Judgment of 20 February 1969

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051-19690220-JUD-01-00-EN
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Date of the Document
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Bilingual Document File

INTERIqATIONCOURT OF JUSTICE REPORTS OF JUDGMENTS, ADVISORY OPINIONS AND ORDERS NORTH SEA CONTINENTAL SHELF CASES (FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF GERMANYIDENMARK; FEDERAL REPIJBLICiOF GERMANYINETHERLANDS) JUDGMENT OF 20 FEBRUARY1969 COUP: INTERNATIONADE JUSTICE RECUE1L:DESARRETS, AVIS CONSULTATIFS ET ORDONNANCES AFFAIRES DU PLATEAU CONTINENTAL DE LA MER DU NORD (RÉPUBLIQUE ]?GDGRALE D9ALLEMAGNE/DANEMARK; RÉPUBLIQUE FÉDÉRALE D7ALLEMAGNE/PAYS-BAS) Official citation: North Sea Continental SheljJltdgment, I.C.JReports 1969, p. 3. Mode officielde citation: Plateau continental de la mer du Norarrêt,C.I.J.Recueil 1969,p.3. Sales number No de vente: 327 20 FEBRUARY 1969 JUDGMENT NORTH SEA CONTINENTAL SHELFCASES (FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF GERMANYIDENMARK; FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF GERMAWINETHERLANDS) AFFAIRES DU PLATEAU CONTINENTAL DE LA MER DU NORD INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE YEAR 1969 1969 !OFebruary gos.51 & 52t: 20 February 1969 NORTH SEA CONTINENTAL SHELF CASES (FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF GERMANY,'DENMARK; FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF GERMANYINETHERLANDS) Continerrtal shelf'nreas iri the h'orrli Sea-Delitriitacrsbetwecn aa'jacerit States-Advcitirages crnddisadvarrtyye.~of tfie equidistarice rnethod--Tlieory of just and equitahle apportionrrlent-ltrron~p afitbslthtyry with the prirz- ciple of the natlrral appurtenance of the shelf to the coastal State-Taof the Court relates to deliniitntioti riot apportiorriiirrlt. The eqiiidistance pririciple as errrhodiedirrArticle 6 of the 1958 Genrva Con- tiner~talShelfCoiivc~nriori-Noti-opposa ohithityprovision to the Federal Republic of Gerrnar1y,either contrnctrrcrllyor or1~nsis of'cor1ductor estoppel. Equiclistcrnceatrd the pririciple of naturnl al~prirtenarrce-Miorof closest pro.rir~iity-Critique of that notioii as not beiilg entailed hy the pririciple of ap- purtenance-Firndarnerltul clzaracter of the prirrciple of the coritirieritalshelf as being the natural prolorrgatiotiof the laricltcrritory. Legal history of cl~li~~zircrtion-Trurna~Procla~rratioti-lrlterr1atiorial Law Comrnissioïr-1958 Geneva Conferrrrce-Acceptarlce ofc,quidistanceas a prrrely convetitional rule not reflc~ctingor c~stnllizirrg ofrcristornaryinterriational law-Effect in this respect of r~.serïatioru mticle of Geneva Convention-Sub- sequerit State practice insuficienIO coriïrrf the corzvt~r~tir/le into a rule of c~rstor~~airryrternatiot~alIa~vopinio juris sivenecessitathowtnanifsstetl. Staterlient of what are the applicable pririciples and r~rlesof Iaiv-Delimitation by agreement, in accordarrce with eq~ritablepririciples, raking accowit of al1 relevant circunistcinces,antiso asto give eflect to the principle of natural prolonga- tion-Freedom of the Partiesas to cltoice of rnethod-Varioiis factors relevant to theriegofiution. JUDGMENT Present: Presiderlt BUSTAMANT YERIVERO;Vice-President KORE~SKYJ;udges Sir Gerald FITZMAURICT E,ANAKAJ,ESSUP,MORELLIS ,ir Muhammad ZAFRULLA KHAN,PADILLA NERVOF , ORSTER,GROS,AMMOUN, BENG- ZON,PETRENL , ACHS,ONYEAMAJ;udges ad hoc MOSLERS , DRENSEN; Registrar AQUARONE. In the North Sea Continental Shelf cases, between the Federal Republic of Germany, represented by Dr. G. Jaenicke, Professor of InternationLaw in the University of Frank- furt am Main, as Agent, assisted by Dr. S. Oda, Professor of International Law in the University of Sendai, as Counsel, Dr. U. Scheuner, Professor of International Law in the University of Bonn, Dr. E. Menzel, Professor of International Law in the University of Kiel, Dr. Henry Herrmann, of the Massachusetts Bar, associated with Messrs. Goodwin, Procter and Hoar, Counsellors-at-Law, Boston, Dr. H. Blomeyer-Bartenstein, Counsellor 1st Class, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Dr. H. D. Treviranus, Counsellor,Ministry of Foreign Affairs, as Advisers, and by MT.K. Witt, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, as Expert, and the Kingdom of Denmark, represented by Mr. Bent Jacobsen, Barrister at the Supreme Court of Denmark, as Agent and Advocate, assisted by Sjr Humphrey Waldock, C.M.G., O.B.E., Q.C., Professor of International -Law in the University of Oxford, as Counsel and Advocate, H.E. MT. S. Sandager Jeppesen, Ambassador, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, MT. E. Krog-Meyer, Head of The Legal Department, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Dr. 1. Foighel, Professor in the University of Copenhagen, MT. E. Lauterpacht, Mernber of the English Bar and Lecturer in the Uni- versityof Cambridge,5 CONTINENTAL SHELF(JUDGMENI) Mr. M. Thamsborg, Head of Department, Hydrographic Institute, as Advisers, and by Mr. P. Boeg, Head of Secretariat, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Mr. U. Engel, Head of Section, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, as Secretaries, and between the Federal Republic of Germany, represented as indicated above, the Kingdom of the Netherlands, represented by Professor W. Ripl-iagen, Legal Adviser to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Professor of International Law at the Rotterdam School of Economics, as Agent, assisted by Sir Humphrey Waldock, C.M.G., O.B.E., Q.C., Professor of International Law in the University of Oxford, as Counsel, Rear-Admira1 W. Langeraar, Chief of the Hydrographic Department, Royal Netherlands Navy, MT. G. W. Maas Geesteranus, Assistant Legal Adviser to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Miss F. Y. van der Wal, Assistant Legal Adviser to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, as Advisers, and by Mr. H. Rombach, Divisional Head, Hydrographic Department, Royal Netherlands Navy, as Deputy-Adviser, composed as above, delivers thefollowing J~tclgrnent: By a letter of 16February 1967,received in the Registry on20 February 1967, the Minister for Foreign Affairs of the Netherlandstransmitted to the Registrar: (a) an original copy, signed at Bonn on 2 February 1967for the Governments of Denmark and the Federal Republic of Germany, of a Special Agree- ment for the submission to the Court of a difference between those two States concerning the delimitation, as between them, of the continental shelf in the North Sea; (b) an original copy, signed at Bonn on 2 February 1967forthe Governments of the Federal Republic of Germany and the Netherlands, of a Special Agreement for the submission to the Court of a difference between those6 CONTINENTALSHELF(JUDGMENT) two Statesconcerning the delimitation, as between them, of the continental shelf in the North Sea; (c) an original copy, signed at Bonn on 2 February 1967for the three Govern- ments aforementioned, of a Protocol relating to certain procedural ques- tions arising from the above-mentioned Special Agreements. Articles 1 to 3 of the Special Agreement between the Governments of Den- mark and the Federal Republic of Germany are as follows: "Article 1 (1) The International Court of Justice is requested to decide the follow- ing question: What principles and rules of international law are applicable to the delimitation as between the Parties of the areas of the continental shelf in the North Sea which appertain to each of them beyond the partial boundary determined by the above-mentioned Convention of 9 June 1965? (2) The Governments of the Kingdom of Denmark and of the Federal Republic of Germany shall delimit the continental shelf in the North Sea as between their countries by agreement in pursuance of the decision requested from the International Court of Justice. Article 2 (1) The Parties shall present their written pleadings to the Court in the order stated below : 1. a Memorial of the Federal Republic of Germany to be submitted withi~ six months from the notification of the present Agreement to the mrt; 2. a Colinter-Meinorial of the Kingdom of Denmark to be submitted within six months frorn the delivery of the German Memorial; 3. a German Reply followed by a Danish Rejoinder to be delivered within such tirne-limits as the Court may order. (2) Additional written pleadings may be presented if this is jointly proposed by the Parties and considered by the Court to be appropriate to the case and the circumstances. (3) The foregoing order of presentation is without prejudice to any question of burden of proof which might arise. Article 3 The present Agreement shall enter into force on the day of signature thereof." Articles 1 to 3 of the Special Agreement between the Governments of the Federal Republic of Germany and the Netherlands areas follows: "Article 1 (1) The International Court of Justice is requested to decide the follow- ing question: What principles and rules of international law are applicable to the delimitation as between the Parties of the areas of the continental shelf in the North Sea which appertain to each of them beyond the partial boundary determined by the above-mentioned Convention of 1Decem- ber 1964? (2) The Governments of the Federal Republic of Germany and of the Kingdom of the Netherlands shall delimit the continental shelf of the North Sea as between their countries by agreement in pursuance of the decision requested from the International Court of Justice. Article 2 (1) The Parties shall present their written pleadings to the Court in the order stated below : 1. a Memorial of the Federal Republic of Germany to be submitted within six months fromthe notification of the present Agreement to the Court ; 2. a Counter-Memorial of the Kingdom of the Netherlands to be sub- mitted within six monthsfrom the delivery of the German Memorial; 3. a German Reply followed by a Netherlands Rejoinder to be delivered within such time-limits as the Court may order. (2) Additional written pleadings may be preseiited if this is jointly proposed by the Parties and considered by the Court to be appropriate to the case and the circumstances. (3) The foregoing order of presentation is without prcjudice to any question of burden of proof which might arise. Article 3 The present Agreement shall enter into force on the day of signature thereof." The Protocol between the three Governments reads as follows: "Protocol At the signature of the Special Agreement of today's date between the Government of the Federal Republic of Germany and the Governments of the Kingdom of Denmark and the Kingdom of the Netherlands respec- tively, on the submission to the International Court of Justice of the dif- ferences between the Parties concerning the delimitation of the continental shelf in the North Sea, the three Governments wish to state their agreement on the following: 1. The Government of the Kingdom of the Netherlands will, within a month from the signature, notify the two Special Agreements together with the present Protocol to the International Court of Justice in accor- dance with Article 40, paragraph 1, of the Statute of the Court. 2. After the notification in accordance with item 1 above the Parties will ask the Court to join the two cases. 3. The three Governments agree that, for the purpose of appointing a judge cd hoc, the Governments of the Kingdom of Denmark and the King- dom of the Netherlands shall be considered parties in the same interest within themeaning of Article 31, paragraph 5, of the Statute of the Court." Pursuant to Article 33, paragraph 2, of the Rules of Court, the Registrar at once informed the Governments of Denmark and the Federal Republic of Germany of the filing of the SpecialAgreements. In accordance with Article 34, paragraph 2, of the Rules of Court, copies of the Special Agreements were transmitted to the other Members of the United Nations and to other non- member States entitled to appear before the Court.8 CONTINENTALSHELF(JUDGMENT) By Orders of 8 March 1967, taking into account the agreement reached between the Parties, 21 August 1967 and 20 February 1968were fixed respec- tively as the time-limits forthe filing of the Memorials and Counter-Memorials. These pleadings were filed within the time-limits prescribed. By Orders of 1 March 1968, 31 May and 30 Augusl 1968were fixed respectively as the time- limits for the filing of the Replies and Rejoinders. Pursuant to Article 31, paragraph 3, of the Statute of theCourt, the Govern- ment of the Federal Republic of Germany chose Dr. Hermann Mosler. Profes- sor of International Law in the University of Heidelberg, to sit as Judçe ad hoc in both cases. Referring to the agreement concluded between them accarding to which they should be considered parties in the same interest within the meaning of Article 31, paragraph 5, of the Statute, the Governments of Den- mark and the Netherlands chose Dr. Max Snrensen, Professor of International Law in the University of Aarhus, to sit as Judge nd hocin both cases. By an Order of 26 April 1968,considering that theGovernments of Denmark andthe Netherlands were, sofar as the choice of a Judge ad hoc was concerned, to be reckoned asone Party only, the Court fo~indthat those twoGovernments were in the same interest,joined the proceedings in the two cases and, in modi- fication of the directions given in the Orders o1 March 1968, fixed 30 August 1968 as the time-limit for the filing of a Common Rejoinder for Denmark and the Netherlands. The Replies and the Common Rejoinder having been filed within the time- limits prescribed, the cases were ready for hearing on 30 August 1968. Pursuant to Article 44, paragraph 2, of the Rules of Court, the pleadings and annexed documents were, after consultation of the Parties, made available to the Governments of Brazil, Canada, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, Finland, France, Honduras, Iran, Norway, Sweden, United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, United States of America and Venezuela. Pursuant to paragraph 3 of the same Article, those pleadings and annexed documents were, with the consent of the Parties, made accessible to the public as from the date of the opening of the oral proceedings. Hearings were held from 23 to 25 October, from 28 October to 1November, and on 4, 5, 7, 8 and 11 November 1968, in the course of which the Court heard, in the order agreed between the Parties and accepted by the Court, the oral arguments and replies of Professor Jaenicke, Agent, and Professor Oda, Counsel, on behalf of the Government of the Federal Republic of Germany; and of Mr. Jacobsen and Professor Riphagen, Agents, and Sir Humphrey Waldock, Counsel, on behalf of theGovernments of Denmark and the Nether- lands. In the course of the written proceedings, the following Submissions were presented by the Parties: On behnifof'the Governmentof the Federal Republicof Germany, in the Memorials: "May it please the Court to recognize and declare: 1. The delimitation of the continental shelf between the Parties in the North Sea is governed by the principle that each coastal State is entitled to a just and equitable share. between the Parties which could not be settled by detailed negotiations, regarding the further course of the boundary beyond the partial boundary determined by the Convention of 9 June 1965; Considering that under theterms of Article 1,paragraph 1,of the Com- promis the task entrusted to the Court is not to formulate a basis for the delimitation of the continental shelf in the North Sea as between the Parties ex aequo et bono, but to decide what principles and rules of international law are applicable to the delimitation as between the Parties of the areas of the continental shelf in theNorth Sea which appertain to each of them beyond the partial boundary, determined by the above-mentioned Con- vention of 9 June 1965; In view of the facts and arguments presented in Parts 1 and 11of this Counter-Memorial, May it please the Court to adjudge and declare: 1. The delimitation as between the Parties of the said areas of the con- tinental shelf in the North Sea is governed by the principles and rules of international law which are expressed in Article 6, paragraph 2, of the Geneva Convention of 1958 on the Continental Shelf. 2. The Parties being in disagreement, unless another boundary is justified by special circumstances, the boundary between thern is to be determined by application of the principle ofequidistance from the nearest points of the baselines from which the breadth of the territorial sea of each State is measured. 3. Special circumstances which justify another boundary line not having been established. the boundary between the Parties is to be determined by application of the principle of equidistance indicated in the preceding Submission." On behalf of the Government of the Netherlands, in its Counter-Memorial : "Considering that, as noted in the Compromis, disagreement exists between the Parties which could not be settled by detailed negotiations, regarding the further course of the boundary beyond the partial boundary determined by the Treaty of 1 December 1964; Considering that under the terrns of Article 1, paragraph 1, of the Compromis the task entrusted to theCourt is not to formulate a basis for the delimitation of the continental shelf in the North Sea as between the Partiesex aequo et bono, but to decide what principles and rules of inter- national law are applicable to the delimitation as between the Parties of the areas of the continental shelf in the North Sea which appertain to each of them beyond the partial boundary determined by the above- mentioned Treaty of 1 December 1964; In view of the facts and arguments presented in Parts 1 and II of this Counter-Memorial, May it please the Court to adjudge and declare: 1. The delimitation as between the Parties of the said areas of the con- tinental shelf in the North Sea is governed by the principles and rules of international law which are expressed in Article 6, paragraph 2, of the Geneva Convention of 1958 on the Continental Shelf. 7. The Parties being in disagreement, unless another boundary is justi- fied by special circumstances, the boundary between them is to be deter- mined by application of the principle of equidistance from the nearest points of the baselines from which the breadth of the territorial sea of each State is measured. 3. Special circumstances which justify another boundary line not having been established, the boundary between tlie Parties is to be deterrnined .by application of the principle of equidistance indicated in the preceding Subrnission." 011 I~el~alfofthe Goveriiii~ei~t .f Deiitnark and the Nerherlntids, in the Common Rejoinder: "May it further please the Court to adjudge and declare: 4. If the principles and rules of international law mentioned in Sub- mission 1 of the respective Counter-Mernorials are not applicable as be- tween the Parties, the boiindary is to be deterrnined between the Parties on the basis of the exclusive rights of each Party over the continental shelf adjacent to its coast and of tlie principle that the boundary is to leave to each Party every point of the continental shelf which lies nearer to its coast than to the coast of the other Party." In the course of the oral proceedings, the following Submissions were pre- sented by the Parties: On behaifof the Go>sernnzct~ of the Federal Rep~rblic of Gerttzany, at the hearing on 5 November 1968: "1. The delimitation of the continental shelf between the Parties in the North Sea is governed by the principle that each coastal State is entitled to a just and equitable share. 2. (ri) The method of deterinining boundaries of the continental shelf in such a way that every point of the boundary is equidistant from the nearest points of the baselines from which the breadth of the territorial sea of each State is measured (equidistance method) is not a rule of cus- tomary international law. (b) The rule contained in the second sentence of paragraph 2 of Ar- ticle6 of the Continental Shelf Convention, prescribing that in the absence of agreement, and unless another boundary is justified by special circum- stances, the boundary shall be deterrnined by application of tlie principle of equidistance, has not becorne custornary international law. (c) Even if the rule under (b) would be applicable between the Parties, special circun~stances within the meaning of that rule would exclude the application of the equidistance method in the present case. 3. (a) The equidistance rnethod cannot be used for the delimitation of the continental shelf unless it is established by agreement, arbitration, or otherwise, that it will achieve a just and equitable apportionment of the continental shelf among the States concerned. (b) As to the delimitation of the continental shelf between the Parties in the North Sea, the Kingdom of Denrnark and the Kingdom of the Netherlands cannot rely on the application of the equidistance rnethod, since it would not lead to an equitable apportionment.12 CONTINENTALSHELF (JUDGMENT) 4. Consequently, the delimitation of the continental shelf, on which the Parties must agree pursuant to paragraph 2 of Article 1 of the Special Agreement, is determined by the principle of the just and equitable share, based on criteria relevant to the particular geographical situation in the North Sea." 011behalf'ofthe Governnlent of Det~tnark, at the hearing on 11November 1968,Counsel for that Government stated that it confirmed the Submissions presented in its Counter-Memorial and in the Common Rejoinder and that those Submissions were identical t~llrtatisrrilrtandis with those of the Government of the Netherlands. Oti behnlf'of the Govertitt~entof rile Netherlatzds, at the hearing on 1I November 1968 : "With regard to the delimitation as between the Federal Republic of Germany and the Kingdom of the Netherlands of the boundary of the areas of the continental shelf in the North Sea which appertain to each of them beyond the partial boundary determined by the Convention of 1 December 1964. May it please the Court to adjudge and declare: 1. The delimitation as between the Parties of the said areas of the con- tinental shelf in the North Sea is governed by the principles and rules of international law which are expressed in Article 6, paragrapli 2, of the Geneva Convention of 1958on the Continental Shelf. 2. The Parties being in disagreement, unless another boundary is justi- fied by special circumstances, the boundary between them is to be deter- mined by application of the principle of equidistance from the nearest points of the baselines from which the breadth of the territorial sea of each State is measured. 3. Special circumstances which justify another boundary line not having been established, the boundary between the Parties is to be determined by application of the principle of equidistance indicated in the preceding Submission. 4. If the principles and rules of international law mentioned in Sub- mission 1 are not applicable as between the Parties, the boundary is to be determined between the Parties on the basis of the exclusive rights of each Party over the continental shelf adjacent to its coast and of the principle that the boundary is to leave to each Party every point of the continental shelf which lies nearer to itsoast than to the coast of the other Party." 1. By thetwo Special Agreements respectively concluded between the Kingdom of Denmark and the Federal Republic ofGermany, and between the Federal Republic and the Kingdom of the Netherlands, the Parties havesubmitted to the Court certain differences concerning "the delimita-tion as between the Parties of the areas of the continental shelf in the North Sea which appertain to each of themV-with the exception of those areas, situated in the immediate vicinity of the Coast, which have already been the subject of delimitation by two agreements dated 1 December 1964,and 9 June 1965,concluded in the one case between the Federal Republic and the Kingdom of the Netherlands, and in theother between the Federal Republic and the Kingdom of Denmark. 2. It is in respect of the delimitation of the continental shelf areas lying beyond and to seaward of those affected by the partial boundaries thus established, that the Court is requested by each of the two Special Agreements to decide wliat are the applicable "principles and rules of international law". TheCourt is not asked actually to delimit the further boundaries which will be involved, tliis task being reserved by the Special Agreements to the Parties, which undertake to effect such a delimitation "by agreement in pursuance of the decision requested from the ... Courtm-that is to say on the basis of, and in accordance with, the principles and rules of international law found by the Court to be applicable. 3. As described in Article 4 of the North Sea Policing of Fisheries Convention of 6 May 1882,the North Sea,which liesbetweencontinental Europe and Great Britain in the east-west direction, is roughly oval in shape and stretches from the straits of Dover northwards to a parallel drawn between a point immediately north of the Shetland Islands and the mouth of the Sogne Fiord in Norway, about 75 kilometres above Bergen, beyond which is the North Atlantic Ocean. In the extreme north- west, it is bounded by a line connecting the Orkney and Shetland island groups; while on its north-eastern side, the line separating it from the entrances to the Baltic Sea lies between Hanstholm at the north-west point of Denmark, and Lindesnes at the southern tip of Norway. East- ward of this line the Skagerrak begins. Thus, the North Sea has to some extent the general look of an enclosed sea without actually being one. Round its shores are situated, on its eastern side and starting from the north, Norway, Denmark, the Federal Republic of Germany, the Nether- lands, Belgium and France; while the whole western side is taken up by Great Britain, together with the island groups of the Orkneys and Shet- lands. From this it will beseen that the continental shelf of the Federal Republic is situated between those of Denmark and the Netherlands. 4. The waters of the North Sea are shallow, and the whole seabed consists of continental shelf at a depth of less than 200 rnetres, except for the formation known as the Norwegian Trough, a belt of water 200-650 metres deep, fringing the southern and south-western coasts of Norway to a width averaging about 80-100kilometres. Much the greater part of this continental shelf has already been the subject of delimitationby a series ofagreementsconcluded between the United Kingdom (which, as stated, lies along the whole westernide of it) and certain of the States on the eastern side, namely Norway, Denmark and the Netherlands. These three delimitations were carried out by the drawing of what are known as "median lines" which, for immediate present purposes, may be described as boundaries drawn between the continental shelf areas of "opposite" States, dividing the intervening spaces equally between them. These lines are shown on Map 1on page 15,together with a similar line, also established by agreement, drawn between the shelf areas of Norway and Denmark. Theoretically it would be possible also to draw the follow- ing median lines in the North Sea, namely United KingdomIFederal Republic (which would lie east of the present line United Kingdoml Norway-Denmark-Netherlands) ;Norway/Federal Republic(whichwould liesouth of the present lineNorwayIDenmark); and NorwayINetherlands (which would lie north of whatever line is eventually determined to be the continental shelf boundary between the Federal Republic and the Netherlands). Even if these median lines were drawn however, the question would arise whether the United Kingdom, Norway and the Netherlands could take advantage of them as against the parties to the existing delimitations,since these lines would, it seems, in each case lie beyond (i.e., respectively to the east, south and north of) the boundaries already effectiveunder the existing agreements at present in force. This is illustrated by Map 2 on page 15. 5. In addition to the partialboundarylines Federal Republic/Denmark and Federal Republic/Netherlands, which, as mentioned in paragraph 1 above, were respectively established by the agreements of 9 June 1965 and 1 December 1964, and which are shown as lines A-B and C-D on Map 3 on page 16, another line has been drawn in this area, namely that represented by the line E-F on that map. This line, which divides areas respectively claimed (to the north of it) by Denmark, and (to the south of it) by the Netherlands, is the outcome of an agreement between those two countries dated 31 March 1966,reflecting the view taken by them as to what are the correct boundary lines between their respective continental shelf areas and that of the Federal Republic, beyond the partial boundaries A-B and C-D already drawn. These further and un- agreed boundaries to seaward, are shown on Map 3 by means of the dotted lines B-E and D-E. They are the lines, the correctness of which in law the Court is in effect, though indirectly, called upon to determine. Also shown on Map 3 are the two pecked lines B-F and D-F, repre- senting approximately the boundaries which the Federal Republic would have wished to obtain in the course of the negotiations that took place between the Federal Republic and the other two Parties prior to the submission of the matter to the Court.The nature of these negotiations must now be described. Map 1 Carte 1 (See paragraphs 3 alid 4) ( Voirparagraphes 3 et 4) 200 metres line ..............,......,......... Isobathe des 200 mètres -------- Limits fixed by the Limites définies par la 1882 Convention convention de 1882 Median lines Lignes médianes Map 3 Carte 3 (See paragraphs 5-9) (Voirparagraphes 5-9) The maps in the present Jlcdgment Les cartes jointes auprésc.titarrêtont were prepared on the basis of docli- été établies d'apri.~ les docunzents ments submitted to the Court by the soumis à la Courpar lesParties et ont Parties, and their sole purpose is to pour seul objet d'illustrer graphiquc- provide a visual illustration of the ment les paragraphes de l'arrêtqui paragraphs of the Judgment which s'y rkfèrent. refer tothem. 17 CONTINENTAL SHELF (JUDGMENT) 6. Under the agreements of December 1964 and June 1965, already mentioned, the partial boundaries represented by the map lines A-B and C-D had, according to the information furnished to the Court by the Parties, been drawn mainly by application of the principle of equidis- tance, using that term as denoting the abstract concept of equidistance. A line so drawn, known as an "equidistance line", may be described as one which leaves to each of the parties concerned al1those portions of the continental shelf that are nearer to a point on its own coast than they are to anypoint on the coast of the other Party. An equidistance line may consist either of a "median" line between "opposite" States, or of a "lateral" line between "adjacent" States. In certain geographical con- figurations of wliich the Parties furnished examples, a given equidistance line may partake in varying degree of the nature both of a median and of a lateral line. There exists nevertheless a distinction to be drawn between the two, which will be mentioned in its place. 7. The further negotiations between the Parties for the prolongation of the partial boundaries broke down mainly because Denmark and the Netherlands respectively wished this prolongation also to be effected on the basis of the equidistance principle,-and this would have resulted in the dotted lines B-Eand D-E, shown on Map 3; whereas the Federal Republic considered that such an outcome would be inequitable because it would unduly curtail what the Republic believed should be its proper share of continental shelf area, on the basis of proportionality to the length of its North Sea coastline. It will be observed that neither of the lines in question, taken by itself, would produce this effect, but only both of them together-an element regarded by Denmark and the Netherlands asirrelevant to what they viewed as being two separate and self-contained delimitations, each of which should be carried out without reference to the other. 8. The reason for the result that would be produced by the two lines B-Eand D-E, taken conjointly, isthat in the case ofa concave or recessing coast such as that of the Federal Republic on the North Sea, the effect of the use of the equidistance method is to pull the line of the boundary inwards, in the direction of the concavity. Consequently, where two such lines are drawn at different points on a concave coast, they will, if the curvature is pronounced, inevitably meet at a relatively short distance from the coast, thus causing thecontinentalshelfarea they enclose, to take the form approximately of a triangle with its apex to seaward and, as it was put on behalf of the Federal Republic, "cutting off" the coastal State from the further areas of the continental shelf outside of and beyond this triangle. The effect of concavity could of course equally be produced for a country with a straight coastline if the coasts of adjacent countries protruded immediately on either side of it. Tncontrast to this, the effect of coastal projections, or of convex or outwardly curving coasts such as are, to a moderate extent, those of Denmark and theNetherlands, is to cause boundary lines drawn on an equidistance basis to leave the 18 CONTINENTAL SHELF (JUDGMENT) coast on divergent courses, thus having a widening tendency on the area of continental shelf off that coast. These two distinct effects, which are shown in sketches T-TT1 to be found on page 16, are directly attributable to the use of the equidistance method of delimiting continental shelf boundaries off recessing or projecting coasts. It goes without saying that on these types of coasts the equidistance method produces exactly similar effects in the delimitation of the lateral boundaries of the territorial sea of the States concerned. However, owing to the very close proximity of SLIC~waters to the coasts concerned, these effects are much less marked and may be very slight,-and there are other aspects involved, which will be considered in their place. It will suffice to mention here that, for instance, a deviation from a line drawn perpendicular to the general direction of the coast, of only 5 kilometres, at a distance of about 5 kilometres from that coast, will grow into one of over30 at a distance of over 100 kilometres. 9. After the negotiations, separately held between the Federal Republic and the other two Parties respectively, had in each case, for the reasons given in the two preceding paragraphs, failed to result in any agreement about the delimitation of the boundary extending beyond the partial one already agreed, tripartite talks between al1the Parties took place in The Hague in February-March 1966, in Bonn in May and again iii Copenhagen in August. These also proving fruitless, it was then decided to submit the matter to the Co~~rt.In the meantime the Governments of Denmark and the Netherlands had, by means of the agreement of 3 1March 1966,already referred to (paragraph 5),proceeded to a delimita- tion as between themselves of the continental shelf areas lying between the apex of the triangle notionally ascribed by them to the Federal Republic (point E on Map 3)and the median line already drawn in the North Sea, by means of a boundary drawn on equidistance principles, meeting that liiie at the point marked F on Map 3. On 25 May 1966, the Government of the Federal Republic, tnking the view that this delimitation was rcsitzter dios acta, notified the Governments of Den- mark and the Netherlands, by means of an aide-mémoire, that the agreement thus concluded could not "have any effect on the question of the delimitation of the German-Netherlands or the German-Danish parts of the continental shelf in the North Sea". 