Judgment of 3 February 2006

Document Number
126-20060203-JUD-01-00-EN
Document Type
Date of the Document
Document File
Bilingual Document File

COUR INTERNATIONALE DE JUSTICE

RECUEIL DES AR|TS,
AVIS CONSULTATIFS ET ORDONNANCES

AFFAIRE DES ACTIVITE uS ARME uES

SUR LE TERRITOIRE DU CONGO
(NOUVELLE REQUE |TE: 2002)

(RuPUBLIQUE uMOCRATIQUE DU CONGO c. RWANDA)

COMPuTENCE DE LA COUR
ET RECEVABILu DE LA REQ|TE

ARR|TDU3FE uVRIER 2006

2006

INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE

REPORTS OF JUDGMENTS,
ADVISORY OPINIONS AND ORDERS

CASE CONCERNING ARMED ACTIVITIES
ON THE TERRITORY OF THE CONGO

(NEW APPLICATION: 2002)
(DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF THE CONGO v. RWANDA)

JURISDICTION OF THE COURT
AND ADMISSIBILITY OF THE APPLICATION

JUDGMENT OF 3 FEBRUARY 2006 Mode officiel de citation:

Activités armées sur le territoire du Congo (nouvelle requête: 2002)
(République démocratique du Congo c. Rwanda), compétence et
recevabilité, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2006 ,p.6

Official citation:
Armed Activities on the Territory of the Congo (New Application: 2002)
(Democratic Republic of the Congo v. Rwanda), Jurisdiction and
Admissibility, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2006 ,p.6

N de vente:
ISSN 0074-4441
Sales number 911
ISBN 92-1-071020-7 3FEuVRIER 2006

ARRE|T

ACTIVITuS ARME uES SUR LE TERRITOIRE
DU CONGO (NOUVELLE REQUE |TE: 2002)

(RuPUBLIQUE DE uMOCRATIQUE DU CONGO c. RWANDA)

COMPÉTENCE DE LA COUR
ET RECEVABILITÉ DE LA REQUÊTE

ARMED ACTIVITIES ON THE TERRITORY
OF THE CONGO (NEW APPLICATION: 2002)

(DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF THE CONGO v. RWANDA)

JURISDICTION OF THE COURT
AND ADMISSIBILITY OF THE APPLICATION

3 FEBRUARY 2006

JUDGMENTPRINTED IN THE NETHERLANDS

ISSN 0074-4441
ISBN 92-1-071020-7 6

INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE

YEAR 2006 2006
3 February
General List
3 February 2006 No. 126

CASE CONCERNING ARMED ACTIVITIES

ON THE TERRITORY OF THE CONGO

(NEW APPLICATION: 2002)

(DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF THE CONGO v. RWANDA)

JURISDICTION OF THE COURT

AND ADMISSIBILITY OF THE APPLICATION

Present proceedings confined to the questions of the jurisdiction of the Court
and the admissibility of the DRC’s Application.

**

Jurisdiction of the Court — Applicant invoking 11 bases of jurisdiction.

*

(1) Article 30 of the Convention against Torture of 10 December 1984.
Rwanda not party to that Convention — DRC cannot invoke that instrument
as a basis of jurisdiction.
(2) Article 9 of the Convention on the Privileges and Immunities of the
Specialized Agencies of 21 November 1947.
Convention not invoked by the DRC in the final version of its argument —
Convention not taken into consideration by the Court in its Judgment.

*
(3) Forum prorogatum.

DRC’s contention that Rwanda’s agreement to plead amounts to acceptance
of the Court’s jurisdiction — Express and repeated objection by Rwanda to the
Court’s jurisdiction at every stage of the proceedings — Whether there has been
an unequivocal indication of voluntary and indisputable acceptance of the

4 ARMED ACTIVITIES (JUDGMENT ) 7

Court’s jurisdiction — Rwanda’s attitude cannot be interpreted as consent to the
Court’s jurisdiction over the merits of the dispute.

(4) Order of 10 July 2002 on the indication of provisional measures.
Absence of manifest lack of Court’s jurisdiction interpreted by the DRC as

acknowledgment by the Court of its jurisdiction — Non-removal of DRC’s
Application from the Court’s List — Object of present phase of proceedings is
precisely the Court’s further examination of the issue of its jurisdiction —
Absence of manifest lack of jurisdiction not amounting to acknowledgment by
the Court of its jurisdiction.

*
(5) Article IX of the Genocide Convention of 9 December 1948 — Reserva-
tion by Rwanda.
Whether Rwanda withdrew its reservation through the adoption of décret-
loi No. 014/01 of 15 February 1995 — Question of the validity and effect of the
décret-loi in Rwanda’s domestic legal order different from that of its effect in
the international legal order — Withdrawal by a contracting State of a reserva-

tion to a multilateral treaty having effect in relation to other contracting States
only when they have received notice thereof — No agreement whereby with-
drawal of the reservation could have become operative without notice — No
notice by Rwanda of such withdrawal received at international level — Adoption
and publication of the décret-loi not entailing, as a matter of international law,
Rwanda’s withdrawal of its reservation .
DRC’s contention that withdrawal of the reservation was corroborated by a
statement of 17 March 2005 by Rwanda’s Minister of Justice before the United
Nations Commission on Human Rights — Claim that this statement constituted
a unilateral undertaking having legal effects in regard to withdrawal of the
reservation — Capacity of a Minister of Justice to bind the State internationally
by statements in respect of matters falling within the Minister’s purview cannot
be ruled out merely because of the nature of the functions exercised — Exami-
nation of the legal effect of the Minister’s statement in light of its content and

of the circumstances in which it was made — Content of the statement not suf-
ficiently precise — Statement cannot be considered as confirmation by Rwanda
of a previous decision to withdraw its reservation or as a unilateral commitment
having legal effects in regard to such withdrawal — Statement having nature of
a declaration of intent, very general in scope — Whether statement could have
effect on the Court’s jurisdiction, given that it was made almost three years
after the institution of proceedings — Procedural defect which the Applicant
could easily remedy: should not be penalized by the Court.

DRC’s contention that Rwanda’s reservation was invalid because it sought to
prevent the Court from safeguarding peremptory norms — Erga omnes nature
of the rights and obligations enshrined in the Genocide Convention — Charac-

terization of the prohibition of genocide as a peremptory norm of general inter-
national law (jus cogens) — The fact that a norm having such character may be
at issue in a dispute cannot in itself provide a basis for the Court’s jurisdiction
to entertain that dispute — Court’s jurisdiction always based on consent of the
parties.
DRC’s contention that Rwanda’s reservation was invalid because incompat-
ible with the object and purpose of the Genocide Convention — Effect of the

5 ARMED ACTIVITIES (JUDGMENT ) 8

fact that Article 120 of the Statute of the International Criminal Court permits
no reservations to that Statute — Reservations not prohibited by the Genocide
Convention — This legal situation not altered by Article 120 of the Statute of
the International Criminal Court — Rwanda’s reservation bearing not on sub-
stantive obligations under the Genocide Convention but on the Court’s juris-

diction — Reservation not incompatible with the object and purpose of the
Genocide Convention.
DRC’s contention that the reservation conflicts with a peremptory norm of
general international law — No such norm requiring a State to consent to the
Court’s jurisdiction in order to settle a dispute relating to the Genocide Conven-
tion — Article IX of the Genocide Convention cannot constitute a basis for the
Court’s jurisdiction.

*
(6) Article 22 of the Convention on Racial Discrimination of 21 December
1965 — Reservation by Rwanda.
Whether Rwanda’s reservation withdrawn through the adoption of décret-loi

No. 014/01 of 15 February 1995 — DRC’s contention that withdrawal of the
reservation was corroborated by a statement of 17 March 2005 by Rwanda’s
Minister of Justice before the United Nations Commission on Human Rights —
Claim that this statement constituted a unilateral undertaking having legal
effects in regard to withdrawal of the reservation — Applicability mutatis
mutandis to this issue of the Court’s reasoning and findings regarding the
DRC’s claim that Rwanda had withdrawn its reservation to the Genocide Con-
vention — Procedures for withdrawal of a reservation to the Convention on
Racial Discrimination expressly provided for in Article 20, paragraph 3,
thereof — No notification to United Nations Secretary-General by Rwanda of
the withdrawal of its reservation — Rwanda having maintained its reservation.

DRC’s contention that Rwanda’s reservation was invalid because incompat-
ible with the object and purpose of the Convention — Under Article 20, para-

graph 2, of the Convention, reservations are to be considered incompatible with
the Convention’s object and purpose if at least two-thirds of States parties
object — Condition of Article 20, paragraph 2, not satisfied in respect of
Rwanda’s reservation to Article 22 — Applicability mutatis mutandis of the
Court’s reasoning and conclusions in respect of the DRC’s contention that
Rwanda’s reservation to the Genocide Convention was invalid — Reservation to
the Convention on Racial Discrimination not incompatible with the object
and purpose of that Convention.
DRC’s contention that the reservation conflicts with a peremptory norm of
general international law — Court’s reference to its reasons for dismissing the
DRC’s argument in respect of Rwanda’s reservation to Article IX of the Geno-
cide Convention — Article 22 of the Convention on Racial Discrimination can-
not constitute a basis for the Court’s jurisdiction.

*

(7) Article 29, paragraph 1, of the Convention on Discrimination against
Women of 18 December 1979.
DRC’s contention that an objection based on non-compliance with the pre-

6 ARMED ACTIVITIES (JUDGMENT ) 9

conditions provided for in Article 29 is an objection to admissibility of the Appli-
cation — Examination of the conditions determining the extent of acceptance of
the Court’s jurisdiction relates to the issue of its jurisdiction and not to the
admissibility of the Application — Conclusion applicable mutatis mutandis
to all the other compromissory clauses invoked by DRC — Conditions of

Article 29 cumulative — Whether preconditions for seisin of the Court satisfied —
DRC not having shown that its attempts to negotiate with Rwanda related to
settlement of a dispute concerning the interpretation or application of the Con-
vention — DRC having further not shown that it made a proposal to Rwanda
for the organization of arbitration proceedings to which the latter failed to
respond — Article 29, paragraph 1, of the Convention on Discrimination
against Women cannot serve to found the Court’s jurisdiction.

*

(8) Article 75 of the WHO Constitution of 22 July 1946.
Whether preconditions for seisin of Court satisfied — DRC not having
demonstrated the existence of a question or dispute concerning the interpreta-
tion or application of the WHO Constitution — DRC having further not proved
that it sought to settle the question or dispute by negotiation or that the World
Health Assembly could not have settled it — Article 75 of the WHO Constitu-

tion cannot serve to found the Court’s jurisdiction.

*

(9) Article XIV, paragraph 2, of the Unesco Constitution of 16 November
1945.
Whether preconditions for seisin of Court satisfied — DRC’s claim not
involving a question or dispute concerning interpretation of the Constitution —
DRC having further not shown that it followed the prior procedure for seisin of
the Court pursuant to Article XIV of the Unesco Constitution and Article 38 of
the Rules of Procedure of the Unesco General Conference — Article XIV, para-
graph 2, of the Unesco Constitution cannot serve to found the Court’s
jurisdiction.

*

(10) Article 14, paragraph 1, of the Montreal Convention for the Suppres-
sion of Unlawful Acts against the Safety of Civil Aviation of 23 September

1971.
Whether preconditions for seisin of Court satisfied — Dispute concerning
the interpretation or application of the Convention which could not have been
settled by negotiation: DRC not having indicated the specific provisions of
the Convention which could apply to its claims on the merits — DRC having
further not shown that it made a proposal to Rwanda for the organization
of arbitration proceedings to which the latter failed to respond — Article 14,

7 ARMED ACTIVITIES (JUDGMENT ) 10

paragraph 1, of the Montreal Convention cannot serve to found the Court’s
jurisdiction.

*

(11) Article 66 of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties of 23 May
1969.
Non-retroactivity of the Vienna Convention (Article 4) — Genocide Conven-
tion and Convention on Racial Discrimination concluded before the entry into

force between the Parties of the Vienna Convention — Rules in Article 66 of the
Vienna Convention not declaratory of customary international law — No agree-
ment between the Parties to apply Article 66 between themselves — Article 66
of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties cannot serve to found the
Court’s jurisdiction.

**
Admissibility of the DRC’s Application.
No jurisdiction to entertain the Application — Court not required to rule on

its admissibility.

**

Distinction between acceptance by States of the Court’s jurisdiction and the
conformity of their acts with international law — States remaining responsible
for acts attributable to them which are contrary to international law.

JUDGMENT

Present: President SHI; Vice-President R ANJEVA; Judges KOROMA ,
V ERESHCHETIN,H IGGIN,P ARRA -ARANGUREN ,K OOIJMANS,R EZEK,

A L-KHASAWNEH ,B UERGENTHAL ,E LARABY,O WADA ,S IMMA,T OMKA,
A BRAHAM ; Judges ad hoc DUGARD ,M AVUNGU ; Registrar OUVREUR.

In the case concerning armed activities on the territory of the Congo (new
Application: 2002),

between

the Democratic Republic of the Congo,

represented by
H.E. Maître Honorius Kisimba Ngoy Ndalewe, Minister of Justice and
Keeper of the Seals of the Democratic Republic of the Congo,

as Head of Delegation;
H.E. Mr. Jacques Masangu-a-Mwanza, Ambassador Extraordinary and

Plenipotentiary of the Democratic Republic of the Congo to the Kingdom
of the Netherlands,
as Agent;

8 ARMED ACTIVITIES (JUDGMENT ) 11

Mr. Ntumba Luaba Lumu, Secretary-General to the Government, Professor
of Law at the University of Kinshasa,
as Co-Agent and Counsel;

Mr. Lwamba Katansi, Professor at the Law Faculty of the University of
Kinshasa, avocat of the Kinshasa/Gombe Court of Appeal,
Mr. Mukadi Bonyi, Professor at the Law Faculty of the University of Kin-
shasa, avocat of the Supreme Court of Justice,
Mr. Akele Adau, Professor and Honorary Dean of the Law Faculty of the
University of Kinshasa, President of the Military High Court,

as Counsel and Advocates;
Maître Crispin Mutumbe Mbuya, Legal Adviser to the Minister of Justice
and Keeper of the Seals,
Mr. Victor Musompo Kasongo, Private Secretary to the Minister of Justice
and Keeper of the Seals,
Mr. Nsingi-zi-Mayemba, First Counsellor, Embassy of the Democratic
Republic of the Congo in the Netherlands,

Ms Marceline Masele, Second Counsellor, Embassy of the Democratic
Republic of the Congo in the Netherlands,
as Advisers;

Mr. Richard Lukunda,
as Assistant to Counsel and Advocates,

and

the Republic of Rwanda,
represented by

Mr. Martin Ngoga, Deputy Prosecutor General of the Republic of
Rwanda,
as Agent;

H.E. Mr. Joseph Bonesha, Ambassador of the Republic of Rwanda to the
Kingdom of Belgium,
as Deputy Agent;

Mr. Christopher Greenwood, C.M.G., Q.C., Professor of International Law
at the London School of Economics and Political Science, member of the
English Bar,
Ms Jessica Wells, member of the English Bar,

as Counsel;
Ms Susan Greenwood,

as Secretary,

T HE COURT ,

composed as above,
after deliberation,

delivers the following Judgment:

1. On 28 May 2002 the Government of the Democratic Republic of the

9 ARMED ACTIVITIES (JUDGMENT ) 12

Congo (hereinafter “the DRC”) filed in the Registry of the Court an Appli-
cation instituting proceedings against the Republic of Rwanda (hereinafter
“Rwanda”) in respect of a dispute concerning “massive, serious and flagrant
violations of human rights and of international humanitarian law” alleged to
have been committed “in breach of the ‘International Bill of Human Rights’,

other relevant international instruments and mandatory resolutions of the
United Nations Security Council”; in that Application the DRC stated that
“[the] flagrant and serious violations [of human rights and of international
humanitarian law]” of which it complained “result from acts of armed aggres-
sion perpetrated by Rwanda on the territory of the Democratic Republic of
the Congo in flagrant breach of the sovereignty and territorial integrity of [the
latter], as guaranteed by the Charters of the United Nations and the Organiza-
tion of African Unity”.
In order to found the jurisdiction of the Court, the DRC, referring to
Article 36, paragraph 1, of the Statute, invoked in its Application: Article 22
of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial
Discrimination of 21 December 1965 (hereinafter the “Convention on Racial
Discrimination”); Article 29, paragraph 1, of the Convention on the Elimina-

tion of All Forms of Discrimination against Women of 18 December 1979
(hereinafter the “Convention on Discrimination against Women”); Article IX
of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Geno-
cide of 9 December 1948 (hereinafter the “Genocide Convention”); Article 75
of the Constitution of the World Health Organization of 22 July 1946 (here-
inafter the “WHO Constitution”); Article XIV, paragraph 2, of the Constitu-
tion of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
of 16 November 1945 (hereinafter the “Unesco Constitution”) and Article 9
of the Convention on the Privileges and Immunities of the Specialized Agencies
of 21 November 1947 (hereinafter “the Convention on Privileges and Immuni-
ties”); Article 30, paragraph 1, of the Convention against Torture and Other
Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment of 10 December 1984
(hereinafter the “Convention against Torture”); and Article 14, paragraph 1,
of the Montreal Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts against

the Safety of Civil Aviation of 23 September 1971 (hereinafter the “Montreal
Convention”).

The DRC further contended in its Application that Article 66 of the Vienna
Convention on the Law of Treaties of 23 May 1969 established the jurisdiction
of the Court to settle disputes arising from the violation of peremptory norms
(jus cogens) in the area of human rights, as those norms were reflected in a
number of international instruments.
2. On 28 May 2002, immediately after filing its Application, the DRC also
submitted a request for the indication of provisional measures pursuant to
Article 41 of the Statute of the Court and Articles 73 and 74 of its Rules.

3. In accordance with Article 38, paragraph 4, and Article 73, paragraph 2,

of the Rules, on 28 May 2002 the Registrar transmitted certified copies of the
Application and of the request to the Rwandan Government; in accordance
with Article 40, paragraph 3, of the Statute, all States entitled to appear before
the Court were notified of the Application.
4. Since the Court included upon the Bench no judge of the nationality
of the Parties, each of them availed itself of the right conferred upon it by
Article 31 of the Statute to choose a judge ad hoc to sit in the case. The DRC

10 ARMED ACTIVITIES (JUDGMENT ) 13

chose Mr. Jean-Pierre Mavungu, and Rwanda Mr. Christopher John Robert
Dugard.
5. At the hearings on the request for the indication of provisional measures
submitted by the DRC, held on 13 and 14 June 2002, Rwanda asked the Court
to remove the case from the List for manifest lack of jurisdiction.

By Order of 10 July 2002 the Court, after hearing the Parties, found that it
lacked prima facie jurisdiction to indicate the provisional measures requested
by the DRC. The Court also rejected Rwanda’s request that the case be
removed from the List.

6. At a meeting held on 4 September 2002 by the President of the Court with
the Agents of the Parties pursuant to Article 31 of the Rules of Court, Rwanda
proposed that the procedure provided for in Article 79, paragraphs 2 and 3, of
the Rules of Court be followed, and that the questions of jurisdiction and
admissibility in the case therefore be determined separately before any proceed-
ings on the merits; the DRC stated that it would leave the decision in this
regard to the Court. At the conclusion of that meeting the Parties agreed that,

in the event that this procedure was followed, Rwanda would first present a
Memorial dealing exclusively with those questions, to which the DRC would
reply in a Counter-Memorial confined to the same questions.
By Order of 18 September 2002 the Court, taking account of the views of the
Parties regarding the procedure to be followed and the time-limits to be fixed,
decided that the written pleadings would first be addressed to the questions of
the jurisdiction of the Court to entertain the Application and of its admissibil-
ity and fixed 20 January 2003 and 20 May 2003 as respective time-limits for the
filing of a Memorial by Rwanda and of a Counter-Memorial by the DRC.
The Memorial and Counter-Memorial were filed within the time-limits so
prescribed.
7. In accordance with instructions given by the Court under Article 43 of the
Rules of Court, the Registry sent the notification provided for in Article 63,
paragraph 1, of the Statute to all the States parties to the Convention on Dis-

crimination against Women, the WHO Constitution, the Unesco Constitution,
the Montreal Convention and the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties.

In accordance likewise with instructions given by the Court under Article 69,
paragraph 3, of the Rules of Court, the Registry sent the notifications provided
for in Article 34, paragraph 3, of the Statute and communicated copies of the
written pleadings to the Secretary-General of the United Nations in respect of
the Convention on Discrimination against Women; to the Director-General
of the WHO in respect of the WHO Constitution; to the Director-General of
Unesco in respect of the Unesco Constitution and to the Secretary General of
the International Civil Aviation Organization in respect of the Montreal Con-
vention. The organizations concerned were also asked whether they intended to
submit observations in writing within the meaning of Article 69, paragraph 3,

of the Rules of Court. None of them expressed the wish to do so.

8. Pursuant to Article 53, paragraph 2, of its Rules, the Court, after ascer-
taining the views of the Parties, decided that copies of the pleadings and docu-
ments annexed would be made accessible to the public on the opening of the
oral proceedings.

11 ARMED ACTIVITIES (JUDGMENT ) 14

9. Public hearings were held between 4 and 8 July 2005, at which the Court
heard the oral arguments and replies of:

For Rwanda: Mr. Martin Ngoga,
Mr. Christopher Greenwood,
Ms Jessica Wells.
For the DRC: H.E. Mr. Jacques Masangu-a-Mwanza,

Mr. Akele Adau,
Mr. Lwamba Katansi,
Mr. Ntumba Luaba Lumu,
Mr. Mukadi Bonyi.

*

10. On the instructions of the Court, on 11 July 2005 the Registrar wrote to
the Parties asking them to send him copies of a certain number of documents
referred to by them at the hearings. Rwanda furnished the Court with copies
of those documents under cover of a letter dated 27 July 2005 received in the
Registry on 28 July 2005, to which were appended two notes from, respec-
tively, Rwanda’s Minister of Justice and the President of its Chamber of Depu-
ties. The DRC supplied the Court with copies of the requested documents

under cover of two letters dated 29 July and 10 August 2005 and received in
the Registry on 1 and 12 August respectively.

*

11. In its Application the DRC made the following requests:

“Accordingly, while reserving the right to supplement and amplify this
claim in the course of the proceedings, the Democratic Republic of the
Congo requests the Court to:
Adjudge and declare that:

(a) Rwanda has violated and is violating the United Nations Charter
(Article 2, paragraphs 3 and 4) by violating the human rights which
are the goal pursued by the United Nations through the maintenance
of international peace and security, as well as Articles 3 and 4 of the
Charter of the Organization of African Unity;
(b) Rwanda has violated the International Bill of Human Rights, as well
as the main instruments protecting human rights, including, inter
alia, the Convention on the Elimination of Discrimination against
Women, the International Convention on the Elimination of All
Forms of Racial Discrimination, the Convention against Torture and
Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment, the
Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of
Genocide of 9 December 1948, the Constitution of the WHO, the

Constitution of Unesco;
(c) by shooting down a Boeing 727 owned by Congo Airlines on
[10] October 1998 in Kindu, thereby causing the death of 40 civilians,
Rwanda also violated the United Nations Charter, the Convention
on International Civil Aviation of 7 December 1944 signed at
Chicago, the Hague Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful
Seizure of Aircraft of 16 December 1970 and the Montreal Conven-

12 ARMED ACTIVITIES (JUDGMENT ) 15

tion for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts against the Safety of Civil
Aviation of 23 September 1971;
(d) by killing, massacring, raping, throat-cutting, and crucifying, Rwanda
is guilty of genocide against more than 3,500,000 Congolese, includ-
ing the victims of the recent massacres in the city of Kisangani, and

has violated the sacred right to life provided for in the Universal Dec-
laration of Human Rights and in the International Covenant on Civil
and Political Rights, the Convention on the Prevention and Punish-
ment of the Crime of Genocide and other relevant international legal
instruments.
In consequence, and in accordance with the international legal obliga-
tions referred to above, to adjudge and declare that:

(1) all Rwandan armed forces responsible for the aggression shall forth-
with quit the territory of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, so as
to enable the Congolese people to enjoy in full their rights to peace, to
security, to their resources and to development;
(2) Rwanda is under an obligation to procure the immediate, uncondi-
tional withdrawal of its armed and other forces from Congolese terri-
tory;
(3) the Democratic Republic of the Congo is entitled to compensation
from Rwanda for all acts of looting, destruction, massacre, removal of

property and persons and other acts of wrongdoing imputable to
Rwanda, in respect of which the Democratic Republic of the Congo
reserves the right to establish a precise assessment of injury at a later
date, in addition to restitution of the property taken.
It also reserves the right in the course of the proceedings to claim other
injury suffered by it and its people.”

12. In the written proceedings, the following submissions were presented by
the Parties:

On behalf of the Rwandan Government,

in the Memorial:
“Accordingly, Rwanda requests the Court to adjudge and declare that:

The Court lacks jurisdiction to entertain the claims brought by the
Democratic Republic of the Congo. In addition, the claims brought by the
Democratic Republic of the Congo are inadmissible.”

On behalf of the Government of the Democratic Republic of the Congo,
in the Counter-Memorial:

“For these reasons, may it please the Court,
To find that the objections to jurisdiction raised by Rwanda are

unfounded;
To find that the objections to admissibility raised by Rwanda are
unfounded;
And, consequently, to find that the Court has jurisdiction to entertain
the case on the merits and that the Application of the Democratic Repub-
lic of the Congo is admissible as submitted;
To decide to proceed with the case.”

13 ARMED ACTIVITIES JUDGMENT ) 16

13. At the hearings, the following submissions were presented by the Parties:

On behalf of the Rwandan Government,
at the hearing of 6 July 2005:

“For the reasons given in our written preliminary objection and at the
oral hearings, the Republic of Rwanda requests the Court to adjudge and
declare that:

1. it lacks jurisdiction over the claims brought against the Republic of
Rwanda by the Democratic Republic of the Congo; and

2. in the alternative, that the claims brought against the Republic of
Rwanda by the Democratic Republic of the Congo are inadmissible.”

On behalf of the Congolese Government,
at the hearing of 8 July 2005:

“May it please the Court,
1. to find that the objections to jurisdiction and admissibility raised by
Rwanda are unfounded;
2. consequently, to find that the Court has jurisdiction to entertain the
case on the merits and that the Application of the Democratic Republic
of the Congo is admissible as submitted;

3. to decide to proceed with the case on the merits.”

* * *

14. The Court notes first of all that at the present stage of the proceed-
ings it cannot consider any matter relating to the merits of this dispute
between the DRC and Rwanda. In accordance with the decision taken in

its Order of 18 September 2002 (see paragraph 6 above), the Court is
required to address only the questions of whether it is competent to hear
the dispute and whether the DRC’s Application is admissible.

* * *

15. In order to found the jurisdiction of the Court in this case, the
DRC relies in its Application on a certain number of compromissory
clauses in international conventions, namely: Article 22 of the Conven-
tion on Racial Discrimination; Article 29, paragraph 1, of the Conven-

tion on Discrimination against Women; Article IX of the Genocide Con-
vention; Article 75 of the WHO Constitution; Article XIV, paragraph 2,
of the Unesco Constitution and Article 9 of the Convention on Privileges
and Immunities; Article 30, paragraph 1, of the Convention against Tor-
ture; and Article 14, paragraph 1, of the Montreal Convention. It further

contends that Article 66 of the Vienna Convention on the Law of
Treaties establishes the jurisdiction of the Court to settle disputes arising
from the violation of peremptory norms (jus cogens) in the area of

14 ARMED ACTIVITIES (JUDGMENT ) 17

human rights, as those norms are reflected in a number of international
instruments (see paragraph 1 above).

For its part Rwanda contends that none of these instruments cited by
the DRC “or rules of customary international law can found the jurisdic-
tion of the Court in the present case”. In the alternative, Rwanda argues
that, even if one or more of the compromissory clauses invoked by the

DRC were to be found by the Court to be titles giving it jurisdiction
to entertain the Application, the latter would be “nevertheless inadmis-
sible”.

*

16. The Court will begin by recalling that, in its Order of 10 July 2002
(I.C.J. Reports 2002, p. 242, para. 61), it noted Rwanda’s statement that
it “is not, and never has been, party to the 1984 Convention against Tor-
ture”, and found that such was indeed the case. In its Memorial on juris-
diction and admissibility (hereinafter “Memorial”) Rwanda maintained

its contention that it was not a party to this Convention and that, accord-
ingly, that Convention manifestly could not provide a basis for the
jurisdiction of the Court in these proceedings. The DRC did not
raise any argument in response to this contention by Rwanda, either in
its Counter-Memorial on jurisdiction and admissibility (hereinafter

“Counter-Memorial”) or at the hearings. The Court accordingly con-
cludes that the DRC cannot rely upon the Convention against Torture
as a basis of jurisdiction in this case.

17. The Court further recalls that in the above-mentioned Order (ibid.,

p. 243, para. 62) it also stated that, in the final form of its argument, the
DRC did not appear to found the jurisdiction of the Court on the Con-
vention on Privileges and Immunities, and that the Court was accord-
ingly not required to take that instrument into consideration in the
context of the request for the indication of provisional measures. Since

the DRC has also not sought to invoke that instrument in the present
phase of the proceedings, the Court will not take it into consideration
in the present Judgment.

**

18. The Court notes moreover that, both in its Counter-Memorial and
at the hearings, the DRC began by seeking to found the jurisdiction of
the Court on two additional bases: respectively, the doctrine of forum
prorogatum and the Court’s Order of 10 July 2002 on the DRC’s request
for the indication of provisional measures. The Court will first examine

these two bases of jurisdiction relied on by the DRC before then proceed-
ing to consider the compromissory clauses which the DRC invokes.

15 ARMED ACTIVITIES (JUDGMENT ) 18

In accordance with its established jurisprudence, the Court will
examine the issue of the admissibility of the DRC’s Application only

should it find that it has jurisdiction to entertain that Application.

*
* *

19. The DRC argues, first, that the willingness of a State to submit a
dispute to the Court may be apparent not only from an express declara-
tion but also from any conclusive act, in particular from the conduct of
the respondent State subsequent to seisin of the Court. In particular it
contends that “the Respondent’s agreement to plead implies that it

accepts the Court’s jurisdiction”. In this regard the DRC cites the fact
that Rwanda has “complied with all the procedural steps prescribed or
requested by the Court”, that it has “fully and properly participated in
the different procedures in this case, without having itself represented or
failing to appear”, and that “it has not refused to appear before the
Court or to make submissions”.

20. For its part Rwanda contends that the DRC’s argument is without
foundation, since in this case there has been no “voluntary and indisput-
able acceptance of the Court’s jurisdiction”. Rwanda points out that it
has, on the contrary, consistently asserted that the Court has no jurisdic-
tion and that it has appeared solely for the purpose of challenging that

jurisdiction. Rwanda further observes that “if [the DRC’s argument] is
right, then there is no way that a State can challenge the jurisdiction of
[the] Court without conceding that the Court has jurisdiction”, and that
therefore “[t]he only safe course . . . is for a respondent State not to
appear before the Court at all”. It contends that this argument by the

DRC flies in the face of the Statute of the Court, its Rules and its juris-
prudence.

*

21. The Court recalls its jurisprudence, as well as that of its predeces-
sor, the Permanent Court of International Justice, regarding the forms
which the parties’ expression of their consent to its jurisdiction may take.
According to that jurisprudence, “neither the Statute nor the Rules
require that this consent should be expressed in any particular form”,
and “there is nothing to prevent the acceptance of jurisdiction . . . from

being effected by two separate and successive acts, instead of jointly and
beforehand by a special agreement” (Corfu Channel (United Kingdom v.
Albania), Preliminary Objection, Judgment, 1948, I.C.J. Reports 1947-
1948, pp. 27-28; see also Rights of Minorities in Upper Silesia (Minority
Schools), Judgment No. 12, 1928, P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 15 , p. 23). The

attitude of the respondent State must, however, be capable of being
regarded as “an unequivocal indication” of the desire of that State to
accept the Court’s jurisdiction in a “voluntary and indisputable” manner

16 ARMED ACTIVITIES (JUDGMENT ) 19

(Corfu Channel (United Kingdom v. Albania), Preliminary Objection,
Judgment, 1948, I.C.J. Reports 1947-1948 , p. 27); Application of the

Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide
(Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Yugoslavia (Serbia and Montenegro), Pro-
visional Measures, Order of 13 September 1993, I.C.J. Reports 1993 ,
p. 342, para. 34; see also Rights of Minorities in Upper Silesia (Minority
Schools), Judgment No. 12, 1928, P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 15 , p. 24).

22. In the present case the Court will confine itself to noting that
Rwanda has expressly and repeatedly objected to its jurisdiction at every
stage of the proceedings (see Armed Activities on the Territory of the
Congo (New Application: 2002) (Democratic Republic of the Congo v.
Rwanda), Provisional Measures, Order of 10 July 2002, I.C.J. Reports

2002, pp. 234, 238). Rwanda’s attitude therefore cannot be regarded as
“an unequivocal indication” of its desire to accept the jurisdiction of the
Court in a “voluntary and indisputable” manner. The fact, as the DRC
has pointed out, that Rwanda has “fully and properly participated in the
different procedures in this case, without having itself represented or fail-
ing to appear”, and that “it has not refused to appear before the Court or

make submissions”, cannot be interpreted as consent to the Court’s juris-
diction over the merits, inasmuch as the very purpose of this participa-
tion was to challenge that jurisdiction (Anglo-Iranian Oil Co. (United
Kingdom v. Iran), Preliminary Objection, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1952 ,
pp. 113-114).

* * *

23. To found the jurisdiction of the Court in this case, the DRC also

relies on one of the Court’s findings in its Order of 10 July 2002, whereby
it stated that, “in the absence of a manifest lack of jurisdiction, the Court
cannot grant Rwanda’s request that the case be removed from the List”.
In the DRC’s view, this finding of an “absence of a manifest lack of juris-
diction” could be interpreted as an acknowledgment by the Court that it

has jurisdiction. Thus the DRC has expressed its belief that, “in rejecting
Rwanda’s request for the removal from the List of the application on the
merits, the Court could only have intended that crimes such as those
committed by the Respondent must not remain unpunished”.

24. On this point, for its part Rwanda recalls that in this same Order

the Court clearly stated that the findings reached by it at that stage in the
proceedings in no way prejudged the question of its jurisdiction to deal
with the merits of the case. Rwanda observes in this regard that a finding
by the Court in an Order of this kind that there is no manifest lack of
jurisdiction, coupled, moreover, with a finding that there is no prima facie

basis for jurisdiction, cannot afford any support to the argument of a
State seeking to establish the Court’s jurisdiction. Rwanda points out
that “[t]he Court does not possess jurisdiction simply because there is an

17 ARMED ACTIVITIES JUDGMENT ) 20

absence of a manifest lack of jurisdiction; it possesses jurisdiction only if
there is a positive presence of jurisdiction”.

*

25. The Court observes that, given the urgency which, ex hypothesi,
characterizes the consideration of requests for the indication of provi-

sional measures, it does not normally at that stage take a definitive deci-
sion on its jurisdiction. It does so only if it is apparent from the outset
that there is no basis on which jurisdiction could lie, and that it therefore
cannot entertain the case. Where the Court finds such a manifest lack of
jurisdiction, considerations of the sound administration of justice dictate

that it remove the case in question from the List (Legality of Use of Force
(Yugoslavia v. Spain), Order of 2 June 1999, I.C.J. Reports 1999 (II) ,
pp. 773-774, para. 40; Legality of Use of Force (Yugoslavia v. United
States of America), Order of 2 June 1999, I.C.J. Reports 1999 (II) ,
pp. 925-926, para. 34). Where, on the other hand, the Court is unable to
conclude that it manifestly lacks jurisdiction, it retains the case on the

List and reserves the right subsequently to consider further the question
of jurisdiction, making it clear, as it did in its Order of 10 July 2002, that
“the findings reached by [it] in the present proceedings in no way pre-
judge the question of [its] jurisdiction . . . to deal with the merits of the
case or any questions relating to the admissibility of the Application, or

relating to the merits themselves” (Armed Activities on the Territory
of the Congo (New Application: 2002) (Democratic Republic of the
Congo v. Rwanda), Provisional Measures, Order of 10 July 2002, I.C.J.
Reports 2002, p. 249, para. 90; see also Anglo-Iranian Oil Co. (United
Kingdom v. Iran), Interim Protection, Order of 5 July 1951, I.C.J.

Reports 1951, p. 114; Fisheries Jurisdiction (Federal Republic of Ger-
many v. Iceland), Interim Protection, Order of 17 August 1972, I.C.J.
Reports 1972, p. 34, para. 21; Military and Paramilitary Activities in and
against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v. United States of America), Provisional
Measures, Order of 10 May 1984, I.C.J. Reports 1984 , p. 186, para. 40;

Arbitral Award of 31 July 1989 (Guinea-Bissau v. Senegal), Provisional
Measures, Order of 2 March 1990, I.C.J. Reports 1990 , p. 69, para. 23;
Legality of Use of Force (Yugoslavia v. Belgium), Provisional Measures,
Order of 2 June 1999, I.C.J. Reports 1999 (II) , pp. 139-140, para. 46).

The fact that in its Order of 10 July 2002 the Court did not conclude
that it manifestly lacked jurisdiction cannot therefore amount to an
acknowledgment that it has jurisdiction. On the contrary, from the outset
the Court had serious doubts regarding its jurisdiction to entertain the
DRC’s Application, for in that same Order it justified its refusal to indi-

cate provisional measures by the lack of prima facie jurisdiction. In
declining Rwanda’s request to remove the case from the List, the Court
simply reserved the right fully to examine further the issue of its jurisdic-

18 ARMED ACTIVITIES (JUDGMENT ) 21

tion at a later stage. It is precisely such a further examination which is the
object of the present phase of the proceedings.

* * *

26. Having concluded that the two additional bases of jurisdiction
invoked by the DRC cannot be accepted, the Court must now consider

the compromissory clauses referred to in the Application, with the excep-
tion of those contained in the Convention against Torture and the Con-
vention on Privileges and Immunities (see paragraphs 16 and 17 above).

27. The Court will examine in the following order the compromissory

clauses invoked by the DRC: Article IX of the Genocide Convention;
Article 22 of the Convention on Racial Discrimination; Article 29, para-
graph 1, of the Convention on Discrimination against Women; Article 75
of the WHO Constitution; Article XIV, paragraph 2, of the Unesco
Constitution; Article 14, paragraph 1, of the Montreal Convention;
Article 66 of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties.

* * *

28. In its Application the DRC contends that Rwanda has violated
Articles II and III of the Genocide Convention.

Article II of that Convention prohibits:
“any of the following acts committed with intent to destroy, in

whole or in part, a national, ethnical, racial or religious group, as
such:
(a) Killing members of the group;
(b) Causing serious bodily or mental harm to members of the

group;
(c) Deliberately inflicting on the group conditions of life calculated
to bring about its physical destruction in whole or in part;
(d) Imposing measures intended to prevent births within the group;
(e) Forcibly transferring children of the group to another group.”

Article III provides:

“The following acts shall be punishable:
(a) Genocide;

(b) Conspiracy to commit genocide;
(c) Direct and public incitement to commit genocide;
(d) Attempt to commit genocide;
(e) Complicity in genocide.”

In order to found the jurisdiction of the Court to entertain its claim,
the DRC invokes Article IX of the Convention, which reads as follows:

19 ARMED ACTIVITIES (JUDGMENT ) 22

“Disputes between the Contracting Parties relating to the interpre-
tation, application or fulfilment of the present Convention, including

those relating to the responsibility of a State for genocide or for any
of the other acts enumerated in article III, shall be submitted to the
International Court of Justice at the request of any of the parties to
the dispute.”

29. Rwanda argued in its Memorial that the jurisdiction of the Court
under the Genocide Convention was excluded by its reservation to the
entirety of Article IX. In its Counter-Memorial the DRC disputed the
validity of that reservation. At the hearings it further contended that

Rwanda had withdrawn its reservation; to that end it cited a Rwandan
décret-loi of 15 February 1995 and a statement of 17 March 2005 by
Rwanda’s Minister of Justice at the Sixty-first Session of the United
Nations Commission on Human Rights. Rwanda has denied the DRC’s
contention that it has withdrawn its reservation to Article IX of the

Genocide Convention. The Court will therefore begin by examining
whether Rwanda has in fact withdrawn its reservation. Only if it finds
that Rwanda has maintained its reservation will the Court need to
address the DRC’s arguments concerning the reservation’s validity.

**

30. As just stated, the DRC claimed at the hearings that Rwanda had
withdrawn its reservation to Article IX of the Genocide Convention.
Thus the DRC argued that, in Article 15 of the Protocol of Agreement
on Miscellaneous Issues and Final Provisions signed between the
Government of Rwanda and the Rwandan Patriotic Front at Arusha on

3 August 1993, Rwanda undertook to withdraw all reservations made by
it when it became party to treaty instruments “on human rights”. The
DRC contends that Rwanda implemented that undertaking by adopting
décret-loi No. 014/01 of 15 February 1995, whereby the Broad-Based
Transitional Government allegedly withdrew all reservations made by

Rwanda at the accession, approval and ratification of international instru-
ments relating to human rights.
31. In this regard the DRC observed that the Arusha Peace Agreement
concluded on 4 August 1993 between the Government of Rwanda and
the Rwandan Patriotic Front, of which the above-mentioned Protocol
forms an integral part, was not a mere internal political agreement,

as Rwanda contended, but a text which under Rwandan law, namely
Article 1 of the Fundamental Law of the Rwandese Republic adopted by
the Transitional National Assembly on 26 May 1995, formed part
of the “constitutional ensemble”. The DRC argued, furthermore, that
Rwanda’s contention that décret-loi No. 014/01 had fallen into desuetude

or lapsed because it was not confirmed by the new parliament was
unfounded. According to the DRC, “[i]f the Rwandan parliament did not
confirm the Order in Council, without, however leaving any trace of this

20 ARMED ACTIVITIES (JUDGMENT ) 23

volte-face, that is neither more nor less than . . . a ‘wrongful act’; and it
was a universal principle of law that ‘no one may profit by his own wrong-

doing’”. The DRC maintained moreover that the décret-loi was not sub-
ject to the procedure of approval by parliament, since, under Congolese
and Rwandan law, both of which had been influenced by Belgian law, a
décret-loi was a measure enacted by the executive branch in cases of
emergency when parliament is in recess; if these conditions were satisfied,

parliamentary approval was not necessary, save in the case of a consti-
tutional décret-loi, which was not the case for décret-loi No. 014/01.
32. The DRC further argued that the fact that withdrawal of the reser-
vation was not notified to the United Nations Secretary-General could
not be relied on against third States, since Rwanda expressed its intention

to withdraw the reservation in a legislative text, namely the décret-loi of
15 February 1995. According to the DRC, the failure to notify that
décret-loi to the United Nations Secretary-General has no relevance in
this case, since it is not the act of notification to an international organi-
zation which gives validity “to a domestic administrative enactment, but
rather its promulgation and/or publication by the competent national

authority”.
33. Finally, the DRC contended that Rwanda’s withdrawal of its reser-
vation to Article IX of the Genocide Convention was corroborated by a
statement by the latter’s Minister of Justice on 17 March 2005 at the
Sixty-first Session of the United Nations Commission on Human Rights.

The Minister there announced that “the few [human rights] instruments
not yet ratified” at that date by Rwanda, as well as reservations “not yet
withdrawn”, would “shortly be ratified . . . [or] withdrawn”. In the
DRC’s view, this statement meant that there were reservations, including
that made by Rwanda in respect of Article IX of the Genocide Conven-

tion, which had already been withdrawn by that State in 1995. The DRC
added that the statement by the Rwandan Minister of Justice “gave
material form at international level to the . . . decision taken by the
Rwandan Government [in February 1995] to withdraw all reservations to
human rights treaties”, and that this statement, “made within one of the

most representative forums of the international community, the United
Nations Commission on Human Rights, . . . [did] indeed bind the
Rwandan State”.

34. For its part, Rwanda contended at the hearings that it had never
taken any measure to withdraw its reservation to Article IX of the Geno-

cide Convention.
As regards the Arusha Peace Agreement of 4 August 1993, Rwanda
considered that this was not an international instrument but a series of
agreements concluded between the Government of Rwanda and the
Rwandan Patriotic Front, that is to say an internal agreement which did

not create any obligation on Rwanda’s part to another State or to the
international community as a whole.
Rwanda further observed that Article 15 of the Protocol of Agreement

21 ARMED ACTIVITIES (JUDGMENT ) 24

on Miscellaneous Issues and Final Provisions of 3 August 1993 made no
express reference to the Genocide Convention and did not specify whether

the reservations referred to comprised both those concerning procedural
provisions, including provisions relating to the jurisdiction of the Court,
and those concerning substantive provisions.
35. In regard to décret-loi No. 014/01 of 15 February 1995, Rwanda
pointed out that this text, like Article 15 of the Protocol of Agreement,

was drawn in very general terms, since it “authorized the withdrawal of
all reservations entered into by Rwanda to all international agreements”.
Rwanda further stated that, “under the constitutional instruments then
in force in Rwanda, a decree of this kind had to be approved by Parlia-
ment — at that time called the Transitional National Assembly — at its

session immediately following the adoption of the decree”. Rwanda
points out that, at the session immediately following the adoption of
décret-loi No. 014/01, which took place between 12 April and 11 July 1995,
the Order was not approved, and therefore lapsed.

36. Rwanda further observed that it had never notified withdrawal of

its reservation to Article IX of the Genocide Convention to the United
Nations Secretary-General, or taken any measure to withdraw it, and
that only such formal action on the international plane could constitute
the definitive position of a State in regard to its treaty obligations.

37. Regarding the statement made on 17 March 2005 at the Sixty-first
Session of the United Nations Commission on Human Rights by its Min-
ister of Justice, Rwanda contends that in her speech the Minister simply
restated Rwanda’s intention to lift “unspecified” reservations to “unspeci-
fied” human rights treaties “at some time in the future”. Rwanda notes

that the statement was inconsistent with the argument of the DRC that it
had already withdrawn those same reservations in 1995. It further
observes that the statement could not bind it or oblige it to withdraw “a
particular reservation”, since it was made by a Minister of Justice and
not by a Foreign Minister or Head of Government, “with automatic

authority to bind the State in matters of international relations”. Finally,
Rwanda asserts that a statement given in a forum such as the United
Nations Commission on Human Rights, almost three years after the
institution of the present proceedings before the Court, cannot have any
effect on the issue of jurisdiction, which “has to be judged by reference to
the situation as it existed at the date the Application was filed”.

