ne doute pas que la proposition faite par le gouverneur
au Gouvernement des Indes portait bien sur Peak Rock. En revanche,
n’ayant pas connaissance du contenu des lettres précédemment adressées
par le gouverneur au sultan et au temenggong, la Cour ne sait pas quelle

était au juste cette proposition. A en juger d’après les deux réponses,
il semble probable que les lettres du gouverneur aient été formulées en
des termes généraux. Bien que Peak Rock fût clairement le site que lui-
même et ses conseillers avaient à l’esprit, l’emplacement définitif pour
la construction du phare n’avait pas encore été arrêté. Cette décision

devait être prise le moment venu par le Gouvernement des Indes et le
directoire de la Compagnie des Indes orientales, à la suite de nouvelles
consultations qu’ils jugeraient nécessaires. Or, ainsi que Singapour le
reconnaît dans sa réplique, les autorités britanniques avaient à l’esprit
d’autres lieux possibles que Peak Rock.

134. Compte tenu de la conclusion à laquelle elle est déjà parvenue
dans le présent arrêt — à savoir que le Johor détenait la souveraineté sur
Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh avant que la construction du phare ne
fût envisagée ou entreprise —, la Cour n’estime pas devoir se prononcer
sur l’argument de la Malaisie selon lequel le gouverneur aurait, dans le
cadre de la correspondance échangée en 1844, reconnu la souveraineté du

Johor sur l’île. Cette souveraineté est attestée par les éléments de preuve
renvoyant à des temps plus anciens, que la Cour a déjà passés en revue
(voir, en particulier, paragraphes 52-69 ci-dessus). La Cour notera en
tout état de cause que cet argument de la Malaisie se heurte au fait que la
correspondance semble être rédigée en des termes très généraux, et ne

comporte selon toute vraisemblance aucune référence particulière à Pedra
Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh.
135. La Cour se penchera donc sur la seconde question qu’elle a for-

47above (see paragraph 131) which is whether Johor ceded sovereignty over
the particular piece of territory which the United Kingdom would select

for the construction and operation of the lighthouse for the stated pur-
pose or granted permission only to that construction and operation. The
correspondence could not be more inconclusive. The Sultan is “exceed-
ingly pleased at the intention expressed [by Governor Butterworth]”
because a lighthouse will allow for greater confidence; and the Temeng-

gong had “no possible objection to” the erecting of a lighthouse; “wish-
ing to be guided in all matters by the Government, so much so, that the
Company are at full liberty to put up a Light House . . .”. That wording
may be read, as Malaysia would have the Court read it, as limited to a
permission to build and operate. The Sultan simply expresses pleasure

and, so far as the Temenggong is concerned, the East India Company is
at “full liberty” to put up a lighthouse.

136. While Governor Butterworth understood that the letters
amounted to a gratuitous “cession” (see paragraph 129 above), the Court
observes that that understanding was not communicated to the Sultan

and Temenggong. Further, the Court would not give significant weight to
the choice of just one word in the present context.

137. The Court notes, however, that, by the time of the correspond-
ence, State practice in the South East Asian region, as beyond, recog-

nized the various legal rights and interests that could be held over land
and the associated maritime areas. The Court now gives some instances
of that recognition.
138. Under the 1819 Agreements between Sir Stamford Raffles
and the Temenggong and the Sultan of Johor for the establishment of a

“factory” at Singapore, the East India Company agreed to pay 8,000
Spanish dollars annually so long as it maintained a “factory” on any
part of the Sultan’s hereditary dominions; and arrangements were
made or contemplated for the government and administration of justice
over those belonging to the English factory or those settling in its

vicinity, for the protection and regulation of the Port, and for the distri-
bution of certain duties. It is apparent that the Johor authorities retain-
ed their sovereignty over all of the island of Singapore (see paragraph
21 above). Five years later, under the Crawfurd Treaty, they “ceded . . .
in full sovereignty and property” to the East India Company the
island of Singapore (see paragraph 22 above). The arrangements

made in the Treaty in respect of the rights of the property held by the
Sultan and Temenggong on the island, their followers and retainers also
recognize the distinction between sovereignty and regular rights of
property. Such distinctions are recognized as well in the final article of
the Crawfurd Treaty which “abrogate[s] and annul[s] all earlier Conven-

tions, Treaties and Agreements” between the parties, “with the excep-
tion of such prior conditions as have conferred on the Honourable the
English East India Company any right or title to the occupation or pos-

48mulée ci-dessus (voir paragraphe 131), consistant à déterminer si le Johor
a cédé sa souveraineté sur toute portion de son territoire où le Royaume-

Uni choisirait de construire et d’exploiter le phare aux fins indiquées ou
s’il n’a accordé que l’autorisation de construire et d’exploiter un phare.
La correspondance de 1844 pourrait difficilement être moins concluante à
cet égard: le sultan s’y déclare «éminemment satisfait de l’intention
[exprimée par le gouverneur Butterworth]», parce qu’un phare rendra

l’accès plus aisé; le temenggong «ne saurai[t] objecter à» l’érection d’un
phare et «souhaite être guidé en toutes matières par le gouvernement, si
bien que la Compagnie est entièrement libre de construire un phare...».
Cette formulation peut être ramenée, conformément à l’interprétation
que la Malaisie souhaiterait voir retenir, à une simple autorisation de

construction et d’exploitation. Mais le sultan se contente d’exprimer sa
satisfaction et, pour ce qui est du temenggong, la Compagnie des Indes
orientales est «entièrement libre» de construire un phare.
136. Si le gouverneur Butterworth a estimé que les lettres valaient
«cession» à titre gracieux (voir paragraphe 129 ci-dessus), la Cour fait
observer que cette interprétation n’a pas été portée à la connaissance du

sultan ni à celle du temenggong. En outre, la Cour ne saurait, dans le
présent contexte, accorder une importance décisive au choix d’un mot
isolé.
137. La Cour note toutefois que, déjà à l’époque de cette correspon-
dance, la pratique des Etats, en Asie du Sud-Est comme ailleurs, recon-

naissait les droits et les intérêts juridiques divers qui pouvaient être déte-
nus sur les terres et les zones maritimes qui s’y rapportaient. La Cour va
à présent donner quelques exemples de cette reconnaissance.
138. Aux termes des accords de 1819 entre, d’une part, sir Stam-
ford Raffles et, d’autre part, le temenggong et le sultan de Johor en vue de

l’établissement d’une «factorerie» à Singapour, la Compagnie des Indes
orientales accepta de verser la somme de 8000 dollars espagnols par an
pendant toute la période où elle conserverait une «factorerie» sur une
portion quelconque du domaine héréditaire du sultan; des dispositions
furent également prises ou envisagées en ce qui concerne la forme de

gouvernement et d’administration de la justice applicable aux personnes
relevant de la factorerie ou s’établissant à proximité, la protection et la
réglementation du port et la répartition de certains droits. Il est clair
que les autorités du Johor conservaient leur souveraineté sur la totalité
de l’île de Singapour (voir paragraphe 21 ci-dessus). Cinq ans plus tard,
aux termes du traité Crawfurd, elles la «c[édèrent] en pleine souve-

raineté et propriété» à la Compagnie des Indes orientales (voir para-
graphe 22 ci-dessus). La distinction entre la souveraineté et les droits
de propriété ordinaires est par ailleurs reconnue dans les dispositions
du traité relatives aux droits de propriété détenus sur l’île par le sultan
et le temenggong, leurs sujets et leurs serviteurs. Elle l’est aussi dans le

dernier article du traité Crawfurd, qui «abroge et annule l’ensemble des
conventions, traités ou accords précédents» entre les parties «à l’excep-
tion des clauses conférant à l’honorable Compagnie des Indes orientales

48session of the Island of Singapore and its dependencies, as above-men-
tioned”.

139. The long established distinction between sovereignty and prop-
erty rights was also to be found in nineteenth century arrangements made
in respect of lighthouses. The arrangements relating to lighthouses to
which the Court was referred related to those on Cape Rachado (1860)
and on Pulau Pisang (1885/1900) and that proposed for Pulau Aur (1901)

(not in fact constructed), all involving the Governor of the Straits Settle-
ments and the Sultan concerned. For Malaysia, the permission in those
cases, including Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh, all shared a similar pat-
tern. The Governor wrote to the authorities having sovereignty over the

envisaged territory and those authorities gave permission. Malaysia
argues that the exchanges cannot be called “informal” permissions, as
Singapore characterizes them. These lighthouse arrangements character-
ized by Malaysia as “formalities” are the same in all four instances. They
constituted an adequate basis for the construction of lighthouses by the

United Kingdom in foreign territory. “They were not subordinated to
any other formality.” For Singapore, by contrast a sharp division is to be
made between the Rachado and Pulau Pisang cases on the one side and
the Peak Rock and Pulau Aur cases on the other, with land grants being
obtained in the former, but informal permissions in the latter not being

followed up by formal grants because the British did not proceed with
those two projects.

140. The Court observes that the documentation for the Cape Rach-

ado and Pulau Pisang lighthouses is much more elaborate and precise
than in the other cases. The first was the subject of a series of exchanges,
including a proclamation of 23 August 1860, which has a formal style in
which the Sultan of Selangor under his Royal Seal made over to the Brit-
ish Government Cape Rachado within his territory. That grant was

matched by this reciprocal undertaking:

“That the English Government do covenant and agree to build
and keep a Light house for the benefit of all nations in relation to
their ships or boats upon the said Cape Rachado (commonly called
Tanjong Tuan) and in the event of the English Government failing
to abide by the said agreement, then and in such case, the cession

upon my part to be null and void.”
141. The arrangements for Pulau Pisang consist of an agreement of

1885 between the Sultan of Johor and the Governor of the Straits Settle-
ments followed by a five page Indenture of 1900 signed, sealed and deliv-
ered by the Sultan and Governor and registered in the Johor Registry of
Deeds. The Sultan had earlier in the year, at the time of the correspon-

dence relating to Pulau Aur discussed in the next paragraph, informed
the Governor that he would be glad to execute the necessary formal

49tout droit ou titre d’occupation ou de possession de l’île de Singapour et
de ses dépendances, comme indiqué ci-dessus».

139. La distinction, établie de longue date, entre la souveraineté et les
droits de propriété se retrouve également dans les dispositions relatives
aux phares prises au XIX siècle. Celles d’entre elles qui ont été invoquées
devant la Cour concernent les phares du cap Rachado (1860) et de
Pulau Pisang (1885/1900), ainsi que le phare dont la construction fut pro-

posée sur Pulau Aur en 1901 (mais qui ne fut jamais construit). Toutes
impliquaient le gouverneur des Etablissements des détroits et le sultan
concerné. Selon la Malaisie, les autorisations accordées dans ces cas, y
compris celui de Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh, l’étaient toutes selon

les mêmes modalités: le gouverneur s’adressait aux autorités souveraines
sur le site envisagé et celles-ci accordaient leur autorisation. Pour la
Malaisie, ces échanges ne sauraient être assimilés, comme le fait Sin-
gapour, à des autorisations «informelles». Les dispositions en question,
que la Malaisie qualifie de «formalités», étaient les mêmes pour les

quatre phares. Elles constituaient un cadre valable pour la construction
de phares par le Royaume-Uni en territoire étranger. Celle-ci «n’était
subordonnée ... à aucune autre formalité». Pour Singapour, en revanche,
il convient de faire une nette distinction entre les cas du cap Rachado et
de Pulau Pisang, d’une part, et ceux de Peak Rock et de Pulau Aur,

de l’autre; dans les premiers, des concessions de terrain furent obtenues
alors que, dans les seconds, les autorisations informelles accordées ne
furent pas suivies de concessions formelles, car les Britanniques renon-
cèrent à exécuter ces projets.
140. La Cour fait observer que la documentation relative aux phares

du cap Rachado et de Pulau Pisang est bien plus détaillée et précise
qu’elle ne l’est dans les autres cas. Le premier fit l’objet d’une série
d’échanges, et notamment d’une proclamation en date du 23 août 1860
rédigée en style officiel et marquée du sceau royal, aux termes de laquelle
le sultan de Selangor cédait au Gouvernement britannique le cap

Rachado, situé sur son territoire. Cette concession était assortie d’une
clause de réciprocité ainsi formulée:

«Le Gouvernement anglais convient et accepte de construire et
d’entretenir un phare à l’usage des navires et bateaux de toutes
nations croisant au large dudit cap Rachado (communément appelé
Tanjong Tuan). Dans l’hypothèse où le Gouvernement anglais ne se
conformerait pas audit engagement, la cession serait, pour ce qui me

concerne, nulle et non avenue.»
141. Les dispositions, en ce qui concerne Pulau Pisang, comprenaient

un accord conclu en 1885 entre le sultan de Johor et le gouverneur des
Etablissements des détroits, suivi d’un contrat synallagmatique de
cinq pages conclu en 1900, signé, scellé et remis par le sultan et le gou-
verneur pour inscription au registre des actes du Johor. Le sultan avait,

dans le courant de cette même année, à l’époque de la correspondance
concernant Pulau Aur examinée au paragraphe suivant, informé le gou-

49grant, which should have been made under the terms of the 1885 Agree-
ment. The preamble to the 1900 Indenture, making the formal grant,

recalls that:

“Whereas in or about the month of February, 1885, it was agreed
by and between His late Highness Abu Bakar, then Maharajah of
Johore, and the Governor of the Straits Settlements that the said
Maharajah should grant to the Government of the Straits Settle-
ments a plot of ground in the Island of Pulau Pisang in the Straits of

Malacca as a site for a Lighthouse and a roadway thereto from the
beach and that the said Government should build and effectively
maintain a Lighthouse upon the said Island, such grant as aforesaid
to be void if a lighthouse was not erected within a reasonable time

from the date of such grant or if the said Government neglected
properly to keep and maintain such lighthouse when it was built.”

The preamble then recites that the Singapore Government in pursuance
of the Agreement had built the lighthouse and had properly kept and
maintained it but no grant had been made and that it was expedient that
a grant be made. The Indenture accordingly proceeded to make the grant

and set out the conditions which, among other things, required the Gov-
ernment to use the land only for the operation of the lighthouse and
accorded the Sultan a right to repossess the land if the Government
ceased to keep the lighthouse in good order and properly managed and
worked.

142. The Pulau Aur proposal was raised in February 1900 by the Gov-
ernment of the Straits Settlements with the Sultan of Johor with the alter-
native proposals that, as that island lay within his territory of Johor, the
Sultan would either erect a lighthouse there or permit the Straits Settle-
ments Government (if the Secretary of State for the Colonies and the leg-

islature agreed) to take that action. The Sultan supported the second
option, and suggested that the arrangement should be the same as for the
Pulau Pisang lighthouse. That arrangement and a deed of indenture were
in fact not concluded since the British authorities decided not to proceed
with the construction.

143. The Court was also referred to the Convention for the Cape
Spartel lighthouse concluded in 1865 between Morocco and a number of
maritime Powers which regulates in some detail the rights and obliga-
tions of the parties. Article I distinguishes between the Sultan’s sover-
eignty and proprietary right, on the one hand, and the direction of

administration of the lighthouse by the other parties, on the other. The
Convention was to continue in force for ten years and thereafter year by
year, subject to a right of withdrawal on notice.

144. Against that background of extensive legal regulation in agree-
ments between the sovereign of the territory where the lighthouse was to

50verneur qu’il serait heureux de procéder à la concession formelle requise,
qui aurait dû être accordée aux termes de l’accord de 1885. L’exposé de

l’objet du contrat de 1900 établissant la concession formelle rappelle ce
qui suit:

«Considérant que, vers le mois de février 1885, il a été convenu
par feu S. A. Abou Bakar, ancien maharadjah de Johor, et le gou-
verneur des Etablissements des détroits, que ledit maharadjah pour-
rait concéder au gouvernement des Etablissements des détroits un
terrain sur l’île de Pulau Pisang dans le détroit de Malacca comme

site pour y construire un phare et une route reliant celui-ci à la plage
et que le gouvernement se chargerait de leur construction et de leur
entretien effectif, étant entendu que cette concession sera considérée
comme nulle si le phare n’est pas construit dans un délai raisonnable

à compter de la date de l’attribution de cette concession ou si ledit
gouvernement n’assure pas la bonne administration et le bon entre-
tien de ce phare une fois celui-ci construit.»

L’exposé de l’objet du contrat indique ensuite que, conformément à
l’accord, le gouvernement de Singapour avait érigé un phare et l’avait
dûment administré et entretenu, mais qu’aucune concession n’avait été
faite, et qu’il y avait donc lieu d’en conclure une. Le contrat opérait donc

la concession et en précisait les conditions: entre autres choses, celles-ci
imposaient au gouvernement de n’utiliser le terrain cédé qu’aux fins de
l’exploitation du phare et prévoyaient que le sultan aurait le droit d’en
reprendre possession si le gouvernement cessait de dûment administrer,
entretenir et exploiter le phare.

142. La proposition concernant Pulau Aur fut soumise au sultan de
Johor par le gouvernement des Etablissements des détroits en février
1900, assortie de l’alternative suivante: cette île étant située sur son ter-
ritoire, le sultan pouvait soit y ériger un phare, soit en laisser le soin au
gouvernement des Etablissements des détroits (sous réserve de l’accord

du secrétaire d’Etat aux colonies et du pouvoir législatif). Le sultan opta
pour la seconde solution et proposa de suivre les mêmes modalités que
pour le phare de Pulau Pisang. Les autorités britanniques ayant décidé de
ne pas procéder à la construction du phare, tel ne fut toutefois pas le cas,
et aucun contrat ne fut conclu.

143. La Cour a également été invitée à se reporter à la convention rela-
tive au phare du cap Spartel conclue en 1865 entre le Maroc et plusieurs
puissances maritimes, qui régit de manière assez détaillée les droits et les
obligations des parties. Son article premier fait la distinction entre, d’un
côté, la souveraineté et les droits de propriété du sultan et, de l’autre, la

direction et l’administration du phare par les autres parties. La conven-
tion devait rester en vigueur pendant dix ans et le demeurer ensuite pour
une durée reconductible d’un an, les parties étant libres de s’en retirer
moyennant préavis.

144. Face à cette abondance de dispositions réglementaires dans les
accords entre les détenteurs de la souveraineté sur les territoires où

50operate and European States, the Court observes the lack, in the case of
Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh, of any written agreement between the

Johor and the British authorities regulating in some detail the relation-
ship between them and their related rights and obligations. The Johor
authorities did not provide for instance for the maintenance of their sov-
ereignty and their rights to repossess the land in the event that conditions
relating to the operation of the lighthouse were not satisfied. Further,

while at the hearing before the Court the Agent of Malaysia stated that
“Malaysia has always respected the position of Singapore as operator of
Horsburgh lighthouse and I would like to place formally on record that
Malaysia will continue to do so”, Malaysia has at no time attempted to

spell out in any detail at all the rights and obligations of “Singapore as
operator”.

145. Given the lack of a written agreement relating to the lighthouse
and the island on which it was to be constructed, the Court is not in a

position to resolve the second issue raised in paragraph 131 above about
the content of any agreement reached in November 1844. In any event, as
will appear, what is decisive for the Court is the conduct of the authori-
ties in Singapore (and India) and in Johor following the 1844 exchanges
of correspondence.

146. In 1845 the choice of the site for the lighthouse was the subject of
a further exchange between Singapore and the Government of India. On
22 August 1845 Governor Butterworth, referring to earlier correspond-
ence which indicated support by the Government of India in a recom-
mendation to the Court of Directors of the East India Company for the

Peak Rock proposal, confirmed that preference and, given the number of
vessels that had been wrecked in the vicinity of Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu
Puteh and Point Romania, trusted that construction would soon begin
“as a light in that quarters is becoming daily of more paramount impor-
tance”. On 15 October 1845 the Court of Directors of the Company

authorized the Governor General of India in Council to provide for the
levying of lighthouse dues at Singapore in support of a lighthouse on
Peak Rock and in January 1846 Thomson attempted to land there to
build brick pillars to help determine the method of constructing a light-
house, but the violence of the seas prevented his landing.

147. But later in 1846 things changed. In April of that year the Court
of Directors of the East India Company was informed that the Lords of
the Admiralty in London were inclined to think that Pedra Branca/Pulau
Batu Puteh was the best point for the lighthouse for reasons they stated.

The Government Surveyor and Captain S. Congalton, commander of the
East India Company’s steamer, the Hooghly, undertook surveys in May
and August, the latter following receipt of the letter setting out the Admi-
ralty’s opinion. In their report of 25 August they said they were “decid-

edly of opinion that Pedra Branca is the only proper position for a Light
to be placed . . . for the safety of Shipping whether entering or departing

51devaient être exploités les phares et les Etats européens, la Cour constate
l’inexistence, dans le cas de Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh, de tout

accord écrit conclu entre les autorités britanniques et celles du Johor et
régissant de manière un tant soit peu détaillée leurs relations mutuelles et
les droits et obligations en découlant. Par exemple, les autorités du Johor
ne prévirent aucune disposition concernant le maintien de leur souverai-
neté ou de leur droit de reprendre possession du territoire en cas de non-

respect de certaines conditions ayant trait à l’exploitation du phare. De
surcroît, alors que, à l’audience, l’agent de la Malaisie a affirmé que
celle-ci «a[vait] toujours respecté la position d’exploitant du phare
Horsburgh dans laquelle se trouve Singapour et [tenait] à déclarer
officiellement qu’elle continuera[it] à la respecter», la Malaisie n’a à

aucun moment cherché à préciser la nature des droits et des obligations
de Singapour en tant qu’«exploitant».
145. En raison de l’inexistence d’un accord écrit relatif au phare et à
l’île sur laquelle celui-ci devait être construit, la Cour n’est pas en mesure
de répondre à la seconde question soulevée plus haut au paragraphe 131
quant à la teneur de ce qui avait pu être convenu en novembre 1844. Quoi

qu’il en soit, ainsi qu’il apparaîtra plus loin, c’est le comportement des
autorités à Singapour (et aux Indes) ainsi que de celles du Johor après les
échanges de lettres de 1844 qui est décisif pour la Cour.
146. En 1845, le choix de l’emplacement du phare fit l’objet d’un nou-
vel échange de lettres entre Singapour et le Gouvernement des Indes. Le

22 août 1845, le gouverneur Butterworth, se référant à une précédente
lettre indiquant que le Gouvernement des Indes appuyait une recomman-
dation en faveur du choix de Peak Rock adressée au directoire de la
Compagnie des Indes orientales, confirma cette préférence et déclara
espérer, au vu du nombre des naufrages survenus au voisinage de Pedra

Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh et de Point Romania, que les travaux commen-
ceraient peu de temps après, «car la présence d’un phare dans ces eaux
dev[enait] chaque jour plus impérative». Le 15 octobre 1845, le directoire
de la Compagnie autorisa le gouverneur général des Indes en conseil à
prévoir la levée de droits de phare à Singapour en vue de la construction

d’un phare sur Peak Rock et, en janvier 1846, Thomson essaya de débar-
quer sur l’île pour y édifier des piliers de briques aux fins de choisir la
méthode de construction du phare; une très forte mer l’empêcha cepen-
dant d’accéder à l’île.
147. L’année 1846, toutefois, fut marquée par un revirement. En avril,
le directoire de la Compagnie des Indes orientales fut informé que les

lords de l’Amirauté à Londres inclinaient à voir dans Pedra Branca/Pulau
Batu Puteh le meilleur emplacement pour un phare, pour des raisons
qu’ils explicitaient. Le géomètre du gouvernement et le capitaine
S. Congalton, commandant du vapeur Hooghly, de la Compagnie des
Indes orientales, réalisèrent des levés en mai et en août, le second faisant

suite à la lettre dans laquelle était exposée la position de l’Amirauté.
Dans leur rapport du 25 août, ils indiquaient être «résolument d’avis
que Pedra Branca se trouv[ait] être le seul emplacement approprié aux

51for the Straits of Singapore . . .”. The following day the Governor in a
handwritten letter to the Government of India stated that the Govern-

ment “will at once perceive that Pedra Branca is the only true position”
for the lighthouse. One word in this letter is unclear and was the subject
of opposing expert opinions submitted by each of the Parties. The dis-
puted word is either “care” or “case” and appears in the following sen-
tence, in which the Governor stated that “the whole of the details for the

care/case of Light Houses as set forth” in his letter of 28 November 1844
relating to the proposal for a lighthouse on Peak Rock (paragraphs 129-
130 above) “will be equally applicable to the new Position”. As
mentioned, the Parties disagree on their reading of the word “care” or

“case”. Did the Governor refer to the whole of the details “for the
care” of the lighthouse or “for the case” of the lighthouse? Singapore
supports the former reading and Malaysia the latter. For Singapore
the word “care” carries the implication that it was only the details of
the earlier despatch relating to the care, maintenance and operation

of the lighthouse that would apply to Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu
Puteh, now that it had been chosen. Malaysia, by contrast, considers
that the “whole of the details for the case of Light Houses” includes
the permission granted by the Johor authorities for the construction
of the lighthouse. The Court does not find it necessary to resolve

the clash of expert opinions on this matter. On 30 October 1846, the
President in Council in India approved Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu
Puteh as the site, on 24 February 1847 the Court of Directors informed
the Indian Government of its approval, and on 10 May 1847 the
Government of India requested Governor Butterworth to take measures

for the construction of a lighthouse on Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu
Puteh according to the Plan and Estimates submitted with the letter of
28 November 1844.

148. The Court observes that there is nothing at all in the record
before it to suggest that the authorities in Singapore considered it neces-
sary or even desirable to inform the Johor authorities of the decision

about the siting of the lighthouse or to seek any consent in respect
of it. That conduct may be interpreted in one of two ways: it may
indicate, as Malaysia contends, that what it sees as Johor’s 1844 consent
to the building and operation of a lighthouse on one of its islands
simply applied to Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh as it would have to

any of its islands. Or it may indicate, as Singapore contends, that the
Johor authorities had no rights in respect of this project and that such
was the perception in 1847 of the responsible British authorities. On
the basis of the case file, the Court is not in a position to reach a

conclusion on that issue.

52fins de bâtir un phare ... destiné à assurer la sécurité du trafic maritime
à l’entrée ou au départ du détroit de Singapour». Le lendemain, le

gouverneur, dans une lettre manuscrite adressée au Gouvernement des
Indes, déclarait que ce dernier «s’apercevra[it] immédiatement que
Pedra Branca [était] le seul site approprié» pour le phare. Un mot,
dans cette lettre, est difficilement lisible et les experts ont formulé à
son sujet des avis divergents, que les Parties ont soumis à la Cour.

Le mot en question est soit «care» (entretien), soit «case» (affaire), et
il apparaît dans la phrase où le gouverneur déclare que «l’ensemble
des détails concernant l’entretien/l’affaire des phares» fournis dans sa
lettre du 28 novembre 1844 relative au projet de phare sur Peak
Rock (paragraphes 129 et 130 ci-dessus) «ser[aient] également appli-

cables au nouvel emplacement». Comme indiqué ci-dessus, les Parties
divergent quant à la lecture qu’il convient de faire du mot en question
— «care» ou «case». Le gouverneur faisait-il référence à l’ensemble
des détails relatifs «à l’entretien» (care) du phare ou «à
l’affaire» (case) du phare? Singapour penche pour la première hypo-
thèse et la Malaisie pour la seconde. Pour Singapour, le mot «care»

implique que, pour Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh, maintenant que le
choix s’était porté sur elle, seuls restaient à régler les détails relatifs à
l’entretien et à l’exploitation du phare, mentionnés dans la précédente
lettre. La Malaisie, en revanche, considère que «l’ensemble des détails
relatifs à l’affaire des phares» inclut l’autorisation de construire le

phare accordée par les autorités du Johor. La Cour ne juge pas néces-
saire de se prononcer sur les expertises contradictoires formulées par
les experts à cet égard. Le 30 octobre 1846, le président en conseil
de la Compagnie des Indes orientales approuva le choix du site de
Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh; le 24 février 1847, le directoire fit

part au Gouvernement des Indes de son approbation; et, le 10 mai 1847,
le Gouvernement des Indes demanda au gouverneur Butterworth de
prendre des mesures en vue de la construction, sur Pedra Branca/Pulau
Batu Puteh, d’un phare d’après le plan et le devis joints à sa lettre
du 28 novembre 1844.

148. La Cour note que rien dans le dossier ne tend à indiquer que les
autorités de Singapour jugeaient nécessaire, voire seulement souhaitable,
d’informer les autorités du Johor de la décision concernant l’emplace-
ment du phare ou de solliciter leur consentement à ce sujet. Ce compor-
tement peut être interprété de deux manières: il peut signifier, comme le
soutient la Malaisie, que ce que celle-ci considère comme le consentement

donné par le Johor en 1844 en vue de la construction et de l’exploitation
d’un phare sur l’une de ses îles valait pour Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu
Puteh aussi bien que pour toute autre de ses îles. Il peut aussi signifier,
ainsi que le prétend Singapour, que les dirigeants du Johor n’avaient
aucun droit à l’égard de ce projet et que telle était l’appréciation portée

en 1847 par les autorités britanniques compétentes. La Cour n’est pas en
mesure, au vu des éléments du dossier de l’affaire, de tirer une conclusion
sur ce point.

525.4.3. The construction and commissioning of Horsburgh lighthouse,
1850-1851

149. The facts about the construction and commissioning of the light-
house on Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh — and indeed for the most
part its operation over the many years since — are not themselves the
subject of significant dispute between the Parties. They also agree on the

law: it “requires an intention to acquire sovereignty, a permanent inten-
tion to do so and overt action to implement the intention and to make
the intention to acquire manifest to other States”. There is some disagree-
ment on whether practice also requires elements of formality. Symbolic

acts accompanying the acquisition of territory are very common both
generally and in British practice. They are not however always present.
The Court does not consider that the practice demonstrates a require-
ment that there be a symbolic act. Rather the intention to acquire sov-
ereignty may appear from the conduct of the Parties, particularly con-

duct occurring over a long period.

150. The Parties do however dispute the evaluation of the facts. Malay-
sia’s basic position is that essentially everything that the United Kingdom

and Singapore did was no more than constructing and commissioning the
lighthouse and later operating it, within the very consent conferred by the
Sultan of Johor and the Temenggong in November 1844. They were not
actions on the basis of which Singapore could claim sovereignty over
Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh. There is no evidence, says Malaysia, of

a British intention to acquire sovereignty and it did not claim sovereignty
during the construction of the lighthouse at its commissioning and or at
any time during its operation. Singapore, by contrast, says that the
United Kingdom acquired title to Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh in the
period of 1847-1851 when it took lawful possession of the island in con-

nection with building the lighthouse on it. According to Singapore, there-
after, for over 150 years the United Kingdom and later Singapore engaged
in the effective administration and control of Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu
Puteh as sovereign and not simply as the operator of the lighthouse for
over 150 years. The Court now turns to the facts.