10. In pursuance of the tripartite arrangements that had been made at Bonn and Copenhagen, as described in the preceding paragraph, Special Agreements for the submission to the Court of the differences involved were initialled in August 1966 and signed on 2 February 1967. By a tripartite Protocol signed the same day it was provided (a) that the Government of the Kingdom of the Netherlands would notify the two Special Agreements to the Court, in accordance with Article 40, paragraph 1,of the Court's Statute, together with the text of the Protocol itself: (6) that after such notification, the Parties would ask the Court to join the two cases: and (c) that for the purpose of the appointment 19 CONTI~TNTAL SHELF (JUDGMENT) of a judge ad hoc, the Kingdoms of Denmark and the Netherlands should be considered as being in the same interest within the rneaning of Article 31,paragraph 5, of the Court's Statute. Following upon these communications, duly made to it in the implementation of the Protocol, the Court, by an Order dated 26 April 1968, declared Denmark and the Netherlands to be in the same interest, and joined the proceedings in the two cases. 11. Although the proceedings have thus been joined, the cases thein- selves remain separate, at least in the sense that they relate to different areas of the North Sea continental shelf, and that tliere is no a priori reason why the Court must reach identical conclusions in regard to them,-if for instance geographical features present in the one case were not present in the other. At the same time, the legal arguments presented on behalf of Denmark and the Netherlands, both before and since the joinder, have been substantially identical, apart from certain matters of detail, and have been presented either in commori or in close co-opera- tion. To this extent therefore, the two cases may be treated as one; and it must be noted that althoughtwo separate delimitations are in question, they involve-indeed actually give rise to-a single situation. The fact that the question of either of these delimitations might have arisen and called for settlement separately in point of tiine, does not alter the character of the problem with which the Court is actually faced, having regard to the nianner in which the Parties themselves have brouglit the matter before it, as described in the two preceding paragraphs. 12. In conclusioi~ as to the facts, it should bc noted that the Federal Republic has formally reserved its position, not only in regard to the Danish-Netlierlands delimitation of the lineE-F (Map 3),as noted in paragraph 9, but also in regard to the delimitations United Kingdom Denmark and United Kingdom/Netherlands mentioned in paragraph 4. In both the latter cases the Governinent of the Federal Republic pointed out to al1 the Governments concerned that the question of the lateral delimitation of the continental shelf in the North Sea between the Federal Repiiblic and the Kingdoms of Denmark and the Netherlands was still outstanding and could not be prejudiced by the agreements concluded between those two countries and the United Kingdom. 13. Such are the events and geographical facts in the light of which the Court has to determine what principles and rules of international law are applicable to the delimitation of the areas of continental shelf involved. On this question the Parties have taken up fundamentally different positions. On behalf of the Kingdoms of Denmark and the Netherlands it is contended that the whole matter is governed by amandatory rule of law which, reflecting the language of Article 6 of the Convention on the Continental Shelf concluded at Geneva on 29 April 1958,was designated by them as the "equidistance-special circumstances" rule. According to this contention, "equidistance" is not merely a method of the cartographical construction of a boundary line, but the essential eleinent in a rule of law which may be stated as follows,-namely that in the absence of agreement by the Parties to employ another method or to proceed to a delimitation on an url hoc basis, al1 continental shelf boundaries must be drawn by means of an equidistance line, unless, or except to theextent to which, "special circumstances" are recognized to exist,-an equidistance line being, it will be recalled, a line every point on which is the same distance away from whatever point is nearest to it on the coast of each of the countries concerned-or rather, strictly, on the baseline of the territorial sea along that coast. As regards what constitutes "special circumstances", al1 that need be said at this stage is that according to the view put forward on behalf of Denmark and the Netherlands, the configuration of the German North Sea coast, its recessive character, and the fact that it makes nearly a right-angled bend in mid-course,would not of itself constitute, for either of the two bound- ary lines concerned, a special circumstance calling for or warranting a departure fromthe equidistance method of delimitation :only the presence of some special feature, minor in itself-such as an islet or small pro- tuberance-but so placed as to produce a disproportionately distorting effect on an otherwise acceptable boundary line would, soit was claimed, possess this character. 14. These various contentions, together with the view that a rule of equidistance-special circumstances is binding on the Federal Republic, are founded by Denmark and theNetherlands partly on the 1958Geneva Convention on theContinental Shelf already mentioned (preceding para- graph), and partly on general considerations of law relating to the conti- nental shelf, lying outside this Convention. Similar considerations are eqiially put forward to found the contention that the delimitation on an equidistance basis of the line E-F (Map 3) by the Netherlands-Danish agreement of 31 March 1966 (paragraph 5 above) is valid erga omnes, and must be respected by the Federal Republic unless it can demonstrate the existence of juridically relevant "special circumstances". 15. The Federal Republic, for its part, while recognizing the utility of equidistance as a method of delimitation, and that this method can in many cases be employed appropriately aiid with advantage, denies its obligatory character for States not parties to the Geneva Convention, and contends that the correct rule to be applied, at any rate in such circumstances as those of the North Sea, is one according towhich each of the States concerned should have a "just and equitable share" of the available continental shelf, in proportion to the length of its coastline or sea-frontage. Tt was also contended on behalf of the Federal Republicthat in a sea shaped as is the North Sea, the whole bed of which, except for the Norwegian Trough, consists of continental shelf at a depth of less than 200 metres, and where the situation of the circumjacent States causes a natural convergence of their respective continental shelf areas, towards a central point situated on the median line of the whole seabed -or at any rate in those localities where this is the case-each of the States concerned is entitled to a continental shelf area extending up to this central point (in effect a sector), or at least extending to themedian line at some point or other. In this way the "cut-off effect, of which the Federal Republic complains, caused, as explained in paragraph 8, by the drawing of equidistance lines at the two ends of an inward curving or recessed coast, would be avoided.As a means of giving effect to these ideas, the Federal Republic proposed the method of the "coastal front", or façade, constituted by a straight baseline joining these ends, upon which the necessary geometrical constructions would be erected. 16. Alternatively, the Federal Republic claimed that if, contrary to its main contention, the equidistance method was held to be applicable, then the configuration of the German North Sea coast constituted a "special circumstance" such as to justify a departure from that method of delimitation in this particular case. 17. In putting forward these contentions, it was stressed on behalf of the Federal Republic that the claim for a just and equitable share did not in any way involve asking the Court to give a decision e.\:aequo et botzo (which, having regard to the terms of paragraph 2 of Article 38 of the Court's Statute, would not be possible without the consent of the Parties),-for the priiiciple of the just and equitable share was one of the recognized general principles of law which, by virtue of paragraph 1 (c) of the same Article, the Court was entitled to apply as a matter of the justifia distributivwhich entered into al1legal systems. It appeared, moreover, that whatever its underlying motivation, the claim of the Federal Republic was, at least ostensibly, to a just and equitable share of the space involved, rather than to a share of the natural resources as such, mineral or other, to be found in it, the location of which could not in any case be fully ascertained at present. On the subject of location the Court has in fact received some, though not complete information, but has not thought it necessary to pursue the matter, since the question of natural resources is less one of delimitation than of eventual exploita- tion. 18. It will be convenient to consider first the contentions put forward on behalf of the Federal Republic. The Court does not feel able to accept them-at least in the particular form they have taken. Ttconsiders that, having regard both to the language of the Special Agreements and to more general considerations of law relating to the régime of the continental shelf, its task in the present proceedings relates essentially to the delimitation and not the apportionment of the areas concerned, or their division into converging sectors. Delimitation is a process whicli involves establishing the boundaries of an area already, in principle, appertaining to the coastal State and not the determination d~ noro of such an area. Delimitation in an equitable manner is one thing, but not the saine thing as awarding a just and equitable share of a previously undelimited area, even though in a number of cases the results may be comparable, or even identical. 19. More important is the fact that the doctrine of the just and equi- table share appears to be wholly at variance with what the Court enter- tains no doubt is the most fundamental of al1 the rules of law relating to the continental shelf, enshrined in Article 2 of the 1958 Geneva Con- vention, though quite independent of it,-namely that the rights of the coastal State in respect of the area of continental shelf that constitutes a natural prolongation of its land territory into and under the sea exist ipso fucto and ab initio, by virtue of its sovereignty over the land, and as an extension of it in an exercise of sovereign rights for the purpose of exploring the seabe 'and exploiting its naturalÏresources. In short, there is here an inhere t right. In order to exercise it, no special legal process has to be gone through, nor have any special legal acts to be performed. Its existence can be declared (and many States have done this) but does not need to be constituted. Furthermore, the right does not depend on its being exercised. To echo the language of the Geneva Convention, it is "exclusive" in the sense that if the coastal State does not choose to explore or exploit the areas of shelf appertaining to it, that is its own affair, but no one else may do so without its express consent. 20. Tt follows that even in such a situation as that of the North Sea, the notion of apportioning an as yet undelimited area, considered as a whole (which underlies the doctrine of the just and equitable share), is quite foreign to, and inconsistent with, the basic concept of continental shelf entitlement, according to which the process of delimitation is essentially one of drawing a boundary line between areas which already appertain to one or other of the States affected. The delimitation itself must indeed be equitably effected, but it cannot have as its object the awarding of an equitable share, or indeed of a share, as such, at ail,-for the fundamental concept involved does not admit of there being anything undivided to share out. Evidently any dispute about boundaries must involve that there is a disputed marginal or fringe area, to which both parties are laying claim, so that any delimitation of it which does not leave it wholly to one of the parties will in practice divide it between them in certain shares, or operate as if such a division had been made.But this does not mean that there has been an apportionment of some- thing that previously consisted of an integral, still less an undivided whole. * * * 21. The Court will now turn to the contentions advanced on behalf of Denmark and the Netherlands. Their general character has already been indicated in paragraphs 13 and 14: the most convenient way of dealing with them will be on the basis of the following question-namely, does the equidistance-specialcircumstances principle constitute a manda- tory rule, either on a con) .tltional or on a customary international law basis, in such a way as to govern any delimitation of the North Sea continental shelf areas between the Federal Republic and the Kingdoms of Denmark and the Netherlands respectively? Another and shorter way of formulating the question would be to ask whether, in any delimitation of these areas, the Federal Republic is under a legal obligation to accept the application of the equidistance-special circumstances principle. 22. Particular attention isdirected to the use, inthe foregoing formula- tions, of the terms "mandatory" and "obligation". It has never been doubted that the equidistance method of delimitation is a very convenient one, the use of which is indicated in a considerable number of cases. It constitutes a method capable of being employed in almost al1circum- stances, however singular the results might sometimes be, and has the virtue that ifnecessary,-if for instance, the Parties are unable to enter into negotiations,-any cartographer can dofacto trace such a boundary on the appropriate maps and charts, and those traced by competent cartographers will for al1practical purposes agree. 23. In short, it would probably be true to Saythat no other method of delimitation has the same combination of practical convenience and certainty of application. Yet these factors do not suffice of themselves to convert what is a method into a rule of law, making the acceptance of the results of using that method obligatory in al1cases in which the parties do not agree otherwise, or in which "special circunistances" cannot be shown to exist. Juridically, if there isuch a rule, it must draw its legal force from other factors than the existence of these advantages, important though they may be. It should also be noticed that the counter- part of this conclusion is no less valid, and that the practical advantages of the equidistance method would continue to exist whether its em- ployment were obligatory or not. 24. It would however be ignoring realities if it were not noted at the same time that the use of this method, partly for the reasons givenin pa- ragraph 8 above and partly for reasons that are best appreciated by reference to the many maps and diagrams furnished by both sides in the course of the written and oral proceedings, can under certaincircum- stances produce results that appear on the face of thenl to be extra- ordinary, unnatural or unreasonable. It is basically this fact which un-derlies the present proceedings. The plea that, however this may be, the results can never be inequitable, because the equidistance principle is by definition an equitable principle of delimitation, involves a postulate that clearly begs the whole question at issue. 25. The Court now turns to the legal position regarding the equidis- tance method. The first question to be considered is whether the 1958 Geneva Convention on the Continental Shelf is binding for al1the Parties in this case-that is to Say whether, as contended by Denniark and the Netherlands, the use of this method is rendered obligatory forthe present delimitations by virtue of the delimitations provision (Article 6) of that instrument, according to the conditions laid down in it. Clearly, if this is so, thsn the provisions of the Convention will prevail in the relations between the Parties, and would take precedence of any rules having a more general character, or derived from another source. On that basis the Court's reply to the question put to it in the Special Agreements would necessarily be to the effect that as between the Parties the relevant provisions of the Convention represented the applicable rules of law-that is to say constituted the law for the Parties-and its sole remaining task would be to interpret those provisions, in so far as their meaning was disputed or appeared to be uncertain, and to apply them to the particu- lar circumstances involved. 26. The relebant provisions of Article 6 of the Geneva Convention, paragraph 2 of which Denmark and the Netherlands contend not only to be applicable as a conventional rule, but also to represent the accepted rule of general international law on the subject of continental shelf delimitation. as it exists independently of the Conveiltion, read as follows: "1. Where the same continental shelf is adjacent to the territories of two or more States whose coasts are opposite each other, the boundary of the continental shelf appertaining to such States shall be determined by agreement between them. In the absence of agreement, and unless another boundary line is justified by special circumstances, the boundary is the median line, every point of which is equidistant from the nearest point of the baselines from which the breadth of the territorial sea of each State is measured. 2. Where the same continental shelf is adjacent to the territories of two adjacent States, the boundary of the continental shelf shall be determined by agreement between them. In the absence of agree- ment, and unless another boundary line is justified by special circum- stances, the boundary shall be determined by application of the principle of equidistance from the nearest points of the baselines from which the breadth of the territorial sea of each State is mea- sured."The Convention received 46 signatures and, up-to-date, there have been 39 ratifications or accessions. It came into force on 10June 1964,having received the 22 ratifications or accessions required for that purpose (Article 1l), and was therefore in force at the time when the various delimitations of continental shelf boundaries described earlier (para- graphs 1 and 5) took place between the Parties. But, under the formal provisions of the Convention, it is in force for any individual State only in so far as, having signed it within the time-limit provided for that purpose, that State has also subsequently ratified it; or,not having signed within that time-limit, has subsequently acceded to the Convention. Denmark and the Netherlands have both signed and ratified the Conven- tion, and are parties to it, the former since 10June 1964,the latter since 20 March 1966.The Federal Republic was one of the signatories of the Convention, but has never ratified it, and is consequently not a party. 27. It is admitted on behalf of Denmark and the Netherlands that in these circumstances the Convention cannot, as such, be binding on the Federal Republic, in the sense of the Republic being contractually bound by it. But it is coiitended that the Convention, or the régime of the Convention, and in particular of Article 6, has become binding 011 the Federal Republic in another way,-namely because, by conduct, by public statements and proclamations, and in other ways, the Republic has unilaterally assumed the obligations of the Convention; or has manifested its acceptance of the conventional régime; or has recognized it as being generally applicable to the delimitation of continental shelf areas. lt has also been suggested that the Federal Republic had held itself out as so assuming, accepting or recognizing, in such a manner as to cause other States, and in particular Denmark and the Netherlands, to rely on the attitude thus taken up. 28. As regards these contentions, it is clear that only a very definite, very consistent course of conduct on the part of a State in the situation of the Federal Republic could justify the Court in upholding them; and, if this had existed-that is toSay if there had been a real intention to manifest acceptance or recognition of the applicability of the conven- tional régime-then it must be asked whyit was that the Federal Republic did not take the obvious step of giving expression to this readiness by simply ratifying the Convention. In principle, when a number of States, including the one whose conduct is invoked, and those invoking it, have drawn up a convention specifically providing for a particular method by which the intention to become bound by the régime ofthe convention is to be manifested-namely by the carrying out of certain prescribed formalities (ratification, accession), it is not lightly to be presumed that a State which has not carried out these formalities, though at al1times fully able and entitled to do so, has nevertheless somehow become bound in another way. Indeed if it were a question not of obligation but of rights,-if, that is to say, a State which, though entitledto do so, had not ratified or acceded, attempted to claim rights under the convention, on the basis of a declared willingness to be bound by it, or of conduct evincing acceptance of the conventional régime,it would simply be told that, not having become a party to the convention it could not claim any rights under it until the professed willingness and acceptance had been manifested in the prescribed form. 29. A further point, not in itself conclusive, but to be noted, is that if the Federal Republic had ratified the Geneva Convention, it could have entered-and could, if it ratified now, enter-a reservation to Article 6, by reason of the faculty to do so conferred by Article 12of the Convention. This faculty would remain, whatever the previous conduct of the Federal Republic might hive beeil-a fact which at least adds to the difficulties involved by the Danish-Netherlands contention. 30. Having regard to these considerations of principle, it appears to the Court that only the existence of a situation of estoppel could suffice to lend substance to thiscontention,-that is to Sayifthe Federal Republic were now precluded from denying the applicability of the conveiltional régime, by reason of past conduct, declarations, etc., which not only clearly and consistently evinced acceptance of that régime,but also Iiad caused Denmark or the Netherlands, in reliance on such conduct, detri- mentally to change position or suffer some prejudice. Of this there is no evidence whatever in the present case. 31. ln these circumstances it seems to the Court that little usef~il purpose would be served by passing in review and subjecting to detailed scrutiny the various acts relied on by Denmark and the Netherlands as being indicative of the Federal Republic's acceptance of the régime of Article 6;-for instance that at the Geneva Conference the Federal Republic did not take formal objection to Article 6 and eventually signed the Convention without entering any reservation in respect of that provision; that it at one time announced its intention to ratify the Convention: that in its public declarations concerning its continental shelf rights it appeared to rely on, or at least cited, certain provisions of the Geneva Convention. In this last connection a good deal has been made of the joint Minute signed in Bonn, on 4 August 1964, between the then-negotiating delegations of the Federal Republic and the Nether- lands. But this minute made it clear that wliat the Federal Republic was seeking was an agreed division, rather than a delimitation of the central North Sea continental shelf areas, and the refereiice it made to Article 6 was specifically to the first sentence of paragraphs 1 and 2 of that Article, which speaks exclusively of delimitation by agreement and not at al1of the use of the equidistance metliod. 32. In the result it appears to the Court that none of the elemeiits invoked is decisive; each is ultimately negative or inconclusive; al1 are capable of varying interpretations or explanations. It would be one thing to infer from the declarations of the Federal Republic an admission accepting the fundamental concept of coastal State rights in respect of the continental shelf: it would be quite another matter to see in this an acceptance of the rules of delimitation contained in the Convention. The declarations of the Federal Republic, taken in the aggregate, might at most justify the view that to begin with, and before becoming fully aware of what the probable effectsin the North Sea would be, the Federal Republic was not specifically opposed to the equidistance principle as embodied in Article 6 of the Convention. But from a purely negative conclusion such as this, it would certainly not be possible to draw the positive inference that the Federal Republic, though not a party to the Convention, had accepted the régime ofArticle 6 in a manner binding upon itself. 33. The dangers of the doctrine here advanced by Denmark and the Netherlands, if it had to be given general application in the international law field, hardly need stressing. Moreover, in the present case, any such inference would immediately be nullified by the fact that, as soon as concrete delimitations of North Sea continental shelf areas began to be carried out, the Federal Republic, as described earlier (paragraphs 9 and 12),at once reserved its position with regard to those delimitations which (effected on an equidistance basis) might be prejudicial to the delimitation of its own continental shelf areas. 34. Since, accordingly, the foregoing considerations must lead the Court to hold that Article 6 of the Geneva Convention is not, as such, applicable to the delimitations involved in the present proceedings, it becomes unnecessary for it to go into certain questions relating to the interpretation or application of that provision which would otherwise arise. One should be inentioned however, namely what is the relation- ship between the requirement of Article 6 for delimitation by agreement, and the requirements relating to equidistance and special circumstances that are to be applied in "the absence of" such agreement,-i.e., in the absence of agreement on the matter, is there a presumption that the continental shelf boundary between any two adjacent States consists automatically of an equidistance line,-or must negotiations for an agreed boundary prove finally abortive before the acceptance of a bound- ary drawn on an equidistance basis becomes obligatory in terms of Article 6, if no special circumstances exist? 35. Without attempting to resolve this question, the determination of which is not necessary for the purposes of the present case, the Court drawsattention to the fact that the delimitation of the line E-F, as shown on Map 3, which was effected by Denmark and the Netherlands under the agreement of 31 March 1966already mentioned (paragraphs 5and 91, to which the Federal Republic was not a party, must have been based onthe tacit assumption that, no agreement to the contrary having been reached in the negotiations between the Federal Republic and Denmark and the Netherlands respectively (paragraph 7), the boundary between the continental shelf areas of the Republic and those of the other two countries must be deemed to be an equidistance one;-or in other words the delimitation of the line E-F, and its validity erga ornrzesincluding the Federal Republic, as contended for by Denmark andthe Netherlands, presupposes both the delimitation and the validity on an equidistance basis, of the lines B-E and D-E on Map 3, considered by Denmark and the Netherlands to represent the boundaries between their continental shelf areas and those of the Federal Republic. 36. Sirice,however, Article 6 of the Geneva Convention provides only for delimitation between "adjacent" States, which Denmark and the Netherlands clearly are not, or between "opposite" States which, despite suggestions to the contrary, the Court thinks they equally are not, the delimitation of the line E-F on Map 3 could not in any case find its validity in Article 6, even if that provision were opposable to the Federal Republic. The validity of this delimitation must therefore be sought in some other source of law. lt is a main contention of Denmark and the Netherlands that there does in fact exist such another source, furnishing a rule that validates not only this particular delimitation, but al1delimita- tions effected on an equidistance basis,-and indeed requiring delimita- tion on that basisunlessthe Statesconcerned otherwiseagree, and whether or not the Geneva Convention is applicable. This contention must now be examined. 37. It is maintained by Denmark and the Netherlands that the Federal Republic, whatever its position may be in relation to the Geneva Con- vention, considered as such, is in any event bound to accept delimitation on an equidistance-special circumstances basis, because the use of this method is not in the nature of a merely conventional obligation, but is, or must now be regarded as involving, a rule that is part of the corpus of general international 1aw;-and, like other rules of general or custom- ary international law, is binding on the Federal Republic automatically and independently of any specific assent, direct or indirect, given by the latter. Thiscontention has both a positive law and a more fundamentalist aspect. As a matter of positive law, it is based on the work done in this field by internationallegal bodies, on State practice and on the influence attributed to the Geneva Convention itself,-the claim being that these various factors have cumulatively evidenced or been creative of the opitriojurissivr necessitatis, requisite for the formation of new rules of customary international law. In its fundamentalist aspect, the view put forward derives from what might be called the natural law of the con-tinental shelf, in the sense that the equidistance principle is seen as a necessary expression in the field of delimitation of the accepted doctrine of the exclusive appurtenance of the continental shelf to the nearby coastal State, and therefore as having an apriori character of so to speak juristic inevitability. 38. The Court will begin by examining this latter aspect, both because it is the more fundamental, and was so presented on behalf of Denmark and the Netherlands-Le., as something governing the whole case; and because, if it is correct that the equidistance principle is, as the point was put in the course of the argumerit, to be regarded as inherent in the whole basic concept of continental shelf rights, then equidistance should con- stitute the rule according to positive law tests also. On the other hand, if equidistance should not possess any a priori character of necessity or inherency, this would not be any bar to its haviiig become a rule of posi- tive law through influences such as tliose of the Geneva Convention and State practice,-and that aspect of the matter would remain for later examination. 39. The a priori argument starts from the position described in para- graph 19, according to which the right of the coastal State to its conti- nental shelf areas is based on its sovereignty over the land domain, of which the shelf area is the natural prolongation into and under the sea. From this notion of appurtenance is derived the view which, as has al- ready been indicated, the Court accepts, that the coastal State's rights exist ipsofucto and ah itzitiowithout there being anyquestion of having to make good a claim to the areas concerned, or of any apportionment of the continental shelf between different States. This was one reason why the Court felt bound to reject the claim of the Federal Republic (in the particular form which it took) to be awarded a "just and equitable share" of the shelf areas involved in the present proceedings. Denmark and the Netherlands, for their part, claim that the test of appurtenance must be "proximity", or more accurately "closer proximity": al1those parts of the shelf being considered as appurtenant to a particular coastal State which are (but only if they are) closer to it than they are to any point on the coast of another State. Hence delimitation must be effected by a method which will leave to each one of the States concerned al1 those areas that are nearest to its own coast. Only a line drawn on equidistance principles will do this. Therefore, it iscontended, only such a line can be valid (unless the Parties, for reasoiis of their own, agree on another), because only such a line can be thus consistent with basic continental shelf doctrine. 40. This view clearly has much force; for there can be no doubt that asa matter of normal topography, the greater part of a State'scontinentalshelf areas will in fact, and without the necessity for any delimitation at all, be nearer to its coasts than to any other. It could not well be other- wise: but post hoc is not propter hoc, and this situation may only serve to obscure the real issue, whicli is whether it follows that every part of the area concerned m~istbe placed in this way, and that it should be as itwere prohibited that any part should not be so placed. The Court does not consider that it does follow, either from the notion of proximity it- self, or from the more fundamental concept of the continental shelf as being the natural prolongation of the land domain-a concept repeatedly appealed to by both sides throughout the case, although quite differently interpreted by them. 41. As regards the notion of proximity, the idea of absolute proximity is certainly not implied by the rather vague and general terminology employed in the literature of the subject, and in most State proclamations and international conventions and other instruments-terms such as "near", "close to its shores", "off its coast", "opposite", "in front of the coast", "in the vicinity of", "neighbouring the coast", "adjacent to", "contiguous", etc.,-al1 ofthem terms of a somewhat imprecise character which, although they convey a reasonably clear general idea, are capable of a considerable fluidity of meaning. To take what is perhaps the most frequently employed of these terms, namely "adjacent to", it is evident that by no stretch of imagination can a point on the continental shelf situated say a hundred miles, or even much less, from a given coast, be regarded as "adjacent" to it, or to any coast at all, in the normal sense of adjacency, even if the point concerned is nearer to some one coast than to any other. This would be even truer of localities where, physically, the continental shelf begins to merge with the ocean depths. Equally, a point inshore situated near the meeting place of the coasts of two States can often properly be said to be adjacent to both coasts, even though it may be fractionally closer to the one than the other. Indeed, local geo- graphical configuration may sometimes cause it to have a closer physical connection with the coast to which it is not in fact closest. 