*

38. The Court notes that both the DRC and Rwanda are parties to the
Genocide Convention, the DRC having acceded on 31 May 1962 and

22 ARMED ACTIVITIES (JUDGMENT ) 25

Rwanda on 16 April 1975. The Court observes, however, that Rwanda’s
instrument of accession to the Convention, as deposited with the

Secretary-General of the United Nations, contains a reservation worded
as follows: “The Rwandese Republic does not consider itself as bound
by Article IX of the Convention.”
39. The Court also notes that the Parties take opposing views, first on
whether, in adopting décret-loi No. 014/01 of 15 February 1995, Rwanda

effectively withdrew its reservation to Article IX of the Genocide Con-
vention and, secondly, on the question of the legal effect of the statement
by Rwanda’s Minister of Justice at the Sixty-first Session of the United
Nations Commission on Human Rights. The Court will accordingly
address in turn each of these two questions.

40. In regard to the first question, the Court notes that an instrument
entitled “Décret-loi No. 014/01 of 15 February 1995 withdrawing all
reservations entered by the Rwandese Republic at the accession, approval
and ratification of international instruments” was adopted on 15 Febru-
ary 1995 by the President of the Rwandese Republic following an

Opinion of the Council of Ministers and was countersigned by the Prime
Minister and Minister of Justice of the Rwandese Republic. Article 1 of this
décret-loi, which contains three articles, provides that “[a]ll reservations
entered by the Rwandese Republic in respect of the accession, approval
and ratification of international instruments are withdrawn”; Article 2

states that “[a]ll prior provisions contrary to the present décret-loi are
abrogated”; while Article 3 provides that “[t]his décret-loi shall enter into
force on the day of its publication in the Official Journal of the Rwandese
Republic”. The décret-loi was published in the Official Journal of the
Rwandese Republic, on a date of which the Court has not been apprised,

and entered into force.
41. The validity of this décret-loi under Rwandan domestic law has
been denied by Rwanda. However, in the Court’s view the question of the
validity and effect of the décret-loi within the domestic legal order of
Rwanda is different from that of its effect within the international legal

order. Thus a clear distinction has to be drawn between a decision to with-
draw a reservation to a treaty taken within a State’s domestic legal order
and the implementation of that decision by the competent national authori-
ties within the international legal order, which can be effected only by noti-
fication of withdrawal of the reservation to the other States parties to the
treaty in question. It is a rule of international law, deriving from the prin-

ciple of legal security and well established in practice, that, subject to agree-
ment to the contrary, the withdrawal by a contracting State of a reser-
vation to a multilateral treaty takes effect in relation to the other con-
tracting States only when they have received notification thereof. This rule
is expressed in Article 22, paragraph 3(a), of the Vienna Convention

on the Law of Treaties, which provides as follows: “3. Unless the Treaty
otherwise provides, or it is otherwise agreed:(a) the withdrawal of a reser-
vation becomes operative in relation to another Contracting State only when

23 ARMED ACTIVITIES (JUDGMENT ) 26

notice of it has been received by that State.” Article 23, paragraph 4, of
that same Convention further provides that “[t]he withdrawal of a reserva-

tion or of an objection to a reservation must be formulated in writing”.
42. The Court observes that in this case it has not been shown that
Rwanda notified the withdrawal of its reservations to the other States
parties to the “international instruments” referred to in Article 1 of
décret-loi No. 014/01 of 15 February 1995, and in particular to the States

parties to the Genocide Convention. Nor has it been shown that there
was any agreement whereby such withdrawal could have become opera-
tive without notification. In the Court’s view, the adoption of that décret-
loi and its publication in the Official Journal of the Rwandese Republic
cannot in themselves amount to such notification. In order to have effect

in international law, the withdrawal would have had to be the subject of
a notice received at the international level.
43. The Court notes that, as regards the Genocide Convention, the
Government of Rwanda has taken no action at international level on the
basis of the décret-loi. It observes that this Convention is a multilateral
treaty whose depositary is the Secretary-General of the United Nations,

and it considers that it was normally through the latter that Rwanda
should have notified withdrawal of its reservation. Thus the Court notes
that, although the Convention does not deal with the question of reser-
vations, Article XVII thereof confers particular responsibilities on the
United Nations Secretary-General in respect of notifications to States

parties to the Convention or entitled to become parties; it is thus in prin-
ciple through the medium of the Secretary-General that such States must
be informed both of the making of a reservation to the Convention and
of its withdrawal. Rwanda notified its reservation to Article IX of the
Genocide Convention to the Secretary-General. However, the Court does

not have any evidence that Rwanda notified the Secretary-General of the
withdrawal of this reservation.
44. In light of the foregoing, the Court finds that the adoption and
publication of décret-loi No. 014/01 of 15 February 1995 by Rwanda did
not, as a matter of international law, effect a withdrawal by that State of

its reservation to Article IX of the Genocide Convention.

*

45. The Court will now turn to the second question, that of the legal
effect of the statement made on 17 March 2005 by Ms Mukabagwiza,

Minister of Justice of Rwanda, at the Sixty-first Session of the United
Nations Commission on Human Rights. At the hearings the DRC cited
this statement and contended that it could be interpreted as corro-
borating Rwanda’s withdrawal of its reservation to Article IX of the
Genocide Convention, or as constituting a unilateral commitment

having legal effects in regard to the withdrawal of that reservation. In
her statement Ms Mukabagwiza said inter alia the following:

24 ARMED ACTIVITIES (JUDGMENT ) 27

“Rwanda is one of the countries that has ratified the greatest
number of international human rights instruments. In 2004 alone,

our Government ratified ten of them, including those concerning the
rights of women, the prevention and repression of corruption, the
prohibition of weapons of mass destruction, and the environment.
The few instruments not yet ratified will shortly be ratified and past
reservations not yet withdrawn will shortly be withdrawn.”

46. The Court will begin by examining Rwanda’s argument that it
cannot be legally bound by the statement in question inasmuch as a state-
ment made not by a Foreign Minister or a Head of Government “with
automatic authority to bind the State in matters of international rela-
tions, but by a Minister of Justice, cannot bind the State to lift a particu-

lar reservation”. In this connection, the Court observes that, in accord-
ance with its consistent jurisprudence (Nuclear Tests (Australia v.
France), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1974 , pp. 269-270, paras. 49-51; Appli-
cation of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime
of Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Yugoslavia), Preliminary Objec-
tions, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1996 (II) , p. 622, para. 44; Arrest War-

rant of 11 April 2000 (Democratic Republic of the Congo v. Belgium),
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2002 , pp. 21-22, para. 53; see also Legal Status
of Eastern Greenland (Denmark v. Norway), Judgment, 1933, P.C.I.J.,
Series A/B, No. 53, p. 71), it is a well-established rule of international law
that the Head of State, the Head of Government and the Minister for

Foreign Affairs are deemed to represent the State merely by virtue of
exercising their functions, including for the performance, on behalf of the
said State, of unilateral acts having the force of international commit-
ments. The Court moreover recalls that, in the matter of the conclusion
of treaties, this rule of customary law finds expression in Article 7, para-

graph 2, of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, which pro-
vides that

“[i]n virtue of their functions and without having to produce full
powers, the following are considered as representing their State:
(a) Heads of State, Heads of Government and Ministers for For-
eign Affairs, for the purpose of performing all acts relating to the

conclusion of a treaty”.
47. The Court notes, however, that with increasing frequency in

modern international relations other persons representing a State in
specific fields may be authorized by that State to bind it by their state-
ments in respect of matters falling within their purview. This may be
true, for example, of holders of technical ministerial portfolios exercising
powers in their field of competence in the area of foreign relations, and

even of certain officials.
48. In this case, the Court notes first that Ms Mukabagwiza spoke
before the United Nations Commission on Human Rights in her capacity

25 ARMED ACTIVITIES (JUDGMENT ) 28

as Minister of Justice of Rwanda and that she indicated inter alia that
she was making her statement “on behalf of the Rwandan people”. The

Court further notes that the questions relating to the protection of
human rights which were the subject of that statement fall within the pur-
view of a Minister of Justice. It is the Court’s view that the possibility
cannot be ruled out in principle that a Minister of Justice may, under
certain circumstances, bind the State he or she represents by his or her

statements. The Court cannot therefore accept Rwanda’s argument that
Ms Mukabagwiza could not, by her statement, bind the Rwandan State
internationally, merely because of the nature of the functions that she
exercised.
49. In order to determine the legal effect of that statement, the Court

must, however, examine its actual content as well as the circumstances
in which it was made (Nuclear Tests (Australia v. France), Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 1974, pp. 269-270, para. 51; Frontier Dispute (Burkina
Faso/Republic of Mali), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1986 , pp. 573-574,
paras. 39-40).
50. On the first point, the Court recalls that a statement of this kind

can create legal obligations only if it is made in clear and specific terms
(see Nuclear Tests (Australia v. France) (New Zealand v. France),
I.C.J. Reports 1974, p. 267, para. 43; p. 269, para. 51; p. 472, para. 46;
p. 474, para. 53). In this regard the Court observes that in her statement
the Minister of Justice of Rwanda indicated that “past reservations not

yet withdrawn [would] shortly be withdrawn”, without referring explicitly
to the reservation made by Rwanda to Article IX of the Genocide Con-
vention. The statement merely raises in general terms the question of
Rwandan reservations. As such, the expression “past reservations not yet
withdrawn” refers without distinction to any reservation made by Rwanda

to any international treaty to which it is a party. Viewed in its context,
this expression may, it is true, be interpreted as referring solely to the reser-
vations made by Rwanda to “international human rights instruments”,
to which reference is made in an earlier passage of the statement. In this
connection the Court notes, however, that the international instruments

in question must in the circumstances be understood in a broad sense,
since, according to the statement itself, they appear to encompass not
only instruments “concerning the rights of women” but also those con-
cerning “the prevention and repression of corruption, the prohibition of
weapons of mass destruction, and the environment”. The Court is there-
fore bound to note the indeterminate character of the international trea-

ties referred to by the Rwandan Minister of Justice in her statement.

51. The Court further observes that this statement merely indicates
that “past reservations not yet withdrawn will shortly be withdrawn”,

without indicating any precise time-frame for such withdrawals.

52. It follows from the foregoing that the statement by the Rwandan

26 ARMED ACTIVITIES (JUDGMENT ) 29

Minister of Justice was not made in sufficiently specific terms in relation
to the particular question of the withdrawal of reservations. Given the

general nature of its wording, the statement cannot therefore be con-
sidered as confirmation by Rwanda of a previous decision to withdraw
its reservation to Article IX of the Genocide Convention, or as any sort
of unilateral commitment on its part having legal effects in regard to
such withdrawal; at most, it can be interpreted as a declaration of intent,

very general in scope.
53. This conclusion is corroborated by an examination of the circum-
stances in which the statement was made. Thus the Court notes that it
was in the context of a presentation of general policy on the promotion
and protection of human rights that the Minister of Justice of Rwanda

made her statement before the United Nations Commission on Human
Rights.
54. Finally, the Court will address Rwanda’s argument that the state-
ment by its Minister of Justice could not in any event have any implica-
tions for the question of the Court’s jurisdiction in this case, since it was
made nearly three years after the institution of the proceedings. In this

connection, the Court recalls that it has consistently held that, while its
jurisdiction must surely be assessed on the date of the filing of the act
instituting proceedings (Application of the Convention on the Prevention
and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v.
Yugoslavia), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1996 (II) ,

p. 613, para. 26; Arrest Warrant of 11 April 2000 (Democratic Republic
of the Congo v. Belgium), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2002 , p. 12, para. 26),
the Court should not, however, penalize a defect in procedure which the
Applicant could easily remedy (Application of the Convention on the Pre-
vention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and Herze-

govina v. Yugoslavia), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports
1996 (II), p. 613, para. 26). In the present case, if the Rwandan
Minister’s statement had somehow entailed the withdrawal of Rwanda’s
reservation to Article IX of the Genocide Convention in the course
of the proceedings, the DRC could on its own initiative have remedied the

procedural defect in its original Application by filing a new Application.
This argument by Rwanda must accordingly be rejected.

55. Having concluded that the DRC’s contention that Rwanda has
withdrawn its reservation to Article IX of the Genocide Convention is
unfounded, the Court must now turn to the DRC’s argument that this

reservation is invalid.

**

56. In order to show that Rwanda’s reservation is invalid, the DRC

maintains that the Genocide Convention has “the force of general law
with respect to all States” including Rwanda, inasmuch as it contains
norms of jus cogens. The DRC further stated at the hearings that,

27 ARMED ACTIVITIES (JUDGMENT ) 30

“in keeping with the spirit of Article 53 of the Vienna Convention”,
Rwanda’s reservation to Article IX of the Genocide Convention is null

and void, because it seeks to “prevent the . . . Court from fulfilling its
noble mission of safeguarding peremptory norms”. Hence the fact that
the DRC had not objected to that reservation was of no consequence
in the present proceedings.
57. The DRC also contends that Rwanda’s reservation is incompatible

with the object and purpose of the Convention, since
“its effect is to exclude Rwanda from any mechanism for the moni-

toring and prosecution of genocide, whereas the object and purpose
of the Convention are precisely the elimination of impunity for this
serious violation of international law”.

58. The DRC further argues that Rwanda’s reservation is irrelevant in
the light of the evolution of the international law relating to genocide
since 1948, which testifies to a “will” in the international community “to
see full effectiveness given to the . . . Convention” and which is reflected
in Article 120 of the Statute of the International Criminal Court, which

prohibits reservations, and in the recognition of the jus cogens nature of
the prohibition of genocide established by recent doctrine and jurispru-
dence.
59. The DRC argues finally that, even if the Court were to reject its
argument based on the peremptory character of the norms contained in

the Genocide Convention, it cannot permit Rwanda to behave in a con-
tradictory fashion, that is to say, to call on the United Nations Security
Council to set up an international criminal tribunal to try the authors of
the genocide committed against the Rwandan people, while at the same
time refusing to allow those guilty of genocide to be tried when they are

Rwandan nationals or the victims of the genocide are not Rwandans.

60. With respect to its reservation to Article IX of the Genocide Con-
vention, Rwanda first observes that, although, as the DRC contends, the
norms codified in the substantive provisions of the Genocide Convention

have the status of jus cogens and create rights and obligations erga
omnes, that does not in itself suffice to “confer jurisdiction on the Court
with respect to a dispute concerning the application of those rights and
obligations”, as, according to Rwanda, the Court had held in the case
concerning East Timor and in its Order of 10 July 2002 in the present
case.

61. Secondly, Rwanda argues that its reservation to Article IX is not
incompatible with the object and purpose of the Genocide Convention,
inasmuch as the reservation relates not “to the substantive obligations of
the parties to the Convention but to a procedural provision”. It claims in
this connection that 14 other States maintain similar reservations, and

that the majority of the 133 States parties to the Convention have raised
no objection to those reservations; the DRC itself did not object to
Rwanda’s reservation prior to the hearings of June 2002. Rwanda further

28 ARMED ACTIVITIES (JUDGMENT ) 31

observes that, at the provisional measures stage in the cases concerning
Legality of Use of Force, the Court, in light of the reservations to

Article IX of the Genocide Convention by Spain and the United States —
which are in similar terms to Rwanda’s reservation — decided to remove
the cases concerning those two States from its List, on the ground of its
manifest lack of jurisdiction; it necessarily followed that the Court con-
sidered that there was no room for doubt as to the validity and effect of

those reservations. The fact that the Court, in its Order of 10 July 2002,
did not find that there was a manifest lack of jurisdiction did not in any
way support the DRC’s argument, inasmuch as this conclusion was
addressed to the totality of the DRC’s alleged bases of jurisdiction; it
could be explained only by reference to the other treaties invoked by the

DRC, and not to the Genocide Convention.
62. Rwanda observes thirdly that the fact that Article 120 of the
Statute of the International Criminal Court — to which Rwanda is not
a party and which it has not even signed — prohibits reservations has no
bearing whatever on this issue. Thus, according to Rwanda, the fact that
the States which drew up the Statute of the International Criminal Court

“chose to prohibit all reservations to that treaty in no way affects the
right of States to make reservations to other treaties which, like the
Genocide Convention, do not contain such a prohibition”.

63. Rwanda contends fourthly that its request to the United Nations

Security Council to establish an international criminal tribunal to try
individuals accused of participation in the genocide perpetrated on
Rwandan territory in 1994 is “an entirely separate matter from the juris-
diction of [the] Court to hear disputes between States”. There can be
no question, according to Rwanda, of “an otherwise valid reservation

to Article IX being rendered ‘inoperative’, because the reserving State
supported the creation by the Security Council of a criminal tribunal
with jurisdiction over individuals”.

*

64. The Court will begin by reaffirming that “the principles underlying
the [Genocide] Convention are principles which are recognized by civi-
lized nations as binding on States, even without any conventional obli-

gation” and that a consequence of that conception is “the universal
character both of the condemnation of genocide and of the co-opera-
tion required ‘in order to liberate mankind from such an odious scourge’
(Preamble to the Convention)” (Reservations to the Convention on the
Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, Advisory Opinion,

I.C.J. Reports 1951, p. 23). It follows that “the rights and obligations
enshrined by the Convention are rights and obligations erga omnes”
(Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the

29 ARMED ACTIVITIES JUDGMENT ) 32

Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Yugoslavia), Preliminary
Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1996 (II) , p. 616, para. 31).

The Court observes, however, as it has already had occasion to empha-
size, that “the erga omnes character of a norm and the rule of consent
to jurisdiction are two different things” (East Timor (Portugal v. Aus-
tralia), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1995 , p. 102, para. 29), and that the
mere fact that rights and obligations erga omnes may be at issue in a

dispute would not give the Court jurisdiction to entertain that dispute.
The same applies to the relationship between peremptory norms of
general international law (jus cogens) and the establishment of the
Court’s jurisdiction: the fact that a dispute relates to compliance with a
norm having such a character, which is assuredly the case with regard to

the prohibition of genocide, cannot of itself provide a basis for the juris-
diction of the Court to entertain that dispute. Under the Court’s Statute
that jurisdiction is always based on the consent of the parties.
65. As it recalled in its Order of 10 July 2002, the Court has jurisdic-
tion in respect of States only to the extent that they have consented
thereto (Armed Activities on the Territory of the Congo (New Applica-

tion: 2002) (Democratic Republic of the Congo v. Rwanda), Provisional
Measures, Order of 10 July 2002, I.C.J. Reports 2002 , p. 241, para. 57).
When a compromissory clause in a treaty provides for the Court’s juris-
diction, that jurisdiction exists only in respect of the parties to the treaty
who are bound by that clause and within the limits set out therein (ibid.,

p. 245, para. 71).
66. The Court notes, however, that it has already found that reserva-
tions are not prohibited under the Genocide Convention (Advisory
Opinion in the case concerning Reservations to the Convention on the Pre-
vention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, I.C.J. Reports 1951 ,

pp. 22 et seq.). This legal situation is not altered by the fact that the
Statute of the International Criminal Court, in its Article 120, does not
permit reservations to that Statute, including provisions relating to the
jurisdiction of the International Criminal Court on the crime of geno-
cide. Thus, in the view of the Court, a reservation under the Genocide

Convention would be permissible to the extent that such reservation
is not incompatible with the object and purpose of the Convention.
67. Rwanda’s reservation to Article IX of the Genocide Convention
bears on the jurisdiction of the Court, and does not affect substantive
obligations relating to acts of genocide themselves under that Conven-
tion. In the circumstances of the present case, the Court cannot conclude

that the reservation of Rwanda in question, which is meant to exclude a
particular method of settling a dispute relating to the interpretation,
application or fulfilment of the Convention, is to be regarded as being
incompatible with the object and purpose of the Convention.
68. In fact, the Court has already had occasion in the past to give

effect to such reservations to Article IX of the Convention (see Legality
of Use of Force (Yugoslavia v. Spain), Provisional Measures, Order of
2 June 1999, I.C.J. Reports 1999 (II) , p. 772, paras. 32-33; Legality of

30 ARMED ACTIVITIES (JUDGMENT ) 33

Use of Force (Yugoslavia v. United States of America), Provisional
Measures, Order of 2 June 1999, I.C.J. Reports 1999 (II) , p. 924,

paras. 24-25). The Court further notes that, as a matter of the law of
treaties, when Rwanda acceded to the Genocide Convention and made
the reservation in question, the DRC made no objection to it.
69. In so far as the DRC contended further that Rwanda’s reservation
is in conflict with a peremptory norm of general international law, it suf-

fices for the Court to note that no such norm presently exists requiring a
State to consent to the jurisdiction of the Court in order to settle a dis-
pute relating to the Genocide Convention. Rwanda’s reservation cannot
therefore, on such grounds, be regarded as lacking legal effect.

70. The Court concludes from the foregoing that, having regard to
Rwanda’s reservation to Article IX of the Genocide Convention, this
Article cannot constitute the basis for the jurisdiction of the Court in the
present case.

*
* *

71. The DRC also seeks to found the jurisdiction of the Court on
Article 22 of the Convention on Racial Discrimination, which states:

“Any dispute between two or more States Parties with respect to
the interpretation or application of this Convention, which is not
settled by negotiation or by the procedures expressly provided for in

this Convention, shall, at the request of any of the parties to the dis-
pute, be referred to the International Court of Justice for decision,
unless the disputants agree to another mode of settlement.”

In its Application the DRC alleges that Rwanda has committed numer-
ous acts of racial discrimination within the meaning of Article 1 of that
Convention, which provides inter alia :

“the term ‘racial discrimination’ shall mean any distinction, exclu-
sion, restriction or preference based on race, colour, descent, or

national or ethnic origin which has the purpose or effect of nullify-
ing or impairing the recognition, enjoyment or exercise, on an equal
footing, of human rights and fundamental freedoms in the political,
economic, social, cultural or any other field of public life”.

72. Rwanda claims that the jurisdiction of the Court under the Con-
vention on Racial Discrimination is precluded by its reservation to the
entire Article 22. It contends that, as the Court observed in its Order of

10 July 2002, the said reservation did not attract objections from two-
thirds of the States parties and should therefore be regarded as com-
patible with the object and purpose of the Convention pursuant to

31 ARMED ACTIVITIES (JUDGMENT ) 34

Article 20, paragraph 2, thereof. Rwanda also points out that the DRC
itself did not raise any objection to that reservation or to any similar

reservations made by other States.
73. For its part, the DRC argues that Rwanda’s reservation to
Article 22 of the Convention on Racial Discrimination is unacceptable
on the ground of its incompatibility with the object and purpose of
the treaty, “because it would amount to granting Rwanda the right to

commit acts prohibited by the Convention with complete impunity”. The
DRC further contended at the hearings that the prohibition on racial
discrimination was a peremptory norm and that, “in keeping with the
spirit of Article 53 of the Vienna Convention” on the Law of Treaties,
Rwanda’s reservation to Article 22 of the Convention on Racial Discri-

mination should “be considered as contrary to jus cogens and without
effect”. Hence the fact that the DRC had not objected to that reserva-
tion was of no consequence in the present proceedings. In addition,
the DRC maintained, as it did in respect of the reservation to Article IX
of the Genocide Convention (see paragraph 30 above), that the reserva-
tion entered by Rwanda to Article 22 of the Convention on Racial Dis-

crimination has “lapsed or fallen into desuetude as a result of the
undertaking, enshrined in the Rwandan Fundamental Law, to ‘with-
draw all reservations entered by Rwanda when it adhered to . . . inter-
national instruments’” relating to human rights.

*

74. The Court notes that both the DRC and Rwanda are parties to the
Convention on Racial Discrimination, the DRC having acceded thereto
on 21 April 1976 and Rwanda on 16 April 1975. Rwanda’s instrument

of accession to the Convention, as deposited with the United Nations
Secretary-General, does however include a reservation reading as
follows: “The Rwandese Republic does not consider itself as bound by
article 22 of the Convention.”
75. The Court will first address the DRC’s argument that the reserva-

tion has “lapsed or fallen into desuetude as a result of the undertaking,
enshrined in the Rwandan Fundamental Law, to ‘withdraw all reserva-
tions entered by Rwanda when it adhered to . . . international instru-
ments’” relating to human rights. Without prejudice to the applicability
mutatis mutandis to the Convention on Racial Discrimination of the
Court’s reasoning and conclusions in respect of the DRC’s claim that

Rwanda withdrew its reservation to the Genocide Convention (see para-
graphs 38-55 above), the Court observes that the procedures for with-
drawing a reservation to the Convention on Racial Discrimination are
expressly provided for in Article 20, paragraph 3, of that Convention,
which states: “Reservations may be withdrawn at any time by notifica-

tion to this effect addressed to the Secretary-General. Such notification
shall take effect on the date on which it is received.” However, there is no
evidence before the Court of any notification by Rwanda to the United

32 ARMED ACTIVITIES (JUDGMENT ) 35

Nations Secretary-General of its intention to withdraw its reservation
to Article 22 of the Convention on Racial Discrimination. The Court

accordingly concludes that the respondent State has maintained that
reservation.
76. The Court must therefore now consider the DRC’s argument that
the reservation is invalid.
77. The Court notes that the Convention on Racial Discrimination

prohibits reservations incompatible with its object and purpose. The
Court observes in this connection that, under Article 20, paragraph 2, of
the Convention, “[a] reservation shall be considered incompatible . . . if at
least two-thirds of the States Parties to [the] Convention object to it”.
The Court notes, however, that such has not been the case as regards

Rwanda’s reservation in respect of the Court’s jurisdiction. Without
prejudice to the applicability mutatis mutandis to Rwanda’s reserva-
tion to Article 22 of the Convention on Racial Discrimination of the
Court’s reasoning and conclusions in respect of Rwanda’s reservation to
Article IX of the Genocide Convention (see paragraphs 66-68 above),
the Court is of the view that Rwanda’s reservation to Article 22 can-

not therefore be regarded as incompatible with that Convention’s object
and purpose. The Court observes, moreover, that the DRC itself raised
no objection to the reservation when it acceded to the Convention.

78. In relation to the DRC’s argument that the reservation in question

is without legal effect because, on the one hand, the prohibition on racial
discrimination is a peremptory norm of general international law and, on
the other, such a reservation is in conflict with a peremptory norm, the
Court refers to its reasoning when dismissing the DRC’s similar argu-
ment in regard to Rwanda’s reservation to Article IX of the Genocide

Convention (see paragraphs 64-69 above): the fact that a dispute con-
cerns non-compliance with a peremptory norm of general international
law cannot suffice to found the Court’s jurisdiction to entertain such a
dispute, and there exists no peremptory norm requiring States to consent
to such jurisdiction in order to settle disputes relating to the Convention

on Racial Discrimination.

79. The Court concludes from the foregoing that, having regard to
Rwanda’s reservation to Article 22 of the Convention on Racial Dis-
crimination, this Article cannot constitute the basis for the jurisdiction of
the Court in the present case.

* * *

80. The DRC further claims to found the jurisdiction of the Court on
Article 29, paragraph 1, of the Convention on Discrimination against
Women, which provides:

“Any dispute between two or more States Parties concerning the
interpretation or application of the present Convention which is not

33 ARMED ACTIVITIES (JUDGMENT ) 36

settled by negotiation shall, at the request of one of them, be sub-
mitted to arbitration. If within six months from the date of the

request for arbitration the parties are unable to agree on the organi-
zation of the arbitration, any one of those parties may refer the dis-
pute to the International Court of Justice by request in conformity
with the Statute of the Court.”

The DRC maintains that Rwanda has violated its obligations under
Article 1 of the Convention, which reads as follows:

“For the purposes of the present Convention, the term ‘discrimi-

nation against women’ shall mean any distinction, exclusion or
restriction made on the basis of sex which has the effect or purpose
of impairing or nullifying the recognition, enjoyment or exercise by
women, irrespective of their marital status, on a basis of equality of
men and women, of human rights and fundamental freedoms in the

political, economic, social, cultural, civil or any other field.”

81. Rwanda contends that the Court cannot assume jurisdiction on
the basis of Article 29 of the Convention on Discrimination against
Women, on the ground that in the present case the preconditions required
by that provision for referral to the Court have not been fulfilled. Those
preconditions are cumulative according to Rwanda and are as follows:

there must be a dispute between the parties concerning the interpretation
or application of the Convention; it must have proved impossible to
settle that dispute by negotiation; one of the parties must have requested
that the dispute be submitted to arbitration, but the parties have been
unable to agree on the organization thereof; and, lastly, six months must

have elapsed between the request for arbitration and seisin of the Court.
Rwanda further argues that the objections which it has raised in these
proceedings bear on the jurisdiction of the Court and not on the admis-
sibility of the Application, as the DRC contends. It states in this connec-
tion that the Court’s jurisdiction is based on the consent of the parties

and that they are free to attach substantive or procedural conditions to
that consent; as those conditions circumscribe the recognition of the
Court’s jurisdiction, a contention that they have not been complied with
is not an objection as to admissibility but indeed an objection to the juris-
diction of the Court, as, according to Rwanda, the Court made clear in
the case concerning the Aerial Incident at Lockerbie .

82. In respect of the first of the four conditions laid down by
Article 29, that is to say the existence of a dispute concerning the Conven-
tion, Rwanda asserts that “there has been no claim by the Congo, prior
to its filing of the Application[,]” and that “[a]t no time did the Congo
advance any claim that Rwanda was in breach of the Convention or

suggest that there was a dispute regarding the interpretation of any
provision of the Convention”. It argues in this connection that the
practice of human rights tribunals, cited by the DRC, under which an

34 ARMED ACTIVITIES (JUDGMENT ) 37

individual is not required first to identify the precise provision of the
treaty relied on, does not relieve the DRC of the duty to specify the

nature of the dispute. Rwanda observes that the present proceedings do
not involve a claim brought by an individual against a State, but are
between two equal States and that in this phase of the case it is no
longer just a matter of determining whether the Court has prima facie
jurisdiction to indicate provisional measures, but of ascertaining whether

the preconditions for the seisin of the Court have been satisfied.
83. In respect of the condition of prior negotiation, Rwanda maintains
that “the Congo has at no time even raised the question of this Conven-
tion with Rwanda in any of the numerous meetings which have taken
place between representatives of the two governments over the last few

years”, the series of meetings between the two States referred to by the
DRC having involved general negotiations to settle the armed conflict,
not a dispute concerning the said Convention. The only attempt to nego-
tiate which would be relevant to satisfying the conditions of Article 29
would be one concerning a specific dispute over the interpretation or
application of the Convention on Discrimination against Women.

Rwanda points out in particular that the Court, in its Order of 10 July
2002, decided that the DRC had not shown that its attempts to enter into
negotiations or undertake arbitration proceedings concerned the applica-
tion of the Convention. In response to the DRC’s argument that the war
between the two Parties rendered negotiations impossible over a specific

dispute under the Convention, Rwanda has cited a letter of 14 January
2002 from the Minister of Telecommunications of the DRC to the
Secretary-General of the International Telecommunication Union con-
cerning a question of telephone prefixes; in Rwanda’s view, this letter
shows that, if the DRC was able in the middle of an armed conflict to

raise a technical issue of this kind, it would certainly have been capable of
entering into negotiations dealing with a dispute over specific provisions
of the Convention.

84. Lastly, concerning the arbitration requirement, Rwanda contends
that there has been no attempt by the DRC to take any of the steps
required to organize arbitration proceedings, despite the holding of “regu-
lar and frequent meetings between representatives of the two countries at
all levels as part of the Lusaka peace process”; according to Rwanda, the
DRC has not offered any evidence in this connection. Rwanda adds that

the lack of diplomatic relations between the Parties at the time is beside
the point; it notes moreover that in its 2002 Order the Court considered
this argument to be insufficient.

85. For its part, the DRC maintains, first, that “the purported objec-

tion to jurisdiction on grounds of failure to satisfy the preconditions”
provided for in Article 29 of the Convention in reality constitutes an
objection to the admissibility of the Application.

35 ARMED ACTIVITIES (JUDGMENT ) 38

Secondly, the DRC denies that the compromissory clause in question
contains four preconditions. According to the DRC, the clause contains

only two conditions, namely that the dispute must involve the application
or interpretation of the Convention and that it must have proved impos-
sible to organize arbitration proceedings, it being understood that such a
failure “will not become apparent until six months have elapsed from the
request for arbitration”.

86. Concerning the fulfilment of those conditions, the DRC asserts
that international law does not prescribe any set form for the filing of
complaints by States; negotiation may be bilateral, but it may also be
conducted within the framework of an international organization, as the
Court stated in the South West Africa cases in 1962. The DRC points out

that it lodged numerous claims against Rwanda in the form of protests
made to the authorities of that State through the intermediary of inter-
national institutions or organizations and through individual contacts
between the respective authorities of the two States. The DRC further
asserts that the protests made through international organizations “were
brought to the attention of Rwanda by the United Nations bodies” and

that, “since the private meetings between the Congolese and Rwandan
Presidents took place mainly under the auspices either of other Heads of
States or of international institutions, the official summit proceedings
relating thereto are in the public domain”. As instances of negotiations
conducted within the framework of international organizations, the DRC

cites the complaint referred on 24 February 1999 to the African Commis-
sion on Human and Peoples’ Rights, a body which, according to the
DRC, plays “a veritable role of arbitrator” between African States in
respect of violations of human rights guaranteed not only by the African
Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights but also by other international

instruments; in the view of the DRC, the Commission could have ruled
on violations of conventions such as the Convention on Discrimination
against Women if Rwanda had not obstructed the proceedings by vari-
ous delaying tactics. The DRC also refers to its complaints to the United
Nations Security Council following various human rights violations com-

mitted by Rwanda and to the adoption by that body of resolutions,
including resolutions 1304 of 16 June 2000 and 1417 of 14 June 2002, in
which, according to the DRC, the Council “progressed from mere requests
to actual demands”. The DRC contends that there were therefore indeed
attempts on its part to negotiate, but no headway could ever be made
owing to Rwanda’s bad faith; the DRC further contends that “the

impossibility of opening or progressing in negotiations with Rwanda”
precluded contemplating “the possibility of moving from negotiations to
arbitration”.

*

87. The Court notes that both the DRC and Rwanda are parties to the

36 ARMED ACTIVITIES (JUDGMENT ) 39

Convention on Discrimination against Women, the DRC having ratified
it on 17 October 1986 and Rwanda on 2 March 1981. It also notes that

Article 29 of this Convention gives the Court jurisdiction in respect of
any dispute between States parties concerning its interpretation or appli-
cation, on condition that: it has not been possible to settle the dispute by
negotiation; that, following the failure of negotiations, the dispute has, at
the request of one such State, been submitted to arbitration; and that, if

the parties have been unable to agree on the organization of the arbitra-
tion, a period of six months has elapsed from the date of the request for
arbitration.
In the view of the Court, it is apparent from the language of Article 29
of the Convention that these conditions are cumulative. The Court must

therefore consider whether the preconditions on its seisin set out in the
said Article 29 have been satisfied in this case.
88. The Court will however first address the DRC’s argument that the
objection based on non-fulfilment of the preconditions set out in the
compromissory clauses, and in particular in Article 29 of the Convention,
is an objection to the admissibility of its Application rather than to the

jurisdiction of the Court. The Court recalls in this regard that its jurisdic-
tion is based on the consent of the parties and is confined to the extent
accepted by them (see paragraph 65 above). When that consent is
expressed in a compromissory clause in an international agreement, any
conditions to which such consent is subject must be regarded as con-

stituting the limits thereon. The Court accordingly considers that the
examination of such conditions relates to its jurisdiction and not to the
admissibility of the application (see Mavrommatis Palestine Concessions,
Judgment No. 2, 1924, P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 2 , pp. 11-15; Interpreta-
tion of the Statute of the Memel Territory, Merits, Judgment, 1932,

P.C.I.J., Series A/B, No. 49 , pp. 327-328; Electricity Company of Sofia
and Bulgaria, Judgment, 1939, P.C.I.J., Series A/B, No. 77 , pp. 78-80;
South West Africa (Ethiopia v. South Africa; Liberia v. South Africa),
Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1962 , pp. 344-346;
Military and Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua (Nicara-

gua v. United States of America), Jurisdiction and Admissibility, Judg-
ment, I.C.J. Reports 1984 , pp. 427-429, paras. 81-83; Border and Trans-
border Armed Actions (Nicaragua v. Honduras), Jurisdiction and Admis-
sibility, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1988 , pp. 88-90, paras. 42-48; Questions
of Interpretation and Application of the 1971 Montreal Convention
arising from the Aerial Incident at Lockerbie (Libyan Arab Jamahiriya

v. United Kingdom), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports
1998, p. 16, paras. 16-19; p. 24, paras. 39-40; Questions of Interpretation
and Application of the 1971 Montreal Convention arising from the Aerial
Incident at Lockerbie (Libyan Arab Jamahiriya v. United States of
America), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1998 ,

pp. 121-122, paras. 15-19; p. 129, paras. 38-39). It follows that in the
present case the conditions for seisin of the Court set out in Article 29 of
the Convention on Discrimination against Women must be examined in

37 ARMED ACTIVITIES (JUDGMENT ) 40

the context of the issue of the Court’s jurisdiction. This conclusion
applies mutatis mutandis to all of the other compromissory clauses

invoked by the DRC.
89. The Court will now examine the conditions laid down by
Article 29 of the Convention on Discrimination against Women. It will
begin by considering whether in this case there exists a dispute between
the Parties “concerning the interpretation or application of [that] Con-

vention” which could not have been settled by negotiation.
90. The Court recalls in this regard that, as long ago as 1924, the Per-
manent Court of International Justice stated that “a dispute is a disagree-
ment on a point of law or fact, a conflict of legal views or interests”
(Mavrommatis Palestine Concessions, Judgment No. 2, 1924, P.C.I.J.,

Series A, No. 2, p. 11).
For its part, the present Court has had occasion a number of times to
state the following:

“In order to establish the existence of a dispute, ‘it must be shown
that the claim of one party is positively opposed by the other’ (South
West Africa, Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1962 ,
p. 328); and further, ‘Whether there exists an international dispute is
a matter for objective determination’ (Interpretation of Peace Trea-

ties with Bulgaria, Hungary and Romania, First Phase, Advisory
Opinion, I.C.J. Reports 1950 , p. 74).” (East Timor (Portugal v. Aus-
tralia), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1995 , p. 100, para. 22; Questions
of Interpretation and Application of the 1971 Montreal Convention
arising from the Aerial Incident at Lockerbie (Libyan Arab Jama-

hiriya v. United Kingdom), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J.
Reports 1998, p. 17, para. 22; Questions of Interpretation and Appli-
cation of the 1971 Montreal Convention arising from the Aerial Inci-
dent at Lockerbie (Libyan Arab Jamahiriya v. United States of
America), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1998 ,

pp. 122-123, para. 21; Certain Property (Liechtenstein v. Germany),
Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2005 ,p 1,8
para. 24.)

91. The Court notes that in the present case the DRC made numerous
protests against Rwanda’s actions in alleged violation of international
human rights law, both at the bilateral level through direct contact with
Rwanda and at the multilateral level within the framework of interna-
tional institutions such as the United Nations Security Council and

the Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights of the Organization of
African Unity. In its Counter-Memorial and at the hearings the DRC
presented these protests as proof that “the DRC has satisfied the pre-
conditions to the seisin of the Court in the compromissory clauses
invoked”. Whatever may be the legal characterization of such protests

as regards the requirement of the existence of a dispute between the
DRC and Rwanda for purposes of Article 29 of the Convention,
that Article requires also that any such dispute be the subject of nego-

38 ARMED ACTIVITIES (JUDGMENT ) 41

tiations. The evidence has not satisfied the Court that the DRC in fact
sought to commence negotiations in respect of the interpretation or

application of the Convention.

92. The Court further notes that the DRC has also failed to prove
any attempts on its part to initiate arbitration proceedings with
Rwanda under Article 29 of the Convention. The Court cannot in this

regard accept the DRC’s argument that the impossibility of opening or
advancing in negotiations with Rwanda prevented it from contemplating
having recourse to arbitration; since this is a condition formally set out
in Article 29 of the Convention on Discrimination against Women,
the lack of agreement between the parties as to the organization of an

arbitration cannot be presumed. The existence of such disagreement can
follow only from a proposal for arbitration by the applicant, to which the
respondent has made no answer or which it has expressed its intention
not to accept (see Questions of Interpretation and Application of the
1971 Montreal Convention arising from the Aerial Incident at Lockerbie
(Libyan Arab Jamahiriya v. United Kingdom), Preliminary Objections,

Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1998 , p. 17, para. 21; Questions of Interpreta-
tion and Application of the 1971 Montreal Convention arising from the
Aerial Incident at Lockerbie (Libyan Arab Jamahiriya v. United States
of America), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1998 ,
p. 122, para. 20). In the present case, the Court has found nothing in

the file which would enable it to conclude that the DRC made a pro-
posal to Rwanda that arbitration proceedings should be organized, and
that the latter failed to respond thereto.

93. It follows from the foregoing that Article 29, paragraph 1, of the

Convention on Discrimination against Women cannot serve to found the
jurisdiction of the Court in the present case.

*
* *

94. The DRC further seeks to found the jurisdiction of the Court on
Article 75 of the WHO Constitution, which provides:

“Any question or dispute concerning the interpretation or applica-
tion of this Constitution which is not settled by negotiation or by
the Health Assembly shall be referred to the International Court of
Justice in conformity with the Statute of the Court, unless the
parties concerned agree on another mode of settlement.”

The DRC contends that Rwanda has breached the provisions of
Articles 1 and 2 of the Constitution, which respectively concern the

Organization’s objectives and functions.
95. Rwanda maintains that Article 75 of the WHO Constitution can-
not found the Court’s jurisdiction in this case. In this regard, it begins by

39 ARMED ACTIVITIES (JUDGMENT ) 42

arguing that the WHO Constitution is inapplicable for two reasons.
First, it claims that the DRC has failed to specify which particular obli-

gation laid down by that instrument has allegedly been breached by
Rwanda, the only provision to which it ever made reference having been
Article 2; that Article does not impose any direct obligation on the Mem-
ber States themselves, as the Court moreover pointed out in paragraph 82
of its Order of 10 July 2002. Secondly, Rwanda contends that the DRC’s

allegations “do not appear to give rise to a dispute concerning the inter-
pretation or application of the Constitution”, as “[i]t is clear from the
Application that the Congo considers this dispute to be founded on the
alleged acts of aggression of Rwanda”.
96. Rwanda further argues that, in addition to requiring the existence

of a dispute concerning the interpretation or application of the Constitu-
tion, Article 75 imposes two further preconditions on the seisin of the
Court: namely, settlement of the dispute by negotiation must have proved
impossible and settlement by the World Health Assembly must also have
proved impossible. According to Rwanda, the two requirements of nego-
tiation and recourse to the World Health Assembly are cumulative not

alternative, as claimed by the DRC, and they have not been satisfied in
the present case. Rwanda adds that, even if the two requirements were
not cumulative, the DRC would still be unable to rely on Article 75,
because it has not proved that it has satisfied the negotiation require-
ment. It is not sufficient, in Rwanda’s view, for the DRC to argue that

Rwanda’s refusal to participate rendered negotiation impossible; Rwanda
considers that the DRC must show “that it . . . attempted, in good faith,
to negotiate a solution to this particular dispute”.

97. In reply, the DRC disputes Rwanda’s assertion that the obliga-

tions set out in the WHO Constitution are binding only on the Organiza-
tion itself; in the DRC’s view, it would be difficult “to accept that Mem-
ber States, including Rwanda, are not under an obligation to contribute
to the accomplishment by the World Health Organization of [its] func-
tions” or, at the very least, to refrain from hindering the fulfilment of its

objective and those functions, as they are defined in Articles 1 and 2 of
the Constitution. The DRC asserts that the principle that Member States
must fulfil in good faith the obligations they have assumed is “a general
principle the basis of which is to be found in international customary law
and which is confirmed by other constituent instruments of international
organizations”; it specifically cites the example of Article 2, paragraph 2,

of the United Nations Charter. The DRC alleges that Rwanda, in resort-
ing to the spreading of AIDS as an instrument of war and in engaging in
large-scale killings on Congolese territory, has not “in good faith carried
out the Constitution of the WHO, which aims at fostering the highest
possible level of health for all peoples of the world”; the DRC further

claims to have made an ample showing that a number of international
organizations, both governmental and other, “have published detailed
reports on the serious deterioration of the health situation in the DRC as

40 ARMED ACTIVITIES (JUDGMENT ) 43

a consequence of the war of aggression” waged by Rwanda.

98. The DRC further contends that Article 75 of the WHO Constitu-
tion leaves it open to the parties to choose between negotiations and
recourse to the World Health Assembly procedure to settle their dis-
putes; according to the DRC, these two conditions are not cumulative, as
is shown by “the use of the word ‘or’”. Members of the World Health

Organization are accordingly under no obligation to look first to one and
then the other of these modes of settlement before bringing proceedings
before the Court. In the present case, the DRC opted for negotiations,
but these failed “through the fault of Rwanda”.

*

99. The Court observes that the DRC has been a party to the WHO
Constitution since 24 February 1961 and Rwanda since 7 November 1962

and that both are thus members of that Organization. The Court further
notes that Article 75 of the WHO Constitution provides for the Court’s
jurisdiction, under the conditions laid down therein, over “any question
or dispute concerning the interpretation or application” of that instru-
ment. The Article requires that a question or dispute must specifically

concern the interpretation or application of the Constitution. In the
opinion of the Court, the DRC has not shown that there was a question
concerning the interpretation or application of the WHO Constitution on
which itself and Rwanda had opposing views, or that it had a dispute
with that State in regard to this matter.

100. The Court further notes that, even if the DRC had demonstrated
the existence of a question or dispute falling within the scope of
Article 75 of the WHO Constitution, it has in any event not proved
that the other preconditions for seisin of the Court established by that
provision have been satisfied, namely that it attempted to settle the

question or dispute by negotiation with Rwanda or that the World
Health Assembly had been unable to settle it.

101. The Court concludes from the foregoing that Article 75 of the
WHO Constitution cannot serve to found its jurisdiction in the present

case.

*
* *

102. The DRC further seeks to found the jurisdiction of the Court on
Article XIV, paragraph 2, of the Unesco Constitution, which reads as
follows:

“Any question or dispute concerning the interpretation of this
Constitution shall be referred for determination to the International

41 ARMED ACTIVITIES (JUDGMENT ) 44

Court of Justice or to an arbitral tribunal, as the General Con-
ference may determine under its rules of procedure.”

In its Application the DRC invokes Article I of the Constitution, which
concerns the Organization’s purposes and functions, and maintains that

“[o]wing to the war, the Democratic Republic of the Congo today is
unable to fulfil its missions within Unesco . . .”.
103. Rwanda argues that the Court is precluded for various reasons
from finding that it has jurisdiction on the basis of Article XIV of the
Unesco Constitution. It first points out that this provision limits the

Court’s jurisdiction to disputes concerning the “interpretation” of the
Constitution and that in this case there is no hint of any dispute between
the Parties regarding interpretation of the Constitution. It contends that
the DRC’s allegation that it is unable to fulfil its missions within Unesco
owing to the war “[a]t its highest . . . would only amount to a dispute

concerning the application of the Constitution” of that Organization.
Rwanda adds that the Court itself, in paragraph 85 of its Order of
10 July 2002, stated that the interpretation of the Unesco Constitution
did not appear to be the object of the DRC’s Application; Rwanda notes
that Unesco, after being invited by the Court to submit written observa-
tions on the Application, responded that it concurred entirely with the

view expressed in that paragraph of the Court’s Order. Rwanda points
out that “[n]o new arguments or evidence have been presented by the
Congo since that Order to suggest that its allegations do indeed concern
the interpretation of the Constitution”.