151. The planning for the construction and the construction itself were
in the hands of the Government Surveyor of Singapore, John Thomson,
who was appointed as Architect of the project by Governor Butterworth.

To meet the deficiency in the funds available in Singapore, the Govern-
ment of India, in agreement with the Court of Directors of the East India
Company, on 12 November 1849 authorized the preparation of a law by
Governor Butterworth imposing a duty on shipping and requested him to

take immediate measures to begin constructing the lighthouse. It will be
observed that the opposition to the levying of the harbour and anchorage

535.4.3. La construction et la mise en service du phare Horsburgh entre
1850 et 1851

149. Les faits relatifs à la construction et à la mise en service du phare
sur Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh — et même la plupart des faits rela-
tifs à son exploitation au cours des nombreuses années écoulées depuis
lors — ne font pas eux-mêmes l’objet d’un réel désaccord entre les

Parties. Celles-ci s’accordent également à propos du droit applicable, qui
exige «une intention d’acquérir la souveraineté — une intention perma-
nente à cette fin — et une action publique visant à mettre l’intention à
exécution et à la rendre manifeste aux autres Etats». Leurs vues divergent

quelque peu sur le point de savoir si la pratique exige aussi l’accomplis-
sement de formalités particulières. Les actes symboliques accompagnant
une acquisition de territoire sont très courants, tant de manière générale
que dans la pratique britannique. Ils ne sont toutefois pas toujours pré-
sents. La Cour n’estime pas que la pratique démontre une obligation

d’accomplir un acte symbolique. Au contraire, l’intention d’acquérir la
souveraineté peut ressortir de la conduite des Parties, en particulier sur
une longue période.
150. Les Parties s’opposent en revanche sur l’appréciation des faits. La po-
sition fondamentale de la Malaisie consiste à affirmer que le Royaume-Uni

et Singapour n’ont, pour l’essentiel, rien fait de plus que de construire
le phare, le mettre en service, puis l’exploiter — ce qui relevait stric-
tement du consentement donné en novembre 1844 par le sultan de
Johor et le temenggong. Ce ne sont pas des activités sur lesquelles Singa-
pour pourrait fonder sa revendication de souveraineté sur Pedra Branca/

Pulau Batu Puteh. Selon la Malaisie, rien ne prouve que le Royaume-Uni
ait eu l’intention d’acquérir la souveraineté sur l’île; il ne l’a pas reven-
diquée pendant la construction du phare, ni lors de sa mise en service, ni
encore alors qu’il l’exploitait. Singapour affirme, au contraire, que le
Royaume-Uni a acquis la souveraineté sur Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu

Puteh entre 1847 et 1851, période au cours de laquelle il a légalement pris
possession de l’île à l’occasion de la construction du phare qui s’y trouve.
Par la suite, le Royaume-Uni puis Singapour ont, selon cette dernière,
effectivement assuré l’administration et le contrôle de Pedra Branca/
Pulau Batu Puteh pendant plus de cent cinquante ans en qualité de sou-

verain, et pas simplement en tant qu’exploitant du phare. La Cour va à
présent considérer les faits.
151. John Thomson, géomètre du gouvernement à Singapour qui
avait été nommé architecte du projet par le gouverneur Butterworth, était
chargé des préparatifs de la construction proprement dite. Pour remédier

à l’insuffisance des ressources disponibles à Singapour, le Gouvernement
des Indes, d’un commun accord avec le directoire de la Compagnie des
Indes orientales, autorisa, le 12 novembre 1849, le gouverneur But-
terworth à rédiger une loi établissant un droit sur la navigation et

lui demanda de prendre des mesures immédiates pour commencer à
construire le phare. Il convient de noter que l’opposition qui s’était

53duties expressed in 1842 and earlier (see paragraph 127 above) was no
longer an issue, and had not been for some years (see paragraph 146

above); indeed as early as 1842, when the Horsburgh lighthouse proposal
was first raised with the Government, it was contemplated that govern-
ment money would be needed (see paragraph 126 above).

152. In December 1849 the Government Surveyor began organizing

the construction which was to begin on Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh
in late March or early April 1850 and to continue with a break over the
following monsoon season into 1851. In the course of the construction up
to 50 workmen were to be on the island. The organization included

arranging shipping to supply the island and to protect the supplies from
pirates, the quarrying of the granite and other stone needed, and arrang-
ing the construction and shipping of the lantern and related equipment.

153. In February 1850 Governor Butterworth forwarded to the Gov-

ernment of India a draft Act for the levy of dues on vessels entering Sing-
apore alone (but not other ports). That statute was enacted by the Gov-
ernor-General of India in Council on 30 January 1852 and is discussed
later (see paragraphs 170-172 below). The Preamble to the Act recites
that the sums of money subscribed by private individuals were insuffi-

cient to defray the costs of the building, that the East India Company
agreed to build the lighthouse and to advance certain sums to complete it
on condition that they were repaid by a levy on ships entering Singapore
harbour, that the lighthouse had been built and it was desirable that the
expense of building it and maintaining the light should be defrayed out of

the monies arising from the toll, and that other lights or beacons might
be established in the Straits of Malacca or nearby. The Act provided for
the payment of the toll by ship owners and operators, the ownership and
management of the lighthouse, and the prospect of the building of
further lights or beacons and their operation from the toll once the

advance from the East India Company had been repaid and after the cur-
rent expenses of maintaining Horsburgh lighthouse had been met.

154. The work had progressed to the point that on 24 May 1850,
Queen Victoria’s birthday, the foundation stone was laid. Malaysia
stresses that it was the Master of the Masonic Lodge Zetland in the East
No. 749 who with his brethren laid the stone, it was not an official gov-
ernmental occasion and there was no proclamation of British sovereignty

or any other formal act. Singapore, by contrast, emphasizes that it was
the Governor who invited the Master and members of the Lodge to un-
dertake the task and who arranged their transport from Singapore to the
Rock. Governor Butterworth also invited the Naval Commander in

Chief of the East India Station and Thomas Church, the Resident Coun-
cillor at Singapore and Thomson’s immediate supervisor, to accompany

54manifestée en 1842 et auparavant contre la levée de droits de port et de
mouillage (voir paragraphe 127 ci-dessus) n’était plus un obstacle et ce,

depuis déjà quelques années (voir paragraphe 146 ci-dessus); en effet, dès
1842, lorsque le projet du phare Horsburgh fut pour la première fois
présenté au gouvernement, il avait été envisagé de recourir à des fonds
publics (voir paragraphe 126 ci-dessus).
152. En décembre 1849, le géomètre du gouvernement commença à

organiser les travaux: ceux-ci devaient débuter sur Pedra Branca/Pulau
Batu Puteh à la fin du mois de mars ou au début du mois d’avril 1850 et
se prolonger en 1851, après une interruption pendant la saison de la
mousson; plus de cinquante ouvriers seraient présents sur l’île. Il orga-

nisa notamment le transport par bateau de matériaux et d’équipements
requis ainsi que leur protection contre les pirates, l’extraction du granit et
des autres pierres nécessaires, la construction et le transport de la lampe
et de son matériel annexe.
153. En février 1850, le gouverneur Butterworth communiqua au Gou-

vernement des Indes un projet de loi instituant un droit à percevoir sur
les seuls navires entrant dans le port de Singapour (et non dans d’autres
ports). Cette loi, qui fut promulguée par le gouverneur général des Indes
en conseil le 30 janvier 1852, sera examinée plus loin (voir para-
graphes 170-172 ci-dessous). Son préambule précise que les sommes

souscrites par des particuliers ne suffisaient pas à couvrir les coûts du
bâtiment, que la Compagnie des Indes orientales s’était engagée à
construire le phare et à avancer certaines sommes pour le terminer à condi-
tion qu’elles lui soient restituées grâce au produit d’un droit à percevoir
sur les navires entrant dans le port de Singapour, que le phare était désor-

mais construit et qu’il était souhaitable que les dépenses engagées pour
sa construction et son entretien soient compensées par les recettes de
ce droit de port, et que d’autres phares ou balises pourraient être mis en
place dans le détroit de Malacca ou à proximité. La loi contenait des dis-
positions relatives au paiement du droit par les propriétaires de navires

et les armateurs, à la propriété du phare et à son administration, et pré-
voyait de construire et d’exploiter d’autres phares ou balises une fois
que les fonds avancés par la Compagnie des Indes orientales seraient rem-
boursés et que les dépenses courantes d’entretien du phare Horsburgh
seraient couvertes par les recettes.

154. Les travaux avaient si bien avancé que le 24 mai 1850, jour de
l’anniversaire de la reine Victoria, il fut procédé à la pose de la première
pierre. La Malaisie fait valoir que ce furent le maître et les frères de la
loge maçonnique Zetland in the East n 749 qui s’en chargèrent, qu’il ne
s’agissait pas d’une manifestation officielle du gouvernement et qu’il n’y

eut à cette occasion aucune proclamation de souveraineté britannique ni
aucun autre acte formel. Singapour, pour sa part, insiste sur le fait que ce
fut le gouverneur qui invita le maître et les membres de la loge à accom-
plir cette tâche et qui organisa leur acheminement depuis Singapour. Le

gouverneur Butterworth invita également à se joindre à lui le comman-
dant en chef des forces navales du poste des Indes orientales ainsi que

54him. Also present, at the Governor’s invitation, were several foreign con-
suls, merchants and civil and military members of the Singapore commu-

nity. The members of the Lodge were received on Pedra Branca/Pulau
Batu Puteh by the Governor who requested them to proceed with the cer-
emony which they did. The Master in his address praised the Governor,
the merchants and mariners who had provided the nucleus of the fund,
the East India Company for advancing the balance and James Hors-

burgh. The opening lines of the inscription on the plate gave the date by
reference to the year of the Queen’s reign, named the Governor-General,
recorded that the Foundation Stone was laid by the Master and Brethren
of the Lodge in the presence of the Governor and others and ends with

“J. T. Thomson, Architect”.

155. The Court observes that no Johor authorities were present at the
ceremony. There is no indication that they were even invited by the Gov-

ernor to attend. That might suggest — the Court puts it no higher than
that — consistently with the references to the Queen and the role of the
Singapore Governor, Architect and the East India Company, that the
British and Singapore authorities did not consider it necessary to apprise
Johor of their activities on Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh. That they

were alert to matters of Johor sovereignty at that very time appears from
the rejection of a proposal made by Thomson to Church later in Novem-
ber 1850. In his report of 2 November 1850 on the completion of the sea-
son’s operations on Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh for the construction
of the lighthouse, which had now reached a height of 64 feet, Thomson

proposed, referring to shore support arrangements for British lighthouse
keepers and the local threat of piracy, the establishment of a station near
Point Romania. Church, in reporting to the Governor, doubted that:

“such is absolutely necessary, or commensurate with the permanent
expense which such an establishment must necessarily occasion.

Romania moreover belongs to the Sovereign of Johore, where the
British possess no legal jurisdiction; it will of course, be necessary
for the Steamer or Gun Boats to visit Pedro Branca weekly; some
benefits would also accrue by requesting His Highness the Tumon-
gong to form a village at Romania under the control of a respectable

Panghuloo to render assistance to the inmates of the Light House in
a case of emergency.”

The matter was not taken any further, with Thomson communicating to
Church the following July that access to Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh
was not going to be closed for four or five months, as earlier supposed,
and that the establishment of a station at Point Romania was conse-

quently unnecessary.
156. Nine days after the laying of the foundation stone on 24 May 1850

55Thomas Church, le résident conseiller à Singapour, et le supérieur immé-
diat de Thomson. Le gouverneur avait également convié à la cérémonie

plusieurs consuls étrangers, des négociants ainsi que des membres de la
communauté civile et militaire de Singapour. Les membres de la loge
furent accueillis sur Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh par le gouverneur,
qui les invita à conduire la cérémonie, ce qu’ils firent. Dans son discours,
le maître fit l’éloge du gouverneur, celui des négociants et des navigateurs

qui avaient fourni l’essentiel des fonds, celui de la Compagnie des Indes
orientales pour avoir avancé le reste et celui de James Horsburgh. La
plaque portait une inscription dont les premières lignes mentionnaient
la date, sous la forme de l’année du règne de la reine, ainsi que le nom du

gouverneur général, rappelaient que la première pierre avait été posée par
le maître et les frères de la loge en présence du gouverneur et d’autres
personnes, puis indiquaient le nom de «J. T. Thomson, architecte ».
155. La Cour constate que les autorités du Johor n’étaient pas pré-
sentes à la cérémonie. Rien n’indique qu’elles aient même été invitées par

le gouverneur à y assister. Cela pourrait donner à penser — la Cour ne
s’engage pas plus avant —, au vu par ailleurs des références à la reine et
du rôle joué par le gouverneur de Singapour, l’architecte et la Compagnie
des Indes orientales, que les autorités britanniques et singapouriennes ne
jugeaient pas nécessaire d’informer le Johor de leurs activités sur Pedra

Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh. Qu’elles aient été, dès cette époque, tout à fait
conscientes des questions relatives à la souveraineté du Johor ressort du
rejet d’une proposition faite ultérieurement par Thomson à Church, en
novembre 1850. Dans son rapport établi le 2 novembre 1850, à la fin de
la saison des travaux de construction sur Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh,

alors que le phare atteignait 64 pieds de haut, Thomson proposait, en se
référant aux dispositions d’appui terrestre prises à l’égard des gardiens de
phare britanniques et compte tenu de la menace de la piraterie locale, de
créer un poste près de Point Romania. Dans son rapport au gouverneur,
Church écrivait:

«je doute qu’une telle mesure soit absolument nécessaire, ou propor-
tionnée à la dépense permanente qu’un tel établissement occasionne-

rait nécessairement; en outre, Romania appartient au souverain de
Johore, où les Britanniques n’ont en droit aucune compétence. Le
vapeur ou les canonnières devront bien sûr se rendre à Pedro Branca
chaque semaine et il serait utile de demander à Son Altesse le tumon-
gong de constituer à Romania un village placé sous l’autorité d’un

respectable panghooloo en vue de prêter main-forte aux occupants
du phare en cas d’urgence.»

La question en resta là, et Thomson informa Church au mois de juillet
suivant que, contrairement à ce qui avait été envisagé auparavant, l’accès
à Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh ne serait pas fermé pendant quatre ou
cinq mois et que la création d’un poste à Point Romania n’était donc pas

nécessaire.
156. Neuf jours après la pose de la première pierre le 24 mai 1850,

55the Temenggong of Johor did visit the rock, accompanied by 30 of his
followers. Thomson referred to him as “the most powerful native chief in

these parts, allied to British interests. He remained at my house for two
days, employing his leisure in fishing . . .” That is the only visit by either
the Sultan or the Temenggong and their successors recorded in the evi-
dence before the Court.

157. The building of the lighthouse continued through the middle of
1850 until 21 October. After the monsoon, work resumed in April 1851.
On 8 July the Resident Councillor in Singapore and his party “minutely”
inspected all the works, and during August the lantern, machinery and

apparatus arrived in Singapore and in September were hoisted to the top
of the tower which was about 95 feet high.
158. Thomson gave this account of the final official act on Pedra
Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh before the permanent lighting of Horsburgh
lighthouse on 15 October 1851:

“On the 27th September, the Honorable Colonel Butterworth
C.B., Governor of the Straits Settlements, with a party consisting of

Sir William Jeffcott, Recorder of the Straits Settlements, Colonel
Messitter, commanding the troops, Captain Barker, H.M.S. ‘Ama-
zon’, Mr. Purvis and the principal merchants of Singapore, together
with several military officers, arrived off the rock at 1 p.m. when
they landed and minutely inspected the Pharos.”

159. On 15 October the light was shown, as had been advertised in two

Singapore newspapers by way of a Notice to Mariners which set out the
specification of the lighthouse by “Mr. J. T. Thomson, Government Sur-
veyor” and which was signed by W. J. Butterworth as Governor. By
2 November the two gun boats had provided the lighthouse with stores
to last until the end of March and on 17 November the Hooghly arrived

and Thomson departed on it for Singapore on 18 November 1851. He
had been on Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh supervising the construction
of the lighthouse for much of the periods from April to October 1850 and
from April to November 1851. When the construction was underway in
the course of those periods, supplies, especially of building materials,

were brought by the Hooghly, the two gun boats and two lighters. From
time to time, particularly when Thomson was needed elsewhere, for
instance at the quarry, his roles were taken over by his foreman, Mr. Ben-
nett.
160. Thomson concluded his Account of the Horsburgh Lighthouse

(1852), published in the Journal of the Indian Archipelago and Eastern
Asia (Vol. 6, p. 376), with an appendix “particularly [about] the measures
taken by Government to advance the views of the promoters of this pub-
lic work”. He mentioned the principal subscribers and said this in the

final paragraph of Appendix VII to his Account:

56le temenggong de Johor se rendit effectivement sur le rocher, accom-
pagné de trente membres de sa suite. Thomson en parle en ces termes:

«C’est le plus puissant chef indigène de ces contrées, allié des Britan-
niques. Il est descendu chez moi pendant deux jours, employant ses
loisirs à la pêche ...» C’est la seule visite effectuée par le sultan ou le
temenggong et leurs successeurs qui soit établie par les éléments de
preuve soumis à la Cour.

157. La construction du phare se poursuivit en 1850 jusqu’au 21 oc-
tobre. Les travaux reprirent après la mousson, en avril 1851. Le 8 juillet,
le résident conseiller à Singapour et le groupe qui l’accompagnait inspec-
tèrent «minutieusement» l’ensemble des travaux. La lampe, son méca-

nisme et son appareillage arrivèrent à Singapour au mois d’août et furent
hissés, en septembre, au sommet de la tour haute d’environ 95 pieds.
158. Thomson relate le dernier acte officiel effectué sur Pedra Branca/
Pulau Batu Puteh, avant la mise en service du phare Horsburgh qui eut
lieu le 15 octobre 1851, en ces termes:

«Le 27 septembre, l’honorable colonel Butterworth, gouverneur
des Etablissements des détroits, accompagné d’un groupe composé

de sir William Jeffcott, Recorder des Etablissements des détroits, du
colonel Messitter, commandant des forces armées, du capitaine Bar-
ker, du H.M.S. Amazon, de M. Purvis et des principaux négociants
de Singapour, ainsi que de plusieurs officiers, arrivèrent à proximité
du rocher à 13 heures, débarquèrent et inspectèrent minutieusement

le phare.»
159. Le phare fut éclairé le 15 octobre, comme il avait été annoncé

dans deux journaux de Singapour par un avis aux navigateurs qui com-
portait un descriptif du phare établi par «M. J. T. Thomson, géomètre du
gouvernement» et qui était signé par W. J. Butterworth, en sa qualité de
gouverneur. Le 2 novembre, les deux canonnières avaient apporté au
phare des réserves qui devaient durer jusqu’à la fin du mois de mars et, le

18 novembre 1851, Thomson partit pour Singapour à bord du Hooghly,
qui avait accosté la veille. Thomson avait supervisé la construction du
phare sur Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh durant une bonne partie des
saisons allant d’avril à octobre 1850 et d’avril à novembre 1851. Au cours
de la construction du phare durant ces périodes, les fournitures, notam-

ment les matériaux de construction, furent apportées par le Hooghly, les
deux canonnières et les deux allèges. De temps à autre, en particulier lors-
que Thomson était appelé ailleurs, par exemple à la carrière, ses fonctions
étaient assumées par son contremaître, Bennett.
160. Thomson clôt son rapport intitulé Account of the Horsburgh

Lighthouse (1852), et publié dans le Journal of the Indian Archipelago
and Eastern Asia (vol. 6, p. 376), par un appendice «[portant] notamment
sur les mesures prises par le gouvernement à l’appui des projets des pro-
moteurs de cet ouvrage public». Il mentionne les principaux souscrip-

teurs et indique ce qui suit au dernier paragraphe de l’appendice VII de
son rapport:

56 “The remainder of the funds necessary to the completion of the
Testimonial was advanced by the Government, to be repaid by a

Light-house due on shipping. There was otherwise extensive aid
afforded in the employment of their Steamers, gun-boats and offic-
ers, none of the expense of which was charged against the works. I
have already had the pleasure of mentioning the highly gratifying
assistance of the Dutch Authorities of Rhio, in placing gun-boats as

tenders to the operations.”

161. Again it may be said that these actions, too, are primarily directed
at the construction of the lighthouse, but the “extensive aid” mentioned
in the Appendix VII of Thomson’s Account quoted above may be seen as
having a sovereign character — British Government vessels made a
major contribution to the whole process of the construction of the light-

house, a contribution which was at no charge to the potential commercial
users of the light. That sovereign characterization may also be applied to
the tablet in the Visitors Room on which is inscribed the names of
W. J. Butterworth as “Governor” and J. T. Thomson as “Architect”.
John Horsburgh is also mentioned and again reference is made to “the

enterprize of British merchants and . . . the liberal aid of the East India
Company”. As at the laying of the foundation stone, the Sultan of Johor
and Temenggong of Johor had no role. But, as also on that occasion, no
specific acts of proclamation of sovereignty, as frequently appeared in
British practice, were to be seen.

162. The Court does not draw any conclusions about sovereignty
based on the construction and commissioning of the lighthouse. Rather it

sees those events as bearing on the issue of the evolving views of the
authorities in Johor and in Singapore about sovereignty over Pedra
Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh. Malaysia contends that Johor, having permit-
ted the building of the lighthouse, had no reason to have any involvement
in its construction and commissioning. The Court however notes that the

only time the Johor authorities were present throughout that process was
the two-day visit of the Temenggong and his followers in early June 1850.

163. In light of the above, the Court will now consider the conduct of
the Parties after the construction of the lighthouse on Pedra Branca/Pu-

lau Batu Puteh to ascertain whether this provides a basis for concluding
that sovereignty over the island was passed from Johor to the United
Kingdom, Singapore’s predecessor.

5.4.4. The conduct of the Parties, 1852-1952

164. The Parties refer to activities undertaken by them and their pred-

ecessors in title between 1852 and 1980, and indeed beyond. Given the
nature of the conduct, the changing constitutional position of the Parties

57 «Le gouvernement a avancé le reste des fonds nécessaires à l’exé-
cution de l’hommage, lesquels devaient être remboursés par le pré-

lèvement de droits de phare sur la navigation. Les autorités fourni-
rent par ailleurs une assistance considérable en allouant leurs bateaux
à vapeur, canonnières et fonctionnaires, sans qu’aucune de ces dé-
penses n’ait été imputée sur les travaux. J’ai déjà eu le plaisir de
mentionner l’aide que les autorités néerlandaises à Rhio nous ont

apportée en mettant des canonnières à notre disposition pour le
ravitaillement et dont nous nous félicitions vivement.»

161. Là encore, ces activités peuvent elles aussi être considérées comme
concernant principalement la construction du phare, mais «l’assistance
considérable» dont il est question dans l’appendice VII précité du rap-
port Thomson peut aussi être qualifiée d’acte à caractère souverain — les
bâtiments de la marine britannique apportèrent une contribution majeure

à l’ensemble du processus de construction du phare, contribution qui ne
coûta rien aux futurs bénéficiaires. Cette qualification de souveraineté
peut également s’appliquer à la plaque de la salle des visiteurs sur laquelle
sont inscrits les noms de W. J. Butterworth, en sa qualité de «gouver-
neur», et de J. T. Thomson, en sa qualité d’«architecte». John Hors-

burgh y est également mentionné et il est, une fois de plus, fait référence
à «l’initiative de négociants britanniques et ... [à] l’aide généreuse de la
Compagnie des Indes orientales». De même que lors de la pose de la pre-
mière pierre, le sultan et le temenggong de Johor ne jouèrent aucun rôle.
Mais, tout comme en cette occasion, il n’y eut aucun acte particulier de

proclamation de souveraineté tels que ces actes se manifestaient fréquem-
ment dans la pratique britannique.
162. La Cour ne tire de la construction et de la mise en service du
phare aucune conclusion quant à la souveraineté. Elle considère plutôt

que ces événements sont à prendre en considération pour apprécier l’évo-
lution des vues des autorités au Johor et à Singapour à propos de la sou-
veraineté sur Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh. La Malaisie affirme que le
Johor, qui avait autorisé la construction du phare, n’avait aucune raison
de participer de quelque manière que ce fût à l’entreprise. La Cour note

cependant que la visite de deux jours effectuée par le temenggong et sa
suite au début du mois de juin 1850 représente le seul moment, au cours
de ces opérations, où les autorités du Johor ont été présentes.
163. Compte tenu de ce qui précède, la Cour examinera à présent le
comportement des Parties après la construction du phare sur Pedra

Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh afin de déterminer si l’on peut en conclure que
la souveraineté du Johor sur l’île passa au Royaume-Uni, le prédécesseur
de Singapour.

5.4.4. Le comportement des Parties entre 1852 et 1952

164. Les Parties invoquent un ensemble d’activités qu’elles et leurs

prédécesseurs en titre ont menées entre 1852 et 1980, et même au-
delà. Compte tenu de la nature de ces activités, de l’évolution du statut

57and their predecessors and an exchange of correspondence in 1953 to
which the Parties have given a great deal of attention, the Court finds it

convenient to divide the conduct between events occurring before 1953
and those occurring after. The division is not precise since some conduct
runs through the whole period.

165. At this stage it is also convenient for the Court to put to one side

as not relevant to sovereignty over Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh a
number of matters mentioned by Singapore but which relate essentially
to the maintenance and operation of the lighthouse and nothing more —
the improvement of the lighthouse, the exercise of authority over its per-

sonnel, and the collection of meteorological information (on the last mat-
ter see also paragraph 265).

(a) Straits lights system and related British and Singapore legislation

166. The British and Singapore legislation relating to Horsburgh light-
house and others in the region is to be seen in the broader context of the
law and practice relating to lighthouses and in the more specific context
of the Straits lights system. As a matter of law, a lighthouse may be built

on the territory of one State and administered by another State — with
the consent of the first State. As a matter of fact that has happened not
infrequently, as instanced by the Middle East Navigation Aids Service, a
non-profit corporation registered in the United Kingdom, which owns
and administers lighthouses and other aids to navigation in Kuwait, the

United Arab Emirates, Qatar and elsewhere in the region, and the Cape
Spartel Treaty and the Pulau Pisang and Cape Rachado lighthouses dis-
cussed earlier in this Judgment (see paragraphs 139-143 above).

167. As indicated, a central element in Malaysia’s argument is that

because Horsburgh lighthouse was built on an island over which Johor
was sovereign — a proposition which the Court accepts, as appears ear-
lier in this Judgment — all the actions of the British authorities and, fol-
lowing them, the Singaporean authorities are simply actions pursued in
the normal course of the operation of the lighthouse. Malaysia includes

among such actions the investigation of marine hazards and the pub-
lication of notices to mariners, regulation of activities associated with the
lighthouse, adding additional structures and facilities, permission to un-
dertake scientific and technical surveys, control of access to lighthouses
and their associated facilities, and the flying of ensigns. Singapore, by

contrast, says that some of the actions are not matters simply of the
operation of the lighthouse but are, in whole or part, acts à titre de sou-
verain. The Court considers them in following sections of this Judgment.
First, it turns its attention to the legislation, invoked by Singapore, rel-

ating to the lighthouses in the Straits area, particularly Horsburgh light-
house.

58constitutionnel des Parties et de leurs prédécesseurs, et d’un échange de
correspondance en 1953 auquel les Parties ont accordé une grande atten-

tion, la Cour estime commode de distinguer, dans le comportement des Par-
ties, ce qui a eu lieu avant 1953 de ce qui s’est produit après cette date.
Cette distinction ne peut être faite de façon précise puisque certaines
de ces activités ont été menées tout au long de la période considérée.
165. A ce stade, il convient également d’écarter un certain nombre de

points mentionnés par Singapour qui ne sont pas pertinents au regard de
la question de la souveraineté sur Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh et qui
se rapportent essentiellement à l’entretien et à l’exploitation du phare et
rien d’autre — les perfectionnements apportés au phare, l’exercice de

l’autorité à l’égard de son personnel ainsi que la collecte de données
météorologiques (sur ce dernier point, voir également paragraphe 265).

a) Le système des phares des détroits et la législation britannique et

singapourienne y afférente

166. La législation britannique et singapourienne relative au phare
Horsburgh et à d’autres phares dans la région est à considérer à la fois
dans le cadre plus large du droit et de la pratique relatifs aux phares et
dans le cadre plus spécifique du système des phares des détroits. En droit,

un phare peut être construit sur le territoire d’un Etat et administré par
un autre — avec le consentement du premier. Cela n’est d’ailleurs pas
rare, comme le montrent les exemples du Middle East Navigation Aids
Service, société à but non lucratif immatriculée au Royaume-Uni, qui
possède et administre des phares et autres aides à la navigation au

Koweït, aux Emirats arabes unis, au Qatar et ailleurs dans la région, du
traité du cap Spartel ainsi que des phares de Pulau Pisang et du cap
Rachado examinés plus haut dans le présent arrêt (voir paragraphes 139-
143 ci-dessus).
167. Comme il a été indiqué, l’argumentation de la Malaisie repose sur

l’idée centrale que le phare Horsburgh a été construit sur une île relevant
de la souveraineté du Johor — proposition acceptée par la Cour, ainsi
qu’il est mentionné plus haut dans le présent arrêt — et que, partant,
toutes les activités menées sur cette île par les autorités britanniques et, ulté-
rieurement, par les autorités singapouriennes ne font que s’inscrire dans le

cadre ordinaire de l’exploitation du phare. La Malaisie inclut, parmi ces
activités, les enquêtes menées sur les dangers pour la navigation et la pu-
blication d’avis aux navigateurs, la réglementation d’activités associées au
phare, l’adjonction d’édifices et d’installations, l’autorisation d’entreprendre
des études scientifiques et techniques, le contrôle de l’accès aux phares et à

leurs installations connexes, ainsi que le déploiement de pavillons. Singa-
pour affirme à l’inverse que certaines de ces activités ne concernent pas seu-
lement l’exploitation du phare mais constituent, en tout ou partie, des actes
à titre de souverain. La Cour les examinera plus loin. Elle va d’abord consi-

dérer la législation relative aux phares de la région des détroits, notamment
au phare Horsburgh, invoquée par Singapour.

58 168. Singapore, in support of its contention that it has continuously
exercised state and sovereign authority over Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu

Puteh, refers to legislation which it and its predecessors in title enacted
specifically relating to the island. The legislation regulated the defraying
of costs of establishing and operating the lighthouse, vesting control of it
under various governmental bodies, and regulating the activities of per-
sons residing, visiting and working on Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh.

All the measures were open and notorious and drew no protests from
Malaysia.
169. Malaysia replies that it and its predecessors had no need to
respond. The actions to which Singapore refers are yet again an aspect of

the Straits lights system administered by Singapore, a system which
included lights which had no territorial connection with Singapore. The
system was not about sovereignty but about the maintenance and opera-
tion of the lights system. Moreover, the legislation was about private law
matters and not about sovereignty over Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh

as a matter of international law. And in some respects, says Malaysia, the
enactments are a recognition by Singapore that it does not have jurisdic-
tion over the island.