42. There seems in consequence to be no necessary, and certainly no complete, identity between the notions of adjacency and proximity; and therefore the question of which parts of the continental shelf "adjacent to" a coastline bordering more than one State fall within the appurte- nance of which of them, remains to this extent an open one, not to be determined on a basis exclusively of proximity. Even if proximity may afford one of the tests to be applied and an important one in the right conditions, it may not necessarily be the only, nor in al1circumstances, the most appropriate one. Hence it would seem that the notion of ad- jacency, so constantly employed in continental shelf doctrine frorn the start, only implies proximity in a general sense, and does not imply any fundamental or inherent rule the ultimate effect of which would be to prohibit any State (otherwise than by agreement) from exercising con- tinental shelf rights in respect of areas closer to the coast of another State. 43. More fundamental than the notion of proximity appears to be the principle-constantly relied upon by al1 the Parties-of the natural prolongation or continuation of the land territory or domain, or land sovereignty of the coastal State, into and under the high seas,via the bed of its territorial sea which is under the full sovereignty of that State. There are various ways of formulating this principle, but the underlying idea, namely of an extension of something already possessed, is the same, and it is this idea of extension which is, in the Court's opinion, deter- minant. Submarine areas do not really appertain to the coastal State because-or not only because-they are near it. They are near it of course; but this would not suffice to confer title, any more than, ac- cording to a well-established principle of law recognized by both sides in the present case, mere proximity confers per se title to land territory. What confers the ipsojurc title which international law attributes to the coastal State in respect of its coiitinental shelf, is the fact that the sub- marine areas concerned may be deemed to be actually part of the terri- tory over which the coastal State already has dominion,-in the sense that, although covered with water, they are a prolongation or continua- tion of that territory, an extension of it ind dehe-sea. From this it would follow that whenever a given submarine area does not constitute a natural-or the most natural-extension of the land territory of a coastal State, even though that area may be closer to it than it is to the territory of any otl-ierState, it cannot be regarded as appertaining to that State;- orat least it caniiot be so regarded in the face of a competing claim by a State of whose land territory the submarine area concerned is to be regarded as a natural extension, even if it is less close to it. 44. In the present case, although both sides relied on the prolongation principle and regarded it as fundamental, they interpreted it quite dif- ferently. Both interpretations appear to the Court to be incorrect. Den- mark and the Netherlands identified natural prolongation with closest proximity and therefrom argued that it called for an equidistance line: the Federal Republic seemed to think it implied the notion of the just and equitable share, although the connection is distinctly remote. (The Federal Republic did however invoke another idea, namely that of the proportionality of a State's continental shelf area to the length of its coastline, which obviously does have an intimate connection with the prolongation principle, and will be considered in its place.) As regards equidistance, it clearly cannot be identified with the notion of natural prolongation or extension, since, as has already been stated (paragraph 8), the use of the equidistance method would frequently cause areas which are the natural prolongation or extension of the territory of one State to be attributed to another, when the configuration of the latter's coast makes the equidistance line swing out laterally across the former'scoastal front, cutting it off from areas situated directly before that front. 45. The fluidity of al1these notions is well illustrated by the case of the Norwegian Trough (paragraph 4 above). Without attempting to pronounce on the status of that feature, the Court notes that the shelf areas in the North Sea separated from the Norwegian Coast by the 80- 100kilometres of the Trough cannot in any physical sense be said to be adjacent to it, nor to be its natural prolongation. They are nevertheless considered by the States parties to the relevant delimitations, as described in paragraph 4, to appertain to Norway up to the median lines shown on Map 1. True these median lines are themselves drawn on equidistance principles; but it was only by first ignoring the existence of the Trough that these median lines fell to be drawn at all. 46. The conclusion drawn by the Court from the foregoing analysis is that the notion of equidistance as being logically necessary, in the sense of being an inescapable a priori accompaniment of basic continental shelf doctrine, is incorrect. Its said not to be possible to maintain that there is a rule of law ascribing certain areas to a State as a matter of in- herent and original right (see paragraphs 19 and 20), without also ad- mitting the existence of some rule by which those areas can be obliga- torily delimited. The Court cannot accept the logic of this view. The problem arises only where there is a dispute and only in respect of the marginal areas involved. The appurtenance of a given area, considered as an entity, in no way governs the precise delimitation of its boundaries, any more than uncertainty as to boundaries can affect territorial rights. There is for instance no rule that the land frontiers of a State must be fully delimited and defined, and often in various places and for long periods they are not, as is shown by the case of the entry of Albania into the League of Nations (Monastery of Saint Naoum, Advisor): Opinion, 1924, P.C.I.J., Series B, No. 9,at p. 10). 47. A review of the genesis and development of the equidistance method of delimitation can only serve to confirm the foregoing conclu- sion. Sueh a review may appropriately start with the instrument, generally known as the "Truman Proclamation", issued by the Government of the United States on 28 September 1945.Although this instrument was not the firstor only oneto have appeared, it hasin the opinion of the Court a special status. Previously,various theories as to the nature and extent of the rights relative to or exercisable over the continental shelf had been advanced by jurists, publicists and technicians. The Truman Proclama- tion however, soon came to be regarded as the starting point of the posi-tive law on the subject, and the chief doctrine it enunciated, namely that of the coastal State as having an original, natural, and exclusive (in short a vested) right to the continental shelf off its shores, came to prevail over al1others, being now rellected in Article 2 of the 1958Geneva Convention on the Continental Shelf. With regard to the delimitation of lateral boundaries between the continental shelves of adjacent States, a matter which had given rise to some consideration on the technical, but very little on the juristicvel, the Truman Proclamation stated that such boundaries "shall be determined by the United States and the State con- cerned in accordance with equitable principles". These two concepts, of delimitation by mutual agreement and delimitation in accordance with equitable principles, have underlain al1 the subsequent history of the subject. They were reflected in various other State proclamations of the period, and after, and in the later work on the subject. 48. It was in the International Law Commission of the United Nations that the question of delimitation as between adjacent States was first taken up seriously as part of a general juridical project; for outside the ranks of the hydrographers and cartographers, questions of delimitation were not much thought about in earlier continental shelf doctrine. Juridical interest and speculation was focussed mainly on such questions as what was the legal basis on which any rights at al1 in respect of the continental shelf could be claimed, and what was the nature of those rights. As regards boundaries, the main issue was not that of boundaries between States but of the seaward limit of the area in respect of which the coastal State could claim exclusive rights of exploitation. As was pointed out in the course of the written proceedings, States in most cases had not found it necessary to conclude treaties or legislate about their lateral sea boundaries with adjacent States before the question of ex- ploiting the natural resources of the seabed and subsoil arase;-practice was therefore sparse. 49. In the records of the International Law Commission, which had the matter under consideration from 1950to 1956,there is no indication at al1 that any of its members supposed that it was incumbent on the Commission to adopt a rule of equidistance because this gave expression to, and translated into linear terms, a principle of proximity inherent in the basic concept of the continental shelf, causing every part of the shelf to appertain to the nearest coastal State and to no other, and because such a rule must therefore be mandatory as a matter of customary inter- national law. Such an idea does not seem ever to have been propounded. Had it been, and had it had the self-evident character contended for by Denmark and the Netherlands, the Commission would have had no alter- native but to adopt it, and its long continued hesitations over thismatter would be incomprehensible. 50. It is moreover, in the present context, a striking feature of the Commissioii's discussions that during the early and middie stages, not only was the notion of equidistance never considered from the standpoint of its having a prioraicharacter of inherent necessity: it was never given any special prominence at all, and certainly no priority. The Commission discussed various other possibilities as having equal if not superior statlis such as delimitation by agreement, by reference to arbitration, by drawing lines perpendicular to the coast, by prolonging the dividing line of ad- jacent territorial waters (theprinciple of which was itself not as yet settled), and on occasion the Commission seriously considered adopting one or other of these solutions. It was not in fact until after the matter had been referred to a committee of hydrographical experts. which reported in 1953, that the equidistance principle began to take precedence over other possibilities: the Report of the Commission for that year (its principal report on the topic of delimitation as such) makes it clear that before this reference to the experts the Commission had felt unable to formulate any definite rule at all, the previous trend of opinion having been mainlq. in favour of delimitation by agreement or by reference to arbitration. 51. It was largely because of these difficulties that it was decided to consult the Committee of Experts. It is therefore instructive in the con- text (i.e., of an alleged inherent necessity for the equidistance principle) to see on what basis the matter was put to the experts, and how theq. dealt with it. Eq~iidistance was in fact only one of four methods suggested to them, the other three being the continuation in the seaward direction of the land frontier between the two adjacent States concerned; the drawing of a perpendicular to the coast at the point of its intersection with this land frontier; and the drawing of a line perpendicular to the line of the "general direction" of the coast. Furthermore the matter was not even put to the experts directly as a question of continental shelfdelimita- tion, but in the context of the delimitation of the lateral boundary be- tween adjacentterritorial waters, no account being taken of the possibility that the situation respecting territorial waters might be different. 52. The Committee of Experts sirnply reported that after a thorough discussion of the different methods-(there are no official records of this discussion)-they had decided that "the (lateral) boundary through the territorial sea-if not already fixed otherwise-should be drawnaccording to the principle of equidistance from the respective coastlines". They added, however, significantly, that in "a number of cases this may not lead to an equitable solution, which should be then arrived at by negotia- tion". Only after that did they add, as a rider to this conclusion, that they had considered it "important to find a formula for drawing the iiiternational boundaries in the territorial waters of States, which could also be used for the delimitation of the respective continental shelves of two States bordering the same continental shelf". CONTINENTALSHELF(JUDGMENT) 53. In this almost impromptu, and certainly contingent manner was the principle of equidistance for the delimitation of continental shelf boundaries propounded. It is clear from the Report of the Commission for 1953 already referred to (paragraph 50) that the latter adopted it largely on the basis of the recommendation of the Committee of Experts, and even so in a text that gave priority to delimitation by agreement and also introduced an exception in favour of "special circumstances" which the Committee had not formally proposed. The Court moreover thinks it to be a legitimate supposition that the experts were actuated by con- siderations not of legal theory but of practical conçenience and carto- graphy of the kind mentioned in paragraph 22 above. Although there are no ofiicial records of their discussions, there is warrant for this view in correspondence passing between certain of them and the Commission's Special Rapporteur on the subject, which was deposited by one of the Parties during the oral hearing at the request of the Court. Nor, even after this, when a decision in principle had been taken in favour of an equidistance rule, was there an end to the Commission's hesitations, for as late as three years after the adoption of the report of the Committee of Experts, when the Commission was finalizing the whole complex of drafts comprised under the topic of the Law of the Sea, various doubts about the equidistance principle were still being voiced in the Commis- sion, on such grounds for instance as that its strict application would be open, in certain cases, to the objection that the geographical configura- tion of the coast would render aboundary drawn on this basis inequitable. 54. A further point of some signifieance is that neither in the Com- mittee of Experts, nor in the Commission itself, nor subsequently at the Geneva Conference, does there appear to have been any discussion of delimitation in the context, not merely of two adjacent States, but of three or more States on the same coast, or in the same viciiiity,-from which it can reasonably be inferred that the possible resulting situations, some of which have been described in paragraph 8 above, were never really envisaged or taken into account. This viewfinds someconfirmation in the fact tliat the relevant part of paragraph 2 of Article 6 of the Geneva Convention speaks of delimiting the continental shelf of "two" adjacent States (although a reference simply to "adjacent States" would have sufficed), whereas in respect ofmedian lines the reference in paragraph 1 of that Article is to "two or more" opposite States. 55. In the light of this history, and of the recordgenerally, it is clear that at no time was the notion of equidistance as an inherent necessity of continental shelf doctrine entertained. Quite a different outlook was indeed manifested from the start in current legal thinking. It was, and 36 CONTINENTAL SHELF (JUDGMENT) it really remained tothe end, governed by two beliefs;-namely, first, that no one singlemethod of delimitation waslikelyto prove satisfactory in al1 circumstances, and that delimitation should, therefore, be carried out by agreement (or by reference to arbitration); and secondly, that it should be effected on equitable principles. It was in pursuance of the first ofese beliefs that in the draft that emerged as Article 6 of the Geneva Con- vention, the Commission gave priority to delimitation by agreement,- and in pursuance of the second that it introduced the exception in favour of "special circumstances". Yet the record shows that, even with these mitigations, doubts persisted, particularly as to whether the equidistance principle would in al1cases prove equitable. 56. In these circumstances, it seems to the Court that the inherency contention as now put forward by Denmark and the Netherlands inverts the true order of things in point of time and that, so far from an equidis- tance rule having been generated by an antecedent principle of proximity inherent in the whole concept of continental shelf appurtenance, the latter is rather a rationalization of the former-an ex postfacto construct directed to providing a logical juristic basis for a method of delimitation propounded largely for different reasons, cartographical and other. Given also that for the reasons already set out (paragraphs 40-46) the theory cannot be said to be endowed with any quality of logical necessity either, the Court is unable to accept it. 57. Before going further it will be convenient to deal briefly with two subsidiary matters. Most of the difficulties felt in the International Law Commission related, as here, to the case of the lateral boundary between adjacent States. Less difficulty was felt over that of the median line boundary between opposite States, although it too is an equidistance line. For this there seems to the Court to be good reason. The continental shelf area off, and dividing, opposite States, can be claimed by each of them to be a natural prolongation of its territory. These prolongations meet and overlap, and can therefore only be delimited by means of a median line; and, ignoring the presence of islets, rocks and minor coastal projections, the disproportionally distorting effect of which can be eliminated by other means, such a line must effect an equal division of the particular area involved. If there is a third State on one of thecoasts concerned, the area of mutual natural prolongation with that of the same or anotlier opposite State will be a separate and distinct one, to be treated in the same way. This type of case is therefore different from that of laterally adjacent States on the same coast with no immediately opposite coast in front of it, and does not give rise to the same kind of problem-a conclusion which also finds some confirmation in the dif-ference of language to be observed in the two paragraphs of Article 6 of the Geneva Convention (reproduced in paragraph 26 above) as respects recourse in the one case to median lines and in the other to lateral equidistance lines, in the event of absence of agreement. 58. If on the other hand, contrary to the view expressed in the preced- ing paragraph, it were correct to say that there is no essential difference in the process of delimiting the continental shelf areas between opposite States and that of delimitations between adjacent States, then the results ought in principle to be the same or at least comparable. But in fact, wliereas a median line divides equally between the two oppositecountries areas that can be regarded as being the natural prolongation of the territory of each of them, a lateral equidistance line often leaves to one of the States concerned areas that are a natural prolongation of the territory of the other. 59. Equally distinct in the opinion of the Court is the case of the lateral boundary between adjacent territorial waters to be drawn onan equidistance basis. As was convincingly demonstrated in the maps and diagrams furnished by the Parties, and as has been noted in paragraph 8, the distorting effects oflateral equidistance lines under certain conditions of coastal configuration are nevertheless comparatively small within the limits of territorial waters, but produce their maximum effect in the localities where the main continental shelf areas lie further out. There is also a direct correlation between the notion of closest proximity to the coast and the sovereign jurisdiction which the coastal State is entitled to exercise and must exercise, not only over the seabed underneath the territorial waters but over the waters themselves, which does not exist in respect of continental shelf areas where there is no jurisdiction over the superjacent waters, and over the seabed only for purposes of explora- tion and exploitation. 60. The conclusions so far reached leave open, and still to be con- sidered, the question whether on some basis other than that of an a prior ogical necessity, i.e., through positive law processes, the equidis- tance principle has come to be regarded as a rule of customary interna- tional Inw, so that it would be obligatory for the Federal Republic in that way, even though Article 6 of the Geneva Convention is not, as such, opposable to it. For this purpose it is necessary to examine the status of the principle as it stood when the Convention was drawn up, as it resulted from the effect of the Convention, and in the light of State practice subsequent to the Convention; but it should be clearly under- stood that in the pronouncements the Court makes on these matters it has in view solely the delimitation provisions (Article 6) of the Conven- tion, not other parts of it, nor the Convention as such. 61. The first of these questions can conveniently be considered in the form suggested on behalf of Denmark and the Netherlands themselves in the course of the oral hearing, when it was stated that they had not in fact contended that the delimitation article (Article 6) of the Conven- tion "embodied already received rules of customary lau in the sense that the Convention was merely declaratory of existing rulrs". Their contention was, rather, that although prior to the Conference, continental shelf law was only in the formative stage, and State practice lacked uniformity, yet "the process of the definition and consolidation of the emerging customary law took place through the work of the Interna- tional Law Comniission, the reaction of governments to that work and the proceedings of the Geneva Conference"; and this emerping customary law became "crystallized in the adoption of the Continental Shelf Con- vention by the Conference". 62. Whatever validity this contention may have in respect of at least certain parts of the Convention, the Court cannot accept it as regards the delimitation provision (Article 6),the relevant parts of \\hich were adopted almost unchanged from the draft of the International Law Commission that formed the basis of discussion at the Conference. The status of the rule in the Convention therefore depends mainly on the processes that led ~he Commission to propose it. These processes have already been reviewed in connection with the Danish-Netherlands contention of an a prior iecessity for equidistance, and the Court con- siders this review sufficient for present purposes also, in order to show that the principle of equidistance, as it now figures in Article6 of the Convention, was proposed by the Commission with considerable hesita- tion, somewhat on an experimental basis, at most de lrge fi?rvtlda,and not at al1de lege lata or as an emerging rule of customary international law. This is clearly not the sort of foundation on which Article 6 of the Convention could be said to have reflected or crystallized such arule. 63. The foregoing conclusion receives significant confirmation frorn the fact that Article 6 is one of those in respect of which, under the reservations article of the Convention (Article 12) reservations may be made by any State on signing, ratifying or acceding-for, speaking generally, it is a characteristic of purely conventional rules and obligations that, in regard to them, some faculty of making unilateral reservations may, within certain limits, be admitted;-whereas this cannot be so in the case of general or customary 1aw rules and obligations which, by their very nature, must have equal force for al1members of the interna- tional community, and cannot therefore be the subject of any right of unilateral exclusion exercisable at will by any one of them in its ownfavour. Consequently, it is to be expected that when, for whatever reason, rules or obligations of this order are embodied, or are intended to be reflected in certain provisions of a convention, such provisions willfigure amongst those in respect of which a right of unilateral reserva- tion is not conferred, or is excluded. This expectation is, in principle, fulfilled by Article 12 of the Geneva Continental Shelf Convention, which permits reservations to be made to al1the articles of the Conven- tion "other than to Articles 1 to 3 inclusive"-these three Articles being the ones which, it is clear, were then regarded as reflecting, or as crys- tallizing, received or at least emergent rules of customary international law relative to the continental shelf, amongst them the question of the seaward extent of the shelf; the juridical character of the coastal State's entitlement; the nature of the rights exercisable; the kind of natural resources to which these relate; and the preservation intact of the legal status as high seas of the waters over the shelf, and the legal status of the superjacent air-space. 64. The normal inference would therefore be that any articles that do not figure among those excluded from the faculty of reservation under Article 12, were not regarded as declaratory of previously existing or emergent rules of law;and this is the inference the Court in fact draws in respect of Article 6 (delimitation), having regard also to the attitude of the International Law Commission to this provision, asalready described in general terms. Naturally this would not of itself prevent this provision from eventually passing into the general corpus of customary interna- tional law by one of the processes considered in paragraphs 70-81 below. But that is not here the issue. What is now under consideration is whether it originally figured in the Convention as such a rule. 65. It has however been suggested that the inference drawii at the beginning of the preceding paragraph is not necessarily warranted, seeing that there are certain other provisions of the Convention, also not excluded from the faculty of reservation, but which do undoubtedly in principle relate to matters that lie within the field of received customary law, such as the obligation not to impede the laying or maintenance of submarine cables or pipelines on the continental shelf seabed (Article 4), and the general obligation not unjustifiably to interfere witli freedom of navigation, fishing, and so on (Article 5, paragraphs 1 and 6). These matters however, al1relate toor are consequential upon principles or rules of general maritime law, very considerably ante-dating the Convention, and not directly connected with but only incidental to continental shelf rights as such. They were mentioned in the Convention, not in order to declare or confirm their existence, which was not necessary, but simply to ensure that they were not prejudiced by the exercise of continental shelf rights as provided for in the Convention. Another method ofprévusdans la Conveiitioii n'y porte pas atteinte. Une autre rédaction aurait pu éviterl'ambiguïté; il n'en reste pas moins qu'un Etat ayant formulé une réserve ne serait pas dégagépour autant des obligations imposéespar le droit maritime généralen dehors et indépendamment de la Convention sur le plateau continental, et notamment des obligations énoncées à I'article 2 de la convention surla haute mer conclue au même moment et définiepar son préambule comme déclaratoire de principes établis du droit international. 66. L-article 6 relatifà la déliniitation paraità la Cour se présenter de manière différente.II se rattache directement au régimejuridique du plateau contine~ital en tant que tel et non à des questions incidentes; puisque Ia faculté de formuler des réservesn'a pas été exclue à son sujet, comme elle l'aétépour les articles 1à 3,il est légitimed'en déduirequ'on lui a attribué une valeur différenteet moins fondamentale et que, con- trairement à ces articles, il ne traduisait pas le droit coutumier préexistant ou en voie de forrlîation. Le Danemark et les Pays-Bas ont pourtant soutenu que le droit d'apporter des réserves à I'article 6 n'étaitpas censé êtreillimitéet qu'eri particulier il n'allait pas jusqu'à exclure totalement le principe de délimitation fondésur l'équidistance,car les articles 1et 2 de la Convention, à propos desquels aucune réserve n'est autorisée, impliqueraient la délimitation sur la base de I'équidistaiîce.11en résul- terait que le droit de faire des réservesI'article 6 ne pourrait êtreexercé que d'une manière compatible avec, au moins, le maintien du principe foiidarnental de l'équidistance. On a souligné à cet égard que, sur les quatre seules réservesformulées jusqu'à présentau sujet de I'article 6 et dont l'une au moins a une portéeassez large, aucune ne viseune exclusion ou un rejet aussi total. 67. La Cour ne juge pas cet argument convaincant pour plusieurs motifs. En premier lieu, il Liesemble pas que les articles 1 et 2 de la Convention de Genève aient un rapport direct avec une délimitatioii entre Etats eii tant que telle. L'article 1 ne vise que la limite extérieure du plateau continental du côté du large et non pas sa délimitation entre Etats se faisant face ou entre Etats limitrophes. L'article 2 ne concerne pas davantage ce dernier point. Or il a étésuggéré, semble-t-il,que la notion d'équidistarice résulteimplicitement du caractère ((exclusif )attri- bué par I'article 2, paragraphe 2, aux droits de 1'Etat riverain sur le plateau continental. A s'en tenir au texte, cette interprétation est mani- festementinexacte. Levéritablesens de cepassage estque, danstoute zone de plateau continental où un Etat riverain a des droits, ces droits sont exclusifs et aucun autre Etat ne peut les exercer. Mais aucune précision n'yest donnéequant aux zones mêmessur lesquelles chaque Etat riverain possède des droits exclusifs. Cette question, qui ne peut se poser qu'en ce quiconcerne les confins du plateau continental d'un Etat, est exacte- nient, comme on l'a vu au paragraphe 20 ci-dessus in$ne, celle que le processus de délimitation doit permettre de résoudre et elle relève de I'article, non de I'article 2. cerned should, at al1 events potentially, be of a fundaiiientally noriii- creating character such as could be regarded as forniing tlie basis of a general rule of law. Considered in ubstracto the equidistance principle might be said to fulfil this rcquirement. Yet in the particulnr form in which it is embodied in Article 6 of the Geneva Convention, and having regard to the relationship of that Article to other provisions of tlie Convention, this niust be open to some doubt. ln the first place, Article 6 is so framed asto put second the obligation to make use of the equidis- tance method, causing it to come after a primary obligation to effect delimitation by agreement. Such a primary obligation coiistitutes an unusual preface to what is clainied to be a potential general rule of law. Without attempting to enter into, still less pronounce upon any question of ,jus cogens, it is well understood that, in practice, rules of international law can, by agreement, be derogated frorn in particular cases, or as between particular parties,-but this is not norinally the subject of any express provision, as it is in Articl6 of the Geneva Con- vention. Secondly the part played by the notion of special circunistances relative to the principle of equidistance as embodied in Article 6, and the very considerable, still unresolved controversies as to the exact mean- ing and scope of this notion, must raise further doubts as tn the poten- tially norm-creating character of the rule. Finally, the faculty of making reservations to Article 6, while it might not of itself prevent thc equidis- tance principle being eventually received as general law, does ndd con- siderably to the difficulty of regarding this result as having been brought about (or being potentially poysible) on the basis of the Convention: for so long as this faculty continues to exist, and is not the subject of any revision brought about in consequence of a request niade under Article 13 of the Conventioii-of which there is at present no official indication-it is tlie Convention itself which would, for tlie reasoiis already indicated, seem to deny to the provisions of Article 6 the same norm-creating character as, for instance, Articles 1and 2 possess. 73. With respect to the other elements usually regarded as necessary before a conventional rule can be considered to have become LIgeneral rule of international law, it might be that, even without the passage of any considerable period of time, a very widespread and representative participation in theconvention might sufficeof itself, pro\ ided it included that of States whose interests were specially affected. In the present case however, the Court notes that, even if allowance is made for the existence of a number of States to whom participation in the Geneva Convention is not open, or which, by reason for instance of being land-locked States, would have no interest in becoining parties to it, tlie number of ratifications and accessions so far secured is, though respectable, hardly sufficient. That non-ratification may sometimes be due to factors other than active disapproval of the convention concerned cari hardly con- stitute a basis on which positive acceptance of its principles can bc implied: the reasons are speculntive, but the facts remain. 74. As regards the time element, the Court notes that it is over ten years since the Convention was signed, but that it is even now less than five since it came into force in June 1964, and that when the present proceedings were brought it was less than three years, while less than one had elapsed at the time when the respective negotiations between the Federal Republic and the other two Parties for a complete delimita- tion broke down on the question of the application of the equidistance principle. Although the passage of only a short period of time is not necessarily, or of itself, a bar to the formation of a newle of customary international law on the basis of what bras originally a purely conven- tional rule, an indispensable requirement would be that within the period in question, short though it might be, State practice, including that of States whose interests are specially affected, should have been bot11 extensive and virtually uniform in the sense of the provision invoked;- and should moreover have occurred in such a way as to show a general recognition that a rule of law or legal obligation is involved. 75. The Court must now consider whether State practice in the inatter of continental shelf delimitation has, subsequent to the Geneva Conven- tion, been of such a kind as to satisfy this requirement. Leaving aside cases which, for various reasons, the Court does not consider to be reliable guides as precedents, such as delimitations effected between the present Parties themselves, or not relating to international boundaries, some fifteen cases have been cited in the course of the present pro- ceedings, occurring mostly since the signature of the 1958 Geneva Con- vention, in which continental shelf boundaries have been delimited according to the equidistance principle-in the majority of the cases by agreement, in a few others unilaterally-or else the deliniitation was foreshadowed but has not yet been carried out. Amongst these fifteen are the four North Seadelimitations United KingdomJNorway-Denrnark- Netherlands, and NorwayJDenmark already mentioned in paragraph 4 of this Judgment. But even if these various cases constituted inore than a very small proportion of those potentially calling for deliniitation in the world as a whole, the Court would not think it necessary to enuinerate or evaluate them separately, since tliere are, n priori several grounds which deprive them of weight as precedents in the present context. 