104. Rwanda next argues that, even if Article XIV of the Unesco Con-
stitution did not confine the Court’s jurisdiction solely to matters of
interpretation of the instrument, the DRC has failed to show the rele-
vance of the Constitution to the present dispute. According to Rwanda,

“the essence of the Congo’s case is the alleged acts of aggression” com-
mitted by Rwanda and “the Congo has failed to make clear which . . .
obligation under the Unesco Constitution has been breached”. It notes in
this connection that Article I of the Constitution, cited by the DRC in its
Application, “simply outlines the purposes and functions of the organiza-

tion [and] does not impose any direct obligations on the Member States”.

105. Lastly, Rwanda argues that the procedures laid down in
Article XIV of the Unesco Constitution and in the Rules of Procedure
of the Unesco General Conference, to which that Article refers, were not
followed. According to Rwanda, Article XIV does not empower States

unilaterally to refer a dispute to the Court. It notes that Article 38 of
the Rules of Procedure

“provides for questions concerning the interpretation of the Con-
stitution to be referred to the Legal Committee [of the General

42 ARMED ACTIVITIES (JUDGMENT ) 45

Conference, which] may then either ‘decide by a simple majority to
recommend to the General Conference that any question concerning

the interpretation of the Constitution be referred to the Interna-
tional Court of Justice’ . . . or . . . may: ‘In cases where the Organi-
zation is party to a dispute . . . decide by a simple majority, to
recommend to the General Conference that the case be submitted
for final decision to an arbitral tribunal, arrangements for which

shall be made by the Executive Board.’”
Rwanda observes in this regard that “[t]he Congo has at no time

suggested that these procedures have been adhered to”.
106. The DRC argues in response that Article XIV of the Unesco
Constitution leaves it open to the parties, in settling their disputes, to
choose between negotiation and referral to the General Conference and
imposes no obligation to try each of those modes of settlement in turn; in

the present case, the DRC opted for negotiations, which “failed through
the fault of Rwanda”. At the hearings, the DRC added: “Rwanda’s
assertion that Unesco concurred with the opinion of the Court raises a
problem”. It maintained that, if the opinion of the Court with which
Unesco concurred was

“[u]ltimately, . . . the decision that the Court’s lack of jurisdiction
was not manifest, then Rwanda is unfounded in maintaining that the

compromissory clause in the Unesco Constitution cannot serve as a
basis for the Court’s jurisdiction”.

*

107. The Court notes that both the DRC and Rwanda are parties to
the Unesco Constitution and have been since 25 November 1960 in the
case of the DRC and 7 November 1962 in the case of Rwanda, and that
both are thus members of that Organization. The Court further observes
that Article XIV, paragraph 2, of the Unesco Constitution provides

for the referral, under the conditions established therein, of questions
or disputes concerning the Constitution, but only in respect of its
interpretation. The Court considers that such is not the object of the
DRC’s Application. It finds that the DRC has in this case invoked
the Unesco Constitution and Article I thereof for the sole purpose
of maintaining that “[o]wing to the war”, it “today is unable to fulfil its

missions within Unesco”. The Court is of the opinion that this is not a
question or dispute concerning the interpretation of the Unesco Consti-
tution. Thus the DRC’s Application does not fall within the scope of
Article XIV of the Constitution.
108. The Court further considers that, even if the existence of a

question or dispute falling within the terms of the above provision
were established, the DRC has in any event failed to show that the
prior procedure for seisin of the Court pursuant to that provision and to

43 ARMED ACTIVITIES (JUDGMENT ) 46

Article 38 of the Rules of Procedure of the Unesco General Conference
was followed.

109. The Court concludes from the foregoing that Article XIV, para-
graph 2, of the Unesco Constitution cannot serve to found its jurisdiction
in the present case.

*
* *

110. The DRC further claims to found the jurisdiction of the Court on
Article 14, paragraph 1, of the Montreal Convention for the Suppression
of Unlawful Acts against the Safety of Civil Aviation, which provides as
follows:

“Any dispute between two or more Contracting States concerning
the interpretation or application of this Convention which cannot be

settled through negotiation, shall, at the request of one of them, be
submitted to arbitration. If within six months from the date of the
request for arbitration the Parties are unable to agree on the organi-
zation of the arbitration, any one of those Parties may refer the dis-
pute to the International Court of Justice by request in conformity
with the Statute of the Court.”

In its Application the DRC made the following submission inter alia:

“by shooting down a Boeing 727 owned by Congo Airlines on
[10] October 1998 in Kindu, thereby causing the death of 40
civilians, Rwanda . . . violated . . . the Montreal Convention for the

Suppression of Unlawful Acts against the Safety of Civil Aviation
of 23 September 1971”.

111. Rwanda asserts that Article 14, paragraph 1, of the Montreal
Convention lays down a series of requirements, each of which must be
met before that provision can confer jurisdiction upon the Court, namely:
there must be a dispute between the parties concerning the interpretation
or application of the Convention; it must have proved impossible to

settle the dispute by negotiation; one of the parties must have requested
that the dispute be submitted to arbitration and the parties must have
been unable to agree upon the organization of the arbitration; and,
finally, six months must have elapsed from the date of the request for
arbitration.
112. Rwanda first contends that the DRC has failed to establish

the existence of a dispute between the Parties falling within the scope of
Article 14 of the Montreal Convention. It argues that under this pro-
vision “it is not open to a Claimant, . . . incidentally and implicitly,
to put in issue the Montreal Convention in the course of proceedings
raising a wider dispute or set of allegations”. It asserts that this, how-

ever, is precisely what the DRC seeks to do in the present proceedings,
inasmuch as the DRC maintains that the dispute concerns “acts of
armed aggression” and has submitted a “Statement of Facts” revealing

44 ARMED ACTIVITIES (JUDGMENT ) 47

no allegation which could fall within the scope of the Convention.
Rwanda concludes: “It is manifest that the vast majority of issues raised

in the Congolese Application have nothing whatever to do with the
Montreal Convention . . .” It notes in this regard that the DRC’s only
attempt to identify a dispute concerning the Montreal Convention is
confined to the allegation, “made not in the ‘Statement of Facts’ but in
the prayer for relief at the end of the Application”, concerning the

destruction of an aircraft belonging to Congo Airlines on 10 October
1998 above Kindu.

On this point, Rwanda asserts that the DRC has “not adequately
defined the dispute said to exist between [the Parties] regarding the inter-

pretation or application of the Montreal Convention”. It contends that
the incident alleged to have occurred at Kindu was the subject of a com-
plaint submitted by the DRC to the International Civil Aviation Organi-
zation (hereinafter the “ICAO”) and considered by the ICAO Council,
but that the DRC failed to provide the Council with any clarification of
its allegations. In particular, according to Rwanda, the DRC alleged that

the aircraft had been shot down not by Rwanda but by Congolese rebel
forces and then made identical allegations against Uganda, without any
attempt to reconcile its allegations against those two States. Rwanda
further observes that the Declaration adopted by the ICAO Council on
10 March 1999 contains no reference to the incident, “let alone any

suggestion that there might have been any violation of the Montreal
Convention by Rwanda, or that there might be a dispute between the
Congo and Rwanda concerning the interpretation or application of the
Convention”. Rwanda accordingly concludes that, despite the opportu-
nity afforded the DRC by the ICAO proceedings, it “has not set out its

claim with sufficient particularity for Rwanda to be able to oppose it”.
113. Rwanda next argues that, even if there existed a dispute between
the DRC and itself regarding the interpretation or application of the
Montreal Convention, the DRC would still have to prove that it has met
the procedural requirements set out in Article 14, paragraph 1, of the

Convention. Yet, according to Rwanda, the DRC has failed to show that
any such dispute could not be settled by negotiation; it argues in this
connection that

“[a]lthough the Congo has referred to the alleged impossibility of
negotiating a peaceful settlement with Rwanda, the Congo has here
confused the settlement of the armed conflict, the nub of the allega-
tion it makes, with the settlement of the specific dispute which it
asserts exists under the Montreal Convention”.

Rwanda also observes that the DRC never suggested referring the dis-
pute to arbitration and that it has thus failed to satisfy another essential

requirement imposed by Article 14, paragraph 1, of the Montreal Con-
vention.
114. In response, the DRC contends first that “the purported objec-

45 ARMED ACTIVITIES (JUDGMENT ) 48

tion to jurisdiction” on grounds of failure to satisfy the preconditions laid
down in Article 14 of the Montreal Convention in reality constitutes an

objection to the admissibility of the Application (see paragraphs 85 and
88 above).
The DRC next asserts that only two preconditions are laid down by
that Article, namely: the dispute must concern the application or inter-
pretation of the Convention in question; and it must have proved impos-

sible to organize an arbitration, it being understood that the failure of an
attempt to do so “will not become apparent until six months have elapsed
from the request for arbitration”.
Finally, the DRC maintains that these two preconditions for the seisin
of the Court have been satisfied in the present case.

115. As regards the existence of a dispute within the meaning of
Article 14 of the Montreal Convention, the DRC observes that Rwanda
itself has acknowledged that the only dispute in respect of which that
Convention might furnish a basis for the Court’s jurisdiction is the one
relating to the incident of 10 October 1998 involving the Congo Airlines
aircraft above Kindu.

116. In respect of the requirement of negotiations, the DRC contends
that the Rwandan authorities adopted the “empty chair” policy whenever
the DRC offered to discuss an issue such as the application of the Mon-
treal Convention to the incident of 10 October 1998. It cites in particular
the Syrte (Libya) Summit, “devoted to the settlement of various disputes

between the Parties”, to which Rwanda had been invited but which it did
not attend, and the Blantyre (Malawi) Summit in 2002, in which Rwanda
did not take part either and where, according to the United Nations
Secretary-General, “no substantive issues were discussed” because of
Rwanda’s absence. At the hearings, the DRC further stated that a

Security Council Group of Experts described itself in its report of 25 Janu-
ary 2005 as “gravely concerned about the lack of co-operation received
from Rwanda on civil aviation matters”. The DRC also argued

“that negotiation between two States has been initiated either once
the dispute has been the subject of an exchange of views, or indeed
where it has been raised in a specific forum to which both States are

party (this was the case for the ICAO, the United Nations Security
Council, and various multilateral or sub-regional conferences), where
the Congo consistently evoked Rwanda’s violations of certain inter-
national instruments”.

The DRC further contended that “the impossibility of opening or pro-
gressing in negotiations with Rwanda” precluded contemplating “the
possibility of moving from negotiations to arbitration”.

*

117. The Court notes that both the DRC and Rwanda are parties to

46 ARMED ACTIVITIES (JUDGMENT ) 49

the Montreal Convention and have been since 6 July 1977 in the case of
the DRC and 3 November 1987 in the case of Rwanda, that both are

Members of the ICAO, and that the Montreal Convention was already in
force between them at the time when the Congo Airlines aircraft is stated
to have been destroyed above Kindu, on 10 October 1998, and when
the Application was filed, on 28 May 2002. The Court also notes that
Article 14, paragraph 1, of the Montreal Convention gives the Court juris-

diction in respect of any dispute between contracting States concerning
the interpretation or application of the Convention, on condition that: it
has not been possible to settle the dispute by negotiation; that, following
the failure of negotiations, the dispute has, at the request of one such
State, been submitted to arbitration; and that, if the parties have been

unable to agree on the organization of the arbitration, a period of six
months has elapsed from the date of the request for arbitration. In order
to determine whether it has jurisdiction under this provision, the Court
will therefore first have to ascertain whether there is a dispute between the
Parties relating to the interpretation or application of the Montreal
Convention which could not have been settled by negotiation.

118. The Court observes in this regard that the DRC has not indicated
to it which are the specific provisions of the Montreal Convention which
could apply to its claims on the merits. In its Application the DRC con-
fined itself to invoking that Convention in connection with the destruc-

tion on 10 October 1998, shortly after take-off from Kindu Airport, of a
civil aircraft belonging to Congo Airlines. Even if it could be established
that the facts cited by the DRC might, if proved, fall within the terms of
the Convention and gave rise to a dispute between the Parties concerning
its interpretation or application, and even if it could be considered that

the discussions within the Council of the ICAO amounted to negotia-
tions, the Court finds that, in any event, the DRC has failed to show that
it satisfied the conditions required by Article 14, paragraph 1, of the
Montreal Convention concerning recourse to arbitration: in particular, it
has not shown that it made a proposal to Rwanda that arbitration pro-

ceedings should be organized, and that the latter failed to respond
thereto (cf. paragraph 92 above).

119. The Court considers that Article 14, paragraph 1, of the
Montreal Convention cannot therefore serve to found its jurisdiction in
the present case.

* * *

120. To found the jurisdiction of the Court in the present case, the
DRC relies finally on Article 66 of the Vienna Convention on the Law of

Treaties, which provides inter alia that “[a]ny one of the parties to a dis-
pute concerning the application or the interpretation of article 53 or 64”,
relating to conflicts between treaties and peremptory norms of general

47 ARMED ACTIVITIES (JUDGMENT ) 50

international law, “may, by a written application, submit it to the Inter-
national Court of Justice for a decision unless the parties by common

consent agree to submit the dispute to arbitration”.
121. In its Counter-Memorial the DRC noted that Rwanda’s Memo-
rial invoked inter alia “the alleged irrelevance of the Congo’s reference to
the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties”, and the DRC referred
the Court in this regard to the arguments which it had presented at the

provisional measures phase. At the hearings, the DRC explained that
Article 66 of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, to which
Rwanda is a party, allows the Court to rule on any dispute concerning
“the validity of a treaty which is contrary to a norm of jus cogens”. In
this regard the DRC argued that reservations to a treaty form an integral

part thereof, and that they must accordingly “avoid either being in direct
contradiction with a norm of jus cogens, or preventing the implementa-
tion of that norm”. According to the DRC, Rwanda’s reservation to
Article IX of the Genocide Convention, as well as to “other similar pro-
visions and compromissory clauses, seeks to prevent the . . . Court from
fulfilling its noble mission of safeguarding peremptory norms, including

the prohibition of genocide”, and must therefore be regarded as “null
and void”.

122. In reply to Rwanda’s reliance at the hearings on Article 4 of the
Vienna Convention, which provides that the Convention applies only

to treaties which are concluded by States after its entry into force
with regard to such States, the DRC contended that “the supremacy
and mandatory force of the norms referred to in this Convention
(Articles 53 and 64) bind States irrespective of any temporal considera-
tion or any treaty-based link”; according to the DRC, the rule can there-

fore “have retroactive effect in the overriding interest of humanity”.
In this connection, the DRC cited the Judgment of 27 June 1986 in
the case concerning Military and Paramilitary Activities in and against
Nicaragua, where the Court held that there was an obligation on the
United States to respect the four Geneva Conventions “in all circum-

stances”, since such an obligation “does not derive only from the Con-
ventions themselves, but from the general principles of humanitarian
law to which the Conventions merely give concrete expression”. The
DRC also invoked the “moral and humanitarian principles” to which
the Court had referred in its Advisory Opinion on Reservations to
the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of

Genocide, and it asked the Court “to safeguard [those principles] by
finding that it has jurisdiction”.
123. For its part, Rwanda contended in its Memorial that the DRC’s
contention that the norms of jus cogens are capable of conferring juris-
diction on the Court is without foundation, since it ignores the principle,

well established in the Court’s jurisprudence, that jurisdiction is always
dependent on the consent of the parties, even when the norm that a State
is accused of violating is a jus cogens norm. Rwanda added that the same

48 ARMED ACTIVITIES (JUDGMENT ) 51

is true of the Court’s jurisdiction to entertain a dispute concerning viola-
tion of a norm creating obligations erga omnes. It recalled that, in its

East Timor Judgment, the Court held that “the erga omnes character of
a norm and the rule of consent to jurisdiction are two different things”.
Rwanda further contended that Article 66 of the Vienna Convention on
the Law of Treaties did not provide for “any” dispute regarding contra-
vention of a rule of jus cogens to be referred to the Court; it was con-

cerned with “a very specific kind of dispute regarding one effect of norms
of jus cogens”. According to Rwanda, Article 66 “is part and parcel of
the machinery for the settlement of disputes regarding the interpretation
and application of the Vienna Convention” and confers jurisdiction on
the Court “only in respect of disputes regarding the validity of a treaty

which is said to contravene a rule of jus cogens”, which is not at all the
case in this instance.

124. At the hearings, and in response to the DRC’s argument that
Rwanda’s reservations to Article IX of the Genocide Convention and to

Article 22 of the Convention on Racial Discrimination were void because
they conflicted with a peremptory norm of general international law
within the meaning of Article 53 of the 1969 Vienna Convention, Rwanda
further argued that Article 66 of the latter Convention cannot in any
event apply in the present case in view of the Convention’s temporal

scope. In this connection, it observed that the Genocide Convention, like
the Convention on Racial Discrimination, was concluded prior to the
entry into force for the two parties of the Vienna Convention, Article 4 of
which provides that it applies “only to treaties which are concluded by
States after the entry into force of the present Convention with regard to

such States”. Rwanda pointed out that the provisions of Article 66 of the
Vienna Convention, “being jurisdictional rather than substantive”, are
not declaratory of a rule of customary law and “can therefore bind States
only as a matter of treaty and only in accordance with the terms of the
treaty”. Rwanda added that, in any event, the application of Article 66 to

the present case would serve no purpose, since it could only “give the
Court jurisdiction over whether Rwanda’s reservation is valid”; however,
Rwanda accepts that the Court “can rule on that question . . . as part of
its task of determining whether the Genocide Convention affords a basis
of jurisdiction”.

*

125. The Court recalls that Article 4 of the Vienna Convention on the
Law of Treaties provides for the non-retroactivity of that Convention in
the following terms:

“Without prejudice to the application of any rules set forth in

49 ARMED ACTIVITIES (JUDGMENT ) 52

the present Convention to which treaties would be subject under
international law independently of the Convention, the Convention

applies only to treaties which are concluded by States after the entry
into force of the present Convention with regard to such States.”

In this connection, the Court notes first that the Genocide Convention
was adopted on 9 December 1948, the DRC and Rwanda having acceded
to it on 31 May 1962 and 16 April 1975 respectively (see paragraph 38
above); and that the Convention on Racial Discrimination was adopted
on 21 December 1965, the DRC and Rwanda having acceded on 21 April

1976 and 16 April 1975 respectively (see paragraph 74 above). The Court
notes secondly that the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties
entered into force between the DRC and Rwanda only on 3 Febru-
ary 1980, pursuant to Article 84, paragraph 2, thereof. The Conventions
on Genocide and Racial Discrimination were concluded before the latter
date. Thus in the present case the rules contained in the Vienna Conven-

tion are not applicable, save in so far as they are declaratory of custom-
ary international law. The Court considers that the rules contained in
Article 66 of the Vienna Convention are not of this character. Nor have
the two Parties otherwise agreed to apply Article 66 between themselves.

Finally, the Court deems it necessary to recall that the mere fact that
rights and obligations erga omnes or peremptory norms of general inter-
national law (jus cogens) are at issue in a dispute cannot in itself consti-
tute an exception to the principle that its jurisdiction always depends on

the consent of the parties (see paragraph 64 above).

* * *

126. The Court concludes from all of the foregoing considerations that
it cannot accept any of the bases of jurisdiction put forward by the DRC

in the present case. Since it has no jurisdiction to entertain the Applica-
tion, the Court is not required to rule on its admissibility.

* * *

127. While the Court has come to the conclusion that it cannot accept
any of the grounds put forward by the DRC to establish its jurisdiction

in the present case, and cannot therefore entertain the latter’s Applica-
tion, it stresses that it has reached this conclusion solely in the context of
the preliminary question of whether it has jurisdiction in this case — the
issue to be determined at this stage of the proceedings (see paragraph 14
above). The Court is precluded by its Statute from taking any position on

the merits of the claims made by the DRC. However, as the Court has
stated on numerous previous occasions, there is a fundamental distinc-
tion between the question of the acceptance by States of the Court’s juris-

50 ARMED ACTIVITIES (JUDGMENT ) 53

diction and the conformity of their acts with international law. Whether
or not States have accepted the jurisdiction of the Court, they are
required to fulfil their obligations under the United Nations Charter and

the other rules of international law, including international humanitarian
and human rights law, and they remain responsible for acts attributable
to them which are contrary to international law.

*
* *

128. For these reasons,

T HE COURT ,

By fifteen votes to two,

Finds that it has no jurisdiction to entertain the Application filed by
the Democratic Republic of the Congo on 28 May 2002.

IN FAVOUR: President Shi; Vice-President Ranjeva; Judges Vereshchetin,
Higgins, Parra-Aranguren, Kooijmans, Rezek, Al-Khasawneh,
Buergenthal, Elaraby, Owada, Simma, Tomka, Abraham; Judge ad hoc
Dugard;
AGAINST: Judge Koroma; Judge ad hoc Mavungu.

Done in French and in English, the French text being authoritative, at
the Peace Palace, The Hague, this third day of February, two thousand

and six, in three copies, one of which will be placed in the archives of the
Court and the others transmitted to the Government of the Democratic
Republic of the Congo and the Government of the Republic of Rwanda,

respectively.

(Signed) President. (Signed) S HI Jiuyong,

President.

(Signed) Philippe COUVREUR ,

Registrar.

Judge K OROMA appends a dissenting opinion to the Judgment of the
Court; Judges HIGGINS,K OOIJMANS ,ELARABY ,O WADA and SIMMA append

a joint separate opinion to the Judgment of the Court; JudgeOOIJMANS
appends a declaration to the Judgment of the Court; Judge A L-
K HASAWNEH appends a separate opinion to the Judgment of the Court;

Judge E LARABY appends a declaration to the Judgment of the Court;

51 ARMED ACTIVITIES (JUDGMENT ) 54

Judge ad hoc D UGARD appends a separate opinion to the Judgment of
the Court; Judge ad hoc M AVUNGU appends a dissenting opinion to the
Judgment of the Court.

(Initialled) J.Y.S.

(Initialled) Ph.C.

52

Bilingual Content

COUR INTERNATIONALE DE JUSTICE

RECUEIL DES AR|TS,
AVIS CONSULTATIFS ET ORDONNANCES

AFFAIRE DES ACTIVITE uS ARME uES

SUR LE TERRITOIRE DU CONGO
(NOUVELLE REQUE |TE: 2002)

(RuPUBLIQUE uMOCRATIQUE DU CONGO c. RWANDA)

COMPuTENCE DE LA COUR
ET RECEVABILu DE LA REQ|TE

ARR|TDU3FE uVRIER 2006

2006

INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE

REPORTS OF JUDGMENTS,
ADVISORY OPINIONS AND ORDERS

CASE CONCERNING ARMED ACTIVITIES
ON THE TERRITORY OF THE CONGO

(NEW APPLICATION: 2002)
(DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF THE CONGO v. RWANDA)

JURISDICTION OF THE COURT
AND ADMISSIBILITY OF THE APPLICATION

JUDGMENT OF 3 FEBRUARY 2006 Mode officiel de citation:

Activités armées sur le territoire du Congo (nouvelle requête: 2002)
(République démocratique du Congo c. Rwanda), compétence et
recevabilité, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2006 ,p.6

Official citation:
Armed Activities on the Territory of the Congo (New Application: 2002)
(Democratic Republic of the Congo v. Rwanda), Jurisdiction and
Admissibility, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2006 ,p.6

N de vente:
ISSN 0074-4441
Sales number 911
ISBN 92-1-071020-7 3FEuVRIER 2006

ARRE|T

ACTIVITuS ARME uES SUR LE TERRITOIRE
DU CONGO (NOUVELLE REQUE |TE: 2002)

(RuPUBLIQUE DE uMOCRATIQUE DU CONGO c. RWANDA)

COMPÉTENCE DE LA COUR
ET RECEVABILITÉ DE LA REQUÊTE

ARMED ACTIVITIES ON THE TERRITORY
OF THE CONGO (NEW APPLICATION: 2002)

(DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF THE CONGO v. RWANDA)

JURISDICTION OF THE COURT
AND ADMISSIBILITY OF THE APPLICATION

3 FEBRUARY 2006

JUDGMENTPRINTED IN THE NETHERLANDS

ISSN 0074-4441
ISBN 92-1-071020-7 6

COUR INTERNATIONALE DE JUSTICE

2006 ANNÉE 2006
3 février
Rôle général
no126 3 février 2006

AFFAIRE DES ACTIVITE uS ARME uES

SUR LE TERRITOIRE DU CONGO
(NOUVELLE REQUE |TE: 2002)

(RuPUBLIQUE DE uMOCRATIQUE DU CONGO c. RWANDA)

COMPE uTENCE DE LA COUR
ET RECEVABILITE u DE LA REQUE |TE

Objet de la présente instance limitée aux questions de compétence de la Cour
et de recevabilité de la requête de la RDC.

**

Compétence de la Cour — Invocation de onze bases de compétence.

*
1) Article 30 de la convention contre la torture du 10 décembre 1984.
Absence de qualité de partie du Rwanda à ladite convention — RDC non fon-
dée à invoquer cet instrument comme base de compétence.
2) Article 9 de la convention sur les privilèges et immunités des institutions
spécialisées du 21 novembre 1947.
Instrument non invoqué par la RDC dans le dernier état de son argumentation
— Instrument non pris en considération par la Cour dans son arrêt.

*

3) Forum prorogatum.
Acceptation par le Rwanda de plaider l’affaire équivalant, selon la RDC, à
l’acceptation de la compétence de la Cour — Objection explicite et répétée du
Rwanda, à tous les stades de la procédure, à la compétence de la Cour — Ques-
tion de la manifestation non équivoque d’acceptation volontaire et indiscutable

4 6

INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE

YEAR 2006 2006
3 February
General List
3 February 2006 No. 126

CASE CONCERNING ARMED ACTIVITIES

ON THE TERRITORY OF THE CONGO

(NEW APPLICATION: 2002)

(DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF THE CONGO v. RWANDA)

JURISDICTION OF THE COURT

AND ADMISSIBILITY OF THE APPLICATION

Present proceedings confined to the questions of the jurisdiction of the Court
and the admissibility of the DRC’s Application.

**

Jurisdiction of the Court — Applicant invoking 11 bases of jurisdiction.

*

(1) Article 30 of the Convention against Torture of 10 December 1984.
Rwanda not party to that Convention — DRC cannot invoke that instrument
as a basis of jurisdiction.
(2) Article 9 of the Convention on the Privileges and Immunities of the
Specialized Agencies of 21 November 1947.
Convention not invoked by the DRC in the final version of its argument —
Convention not taken into consideration by the Court in its Judgment.

*
(3) Forum prorogatum.

DRC’s contention that Rwanda’s agreement to plead amounts to acceptance
of the Court’s jurisdiction — Express and repeated objection by Rwanda to the
Court’s jurisdiction at every stage of the proceedings — Whether there has been
an unequivocal indication of voluntary and indisputable acceptance of the

47 ACTIVITÉS ARMÉES (ARRÊT )

de la compétence de la Cour — Attitude du Rwanda ne pouvant être interprétée
comme l’expression de son consentement à la compétence de la Cour pour
connaître du fond du différend.
4) Ordonnance du 10 juillet 2002 en indication de mesures conservatoires.
Absence d’incompétence manifeste de la Cour interprétée par la RDC comme

une reconnaissance par la Cour de sa compétence — Non-radiation du rôle de la
requête de la RDC — Objet de la présente instance consistant précisément dans
le réexamen par la Cour de la question de sa compétence — Absence de défaut
manifeste de compétence n’équivalant pas à une reconnaissance par la Cour de
sa compétence.

*
5) Article IX de la convention sur le génocide du 9 décembre 1948 — Réserve
du Rwanda.
Question du retrait par le Rwanda de sa réserve du fait de l’adoption du
décret-loi 014/01 du 15 février 1995 — Question de la validité et de la portée du
décret-loi dans l’ordre juridique interne rwandais différente de celle de sa portée
dans l’ordre juridique international — Retrait par un Etat contractant d’une

réserve à un traité multilatéral ne prenant effet à l’égard des autres Etats
contractants que lorsque ceux-ci en ont reçu notification — Inexistence de
convention en vertu de laquelle le retrait de la réserve aurait pu être effectif sans
notification — Absence de notification par le Rwanda d’un tel retrait, reçue au
plan international — Adoption et publication du décret-loi n’emportant pas, au
regard du droit international, retrait par le Rwanda de sa réserve.
Allégation de la RDC selon laquelle le retrait de la réserve aurait été corro-
boré par une déclaration faite le 17 mars 2005 par le ministre de la justice du
Rwanda devant la Commission des droits de l’homme des Nations Unies — Allé-
gation selon laquelle cette déclaration constituerait un engagement unilatéral
comportant des effets juridiques concernant le retrait de ladite réserve — Capa-
cité d’un ministre de la justice d’engager son Etat au plan international par ses
déclarations, dans les matières relevant de sa compétence, ne pouvant être
exclue du seul fait de la nature des fonctions qu’il exerce — Examen de la por-

tée juridique de la déclaration du ministre à la lumière de son contenu et des
circonstances dans lesquelles elle a été faite — Contenu pas suffisamment précis
de la déclaration — Déclaration ne constituant pas de la part du Rwanda la
confirmation d’un retrait déjà décidé de sa réserve ou un engagement unilatéral
ayant des effets juridiques en ce qui concerne ce retrait — Déclaration ayant le
caractère d’une déclaration d’intention, de portée tout à fait générale — Ques-
tion de savoir si la déclaration pouvait avoir une incidence sur la compétence de
la Cour du fait qu’elle a été prononcée près de trois années après l’introduction
de l’instance — Défaut de procédure auquel la partie requérante pourrait aisé-
ment porter remède et ne devant pas être sanctionné par la Cour.
Allégation de la RDC selon laquelle la réserve du Rwanda serait invalide car
elle viserait à empêcher la Cour de protéger des normes impératives — Nature
erga omnes des droits et obligations consacrés par la convention sur le génocide

— Caractérisation de l’interdiction du génocide comme norme impérative du
droit international général (jus cogens) — Fait qu’une norme possédant une telle
nature ou un tel caractère soit en cause dans un différend ne pouvant en lui-
même fonder la compétence de la Cour pour connaître de ce différend — Com-
pétence de la Cour toujours fondée sur le consentement des parties.
Allégation de la RDC selon laquelle la réserve du Rwanda serait invalide car
incompatible avec l’objet et le but de la convention sur le génocide — Incidence

5 ARMED ACTIVITIES (JUDGMENT ) 7

Court’s jurisdiction — Rwanda’s attitude cannot be interpreted as consent to the
Court’s jurisdiction over the merits of the dispute.

(4) Order of 10 July 2002 on the indication of provisional measures.
Absence of manifest lack of Court’s jurisdiction interpreted by the DRC as

acknowledgment by the Court of its jurisdiction — Non-removal of DRC’s
Application from the Court’s List — Object of present phase of proceedings is
precisely the Court’s further examination of the issue of its jurisdiction —
Absence of manifest lack of jurisdiction not amounting to acknowledgment by
the Court of its jurisdiction.

*
(5) Article IX of the Genocide Convention of 9 December 1948 — Reserva-
tion by Rwanda.
Whether Rwanda withdrew its reservation through the adoption of décret-
loi No. 014/01 of 15 February 1995 — Question of the validity and effect of the
décret-loi in Rwanda’s domestic legal order different from that of its effect in
the international legal order — Withdrawal by a contracting State of a reserva-

tion to a multilateral treaty having effect in relation to other contracting States
only when they have received notice thereof — No agreement whereby with-
drawal of the reservation could have become operative without notice — No
notice by Rwanda of such withdrawal received at international level — Adoption
and publication of the décret-loi not entailing, as a matter of international law,
Rwanda’s withdrawal of its reservation .
DRC’s contention that withdrawal of the reservation was corroborated by a
statement of 17 March 2005 by Rwanda’s Minister of Justice before the United
Nations Commission on Human Rights — Claim that this statement constituted
a unilateral undertaking having legal effects in regard to withdrawal of the
reservation — Capacity of a Minister of Justice to bind the State internationally
by statements in respect of matters falling within the Minister’s purview cannot
be ruled out merely because of the nature of the functions exercised — Exami-
nation of the legal effect of the Minister’s statement in light of its content and

of the circumstances in which it was made — Content of the statement not suf-
ficiently precise — Statement cannot be considered as confirmation by Rwanda
of a previous decision to withdraw its reservation or as a unilateral commitment
having legal effects in regard to such withdrawal — Statement having nature of
a declaration of intent, very general in scope — Whether statement could have
effect on the Court’s jurisdiction, given that it was made almost three years
after the institution of proceedings — Procedural defect which the Applicant
could easily remedy: should not be penalized by the Court.

DRC’s contention that Rwanda’s reservation was invalid because it sought to
prevent the Court from safeguarding peremptory norms — Erga omnes nature
of the rights and obligations enshrined in the Genocide Convention — Charac-

terization of the prohibition of genocide as a peremptory norm of general inter-
national law (jus cogens) — The fact that a norm having such character may be
at issue in a dispute cannot in itself provide a basis for the Court’s jurisdiction
to entertain that dispute — Court’s jurisdiction always based on consent of the
parties.
DRC’s contention that Rwanda’s reservation was invalid because incompat-
ible with the object and purpose of the Genocide Convention — Effect of the

58 ACTIVITÉS ARMÉES (ARRÊT )

du fait que l’article 120 du Statut de la Cour pénale internationale n’admette
aucune réserve audit Statut — Réserves non interdites par la convention sur le
génocide — Article 120 du Statut de la Cour pénale internationale n’affectant
en rien cette situation juridique — Réserve du Rwanda ne portant pas sur les
obligations de fond découlant de la convention mais sur la compétence de la

Cour — Réserve non incompatible avec l’objet et le but de la convention sur le
génocide.
Allégation de la RDC selon laquelle la réserve serait en conflit avec une
norme impérative du droit international général — Inexistence d’une norme de
cette nature imposant à un Etat de consentir à la compétence de la Cour pour
régler un différend relatif à la convention sur le génocide — Article IX de la
convention non susceptible de constituer une base de compétence de la Cour.

*
6) Article 22 de la convention sur la discrimination raciale du 21 décembre
1965 — Réserve du Rwanda.
Question du retrait par le Rwanda de sa réserve du fait de l’adoption du

décret-loi 014/01 du 15 février 1995 — Allégation de la RDC selon laquelle le
retrait de la réserve aurait été corroboré par une déclaration faite le 17 mars 2005
par la ministre de la justice du Rwanda devant la Commission des droits de
l’homme des Nations Unies — Allégation selon laquelle cette déclaration cons-
tituerait un engagement unilatéral comportant des effets juridiques concernant
le retrait de ladite réserve — Applicabilité mutatis mutandis à cette question du
raisonnement et des conclusions de la Cour relatifs à l’argument de la RDC
selon lequel le Rwanda aurait retiré sa réserve à la convention sur le génocide
— Modalités de retrait d’une réserve à la convention sur la discrimination
raciale prévues en termes exprès par le paragraphe 3 de l’article 20 de cette
convention — Absence de notification au Secrétaire général des Nations Unies,
par le Rwanda, du retrait de sa réserve — Maintien de la réserve du Rwanda.
Allégation de la RDC selon laquelle la réserve du Rwanda serait invalide car
incompatible avec l’objet et le but de la convention — Réserve considérée, aux

termes du paragraphe 2 de l’article 20 de la convention, comme contraire à
l’objet et au but de ladite convention si les deux tiers au moins des Etats parties
à celle-ci élèvent des objections — Condition du paragraphe 2 de l’article 20 non
remplie s’agissant de la réserve du Rwanda à l’article 22 — Applicabilité muta-
tis mutandis du raisonnement et des conclusions de la Cour relatifs à l’argument
de la RDC selon lequel la réserve du Rwanda à la convention sur le génocide
serait invalide — Réserve à la convention sur la discrimination raciale non
incompatible avec l’objet et le but de cette convention.
Allégation de la RDC selon laquelle la réserve serait en conflit avec une
norme impérative du droit international général — Renvoi par la Cour aux
motifs par lesquels elle a écarté l’argumentation présentée par la RDC à propos
de la réserve rwandaise à l’article IX de la convention sur le génocide — Ar-
ticle 22 de la convention sur la discrimination raciale non susceptible de consti-

tuer une base de compétence de la Cour.

*

7) Paragraphe 1 de l’article 29 de la convention sur la discrimination à
l’égard des femmes du 18 décembre 1979.
Allégation de la RDC selon laquelle l’exception tirée du non-respect des

6 ARMED ACTIVITIES (JUDGMENT ) 8

fact that Article 120 of the Statute of the International Criminal Court permits
no reservations to that Statute — Reservations not prohibited by the Genocide
Convention — This legal situation not altered by Article 120 of the Statute of
the International Criminal Court — Rwanda’s reservation bearing not on sub-
stantive obligations under the Genocide Convention but on the Court’s juris-

diction — Reservation not incompatible with the object and purpose of the
Genocide Convention.
DRC’s contention that the reservation conflicts with a peremptory norm of
general international law — No such norm requiring a State to consent to the
Court’s jurisdiction in order to settle a dispute relating to the Genocide Conven-
tion — Article IX of the Genocide Convention cannot constitute a basis for the
Court’s jurisdiction.

*
(6) Article 22 of the Convention on Racial Discrimination of 21 December
1965 — Reservation by Rwanda.
Whether Rwanda’s reservation withdrawn through the adoption of décret-loi

No. 014/01 of 15 February 1995 — DRC’s contention that withdrawal of the
reservation was corroborated by a statement of 17 March 2005 by Rwanda’s
Minister of Justice before the United Nations Commission on Human Rights —
Claim that this statement constituted a unilateral undertaking having legal
effects in regard to withdrawal of the reservation — Applicability mutatis
mutandis to this issue of the Court’s reasoning and findings regarding the
DRC’s claim that Rwanda had withdrawn its reservation to the Genocide Con-
vention — Procedures for withdrawal of a reservation to the Convention on
Racial Discrimination expressly provided for in Article 20, paragraph 3,
thereof — No notification to United Nations Secretary-General by Rwanda of
the withdrawal of its reservation — Rwanda having maintained its reservation.

DRC’s contention that Rwanda’s reservation was invalid because incompat-
ible with the object and purpose of the Convention — Under Article 20, para-

graph 2, of the Convention, reservations are to be considered incompatible with
the Convention’s object and purpose if at least two-thirds of States parties
object — Condition of Article 20, paragraph 2, not satisfied in respect of
Rwanda’s reservation to Article 22 — Applicability mutatis mutandis of the
Court’s reasoning and conclusions in respect of the DRC’s contention that
Rwanda’s reservation to the Genocide Convention was invalid — Reservation to
the Convention on Racial Discrimination not incompatible with the object
and purpose of that Convention.
DRC’s contention that the reservation conflicts with a peremptory norm of
general international law — Court’s reference to its reasons for dismissing the
DRC’s argument in respect of Rwanda’s reservation to Article IX of the Geno-
cide Convention — Article 22 of the Convention on Racial Discrimination can-
not constitute a basis for the Court’s jurisdiction.

*

(7) Article 29, paragraph 1, of the Convention on Discrimination against
Women of 18 December 1979.
DRC’s contention that an objection based on non-compliance with the pre-

69 ACTIVITÉS ARMÉES (ARRÊT )

conditions préalables prévues par l’article 29 constitue une exception à la rece-
vabilité de la requête — Examen des conditions déterminant l’étendue de
l’acceptation de la juridiction de la Cour relevant de celui de sa compétence et
non de celui de la recevabilité de la requête — Conclusions applicables mutatis
mutandis à toutes les autres clauses compromissoires invoquées par la RDC —

Caractère cumulatif des conditions posées par l’article 29 — Question de savoir
si les conditions préalables à la saisine de la Cour ont été remplies — RDC
n’ayant pas démontré que ses tentatives de négociation avec le Rwanda auraient
eu pour objet le règlement d’un différend concernant l’interprétation ou l’appli-
cation de la convention — RDC n’ayant pas davantage démontré qu’elle aurait
proposé au Rwanda l’organisation d’un arbitrage et que ce dernier Etat n’aurait
pas donné suite à cette proposition — Paragraphe 1 de l’article 29 de la conven-
tion non susceptible de servir de fondement à la compétence de la Cour.

*

8) Article 75 de la Constitution de l’OMS du 22 juillet 1946.
Question de savoir si les conditions préalables à la saisine de la Cour ont été
remplies — RDC n’ayant pas démontré l’existence d’une telle question ou d’un
tel différend concernant l’interprétation ou l’application de la Constitution de
l’OMS — RDC n’ayant pas davantage apporté la preuve qu’elle aurait tenté de
régler la question ou le différend par voie de négociation ou que l’Assemblée

mondiale de la Santé n’aurait pu résoudre cette question ou ce différend — Ar-
ticle 75 de la Constitution de l’OMS non susceptible de servir de fondement à
la compétence de la Cour.

*

9) Paragraphe 2 de l’article XIV de l’acte constitutif de l’Unesco du
16 novembre 1945.
Question de savoir si les conditions préalables à la saisine de la Cour ont été
remplies — Allégation de la RDC ne concernant pas une question ou un diffé-
rend relatifs à l’interprétation de l’acte constitutif — RDC n’ayant pas davan-
tage apporté la preuve qu’elle aurait suivi la procédure préalable à la saisine de
la Cour prévue par l’article XIV de l’acte constitutif et l’article 38 du Règlement
intérieur de la Conférence générale de l’Unesco — Paragraphe 2 de l’ar-
ticle XIV de l’acte constitutif de l’Unesco non susceptible de servir de fondement
à la compétence de la Cour.

*

10) Paragraphe 1 de l’article 14 de la convention de Montréal pour la répres-
sion d’actes illicites contre la sécurité de l’aviation civile du 23 septembre 1971.

Question de savoir si les conditions préalables à la saisine de la Cour ont été
remplies — Différend relatif à l’interprétation ou à l’application de la conven-
tion qui n’aurait pas pu être réglé par voie de négociation: la RDC n’ayant pas
indiqué les dispositions matérielles de la convention pouvant s’appliquer à ses
demandes au fond — RDC n’ayant pas davantage démontré qu’elle aurait pro-
posé au Rwanda l’organisation d’un arbitrage et que ce dernier Etat n’aurait pas

7 ARMED ACTIVITIES (JUDGMENT ) 9

conditions provided for in Article 29 is an objection to admissibility of the Appli-
cation — Examination of the conditions determining the extent of acceptance of
the Court’s jurisdiction relates to the issue of its jurisdiction and not to the
admissibility of the Application — Conclusion applicable mutatis mutandis
to all the other compromissory clauses invoked by DRC — Conditions of

Article 29 cumulative — Whether preconditions for seisin of the Court satisfied —
DRC not having shown that its attempts to negotiate with Rwanda related to
settlement of a dispute concerning the interpretation or application of the Con-
vention — DRC having further not shown that it made a proposal to Rwanda
for the organization of arbitration proceedings to which the latter failed to
respond — Article 29, paragraph 1, of the Convention on Discrimination
against Women cannot serve to found the Court’s jurisdiction.

*

(8) Article 75 of the WHO Constitution of 22 July 1946.
Whether preconditions for seisin of Court satisfied — DRC not having
demonstrated the existence of a question or dispute concerning the interpreta-
tion or application of the WHO Constitution — DRC having further not proved
that it sought to settle the question or dispute by negotiation or that the World
Health Assembly could not have settled it — Article 75 of the WHO Constitu-

tion cannot serve to found the Court’s jurisdiction.

*

(9) Article XIV, paragraph 2, of the Unesco Constitution of 16 November
1945.
Whether preconditions for seisin of Court satisfied — DRC’s claim not
involving a question or dispute concerning interpretation of the Constitution —
DRC having further not shown that it followed the prior procedure for seisin of
the Court pursuant to Article XIV of the Unesco Constitution and Article 38 of
the Rules of Procedure of the Unesco General Conference — Article XIV, para-
graph 2, of the Unesco Constitution cannot serve to found the Court’s
jurisdiction.

*

(10) Article 14, paragraph 1, of the Montreal Convention for the Suppres-
sion of Unlawful Acts against the Safety of Civil Aviation of 23 September

1971.
Whether preconditions for seisin of Court satisfied — Dispute concerning
the interpretation or application of the Convention which could not have been
settled by negotiation: DRC not having indicated the specific provisions of
the Convention which could apply to its claims on the merits — DRC having
further not shown that it made a proposal to Rwanda for the organization
of arbitration proceedings to which the latter failed to respond — Article 14,

710 ACTIVITÉS ARMÉES (ARRÊT )

donné suite à cette proposition — Paragraphe 1 de l’article 14 de la convention
de Montréal non susceptible de servir de fondement à la compétence de la Cour.

*
11) Article 66 de la convention de Vienne sur le droit des traités du 23 mai
1969.

Application non rétroactive de la convention de Vienne (article 4) — Conven-
tions sur le génocide et sur la discrimination raciale conclues avant l’entrée en
vigueur de la convention de Vienne entre les Parties — Règles énoncées à l’ar-
ticle 66 de la convention de Vienne non déclaratoires de droit international
coutumier — Absence d’accord entre les Parties prévoyant l’application de
l’article 66 entre elles.

**

Recevabilité de la requête de la RDC.
Défaut de compétence pour connaître de la requête — Nul besoin pour la
Cour de statuer sur la recevabilité de celle-ci.

**
Distinction entre l’acceptation de la juridiction de la Cour par les Etats et la
conformité de leurs actes au droit international — Etats demeurant responsables
des actes contraires au droit international qui pourraient leur être attribués.

ARRE |T

Présents: M. S HI, président .R ANJEVA, vice-président ; MM. KOROMA ,
VERESHCHETIN,M me HIGGINS, MM. P ARRA-A RANGUREN ,K OOIJMANS,
R EZEK,A L-KHASAWNEH ,B UERGENTHAL ,E LARABY,O WADA,S IMMA ,
TOMKA ,A BRAHAM , juges; MM. D UGARD ,M AVUNGU , juges ad hoc;

M. C OUVREUR , greffier.

En l’affaire des activités armées sur le territoire du Congo (nouvelle
requête: 2002),

entre

la République démocratique du Congo,
représentée par
e
S. Exc. M Honorius Kisimba Ngoy Ndalewe, ministre de la justice et garde
des sceaux de la République démocratique du Congo,

comme chef de la délégation;
S. Exc. M. Jacques Masangu-a-Mwanza, ambassadeur extraordinaire et plé-
nipotentiaire de la République démocratique du Congo auprès du

Royaume des Pays-Bas,
comme agent;

8 ARMED ACTIVITIES (JUDGMENT ) 10

paragraph 1, of the Montreal Convention cannot serve to found the Court’s
jurisdiction.