170. Singapore refers to the Light Dues Act 1852 (India), the Light
Dues Act 1854 (India) which replaced that of 1852, the Light-Houses
Ordinance 1912 (Straits Settlements) which repealed the 1854 Act and an
amendment to it, the Light Dues Ordinance 1957 (Singapore) establish-
ing the Singapore Light Dues Board and the Light Dues Repeal Act 1973

which transferred the assets, liabilities and employees of the Board to the
Port of Singapore Authority and repealed the 1957 ordinance.

171. The 1852, 1854 and 1912 enactments expressly mention the light-
house at Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh. They deal with property in the
lighthouse and the 1912 measure adds “all such lighthouses as are now
established in or near to the Straits of Malacca or Singapore”. The light-
houses and appurtenances were the property of and vested in the East

India Company (1852 and 1854) and Singapore (1912). The statutes also
dealt with the management and control not only of the lighthouses but
also of the Straits lights such as that on the 2.5 fathom bank in the
Malacca Strait (1854 Act): management and control were vested in and
maintained by the Government. The enactments are exercises of wide

law-making power which, it was understood, could extend to such mat-
ters of property, management and control beyond the territories of India
and Singapore.

172. Taken as a whole, the enactments do not, in the Court’s view,
demonstrate British sovereignty over the areas to which they apply. For

59 168. A l’appui de son affirmation selon laquelle elle aurait exercé une
autorité étatique et souveraine continue sur Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu

Puteh, Singapour fait état de la législation visant expressément l’île et
promulguée par elle-même et ses prédécesseurs. Cette législation régissait
la prise en charge des coûts d’installation et d’exploitation du phare, son
administration par divers organes gouvernementaux ainsi que les acti-
vités des personnes résidant, séjournant et travaillant sur Pedra Branca/

Pulau Batu Puteh. Il s’agissait de mesures notoires qui ne suscitèrent
aucune protestation de la part de la Malaisie.
169. La Malaisie répond que ni ses prédécesseurs ni elle-même
n’avaient de raison de réagir à ces mesures. Selon elle, les activités invo-
quées par Singapour s’inscrivent une fois de plus dans le cadre du sys-

tème des phares des détroits administré par celle-ci, lequel comprenait des
phares qui ne se trouvaient pas sur le territoire de Singapour. Ce système,
qui avait été conçu pour assurer l’entretien et l’exploitation des phares,
était indépendant de toute notion de souveraineté. De plus, la législation
invoquée se rapportait à des questions de droit privé et ne concernait en
rien la souveraineté sur Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh au regard du

droit international. Selon la Malaisie, elle constituait même à certains
égards une reconnaissance par Singapour du fait que l’île ne relevait pas
de sa juridiction.
170. Singapour se réfère à la loi de 1852 relative aux droits de phare
(Indes), à la loi de 1854 relative aux droits de phare (Indes) remplaçant

celle de 1852, à l’ordonnance de 1912 sur les phares (Etablissements des
détroits) portant abrogation de la loi de 1854 et d’un amendement à celle-
ci; elle se réfère en outre à l’ordonnance de 1957 sur les droits de phare
(Singapour) portant création du conseil des droits de phare de Singapour
et à la loi d’abrogation de 1973 relative aux droits de phare portant trans-

fert de l’actif, du passif et du personnel du conseil des droits de phare à
l’autorité portuaire de Singapour et portant abrogation de l’ordonnance
de 1957.
171. Les textes de 1852, 1854 et 1912 ci-dessus mentionnent expressé-
ment le phare de Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh. Il y est question de la

propriété du phare, le texte de 1912 précisant: «tous les phares à présent
établis dans les détroits de Malacca ou de Singapour ou à proximité».
Les phares et leurs dépendances étaient la propriété de la Compagnie des
Indes orientales (1852 et 1854) et de Singapour (1912), et placés sous leur
autorité. Par ailleurs, ces textes régissent non seulement les activités de
gestion et de contrôle des phares, mais aussi celles qui concernent les

autres feux des détroits, comme celui situé sur le haut-fond «2,5 Fathom
Bank» dans le détroit de Malacca (loi de 1854), dont la gestion et le
contrôle avaient été confiés au gouvernement. Ces textes constituent la
manifestation de larges pouvoirs législatifs qui, était-il alors entendu,
pouvaient s’étendre à des questions de propriété, de gestion et de contrôle

au-delà des territoires de l’Inde et de Singapour.
172. Dans l’ensemble, la Cour n’estime pas que ces textes législatifs
démontrent la souveraineté britannique sur les régions où ils s’appli-

59one thing the ownership provision in the 1912 ordinance applies equally
to the lighthouses on Pulau Pisang and at Cape Rachado — both un-

doubtedly on Johor territory — as it does to that on Pedra Branca/Pulau
Batu Puteh. For another, they extend to lights operating on the high seas.
And the provisions say nothing expressly about sovereignty as opposed
to ownership and management and control, each of which they specifi-
cally regulate.

173. Malaysia, the Court recalls, contends that the legislation supports
its position for two reasons. The first relates to a 1958 amendment to the
1957 Ordinance and the 1969 Light Dues Act which incorporated the

same provisions. The 1957 Ordinance required the Light Dues Board to
spend money from the fund it administered on the maintenance and
improvement of “navigational aids in the waters of the Colony”, defined
as “those parts of the territorial waters of the Colony which are outside
the limits of any port”. In 1958, the definition of “waters of the colony”

was deleted and the phrase just quoted from the 1957 provision was
replaced by “lighthouses, buoys, beacons and other navigational aids in
Singapore including those at Pedra Branca (Horsburgh) and at Pulau Pis-
ang”. For Malaysia, the references to the lighthouse at Pedra Branca/Pu-
lau Batu Puteh along with that on Pulau Pisang indicate that Singapore

recognized that the former island is not part of Singapore. Singapore
replies that under the 1957 Ordinance the Board had been authorized to
spend moneys on the maintenance of navigational aids only if they were
in the waters of the colony but not within any port. The purpose of the
amendment was to remove that limit, enabling the Board to spend mon-

eys on “lights and navigational aids within the port limits and on the
maintenance of the light at Pulau Pisang which is not within territorial
waters” (emphasis added). Further, the drafting history includes an
express statement that Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh is Singapore’s.

174. In the Court’s view, the original 1957 wording is not clear in
respect of the present issue since it appears to include both lighthouses
“in Singapore” and that is wrong at least so far as Pulau Pisang is con-

cerned. The 1958 wording, by contrast, gradually expands its geographi-
cal scope, from the port of Singapore, to its approaches, and to the two
named lighthouses. The Court considers that the change, particularly
given the express reference to Pulau Pisang in the statement of purpose
and the statement that Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh is Singapore’s in

the drafting history, does give support to Singapore’s contentions.

175. Malaysia’s second reason for contending that in its legislation

Singapore recognizes that Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh is not within
its sovereignty turns on the Foreign Jurisdiction Act of 1843, the first in

60quent. D’une part, les dispositions relatives à la propriété exposées dans
l’ordonnance de 1912 s’appliquent aussi bien aux phares établis sur Pulau

Pisang et au cap Rachado — tous deux incontestablement situés sur le
territoire du Johor — qu’à celui qui se trouve sur Pedra Branca/Pulau
Batu Puteh. D’autre part, elles s’appliquent aussi aux feux installés en
haute mer. Et ces dispositions traitent expressément non pas de la sou-
veraineté mais de la propriété, de la gestion et du contrôle, questions

qu’elles réglementent expressément.
173. La Cour rappelle que la Malaisie avance que la législation en
question vient à l’appui de son argument pour deux raisons. La première
a trait à l’ordonnance de 1958 portant modification de celle de 1957 et à
la loi relative aux droits de phare de 1969, qui reprend les mêmes dispo-

sitions. Aux termes de l’ordonnance de 1957, le conseil des droits de
phare est tenu d’affecter les ressources du fonds qu’il administre à l’entre-
tien et au perfectionnement «d’aides à la navigation dans les eaux de la
colonie», celles-ci étant définies comme «les parties des eaux territoriales
de la colonie situées au-delà de toute limite portuaire». En 1958, la défi-
nition des «eaux de la colonie» fut supprimée et l’expression précitée, qui

figurait dans la disposition de 1957, fut remplacée par «les phares, bouées,
balises et aides à la navigation à Singapour, y compris ceux de Pedra
Branca (Horsburgh) et de Pulau Pisang». Pour la Malaisie, la mention du
phare de Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh et de celui de Pulau Pisang
signifie que Singapour reconnaît que la première île ne fait pas partie de

Singapour. Singapour répond que, en application de l’ordonnance de 1957,
le conseil des droits de phare avait été autorisé à affecter des ressources à
l’entretien des seules aides à la navigation situées dans les eaux de la colo-
nie, et non dans les ports. La modification apportée en 1958 visait à lever
cette restriction et à permettre au conseil d’affecter les ressources aux

«feux et aides à la navigation dans les limites portuaires et à l’entre-
tien du phare de Pulau Pisang, qui ne se trouve pas dans les eaux terri-
toriales» (les italiques sont de la Cour). En outre, l’historique de la
rédaction de ce texte contient la mention expresse selon laquelle Pedra
Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh appartient à Singapour.

174. De l’avis de la Cour, le libellé du texte initial de 1957 n’éclaire pas
la présente question, puisqu’il semble situer les deux phares «à Singa-
pour», ce qui est faux, au moins en ce qui concerne Pulau Pisang. En
revanche, selon le libellé du texte de 1958, la portée géographique de
l’ordonnance est élargie progressivement, celle-ci s’appliquant d’abord au
port de Singapour, puis à ses abords, et ensuite aux deux phares cités.

Etant donné en particulier qu’il est expressément fait mention de Pulau
Pisang dans l’énoncé des objectifs de l’ordonnance et que l’historique de
sa rédaction contient la déclaration selon laquelle Pedra Branca/Pulau
Batu Puteh est la propriété de Singapour, la Cour estime que cette modi-
fication vient à l’appui des allégations de Singapour.

175. La seconde raison pour laquelle la Malaisie affirme que Singa-
pour reconnaît dans sa législation que Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh ne
relève pas de sa souveraineté a trait à la loi de 1843 relative à la juridic-

60a series of Foreign Jurisdiction Acts — Acts which were invoked only at
the oral stage of the proceedings. These statutes of the Imperial Parlia-

ment at Westminster were enacted “to remove doubts as to the exercise
of Power and Jurisdiction by Her Majesty within diverse Countries and
Places out of Her Majesty’s Dominions, and to render the same more
effectual”. Those powers and jurisdictions, the 1843 Act recites, were
conferred “by treaty, capitulation, grant, usage, sufferance and any other

lawful means”. In terms of the Act and later Acts it was

“lawful for Her Majesty to hold, exercise, and enjoy any Power or
Jurisdiction which Her Majesty now hath or may at any Time here-
after have within any Country or Place out of Her Majesty’s Domin-
ions, in the same and as ample a Manner as if Her Majesty had

acquired such Power or Jurisdiction by the Cession or Conquest of
Territory”.

Malaysia contends that the Indian and Singapore statutes, in so far as
they relate to Horsburgh lighthouse, were enacted under that authority
and accordingly they recognize that Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh was
“out of Her Majesty’s Dominions”; while they do not expressly refer to
that authority, a point made by Singapore in response, British law, says

Malaysia, does not require such reference. Singapore also argues that no
instrument — treaty, capitulation — of the kind referred to in the 1843
and following Acts exists.

176. The 1843 Foreign Jurisdiction Act, the Court understands, was
particularly directed at doubts which had arisen in respect of the powers
of British consuls in the Ottoman Empire and especially about the limits
that might be imposed by English law on the powers, rather than about
the existence of the powers themselves. The Court’s understanding is also

that the power conferred by the 1843 and later Acts was exercised, not by
an enactment of a particular colonial legislature, but by some formal
Royal instrument such as an Order in Council or Letters Patent. There is
no indication at all that the Crown delegated to the Indian or Straits Set-
tlements legislature, under the 1843 or later Acts, the powers in issue

here. Further, there is strong support for the proposition that the Act did
not extend the jurisdiction of the Crown at all; it provided only for the
manner of exercising it. (See the authorities, including Sobhuza II v.
Miller [1926] AC 518 and Secretary of State v. Sardar Rustan Khan
(1941) LR 68 IA 109, decisions of the British Privy Council, and Nyali v.

Attorney-General [1956] 1 QB 1, a decision of the English Court of
Appeal, as well as the official Report which appears to have led to the
enactment of the 1843 Statute, conveniently gathered by Sir Kenneth Rob-
erts-Wray, Q.C., in Commonwealth and Colonial Law (1966), pp. 185-

203.)
177. Accordingly the Court is unable to see any sufficient basis for

61tion extraterritoriale, la première d’une série de lois adoptées dans ce
domaine — ces textes n’ont été invoqués qu’au stade de la procédure

orale. Ces lois du Parlement impérial de Westminster furent adoptées afin
de «lever tout doute concernant l’exercice du pouvoir et de la juridiction
de Sa Majesté dans divers pays et lieux situés en dehors de ses posses-
sions, et à rendre cet exercice plus efficace». La loi de 1843 indique que
ces pouvoirs et juridictions ont été conférés «par traité, capitulation,

donation, tolérance, usage et autres moyens licites». Aux termes de ce
texte et des lois ultérieures,

«Sa Majesté est en droit de détenir, d’exercer, et de jouir de tout
pouvoir ou juridiction qu’elle possède actuellement ou pourrait, à
l’avenir, posséder dans tout pays ou en tout lieu situé en dehors de
ses possessions, de manière identique et aussi large que si Sa Majesté

avait acquis ce pouvoir ou cette juridiction par cession ou conquête
de territoire».

La Malaisie affirme que les lois indiennes et singapouriennes, dans la
mesure où elles se rapportent au phare Horsburgh, furent promulguées
en vertu de ce texte et que, partant, Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh était
considérée comme située «en dehors des possessions» de Sa Majesté. En
réponse, Singapour avance l’argument selon lequel les lois en question ne

font pas expressément état de ce texte; la Malaisie affirme, quant à elle,
que le droit britannique n’exige pas qu’il y soit fait référence. Singapour
soutient également qu’aucun instrument — «traité, capitulation…» —
du type visé par la loi de 1843 et les textes ultérieurs ne s’appliquait à
Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh.

176. Selon la Cour, la loi de 1843 relative à la juridiction extraterrito-
riale visait tout particulièrement à lever les doutes sur les pouvoirs des
consuls britanniques de l’Empire ottoman, notamment à propos des limi-
tations que le droit anglais pouvait leur imposer et non de leur existence
proprement dite. La Cour estime également que le pouvoir conféré par la

loi de 1843 et les textes ultérieurs s’exerce non par l’adoption d’un texte
législatif colonial spécifique mais par quelque instrument royal officiel, tel
qu’un ordre en conseil ou une lettre patente. Rien n’indique que la Cou-
ronne ait délégué les pouvoirs en cause au corps législatif des Indes ou
des Etablissements des détroits aux termes de la loi de 1843 ou d’une loi

ultérieure. Il existe par ailleurs de solides arguments à l’appui de la pro-
position selon laquelle la loi n’élargit aucunement la juridiction de la
Couronne, mais ne fait que préciser les modalités de son exercice. (Voir la
jurisprudence rassemblée par sir Kenneth Roberts-Wray, Q.C., dans
l’ouvrage intitulé Commonwealth and Colonial Law , 1966, p. 185-203,

notamment les décisions du Privy Council britannique dans les affaires
Sobhuza II v. Miller [1926] AC 518 et Secretary of State v. Sardar Rus-
tan Khan (1941) LR 68 IA 109, la décision de la Court of Appeal d’Angle-
terre dans l’affaire Nyali v. Attorney-General [1956] 1 QB 1, ainsi que le

rapport officiel qui semble avoir conduit à l’adoption de la loi de 1843.)
177. En conséquence, la Cour ne peut considérer comme suffisamment

61Malaysia’s contentions based on the 1843 Act and later Acts.

178. The Court does however see some significance in one proposal
relating to the funding and administration of the lights. After 1912 the
duties levied on ships passing through the Straits were abolished and the
States concerned defrayed the costs of the lights on a co-operative basis.
Singapore refers to the fact that in 1913 the Chief Secretary of the Gov-

ernment of the Federated Malay States proposed an appropriation to
meet a share of the costs of the Cape Rachado Light and the One
Fathom Bank Light but not for Horsburgh lighthouse. But, as Malaysia
points out, Johor was not at that time one of those States. What is of

some significance however is that in 1952 the Director of Marine of the
Federation of Malaya of which Johor was then a part raised the question
whether the Federation should assume responsibility for the Pulau Pisang
lighthouse, “as it is close to the coast of the Federation” but made no
such suggestion in respect of Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh.

179. Singapore, when referring to legislation relating to Pedra Branca/
Pulau Batu Puteh, also cites the Protected Places Order 1991 which pro-
hibits entry, without permit, to that island. According to Malaysia this
action comes long after the critical date and is not “a normal continua-

tion of prior acts” (Sovereignty over Pulau Ligitan and Pulau Sipadan
(Indonesia/Malaysia), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2002 , p. 682, para. 135).
Singapore contends that it is a “normal continuation” since it is simply
one more element in a long stream of governmental authority exercised
over Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh.

180. In the Court’s opinion, Singapore puts the matter far too broadly
when it contends it may rely on what it characterizes as one more element
of the exercise of governmental authority occurring after the date the dis-
pute crystallized. The conduct in question must be the same as, or of the
same kind as, the prior acts which are being invoked. The 1991 Order is

clearly distinct from the other conduct on which Singapore relies occur-
ring before the date the dispute crystallized. Accordingly, the Court does
not give any weight to the 1991 Order.

(b) Constitutional developments and official descriptions of Singapore
and Malaysia

181. In terms of constitutional developments, Malaysia begins with
the 1927 Straits Settlement and Johor Territorial Waters Agreement
between the Straits Settlements and Johor. The 1927 Agreement amends

the 1824 Crawfurd Treaty concluded soon after the Settlement of Singa-
pore was established and discussed earlier in this Judgment (see para-
graphs 102-107 above); and it is convenient to begin a brief account of
the constitutional development from that time. In 1826 Singapore and

the other British Settlements in the Malay Peninsula were amalgamated
into a single unit known as the Strait Settlements (see paragraph 24

62fondées les affirmations de la Malaisie ayant trait à la loi de 1843 et aux
textes ultérieurs.

178. La Cour estime en revanche assez pertinente une proposition
relative au financement et à l’administration des phares. Après 1912, les
droits de phare prélevés sur les navires empruntant le détroit furent abolis
et les Etats intéressés prirent en charge conjointement les coûts relatifs
aux phares. Singapour indique que, en 1913, le secrétaire principal du

gouvernement des Etats malais fédérés proposa d’ouvrir un crédit bud-
gétaire pour couvrir une part des coûts des phares du cap Rachado et de
One Fathom Bank mais non du phare Horsburgh. Toutefois, comme la
Malaisie le fait observer, le Johor ne faisait pas partie, à l’époque, des

Etats malais fédérés. Il est en revanche à noter que, en 1952, le directeur
de la marine de la Fédération de Malaya, dont le Johor faisait alors par-
tie, souleva la question de l’éventuelle prise en charge du phare de Pulau
Pisang par la Fédération, «comme il est proche de la côte de la Fédéra-
tion», mais qu’il ne fit aucune proposition analogue en ce qui concerne

Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh.
179. Singapour, se rapportant aux textes relatifs à Pedra Branca/Pulau
Batu Puteh, mentionne également le décret sur les sites protégés de 1991,
qui interdit l’entrée sur cette île sans autorisation. Selon la Malaisie, cette
mesure est intervenue bien après la date critique et ne constitue pas «la

continuation normale d’activités antérieures» (Souveraineté sur Pulau
Ligitan et Pulau Sipadan (Indonésie/Malaisie), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2002 ,
p. 682, par. 135). Singapour soutient qu’il s’agit d’une «continuation nor-
male» puisque cette mesure ne fait que compléter une longue série d’actes
de l’autorité publique exercés sur Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh.

180. La Cour estime que Singapour présente la question d’une manière
beaucoup trop générale lorsqu’elle invoque ce qu’elle qualifie d’élément
supplémentaire de l’exercice de l’autorité publique postérieur à la date de
cristallisation du différend. Ce comportement doit être identique aux
activités antérieures invoquées ou de même nature. Le décret de 1991 dif-

fère manifestement des activités antérieures à la date de cristallisation du
différend sur lesquelles se fonde Singapour. En conséquence, la Cour
n’accorde aucun poids au décret de 1991.

b) Evolution constitutionnelle et descriptions officielles de Singapour
et de la Malaisie

181. En ce qui concerne l’évolution constitutionnelle, la Malaisie in-
voque en premier lieu l’accord relatif aux eaux territoriales des Etablis-
sements des détroits et du Johor, signé en 1927 entre les Etablissements

des détroits et le Johor. Cet accord porte amendement du traité Craw-
furd de 1824 conclu peu après la création de l’Etablissement de Singapour
et examiné plus haut dans le présent arrêt (voir paragraphes 102-107 ci-
dessus); il convient donc de procéder à un bref récapitulatif de l’évolu-

tion constitutionnelle amorcée à cette époque. En 1826, Singapour et
les autres Etablissements britanniques de la péninsule malaise furent

62above). It was governed by the East India Company as a dependency of
the Bengal Government of India. In 1867 the responsibility passed to the

Colonial Office in London, with the Straits Settlements becoming a
Crown Colony. The statutory territorial description of the Colony
included “and their Dependencies”.

182. The 1927 Agreement had as its stated purpose to “retrocede” to
the Sultan of Johor certain of the seas, straits and islets which had been
ceded to the East India Company in 1824. The boundary between the
territorial waters of the Settlement of Singapore and those of the State

and Territory of Johor was to be the line following the centre of the deep-
water channel between the mainland of Johor and the northern shore of
the island of Singapore and three smaller named islands immediately to
its north and east. Islands on the Johor side of the line were retroceded if
they were under British sovereignty. Malaysia contends that the retroces-

sion arrangements did not concern Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh since
it was never part of the territory of Singapore. The 1927 Agreement, with
its link back to that of 1824, is evidence of the continuing appreciation
that Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh and its surrounding waters were not
part of the territory of Singapore.

183. The creation of the separate Colony of Singapore in 1946 (also
described as including “its dependencies”), with the other Straits Settle-
ments joining the Malay States to form the Malayan Union (from 1948

the Malayan Federation), made no changes, according to Malaysia, in
respect of territory and in particular in respect of Pedra Branca/Pulau
Batu Puteh; it remained part of Johor and accordingly of the new Union
and the Federation which became independent in 1957.

184. In 1959 the Colony of Singapore was granted self government as
the State of Singapore, comprising the territories included in the Colony
of Singapore immediately before the passing of the Act.
185. In 1963 Singapore became part of the newly formed Federation
of Malaysia. It withdrew in 1965. The Parties agree that these changes

are of no consequence for the present proceedings.
186. The Court considers that the various constitutional changes do
not help resolve the question of sovereignty over Pedra Branca/Pulau
Batu Puteh. The constitutional documents refer to the island of Singa-
pore and “its dependencies” or to “all islands and places which on [a

specific date] were administered as part of [the Colony of] Singapore”.
That wording refers the Court back to the question of whether Pedra
Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh may be seen as a dependency of Singapore or
administered by it. It does not assist in finding the answer to those

questions.

63réunis en une même entité appelée «Etablissements des détroits» (voir
paragraphe 24 ci-dessus). Celle-ci était administrée par la Compagnie

des Indes orientales comme une dépendance du gouvernement du Ben-
gale en Inde. En 1867, la responsabilité passa aux mains du Colonial
Office à Londres et les Etablissements des détroits devinrent une colonie
de la Couronne. La définition du statut territorial de la colonie compre-
nait la mention «ainsi que leurs dépendances».

182. L’accord de 1927 avait pour but déclaré de «rétrocéder» au sul-
tan de Johor une partie des eaux, détroits et îlots qui avaient été cédés à
la Compagnie des Indes orientales en 1824. La limite entre les eaux ter-
ritoriales de l’Etablissement de Singapour et celles de l’Etat et du terri-
toire de Johor était constituée par la ligne médiane du chenal en eau

profonde, entre la partie continentale de l’Etat du Johor et les côtes sep-
tentrionales de l’île de Singapour et de trois îles plus petites, dont les
noms étaient cités et qui se trouvaient immédiatement au nord et à l’est
de celle-ci. Celles des îles situées du côté du Johor par rapport à cette
ligne et placées sous souveraineté britannique furent rétrocédées. La
Malaisie soutient que les dispositions relatives à la rétrocession ne concer-

naient pas Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh, étant donné que celle-ci
n’avait jamais fait partie du territoire de Singapour. L’accord de 1927,
qui renvoie au traité Crawfurd de 1824, prouve, selon elle, que Pedra
Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh et ses eaux environnantes ont toujours été
considérées comme ne faisant pas partie du territoire de Singapour.

183. La transformation de Singapour en une colonie distincte en 1946
(qui était aussi censée comprendre ses «dépendances»), alors que les
autres Etablissements des détroits s’associaient aux Etats malais pour
constituer l’Union malaise (qui devint en 1948 la Fédération de Malaya),
n’entraîna selon la Malaisie aucun changement, ni du point de vue terri-

torial, ni en particulier pour Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh; celle-ci
continua à faire partie du Johor et, par voie de conséquence, de la nou-
velle Union, puis de la Fédération, qui accéda à l’indépendance en 1957.
184. En 1959, la colonie de Singapour se vit accorder l’autonomie en
tant qu’Etat de Singapour, qui comprenait les territoires relevant de la

colonie de Singapour immédiatement avant l’adoption de la loi.
185. En 1963, Singapour devint membre de la Fédération de Malaisie
nouvellement constituée. Elle s’en retira en 1965. Les Parties s’accordent
à reconnaître que ces changements sont sans conséquence en l’espèce.
186. La Cour estime que l’examen des différents changements consti-
tutionnels ne lui permet pas de régler la question de la souveraineté

sur Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh. Dans les documents constitution-
nels, il est fait état de l’île de Singapour et de «ses dépendances» ou de
«toutes les îles ou lieux qui, [à une date donnée], étaient administrés en
tant que partie intégrante de [la colonie de] Singapour». Cette formula-
tion conduit la Cour à se demander si Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh

peut être considérée comme une dépendance de Singapour ou comme
une entité administrée par elle. Elle ne permet pas de répondre à la
question.

63 187. The geographical description in the 1927 Agreement is of course
specific and it does not expressly mention Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu

Puteh. Malaysia contends that that provides a significant recognition at
that time by Singapore that it (or the United Kingdom) did not have sov-
ereignty over Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh.
188. The Court observes that the Agreement has to be read as a whole
and in context. As its preamble says the purpose was to “retrocede”

certain of the said seas, straits and islets to Johor, that is certain of the
areas that were ceded by Johor to the East India Company in 1824,
and those areas were all within 10 miles of the main island of Singapore.
They could not have included Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh; it

was simply not within the scope of the Agreement. Accordingly the
Court concludes that the 1927 Agreement does not assist the Malaysian
case.

189. Malaysia also refers the Court to a Curfew Order made in Singa-

pore in 1948 in response to civil unrest in the Colony. No one was to be
in the specified area between 6.30 p.m. and 6.30 a.m. without a police
permit. The specified area was defined in the same terms as in the
1927 Agreement, that is without including Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu
Puteh. But as Singapore points out, there was no reason in terms of its

purpose for extending the ban to such a distant island anymore than
there was for extending it to the Cocos and Christmas Islands, some great
distance away in the Indian Ocean, which at the time were part of the
Colony of Singapore.

(c) Johor regulation of fisheries in the 1860s

190. Malaysia contends that the Temenggong continued to control
fishing in the neighbourhood of Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh after the
construction of the lighthouse, granting licences and exercising criminal

jurisdiction there, and that that exercise of authority showed the island
was Johor’s territory. The Parties refer in particular to an exchange of
correspondence between Johor and the British authorities in Singapore in
1861.
191. The Court observes that the exchange relates in part to events

occurring within 10 miles of the island of Singapore and nothing can be
made of the fact that the Singapore authorities did not in that context
refer to jurisdiction over the waters of Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu
Puteh. Another incident occurred further along the Johor coast and
involved Singapore fishermen returning from fishing in the neigh-

bourhood of Horsburgh lighthouse. In the Court’s opinion, on the
basis of the available records, the facts cannot be clearly established
and the wording of the Singapore reports are too vague to provide
any assistance in determining the understanding at that time by the

authorities in Singapore of sovereignty over Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu
Puteh.

64 187. Si l’accord de 1927 en fait une description géographique précise,
il ne mentionne pas expressément Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh. La

Malaisie soutient que cela constitue une reconnaissance valable de la part
de Singapour à l’époque, selon laquelle celle-ci (comme le Royaume-Uni)
n’avait pas la souveraineté sur Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh.
188. La Cour fait observer que l’accord doit être lu dans son ensemble
et placé dans son contexte. Comme l’indique le préambule, il était prévu

de «rétrocéder» une partie des eaux, détroits et îlots au Johor, c’est-
à-dire une partie des espaces maritimes qui avaient été cédés par le
Johor à la Compagnie des Indes orientales en 1824 et qui se trouvaient
tous à moins de 10 milles de l’île principale de Singapour. Ceux-ci

n’auraient pas pu englober Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh, étant
donné qu’elle n’était pas couverte par l’accord. La Cour en conclut
donc que l’accord de 1927 ne va pas dans le sens de la thèse de la
Malaisie.
189. La Malaisie a également appelé l’attention de la Cour sur un

arrêté de couvre-feu pris à Singapour en 1948 en raison de troubles civils
dans la colonie. Nul n’était autorisé à se trouver dans la zone visée entre
18h30et6h30sansl’autorisationdelapolice.Laditezoneétaitdéfinie
dans les mêmes termes que dans l’accord de 1927, c’est-à-dire qu’elle
n’incluait pas Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh. Cependant, comme

Singapour le fait observer, il n’était pas davantage justifié d’étendre
l’interdiction à une île aussi éloignée que de l’étendre aux îles Cocos et
Christmas, situées très loin dans l’océan Indien et qui à l’époque faisaient
partie de la colonie de Singapour.

c) La réglementation de la pêche par le Johor dans les années 1860

190. La Malaisie soutient que le temenggong continua de contrôler les
activités de pêche au voisinage de Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh après
la construction du phare, accordant des permis à cet effet et y exerçant sa

juridiction pénale, et que l’exercice de cette autorité attestait que l’île fai-
sait partie du territoire de Johor. Les Parties se réfèrent notamment à un
échange de correspondance entre le Johor et les autorités britanniques de
Singapour en 1861.
191. La Cour note que l’échange porte en partie sur des événements

qui se produisirent dans un rayon de 10 milles de l’île de Singapour et
rien ne peut être inféré du fait que les autorités singapouriennes n’invo-
quèrent pas à cette occasion leur juridiction sur les eaux de Pedra Branca/
Pulau Batu Puteh. Un autre incident eut lieu plus loin le long de la
côte du Johor, impliquant des pêcheurs singapouriens qui revenaient de

leur pêche au voisinage du phare Horsburgh. La Cour est d’avis que
les faits ne peuvent être clairement établis au vu des éléments dont elle
dispose et que la teneur des rapports singapouriens est trop imprécise
pour lui permettre de se prononcer sur les vues des autorités de Singa-

pour, à l’époque, en ce qui concerne la souveraineté sur Pedra Branca/
Pulau Batu Puteh.