76. To begin with, over half the States concerned, whether acting unilaterally or conjointly, were or shortly became parties to the Geneva Convention, and were therefore presumably, so far as they were con- cerned, acting actually or potentially in the application of the Con~entioii. From their action no inference could legitimately be drawn as to the existence of a rule of customary international law in favour of the equidistance principle. As regards those States, on the other Iiand, which were not, and have not become parties to the Convention, the basis oftheir action can only be problematical and must remain entirely specula- tive. Clearly, they were not applying the Convention. But from that no inference could justifiably be drawn that they believed themselves to be applying a mandatory rule of customary international law. There is not a shred of evidence that they did and, as has been seen (paragraphs 22 and 23), there is no lack of other reasons for using the equidistance method, so that acting, or agreeing to act in a certain way, does not of itself demonstrate anything of a juridical nature. 77. The essential point in this connection-and it seems necessary to stress it-is that even if these instances of action by non-parties to the Convention were much more nunierous than they in fact are, they would not, even in the aggregate, suffice in themselves to constitute the opinio juris;-for, in order to achieve this result, two conditions must be ful- filled. Not only must the acts concerned amount to a settled practice, but they must also be sucli, or be carried out in such a way, as to be evidence of a belief that this practice is rendered obligatory by the existence of a rule of Iaw requiring it. The need for such a belief, Le., the existence of a subjective element, is implicit in the very notion of the opinio juris sive necessitatis. The States concerned must therefore feel that they are conforming to what amounts to a legal obligation. The frequency, or even habitua1 cliaracter of the acts is not in itself enough. There are many international acts, e.g., in the field of ceremonial and protocol, whicli are performed almost invariably,but which are motivated only by considcrations of courtesy, convenience or tradition, and not by any sense of legal duty. 78. In this respect the Court follows the view adopted by the Perma- nent Court of International Justice in the Lotus case, as stated in the fol- lowing passage, the principle of which is, by analogy, applicable almost word for word, nzutatis mutandis, to the present case (P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 10, 1927, at p. 28): "Even if the rarity of the judicial decisions to be found ... were sufficient to prove ... the circunistance alleged .. .,it would merely show that States had often, in practice, abstained from instituting criminal proceedings, and not that they recognized themselves as being obliged to do so; for only if such abstention were based on their being conscious of having a duty to abstain would it be possible to speak of an international custom. The alleged fact does not allow one to infer that States have been conscious of having such a duty; on the other hand, ... there are other circuinstances calculated to show that the contrary is true." Applying this dictum to the present case, the position is simply that in certain cases-not a great nuinber-the States concerned agreed to draw or did draw the boundaries concerned according to the principle of equidistance. There is no evidence that they so acted because they feltlegally compelled to draw them in this way by reason of a rule of custom- ary law obliging them to do so-especially considering that they might have been motivated by other obvious factors. 79. Finally, it appears that in almost al1of the cases cited, the delimi- tations concerned were median-line delimitations between opposite States, not lateral delimitations between adjacent States. For reasons which have already been given (paragraph 57) the Court regards the case of median-line delimitations between opposite States as different in various respects, and as being sufficiently distinct not to constitute a precedent for the delimitation of lateral boundaries. In only onesituation discussed by the Parties does there appear to have been a geographical configuration which to some extent resembles the present one, in the sense that a number of States on the same coastline are grouped around a sharp curve or bend of it. No complete delimitation in this area has however yet been carried out. But the Court is not concerned to deny to this case, or any other of those cited, al1evidential value in favour of the thesis of Denmark and the Netherlands. It simply considers that they are inconclusive, and insufficient to bear the weight sought to be put upon them as evidence of such a settled practice, manifested in such circumstances, as would justify the inference that delimitation according to the principle of equidistance amounts to a mandatory rule of customary international law,-more particularly where lateral delimitations are concerned. 80. There are of course plenty of cases (and a considerable number were cited) of delimitations of waters, as opposed to seabed, being carried out on the basis of equidistance-mostly ofinterna1 waters (lakes, rivers, etc.), and mostly median-line cases. The nearest analogy is that of ad- jacent territorial waters, but as already explained (paragraph 59) the Court does not consider this case to be analogous to that of the con- tinental shelf. 81. The Court accordingly concludes that if the Geneva Convention was not in its origins or inception declaratory of a mandatory rule of customary international law enjoining the use of the equidistance prin- ciple for the delimitation of continental shelf areas between adjacent States, neither has its subsequent effect been constitutive of such a rule; and that State practice up-to-date has equally been insuficient for the purpose. 82. The immediately foregoing conclusion, coupled with that reached earlier (paragraph 56) to the effect that the equidistance principle could not be regarded as being a rule of law on any a priori basis of logical necessity deriving froin the fundamental theory of the continental shelf, leads to the final conclusion on this part of the case that the use of the equidistance method is not obligatory for the delimitation of the areas concerned in the present proceedings. In these circumstances, it becomes unnecessary for the Court to determine whether or not the configuration of the German North Sea Coastconstitutes a "special circumstance" for thepurposes either of Article 6 of the Geneva Convention or of any rule of customary international law,-since once the use of the equidistance method of delimitation is deterinined not to be obligatory in any event, itceases to be legally necessary to prove the existence of special circum- stances in order to justify not using that method. 83. The legal situation therefore is that the Parties areder no obliga- tion to apply either the 1958Convention, which is not opposable to the Federal Republic, or the equidistaiice method as a mandatory rule of customary law, which it is not. But as between States faced with an issue concerning the lateral delimitation of adjacent continental shelves, there are still rules and principles of law to be applied; and in the present case it is not the fact either thatules are lacking, or that the situation is one for the unfettered appreciation of the Parties. Equally, it is not the case that if the equidistance principle is not arule of law, there has to be as an alternative some other single equivalent rule. 84. As already indicated, the Court is riot called upon itself to delimit the areas of continental shelf appertaining respectively to each Party, and in consequence is not bound to prescribe the methods to be em- ployed for the purposeâ of such a delimitation. TheCourt has to indicate to the Parties the principles and rules of law in the light of which the methods for eventually effecting the delimitation will have to be chosen. TheCourt will discharge this task in such a way as to provide the Parties with the requisite directions,without substitutiiig itself for them byans of a detailed indication of the methods to be followed and the factors to be taken into account for the purposes of a delimitation the carrying out of which the Parties have expressly reserved to themselves. 85. It emerges from the history of the development of the legal régime of thecontinental shelf, which has been reviewedearlier, that the essential reason why the equidistance method is not to be regarded as a rule of law is that, if it were to be compulsorily applied in al1 situations, this would not be consonant with certain basic legal notions which, as has been observed in paragraphs 48 and 55, have from the beginning reflected the opini ouriisn the inatter of delimitation; those principles being that delimitation must be the object of agreement between the States con- cerned, and that such agreement must be arrived at in accordance with equitable principles. On a foundation of very general precepts of justice and good faith, actual rules of law are here involved which govern thedelimitation of adjacent continent shelves-that is to say, rules binding upon States for al1de1imitations;-i"\, .short, it is not a question of apply- ing equity simply as a matter of abstract justice, but of applying a rule of law which itself requires the appllcation of equitable principles, in accordance with the ideas which have always underlain the development of the legal régimeof the continental shelf in this field, namely: (a) the parties are under an obligation to enter into negotiations with a view to arriving at an agreement, and not merely to go through a forma1 process of negotiation as a sort of prior condition for the automatic application of a certain method of delimitation in the absence of agreement; they are under an obligation so to conduct themselves that the negotiations are meaningful, which will not be the case when either of them insists upon its own position without contemplating any modification of it; (6) the parties are under an obligation to act in such a way that, in the particular case, and taking al1 the circumstances into account, equitable principles are applied,-for this purpose the equidistance method can be used, biit other methods exist and may be employed, alone or in combination, according to the areas involved; (c) for the reasons given in paragraphs 43 and 44, the continental shelf of any State must be the natural prolongation of its land territory and must not encroach upon what is the natural prolongation of the territory of another State. 86. It is now necessary to examine these rules more closely, as also certain problems relative to their application. So far as the first rule is concerned, the Court would recall not only that the obligation to nego- tiate which the Parties assumed by Article 1, paragraph 2, of the Special Agreements arises out of the Truman Proclamation, wliich, for the reasons given in paragraph 47, inust be considered as having propounded the rules of Iriwin this field,but also that this obligation merelyconstitutes a special application of a principle which underlies al1 international relations, and which is moreover recognized in Article 33 of the Charter of the United Nations as one of the methods for the peaceful settlement of international disputes.There is no need to insist upon the fundamental character of this method of settlement, except to point out that it is emphasized by the observable fact that judicial or arbitral settlement is not universally accepted. 87. As the Permanent Court of International Justice said in its Order of 19August 1929in the case of the Free Zones of UpperSavoy and the District of Gex, the judicial settlement of international disputes "is simply an alternative to the direct and friendly settlement of such dis- putes between the parties" (P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 22, at p. 13).Defining the content of the obligation to negotiate, the Permanent Court, in its48 CONTINENTAL SHELF (JUDGMENT) Advisory Opinion in the case of Railicay Trafic between Litll~raniuat7d Poland, said that the obligation was "not only to enter into negotiations but also to pursue them as far as possible with a view to coiicluding agreements", even if an obligation to negotiate did not imply an obliga- tion to reach agreement (P.C.I.J., Series AjB, No. 42, 1931, at p. 116). In the present case, it needs to be observed that whatever the details of the negotiations carried on in 1965and 1966,they failed of their purpose because the Kingdoms of Denmark and the Netherlands, convinced that the equidistance principle alone was applicable, in consequence of a rule binding upon the Federal Republic, saw no reason to depart from that rule; and equally, given the geographical considerations stated in the last sentence of paragraph 7 above, the Federal Republic could not accept the situation resulting from the application of that rule. So far therefore the negotiations have not satisfied the conditions indicated in paragraph 85 (a), but fresh negotiations are to take place on the basis of the present Judgment. 88. TheCourt comes next to the rule of equity. The legal basis of that rule in the particular case of the delimitation of the continental shelf as between adjoining States has already been stated. It must however be noted that the rule rests also on a broader basis. Whatever the legal reasoning of a court of justice, its decisions must by definition be just, and therefore in that sense equitable. Nevertheless, when mention is made of a court dispensing justice or declaring the law, what is meant is that the decision finds its objective justification in considerations lying not outside but within the rules, and in this field it is precisely a rule of law that calls for the application of equitable principles. There is con- sequently no question in this case of any decision ex aequo et bono, such as would only be possible under the conditions prescribed by Article 38, paragraph 2, of the Court's Statute. Nor would this be the first time that the Court has adopted such an attitude, as is shown by the following passage from the Advisory Opinion given in the case of Judgmetztsof the Admitzistratii7eTribunul of the I.L.O. upon Cornplaints Made against Unesco(I.C.J. Reports 1956,at p. 100) : "In view of this the Court need not examine the allegation that the validity of the judgments of the Tribunal is vitiated by excess of jurisdiction on the ground that it awarded compensation ex aequo etbono. Ttwill confine itself to stating that, in the reasons given by the Tribunal in support of its decision on the merits, the Tribunal said: 'That redress will be ensured ex aequo et bon0 by the granting to the complainant of the sum set forth below.' It does not appear from the context of the judgment that the Tribunal thereby intended to depart from principles of law. The apparent intention was to Say that, as the precise determination of theactual amount to be awarded could not be based on any specific rule of law, the Tribunal fixed what the Court, in other circumstances, has described as the true measure of compensation and the reasonable figure of such corn- pensation (Corfu Channel case, Judgment of December 15th, 1949, Z.C.J. Reports 1949, p. 249)." 89. It must next be observed that, in certain geographical circuin- stances which are quite frequently met with, the equidistance method, despite its known advantages, leads unquestionably to inequity, in the following sense: (a) The slightest irregularity in a coastline is automatically magnified by the equidistance line as regards the consequences for the delimita- tion of the continental shelf. Thus it has been seen in the case of concave or convex coastlines that if the equidistance method is employed, then the greater the irregularity and the further from the coastline the area to be delimited, the more unreasonctble are the results produced. So great an exaggeration of the consequences of a natural geographical feature must be remedied or compensated for as far as possible, being of itself creative of inequity. (b) In the case of the North Sea in particular, where there is no outer boundary to the continental shelf, it happens that the claims of several States converge, meet and intercross in localities where, despite their distance from the coast, the bed of the sea still uii- questionably consists of continental shelf. A study of these con- vergences, as revealed by the maps, shows how inequitable would be the apparent simplification brought about by a delirnitation which, ignoring such geographical circumstances, was based solely on the equidistance method. 90. If for the above reasons equity excludes the use of the eqiiidistance method in the present instance, as the sole method of delimitation, the question arises whether there is any necessity to employ only one method for the purposes of a given delimitation. There is no logical basis for this, and no objection need be felt to the idea of effecting a delimitation of adjoining continental shelf areas by the concurrent use of various methods. The Court has already stated why it considers that the inter- national law of continental shelf delimitation does not involve any im- perative rule and permits resort to various principles or metliods, as may be appropriate, or a combination of them, provided that, by the applicn- tion of equitable principles, a reasonable result is arrived at. 91. Equity does not necessarily imply equality. There can never be any question of completely refashioning nature, and equity does not require that a State without access to the sea should be allotted an area of continental shelf, any more than tliere could be a question of rendering the situation of a State with an extensive coastline similar to that of aState with a restricted coastline. Equality is to be reckoned within the same plane, and it is not such natural inequalities as these that equity could remedy. But in the present case there are three States whose North Sea coastlines are in fact comparable in length and which, therefore, have been given broadly equal treatment by nature except that the con- figuration of one of the coastlines would, if the equidistance method is used, deny to one of these States treatment equal or comparable to that given the other two. Here indeed is a case where, in a theoretical situation of equality within the same order, an inequity is created. What is un- acceptable in this instance is that a State should enjoy continental shelf rights considerably different from those of its neiglibours merely because in the one case the coastline is roughly convex in form and in the other it is markedly concave, although those coastlines are comparable in length. It is therefore not a question of totally refashioning geography whatever the facts of the situation but, given a geographical situation of quasi-equality as between a number of States, of abating the effects of an incidental special feature from which an unjustifiable difference of treatment could result. 92. It has however been maintained that no one method of delimita- tion can prevent such results and that al1can lead to relative injustices. This argumenthas in effect already been dealt with. It can only strengthen the view that it is necessary to seek not one method of delimitation but one goal. It is in this spirit that the Court must examine the question of how the continental shelf can be delimited when it is in fact the case that the equidistance principle does not provide an equitable solution. As the operation of delimiting is a matter of determining areas appertaining to different jurisdictions, it is a truism to say that the determination must be equitable; rather is the problem above al1one of defining the means where- by the delimitation can be carried out in such a way as to be recognized as equitable. Although the Parties have made it known that they intend to reserve for themselves the application of the principles and rules laid down by the Court, it would, even so, be insufficient simply to rely on the rule of equity without giving some degree of indication as to the possible ways in which it might be applied in the present case, it being understood that the Parties will be free to agree upon one method rather than an- other, or different methods if they so prefer. 93. In fact, there is no legal limit to the considerations which States may take account of for the purpose of making sure that they apply equitable procedures, and more often than not it is the balancing-up of al1 such considerations that will produce this result rather than reliance on one to the exclusion of al1others. The problem of the relative weight to be accorded to different considerations naturally varies with the circum- stances of the case. 94. In balancing the factors in question it would appear that various aspects must be taken into account. Some are related to the geological. others to the geographical aspect of the situation, others again to theidea of the unity of any deposits. These criteria, thougli not entirely prccisc, can provide adequate bases for decision adapted to the factual situation. 95. The institution of the continental shelf has ariscn out of the recog- nition of a physical fact; and the link between this fact and the law, with- out which that institution would never have existed, remains an im- portant element for the application of its legal régime. The continental shelf is, by definition, an area physically extending the territory of niost coastal States into a species of platforni whicli has attracted the attention first of geographers and hydrographers and then of jurists. The iinpor- tance of the geological aspect is empliasired by the care which, at the beginning of its investigation, the International Law Con-iniission took to acquire exact information as to its characteristics, as can be seen in pnrticular from the definitions to be found on page 131 of Volume 1 of the k'c~trrhook of'tlre /~~tenrcctionlnbc.Comtnissio~zfor 1956. The ap- purtenance of the shelf to the countries in front of whose coastlines it lies. is thereforc LIfact, and it can be useful to consider the geology of tliat shelf in order to find out whether the direction taken by certain configurational features should influence delimitation because, in certain localities, they point-up the whole notion of the appurtenance of the continental shelf to the State whose tcrritory it does iii fact prolong. 96. The doctrine of the continental slielf is a rccent instance of en- croachinent on maritime cxpanses whicli, during the greater part of iiistory, appertained to no-one. Thc contiguouj zone and the continental shelf are in tliis respect coriczpts of the same kind. In both instances the principle is applied that the land dominates the sen; it is consequently necessary to examine closely the gcographicnl configuration of the coast- lines of the countries whose continental shelves are to be delimited. This is one of the rensons why the Court does not consider that markedlq pronounced configurations can bz ignoreci; for, since the land is the legal source of the power which a State inay cvcrcise over territorial extensions to seaward, it must first bc clearly established what features do in fact constitute sucli extensions. Abovc al1 is this the case when what is in- volved is no longer areas of sca, such as the contiguouszone, but stretches of submerged land; for the legal régime of the continental shelf is that of a sail and a subsoil, two words evocativc of the land and not of the sea. 97. Anothcr factor to be taken into consideration in the delimitation of areas of continental slielf as between abiricent States is the unity of any deposits. Tlic natural resourccs of the siibsoil of the sea in those parts which consist of continental shelf are the very object of the legal régime established subsequent to the Truman Proclamation. Yet it frequently occurs that the saine deposit lies on both sides of the line dividing a con- tinental shelf between two States, and since it is possible to exploit such a deposit from either side, a problem iminediately arises on account of the risk of prejudicial or wasteful exploitation by one or other of the States concerned. To look no farther than the North Sea, the practiceof States shows how this problem has been dealt with, and al1 that is needed is to refer to the undertakings entered into by the coastal States of that sea with a view to ensuring the most efficient exploitation or the apportionment of the products extracted-(see in particular the agree- ment of 10 March 1965 between the United Kingdom and Norway, Article 4; the agreement of 6 October 1965between the Netherlands and the United Kingdom relating to "the exploitation of single geological structures extending across the dividing line on the continental shelf under the North Sea"; and the agreement of 14 May 1962 between the Federal Republic and the Netherlands concerning a joint plan for ex- ploiting the natural resources underlying the area of the Ems Estuary where the frontier between the two States has not been finally delimited.) The Court does not consider that unity of deposit constitutes anything more than a factual element which it is reasonable to take into considera- tion in the course of the negotiations for a delimitation. The Parties are fully aware of the existence of the problem as also of the possible ways of sol vi"^ it. 98. A final factor to be taken account of is the element of a reason- able degree of proportionality which a delimitation effected according to equitable principles ought to bring about between the extent of the continental shelf appertaining to the States concerned and the lengths of their respective coastlines,-these being measured according to their general direction in order to establish the necessary balance between States with straight, and those \vith markedly concave or convex coasts, or to reduce very irregular coastlines to their truer proportions. The choice and application of the appropriate technical methods would be a matter for the parties. One method discussed in the course of the pro- ceedings, under the name of the principle of the coastal front, consists in drawing a straight baseline between the extreme points at either end of the Coast concerned, or in soine cases a series of such lines. Where the parties mis11to employ in particular the equidistance method of delimita- tion. the establishment of one or more baselines of this kind can ~lav a us'eful part in eliminating or diminishing the distortions that might . , result from the use of that method. 99. In a sea with the particular configuration of the North Sea, and in view of the particular geographical situation of the Parties' coastlines upon that sea, the methods chosen by them for the purpose of fixing the delimitation of their respective areas may happen in certain localities to lead to an overlapping of the areas appertaining to them. The Court considcrs that such a situation must be accepted as a given fact and resolved either by an agrecd, or failing that by an equal division of the overlapping areas, or by agreements for joint exploitation, the latter solution appearing particularly appropriate when it is a question of preserving the unity of a deposit. 100. The Court has examined the problems raised by the present case in its own context, which is strictly that of delimitation. Other questions relating to the general legal régime ofthe continental shelf, have been examined for that purpose only. This régimefurnishes an example of a legal theory derived from a particular source that has secured a general following. As the Court has recalled in the first part of its Judgment, it was the Truman Proclamation of 28 September 1945 which was at the origin of the theory, whose special features reflect that origin. It would therefore not be in harmony with this history to over-systematize a pragmatic construct the developments of which have occurred within a relatively short space of time. 101. For these reasons, by eleven votes to six, finds that, in each case, (A) the use of the equidistance method of delimitation not being obligatory as between the Parties; and (B) there being no other single method of delimitation the use of which is in al1circumstances obligatory; (C) the principles and rules of international law applicable to the delimitation as between the Parties of the areas of the continental shelf in the North Sea which appertain to each of them beyond the partial boundary determined by the agreements of 1 December 1964and 9 June 1965, respectively, are as follows: (1) delimitation is to be effected by agreement in accordance with equitablc principles, and taking account of al1the relevant circum- stances, in such a way as to leave as much as possible to each Party :il1thosc parts of the continental shelf that constitute a natural prolongation of its land territory into and under the sea, without encroachment on the natural prolongation of the land territory of the other; (2) if, in the applicationof the preceding sub-paragraph, the delimitation leaves to the Parties areas that overlap, these are to be divided be- tween them in agreed proportions or, failing agreement, equally, unless they decide on a réginieofjoint jurisdiction, user, or exploita- tion for the zones of overlap or any part of them; (D) in the course of the negotiations, the factors to be taken into account are to include: (1) the general configuration of the coasts of the Parties, as well as the presence of any special or unusual features; (2) so far as known or readily ascertainable, the physical and geological structure, and natural resources, of the continental shelfreas in- volved ; (3) the element of a reasonable degree of proportionality, which a delimi- tation carried out in accordance with equitable principles ought to bring about between the extent of the continental shelf areas apper- taining to the coastal State and the length of its Coast measured in the general direction of the coastline, account beingaken for this purpose of the effects, actual or prospective, of any other continental shelf delimitations between adjacent States in theme region. Done in English and in French, the English text being authoritative at the Peace Palace, The Hague, this twentieth day of February, one thousand nine hundred and sixty-nine, in four copies, one of which will be placed in the archives of the Court and the others transmitted to the Government of the Federal Republic of Germany, to the Government of the Kingdom of Denmark and to the Government of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, respectively. (Signed ).L. BUSTAMANT R., President. (Signed S).AQUARONE, Registrar. Judge Sir Muhammad ZAFRULLA KHANmakes the following declara- tion : 1am in agreement with the Judgment throughout but would wish to add the following observations. The essence of the dispute between the Parties is that the twodoms claim that the delimitation effected between them under the Agreement of 31 March 1966 is binding upon the Federal Republic and that the Federal Republic is bound to accept the situation resulting therefrom, which would confine its continental shelf to the triangle formed bynes A-B-E and C-D-E in Map 3. The Federal Republic stoutly resists that claim. Not only is Article 6 of the Geneva Convention of 1958not opposable to the Federal Republic but the delimitation effectedunder the Agree- ment of 31March 1966 does not derive fromthe provisions of that Article as Denmark and the Netherlands are neither States "whose coasts are opposite each other" within the meaning of the first paragraph of that Article nor are they "two adjacent States" within the meaning of thesecond paragraph of that Article. The situation resulting from that delimi- tation, so far as it affects the Federal Republic is not, therefore, brought about by the application of the principle set out in either of theparagraphs of Article 6 of the Convention. Had paragraph 2 of Article 6 been applicable to the deliinitation of the continental shelf between the Parties to the dispute, a boundary line, determined by the application of the principle of equidistance, would have had to allow for the configuration of the coastline of the Federal Republic as a "special circumstance". ln the course of the oral pleadings the contention that the principle of equidistance cum special circumstances had crystallized into a rule of customary international law was not advanced on behalf of the two Kingdoms as an alternative to the claim that that principle was inherent in the very concept of the continental shelf. The Judgment has, in fair- ness, dealt with these two contentions as if they had been put forward in the alternative and were thus consistent with each other, and has rejected each of them on the merits. 1am in agreement with the reasoning of the Judgment on both these points. But, 1consider, it is worth men- tioning that Counsel for the two Kingdoms summed up their position in regard to the effect of the 1958 Convention as follows: ". .. They have not maintained that the Convention embodied al- ready received rules of customary law in the sense that the Conven- tion was merely declaratory of existing rules. Their position is rather that the doctrine of the coastal State's exclusive rights over the adjacent continental shelf was in process of formation between 1945 and 1958; that the State practice prior to 1958 showed fundamental variations in the nature and scope of the rights claimed: that, in consequence, in State practice the emerging doctrine was wholly Iacking in any definition of these crucial elements as it was also of the legal rCgime applicable to the coastal State with respect to the continental shelf;that the process of the definition and consolidation of the emerging customary law took place through the work of the International Law Commission, the reaction of governments to that work and the proceedings of the Geneva Conference; that the emerging customary law, iiow become more defined, both as to the rights of the coastal State and the applicable régime, crystallized in the adoption of the Continental Shelf Convention by the Conference; and that the numerous signatures and ratifications of the Convention and the other State practice based on the principles set out in the Convention had the effect of consolidating those principles as cus- tomary law." If it were correct that the doctrine of the coastal State's exclusive rights over the adjacent continental shelf was in process of formation56 CONTINENTAL SHELF (DECL.BENGZON) between 1945 and 1958 and that in State practice prior to 1958 it was wholly lacking in any definition of crucial elements as it was also of the legal régimeapplicable to the coastal State with respect to the continental shelf,then it would seem to follow conclusively that the principle of equidistance was not inherent in the concept of the continental shelf. Judge BENGZON makes the following declarati:n 1 regret my inability to concur with the main conclusions of the majority of the CourT.agree with my colleagues who maintain the view that Article of the Geneva Convention is the applicable international law and that as betweenhese Parties equidistance is the rule for delimita- tion, which rule may even be derived from the general principles of law. PresidentBUSTAMANT Y ERIVEROJ,udges JESSUPP,ADILLA NERVO and AMMOUa Nppend Separate Opinions to the Judgment of the Court. Vice-PresidentKORETSKY Ju,dges TANAKAM, ORELLIL,ACHS and Judge ad hoc SDRENSEa ppend Dissenting Opinions to the Judgrnent of the Court. (Initialled) J. L. B.-R. (Initialled) S. A.