*

(11) Article 66 of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties of 23 May
1969.
Non-retroactivity of the Vienna Convention (Article 4) — Genocide Conven-
tion and Convention on Racial Discrimination concluded before the entry into

force between the Parties of the Vienna Convention — Rules in Article 66 of the
Vienna Convention not declaratory of customary international law — No agree-
ment between the Parties to apply Article 66 between themselves — Article 66
of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties cannot serve to found the
Court’s jurisdiction.

**
Admissibility of the DRC’s Application.
No jurisdiction to entertain the Application — Court not required to rule on

its admissibility.

**

Distinction between acceptance by States of the Court’s jurisdiction and the
conformity of their acts with international law — States remaining responsible
for acts attributable to them which are contrary to international law.

JUDGMENT

Present: President SHI; Vice-President R ANJEVA; Judges KOROMA ,
V ERESHCHETIN,H IGGIN,P ARRA -ARANGUREN ,K OOIJMANS,R EZEK,

A L-KHASAWNEH ,B UERGENTHAL ,E LARABY,O WADA ,S IMMA,T OMKA,
A BRAHAM ; Judges ad hoc DUGARD ,M AVUNGU ; Registrar OUVREUR.

In the case concerning armed activities on the territory of the Congo (new
Application: 2002),

between

the Democratic Republic of the Congo,

represented by
H.E. Maître Honorius Kisimba Ngoy Ndalewe, Minister of Justice and
Keeper of the Seals of the Democratic Republic of the Congo,

as Head of Delegation;
H.E. Mr. Jacques Masangu-a-Mwanza, Ambassador Extraordinary and

Plenipotentiary of the Democratic Republic of the Congo to the Kingdom
of the Netherlands,
as Agent;

811 ACTIVITÉS ARMÉES (ARRÊT )

M. Ntumba Luaba Lumu, secrétaire général du gouvernement, professeur de
droit à l’Université de Kinshasa,

comme coagent et conseil;
M. Lwamba Katansi, professeur ordinaire à la faculté de droit de l’Univer-
sité de Kinshasa, avocat près la cour d’appel de Kinshasa/Gombe,
M. Mukadi Bonyi, professeur à la faculté de droit de l’Université de Kin-
shasa, avocat à la Cour suprême de justice,

M. Akele Adau, professeur ordinaire, doyen honoraire de la faculté de droit
de l’Université de Kinshasa, président de la Haute Cour militaire,
comme conseils et avocats;
e
M Crispin Mutumbe Mbuya, conseiller juridique du ministre de la justice et
garde des sceaux,
M. Victor Musompo Kasongo, secrétaire particulier du ministre de la justice
et garde des sceaux,
M. Nsingi-zi-Mayemba, premier conseiller à l’ambassade de la République
démocratique du Congo aux Pays-Bas,
M me Marceline Masele, deuxième conseiller à l’ambassade de la République

démocratique du Congo aux Pays-Bas,
comme conseillers;
M. Richard Lukunda,

comme assistant des conseils et avocats,

et

la République du Rwanda,
représentée par

M. Martin Ngoga, procureur général adjoint de la République du
Rwanda,

comme agent;
S. Exc. M. Joseph Bonesha, ambassadeur de la République du Rwanda
auprès du Royaume de Belgique,

comme agent adjoint;
M. Christopher Greenwood, C.M.G., Q.C., professeur de droit international
à la London School of Economics and Political Science, membre du bar-
reau d’Angleterre,
M me Jessica Wells, membre du barreau d’Angleterre,

comme conseils;
M me Susan Greenwood,

comme secrétaire,

L AC OUR,

ainsi composée,

après délibéré en chambre du conseil,
rend l’arrêt suivant:

1. Le 28 mai 2002, le Gouvernement de la République démocratique du

9 ARMED ACTIVITIES (JUDGMENT ) 11

Mr. Ntumba Luaba Lumu, Secretary-General to the Government, Professor
of Law at the University of Kinshasa,
as Co-Agent and Counsel;

Mr. Lwamba Katansi, Professor at the Law Faculty of the University of
Kinshasa, avocat of the Kinshasa/Gombe Court of Appeal,
Mr. Mukadi Bonyi, Professor at the Law Faculty of the University of Kin-
shasa, avocat of the Supreme Court of Justice,
Mr. Akele Adau, Professor and Honorary Dean of the Law Faculty of the
University of Kinshasa, President of the Military High Court,

as Counsel and Advocates;
Maître Crispin Mutumbe Mbuya, Legal Adviser to the Minister of Justice
and Keeper of the Seals,
Mr. Victor Musompo Kasongo, Private Secretary to the Minister of Justice
and Keeper of the Seals,
Mr. Nsingi-zi-Mayemba, First Counsellor, Embassy of the Democratic
Republic of the Congo in the Netherlands,

Ms Marceline Masele, Second Counsellor, Embassy of the Democratic
Republic of the Congo in the Netherlands,
as Advisers;

Mr. Richard Lukunda,
as Assistant to Counsel and Advocates,

and

the Republic of Rwanda,
represented by

Mr. Martin Ngoga, Deputy Prosecutor General of the Republic of
Rwanda,
as Agent;

H.E. Mr. Joseph Bonesha, Ambassador of the Republic of Rwanda to the
Kingdom of Belgium,
as Deputy Agent;

Mr. Christopher Greenwood, C.M.G., Q.C., Professor of International Law
at the London School of Economics and Political Science, member of the
English Bar,
Ms Jessica Wells, member of the English Bar,

as Counsel;
Ms Susan Greenwood,

as Secretary,

T HE COURT ,

composed as above,
after deliberation,

delivers the following Judgment:

1. On 28 May 2002 the Government of the Democratic Republic of the

912 ACTIVITÉS ARMÉES (ARRÊT )

Congo (dénommée ci-après la «RDC») a déposé au Greffe de la Cour une
requête introductive d’instance contre la République du Rwanda (dénommée
ci-après le «Rwanda») au sujet d’un différend relatif à des «violations mas-
sives, graves et flagrantes des droits de l’homme et du droit international
humanitaire» qui auraient été commises «au mépris de la «Charte internatio-

nale des droits de l’homme», d’autres instruments internationaux pertinents et
[de] résolutions impératives du Conseil de sécurité des Nations Unies»;
dans ladite requête, la RDC exposait que «[l]es atteintes graves et flagrantes
[aux droits de l’homme et au droit international humanitaire]» dont elle se
plaint «découlent des actes d’agression armée perpétrés par le Rwanda sur
le territoire de la République démocratique du Congo en violation flagrante
de la souveraineté et de l’intégrité territoriale [de celle-ci], garantie[s] par les
Chartes des Nations Unies et de l’Organisation de l’unité africaine».
Dans sa requête, la RDC, se référant au paragraphe 1 de l’article 36 du Sta-
tut, invoquait, pour fonder la compétence de la Cour, l’article 22 de la conven-
tion internationale sur l’élimination de toutes les formes de discrimination
raciale, du 21 décembre 1965 (dénommée ci-après la «convention sur la discri-
mination raciale»); le paragraphe 1 de l’article 29 de la convention sur l’élimi-

nation de toutes les formes de discrimination à l’égard des femmes, du 18 dé-
cembre 1979 (dénommée ci-après la «convention sur la discrimination à l’égard
des femmes»); l’article IX de la convention pour la prévention et la répression
du crime de génocide, du 9 décembre 1948 (dénommée ci-après la «convention
sur le génocide»); l’article 75 de la Constitution de l’Organisation mondiale de
la Santé, du 22 juillet 1946 (dénommée ci-après la «Constitution de l’OMS»); le
paragraphe 2 de l’article XIV de la convention créant l’Organisation des
Nations Unies pour l’éducation, la science et la culture, du 16 novembre 1945
(dénommée ci-après l’«acte constitutif de l’Unesco»), et l’article 9 de la conven-
tion sur les privilèges et immunités des institutions spécialisées du 21 novembre
1947 (dénommée ci-après «la convention sur les privilèges et immunités»); le
paragraphe 1 de l’article 30 de la convention contre la torture et autres peines
ou traitements cruels, inhumains ou dégradants, du 10 décembre 1984 (dénom-
mée ci-après la «convention contre la torture»); et le paragraphe 1 de l’ar-

ticle 14 de la convention de Montréal pour la répression d’actes illicites dirigés
contre la sécurité de l’aviation civile, du 23 septembre 1971 (dénommée ci-après
la «convention de Montréal»).
Dans sa requête, la RDC soutenait également que l’article 66 de la conven-
tion de Vienne sur le droit des traités du 23 mai 1969 prévoit la compétence de
la Cour pour régler les différends nés de la violation de normes impératives (jus
cogens) en matière de droits de l’homme, telles que reflétées dans un certain
nombre d’instruments internationaux.
2. Le 28 mai 2002, immédiatement après le dépôt de sa requête, la RDC a en
outre présenté une demande en indication de mesures conservatoires, sur la
base de l’article 41 du Statut de la Cour et des articles 73 et 74 de son Règle-
ment.
3. Conformément au paragraphe 4 de l’article 38 et au paragraphe 2 de

l’article 73 du Règlement, le 28 mai 2002, le greffier a fait tenir au Gouverne-
ment rwandais des copies signées de la requête et de la demande; conformé-
ment au paragraphe 3 de l’article 40 du Statut, tous les Etats admis à ester
devant la Cour ont été informés de la requête.
4. La Cour ne comptant sur le siège aucun juge de la nationalité des Parties,
chacune d’elles s’est prévalue du droit que lui confère l’article 31 du Statut de
procéder à la désignation d’un juge ad hoc pour siéger en l’affaire. La RDC a

10 ARMED ACTIVITIES (JUDGMENT ) 12

Congo (hereinafter “the DRC”) filed in the Registry of the Court an Appli-
cation instituting proceedings against the Republic of Rwanda (hereinafter
“Rwanda”) in respect of a dispute concerning “massive, serious and flagrant
violations of human rights and of international humanitarian law” alleged to
have been committed “in breach of the ‘International Bill of Human Rights’,

other relevant international instruments and mandatory resolutions of the
United Nations Security Council”; in that Application the DRC stated that
“[the] flagrant and serious violations [of human rights and of international
humanitarian law]” of which it complained “result from acts of armed aggres-
sion perpetrated by Rwanda on the territory of the Democratic Republic of
the Congo in flagrant breach of the sovereignty and territorial integrity of [the
latter], as guaranteed by the Charters of the United Nations and the Organiza-
tion of African Unity”.
In order to found the jurisdiction of the Court, the DRC, referring to
Article 36, paragraph 1, of the Statute, invoked in its Application: Article 22
of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial
Discrimination of 21 December 1965 (hereinafter the “Convention on Racial
Discrimination”); Article 29, paragraph 1, of the Convention on the Elimina-

tion of All Forms of Discrimination against Women of 18 December 1979
(hereinafter the “Convention on Discrimination against Women”); Article IX
of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Geno-
cide of 9 December 1948 (hereinafter the “Genocide Convention”); Article 75
of the Constitution of the World Health Organization of 22 July 1946 (here-
inafter the “WHO Constitution”); Article XIV, paragraph 2, of the Constitu-
tion of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
of 16 November 1945 (hereinafter the “Unesco Constitution”) and Article 9
of the Convention on the Privileges and Immunities of the Specialized Agencies
of 21 November 1947 (hereinafter “the Convention on Privileges and Immuni-
ties”); Article 30, paragraph 1, of the Convention against Torture and Other
Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment of 10 December 1984
(hereinafter the “Convention against Torture”); and Article 14, paragraph 1,
of the Montreal Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts against

the Safety of Civil Aviation of 23 September 1971 (hereinafter the “Montreal
Convention”).

The DRC further contended in its Application that Article 66 of the Vienna
Convention on the Law of Treaties of 23 May 1969 established the jurisdiction
of the Court to settle disputes arising from the violation of peremptory norms
(jus cogens) in the area of human rights, as those norms were reflected in a
number of international instruments.
2. On 28 May 2002, immediately after filing its Application, the DRC also
submitted a request for the indication of provisional measures pursuant to
Article 41 of the Statute of the Court and Articles 73 and 74 of its Rules.

3. In accordance with Article 38, paragraph 4, and Article 73, paragraph 2,

of the Rules, on 28 May 2002 the Registrar transmitted certified copies of the
Application and of the request to the Rwandan Government; in accordance
with Article 40, paragraph 3, of the Statute, all States entitled to appear before
the Court were notified of the Application.
4. Since the Court included upon the Bench no judge of the nationality
of the Parties, each of them availed itself of the right conferred upon it by
Article 31 of the Statute to choose a judge ad hoc to sit in the case. The DRC

1013 ACTIVITÉS ARMÉES (ARRÊT )

désigné M. Jean-Pierre Mavungu, et le Rwanda M. Christopher John
Robert Dugard.
5. Au cours des audiences tenues les 13 et 14 juin 2002 et consacrées à la
demande en indication de mesures conservatoires présentée par la RDC, le
Rwanda a prié la Cour de rayer l’affaire du rôle au motif que la Cour était

manifestement dénuée de compétence pour en connaître.
Par ordonnance du 10 juillet 2002, la Cour, après avoir entendu les Parties, a
considéré qu’elle ne disposait pas en l’espèce de la compétence prima facie
nécessaire pour indiquer les mesures conservatoires demandées par la RDC. La
Cour a également rejeté la demande du Rwanda tendant à ce que l’affaire soit
rayée du rôle.
6. Au cours d’une réunion que le président de la Cour a tenue avec les agents
des Parties le 4 septembre 2002, en application de l’article 31 du Règlement, le
Rwanda a proposé que soit suivie la procédure prévue aux paragraphes 2 et 3
de l’article 79 du Règlement, et qu’il soit ainsi statué séparément, avant toute
procédure sur le fond, sur les questions de compétence et de recevabilité en
l’espèce; la RDC a déclaré qu’elle s’en remettait, à cet égard, à la décision de la
Cour. A l’issue de cette réunion, les Parties sont convenues que, dans le cas où

cette procédure serait suivie, le Rwanda présenterait d’abord un mémoire trai-
tant exclusivement de ces questions et la RDC lui répondrait dans un contre-
mémoire limité aux mêmes questions.
Par ordonnance du 18 septembre 2002, la Cour, compte tenu des vues des
Parties au sujet de la procédure à suivre et des délais à fixer, a décidé que les
pièces de la procédure écrite porteraient d’abord sur la question de la compé-
tence de la Cour pour connaître de la requête et sur la question de la receva-
bilité de cette dernière, et a fixé au 20 janvier 2003 et au 20 mai 2003, respec-
tivement, les dates d’expiration des délais pour le dépôt d’un mémoire par le
Rwanda et d’un contre-mémoire par la RDC. Le mémoire et le contre-mémoire
ont été déposés dans les délais ainsi prescrits.
7. Conformément aux instructions données par la Cour en vertu de l’ar-
ticle 43 de son Règlement, le Greffe a adressé la notification prévue au para-
graphe 1 de l’article 63 du Statut à tous les Etats parties à la convention sur la

discrimination à l’égard des femmes, à la Constitution de l’OMS, à l’acte cons-
titutif de l’Unesco, à la convention de Montréal et à la convention de Vienne
sur le droit des traités.
Conformément également aux instructions données par la Cour en vertu
du paragraphe 3 de l’article 69 de son Règlement, le Greffe a adressé les noti-
fications prévues au paragraphe 3 de l’article 34 du Statut et communiqué
copie des pièces de la procédure écrite au Secrétaire général de l’Organisa-
tion des Nations Unies pour ce qui est de la convention sur la discrimination
à l’égard des femmes, au directeur général de l’OMS pour ce qui est de la Consti-
tution de l’OMS, au directeur général de l’Unesco pour ce qui est de l’acte
constitutif de l’Unesco et au secrétaire général de l’Organisation de l’aviation
civile internationale pour ce qui est de la convention de Montréal. Il
a également été demandé aux organisations concernées si elles entendaient

présenter des observations écrites au sens du paragraphe 3 de l’article 69 du
Règlement. Aucune d’elles n’a exprimé le vŒu de produire de telles observa-
tions.
8. Conformément au paragraphe 2 de l’article 53 de son Règlement, la Cour,
après s’être renseignée auprès des Parties, a décidé de rendre accessibles au
public, à l’ouverture de la procédure orale, les pièces de procédure et docu-
ments y annexés.

11 ARMED ACTIVITIES (JUDGMENT ) 13

chose Mr. Jean-Pierre Mavungu, and Rwanda Mr. Christopher John Robert
Dugard.
5. At the hearings on the request for the indication of provisional measures
submitted by the DRC, held on 13 and 14 June 2002, Rwanda asked the Court
to remove the case from the List for manifest lack of jurisdiction.

By Order of 10 July 2002 the Court, after hearing the Parties, found that it
lacked prima facie jurisdiction to indicate the provisional measures requested
by the DRC. The Court also rejected Rwanda’s request that the case be
removed from the List.

6. At a meeting held on 4 September 2002 by the President of the Court with
the Agents of the Parties pursuant to Article 31 of the Rules of Court, Rwanda
proposed that the procedure provided for in Article 79, paragraphs 2 and 3, of
the Rules of Court be followed, and that the questions of jurisdiction and
admissibility in the case therefore be determined separately before any proceed-
ings on the merits; the DRC stated that it would leave the decision in this
regard to the Court. At the conclusion of that meeting the Parties agreed that,

in the event that this procedure was followed, Rwanda would first present a
Memorial dealing exclusively with those questions, to which the DRC would
reply in a Counter-Memorial confined to the same questions.
By Order of 18 September 2002 the Court, taking account of the views of the
Parties regarding the procedure to be followed and the time-limits to be fixed,
decided that the written pleadings would first be addressed to the questions of
the jurisdiction of the Court to entertain the Application and of its admissibil-
ity and fixed 20 January 2003 and 20 May 2003 as respective time-limits for the
filing of a Memorial by Rwanda and of a Counter-Memorial by the DRC.
The Memorial and Counter-Memorial were filed within the time-limits so
prescribed.
7. In accordance with instructions given by the Court under Article 43 of the
Rules of Court, the Registry sent the notification provided for in Article 63,
paragraph 1, of the Statute to all the States parties to the Convention on Dis-

crimination against Women, the WHO Constitution, the Unesco Constitution,
the Montreal Convention and the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties.

In accordance likewise with instructions given by the Court under Article 69,
paragraph 3, of the Rules of Court, the Registry sent the notifications provided
for in Article 34, paragraph 3, of the Statute and communicated copies of the
written pleadings to the Secretary-General of the United Nations in respect of
the Convention on Discrimination against Women; to the Director-General
of the WHO in respect of the WHO Constitution; to the Director-General of
Unesco in respect of the Unesco Constitution and to the Secretary General of
the International Civil Aviation Organization in respect of the Montreal Con-
vention. The organizations concerned were also asked whether they intended to
submit observations in writing within the meaning of Article 69, paragraph 3,

of the Rules of Court. None of them expressed the wish to do so.

8. Pursuant to Article 53, paragraph 2, of its Rules, the Court, after ascer-
taining the views of the Parties, decided that copies of the pleadings and docu-
ments annexed would be made accessible to the public on the opening of the
oral proceedings.

1114 ACTIVITÉS ARMÉES (ARRÊT )

9. Des audiences publiques ont été tenues entre le 4 et le 8 juillet 2005, au
cours desquelles ont été entendus en leurs plaidoiries et réponses:
Pour le Rwanda: M. Martin Ngoga,
M. Christopher Greenwood,
me
M Jessica Wells.
Pour la RDC: S. Exc. M. Jacques Masangu-a-Mwanza,
M. Akele Adau,
M. Lwamba Katansi,
M. Ntumba Luaba Lumu,
M. Mukadi Bonyi.

*

10. Sur les instructions de la Cour, le greffier a, par lettres du 11 juillet 2005,
demandé aux Parties de lui faire tenir la copie d’un certain nombre de docu-
ments cités par celles-ci au cours des audiences. Le Rwanda a fait tenir à la
Cour copie desdits documents sous le couvert d’une lettre datée du 27 juillet 2005
et reçue au Greffe le 28 juillet 2005; il a joint à son envoi deux notes émanant,
respectivement, du ministre de la justice rwandais et du président de la
Chambre des députés rwandaise. La RDC a fait tenir à la Cour copie des do-
cuments demandés sous le couvert de deux lettres datées des 29 juillet et 10 août
er
2005, et reçues au Greffe les 1 et 12 août 2005, respectivement.

*

11. Dans la requête, les demandes ci-après ont été formulées par la RDC:

«En conséquence, tout en se réservant le droit de compléter et préciser la
présente demande en cours d’instance, la République démocratique du
Congo prie la Cour de:
Dire et juger que:

a) le Rwanda a violé et viole la Charte des Nations Unies (article 2, para-
graphes 3 et 4) en violant les droits de l’homme qui sont le but pour-
suivi par les Nations Unies au terme du maintien de la paix et de la
sécurité internationales, de même que les articles 3 et 4 de la Charte de
l’Organisation de l’unité africaine;
b) le Rwanda a violé la charte internationale des droits de l’homme ainsi
que les principaux instruments protecteurs des droits de l’homme dont
notamment la convention sur l’élimination des discriminations à l’égard
des femmes, la convention internationale sur l’élimination de toutes les

formes de discrimination raciale, la convention contre la torture et
autres peines ou traitements cruels, inhumains ou dégradants, la
convention sur la prévention et la répression du crime de génocide du
9 décembre 1948, la constitution de l’OMS, le Statut de l’Unesco;

c) en abattant à Kindu, le [10] octobre 1998, un Boeing 727, propriété de
la compagnie Congo Airlines, et en provoquant ainsi la mort de qua-
rante personnes civiles, le Rwanda a également violé la Charte des
Nations Unies, la convention relative à l’aviation civile internationale
du 7 décembre 1944 signée à Chicago, la convention de La Haye du

16 décembre 1970 pour la répression de la capture illicite d’aéronefs et

12 ARMED ACTIVITIES (JUDGMENT ) 14

9. Public hearings were held between 4 and 8 July 2005, at which the Court
heard the oral arguments and replies of:

For Rwanda: Mr. Martin Ngoga,
Mr. Christopher Greenwood,
Ms Jessica Wells.
For the DRC: H.E. Mr. Jacques Masangu-a-Mwanza,

Mr. Akele Adau,
Mr. Lwamba Katansi,
Mr. Ntumba Luaba Lumu,
Mr. Mukadi Bonyi.

*

10. On the instructions of the Court, on 11 July 2005 the Registrar wrote to
the Parties asking them to send him copies of a certain number of documents
referred to by them at the hearings. Rwanda furnished the Court with copies
of those documents under cover of a letter dated 27 July 2005 received in the
Registry on 28 July 2005, to which were appended two notes from, respec-
tively, Rwanda’s Minister of Justice and the President of its Chamber of Depu-
ties. The DRC supplied the Court with copies of the requested documents

under cover of two letters dated 29 July and 10 August 2005 and received in
the Registry on 1 and 12 August respectively.

*

11. In its Application the DRC made the following requests:

“Accordingly, while reserving the right to supplement and amplify this
claim in the course of the proceedings, the Democratic Republic of the
Congo requests the Court to:
Adjudge and declare that:

(a) Rwanda has violated and is violating the United Nations Charter
(Article 2, paragraphs 3 and 4) by violating the human rights which
are the goal pursued by the United Nations through the maintenance
of international peace and security, as well as Articles 3 and 4 of the
Charter of the Organization of African Unity;
(b) Rwanda has violated the International Bill of Human Rights, as well
as the main instruments protecting human rights, including, inter
alia, the Convention on the Elimination of Discrimination against
Women, the International Convention on the Elimination of All
Forms of Racial Discrimination, the Convention against Torture and
Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment, the
Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of
Genocide of 9 December 1948, the Constitution of the WHO, the

Constitution of Unesco;
(c) by shooting down a Boeing 727 owned by Congo Airlines on
[10] October 1998 in Kindu, thereby causing the death of 40 civilians,
Rwanda also violated the United Nations Charter, the Convention
on International Civil Aviation of 7 December 1944 signed at
Chicago, the Hague Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful
Seizure of Aircraft of 16 December 1970 and the Montreal Conven-

1215 ACTIVITÉS ARMÉES ARRÊT )

la convention de Montréal du 23 septembre 1971 pour la répression
d’actes illicites dirigés contre la sécurité de l’aviation civile;
d) en tuant, massacrant, violant, égorgeant, crucifiant, le Rwanda s’est
rendu coupable d’un génocide de plus de 3 500 000 Congolais, ajoutées
les victimes des récents massacres dans la ville de Kisangani, et a violé

le droit sacré à la vie prévu dans la Déclaration universelle des droits
de l’homme et dans le Pacte international sur les droits civils et poli-
tiques, la convention sur la prévention et la répression du crime de gé-
nocide, et d’autres instruments juridiques internationaux pertinents.

En conséquence, et conformément aux obligations juridiques internatio-
nales susmentionnées, dire et juger que:

1) toute force armée rwandaise à la base de l’agression doit quitter sans
délai le territoire de la République démocratique du Congo; afin de
permettre à la population congolaise de jouir pleinement de ses droits à
la paix, à la sécurité, à ses ressources et au développement;
2) le Rwanda a l’obligation de faire en sorte que ses forces armées et
autres se retirent immédiatement et sans condition du territoire congo-
lais;
3) la République démocratique du Congo a droit à obtenir du Rwanda le
dédommagement de tous actes de pillages, destructions, massacres,

déportations de biens et des personnes et autres méfaits qui sont impu-
tables au Rwanda et pour lesquels la République démocratique du
Congo se réserve le droit de fixer ultérieurement une évaluation précise
des préjudices, outre la restitution des biens emportés.
Elle se réserve aussi le droit de faire valoir en cours d’instance les autres
préjudices par elle et sa population subis.»

12. Dans la procédure écrite, les conclusions ci-après ont été présentées par
les Parties:

Au nom du Gouvernement rwandais,

dans le mémoire:
«En conséquence, le Rwanda prie la Cour de dire et juger que:

La Cour n’est pas compétente pour connaître des demandes présentées
par la République démocratique du Congo. Au surplus, les demandes pré-
sentées par la République démocratique du Congo sont irrecevables.»

Au nom du Gouvernement congolais,
dans le contre-mémoire:

«A ces causes, plaise à la Cour,
Entendre dire que les exceptions d’incompétence soulevées par le

Rwanda ne sont pas fondées;
Entendre dire que les exceptions d’irrecevabilité soulevées par le Rwanda
ne sont pas fondées;
Entendre dire, en conséquence, que la Cour est compétente pour
connaître de l’affaire quant au fond et que la requête de la République
démocratique du Congo est recevable en la forme;
Entendre la Cour fixer l’affaire en prosécution.»

13 ARMED ACTIVITIES (JUDGMENT ) 15

tion for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts against the Safety of Civil
Aviation of 23 September 1971;
(d) by killing, massacring, raping, throat-cutting, and crucifying, Rwanda
is guilty of genocide against more than 3,500,000 Congolese, includ-
ing the victims of the recent massacres in the city of Kisangani, and

has violated the sacred right to life provided for in the Universal Dec-
laration of Human Rights and in the International Covenant on Civil
and Political Rights, the Convention on the Prevention and Punish-
ment of the Crime of Genocide and other relevant international legal
instruments.
In consequence, and in accordance with the international legal obliga-
tions referred to above, to adjudge and declare that:

(1) all Rwandan armed forces responsible for the aggression shall forth-
with quit the territory of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, so as
to enable the Congolese people to enjoy in full their rights to peace, to
security, to their resources and to development;
(2) Rwanda is under an obligation to procure the immediate, uncondi-
tional withdrawal of its armed and other forces from Congolese terri-
tory;
(3) the Democratic Republic of the Congo is entitled to compensation
from Rwanda for all acts of looting, destruction, massacre, removal of

property and persons and other acts of wrongdoing imputable to
Rwanda, in respect of which the Democratic Republic of the Congo
reserves the right to establish a precise assessment of injury at a later
date, in addition to restitution of the property taken.
It also reserves the right in the course of the proceedings to claim other
injury suffered by it and its people.”

12. In the written proceedings, the following submissions were presented by
the Parties:

On behalf of the Rwandan Government,

in the Memorial:
“Accordingly, Rwanda requests the Court to adjudge and declare that:

The Court lacks jurisdiction to entertain the claims brought by the
Democratic Republic of the Congo. In addition, the claims brought by the
Democratic Republic of the Congo are inadmissible.”

On behalf of the Government of the Democratic Republic of the Congo,
in the Counter-Memorial:

“For these reasons, may it please the Court,
To find that the objections to jurisdiction raised by Rwanda are

unfounded;
To find that the objections to admissibility raised by Rwanda are
unfounded;
And, consequently, to find that the Court has jurisdiction to entertain
the case on the merits and that the Application of the Democratic Repub-
lic of the Congo is admissible as submitted;
To decide to proceed with the case.”

1316 ACTIVITÉS ARMÉES ARRÊT )

13. Dans la procédure orale, les conclusions ci-après ont été présentées par
les Parties:

Au nom du Gouvernement rwandais,
à l’audience du 6 juillet 2005:

«Pour les raisons exposées dans ses exceptions préliminaires et à
l’audience, la République du Rwanda prie la Cour de dire et juger:

1) qu’elle n’a pas compétence pour connaître des demandes présentées
contre la République du Rwanda par la République démocratique du
Congo; et
2) à titre subsidiaire, que les demandes présentées contre la République du
Rwanda par la République démocratique du Congo sont irrecevables.»

Au nom du Gouvernement congolais,
à l’audience du 8 juillet 2005:

«Plaise à la Cour,
1. dire que les exceptions d’incompétence et d’irrecevabilité soulevées par
le Rwanda ne sont pas fondées;
2. dire en conséquence que la Cour est compétente pour connaître de
l’affaire quant au fond et que la requête de la République démocratique
du Congo est recevable en la forme;

3. fixer l’affaire en prosécution pour être plaidée sur le fond.»

* * *

14. La Cour notera tout d’abord qu’à ce stade de la procédure en la
présente affaire elle ne peut se pencher sur aucun élément relatif au fond
du différend opposant la RDC et le Rwanda. Conformément à la déci-

sion prise dans son ordonnance du 18 septembre 2002 (voir paragraphe 6
ci-dessus), la Cour n’a à se préoccuper que des questions de savoir si elle
a compétence pour connaître dudit différend et si la requête de la RDC
est recevable.

* * *

15. Pour fonder la compétence de la Cour en l’espèce, la RDC invo-
que, dans sa requête, un certain nombre de clauses compromissoires insé-
rées dans des conventions internationales, à savoir: l’article 22 de la
convention sur la discrimination raciale; le paragraphe 1 de l’article 29 de

la convention sur la discrimination à l’égard des femmes; l’article IX de
la convention sur le génocide; l’article 75 de la Constitution de l’OMS; le
paragraphe 2 de l’article XIV de l’acte constitutif de l’Unesco et l’article 9
de la convention sur les privilèges et immunités; le paragraphe 1 de l’ar-
ticle 30 de la convention contre la torture; et le paragraphe 1 de l’article 14

de la convention de Montréal. Elle soutient par ailleurs que l’article 66 de
la convention de Vienne sur le droit des traités prévoit la compétence de
la Cour pour régler les différends nés de la violation de normes impéra-

14 ARMED ACTIVITIES JUDGMENT ) 16

13. At the hearings, the following submissions were presented by the Parties:

On behalf of the Rwandan Government,
at the hearing of 6 July 2005:

“For the reasons given in our written preliminary objection and at the
oral hearings, the Republic of Rwanda requests the Court to adjudge and
declare that:

1. it lacks jurisdiction over the claims brought against the Republic of
Rwanda by the Democratic Republic of the Congo; and

2. in the alternative, that the claims brought against the Republic of
Rwanda by the Democratic Republic of the Congo are inadmissible.”

On behalf of the Congolese Government,
at the hearing of 8 July 2005:

“May it please the Court,
1. to find that the objections to jurisdiction and admissibility raised by
Rwanda are unfounded;
2. consequently, to find that the Court has jurisdiction to entertain the
case on the merits and that the Application of the Democratic Republic
of the Congo is admissible as submitted;

3. to decide to proceed with the case on the merits.”

* * *

14. The Court notes first of all that at the present stage of the proceed-
ings it cannot consider any matter relating to the merits of this dispute
between the DRC and Rwanda. In accordance with the decision taken in

its Order of 18 September 2002 (see paragraph 6 above), the Court is
required to address only the questions of whether it is competent to hear
the dispute and whether the DRC’s Application is admissible.

* * *

15. In order to found the jurisdiction of the Court in this case, the
DRC relies in its Application on a certain number of compromissory
clauses in international conventions, namely: Article 22 of the Conven-
tion on Racial Discrimination; Article 29, paragraph 1, of the Conven-

tion on Discrimination against Women; Article IX of the Genocide Con-
vention; Article 75 of the WHO Constitution; Article XIV, paragraph 2,
of the Unesco Constitution and Article 9 of the Convention on Privileges
and Immunities; Article 30, paragraph 1, of the Convention against Tor-
ture; and Article 14, paragraph 1, of the Montreal Convention. It further

contends that Article 66 of the Vienna Convention on the Law of
Treaties establishes the jurisdiction of the Court to settle disputes arising
from the violation of peremptory norms (jus cogens) in the area of

1417 ACTIVITÉS ARMÉES (ARRÊT )

tives (jus cogens) en matière de droits de l’homme, telles que reflétées
dans un certain nombre d’instruments internationaux (voir paragraphe 1

ci-dessus).
Le Rwanda soutient pour sa part qu’aucun des instruments invoqués
par la RDC «ni aucune règle de droit international coutumier ne peut
fonder la compétence de la Cour en l’espèce». A titre subsidiaire, le
Rwanda fait valoir que, quand bien même l’une des clauses compromis-

soires invoquées par la RDC ou plusieurs d’entre elles seraient retenues
par la Cour comme des titres fondant sa compétence pour connaître de la
requête, «celle-ci n’en serait pas moins irrecevable».

*

16. La Cour commencera par rappeler que, dans son ordonnance du
10 juillet 2002 (C.I.J. Recueil 2002, p. 242, par. 61), elle a pris bonne note
de l’affirmation du Rwanda selon laquelle celui-ci «n’était pas partie et
n’avait jamais été partie à la convention de 1984 contre la torture», et a
constaté qu’il en était bien ainsi. Dans son mémoire sur la compétence et

la recevabilité (dénommé ci-après «mémoire»), le Rwanda a maintenu
qu’il n’était pas partie à cette convention et que, dès lors, cet instrument
ne pouvait manifestement pas constituer une base de compétence de
la Cour en l’espèce. La RDC n’a opposé aucun argument à cette affirma-
tion du Rwanda, dans son contre-mémoire sur la compétence et la rece-

vabilité (dénommé ci-après «contre-mémoire») ou à l’audience. La Cour
conclut de ce qui précède que la RDC n’est pas fondée à invoquer la
convention contre la torture comme base de compétence dans la présente
affaire.
17. La Cour rappellera également que, dans l’ordonnance susmention-

née (ibid., p. 243, par. 62), elle a en outre déclaré que la RDC, dans le
dernier état de son argumentation, n’apparaissait pas fonder la compé-
tence de la Cour sur la convention sur les privilèges et immunités et que,
dès lors, il n’y avait pas lieu pour elle de prendre cet instrument en consi-
dération dans le contexte de la demande en indication de mesures conser-

vatoires. La RDC n’ayant pas davantage cherché à invoquer ledit instru-
ment dans la présente phase de l’instance, la Cour ne le prendra pas non
plus en considération dans son arrêt.

**

18. La Cour relève par ailleurs que, tant dans son contre-mémoire
qu’à l’audience, la RDC a d’abord fondé la compétence de la Cour sur
deux bases additionnelles: la doctrine du forum prorogatum et l’ordon-
nance rendue par la Cour, le 10 juillet 2002, sur la demande en indication
de mesures conservatoires de la RDC, respectivement. La Cour se pen-

chera en premier lieu sur ces deux bases de compétence alléguées par la
RDC, avant de procéder, dans un second temps, à l’examen des clauses
compromissoires invoquées par celle-ci.

15 ARMED ACTIVITIES (JUDGMENT ) 17

human rights, as those norms are reflected in a number of international
instruments (see paragraph 1 above).

For its part Rwanda contends that none of these instruments cited by
the DRC “or rules of customary international law can found the jurisdic-
tion of the Court in the present case”. In the alternative, Rwanda argues
that, even if one or more of the compromissory clauses invoked by the

DRC were to be found by the Court to be titles giving it jurisdiction
to entertain the Application, the latter would be “nevertheless inadmis-
sible”.

*

16. The Court will begin by recalling that, in its Order of 10 July 2002
(I.C.J. Reports 2002, p. 242, para. 61), it noted Rwanda’s statement that
it “is not, and never has been, party to the 1984 Convention against Tor-
ture”, and found that such was indeed the case. In its Memorial on juris-
diction and admissibility (hereinafter “Memorial”) Rwanda maintained

its contention that it was not a party to this Convention and that, accord-
ingly, that Convention manifestly could not provide a basis for the
jurisdiction of the Court in these proceedings. The DRC did not
raise any argument in response to this contention by Rwanda, either in
its Counter-Memorial on jurisdiction and admissibility (hereinafter

“Counter-Memorial”) or at the hearings. The Court accordingly con-
cludes that the DRC cannot rely upon the Convention against Torture
as a basis of jurisdiction in this case.

17. The Court further recalls that in the above-mentioned Order (ibid.,

p. 243, para. 62) it also stated that, in the final form of its argument, the
DRC did not appear to found the jurisdiction of the Court on the Con-
vention on Privileges and Immunities, and that the Court was accord-
ingly not required to take that instrument into consideration in the
context of the request for the indication of provisional measures. Since

the DRC has also not sought to invoke that instrument in the present
phase of the proceedings, the Court will not take it into consideration
in the present Judgment.

**

18. The Court notes moreover that, both in its Counter-Memorial and
at the hearings, the DRC began by seeking to found the jurisdiction of
the Court on two additional bases: respectively, the doctrine of forum
prorogatum and the Court’s Order of 10 July 2002 on the DRC’s request
for the indication of provisional measures. The Court will first examine

these two bases of jurisdiction relied on by the DRC before then proceed-
ing to consider the compromissory clauses which the DRC invokes.

1518 ACTIVITÉS ARMÉES ARRÊT )

Selon une jurisprudence bien établie, ce n’est que dans l’hypothèse où
elle parviendrait à la conclusion qu’elle a compétence pour connaître de
la requête de la RDC que la Cour aura à se prononcer sur la question de
la recevabilité de cette requête.

* * *

19. La RDC fait tout d’abord valoir que la volonté d’un Etat de sou-
mettre un différend à la Cour peut résulter non seulement d’une déclara-

tion expresse, mais aussi de tout acte concluant, en particulier du com-
portement de l’Etat défendeur postérieurement à la saisine de la Cour.
Elle soutient notamment que «l’acceptation par le défendeur de plaider
l’affaire équivaut à l’acceptation par lui de la compétence de la Cour».
La RDC invoque à cet égard le fait que le Rwanda a «déféré à tous les

actes de procédure prescrits ou demandés par la Cour», qu’il a «assumé
pleinement et dignement les différentes instances de la présente cause,
sans se faire représenter, ni se faire porter absent» et qu’«il n’y a eu de sa
part ni refus de comparaître, ni refus de conclure».

20. Le Rwanda indique quant à lui que la prétention de la RDC n’est
pas fondée car il n’existe pas en l’espèce «une acceptation volontaire et
indiscutable de la juridiction de la Cour». Le Rwanda aurait au contraire
systématiquement soutenu que la Cour n’avait pas compétence et qu’il ne
se présentait devant elle que pour contester cette compétence. Le Rwanda

fait en outre observer que «si l’on suit la logique de la RDC, un Etat ne
p[eu]t contester la compétence de la Cour qu’en acceptant cette compé-
tence» et que, dès lors, «le plus sûr pour l’Etat défendeur ... serait de
s’abstenir tout bonnement de comparaître». L’argument invoqué par
la RDC méconnaîtrait ainsi le Statut de la Cour, son Règlement et sa

jurisprudence.

*

21. La Cour rappellera sa jurisprudence ainsi que celle de sa devan-
cière, la Cour permanente de Justice internationale, quant aux formes
que peut prendre l’expression par les parties de leur consentement à sa
juridiction. Selon cette jurisprudence, «ni le Statut, ni le Règlement

n’exigent que [l]e consentement s’exprime dans une forme déterminée»
et «rien ne s’oppose à ce que ... l’acceptation de la juridiction, au lieu de
se réaliser conjointement, par un compromis préalable, se fasse par deux
actes séparés et successifs» (Détroit de Corfou (Royaume-Uni c. Alba-

nie), exception préliminaire, arrêt, 1948, C.I.J. Recueil 1947-1948 ,p.27-
28; voio aussi Droits de minorités eo Haute-Silésie (écoles minoritaires),
arrêt n 12, 1928, C.P.J.I. série A n 15, p. 23). L’attitude de l’Etat défen-
deur doit toutefois pouvoir être regardée comme une «manifestation non
équivoque» de la volonté de cet Etat d’accepter de manière «volontaire,

indiscutable» la compétence de la Cour (Détroit de Corfou (Royaume-

16 ARMED ACTIVITIES (JUDGMENT ) 18

In accordance with its established jurisprudence, the Court will
examine the issue of the admissibility of the DRC’s Application only

should it find that it has jurisdiction to entertain that Application.

*
* *

19. The DRC argues, first, that the willingness of a State to submit a
dispute to the Court may be apparent not only from an express declara-
tion but also from any conclusive act, in particular from the conduct of
the respondent State subsequent to seisin of the Court. In particular it
contends that “the Respondent’s agreement to plead implies that it

accepts the Court’s jurisdiction”. In this regard the DRC cites the fact
that Rwanda has “complied with all the procedural steps prescribed or
requested by the Court”, that it has “fully and properly participated in
the different procedures in this case, without having itself represented or
failing to appear”, and that “it has not refused to appear before the
Court or to make submissions”.

20. For its part Rwanda contends that the DRC’s argument is without
foundation, since in this case there has been no “voluntary and indisput-
able acceptance of the Court’s jurisdiction”. Rwanda points out that it
has, on the contrary, consistently asserted that the Court has no jurisdic-
tion and that it has appeared solely for the purpose of challenging that

jurisdiction. Rwanda further observes that “if [the DRC’s argument] is
right, then there is no way that a State can challenge the jurisdiction of
[the] Court without conceding that the Court has jurisdiction”, and that
therefore “[t]he only safe course . . . is for a respondent State not to
appear before the Court at all”. It contends that this argument by the

DRC flies in the face of the Statute of the Court, its Rules and its juris-
prudence.

*

21. The Court recalls its jurisprudence, as well as that of its predeces-
sor, the Permanent Court of International Justice, regarding the forms
which the parties’ expression of their consent to its jurisdiction may take.
According to that jurisprudence, “neither the Statute nor the Rules
require that this consent should be expressed in any particular form”,
and “there is nothing to prevent the acceptance of jurisdiction . . . from

being effected by two separate and successive acts, instead of jointly and
beforehand by a special agreement” (Corfu Channel (United Kingdom v.
Albania), Preliminary Objection, Judgment, 1948, I.C.J. Reports 1947-
1948, pp. 27-28; see also Rights of Minorities in Upper Silesia (Minority
Schools), Judgment No. 12, 1928, P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 15 , p. 23). The

attitude of the respondent State must, however, be capable of being
regarded as “an unequivocal indication” of the desire of that State to
accept the Court’s jurisdiction in a “voluntary and indisputable” manner

1619 ACTIVITÉS ARMÉES (ARRÊT )

Uni c. Albanie), exception préliminaire, arrêt, 1948, C.I.J. Recueil 1947-
1948,p.27; Application de la convention pour la prévention et la répres-
sion du crime de génocide (Bosnie-Herzégovine c. Yougoslavie (Serbie et
Monténégro)), mesures conservatoires, ordonnance du 13 septembre 1993,

C.I.J. Recueil 1993, p. 342, par. 34; voir ausoi Droits de minorités en
Haute-Silésie (écoles minoritaires), arrêt n 12, 1928, C.P.J.I. série A
n 15, p. 24).
22. En l’espèce, la Cour se bornera à relever que le Rwanda a objecté
à sa compétence à tous les stades de la procédure et de manière explicite

et répétée (voir Activités armées sur le territoire du Congo (nouvelle
requête: 2002) (République démocratique du Congo c. Rwanda), mesures
conservatoires, ordonnance du 10 juillet 2002, C.I.J. Recueil 2002 , p. 234,
238). L’attitude du Rwanda ne peut donc être regardée comme une
«manifestation non équivoque» de la volonté de cet Etat d’accepter de

manière «volontaire, indiscutable» la compétence de la Cour. Le fait que
le Rwanda ait, comme l’a souligné la RDC, «assumé pleinement et digne-
ment les différentes instances de la présente cause, sans se faire représen-
ter, ni se faire porter absent» et qu’«il n’y a eu de sa part ni refus de

comparaître, ni refus de conclure» ne peut pas être interprété comme
une expression de son consentement à la compétence de la Cour pour
connaître du fond dans la mesure où l’objet même de sa participation
à la procédure était de contester cette compétence (Anglo-Iranian Oil Co.
(Royaume-Uni c. Iran), exception préliminaire, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1952 ,

p. 113-114).

*
* *
23. Pour fonder la compétence de la Cour en l’espèce, la RDC invoque

également l’une des conclusions auxquelles la Cour est parvenue dans son
ordonnance du 10 juillet 2002 et selon laquelle «en l’absence d’incompé-
tence manifeste la Cour ne saurait accéder à la demande du Rwanda ten-
dant à ce que l’affaire soit rayée du rôle». Ce constat d’«absence d’incom-

pétence manifeste» pourrait, de l’avis de la RDC, être interprété comme
une reconnaissance par la Cour de sa compétence. La RDC exprime en
effet la «conviction qu’en rejetant la demande rwandaise de radiation de
la requête quant au fond, la Cour ne pouvait pas ne pas avoir en vue que
les crimes du genre de ceux perpétrés par le défendeur ne devraient pas

demeurer impunis».
24. Sur ce point, le Rwanda rappelle, pour sa part, que la Cour a, dans
la même ordonnance, clairement indiqué que les conclusions auxquelles
elle était parvenue à ce stade de la procédure ne préjugeaient en rien sa

compétence pour connaître du fond de l’affaire. Le Rwanda relève à cet
égard que, le fait pour la Cour de conclure, dans une ordonnance de cette
nature, qu’il n’y a pas absence manifeste de compétence, tout en ayant
par ailleurs conclu à l’absence prima facie de base de compétence, ne peut
étayer l’argumentation de l’Etat qui cherche à établir la compétence de la

Cour. Selon lui, en effet, «la seule absence d’incompétence manifeste ne

17 ARMED ACTIVITIES (JUDGMENT ) 19

(Corfu Channel (United Kingdom v. Albania), Preliminary Objection,
Judgment, 1948, I.C.J. Reports 1947-1948 , p. 27); Application of the

Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide
(Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Yugoslavia (Serbia and Montenegro), Pro-
visional Measures, Order of 13 September 1993, I.C.J. Reports 1993 ,
p. 342, para. 34; see also Rights of Minorities in Upper Silesia (Minority
Schools), Judgment No. 12, 1928, P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 15 , p. 24).