645.4.5. The 1953 correspondence

192. On 12 June 1953 the Colonial Secretary of Singapore wrote as
follows to the British Adviser to the Sultan of Johor:

“I am directed to ask for information about the rock some 40
miles from Singapore known as Pedra Branca on which the Hors-
burgh Lighthouse stands. The matter is relevant to the determina-
tion of the boundaries of the Colony’s territorial waters. It appears
this rock is outside the limits ceded by Sultan Hussain and the

Dato Tumunggong to the East India Company with the island of
Singapore in the Treaty of 1824 (extract at ‘A’). It was however men-
tioned in a despatch from the Governor of Singapore on 28th Novem-
ber 1844 (extract at ‘B’). The lighthouse was built in 1850 by the
Colony Government who have maintained it ever since. This by

international usage no doubt confers some rights and obligations on
the Colony.

2. In the case of Pulau Pisang which is also outside the Treaty
limits of the colony it has been possible to trace an indenture in the

Johore Registry of Deeds dated 6th October, 1900. This shows that
a part of Pulau Pisang was granted to the Crown for the purposes of
building a lighthouse. Certain conditions were attached and it is
clear that there was no abrogation of the sovereignty of Johore. The

status of Pisang is quite clear.
3. It is how [now] desired to clarify the status of Pedra Branca. I
would therefore be most grateful to know whether there is any docu-
ment showing a lease or grant of the rock or whether it has been
ceded by the Government of the State of Johore or in any other way

disposed of.
4. A copy of this letter is being sent to the Chief Secretary, Kuala
Lumpur.”

193. The extract from the 1824 Treaty which was attached to the letter
set out the title and Article II. Under that Article, Johor ceded the island
of Singapore to the East India Company “together with adjacent seas,
straits and islets, to the extent of ten geographical miles, from the coast of

the said main island of Singapore” (see paragraph 102 above). The
extract from the despatch of 28 November 1844 (see paragraph 129
above), as attached, read as follows: “This Rock [i.e. Pedra Branca] is
part of a territory of the Rajah of Johore who with the Tumunggong has
willingly consented to cede it gratuitously to the East India Company.”

194. The expression “[i.e. Pedra Branca]” appeared in handwriting in
the attached typewritten copy of the extract from the 1844 despatch.
That explains why the letter of 12 June expressly says that “Pedra

Branca” was mentioned in the 1844 despatch.
195. Later in June 1953 the Secretary to the British Adviser to the Sul-

655.4.5. La correspondance de 1953

192. Le 12 juin 1953, le secrétaire colonial de Singapour adressa au
conseiller britannique du sultan de Johor la lettre suivante:

«J’ai pour instruction de vous demander des renseignements sur le
rocher appelé Pedra Branca, qui se trouve à environ 40 milles de Sin-
gapour et sur lequel est situé le phare Horsburgh. La question est
d’importance pour la détermination des limites des eaux territoriales
de la colonie. Ce rocher se trouve apparemment à l’extérieur des

limites du territoire cédé en même temps que l’île de Singapour à la
Compagnie des Indes orientales par le sultan Hussain et le dato
tumunggong dans le traité de 1824 (voir extrait sous «A»). Cepen-
dant, il en était fait mention dans une dépêche du gouverneur de Sin-
gapour datée du 28 novembre 1844 (voir extrait sous «B»). Ce phare

fut construit en 1850 par le gouvernement de la colonie, qui en a tou-
jours assuré l’entretien depuis lors, ce qui, de par l’usage internatio-
nal, confère sans doute à la colonie certains droits et obligations.
2. Dans le cas de Pulau Pisang, qui se trouve également à l’exté-
rieur des limites de la colonie établies par le traité, nous avons pu

retrouver dans le Johore Registry of Deeds un acte, daté du 6 oc-
tobre 1900, qui montre qu’une partie de Pulau Pisang fut accordée à
la Couronne dans le but d’y construire un phare. Cet acte était
assorti de certaines conditions et, de toute évidence, ne mettait pas

fin à la souveraineté de Johore. Le statut de Pisang est donc très clair.
3. Il y a lieu à présent de clarifier le statut de Pedra Branca. Je
vous serais donc très reconnaissant de bien vouloir me faire savoir
s’il existe des documents indiquant que le rocher a fait l’objet d’un
bail ou d’une concession, ou si le gouvernement de l’Etat du Johore

l’a cédé ou en a disposé de toute autre manière.
4. Copie de la présente est transmise au secrétaire principal à
Kuala Lumpur.»

193. L’extrait du traité de 1824 qui était joint à la lettre apporte des
précisions quant au titre et à l’article 2. En vertu de cet article, le Johor
cédait l’île de Singapour à la Compagnie des Indes orientales «ainsi que
les eaux, détroits et îles adjacents situés à moins de 10 milles géogra-

phiques de la côte de ladite île principale de Singapour» (voir para-
graphe 102 ci-dessus). L’extrait de la dépêche du 28 novembre 1844
(paragraphe 129 ci-dessus), qui y est joint, se lit comme suit: «Ce rocher
[c’est-à-dire Pedra Branca] fait partie du territoire du rajah de Johor,
qui, avec le temenggong, a consenti volontairement à le céder à titre

gracieux à la Compagnie des Indes orientales.»
194. La mention «[c’est-à-dire Pedra Branca]» a été ajoutée à la main
sur la copie dactylographiée de l’extrait de la dépêche de 1844. Voilà
pourquoi il était expressément indiqué dans la lettre du 12 juin que

«Pedra Branca» était mentionnée dans la dépêche de 1844.
195. Plus tard au cours du mois de juin 1953, le secrétaire du conseiller

65tan of Johor advised the Colonial Secretary that the Adviser had passed
the letter to the State Secretary of Johor who would

“doubtless wish to consult with the Commissioner for Lands and

Mines and Chief Surveyor and any existing archives before forward-
ing the views of the State Government to the Chief Secretary”.

196. Three months later, in a letter dated 21 September 1953, the Act-
ing State Secretary of Johor replied as follows:

“I have the honour to refer to your letter . . . dated 12th June
1953, addressed to the British Adviser, Johore, on the question of
the status of Pedra Branca Rock some 40 miles from Singapore and

to inform you that the Johore Government does not claim owner-
ship of Pedra Branca.”

No further correspondence followed and the Singapore authorities
took no public action. That was so although, as mentioned later, officials
of Singapore did consider the matter in an internal memorandum (see
paragraph 224 below).
197. In their pleadings before the Court the Parties take sharply dif-

ferent positions on the significance of this correspondence. Malaysia
places most emphasis on the initial Singapore letter. According to Malay-
sia, the enquiry in that letter indicated the absence of any conviction on
Singapore’s part that Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh was part of its ter-
ritory; it wished to clarify Singapore’s rights and obligations regarding

the management and control of the lighthouse. The letter, Malaysia con-
tinues, “clearly references the Crawfurd Treaty of 1824 as determining
the relevant territorial limits of Singapore, and the 1844 permission of
Johor to the building of the lighthouse”. Malaysia also calls attention to
virtually contemporaneous correspondence between Singapore officials

about territorial waters, referring to the 1824 Treaties and the 1927 Agree-
ment, as showing that the Singapore authorities had a very precise un-
derstanding of the extent of the Colony’s sovereignty, that this flowed
from the 1824 Treaties, and that it did not extend to Pedra Branca/Pulau
Batu Puteh. Next, the reference to the position of Pulau Pisang indicates,

Malaysia says, an understanding on the part of the Colonial Secretary
that the management of the lighthouse was distinct from and not deter-
minative of the sovereign status on the territory on which is was
constructed.

198. The reply from Johor, Malaysia continues, is not “a model of
clarity”. In any event it is about ownership, not about sovereignty over
Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh. Malaysia also contends that the Acting
State Secretary was “definitely not authorized” and did not have “the

legal capacity to write the 1953 letter”.

66britannique du sultan de Johor informa le secrétaire colonial que le
conseiller avait transmis la lettre au secrétaire d’Etat du Johor, indiquant

que celui-ci
«souhaitera[it] certainement consulter le commissaire à l’aménage-

ment du territoire et aux mines, ainsi que le géomètre en chef, et exa-
miner toutes archives existantes, avant de communiquer l’avis du
gouvernement de l’Etat au secrétaire principal».

196. Trois mois plus tard, dans une lettre datée du 21 septembre 1953,
le secrétaire d’Etat par intérim du Johor répondit:

«J’ai l’honneur de me référer à votre lettre ... du 12 juin 1953
adressée au conseiller britannique à Johore concernant la question
du statut du rocher Pedra Branca à quelque 40 milles de Singapour

et de vous informer que le gouvernement du Johore ne revendique
pas la propriété de Pedra Branca.»

Il n’y eut pas d’autre lettre et les autorités de Singapour ne donnèrent
aucune suite officielle à cette réponse. Comme indiqué plus loin (voir
paragraphe 224 ci-dessous), cette question fut toutefois étudiée dans un
mémorandum interne par des responsables singapouriens.
197. Dans leurs écritures et à l’audience, les Parties ont adopté des

positions diamétralement opposées quant à l’importance de cette corres-
pondance. La Malaisie insiste beaucoup sur la lettre initiale de Singa-
pour. Selon elle, la demande de renseignements contenue dans cette lettre
révèle l’absence de toute certitude de la part de Singapour selon laquelle
Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh faisait partie de son territoire; elle ne

visait qu’à clarifier les droits et obligations de Singapour concernant la
gestion et le contrôle du phare. La lettre, poursuit la Malaisie, «se réfère
clairement au traité Crawfurd de 1824 en tant que texte définissant
les limites territoriales pertinentes de Singapour, et à l’autorisation de
construire le phare accordée par le Johor en 1844». La Malaisie attire

aussi l’attention sur une correspondance échangée presque à la même date
entre des fonctionnaires de Singapour au sujet des eaux territoriales,
invoquant les traités de 1824 et l’accord de 1927, montrant que les auto-
rités de Singapour avaient une idée très précise de l’étendue de la souve-
raineté de la colonie, laquelle était déterminée par les traités de 1824, et

qu’elle ne s’étendait pas à Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh. En outre, la
mention faite de la position de Pulau Pisang montre, selon la Malaisie,
que, aux yeux du secrétaire colonial, la gestion du phare et la souverai-
neté sur le territoire où il était construit étaient deux choses distinctes, et
que la première ne déterminait pas la seconde.

198. La réponse du Johor, poursuit la Malaisie, n’était pas «un modèle
de clarté». En tout état de cause, il y est question de la propriété, et non
de la souveraineté sur Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh. La Malaisie sou-
tient aussi que le secrétaire d’Etat par intérim n’était «absolument pas

autorisé à écrire la lettre de 1953» et «n’avait pas juridiquement qualité
pour ce faire».

66 199. Finally, Malaysia calls attention to the actions of the Singapore
authorities following the receipt of the Johor letter and particularly their

failure to take steps to claim Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh.

200. Singapore sees the correspondence quite differently. It admits
that in its initial letter it was seeking information to assist it to clarify the
status of Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh. The enquiry concerned the

determination of the colony’s territorial waters. The Treaties of 1824 and
the 1927 Agreement were irrelevant to that matter. The 1844 despatch
could not be read as a showing that permission was sought from Johor to
build a lighthouse on the island. So far as the reference to Pulau Pisang

was concerned, Singapore accepts that the management of the lighthouse
and the status of the territory on which it is built can be different, but the
author of the Singapore letter was making a comparison in which he
acknowledges Johor’s sovereignty over Pulau Pisang but not over Pedra
Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh.

201. For Singapore the Johor reply is crystal clear and straightfor-
ward. In the context it is clear that ownership refers to title. Singapore
rejects Malaysia’s argument that the Acting Secretary of State of Johor
did not have authority to write the letter.

202. The internal Singapore correspondence, after the Johor letter was
received, simply meant that Singapore could now authoritatively regard
Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh as Singapore territory since Johor’s
“express disclaimer of title” had removed all doubts arising from the
incomplete state of the Singapore archives.

203. The Court considers that this correspondence and its interpreta-
tion are of central importance for determining the developing under-
standing of the two Parties about sovereignty over Pedra Branca/Pulau
Batu Puteh. The Court gives its primary attention to those matters of

which they both had notice — the initial letter, the interim reply and the
final reply.
204. The Singapore letter of 12 June 1953 seeks information about
“the rock” as a whole and not simply about the lighthouse. The informa-
tion, the letter says, is relevant to the determination of the Colony’s ter-

ritorial waters, a matter, the Court observes, which is dependent on sov-
ereignty over the island.

205. The immediately following reference to the Crawfurd Treaty
shows the same focus on sovereignty: the rock appears not to be among

the territories ceded by the Treaty by the Sultan and Temenggong. The
apparent irrelevance of the Treaty provides one reason for seeking infor-
mation. The next sentence says that the rock was however mentioned in
the 1844 despatch, in the extract attached to the letter. That statement is

not accurate (see paragraphs 129-132 above) but whether it is accurate or
not the Johor authorities were put on notice that in 1953 the Singapore

67 199. Enfin, la Malaisie appelle l’attention sur l’action des autorités de
Singapour après qu’elles eurent reçu la lettre du Johor et notamment sur

le fait qu’elles ne prirent aucune mesure pour revendiquer Pedra Branca/
Pulau Batu Puteh.
200. Singapour porte une appréciation totalement différente sur la
correspondance. Elle admet avoir, par sa lettre initiale, cherché à obtenir
des renseignements pour l’aider à préciser le statut de Pedra Branca/Pu-

lau Batu Puteh. La demande de renseignements avait pour objet de déter-
miner la limite des eaux territoriales de la colonie. Les traités de 1824 et
l’accord de 1927 étaient sans rapport avec cette question. La dépêche de
1844 ne pouvait pas être interprétée comme sollicitant l’autorisation du
Johor de construire un phare sur l’île. En ce qui concerne la mention de

la position de Pulau Pisang, Singapour reconnaît que l’administration
d’un phare peut relever d’un autre Etat que celui sur le territoire duquel
ce phare est construit. Cependant, l’auteur de la lettre de Singapour éta-
blissait un parallèle par lequel il reconnaissait la souveraineté du Johor
sur Pulau Pisang mais non sur Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh.
201. Pour Singapour, la réponse du Johor est limpide et sans équi-

voque. Dans le contexte, il est clair que la propriété se rapporte au titre.
Singapour rejette l’argument de la Malaisie selon lequel le secrétaire
d’Etat par intérim du Johor n’était pas habilité à écrire la lettre.
202. La correspondance interne de Singapour, après réception de
la lettre du Johor, signifiait simplement que Singapour pouvait doréna-

vant considérer de source sûre Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh comme un
territoire de Singapour, puisque la «renonciation expresse ... au titre»
avait balayé tous les doutes nés du caractère incomplet des archives de
Singapour.
203. La Cour considère que cette correspondance ainsi que la manière

dont elle est interprétée sont essentielles pour déterminer comment ont
évolué les vues des deux Parties à propos de la souveraineté sur Pedra
Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh. La Cour s’attache principalement aux élé-
ments dont l’une et l’autre avaient connaissance — contenus dans la
lettre initiale, la réponse provisoire et la réponse définitive.

204. La lettre de Singapour du 12 juin 1953 vise à obtenir des rensei-
gnements concernant non seulement le phare mais «le rocher» dans sa
totalité. Comme l’indique la lettre, les renseignements sont d’importance
pour la délimitation des eaux territoriales de la colonie, une question à
propos de laquelle la Cour fait remarquer qu’elle dépend de la souverai-
neté sur l’île.

205. Le renvoi au traité Crawfurd qui vient immédiatement après
montre une même attention portée à la souveraineté: le rocher semble ne
pas faire partie des territoires cédés par le sultan et le temenggong dans le
traité. L’apparente absence de pertinence du traité constitue une raison
pour chercher à obtenir des renseignements. La phrase suivante indique

que le rocher fut cependant mentionné dans la dépêche de 1844, dont
l’extrait pertinent est joint à la lettre. Cette déclaration n’est pas exacte
(voir paragraphes 129-132 ci-dessus), mais, qu’elle le soit ou non, les

67authorities understood, as indicated in the annotated extract from the
1844 letter which was attached (see paragraph 193 above), that their

predecessors thought that Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh had been
ceded “gratuitously” by the Sultan and the Temenggong to the East
India Company.

206. The letter next calls attention to the building in 1850 and main-

taining ever since of the lighthouse, this activity by “international usage
no doubt conferr[ing] some rights and obligations on the Colony”. That
comment appears to the Court to be equivocal since, as Singapore
accepts, a distinction is to be drawn between the maintenance and opera-

tion of a lighthouse and the sovereignty over the territory on which it
stands.
207. More significant is the following particular reference to Pulau Pis-
ang where the same distinction is at play. The Singapore authorities
report that they have traced in the Johor Registry of Deeds the indenture

of 1900 relating to the lighthouse on that island. Under that indenture,
or, as already discussed, under the agreement of 1885 which preceded it,
part of the island was granted to the Crown for the purpose of building
a lighthouse; it is clear, says Singapore in its 1953 letter, “that there was
no abrogation of the sovereignty of Johore. The status of [Pulau] Pisang

is quite clear.” That is, it remained under Johor’s sovereignty.

208. It was against that background that Singapore decided to clarify
the status of Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh and accordingly asked the

Johor Government whether there was “any document showing a lease or
grant of the rock or whether it had been ceded by the Government of the
State of Johore or in any other way disposed of”.
209. The Court recalls that, according to Malaysia, the Singapore
enquiry implied the absence of any conviction on its part that Pedra

Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh was part of its territory. The Court reads the
letter of enquiry about the status of the island as showing that the Sing-
apore authorities were not clear about events occurring over a century
earlier and that they were not sure that their records were complete, a
caution which is understandable in the circumstances.

210. The interim reply from the British Adviser anticipates that the
State Secretary of Johor, the senior official in its Government, would
consult with the Commissioner for Lands and Mines and the Chief Sur-
veyor and research the matter in any existing archives. While Malaysia

submits that the two officers would be concerned with such matters as
leases and property under local law, the Court attaches little signifi-
cance to that, given Singapore’s reference to the Pulau Pisang indenture
and its request for any document showing a lease or grant of the rock;

further, the archives which would also be consulted might well have
thrown light not only on those issues but also on the matter of any ces-

68autorités du Johor étaient ainsi averties que, en 1953, les autorités de Sin-
gapour considéraient, sur la base de l’extrait annoté du traité de 1844 qui

était joint à la lettre (voir paragraphe 193 ci-dessus), que, dans l’esprit de
leurs prédécesseurs, Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh avait été cédée «à
titre gracieux» à la Compagnie des Indes orientales par le sultan et le
temenggong.
206. La lettre appelle ensuite l’attention sur la construction du phare

en 1850 et son entretien depuis lors, activité qui, «en vertu de l’usage
international, ... conférerait sans aucun doute à la colonie de Singapour
certains droits et obligations». Cette observation apparaît équivoque à la
Cour car, comme le reconnaît Singapour, il faut distinguer entre l’entre-
tien et l’exploitation d’un phare, d’une part, et la souveraineté sur le ter-

ritoire où il est situé, de l’autre.
207. Vient ensuite la référence particulière, plus importante, à Pulau
Pisang, où cette même distinction intervient. Les autorités singapou-
riennes signalent qu’elles ont retrouvé, dans le Johore Registry of Deeds ,
la mention du contrat synallagmatique de 1900 relatif au phare situé
sur cette île. En vertu de ce contrat, ou, ainsi qu’il a déjà été examiné, en

vertu de l’accord de 1885 qui l’a précédé, une partie de l’île fut concédée
à la Couronne britannique dans le but d’y construire un phare; il est évi-
dent, indique Singapour dans sa lettre de 1953, que cet acte «ne mettait
pas fin à la souveraineté de Johore. Le statut de [Pulau] Pisang est donc
très clair»; c’est-à-dire que cette île demeurait sous la souveraineté du

Johor.
208. C’est dans ce contexte que Singapour décida de clarifier le statut
de Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh et demanda donc au gouvernement
du Johor «s’il exist[ait] des documents indiquant que le rocher a[vait] fait
l’objet d’un bail ou d’une concession, ou si le gouvernement de l’Etat du

Johore l’a[vait] cédé ou en a[vait] disposé de toute autre manière».
209. La Cour rappelle que, selon la Malaisie, la demande de renseigne-
ments de Singapour révèle que celle-ci n’était pas du tout convaincue que
Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh fît partie de son territoire. Pour la Cour,
la lettre tendant à obtenir des renseignements sur le statut de l’île montre

que les autorités singapouriennes n’étaient pas au clair sur des événe-
ments ayant eu lieu plus d’un siècle auparavant et n’étaient pas certaines
de disposer de toutes les informations s’y rapportant, faisant ainsi preuve
d’une prudence compréhensible compte tenu des circonstances.
210. Dans la réponse provisoire, le conseiller britannique prévoyait
que le secrétaire d’Etat du Johor, le plus haut dirigeant du gouvernement

de cet Etat, consulterait le commissaire à l’aménagement du territoire et
aux mines ainsi que le géomètre en chef, et rechercherait dans toutes les
archives existantes des renseignements sur cette question. La Malaisie
affirme qu’il fallait consulter ces deux fonctionnaires sur des questions
relatives aux cessions à bail ou en propriété au regard du droit local, mais

la Cour n’y accorde guère d’importance compte tenu de la mention, par
Singapour, du contrat concernant Pulau Pisang et de sa demande visant
à obtenir tout document montrant que le rocher avait fait l’objet d’un

68sion or other disposal of Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh. It will be
noted that the Singapore letter gives no indication at all that the initial

letters from Governor Butterworth to the Sultan and Temenggong had
been located.

211. The Court now turns to the reply from the Acting State Secretary
of Johor. It first considers the Malaysian contention that the Acting State
Secretary “was definitely not authorized” and did not have

“the legal capacity to write the 1953 letter, or to renounce, disclaim,
or confirm title of any part of the territories of Johore”.

Malaysia invokes provisions of two Agreements of 21 January 1948
which were in force in 1953: the Johor Agreement between the British
Crown and the Sultan of Johor (one of nine almost identical treaties with
each of the Malay States) and the Federation of Malaya Agreement
between the British Crown and nine Malay States (including Johor).

Under the 1948 treaties, says Malaysia, “Johor, a sovereign State, trans-
ferred to Great Britain all its rights, powers and jurisdiction on matters
relating to defence and external affairs”. Those powers and authorities
rested only with the (federal) High Commissioner, appointed by the
United Kingdom, and not with the State Secretary. Under Clause 3 of

the Johor Agreement the British Crown had complete control of the
defence and of all the external affairs of the State of Johor and the Sultan
undertook that:

“without the knowledge and consent of His Majesty’s Government,
he will not make any treaty, enter into any engagement, deal in or
correspond on political matters with, or send envoys to, any foreign

State”.

Clause 15, entitled “Sovereignty of the Ruler”, provided that:
“The prerogatives, power and jurisdiction of His Highness within

the State of Johore shall be those which His Highness the Sultan of
Johore possessed on the first day of December, 1941, subject never-
theless to the provisions of the Federation Agreement and this
Agreement.”

212. Malaysia indicates that Clause 4 of the Federation of Malaya
Agreement, like Clause 3 of the Johor Agreement, provided that the Brit-

ish Crown had “complete control of the defence and of all the external
affairs of the Federation”. Clause 16 of the Federation of Malaya Agree-

69bail ou d’une concession; en outre, les archives qui seraient également
consultées pourraient bien éclaircir non seulement ces questions mais

également celle de savoir si Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh avait été
cédée ou s’il en avait été disposé de toute autre manière. On notera que la
lettre de Singapour ne donnait absolument aucune indication selon
laquelle les lettres initiales adressées par le gouverneur Butterworth au
sultan et au temenggong avaient été localisées.

211. La Cour en vient maintenant à l’examen de la réponse du secré-
taire d’Etat par intérim du Johor. Elle considère tout d’abord l’affirma-
tion de la Malaisie selon laquelle le secrétaire d’Etat par intérim

«n’était absolument pas autorisé à écrire la lettre de 1953, et ... n’avait
pas juridiquement qualité pour ce faire; il n’était absolument pas
autorisé à renoncer à un titre, à déclarer ne pas revendiquer un titre

ou à confirmer un titre sur une partie quelconque du territoire du
Johore».

La Malaisie invoque les dispositions de deux accords du 21 janvier 1948
qui étaient en vigueur en 1953, à savoir celui qui avait été conclu relati-
vement au Johor entre la Couronne britannique et le sultan de Johor
(l’un des neuf accords pratiquement identiques conclus avec chacun des
Etats malais) et l’accord relatif à la Fédération de Malaya, conclu entre la

Couronne britannique et neuf Etats malais (dont le Johor). En vertu des
traités de 1948, indique la Malaisie, «le Johor, Etat souverain, transférait
à la Grande-Bretagne tous ses droits, pouvoirs et compétences dans les
matières touchant à la défense et aux affaires extérieures». Ces pouvoirs
et compétences n’appartenaient qu’au seul haut commissaire (fédéral),

nommé par le Royaume-Uni, et non au secrétaire d’Etat. En vertu de
l’article 3 de l’accord relatif au Johor, la Couronne britannique assumait
pleinement le contrôle de la défense et des affaires extérieures de l’Etat du
Johor et le sultan s’engageait

«à ne conclure aucun traité et aucun contrat, à ne pas traiter de
questions politiques, ni entretenir de correspondance sur des ques-
tions politiques avec aucun Etat étranger, et à ne pas envoyer

d’émissaires à aucun Etat étranger, à l’insu et sans le consentement
du gouvernement de Sa Majesté».

L’article 15, intitulé «souveraineté du dirigeant», disposait:
«Les prérogatives, pouvoirs et compétences de Son Altesse dans

l’Etat du Johore seront ceux que Son Altesse le sultan de Johore pos-
sédait au premier décembre 1941, sous réserve néanmoins des dispo-
sitions de l’accord relatif à la Fédération et du présent accord.»

212. La Malaisie indique que l’article 4 de l’accord relatif à la Fédé-
ration de Malaya, comme l’article 3 de l’accord relatif au Johor, dispo-

sait que la Couronne britannique «assum[ait] pleinement le contrôle de
la défense et des affaires extérieures de la Fédération». L’article 16 de

69ment provided that the executive authority of the Federation extended
among their matters to “external affairs” including:

“(a) the implementing of treaties, conventions and agreements with

other countries or international organizations;
(b) obligations of the Federation in relation to the British Empire
and any part thereof”.

Malaysia adds that the legislative power of the (Federal) Legislative
Council also included those matters. Under Clause 48 it had power “to
make laws for the peace, order and good government of the Federation

with respect to the matters set out in the Second Schedule to this Agree-
ment and subject to any qualifications therein”.

213. Malaysia emphasizes the final phrase of this provision and the
fact that the schedule in its second column does not provide for the con-

ferral on the States or Settlements of authority in respect of external
affairs. For Malaysia, these provisions meant that Johor “had no power,
no competence to deal with matters pertaining to external affairs or to
promulgate such laws”.
214. For Singapore the issue is not whether the Acting State Secretary

had the power to renounce, disclaim, or confirm title of any part of the
territories of Johor. Rather its contention is “simply that, by declaring
that Johor did not claim Pedra Branca, the . . . letter had the effect of
confirming Singapore’s title to Pedra Branca and of confirming that
Johor had no title, historic or otherwise, to the island”. It recalls that, as

it said in its Memorial the “disclaimer” to which it refers can only be
regarded as unequivocal recognition by Johor of Singapore’s title. The
solemn declaration by Johor was clear evidence supporting Singapore’s
sovereignty.

215. Nothing, says Singapore, turns on the Johor Agreement
since the United Kingdom was not a “foreign State” in terms
of its Clause 3 (2) and it would be absurd to require Johor to seek

Britain’s permission to correspond with Britain itself. Nor did
the external affairs provision of Clause 4 of, and the second schedule
to, the Federation of Malaya Agreement assist: there was no
authoritative interpretation of the expression “external affairs”
and in practice during the period of the Agreement Johor officials

continued to correspond routinely with their counterparts in Sing-
apore on matters under their charge. “By the same token, the 1953
letter did not encroach on the external affairs power of the Fed-
eration”. Nor could it be seen as an exercise of “executive authority”

over “External Affairs”. None of the five high officials involved saw
any problem with the Acting State Secretary handling the matter;

70l’accord relatif à la Fédération de Malaya prévoyait que le pouvoir exé-
cutif de la Fédération s’étendait notamment à des domaines tels que «les

affaires extérieures», y compris:
«a) la mise en Œuvre des traités, conventions et accords conclus

avec d’autres pays ou des organisations internationales;
b) les obligations de la Fédération à l’égard de l’Empire britan-
nique et de toute partie de celui-ci».

La Malaisie ajoute que les pouvoirs du conseil législatif (fédéral) s’éten-
daient également à ces questions. En vertu de l’article 48, celui-ci avait le
pouvoir de «légiférer en vue de la paix, du maintien de l’ordre et de la

bonne administration de la Fédération, sur toutes les matières énumérées
dans la deuxième annexe au présent accord et sous réserve de toute limi-
tation qui y figure».
213. La Malaisie insiste sur la dernière phrase de cette disposition et
sur le fait que l’annexe, dans sa deuxième colonne, ne prévoit pas de

conférer aux Etats ou aux Etablissements de pouvoirs dans le domaine
des affaires extérieures. Selon la Malaisie, ces dispositions signifiaient que
le Johor était «dépourvu de pouvoirs ou de compétences pour traiter
d’affaires extérieures ou légiférer en la matière».
214. Pour Singapour, la question n’est pas de savoir si le secrétaire

d’Etat par intérim avait le pouvoir de renoncer à un titre, de déclarer
ne pas revendiquer un titre ou de confirmer un titre sur une partie quel-
conque du territoire du Johor. Elle se contente d’affirmer que, «en indi-
quant que le Johor ne revendiquait pas Pedra Branca, [la] lettre a eu
pour effet de confirmer le titre singapourien sur Pedra Branca et

l’absence de titre, historique ou autre, du Johor sur l’île». Singapour
rappelle que, comme elle l’a dit dans son mémoire, la seule manière de
considérer «la déclaration de non-revendication» à laquelle elle se
réfère est de l’interpréter comme une reconnaissance sans ambiguïté du
titre de Singapour par le Johor. La déclaration solennelle du Johor

était un élément de preuve manifeste à l’appui de la souveraineté de
Singapour.
215. Rien, selon Singapour, ne permet d’appliquer l’accord relatif au
Johor, car le Royaume-Uni n’était pas un «Etat étranger» aux termes du
paragraphe 2 de l’article 3 et il aurait été absurde d’imposer au Johor de

demander à la Grande-Bretagne l’autorisation de correspondre avec elle-
même. Il serait aussi inutile d’invoquer la disposition relative aux affaires
extérieures de l’article 4 et de la seconde annexe de l’accord relatif à la
Fédération de Malaya: il n’y avait pas d’interprétation autorisée de
l’expression «affaires extérieures» et, en pratique, pendant la période au

cours de laquelle l’accord fut en vigueur, les responsables du Johor conti-
nuaient d’entretenir une correspondance régulière avec leurs homologues de
Singapour sur des questions de leur ressort. «De même, la lettre de 1953
n’empiétait pas sur l’autorité exercée par la Fédération sur les affaires

extérieures.» Elle ne saurait pas non plus être interprétée comme relevant
de l’exercice d’une «autorité exécutive» sur les «affaires extérieures».