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INTERIqATIONCOURT OF JUSTICE REPORTS OF JUDGMENTS, ADVISORY OPINIONS AND ORDERS NORTH SEA CONTINENTAL SHELF CASES (FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF GERMANYIDENMARK; FEDERAL REPIJBLICiOF GERMANYINETHERLANDS) JUDGMENT OF 20 FEBRUARY1969 COUP: INTERNATIONADE JUSTICE RECUE1L:DESARRETS, AVIS CONSULTATIFS ET ORDONNANCES AFFAIRES DU PLATEAU CONTINENTAL DE LA MER DU NORD (RÉPUBLIQUE ]?GDGRALE D9ALLEMAGNE/DANEMARK; RÉPUBLIQUE FÉDÉRALE D7ALLEMAGNE/PAYS-BAS) Official citation: North Sea Continental SheljJltdgment, I.C.JReports 1969, p. 3. Mode officielde citation: Plateau continental de la mer du Norarrêt,C.I.J.Recueil 1969,p.3. Sales number No de vente: 327 20 FEBRUARY 1969 JUDGMENT NORTH SEA CONTINENTAL SHELFCASES (FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF GERMANYIDENMARK; FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF GERMAWINETHERLANDS) AFFAIRES DU PLATEAU CONTINENTAL DE LA MER DU NORD INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE YEAR 1969 1969 !OFebruary gos.51 & 52t: 20 February 1969 NORTH SEA CONTINENTAL SHELF CASES (FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF GERMANY,'DENMARK; FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF GERMANYINETHERLANDS) Continerrtal shelf'nreas iri the h'orrli Sea-Delitriitacrsbetwecn aa'jacerit States-Advcitirages crnddisadvarrtyye.~of tfie equidistarice rnethod--Tlieory of just and equitahle apportionrrlent-ltrron~p afitbslthtyry with the prirz- ciple of the natlrral appurtenance of the shelf to the coastal State-Taof the Court relates to deliniitntioti riot apportiorriiirrlt. The eqiiidistance pririciple as errrhodiedirrArticle 6 of the 1958 Genrva Con- tiner~talShelfCoiivc~nriori-Noti-opposa ohithityprovision to the Federal Republic of Gerrnar1y,either contrnctrrcrllyor or1~nsis of'cor1ductor estoppel. Equiclistcrnceatrd the pririciple of naturnl al~prirtenarrce-Miorof closest pro.rir~iity-Critique of that notioii as not beiilg entailed hy the pririciple of ap- purtenance-Firndarnerltul clzaracter of the prirrciple of the coritirieritalshelf as being the natural prolorrgatiotiof the laricltcrritory. Legal history of cl~li~~zircrtion-Trurna~Procla~rratioti-lrlterr1atiorial Law Comrnissioïr-1958 Geneva Conferrrrce-Acceptarlce ofc,quidistanceas a prrrely convetitional rule not reflc~ctingor c~stnllizirrg ofrcristornaryinterriational law-Effect in this respect of r~.serïatioru mticle of Geneva Convention-Sub- sequerit State practice insuficienIO coriïrrf the corzvt~r~tir/le into a rule of c~rstor~~airryrternatiot~alIa~vopinio juris sivenecessitathowtnanifsstetl. Staterlient of what are the applicable pririciples and r~rlesof Iaiv-Delimitation by agreement, in accordarrce with eq~ritablepririciples, raking accowit of al1 relevant circunistcinces,antiso asto give eflect to the principle of natural prolonga- tion-Freedom of the Partiesas to cltoice of rnethod-Varioiis factors relevant to theriegofiution. COUR INTERNATIONALE DE JUSTICE ANNÉE 1969 1369 20 février 20 février1969 Rôle général no* 51 & 52 AFFAIRES DU PLATEAUCONTINENTAL DE LA MER DU NORD Plateau continental (dela rizerdu Nord- Délimitationentre Etats limitrophes - Avantages et inconvénientsde la méthode de l'équidistance - Théoriede la répartitionjuste etéquftable- Inconzpatibilitéde cette théorie avec leprincipe du rattachernent naturel du plateau continental à I'Etat riverain- La mission de la Cour concerne la délinritationet rzonla répartition. Le principe del'équidistancerésultant del'article 6 de la Convention de Genève de 1958 sur le piabeau continental - Inopposabilité decette disposition à la Républiquefkdérale d'Allenzagne que ce soit à titre contractilelÙ raison du comportenlent ou par lejeu de I'estoppel. Equidistarlce et priizcipe du rattachement natlrrel- niorion de plus grande proximité - Critiqlte de cette notion, que leprincipe du rattachenient n'implique pas - Caractèrefondamental du principe selon lequel le plateau continerital est le prolonge~r~etittiatl~r~edlu territoire. Historiqire du droit de la délimitation-Proclamation Truman - Cornmission du droit irirernationa- Conférericede Gerièvede 1958 - Acceptation de l'&qui- distance en tant que rtgle purenient corrventionnellene consacrant ou ne cristal- lisant pas une règle de droit irrternutional cout~rmier - Eflet à cet égardde l'article de la Cotii.eritiorzde Genèverelatif aux réser-esLa pratique ultérieure des Etats ne sufit pas ù trarisfornier lrrlerègle conventiorznelle en une règle de droit internariorial coirt~~agile, dans les mémoires: IPlaise à la Cour reconnaître et dire: 1. Que la délimitation du plateau continental de la mer du Nord entre les Parties est régiepar le principe selon lequel chacun des Etats riverains a droità une part juste et équitable. between the Parties which could not be settled by detailed negotiations, regarding the further course of the boundary beyond the partial boundary determined by the Convention of 9 June 1965; Considering that under theterms of Article 1,paragraph 1,of the Com- promis the task entrusted to the Court is not to formulate a basis for the delimitation of the continental shelf in the North Sea as between the Parties ex aequo et bono, but to decide what principles and rules of international law are applicable to the delimitation as between the Parties of the areas of the continental shelf in theNorth Sea which appertain to each of them beyond the partial boundary, determined by the above-mentioned Con- vention of 9 June 1965; In view of the facts and arguments presented in Parts 1 and 11of this Counter-Memorial, May it please the Court to adjudge and declare: 1. The delimitation as between the Parties of the said areas of the con- tinental shelf in the North Sea is governed by the principles and rules of international law which are expressed in Article 6, paragraph 2, of the Geneva Convention of 1958 on the Continental Shelf. 2. The Parties being in disagreement, unless another boundary is justified by special circumstances, the boundary between thern is to be determined by application of the principle ofequidistance from the nearest points of the baselines from which the breadth of the territorial sea of each State is measured. 3. Special circumstances which justify another boundary line not having been established. the boundary between the Parties is to be determined by application of the principle of equidistance indicated in the preceding Submission." On behalf of the Government of the Netherlands, in its Counter-Memorial : "Considering that, as noted in the Compromis, disagreement exists between the Parties which could not be settled by detailed negotiations, regarding the further course of the boundary beyond the partial boundary determined by the Treaty of 1 December 1964; Considering that under the terrns of Article 1, paragraph 1, of the Compromis the task entrusted to theCourt is not to formulate a basis for the delimitation of the continental shelf in the North Sea as between the Partiesex aequo et bono, but to decide what principles and rules of inter- national law are applicable to the delimitation as between the Parties of the areas of the continental shelf in the North Sea which appertain to each of them beyond the partial boundary determined by the above- mentioned Treaty of 1 December 1964; In view of the facts and arguments presented in Parts 1 and II of this Counter-Memorial, May it please the Court to adjudge and declare: 1. The delimitation as between the Parties of the said areas of the con- tinental shelf in the North Sea is governed by the principles and rules of international law which are expressed in Article 6, paragraph 2, of the Geneva Convention of 1958 on the Continental Shelf. les Parties un désaccord qui n'a pu être réglépar des négociations ap- profondies, quant au prolongement de la ligne de délimitationau-delà de la ligne de délimitation partielle déterminéepar la convention du 9 juin 1965; Considérant que, aux termes de l'article premier, paragraphe 1, du compromis, la tâche qui incombe à la Cour n'est pas de formuler une base pour la délimitation du plateau continental de la mer du Nord entre les Parties ex aequo et hono, mais de décider quels sont les principes et les règlesdu droit international applicables a la délimitation entre les Parties des zones du plai.eau continental de la mer du Nord relevant de chacune d'elles, au-delà de la ligne de délimitation partielle déterminée par la convention susmentionnée du 9 juin 1965; Vu les faits et ;arguments exposésdans les première et deuxième parties du présent contre:-mémoire, Plaise à la Cour dire et juger: 1. Que la délimitation entre les Parties desdites zones du plateau conti- nental de la mer du Nord est régie par les principes et les règles du droit international énoncés à l'article 6, paragraphe 2, de la Convention de Genève de 1958 sur le plateau continental. 2. Que les Parties étant en désaccord, et a moins que des circonstances spécialesnejustiEient une autre délimitation, la délimitation entre elles doit êtreopéréepar application du principe de I'équidistance despoints les plus proches des lignes de base à partir desquelles est mesurée la largeur de la mer territoriale de chacun de ces Etats. 3. Que, des ciirconstances spéciales justifiant une autre délimitation n'ayant pas été établies,la délimitation entre les Parties doit êtreopérée par application du principe de I'équidistance mentionné dans la conclusion précédente. .4u noin du Gouvernemrtlt clesPays-Bas, dans son contre-mémoire : <(Considérantque, ainsi qu'il est noté dans le compromis, il existe entre les Parties Lin désaccord qui n'a pu êtreréglépar des négociations ap- profondies, quant au prolongement de la ligne de délimitation au-delà de la ligne de délimitation partielle déterminée par la convention du 1" décembre 1964; Considérant que, aux termes de l'article premier, paragraphe 1, du compromis, la tliche qui incombe à la Cour n'est pas de formuler une base pour la délimitation du plateau continental de la mer du Nord entre les Partiesex aequo et bono, mais de décider quels sont les principes et les règles du droit internationalapplicables à la délimitation entre les Parties des zones du plateau continental de la mer du Nord relevant de chacune d'elles, au-delà de la ligne de délimitation partielle déterminée par la convention susmentionnée du 1" décembre 1964; Vu les faits et arguments exposésdans les première et deuxième parties du présent contre-mémoire, Plaise à la Cour dire et juger: 1.Que la déliinitation entre les Parties desdites zones du plateau con- tinental de la mer du Nord est régiepar les principes et les règlesdu droit international énoncésa l'article 6, paragraphe 2, de la Convention de Genève de 1958 :surle plateau continental. 7. The Parties being in disagreement, unless another boundary is justi- fied by special circumstances, the boundary between them is to be deter- mined by application of the principle of equidistance from the nearest points of the baselines from which the breadth of the territorial sea of each State is measured. 3. Special circumstances which justify another boundary line not having been established, the boundary between tlie Parties is to be deterrnined .by application of the principle of equidistance indicated in the preceding Subrnission." 011 I~el~alfofthe Goveriiii~ei~t .f Deiitnark and the Nerherlntids, in the Common Rejoinder: "May it further please the Court to adjudge and declare: 4. If the principles and rules of international law mentioned in Sub- mission 1 of the respective Counter-Mernorials are not applicable as be- tween the Parties, the boiindary is to be deterrnined between the Parties on the basis of the exclusive rights of each Party over the continental shelf adjacent to its coast and of tlie principle that the boundary is to leave to each Party every point of the continental shelf which lies nearer to its coast than to the coast of the other Party." In the course of the oral proceedings, the following Submissions were pre- sented by the Parties: On behaifof the Go>sernnzct~ of the Federal Rep~rblic of Gerttzany, at the hearing on 5 November 1968: "1. The delimitation of the continental shelf between the Parties in the North Sea is governed by the principle that each coastal State is entitled to a just and equitable share. 2. (ri) The method of deterinining boundaries of the continental shelf in such a way that every point of the boundary is equidistant from the nearest points of the baselines from which the breadth of the territorial sea of each State is measured (equidistance method) is not a rule of cus- tomary international law. (b) The rule contained in the second sentence of paragraph 2 of Ar- ticle6 of the Continental Shelf Convention, prescribing that in the absence of agreement, and unless another boundary is justified by special circum- stances, the boundary shall be deterrnined by application of tlie principle of equidistance, has not becorne custornary international law. (c) Even if the rule under (b) would be applicable between the Parties, special circun~stances within the meaning of that rule would exclude the application of the equidistance method in the present case. 3. (a) The equidistance rnethod cannot be used for the delimitation of the continental shelf unless it is established by agreement, arbitration, or otherwise, that it will achieve a just and equitable apportionment of the continental shelf among the States concerned. (b) As to the delimitation of the continental shelf between the Parties in the North Sea, the Kingdom of Denrnark and the Kingdom of the Netherlands cannot rely on the application of the equidistance rnethod, since it would not lead to an equitable apportionment. 2. Que les Parties étant en désaccord, et à moins que des circonstances spéciales ne justifient une autre délimitation, la délimitation entre elles doit êtreopéréepar application du principe de I'équidistancedes points les plus proches des lignesde base àpartir desquellesest mesurée la largeur de la mer territoriale de chacun de ces Etats. 3. Que, des circonstances spéciales justifiant une autre délimitation n'ayant pas étééitablies,la délimitation entre les Parties doitêtreopéréepar application du principe de I'équidistance mentionné dans la conclusion précédente. )) Au notn des Gouvernements du Danemark et des Pays-Bas, dans la duplique cornmune: ((Plaiseà la Cour dire et juger: 4. Que, si les principes et les règles du droit international mentionnés à la conclusion no 1 des contre-mémoires ne sont pas applicables entre les Parties, la délimitation doit s'opérer entre elles sur la base des droits exclusifs de chacune des Parties sur le plateau continental adjacent a ses côtes et du principe selon lequel la délimitation doit laisserà chacune des Parties tous les points du plateau continental qui sont plus près de ses côtes que des celtesde l'autre Partie11 Au cours de la procédure orale, les conclusions ci-après ont étéprésentées par les Parties: Au nom du Gouvernement de la Républiquefidc;rale d'Allemagne, à l'audience du 5 novembre 1968 : ((1.La délimitation du plateau continental de la mer du Nord entre les Parties est régie:par le principe selon lequel chacun des Etats riverains a droità une part juste et équitable. 2. a) La méthode consistant à déterminer les limites du plateau con- tinental de telle sorte que tous les points de la ligne de délimitation soient équidistants des points les plus proches deslignes de baseàpartir desquelles est mesurée la largeur de la mer territoriale de chacun des Etats (méthode de l'équidistance) n'est pas une règle de droit international coutumier. b) La règleénoncéedans la deuxièmephrase de l'article 6, paragraphe 2, de la Convention sur le plateau continental, stipulant qu'à défautd'accord, et à moins que des circonstances spécialesne justifient une autre délimi- tation, celle-ci s'opère par application du principe de I'équidistance, n'est pas devenue une règlede droit international coutumier. c) Même siLarègle mentionnée à l'alinéab) était applicable entre les Parties, des circonstances spécialesau sens de cette règle s'opposeraient à l'application de la méthode de I'équidistance dans la présente affaire. 3. a) La méthodedel'équidistance nesaurait êtreutiliséepour délimiter le plateau continental à moins qu'il ne soit établi par voie d'accord, d'ar- bitrage, ou autrement, qu'elle assurera une répartition juste et équitable du plateau continental entre les Etats intéressés. b) En ce qui concerne la délimitation du plateau continental de la mer du Nord entre les Parties, le Royaume du Danemark et le Royaume des Pays-Bas ne peuvent se fonder sur l'application de la méthode de l'équi- distance, car elle n'aboutirait pasà une répartition équitable.12 CONTINENTALSHELF (JUDGMENT) 4. Consequently, the delimitation of the continental shelf, on which the Parties must agree pursuant to paragraph 2 of Article 1 of the Special Agreement, is determined by the principle of the just and equitable share, based on criteria relevant to the particular geographical situation in the North Sea." 011behalf'ofthe Governnlent of Det~tnark, at the hearing on 11November 1968,Counsel for that Government stated that it confirmed the Submissions presented in its Counter-Memorial and in the Common Rejoinder and that those Submissions were identical t~llrtatisrrilrtandis with those of the Government of the Netherlands. Oti behnlf'of the Govertitt~entof rile Netherlatzds, at the hearing on 1I November 1968 : "With regard to the delimitation as between the Federal Republic of Germany and the Kingdom of the Netherlands of the boundary of the areas of the continental shelf in the North Sea which appertain to each of them beyond the partial boundary determined by the Convention of 1 December 1964. May it please the Court to adjudge and declare: 1. The delimitation as between the Parties of the said areas of the con- tinental shelf in the North Sea is governed by the principles and rules of international law which are expressed in Article 6, paragrapli 2, of the Geneva Convention of 1958on the Continental Shelf. 2. The Parties being in disagreement, unless another boundary is justi- fied by special circumstances, the boundary between them is to be deter- mined by application of the principle of equidistance from the nearest points of the baselines from which the breadth of the territorial sea of each State is measured. 3. Special circumstances which justify another boundary line not having been established, the boundary between the Parties is to be determined by application of the principle of equidistance indicated in the preceding Submission. 4. If the principles and rules of international law mentioned in Sub- mission 1 are not applicable as between the Parties, the boundary is to be determined between the Parties on the basis of the exclusive rights of each Party over the continental shelf adjacent to its coast and of the principle that the boundary is to leave to each Party every point of the continental shelf which lies nearer to itsoast than to the coast of the other Party." 1. By thetwo Special Agreements respectively concluded between the Kingdom of Denmark and the Federal Republic ofGermany, and between the Federal Republic and the Kingdom of the Netherlands, the Parties havesubmitted to the Court certain differences concerning "the delimita- 4. En conséquence la délimitationdu plateau continental dont les Parties doivent convenir conformément à l'article1,paragraphe 2, du compromis est déterminéepar le principe de la part juste et équitable, en fonction de critères applicablesà la situation géographique particulière de la mer du Nord. '1 Au notn du Gouvernernent du Danemark, a l'audience du 11 novembre 1968, le conseil de ce Gouvernement a déclaré qu'il confirmait les c:onclusions présentéesdans son contre-mémoire et dans la duplique commune et que ces conclusions étaient identiques mutatis mirtandis à celles du Gouvernement des Pays-Bas. Alrnon1 du Gouvernement des Pays-Bas, à I'audience du 11 novembre 1968 : pour ce qui est de la délimitation entre la République fédérale d'Al- lemagne et le Royaume des Pays-Bas des zones du plateau continental de la mer du Nord irelevantde chacun d'eux, au-delà de la ligne de délimitation partielle déterminéepar la convention du le' décembre 1964, Plaise à la Cour dire et juger: 1. Que la délimitation entre les Parties desdites zones du plateau con- tinental de la mcerdu Nord est régiepar les principes et les règlesdu droit international érioncés à l'article 6, paragraphe 2, de la Convention de Genève de 1958sur le plateau continental. 2. Que les Parties étant en désaccord, et à moins que des circonstances spécialesnejustifient une autre délimitation, la délimitation entre elles doit êtreopérée par application du principe de I'équidistance despoints les plus proches des lignes de base à partir desquelles est mesurée la largeur de la mer territoriale de chacun de ces Etats. 3. Que, des circonstances spéciales justifiant une autre délimitation n'ayant pas étéétablies, la délimitation entre les Parties doit êtrcopérée par application du principe de I'équidistance mentionné dans la conclusion précédente. 4. Que, si les principes et les règles du droit international mentionnésà la conclusion no 1ne sont pas applicables entre les Parties, la délimitation doit s'opérerenitreelles sur la base des droits exclusifs de chacune des Par- ties sur le plateau continental adjacent à ses côtes et du principe selon lequel la délimitation doit laisser chacune des Parties tous les points du plateau continental qui sont plus près de ses côtes que des côtes de l'autre Partie.1) 1. Par les deux icompromis respectivement conclus entre le Royaume du Danemark et Ila République fédérale d'Allemagne et entre la Ré- publique fédérale d'Allemagne et le Royaume des Pays-Bas, la Cour est saisie de certaine:; divergences concernant ((la délimitation entre lestion as between the Parties of the areas of the continental shelf in the North Sea which appertain to each of themV-with the exception of those areas, situated in the immediate vicinity of the Coast, which have already been the subject of delimitation by two agreements dated 1 December 1964,and 9 June 1965,concluded in the one case between the Federal Republic and the Kingdom of the Netherlands, and in theother between the Federal Republic and the Kingdom of Denmark. 2. It is in respect of the delimitation of the continental shelf areas lying beyond and to seaward of those affected by the partial boundaries thus established, that the Court is requested by each of the two Special Agreements to decide wliat are the applicable "principles and rules of international law". TheCourt is not asked actually to delimit the further boundaries which will be involved, tliis task being reserved by the Special Agreements to the Parties, which undertake to effect such a delimitation "by agreement in pursuance of the decision requested from the ... Courtm-that is to say on the basis of, and in accordance with, the principles and rules of international law found by the Court to be applicable. 3. As described in Article 4 of the North Sea Policing of Fisheries Convention of 6 May 1882,the North Sea,which liesbetweencontinental Europe and Great Britain in the east-west direction, is roughly oval in shape and stretches from the straits of Dover northwards to a parallel drawn between a point immediately north of the Shetland Islands and the mouth of the Sogne Fiord in Norway, about 75 kilometres above Bergen, beyond which is the North Atlantic Ocean. In the extreme north- west, it is bounded by a line connecting the Orkney and Shetland island groups; while on its north-eastern side, the line separating it from the entrances to the Baltic Sea lies between Hanstholm at the north-west point of Denmark, and Lindesnes at the southern tip of Norway. East- ward of this line the Skagerrak begins. Thus, the North Sea has to some extent the general look of an enclosed sea without actually being one. Round its shores are situated, on its eastern side and starting from the north, Norway, Denmark, the Federal Republic of Germany, the Nether- lands, Belgium and France; while the whole western side is taken up by Great Britain, together with the island groups of the Orkneys and Shet- lands. From this it will beseen that the continental shelf of the Federal Republic is situated between those of Denmark and the Netherlands. 4. The waters of the North Sea are shallow, and the whole seabed consists of continental shelf at a depth of less than 200 rnetres, except for the formation known as the Norwegian Trough, a belt of water 200-650 metres deep, fringing the southern and south-western coasts of Norway to a width averaging about 80-100kilometres. Much the greater part of this continental shelf has already been the subject of delimitationParties des zones du plateau continental de la mer du Nord relevant de chacune d'elles», à l'exception des zones situéeà proximité immédiate de la côte qui ont déjàétédélimitéespar deux accords signésles 1" dé- cembre 1964et 9 juin 1965entre la République fédéraleet le Royaume des Pays-Bas et entre la République fédéraleet le Royaume du Dane- mark. 2. C'està propos de la délimitation des zones du plateau continental prolongeant vers le large les zones déjàdélimitéesque la Cour est priée dans chacun des deux compromis de décider«quels sont les principes et les règles du droit international applicables)). 11n'est pas demandà la Cour d'établir effectivement les limites prolongées dont il s'agit; aux termes des comprornis, cette tâche est réservéeaux Parties qui s'engagent à procéder à la délimitation ((par voie d'accord conclu conformément à la décision demaridée à la CourD,c'est-à-dire sur la base et en confor- mité desprincipes e:tdes règlesde droit international tenus par la Cour pour applicables. 3. La mer du Nord, telle qu'elle estdécriàl'article 4 de la convention du 6 mai 1882sur la police de la pêchedans la mer du Nord, a en gros la forme d'un ovale limité à l'est par le continent européen àtl'ouest par la Grande-Bretagne:; à partir du Pas de Calais, elle s'étend vers lenord jusqu'au parallèle passant immédiatement au nord des Shetland et ren- contrant la Norvège à l'embouchure du Sognefjord (à soixante-quinze kilomètres environ au nord de Bergen), qui marque le début de l'Atlan- tique nord. Elle est.bornée à son extrémité nord-ouest par la ligne qui joint les Orcades aux Shetland et, au nord-est, elleest séparéedes détroits de la Batique par une ligne allant de Hanstholm (points nord-ouest du Danemark) au cap Lindesnes (extrémité méridionale de laNorvège); au-delà commence le Skagerrak. Ainsi, sans constituer réellement une mer fermée,la mer du Nord en présentedans une certaine mesure l'ap- parence générale. Elleest bordée à l'est et en partant du nord par la Norvège, leDanemark, la Républiquefédérale d'Allemagne, lesPays-Bas, la Belgique et la France, tout le côté ouest étant occupépar la Grande- Bretagne, avec les archipels des Orcades et des Shetland. Le plateau continental de la R.épubliquefédéraleest donc situé entre les plateaux continentaux du Danemark ct des Pays-Bas. 4. Lamer du Nord est peu profonde et son lit est entièrement cons- titué par un plateau continental à une profondeur de moins de deux cents mètres,à 1'exc:eptiond'une bande de deux centà sixcent cinquante mètres de profonde:ur, dite fosse norvégienne, qui longe les côtes sud et sud-ouest de la Norvège sur une largeur moyenne de quatre-vingts à cent kilomètres. La majeure partie de ce plateau continental a déjàby a series ofagreementsconcluded between the United Kingdom (which, as stated, lies along the whole westernide of it) and certain of the States on the eastern side, namely Norway, Denmark and the Netherlands. These three delimitations were carried out by the drawing of what are known as "median lines" which, for immediate present purposes, may be described as boundaries drawn between the continental shelf areas of "opposite" States, dividing the intervening spaces equally between them. These lines are shown on Map 1on page 15,together with a similar line, also established by agreement, drawn between the shelf areas of Norway and Denmark. Theoretically it would be possible also to draw the follow- ing median lines in the North Sea, namely United KingdomIFederal Republic (which would lie east of the present line United Kingdoml Norway-Denmark-Netherlands) ;Norway/Federal Republic(whichwould liesouth of the present lineNorwayIDenmark); and NorwayINetherlands (which would lie north of whatever line is eventually determined to be the continental shelf boundary between the Federal Republic and the Netherlands). Even if these median lines were drawn however, the question would arise whether the United Kingdom, Norway and the Netherlands could take advantage of them as against the parties to the existing delimitations,since these lines would, it seems, in each case lie beyond (i.e., respectively to the east, south and north of) the boundaries already effectiveunder the existing agreements at present in force. This is illustrated by Map 2 on page 15. 5. In addition to the partialboundarylines Federal Republic/Denmark and Federal Republic/Netherlands, which, as mentioned in paragraph 1 above, were respectively established by the agreements of 9 June 1965 and 1 December 1964, and which are shown as lines A-B and C-D on Map 3 on page 16, another line has been drawn in this area, namely that represented by the line E-F on that map. This line, which divides areas respectively claimed (to the north of it) by Denmark, and (to the south of it) by the Netherlands, is the outcome of an agreement between those two countries dated 31 March 1966,reflecting the view taken by them as to what are the correct boundary lines between their respective continental shelf areas and that of the Federal Republic, beyond the partial boundaries A-B and C-D already drawn. These further and un- agreed boundaries to seaward, are shown on Map 3 by means of the dotted lines B-E and D-E. They are the lines, the correctness of which in law the Court is in effect, though indirectly, called upon to determine. Also shown on Map 3 are the two pecked lines B-F and D-F, repre- senting approximately the boundaries which the Federal Republic would have wished to obtain in the course of the negotiations that took place between the Federal Republic and the other two Parties prior to the submission of the matter to the Court.The nature of these negotiations must now be described.été délimitép ear lune série d'accords conclus entre le Royaume-Uni (qui, comme on l'a vu, le borde en totalité du côté ouest)et certains des Etats riverains du côtéest: la Norvège, le Danemark et les Pays-Bas. Ces trois délimitations ont étéréaliséespar le tracéde lignes dites ((médiane)) qui, pour le moment, peuvent êtredécrites comme divisant en parties égales unplateau continental situé entre des Etats ((sefaisant face)).Ces lignes apparaissent sur la carte 1 (page 15), de mêmequ'une ligne ana- logue également établiepar voie d'accord et délimitant les zones de plateau continental de la Norvège et du Danemark. En théorie, l'on pourrait aussi tracer dans la mer du Nord des lignes médianesentre le Royaume-Uni et la République fédérale (à l'est de l'actuelle ligne Roy- aume-UniiNorvège-Danemark-Paye snteala)N,orvège et la Répu- blique fédérale(au sud de l'actuelle ligne NorvègeIDanemark) et entre la Norvège et les Pays-Bas (au nord de la ligne, quelle qu'elle soit, qui sera finalement retl:nue comme délimitant le plateau continental entre la République fédkrale et les Pays-Bas). Mais, si ces lignes médianes étaient tracées,la question se poserait de savoir si le Royaume-Uni, la Norvègeet les Pays,-Baspourraient s'en prévaloir à l'encontre des parties aux accords de délimitation en vigueur, car elles seraient, semble-t-il, situées au-delà (c'est-à-dire respectivement à l'est, au sud et au nord) des limites déjà convenuesdans les accords actuellement existants. Cela ressort de la carte;!(page 15). 5. Outre les lignes de délimitation partielle République fédéralel Danemark et République fédérale/Pays-Basqui, comme il est dit au paragraphe 1 ci-dessus, ont étérespectivement établiespar les accords du 9juin 1965et du le' décembre1964et qui sont représentéespar les lignes A-B et C-D sur la carte 3 (page 16),une autre ligne a été traceans cette partie de la mer du Nord: elle est figuréesur la mêmecarte par la ligne E-F. Cette ligne, qui séparedes zones, revendiquéesau nord par le Dane- mark et au sud par les Pays-Bas, résulted'un accord du 31 mars 1966 entre les deux pays et correspond à la conception qu'ils se faisaient des limites entre leurs zones de plateau continental et celle de la République fédéraleail-delà de la délimitation partielle déjàeffectuéesuivant A-B et C-D. Ces limites, qui n'ont pas été reconnues, sont représentéessur la carte 3 par les ligne,$pointilléesB-E et D-E. Ce sont les lignes sur le bien- fondéjuridique desquelles la Cour est en fait, encore qu'indirectement, appelée à se prononcer. On peut aussi voir sur la carte 3 deux lignes de tiretsB-F et D-F indiquant approximativement les limites que la Ré- publique fédéraleaurait voulu obtenir au cours des négociations menées avec les deux autres Parties avant que la Cour soit saisie. 11convient d'indiquer ici en quoi ont consistéces négociations. Map 1 Carte 1 (See paragraphs 3 alid 4) ( Voirparagraphes 3 et 4) 200 metres line ..............,......,......... Isobathe des 200 mètres -------- Limits fixed by the Limites définies par la 1882 Convention convention de 1882 Median lines Lignes médianes Map 2 Carte 2 (See paragraph4) ( Voirparagraphe 4) United Kingdom/Norway- Royaume-Uni /Norvège- Denmark-Netherlands Danemark-Pays-Bas and Nor\vay:Denmark: etN0rvège:Danemark ------ Royaume-Uni,'République United KingdomiFederal Republic fédérale NorwayiFederal Republic --------- Norvège/République fédérale Norway INetherlands Map 3 Carte 3 (See paragraphs 5-9) (Voirparagraphes 5-9) The maps in the present Jlcdgment Les cartes jointes auprésc.titarrêtont were prepared on the basis of docli- été établies d'apri.~ les docunzents ments submitted to the Court by the soumis à la Courpar lesParties et ont Parties, and their sole purpose is to pour seul objet d'illustrer graphiquc- provide a visual illustration of the ment les paragraphes de l'arrêtqui paragraphs of the Judgment which s'y rkfèrent. refer tothem.Sketches illustratingthe geogra- Croquisillustratifsdessituations phical situations described in géographiques décriteasu para- paragraph 8 of the Judgrnent graphe 8 de l'arrêt 17 17 CONTINENTAL SHELF (JUDGMENT) 6. Under the agreements of December 1964 and June 1965, already mentioned, the partial boundaries represented by the map lines A-B and C-D had, according to the information furnished to the Court by the Parties, been drawn mainly by application of the principle of equidis- tance, using that term as denoting the abstract concept of equidistance. A line so drawn, known as an "equidistance line", may be described as one which leaves to each of the parties concerned al1those portions of the continental shelf that are nearer to a point on its own coast than they are to anypoint on the coast of the other Party. An equidistance line may consist either of a "median" line between "opposite" States, or of a "lateral" line between "adjacent" States. In certain geographical con- figurations of wliich the Parties furnished examples, a given equidistance line may partake in varying degree of the nature both of a median and of a lateral line. There exists nevertheless a distinction to be drawn between the two, which will be mentioned in its place. 