22. In the present case the Court will confine itself to noting that
Rwanda has expressly and repeatedly objected to its jurisdiction at every
stage of the proceedings (see Armed Activities on the Territory of the
Congo (New Application: 2002) (Democratic Republic of the Congo v.
Rwanda), Provisional Measures, Order of 10 July 2002, I.C.J. Reports

2002, pp. 234, 238). Rwanda’s attitude therefore cannot be regarded as
“an unequivocal indication” of its desire to accept the jurisdiction of the
Court in a “voluntary and indisputable” manner. The fact, as the DRC
has pointed out, that Rwanda has “fully and properly participated in the
different procedures in this case, without having itself represented or fail-
ing to appear”, and that “it has not refused to appear before the Court or

make submissions”, cannot be interpreted as consent to the Court’s juris-
diction over the merits, inasmuch as the very purpose of this participa-
tion was to challenge that jurisdiction (Anglo-Iranian Oil Co. (United
Kingdom v. Iran), Preliminary Objection, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1952 ,
pp. 113-114).

* * *

23. To found the jurisdiction of the Court in this case, the DRC also

relies on one of the Court’s findings in its Order of 10 July 2002, whereby
it stated that, “in the absence of a manifest lack of jurisdiction, the Court
cannot grant Rwanda’s request that the case be removed from the List”.
In the DRC’s view, this finding of an “absence of a manifest lack of juris-
diction” could be interpreted as an acknowledgment by the Court that it

has jurisdiction. Thus the DRC has expressed its belief that, “in rejecting
Rwanda’s request for the removal from the List of the application on the
merits, the Court could only have intended that crimes such as those
committed by the Respondent must not remain unpunished”.

24. On this point, for its part Rwanda recalls that in this same Order

the Court clearly stated that the findings reached by it at that stage in the
proceedings in no way prejudged the question of its jurisdiction to deal
with the merits of the case. Rwanda observes in this regard that a finding
by the Court in an Order of this kind that there is no manifest lack of
jurisdiction, coupled, moreover, with a finding that there is no prima facie

basis for jurisdiction, cannot afford any support to the argument of a
State seeking to establish the Court’s jurisdiction. Rwanda points out
that “[t]he Court does not possess jurisdiction simply because there is an

1720 ACTIVITÉS ARMÉES ARRÊT )

confère pas à la Cour une compétence; la Cour ne pourra connaître d’une
affaire qu’en présence effective d’une compétence».

*

25. La Cour rappellera que, vu l’urgence qui, par hypothèse, caracté-
rise l’examen d’une demande en indication de mesures conservatoires, elle

ne prend normalement pas, à ce stade, de décision finale sur sa compé-
tence. Elle ne le fait que s’il apparaît d’emblée qu’elle ne saurait en
aucune manière avoir compétence et que, partant, elle ne pourra pas
connaître de l’affaire. Lorsque la Cour parvient à un tel constat d’incom-
pétence manifeste, des considérations tenant à une bonne administration

de la justice lui dictent de rayer cette affaire du rôle (voir Licéité de
l’emploi de la force (Yougoslavie c. Espagne), ordonnance du 2 juin 1999,
C.I.J. Recueil 1999 (II) , p. 773-774, par. 40; Licéité de l’emploi de la
force (Yougoslavie c. Etats-Unis d’Amérique), ordonnance du 2 juin
1999, C.I.J. Recueil 1999 (II) , p. 925-926, par. 34). Quand, en revanche,
la Cour n’est pas en mesure de conclure à son incompétence manifeste,

elle maintient l’affaire inscrite à son rôle et se réserve le droit d’examiner
plus avant, ultérieurement, la question de sa compétence en soulignant,
comme elle l’a fait dans son ordonnance du 10 juillet 2002, que «les
conclusions auxquelles [elle] est parvenue ... ne préjugent en rien [s]a
compétence ... pour connaître du fond de l’affaire, ni aucune question

relative à la recevabilité de la requête ou au fond lui-même» (Activités
armées sur le territoire du Congo (nouvelle requête: 2002) (République
démocratique du Congo c. Rwanda), mesures conservatoires, ordonnance
du 10 juillet 2002, C.I.J. Recueil 2002 , p. 249, par. 90; voir aussi, Anglo-
Iranian Oil Co. (Royaume-Uni c. Iran), mesures conservatoires, ordon-

nance du 5 juillet 1951, C.I.J. Recueil 1951 , p. 114; Compétence en
matière de pêcheries (République fédérale d’Allemagne c. Islande), me-
sures conservatoires, ordonnance du 17 août 1972, C.I.J. Recueil 1972 ,
p. 34, par. 21; Activités militaires et paramilitaires au Nicaragua et
contre celui-ci (Nicaragua c. Etats-Unis d’Amérique), mesures conserva-

toires, ordonnance du 10 mai 1984, C.I.J. Recueil 1984 , p. 186, par. 40;
Sentence arbitrale du 31 juillet 1989 (Guinée-Bissau c. Sénégal), mesures
conservatoires, ordonnance du 2 mars 1990, C.I.J. Recueil 1990 ,p .9,
par. 23; Licéité de l’emploi de la force (Yougoslavie c. Belgique), me-
sures conservatoires, ordonnance du 2 juin 1999, C.I.J. Recueil 1999 (II) ,
p. 139-140, par. 46).

Le fait que, dans son ordonnance du 10 juillet 2002, la Cour n’ait pas
conclu à un défaut manifeste de compétence ne saurait donc équivaloir à
une reconnaissance de sa compétence. Tout au contraire, la Cour a
d’emblée éprouvé de sérieux doutes quant à sa compétence pour connaî-
tre de la requête de la RDC puisque, dans la même ordonnance, elle a

justifié son refus d’indiquer des mesures conservatoires par l’absence de
compétence prima facie. En n’accédant pas à la demande du Rwanda de
rayer l’affaire du rôle, la Cour s’est tout simplement réservé le droit

18 ARMED ACTIVITIES JUDGMENT ) 20

absence of a manifest lack of jurisdiction; it possesses jurisdiction only if
there is a positive presence of jurisdiction”.

*

25. The Court observes that, given the urgency which, ex hypothesi,
characterizes the consideration of requests for the indication of provi-

sional measures, it does not normally at that stage take a definitive deci-
sion on its jurisdiction. It does so only if it is apparent from the outset
that there is no basis on which jurisdiction could lie, and that it therefore
cannot entertain the case. Where the Court finds such a manifest lack of
jurisdiction, considerations of the sound administration of justice dictate

that it remove the case in question from the List (Legality of Use of Force
(Yugoslavia v. Spain), Order of 2 June 1999, I.C.J. Reports 1999 (II) ,
pp. 773-774, para. 40; Legality of Use of Force (Yugoslavia v. United
States of America), Order of 2 June 1999, I.C.J. Reports 1999 (II) ,
pp. 925-926, para. 34). Where, on the other hand, the Court is unable to
conclude that it manifestly lacks jurisdiction, it retains the case on the

List and reserves the right subsequently to consider further the question
of jurisdiction, making it clear, as it did in its Order of 10 July 2002, that
“the findings reached by [it] in the present proceedings in no way pre-
judge the question of [its] jurisdiction . . . to deal with the merits of the
case or any questions relating to the admissibility of the Application, or

relating to the merits themselves” (Armed Activities on the Territory
of the Congo (New Application: 2002) (Democratic Republic of the
Congo v. Rwanda), Provisional Measures, Order of 10 July 2002, I.C.J.
Reports 2002, p. 249, para. 90; see also Anglo-Iranian Oil Co. (United
Kingdom v. Iran), Interim Protection, Order of 5 July 1951, I.C.J.

Reports 1951, p. 114; Fisheries Jurisdiction (Federal Republic of Ger-
many v. Iceland), Interim Protection, Order of 17 August 1972, I.C.J.
Reports 1972, p. 34, para. 21; Military and Paramilitary Activities in and
against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v. United States of America), Provisional
Measures, Order of 10 May 1984, I.C.J. Reports 1984 , p. 186, para. 40;

Arbitral Award of 31 July 1989 (Guinea-Bissau v. Senegal), Provisional
Measures, Order of 2 March 1990, I.C.J. Reports 1990 , p. 69, para. 23;
Legality of Use of Force (Yugoslavia v. Belgium), Provisional Measures,
Order of 2 June 1999, I.C.J. Reports 1999 (II) , pp. 139-140, para. 46).

The fact that in its Order of 10 July 2002 the Court did not conclude
that it manifestly lacked jurisdiction cannot therefore amount to an
acknowledgment that it has jurisdiction. On the contrary, from the outset
the Court had serious doubts regarding its jurisdiction to entertain the
DRC’s Application, for in that same Order it justified its refusal to indi-

cate provisional measures by the lack of prima facie jurisdiction. In
declining Rwanda’s request to remove the case from the List, the Court
simply reserved the right fully to examine further the issue of its jurisdic-

1821 ACTIVITÉS ARMÉES (ARRÊT )

d’examiner plus avant, ultérieurement, et de façon complète la question
de sa compétence. Un tel réexamen est précisément l’objet de la présente

phase de l’instance.

* * *

26. Etant arrivée à la conclusion que les deux bases de compétence
additionnelles invoquées par la RDC ne peuvent être retenues, la Cour

doit à présent se pencher sur les clauses compromissoires mentionnées
dans la requête, à l’exception de celles contenues dans la convention
contre la torture et dans la convention sur les privilèges et immunités
(voir paragraphes 16 et 17 ci-dessus).
27. La Cour examinera les clauses compromissoires invoquées par la

RDC dans l’ordre suivant: article IX de la convention sur le génocide;
article 22 de la convention sur la discrimination raciale; paragraphe 1 de
l’article 29 de la convention sur la discrimination à l’égard des femmes;
article 75 de la Constitution de l’OMS; paragraphe 2 de l’article XIV de
l’acte constitutif de l’Unesco; paragraphe 1 de l’article 14 de la conven-
tion de Montréal; et article 66 de la convention de Vienne sur le droit des

traités.

* * *

28. Dans sa requête, la RDC soutient que le Rwanda a violé les ar-
ticles II et III de la convention sur le génocide.

L’article II de cette convention interdit l’accomplissement:
«de l’un quelconque des actes ci-après commis dans l’intention de

détruire, en tout ou partie, un groupe national, ethnique, racial ou
religieux comme tel:
a) meurtre de membres du groupe;
b) atteinte grave à l’intégrité physique ou mentale de membres du

groupe;
c) soumission intentionnelle du groupe à des conditions d’existence
devant entraîner sa destruction physique totale ou partielle;
d) mesures visant à entraver les naissances au sein du groupe;
e) transfert forcé d’enfants du groupe à un autre groupe».

Son article III dispose quant à lui que:

«Seront punis les actes suivants:
a) le génocide;

b) l’entente en vue de commettre le génocide;
c) l’incitation directe et publique à commettre le génocide;
d) la tentative de génocide;
e) la complicité dans le génocide.»

A l’effet de fonder la compétence de la Cour pour connaître de sa
demande, la RDC invoque l’article IX de la convention, ainsi libellé:

19 ARMED ACTIVITIES (JUDGMENT ) 21

tion at a later stage. It is precisely such a further examination which is the
object of the present phase of the proceedings.

* * *

26. Having concluded that the two additional bases of jurisdiction
invoked by the DRC cannot be accepted, the Court must now consider

the compromissory clauses referred to in the Application, with the excep-
tion of those contained in the Convention against Torture and the Con-
vention on Privileges and Immunities (see paragraphs 16 and 17 above).

27. The Court will examine in the following order the compromissory

clauses invoked by the DRC: Article IX of the Genocide Convention;
Article 22 of the Convention on Racial Discrimination; Article 29, para-
graph 1, of the Convention on Discrimination against Women; Article 75
of the WHO Constitution; Article XIV, paragraph 2, of the Unesco
Constitution; Article 14, paragraph 1, of the Montreal Convention;
Article 66 of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties.

* * *

28. In its Application the DRC contends that Rwanda has violated
Articles II and III of the Genocide Convention.

Article II of that Convention prohibits:
“any of the following acts committed with intent to destroy, in

whole or in part, a national, ethnical, racial or religious group, as
such:
(a) Killing members of the group;
(b) Causing serious bodily or mental harm to members of the

group;
(c) Deliberately inflicting on the group conditions of life calculated
to bring about its physical destruction in whole or in part;
(d) Imposing measures intended to prevent births within the group;
(e) Forcibly transferring children of the group to another group.”

Article III provides:

“The following acts shall be punishable:
(a) Genocide;

(b) Conspiracy to commit genocide;
(c) Direct and public incitement to commit genocide;
(d) Attempt to commit genocide;
(e) Complicity in genocide.”

In order to found the jurisdiction of the Court to entertain its claim,
the DRC invokes Article IX of the Convention, which reads as follows:

1922 ACTIVITÉS ARMÉES ARRÊT )

«Les différends entre les parties contractantes relatifs à l’interpré-
tation, l’application ou l’exécution de la présente convention, y com-

pris ceux relatifs à la responsabilité d’un Etat en matière de génocide
ou de l’un quelconque des autres actes énumérés à l’article III, seront
soumis à la Cour internationale de Justice, à la requête d’une partie
au différend.»

29. Dans son mémoire, le Rwanda a fait valoir que la compétence de
la Cour en vertu de la convention sur le génocide était exclue par la
réserve qu’il a formulée à l’article IX dans son intégralité. Dans son
contre-mémoire, la RDC a contesté la validité de cette réserve. A

l’audience, elle a en outre soutenu que le Rwanda avait retiré cette
réserve; elle a à cet effet invoqué un décret-loi rwandais en date du
15 février 1995 ainsi qu’une déclaration faite le 17 mars 2005 par le mi-
nistre de la justice du Rwanda lors de la soixante et unième session de la
Commission des droits de l’homme des Nations Unies. Le Rwanda a

contesté l’allégation de la RDC selon laquelle il aurait retiré sa réserve à
l’article IX de la convention sur le génocide. La Cour commencera donc
par examiner la réalité de ce retrait. Ce n’est que si elle conclut au main-
tien de ladite réserve par le Rwanda que la Cour aura à se pencher sur les
arguments de la RDC relatifs à la validité de cette réserve.

**

30. Comme il vient d’être indiqué, la RDC a soutenu à l’audience que
le Rwanda avait retiré sa réserve à l’article IX de la convention sur le
génocide. Selon la RDC, le Rwanda s’était en effet engagé, aux termes de
l’article 15 du protocole d’accord sur les questions diverses et dispositions
finales, signé à Arusha le 3 août 1993, entre le Gouvernement rwandais et

le Front patriotique rwandais, à lever toutes les réserves qu’il avait for-
mulées en devenant partie aux instruments conventionnels «en rapport
avec les droits de l’homme». D’après la RDC, le Rwanda a donné suite à
cet engagement en adoptant le décret-loi 014/01 du 15 février 1995, par
lequel le gouvernement de transition à base élargie aurait levé toutes les

réserves émises par le Rwanda à l’adhésion, à l’approbation et à la rati-
fication des instruments internationaux relatifs aux droits de l’homme.
31. La RDC a à cet égard fait observer que l’accord de paix d’Arusha,
conclu le 4 août 1993 entre le Gouvernement rwandais et le Front patrio-
tique rwandais, dont le protocole susmentionné fait partie intégrante,
n’est pas un simple accord politique interne, comme le soutient le Rwanda,

mais un texte qui, en droit rwandais, fait partie du «bloc de constitution-
nalité», conformément à l’article premier de la loi fondamentale de la
République rwandaise adoptée par l’Assemblée nationale de transition le
26 mai 1995. La RDC a par ailleurs fait valoir que l’argument du
Rwanda selon lequel le décret-loi 014/01 serait tombé en désuétude ou

devenu caduc, du fait de sa non-confirmation par le nouveau Parlement,
n’est pas fondé. De l’avis de la RDC, «si le Parlement rwandais n’a pas
confirmé ce décret-loi et ... n’a cependant laissé aucune trace de ce revi-

20 ARMED ACTIVITIES (JUDGMENT ) 22

“Disputes between the Contracting Parties relating to the interpre-
tation, application or fulfilment of the present Convention, including

those relating to the responsibility of a State for genocide or for any
of the other acts enumerated in article III, shall be submitted to the
International Court of Justice at the request of any of the parties to
the dispute.”

29. Rwanda argued in its Memorial that the jurisdiction of the Court
under the Genocide Convention was excluded by its reservation to the
entirety of Article IX. In its Counter-Memorial the DRC disputed the
validity of that reservation. At the hearings it further contended that

Rwanda had withdrawn its reservation; to that end it cited a Rwandan
décret-loi of 15 February 1995 and a statement of 17 March 2005 by
Rwanda’s Minister of Justice at the Sixty-first Session of the United
Nations Commission on Human Rights. Rwanda has denied the DRC’s
contention that it has withdrawn its reservation to Article IX of the

Genocide Convention. The Court will therefore begin by examining
whether Rwanda has in fact withdrawn its reservation. Only if it finds
that Rwanda has maintained its reservation will the Court need to
address the DRC’s arguments concerning the reservation’s validity.

**

30. As just stated, the DRC claimed at the hearings that Rwanda had
withdrawn its reservation to Article IX of the Genocide Convention.
Thus the DRC argued that, in Article 15 of the Protocol of Agreement
on Miscellaneous Issues and Final Provisions signed between the
Government of Rwanda and the Rwandan Patriotic Front at Arusha on

3 August 1993, Rwanda undertook to withdraw all reservations made by
it when it became party to treaty instruments “on human rights”. The
DRC contends that Rwanda implemented that undertaking by adopting
décret-loi No. 014/01 of 15 February 1995, whereby the Broad-Based
Transitional Government allegedly withdrew all reservations made by

Rwanda at the accession, approval and ratification of international instru-
ments relating to human rights.
31. In this regard the DRC observed that the Arusha Peace Agreement
concluded on 4 August 1993 between the Government of Rwanda and
the Rwandan Patriotic Front, of which the above-mentioned Protocol
forms an integral part, was not a mere internal political agreement,

as Rwanda contended, but a text which under Rwandan law, namely
Article 1 of the Fundamental Law of the Rwandese Republic adopted by
the Transitional National Assembly on 26 May 1995, formed part
of the “constitutional ensemble”. The DRC argued, furthermore, that
Rwanda’s contention that décret-loi No. 014/01 had fallen into desuetude

or lapsed because it was not confirmed by the new parliament was
unfounded. According to the DRC, “[i]f the Rwandan parliament did not
confirm the Order in Council, without, however leaving any trace of this

2023 ACTIVITÉS ARMÉES (ARRÊT )

rement, il s’agit ni plus ni moins ... d’une «turpitude»» et «il est un prin-
cipe de droit universel que «nul ne peut alléguer sa propre turpitude»».

En outre, la RDC a allégué que le décret-loi en cause n’était pas soumis
à la procédure d’approbation par le Parlement car, tant en droit congo-
lais qu’en droit rwandais, tous deux influencés par le droit belge, un
décret-loi est un acte pris par le pouvoir exécutif en cas d’urgence et
quand le Parlement est en intersession; si ces conditions sont réunies, une

approbation parlementaire n’est pas nécessaire, à moins qu’il ne s’agisse
d’un décret-loi constitutionnel, ce qui n’est pas le cas du décret-loi 014/01.
32. La RDC a encore fait valoir que l’absence de notification du
retrait de la réserve au Secrétaire général des Nations Unies ne saurait
être opposée aux Etats tiers car le Rwanda a exprimé son intention de

lever ladite réserve dans un texte législatif, à savoir le décret-loi du
15 février 1995. Selon la RDC, le défaut de notification de ce décret-loi au
Secrétaire général des Nations Unies n’a pas de pertinence en l’espèce
dans la mesure où ce n’est pas l’acte de notification à l’organisme inter-
national qui donne sa force «à un acte administratif de droit interne,
mais plutôt sa promulgation ou/et sa publication par les soins de l’auto-

rité nationale compétente».
33. La RDC a enfin soutenu que le retrait par le Rwanda de sa réserve
à l’article IX de la convention sur le génocide est corroboré par une
déclaration faite par le ministre de la justice de cet Etat, le 17 mars 2005,
lors de la soixante et unième session de la Commission des droits de

l’homme des Nations Unies. Le ministre avait alors déclaré que les
«quelques instruments [relatifs aux droits de l’homme] non encore
ratifiés» à cette date par le Rwanda, ainsi que les réserves «non encore
levées, le ser[aient] prochainement». De l’avis de la RDC, cette déclara-
tion signifiait que des réserves, dont celle formulée par le Rwanda à

l’égard de l’article IX de la convention sur le génocide, avaient déjà été
levées par cet Etat dès 1995. La RDC a ajouté que la déclaration du
ministre de la justice du Rwanda avait «matérialis[é] sur le plan internatio-
nal l’option ... arrêtée [en février 1995] par le Gouvernement rwandais de
lever toutes les réserves faites par le Rwanda aux traités relatifs aux

droits de l’homme» et que cette déclaration faite «au sein de l’un des
forums les plus représentatifs de la communauté internationale, à sa-
voir la Commission des droits de l’homme des Nations Unies ... enga-
ge[ait] bel et bien l’Etat rwandais».
34. A l’audience, le Rwanda a pour sa part soutenu qu’il n’avait
jamais pris de mesure tendant à retirer sa réserve à l’article IX de la

convention sur le génocide.
En ce qui concerne l’accord de paix d’Arusha du 4 août 1993, le
Rwanda a indiqué qu’il ne s’agit pas d’un instrument international mais
d’une série d’accords conclus entre le Gouvernement de la République
rwandaise et le Front patriotique rwandais, c’est-à-dire d’un accord

interne qui ne crée pas d’engagement pour le Rwanda à l’égard d’un
autre Etat ni de la communauté internationale dans son ensemble.
En outre, selon le Rwanda, l’article 15 du protocole d’accord sur les

21 ARMED ACTIVITIES (JUDGMENT ) 23

volte-face, that is neither more nor less than . . . a ‘wrongful act’; and it
was a universal principle of law that ‘no one may profit by his own wrong-

doing’”. The DRC maintained moreover that the décret-loi was not sub-
ject to the procedure of approval by parliament, since, under Congolese
and Rwandan law, both of which had been influenced by Belgian law, a
décret-loi was a measure enacted by the executive branch in cases of
emergency when parliament is in recess; if these conditions were satisfied,

parliamentary approval was not necessary, save in the case of a consti-
tutional décret-loi, which was not the case for décret-loi No. 014/01.
32. The DRC further argued that the fact that withdrawal of the reser-
vation was not notified to the United Nations Secretary-General could
not be relied on against third States, since Rwanda expressed its intention

to withdraw the reservation in a legislative text, namely the décret-loi of
15 February 1995. According to the DRC, the failure to notify that
décret-loi to the United Nations Secretary-General has no relevance in
this case, since it is not the act of notification to an international organi-
zation which gives validity “to a domestic administrative enactment, but
rather its promulgation and/or publication by the competent national

authority”.
33. Finally, the DRC contended that Rwanda’s withdrawal of its reser-
vation to Article IX of the Genocide Convention was corroborated by a
statement by the latter’s Minister of Justice on 17 March 2005 at the
Sixty-first Session of the United Nations Commission on Human Rights.

The Minister there announced that “the few [human rights] instruments
not yet ratified” at that date by Rwanda, as well as reservations “not yet
withdrawn”, would “shortly be ratified . . . [or] withdrawn”. In the
DRC’s view, this statement meant that there were reservations, including
that made by Rwanda in respect of Article IX of the Genocide Conven-

tion, which had already been withdrawn by that State in 1995. The DRC
added that the statement by the Rwandan Minister of Justice “gave
material form at international level to the . . . decision taken by the
Rwandan Government [in February 1995] to withdraw all reservations to
human rights treaties”, and that this statement, “made within one of the

most representative forums of the international community, the United
Nations Commission on Human Rights, . . . [did] indeed bind the
Rwandan State”.

34. For its part, Rwanda contended at the hearings that it had never
taken any measure to withdraw its reservation to Article IX of the Geno-

cide Convention.
As regards the Arusha Peace Agreement of 4 August 1993, Rwanda
considered that this was not an international instrument but a series of
agreements concluded between the Government of Rwanda and the
Rwandan Patriotic Front, that is to say an internal agreement which did

not create any obligation on Rwanda’s part to another State or to the
international community as a whole.
Rwanda further observed that Article 15 of the Protocol of Agreement

2124 ACTIVITÉS ARMÉES ARRÊT )

questions diverses et dispositions finales, en date du 3 août 1993, ne men-
tionne pas explicitement la convention sur le génocide et ne précise pas si

les réserves visées comprennent aussi bien celles relatives aux dispositions
de procédure, y compris les dispositions concernant la compétence de la
Cour, que celles se rapportant aux dispositions de fond.
35. S’agissant du décret-loi 014/01 du 15 février 1995, le Rwanda a
souligné que celui-ci, tout comme l’article 15 du protocole d’accord sus-

mentionné, était libellé en termes très généraux, puisqu’il «autorisait le
retrait de toutes les réserves émises par le Rwanda à tous les accords
internationaux». Le Rwanda a par ailleurs fait valoir que, «en vertu des
instruments constitutionnels alors en vigueur au Rwanda, le Parlement
— appelé à l’époque «assemblée nationale de transition» — devait

approuver un décret de cette nature au cours de la session immédiate-
ment consécutive à l’adoption dudit décret». Or, relève le Rwanda,
durant la session qui a immédiatement suivi l’adoption du décret 014/01,
et qui s’est tenue entre le 12 avril et le 11 juillet 1995, le décret n’a pas été
approuvé et est donc devenu caduc.
36. Le Rwanda a par ailleurs fait observer qu’il n’avait jamais notifié

au Secrétaire général des Nations Unies le retrait de sa réserve à l’ar-
ticle IX de la convention sur le génocide, ni pris aucune mesure tendant
à retirer celle-ci, et que seule une telle mesure officielle prise au plan
international constitue l’expression définitive de la position d’un Etat
concernant les obligations qui lui incombent en vertu d’un traité.

37. S’agissant de la déclaration faite le 17 mars 2005, lors de la
soixante et unième session de la Commission des droits de l’homme des
Nations Unies, par son ministre de la justice, le Rwanda a soutenu que
celle-ci n’avait fait que rappeler, dans son intervention, l’intention de son
gouvernement de lever, «un jour ou l’autre», des réserves «non spéci-

fiées» à des conventions «non spécifiées» en matière de droits de l’homme.
Le Rwanda a relevé que cette déclaration contredisait la thèse de la RDC
selon laquelle il aurait déjà levé ces mêmes réserves en 1995. Il a égale-
ment fait valoir que cette déclaration ne pouvait le lier ni l’obliger à lever
«une réserve particulière» dans la mesure où elle émanait d’un ministre

de la justice et non d’un ministre des affaires étrangères ou d’un chef de
gouvernement «automatiquement investis du pouvoir d’engager l’Etat
concerné pour les questions de relations internationales». Le Rwanda a
enfin affirmé qu’une déclaration prononcée dans une enceinte telle que la
Commission des droits de l’homme des Nations Unies, près de trois années
après l’introduction de la présente instance devant la Cour, ne saurait

avoir d’incidence sur la question de la compétence, «question qui doit
être tranchée par rapport à la situation qui existait à la date du dépôt de
la requête».

*

38. La Cour note que tant la RDC que le Rwanda sont parties à la
convention sur le génocide, la RDC y ayant adhéré le 31 mai 1962 et le

22 ARMED ACTIVITIES (JUDGMENT ) 24

on Miscellaneous Issues and Final Provisions of 3 August 1993 made no
express reference to the Genocide Convention and did not specify whether

the reservations referred to comprised both those concerning procedural
provisions, including provisions relating to the jurisdiction of the Court,
and those concerning substantive provisions.
35. In regard to décret-loi No. 014/01 of 15 February 1995, Rwanda
pointed out that this text, like Article 15 of the Protocol of Agreement,

was drawn in very general terms, since it “authorized the withdrawal of
all reservations entered into by Rwanda to all international agreements”.
Rwanda further stated that, “under the constitutional instruments then
in force in Rwanda, a decree of this kind had to be approved by Parlia-
ment — at that time called the Transitional National Assembly — at its

session immediately following the adoption of the decree”. Rwanda
points out that, at the session immediately following the adoption of
décret-loi No. 014/01, which took place between 12 April and 11 July 1995,
the Order was not approved, and therefore lapsed.

36. Rwanda further observed that it had never notified withdrawal of

its reservation to Article IX of the Genocide Convention to the United
Nations Secretary-General, or taken any measure to withdraw it, and
that only such formal action on the international plane could constitute
the definitive position of a State in regard to its treaty obligations.

37. Regarding the statement made on 17 March 2005 at the Sixty-first
Session of the United Nations Commission on Human Rights by its Min-
ister of Justice, Rwanda contends that in her speech the Minister simply
restated Rwanda’s intention to lift “unspecified” reservations to “unspeci-
fied” human rights treaties “at some time in the future”. Rwanda notes

that the statement was inconsistent with the argument of the DRC that it
had already withdrawn those same reservations in 1995. It further
observes that the statement could not bind it or oblige it to withdraw “a
particular reservation”, since it was made by a Minister of Justice and
not by a Foreign Minister or Head of Government, “with automatic

authority to bind the State in matters of international relations”. Finally,
Rwanda asserts that a statement given in a forum such as the United
Nations Commission on Human Rights, almost three years after the
institution of the present proceedings before the Court, cannot have any
effect on the issue of jurisdiction, which “has to be judged by reference to
the situation as it existed at the date the Application was filed”.

*

38. The Court notes that both the DRC and Rwanda are parties to the
Genocide Convention, the DRC having acceded on 31 May 1962 and

2225 ACTIVITÉS ARMÉES (ARRÊT )

Rwanda le 16 avril 1975. La Cour observe toutefois que l’instrument
d’adhésion du Rwanda à la convention, déposé auprès du Secrétaire géné-

ral des Nations Unies, comporte une réserve formulée comme suit: «La
République rwandaise ne se considère pas comme liée par l’article IX de
ladite convention.»
39. La Cour constate que les deux Parties ont des points de vue oppo-
sés, premièrement, sur la question de savoir si, en adoptant le décret-

loi 014/01 du 15 février 1995, le Rwanda a effectivement retiré la réserve
qu’il a formulée à l’article IX de la convention sur le génocide, et, deuxiè-
mement, sur la question de la portée juridique de la déclaration faite par
la ministre de la justice du Rwanda lors de la soixante et unième session
de la Commission des droits de l’homme des Nations Unies. La Cour

examinera donc successivement ces deux questions.
40. Concernant la première question, la Cour note que l’instrument
intitulé «Décret-loi 014/01 du 15 février 1995 levant toutes les réserves
émises par la République rwandaise à l’adhésion, à l’approbation et à la
ratification des instruments internationaux» a été adopté le 15 février 1995
par le président de la République rwandaise après avis du Conseil des mi-

nistres et a été contresigné par le premier ministre ainsi que par le mi-
nistre de la justice de la République rwandaise. L’article premier de ce
décret-loi, qui en compte trois, dispose que «[t]outes les réserves émises
par la République rwandaise pour l’adhésion, l’approbation et la ratifica-
tion des instruments internationaux, sont levées»; son article 2 prévoit

pour sa part que «[t]outes les dispositions antérieures contraires au pré-
sent décret-loi sont abrogées»; et son article 3 précise que «[l]e présent
décret-loi entre en vigueur le jour de sa publication au Journal officiel de
la République rwandaise». Ce décret-loi a fait l’objet d’une publication
au Journal officiel de la République rwandaise, à une date qui n’a pas été

précisée à la Cour, et est entré en vigueur.
41. La validité dudit décret-loi en droit interne rwandais a été contes-
tée par le Rwanda. Cependant, de l’avis de la Cour, la question de la vali-
dité et de la portée de ce décret dans l’ordre juridique interne rwandais est
différente de celle de sa portée dans l’ordre juridique international. Il

convient en effet de distinguer clairement entre la décision prise dans
l’ordre juridique interne d’un Etat de retirer une réserve à un traité et la
mise en Œuvre de cette décision dans l’ordre juridique international par
les autorités nationales compétentes, qui ne peut s’opérer que par la noti-
fication du retrait de ladite réserve aux autres Etats parties au traité
concerné. C’est une règle du droit international, dérivée du principe de

sécurité juridique et bien établie dans la pratique, que, sauf convention
contraire, le retrait par un Etat contractant d’une réserve à un traité mul-
tilatéral ne prend effet à l’égard des autres Etats contractants que lorsque
ceux-ci en ont reçu notification. Cette règle trouve son expression dans
l’article 22, paragraphe 3, littera a) de la convention de Vienne sur le

droit des traités, qui s’énonce comme suit: «3. A moins que le traité n’en
dispose ou qu’il n’en soit convenu autrement: a) le retrait d’une réserve
ne prend effet à l’égard d’un autre Etat contractant que lorsque cet Etat

23 ARMED ACTIVITIES (JUDGMENT ) 25

Rwanda on 16 April 1975. The Court observes, however, that Rwanda’s
instrument of accession to the Convention, as deposited with the

Secretary-General of the United Nations, contains a reservation worded
as follows: “The Rwandese Republic does not consider itself as bound
by Article IX of the Convention.”
39. The Court also notes that the Parties take opposing views, first on
whether, in adopting décret-loi No. 014/01 of 15 February 1995, Rwanda

effectively withdrew its reservation to Article IX of the Genocide Con-
vention and, secondly, on the question of the legal effect of the statement
by Rwanda’s Minister of Justice at the Sixty-first Session of the United
Nations Commission on Human Rights. The Court will accordingly
address in turn each of these two questions.

40. In regard to the first question, the Court notes that an instrument
entitled “Décret-loi No. 014/01 of 15 February 1995 withdrawing all
reservations entered by the Rwandese Republic at the accession, approval
and ratification of international instruments” was adopted on 15 Febru-
ary 1995 by the President of the Rwandese Republic following an

Opinion of the Council of Ministers and was countersigned by the Prime
Minister and Minister of Justice of the Rwandese Republic. Article 1 of this
décret-loi, which contains three articles, provides that “[a]ll reservations
entered by the Rwandese Republic in respect of the accession, approval
and ratification of international instruments are withdrawn”; Article 2

states that “[a]ll prior provisions contrary to the present décret-loi are
abrogated”; while Article 3 provides that “[t]his décret-loi shall enter into
force on the day of its publication in the Official Journal of the Rwandese
Republic”. The décret-loi was published in the Official Journal of the
Rwandese Republic, on a date of which the Court has not been apprised,

and entered into force.
41. The validity of this décret-loi under Rwandan domestic law has
been denied by Rwanda. However, in the Court’s view the question of the
validity and effect of the décret-loi within the domestic legal order of
Rwanda is different from that of its effect within the international legal

order. Thus a clear distinction has to be drawn between a decision to with-
draw a reservation to a treaty taken within a State’s domestic legal order
and the implementation of that decision by the competent national authori-
ties within the international legal order, which can be effected only by noti-
fication of withdrawal of the reservation to the other States parties to the
treaty in question. It is a rule of international law, deriving from the prin-

ciple of legal security and well established in practice, that, subject to agree-
ment to the contrary, the withdrawal by a contracting State of a reser-
vation to a multilateral treaty takes effect in relation to the other con-
tracting States only when they have received notification thereof. This rule
is expressed in Article 22, paragraph 3(a), of the Vienna Convention

on the Law of Treaties, which provides as follows: “3. Unless the Treaty
otherwise provides, or it is otherwise agreed:(a) the withdrawal of a reser-
vation becomes operative in relation to another Contracting State only when

2326 ACTIVITÉS ARMÉES (ARRÊT )

en a reçu notification.» Le paragraphe 4 de l’article 23 de la même
convention prévoit en outre que «le retrait d’une réserve ou d’une objec-
tion à une réserve doit être formulé par écrit».
42. La Cour observe qu’en l’espèce il n’a pas été établi que le Rwanda

ait notifié le retrait de ses réserves aux autres Etats parties aux «instru-
ments internationaux» auxquels il est fait référence à l’article premier du
décret-loi 014/01 du 15 février 1995, et en particulier aux Etats parties à la
convention sur le génocide. Il n’a pas davantage été établi qu’en vertu
d’une convention quelconque un tel retrait aurait pu être effectif sans

notification. De l’avis de la Cour, l’adoption du décret-loi susmentionné
et sa publication au Journal officiel de la République rwandaise ne sau-
raient en elles-mêmes valoir pareille notification. Pour produire des effets
en droit international, le retrait aurait dû faire l’objet d’une notification
reçue au plan international.

43. La Cour constate que, en ce qui concerne la convention sur le
génocide, le Gouvernement rwandais n’a entrepris aucune action au plan
international sur la base de ce décret-loi. Elle relève à cet égard que cette
convention est un traité multilatéral déposé auprès du Secrétaire général

des Nations Unies et considère que c’est normalement par l’entremise de
ce dernier que le Rwanda aurait dû notifier le retrait de sa réserve. La
Cour note en effet que, bien que la convention ne traite pas de la question
des réserves, son article XVII assigne des responsabilités particulières au
Secrétaire général des Nations Unies en matière de notification aux Etats

parties à la convention ou ayant qualité à le devenir; c’est donc en prin-
cipe par le canal du Secrétaire général que lesdits Etats doivent être infor-
més tant de la formulation d’une réserve à cette convention que du retrait
de ladite réserve. Le Rwanda a notifié au Secrétaire général sa réserve à
l’article IX de la convention sur le génocide. Or, la Cour n’a pas connais-

sance que le Rwanda ait adressé une quelconque notification au Secré-
taire général en ce qui concerne le retrait de cette réserve.
44. Au vu de ce qui précède, la Cour conclut que l’adoption et la
publication du décret-loi 014/01 du 15 février 1995 par le Rwanda n’ont

pas, au regard du droit international, emporté le retrait par cet Etat de sa
réserve à l’article IX de la convention sur le génocide.

*

45. La Cour passera maintenant à l’examen de la seconde question, à
savoir celle de la portée juridique de la déclaration faite le 17 mars 2005
par M me Mukabagwiza, ministre de la justice du Rwanda, lors de la
soixante et unième session de la Commission des droits de l’homme des

Nations Unies. Au cours de la procédure orale, la RDC a en effet invoqué
cette déclaration et a soutenu qu’elle pouvait être interprétée comme cor-
roborant le retrait par le Rwanda de sa réserve à l’article IX de la conven-
tion sur le génocide ou comme constituant un engagement unilatéral ayant
des effets juridiques en ce qui concerne le retrait de cette réserve. Dans sa
me
déclaration, M Mukabagwiza avait notamment dit ce qui suit:

24 ARMED ACTIVITIES (JUDGMENT ) 26

notice of it has been received by that State.” Article 23, paragraph 4, of
that same Convention further provides that “[t]he withdrawal of a reserva-

tion or of an objection to a reservation must be formulated in writing”.
42. The Court observes that in this case it has not been shown that
Rwanda notified the withdrawal of its reservations to the other States
parties to the “international instruments” referred to in Article 1 of
décret-loi No. 014/01 of 15 February 1995, and in particular to the States

parties to the Genocide Convention. Nor has it been shown that there
was any agreement whereby such withdrawal could have become opera-
tive without notification. In the Court’s view, the adoption of that décret-
loi and its publication in the Official Journal of the Rwandese Republic
cannot in themselves amount to such notification. In order to have effect

in international law, the withdrawal would have had to be the subject of
a notice received at the international level.
43. The Court notes that, as regards the Genocide Convention, the
Government of Rwanda has taken no action at international level on the
basis of the décret-loi. It observes that this Convention is a multilateral
treaty whose depositary is the Secretary-General of the United Nations,

and it considers that it was normally through the latter that Rwanda
should have notified withdrawal of its reservation. Thus the Court notes
that, although the Convention does not deal with the question of reser-
vations, Article XVII thereof confers particular responsibilities on the
United Nations Secretary-General in respect of notifications to States

parties to the Convention or entitled to become parties; it is thus in prin-
ciple through the medium of the Secretary-General that such States must
be informed both of the making of a reservation to the Convention and
of its withdrawal. Rwanda notified its reservation to Article IX of the
Genocide Convention to the Secretary-General. However, the Court does

not have any evidence that Rwanda notified the Secretary-General of the
withdrawal of this reservation.
44. In light of the foregoing, the Court finds that the adoption and
publication of décret-loi No. 014/01 of 15 February 1995 by Rwanda did
not, as a matter of international law, effect a withdrawal by that State of

its reservation to Article IX of the Genocide Convention.

*

45. The Court will now turn to the second question, that of the legal
effect of the statement made on 17 March 2005 by Ms Mukabagwiza,

Minister of Justice of Rwanda, at the Sixty-first Session of the United
Nations Commission on Human Rights. At the hearings the DRC cited
this statement and contended that it could be interpreted as corro-
borating Rwanda’s withdrawal of its reservation to Article IX of the
Genocide Convention, or as constituting a unilateral commitment

having legal effects in regard to the withdrawal of that reservation. In
her statement Ms Mukabagwiza said inter alia the following:

2427 ACTIVITÉS ARMÉES (ARRÊT )

«Le Rwanda a été parmi les premiers pays à avoir ratifié plus
d’instruments internationaux relatifs aux droits de l’homme. Rien
qu’en 2004, notre gouvernement en a ratifié une dizaine dont ceux
relatifs aux droits de la femme, à la prévention et lutte contre la cor-

ruption, à l’interdiction d’armes de destructions massives, ainsi qu’à
l’environnement. Les quelques instruments non encore ratifiés, ainsi
que les réserves formulées dans le passé non encore levées le seront
prochainement.»

46. La Cour commencera par examiner l’argument du Rwanda selon
lequel il ne saurait être juridiquement lié par la déclaration en question

dans la mesure où elle n’émane pas d’un ministre des affaires étrangères
ou d’un chef de gouvernement «automatiquement investis du pouvoir
d’engager l’Etat concerné pour les questions de relations internationales,
mais d’un ministre de la justice qui ne peut lier l’Etat et l’obliger à lever
une réserve particulière». A cet égard, la Cour observe que, conformé-

ment à une jurisprudence constante (Essais nucléaires (Australie
c. France), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1974 , p. 269-270, par. 49-51; Application
de la convention pour la prévention et la répression du crime de génocide
(Bosnie-Herzégovine c. Yougoslavie), exceptions préliminaires, arrêt,

C.I.J. Recueil 1996 (II) , p. 622, par. 44; Mandat d’arrêt du 11 avril 2000
(République démocratique du Congo c. Belgique), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil
2002, p. 21-22, par. 53; voir aussi, Statut juridique du Groënland oriental
(Danemark c. Norvège), arrêt, 1933, C.P.I.J. série A/B n o 53, p. 71),
c’est une règle de droit international bien établie que le chef de l’Etat, le

chef de gouvernement et le ministre des affaires étrangères sont réputés
représenter l’Etat du seul fait de l’exercice de leurs fonctions, y compris
pour l’accomplissement au nom dudit Etat d’actes unilatéraux ayant
valeur d’engagement international. La Cour rappellera par ailleurs que,

en matière de conclusion de traités, cette règle coutumière trouve son
expression dans le paragraphe 2 de l’article 7 de la convention de Vienne
sur le droit des traités, qui dispose que,

«[e]n vertu de leurs fonctions et sans avoir à produire de pleins pou-
voirs, sont considérés comme représentant leur Etat: a) les chefs
d’Etat, les chefs de gouvernement et les ministres des affaires étran-

gères, pour tous les actes relatifs à la conclusion d’un traité».

47. La Cour relève cependant qu’il est de plus en plus fréquent, dans
les relations internationales modernes, que d’autres personnes représen-
tant un Etat dans des domaines déterminés soient autorisées par cet Etat

à engager celui-ci, par leurs déclarations, dans les matières relevant de
leur compétence. Il peut en être ainsi des titulaires de portefeuilles mi-
nistériels techniques exerçant, dans les relations extérieures, des pouvoirs
dans leur domaine de compétence, voire même de certains fonctionnaires.
48. En l’espèce, la Cour note d’emblée que M me Mukabagwiza s’est

exprimée devant la Commission des droits de l’homme des Nations Unies

25 ARMED ACTIVITIES (JUDGMENT ) 27

“Rwanda is one of the countries that has ratified the greatest
number of international human rights instruments. In 2004 alone,

our Government ratified ten of them, including those concerning the
rights of women, the prevention and repression of corruption, the
prohibition of weapons of mass destruction, and the environment.
The few instruments not yet ratified will shortly be ratified and past
reservations not yet withdrawn will shortly be withdrawn.”

46. The Court will begin by examining Rwanda’s argument that it
cannot be legally bound by the statement in question inasmuch as a state-
ment made not by a Foreign Minister or a Head of Government “with
automatic authority to bind the State in matters of international rela-
tions, but by a Minister of Justice, cannot bind the State to lift a particu-

lar reservation”. In this connection, the Court observes that, in accord-
ance with its consistent jurisprudence (Nuclear Tests (Australia v.
France), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1974 , pp. 269-270, paras. 49-51; Appli-
cation of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime
of Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Yugoslavia), Preliminary Objec-
tions, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1996 (II) , p. 622, para. 44; Arrest War-

rant of 11 April 2000 (Democratic Republic of the Congo v. Belgium),
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2002 , pp. 21-22, para. 53; see also Legal Status
of Eastern Greenland (Denmark v. Norway), Judgment, 1933, P.C.I.J.,
Series A/B, No. 53, p. 71), it is a well-established rule of international law
that the Head of State, the Head of Government and the Minister for

Foreign Affairs are deemed to represent the State merely by virtue of
exercising their functions, including for the performance, on behalf of the
said State, of unilateral acts having the force of international commit-
ments. The Court moreover recalls that, in the matter of the conclusion
of treaties, this rule of customary law finds expression in Article 7, para-

graph 2, of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, which pro-
vides that

“[i]n virtue of their functions and without having to produce full
powers, the following are considered as representing their State:
(a) Heads of State, Heads of Government and Ministers for For-
eign Affairs, for the purpose of performing all acts relating to the

conclusion of a treaty”.
47. The Court notes, however, that with increasing frequency in

modern international relations other persons representing a State in
specific fields may be authorized by that State to bind it by their state-
ments in respect of matters falling within their purview. This may be
true, for example, of holders of technical ministerial portfolios exercising
powers in their field of competence in the area of foreign relations, and

even of certain officials.
48. In this case, the Court notes first that Ms Mukabagwiza spoke
before the United Nations Commission on Human Rights in her capacity

2528 ACTIVITÉS ARMÉES (ARRÊT )

en sa qualité de ministre de la justice du Rwanda et qu’elle a notamment

indiqué qu’elle faisait sa déclaration «en lieu et place du peuple rwan-
dais». La Cour note également que les questions relatives à la protection
des droits de l’homme qui ont fait l’objet de ladite déclaration relèvent du
domaine de compétence d’un ministre de la justice. De l’avis de la Cour,
on ne saurait en principe exclure qu’un ministre de la justice puisse, dans

certaines circonstances, engager par ses déclarations l’Etat dont il est le
représentant. La Cour ne saurait donc accueillir l’argument du Rwanda
selon lequel M me Mukabagwiza ne pouvait pas, par sa déclaration, enga-
ger l’Etat rwandais au plan international, du seul fait de la nature des
fonctions qu’elle exerçait.