70the maxim omnia praesumuntur rite esse acta applies to the 1953
letter.

216. Singapore also calls attention to the decision in 1952 of the Judi-
cial Committee of the British Privy Council given on appeal from the
Court of Appeal of Singapore based on a letter from the responsible Brit-
ish Minister, in which the Minister “categorically asserted” that the Rul-

ers of the Malay States, including the Sultan of Johor, were independent
sovereigns (Sultan of Johor v. Tunku Abubakar [1952] AC 318) and to
Clause 155 of the Federation of Malaya Agreement which, like Clause 15
of the Johor Agreement (see paragraph 211 above), contains a provision

about the “Sovereignty and jurisdiction of their Highnesses the Rulers”:
“Save as expressed herein, this Agreement shall not affect the sovereignty
and jurisdiction of Their Highnesses the Rulers in their several States.”

217. Malaysia’s argument did not make it clear, according to Singa-
pore, whether Malaysia was relying on the Federation of Malaya Agree-
ment as a constitution or treaty. In either event, says Singapore, the effect
of the 1953 letter in international law remains unchanged.

218. The Court considers that the Johor Agreement is not relevant
since the correspondence was initiated by a representative of Her Britan-
nic Majesty’s Government which at that time was not to be seen as a for-
eign State and no question of its having to consent could arise; further, it
was the British Adviser to the Sultan of Johor who passed the initial let-

ter on to the Secretary of State of the Sultanate.

219. The Court is also of the view that the Federation of Malaya
Agreement does not assist the Malaysian argument because the action of
responding to a request for information is not an “exercise” of “executive

authority”. Moreover, the failure of Malaysia to invoke this argument,
both throughout the whole period of bilateral negotiations with Singa-
pore and in the present proceedings until late in the oral phase, lends sup-
port to the presumption of regularity invoked by Singapore.
220. As a consequence, the Court cannot uphold the Malaysian argu-

ment that the Acting State Secretary did not have the authority and
capacity to write the 1953 letter. The Court now turns its attention to the
contents of that letter.
221. The reply of Johor does not provide any document “relevant to
the determination of the boundaries of the Colony’s territorial waters” —

the very reason, the Court recalls, for Singapore’s request. In particular,
Johor does not provide any documents relating to Pedra Branca/Pulau
Batu Puteh or the lighthouse, specifically of lease, grant, cession or dis-
posal. It does not challenge in any way whatever action the Colony might

have been contemplating to propose in relation to the determination of
its territorial waters around Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh. Rather it

71Aucun des cinq hauts responsables intéressés ne vit d’inconvénient à la
prise en charge de cette affaire par le secrétaire d’Etat par intérim;

l’adage omnia praesumuntur rite esse acta s’applique à la lettre de 1953.
216. Singapour signale également la décision rendue en 1952 par le
comité judiciaire du Privy Council britannique statuant en appel d’une
décision de la cour d’appel de Singapour fondée sur une lettre du ministre
britannique compétent, dans laquelle celui-ci avait «catégoriquement

affirmé» que les dirigeants des Etats malais, dont le sultan du Johor,
étaient des souverains indépendants (Sultan du Johor c. Tunku Abubakar
[1952] AC 318), et sur l’article 155 de l’accord relatif à la Fédération de
Malaya, qui contient, comme l’article 15 de l’accord relatif au Johor
(paragraphe 211 ci-dessus), une disposition relative à la «souveraineté et

[la] juridiction de Leurs Altesses les dirigeants»: «A l’exception des cas
prévus dans le présent accord, celui-ci ne portera pas atteinte à la souve-
raineté ni à la compétence de Leurs Altesses les dirigeants dans leurs dif-
férents Etats.»
217. Singapour affirme que la Malaisie n’a pas précisé dans son argu-
mentation si, lorsqu’elle se référait à l’accord relatif à la Fédération de

Malaya, elle le considérait comme une constitution ou comme un traité.
Dans un cas comme dans l’autre, l’effet de la lettre de 1953 en droit inter-
national n’est selon elle pas modifié.
218. La Cour estime que l’accord relatif au Johor n’est pas pertinent
car l’échange de correspondance fut engagé par un représentant du gou-

vernement de Sa Majesté britannique; or, le Royaume-Uni n’était pas à
confondre à l’époque avec un Etat étranger, et la question d’un consen-
tement de sa part ne pouvait donc se poser. En outre, c’est le conseiller
britannique auprès du sultan de Johor qui transmit la lettre initiale au
secrétaire d’Etat du Sultanat.

219. La Cour estime aussi que la Malaisie ne peut tirer argument de
l’accord relatif à la Fédération de Malaya, car répondre à une demande
de renseignements ne constitue pas un «exercice» de «l’autorité exécu-
tive». En outre, le fait que la Malaisie n’ait invoqué cet argument ni pen-
dant la période des négociations bilatérales avec Singapour ni avant un

stade avancé de la procédure orale en l’instance vient renforcer la pré-
somption de régularité invoquée par Singapour.
220. En conséquence, la Cour ne peut retenir l’argument de la Malai-
sie selon lequel le secrétaire d’Etat par intérim n’avait ni l’autorité ni la
capacité nécessaires pour rédiger la lettre de 1953. La Cour examinera
maintenant le contenu de cette lettre.

221. La réponse du Johor ne fournit aucun document «d’importance
pour la détermination des limites des eaux territoriales de la colonie»
— la seule raison, rappelle la Cour, de la demande formulée par Singa-
pour. En particulier, le Johor ne fournit aucun document concernant
Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh ou le phare, notamment aucun bail, ni

aucune concession, cession ou disposition. Il ne conteste en aucune
manière les mesures que la colonie pouvait envisager de proposer relati-
vement à la détermination de ses eaux territoriales autour de Pedra

71refers to the rock (7.7 miles from its coast) as some 40 miles from Singa-
pore (words used in Singapore’s letter). It then, crucially, “inform[s]” the

Colonial Secretary “that the Johore Government does not claim owner-
ship of Pedra Branca”.

222. It is true of course that in law “ownership” is distinct from “sov-
ereignty”, but the enquiry here was directed at Singapore’s sovereignty

over Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh. Johor does not put that matter in
doubt in any way at all. In international litigation “ownership” over ter-
ritory has sometimes been used as equivalent to “sovereignty” (see, e.g.
Territorial Sovereignty and Scope of the Dispute, Eritrea/Yemen (1998)

22 RIAA, pp. 209, 219, para. 19 and pp. 317-318, para. 474).

223. In the Court’s view, the Johor reply is clear in its meaning: Johor
does not claim ownership over Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh. That

response relates to the island as a whole and not simply to the lighthouse.
When the Johor letter is read in the context of the request by Singapore for
elements of information bearing on the status of Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu
Puteh, as discussed above (see paragraphs 204-209), it becomes evident
that the letter addresses the issue of sovereignty over the island. The Court

accordingly concludes that Johor’s reply shows that as of 1953 Johor un-
derstood that it did not have sovereignty over Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu
Puteh. In light of Johor’s reply, the authorities in Singapore had no reason
to doubt that the United Kingdom had sovereignty over the island.
224. As already indicated, the Court has given its primary attention in

considering the 1953 correspondence to those matters of which both
Parties had notice at the time — the Singapore request, the interim reply
and the final Johor response. The steps taken by the Singapore authori-
ties in reaction to the final response were not known to the Johor
authorities and have limited significance for the Court’s assessment of

any evolving understanding shared by the Parties. The case file shows
that, on receipt of the Johor reply, the Colonial Secretary of Singapore,
on 1 October 1953, sent an internal memorandum to the Attorney-Gen-
eral saying that he thought that “[o]n the strength of [the reply], we can
claim Pedra Branca . . .”. The Attorney-General stated that he agreed

and the Master Attendant, Marine, who had raised the issue on 6 Feb-
ruary 1953, following earlier internal memoranda of 1952, was informed.
The Singapore authorities, so far as the case file shows, took no further
action. They had already received related communications from London,
to which the Court now turns.

225. Internal Singapore correspondence of July 1953 indicates that the
Foreign Office and Colonial Office in London were involved in a wider

examination of issues relating to territorial waters, with the then recent
Judgment of this Court in theFisheries case (United Kingdom v. Norway)

72Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh. Il mentionne en revanche le rocher (situé à
7,7 milles de sa côte) comme se trouvant à quelque 40 milles de Singa-

pour (termes employés dans la lettre de Singapour). Il «informe» ensuite
d’une manière décisive le secrétaire colonial «que le gouvernement du
Johore ne revendique pas la propriété de Pedra Branca».
222. Il est bien évidemment exact que «la propriété» se distingue en
droit de «la souveraineté», mais la demande de renseignements visait

en l’occurrence la souveraineté de Singapour sur Pedra Branca/Pulau
Batu Puteh. Le Johor ne met absolument pas en doute cette question. En
matière de litiges internationaux, la «propriété» d’un territoire a parfois
été employée comme synonyme de «souveraineté» (voir, par exemple,

Erythrée/Yémen, souveraineté territoriale et champ du différend , Perma-
nent Court of Arbitration Award Series , T.M.C. Asser Press, 2005,
p. 288, par. 19, et p. 423, par. 474).
223. Selon la Cour, la réponse du Johor revêt une signification claire:
le Johor ne revendique pas la propriété de Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu

Puteh. Cette réponse concerne l’île dans son intégralité, et pas seulement
le phare. Lue dans le contexte de la demande de renseignements de Sin-
gapour concernant le statut de Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh telle
qu’examinée ci-dessus (voir paragraphes 204-209), cette lettre vise claire-
ment la question de la souveraineté sur l’île. La Cour en conclut que la

réponse du Johor montre que, en 1953, celui-ci considérait que la souve-
raineté sur Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh ne lui appartenait pas. Au vu
de cette réponse, les autorités à Singapour n’avaient aucune raison de
douter que le Royaume-Uni détenait la souveraineté sur l’île.
224. Comme elle l’a déjà indiqué, la Cour s’est attachée à examiner la

correspondance de 1953 en tenant surtout compte des éléments dont les
deux Parties avaient connaissance à l’époque — la demande de Singa-
pour, la réponse provisoire et la réponse définitive du Johor. Les mesures
prises par les autorités singapouriennes comme suite à la réponse défini-
tive n’étaient pas connues des autorités du Johor et ont une importance

limitée pour que la Cour apprécie une éventuelle évolution des vues par-
tagées par les Parties. Le dossier de l’affaire montre que, dès réception de
la réponse du Johor, le secrétaire colonial de Singapour adressa à l’Attor-
ney-General,le1 er octobre 1953, un mémorandum interne dans lequel il
déclarait que, «sur le fondement [de cette réponse], [il] [était] possible de

revendiquer Pedra Branca». L’Attorney-General indiqua dans une note
qu’il était du même avis et le Master Attendant de la marine, qui avait
soulevé la question le 6 février 1953 à la suite d’un mémorandum interne
antérieur de 1952, en fut informé. Les autorités singapouriennes ne pri-
rent, d’après les éléments versés au dossier, aucune autre mesure. Elles

avaient déjà reçu de Londres sur cette question des communications que
la Cour va à présent examiner.
225. Comme l’indique une correspondance interne de Singapour datée
de juillet 1953, les services du Foreign Office et du Colonial Office à

Londres se livraient à un vaste examen des questions relatives aux eaux
territoriales. L’arrêt qu’avait peu avant rendu la Cour en l’affaire des

72(Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1951 , p. 116) constituting an important ele-
ment (that Judgment was rendered on 11 December 1951). The conclu-

sion reached in Singapore by the Colonial Secretary was that because of
geographical circumstances, the colony would gain very little from the
new methods of defining territorial waters. On the other hand, “an appli-
cation of the new principles by neighbouring countries” could “only
result in an undesirable restriction to fishing grounds normally used by

Singapore fishermen”. “For general reasons also any enclosure of the
high seas by foreign States is contrary to the interest of this densely popu-
lated maritime Colony dependent on sea-borne trade.” The internal letter
of July 1953 concluded by mentioning an understanding reached on the

former methods of defining territorial waters with Indonesia in July 1951,
and a concern not to disturb the relationship which then existed between
the Colony and Indonesia. In all the circumstances, the fact that the
authorities in Singapore — or in London for that is where the final deci-
sion-making power lay — took no action at that time is not at all

surprising.

226. To conclude its consideration of the 1953 correspondence, the
Court refers to three related aspects of the way in which counsel for Sing-
apore presented its submissions based on it. First, Singapore referred to

the Johor reply as a “formal” or “express disclaimer of title”; second, it
invoked estoppel; and, third, it contended that the reply was a binding
unilateral undertaking.

227. Regarding the first submission, the Court does not consider the
Johor reply as having a constitutive character in the sense that it had a
conclusive legal effect on Johor. Rather it is a response to an enquiry
seeking information. It will be seen that, in the circumstances, this sub-
mission is closely related to the third.

228. Regarding the second submission, the Court points out that a
party relying on an estoppel must show, among other things, that it has
taken distinct acts in reliance on the other party’s statement (North Sea
Continental Shelf, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1969 , p. 26, para. 30). The

Court observes that Singapore did not point to any such acts. To the con-
trary, it acknowledges in its Reply that, after receiving the letter, it had
no reason to change its behaviour; the actions after 1953 to which it
refers were a continuation and development of the actions it had taken
over the previous century. While some of the conduct in the 1970s, which

the Court next reviews, has a different character, Singapore does not con-
tend that those actions were taken in reliance on the Johor response given
in its letter of 1953. The Court accordingly need not consider whether
other requirements of estoppel are met.

73Pêcheries (Royaume-Uni c. Norvège) (arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1951 , p. 116)
constituait un élément important de cet examen (cet arrêt avait été rendu

le 11 décembre 1951). Le secrétaire colonial de Singapour était parvenu à
la conclusion que, en raison des circonstances géographiques, la colonie
avait très peu à gagner des nouvelles méthodes de définition des eaux ter-
ritoriales. En revanche, «l’application des nouveaux principes par les
Etats voisins ... ne pou[v]ait qu’entraîner une restriction peu souhaitable

des zones de pêche généralement utilisées par les pêcheurs de Singapour».
«Par ailleurs, pour des raisons d’ordre général, la fermeture d’espaces de
haute mer par des Etats étrangers [était] contraire à l’intérêt de cette colo-
nie maritime densément peuplée, tributaire du commerce maritime.» La
lettre interne de juillet 1953 mentionnait en conclusion qu’une entente

pour s’en tenir aux méthodes antérieures de définition des eaux territo-
riales avait été trouvée avec l’Indonésie en juillet 1951 et faisait état du
souci de ne pas perturber les relations qu’entretenaient alors la colonie et
l’Indonésie. Dans ces conditions, l’absence de réaction de la part des
autorités à Singapour — ou à Londres, car c’est là qu’étaient prises les
décisions en dernier ressort — est loin d’être surprenante.

226. Pour conclure son examen de la correspondance de 1953, la Cour
relèvera trois aspects connexes de l’argumentation développée par les
conseils de Singapour à partir de celle-ci. Premièrement, Singapour a pré-
senté la réponse du Johor comme une «déclaration de non-revendication
expresse» ou «officielle» du titre sur Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh;

deuxièmement, elle a invoqué la notion d’estoppel; troisièmement, elle a
fait valoir que la réponse du Johor équivalait à un engagement unilatéral
obligatoire.
227. Pour ce qui est du premier argument, la Cour ne considère pas la
réponse du Johor comme revêtant un caractère constitutif au sens où elle

aurait eu pour celui-ci un effet juridique décisif. Il s’agit plutôt d’une
réponse à une demande de renseignements. Ainsi qu’il apparaîtra plus
loin, cet argument est, compte tenu des circonstances, étroitement lié au
troisième.
228. Pour ce qui est du deuxième argument, la Cour fait observer

qu’une partie invoquant l’estoppel doit notamment démontrer qu’elle a
accompli des actes précis en se fondant sur la déclaration de l’autre partie
(Plateau continental de la mer du Nord, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1969,p.26,
par. 30). La Cour relève que Singapour n’a invoqué aucun acte de ce
type. Au contraire, Singapour reconnaît dans sa réplique que, après avoir
reçu la lettre en question, elle n’avait aucune raison de changer de com-

portement, et affirme que les activités postérieures à 1953 auxquelles elle
se réfère n’ont été que la continuation et le développement de celles
qu’elle avait entreprises tout au long du siècle précédent. Si certaines des
activités qui ont été menées dans les années 1970 — activités que la Cour
examinera plus loin — sont d’une autre nature, Singapour ne prétend

cependant pas qu’elles aient été accomplies comme suite à la réponse
donnée par le Johor dans sa lettre de 1953. La Cour n’a donc pas besoin
de rechercher si d’autres critères de l’estoppel sont remplis.

73 229. Finally, on the third submission about the Johor reply amounting
to a binding unilateral undertaking, the Court recalls that when it is

claimed that “States make statements by which their freedom of action is
to be limited, a restrictive interpretation is called for” (Nuclear Tests
(Australia v. France), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1974 , p. 267, para. 44;
Nuclear Tests (New Zealand v. France), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1974 ,
p. 473, para. 47). The Court also observes that the statement was not

made in response to a claim made by Singapore or in the context of a
dispute between them, as was the case in the authorities on which Singa-
pore relies. To return to the discussion of the first submission, Johor was
simply asked for information. Its denial of ownership was made in that

context. That denial cannot be interpreted as a binding undertaking.

230. The above findings on Singapore’s three additional arguments
relating to the 1953 correspondence do not affect the Court’s conclusion

stated in paragraph 223 that as of 1953 Johor understood that it did not
have sovereignty over Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh and that in light
of Johor’s reply, the authorities in Singapore had no reason to doubt that
the United Kingdom had sovereignty over the island.

5.4.6. The conduct of the Parties after 1953

(a) Investigation by Singapore of shipwrecks in the waters around

Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh

231. Singapore contends that it and its predecessors have exercised
sovereign authority over Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh by investigating
and reporting on maritime hazards and shipwrecks within the island’s
territorial waters. It says that the only Malaysian protest against this con-

duct was in 2003. It also refers to two notices to mariners issued in 1981
and 1983.
232. Malaysia responds that the United Nations Convention on the
Law of the Sea and the Convention on the Safety of Life at Sea impose
duties in respect of the investigation of hazards to the safety of naviga-

tion and the publication of information about such hazards. Inasmuch as
Singapore acted to investigate and publish, it was acting in accordance
with best practice and not à titre de souverain in respect of the island.
Further, a lighthouse operator has certain responsibilities in those mat-
ters. Next, the circumstances of the particular investigations meant that

the ability of Singapore to carry them out was not based on its sover-
eignty over the island. Finally, a number of the investigations occurred
after 1980, when the dispute crystallized, and given the insubstantial
nature of the earlier practice they cannot provide a foundation for Sing-

apore’s claim.
233. The first investigation to which Singapore refers was into a colli-

74 229. Enfin, s’agissant du troisième argument assimilant la réponse du
Johor à un engagement unilatéral obligatoire, la Cour rappelle que,

lorsqu’il est allégué que «des Etats font des déclarations qui limitent leur
liberté d’action future, une interprétation restrictive s’impose» (Essais
nucléaires (Australie c. France), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1974, p. 267, par. 44;
Essais nucléaires (Nouvelle-Zélande c. France), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil
1974, p. 473, par. 47). La Cour relève également que la déclaration du

Johor ne répondait pas à une revendication de Singapour ni ne s’inscri-
vait dans le cadre d’un différend entre les Parties, contrairement à ce qui
est le cas dans la jurisprudence invoquée par Singapour. Pour en revenir
à l’examen du premier argument, le Johor avait simplement reçu une

demande de renseignements. C’est dans ce contexte qu’il déclara ne pas
revendiquer la propriété de l’île. Cette déclaration ne saurait être inter-
prétée comme un engagement obligatoire.
230. Ces considérations relatives aux trois arguments additionnels
consacrés par Singapour à la correspondance de 1953 ne modifient pas la

conclusion à laquelle la Cour est parvenue au paragraphe 223, à savoir
que, en 1953, il était clair pour le Johor que la souveraineté sur Pedra
Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh ne lui appartenait pas et que, à la lumière de sa
réponse, les autorités de Singapour n’avaient aucune raison de douter
que le Royaume-Uni détenait la souveraineté sur cette île.

5.4.6. Le comportement des Parties après 1953

a) Enquêtes menées par Singapour sur les naufrages survenus dans

les eaux entourant Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh

231. Singapour affirme avoir exercé, ainsi que ses prédécesseurs, l’auto-
rité souveraine sur Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh en enquêtant et en
informant sur les dangers pour la navigation et les accidents survenus
dans les eaux territoriales de l’île. Elle indique que la Malaisie n’a pro-

testé contre ce comportement qu’une seule fois, en 2003. Elle mentionne
également deux avis aux navigateurs publiés en 1981 et en 1983.
232. La Malaisie répond que la convention des Nations Unies sur le
droit de la mer et la convention pour la sauvegarde de la vie humaine
imposent des obligations en ce qui concerne les enquêtes sur les dangers

pour la sécurité de la navigation et la publication d’informations à ce
sujet. Attendu que Singapour a agi pour enquêter et publier, elle l’a fait
conformément à la meilleure pratique et non pas à titre de souverain
s’agissant de l’île. En outre, un exploitant de phare a certaines responsa-
bilités en ce qui concerne ces questions. Ensuite, les circonstances des

enquêtes présentées signifiaient que Singapour ne tenait pas la faculté de
les mener de la souveraineté qu’elle avait sur l’île. Enfin, plusieurs des
enquêtes ont été menées après 1980, date de la cristallisation du différend,
et, compte tenu de l’absence de fondement de la pratique antérieure, elles

ne peuvent servir à étayer la prétention de Singapour.
233. La première enquête que mentionne Singapour concernait une

74sion within 2 miles of the island in 1920 between British and Dutch ves-
sels. (This is one of the instances referred to in paragraph 164 above

where it is convenient to consider pre-1953 conduct at this stage.) The
report of the investigation does not identify the jurisdictional basis on
which it was undertaken. Of some significance for the Court is that the
enquiry was undertaken by Singapore and not Johor. The next investiga-
tion Singapore invokes was into the grounding of a British vessel on a

reef adjacent to the island in 1963, when, it will be recalled, Singapore
was part of the Federation of Malaysia. According to Singapore, the only
basis on which it could undertake the enquiry under its Merchant Ship-
ping Ordinance was that the shipping casualty had occurred “on or near

the coast of [Singapore]” which must be understood to be the island,
given the distance from the grounding to the main island of Singapore.
Malaysia responds in a general way, mentioning that the Ordinance pro-
vides other grounds of jurisdiction. While the points of Singapore law
may be subject to dispute, again the Court would note that it was the

authorities in Singapore, rather than those in Johor, that undertook the
investigation. The last marine casualty occurring before 1980 and inves-
tigated by Singapore was the running aground of a Panamanian vessel
off the island in 1979. The Court considers that this enquiry in particular
assists Singapore’s contention that it was acting à titre de souverain. This

conduct, supported to some extent by that of 1920 and 1963, provides a
proper basis for the Court also to have regard to the enquiries into the
grounding of five vessels (three of foreign registry) between 1985 and
1993, all within 1,000 m of the island.

234. The Court accordingly concludes that this conduct gives signifi-
cant support to the Singapore case. It also recalls that it was only in June
2003, after the Special Agreement submitting the dispute to the Court
had come into force, that Malaysia protested against this category of Sing-

apore conduct.

(b) Visits to Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh

235. Singapore invokes in support of its claim its exercise of exclusive

control over visits to Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh and the use of the
island. When appropriate, it has authorized access to the island by offi-
cials from Singapore as well as from other States including Malaysia.
Among those visiting from Singapore were ministers, including the Min-
ister of Communications and the Minister of Home Affairs, a member of

Parliament, and military and police officials, activities which took place
without any objection from Malaysia. Singapore gives particular empha-
sis to visits by Malaysian officials wishing to conduct scientific surveys.
At no point, says Singapore, did Malaysia protest against Singapore’s

requiring those officials to obtain permits from it. Malaysia responds that
this control is no more than the control regularly and properly exercised

75collision survenue, en 1920, à moins de 2 milles de l’île entre un navire
britannique et un navire néerlandais. (Il s’agit de l’un des cas où, comme

indiqué au paragraphe 164 ci-dessus, il est opportun de considérer à ce
stade le comportement antérieur à 1953.) Le rapport d’enquête ne précise
pas sur quelle base de compétence cette enquête fut conduite. Le fait
qu’elle fut menée par Singapour et non par le Johor revêt une importance
pour la Cour. L’enquête que Singapour invoque ensuite concernait

l’échouement d’un navire britannique sur un récif adjacent à l’île en 1963,
lorsque, rappelons-le, Singapour faisait partie de la Fédération de Malai-
sie. Selon Singapour, la seule base qui lui permettait de conduire l’enquête
en application de son ordonnance sur la marine marchande était que

l’accident s’était produit «sur la côte [de Singapour] ou à proximité», ce
qui, compte tenu de la distance séparant le lieu de l’échouement de l’île
principale de Singapour, doit être interprété comme renvoyant à l’île de
Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh. La Malaisie répond d’une manière géné-
rale en indiquant que l’ordonnance prévoit d’autres bases de compétence.

Les questions de droit singapourien peuvent certes prêter à discussion,
mais la Cour relève encore une fois que ce sont les autorités de Singapour
et non celles du Johor qui conduisirent l’enquête. Le dernier accident
antérieur à 1980 et sur lequel une enquête ait été menée par Singapour
concernait l’échouement d’un navire panaméen au large de l’île en 1979.

La Cour estime que cette enquête appuie particulièrement l’affirmation
de Singapour selon laquelle elle agissait à titre de souverain. Ce compor-
tement, confirmé dans une certaine mesure par celui de 1920 et de 1963,
justifie que la Cour se penche également sur les enquêtes relatives aux
échouements de cinq navires (dont trois immatriculés à l’étranger) entre

1985 et 1993, tous survenus à moins de 1000 mètres de l’île.
234. La Cour conclut en conséquence que ce comportement vient
étayer de manière appréciable la thèse de Singapour. Elle rappelle égale-
ment que ce n’est qu’en juin 2003, après que les Parties eurent soumis le
différend à la Cour par voie de compromis, que la Malaisie a protesté

contre cette expression du comportement de Singapour.

b) Visites sur Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh

235. Singapour invoque à l’appui de sa revendication l’exercice de son

contrôle exclusif des visites sur Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh et de
l’utilisation de cette île. Elle a, dans les cas appropriés, autorisé des visi-
teurs de Singapour ainsi que d’autres Etats, dont la Malaisie, à se rendre
sur l’île à titre officiel. Parmi ceux qui venaient de Singapour se trou-
vaient des ministres, dont le ministre chargé des communications et le mi-

nistre de l’intérieur, un parlementaire, des représentants de l’armée et de
la police, sans que la Malaisie n’ait opposé d’objection à ces activités.
Singapour insiste tout particulièrement sur les visites effectuées par des
ressortissants malaisiens qui souhaitaient mener des études scientifiques.

Singapour affirme que l’obligation qu’elle faisait à ceux-ci de lui deman-
der des autorisations n’a jamais suscité de protestation de la part de la

75by a lighthouse keeper over access to the lighthouse and its environs. The
Standing Orders and Instructions relating to access to which Singapore

refers are, Malaysia emphasizes, Orders and Instructions relating to every
lighthouse operated by Singapore, including, for instance, that on Pulau
Pisang.

236. The Court agrees with Malaysia that many of the visits by Singa-

porean personnel related to the maintenance and operation of the light-
house and are not significant in the present case. As indicated, however,
Singapore gives emphasis to visits by Malaysian officials, particularly in
1974 and 1978.

237. The 1974 case concerned a tidal survey by a team from Indonesia,
Japan, Malaysia and Singapore over a seven to eight week period. An
officer of the Port of Singapore Authority wrote to the Commanding
Officer of the Royal Malaysian Navy survey vessel, K.D. Perantau. “In

order to facilitate the necessary approval from the various government
ministries concerned . . .”, he asked for a list of the Malaysian members
who would be staying at the lighthouse, seeking their names, passport
numbers, nationality and the duration of their stay. They had in fact
already arrived and interim permission was granted in the letter. The

Malaysian Commanding Officer provided four names and their details.
They would be at the lighthouse for another three months and were man-
ning the Responder and Auditor and carrying out tide readings. Others
would come for brief periods to replenish the Tide Team with food and
water, to provide emergency repairs for the Responder and to carry out

triangulation. Since it was a joint survey, a participant from the Port of
Singapore Authority would be present at all times.

238. In 1978 the Malaysian High Commission in Singapore sought
clearance for a Government vessel “to enter Singapore territorial waters”
and inspect tide gauges over the course of three weeks. Among the points
identified was Horsburgh lighthouse station. The project was consonant
with the memorandum of understanding between Malaysia, Indonesia

and Singapore on joint studies in the Straits of Malacca and Singapore.
The Singapore Ministry of Foreign Affairs acceded to the request. Just a
few weeks earlier, the light keeper “politely informed” two people who
claimed to be from the Survey Department, West Malaysia and whose
purpose was to carry out triangulation observations that they could not

remain unless prior permission had been obtained from the Port of Sing-
apore Authority. They left. Malaysia made no protest. The action did
however cause concern in Kuala Lumpur. On 13 April 1978 the Coun-
sellor in the Singapore High Commission there reported to his Ministry

that a Principal Assistant Secretary at the Malaysian Ministry of Foreign
Affairs had informed him that the Malaysian Government was “some-

76Malaisie. La Malaisie répond que ces mesures de contrôle ne sont autres
que celles, concernant l’accès aux phares et à leurs environs, qui sont

habituellement et à juste titre appliquées par les gardiens de phare. Elle
fait valoir que les règlements et instructions relatifs à l’accès invoqués par
Singapour s’appliquent à l’ensemble des phares exploités par celle-ci, y
compris, par exemple, à celui de Pulau Pisang.
236. La Cour estime, comme la Malaisie, que nombre de visites effec-

tuées par du personnel singapourien concernaient l’entretien et l’exploita-
tion du phare et qu’elles ne sont pas pertinentes en la présente espèce.
Cependant, comme indiqué plus haut, Singapour accorde une impor-
tance particulière aux visites effectuées par certains ressortissants malai-
siens, notamment en 1974 et en 1978.