7. The further negotiations between the Parties for the prolongation of the partial boundaries broke down mainly because Denmark and the Netherlands respectively wished this prolongation also to be effected on the basis of the equidistance principle,-and this would have resulted in the dotted lines B-Eand D-E, shown on Map 3; whereas the Federal Republic considered that such an outcome would be inequitable because it would unduly curtail what the Republic believed should be its proper share of continental shelf area, on the basis of proportionality to the length of its North Sea coastline. It will be observed that neither of the lines in question, taken by itself, would produce this effect, but only both of them together-an element regarded by Denmark and the Netherlands asirrelevant to what they viewed as being two separate and self-contained delimitations, each of which should be carried out without reference to the other. 8. The reason for the result that would be produced by the two lines B-Eand D-E, taken conjointly, isthat in the case ofa concave or recessing coast such as that of the Federal Republic on the North Sea, the effect of the use of the equidistance method is to pull the line of the boundary inwards, in the direction of the concavity. Consequently, where two such lines are drawn at different points on a concave coast, they will, if the curvature is pronounced, inevitably meet at a relatively short distance from the coast, thus causing thecontinentalshelfarea they enclose, to take the form approximately of a triangle with its apex to seaward and, as it was put on behalf of the Federal Republic, "cutting off" the coastal State from the further areas of the continental shelf outside of and beyond this triangle. The effect of concavity could of course equally be produced for a country with a straight coastline if the coasts of adjacent countries protruded immediately on either side of it. Tncontrast to this, the effect of coastal projections, or of convex or outwardly curving coasts such as are, to a moderate extent, those of Denmark and theNetherlands, is to cause boundary lines drawn on an equidistance basis to leave the 6. Dans les accorclssusmentionnés de décembre1964et juin 1965,les limites partielles représentéessur lacartepar leslignesA-Bet C-D avaient été tracées, selonles indications données à la Courpar lesParties, essen- tiellement par application du principede l'équidistance- cette expression étantemployéepour désignerle concept abstrait d'équidistance. Laligne construite suivant ce principe, ou ((ligned'équidistance11peut êtredéfinie comme celle qui attribue à chacune des parties intéresséestoutes lespor- tions du plateau continental plus proches d'un point de sacôteque detout point situé sur la côte de l'autre partie. La ligne d'équidistance peutêtre soit une ligne ((médiane))entre Etats ((sefaisant face)), soit une ligne ((latérale) entre Et& ((limitrophes1).Dans certaines configurations géographiques dont les Parties ont fourni des exemples, la ligne d'équi- distance peut revêtir à des degrés diversle double caractère d'une ligne médianeet d'une ligne latérale. Une distinction existe néanmoins entre ces deux types de ligfies,ainsi qu'il sera indiqué par la suite. 7. Les négociations reprises entre les Parties en vue de prolonger les limites partielles ont échouéprincipalement parce que le Danemark et les Pays-Bas souhaitaient que le prolongement s'effectuât aussi d'après le principe de I'équid.istance,ce qui aboutissaità un tracé correspondant aux lignes pointilléesB-E et D-E de la carte 3; or la République fédérale jugeait ce résultat inéquitable parce qu'il réduisait exagérémentce qu'elle estimait devoir êtresa juste part de plateau continental en pro- portion de la longueur de son littoral sur la mer du Nord. II est à noter que ce résultat n'était pas attribuable à l'une ou l'autre des lignes prise isolément, mais à l'effet combinédes deux lignes prises ensemble, effet que le Danemark et les Pays-Bas considéraient comme sans pertinence, s'agissant à leur avis de deux délimitations distinctes et autonomes dont chacune devait être effectuée sans qu'il soit tenu compte de l'autre. 8. L'effetcombinédes deux lignes B-E et D-E s'explique comme suit. Dans lecas d'une côteconcave ou rentrante comme cellede la République fédéralesur la mer di1Nord, l'application de laméthodede l'équidistance tend à infléchir les:lignesde délimitation vers la concavité. Par suite, quand deux lignes d'équidistance sont tracées à partir d'une côte très concave, elles se rencontrent inévitablement à une distance relativement faible de la côte; lazone de plateau continental qu'elles encadrent prend donc la forme d'une sorte de triangle au sommet dirigévers le large, ce qui, pour reprendre le terme de la République fédérale, ((ampute))1'Etat riverain des zones di: plateau continental situéesen dehors du triangle. Il est évident que le même effetde concavité peut se produire si un Etat ayant une côte droite est encadrépar deux Etats dont les côtes les plus proches font saillie par rapport à la sienne. A l'opposé, si lacôte d'un Etat présentedes saillants ou a une configuration convexe, ce qui est dans une certaine mesure le cas des côtes du Danemark et des Pays- Bas, les lignesde délimitation tracéesd'aprèsla méthodede I'équidistance s'écartent l'une de l'autre, de sorte que la zone de plateau continental 18 CONTINENTAL SHELF (JUDGMENT) coast on divergent courses, thus having a widening tendency on the area of continental shelf off that coast. These two distinct effects, which are shown in sketches T-TT1 to be found on page 16, are directly attributable to the use of the equidistance method of delimiting continental shelf boundaries off recessing or projecting coasts. It goes without saying that on these types of coasts the equidistance method produces exactly similar effects in the delimitation of the lateral boundaries of the territorial sea of the States concerned. However, owing to the very close proximity of SLIC~waters to the coasts concerned, these effects are much less marked and may be very slight,-and there are other aspects involved, which will be considered in their place. It will suffice to mention here that, for instance, a deviation from a line drawn perpendicular to the general direction of the coast, of only 5 kilometres, at a distance of about 5 kilometres from that coast, will grow into one of over30 at a distance of over 100 kilometres. 9. After the negotiations, separately held between the Federal Republic and the other two Parties respectively, had in each case, for the reasons given in the two preceding paragraphs, failed to result in any agreement about the delimitation of the boundary extending beyond the partial one already agreed, tripartite talks between al1the Parties took place in The Hague in February-March 1966, in Bonn in May and again iii Copenhagen in August. These also proving fruitless, it was then decided to submit the matter to the Co~~rt.In the meantime the Governments of Denmark and the Netherlands had, by means of the agreement of 3 1March 1966,already referred to (paragraph 5),proceeded to a delimita- tion as between themselves of the continental shelf areas lying between the apex of the triangle notionally ascribed by them to the Federal Republic (point E on Map 3)and the median line already drawn in the North Sea, by means of a boundary drawn on equidistance principles, meeting that liiie at the point marked F on Map 3. On 25 May 1966, the Government of the Federal Republic, tnking the view that this delimitation was rcsitzter dios acta, notified the Governments of Den- mark and the Netherlands, by means of an aide-mémoire, that the agreement thus concluded could not "have any effect on the question of the delimitation of the German-Netherlands or the German-Danish parts of the continental shelf in the North Sea". 10. In pursuance of the tripartite arrangements that had been made at Bonn and Copenhagen, as described in the preceding paragraph, Special Agreements for the submission to the Court of the differences involved were initialled in August 1966 and signed on 2 February 1967. By a tripartite Protocol signed the same day it was provided (a) that the Government of the Kingdom of the Netherlands would notify the two Special Agreements to the Court, in accordance with Article 40, paragraph 1,of the Court's Statute, together with the text of the Protocol itself: (6) that after such notification, the Parties would ask the Court to join the two cases: and (c) that for the purpose of the appointmentdevant cette côte tend à aller en s'élargissant. Ces deux effets distincts, représentéssur les croquis 1à III(page 16), sont directement imputables à l'application de la1méthode de l'équidistance lorsque le plateau coii- tinental à délimiter s'étenddevant une côte rentrante ou saillante. 11va sans dire que la méthode de l'équidistance a exactement les mêmes effetslorsqu'il s'agit de déterminer devant le mêmegenre de côte les limites latérales de la mer territoriale des Etats intéressés.Etant donné cependant que les eaux territoriales sont à proximité immédiate de la terre, l'effet est beaucoup moins marqué, voire très faible, et d'autres élémentsentrent en jeu, qui seront examinés en temps utile. II suffira pour le moment d'olbserver que par exemple un écart, par rapport à une ligne tracée perpendiculairement à la direction générale de la côte, qui ne serait que de cinq kilomètres à une distance de cinq kilomètres en- viron de la côte dépasserait trente kilomètres à plus de cent kilomètres. 9. Pour les raisons indiquées aux deux paragraphes précédents,les négociations menéesséparémententre la République fédéraleet chacune des deux autres Parc.iesn'ont pu aboutir à aucun accord sur la fixation de limites au-delà des lignes de délimitation partielle déjà convenues. Des pourparlers tripartites se sont ensuite tenus en 1966, à La Haye en février-mars puis à Bonn en mai et à Copenhague en août. Ces pour- parlers s'étant kgalement révéléisnfructueux, il a étédécidéde soumettre le problème à la Cour. Entre-temps, par l'accord du 31 mars 1966 déjà mentionné au paragraphe 5, les Gouvernements du Danemark et des Pays-Bas avaient procédéà une délimitation, entre leurs deux pays, des zones de plateau continental comprises entre le soinmet du triangle qu'ils attribuaient tliéoriquement à la République fédérale(point E de la carte 3) et la ligne médiane qui avait déjà été tracéedans la mer du Nord; pour ce faire, ils avaient tracésuivant le principe de I'éqiiidistance une limite rencontrant la ligne médianeau point F de la carte 3. L25 mai 1966,estimant que cette délimitation étaitresinte rliosuctu, le Gouverne- de la République fédérale a adresséaux Gouvernements du Danemark et des Pays-Bas un aide-mémoire par lequel il leur notifiait que l'accord ainsi conclu nesaura.it ((enrien affecter la question de la délimitation des parties germano-néerlandaise ou germano-danoise du plateau continental de la mer de Nord )). 10.A la suite de la décision prise à Bonn et à Copenhague par les trois Etats et évoquéeau paragraphe précédent, des compromis sou- mettant à la Cour les divergences entre les Parties ont étéparaphés en août 1966 et signés le 2 février 1967. Un protocole tripartite signé le mêmejour prévoyait: a) que le Gouvernement du Royaume des Pays-Bas notifierait les deux compromis à la Cour, conformément à l'article 40, paragraphe 1, du Statut de la Cour, en mêmetemps que le texte du protocole lui-même; 6) qu'une fois cette notification faiteles Parties demanderaient à la Cour de joindre les deux instances; c) qu'aux fins de la désignation d'un juge ad hoc les Royaumes du Danemark et des 19 CONTI~TNTAL SHELF (JUDGMENT) of a judge ad hoc, the Kingdoms of Denmark and the Netherlands should be considered as being in the same interest within the rneaning of Article 31,paragraph 5, of the Court's Statute. Following upon these communications, duly made to it in the implementation of the Protocol, the Court, by an Order dated 26 April 1968, declared Denmark and the Netherlands to be in the same interest, and joined the proceedings in the two cases. 11. Although the proceedings have thus been joined, the cases thein- selves remain separate, at least in the sense that they relate to different areas of the North Sea continental shelf, and that tliere is no a priori reason why the Court must reach identical conclusions in regard to them,-if for instance geographical features present in the one case were not present in the other. At the same time, the legal arguments presented on behalf of Denmark and the Netherlands, both before and since the joinder, have been substantially identical, apart from certain matters of detail, and have been presented either in commori or in close co-opera- tion. To this extent therefore, the two cases may be treated as one; and it must be noted that althoughtwo separate delimitations are in question, they involve-indeed actually give rise to-a single situation. The fact that the question of either of these delimitations might have arisen and called for settlement separately in point of tiine, does not alter the character of the problem with which the Court is actually faced, having regard to the nianner in which the Parties themselves have brouglit the matter before it, as described in the two preceding paragraphs. 12. In conclusioi~ as to the facts, it should bc noted that the Federal Republic has formally reserved its position, not only in regard to the Danish-Netlierlands delimitation of the lineE-F (Map 3),as noted in paragraph 9, but also in regard to the delimitations United Kingdom Denmark and United Kingdom/Netherlands mentioned in paragraph 4. In both the latter cases the Governinent of the Federal Republic pointed out to al1 the Governments concerned that the question of the lateral delimitation of the continental shelf in the North Sea between the Federal Repiiblic and the Kingdoms of Denmark and the Netherlands was still outstanding and could not be prejudiced by the agreements concluded between those two countries and the United Kingdom. 13. Such are the events and geographical facts in the light of which the Court has to determine what principles and rules of international law are applicable to the delimitation of the areas of continental shelf involved. On this question the Parties have taken up fundamentally different positions. On behalf of the Kingdoms of Denmark and the Netherlands it is contended that the whole matter is governed by aPays-Bas seraient considérés comme faisant cause commune au sens de l'article 31, paragraphe 5, du Statut de la Cour. Ces communications lui ayant étédûment faites en exécutiondu protocole, la Cour a constaté, par ordonnance dii 26 avril 1968, que le Danemark et les Pays-Bas faisaient cause communeet elle a joint les instances dans les deux affaires. 11. Malgré la jonction des instances, les affaires restent distinctes en ceci au moins qu'ellles ont trait à des zones différentes du plateau con- tinent;il de la mer du Nord et qu'il n'y a pas de raison à .-riori que la Cour parvienne à leur égard à des conclusions identiques: il se pourrait, par exemple, que (certaines particularités giographiques existent dans l'un des cas, mais non dans l'autre. 11reste qu'avant comme après la jonction des instances les arguments juridiques du Danemark et des Pays-Bas ont étSen substance les mêmes, sauf sur certains points de détail, et qu'ils ont étéprésentéssoit en commun, soit en étroite coopé- ration. Dans cette mesure les deux affaires peuvent donc être traitées comme une seule e:t l'on doit constater que, si deux délimitations dis- tinctes sont en cause, elles concernent - on peut mêmedire qu'elles créent - une situa.tion unique. S'il est vrai que les questions relatives ces deux délimitations auraient pu se présenter et êtrerégléesà des mo- ments différents, cela ne modifie en rien la nature du problème qui se pose en fait~àla Cour, vu la façon dont les Parties elles-mêmesl'ont saisie (voir les deux paragraphes précédents). 12. Pour achever l'exposé des faits, il conkient de rappeler que la Képublique fédéralea formellement réservé saposition non seulement l'égard de la délimitation dano-néerlandaise suivant la ligne E-F de la carte 3 comme il a été indiquéau paragraphe 9, mais également au sujet des délimitations entre le Royaume-Uni et le Daneniark et entre le Royaume-Uni et les Pays-Bas mentionnées au paragraphe 4. Dans ces deux derniers cas, le Gouvernment de la République fédéralea attiré l'attention de tous les gouvernements intéresséssur le fait que la question de la délimitation latéraledu plateau continental de la mer du Nord entre la République féd6rale et les Royaumes du Danemark et des Pays-Bas n'étaitpas encore rkgléeet que les accords conclus entre ces deux pays et le Royaume-Uni ne pouvaient en préjuger la solution. 13. Tels sont les événementset les faits géographiques au vu desquels la Cour doit déterminer quels sont les principes et les règles de droit in- ternational applicables à la délimitation des zones de plateau continental en cause. A ce sujet, les Parties ont adopté des positions fondamentale- ment différentes. Les Royaumes du Danemark et des Pays-Bas soutien- nent que l'ensemble de la question est régipar une règle de droit obliga-mandatory rule of law which, reflecting the language of Article 6 of the Convention on the Continental Shelf concluded at Geneva on 29 April 1958,was designated by them as the "equidistance-special circumstances" rule. According to this contention, "equidistance" is not merely a method of the cartographical construction of a boundary line, but the essential eleinent in a rule of law which may be stated as follows,-namely that in the absence of agreement by the Parties to employ another method or to proceed to a delimitation on an url hoc basis, al1 continental shelf boundaries must be drawn by means of an equidistance line, unless, or except to theextent to which, "special circumstances" are recognized to exist,-an equidistance line being, it will be recalled, a line every point on which is the same distance away from whatever point is nearest to it on the coast of each of the countries concerned-or rather, strictly, on the baseline of the territorial sea along that coast. As regards what constitutes "special circumstances", al1 that need be said at this stage is that according to the view put forward on behalf of Denmark and the Netherlands, the configuration of the German North Sea coast, its recessive character, and the fact that it makes nearly a right-angled bend in mid-course,would not of itself constitute, for either of the two bound- ary lines concerned, a special circumstance calling for or warranting a departure fromthe equidistance method of delimitation :only the presence of some special feature, minor in itself-such as an islet or small pro- tuberance-but so placed as to produce a disproportionately distorting effect on an otherwise acceptable boundary line would, soit was claimed, possess this character. 14. These various contentions, together with the view that a rule of equidistance-special circumstances is binding on the Federal Republic, are founded by Denmark and theNetherlands partly on the 1958Geneva Convention on theContinental Shelf already mentioned (preceding para- graph), and partly on general considerations of law relating to the conti- nental shelf, lying outside this Convention. Similar considerations are eqiially put forward to found the contention that the delimitation on an equidistance basis of the line E-F (Map 3) by the Netherlands-Danish agreement of 31 March 1966 (paragraph 5 above) is valid erga omnes, and must be respected by the Federal Republic unless it can demonstrate the existence of juridically relevant "special circumstances". 15. The Federal Republic, for its part, while recognizing the utility of equidistance as a method of delimitation, and that this method can in many cases be employed appropriately aiid with advantage, denies its obligatory character for States not parties to the Geneva Convention, and contends that the correct rule to be applied, at any rate in such circumstances as those of the North Sea, is one according towhich each of the States concerned should have a "just and equitable share" of the available continental shelf, in proportion to the length of its coastline or sea-frontage. Tt was also contended on behalf of the Federal Republictoire qu'ils appellent règle ((équidistance-circonstances spéciales)), en s'inspirant des ternies de l'article 6 de la Convention de Genève du 29 avril 1958sur le plateau continental. Selon cette thèse, l'équidistance n'est pas simplement une méthodede construction cartographique, mais l'élément essentied l'une règlede droit qui peut s'énoncerainsi: à défaut d'un accord entre les parties en vue d'employer une autre méthode ou de se fonder sur le!;élémentsde fait de l'espèce,toute délimitation de plateau continental doit suivre la ligne d'équidistance, sauf dans la mesure où l'existence de ~ccirconstancesspéciales))est reconnue - la ligne d'équidistance étant, comme l'on sait, une ligne dont chaque point est à égaledistance du point le plus proche de la côte de chacun des pays intéressésou, plus précisément,de la ligne de base de la mer territoriale bordant cette côte. Quant à ce qu'il faut entendre par cccirconstances spéciales »,il suffira de dire pour le moment que, d'après le Danemark et les Pays-Bas, la concavité de la côte allemande de la mer du Nord, qui change de direction en son milieu presque à angle droit, ne constit soi, ni pour l'une ni pour l'autre des deux lignes de délimitation en cxe? une circonstance spéciale appelant ou justifiant une dérogation à la méthode de délimitation fondée sur l'équidistance. A leur avis, seule pourrait constituer une telle circonstance spéciale une particularité mineure en soi, corrime un îlot ou un légersaillant, mais produisant sur une limite par ailleurs acceptable un effet de déviation disproportionné. 14. C'est en partie sur la Convention de Genève de 1958sur le plateau continental, mentionnée au paragraphe précédent,et en partie sur des considérations juridiques de caractère généralayant trait au plateau continental mais extérieures à la Convention que le Danemark et les Pays-Bas font reposer ces diverses thèses etnotamment leur opinion selon laquelle une règle équidistance-circonstances spéciales lierait la Répu- blique fédérale.Ils se fondent sur des considérations analogues pour dire que la délimitation opéréed'après l'équidistance, suivant la ligne E-F de la carte 3, par l'accord du 31 mars 1966entre les Pays-Bas et le Danemark (voir paragraphe 5 ci-dessus) est valableuga omr7es et doit être respectée par la République Edérale, à moins que celle-ci puisse démontrer I'exis- tence de ~ccirconstacicesspécial esjuridiquement admissibles. 15. Sans méconnaître l'utilité de l'équidistance comme méthode de délimitation ni lefait que cette méthode puisse êtreappropriée et présen- ter des avantages dans de nombreux cas, la République fédérale lui refuse pour sa part tout caractère obligatoire à l'égard desEtats qui ne sont pas parties à la Convecition de Genève. Elle affirme que la véritable règle à appliquer, au moins dans les circonstances propres à la mer du Nord, est la règle suivant laquelle chacun des Etats en cause devrait obtenir une ((partjuste et équitable )du plateau continental disponible, propor- tionnellement à la longueur de son littoral ou de son front de mer. Ellethat in a sea shaped as is the North Sea, the whole bed of which, except for the Norwegian Trough, consists of continental shelf at a depth of less than 200 metres, and where the situation of the circumjacent States causes a natural convergence of their respective continental shelf areas, towards a central point situated on the median line of the whole seabed -or at any rate in those localities where this is the case-each of the States concerned is entitled to a continental shelf area extending up to this central point (in effect a sector), or at least extending to themedian line at some point or other. In this way the "cut-off effect, of which the Federal Republic complains, caused, as explained in paragraph 8, by the drawing of equidistance lines at the two ends of an inward curving or recessed coast, would be avoided.As a means of giving effect to these ideas, the Federal Republic proposed the method of the "coastal front", or façade, constituted by a straight baseline joining these ends, upon which the necessary geometrical constructions would be erected. 16. Alternatively, the Federal Republic claimed that if, contrary to its main contention, the equidistance method was held to be applicable, then the configuration of the German North Sea coast constituted a "special circumstance" such as to justify a departure from that method of delimitation in this particular case. 17. In putting forward these contentions, it was stressed on behalf of the Federal Republic that the claim for a just and equitable share did not in any way involve asking the Court to give a decision e.\:aequo et botzo (which, having regard to the terms of paragraph 2 of Article 38 of the Court's Statute, would not be possible without the consent of the Parties),-for the priiiciple of the just and equitable share was one of the recognized general principles of law which, by virtue of paragraph 1 (c) of the same Article, the Court was entitled to apply as a matter of the justifia distributivwhich entered into al1legal systems. It appeared, moreover, that whatever its underlying motivation, the claim of the Federal Republic was, at least ostensibly, to a just and equitable share of the space involved, rather than to a share of the natural resources as such, mineral or other, to be found in it, the location of which could not in any case be fully ascertained at present. On the subject of location the Court has in fact received some, though not complete information, but has not thought it necessary to pursue the matter, since the question of natural resources is less one of delimitation than of eventual exploita- tion. 18. It will be convenient to consider first the contentions put forward on behalf of the Federal Republic. The Court does not feel able to accept them-at least in the particular form they have taken. Ttconsiderssoutient égalementqu'étant donné la formede la mer du Nord, dont le lit est entièrement constitué, a l'exception de la fosse norvégienne, par un plateau continerital à une profondeur de moins de deux cents mètres et où la situation des Etats circonvoisins a pour conséquence naturelle de faire converger leurs zones de plateau continental vers un point central situésur la ligne mkdiane divisant tout le lit de la mer, chacun des Etats intéresséspeut, au moins dans la partie où cette convergence existe, prétendre à ce que sa zone aille jusqu'à ce point central (formant ainsi un secteur) ou atteigne en tout cas un point quelconque de la ligne mé- diane. Ainsi disparaîtrait l'effet'((amputation 1dont se plaint la Répu- blique fédéraleet qui résulte, comme on l'a vu au paragraphe 8, du tracé de lignes d'équidistance aux deux extrémitésd'une côte concave ou rentrante. Pour mettre ces idéesen pratique, la République fédérale propose la méthode dela ((façademaritime ))qui serait constituée par la ligne de base droite réunissant les extrémités dela côte et à partir de laquelle s'effectueraient les constructions géométriquesnécessaires. 16. Subsidiairemt:nt la République fédéralesoutient que, dans le cas où, contrairement (i sa thèse principale, la méthode de l'équidistance serait considérée coinme applicable, la configuration ue la côte allemande de la mer du Nord constituerait une circonstance spéciale justifiant que l'on s'écarte de cetteméthodeen l'espèce. 17. Dans l'exposé de ces thèse, la Républiq~e fédéralea souligné qu'en revendiquant une part juste et équitableelle n'invitait nullement la Cour à statuer p.\:ueqzloet hotio, ce qui, vu l'article 38, paragraphe 2, du Statut de la Cour, ne serait possible qu'avec l'assentiment des Parties; elle considère en effet que le principe de la part juste et équitable est l'un des principes gknérauxde droit reconnus qu'en vertu du paragraphe 1 c)du mêmearticle de son Statut la Cour est habilitée à appliquer au titre de lajusticz distributive, partie intégrante de tous lessystèmesjuridiques. Il semble en outre que la demande de la République fédérale, quels qu'en soient les motifs réels,porte, du moins dans sa présentation, sur une part juste et équitablede l'espaceen cause plutôt que sur une part des ressources minérales ou autres ressources naturelles que l'on pourrait y trouver et dont I'em~lacementne saurait de toute manière être exactement déterminépour le rhoment. La Cour a obtenu certains renseignements, encore qu'incomplets, sur cette dernière question mais elle n'a pas jugé nécessaire d'insister, car cela concerne l'exploitation éventuelle des ressources du plateau continental plus encore que sa délimitation. 18. Pour la commodité de l'exposé, ilest préférable d'examineren premier lieu les thè:jesprésentéesau nom de la République fédérale.La Cour n'estime pas pouvoir les accepter, du moins sous la forme qui that, having regard both to the language of the Special Agreements and to more general considerations of law relating to the régime of the continental shelf, its task in the present proceedings relates essentially to the delimitation and not the apportionment of the areas concerned, or their division into converging sectors. Delimitation is a process whicli involves establishing the boundaries of an area already, in principle, appertaining to the coastal State and not the determination d~ noro of such an area. Delimitation in an equitable manner is one thing, but not the saine thing as awarding a just and equitable share of a previously undelimited area, even though in a number of cases the results may be comparable, or even identical. 19. More important is the fact that the doctrine of the just and equi- table share appears to be wholly at variance with what the Court enter- tains no doubt is the most fundamental of al1 the rules of law relating to the continental shelf, enshrined in Article 2 of the 1958 Geneva Con- vention, though quite independent of it,-namely that the rights of the coastal State in respect of the area of continental shelf that constitutes a natural prolongation of its land territory into and under the sea exist ipso fucto and ab initio, by virtue of its sovereignty over the land, and as an extension of it in an exercise of sovereign rights for the purpose of exploring the seabe 'and exploiting its naturalÏresources. In short, there is here an inhere t right. In order to exercise it, no special legal process has to be gone through, nor have any special legal acts to be performed. Its existence can be declared (and many States have done this) but does not need to be constituted. Furthermore, the right does not depend on its being exercised. To echo the language of the Geneva Convention, it is "exclusive" in the sense that if the coastal State does not choose to explore or exploit the areas of shelf appertaining to it, that is its own affair, but no one else may do so without its express consent. 20. Tt follows that even in such a situation as that of the North Sea, the notion of apportioning an as yet undelimited area, considered as a whole (which underlies the doctrine of the just and equitable share), is quite foreign to, and inconsistent with, the basic concept of continental shelf entitlement, according to which the process of delimitation is essentially one of drawing a boundary line between areas which already appertain to one or other of the States affected. The delimitation itself must indeed be equitably effected, but it cannot have as its object the awarding of an equitable share, or indeed of a share, as such, at ail,-for the fundamental concept involved does not admit of there being anything undivided to share out. Evidently any dispute about boundaries must involve that there is a disputed marginal or fringe area, to which both parties are laying claim, so that any delimitation of it which does not leave it wholly to one of the parties will in practice divide it between them in certain shares, or operate as if such a division had been made.leur a étédonnée.Compte tenu du texte des compromis et de considéra- tions plus généralestouchant le régimejuridique du plateau continental, elle est d'avis que sa tâche en l'espèceconcerne essentiellement la délimi- tation et non point la répartition des espaces visésou leur division en secteurs convergents. La délimitation est une opération qui consiste à déterminer les limites d'une zone relevant déjà en principe de 1'Etat riverain et non à cléfinircette zone de nollo.Délimiter d'une manière équitable est une ch.ose,mais c'en estune autre que d'attribuer une part juste et équitable d'une zone non encore délimitée,quand bien mêmele résultat des deux opérations serait dans certains cas comparable, voire identique. 19. Ce qui est plus important encore, c'est que la doctrine de la part juste et équitable semble s'écartertotalement de la règle qui constitue sans aucun doute possible pour la Cour la plus fondamentale de toutes les règles dedroit relatives au plateau continental et qui est consacréepar l'article2 de la Con.vention de Genève de 1958, bien qu'elle en soit tout à fait indépendante: les droits de 1'Etat riverain concernant la zone de plateau continental qui constitue un prolongement naturel de son terri- toire sous la mer existentipsofacto et abinitioen vertu de la souveraineté de 1'Etatsur ce territoire et par une extension de cette souveraineté sous la forme de l'exercice de droits souverains aux fins de l'exploration du lit de la mer et de l'exploitation de ses ressources naturelles. II y a là un droit inhérent. Poirit n'est besoin pour l'exercer de suivre un processus juridique particulier ni d'accomplir des actes juridiques spéciaux. Son existence peut être constatée,comme cela a étéfait par de nombreux Etats, mais elle ne suppose aucun acte constitutif. Qui plus est, ce droit est indépendant de son exercice effectif. Pour reprendre le terme de la Convention de Genive, il est c~exclusifn ce sens que, si un Etat riverain choisit de ne pas explorer ou de ne pas exploiter les zones de plateau continental lui revenant, cela ne concerne que lui et nul ne peut le faire sans son consentement exprès 20. Tlen découle que,mêmedans la situation de la mer du Nord, l'idée de répartir une zone non encore délimitéeconsidéréecomme un tout, idéesous-jacente àla doctrine de la part juste et équitable,est absolument étrangèreet opposée à la conception fondamentale du régimedu plateau continental, suivant laquelle l'opération de délimitation consiste essen- tiellement à tracer u.neligne de démarcation entre des zones relevant déjà de l'un ou de l'autre des Etats intéressés.Certes la délimitation doit s'effectuer équitablement, mais elle ne saurait avoir pour objet d'attri- buer une part équitable ni mêmesimplement une part, car la conception fondamentale en la matière exclut qu'il y ait quoi que ce soit d'indivisà partager. Tlest évident qu'un différendsur des limites implique néces- sairement I1existenc:ed'une zone marginale litigieuse réclaméepar les deux parties et que toute délimitation n'attribuant pas entièrement cette zone àl'une des parties aboutit en pratiqueàlapartager ou àfaire comme s'ily avait partage. Mais cela ne signifie pas qu'il y ait répartition deBut this does not mean that there has been an apportionment of some- thing that previously consisted of an integral, still less an undivided whole. * * * 21. The Court will now turn to the contentions advanced on behalf of Denmark and the Netherlands. Their general character has already been indicated in paragraphs 13 and 14: the most convenient way of dealing with them will be on the basis of the following question-namely, does the equidistance-specialcircumstances principle constitute a manda- tory rule, either on a con) .tltional or on a customary international law basis, in such a way as to govern any delimitation of the North Sea continental shelf areas between the Federal Republic and the Kingdoms of Denmark and the Netherlands respectively? Another and shorter way of formulating the question would be to ask whether, in any delimitation of these areas, the Federal Republic is under a legal obligation to accept the application of the equidistance-special circumstances principle. 