49. Aux fins de déterminer la portée juridique de cette déclaration, la
Cour doit toutefois examiner le contenu réel de celle-ci ainsi que les cir-
constances dans lesquelles elle a été faite (Essais nucléaires (Australie c.
France), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1974 , p. 269-270, par. 51; Différend fron-

talier (Burkina Faso/République du Mali), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1986 ,
p. 573-574, par. 39-40).
50. Sur le premier point, la Cour rappellera qu’une déclaration de cette
nature ne peut créer des obligations juridiques que si elle a un objet clair
et précis (voir Essais nucléaires (Australie c. France) (Nouvelle-Zélande

c. France), C.I.J. Recueil 1974 , p. 267, par. 43; p. 269, par. 51; p. 472,
par. 46; p. 474, par. 53). La Cour observe à ce propos que, dans sa décla-
ration, le ministre de la justice du Rwanda a indiqué que «les réserves
formulées dans le passé non encore levées le ser[aient] prochainement»,
sans faire aucune référence explicite à la réserve formulée par le Rwanda

à l’article IX de la convention sur le génocide. Cette déclaration ne fait
qu’évoquer en termes généraux la question des réserves émises par le
Rwanda. Comme telle, l’expression «réserves formulées dans le passé
non encore levées» renvoie en effet indistinctement à toute réserve émise
par le Rwanda à l’égard de tout traité international auquel il est partie.

Prise dans son contexte, cette expression peut certes être interprétée
comme visant seulement les réserves formulées par le Rwanda aux «trai-
tés internationaux relatifs aux droits de l’homme» auxquels il est fait
allusion dans une phrase précédente de la déclaration. La Cour relève
toutefois à cet égard que les traités internationaux en question doivent en

l’espèce être entendus de manière large puisque, selon les termes mêmes
de cette déclaration, ils semblent englober non seulement les instruments
«relatifs aux droits de la femme» mais également ceux relatifs «à la pré-
vention et lutte contre la corruption, à l’interdiction d’armes de destruc-
tion massive, ainsi qu’à l’environnement». La Cour ne peut dès lors que

constater le caractère indéterminé des traités internationaux auxquels
s’est référée le ministre de la justice du Rwanda dans sa déclaration.
51. La Cour note en outre que cette déclaration se borne simplement à
indiquer que «les réserves formulées dans le passé non encore levées le
seront prochainement», sans mentionner de délai précis dans lequel ces

réserves seraient levées.
52. Il résulte de ce qui précède que le contenu de la déclaration du mi-

26 ARMED ACTIVITIES (JUDGMENT ) 28

as Minister of Justice of Rwanda and that she indicated inter alia that
she was making her statement “on behalf of the Rwandan people”. The

Court further notes that the questions relating to the protection of
human rights which were the subject of that statement fall within the pur-
view of a Minister of Justice. It is the Court’s view that the possibility
cannot be ruled out in principle that a Minister of Justice may, under
certain circumstances, bind the State he or she represents by his or her

statements. The Court cannot therefore accept Rwanda’s argument that
Ms Mukabagwiza could not, by her statement, bind the Rwandan State
internationally, merely because of the nature of the functions that she
exercised.
49. In order to determine the legal effect of that statement, the Court

must, however, examine its actual content as well as the circumstances
in which it was made (Nuclear Tests (Australia v. France), Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 1974, pp. 269-270, para. 51; Frontier Dispute (Burkina
Faso/Republic of Mali), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1986 , pp. 573-574,
paras. 39-40).
50. On the first point, the Court recalls that a statement of this kind

can create legal obligations only if it is made in clear and specific terms
(see Nuclear Tests (Australia v. France) (New Zealand v. France),
I.C.J. Reports 1974, p. 267, para. 43; p. 269, para. 51; p. 472, para. 46;
p. 474, para. 53). In this regard the Court observes that in her statement
the Minister of Justice of Rwanda indicated that “past reservations not

yet withdrawn [would] shortly be withdrawn”, without referring explicitly
to the reservation made by Rwanda to Article IX of the Genocide Con-
vention. The statement merely raises in general terms the question of
Rwandan reservations. As such, the expression “past reservations not yet
withdrawn” refers without distinction to any reservation made by Rwanda

to any international treaty to which it is a party. Viewed in its context,
this expression may, it is true, be interpreted as referring solely to the reser-
vations made by Rwanda to “international human rights instruments”,
to which reference is made in an earlier passage of the statement. In this
connection the Court notes, however, that the international instruments

in question must in the circumstances be understood in a broad sense,
since, according to the statement itself, they appear to encompass not
only instruments “concerning the rights of women” but also those con-
cerning “the prevention and repression of corruption, the prohibition of
weapons of mass destruction, and the environment”. The Court is there-
fore bound to note the indeterminate character of the international trea-

ties referred to by the Rwandan Minister of Justice in her statement.

51. The Court further observes that this statement merely indicates
that “past reservations not yet withdrawn will shortly be withdrawn”,

without indicating any precise time-frame for such withdrawals.

52. It follows from the foregoing that the statement by the Rwandan

2629 ACTIVITÉS ARMÉES (ARRÊT )

nistre de la justice du Rwanda n’est pas suffisamment précis relativement
à la question particulière du retrait des réserves. Par la généralité de ses

termes, cette déclaration ne saurait en conséquence être considérée comme
la confirmation par le Rwanda d’un retrait déjà décidé de sa réserve à
l’article IX de la convention sur le génocide ou un quelconque engage-
ment unilatéral de sa part ayant des effets juridiques en ce qui concerne
ce retrait; elle peut tout au plus être analysée comme une déclaration

d’intention, de portée tout à fait générale.
53. Cette conclusion est corroborée par l’examen des circonstances
dans lesquelles cette déclaration a été faite. En effet, la Cour constate que
c’est dans le cadre d’un exposé de politique générale en matière de pro-
motion et de protection des droits de l’homme que le ministre de la justice

du Rwanda a fait sa déclaration devant la Commission des droits de
l’homme des Nations Unies.
54. Enfin, la Cour se penchera sur l’argument du Rwanda selon lequel
la déclaration de son ministre de la justice ne pouvait de toute manière
avoir aucune incidence sur la question de la compétence de la Cour dans
la présente espèce, du fait qu’elle avait été prononcée près de trois années

après l’introduction de l’instance. A cet égard, la Cour rappellera que,
selon une jurisprudence constante, sa compétence doit certes s’apprécier
au moment du dépôt de l’acte introductif d’instance (Application de la
convention pour la prévention et la répression du crime de génocide
(Bosnie-Herzégovine c. Yougoslavie), exceptions préliminaires, arrêt,

C.I.J.Recueil1996(II) ,p.613,par.26;Mandatd’arrêt(Républiquedémo-
cratique du Congo c. Belgique), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2002 , p. 12, par. 26),
mais qu’elle ne doit pas sanctionner un défaut de procédure auquel la
partie requérante pourrait aisément porter remède (Application de la
convention pour la prévention et la répression du crime de génocide

(Bosnie-Herzégovine c. Yougoslavie), exceptions préliminaires, arrêt,
C.I.J. Recueil 1996 (II) , p. 613, par. 26). En l’occurrence, si la déclaration
du ministre rwandaise avait, en cours d’instance, emporté, d’une manière
quelconque, retrait de la réserve du Rwanda à l’article IX de la conven-
tion sur le génocide, la RDC aurait pu, de sa propre initiative, remédier

au défaut procédural affectant sa requête initiale en déposant une nou-
velle requête. L’argument susmentionné du Rwanda doit par suite être
écarté.
55. La Cour étant arrivée à la conclusion que l’allégation de la RDC
selon laquelle le Rwanda aurait retiré sa réserve à l’article IX de la
convention sur le génocide n’était pas fondée, il lui échet maintenant

d’examiner l’argument de la RDC selon lequel cette réserve est invalide.

**

56. Aux fins de démontrer l’absence de validité de la réserve du

Rwanda, la RDC soutient que la convention sur le génocide a «force de
la loi générale à l’égard de tous les Etats», y compris le Rwanda, dans la
mesure où elle contient des normes ressortissant au jus cogens.A

27 ARMED ACTIVITIES (JUDGMENT ) 29

Minister of Justice was not made in sufficiently specific terms in relation
to the particular question of the withdrawal of reservations. Given the

general nature of its wording, the statement cannot therefore be con-
sidered as confirmation by Rwanda of a previous decision to withdraw
its reservation to Article IX of the Genocide Convention, or as any sort
of unilateral commitment on its part having legal effects in regard to
such withdrawal; at most, it can be interpreted as a declaration of intent,

very general in scope.
53. This conclusion is corroborated by an examination of the circum-
stances in which the statement was made. Thus the Court notes that it
was in the context of a presentation of general policy on the promotion
and protection of human rights that the Minister of Justice of Rwanda

made her statement before the United Nations Commission on Human
Rights.
54. Finally, the Court will address Rwanda’s argument that the state-
ment by its Minister of Justice could not in any event have any implica-
tions for the question of the Court’s jurisdiction in this case, since it was
made nearly three years after the institution of the proceedings. In this

connection, the Court recalls that it has consistently held that, while its
jurisdiction must surely be assessed on the date of the filing of the act
instituting proceedings (Application of the Convention on the Prevention
and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v.
Yugoslavia), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1996 (II) ,

p. 613, para. 26; Arrest Warrant of 11 April 2000 (Democratic Republic
of the Congo v. Belgium), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2002 , p. 12, para. 26),
the Court should not, however, penalize a defect in procedure which the
Applicant could easily remedy (Application of the Convention on the Pre-
vention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and Herze-

govina v. Yugoslavia), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports
1996 (II), p. 613, para. 26). In the present case, if the Rwandan
Minister’s statement had somehow entailed the withdrawal of Rwanda’s
reservation to Article IX of the Genocide Convention in the course
of the proceedings, the DRC could on its own initiative have remedied the

procedural defect in its original Application by filing a new Application.
This argument by Rwanda must accordingly be rejected.

55. Having concluded that the DRC’s contention that Rwanda has
withdrawn its reservation to Article IX of the Genocide Convention is
unfounded, the Court must now turn to the DRC’s argument that this

reservation is invalid.

**

56. In order to show that Rwanda’s reservation is invalid, the DRC

maintains that the Genocide Convention has “the force of general law
with respect to all States” including Rwanda, inasmuch as it contains
norms of jus cogens. The DRC further stated at the hearings that,

2730 ACTIVITÉS ARMÉES (ARRÊT )

l’audience, la RDC a précisé que, «dans l’esprit de l’article 53 de la
convention de Vienne», la réserve du Rwanda à l’article IX de la conven-

tion sur le génocide est nulle et de nul effet car elle vise «à empêcher la
Cour ... de réaliser son noble devoir de protéger les normes impératives».
Le fait que la RDC n’ait pas présenté d’objection à cette réserve n’aurait
donc aucune incidence en l’espèce.
57. La RDC soutient également que la réserve formulée par le Rwanda

est incompatible avec l’objet et le but de la convention car
«elle a pour effet d’exclure le Rwanda de tout mécanisme de contrôle

et de poursuite pour faits de génocide, alors que l’objet et le but de la
convention consistent précisément dans l’éradication de l’impunité
de cette grave atteinte au droit international».

58. La RDC fait par ailleurs observer que la réserve rwandaise est
dépourvue de pertinence compte tenu de l’évolution subie depuis 1948
par le droit international en matière de génocide, qui témoigne d’une
«volonté de la communauté internationale en faveur de l’effectivité de la
convention», et qui trouve son illustration dans l’article 120 du Statut de

la Cour pénale internationale qui n’admet aucune réserve, ainsi que dans
la reconnaissance du caractère de jus cogens à l’interdiction du génocide
par la doctrine et par la jurisprudence récentes.
59. La RDC allègue enfin que, quand bien même la Cour rejetterait
l’argument relatif au caractère impératif des normes contenues dans la

convention sur le génocide, elle ne saurait permettre au Rwanda de se
comporter de façon contradictoire, c’est-à-dire de demander au Conseil
de sécurité des Nations Unies l’institution d’un tribunal pénal internatio-
nal pour juger les auteurs du génocide commis à l’encontre du peuple
rwandais, et de refuser par ailleurs que soient jugés les auteurs d’un géno-

cide dès lors que ces derniers sont des ressortissants rwandais ou que les
victimes de ce génocide ne sont pas rwandaises.
60. En ce qui concerne sa réserve à l’article IX de la convention sur le
génocide, le Rwanda fait en premier lieu valoir que bien que, comme le
soutient la RDC, les normes codifiées par les dispositions de fond de la

convention sur le génocide aient le statut de jus cogens et créent des droits
et obligations erga omnes, cela ne suffit pas en soi pour «conférer à la
Cour compétence à l’égard d’un différend concernant la mise en Œuvre de
ces droits et obligations», ainsi que, selon lui, la Cour l’a déclaré en
l’affaire du Timor oriental et dans son ordonnance du 10 juillet 2002 en la
présente affaire.

61. Le Rwanda fait en deuxième lieu valoir que la réserve rwandaise à
l’article IX n’est pas incompatible avec l’objet et le but de la convention,
dès lors que cette réserve porte non «sur les obligations de fond des
parties à la convention mais sur une disposition d’ordre procédural». Il
soutient, à cet égard, que quatorze autres Etats maintiennent des réserves

semblables, sans que la majorité des cent trente-trois Etats parties à la
convention aient élevé d’objection; la RDC elle-même ne s’est pas oppo-
sée à la réserve du Rwanda avant les audiences de juin 2002. Le Rwanda

28 ARMED ACTIVITIES (JUDGMENT ) 30

“in keeping with the spirit of Article 53 of the Vienna Convention”,
Rwanda’s reservation to Article IX of the Genocide Convention is null

and void, because it seeks to “prevent the . . . Court from fulfilling its
noble mission of safeguarding peremptory norms”. Hence the fact that
the DRC had not objected to that reservation was of no consequence
in the present proceedings.
57. The DRC also contends that Rwanda’s reservation is incompatible

with the object and purpose of the Convention, since
“its effect is to exclude Rwanda from any mechanism for the moni-

toring and prosecution of genocide, whereas the object and purpose
of the Convention are precisely the elimination of impunity for this
serious violation of international law”.

58. The DRC further argues that Rwanda’s reservation is irrelevant in
the light of the evolution of the international law relating to genocide
since 1948, which testifies to a “will” in the international community “to
see full effectiveness given to the . . . Convention” and which is reflected
in Article 120 of the Statute of the International Criminal Court, which

prohibits reservations, and in the recognition of the jus cogens nature of
the prohibition of genocide established by recent doctrine and jurispru-
dence.
59. The DRC argues finally that, even if the Court were to reject its
argument based on the peremptory character of the norms contained in

the Genocide Convention, it cannot permit Rwanda to behave in a con-
tradictory fashion, that is to say, to call on the United Nations Security
Council to set up an international criminal tribunal to try the authors of
the genocide committed against the Rwandan people, while at the same
time refusing to allow those guilty of genocide to be tried when they are

Rwandan nationals or the victims of the genocide are not Rwandans.

60. With respect to its reservation to Article IX of the Genocide Con-
vention, Rwanda first observes that, although, as the DRC contends, the
norms codified in the substantive provisions of the Genocide Convention

have the status of jus cogens and create rights and obligations erga
omnes, that does not in itself suffice to “confer jurisdiction on the Court
with respect to a dispute concerning the application of those rights and
obligations”, as, according to Rwanda, the Court had held in the case
concerning East Timor and in its Order of 10 July 2002 in the present
case.

61. Secondly, Rwanda argues that its reservation to Article IX is not
incompatible with the object and purpose of the Genocide Convention,
inasmuch as the reservation relates not “to the substantive obligations of
the parties to the Convention but to a procedural provision”. It claims in
this connection that 14 other States maintain similar reservations, and

that the majority of the 133 States parties to the Convention have raised
no objection to those reservations; the DRC itself did not object to
Rwanda’s reservation prior to the hearings of June 2002. Rwanda further

2831 ACTIVITÉS ARMÉES (ARRÊT )

fait également observer que, lors de la phase des mesures conservatoires
dans les affaires relatives à la Licéité de l’emploi de la force , la Cour, au

vu des réserves émises par l’Espagne et les Etats-Unis d’Amérique à l’ar-
ticle IX de la convention sur le génocide — réserves analogues à celle for-
mulée par le Rwanda —, a décidé de rayer de son rôle les affaires concer-
nant ces deux Etats, au motif qu’elle était manifestement dénuée de
compétence; il en résulte nécessairement que la Cour a jugé incontes-

tables la validité et l’effet desdites réserves. Le fait que la Cour n’ait pas,
dans son ordonnance du 10 juillet 2002, conclu à une incompétence mani-
feste ne vient nullement étayer la thèse de la RDC dans la mesure où cette
conclusion valait pour l’ensemble des bases de compétence alléguées par
la RDC; elle ne pourrait s’expliquer que par rapport aux autres traités

invoqués par la RDC, et non par rapport à la convention sur le génocide.
62. Le Rwanda fait en troisième lieu valoir que le fait que l’article 120
du Statut de la Cour pénale internationale — instrument auquel le
Rwanda n’est pas partie et qu’il n’a pas même signé — n’admette pas que
des réserves soient formulées audit Statut n’a aucune incidence sur la
question en cause. Selon lui, en effet, que les Etats qui ont élaboré le Sta-

tut de la Cour pénale internationale «aient choisi d’exclure toute possibi-
lité de formuler des réserves à ce traité ne porte nullement atteinte au droit
des Etats d’en formuler à l’égard d’autres traités qui, comme la conven-
tion sur le génocide, ne renferment aucune interdiction de la sorte».
63. Le Rwanda fait en quatrième lieu valoir que la demande qu’il avait

formulée dans le passé, tendant à ce que le Conseil de sécurité des
Nations Unies créât un tribunal pénal international chargé de juger les
individus accusés d’avoir pris part au génocide perpétré sur le territoire
rwandais en 1994, est «sans aucun rapport avec la compétence de la ...
Cour pour connaître de différends entre Etats». Il ne saurait être ques-

tion, selon le Rwanda, de priver d’effet «une réserve à l’article IX valable
par ailleurs, au seul motif que l’Etat qui a formulé celle-ci a appuyé l’ins-
titution, par le Conseil de sécurité, d’un tribunal pénal compétent pour
juger des individus».

*

64. La Cour commencera par réaffirmer que «les principes qui sont à
la base de la convention [sur le génocide] sont des principes reconnus par
les nations civilisées comme obligeant les Etats même en dehors de tout

lien conventionnel» et que la conception ainsi retenue a pour consé-
quence «le caractère universel à la fois de la condamnation du génocide
et de la coopération nécessaire «pour libérer l’humanité d’un fléau aussi
odieux» (préambule de la convention)» (Réserves à la convention pour la
prévention et la répression du crime de génocide, avis consultatif,

C.I.J. Recueil 1951, p. 23). Il en résulte que «les droits et obligations
consacrés par la convention sont des droits et obligations erga omnes »
(Application de la convention pour la prévention et la répression du crime

29 ARMED ACTIVITIES (JUDGMENT ) 31

observes that, at the provisional measures stage in the cases concerning
Legality of Use of Force, the Court, in light of the reservations to

Article IX of the Genocide Convention by Spain and the United States —
which are in similar terms to Rwanda’s reservation — decided to remove
the cases concerning those two States from its List, on the ground of its
manifest lack of jurisdiction; it necessarily followed that the Court con-
sidered that there was no room for doubt as to the validity and effect of

those reservations. The fact that the Court, in its Order of 10 July 2002,
did not find that there was a manifest lack of jurisdiction did not in any
way support the DRC’s argument, inasmuch as this conclusion was
addressed to the totality of the DRC’s alleged bases of jurisdiction; it
could be explained only by reference to the other treaties invoked by the

DRC, and not to the Genocide Convention.
62. Rwanda observes thirdly that the fact that Article 120 of the
Statute of the International Criminal Court — to which Rwanda is not
a party and which it has not even signed — prohibits reservations has no
bearing whatever on this issue. Thus, according to Rwanda, the fact that
the States which drew up the Statute of the International Criminal Court

“chose to prohibit all reservations to that treaty in no way affects the
right of States to make reservations to other treaties which, like the
Genocide Convention, do not contain such a prohibition”.

63. Rwanda contends fourthly that its request to the United Nations

Security Council to establish an international criminal tribunal to try
individuals accused of participation in the genocide perpetrated on
Rwandan territory in 1994 is “an entirely separate matter from the juris-
diction of [the] Court to hear disputes between States”. There can be
no question, according to Rwanda, of “an otherwise valid reservation

to Article IX being rendered ‘inoperative’, because the reserving State
supported the creation by the Security Council of a criminal tribunal
with jurisdiction over individuals”.

*

64. The Court will begin by reaffirming that “the principles underlying
the [Genocide] Convention are principles which are recognized by civi-
lized nations as binding on States, even without any conventional obli-

gation” and that a consequence of that conception is “the universal
character both of the condemnation of genocide and of the co-opera-
tion required ‘in order to liberate mankind from such an odious scourge’
(Preamble to the Convention)” (Reservations to the Convention on the
Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, Advisory Opinion,

I.C.J. Reports 1951, p. 23). It follows that “the rights and obligations
enshrined by the Convention are rights and obligations erga omnes”
(Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the

2932 ACTIVITÉS ARMÉES ARRÊT )

de génocide (Bosnie-Herzégovine c. Yougoslavie), exceptions prélimi-
naires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1996 (II) , p. 616, par. 31).

La Cour observe toutefois qu’elle a déjà eu l’occasion de souligner que
«l’opposabilité erga omnes d’une norme et la règle du consentement à la
juridiction sont deux choses différentes» (Timor oriental (Portugal c. Aus-
tralie), C.I.J. Recueil 1995 , p. 102, par. 29), et que le seul fait que des
droits et obligations erga omnes seraient en cause dans un différend ne

saurait donner compétence à la Cour pour connaître de ce différend.
Il en va de même quant aux rapports entre les normes impératives du
droit international général (jus cogens) et l’établissement de la compé-
tence de la Cour: le fait qu’un différend porte sur le respect d’une norme
possédant un tel caractère, ce qui est assurément le cas de l’interdiction

du génocide, ne saurait en lui-même fonder la compétence de la Cour
pour en connaître. En vertu du Statut de la Cour, cette compétence est
toujours fondée sur le consentement des parties.
65. Comme elle l’a rappelé dans son ordonnance du 10 juillet 2002, la
Cour n’a de juridiction à l’égard des Etats que dans la mesure où ceux-ci
y ont consenti (Activités armées sur le territoire du Congo (nouvelle

requête: 2002) (République démocratique du Congo c. Rwanda), mesures
conservatoires, ordonnance du 10 juillet 2002, C.I.J. Recueil 2002 , p. 241,
par. 57). Lorsque sa compétence est prévue dans une clause compromis-
soire contenue dans un traité, cette compétence n’existe qu’à l’égard des
parties au traité qui sont liées par ladite clause, dans les limites stipulées

par celle-ci (ibid., p. 245, par. 71).
66. La Cour relève cependant qu’elle a déjà conclu que les réserves ne
sont pas interdites par la convention sur le génocide (avis consultatif sur
les Réserves à la convention pour la prévention et la répression du crime
de génocide, C.I.J. Recueil 1951 , p. 22 et suiv.). Cette situation juridique

n’est en rien affectée par le fait que le Statut de la Cour pénale interna-
tionale, en son article 120, n’admette aucune réserve audit Statut, pas
même aux dispositions relatives à la compétence de la Cour pénale inter-
nationale à l’égard du crime de génocide. Aussi, de l’avis de la Cour, une
réserve à la convention sur le génocide serait permise pour autant que

cette réserve ne soit pas incompatible avec l’objet et le but de la conven-
tion.
67. La réserve du Rwanda à l’article IX de la convention sur le géno-
cide porte sur la compétence de la Cour et n’affecte pas les obligations de
fond qui découlent de cette convention s’agissant des actes de génocide
eux-mêmes. Dans les circonstances de l’espèce, la Cour ne peut conclure

que la réserve du Rwanda, qui vise à exclure un moyen particulier de
régler un différend relatif à l’interprétation, à l’application ou à l’exécu-
tion de la convention, doit être regardée comme incompatible avec l’objet
et le but de cette convention.
68. De fait, la Cour a déjà eu l’occasion, par le passé, de donner effet

à de telles réserves à l’article IX de la convention (voir Licéité de l’emploi
de la force (Yougoslavie c. Espagne), mesures conservatoires, ordonnance
du 2 juin 1999, C.I.J. Recueil 1999 (II) , p. 772, par. 32-33; Licéité de

30 ARMED ACTIVITIES JUDGMENT ) 32

Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Yugoslavia), Preliminary
Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1996 (II) , p. 616, para. 31).

The Court observes, however, as it has already had occasion to empha-
size, that “the erga omnes character of a norm and the rule of consent
to jurisdiction are two different things” (East Timor (Portugal v. Aus-
tralia), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1995 , p. 102, para. 29), and that the
mere fact that rights and obligations erga omnes may be at issue in a

dispute would not give the Court jurisdiction to entertain that dispute.
The same applies to the relationship between peremptory norms of
general international law (jus cogens) and the establishment of the
Court’s jurisdiction: the fact that a dispute relates to compliance with a
norm having such a character, which is assuredly the case with regard to

the prohibition of genocide, cannot of itself provide a basis for the juris-
diction of the Court to entertain that dispute. Under the Court’s Statute
that jurisdiction is always based on the consent of the parties.
65. As it recalled in its Order of 10 July 2002, the Court has jurisdic-
tion in respect of States only to the extent that they have consented
thereto (Armed Activities on the Territory of the Congo (New Applica-

tion: 2002) (Democratic Republic of the Congo v. Rwanda), Provisional
Measures, Order of 10 July 2002, I.C.J. Reports 2002 , p. 241, para. 57).
When a compromissory clause in a treaty provides for the Court’s juris-
diction, that jurisdiction exists only in respect of the parties to the treaty
who are bound by that clause and within the limits set out therein (ibid.,

p. 245, para. 71).
66. The Court notes, however, that it has already found that reserva-
tions are not prohibited under the Genocide Convention (Advisory
Opinion in the case concerning Reservations to the Convention on the Pre-
vention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, I.C.J. Reports 1951 ,

pp. 22 et seq.). This legal situation is not altered by the fact that the
Statute of the International Criminal Court, in its Article 120, does not
permit reservations to that Statute, including provisions relating to the
jurisdiction of the International Criminal Court on the crime of geno-
cide. Thus, in the view of the Court, a reservation under the Genocide

Convention would be permissible to the extent that such reservation
is not incompatible with the object and purpose of the Convention.
67. Rwanda’s reservation to Article IX of the Genocide Convention
bears on the jurisdiction of the Court, and does not affect substantive
obligations relating to acts of genocide themselves under that Conven-
tion. In the circumstances of the present case, the Court cannot conclude

that the reservation of Rwanda in question, which is meant to exclude a
particular method of settling a dispute relating to the interpretation,
application or fulfilment of the Convention, is to be regarded as being
incompatible with the object and purpose of the Convention.
68. In fact, the Court has already had occasion in the past to give

effect to such reservations to Article IX of the Convention (see Legality
of Use of Force (Yugoslavia v. Spain), Provisional Measures, Order of
2 June 1999, I.C.J. Reports 1999 (II) , p. 772, paras. 32-33; Legality of

3033 ACTIVITÉS ARMÉES (ARRÊT )

l’emploi de la force (Yougoslavie c. Etats-Unis d’Amérique), mesures
conservatoires, ordonnance du 2 juin 1999, C.I.J. Recueil 1999 (II) ,

p. 924, par. 24-25). S’agissant du droit des traités, la Cour notera par
ailleurs que, lorsque le Rwanda a adhéré à la convention sur le génocide
et a formulé la réserve en question, la RDC n’y a pas fait objection.
69. Dans la mesure où la RDC a en outre soutenu que la réserve du
Rwanda est en conflit avec une norme impérative du droit international

général, il suffit à la Cour de constater qu’il n’existe actuellement aucune
norme de cette nature qui imposerait à un Etat de consentir à la compé-
tence de la Cour pour régler un différend relatif à la convention sur le
génocide. La réserve du Rwanda ne saurait donc être regardée comme
dépourvue d’effets juridiques sur une telle base.

70. La Cour conclut de ce qui précède que, eu égard à la réserve du
Rwanda à l’article IX de la convention sur le génocide, cette disposition
ne saurait constituer une base de compétence de la Cour dans la présente
espèce.

*
* *

71. La RDC entend également fonder la compétence de la Cour sur
l’article 22 de la convention sur la discrimination raciale, aux termes
duquel:

«Tout différend entre deux ou plusieurs Etats parties touchant
l’interprétation ou l’application de la présente convention, qui n’aura
pas été réglé par voie de négociation ou au moyen des procédures

expressément prévues par ladite convention, sera porté, à la requête
de toute partie au différend, devant la Cour internationale de Justice
pour qu’elle statue à son sujet, à moins que les parties au différend
ne conviennent d’un autre mode de règlement.»

Dans sa requête, la RDC allègue que le Rwanda a commis de nombreux
actes de discrimination raciale au sens de l’article premier de cette conven-
tion, qui prévoit notamment que:

«l’expression «discrimination raciale» vise «toute distinction, exclu-
sion, restriction ou préférence fondée sur la race, la couleur, l’ascen-

dance ou l’origine nationale ou ethnique, qui a pour but ou pour
effet de détruire ou de compromettre la reconnaissance, la jouissance
ou l’exercice, dans des conditions d’égalité, des droits de l’homme et
des libertés fondamentales dans les domaines politique, économique,
social et culturel ou dans tout autre domaine de la vie publique».

72. Le Rwanda soutient que la compétence de la Cour en vertu de la
convention sur la discrimination raciale est exclue par la réserve qu’il a
formulée à l’article 22 dans son intégralité. Il fait valoir que, comme l’a

relevé la Cour dans son ordonnance du 10 juillet 2002, ladite réserve n’a
pas rencontré l’objection des deux tiers des Etats parties et doit donc être
considérée comme compatible avec l’objet et le but de la convention,

31 ARMED ACTIVITIES (JUDGMENT ) 33

Use of Force (Yugoslavia v. United States of America), Provisional
Measures, Order of 2 June 1999, I.C.J. Reports 1999 (II) , p. 924,

paras. 24-25). The Court further notes that, as a matter of the law of
treaties, when Rwanda acceded to the Genocide Convention and made
the reservation in question, the DRC made no objection to it.
69. In so far as the DRC contended further that Rwanda’s reservation
is in conflict with a peremptory norm of general international law, it suf-

fices for the Court to note that no such norm presently exists requiring a
State to consent to the jurisdiction of the Court in order to settle a dis-
pute relating to the Genocide Convention. Rwanda’s reservation cannot
therefore, on such grounds, be regarded as lacking legal effect.

70. The Court concludes from the foregoing that, having regard to
Rwanda’s reservation to Article IX of the Genocide Convention, this
Article cannot constitute the basis for the jurisdiction of the Court in the
present case.

*
* *

71. The DRC also seeks to found the jurisdiction of the Court on
Article 22 of the Convention on Racial Discrimination, which states:

“Any dispute between two or more States Parties with respect to
the interpretation or application of this Convention, which is not
settled by negotiation or by the procedures expressly provided for in

this Convention, shall, at the request of any of the parties to the dis-
pute, be referred to the International Court of Justice for decision,
unless the disputants agree to another mode of settlement.”

In its Application the DRC alleges that Rwanda has committed numer-
ous acts of racial discrimination within the meaning of Article 1 of that
Convention, which provides inter alia :

“the term ‘racial discrimination’ shall mean any distinction, exclu-
sion, restriction or preference based on race, colour, descent, or

national or ethnic origin which has the purpose or effect of nullify-
ing or impairing the recognition, enjoyment or exercise, on an equal
footing, of human rights and fundamental freedoms in the political,
economic, social, cultural or any other field of public life”.

72. Rwanda claims that the jurisdiction of the Court under the Con-
vention on Racial Discrimination is precluded by its reservation to the
entire Article 22. It contends that, as the Court observed in its Order of

10 July 2002, the said reservation did not attract objections from two-
thirds of the States parties and should therefore be regarded as com-
patible with the object and purpose of the Convention pursuant to

3134 ACTIVITÉS ARMÉES ARRÊT )

conformément au paragraphe 2 de son article 20. Le Rwanda fait en
outre observer que la RDC elle-même n’a pas élevé d’objection à l’encon-

tre de cette réserve ou de réserves semblables faites par d’autres Etats.
73. La RDC fait quant à elle valoir que la réserve rwandaise à l’ar-
ticle 22 de la convention sur la discrimination raciale est inacceptable en
raison de son incompatibilité avec l’objet et le but du traité, «dans la
mesure où elle reviendrait à reconnaître au Rwanda le droit à commettre,

dans l’impunité totale ... les actes prohibés par la convention». A
l’audience, la RDC a également fait valoir que l’interdiction de la discri-
mination raciale est une norme impérative et que, «dans l’esprit de l’ar-
ticle 53 de la convention de Vienne de 1969» sur le droit des traités, la
réserve du Rwanda à l’article 22 de la convention sur la discrimination

raciale devait «être considérée comme contraire au jus cogens et de nul
effet». Le fait que la RDC n’ait pas présenté d’objection à cette réserve
n’aurait donc aucune incidence en l’espèce. La RDC a en outre soutenu,
comme elle l’a fait à propos de la réserve relative à l’article IX de la
convention sur le génocide (voir paragraphe 30 ci-dessus), que la réserve
formulée par le Rwanda à l’article 22 de la convention sur la discrimina-

tion raciale était frappée «de caducité ou de désuétude du fait de l’enga-
gement consacré par la loi fondamentale rwandaise «de lever toutes les
réserves que le Rwanda a émises au moment de son adhésion aux ... ins-
truments internationaux»» relatifs aux droits de l’homme.

*

74. La Cour note que tant la RDC que le Rwanda sont parties à la
convention sur la discrimination raciale, la RDC y ayant adhéré le
21 avril 1976 et le Rwanda le 16 avril 1975. L’instrument d’adhésion du

Rwanda à la convention, déposé auprès du Secrétaire général des
Nations Unies, comporte toutefois une réserve qui se lit comme suit: «La
République rwandaise ne se considère pas comme liée par l’article 22 de
ladite convention.»
75. La Cour traitera en premier lieu de l’argument de la RDC selon

lequel cette réserve était frappée «de caducité ou de désuétude du fait de
l’engagement consacré par la loi fondamentale rwandaise «de lever toutes
les réserves que le Rwanda a émises au moment de son adhésion aux ... ins-
truments internationaux»» relatifs aux droits de l’homme. Sans préjudice
de l’applicabilité mutatis mutandis à la convention sur la discrimination
raciale de son raisonnement et de ses conclusions relatifs à l’allégation de

la RDC selon laquelle le Rwanda aurait retiré sa réserve à la convention
sur le génocide (voir les paragraphes 38 à 55 ci-dessus), la Cour fera
observer qu’en l’occurrence les modalités du retrait d’une réserve à la
convention sur la discrimination raciale sont prévues en termes exprès
par le paragraphe 3 de l’article 20 de cette convention, libellé comme suit:

«les réserves peuvent être retirées à tout moment par voie de notification
adressée au Secrétaire général. La notification prendra effet à la date de
réception.» Or, la Cour n’a connaissance d’aucune notification au Secré-

32 ARMED ACTIVITIES (JUDGMENT ) 34

Article 20, paragraph 2, thereof. Rwanda also points out that the DRC
itself did not raise any objection to that reservation or to any similar

reservations made by other States.
73. For its part, the DRC argues that Rwanda’s reservation to
Article 22 of the Convention on Racial Discrimination is unacceptable
on the ground of its incompatibility with the object and purpose of
the treaty, “because it would amount to granting Rwanda the right to

commit acts prohibited by the Convention with complete impunity”. The
DRC further contended at the hearings that the prohibition on racial
discrimination was a peremptory norm and that, “in keeping with the
spirit of Article 53 of the Vienna Convention” on the Law of Treaties,
Rwanda’s reservation to Article 22 of the Convention on Racial Discri-

mination should “be considered as contrary to jus cogens and without
effect”. Hence the fact that the DRC had not objected to that reserva-
tion was of no consequence in the present proceedings. In addition,
the DRC maintained, as it did in respect of the reservation to Article IX
of the Genocide Convention (see paragraph 30 above), that the reserva-
tion entered by Rwanda to Article 22 of the Convention on Racial Dis-

crimination has “lapsed or fallen into desuetude as a result of the
undertaking, enshrined in the Rwandan Fundamental Law, to ‘with-
draw all reservations entered by Rwanda when it adhered to . . . inter-
national instruments’” relating to human rights.

*

74. The Court notes that both the DRC and Rwanda are parties to the
Convention on Racial Discrimination, the DRC having acceded thereto
on 21 April 1976 and Rwanda on 16 April 1975. Rwanda’s instrument

of accession to the Convention, as deposited with the United Nations
Secretary-General, does however include a reservation reading as
follows: “The Rwandese Republic does not consider itself as bound by
article 22 of the Convention.”
75. The Court will first address the DRC’s argument that the reserva-

tion has “lapsed or fallen into desuetude as a result of the undertaking,
enshrined in the Rwandan Fundamental Law, to ‘withdraw all reserva-
tions entered by Rwanda when it adhered to . . . international instru-
ments’” relating to human rights. Without prejudice to the applicability
mutatis mutandis to the Convention on Racial Discrimination of the
Court’s reasoning and conclusions in respect of the DRC’s claim that

Rwanda withdrew its reservation to the Genocide Convention (see para-
graphs 38-55 above), the Court observes that the procedures for with-
drawing a reservation to the Convention on Racial Discrimination are
expressly provided for in Article 20, paragraph 3, of that Convention,
which states: “Reservations may be withdrawn at any time by notifica-

tion to this effect addressed to the Secretary-General. Such notification
shall take effect on the date on which it is received.” However, there is no
evidence before the Court of any notification by Rwanda to the United

3235 ACTIVITÉS ARMÉES ARRÊT )

taire général des Nations Unies, par laquelle le Rwanda aurait exprimé sa
volonté de retirer sa réserve à l’article 22 de la convention sur la discri-

mination raciale. Dans ces conditions, la Cour conclut au maintien de
ladite réserve par l’Etat défendeur.
76. Il échet donc maintenant à la Cour d’examiner l’argument de la
RDC selon lequel cette réserve est invalide.
77. La Cour note que la convention sur la discrimination raciale inter-

dit les réserves incompatibles avec son objet et son but. Elle observe à cet
égard qu’aux termes du paragraphe 2 de l’article 20 de la convention
«[u]ne réserve sera considérée comme rentrant dans [cette catégorie] si les
deux tiers au moins des Etats parties à la convention élèvent des objec-
tions». La Cour relève toutefois que tel n’a pas été le cas s’agissant de la

réserve formulée par le Rwanda en ce qui concerne la compétence de la
Cour. Sans préjudice de l’applicabilité mutatis mutandis à la réserve du
Rwanda à l’article 22 de la convention sur la discrimination raciale de
son raisonnement et de ses conclusions relatifs à la réserve rwandaise à
l’article IX de la convention sur le génocide (voir les paragraphes 66 à 68
ci-dessus), la Cour est d’avis que la réserve du Rwanda audit article 22 ne

saurait dès lors pas être regardée comme incompatible avec l’objet et le
but de cette convention. La Cour relève par ailleurs que la RDC elle-
même n’a pas présenté d’objection à ladite réserve lorsqu’elle a adhéré à
la convention.
78. Quant à l’argument de la RDC selon lequel la réserve en cause

serait sans effet juridique parce que, d’une part, l’interdiction de la dis-
crimination raciale serait une norme impérative du droit international
général, et que, d’autre part, une telle réserve serait en conflit avec une
norme impérative, la Cour renverra aux motifs par lesquels elle a écarté
une semblable argumentation présentée par la RDC à propos de la

réserve rwandaise à l’article IX de la convention sur le génocide (voir les
paragraphes 64 à 69): le fait qu’un différend porte sur le non-respect
d’une norme impérative du droit international général ne saurait suffire à
fonder la compétence de la Cour pour en connaître, et il n’existe aucune
norme impérative qui imposerait aux Etats de consentir à ladite compé-

tence pour le règlement de différends relatifs à la convention sur la dis-
crimination raciale.
79. La Cour conclut de ce qui précède que, eu égard à la réserve du
Rwanda à l’article 22 de la convention sur la discrimination raciale, cette
disposition ne saurait constituer une base de compétence de la Cour dans
la présente espèce.

* * *

80. La RDC prétend encore fonder la compétence de la Cour sur le
paragraphe 1 de l’article 29 de la convention sur la discrimination à
l’égard des femmes, ainsi libellé:

«Tout différend entre deux ou plusieurs Etats parties concernant
l’interprétation ou l’application de la présente convention qui n’est

33 ARMED ACTIVITIES (JUDGMENT ) 35

Nations Secretary-General of its intention to withdraw its reservation
to Article 22 of the Convention on Racial Discrimination. The Court

accordingly concludes that the respondent State has maintained that
reservation.
76. The Court must therefore now consider the DRC’s argument that
the reservation is invalid.
77. The Court notes that the Convention on Racial Discrimination

prohibits reservations incompatible with its object and purpose. The
Court observes in this connection that, under Article 20, paragraph 2, of
the Convention, “[a] reservation shall be considered incompatible . . . if at
least two-thirds of the States Parties to [the] Convention object to it”.
The Court notes, however, that such has not been the case as regards

Rwanda’s reservation in respect of the Court’s jurisdiction. Without
prejudice to the applicability mutatis mutandis to Rwanda’s reserva-
tion to Article 22 of the Convention on Racial Discrimination of the
Court’s reasoning and conclusions in respect of Rwanda’s reservation to
Article IX of the Genocide Convention (see paragraphs 66-68 above),
the Court is of the view that Rwanda’s reservation to Article 22 can-

not therefore be regarded as incompatible with that Convention’s object
and purpose. The Court observes, moreover, that the DRC itself raised
no objection to the reservation when it acceded to the Convention.

78. In relation to the DRC’s argument that the reservation in question

is without legal effect because, on the one hand, the prohibition on racial
discrimination is a peremptory norm of general international law and, on
the other, such a reservation is in conflict with a peremptory norm, the
Court refers to its reasoning when dismissing the DRC’s similar argu-
ment in regard to Rwanda’s reservation to Article IX of the Genocide

Convention (see paragraphs 64-69 above): the fact that a dispute con-
cerns non-compliance with a peremptory norm of general international
law cannot suffice to found the Court’s jurisdiction to entertain such a
dispute, and there exists no peremptory norm requiring States to consent
to such jurisdiction in order to settle disputes relating to the Convention

on Racial Discrimination.

79. The Court concludes from the foregoing that, having regard to
Rwanda’s reservation to Article 22 of the Convention on Racial Dis-
crimination, this Article cannot constitute the basis for the jurisdiction of
the Court in the present case.

* * *

80. The DRC further claims to found the jurisdiction of the Court on
Article 29, paragraph 1, of the Convention on Discrimination against
Women, which provides:

“Any dispute between two or more States Parties concerning the
interpretation or application of the present Convention which is not

3336 ACTIVITÉS ARMÉES (ARRÊT )

pas réglé par voie de négociation est soumis à l’arbitrage, à la
demande de l’un d’entre eux. Si, dans les six mois qui suivent la date

de la demande d’arbitrage, les parties ne parviennent pas à se mettre
d’accord sur l’organisation de l’arbitrage, l’une quelconque d’entre
elles peut soumettre le différend à la Cour internationale de Justice,
en déposant une requête conformément au Statut de la Cour.»

La RDC soutient que le Rwanda a violé ses obligations au titre de l’ar-
ticle premier de la convention, qui se lit comme suit:

«Aux fins de la présente convention, l’expression «discrimination

à l’égard des femmes» vise toute distinction, exclusion ou restriction
fondée sur le sexe qui a pour effet ou pour but de compromettre ou
de détruire la reconnaissance, la jouissance ou l’exercice par les
femmes, quel que soit leur état matrimonial, sur la base de l’éga-
lité de l’homme et de la femme, des droits de l’homme et des liber-

tés fondamentales dans les domaines politique, économique, social,
culturel et civil ou dans tout autre domaine.»

81. Le Rwanda fait valoir que la Cour ne saurait se déclarer compé-
tente sur la base de l’article 29 de la convention sur la discrimination à
l’égard des femmes car, en l’espèce, les conditions préalables à la saisine
de la Cour, fixées par cette disposition, n’ont pas été remplies. Ces condi-
tions, selon lui cumulatives, sont les suivantes: existence d’un différend

entre les parties concernant l’interprétation ou l’application de la conven-
tion; impossibilité de régler ce différend par voie de négociation; demande
par l’une des parties que le différend soit soumis à l’arbitrage et échec des
efforts des parties pour organiser celui-ci; et, enfin, respect d’un délai de
six mois à compter de la demande d’arbitrage avant de s’adresser à la

Cour.
Le Rwanda fait également valoir que les exceptions qu’il a soulevées en
la présente espèce portent sur la compétence de la Cour et non sur la
recevabilité de la requête comme le prétend la RDC. Il souligne à cet
égard que la compétence de la Cour repose sur le consentement des

parties et que celles-ci ont la faculté d’assortir ce consentement de condi-
tions de fond ou de nature procédurale; ces conditions limitant la recon-
naissance de la compétence de la Cour, l’argument selon lequel elles n’ont
pas été respectées constitue bien une exception d’incompétence de la
Cour et non une exception d’irrecevabilité, comme l’a, selon lui, indiqué
la Cour dans l’affaire de l’Incident aérien de Lockerbie .

82. En ce qui concerne la première des quatre conditions posées par
l’article 29, à savoir l’existence d’un différend relatif à ladite convention, le
Rwanda affirme que «le Congo n’a exprimé aucune réclamation avant de
déposer sa requête» et que ce dernier «n’a jamais fait valoir la moindre
violation de la convention par le Rwanda ou laissé entendre qu’il

existait un différend concernant l’interprétation de l’une quelconque des
dispositions de la convention». Il fait à cet égard observer que la juris-
prudence des organes de protection des droits de l’homme, invoquée par

34 ARMED ACTIVITIES (JUDGMENT ) 36

settled by negotiation shall, at the request of one of them, be sub-
mitted to arbitration. If within six months from the date of the

request for arbitration the parties are unable to agree on the organi-
zation of the arbitration, any one of those parties may refer the dis-
pute to the International Court of Justice by request in conformity
with the Statute of the Court.”