237. L’exemple de 1974 concerne une étude sur les marées menée par
une équipe dont les membres étaient indonésiens, japonais, malaisiens et
singapouriens, et qui devait se dérouler sur une période de sept à
huit semaines. Un agent de l’autorité portuaire de Singapour écrivit à ce
sujet au commandant du navire de la marine royale malaisienne utilisé
pour l’étude, le K.D. Perantau. Afin de «faciliter l’approbation requise

par les différents ministères compétents du gouvernement», il réclama
une liste des membres malaisiens qui séjourneraient au phare, demandant
leurs noms, leurs numéros de passeport, leur nationalité et la durée de
leur séjour. En réalité, les personnes en question étaient déjà arrivées et
cette lettre leur accordait une autorisation provisoire. Le commandant

malaisien communiqua quatre noms et les renseignements relatifs à ces
personnes. Celles-ci séjourneraient au phare pendant encore trois mois,
assurant la conduite du transpondeur et de l’auditor et effectuant des
relevés des marées. D’autres viendraient de temps à autre pour réappro-
visionner l’équipe en nourriture et en eau, faire des réparations urgentes

sur le transpondeur et effectuer une triangulation. Etant donné qu’il
s’agissait d’une étude conjointe, un membre de l’autorité portuaire de
Singapour serait présent en permanence.
238. En 1978, le haut commissariat malaisien à Singapour demanda
qu’un navire officiel fût autorisé à «pénétrer dans les eaux territoriales de

Singapour» afin d’y inspecter les marégraphes sur une période de trois
semaines. Parmi les coordonnées géographiques mentionnées se trou-
vaient celles de la station du phare Horsburgh. Ce projet était conforme
à l’accord conclu entre la Malaisie, l’Indonésie et Singapour sur des
études conjointes dans les détroits de Malacca et de Singapour. Le minis-
tère singapourien des affaires étrangères fit droit à cette demande. A peine

quelques semaines auparavant, le gardien du phare avait «informé poli-
ment» deux personnes qui affirmaient avoir été envoyées par le service
géographique de Malaisie occidentale et qui étaient chargées d’effectuer
des observations en vue d’une triangulation qu’elles ne pouvaient rester
dans le phare sans autorisation préalable de l’autorité portuaire de Sin-

gapour. Les deux personnes repartirent. La Malaisie n’émit pas de pro-
testation. Cette mesure fut néanmoins une source de préoccupation à
Kuala Lumpur. Le 13 avril 1978, le conseiller du haut commissariat de

76what upset” over certain actions of Singapore concerning Horsburgh
lighthouse island: “Firstly, Singapore had flown the Singapore flag over

the island. Secondly, when certain Malaysian marine boats tried to dock
on the island recently for some survey work, they were refused permis-
sion to land.” The Malaysian official told his counterpart that his Gov-
ernment would be writing officially claiming sovereignty over Pedra
Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh. As the Singapore Counsellor mentioned to his

Ministry, this communication followed Singapore’s agreement to the
conduct of the joint survey.

239. In the Court’s opinion, this Singaporean conduct is to be seen as
conduct à titre de souverain. The permission granted or not granted by
Singapore to Malaysian officials was not simply about the maintenance
and operation of the lighthouse and in particular its protection. Singa-

pore’s decisions in these cases related to the survey by Malaysian officials
of the waters surrounding the island. The conduct of Singapore in giving
permission for these visits does give significant support to Singapore’s
claim to sovereignty over Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh.

(c) Naval patrols and exercises around Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu
Puteh by Malaysia and Singapore

240. Both Parties contend that their naval patrols and exercises around
Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh since the formation of their respective
navies constitute displays of their sovereign rights over the island. Malay-
sia and Singapore both argue that these activities demonstrate each Par-
ty’s understanding that the island was under its respective sovereignty.

The Royal Malayan Navy, later to become the Royal Malaysian Navy,
came under the control of the Malayan Government in 1958 following
the independence of Malaya in the previous year. It continued to be
based at the Woodlands Naval Base in Singapore Harbour until 1997.
The Republic of Singapore Navy was formed in 1975 from units of the

Maritime Command of the Singapore Armed Forces. Ships from both
navies patrolled in the area of Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh.

241. The Court does not see this activity as significant on one side or

the other. It first observes that naval vessels operating from Singapore
harbour would as a matter of geographical necessity often have to pass
near Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh. Next, patrols would frequently
have been undertaken under (1) the 1957 Agreement between the United

Kingdom and Malaya, with which Australia and New Zealand were
associated, and under which Malaya had responsibilities in respect of the

77Singapour en Malaisie informa son ministère qu’un secrétaire adjoint
principal du ministère malaisien des affaires étrangères lui avait fait

savoir que le Gouvernement malaisien était «quelque peu contrarié» par
certaines mesures prises par Singapour au sujet de l’île qui abritait le
phare Horsburgh: «Tout d’abord, Singapour a planté son drapeau sur
l’île. Ensuite, lorsque certains navires malaisiens ont récemment tenté
d’accoster l’île pour y effectuer des relevés, ils n’en ont pas reçu l’autori-

sation.» Le représentant malaisien informa son homologue que son gou-
vernement formulerait une revendication officielle de souveraineté sur
Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh. Comme l’indiqua le conseiller de Sin-
gapour à son ministère, cette communication intervenait après que

Singapour eut accepté de mener l’étude conjointe.
239. De l’avis de la Cour, il convient de considérer ce comportement
de Singapour comme un comportement à titre de souverain. Les autori-
sations accordées ou non par Singapour à des ressortissants malaisiens ne
concernaient pas simplement l’entretien et l’exploitation du phare, et en

particulier sa protection. Les décisions prises par Singapour, dans les cas
susmentionnés, concernaient les études que souhaitaient mener des res-
sortissants malaisiens dans les eaux environnantes. Le comportement de
Singapour consistant à assujettir ces visites à son autorisation étaye de
façon appréciable sa revendication de souveraineté sur Pedra Branca/

Pulau Batu Puteh.

c) Patrouilles et exercices effectués autour de Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu
Puteh par les marines malaisienne et singapourienne

240. Les deux Parties affirment que les patrouilles et exercices qu’effec-
tuent, depuis leur création, leurs marines respectives autour de Pedra
Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh constituent des manifestations de l’exercice de
leurs droits souverains sur l’île. La Malaisie et Singapour soutiennent
l’une et l’autre que ces activités démontrent que chacune d’elles considé-

rait l’île comme étant sous sa souveraineté. La marine royale de la Fédé-
ration de Malaya, puis de Malaisie, passa sous le contrôle du Gouverne-
ment de la Fédération de Malaya en 1958, par suite de l’indépendance de
la Malaya proclamée l’année précédente. Elle continua à être stationnée à
la base navale de Woodlands, dans le port de Singapour, jusqu’en 1997.

La marine de la République de Singapour fut constituée en 1975 à partir
d’unités du commandement maritime des forces armées singapouriennes.
Des navires des deux marines effectuaient des patrouilles dans la zone de
Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh.
241. La Cour ne considère pas que cette activité pèse d’un côté ou de

l’autre. Elle relève tout d’abord que, pour des raisons d’ordre géogra-
phique, les navires de la marine patrouillant à partir du port de Singa-
pour passaient souvent à proximité de Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh.
Par ailleurs, des patrouilles auraient été fréquemment effectuées en appli-

cation de 1) l’accord conclu en 1957 entre le Royaume-Uni et la Malaya,
auquel étaient associées l’Australie et la Nouvelle-Zélande, et en vertu

77defence of Singapore, (2) the 1965 Agreement relating to the Separation
of Singapore from Malaysia under which Malaysia would afford reason-

able and adequate assistance to the external defence of Singapore which
in turn would afford to Malaysia its right to operate its bases in Singa-
pore, and (3) the five power arrangements between Malaysia, Singapore,
the United Kingdom, Australia and New Zealand. The integrated co-
operative nature of this naval and other military activity is illustrated by

the communiqué of the 1968 Conference of those five States which was
called following the United Kingdom’s decision to withdraw its troops
from Malaysia and Singapore by 31 December 1971. It included this
declaration:

“The representatives of Singapore and Malaysia declared that the

defence of the two countries was indivisible and required close and
continuing co-operation between them. This declaration was wel-
comed by the representatives of the other three Governments. All
representatives at the Conference regarded it as an indispensable
basis for future defence co-operation. The representative of Malay-

sia and Singapore said that their Governments were resolved to do
their utmost for their own defence and they would welcome the co-
operation and assistance of the other three Governments.”

The Court observes that patrols by the navies of both States and others
which are described by the Parties only in general terms, cannot in these
circumstances assist the one or the other in support of its position.

242. Malaysia also placed weight on an internal confidential document
entitled “Letter of Promulgation” issued on 16 July 1968 by the Chief of
the Malaysian navy, attached to which were charts indicating the outer
limits of Malaysian territorial waters. One of the charts attached to the

letter showed Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh and also Middle Rocks
and South Ledge as within Malaysia’s territorial waters. Singapore made
a related reference to the 1975 Operations Instructions of the Singapore
navy designating a patrol area in the vicinity of Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu
Puteh.

243. The Court observes that the Malaysian chart and the Singa-
porean Instructions were acts of one Party, which were unknown to the
other Party, the documents were classified and they were not made public
until these proceedings were brought. The Court considers that, like the
patrols themselves, neither can be given weight.

(d) The display of the British and Singapore ensigns on Pedra

Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh

244. For Singapore, the flying of the British and Singapore ensigns

78duquel la Malaisie avait des responsabilités à l’égard de la défense de Sin-
gapour, 2) l’accord de 1965 entre la Malaisie et Singapour portant sépa-

ration entre ces deux Etats, en vertu duquel la Malaisie fournirait une
assistance raisonnable et adéquate à la défense externe de Singapour, qui,
quant à elle, donnerait à la Malaisie le droit d’opérer sur ses bases à Sin-
gapour, et 3) les engagements pris entre les cinq puissances, à savoir la
Malaisie, Singapour, le Royaume-Uni, l’Australie et la Nouvelle-Zélande.

Le caractère coopératif et intégré de cette activité navale et d’autres acti-
vités militaires est illustré par le procès-verbal de la conférence de ces cinq
Etats, dont la tenue fut décidée après la décision britannique de retirer ses
troupes de la Malaisie et de Singapour au plus tard le 31 décembre 1971.

Ce procès-verbal contenait la déclaration suivante:
«Les représentants de Singapour et de la Malaisie déclarent que la

défense des deux pays est une question indivisible appelant une coo-
pération étroite et continue entre eux. Les représentants des trois
autres gouvernements se félicitent de cette déclaration. Il s’agit, pour
l’ensemble des représentants présents à la conférence, d’un élément
indispensable de la coopération future en matière de défense. Les

représentants de la Malaisie et de Singapour précisent que leurs gou-
vernements sont résolus à tout mettre en Œuvre pour assurer leur
propre défense et se disent favorables à la coopération et à l’aide des
trois autres gouvernements.»

La Cour relève que les patrouilles effectuées par les marines des deux
Etats et par d’autres, uniquement mentionnées en termes généraux par les
Parties, ne peuvent dans ces conditions être invoquées par l’une ou l’autre

à l’appui de sa prétention.
242. La Malaisie a également accordé de l’importance à un document
confidentiel à usage interne, intitulé «Lettre de promulgation», émis le
16 juillet 1968 par le chef de sa marine et auquel étaient jointes des cartes
marines indiquant les limites extérieures de ses eaux territoriales. L’une

de ces cartes situait Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh, ainsi que Middle
Rocks et South Ledge, à l’intérieur des eaux territoriales malaisiennes.
Dans le même ordre d’idées, Singapour a fait référence aux instructions
opérationnelles de la marine singapourienne de 1975 définissant une zone
de patrouille dans le voisinage de Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh.

243. La Cour relève que la carte marine malaisienne et les instructions
opérationnelles singapouriennes étaient des actes d’une Partie dont l’autre
n’avait pas connaissance et qu’il s’agissait de documents tenus secrets,
qui n’ont été rendus publics qu’une fois la Cour saisie de la présente
affaire. La Cour estime que, pas davantage qu’aux patrouilles elles-mêmes,

il n’y a lieu d’accorder du poids à ces deux éléments.

d) Le déploiement des pavillons britannique et singapourien sur Pedra

Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh

244. Pour Singapour, le déploiement des pavillons britannique et sin-

78from Horsburgh lighthouse from the time of its commissioning to the
present day is a clear display of sovereignty. This contention is sup-

ported, it says, by its positive response to a request in 1968 made by
Malaysia that it “bring down the Singapore flag from Malaysian soil at
Pulau Pisang”. By contrast, no such request was made in respect of the
flag on Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh.

245. Malaysia responds that the flying of an ensign, associated with
maritime matters, is to be distinguished from the flying of the national
flag. Ensigns are not marks of sovereignty but of nationality. Moreover,
there must also be a showing of sovereign intent and Singapore has not
demonstrated that here. The Pulau Pisang incident involved a matter of

domestic political sensibility and it was resolved between the two Parties.
It was not an acknowledgment of sovereignty in relation to an issue not
under dispute, far removed from the location. Malaysia also makes the
point that Pulau Pisang is much larger than Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu
Puteh and has a small local population.

246. The Court accepts the argument of Malaysia that the flying of an
ensign is not in the usual case a manifestation of sovereignty and that the
difference in size of the two islands must be taken into account. It con-
siders that some weight may nevertheless be given to the fact that Malay-

sia, having been alerted to the issue of the flying of ensigns by the Pulau
Pisang incident, did not make a parallel request in respect of the ensign
flying at Horsburgh lighthouse. As already mentioned the Malaysian
authorities did in 1978 express concern about the flag at Horsburgh light-
house (see paragraph 238 above).

(e) The installation by Singapore of military communications
equipment on the island in 1977

247. In July 1976 the Singapore Navy explained to the Port of Singa-
pore Authority its need, shared by the Singapore Air Force, for a military
rebroadcast station on Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh to overcome
communication difficulties. It wished to install two radio sets in the light-
house, with a power source, and requested the co-operation of the
Authority “in order that communications needs for both security and

defence could be met”. The Port Authority responded positively, making
it clear that it had no responsibility for operating or maintaining the relay
station: the station was exclusively for the use of the Navy which was
responsible for its establishment and maintenance. The relay station was
installed on 30 May 1977. Singapore says that the installation was carried

out openly, involving the transportation of equipment by military heli-
copters which have also been involved in the maintenance of the station.
This action, says Singapore, was obviously an exercise of their authority

79gapourien sur le phare Horsburgh, à partir du moment de son inaugura-
tion et jusqu’à l’époque actuelle, est une manifestation indéniable de sou-

veraineté. Cette affirmation est étayée, dit-elle, par sa réponse positive à
une demande faite en 1968 par la Malaisie de «retirer le drapeau singa-
pourien du territoire malaisien de Pulau Pisang». En revanche, aucune
demande de cette nature ne fut formulée à l’égard du pavillon flottant sur
Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh.

245. La Malaisie répond qu’il convient de faire la distinction entre le
déploiement d’un pavillon, hissé pour des raisons d’ordre maritime, et le
déploiement du drapeau national. Les pavillons ne sont pas des marques
de souveraineté mais de nationalité. En outre, il doit aussi y avoir une

manifestation de l’intention d’agir à titre de souverain dont Singapour
n’a pas fait preuve en l’occurrence. L’incident de Pulau Pisang était lié
à une question de sensibilité politique nationale et il fut réglé par les
deux Parties. Il ne s’agissait pas d’une reconnaissance de souveraineté
se rapportant à une question non controversée et sans rapport avec le

lieu. La Malaisie fait également observer que Pulau Pisang est beaucoup
plus grande de Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh et qu’elle a quelques
habitants.
246. La Cour souscrit à l’argument de la Malaisie selon lequel le
déploiement d’un pavillon n’est habituellement pas une manifestation de

souveraineté et que la différence de taille entre les deux îles doit être prise
en compte. Elle estime qu’un certain poids peut être néanmoins attribué
au fait que la Malaisie, dont l’attention avait été appelée sur la question
du déploiement des pavillons par suite de l’incident de Pulau Pisang, ne
formula pas de demande similaire au sujet du pavillon hissé sur le phare

Horsburgh. En revanche, comme il a déjà été indiqué plus haut, les auto-
rités malaisiennes exprimèrent en 1978 leur préoccupation à propos du
drapeau déployé au phare Horsburgh (voir paragraphe 238 ci-dessus).

e) L’installation de matériel de communication militaire par Singa-
pour sur l’île en 1977

247. En juillet 1976, la marine de Singapour exposa à l’autorité por-
tuaire de Singapour la nécessité, pour elle et pour l’armée de l’air singa-
pourienne, d’installer une station relais militaire sur Pedra Branca/Pulau

Batu Puteh pour faire face à des difficultés de communication. La marine
souhaitait installer deux postes de radio et un bloc d’alimentation dans le
phare et demandait la coopération de l’autorité portuaire «afin de satis-
faire aux exigences de la sécurité et de la défense en matière de commu-
nication». L’autorité portuaire de Singapour répondit par l’affirmative,

tout en précisant clairement qu’elle ne se chargerait pas du service et de
l’entretien de la station relais. Cette-ci était réservée exclusivement à
l’usage de la marine de la République de Singapour, qui était responsable
de son installation et de son entretien. La station relais fut installée le

30 mai 1977. Singapour affirme que cette installation, pour laquelle il fal-
lut transporter du matériel sur Pedra Branca à bord d’hélicoptères mili-

79disconnected from the operation of the lighthouse. Malaysia does not
dispute that characterization; on the contrary this conduct by Singapore,

in Malaysia’s opinion “has raised serious concerns about Singapore’s use
of Horsburgh lighthouse for non-light (and especially military) pur-
poses”. In its Agent’s words “[t]his conduct does not fall within the con-
sent given for the construction and operation of the lighthouse”. Malay-
sia also says that the installation was undertaken secretly and that it

became aware of it only on receipt of Singapore’s Memorial.

248. The Court is not able to assess the strength of the assertions made
on the two sides about Malaysia’s knowledge of the installation. What is
significant for the Court is that Singapore’s action is an act à titre de sou-
verain. The conduct is inconsistent with Singapore recognizing any limit

on its freedom of action.

(f) Proposed reclamation by Singapore to extend the island

249. In 1978 the Port of Singapore Authority, on the direction of the
Government of Singapore studied the possibilities, which had also been
considered in 1972, 1973 and 1974, of reclaiming areas around Pedra

Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh. The Authority’s survey contemplated a recla-
mation of 5,000 sq m of land — the island is about 8,560 sq m at low tide.
At that time the communications tower for the Vessel Traffic Informa-
tion System (VTIS) and the helipad which today occupy much of the
eastern half of the island had not been constructed. The Authority sought

tenders for “Reclamation and Shore Protection works at Horsburgh
lighthouse” in a newspaper advertisement. Although three companies
tendered for the project, the proposal was not taken further. According
to Singapore, this was classic conduct à titre de souverain. Malaysia
emphasizes the fact that the proposal was not taken further and the fact

that some of the documentation on which Singapore relies was secret and
could not have prompted any reaction from Malaysia. The Malaysian
Agent makes the point that Singapore “does not need a bigger island for
a better lighthouse. What does it need a bigger island for?” He then raises
questions about the effect on the environment and on navigation and

especially about security arrangements at the eastern entry to the Straits.

250. The Court observes that while the reclamation was not proceeded

with and some of the documents were not public, the tender advertise-
ment was public and attracted replies. Further, as the Malaysian Agent

80taires, fut menée au grand jour. Ces hélicoptères servaient aussi pour
l’entretien de la station relais. Pour Singapour, cette installation constitue

de toute évidence un exercice de son autorité non lié à l’entretien du
phare. La Malaisie ne conteste pas cette interprétation, mais elle estime
que le comportement de Singapour «suscit[e] de vives préoccupations à
propos de l’utilisation du phare Horsburgh par Singapour à des fins
autres que la signalisation lumineuse (et en particulier à des fins mili-

taires)». Selon l’agent de la Malaisie, «ce comportement ne relève pas du
consentement donné pour la construction et l’exploitation d’un phare».
La Malaisie affirme également que l’installation s’est déroulée dans le
secret et qu’elle n’en a eu connaissance que lorsqu’elle a reçu le mémoire

de Singapour.
248. La Cour n’est pas en mesure d’évaluer la valeur probante des
déclarations faites par les deux Parties sur la question de savoir si la
Malaisie avait connaissance ou non de l’installation de la station relais.
Ce que la Cour relève, c’est que l’acte accompli par Singapour est un acte

à titre de souverain. Ce comportement n’est pas compatible avec la
reconnaissance par Singapour d’une quelconque limite à sa liberté
d’action.

f) Projet singapourien de récupération de terres en vue d’agrandir
l’île

249. En 1978, l’autorité portuaire de Singapour, sur instructions du
Gouvernement singapourien, étudia la possibilité, comme cela avait déjà
été fait en 1972, 1973 et 1974, de récupérer des terres sur la mer autour de

Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh. L’étude effectuée par l’autorité envisa-
geait de récupérer 5000 mètres carrés de terres — l’île a une superficie
d’environ 8560 mètres carrés à marée basse. A l’époque, la tour de com-
munication reliée au système d’information sur le trafic maritime (VTIS)
et l’hélistation qui occupent aujourd’hui la plus grande partie de la moitié

orientale de l’île n’avaient pas été construites. Par la voie d’un avis publié
dans la presse, l’autorité sollicita des offres pour des «travaux de récupé-
ration de terre et de protection du rivage au phare Horsburgh». Bien que
trois sociétés aient soumissionné, il ne fut pas donné suite au projet.
Selon Singapour, il s’agit là d’un exemple classique de comportement à

titre de souverain. La Malaisie souligne qu’il ne fut pas donné suite au
projet et que, une partie des documents invoqués par Singapour étant
secrets, ils ne pouvaient susciter de réaction de sa part. L’agent de la
Malaisie fait valoir que Singapour «n’a pas besoin d’une île plus grande
pour y installer un meilleur phare. Pourquoi donc a-t-elle alors besoin

d’une île plus grande?». Il évoque ensuite les effets possibles sur l’envi-
ronnement et sur la navigation, et en particulier sur le dispositif de sécu-
rité à l’entrée orientale du détroit.
250. La Cour fait observer que, bien qu’il n’ait pas été donné suite au

projet et que certains documents n’aient pas été publics, l’appel d’offres le
fut et recueillit des soumissions. De surcroît, ainsi que le reconnaît l’agent

80recognizes, the proposed action, as advertised, did go beyond the main-
tenance and operation of the lighthouse. It is conduct which supports

Singapore’s case.

(g) A Malaysian Petroleum Agreement 1968

251. In 1968 the Government of Malaysia and the Continental Oil

Company of Malaysia concluded an agreement which authorized the
Company to explore for petroleum in the whole of the area of the con-
tinental shelf off the east coast of West Malaysia south of latitude
5°00′00″ North “extending to the International Boundaries wherever
they may be established”; the southern limits of the area were defined at

“1°13′” and “1°17′ (approx.)”, “but excluding the islands of the States
[of Johore, Pahang and Trengganu] and an area three miles from the base
lines from which the territorial waters of such islands are measured”.
According to counsel for Malaysia, the limits broadly followed the antici-
pated boundaries of the 1969 Indonesia-Malaysia Continental Shelf
Agreement.

252. Malaysia submits that the Agreement is evidence of its apprecia-
tion that the entire concession area fell within its continental shelf, that it
is actual conduct, conduct à titre de souverain, and that the agreement
was concluded openly and was widely published; Singapore nevertheless

made no protest. Singapore replies that it had no reason to protest. The
map did not show Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh, not a matter of sur-
prise since islands and their territorial waters were expressly excluded.
Moreover, the description of the area covered was without prejudice to
the question of boundaries where they had not been agreed. Further, the

co-ordinates were not published and no exploration ever occurred in the
area near Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh, an area which was part of a
larger portion of the concession relinquished by the oil company.

253. Given the territorial limits and qualifications in the concession
and the lack of publicity of the co-ordinates, the Court does not consider
that weight can be given to the concession.

(h) The delimitation of Malaysia’s territorial sea 1969

254. By legislation of 1969 Malaysia extended its territorial waters
from 3 to 12 nautical miles. The Ordinance declared that breadth was
to be measured in accordance with provisions of the 1958 Geneva
Convention on the Territorial Sea which were scheduled. Provisions
were made for the publication by the Government of a large scale

map indicating the low water marks, the base lines, the outer limits
and the areas of territorial water of Malaysia, and for the
modification of the areas of territorial waters in accordance with

81de la Malaisie, le projet, tel que présenté, allait au-delà d’activités rele-
vant simplement de l’entretien et de l’exploitation du phare. Il s’agit là

d’un comportement qui étaye la thèse de Singapour.

g) Accord pétrolier conclu par la Malaisie en 1968

251. En 1968, le Gouvernement malaisien et la Continental Oil Com-

pany of Malaysia conclurent un accord qui autorisait cette société à
mener des activités d’exploration pétrolière dans toute la zone du plateau
continental, au large de la côte est de la Malaisie occidentale et au sud du
parallèle 5°00′00″ de latitude nord, cette zone «s’étendant jusqu’aux

frontières internationales partout où elles pourraient être établies»; les
limites de la zone au sud étaient fixées à «1°13′»et«1°17 ′ (environ)»,
«mais à l’exclusion des îles des Etats [de Johor, Pahang et Trengganu] et
d’une zone à 3 milles des lignes de base à partir desquelles les eaux ter-
ritoriales de celles-ci sont mesurées». Selon le conseil de la Malaisie, les

limites de la concession suivaient d’une manière générale les frontières
qui apparaissaient à l’époque comme devant être celles du futur accord
de 1969 entre l’Indonésie et la Malaisie relatif au plateau continental.
252. La Malaisie fait valoir que l’accord atteste qu’elle considérait que
toute la zone de concession était située sur son plateau continental, qu’il

s’agit d’un comportement effectif et d’un comportement à titre de souve-
rain, et que l’accord a été conclu ouvertement et a reçu une large publi-
cité; or Singapour n’a pas protesté. Singapour répond qu’elle n’avait
aucune raison de protester. Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh n’apparais-
sait pas sur la carte, ce qui n’est pas surprenant puisque les îles et leurs

eaux territoriales étaient expressément exclues de la concession. De plus,
la description de la zone considérée était sans préjudice de la question des
frontières lorsque celles-ci n’avaient pas fait l’objet d’un accord. En
outre, les coordonnées ne furent pas publiées et aucune activité d’explo-
ration ne fut menée dans la zone voisine de Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu

Puteh, une zone qui faisait partie d’un secteur plus large de la concession
abandonné par la compagnie pétrolière.
253. Etant donné les limites territoriales et conditions définies dans la
concession, et l’absence de publication des coordonnées, la Cour consi-
dère qu’elle ne peut accorder aucun poids à la concession.

h) La délimitation de la mer territoriale malaisienne en 1969

254. En 1969, par la voie d’une ordonnance, la Malaisie porta les
limites de ses eaux territoriales de 3 à 12 milles marins. Ce texte précisait

que la largeur de la mer territoriale devait être mesurée conformément
aux dispositions de la convention de Genève de 1958 sur la mer territo-
riale qui y étaient énumérées. L’ordonnance prévoyait de plus la publi-
cation par le gouvernement d’une carte à grande échelle indiquant la

laisse de basse mer, les lignes de base, les limites extérieures et l’étendue
des eaux territoriales de la Malaisie, ainsi que la modification de cette

81any agreement concluded between Malaysia and any other coastal
State.

255. Malaysia says that the legislation
“extended Malaysian territorial waters to and beyond Pulau Batu

Puteh. There was no sense at the time that Pulau Batu Puteh and its
surrounding waters were anything other than Malaysian territory.
The legislation drew no protest from Singapore.”

Singapore answers that it had absolutely no reason to protest since the
legislation did not identify in any way the territories, baselines, outer lim-
its and areas of territorial waters. As soon as a chart was published, in
1979, relating in fact to the continental shelf rather than the territorial

sea, Singapore did protest.
256. In the Court’s opinion the very generality of the 1969 legislation
means that Malaysia’s argument based on it must fail. It does not iden-
tify the areas to which it is to apply except in the most general sense: it
says only that it applies “throughout Malaysia”. In terms of the legisla-

tion, necessary precision would come only with the publication “as soon
hereafter as may be possible” of the large-scale map for which the legisla-
tion provided.

(i) Indonesia-Malaysia Continental Shelf Agreement 1969 and
Territorial Sea Agreement 1970

257. Malaysia calls attention to the fact that one of the agreed bound-
ary points in the 1969 Indonesia-Malaysia Continental Shelf Agreement
was only 6.4 nautical miles from Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh. In a
related press release the delegations of the two States recognized the need

for their governments to discuss related problems of territorial sea
boundaries, a matter the subject of a Territorial Sea Agreement con-
cluded the following year. Singapore, Malaysia continues, did not at any
point assert any interest in or raise any objection to this maritime delimi-
tation. Singapore again says it was not obliged to react: the Agreement

was res inter alios acta and, more significantly, the Agreement “carefully
avoided any intrusion into the area in the vicinity of [Pedra Branca/Pulau
Batu Puteh]”. It also emphasizes that the press release clearly excludes
the Strait of Singapore and for good reason: it was not possible for Indo-
nesia and Malaysia to delimit their respective maritime areas in the Strait

without the participation of Singapore “which has sovereignty over [Pedra
Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh] and the adjacent features”.

258. While Malaysia had, very recently, extended its territorial waters

to 12 nautical miles, Singapore had not yet taken that step. Given that
fact and the fact that the line stops 6.4 nautical miles to the east of Pedra
Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh and begins again beyond the western end of the

82étendue conformément à tout accord qui pourrait être conclu entre la
Malaisie et un autre Etat côtier.

255. La Malaisie déclare que, par l’effet de cette ordonnance,
«les eaux territoriales de la Malaisie s’étendaient jusqu’à Pedra

Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh et au-delà. Le sentiment que Pedra Branca/
Pulau Batu Puteh et ses eaux environnantes pussent être autre chose
que territoire malaisien n’existait pas à l’époque. Le texte ne suscita
aucune protestation de la part de Singapour.»