22. Particular attention isdirected to the use, inthe foregoing formula- tions, of the terms "mandatory" and "obligation". It has never been doubted that the equidistance method of delimitation is a very convenient one, the use of which is indicated in a considerable number of cases. It constitutes a method capable of being employed in almost al1circum- stances, however singular the results might sometimes be, and has the virtue that ifnecessary,-if for instance, the Parties are unable to enter into negotiations,-any cartographer can dofacto trace such a boundary on the appropriate maps and charts, and those traced by competent cartographers will for al1practical purposes agree. 23. In short, it would probably be true to Saythat no other method of delimitation has the same combination of practical convenience and certainty of application. Yet these factors do not suffice of themselves to convert what is a method into a rule of law, making the acceptance of the results of using that method obligatory in al1cases in which the parties do not agree otherwise, or in which "special circunistances" cannot be shown to exist. Juridically, if there isuch a rule, it must draw its legal force from other factors than the existence of these advantages, important though they may be. It should also be noticed that the counter- part of this conclusion is no less valid, and that the practical advantages of the equidistance method would continue to exist whether its em- ployment were obligatory or not. 24. It would however be ignoring realities if it were not noted at the same time that the use of this method, partly for the reasons givenin pa- ragraph 8 above and partly for reasons that are best appreciated by reference to the many maps and diagrams furnished by both sides in the course of the written and oral proceedings, can under certaincircum- stances produce results that appear on the face of thenl to be extra- ordinary, unnatural or unreasonable. It is basically this fact which un-quelque chose qui constituait auparavant un tout, et encore moins de quelque chose d'indivis. 21. La Cour en vient maintenant aux thèses avancées au nom du Danemark et des Pays-Bas. Leur caractère générala déjà été indiqué aux paragraphes 13 et 14; pour en faciliter l'examen, on peut partir de la question suivante: le principe équidistance-circonstances spécialescons- titue-t-il, en vertu d'une convention ou du droit international coutumier, une règle obligatoire applicable à toute délimitation du plateau contincn- ta1 de la mer du Nord entre la République fédéraleet les Royaumes du Danemark et des Pays-Bas respectivement? En bref la République fédé- rale a-t-elle l'obligation juridique d'accepter en la matière l'application du principe équidistance-circonstances spéciales? 73. Il convient dc noter l'emploi des termes ohliguioirc et obligatiotl dans les formules qui précèdent.On n'a jamais douté que la méthode de délimitation fondée sur l'équidistance soit une méthode extrêmemeiit pratique dont l'emploi est indiqué dans uii très grand nombre de cas. Elle peut êtreutiliséedans presque toutes les circonstances, pour singulier que soit parfois le r~isultat; elle présente l'avantage qu'en cas de besoin, par exemple si une raison quelconque empêche les parties d'entreprendre des négociations, tout cartographe peut tracer sur la carte une ligne d'équidistance &,facto et que les lignes dessinées pzr des cartographes qualifiéscoïncideront pratiquement. 73. En somme il lesprobablement exact qu'aucune autre méthode de délimitation ne combine au mêmedegréles avantages de la commodité pratique et de la certitude dans l'application. Toutefois cela lie sufit pas à transformer une méthode en règle de droit et à rendre obligatoire l'acceptatioii de ses résultats chaque fois que les parties ne se sont pas mises d'accord sur d'autres dispositions ou que l'existence de ~(circons- tances spécia1es)lne peut êtreétablie. Juridiquement, si une telie règle existe, sa valeur en droit doit tenir à autre chose qu'à ces avantages, si importants soient-il:;. La réciproque n'est pas nloiiis vraie: que I'applica- tion de la méthode de l'équidistance soit obligatoire ou non, ses avaiitages pratiques resteront les mêmes. 24. Ce serait cependant méconnaître Ies rkalités que de ne pas noter en mêmetemps que, pour les raisons indiquées ail paragraphe 8 ci- dessus et pour d'autres raisons qui apparaissent clairement si l'on se reporte aux cartes et croquis fournis en grand nombre par les Parties au cours des procédures écriteet orale, l'emploi de cette méthode peut dans certains cas aboutir à des résultatsde prime abord extraordinaires, anormaux ou déraisonnables. C'est ce fait, fondailientalement, qui est àderlies the present proceedings. The plea that, however this may be, the results can never be inequitable, because the equidistance principle is by definition an equitable principle of delimitation, involves a postulate that clearly begs the whole question at issue. 25. The Court now turns to the legal position regarding the equidis- tance method. The first question to be considered is whether the 1958 Geneva Convention on the Continental Shelf is binding for al1the Parties in this case-that is to Say whether, as contended by Denniark and the Netherlands, the use of this method is rendered obligatory forthe present delimitations by virtue of the delimitations provision (Article 6) of that instrument, according to the conditions laid down in it. Clearly, if this is so, thsn the provisions of the Convention will prevail in the relations between the Parties, and would take precedence of any rules having a more general character, or derived from another source. On that basis the Court's reply to the question put to it in the Special Agreements would necessarily be to the effect that as between the Parties the relevant provisions of the Convention represented the applicable rules of law-that is to say constituted the law for the Parties-and its sole remaining task would be to interpret those provisions, in so far as their meaning was disputed or appeared to be uncertain, and to apply them to the particu- lar circumstances involved. 26. The relebant provisions of Article 6 of the Geneva Convention, paragraph 2 of which Denmark and the Netherlands contend not only to be applicable as a conventional rule, but also to represent the accepted rule of general international law on the subject of continental shelf delimitation. as it exists independently of the Conveiltion, read as follows: "1. Where the same continental shelf is adjacent to the territories of two or more States whose coasts are opposite each other, the boundary of the continental shelf appertaining to such States shall be determined by agreement between them. In the absence of agreement, and unless another boundary line is justified by special circumstances, the boundary is the median line, every point of which is equidistant from the nearest point of the baselines from which the breadth of the territorial sea of each State is measured. 2. Where the same continental shelf is adjacent to the territories of two adjacent States, the boundary of the continental shelf shall be determined by agreement between them. In the absence of agree- ment, and unless another boundary line is justified by special circum- stances, the boundary shall be determined by application of the principle of equidistance from the nearest points of the baselines from which the breadth of the territorial sea of each State is mea- sured."l'origine de la présente instance. Affirmer que de toute façon les résultats ne peuvent jamais êtreinéquitables parce que l'équidistaiice est par dé- finition un principe de délimitation équitable revient de toute évidence à une pétition de principe. 25. La Cour étudiera à présent quelle est la situation juridique en ce qui concerne la méthode de l'équidistance. II convient d'examiner d'abord si la Convention de Genève de 1958 sur le plateau continental lie toutes les Parties à la présente affaire, c'est-à-dire si, comme le Danemark et les Pays-Bas le soutiennent, l'article6 de cette Convention relatif à la déiimi- tation rend l'application de la méthode de l'équidistance obligatoire eli l'espèce,dans les conditio~isqu'il prévoitSi tel étaitle cas, les dispositions de la Convention régiraient manifestement les relations entre les P~lrties et prendraient le pas sur toute règled'un caractcre plus généralou décou- lant d'une autre source. A la question poséedans les compromis, la Cour devrait alors liécessairement répondre que les dispositions pertinentes de la Convention représentent les règlesde droit applicables entre les Parties, autrement dit qu'elles constituent le droit pour les Parties, et il ne lui resterait plus qu'à interpréter ces dispositions, dans la inesurc où leur sens serait contesttf ou paraîtrait incertain, et à les appliquer aux faits de l'espèce. 26. Les dispositions pertinentes de l'article 6 de la Convention de Genève, dont le paragraphe 2, selon le Danemark et les Pays-Bas, ne serait pas seulement applicable en tant que règle conventionnelle mais représenterait en outre la règle corisacréepar le droit international général en matière de déi~mitationdu plateau continental, indépendamment de la Convention. se lisent comme suit: ((1. Dans le cas où un mêmeplateau continental est adjacent aux territoires de deuou plusieurs Etatsdont lescôtes se font face, la déli- mitation du plateau continental entre ces Etats est déterminéepar accord entre ces Etats. A défaut d'accord, et à moins que des cir- constances spéciales ne justifient une autre délimitation, celle-ci est constituée par la ligne médiane dont tous les points sont équidis- tants despoints les plus proches des lignes de base h partir desquelles est mesuréela largeur de la mer territoriale de chacun dc ces Etats. 2. Dans le cas où un mêmeplateau continental est adjacent aux territoires de deux Etats limitrophes, la délimitation du plateau continental est déterminée par accord entre ces Etats. A défaut d'accord, et à moins que des circonstances spéciales lie justifient une autre délimitation, celle-ci s'opère par application du principe de I'équidistai~cedes points les plus proches des lignes de base à partir desquelles est mesurée la largeur de la mer territoriale de chacun de ces Etats. nThe Convention received 46 signatures and, up-to-date, there have been 39 ratifications or accessions. It came into force on 10June 1964,having received the 22 ratifications or accessions required for that purpose (Article 1l), and was therefore in force at the time when the various delimitations of continental shelf boundaries described earlier (para- graphs 1 and 5) took place between the Parties. But, under the formal provisions of the Convention, it is in force for any individual State only in so far as, having signed it within the time-limit provided for that purpose, that State has also subsequently ratified it; or,not having signed within that time-limit, has subsequently acceded to the Convention. Denmark and the Netherlands have both signed and ratified the Conven- tion, and are parties to it, the former since 10June 1964,the latter since 20 March 1966.The Federal Republic was one of the signatories of the Convention, but has never ratified it, and is consequently not a party. 27. It is admitted on behalf of Denmark and the Netherlands that in these circumstances the Convention cannot, as such, be binding on the Federal Republic, in the sense of the Republic being contractually bound by it. But it is coiitended that the Convention, or the régime of the Convention, and in particular of Article 6, has become binding 011 the Federal Republic in another way,-namely because, by conduct, by public statements and proclamations, and in other ways, the Republic has unilaterally assumed the obligations of the Convention; or has manifested its acceptance of the conventional régime; or has recognized it as being generally applicable to the delimitation of continental shelf areas. lt has also been suggested that the Federal Republic had held itself out as so assuming, accepting or recognizing, in such a manner as to cause other States, and in particular Denmark and the Netherlands, to rely on the attitude thus taken up. 28. As regards these contentions, it is clear that only a very definite, very consistent course of conduct on the part of a State in the situation of the Federal Republic could justify the Court in upholding them; and, if this had existed-that is toSay if there had been a real intention to manifest acceptance or recognition of the applicability of the conven- tional régime-then it must be asked whyit was that the Federal Republic did not take the obvious step of giving expression to this readiness by simply ratifying the Convention. In principle, when a number of States, including the one whose conduct is invoked, and those invoking it, have drawn up a convention specifically providing for a particular method by which the intention to become bound by the régime ofthe convention is to be manifested-namely by the carrying out of certain prescribed formalities (ratification, accession), it is not lightly to be presumed that a State which has not carried out these formalities, though at al1times fully able and entitled to do so, has nevertheless somehow become bound in another way. Indeed if it were a question not of obligation but of rights,-if, that is to say, a State which, though entitledLa Convention a étésignéepar quarante-six Etats et elle a reçu à ce jour trente-neuf ratifications ou adhésions. Elle est entréeen vigueur le10juin 1964, ayant obtenu les vingt-deux ratifications ou adhésions exigées (article 11);elle étaitdonc en vigueur au moment où lesParties ont effectué lesdiverses délimitations du plateau continental évoquéesauxparagraphes 1 et 5 ci-dessus. Toutefois, selon ses clauses finales, la Convention n'est en vigueur à l'égard d'un Etat que si celui-ci, après l'avoir signéedans les délais prévus,l'a ratifiée ou, sans l'avoir signéedans les délais, y a adhéréu1térieuremc;nt.Le Danemark et les Pays-Bas ont signéet ratifié la Convention et y sont parties depuis le 10juin 1964 et le 20 inars 1966 respectivement. La République fédéralea signé la Convention mais elle ne l'a jamais ratifiéeet n'y est donc pas partie. 27. Le Danemarlc et lcs Pays-Bas admettent que dans ces conditions la Convention ne saurait en tant que telle être obligatoire pour la Ré- publique fédérale, c'est-A-dire la lier contractuellement. Ils soutiennent que la Convention, ou le régimede la Convention et dc son article 6 en particulier, est néannioinsdevenueobligatoire pour la Républiquefédérale d'une autre manière: en raison notainment de son comportement, de ses déclarations publiques et de ses proclamations,la République fédérale aurait assumé unilatéralement les obligations de la Convention, ou manifesté son acceptation du régime conventionnel, ou reconnu ce régiine comme géniiralement applicable en matière de délimitation du p!ateau continental. II a étéavancé aussi que la République fédéralese serait présentéecomme assumant les obligati'onsde laconvention, comme acceptant le régime conventionnel ou comme recorinaissant l'applica- bilitéde ce régiine,d'une façon qui aurait amenéd'autres Etats, en parti- culier le Danemark etles Pays-Bas, à tabler sur cette attitude. 38. II est clair quc la Cour ne serait justifiéeà accepter pareilles thèses que dans le cas où le comportement de la République fédéraleaurait été absolument net et constant; et mêmedans cette hypothèse, c'est-à-dire si elle avait eu vraiment l'intention de manifester qu'elle acceptait le régiine conventionnel ou en reconnaissait l'applicabilité, on devrait se deinander pourquoi la République fédérale n'apas pris la mesure qui s'imposait, à savoir iexprimer sa volonté en ratifiant purement et simple- ment la Convention. En principe, lorsque plusieurs Etats, y compris celui dont le comportement est invoquéet ceux qui l'invoquent, ont conclu une convention où ilest spécifiéque l'intention d'êtreliépar le régimecon- ventionnel doit se manifester d'une n-ianière déterminée, c'est-à-dire par l'accomplissement de certaines formalités prescrites (ratification, adhésion), on ne saurait présumer à la légèrequ'un Etat n'ayant pas accompli ces formalités, alors qu'il était à tout moment en mesure et en droit de le faire, n'en est pas moins tenu d'une autre façon. D'ailleurs. s'il s'agissait de droits et non d'obligations, en d'autres termes si un Etat essayait de revendiquer des droits en vertu d'une convention àto do so, had not ratified or acceded, attempted to claim rights under the convention, on the basis of a declared willingness to be bound by it, or of conduct evincing acceptance of the conventional régime,it would simply be told that, not having become a party to the convention it could not claim any rights under it until the professed willingness and acceptance had been manifested in the prescribed form. 29. A further point, not in itself conclusive, but to be noted, is that if the Federal Republic had ratified the Geneva Convention, it could have entered-and could, if it ratified now, enter-a reservation to Article 6, by reason of the faculty to do so conferred by Article 12of the Convention. This faculty would remain, whatever the previous conduct of the Federal Republic might hive beeil-a fact which at least adds to the difficulties involved by the Danish-Netherlands contention. 30. Having regard to these considerations of principle, it appears to the Court that only the existence of a situation of estoppel could suffice to lend substance to thiscontention,-that is to Sayifthe Federal Republic were now precluded from denying the applicability of the conveiltional régime, by reason of past conduct, declarations, etc., which not only clearly and consistently evinced acceptance of that régime,but also Iiad caused Denmark or the Netherlands, in reliance on such conduct, detri- mentally to change position or suffer some prejudice. Of this there is no evidence whatever in the present case. 31. ln these circumstances it seems to the Court that little usef~il purpose would be served by passing in review and subjecting to detailed scrutiny the various acts relied on by Denmark and the Netherlands as being indicative of the Federal Republic's acceptance of the régime of Article 6;-for instance that at the Geneva Conference the Federal Republic did not take formal objection to Article 6 and eventually signed the Convention without entering any reservation in respect of that provision; that it at one time announced its intention to ratify the Convention: that in its public declarations concerning its continental shelf rights it appeared to rely on, or at least cited, certain provisions of the Geneva Convention. In this last connection a good deal has been made of the joint Minute signed in Bonn, on 4 August 1964, between the then-negotiating delegations of the Federal Republic and the Nether- lands. But this minute made it clear that wliat the Federal Republic was seeking was an agreed division, rather than a delimitation of the central North Sea continental shelf areas, and the refereiice it made to Article 6 was specifically to the first sentence of paragraphs 1 and 2 of that Article, which speaks exclusively of delimitation by agreement and not at al1of the use of the equidistance metliod. 32. In the result it appears to the Court that none of the elemeiits invoked is decisive; each is ultimately negative or inconclusive; al1 are capable of varying interpretations or explanations. It would be onelaquelle il n'aurait donnéni sa ratification ni son adhésionalors qu'il était habilitéà le faire, et s'il alléguaàcette fin qu'il a proclamé sa volonté d'êtreliépar la convention ou a manifesté par son comportement son acceptation du réginieconventionnel, on lui répondrait simplement que, n'étant pas devenu partie à la convention il ne peut revendiquer aucun droit à ce titre tant qu'il n'a pas exprimésa volonté ou son acceptation dans les formes prescrites. 29. Un autre point, qui n'est pas en soi décisif,vaut d'êtrerelevé: si la République fédérale avaitratifié laConvention de Genève, elle aurait pu formuler une réserve à l'égard del'article 6, en usant de la faculté offerte par l'article12, et elle pourrait encore le faire aujourd'hui si elle ratifiait la Convention. Cette possibilité subsisteraitindépendam- nient du comportenient antérieur de la République fédérale,ce qui ne fait qu'ajouter aux clifficultéssoulevéespar la thèsedu Danemark et des Pav2~Bas. 30. Eu igard i ces considérations de principe, la Cour est d'avis que seule l'existenced'une situation d'estoppel pourrait étayerpareille thèse: il faudrait que la Rkpublique fédéralene puisse plus contester I'applica- bilitédu régimeconventionnel, en raison d'un comportement, de déclara- tions, etc., qui n'auraient passeulement attesté d'une manière claire et constante son acceptation de ce régimemais auraient également amené le Danemark ou les Pays-Bas, se fondant sur cette attitude, à modifier leur position à leur détriment ou àsubir un préjudice quelconque. Rien n'indique qu'il en soit ainsi en l'espèce. 31. Dans ces conditions, il ne semble guère utileà la Cour d'examiner en détail les divers actes de la République fédéralequi, selon le Dane- mark et lesPays-Bas,traduiraient une acceptation du régimedel'article 6: ainsi, lors de la conférence de Genève,elle n'a pas opposé d'objection formelle à l'article 6et ellea, pour finir, signé la Conventionsans formuler de réserve à l'égardde cet article; elle a annoncé à un certain moment son intention de ratifier la Convention; dans ses déclarations publiques concernant ses droits sur le plateau continental, elle a paru se fonder sur certaines dispositions de la Convention ou elle les a en tout cas citées. A ce sujet on a tiré argument du procès-verbal commun signé à Bonn le 4 août 1964par l'esdélégations dela République fédérale et des Pays- Bas lors des négociiationsentre ces deux pays. Mais le texte fait bien ressortir que la République fédérale cherchaitun accord sur un partage plutôt que sur une délimitationdes zones centrales du plateau continental de la mer du Nord et la mention qu'il fait de l'article 6 vise expressément In première phrase des paragraphes 1 et 2 de cet article, laquelle con- cerne uniquement la délimitation par voie d'accord et nullement l'emploi de la méthode de I'iSquidistance. 32. Somme toute, il semble à la Cour qu'aucun des faits invoqués n'est décisif; tous ,sont en fin de compte négatifs ou non concluants, tous se prêtent à des interprétations ou explications variées.Autre chose thing to infer from the declarations of the Federal Republic an admission accepting the fundamental concept of coastal State rights in respect of the continental shelf: it would be quite another matter to see in this an acceptance of the rules of delimitation contained in the Convention. The declarations of the Federal Republic, taken in the aggregate, might at most justify the view that to begin with, and before becoming fully aware of what the probable effectsin the North Sea would be, the Federal Republic was not specifically opposed to the equidistance principle as embodied in Article 6 of the Convention. But from a purely negative conclusion such as this, it would certainly not be possible to draw the positive inference that the Federal Republic, though not a party to the Convention, had accepted the régime ofArticle 6 in a manner binding upon itself. 33. The dangers of the doctrine here advanced by Denmark and the Netherlands, if it had to be given general application in the international law field, hardly need stressing. Moreover, in the present case, any such inference would immediately be nullified by the fact that, as soon as concrete delimitations of North Sea continental shelf areas began to be carried out, the Federal Republic, as described earlier (paragraphs 9 and 12),at once reserved its position with regard to those delimitations which (effected on an equidistance basis) might be prejudicial to the delimitation of its own continental shelf areas. 34. Since, accordingly, the foregoing considerations must lead the Court to hold that Article 6 of the Geneva Convention is not, as such, applicable to the delimitations involved in the present proceedings, it becomes unnecessary for it to go into certain questions relating to the interpretation or application of that provision which would otherwise arise. One should be inentioned however, namely what is the relation- ship between the requirement of Article 6 for delimitation by agreement, and the requirements relating to equidistance and special circumstances that are to be applied in "the absence of" such agreement,-i.e., in the absence of agreement on the matter, is there a presumption that the continental shelf boundary between any two adjacent States consists automatically of an equidistance line,-or must negotiations for an agreed boundary prove finally abortive before the acceptance of a bound- ary drawn on an equidistance basis becomes obligatory in terms of Article 6, if no special circumstances exist? 35. Without attempting to resolve this question, the determination of which is not necessary for the purposes of the present case, the Court drawsattention to the fact that the delimitation of the line E-F, as shown on Map 3, which was effected by Denmark and the Netherlands under the agreement of 31 March 1966already mentioned (paragraphs 5and 91, to which the Federal Republic was not a party, must have been based onest de déduire des déclarations de la Républiquefédéralequ'elle a admis la conception fondamentale des droits de 1'Etat riverain sur le plateau continental; autre chose est d'y voir une acceptation des règles de déli- mitation prévues par la Convention. Considérées globalement, les déclarations de la Jképublique fédéralepermettraient tout au plus de penser qu'au début, avant d'êtrepleinement consciente des effets pro- bables du principe d.el'équidistancedans le cas de la mer du Nord, la République fédérale:n'était pas expressément opposée au principe énoncé à I'article 6 de la Convention. Or une constatation d'un caractère aussi négatif ne perrnetcertainement pas de tirer la conclusion positive que, sans être partie à la Convention, la République fédéraleavait acceptéle régimede I'article 6 de façon à se lier. 33. Il està peine besoin de souligner les dangers que présenterait la thèse ainsi soutenue par le Danemark et les Pays-Bas si on devait lui donner une portée généraleen droit international. Au surplus, dans la présente affaire, cette conclusion serait immédiatement démentiepar le fait que, sitôtffectukeslespremièresdélimitationsdu plateau continental de la mer du Nord, la République fidérale a, comme on l'a vu aux paragraphes 9 et 1'2ci-dessus, réservé saposition à l'égard de tracés qui, fondés sur I'éqiiidistance,pouvaient nuire iila délimitation de sa propre zone de plateau continental. 34. Les considérations qui pri-cèdent amènent nécessairement la Cour à conclure que I'article 6 de la Convention de Genève n'est pas applicable en tant que tel aux délimitations viséesen l'espèce;il devient donc superAu de traiter de certaines questions d'interprétation ou d'ap- plication qui pourraient se poser s'il en allait autrement. On peut néan- moins en mentionner une, celle de la relation entre la prescription de l'article relative à la délimitation par voie d'accord et les prescriptions relativesà l'équidistance et aux circonstances spécialesqui sont appli- cables ((adéfautd'accord )):existe-t-il une présomption suivant laquelle, en l'absence d'accord sur la question, toute délimitation d'un plateau continental entre deux Etats limitrophes est automatiquement fondée sur l'équidistance, ou bien des négociations sur les limites doivent-elles avoir définitivement échouépour que l'acceptation de la délimitation fondée sur l'équidistancedevienne obligatoire en vertu de l'article 6 s'il n'y a pas de circonstances spéciales? 35. Sans vouloir trancher cette question, ce qui n'est pas nécessaire aux fins de la présente affaire, la Cour souligne que la délimitation effectuéepar le Danemark et les Pays-Bas suivant la ligne E-F de la carte 3, en vertu de l'accord du 31 mars 1966 auquel la République fédérale n'était pas partie (voiparagraphes 5 et 9 ci-dessus), doit avoir reposé tacitement sur l'idéeque, puisqu'il n'en avait pas été convenuthe tacit assumption that, no agreement to the contrary having been reached in the negotiations between the Federal Republic and Denmark and the Netherlands respectively (paragraph 7), the boundary between the continental shelf areas of the Republic and those of the other two countries must be deemed to be an equidistance one;-or in other words the delimitation of the line E-F, and its validity erga ornrzesincluding the Federal Republic, as contended for by Denmark andthe Netherlands, presupposes both the delimitation and the validity on an equidistance basis, of the lines B-E and D-E on Map 3, considered by Denmark and the Netherlands to represent the boundaries between their continental shelf areas and those of the Federal Republic. 36. Sirice,however, Article 6 of the Geneva Convention provides only for delimitation between "adjacent" States, which Denmark and the Netherlands clearly are not, or between "opposite" States which, despite suggestions to the contrary, the Court thinks they equally are not, the delimitation of the line E-F on Map 3 could not in any case find its validity in Article 6, even if that provision were opposable to the Federal Republic. The validity of this delimitation must therefore be sought in some other source of law. lt is a main contention of Denmark and the Netherlands that there does in fact exist such another source, furnishing a rule that validates not only this particular delimitation, but al1delimita- tions effected on an equidistance basis,-and indeed requiring delimita- tion on that basisunlessthe Statesconcerned otherwiseagree, and whether or not the Geneva Convention is applicable. This contention must now be examined. 37. It is maintained by Denmark and the Netherlands that the Federal Republic, whatever its position may be in relation to the Geneva Con- vention, considered as such, is in any event bound to accept delimitation on an equidistance-special circumstances basis, because the use of this method is not in the nature of a merely conventional obligation, but is, or must now be regarded as involving, a rule that is part of the corpus of general international 1aw;-and, like other rules of general or custom- ary international law, is binding on the Federal Republic automatically and independently of any specific assent, direct or indirect, given by the latter. Thiscontention has both a positive law and a more fundamentalist aspect. As a matter of positive law, it is based on the work done in this field by internationallegal bodies, on State practice and on the influence attributed to the Geneva Convention itself,-the claim being that these various factors have cumulatively evidenced or been creative of the opitriojurissivr necessitatis, requisite for the formation of new rules of customary international law. In its fundamentalist aspect, the view put forward derives from what might be called the natural law of the con-autrement lors des négociationsde la République fédérale avecle Dane- mark et avec les Pays-Bas (voir paragraphe 7 ci-dessus), la délimitation du plateau continental entre la République fédéraleet les deux autres pays devait se fonder sur l'équidistance; autrement dit, la délimitation de la ligne E-F et la validitéà l'égardde tous, y compris la République fédérale, quelui attribuent le Danemark et les Pays-Bas présupposent à la fois le tracé et la validité, sur la base de l'équidistance, des lignes B-Eet D-E de la carte 3, considéréespar le Danemark et les Pays-Bas comme représentant les limites entre leurs zones de plateau continental et celle de la République fédérale. 36. D'autre part, l'article 6 de la Convention de Genève se rapporte uniquement à la délimitation entre Etats ((limitrophes))- ce qui n'est manifestement pas Uecas du Danemark et des Pays-Bas - ou entre Etats ((sefaisant factJ- ce qui, de l'avis de la Cour, n'est pas non plus applicable à ces deux pays, bien que l'on ait avancé le contraire; la déli- mitation matérialiséepar la ligne E-F sur la carte 3 ne saurait donc de toute manière se justifier par l'article 6, même s'ilétait opposable à la République fédéraleC . ette délimitation devrait donc tirer sa validité d'une autre source d'edroit. L'une des thèses principalesdu Danemark et des Pays-Bas est qu'il existe bien une autre source de droit, d'où se dégageune règlejustifiant la délimitation dont il s'agit, ainsi que toute autre délimitation effectuée selonl'équidistance,et imposant mêmecette méthode à moins que les Etats intéressésne conviennent d'une autre, et cela que la Conventi.on de Genève soit ou ne soit pas applicable. Il cori- vient maintenant d'e:xaminercette thèse. 37. Le Danemark et les Pays-Bas soutiennent que, quelle que soit sa situation par rapport à la Convention de Genève en tant que telle, la République fédérale estde toute façon tenue d'accepter la méthode équidistance-circonstances spécialesen matière de délimitation car, si l'emploi de cette méthodene s'impose pas à titre conventionnel, il relève - ou doit désormais être considéré comme relevant - d'une règle de droit international généralqui, de mêmeque les autres règles de droit international généralou coutumier, lie la République fédéraleautoma- tiquement et indépendamment de tout consentement spécial direct ou indirect. Cette thèse présente deux aspects, l'un de droit positif, l'autre plus fondamentalistcc. En ce qui concerne le droit positif, elle se fonde sur les travaux d'organismes juridiques internationaux, sur la pratique des Etats et sur I'efret attribuéà la Convention de Genève elle-même: l'ensemble de ces facteurs attesterait ou engendrerait l'opinio juris siile necessitatis indisperisableà la formation de règles nouvelles de droit international coutumier. Sous son aspect fondamentaliste, la thèse en question découle dece qu'on pourrait appeler le droit naturel du plateautinental shelf, in the sense that the equidistance principle is seen as a necessary expression in the field of delimitation of the accepted doctrine of the exclusive appurtenance of the continental shelf to the nearby coastal State, and therefore as having an apriori character of so to speak juristic inevitability. 