The DRC maintains that Rwanda has violated its obligations under
Article 1 of the Convention, which reads as follows:

“For the purposes of the present Convention, the term ‘discrimi-

nation against women’ shall mean any distinction, exclusion or
restriction made on the basis of sex which has the effect or purpose
of impairing or nullifying the recognition, enjoyment or exercise by
women, irrespective of their marital status, on a basis of equality of
men and women, of human rights and fundamental freedoms in the

political, economic, social, cultural, civil or any other field.”

81. Rwanda contends that the Court cannot assume jurisdiction on
the basis of Article 29 of the Convention on Discrimination against
Women, on the ground that in the present case the preconditions required
by that provision for referral to the Court have not been fulfilled. Those
preconditions are cumulative according to Rwanda and are as follows:

there must be a dispute between the parties concerning the interpretation
or application of the Convention; it must have proved impossible to
settle that dispute by negotiation; one of the parties must have requested
that the dispute be submitted to arbitration, but the parties have been
unable to agree on the organization thereof; and, lastly, six months must

have elapsed between the request for arbitration and seisin of the Court.
Rwanda further argues that the objections which it has raised in these
proceedings bear on the jurisdiction of the Court and not on the admis-
sibility of the Application, as the DRC contends. It states in this connec-
tion that the Court’s jurisdiction is based on the consent of the parties

and that they are free to attach substantive or procedural conditions to
that consent; as those conditions circumscribe the recognition of the
Court’s jurisdiction, a contention that they have not been complied with
is not an objection as to admissibility but indeed an objection to the juris-
diction of the Court, as, according to Rwanda, the Court made clear in
the case concerning the Aerial Incident at Lockerbie .

82. In respect of the first of the four conditions laid down by
Article 29, that is to say the existence of a dispute concerning the Conven-
tion, Rwanda asserts that “there has been no claim by the Congo, prior
to its filing of the Application[,]” and that “[a]t no time did the Congo
advance any claim that Rwanda was in breach of the Convention or

suggest that there was a dispute regarding the interpretation of any
provision of the Convention”. It argues in this connection that the
practice of human rights tribunals, cited by the DRC, under which an

3437 ACTIVITÉS ARMÉES ARRÊT )

la RDC, selon laquelle l’individu n’est pas tenu de mentionner au préa-
lable la disposition précise du traité invoqué, ne dispense pas la RDC de

l’obligation d’expliciter la nature du différend. Selon le Rwanda, en effet,
il ne s’agit pas en l’espèce d’une réclamation formulée par un individu
contre un Etat, mais d’une procédure entre deux Etats égaux et, au stade
actuel de la procédure, il ne s’agit plus seulement d’établir si la Cour dis-
pose d’une compétence prima facie pour indiquer des mesures conserva-

toires, mais d’établir si les conditions préalables à sa saisine sont réunies.
83. S’agissant de l’exigence de négociations préalables, le Rwanda sou-
tient que «le Congo n’a, à aucun moment, ne serait-ce qu’évoqué la ques-
tion de cette convention avec le Rwanda lors d’une des nombreuses réu-
nions qui [avaient] eu lieu [l]es dernières années entre les représentants des

deux gouvernements», la série de rencontres entre les deux Etats que
mentionne la RDC ne portant pas sur un différend relatif à ladite
convention, mais sur des négociations générales pour le règlement du
conflit armé. Seule une tentative de négociation portant sur un différend
précis concernant l’interprétation ou l’application de la convention sur la
discrimination à l’égard des femmes, serait pertinente pour satisfaire aux

conditions de l’article 29. Le Rwanda rappelle notamment que, dans son
ordonnance du 10 juillet 2002, la Cour a indiqué que la RDC n’avait pas
apporté la preuve que ses tentatives d’entamer des négociations ou d’enga-
ger une procédure d’arbitrage concernaient l’application de la conven-
tion. En réponse à l’argument de la RDC selon lequel des négociations

portant sur un différend précis en vertu de la convention n’étaient pas
possibles en raison de l’état de guerre entre les deux Parties, le Rwanda se
réfère à une lettre adressée le 14 janvier 2002 par le ministre des télécom-
munications congolais au secrétaire général de l’Union internationale des
télécommunications et portant sur une question d’indicatifs télépho-

niques; cette lettre démontrerait, selon lui, que, si au cŒur d’un
conflit armé, la RDC était en mesure de soulever une question technique
de cette nature, elle aurait certainement été capable d’entamer des négo-
ciations portant sur un différend relatif à des dispositions précises de la
convention.

84. Pour ce qui est enfin de l’exigence de l’arbitrage, le Rwanda sou-
tient qu’il n’y a pas eu de tentative de la part de la RDC d’accomplir
l’une quelconque des démarches requises pour organiser un arbitrage, et
ce malgré les «réunions régulières et fréquentes entre les représentants des
deux pays, à tous les niveaux, dans le cadre du processus de paix de
Lusaka»; la RDC n’a, selon lui, fourni aucun élément de preuve à cet

égard. Le Rwanda ajoute que l’absence de relations diplomatiques entre
les Parties à cette époque n’est pas un argument pertinent; il souligne que
cet argument n’a d’ailleurs pas été considéré comme convaincant par la
Cour dans son ordonnance de 2002.
85. Pour sa part, la RDC soutient tout d’abord que «la prétendue

exception d’incompétence tirée du non-accomplissement des conditions
préalables» prévues par l’article 29 de la convention constitue plutôt une
exception à la recevabilité de la requête.

35 ARMED ACTIVITIES (JUDGMENT ) 37

individual is not required first to identify the precise provision of the
treaty relied on, does not relieve the DRC of the duty to specify the

nature of the dispute. Rwanda observes that the present proceedings do
not involve a claim brought by an individual against a State, but are
between two equal States and that in this phase of the case it is no
longer just a matter of determining whether the Court has prima facie
jurisdiction to indicate provisional measures, but of ascertaining whether

the preconditions for the seisin of the Court have been satisfied.
83. In respect of the condition of prior negotiation, Rwanda maintains
that “the Congo has at no time even raised the question of this Conven-
tion with Rwanda in any of the numerous meetings which have taken
place between representatives of the two governments over the last few

years”, the series of meetings between the two States referred to by the
DRC having involved general negotiations to settle the armed conflict,
not a dispute concerning the said Convention. The only attempt to nego-
tiate which would be relevant to satisfying the conditions of Article 29
would be one concerning a specific dispute over the interpretation or
application of the Convention on Discrimination against Women.

Rwanda points out in particular that the Court, in its Order of 10 July
2002, decided that the DRC had not shown that its attempts to enter into
negotiations or undertake arbitration proceedings concerned the applica-
tion of the Convention. In response to the DRC’s argument that the war
between the two Parties rendered negotiations impossible over a specific

dispute under the Convention, Rwanda has cited a letter of 14 January
2002 from the Minister of Telecommunications of the DRC to the
Secretary-General of the International Telecommunication Union con-
cerning a question of telephone prefixes; in Rwanda’s view, this letter
shows that, if the DRC was able in the middle of an armed conflict to

raise a technical issue of this kind, it would certainly have been capable of
entering into negotiations dealing with a dispute over specific provisions
of the Convention.

84. Lastly, concerning the arbitration requirement, Rwanda contends
that there has been no attempt by the DRC to take any of the steps
required to organize arbitration proceedings, despite the holding of “regu-
lar and frequent meetings between representatives of the two countries at
all levels as part of the Lusaka peace process”; according to Rwanda, the
DRC has not offered any evidence in this connection. Rwanda adds that

the lack of diplomatic relations between the Parties at the time is beside
the point; it notes moreover that in its 2002 Order the Court considered
this argument to be insufficient.

85. For its part, the DRC maintains, first, that “the purported objec-

tion to jurisdiction on grounds of failure to satisfy the preconditions”
provided for in Article 29 of the Convention in reality constitutes an
objection to the admissibility of the Application.

3538 ACTIVITÉS ARMÉES ARRÊT )

La RDC nie ensuite que la clause compromissoire en question contienne
quatre conditions préalables. Selon elle, ladite clause ne renferme que

deux conditions, à savoir, d’une part, que le différend concerne l’applica-
tion ou l’interprétation de la convention intéressée et, d’autre part, qu’il
se soit révélé impossible d’organiser une procédure d’arbitrage, étant
entendu que l’échec d’une tentative en ce sens ne «devient patent qu’au
terme [d’un délai] de six mois à partir de la demande d’arbitrage».

86. En ce qui concerne le respect de ces conditions, la RDC allègue
que le droit international ne prescrit pas de forme précise sous laquelle les
plaintes des Etats devraient être présentées, la négociation pouvant non
seulement être bilatérale, mais aussi se dérouler dans le cadre d’une orga-
nisation internationale, comme la Cour l’a indiqué dans les affaires du

Sud-Ouest africain de 1962. Elle souligne que les nombreuses plaintes
qu’elle a formulées contre le Rwanda l’ont ainsi été tant sous la forme de
protestations auprès des autorités de cet Etat par l’entremise des institu-
tions ou organisations internationales que de contacts individuels entre
les autorités respectives des deux Etats. La RDC précise que les protes-
tations formulées par la voie des organisations internationales ont été

«bel et bien portées à la connaissance du Rwanda par les instances des
Nations Unies», et que «les tête-à-tête entre les présidents congolais et
rwandais ayant eu lieu, la plupart du temps, sous les auspices soit
d’autres chefs d’Etat soit d’institutions internationales, les sommets offi-
ciels y afférents sont du domaine public». Comme exemples de négocia-

tions conduites dans le cadre d’organisations internationales, la RDC
mentionne la saisine, le 24 février 1999, de la Commission africaine des
droits de l’homme et des peuples, organe qui joue selon elle «un véritable
rôle d’arbitrage» entre les Etats africains en matière de violations des
droits de l’homme tels que garantis non seulement par la Charte africaine

des droits de l’homme et des peuples, mais également par d’autres instru-
ments internationaux; cet organe aurait, selon elle, pu se prononcer sur
des violations de conventions telles que la convention sur la discrimina-
tion à l’égard des femmes, si le Rwanda n’avait pas fait obstruction à la
procédure par diverses manŒuvres dilatoires. La RDC mentionne égale-

ment la saisine par ses soins du Conseil de sécurité des Nations Unies
suite aux diverses violations des droits de l’homme commises par le
Rwanda et l’adoption par cet organe de résolutions, dont les résolu-
tions 1304 du 16 juin 2000 et 1417 du 14 juin 2002, dans lesquelles celui-ci
serait «passé de simples invitations à de véritables injonctions». Selon
la RDC, il y a donc bien eu de sa part des tentatives de négociation mais

celles-ci n’ont jamais pu avancer en raison de la mauvaise foi du Rwanda;
elle a en outre fait valoir que «l’impossibilité d’entamer ou d’avancer plus
loin dans les négociations avec le Rwanda» ne permettait pas d’envisager
«la possibilité de passer de[s] négociations à l’arbitrage».

*

87. La Cour note que tant la RDC que le Rwanda sont parties à la

36 ARMED ACTIVITIES (JUDGMENT ) 38

Secondly, the DRC denies that the compromissory clause in question
contains four preconditions. According to the DRC, the clause contains

only two conditions, namely that the dispute must involve the application
or interpretation of the Convention and that it must have proved impos-
sible to organize arbitration proceedings, it being understood that such a
failure “will not become apparent until six months have elapsed from the
request for arbitration”.

86. Concerning the fulfilment of those conditions, the DRC asserts
that international law does not prescribe any set form for the filing of
complaints by States; negotiation may be bilateral, but it may also be
conducted within the framework of an international organization, as the
Court stated in the South West Africa cases in 1962. The DRC points out

that it lodged numerous claims against Rwanda in the form of protests
made to the authorities of that State through the intermediary of inter-
national institutions or organizations and through individual contacts
between the respective authorities of the two States. The DRC further
asserts that the protests made through international organizations “were
brought to the attention of Rwanda by the United Nations bodies” and

that, “since the private meetings between the Congolese and Rwandan
Presidents took place mainly under the auspices either of other Heads of
States or of international institutions, the official summit proceedings
relating thereto are in the public domain”. As instances of negotiations
conducted within the framework of international organizations, the DRC

cites the complaint referred on 24 February 1999 to the African Commis-
sion on Human and Peoples’ Rights, a body which, according to the
DRC, plays “a veritable role of arbitrator” between African States in
respect of violations of human rights guaranteed not only by the African
Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights but also by other international

instruments; in the view of the DRC, the Commission could have ruled
on violations of conventions such as the Convention on Discrimination
against Women if Rwanda had not obstructed the proceedings by vari-
ous delaying tactics. The DRC also refers to its complaints to the United
Nations Security Council following various human rights violations com-

mitted by Rwanda and to the adoption by that body of resolutions,
including resolutions 1304 of 16 June 2000 and 1417 of 14 June 2002, in
which, according to the DRC, the Council “progressed from mere requests
to actual demands”. The DRC contends that there were therefore indeed
attempts on its part to negotiate, but no headway could ever be made
owing to Rwanda’s bad faith; the DRC further contends that “the

impossibility of opening or progressing in negotiations with Rwanda”
precluded contemplating “the possibility of moving from negotiations to
arbitration”.

*

87. The Court notes that both the DRC and Rwanda are parties to the

3639 ACTIVITÉS ARMÉES (ARRÊT )

convention sur la discrimination à l’égard des femmes, la RDC l’ayant
ratifiée le 17 octobre 1986 et le Rwanda, le 2 mars 1981. Elle note égale-
ment que cette convention prévoit, à son article 29, la compétence de la

Cour pour connaître de tout différend entre les Etats parties concernant
son interprétation ou son application à condition que ce différend n’ait
pas pu être réglé par voie de négociations; qu’en cas d’échec de celles-ci,
il ait été soumis à l’arbitrage à la demande de l’un de ces Etats; et que, si
les parties ne sont pas parvenues à se mettre d’accord sur l’organisation

de cet arbitrage, un délai de six mois se soit écoulé à compter de la date
de la demande d’arbitrage.
De l’avis de la Cour, il ressort du libellé de l’article 29 de la convention
en question que ces conditions sont cumulatives. Il incombe donc à la

Cour d’examiner si chacune des conditions préalables à sa saisine, pré-
vues par ledit article 29, a été respectée en l’espèce.
88. La Cour se penchera toutefois au préalable sur l’argument de
la RDC selon lequel l’exception tirée du non-respect des conditions préa-

lables prévues dans les clauses compromissoires, et en particulier à l’ar-
ticle 29 de la convention, constitue une exception à la recevabilité de sa
requête plutôt qu’à la compétence de la Cour. A cet égard, la Cour rap-
pellera que sa compétence repose sur le consentement des parties, dans la
seule mesure reconnue par celles-ci (voir paragraphe 65 ci-dessus), et que,

lorsque ce consentement est exprimé dans une clause compromissoire
insérée dans un accord international, les conditions auxquelles il est éven-
tuellement soumis doivent être considérées comme en constituant les li-
mites. De l’avis de la Cour, l’examen de telles conditions relève en consé-

quence de celui de sa compétence et non de celui de la recevabilito de la
requête (voir Concessions Mavrommatis en Palestine, arrêt n 2, 1924,
C.P.J.I. série A n 2, p. 11-15; Interprétation du statut du territoire de
Memel, fond, arrêt, 1932, C.P.J.I. série A/B n o 49, p. 327-328; Compa-
gnie d’électricité de Sofia et de Bulgarie, arrêt, 1939, C.P.J.I. série A/B
o
n 77, p. 78-80; Sud-Ouest africain (Ethiopie c. Afrique du Sud; Libéria
c. Afrique du Sud), exceptions préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1962 ,
p. 344-346; Activités militaires et paramilitaires au Nicaragua et contre
celui-ci (Nicaragua c. Etats-Unis d’Amérique), compétence et recevabi-

lité, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1984 , p. 427-429, par. 81-83; Actions armées
frontalières et transfrontalières (Nicaragua c. Honduras), compétence et
recevabilité, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1988 , p. 88-90, par. 42-48; Questions
d’interprétation et d’application de la convention de Montréal de 1971

résultant de l’incident aérien de Lockerbie (Jamahiriya arabe libyenne c.
Royaume-Uni), exceptions préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1998 ,p.16,
par. 16-19; p. 24, par. 39-40; Questions d’interprétation et d’application
de la convention de Montréal de 1971 résultant de l’incident aérien de
Lockerbie (Jamahiriya arabe libyenne c. Etats-Unis d’Amérique), excep-

tions préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1998 , p. 121-122, par. 15-19;
p. 129, par 38-39). En l’espèce, les conditions auxquelles l’article 29 de la
convention sur la discrimination à l’égard des femmes subordonne la sai-
sine de la Cour doivent donc être examinées dans le cadre de l’examen de

37 ARMED ACTIVITIES (JUDGMENT ) 39

Convention on Discrimination against Women, the DRC having ratified
it on 17 October 1986 and Rwanda on 2 March 1981. It also notes that

Article 29 of this Convention gives the Court jurisdiction in respect of
any dispute between States parties concerning its interpretation or appli-
cation, on condition that: it has not been possible to settle the dispute by
negotiation; that, following the failure of negotiations, the dispute has, at
the request of one such State, been submitted to arbitration; and that, if

the parties have been unable to agree on the organization of the arbitra-
tion, a period of six months has elapsed from the date of the request for
arbitration.
In the view of the Court, it is apparent from the language of Article 29
of the Convention that these conditions are cumulative. The Court must

therefore consider whether the preconditions on its seisin set out in the
said Article 29 have been satisfied in this case.
88. The Court will however first address the DRC’s argument that the
objection based on non-fulfilment of the preconditions set out in the
compromissory clauses, and in particular in Article 29 of the Convention,
is an objection to the admissibility of its Application rather than to the

jurisdiction of the Court. The Court recalls in this regard that its jurisdic-
tion is based on the consent of the parties and is confined to the extent
accepted by them (see paragraph 65 above). When that consent is
expressed in a compromissory clause in an international agreement, any
conditions to which such consent is subject must be regarded as con-

stituting the limits thereon. The Court accordingly considers that the
examination of such conditions relates to its jurisdiction and not to the
admissibility of the application (see Mavrommatis Palestine Concessions,
Judgment No. 2, 1924, P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 2 , pp. 11-15; Interpreta-
tion of the Statute of the Memel Territory, Merits, Judgment, 1932,

P.C.I.J., Series A/B, No. 49 , pp. 327-328; Electricity Company of Sofia
and Bulgaria, Judgment, 1939, P.C.I.J., Series A/B, No. 77 , pp. 78-80;
South West Africa (Ethiopia v. South Africa; Liberia v. South Africa),
Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1962 , pp. 344-346;
Military and Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua (Nicara-

gua v. United States of America), Jurisdiction and Admissibility, Judg-
ment, I.C.J. Reports 1984 , pp. 427-429, paras. 81-83; Border and Trans-
border Armed Actions (Nicaragua v. Honduras), Jurisdiction and Admis-
sibility, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1988 , pp. 88-90, paras. 42-48; Questions
of Interpretation and Application of the 1971 Montreal Convention
arising from the Aerial Incident at Lockerbie (Libyan Arab Jamahiriya

v. United Kingdom), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports
1998, p. 16, paras. 16-19; p. 24, paras. 39-40; Questions of Interpretation
and Application of the 1971 Montreal Convention arising from the Aerial
Incident at Lockerbie (Libyan Arab Jamahiriya v. United States of
America), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1998 ,

pp. 121-122, paras. 15-19; p. 129, paras. 38-39). It follows that in the
present case the conditions for seisin of the Court set out in Article 29 of
the Convention on Discrimination against Women must be examined in

3740 ACTIVITÉS ARMÉES ARRÊT )

la compétence de la Cour. Cette conclusion est applicable mutatis mutan-
dis à toutes les autres clauses compromissoires invoquées par la RDC.

89. La Cour passera maintenant à l’examen des conditions posées par

l’article 29 de la convention sur la discrimination à l’égard des femmes.
Elle commencera par examiner s’il existe en l’espèce un différend entre les
Parties «concernant l’interprétation ou l’application de [cette] conven-
tion», qui n’aurait pas pu être réglé par voie de négociation.
90. La Cour rappellera à cet égard que, dès 1924, la Cour permanente

de Justice internationale a affirmé qu’«[u]n différend est un désaccord sur
un point de droit ou de fait, une contradiction, une opposition de thèses
juridiques ou d’intérêts» (Concessions Mavrommatis en Palestine, arrêt
n 2, 1924, C.P.J.I. série A n o 2, p. 11).
La Cour actuelle a pour sa part eu l’occasion de souligner à diverses

reprises ce qui suit:

«Pour établir l’existence d’un différend: «Il faut démontrer que la
réclamation de l’une des parties se heurte à l’opposition manifeste de
l’autre» (Sud-Ouest africain, exceptions préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J.
Recueil 1962, p. 328); par ailleurs, «l’existence d’un différend inter-
national demande à être établie objectivement» (Interprétation des

traités de paix conclus avec la Bulgarie, la Hongrie et la Roumanie,
première phase, avis consultatif, C.I.J. Recueil 1950 , p. 74).» (Timor
oriental (Portugal c. Australie), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1995 , p. 100,
par. 22; Questions d’interprétation et d’application de la convention
de Montréal de 1971 résultant de l’incident aérien de Lockerbie

(Jamahiriya arabe libyenne c. Royaume-Uni), exceptions prélimi-
naires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1998 , p. 17, par. 22; Questions d’inter-
prétation et d’application de la convention de Montréal de 1971
résultant de l’incident aérien de Lockerbie (Jamahiriya arabe li-

byenne c. Etats-Unis d’Amérique), exceptions préliminaires,
arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1998 , p. 122-123, par. 21; Certains biens
(Liechtenstein c. Allemagne), exceptions préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J.
Recueil 2005, p. 18, par. 24.)

91. La Cour note qu’en l’espèce la RDC a formulé de nombreuses pro-
testations contre les agissements du Rwanda prétendument contraires au
droit international relatif aux droits de l’homme, tant au plan bilatéral, à

travers des contacts directs avec le Rwanda, qu’au plan multilatéral dans
le cadre d’organes internationaux tels que le Conseil de sécurité des
Nations Unies et la Commission africaine des droits de l’homme et des
peuples de l’Organisation de l’Unité africaine. Dans son contre-mémoire

et à l’audience, la RDC a présenté ces protestations comme des preuves
que «la RDC a[vait] rempli les conditions préalables à la saisine de la
Cour contenues dans les clauses compromissoires invoquées». Quelle que
puisse être la qualification juridique de telles protestations au regard de
l’exigence de l’existence d’un différend entre la RDC et le Rwanda aux

fins de l’article 29 de la convention, cet article requiert également qu’un

38 ARMED ACTIVITIES (JUDGMENT ) 40

the context of the issue of the Court’s jurisdiction. This conclusion
applies mutatis mutandis to all of the other compromissory clauses

invoked by the DRC.
89. The Court will now examine the conditions laid down by
Article 29 of the Convention on Discrimination against Women. It will
begin by considering whether in this case there exists a dispute between
the Parties “concerning the interpretation or application of [that] Con-

vention” which could not have been settled by negotiation.
90. The Court recalls in this regard that, as long ago as 1924, the Per-
manent Court of International Justice stated that “a dispute is a disagree-
ment on a point of law or fact, a conflict of legal views or interests”
(Mavrommatis Palestine Concessions, Judgment No. 2, 1924, P.C.I.J.,

Series A, No. 2, p. 11).
For its part, the present Court has had occasion a number of times to
state the following:

“In order to establish the existence of a dispute, ‘it must be shown
that the claim of one party is positively opposed by the other’ (South
West Africa, Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1962 ,
p. 328); and further, ‘Whether there exists an international dispute is
a matter for objective determination’ (Interpretation of Peace Trea-

ties with Bulgaria, Hungary and Romania, First Phase, Advisory
Opinion, I.C.J. Reports 1950 , p. 74).” (East Timor (Portugal v. Aus-
tralia), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1995 , p. 100, para. 22; Questions
of Interpretation and Application of the 1971 Montreal Convention
arising from the Aerial Incident at Lockerbie (Libyan Arab Jama-

hiriya v. United Kingdom), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J.
Reports 1998, p. 17, para. 22; Questions of Interpretation and Appli-
cation of the 1971 Montreal Convention arising from the Aerial Inci-
dent at Lockerbie (Libyan Arab Jamahiriya v. United States of
America), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1998 ,

pp. 122-123, para. 21; Certain Property (Liechtenstein v. Germany),
Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2005 ,p 1,8
para. 24.)

91. The Court notes that in the present case the DRC made numerous
protests against Rwanda’s actions in alleged violation of international
human rights law, both at the bilateral level through direct contact with
Rwanda and at the multilateral level within the framework of interna-
tional institutions such as the United Nations Security Council and

the Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights of the Organization of
African Unity. In its Counter-Memorial and at the hearings the DRC
presented these protests as proof that “the DRC has satisfied the pre-
conditions to the seisin of the Court in the compromissory clauses
invoked”. Whatever may be the legal characterization of such protests

as regards the requirement of the existence of a dispute between the
DRC and Rwanda for purposes of Article 29 of the Convention,
that Article requires also that any such dispute be the subject of nego-

3841 ACTIVITÉS ARMÉES ARRÊT )

tel différend fasse l’objet de négociations. Les éléments de preuve présen-
tés à la Cour n’ont pas permis d’établir à sa satisfaction que la RDC ait

en fait cherché à entamer des négociations relatives à l’interprétation ou
l’application de la convention.
92. La Cour croit devoir ajouter que la RDC n’a pas davantage
apporté la preuve de ses tentatives d’engager une procédure d’arbitrage
avec le Rwanda au titre de l’article 29 de la convention. La Cour ne sau-

rait à cet égard accueillir l’argument de la RDC selon lequel l’impossibi-
lité d’entamer ou de poursuivre des négociations avec le Rwanda ne per-
mettait pas d’envisager de passer à l’arbitrage; s’agissant d’une condition
formellement prévue par l’article 29 de la convention sur la discrimina-
tion à l’égard des femmes, l’absence d’accord entre les parties sur l’orga-

nisation d’un arbitrage ne peut en effet pas se présumer. L’existence d’un
tel désaccord ne peut résulter que d’une proposition d’arbitrage faite par
le demandeur et restée sans réponse de la part du défendeur ou suivie de
l’expression par celui-ci de son intention de ne pas l’accepter (voir Ques-
tions d’interprétation et d’application de la convention de Montréal de 1971
résultant de l’incident aérien de Lockerbie (Jamahiriya arabe libyenne

c. Royaume-Uni), exceptions préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1998 ,
p. 17, par. 21; Questions d’interprétation et d’application de la convention
de Montréal de 1971 résultant de l’incident aérien de Lockerbie (Jama-
hiriya arabe libyenne c. Etats-Unis d’Amérique), exceptions prélimi-
naires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1998 , p. 122, par. 20). En l’espèce, la Cour

n’a trouvé dans le dossier aucun élément lui permettant de conclure
que la RDC aurait proposé au Rwanda l’organisation d’une procédure
d’arbitrage et que ce dernier Etat n’aurait pas donné suite à cette pro-
position.
93. Il résulte de ce qui précède que le paragraphe 1 de l’article 29 de la

convention sur la discrimination à l’égard des femmes ne peut servir de
fondement à la compétence de la Cour en la présente affaire.

*
* *

94. La RDC entend par ailleurs fonder la compétence de la Cour sur
l’article 75 de la Constitution de l’OMS ainsi conçu:

«Toute question ou différend concernant l’interprétation ou
l’application de cette constitution, qui n’aura pas été réglé par voie
de négociation ou par l’Assemblée de la Santé, sera déféré par les
parties à la Cour internationale de Justice conformément au Statut
de ladite Cour, à moins que les parties intéressées ne conviennent
d’un autre mode de règlement.»

Elle allègue que le Rwanda a contrevenu aux dispositions des articles 1
et 2 de ladite Constitution, relatifs, respectivement, au but et aux fonc-

tions de l’organisation.
95. Le Rwanda soutient que l’article 75 de la Constitution de l’OMS
ne saurait fonder la compétence de la Cour en l’espèce. A cet égard, il fait

39 ARMED ACTIVITIES (JUDGMENT ) 41

tiations. The evidence has not satisfied the Court that the DRC in fact
sought to commence negotiations in respect of the interpretation or

application of the Convention.

92. The Court further notes that the DRC has also failed to prove
any attempts on its part to initiate arbitration proceedings with
Rwanda under Article 29 of the Convention. The Court cannot in this

regard accept the DRC’s argument that the impossibility of opening or
advancing in negotiations with Rwanda prevented it from contemplating
having recourse to arbitration; since this is a condition formally set out
in Article 29 of the Convention on Discrimination against Women,
the lack of agreement between the parties as to the organization of an

arbitration cannot be presumed. The existence of such disagreement can
follow only from a proposal for arbitration by the applicant, to which the
respondent has made no answer or which it has expressed its intention
not to accept (see Questions of Interpretation and Application of the
1971 Montreal Convention arising from the Aerial Incident at Lockerbie
(Libyan Arab Jamahiriya v. United Kingdom), Preliminary Objections,

Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1998 , p. 17, para. 21; Questions of Interpreta-
tion and Application of the 1971 Montreal Convention arising from the
Aerial Incident at Lockerbie (Libyan Arab Jamahiriya v. United States
of America), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1998 ,
p. 122, para. 20). In the present case, the Court has found nothing in

the file which would enable it to conclude that the DRC made a pro-
posal to Rwanda that arbitration proceedings should be organized, and
that the latter failed to respond thereto.

93. It follows from the foregoing that Article 29, paragraph 1, of the

Convention on Discrimination against Women cannot serve to found the
jurisdiction of the Court in the present case.

*
* *

94. The DRC further seeks to found the jurisdiction of the Court on
Article 75 of the WHO Constitution, which provides:

“Any question or dispute concerning the interpretation or applica-
tion of this Constitution which is not settled by negotiation or by
the Health Assembly shall be referred to the International Court of
Justice in conformity with the Statute of the Court, unless the
parties concerned agree on another mode of settlement.”

The DRC contends that Rwanda has breached the provisions of
Articles 1 and 2 of the Constitution, which respectively concern the

Organization’s objectives and functions.
95. Rwanda maintains that Article 75 of the WHO Constitution can-
not found the Court’s jurisdiction in this case. In this regard, it begins by

3942 ACTIVITÉS ARMÉES (ARRÊT )

d’abord valoir que la Constitution de l’OMS est inapplicable, pour deux
raisons. D’une part, la RDC n’aurait pas précisé quelle obligation parti-

culière posée par cet instrument aurait été violée par le Rwanda, la seule
disposition à laquelle elle ait jamais fait référence étant son article 2 qui
n’impose aucune obligation directe aux Etats membres eux-mêmes,
comme l’a d’ailleurs souligné la Cour au paragraphe 82 de son ordon-
nance du 10 juillet 2002. D’autre part, les allégations de la RDC ne «sem-

ble[raie]nt pas donner lieu à un différend concernant l’interprétation ou
l’application de la Constitution», la requête révélant «clairement que le
Congo considère les prétendus actes d’agression du Rwanda comme le
fondement de ce différend».
96. Le Rwanda fait également valoir que l’article 75 susmentionné

subordonne la saisine de la Cour, outre à l’existence d’un différend relatif
à l’interprétation ou l’application de la Constitution, à deux autres condi-
tions préalables, à savoir qu’il ait été impossible de régler ce différend par
voie de négociation et qu’il ait également été impossible de le régler par
l’entremise de l’Assemblée mondiale de la Santé. Selon le Rwanda, la
négociation et le recours à l’Assemblée mondiale de la Santé sont

deux conditions cumulatives, et non pas alternatives comme la RDC le
prétend, et elles n’ont pas été remplies en l’espèce. Il ajoute que, quand
bien même ces deux conditions ne seraient pas cumulatives, la RDC ne
pourrait pas davantage se fonder sur l’article 75, car elle n’a pas prouvé
avoir satisfait à la condition de négociation. L’argument de la RDC,

selon lequel aucune négociation n’était possible du fait du refus du
Rwanda d’y participer, n’est, de l’avis de celui-ci, pas suffisant; il faudrait
selon lui que la RDC démontre «qu’[elle] a tenté, de bonne foi, de négo-
cier une solution à ce différend précis».
97. La RDC, en réponse, rejette l’allégation du Rwanda selon laquelle

les obligations contenues dans la Constitution de l’OMS ne lient que
l’organisation elle-même, car il est selon elle difficile «d’admettre que les
Etats membres, dont le Rwanda, n’aient pas l’obligation de concourir au
bon accomplissement de [ses] fonctions par l’Organisation mondiale de la
Santé» ou, tout au moins, de ne pas entraver la réalisation de son but et

desdites fonctions, tels que ceux-ci sont définis aux articles 1 et 2 de la
Constitution. Elle précise que le principe selon lequel les Etats membres
doivent remplir de bonne foi les obligations qu’ils ont assumées est «un
principe général qui trouve même sa base dans le droit coutumier inter-
national et qui est confirmé par d’autres actes constitutifs d’organisations
internationales»; elle cite notamment à cet égard l’article 2, para-

graphe 2, de la Charte des Nations Unies. La RDC soutient qu’en
l’espèce le Rwanda, en utilisant l’expansion du sida comme arme de
guerre et en commettant des massacres à grande échelle sur le territoire
congolais, n’a pas «exécuté de bonne foi l’acte constitutif de l’OMS qui
vise à promouvoir le niveau de santé le plus élevé possible au béné-

fice de tous les peuples du monde»; elle soutient en outre qu’elle a lar-
gement démontré qu’un certain nombre d’organisations internationales,
gouvernementales ou non, «ont rendu publics des rapports circonstanciés

40 ARMED ACTIVITIES (JUDGMENT ) 42

arguing that the WHO Constitution is inapplicable for two reasons.
First, it claims that the DRC has failed to specify which particular obli-

gation laid down by that instrument has allegedly been breached by
Rwanda, the only provision to which it ever made reference having been
Article 2; that Article does not impose any direct obligation on the Mem-
ber States themselves, as the Court moreover pointed out in paragraph 82
of its Order of 10 July 2002. Secondly, Rwanda contends that the DRC’s

allegations “do not appear to give rise to a dispute concerning the inter-
pretation or application of the Constitution”, as “[i]t is clear from the
Application that the Congo considers this dispute to be founded on the
alleged acts of aggression of Rwanda”.
96. Rwanda further argues that, in addition to requiring the existence

of a dispute concerning the interpretation or application of the Constitu-
tion, Article 75 imposes two further preconditions on the seisin of the
Court: namely, settlement of the dispute by negotiation must have proved
impossible and settlement by the World Health Assembly must also have
proved impossible. According to Rwanda, the two requirements of nego-
tiation and recourse to the World Health Assembly are cumulative not

alternative, as claimed by the DRC, and they have not been satisfied in
the present case. Rwanda adds that, even if the two requirements were
not cumulative, the DRC would still be unable to rely on Article 75,
because it has not proved that it has satisfied the negotiation require-
ment. It is not sufficient, in Rwanda’s view, for the DRC to argue that

Rwanda’s refusal to participate rendered negotiation impossible; Rwanda
considers that the DRC must show “that it . . . attempted, in good faith,
to negotiate a solution to this particular dispute”.

97. In reply, the DRC disputes Rwanda’s assertion that the obliga-

tions set out in the WHO Constitution are binding only on the Organiza-
tion itself; in the DRC’s view, it would be difficult “to accept that Mem-
ber States, including Rwanda, are not under an obligation to contribute
to the accomplishment by the World Health Organization of [its] func-
tions” or, at the very least, to refrain from hindering the fulfilment of its

objective and those functions, as they are defined in Articles 1 and 2 of
the Constitution. The DRC asserts that the principle that Member States
must fulfil in good faith the obligations they have assumed is “a general
principle the basis of which is to be found in international customary law
and which is confirmed by other constituent instruments of international
organizations”; it specifically cites the example of Article 2, paragraph 2,

of the United Nations Charter. The DRC alleges that Rwanda, in resort-
ing to the spreading of AIDS as an instrument of war and in engaging in
large-scale killings on Congolese territory, has not “in good faith carried
out the Constitution of the WHO, which aims at fostering the highest
possible level of health for all peoples of the world”; the DRC further

claims to have made an ample showing that a number of international
organizations, both governmental and other, “have published detailed
reports on the serious deterioration of the health situation in the DRC as

4043 ACTIVITÉS ARMÉES (ARRÊT )

sur la grave détérioration de la santé en RDC, du fait de la guerre
d’agression» menée par le Rwanda.

98. La RDC fait par ailleurs valoir que l’article 75 de la Constitution
de l’OMS laisse aux parties le choix entre les négociations et le recours à
l’Assemblée mondiale de la Santé pour régler leurs différends; selon elle,
ces deux conditions ne sont pas cumulatives comme en témoigne «l’usage
du «ou»». Les membres de l’Organisation mondiale de la Santé n’ont

par conséquent pas l’obligation, avant d’introduire une instance devant
la Cour, d’avoir successivement recours à l’un et à l’autre de ces moyens
de règlement. Dans le cas d’espèce, la RDC a opté pour les négociations,
mais celles-ci ont échoué «du fait du Rwanda».

*

99. La Cour observe que la RDC est partie à la Constitution de l’OMS
depuis le 24 février 1961 et le Rwanda depuis le 7 novembre 1962, et

qu’ils sont ainsi l’un et l’autre membres de cette organisation. La Cour
note également que l’article 75 de la Constitution de l’OMS prévoit, aux
conditions posées par cette disposition, la compétence de la Cour pour
connaître de «toute question ou différend concernant l’interprétation ou
l’application» de cet instrument. Cette disposition exige que cette ques-

tion ou ce différend concerne l’interprétation ou l’application de ladite
Constitution en particulier. Or, de l’avis de la Cour, la RDC n’a pas
démontré l’existence d’une question sur laquelle le Rwanda aurait des
vues différentes des siennes ou d’un différend qui l’opposerait à cet Etat,
en ce qui concerne l’interprétation ou l’application de la Constitution de
l’OMS.

100. La Cour constate également que, quand bien même elle aurait
établi l’existence d’une question ou d’un différend entrant dans les prévi-
sions de l’article 75 de la Constitution de l’OMS, la RDC n’a en tout état
de cause pas apporté la preuve que les autres conditions préalables à la
saisine de la Cour, fixées par cette disposition, aient été remplies, à savoir

qu’elle ait tenté de régler ladite question ou ledit différend par voie de
négociation avec le Rwanda ou que l’Assemblée mondiale de la Santé
n’ait pu résoudre cette question ou ce différend.
101. La Cour conclut de ce qui précède que l’article 75 de la Consti-
tution de l’OMS ne peut pas servir de fondement à sa compétence pour

connaître de la présente affaire.

*
* *

102. La RDC prétend de surcroît fonder la compétence de la Cour sur
le paragraphe 2 de l’article XIV de l’acte constitutif de l’Unesco, libellé
comme suit:

«Toutes questions et tous différends relatifs à l’interprétation de la
présente convention seront soumis pour décision à la Cour interna-

41 ARMED ACTIVITIES (JUDGMENT ) 43

a consequence of the war of aggression” waged by Rwanda.

98. The DRC further contends that Article 75 of the WHO Constitu-
tion leaves it open to the parties to choose between negotiations and
recourse to the World Health Assembly procedure to settle their dis-
putes; according to the DRC, these two conditions are not cumulative, as
is shown by “the use of the word ‘or’”. Members of the World Health

Organization are accordingly under no obligation to look first to one and
then the other of these modes of settlement before bringing proceedings
before the Court. In the present case, the DRC opted for negotiations,
but these failed “through the fault of Rwanda”.

*

99. The Court observes that the DRC has been a party to the WHO
Constitution since 24 February 1961 and Rwanda since 7 November 1962

and that both are thus members of that Organization. The Court further
notes that Article 75 of the WHO Constitution provides for the Court’s
jurisdiction, under the conditions laid down therein, over “any question
or dispute concerning the interpretation or application” of that instru-
ment. The Article requires that a question or dispute must specifically

concern the interpretation or application of the Constitution. In the
opinion of the Court, the DRC has not shown that there was a question
concerning the interpretation or application of the WHO Constitution on
which itself and Rwanda had opposing views, or that it had a dispute
with that State in regard to this matter.

100. The Court further notes that, even if the DRC had demonstrated
the existence of a question or dispute falling within the scope of
Article 75 of the WHO Constitution, it has in any event not proved
that the other preconditions for seisin of the Court established by that
provision have been satisfied, namely that it attempted to settle the

question or dispute by negotiation with Rwanda or that the World
Health Assembly had been unable to settle it.

101. The Court concludes from the foregoing that Article 75 of the
WHO Constitution cannot serve to found its jurisdiction in the present

case.

*
* *

102. The DRC further seeks to found the jurisdiction of the Court on
Article XIV, paragraph 2, of the Unesco Constitution, which reads as
follows:

“Any question or dispute concerning the interpretation of this
Constitution shall be referred for determination to the International

4144 ACTIVITÉS ARMÉES (ARRÊT )

tionale de Justice ou à un tribunal arbitral, selon ce que décidera la
Conférence générale conformément à son Règlement intérieur.»

La RDC invoque, dans sa requête, l’article premier de l’acte constitutif,
relatif aux buts et fonctions de l’organisation, et soutient que «[p]ar le

fait de la guerre, la République démocratique du Congo est aujourd’hui
incapable de remplir ses missions au sein de l’Unesco...».
103. Le Rwanda soutient que la Cour ne saurait se déclarer compé-
tente sur la base de l’article XIV de l’acte constitutif de l’Unesco, pour
différents motifs. Il fait en premier lieu observer que cette disposition

limite la compétence de la Cour aux différends relatifs à l’«interpréta-
tion» de l’acte constitutif et que, en l’espèce, l’existence d’un quelconque
différend entre les Parties ayant pour objet l’interprétation de ladite
convention n’a jamais été évoquée. Il soutient que l’allégation de la RDC
selon laquelle elle est incapable de remplir ses missions au sein de l’Unesco

par le fait de la guerre «équivaut tout au plus à un différend relatif à
l’application de l’acte constitutif» de cette organisation. Le Rwanda
ajoute qu’au paragraphe 85 de son ordonnance du 10 juillet 2002 la Cour
a elle-même indiqué que la requête de la RDC ne semblait pas avoir pour
objet l’interprétation de l’acte constitutif de l’Unesco et il relève que cette
organisation, ayant été invitée par la Cour à présenter des observations

écrites sur cette requête, lui avait répondu qu’elle souscrivait pleinement
au point de vue exprimé dans le paragraphe susmentionné de l’ordon-
nance de la Cour. Il souligne que, «depuis le prononcé de cette ordon-
nance, le Congo n’a produit aucun argument ou élément nouveau pour
conforter l’idée que ses allégations portent bien sur l’interprétation de

l’acte constitutif».
104. Le Rwanda fait en deuxième lieu observer que, quand bien même
l’article XIV de l’acte constitutif de l’Unesco ne limiterait pas la compé-
tence de la Cour aux seules questions d’interprétation dudit instrument,
la RDC n’a pas davantage démontré en quoi cet instrument serait perti-

nent au regard du présent différend. Selon le Rwanda, en effet, «l’essence
de la thèse congolaise réside dans les prétendus actes d’agression» qu’il
aurait commis et «le Congo n’a pas précisé quelle obligation imposée par
l’acte constitutif de l’Unesco aurait été violée». Il relève à cet égard que
l’article premier de cet instrument, auquel la RDC se réfère dans sa

requête, «se borne ... à souligner les buts et fonctions de l’organisation
[et] n’impose aucune obligation directe aux Etats membres».
105. Le Rwanda fait en dernier lieu observer que la procédure prévue
par l’article XIV de l’acte constitutif de l’Unesco, ainsi que par le Règle-
ment intérieur de la Conférence générale de l’Unesco, auquel il est fait
référence dans cette disposition, n’a pas été respectée. Selon lui,

l’article XIV n’autorise pas les Etats à soumettre unilatéralement un dif-
férend à la Cour. Il souligne que l’article 38 du Règlement intérieur
susmentionné

«prévoit le renvoi des questions touchant l’interprétation de l’acte
constitutif devant le comité juridique [de la Conférence générale],

42 ARMED ACTIVITIES (JUDGMENT ) 44

Court of Justice or to an arbitral tribunal, as the General Con-
ference may determine under its rules of procedure.”

In its Application the DRC invokes Article I of the Constitution, which
concerns the Organization’s purposes and functions, and maintains that

“[o]wing to the war, the Democratic Republic of the Congo today is
unable to fulfil its missions within Unesco . . .”.
103. Rwanda argues that the Court is precluded for various reasons
from finding that it has jurisdiction on the basis of Article XIV of the
Unesco Constitution. It first points out that this provision limits the

Court’s jurisdiction to disputes concerning the “interpretation” of the
Constitution and that in this case there is no hint of any dispute between
the Parties regarding interpretation of the Constitution. It contends that
the DRC’s allegation that it is unable to fulfil its missions within Unesco
owing to the war “[a]t its highest . . . would only amount to a dispute

concerning the application of the Constitution” of that Organization.
Rwanda adds that the Court itself, in paragraph 85 of its Order of
10 July 2002, stated that the interpretation of the Unesco Constitution
did not appear to be the object of the DRC’s Application; Rwanda notes
that Unesco, after being invited by the Court to submit written observa-
tions on the Application, responded that it concurred entirely with the

view expressed in that paragraph of the Court’s Order. Rwanda points
out that “[n]o new arguments or evidence have been presented by the
Congo since that Order to suggest that its allegations do indeed concern
the interpretation of the Constitution”.

104. Rwanda next argues that, even if Article XIV of the Unesco Con-
stitution did not confine the Court’s jurisdiction solely to matters of
interpretation of the instrument, the DRC has failed to show the rele-
vance of the Constitution to the present dispute. According to Rwanda,

“the essence of the Congo’s case is the alleged acts of aggression” com-
mitted by Rwanda and “the Congo has failed to make clear which . . .
obligation under the Unesco Constitution has been breached”. It notes in
this connection that Article I of the Constitution, cited by the DRC in its
Application, “simply outlines the purposes and functions of the organiza-

tion [and] does not impose any direct obligations on the Member States”.

105. Lastly, Rwanda argues that the procedures laid down in
Article XIV of the Unesco Constitution and in the Rules of Procedure
of the Unesco General Conference, to which that Article refers, were not
followed. According to Rwanda, Article XIV does not empower States

unilaterally to refer a dispute to the Court. It notes that Article 38 of
the Rules of Procedure

“provides for questions concerning the interpretation of the Con-
stitution to be referred to the Legal Committee [of the General

4245 ACTIVITÉS ARMÉES (ARRÊT )

lequel peut ensuite «décider à la majorité simple de recommander à
la Conférence générale de [soumettre] à la Cour internationale de

Justice ... toute question d’interprétation de l’acte constitutif» ou,
«[l]orsqu’il s’agit d’un différend [auquel] l’Organisation est par-
tie, ... peut, à la majorité simple, recommander de le soumettre pour
décision définitive à un tribunal arbitral pour la constitution duquel
[le] Conseil exécutif prend toutes dispositions nécessaires»».