Singapour répond qu’elle n’avait absolument aucune raison de protester
puisque l’ordonnance n’identifiait d’aucune manière les territoires, lignes
de base, limites extérieures et étendue des eaux territoriales. Dès que
la carte fut publiée, en 1979, carte qui d’ailleurs concernait davantage

le plateau continental que la mer territoriale, Singapour protesta.
256. De l’avis de la Cour, en raison de la généralité même des termes
de l’ordonnance de 1969, l’argument de la Malaisie fondé sur ce texte
doit être rejeté. Cette ordonnance n’identifie pas, sauf de la manière la
plus générale, les zones auxquelles elle s’applique: elle indique simple-

ment qu’elle est applicable «sur l’ensemble du territoire malaisien». Du
point de vue de la législation, les précisions nécessaires ne seraient don-
nées qu’avec la publication «[d]ès que possible» de la carte à grande
échelle prévue dans le texte.

i) Accord de 1969 relatif au plateau continental et accord de 1970
relatif à la mer territoriale conclus entre l’Indonésie et la Malaisie

257. La Malaisie appelle l’attention sur le fait que l’un des points de la
frontière convenue dans l’accord de 1969 entre l’Indonésie et la Malaisie
relatif au plateau continental n’était situé qu’à 6,4 milles marins de Pedra
Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh. Dans un communiqué de presse y relatif, les

délégations des deux Etats reconnurent la nécessité pour leurs gouverne-
ments de s’entretenir de la question connexe de la frontière entre leurs
mers territoriales, question qui fit l’objet d’un accord l’année suivante.
Singapour, poursuit la Malaisie, n’a à aucun moment manifesté d’intérêt
pour cette délimitation maritime ni formulé d’objection. Singapour

déclare là encore qu’elle n’était pas tenue de réagir: l’accord était res inter
alios acta et, ce qui est plus important, il «évitait soigneusement toute
intrusion dans la zone entourant [Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh]». Sin-
gapour souligne également que le communiqué de presse exclut claire-
ment le détroit de Singapour, et cela pour une bonne raison: l’Indonésie

et la Malaisie ne pouvaient pas délimiter leurs espaces maritimes res-
pectifs dans ce détroit sans la participation de Singapour, détentrice de
«la souveraineté sur [Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh] et les formations
adjacentes».
258. La Malaisie avait, très peu de temps auparavant, porté à 12 milles

marins la largeur de ses eaux territoriales, mais Singapour ne l’avait pas
encore fait. Par conséquent, et comme la ligne s’interrompt à 6,4 milles
marins à l’est de Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh pour reprendre au-delà

82Straits of Singapore, the Court does not consider that the 1970 Territo-
rial Sea Agreement can have any significance in this case.

(j) The Indonesia-Singapore Territorial Sea Agreement 1973

259. The 1973 Indonesia-Singapore Territorial Sea Agreement deter-
mines a boundary line in the Straits of Singapore in the area south of the
main island of Singapore but not extending for its full length. It does not
refer to Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh or delimit the territorial sea

between it and the Indonesian island of Pulau Bintan which lies 7.5 nau-
tical miles to its south. For Malaysia this Agreement supports the conclu-
sion that in 1973 Singapore did not consider it had sovereignty over
Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh. It took no steps in the Agreement or by
way of any statement to reserve its position in respect of the island. Sing-

apore in reply contends that the agreement affects only a partial delimita-
tion within the Straits of Singapore, one of the busiest shipping channels
in the world. Further, a full delimitation would have required tripartite
negotiations, involving Malaysia as well, and it was significant that the
1970 Indonesia-Malaysia Territorial Sea Agreement similarly did not

deal with the area around Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh, as would have
been expected had Malaysia considered the island to be part of its terri-
tory. The Court does not consider that the 1973 Agreement can be given
any weight in respect of sovereignty over Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu
Puteh. Like the Malaysia-Indonesia Agreements in 1969 and 1970, the

issue is not covered in the 1973 Indonesia-Singapore Territorial Sea
Agreement.

(k) Inter-State co-operation in the Straits of Singapore

260. Singapore invokes the joint statement relating to co-operation in
the Straits of Malacca and Singapore adopted in 1971 by Indonesia,
Malaysia and Singapore, and the new routing system adopted in 1977 by

the Assembly of the Intergovernmental Maritime Consultative Organi-
zation. Singapore contends that the failure of Malaysia, when those
documents were adopted, to express or reserve a claim to Pedra Branca/
Pulau Batu Puteh is significant. The Court agrees with Malaysia’s
submission that the documents are not concerned with territorial

rights but with the facilitation and safety of navigation through
the Straits as a whole. The Court similarly does not see as significant
for the purposes of the present proceedings the co-operation of the
two Parties, in some cases with Indonesia and other States, in the

Straits of Singapore, in implementing the traffic separation scheme,
conducting joint hydrographic surveys, and promoting environ-

83de l’extrémité ouest du détroit de Singapour, la Cour n’estime pas que
l’accord relatif à la mer territoriale de 1970 puisse revêtir une quelconque

importance en l’espèce.

j) L’accord de 1973 entre l’Indonésie et Singapour relatif à la mer

territoriale

259. L’accord de 1973 entre l’Indonésie et Singapour relatif à la mer
territoriale détermine, dans le détroit de Singapour, une ligne frontière
qui est située au sud de l’île principale de Singapour mais ne s’étend pas
sur toute sa longueur. Il ne mentionne pas Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu

Puteh ni ne délimite la mer territoriale entre celle-ci et l’île indonésienne
de Pulau Bintan, située à 7,5 milles marins au sud. Pour la Malaisie, cet
accord étaye sa conclusion selon laquelle, en 1973, Singapour ne se consi-
dérait pas comme le souverain de Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh, parce
qu’elle ne réserve sa position en ce qui la concerne ni dans l’accord ni

dans une déclaration. Singapour répond à cela que cet accord ne concerne
qu’une délimitation partielle dans le détroit de Singapour, l’un des che-
naux de navigation les plus fréquentés du monde. De plus, une délimita-
tion complète aurait nécessité des négociations tripartites, auxquelles
aurait également participé la Malaisie, et il est révélateur que l’accord de

1970 délimitant les mers territoriales de l’Indonésie et de la Malaisie n’ait
pas non plus mentionné la zone entourant Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu
Puteh, ce à quoi on aurait pu s’attendre si la Malaisie avait réellement
considéré celle-ci comme faisant partie de son territoire. La Cour ne
considère pas qu’un poids quelconque puisse être accordé à l’accord de

1973 s’agissant de la souveraineté sur Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh.
De même que les accords conclus entre la Malaisie et l’Indonésie en 1969
et 1970, celui de 1973 entre l’Indonésie et Singapour relatif à la mer ter-
ritoriale ne couvre pas la question.

k) Coopération interétatique dans le détroit de Singapour

260. Singapour invoque la déclaration commune relative à la coopéra-
tion dans les détroits de Malacca et de Singapour adoptée en 1971 par
l’Indonésie, la Malaisie et Singapour, ainsi que le nouveau dispositif de

navigation adopté en 1977 par l’Assemblée de l’organisation intergouver-
nementale consultative de la navigation maritime. Singapour soutient
qu’il est révélateur que, lorsque ces documents furent adoptés, la Malaisie
n’ait pas formulé de prétention à l’égard de Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu
Puteh ou ne s’en soit pas réservé la possibilité. La Cour souscrit à la thèse

de la Malaisie selon laquelle ces documents concernent non pas des droits
territoriaux mais la facilitation et la sécurité de la navigation dans l’en-
semble des détroits. De même, la Cour ne considère pas qu’il importe, aux
fins de la présente procédure, que les deux Parties aient coopéré, parfois

avec l’Indonésie et d’autres Etats, dans le détroit de Singapour aux fins de
la mise en place du dispositif de séparation du trafic, de la réalisation de

83mental protection; that is not conduct concerned with territorial
rights.

(l) Official publications

261. According to Malaysia, official publications of the Government
of Singapore which describe its territory are notable for their absence of

any reference to Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh among the approxi-
mately 60 islands that are included in those descriptions. The lists in Sing-
apore Facts and Pictures 1972 include islands which are even smaller, are
uninhabited and which have lighthouses on them. It was not until 1992
that Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh was first included in that pub-

lication. Similarly the Annual Reports of the Rural Board of Singapore
from 1953 to 1956 did not include it. In the 1927 Agreement, the Curfew
Order of 1948 and the published lists, all official texts extending over
53 years to the critical date, when the Singapore authorities have evi-
dently paid very close attention to the extent of their territory, there was

never any indication that Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh was part of
Singapore. Singapore replies that Singapore Facts and Pictures does not
provide a legally comprehensive description of its territory but is a pub-
lication giving general information, providing a broad overview. Neither
the 1972 nor 1992 editions were comprehensive, nor are they designed to

be authoritative; they are for reference rather than having an adminis-
trative effect. Further, the 1972 list was of small islands “within the ter-
ritorial waters” of the island of Singapore and omitted at least eight other
islands which belonged to Singapore. The Rural Board Report of 1953
was intended to include all the neighbouring islands, some neighbouring

islands were in fact omitted, and the impetus for the 1953 extension of
the Board’s jurisdiction was the revision of electoral boundaries.
That was not relevant for the lighthouse crew who were stationed
on Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh on rotation, a month at a time;
and the other functions of the Rural Board were also not relevant to

the island. Singapore points out in addition that Malaysia conveniently
overlooks the fact that it cannot point to any contemporaneous
official document in which Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh is listed as
belonging to it. On the contrary, in 1953, the very year of the Rural

Board’s report which, Malaysia cites, its predecessor, Johor, expressly
disclaimed ownership of Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh in official
correspondence.

262. Given the purpose of the publications and their non-authoritative
and essentially descriptive character, even if official, the Court does not

consider that they can be given any weight.

84levés hydrographiques conjoints et de la protection de l’environnement;
il ne s’agit pas là d’un comportement lié aux droits territoriaux.

l) Publications officielles

261. Selon la Malaisie, les publications officielles du Gouvernement de
Singapour qui contiennent des descriptions du territoire de celle-ci se dis-

tinguent par leur absence totale de référence à Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu
Puteh parmi les soixante autres îles environ qui sont incluses dans ces
descriptions. Les listes publiées dans Singapore Facts and Pictures 1972
incluent des îles qui sont encore plus petites, qui sont inhabitées et où se
trouvent des phares. C’est seulement en 1992 que Pedra Branca/Pulau

Batu Puteh a commencé à être incluse dans cette publication. De même,
les rapports annuels établis de 1953 à 1956 par le bureau des affaires
rurales de Singapour (Rural Board of Singapore) ne l’incluaient pas.
Dans l’accord de 1927, dans l’arrêté de couvre-feu de 1948 et dans les
listes publiées, soit autant de textes officiels couvrant une période de plus

de cinquante-trois ans avant la date critique et établis en des occasions où
les autorités singapouriennes se sont manifestement intéressées de très
près à l’étendue du territoire, il n’y a jamais la moindre indication selon
laquelle Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh ferait partie de Singapour. Sin-
gapour répond que Singapore Facts and Pictures ne contient pas une des-

cription faisant foi et exhaustive de son territoire, mais qu’il s’agit d’une
brochure d’information générale qui donne une vue d’ensemble du pays.
Ni l’édition de 1972 ni celle de 1992 n’étaient exhaustives ou destinées à
faire autorité; elles visent à donner des éléments d’information et n’ont
pas de portée administrative. En outre, la liste de 1972 énumère les petites

îles situées «dans [les] eaux territoriales» de l’île principale de Singapour,
mais en omet au moins huit autres appartenant à celle-ci. Dans le rapport
du bureau des affaires rurales de 1953, l’intention était d’inclure toutes les
îles voisines, mais certaines d’entre elles furent en fait omises; la raison
pour laquelle la juridiction du bureau avait été élargie cette année-là

tenait à la revision des circonscriptions électorales. Cela ne s’appliquait
pas au personnel du phare, qui était constitué d’équipes séjournant sur
Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh par roulements d’un mois; les autres
attributions du bureau des affaires rurales ne concernaient pas davantage

l’île. Singapour fait en outre observer que la Malaisie oublie opportuné-
ment le fait qu’elle ne peut citer aucun document officiel publié par elle à
l’époque, où Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh serait mentionnée comme
lui appartenant. Au contraire, en 1953, l’année même de la parution du
rapport du bureau des affaires rurales de Singapour cité par la Malaisie,

le prédécesseur de celle-ci, le Johor, déclarait expressément dans une
correspondance officielle qu’il ne revendiquait pas la propriété de Pedra
Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh.
262. Etant donné le but des publications et le fait que, même si elles
étaient des documents officiels, elles n’étaient pas censées faire autorité et

étaient essentiellement de nature descriptive, la Cour ne considère pas
qu’un poids de quelque importance puisse leur être attribué.

84 263. The same is also true of a passage which Malaysia quotes from a
monograph by J. A. L. Pavitt who was for many years the Director of

Marine, Singapore. The book is First Pharos of the Eastern Seas: Hors-
burgh Lighthouse, published by the Singapore Light Dues Board in 1966.
The passage reads in part as follows:

“The Board, formed by statute in 1957, is responsible for the pro-
vision and upkeep of all ship navigational aids in Singapore waters,
and for the outlying stations at Pedra Branca (Horsburgh) in the

South China Sea and Pulau Pisang in the Malacca Strait. Within
Singapore waters, the Board maintains Raffles, Sultan Shoal and
Fullerton Lighthouses, 33 light beacons, 29 unlit beacons, 15 light
buoys, and 8 unlit buoys.”

Malaysia stresses that this undoubted authority distinguished between

“aids ‘in Singapore waters’” and “‘the outlying stations’” of Horsburgh
and Pulau Pisang and that he linked together those two lighthouses, sug-
gesting they have a common status.

264. The Court agrees with Singapore’s reading of the passage that the

descriptions are simply geographical, the aids in “Singapore waters”, are
those in territorial and internal waters of the main island of Singapore,
and they are contrasted with “outlying” stations, an apt description for
facilities which are 33 and 43 miles distant from Singapore by contrast to
Raffles and Sultan Shoal which are only 11 and 13 miles distant.

265. Singapore calls to the Court’s attention the way in which Malaya
and Malaysia referred in official publications to Singapore’s collection of
meteorological information on Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh. The

Court has already observed that the fact of collection is no more than an
aspect of the administration of a lighthouse (see paragraph 165 above).
As Singapore points out, Malaya in 1959 listed Horsburgh lighthouse as
one of the “Singapore” Stations, along with the Sultan Shoal and Raffles
lighthouses. It further adds that Malaysia and Singapore listed Hors-

burgh lighthouse in the same way in a joint publication in 1966 (the year
after Singapore had withdrawn from the Federation). By contrast Malay-
sia omitted any reference to it in 1967 when the two Parties began report-
ing meteorological information separately. The three reports list a number
of stations in Johor. (Pulau Pisang does not appear in any of the lists.)

Malaysia responds that Horsburgh lighthouse was a Singapore rainfall
station; this is not an acknowledgment of sovereignty.

266. The Court does consider as significant in Singapore’s favour
the inclusion of Horsburgh lighthouse as a “Singapore” Station in the

85 263. La même appréciation peut être portée à propos d’un passage,
cité par la Malaisie, d’une monographie écrite par J. A. L. Pavitt, qui,

pendant de nombreuses années, fut le directeur des affaires maritimes de
Singapour. Cet ouvrage, intitulé First Pharos of the Eastern Seas: Hors-
burgh Lighthouse, a été publié en 1966 par le conseil des droits de phares
de Singapour. Le passage en question indique notamment ce qui suit:

«Le conseil, institué par la loi de 1957, est chargé de la fourniture
et de l’entretien de tous types d’aides à la navigation dans les eaux de
Singapour, ainsi que pour les stations plus éloignées de Pedra Branca

(Horsburgh) en mer de Chine méridionale et de Pulau Pisang dans le
détroit de Malacca. Dans les eaux de Singapour, le conseil entretient
les phares Raffles, Sultan Shoal et Fullerton, trente-trois balises
lumineuses, vingt-neuf balises non lumineuses, quinze bouées lumi-

neuses et huit bouées non lumineuses.»
La Malaisie souligne que ce spécialiste incontesté de la question fait une

distinction entre les aides à la navigation «dans les eaux de Singapour» et
celles des «stations plus éloignées» de Horsburgh et Pulau Pisang, et qu’il
établit un lien entre ces deux derniers phares, donnant à penser qu’ils ont
le même statut.
264. La Cour est d’accord avec l’interprétation que fait Singapour de

ce passage, selon laquelle il s’agit là de descriptions qui sont d’ordre pure-
ment géographique, en ce sens que les aides situées dans «les eaux de Sin-
gapour» sont celles qui se trouvent dans les eaux territoriales ou inté-
rieures de l’île principale de Singapour, par opposition aux stations «plus
éloignées», terme approprié pour désigner les installations qui sont à 33

et 43 milles de Singapour, alors que les phares de Raffles et Sultan Shoal
n’en sont distants que de 11 et 13 milles.
265. Singapour appelle l’attention de la Cour sur la manière dont la
Malaya puis la Malaisie ont fait état, dans leurs publications officielles,
de la collecte de données météorologiques que Singapour effectuait sur

Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh. La Cour a déjà fait observer que la col-
lecte de données météorologiques n’est qu’un aspect de l’administration
d’un phare (voir paragraphe 165 ci-dessus). Singapour relève que la
Malaya classait en 1959 le phare Horsburgh parmi les stations de «Sin-
gapour», au même titre que les phares de Sultan Shoal et Raffles. Elle

ajoute qu’en 1966 (l’année qui suivit celle du retrait de Singapour de la
Fédération), la Malaisie et Singapour présentaient pareillement le phare
Horsburgh dans une publication commune. En revanche, en 1967, alors
que les Parties avaient commencé à publier des données météorologiques
chacune de son côté, la Malaisie ne faisait plus la moindre mention du

phare. Les trois publications répertorient plusieurs stations du Johor
(Pulau Pisang n’apparaît dans aucune des listes). La Malaisie répond que
le phare Horsburgh était une station pluviométrique singapourienne, et
que l’admettre ne constitue pas une reconnaissance de souveraineté.

266. La Cour n’en considère pas moins, au bénéfice de Singapour,
qu’il n’est pas sans intérêt que le phare Horsburgh apparaisse comme

851959 and 1966 reports and its omission from the 1967 Malaysian
report.

(m) Official maps

267. The Parties referred the Court to nearly 100 maps. They agreed

that none of the maps establish title in the way, for instance, that a map
attached to a boundary delimitation agreement may. They do contend
however that some of the maps issued by the two Parties or their pre-
decessors have a role as indicating their views about sovereignty or as

confirming their claims.

268. Malaysia emphasizes that of all the maps before the Court only
one published by the Singapore Government included Pedra Branca/Pu-
lau Batu Puteh as within its territory and that map was not published

until 1995. Malaysia also refers to three maps published in 1926 and 1932
by the Surveyor-General of the Federation of Malay States and Straits
Settlements which may indicate that the island is within Johor. If those
maps have any significance, which the Court is inclined to doubt, that
significance is by far outweighed by the more recent maps published by

Malaya and Malaysia to which the Court now turns.

269. Singapore places considerable weight on six maps published by
the Malayan and Malaysian Surveyor General and Director of National
Mapping in 1962 (two maps), 1965, 1970, 1974 and 1975. Those maps

include Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh with four lines of information
under it:

“Lighthouse 28,
P. Batu Puteh,
(Horsburgh),
(SINGAPORE) or (SINGAPURA).”

Exactly the same designation “(SINGAPORE)” or “(SINGAPURA)”
appears on the maps under the name of another island which unques-

tionably is under Singapore’s sovereignty. Further, in a map in the same
series relating to Pulau Pisang, the site of the other Singapore adminis-
tered lighthouse, no similar annotation appears, that omission indicating
that its inclusion has nothing to do with ownership or management of the
lighthouse. Singapore argues that the six maps are significant admissions

against interest by Malaysia.
270. Malaysia responds that (1) the annotating may be assessed differ-
ently, (2) maps do not create title, (3) maps can never amount to admis-
sions except when incorporated in treaties or used in inter-State negotia-

tions and (4) the maps in issue contained a disclaimer.

86l’une des stations de «Singapour» dans les publications de 1959 et de
1966 mais ne soit plus mentionné dans la publication malaisienne de

1967.

m) Cartes officielles

267. Les Parties ont invité la Cour à se reporter à près de cent cartes.

Elles sont convenues qu’aucune de ces cartes n’établit de titre au sens où
le ferait, par exemple, une carte jointe à un accord de délimitation fron-
talière. Les Parties affirment cependant que certaines des cartes qu’elles
ou leurs prédécesseurs ont publiées doivent être prises en compte en ce

qu’elles indiquent leurs vues quant à la souveraineté ou confirment leur
prétention.
268. La Malaisie souligne que, de toutes les cartes présentées à la
Cour, une seule, publiée par le Gouvernement de Singapour, représentait
Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh comme appartenant à son territoire;

encore ne l’a-t-elle été qu’en 1995. La Malaisie mentionne par ailleurs
trois cartes publiées en 1926 et 1932 par le géomètre général de la Fédéra-
tion des Etats malais et des Etablissements des détroits qui pourraient
indiquer que l’île appartient au Johor. Si ces cartes revêtent une quel-
conque pertinence — ce dont la Cour tend à douter —, celle-ci est bien

moindre que celle des cartes publiées plus récemment par la Malaya
et la Malaisie, que la Cour va maintenant examiner.
269. Singapour accorde une grande importance à six cartes publiées
par le géomètre général de la Fédération de Malaya et le directeur
de la cartographie nationale de la Malaisie en 1962 (deux cartes),

1965, 1970, 1974 et 1975. Ces cartes incluent Pedra Branca/Pulau
Batu Puteh, sous laquelle on peut lire les quatre lignes de légende
suivantes:

«Lighthouse 28,
P. Batu Puteh,
(Horsburgh),
(SINGAPORE) ou (SINGAPURA).»

Cette même mention «(SINGAPORE)» ou «(SINGAPURA)» figure sur
ces cartes sous le nom d’une autre île relevant incontestablement de la

souveraineté singapourienne. En outre, sur une carte de la même série
représentant Pulau Pisang, où se trouve l’autre phare administré par Sin-
gapour, cette mention n’apparaît pas, ce qui montre qu’elle n’a rien à
voir avec la propriété ou la gestion du phare. Singapour affirme que ces
six cartes constituent clairement de la part de la Malaisie des déclarations

allant à l’encontre des intérêts de leur auteur.
270. La Malaisie répond que 1) l’annotation en question peut être
interprétée différemment, 2) les cartes ne créent pas le titre, 3) les cartes
ne peuvent équivaloir à des déclarations, sauf lorsqu’elles sont intégrées à

des traités ou utilisées dans le cadre de négociations entre Etats et 4) les
cartes en question comportaient une note d’avertissement.

86 271. On Malaysia’s first contention it does appear to the Court that
the annotations are clear and support Singapore’s position. On the sec-

ond point, the Court sees strength in Singapore’s more limited argument
that the maps give a good indication of Malaysia’s official position rather
than being creative of title. On the third there is authority for the propo-
sition that admissions may appear in other circumstances (e.g. Frontier
Dispute (Benin/Niger), I.C.J. Report 2005 , p. 119, para. 44). The dis-

claimer, the subject of the fourth Malaysian contention, says that the
map must not be considered an authority on the delimitation of interna-
tional or other boundaries. (The 1974 formula is a little different.) The
Court is not here concerned with a boundary but with a distinct island

and in any event as the Boundary Commission in the Eritrea/Ethiopia
case said:

“The map still stands as a statement of geographical fact, espe-
cially when the State adversely affected has itself produced and dis-

seminated it, even against its own interest.” (Decision regarding
Delimitation of the Border between the State of Eritrea and the Fed-
eral Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, 13 April 2002, p. 28,
para. 3.28.)

272. The Court recalls that Singapore did not, until 1995, publish any
map including Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh within its territory. But
that failure to act is in the view of the Court of much less weight than the

weight to be accorded to the maps published by Malaya and Malaysia
between 1962 and 1975. The Court concludes that those maps tend to
confirm that Malaysia considered that Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh
fell under the sovereignty of Singapore.

5.5. Conclusion

273. The question to which the Court must now respond is whether in
the light of the principles and rules of international law it stated earlier

and of the assessment it has undertaken of the relevant facts, particularly
the conduct of the Parties, sovereignty over Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu
Puteh passed to the United Kingdom or Singapore.
274. The conduct of the United Kingdom and Singapore was, in many
respects, conduct as operator of Horsburgh lighthouse, but that was not

the case in all respects. Without being exhaustive, the Court recalls their
investigation of marine accidents, their control over visits, Singapore’s
installation of naval communication equipment and its reclamation plans,
all of which include acts à titre de souverain, the bulk of them after 1953.

Malaysia and its predecessors did not respond in any way to that con-
duct, or the other conduct with that character identified earlier in this

87 271. En ce qui concerne la première affirmation de la Malaisie, il
semble bien à la Cour que les annotations sont claires et qu’elles viennent

à l’appui de la thèse de Singapour. En ce qui concerne le deuxième point,
la Cour juge pertinent l’argument plus mesuré de Singapour, selon lequel
les cartes, certes, ne créent pas le titre, mais donnent une bonne indica-
tion de la position officielle de la Malaisie. S’agissant du troisième point,
la jurisprudence semble étayer l’idée selon laquelle des admissions peu-

vent apparaître en d’autres circonstances (par exemple, Différend fronta-
lier (Bénin/Niger), C.I.J. Recueil 2005 , p. 119, par. 44). La note d’aver-
tissement, qui fait l’objet du quatrième point soulevé par la Malaisie,
précise que la carte ne doit pas être considérée comme une référence en

matière de délimitation des frontières internationales ou autres. (La for-
mulation, dans la carte de 1974, est un peu différente.) Or, la Cour n’a
pas ici affaire à une frontière, mais à une île distincte et, en tout état de
cause, ainsi que l’a relevé la commission de délimitation des frontières en
l’affaire Erythrée/Ethiopie,

«La carte reste une indication de fait géographique, en particulier
lorsque l’Etat désavantagé l’a lui-même établie et distribuée, même

contre ses propres intérêts.» (Décision relative à la délimitation des
frontières entre l’Erythrée et la République fédérale démocratique
d’Ethiopie, en date du 13 avril 2002, p. 28, par. 3.28.)

272. La Cour rappelle que jamais avant 1995 Singapour n’a publié de
carte représentant Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh comme appartenant
à son territoire. Elle estime cependant que cette abstention revêt une

bien moins grande importance que celle qu’il convient d’accorder aux
cartes publiées par la Malaya puis par la Malaisie entre 1962 et 1975.
La Cour conclut que ces cartes tendent à confirmer que la Malaisie consi-
dérait que Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh relevait de la souveraineté
de Singapour.

5.5. Conclusion

273. La question à laquelle la Cour doit à présent répondre est celle de
savoir si, à la lumière des principes et des règles de droit international

qu’elle a énoncés plus haut et de son examen des faits pertinents, notam-
ment le comportement des Parties, la souveraineté sur Pedra Branca/
Pulau Batu Puteh est passée au Royaume-Uni ou à Singapour.
274. Le comportement du Royaume-Uni et de Singapour se rattachait,
à bien des égards, à l’exploitation du phare Horsburgh, mais tel n’était

pas toujours le cas. Sans prétendre à l’exhaustivité, la Cour rappellera,
d’une part, les enquêtes sur les accidents maritimes menées par l’un et
l’autre ainsi que leur contrôle sur les visites au phare et, d’autre part,
l’installation par Singapour de matériel de communication militaire et ses

projets visant à gagner des terres, autant d’actes accomplis à titre de sou-
verain, dont la plupart sont postérieurs à 1953. La Malaisie et ses prédé-

87Judgment, of all of which (but for the installation of the naval commu-

nication equipment) it had notice.

275. Further, the Johor authorities and their successors took no action
at all on Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh from June 1850 for the whole of

the following century or more. And, when official visits (in the 1970s for
instance) were made, they were subject to express Singapore permission.
Malaysia’s official maps of the 1960s and 1970s also indicate an apprecia-
tion by it that Singapore had sovereignty. Those maps, like the conduct

of both Parties which the Court has briefly recalled, are fully consistent
with the final matter the Court recalls. It is the clearly stated position of
the Acting Secretary of the State of Johor in 1953 that Johor did not
claim ownership of Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh. That statement has

major significance.

276. The Court is of the opinion that the relevant facts, including the

conduct of the Parties, previously reviewed and summarized in the two
preceding paragraphs, reflect a convergent evolution of the positions of
the Parties regarding title to Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh. The Court
concludes, especially by reference to the conduct of Singapore and its

predecessors à titre de souverain, taken together with the conduct of
Malaysia and its predecessors including their failure to respond to the
conduct of Singapore and its predecessors, that by 1980 sovereignty over
Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh had passed to Singapore.

277. For the foregoing reasons, the Court concludes that sovereignty
over Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh belongs to Singapore.

6. SOVEREIGNTY OVER M IDDLE R OCKS AND SOUTH L EDGE

6.1. Arguments of the Parties

278. As stated earlier (see paragraph 18 above), Middle Rocks and

South Ledge are maritime features located respectively at 0.6 and 2.2 nau-
tical miles from Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh and 8.0 and 7.9 nauti-
cal miles from the Malaysian mainland. It is common ground between
the Parties that Middle Rocks consist of some rocks that are permanently

above water and stand 0.6 to 1.2 m high, whereas South Ledge is a low-
tide elevation.

279. Singapore’s position is that sovereignty in respect of Middle
Rocks and South Ledge goes together with sovereignty over Pedra

Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh. Thus, according to Singapore, whoever owns
Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh owns Middle Rocks and South Ledge,
which, it claims, are dependencies of the island of Pedra Branca/Pulau

88cesseurs n’ont jamais réagi à ce comportement, ni à d’autres formes de

comportement de même nature dont il a été question plus haut dans cet
arrêt et qui toutes (sauf en ce qui concerne l’installation du matériel de
communication) avaient été portées à sa connaissance.
275. En outre, les autorités du Johor et leurs successeurs n’ont pas
mené la moindre activité sur Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh après

juin 1850 et ce, pendant tout un siècle, voire plus. Et, lorsque des visites
officielles (dans les années 1970, par exemple) ont été effectuées, elles
l’ont été avec l’autorisation expresse de Singapour. Il ressort aussi de ses
cartes officielles des années 1960 et 1970 que la Malaisie considérait la

souveraineté comme singapourienne. Celles-ci, de même que le compor-
tement des deux Parties que la Cour vient brièvement de rappeler, cadrent
entièrement avec le dernier élément que rappellera la Cour. Il s’agit de la
déclaration, faite dans des termes clairs en 1953 par le secrétaire d’Etat

par intérim de l’Etat du Johor, selon laquelle le Johor ne revendiquait pas
la propriété de Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh. Cette déclaration revêt
une importance capitale.
276. La Cour est d’avis que les faits pertinents, dont le comportement

des Parties, examinés plus haut et résumés aux deux paragraphes précé-
dents témoignent d’une évolution convergente des positions de celles-ci
concernant le titre sur Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh. La Cour conclut,
au vu, notamment, du comportement à titre de souverain de Singapour et

de ses prédécesseurs, considéré conjointement avec celui de la Malaisie et
de ses prédécesseurs, et notamment avec le fait que celle-ci soit demeurée
sans réaction face au comportement de Singapour et de ses prédécesseurs,
que, en 1980, la souveraineté sur Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh était
désormais détenue par Singapour.