Le Rwanda note à cet égard que «[l]e Congo n’a jamais prétendu avoir

suivi cette procédure».
106. En réponse, la RDC allègue que l’article XIV de l’acte constitutif
de l’Unesco laisse aux parties, aux fins de règlement de leurs différends, le
choix entre les négociations et la soumission à la Conférence générale et
n’impose pas l’obligation d’avoir successivement recours à l’un et à

l’autre de ces moyens de règlement. Dans le cas d’espèce, la RDC a opté
pour les négociations, mais celles-ci ont «échoué du fait du Rwanda». A
l’audience, la RDC a également indiqué que «l’affirmation du Rwanda
selon laquelle l’Unesco a adhéré à l’opinion de la Cour pos[ait] pro-
blème». Elle a soutenu que si l’opinion de la Cour à laquelle l’Unesco a
adhéré est

«en définitive, ... la décision que l’incompétence de la Cour n’est pas
manifeste, alors le Rwanda est mal venu à soutenir que la clause

compromissoire du statut de l’Unesco est insusceptible de servir de
base à la compétence de la Cour».

*

107. La Cour note que tant la RDC que le Rwanda sont parties à
l’acte constitutif de l’Unesco, la RDC depuis le 25 novembre 1960 et le
Rwanda depuis le 7 novembre 1962, et qu’ils sont ainsi l’un et l’autre
membres de cette organisation. La Cour observe par ailleurs que le para-
graphe 2 de l’article XIV de l’acte constitutif de l’Unesco n’envisage la

soumission de questions ou différends relatifs à cet instrument, aux
conditions prévues par cette disposition, qu’en matière d’interprétation
dudit instrument. La Cour considère que tel n’est pas l’objet de la requête
de la RDC. En effet, elle constate qu’en l’espèce la RDC n’a invoqué
l’acte constitutif de l’Unesco et son article premier qu’aux seules fins de
soutenir que, du «fait de la guerre», elle «est aujourd’hui incapable de

remplir ses missions au sein de l’Unesco». De l’avis de la Cour, il ne
s’agit pas là d’une question ou d’un différend relatif à l’interprétation de
l’acte constitutif de l’Unesco. La requête de la RDC n’entre ainsi pas
dans les prévisions de l’article XIV de cet instrument.
108. La Cour constate également que, quand bien même l’existence

d’une question ou d’un différend entrant dans les prévisions de ladite dis-
position aurait été établie, la RDC n’a en tout état de cause pas apporté
la preuve que la procédure préalable à la saisine de la Cour, prévue par

43 ARMED ACTIVITIES (JUDGMENT ) 45

Conference, which] may then either ‘decide by a simple majority to
recommend to the General Conference that any question concerning

the interpretation of the Constitution be referred to the Interna-
tional Court of Justice’ . . . or . . . may: ‘In cases where the Organi-
zation is party to a dispute . . . decide by a simple majority, to
recommend to the General Conference that the case be submitted
for final decision to an arbitral tribunal, arrangements for which

shall be made by the Executive Board.’”
Rwanda observes in this regard that “[t]he Congo has at no time

suggested that these procedures have been adhered to”.
106. The DRC argues in response that Article XIV of the Unesco
Constitution leaves it open to the parties, in settling their disputes, to
choose between negotiation and referral to the General Conference and
imposes no obligation to try each of those modes of settlement in turn; in

the present case, the DRC opted for negotiations, which “failed through
the fault of Rwanda”. At the hearings, the DRC added: “Rwanda’s
assertion that Unesco concurred with the opinion of the Court raises a
problem”. It maintained that, if the opinion of the Court with which
Unesco concurred was

“[u]ltimately, . . . the decision that the Court’s lack of jurisdiction
was not manifest, then Rwanda is unfounded in maintaining that the

compromissory clause in the Unesco Constitution cannot serve as a
basis for the Court’s jurisdiction”.

*

107. The Court notes that both the DRC and Rwanda are parties to
the Unesco Constitution and have been since 25 November 1960 in the
case of the DRC and 7 November 1962 in the case of Rwanda, and that
both are thus members of that Organization. The Court further observes
that Article XIV, paragraph 2, of the Unesco Constitution provides

for the referral, under the conditions established therein, of questions
or disputes concerning the Constitution, but only in respect of its
interpretation. The Court considers that such is not the object of the
DRC’s Application. It finds that the DRC has in this case invoked
the Unesco Constitution and Article I thereof for the sole purpose
of maintaining that “[o]wing to the war”, it “today is unable to fulfil its

missions within Unesco”. The Court is of the opinion that this is not a
question or dispute concerning the interpretation of the Unesco Consti-
tution. Thus the DRC’s Application does not fall within the scope of
Article XIV of the Constitution.
108. The Court further considers that, even if the existence of a

question or dispute falling within the terms of the above provision
were established, the DRC has in any event failed to show that the
prior procedure for seisin of the Court pursuant to that provision and to

4346 ACTIVITÉS ARMÉES (ARRÊT )

cette disposition et l’article 38 du Règlement intérieur de la Conférence
générale de l’Unesco, ait été suivie.

109. La Cour conclut de ce qui précède que le paragraphe 2 de l’ar-
ticle XIV de l’acte constitutif de l’Unesco ne peut fonder sa compétence
pour connaître de la présente affaire.

*
* *

110. La RDC prétend en outre fonder la compétence de la Cour sur le
paragraphe 1 de l’article 14 de la convention de Montréal pour la répres-
sion d’actes illicites dirigés contre la sécurité de l’aviation civile, qui porte
ce qui suit:

«Tout différend entre des Etats contractants concernant l’inter-
prétation ou l’application de la présente convention qui ne peut pas

être réglé par voie de négociation est soumis à l’arbitrage, à la
demande de l’un d’entre eux. Si dans les six mois qui suivent la date
de la demande d’arbitrage, les Parties ne parviennent pas à se mettre
d’accord sur l’organisation de l’arbitrage, l’une quelconque d’entre
elles peut soumettre le différend à la Cour internationale de Justice,
en déposant une requête conformément au Statut de la Cour.»

Dans sa requête, la RDC a notamment conclu que:

«en abattant à Kindu, le [10] octobre 1998, un Boeing 727, propriété
de la compagnie Congo Airlines, et en provoquant ainsi la mort de
quarante personnes civiles, le Rwanda a ... violé ... la convention de

Montréal du 23 septembre 1971 pour la répression d’actes illicites
dirigés contre la sécurité de l’aviation civile».

111. Le Rwanda soutient que le paragraphe 1 de l’article 14 de la
convention de Montréal énonce une série de conditions qui doivent
toutes être réunies pour que la Cour puisse avoir compétence sur cette
base, à savoir: qu’il existe un différend entre les parties concernant l’inter-
prétation ou l’application de la convention; qu’il n’ait pas été pos-

sible de régler le différend par voie de négociation; que l’une des
parties ait demandé que le différend soit soumis à l’arbitrage et que les
parties ne soient pas parvenues à se mettre d’accord sur l’organisation
de l’arbitrage; et, enfin, qu’un délai de six mois se soit écoulé depuis la
date de la demande d’arbitrage.
112. Le Rwanda prétend en premier lieu que la RDC n’a pas établi

l’existence d’un différend entre les Parties, qui entrerait dans le champ
d’application de l’article 14 de la convention de Montréal. Il souligne que
cette disposition «n’autorise pas un demandeur à mettre en cause, de
façon incidente ou implicite ... la convention de Montréal au cours d’une
instance portant sur un différend plus large ou un ensemble plus large

d’allégations». Il fait à ce propos observer que c’est pourtant précisément
ce que la RDC entend faire dans la présente instance, dans la mesure où
cette dernière soutient que le différend concerne «des actes d’agression

44 ARMED ACTIVITIES (JUDGMENT ) 46

Article 38 of the Rules of Procedure of the Unesco General Conference
was followed.

109. The Court concludes from the foregoing that Article XIV, para-
graph 2, of the Unesco Constitution cannot serve to found its jurisdiction
in the present case.

*
* *

110. The DRC further claims to found the jurisdiction of the Court on
Article 14, paragraph 1, of the Montreal Convention for the Suppression
of Unlawful Acts against the Safety of Civil Aviation, which provides as
follows:

“Any dispute between two or more Contracting States concerning
the interpretation or application of this Convention which cannot be

settled through negotiation, shall, at the request of one of them, be
submitted to arbitration. If within six months from the date of the
request for arbitration the Parties are unable to agree on the organi-
zation of the arbitration, any one of those Parties may refer the dis-
pute to the International Court of Justice by request in conformity
with the Statute of the Court.”

In its Application the DRC made the following submission inter alia:

“by shooting down a Boeing 727 owned by Congo Airlines on
[10] October 1998 in Kindu, thereby causing the death of 40
civilians, Rwanda . . . violated . . . the Montreal Convention for the

Suppression of Unlawful Acts against the Safety of Civil Aviation
of 23 September 1971”.

111. Rwanda asserts that Article 14, paragraph 1, of the Montreal
Convention lays down a series of requirements, each of which must be
met before that provision can confer jurisdiction upon the Court, namely:
there must be a dispute between the parties concerning the interpretation
or application of the Convention; it must have proved impossible to

settle the dispute by negotiation; one of the parties must have requested
that the dispute be submitted to arbitration and the parties must have
been unable to agree upon the organization of the arbitration; and,
finally, six months must have elapsed from the date of the request for
arbitration.
112. Rwanda first contends that the DRC has failed to establish

the existence of a dispute between the Parties falling within the scope of
Article 14 of the Montreal Convention. It argues that under this pro-
vision “it is not open to a Claimant, . . . incidentally and implicitly,
to put in issue the Montreal Convention in the course of proceedings
raising a wider dispute or set of allegations”. It asserts that this, how-

ever, is precisely what the DRC seeks to do in the present proceedings,
inasmuch as the DRC maintains that the dispute concerns “acts of
armed aggression” and has submitted a “Statement of Facts” revealing

4447 ACTIVITÉS ARMÉES (ARRÊT )

armée» et soumet un «exposé des faits» qui ne révèle aucune prétention
susceptible de relever de la convention. Le Rwanda conclut qu’«il est

manifeste que la grande majorité des questions soulevées dans la requête
congolaise n’a absolument rien à voir avec la convention de Montréal».
Il relève à cet égard que la seule tentative de la RDC visant à mettre en
évidence un différend concernant la convention de Montréal se résume à
l’allégation, «formulée non pas dans l’«exposé des faits» mais dans la

demande en réparation contenue à la fin de la requête», relative à la
destruction d’un aéronef appartenant à la Congo Airlines, le 10 oc-
tobre 1998, au-dessus de Kindu.
A ce propos, le Rwanda fait valoir que la RDC a «mal défini le diffé-
rend censé exister entre [les Parties] concernant l’interprétation ou l’appli-

cation de la convention de Montréal». Il souligne que l’incident qui se
serait produit à Kindu a bien fait l’objet d’une plainte portée par la RDC
devant l’Organisation de l’aviation civile internationale (dénommée ci-
après «OACI») et examinée par le Conseil de cette organisation, mais
que la RDC n’a fourni à ce dernier aucun éclaircissement sur ses alléga-
tions. Selon lui, la RDC a en particulier prétendu que l’avion avait été

abattu non par le Rwanda, mais par des forces rebelles congolaises, et a
ensuite formulé des allégations identiques contre l’Ouganda, sans tenter
de concilier ses allégations contre ces deux Etats. Le Rwanda fait en
outre observer que la déclaration adoptée le 10 mars 1999 par le Conseil
de l’OACI ne fait aucune allusion à l’incident et «laisse encore moins

entendre qu’il aurait pu y avoir violation de la convention de Montréal
par le Rwanda, voire un différend opposant la RDC et le Rwanda
concernant l’interprétation ou l’application de cette convention». Il
conclut que, en dépit de l’occasion qui lui a été offerte par le débat devant
l’OACI, la RDC «n’a pas exposé ses griefs d’une manière suffisamment

précise pour permettre au Rwanda d’y répondre».
113. Le Rwanda allègue en second lieu que, quand bien même il exis-
terait un différend l’opposant à la RDC au sujet de l’interprétation ou
l’application de la convention de Montréal, il faudrait encore que ce der-
nier Etat démontre qu’il a satisfait aux conditions procédurales énoncées

par le paragraphe 1 de l’article 14 de la convention. Or, selon le Rwanda,
la RDC n’a pas apporté la démonstration qu’un tel différend n’a pas pu
être réglé par voie de négociation; il souligne à cet égard que

«[b]ien qu’il ait évoqué la prétendue impossibilité de négocier un
règlement pacifique avec le Rwanda, le Congo confond ici le règle-
ment du conflit armé, qui est au centre de son allégation, avec le
règlement du différend précis qui, selon lui, existerait au regard de la
convention de Montréal».

Le Rwanda fait également observer que la RDC n’a jamais proposé de
soumettre le différend à l’arbitrage et qu’elle n’a par conséquent pas satis-

fait à une autre condition essentielle posée par le paragraphe 1 de l’ar-
ticle 14 de la convention de Montréal.
114. En réponse, la RDC soutient tout d’abord que «la prétendue

45 ARMED ACTIVITIES (JUDGMENT ) 47

no allegation which could fall within the scope of the Convention.
Rwanda concludes: “It is manifest that the vast majority of issues raised

in the Congolese Application have nothing whatever to do with the
Montreal Convention . . .” It notes in this regard that the DRC’s only
attempt to identify a dispute concerning the Montreal Convention is
confined to the allegation, “made not in the ‘Statement of Facts’ but in
the prayer for relief at the end of the Application”, concerning the

destruction of an aircraft belonging to Congo Airlines on 10 October
1998 above Kindu.

On this point, Rwanda asserts that the DRC has “not adequately
defined the dispute said to exist between [the Parties] regarding the inter-

pretation or application of the Montreal Convention”. It contends that
the incident alleged to have occurred at Kindu was the subject of a com-
plaint submitted by the DRC to the International Civil Aviation Organi-
zation (hereinafter the “ICAO”) and considered by the ICAO Council,
but that the DRC failed to provide the Council with any clarification of
its allegations. In particular, according to Rwanda, the DRC alleged that

the aircraft had been shot down not by Rwanda but by Congolese rebel
forces and then made identical allegations against Uganda, without any
attempt to reconcile its allegations against those two States. Rwanda
further observes that the Declaration adopted by the ICAO Council on
10 March 1999 contains no reference to the incident, “let alone any

suggestion that there might have been any violation of the Montreal
Convention by Rwanda, or that there might be a dispute between the
Congo and Rwanda concerning the interpretation or application of the
Convention”. Rwanda accordingly concludes that, despite the opportu-
nity afforded the DRC by the ICAO proceedings, it “has not set out its

claim with sufficient particularity for Rwanda to be able to oppose it”.
113. Rwanda next argues that, even if there existed a dispute between
the DRC and itself regarding the interpretation or application of the
Montreal Convention, the DRC would still have to prove that it has met
the procedural requirements set out in Article 14, paragraph 1, of the

Convention. Yet, according to Rwanda, the DRC has failed to show that
any such dispute could not be settled by negotiation; it argues in this
connection that

“[a]lthough the Congo has referred to the alleged impossibility of
negotiating a peaceful settlement with Rwanda, the Congo has here
confused the settlement of the armed conflict, the nub of the allega-
tion it makes, with the settlement of the specific dispute which it
asserts exists under the Montreal Convention”.

Rwanda also observes that the DRC never suggested referring the dis-
pute to arbitration and that it has thus failed to satisfy another essential

requirement imposed by Article 14, paragraph 1, of the Montreal Con-
vention.
114. In response, the DRC contends first that “the purported objec-

4548 ACTIVITÉS ARMÉES ARRÊT )

exception d’incompétence» tirée du non-respect des conditions préalables
prévues par l’article 14 de la convention de Montréal constitue plutôt une

exception à la recevabilité de la requête (voir paragraphes 85 et 88 ci-
dessus).
La RDC soutient ensuite que cette disposition ne contient que deux
conditions préalables, à savoir, d’une part, que le différend soit relatif à
l’application ou l’interprétation de la convention en question, et, d’autre

part, qu’il se soit révélé impossible d’organiser une procédure d’arbitrage,
étant entendu que l’échec d’une tentative en ce sens ne «devient patent
qu’au terme de six mois à partir de la demande d’arbitrage».
La RDC soutient enfin que ces deux conditions préalables à la saisine
de la Cour ont été remplies en l’espèce.

115. Concernant l’existence d’un différend au sens de l’article 14 de la
convention de Montréal, la RDC fait observer que le Rwanda lui-même
a reconnu que le seul différend à l’égard duquel cette convention pourrait
fonder la compétence de la Cour est celui se rapportant à l’incident relatif
à l’aéronef appartenant à la Congo Airlines, qui a eu lieu le 10 oc-
tobre 1998 au-dessus de Kindu.

116. S’agissant de la condition des négociations, la RDC fait valoir
que les autorités rwandaises pratiquaient la politique de la «chaise vide»
toutes les fois qu’elle offrait de discuter d’une question comme celle de
l’application de la convention de Montréal à l’incident du 10 oc-
tobre 1998. Elle cite notamment à ce sujet le sommet de Syrte (Libye),

«consacré au règlement de différents litiges entre parties», auquel le
Rwanda, qui avait été invité, n’a pas participé, ou celui de Blantyre
(Malawi), tenu en 2002, auquel le Rwanda n’a pas davantage pris part et
où, d’après le Secrétaire général des Nations Unies, «aucune question de
fond n’a pu être abordée» du fait de l’absence du Rwanda. A l’audience,

la RDC a par ailleurs indiqué que, dans son rapport en date du 25 jan-
vier 2005, un groupe d’experts du Conseil de sécurité s’était déclaré «gra-
vement préoccupé par le manque de coopération du Rwanda pour les
questions d’aviation civile». Elle a également souligné

«qu’il y a début de négociation entre deux Etats, soit dès que le dif-
férend fait l’objet d’un échange de vues, soit dès qu’il est ... porté
devant une instance déterminée [dont] les deux Etats font partie (cela

a été le cas pour l’OACI, le Conseil de sécurité des Nations Unies; et
diverses conférences multilatérales ou sous-régionales), où le Congo
a toujours fait mention des violations par le Rwanda d’un certain
nombre d’instruments internationaux».

La RDC a en outre fait valoir que «l’impossibilité d’entamer ou d’avan-
cer plus loin dans les négociations avec le Rwanda» ne permettait pas
d’envisager «la possibilité de passer de[s] négociations à l’arbitrage».

*

117. La Cour note que tant la RDC que le Rwanda sont parties à la

46 ARMED ACTIVITIES (JUDGMENT ) 48

tion to jurisdiction” on grounds of failure to satisfy the preconditions laid
down in Article 14 of the Montreal Convention in reality constitutes an

objection to the admissibility of the Application (see paragraphs 85 and
88 above).
The DRC next asserts that only two preconditions are laid down by
that Article, namely: the dispute must concern the application or inter-
pretation of the Convention in question; and it must have proved impos-

sible to organize an arbitration, it being understood that the failure of an
attempt to do so “will not become apparent until six months have elapsed
from the request for arbitration”.
Finally, the DRC maintains that these two preconditions for the seisin
of the Court have been satisfied in the present case.

115. As regards the existence of a dispute within the meaning of
Article 14 of the Montreal Convention, the DRC observes that Rwanda
itself has acknowledged that the only dispute in respect of which that
Convention might furnish a basis for the Court’s jurisdiction is the one
relating to the incident of 10 October 1998 involving the Congo Airlines
aircraft above Kindu.

116. In respect of the requirement of negotiations, the DRC contends
that the Rwandan authorities adopted the “empty chair” policy whenever
the DRC offered to discuss an issue such as the application of the Mon-
treal Convention to the incident of 10 October 1998. It cites in particular
the Syrte (Libya) Summit, “devoted to the settlement of various disputes

between the Parties”, to which Rwanda had been invited but which it did
not attend, and the Blantyre (Malawi) Summit in 2002, in which Rwanda
did not take part either and where, according to the United Nations
Secretary-General, “no substantive issues were discussed” because of
Rwanda’s absence. At the hearings, the DRC further stated that a

Security Council Group of Experts described itself in its report of 25 Janu-
ary 2005 as “gravely concerned about the lack of co-operation received
from Rwanda on civil aviation matters”. The DRC also argued

“that negotiation between two States has been initiated either once
the dispute has been the subject of an exchange of views, or indeed
where it has been raised in a specific forum to which both States are

party (this was the case for the ICAO, the United Nations Security
Council, and various multilateral or sub-regional conferences), where
the Congo consistently evoked Rwanda’s violations of certain inter-
national instruments”.

The DRC further contended that “the impossibility of opening or pro-
gressing in negotiations with Rwanda” precluded contemplating “the
possibility of moving from negotiations to arbitration”.

*

117. The Court notes that both the DRC and Rwanda are parties to

4649 ACTIVITÉS ARMÉES ARRÊT )

convention de Montréal, la RDC depuis le 6 juillet 1977 et le Rwanda
depuis le 3 novembre 1987, qu’ils sont tous deux membres de l’OACI et

que la convention de Montréal était déjà en vigueur entre eux, aussi bien
lors de la destruction invoquée de l’appareil de la compagnie Congo Air-
lines au-dessus de Kindu, le 10 octobre 1998, qu’au moment du dépôt de
la requête, le 28 mai 2002. La Cour note également que le paragraphe 1
de l’article 14 de la convention de Montréal prévoit la compétence de la

Cour pour connaître de tout différend entre Etats contractants concer-
nant l’interprétation ou l’application de ladite convention, à condition
que ce différend n’ait pas pu être réglé par voie de négociation, que, en
cas d’échec de cette négociation, il ait été soumis à l’arbitrage à la
demande de l’un de ces Etats et que, au cas où les parties ne seraient pas

parvenues à se mettre d’accord sur l’organisation de cet arbitrage, un
délai de six mois se soit écoulé à compter de la date de la demande
d’arbitrage. Aux fins de déterminer sa compétence sur la base de cette
disposition, il appartiendra d’abord à la Cour d’examiner s’il existe
un différend entre les Parties relatif à l’interprétation ou à l’application
de la convention de Montréal, qui n’aurait pas pu être réglé par voie de

négociation.
118. La Cour observe à cet égard que la RDC ne lui a pas indiqué
quelles seraient les dispositions matérielles de la convention de Montréal
qui pourraient s’appliquer à ses demandes au fond. Dans sa requête, la
RDC s’est contentée d’invoquer cette convention en rapport avec la des-

truction, le 10 octobre 1998, après son décollage de l’aéroport de Kindu,
d’un aéronef civil appartenant à la compagnie Congo Airlines. Même s’il
pouvait être établi que les faits invoqués par la RDC, à les supposer
prouvés, étaient susceptibles d’entrer dans les prévisions de cette conven-
tion et ont donné lieu à un différend entre les Parties concernant l’inter-

prétation ou l’application de celle-ci, et même s’il pouvait être considéré
que les discussions intervenues au sein du Conseil de l’OACI équivalent à
des négociations, la Cour constate que, en tout état de cause, la RDC n’a
pas démontré avoir satisfait aux conditions posées au paragraphe 1 de
l’article 14 de la convention de Montréal, concernant le recours à l’arbi-

trage: il n’a, en particulier, pas été prouvé que la RDC aurait proposé au
Rwanda l’organisation d’une procédure d’arbitrage et que ce dernier Etat
n’aurait pas donné suite à cette proposition (cf. paragraphe 92 ci-dessus).
119. De l’avis de la Cour, le paragraphe 1 de l’article 14 de la conven-
tion de Montréal ne peut par suite pas servir de fondement à sa compé-
tence en la présente affaire.

* * *

120. La RDC invoque enfin, pour fonder la compétence de la Cour en
l’espèce, l’article 66 de la convention de Vienne sur le droit des traités, qui

prévoit notamment que «toute partie à un différend concernant l’applica-
tion ou l’interprétation des articles 53 ou 64», relatifs aux conflits entre
traités et normes impératives du droit international général, «peut, par

47 ARMED ACTIVITIES (JUDGMENT ) 49

the Montreal Convention and have been since 6 July 1977 in the case of
the DRC and 3 November 1987 in the case of Rwanda, that both are

Members of the ICAO, and that the Montreal Convention was already in
force between them at the time when the Congo Airlines aircraft is stated
to have been destroyed above Kindu, on 10 October 1998, and when
the Application was filed, on 28 May 2002. The Court also notes that
Article 14, paragraph 1, of the Montreal Convention gives the Court juris-

diction in respect of any dispute between contracting States concerning
the interpretation or application of the Convention, on condition that: it
has not been possible to settle the dispute by negotiation; that, following
the failure of negotiations, the dispute has, at the request of one such
State, been submitted to arbitration; and that, if the parties have been

unable to agree on the organization of the arbitration, a period of six
months has elapsed from the date of the request for arbitration. In order
to determine whether it has jurisdiction under this provision, the Court
will therefore first have to ascertain whether there is a dispute between the
Parties relating to the interpretation or application of the Montreal
Convention which could not have been settled by negotiation.

118. The Court observes in this regard that the DRC has not indicated
to it which are the specific provisions of the Montreal Convention which
could apply to its claims on the merits. In its Application the DRC con-
fined itself to invoking that Convention in connection with the destruc-

tion on 10 October 1998, shortly after take-off from Kindu Airport, of a
civil aircraft belonging to Congo Airlines. Even if it could be established
that the facts cited by the DRC might, if proved, fall within the terms of
the Convention and gave rise to a dispute between the Parties concerning
its interpretation or application, and even if it could be considered that

the discussions within the Council of the ICAO amounted to negotia-
tions, the Court finds that, in any event, the DRC has failed to show that
it satisfied the conditions required by Article 14, paragraph 1, of the
Montreal Convention concerning recourse to arbitration: in particular, it
has not shown that it made a proposal to Rwanda that arbitration pro-

ceedings should be organized, and that the latter failed to respond
thereto (cf. paragraph 92 above).

119. The Court considers that Article 14, paragraph 1, of the
Montreal Convention cannot therefore serve to found its jurisdiction in
the present case.

* * *

120. To found the jurisdiction of the Court in the present case, the
DRC relies finally on Article 66 of the Vienna Convention on the Law of

Treaties, which provides inter alia that “[a]ny one of the parties to a dis-
pute concerning the application or the interpretation of article 53 or 64”,
relating to conflicts between treaties and peremptory norms of general

4750 ACTIVITÉS ARMÉES (ARRÊT )

une requête, le soumettre à la décision de la Cour internationale de
Justice, à moins que les parties ne décident d’un commun accord de sou-

mettre le différend à l’arbitrage».
121. Dans son contre-mémoire, la RDC a relevé que le mémoire du
Rwanda traitait notamment de «la prétendue non-pertinence de l’invoca-
tion par la République démocratique du Congo de la convention de
Vienne sur le droit des traités» et a, à ce propos, renvoyé à l’argumenta-

tion qu’elle avait présentée durant la phase relative aux mesures conser-
vatoires. A l’audience, la RDC a précisé que l’article 66 de la convention
de Vienne sur le droit des traités, à laquelle le Rwanda est partie, permet
à la Cour de statuer sur tout différend relatif à «la validité d’un traité
contraire à une norme de jus cogens ». A cet égard, la RDC a fait valoir

que les réserves à un traité font partie intégrante de ce traité et qu’en
conséquence «elles doivent éviter soit d’être en contradiction directe avec
une norme du jus cogens, soit d’empêcher la mise en Œuvre de ladite
norme». Selon la RDC, la réserve du Rwanda à l’article IX de la conven-
tion sur le génocide, ainsi que celles formulées «à d’autres dispositions
similaires et à d’autres clauses compromissoires, vise[nt] à empêcher la

Cour ... [de] réaliser son noble devoir de protéger les normes impératives,
dont l’interdiction du génocide», et doivent donc être considérées «comme
nulle[s] et de nul effet».
122. En réponse à l’invocation à l’audience, par le Rwanda, de l’ar-
ticle 4 de la convention de Vienne, qui prévoit que celle-ci n’est applicable

qu’aux traités conclus par des Etats après son entrée en vigueur à l’égard
de ces Etats, la RDC a soutenu que «la suprématie et l’impérativité des
normes évoquées dans cette convention (art. 53 et 64) lient les Etats en
dehors de toute considération temporelle et de tout lien conventionnel»;
selon elle, «la règle peut donc rétroagir dans l’intérêt suprême de l’huma-

nité». La RDC a à cet égard invoqué l’arrêt rendu le 27 juin 1986 en
l’affaire des Activités militaires et paramilitaires au Nicaragua et contre
celui-ci, dans lequel la Cour avait considéré que les Etats-Unis avaient
l’obligation de respecter les quatre conventions de Genève ««en toutes
circonstances» car une telle obligation ne découle pas seulement des

conventions elles-mêmes, mais des principes généraux du droit humani-
taire dont les conventions ne sont que l’expression concrète». La RDC a
également invoqué les «principes de morale et d’humanité» auxquels la
Cour avait fait référence dans son avis consultatif sur les Réserves à la
convention pour la prévention et la répression du crime de génocide , et elle
a prié la Cour «de préserver [ces principes] en se déclarant compétente».

123. Dans son mémoire, le Rwanda a soutenu pour sa part que la pré-
tention de la RDC, selon laquelle les normes de jus cogens seraient sus-
ceptibles de conférer compétence à la Cour, n’est pas fondée. A son avis,

une telle prétention ignorerait en effet le principe, bien établi dans la
jurisprudence de la Cour, selon lequel la compétence de cette dernière
repose toujours sur le consentement des parties, même lorsque la norme

48 ARMED ACTIVITIES (JUDGMENT ) 50

international law, “may, by a written application, submit it to the Inter-
national Court of Justice for a decision unless the parties by common

consent agree to submit the dispute to arbitration”.
121. In its Counter-Memorial the DRC noted that Rwanda’s Memo-
rial invoked inter alia “the alleged irrelevance of the Congo’s reference to
the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties”, and the DRC referred
the Court in this regard to the arguments which it had presented at the

provisional measures phase. At the hearings, the DRC explained that
Article 66 of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, to which
Rwanda is a party, allows the Court to rule on any dispute concerning
“the validity of a treaty which is contrary to a norm of jus cogens”. In
this regard the DRC argued that reservations to a treaty form an integral

part thereof, and that they must accordingly “avoid either being in direct
contradiction with a norm of jus cogens, or preventing the implementa-
tion of that norm”. According to the DRC, Rwanda’s reservation to
Article IX of the Genocide Convention, as well as to “other similar pro-
visions and compromissory clauses, seeks to prevent the . . . Court from
fulfilling its noble mission of safeguarding peremptory norms, including

the prohibition of genocide”, and must therefore be regarded as “null
and void”.

122. In reply to Rwanda’s reliance at the hearings on Article 4 of the
Vienna Convention, which provides that the Convention applies only

to treaties which are concluded by States after its entry into force
with regard to such States, the DRC contended that “the supremacy
and mandatory force of the norms referred to in this Convention
(Articles 53 and 64) bind States irrespective of any temporal considera-
tion or any treaty-based link”; according to the DRC, the rule can there-

fore “have retroactive effect in the overriding interest of humanity”.
In this connection, the DRC cited the Judgment of 27 June 1986 in
the case concerning Military and Paramilitary Activities in and against
Nicaragua, where the Court held that there was an obligation on the
United States to respect the four Geneva Conventions “in all circum-

stances”, since such an obligation “does not derive only from the Con-
ventions themselves, but from the general principles of humanitarian
law to which the Conventions merely give concrete expression”. The
DRC also invoked the “moral and humanitarian principles” to which
the Court had referred in its Advisory Opinion on Reservations to
the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of

Genocide, and it asked the Court “to safeguard [those principles] by
finding that it has jurisdiction”.
123. For its part, Rwanda contended in its Memorial that the DRC’s
contention that the norms of jus cogens are capable of conferring juris-
diction on the Court is without foundation, since it ignores the principle,

well established in the Court’s jurisprudence, that jurisdiction is always
dependent on the consent of the parties, even when the norm that a State
is accused of violating is a jus cogens norm. Rwanda added that the same

4851 ACTIVITÉS ARMÉES (ARRÊT )

qu’un Etat est accusé d’avoir enfreinte relève du jus cogens. Le Rwanda
précise qu’il en va de même s’agissant de la compétence de la Cour pour

connaître d’un différend relatif à la violation d’une norme donnant nais-
sance à des obligations erga omnes. Il rappelle que, dans son arrêt sur le
Timor oriental, la Cour a indiqué que «l’opposabilité erga omnes d’une
norme et la règle du consentement à la juridiction sont deux choses dif-
férentes». Le Rwanda souligne par ailleurs que l’article 66 de la conven-

tion de Vienne sur le droit des traités ne prévoit pas que «tout» différend
concernant la violation d’une règle de jus cogens soit soumis à la décision
de la Cour; cette disposition «a pour objet un type de différend très spé-
cifique portant sur un effet des normes de jus cogens ». Selon lui, l’ar-
ticle 66 «est indissociable du mécanisme de règlement des différends

relatifs à l’interprétation et à l’application de la convention de Vienne»
et ne confère compétence à la Cour «qu’à l’égard des différends rela-
tifs à la validité d’un traité présenté comme contraire à une norme de jus
cogens», ce qui n’est aucunement le cas en l’espèce.
124. A l’audience, et en réponse à l’argument de la RDC selon lequel
les réserves rwandaises à l’article IX de la convention sur le génocide et à

l’article 22 de la convention sur la discrimination raciale seraient nulles
en vertu de l’article 53 de la convention de Vienne de 1969, du fait de leur
contrariété avec une norme impérative du droit international général, le
Rwanda a par ailleurs allégué que l’article 66 de cette dernière convention
ne saurait en tout état de cause s’appliquer en l’espèce compte tenu du

champ d’application temporelle de ladite convention. A ce propos, il a
fait observer que la convention sur le génocide et la convention sur la
discrimination raciale ont été conclues antérieurement à l’entrée en
vigueur, à l’égard des deux Parties, de la convention de Vienne, dont
l’article 4 prévoit qu’elle s’applique «uniquement aux traités conclus par

des Etats après son entrée en vigueur à l’égard de ces Etats». Le Rwanda
a souligné que les dispositions de l’article 66 de la convention de Vienne,
«étant de nature plutôt juridictionnelle que normative», ne sont pas
déclaratoires d’une règle de droit coutumier et «ne peuvent donc lier les
Etats que sur un plan conventionnel et uniquement en vertu des termes

du traité». Le Rwanda a ajouté que, quoi qu’il en soit, l’application de
l’article 66 à la présente espèce ne présenterait aucun intérêt car elle ne
pourrait servir «qu’à donner compétence à la Cour sur la question de la
validité de la réserve»; or, le Rwanda reconnaît que la Cour «peut se
prononcer sur ce point ... dans le cadre de son examen de la question de
savoir si la convention sur le génocide constitue une base de compé-

tence».

*

125. La Cour rappellera que l’application non rétroactive de la conven-
tion de Vienne sur le droit des traités est stipulée à l’article 4 de cette der-
nière, dans les termes qui suivent:

«Sans préjudice de l’application de toutes règles énoncées dans la

49 ARMED ACTIVITIES (JUDGMENT ) 51

is true of the Court’s jurisdiction to entertain a dispute concerning viola-
tion of a norm creating obligations erga omnes. It recalled that, in its

East Timor Judgment, the Court held that “the erga omnes character of
a norm and the rule of consent to jurisdiction are two different things”.
Rwanda further contended that Article 66 of the Vienna Convention on
the Law of Treaties did not provide for “any” dispute regarding contra-
vention of a rule of jus cogens to be referred to the Court; it was con-

cerned with “a very specific kind of dispute regarding one effect of norms
of jus cogens”. According to Rwanda, Article 66 “is part and parcel of
the machinery for the settlement of disputes regarding the interpretation
and application of the Vienna Convention” and confers jurisdiction on
the Court “only in respect of disputes regarding the validity of a treaty

which is said to contravene a rule of jus cogens”, which is not at all the
case in this instance.

124. At the hearings, and in response to the DRC’s argument that
Rwanda’s reservations to Article IX of the Genocide Convention and to

Article 22 of the Convention on Racial Discrimination were void because
they conflicted with a peremptory norm of general international law
within the meaning of Article 53 of the 1969 Vienna Convention, Rwanda
further argued that Article 66 of the latter Convention cannot in any
event apply in the present case in view of the Convention’s temporal

scope. In this connection, it observed that the Genocide Convention, like
the Convention on Racial Discrimination, was concluded prior to the
entry into force for the two parties of the Vienna Convention, Article 4 of
which provides that it applies “only to treaties which are concluded by
States after the entry into force of the present Convention with regard to

such States”. Rwanda pointed out that the provisions of Article 66 of the
Vienna Convention, “being jurisdictional rather than substantive”, are
not declaratory of a rule of customary law and “can therefore bind States
only as a matter of treaty and only in accordance with the terms of the
treaty”. Rwanda added that, in any event, the application of Article 66 to

the present case would serve no purpose, since it could only “give the
Court jurisdiction over whether Rwanda’s reservation is valid”; however,
Rwanda accepts that the Court “can rule on that question . . . as part of
its task of determining whether the Genocide Convention affords a basis
of jurisdiction”.

*

125. The Court recalls that Article 4 of the Vienna Convention on the
Law of Treaties provides for the non-retroactivity of that Convention in
the following terms:

“Without prejudice to the application of any rules set forth in

4952 ACTIVITÉS ARMÉES (ARRÊT )

présente convention auxquelles les traités seraient soumis en vertu
du droit international indépendamment de ladite convention, celle-ci

s’applique uniquement aux traités conclus par des Etats après son
entrée en vigueur à l’égard de ces Etats.»

A ce propos, la Cour note en premier lieu que la convention sur le
génocide a été adoptée le 9 décembre 1948, et que la RDC et le Rwanda
y ont adhéré le 31 mai 1962 et le 16 avril 1975, respectivement (voir para-
graphe 38 ci-dessus); elle note par ailleurs que la convention sur la dis-
crimination raciale a été adoptée le 21 décembre 1965, et que la RDC et

le Rwanda y ont adhéré le 21 avril 1976 et le 16 avril 1975, respectivement
(voir paragraphe 74 ci-dessus). La Cour observe en second lieu que la
convention de Vienne sur le droit des traités n’est entrée en vigueur entre
la RDC et le Rwanda que le 3 février 1980, conformément aux disposi-
tions du paragraphe 2 de son article 84. Les conventions sur le génocide
et sur la discrimination raciale ont été conclues avant cette dernière date.

Ainsi, dans la présente affaire, les règles contenues dans la convention de
Vienne ne sont applicables que dans la mesure où elles sont déclaratoires
de droit international coutumier. De l’avis de la Cour, les règles énoncées
à l’article 66 de cette convention ne présentent pas un tel caractère. De
surcroît, les deux Parties ne sont pas autrement convenues d’appliquer

entre elles l’article 66.
La Cour estime enfin nécessaire de rappeler que le seul fait que des
droits et obligations erga omnes ou des règles impératives du droit inter-
national général (jus cogens) seraient en cause dans un différend ne sau-
rait constituer en soi une exception au principe selon lequel sa compé-

tence repose toujours sur le consentement des parties (voir paragraphe 64
ci-dessus).

* * *

126. La Cour conclut de l’ensemble des considérations qui précèdent
qu’elle ne peut retenir aucune des bases de compétence invoquées par

la RDC en l’espèce. N’ayant pas compétence pour connaître de la requête,
la Cour n’a pas à statuer sur la recevabilité de celle-ci.

* * *

127. Bien qu’étant parvenue à la conclusion qu’elle ne peut accepter
aucun des chefs de compétence invoqués par la RDC en la présente

espèce et qu’elle ne peut dès lors connaître de l’affaire soumise par celle-
ci, la Cour tient à souligner une nouvelle fois que cette décision s’inscrit
strictement dans le cadre de l’examen de la question préliminaire de
savoir si elle a ou non compétence pour connaître de la requête de la DC
— la tâche qui lui était assignée à ce stade de la procédure (voir para-

graphe 14 ci-dessus). La Cour, de par son Statut, ne peut donc prendre
position sur le fond des demandes formulées par la RDC. Toutefois,
ainsi que la Cour l’a à plusieurs reprises indiqué, il existe une distinc-

50 ARMED ACTIVITIES (JUDGMENT ) 52

the present Convention to which treaties would be subject under
international law independently of the Convention, the Convention

applies only to treaties which are concluded by States after the entry
into force of the present Convention with regard to such States.”

In this connection, the Court notes first that the Genocide Convention
was adopted on 9 December 1948, the DRC and Rwanda having acceded
to it on 31 May 1962 and 16 April 1975 respectively (see paragraph 38
above); and that the Convention on Racial Discrimination was adopted
on 21 December 1965, the DRC and Rwanda having acceded on 21 April

1976 and 16 April 1975 respectively (see paragraph 74 above). The Court
notes secondly that the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties
entered into force between the DRC and Rwanda only on 3 Febru-
ary 1980, pursuant to Article 84, paragraph 2, thereof. The Conventions
on Genocide and Racial Discrimination were concluded before the latter
date. Thus in the present case the rules contained in the Vienna Conven-

tion are not applicable, save in so far as they are declaratory of custom-
ary international law. The Court considers that the rules contained in
Article 66 of the Vienna Convention are not of this character. Nor have
the two Parties otherwise agreed to apply Article 66 between themselves.

Finally, the Court deems it necessary to recall that the mere fact that
rights and obligations erga omnes or peremptory norms of general inter-
national law (jus cogens) are at issue in a dispute cannot in itself consti-
tute an exception to the principle that its jurisdiction always depends on

the consent of the parties (see paragraph 64 above).

* * *

126. The Court concludes from all of the foregoing considerations that
it cannot accept any of the bases of jurisdiction put forward by the DRC

in the present case. Since it has no jurisdiction to entertain the Applica-
tion, the Court is not required to rule on its admissibility.

* * *

127. While the Court has come to the conclusion that it cannot accept
any of the grounds put forward by the DRC to establish its jurisdiction

in the present case, and cannot therefore entertain the latter’s Applica-
tion, it stresses that it has reached this conclusion solely in the context of
the preliminary question of whether it has jurisdiction in this case — the
issue to be determined at this stage of the proceedings (see paragraph 14
above). The Court is precluded by its Statute from taking any position on

the merits of the claims made by the DRC. However, as the Court has
stated on numerous previous occasions, there is a fundamental distinc-
tion between the question of the acceptance by States of the Court’s juris-

5053 ACTIVITÉS ARMÉES ARRÊT )

tion fondamentale entre la question de l’acceptation de la juridiction de la
Cour par les Etats et la conformité de leurs actes au droit international.

Qu’ils aient accepté ou non la juridiction de la Cour, les Etats sont en
effet tenus de se conformer aux obligations qui sont les leurs en vertu de
la Charte des Nations Unies et des autres règles du droit international,

y compris du droit international humanitaire et du droit international
relatif aux droits de l’homme, et demeurent responsables des actes
contraires au droit international qui pourraient leur être attribués.

* * *

128. Par ces motifs,

L A COUR ,
Par quinze voix contre deux,

Dit qu’elle n’a pas compétence pour connaître de la requête déposée

par la République démocratique du Congo le 28 mai 2002.
POUR: M. Shi, président ; M. Ranjeva, vice-président ; M. Vereshchetin,
me
M Higgins, MM. Parra-Aranguren, Kooijmans, Rezek, Al-Khasawneh,
Buergenthal, Elaraby, Owada, Simma, Tomka, Abraham, juges;
M. Dugard, juge ad hoc;
CONTRE: M. Koroma, juge; M. Mavungu, juge ad hoc.

Fait en français et en anglais, le texte français faisant foi, au Palais de

la Paix, à La Haye, le trois février deux mille six, en trois exemplaires,
dont l’un restera déposé aux archives de la Cour et les autres seront
transmis respectivement au Gouvernement de la République démocra-
tique du Congo et au Gouvernement de la République du Rwanda.

Le président,

(Signé) SHI Jiuyong.

Le greffier,

(Signé) Philippe COUVREUR .

me le juge K OROMA joint à l’arrêt l’exposé de son opinion dissidente;
M le juge HIGGINSet MM. les juges K OOIJMANS,E LARABY ,O WADA et
SIMMA joignent à l’arrêt l’exposé de leur opinion individuelle commune;
M. le juge K OOIJMANS joint une déclaration à l’arrêt; M. le juge L-

K HASAWNEH joint à l’arrêt l’exposé de son opinion individuelle; M. le
juge ELARABY joint une déclaration à l’arrêt; M. le juge ad hUGARD

51 ARMED ACTIVITIES (JUDGMENT ) 53

diction and the conformity of their acts with international law. Whether
or not States have accepted the jurisdiction of the Court, they are
required to fulfil their obligations under the United Nations Charter and

the other rules of international law, including international humanitarian
and human rights law, and they remain responsible for acts attributable
to them which are contrary to international law.

*
* *

128. For these reasons,

T HE COURT ,

By fifteen votes to two,

Finds that it has no jurisdiction to entertain the Application filed by
the Democratic Republic of the Congo on 28 May 2002.

IN FAVOUR: President Shi; Vice-President Ranjeva; Judges Vereshchetin,
Higgins, Parra-Aranguren, Kooijmans, Rezek, Al-Khasawneh,
Buergenthal, Elaraby, Owada, Simma, Tomka, Abraham; Judge ad hoc
Dugard;
AGAINST: Judge Koroma; Judge ad hoc Mavungu.

Done in French and in English, the French text being authoritative, at
the Peace Palace, The Hague, this third day of February, two thousand

and six, in three copies, one of which will be placed in the archives of the
Court and the others transmitted to the Government of the Democratic
Republic of the Congo and the Government of the Republic of Rwanda,

respectively.

(Signed) President. (Signed) S HI Jiuyong,

President.

(Signed) Philippe COUVREUR ,

Registrar.

Judge K OROMA appends a dissenting opinion to the Judgment of the
Court; Judges HIGGINS,K OOIJMANS ,ELARABY ,O WADA and SIMMA append

a joint separate opinion to the Judgment of the Court; JudgeOOIJMANS
appends a declaration to the Judgment of the Court; Judge A L-
K HASAWNEH appends a separate opinion to the Judgment of the Court;

Judge E LARABY appends a declaration to the Judgment of the Court;

5154 ACTIVITÉS ARMÉES(ARRÊT)

joint à l’arrêt l’exposé de son opinion individuelle; M. le juge ad hoc
M AVUNGU joint à l’arrêt l’exposé de son opinion dissidente.

(Paraphé) J.Y.S.

(Paraphé) Ph.C.

52 ARMED ACTIVITIES (JUDGMENT ) 54

Judge ad hoc D UGARD appends a separate opinion to the Judgment of
the Court; Judge ad hoc M AVUNGU appends a dissenting opinion to the
Judgment of the Court.

(Initialled) J.Y.S.

(Initialled) Ph.C.

52

ICJ document subtitle

Jurisdiction of the Court and Admissibility of the Application

Document file FR
Document Long Title

Judgment of 3 February 2006

Links