277. Pour les raisons qui précèdent, la Cour conclut que la souverai-
neté sur Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh appartient à Singapour.

6. LA SOUVERAINETÉ SUR M IDDLE R OCKS ET SOUTH L EDGE

6.1. Argumentation des Parties

278. Comme précédemment indiqué (voir paragraphe 18 ci-dessus),

Middle Rocks et South Ledge sont des formations maritimes situées
à respectivement 0,6 et 2,2 milles marins de Pedra Branca/Pulau
Batu Puteh et 8 et 7,9 milles marins de la Malaisie continentale. Les
Parties s’accordent sur le fait que Middle Rocks consiste en divers

rochers découverts de manière permanente et d’une élévation comprise
entre 0,6 et 1,2 mètre, tandis que South Ledge est un haut-fond
découvrant.
279. La position de Singapour est que la souveraineté sur Middle
Rocks et South Ledge va de pair avec la souveraineté sur Pedra Branca/

Pulau Batu Puteh. Ainsi, selon Singapour, quiconque détient Pedra
Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh détient Middle Rocks et South Ledge, qui,
affirme-t-elle, sont des dépendances de l’île de Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu

88Batu Puteh and form with the latter a single group of maritime features.
Singapore advances specifically the following two theses:

“(a) first, both Middle Rocks and South Ledge form geographi-
cally and morphologically a single group of maritime features;

and
(b) second, Malaysia is unable to show that it has appropriated
these maritime features through any acts of sovereignty. Since
these uninhabited, unoccupied reefs have never been inde-
pendently appropriated by Malaysia, they belong to Singa-

pore by virtue of them falling within Singapore’s territorial
waters generated by Pedra Branca.”

280. In support of the first argument, Singapore quotes the following
dictum from the Island of Palmas case:

“As regards groups of islands, it is possible that a group may un-
der certain circumstances be regarded as in law a unit, and that the
fate of the principal part may involve the rest.” (Island of Palmas
Case (Netherlands/United States of America) , Award of
4 April 1928, RIAA, Vol. II (1949), p. 855.)

281. It further cites the Judgment of a Chamber of this Court in the
El Salvador/Honduras case, where the Chamber stated, in applying the

test of “effective possession and control”, that:
“As regards Meanguerita the Chamber does not consider it pos-

sible, in the absence of evidence on the point, that the legal position
of that island could have been other than identical with that of
Meanguera.” (Land, Island and Maritime Frontier Dispute (El Sal-
vador/Honduras: Nicaragua intervening), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports
1992, p. 579, para. 367.)

282. As a further justification for treating Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu
Puteh and its dependencies as a group, Singapore relies upon the geo-

morphological evidence that the three features of Pedra Branca/Pulau
Batu Puteh, Middle Rocks and South Ledge form a single physical unit.
It claims that geological examination of rock samples taken from Pedra
Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh, Middle Rocks and South Ledge shows that
the three features are constituted with the same rock type (namely, a
light, coarse-grained biotite granite), which shows that the three features

belong to the same rock body.

283. In support of the second argument, Singapore argues that both
Middle Rocks and South Ledge are not capable of independent appro-
priation, and that even if Middle Rocks can be regarded as “islands capa-

ble of autonomous appropriation, quod non”, Malaysia is “unable to
show any exercise of sovereignty over Middle Rocks to establish a title to
them”, while Singapore claims that it has constantly and consistently

89Puteh et forment avec cette dernière un seul et même groupe. Singapour
avance en particulier les deux thèses suivantes:

«a) premièrement, tant Middle Rocks que South Ledge forment,
d’un point de vue géographique et morphologique, un seul et

même groupe de formations maritimes; et
b) deuxièmement, la Malaisie n’est pas en mesure de démontrer
qu’elle s’est approprié ces formations maritimes par quelque
acte de souveraineté que ce soit. Etant donné qu’elle ne s’est
jamais approprié isolément l’un ou l’autre de ces récifs inhabi-

tés et inoccupés, ceux-ci appartiennent à Singapour puisqu’ils
se trouvent dans les eaux territoriales singapouriennes qui sont
engendrées par Pedra Branca.»

280. A l’appui de la première thèse, Singapour cite le passage suivant
de la sentence rendue en l’affaire de l’Ile de Palmas :

«Pour ce qui est des groupes d’îles, il est possible qu’un archipel
puisse, dans certains cas, être regardé en droit comme une unité, et
que le sort de la partie principale décide du reste.» (Ile de Palmas

(Pays-Bas/Etats-Unis d’Amérique) , sentence, 4 avril 1928, RGDIP,
t. XLII, 1935, p. 183 [traduction française].)

281. Singapour cite en outre l’arrêt rendu par une chambre de la Cour
en l’affaire El Salvador/Honduras, dans lequel celle-ci, en appliquant le
critère de la «possession et [du] contrôle effectifs», a déclaré:

«[q]uant à Meanguerita, en l’absence d’éléments de preuve sur ce
point, la Chambre n’estime pas que le régime juridique de cette île
ait pu différer en rien de celui de Meanguera» (Différend frontalier
terrestre, insulaire et maritime (El Salvador/Honduras; Nicaragua

(intervenant)), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1992 , p. 579, par. 367).

282. Une autre raison de traiter Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh et ses
dépendances comme un groupe serait fournie, selon Singapour, par les
éléments de preuve géomorphologiques attestant que les trois formations,
à savoir Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh, Middle Rocks et South Ledge,
constituent une seule entité physique. Elle soutient qu’un examen géolo-

gique d’échantillons rocheux prélevés sur Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh,
Middle Rocks et South Ledge indique que les trois formations sont
constituées du même type de roche (à savoir une variété de granit clair
à biotite et à gros grains), ce qui montrerait que les trois formations
appartiennent à la même masse rocheuse.

283. A l’appui de la seconde thèse, Singapour fait valoir que ni Mid-
dle Rocks ni South Ledge n’est susceptible d’appropriation isolément
et que, quand bien même les rochers de Middle Rocks pourraient
être considérés comme «des îles susceptibles d’appropriation à titre

individuel, ce qui n’est pas le cas», la Malaisie «ne pourrait apporter la
preuve qu’a été accompli sur ces rochers un quelconque acte de souve-

89exercised sovereign authority in the surrounding waters. In such circum-
stances, Singapore concludes that as sovereignty over Pedra Branca/Pu-

lau Batu Puteh clearly belongs to Singapore, so does sovereignty over
Middle Rocks and South Ledge which fall within the territorial waters of
Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh.

284. Malaysia on the other hand argues that these three features of
Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh, Middle Rocks, and South Ledge do not
constitute one identifiable group of islands in historical or geomorpho-
logical terms. It specifically claims that the historical record shows that

these three features were never formally described as a group or as an
island and its appurtenant rocks, nor were they ever given a collective
title, while the three features were identified as a danger to shipping
which should be avoided by sailing well to the north or south.

285. On this basis, Malaysia claims that Middle Rocks and South
Ledge have always been considered as features falling within Johor/Ma-
laysian jurisdiction. According to Malaysia, they were under Johor sov-
ereignty at the time of the 1824 Anglo-Dutch Treaty and fell within the
British sphere of influence under that Treaty.

286. With regard to the exercise of sovereignty over them by Malaysia,
Malaysia argues that it exercised consistent acts of sovereignty over
them, within the limits of their character. By way of illustration, it refers
to the use of and the granting of oil concessions by the Malaysian Gov-

ernment in 1968 which extended to the area of South Ledge and Middle
Rocks, to the fact that South Ledge was taken as a base point in defining
the outer limit of Malaysian territorial waters in the chartlet attached to
the Letter of Promulgation dated 16 July 1968 by the Chief of Navy (see
paragraphs 242 and 251-252 above). It also refers to the fact that the fea-

tures were included within Malaysian fisheries waters under the 1985 Fish-
eries Act.
287. Malaysia contends that by contrast Singapore not only failed to
protest against Malaysia’s manifestations of sovereignty, as mentioned
above, but did not advance any claims of its own to Middle Rocks and

South Ledge either, even after Singapore began to assert that Pedra
Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh was Singaporean. Thus it argues that on the
occasion when Singapore claimed sovereignty over Pedra Branca/Pulau
Batu Puteh for the first time in 1980, no reference was made to South
Ledge and Middle Rocks — although both features clearly appeared

within Malaysian territorial waters in the map published by Malaysia on
21 December 1979 — and that as the same situation was repeated later
when Malaysia issued a reprint of the same map in 1984, Singapore’s
protest against the map in 1989 was exclusively limited to Pedra Branca/

Pulau Batu Puteh.

90raineté propre à établir son titre à leur égard», tandis qu’elle-même aurait
constamment et invariablement exercé son autorité souveraine dans les

eaux environnantes. Dans ces conditions, Singapour conclut que, puis-
qu’il est clair que la souveraineté sur Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh
lui appartient, la souveraineté sur Middle Rocks et South Ledge, qui se
trouvent dans les eaux territoriales de Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh,
lui appartient aussi.

284. La Malaisie soutient quant à elle que les trois formations — Pedra
Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh, Middle Rocks et South Ledge — ne consti-
tuent pas un groupe d’îles identifiable d’un point de vue historique ou
géomorphologique. Elle affirme en particulier que les documents histori-
ques montrent que ces trois formations n’ont jamais été officiellement

décrites comme un groupe, ni comme une île dotée de dépendances, et
qu’elles n’ont jamais non plus porté un nom collectif, alors même qu’elles
étaient signalées toutes les trois comme un danger pour la navigation
qu’il convenait d’éviter en passant nettement au nord ou au sud.
285. Au vu de ce qui précède, la Malaisie affirme que les formations de
Middle Rocks et de South Ledge ont toujours été considérées comme

relevant de la juridiction du Johor ou de la sienne. Elles auraient ainsi été
sous la souveraineté du Johor à l’époque du traité anglo-néerlandais
de 1824, en vertu duquel elles seraient ensuite tombées dans la sphère
d’influence britannique.
286. En ce qui concerne l’exercice d’une souveraineté sur ces forma-

tions par la Malaisie, celle-ci soutient avoir régulièrement accompli des
actes de souveraineté à leur égard, dans les limites imposées par leur
nature. A titre d’exemple, elle cite l’utilisation et l’octroi en 1968 par le
Gouvernement malaisien de concessions pétrolières s’étendant jusqu’à la
zone de South Ledge et Middle Rocks et le fait que South Ledge ait été

pris comme point de base pour définir la limite extérieure des eaux terri-
toriales malaisiennes sur la carte jointe à la «Lettre de promulgation» du
16 juillet 1968 émanant du chef de la marine (voir paragraphes 242 et
251-252 ci-dessus). Elle invoque également le fait que la loi sur la pêche
de 1985 a inclus ces formations dans la zone de pêche malaisienne.

287. La Malaisie soutient que, quant à elle, Singapour non seulement
n’a pas protesté contre ses manifestations de souveraineté, ainsi qu’indi-
qué plus haut, mais n’a pas non plus formulé de revendication propre sur
Middle Rocks et South Ledge, même après avoir commencé à affirmer
que Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh lui appartenait. Ainsi la Malaisie
affirme-t-elle que, lorsque Singapour revendiqua la souveraineté sur Pedra

Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh pour la première fois, en 1980, elle ne fit nulle
mention de South Ledge et Middle Rocks — bien que, sur la carte
publiée par la Malaisie le 21 décembre 1979, ces deux formations ap-
paraissent clairement comme situées dans les eaux territoriales malai-
siennes — et que, lorsque la même situation se reproduisit, la Malaisie

ayant réédité cette carte en 1984, la protestation de Singapour contre
celle-ci, formulée en 1989, visait exclusivement Pedra Branca/Pulau
Batu Puteh.

90 6.2. Legal status of Middle Rocks

288. With respect to these contentions of the two sides, the Court
wishes to observe first of all that the issue of the legal status of Middle

Rocks is to be assessed in the context of the Court’s reasoning on the
principal issue in the present case, namely the legal grounds on which the
Court has come to decide on the issue of title to Pedra Branca/Pulau
Batu Puteh, as stated above.
289. As the Court has stated above (see paragraphs 273-277), it has

reached the conclusion that sovereignty over Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu
Puteh rests with Singapore under the particular circumstances surround-
ing the present case. However these circumstances clearly do not apply to
other maritime features in the vicinity of Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh,
i.e., Middle Rocks and South Ledge. None of the conduct reviewed in the

preceding part of the Judgment which has led the Court to the conclusion
that sovereignty over Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh passed to Singa-
pore or its predecessor before 1980 has any application to the cases of
Middle Rocks and South Ledge.

290. Since Middle Rocks should be understood to have had the same
legal status as Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh as far as the ancient origi-
nal title held by the Sultan of Johor was concerned, and since the par-
ticular circumstances which have come to effect the passing of title to
Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh to Singapore do not apply to this mari-

time feature, original title to Middle Rocks should remain with Malaysia
as the successor to the Sultan of Johor, unless proven otherwise, which
the Court finds Singapore has not done.

6.3. Legal status of South Ledge

291. With regard to South Ledge, however, there are special problems
to be considered, inasmuch as South Ledge, as distinct from Middle

Rocks, presents a special geographical feature as a low-tide elevation.

292. Article 13 of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the
Sea provides as follows:

“1. A low-tide elevation is a naturally formed area of land which
is surrounded by and above water at low tide but submerged at high
tide. Where a low-tide elevation is situated wholly or partly at a dis-

tance not exceeding the breadth of the territorial sea from the main-
land or an island, the low-water line on that elevation may be used
as the baseline for measuring the breadth of the territorial sea.

2. Where a low-tide elevation is wholly situated at a distance

exceeding the breadth of the territorial sea from the mainland or an
island, it has no territorial sea of its own.”

293. Malaysia asserts the fact that South Ledge, which lies 1.7 nautical

91 6.2. Statut juridique de Middle Rocks

288. Ayant pris note des arguments ainsi avancés par les deux Parties,
la Cour tient tout d’abord à faire observer que la question du statut juri-

dique de Middle Rocks doit être appréciée dans le cadre de son raison-
nement sur la principale question à trancher en l’espèce, à savoir celle des
fondements juridiques de sa décision relative à la question du titre sur
Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh, tel que décrit plus haut.
289. La Cour, ainsi qu’elle l’a indiqué plus haut (voir paragraphes 273-

277), est parvenue à la conclusion que, étant donné les circonstances par-
ticulières de l’espèce, la souveraineté sur Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh
appartenait à Singapour. Or, ces circonstances n’existent manifestement
pas s’agissant des formations maritimes voisines de Pedra Branca/Pulau
Batu Puteh, à savoir Middle Rocks et South Ledge. Aucun des éléments

du comportement analysé dans la partie précédente de l’arrêt et ayant
conduit la Cour à conclure que la souveraineté sur Pedra Branca/Pulau
Batu Puteh était passée à Singapour ou à son prédécesseur avant 1980
n’est pertinent en ce qui concerne Middle Rocks et South Ledge.

290. Le statut juridique de Middle Rocks au regard du titre originaire
détenu par le sultan de Johor devant être considéré comme identique à
celui de Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh, mais les conditions particulières
qui ont ensuite amené Singapour à devenir le titulaire du titre sur Pedra
Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh ne s’appliquant pas à Middle Rocks, la Malai-

sie, en sa qualité de successeur du sultan de Johor, doit être considérée
comme ayant conservé le titre originaire sur cette dernière formation,
sauf preuve contraire que Singapour n’a pas rapportée.

6.3. Statut juridique de South Ledge

291. S’agissant de South Ledge, cependant, certains problèmes parti-
culiers doivent être pris en considération, dans la mesure où cette forma-

tion, à la différence de Middle Rocks, présente une caractéristique géo-
graphique particulière, à savoir qu’il s’agit d’un haut-fond découvrant.
292. L’article 13 de la convention des Nations Unies sur le droit de la
mer est ainsi libellé:

«1. Par «hauts-fonds découvrants», on entend les élévations natu-
relles de terrain qui sont entourées par la mer, découvertes à marée
basse et recouvertes à marée haute. Lorsque des hauts-fonds décou-

vrants se trouvent, entièrement ou en partie, à une distance du conti-
nent ou d’une île ne dépassant pas la largeur de la mer territoriale, la
laisse de basse mer sur ces hauts-fonds peut être prise comme ligne
de base pour mesurer la largeur de la mer territoriale.
2. Lorsque des hauts-fonds découvrants se trouvent entièrement

à une distance du continent ou d’une île qui dépasse la largeur de
la mer territoriale, ils n’ont pas de mer territoriale qui leur soit
propre.»

293. La Malaisie affirme que South Ledge, qui est situé à 1,7 mille

91miles from Middle Rocks and 2.2 miles from Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu
Puteh, would attach to Middle Rocks rather than to Pedra Branca/Pulau

Batu Puteh, for the simple reason that it is located within the territorial
sea appertaining to Middle Rocks. Malaysia, citing the following passage
from the Judgment in the case concerning Maritime Delimitation and
Territorial Questions between Qatar and Bahrain (Qatar v. Bahrain):“a
coastal State has sovereignty over low-tide elevations which are situated

within its territorial sea, since it has sovereignty over the territorial sea
itself . . .” (Merits, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2001 , p. 101, para. 204),
claims that it has sovereignty over South Ledge.
294. Singapore argues that “contrary to Middle Rocks, South Ledge is

a low-tide elevation which, as such, cannot be subject to separate appro-
priation”. In its support, Singapore also cites a passage from the Judg-
ment in the case concerning Maritime Delimitation and Territorial Ques-
tions between Qatar and Bahrain (Qatar v. Bahrain), as confirmed in the
recent Judgment of the Court in the case concerning Territorial and

Maritime Dispute between Nicaragua and Honduras in the Caribbean Sea
(Nicaragua v. Honduras) (Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2007 , p. 704,
para. 144).
295. The Court notes that the issue of whether a low-tide elevation is
susceptible of appropriation or not has come up in its jurisprudence in

the past. Thus in the Qatar v. Bahrain case, the Court made the following
observation:

“a coastal State has sovereignty over low-tide elevations which are
situated within its territorial sea, since it has sovereignty over the ter-
ritorial sea itself . . . The decisive question for the present case is
whether a State can acquire sovereignty by appropriation over a
low-tide elevation situated within the breadth of its territorial sea

when that same low-tide elevation lies also within the breadth of the
territorial sea of another State.” (Maritime Delimitation and Terri-
torial Questions between Qatar and Bahrain (Qatar v. Bahrain),
Merits, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2001 , p. 101, para. 204.)

296. The Court went on to say as follows:

“International treaty law is silent on the question whether low-tide
elevations can be considered to be ‘territory’. Nor is the Court aware
of a uniform and widespread State practice which might have given

rise to a customary rule which unequivocally permits or excludes
appropriation of low-tide elevations . . .

The few existing rules do not justify a general assumption that
low-tide elevations are territory in the same sense as islands. It has
never been disputed that islands constitute terra firma, and are sub-

ject to the rules and principles of territorial acquisition; the differ-
ence in effects which the law of the sea attributes to islands and low-

92marin de Middle Rocks et à 2,2 milles marins de Pedra Branca/Pulau
Batu Puteh, devrait se rattacher à Middle Rocks et non à Pedra Branca/

Pulau Batu Puteh, pour la simple raison qu’il se trouve dans la mer ter-
ritoriale de Middle Rocks. Citant le passage suivant de l’arrêt rendu en
l’affaire de la Délimitation maritime et des questions territoriales entre
Qatar et Bahreïn (Qatar c. Bahreïn) , la Malaisie soutient que la souve-
raineté sur South Ledge lui appartient car «un Etat côtier exerce sa sou-

veraineté sur les hauts-fonds découvrants situés dans sa mer territoriale,
puisqu’il exerce sa souveraineté sur la mer territoriale elle-même» (arrêt,
fond, C.I.J. Recueil 2001 , p. 101, par. 204).
294. Singapour plaide que, «contrairement à Middle Rocks, South

Ledge constitue un haut-fond découvrant qui, en tant que tel, n’est pas
susceptible d’appropriation autonome». A l’appui de ses dires, elle cite
également un passage de l’arrêt rendu en l’affaire de la Délimitation mari-
time et des questions territoriales entre Qatar et Bahreïn (Qatar
c. Bahreïn), tel que confirmé dans l’arrêt que la Cour a rendu récemment

en l’affaire concernant le Différend territorial et maritime entre le Nica-
ragua et le Honduras dans la mer des Caraïbes (Nicaragua c. Honduras)
(arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2007 , p. 704, par. 144).
295. La Cour relève que la question de savoir si un haut-fond décou-
vrant est susceptible d’appropriation s’est déjà posée dans sa jurispru-

dence. Ainsi en l’affaire Qatar c. Bahreïn, la Cour a fait l’observation
suivante:

«un Etat côtier exerce sa souveraineté sur les hauts-fonds décou-
vrants situés dans sa mer territoriale, puisqu’il exerce sa souveraineté
sur la mer territoriale elle-même... La question décisive, aux fins de
la présente espèce, est de savoir si un Etat peut, par voie d’appro-
priation, acquérir la souveraineté sur un haut-fond découvrant situé

dans les limites de sa mer territoriale lorsque le même haut-fond se
situe également dans les limites de la mer territoriale d’un autre
Etat.» (Délimitation maritime et questions territoriales entre Qatar
et Bahreïn (Qatar c. Bahreïn), fond, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2001,
p. 101, par. 204.)

296. La Cour a poursuivi en ces termes:

«Le droit international conventionnel est muet sur la question de
savoir si les hauts-fonds découvrants peuvent être considérés comme
des «territoires». A la connaissance de la Cour, il n’existe pas non

plus de pratique étatique uniforme et largement répandue qui aurait
pu donner naissance à une règle coutumière autorisant ou excluant
catégoriquement l’appropriation des hauts-fonds découvrants...

Les quelques règles existantes ne justifient pas que l’on présume de
façon générale que les hauts-fonds découvrants constituent des ter-
ritoires au même titre que les îles. Il n’a jamais été contesté que les

îles constituent de la terre ferme et qu’elles sont soumises aux règles
et principes de l’acquisition territoriale; il existe en revanche une

92 tide elevations is considerable. It is thus not established that in the

absence of other rules and legal principles, low-tide elevations can,
from the viewpoint of the acquisition of sovereignty, be fully assimi-
lated with islands or other land territory.” (Maritime Delimitation
and Territorial Questions between Qatar and Bahrain (Qatar v. Bah-
rain), Merits, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2001 , pp. 101-102,

paras. 205-206.)

297. In view of its previous jurisprudence and the arguments of the
Parties, as well as the evidence presented before it, the Court will proceed
on the basis of whether South Ledge lies within the territorial waters gen-
erated by Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh, which belongs to Singapore,

or within those generated by Middle Rocks, which belongs to Malaysia.
In this regard the Court notes that South Ledge falls within the appar-
ently overlapping territorial waters generated by the mainland of Malay-
sia, Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh and Middle Rocks.

298. The Court recalls that in the Special Agreement and in the final
submissions it has been specifically asked to decide the matter of sover-
eignty separately for each of the three maritime features. At the same

time the Court has not been mandated by the Parties to draw the line of
delimitation with respect to the territorial waters of Malaysia and Singa-
pore in the area in question.
299. In these circumstances, the Court concludes that for the reasons
explained above sovereignty over South Ledge, as a low-tide elevation,

belongs to the State in the territorial waters of which it is located.

*
* *

7. OPERATIVE CLAUSE

300. For these reasons,

T HE C OURT ,
(1) By twelve votes to four,

Finds that sovereignty over Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh belongs to
the Republic of Singapore;

IN FAVOUR : Vice-President, Acting President, Al-Khasawneh; Judges Ran-
jeva, Shi, Koroma, Buergenthal, Owada, Tomka, Keith, Sepúlveda-Amor,
Bennouna, Skotnikov; Judge ad hoc Sreenivasa Rao;

AGAINST: Judges Parra-Aranguren, Simma, Abraham; Judge ad hoc Dug-
ard;
(2) By fifteen votes to one,

Finds that sovereignty over Middle Rocks belongs to Malaysia;

93 importante différence entre les effets que le droit de la mer attribue

aux îles et ceux qu’il attribue aux hauts-fonds découvrants. Il n’est
donc pas établi que, en l’absence d’autres règles et principes juridi-
ques, les hauts-fonds découvrants puissent, du point de vue de
l’acquisition de la souveraineté, être pleinement assimilés aux îles et
autres territoires terrestres.» (Délimitation maritime et questions ter-

ritoriales entre Qatar et Bahreïn (Qatar c. Bahreïn), fond, arrêt,
C.I.J. Recueil 2001, p. 101-102, par. 205-206.)

297. Au vu de sa jurisprudence, des arguments des Parties ainsi que
des éléments de preuve qui lui ont été soumis, la Cour retient le principe
selon lequel il faut établir si South Ledge se trouve dans les eaux territo-
riales générées par Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh, qui appartient à Sin-

gapour, ou dans celles générées par Middle Rocks, qui appartient à la
Malaisie. La Cour observe à cet égard que South Ledge relève des eaux
territoriales générées par la Malaisie continentale, par Pedra Branca/Pu-
lau Batu Puteh et par Middle Rocks, eaux territoriales qui semblent se

chevaucher.
298. La Cour rappelle que, bien qu’elle ait été spécifiquement priée,
dans le compromis et dans les conclusions finales des Parties, de se pro-
noncer sur la question de la souveraineté sur chacune des trois forma-

tions maritimes prises séparément, elle n’a pas reçu pour mandat de tra-
cer la ligne de délimitation des eaux territoriales de la Malaisie et de
Singapour dans la zone en question.
299. Dans ces conditions, la Cour conclut que, pour les raisons expo-
sées ci-dessus, la souveraineté sur South Ledge, en tant que haut-fond

découvrant, appartient à l’Etat dans les eaux territoriales duquel il est
situé.

*
* *

7. D ISPOSITIF

300. Par ces motifs,

L A C OUR ,
1) Par douze voix contre quatre,

Dit que la souveraineté sur Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh appartient
à la République de Singapour;

POUR : M. Al-Khasawneh, vice-président, faisant fonction de président en
l’affaire ; MM. Ranjeva, Shi, Koroma, Buergenthal, Owada, Tomka,
Keith, Sepúlveda-Amor, Bennouna, Skotnikov, juges; M. Sreenivasa Rao,
juge ad hoc;

CONTRE : MM. Parra-Aranguren, Simma, Abraham, juges ; M. Dugard, juge
ad hoc;
2) Par quinze voix contre une,

Dit que la souveraineté sur Middle Rocks appartient à la Malaisie;

93 IN FAVOUR: Vice-President, Acting President, Al-Khasawneh; Judges Ran-
jeva, Shi, Koroma, Parra-Aranguren, Buergenthal, Owada, Simma,

Tomka, Abraham, Keith, Sepúlveda-Amor, Bennouna, Skotnikov; Judge
ad hoc Dugard;
AGAINST: Judge ad hoc Sreenivasa Rao;

(3) By fifteen votes to one,

Finds that sovereignty over South Ledge belongs to the State in the ter-
ritorial waters of which it is located.

IN FAVOUR: Vice-President, Acting President, Al-Khasawneh; Judges Ran-
jeva, Shi, Koroma, Buergenthal, Owada, Simma, Tomka, Abraham, Keith,
Sepúlveda-Amor, Bennouna, Skotnikov; Judges ad hoc Dugard,

Sreenivasa Rao;
AGAINST: Judge Parra-Aranguren.

Done in English and in French, the English text being authoritative, at
the Peace Palace, The Hague, this twenty-third day of May, two thou-
sand and eight, in three copies, one of which will be placed in the archives

of the Court and the others transmitted to the Government of Malaysia
and the Government of the Republic of Singapore, respectively.

(Signed) President. (Signed) Awn Shawkat A L-K HASAWNEH ,
President.

(Signed) Philippe COUVREUR ,

Registrar.

Judge R ANJEVA appends a declaration to the Judgment of the Court;
Judge P ARRA -ARANGUREN appends a separate opinion to the Judgment

of the Court; Judges S IMMA and A BRAHAM append a joint dissenting
opinion to the Judgment of the Court; Judge B ENNOUNA appends a dec-
laration to the Judgment of the Court; Judge ad hoc DUGARD appends a
dissenting opinion to the Judgment of the Court; Judge ad hoc

SREENIVASA R AO appends a separate opinion to the Judgment of the
Court.

(Initialled) A.K.
(Initialled) Ph.C.

94 POUR : M. Al-Khasawneh, vice-président, faisant fonction de président en
l’affaire ; MM. Ranjeva, Shi, Koroma, Parra-Aranguren, Buergenthal,

Owada, Simma, Tomka, Abraham, Keith, Sepúlveda-Amor, Bennouna,
Skotnikov, juges; M. Dugard, juge ad hoc;
CONTRE : M. Sreenivasa Rao, juge ad hoc;

3) Par quinze voix contre une,

Dit que la souveraineté sur South Ledge appartient à l’Etat dans les
eaux territoriales duquel il est situé.

POUR : M. Al-Khasawneh, vice-président, faisant fonction de président en
l’affaire ; MM. Ranjeva, Shi, Koroma, Buergenthal, Owada, Simma,
Tomka, Abraham, Keith, Sepúlveda-Amor, Bennouna, Skotnikov, juges;

MM. Dugard, Sreenivasa Rao, juges ad hoc;
CONTRE : M. Parra-Aranguren, juge.

Fait en anglais et en français, le texte anglais faisant foi, au Palais de la
Paix, à La Haye, le vingt-trois mai deux mille huit, en trois exemplaires,
dont l’un restera déposé aux archives de la Cour et les autres seront

transmis respectivement au Gouvernement de la Malaisie et au Gouver-
nement de la République de Singapour.

Le président,
(Signé) Awn Shawkat A L-KHASAWNEH .

Le greffier,

(Signé) Philippe C OUVREUR .

M. le juge R ANJEVA joint une déclaration à l’arrêt; M. le jugARRA -
A RANGUREN joint à l’arrêt l’exposé de son opinion individuelle; MM. les

juges SIMMA et ABRAHAM joignent à l’arrêt l’exposé de leur opinion dis-
sidente commune ; M. le juge B ENNOUNA joint une déclaration à l’arrêt;
M. le juge ad hoc D UGARD joint à l’arrêt l’exposé de son opinion dissi-
dente; M. le juge ad hoc SREENIVASA R AO joint à l’arrêt l’exposé de son

opinion individuelle.

(Paraphé) A.K.
(Paraphé) Ph.C.

94

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Document Long Title

Judgment of 23 May 2008

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