38. The Court will begin by examining this latter aspect, both because it is the more fundamental, and was so presented on behalf of Denmark and the Netherlands-Le., as something governing the whole case; and because, if it is correct that the equidistance principle is, as the point was put in the course of the argumerit, to be regarded as inherent in the whole basic concept of continental shelf rights, then equidistance should con- stitute the rule according to positive law tests also. On the other hand, if equidistance should not possess any a priori character of necessity or inherency, this would not be any bar to its haviiig become a rule of posi- tive law through influences such as tliose of the Geneva Convention and State practice,-and that aspect of the matter would remain for later examination. 39. The a priori argument starts from the position described in para- graph 19, according to which the right of the coastal State to its conti- nental shelf areas is based on its sovereignty over the land domain, of which the shelf area is the natural prolongation into and under the sea. From this notion of appurtenance is derived the view which, as has al- ready been indicated, the Court accepts, that the coastal State's rights exist ipsofucto and ah itzitiowithout there being anyquestion of having to make good a claim to the areas concerned, or of any apportionment of the continental shelf between different States. This was one reason why the Court felt bound to reject the claim of the Federal Republic (in the particular form which it took) to be awarded a "just and equitable share" of the shelf areas involved in the present proceedings. Denmark and the Netherlands, for their part, claim that the test of appurtenance must be "proximity", or more accurately "closer proximity": al1those parts of the shelf being considered as appurtenant to a particular coastal State which are (but only if they are) closer to it than they are to any point on the coast of another State. Hence delimitation must be effected by a method which will leave to each one of the States concerned al1 those areas that are nearest to its own coast. Only a line drawn on equidistance principles will do this. Therefore, it iscontended, only such a line can be valid (unless the Parties, for reasoiis of their own, agree on another), because only such a line can be thus consistent with basic continental shelf doctrine. 40. This view clearly has much force; for there can be no doubt that asa matter of normal topography, the greater part of a State'scontinentalcontinental, en ce serisque le principe de l'équidistanceserait une expres- sion nécessaire,pour ce qui est de la délimitation, de la doctrine établie d'après laquelle le plateau continental relève exclusivement de 1'Etat riverain voisin et aurait doncà priori un caractère en quelque sorte iné- luctable sur le plan juridique. 38. La Cour étudiera d'abord ce dernier aspect. Il est en effet plus fon- damental et a été pr'ésentécomme tel par le Danemark et les Pays-Bas, qui y ont vu un élémentdont toute l'affaire dépend. Au surplus, s'il était exact que 1'équ.idistancesoit, ainsi qu'on l'a dit en plaidoirie, un principe inhérent à la conception fondamentale du régimejuridique du plateau continental, elle devrait aussi constituer la règle applicable d'après les crithes du droit positif. En revanche, si I'équidistaricen'avait pas à priori un caractère nécessaire ou inhérent, cela n'empêcherait nullement qu'elle soit devenue une règlede droit positif par l'effet d'élé- ments tels que la Convention de Genève ou la pratique des Etats; il faudrait donc encore examiner cet aspect du problème. 39. L'argument di1caractère à priori procède d'une constatation déjà faite au paragraphe 19: le droit de 1'Etat riverain sur son plateau con- tinental a pour fondement la souveraineté qu'il exerce sur le territoire dont ce plateau continental est le prolongement naturel sous la mer. De cette notion de rattachement découlel'idée,acceptéepar la Cour comme on l'a déjà vu,que llesdroits de 1'Etat riverain existent ipsofacto et ab initio sans que la validité de ses revendications doive êtreétablie ou sans qu'il soit besoin de procéder à une répartition du plateau conti- nental entre Etats intéressés.C'est l'un des motifs pour lesquels la Cour a estimédevoir rejeter,sous la forme qui lui a étédonnée, la demande de la République fédéraletendant à obtenir une ([partjuste et équitable)) des zones de plateau continental en cause. Le Danemark et les Pays-Bas prétendent quant à eux que le critèredu rattachement doit êtrela «proxi- mité» ou plus exactement la «plus grande proximité)): ils considèrent que toutes les parties du plateau continental plus proches d'un Etat riverain déterminéque de tout point situésur la côte d'un autre Etat - mais ces parties-là seulement - relèvent du premier Etat. En con- séquence la délimita.tiondoit s'opérer selon une méthode attribuant à chacun des Etats intéresséstoutes les zones qui sont plus proches de sa propre côte que d'aucune autre. Seule une ligne tracéeselon le principe de l'équidistance permet d'y parvenir. Seule donc, prétend-on, une telle ligne peut être valable,à moins que les parties n'en choisissent une autre pour des raisons qui leur sont propres, car seule elle est compatible avec la conception fondamentale du plateau continental. 40. Cet argument a incontestablement du poids; il ne fait pas dedoute que, dans des conditions géographiques normales, la plus grande partieshelf areas will in fact, and without the necessity for any delimitation at all, be nearer to its coasts than to any other. It could not well be other- wise: but post hoc is not propter hoc, and this situation may only serve to obscure the real issue, whicli is whether it follows that every part of the area concerned m~istbe placed in this way, and that it should be as itwere prohibited that any part should not be so placed. The Court does not consider that it does follow, either from the notion of proximity it- self, or from the more fundamental concept of the continental shelf as being the natural prolongation of the land domain-a concept repeatedly appealed to by both sides throughout the case, although quite differently interpreted by them. 41. As regards the notion of proximity, the idea of absolute proximity is certainly not implied by the rather vague and general terminology employed in the literature of the subject, and in most State proclamations and international conventions and other instruments-terms such as "near", "close to its shores", "off its coast", "opposite", "in front of the coast", "in the vicinity of", "neighbouring the coast", "adjacent to", "contiguous", etc.,-al1 ofthem terms of a somewhat imprecise character which, although they convey a reasonably clear general idea, are capable of a considerable fluidity of meaning. To take what is perhaps the most frequently employed of these terms, namely "adjacent to", it is evident that by no stretch of imagination can a point on the continental shelf situated say a hundred miles, or even much less, from a given coast, be regarded as "adjacent" to it, or to any coast at all, in the normal sense of adjacency, even if the point concerned is nearer to some one coast than to any other. This would be even truer of localities where, physically, the continental shelf begins to merge with the ocean depths. Equally, a point inshore situated near the meeting place of the coasts of two States can often properly be said to be adjacent to both coasts, even though it may be fractionally closer to the one than the other. Indeed, local geo- graphical configuration may sometimes cause it to have a closer physical connection with the coast to which it is not in fact closest. 42. There seems in consequence to be no necessary, and certainly no complete, identity between the notions of adjacency and proximity; and therefore the question of which parts of the continental shelf "adjacent to" a coastline bordering more than one State fall within the appurte- nance of which of them, remains to this extent an open one, not to be determined on a basis exclusively of proximity. Even if proximity may afford one of the tests to be applied and an important one in the right conditions, it may not necessarily be the only, nor in al1circumstances, the most appropriate one. Hence it would seem that the notion of ad- jacency, so constantly employed in continental shelf doctrine frorn the start, only implies proximity in a general sense, and does not imply any fundamental or inherent rule the ultimate effect of which would be to PLATEAU CONTINENTAL(ARRÊT) 30 des zones de plateau continental relevant d'un Etat seront en fait, et in- dépendamment de toute délimitation, plus proches de la côte de cet Etat que d'aucune autre. Le contraire serait étonnant, mais post hoc n'est paspropter IZOe Ct tout cela ne fait qu'obscurcir la véritablequestion: faut- ilréellementque toutepartiede la zone relevant d'un Etat soit plus proche de sa côtequed'aucune autre et y a-t-il en quelque sorte un empêchement à ce qu'une partie de cette zone fasse exception? De l'avisde la Cour, cela ne résulte nécessairement nide la notion m5me de ~roximité. ni de la conception plus fondamentale du plateau continental envisagécomme prolongement naturel du territoire, conception invoquée à maintes reprises des deux côi.éspendant toute la procédure mais avec des inter- prétations trèsdifféri:ntes. 41. En ce qui concerne la notion de proximité, on peut dire que l'idée d'une proximitéabsolue ne découle certes pas implicitement de la ter- minologie plutôt vague et généraleemployéedans les ouvrages consacrés à la question et dans la plupart des proclamations d'Etats, conventions internationales et autres instruments; on y trouve des termes comme près, prochede ses côtes,au large(leses côtes,faisant face, devant la côte, au voisinagede, avoisinant la côte, adjacent, contigu,etc., qui sont tous assez impréciset qui, tout en donnant une idéegénéralesuffisamment claire, peuvent avoir un sens trèsdifficileerner. Pour prendre l'exemple du terme adjacent, qui est peut-êtrele plus fréquemment utilisé, il est évident que, même avec beaucoup d'imagination, un point du plateau continental situéà une centaine de milles d'une côte déterminéeou même beaucou~ moins loin ne saurait êtreconsidéré comme adiacent à cette côte ou à aucune autre côte au sens normal du mot a4acent, bien qu'il soit en fait plus proche d'un littoral que d'un autre. Cela est encore plus vrai des zones où le plateau continentalproprement dit commence à faire place auxgrandsfonds. De même,un point situéplus prèsde laterre, non loin du lieu où lescôtes de deux Etats serejoignent, peut souventet juste titre êtrequalifié'atfjacent aux deux côtes bien qu'il soit légèrementplus proche de l'une que de l'autre. En fait, la configuration géographique locale peut parfois lui donner un lien physique plus étroit avec la côte dont il n'est pas le plus rapproché. 42. Il ne paraît donc pas y avoir d'identiténécessaire,et en tout cas pas d'identitécomplète, entre les notions d'adjacence et de proximité; dans cesconditions, la qut:stion de savoir quelles parties du plateau continental ((adjacentà» un littoral bordant plusieurs Etats relèvent de l'un ou de l'autre reste entièreetne saurait êtrerésolued'après la seule proximité. Mêmesi la proximité peut être l'un des critères applicables - et un critère important quand les conditions s'y prêtent -, ce n'est pas néces- sairement le seul niitoujours le plus approprié. Il semblerait donc que la notion d'adjacence, employée siconstamment au sujet de la doctrine du plateau continental et cela dès le début, n'implique la proximité qu'en un sens général,sans postuler une règlefondamentale ou inhérente dont l'effet serait en définitived'interdiàetout Etat d'exercer, sauf par voie prohibit any State (otherwise than by agreement) from exercising con- tinental shelf rights in respect of areas closer to the coast of another State. 43. More fundamental than the notion of proximity appears to be the principle-constantly relied upon by al1 the Parties-of the natural prolongation or continuation of the land territory or domain, or land sovereignty of the coastal State, into and under the high seas,via the bed of its territorial sea which is under the full sovereignty of that State. There are various ways of formulating this principle, but the underlying idea, namely of an extension of something already possessed, is the same, and it is this idea of extension which is, in the Court's opinion, deter- minant. Submarine areas do not really appertain to the coastal State because-or not only because-they are near it. They are near it of course; but this would not suffice to confer title, any more than, ac- cording to a well-established principle of law recognized by both sides in the present case, mere proximity confers per se title to land territory. What confers the ipsojurc title which international law attributes to the coastal State in respect of its coiitinental shelf, is the fact that the sub- marine areas concerned may be deemed to be actually part of the terri- tory over which the coastal State already has dominion,-in the sense that, although covered with water, they are a prolongation or continua- tion of that territory, an extension of it ind dehe-sea. From this it would follow that whenever a given submarine area does not constitute a natural-or the most natural-extension of the land territory of a coastal State, even though that area may be closer to it than it is to the territory of any otl-ierState, it cannot be regarded as appertaining to that State;- orat least it caniiot be so regarded in the face of a competing claim by a State of whose land territory the submarine area concerned is to be regarded as a natural extension, even if it is less close to it. 44. In the present case, although both sides relied on the prolongation principle and regarded it as fundamental, they interpreted it quite dif- ferently. Both interpretations appear to the Court to be incorrect. Den- mark and the Netherlands identified natural prolongation with closest proximity and therefrom argued that it called for an equidistance line: the Federal Republic seemed to think it implied the notion of the just and equitable share, although the connection is distinctly remote. (The Federal Republic did however invoke another idea, namely that of the proportionality of a State's continental shelf area to the length of its coastline, which obviously does have an intimate connection with the prolongation principle, and will be considered in its place.) As regards equidistance, it clearly cannot be identified with the notion of natural prolongation or extension, since, as has already been stated (paragraph 8), the use of the equidistance method would frequently cause areas which are the natural prolongation or extension of the territory of one State to be attributed to another, when the configuration of the latter's coast makes the equidistance line swing out laterally across the former'scl'accord, ses droits relatifs au plateau continental sur des zones plus proches de la côted'un autreEtatque de la sienne. 43. Plus fondamental que la notion de proximité semble êtrele prin- cipe, que les Parties n'ont cesséd'invoquer, du prolongement naturel ou de l'extension du territoire ou de la souveraineté territoriale de 1'Etat riverain sous la haute mer. au-delà du lit de la mer territoriale qui relève cle la plcine souvera.inetéde cet Etat. Il y a plusieurs manières de for- iniilrr ce principe mais l'idéede base, celle d'une extension de quelque chose que l'on possè'dedéjà, est la mêmeet c'est cette idéed'extension qui est décisi\-eselon la Cour. Ce n'est pas vraiment ou pas seulement parce qii'clles sont proches de son territoire que des zones sous-niarines relèvent ~I'LI Itat riverain. 'Ellesen sont proches certes, mais cela ne suffit pas pour conférer un titre -pas plus que la simple proximité ne constitue en soi un titre au domaine terrestre, ce qui est un principe de droit bien ituhli et admis piir les Parties en l'espèce. En réalitéle titre que le droit international attribue ipsjure àI'Etat riverain sur son plateau continental procède de ce que les zones sous-marines en cause peuvent êtreconsidé- rées comme faisant véritablement partie du territoire sur lequel I'Etat riverain exerce déjà son autorité: on peut dire que, tout en étant re- couvertes d'eau, el'les sont un prolongement, une coiitinuatio~i, une extension de ce territoire sous la mer. Par suite, mêmesi une zone sous- marine est plus proche du territoire d'un Etat que de tout autre, on ne saurait considérer qu'elle relève de cet Et:it dés lors qu'elle ne constitue pas ilne extension natiirelle, ou l'extension la plus naturelle, de son domaine terrestre et qu'une revendication rivale est foriilulée par un autre Etat dont ilest possible d'admettre que la zone sous-marine en question prolonge cle façon naturelle le territoire, tout en étant moins proche. 34. Dans la présente affaire, on a iiivoqiiédes deux c3tésle principe du prolongement en le considérant comme fondamental mais on l'a interprété(le façons très différentes. Lesdeux interprétations paraissent inexactes à la Cour. Le Danemark et les Pays-Bas ont assimiléle concept de prolorigeineiit naturel ü celui de plus grande proximité et ils en ont dkiiiit que le premicr exige le tracé d'une ligne d'équidistance; la Répu- blique fcdéraleparait avoir pensé qu'ilimplique la notion de la part juste etéqiiit:ible,bien que le rapport soit très lointain. (La Républiquefédérale a cependant invoqut une autre idée,celle de la proportionnalité entre la zone de plateau continental revenant à un Etat et la longueur de son lit- toral; cette idée, qui a évidemment un lien étroit avec le principe du prolongement, sera examinéele moment venu.) La notion d'équidistance ne peut manifestement pas êtreidentifiéeà celle d'extension ou de pro- longement naturel car, comme on l'a déjà vuau paragraphe 8, l'emploi de la méthode de l'équidistanceaurait souvent pour résultat d'attribuer à un Etat des zones prolongeant naturellement le territoire d'un autre Etat lorsque la configurationcôtière du premier fait dévierlatéralement lacoastal front, cutting it off from areas situated directly before that front. 45. The fluidity of al1these notions is well illustrated by the case of the Norwegian Trough (paragraph 4 above). Without attempting to pronounce on the status of that feature, the Court notes that the shelf areas in the North Sea separated from the Norwegian Coast by the 80- 100kilometres of the Trough cannot in any physical sense be said to be adjacent to it, nor to be its natural prolongation. They are nevertheless considered by the States parties to the relevant delimitations, as described in paragraph 4, to appertain to Norway up to the median lines shown on Map 1. True these median lines are themselves drawn on equidistance principles; but it was only by first ignoring the existence of the Trough that these median lines fell to be drawn at all. 46. The conclusion drawn by the Court from the foregoing analysis is that the notion of equidistance as being logically necessary, in the sense of being an inescapable a priori accompaniment of basic continental shelf doctrine, is incorrect. Its said not to be possible to maintain that there is a rule of law ascribing certain areas to a State as a matter of in- herent and original right (see paragraphs 19 and 20), without also ad- mitting the existence of some rule by which those areas can be obliga- torily delimited. The Court cannot accept the logic of this view. The problem arises only where there is a dispute and only in respect of the marginal areas involved. The appurtenance of a given area, considered as an entity, in no way governs the precise delimitation of its boundaries, any more than uncertainty as to boundaries can affect territorial rights. There is for instance no rule that the land frontiers of a State must be fully delimited and defined, and often in various places and for long periods they are not, as is shown by the case of the entry of Albania into the League of Nations (Monastery of Saint Naoum, Advisor): Opinion, 1924, P.C.I.J., Series B, No. 9,at p. 10). 47. A review of the genesis and development of the equidistance method of delimitation can only serve to confirm the foregoing conclu- sion. Sueh a review may appropriately start with the instrument, generally known as the "Truman Proclamation", issued by the Government of the United States on 28 September 1945.Although this instrument was not the firstor only oneto have appeared, it hasin the opinion of the Court a special status. Previously,various theories as to the nature and extent of the rights relative to or exercisable over the continental shelf had been advanced by jurists, publicists and technicians. The Truman Proclama- tion however, soon came to be regarded as the starting point of the posi-ligne d'équidistance et ampute le second de zones situéesjuste devant sa façade maritime. 45. Le cas de la fosse norvégienne (voir paragraphe 4 ci-dessus) illustre bien lecaractère incertain de toutes ces notions. Sans se prononcer sur le statut de la fosse, la Cour constate que les zones du plateau con- tinental de la mer du Nord séparéesde la côte norvégienne par une fosse de quatre-vingts àcerit kilomètres de large ne sauraientêtreconsidéréesau point de vue géographiquecomme étantadjacentes àcette côte ou comme constituant son prolongement naturel. Elles n'en sont pas moins consi- déréespar les Etats parties aux délimitations décrites au paragraphe 4 comme relevant de la Norvège jusqu'aux lignes médianes portées sur la carte 1. Certes ces lignes médianes ont ététracées selon le principe de l'équidistance, mais c'est uniquement parce que l'on n'a pas tenu compte de l'existence de la fosse norvégienne. 46. La Cour conclut de l'analyse qui précèdequ'il est inexact de con- sidérerla notion d'équidistance comme logiquement nécessaire, ence sens qu'elle serait liéede façon inévitable et à priori à la conceptionfondamen- tale du plateau continental. On a dit qu'il n'est pas possible de soutenir qu'une règle juridique attribue certaines zones à un Etat au titre d'un droit inhérent et originaire (voir paragraphes 19 et 20) sans admettre en mêmetemps l'existericed'une règleobligatoire quant à la délimitation de ces zones. La Cour rie voit pas la logique de cette thèse. Le problème ne se pose qu'en cas de litige et uniquement à l'égard des zonesqui forment les confins. Le fait qu'une zone, prise comme une entité, relèvede tel ou tel Etat est sans conséquence sur la délimitation exacte des frontières de cette zone, de mêmeque l'incertitude des frontières ne saurait affecter les droits territoriaux.Aucune règle nedispose par exemple que les frontières terrestresd'lin Etat doivent êtrecomplètement délimitéeset définieset il est fréquent qu'elles ne le soient pas en certains endroits et pendant de longues périodes, comme le montre la question de l'admission de l'Albanie à la SociCtédes Nations (Monustère de Saiizt-Naoum, avis con- sultatif,1924, C.P.J.I. s&rieB no9, p. 10). * * * 47. Un examen de la genèse et de l'évolution de la méthode de délimi- tation fondée sur 1'é:quidistancene fait que confirmer la conclusion ci- dessus. Il convient de rappeler tout d'abord l'acte, généralementconnu sous le nom de proclamation Truman, que le Gouvernement des Etats- Unis a publié le 28 septembre 1945. Bien que cet acte n'ait été ni le premier ni le seul, il a, selon la Cour, une importance particulière. Au- paravant, desjuristes, des publicistes et des techniciens avaient avancé diverses théories sur la nature et l'étenduedes droits existant à l'égarddu plateau continental ou pouvant être exercés sur lui. La proclamation Truman devait cependant être bientôt considéréecomme le point detive law on the subject, and the chief doctrine it enunciated, namely that of the coastal State as having an original, natural, and exclusive (in short a vested) right to the continental shelf off its shores, came to prevail over al1others, being now rellected in Article 2 of the 1958Geneva Convention on the Continental Shelf. With regard to the delimitation of lateral boundaries between the continental shelves of adjacent States, a matter which had given rise to some consideration on the technical, but very little on the juristicvel, the Truman Proclamation stated that such boundaries "shall be determined by the United States and the State con- cerned in accordance with equitable principles". These two concepts, of delimitation by mutual agreement and delimitation in accordance with equitable principles, have underlain al1 the subsequent history of the subject. They were reflected in various other State proclamations of the period, and after, and in the later work on the subject. 48. It was in the International Law Commission of the United Nations that the question of delimitation as between adjacent States was first taken up seriously as part of a general juridical project; for outside the ranks of the hydrographers and cartographers, questions of delimitation were not much thought about in earlier continental shelf doctrine. Juridical interest and speculation was focussed mainly on such questions as what was the legal basis on which any rights at al1 in respect of the continental shelf could be claimed, and what was the nature of those rights. As regards boundaries, the main issue was not that of boundaries between States but of the seaward limit of the area in respect of which the coastal State could claim exclusive rights of exploitation. As was pointed out in the course of the written proceedings, States in most cases had not found it necessary to conclude treaties or legislate about their lateral sea boundaries with adjacent States before the question of ex- ploiting the natural resources of the seabed and subsoil arase;-practice was therefore sparse. 49. In the records of the International Law Commission, which had the matter under consideration from 1950to 1956,there is no indication at al1 that any of its members supposed that it was incumbent on the Commission to adopt a rule of equidistance because this gave expression to, and translated into linear terms, a principle of proximity inherent in the basic concept of the continental shelf, causing every part of the shelf to appertain to the nearest coastal State and to no other, and because such a rule must therefore be mandatory as a matter of customary inter- national law. Such an idea does not seem ever to have been propounded. Had it been, and had it had the self-evident character contended for by Denmark and the Netherlands, the Commission would have had no alter- native but to adopt it, and its long continued hesitations over thismatter would be incomprehensible.départ dans l'élaborxtion du droit positif en ce domaine et la doctrine principale qu'elle énonçait,à savoir que 1'Etatriverain possède un droit originaire, naturel et exclusif, en somme un droit acquis, sur le plateau continental situé devant ses côtes, l'a finalement emporté sur toutes les autres et trouve aujourd'hui son expression dans l'article2 de la Conven- tion de Genèvede 1958sur le plateau continental. En ce qui concerne la délimitation latéraledes plateaux continentaux d'Etats limitrophes, pro- blèmequi avait étéétudiédans une certaine mesure sur le plan technique mais avait fort peu retenu l'attention sur leplanjuridique, laproclamation Truman énonçait que la ligne de délimitation serait ((déterminéepar les Etats-Unis et 1'Etatintéressé conformément à des principes équitables D. De ces deux notions de délimitation par voie d'accord et de délimitation conforme à des principes équitablesa procédétoute l'évolutionhistorique postérieure. On en trouve la trace dans des proclamations faites à partir de cette époque par divers autres Etats, ainsi que dans les travaux consacrés depuis lors au problème. 48. C'est à la Comniission du droit international des Nations Unies que la q~iestion de la délimitation entre Etats limitrophes a été abordée sérieusementpour la première foisdans une étudejuridique de caractère général; jusqu'alors eineffet les problèmes de délimitation dans le cadre de ladoctrine du plateau continental n'avaient guèreretenuque l'attention des hydrographes et des cartographes. L'intérêe tt la réflexion desjuristes s'étaient principalement portéssur des questions comme le fondement juridique et la nature des droits pouvant être éventuellement revendiqués sur leplateau continerital. S'agissant de lalimitation,le grand problème n'était pascelui des liinites entre Etats mais celui de la limite vers le large de l'étenduesur laque:lle1'Etatriverain peut revendiquer des droits d'ex- ploitation exclusifs. Comme il a été observé au cours de la procédure écrite, les Etatsn'oni: pas jugé nécessaire,dans la plupart des cas, de conclure des traités ou de légiférerpour fixer leurs limites maritimes latérales avec des Etats limitrophes avant que se pose la question de l'exploitation des ressources naturelles du lit de la mer et de son sous-soi. La pratique dans ce domaine étaitdonc peu abondante. 49. A lire les documents de la Commission du droit international, qui s'est occupéede la question de 1950 à 1956,rien n'indique qu'il soit venu à l'esprit d'aucun deses membres qu'elledût adopter une règlefondéesur l'équidistance pour le motif qu'une telle règle constituait l'expression linéaired'un principe deproximitéinhérent à la conception fondamentale du plateau continental - d'aprèslequel toute partie du plateau relèverait de I'Etat riverain le :plus procheà 17exclusionde tout autre Etat - et étaiten conséquence ob!;oatoire en droit international coutumier. Cette idéene semblejamais avoii -téavancée.Siellel'avait étéetsielle avait eu le caractère évidentque le Danemark et les Pays-Bas lui prêtent,la Com- mission n'aurait pu faire autrement que de l'adopter et ses hésitations prolongées à ce sujet seraient incompréhensibles. 50. It is moreover, in the present context, a striking feature of the Commissioii's discussions that during the early and middie stages, not only was the notion of equidistance never considered from the standpoint of its having a prioraicharacter of inherent necessity: it was never given any special prominence at all, and certainly no priority. The Commission discussed various other possibilities as having equal if not superior statlis such as delimitation by agreement, by reference to arbitration, by drawing lines perpendicular to the coast, by prolonging the dividing line of ad- jacent territorial waters (theprinciple of which was itself not as yet settled), and on occasion the Commission seriously considered adopting one or other of these solutions. It was not in fact until after the matter had been referred to a committee of hydrographical experts. which reported in 1953, that the equidistance principle began to take precedence over other possibilities: the Report of the Commission for that year (its principal report on the topic of delimitation as such) makes it clear that before this reference to the experts the Commission had felt unable to formulate any definite rule at all, the previous trend of opinion having been mainlq. in favour of delimitation by agreement or by reference to arbitration. 51. It was largely because of these difficulties that it was decided to consult the Committee of Experts. It is therefore instructive in the con- text (i.e., of an alleged inherent necessity for the equidistance principle) to see on what basis the matter was put to the experts, and how theq. dealt with it. Eq~iidistance was in fact only one of four methods suggested to them, the other three being the continuation in the seaward direction of the land frontier between the two adjacent States concerned; the drawing of a perpendicular to the coast at the point of its intersection with this land frontier; and the drawing of a line perpendicular to the line of the "general direction" of the coast. Furthermore the matter was not even put to the experts directly as a question of continental shelfdelimita- tion, but in the context of the delimitation of the lateral boundary be- tween adjacentterritorial waters, no account being taken of the possibility that the situation respecting territorial waters might be different. 52. The Committee of Experts sirnply reported that after a thorough discussion of the different methods-(there are no official records of this discussion)-they had decided that "the (lateral) boundary through the territorial sea-if not already fixed otherwise-should be drawnaccording to the principle of equidistance from the respective coastlines". They added, however, significantly, that in "a number of cases this may not lead to an equitable solution, which should be then arrived at by negotia- tion". Only after that did they add, as a rider to this conclusion, that they had considered it "important to find a formula for drawing the iiiternational boundaries in the territorial waters of States, which could also be used for the delimitation of the respective continental shelves of two States bordering the same continental shelf". 50. Au surplus il est frappant de constater à cet égard que, dans les discussions qui se sont déroulées à la Commission au début et vers le milieu de ses travaux, non seulement on n'a jamais considéré quela notion d'équidistanceait àpriori un caractère de nécessitéinhérente mais encore on ne lui a jamais reconnu une importance spécialeet certaine- ment aucune priorité. La Commission a examiné diverses autres pos- sibilitésen leur accordant une valeur égalesinon supérieure: délimitation par voie d'accord, délimitation par voie d'arbitrage, délimitation selon une ligne perpendiculaire à la côte, délimitation par prolongement de la ligne divisant leseaux territoriales adjacentes, dont leprincipe n'étsit pas encore établi, etd'autres encore; la Commission a mêmesérieusement envisagéd'adopter I"une ou l'autre de ces solutions. En fait, c'est seule- ment après que la question eut étérenvoyée à un comité d'experts- hydrographes, dont le rapport a été présenté en 1953,que le principe de I'équidistance a commencé à l'emporter sur les autres possibilités: il ressort nettement du rapport de la Commission pour 1953(son principal rapport sur le problème de la délimitation proprement dit) qu'avant d'en référer aux expertsla Commission ne s'était pasjugée en mesure de formuler une règle préciseet qu'elle s'était jusque-là surtout montrée faborable à une délimitation par voie d'accord ou d'arbitrage. 51. Si la Commission a décidéde consulter le comitéd'experts, c'est en grande partie àcause de ces difficultés.Il est donc instuctif, du point de vue d'une prétendue nécessitéinhérente du principe de I'équidistance, d'examiner sur quelle base le problème a été soumisaux experts et com- ment ils l'ont traité.L'équidistance n'étaiten réalitéque l'une des quatre méthodesqui leur étaientsuggérées. Les trois autres étaientles suivantes: prolongement vers le large de la frontière terrestre entre les deux Etats limitrophes intéressés;tracé d'une ligne perpendiculaire à la côte à l'endroit où la frontikre entre lesdeux territoires atteint la mer; tracéd'une ligne perpendiculaire à la ((directiongénérale))de la côte. En outre le problème n'a pas éttposédirectement aux experts à propos de la délimi- tation du plateau continental: il l'aétépropos de la délimitationlatérale des eaux territorialeis de deux Etats limitrophes, sans que l'on se demande sila situation n'étaitpas différente. 52. Lecomitéd'experts a simplement signalédans son rapport qu'après une discussion approfondie des diverses méthodes - qui n'a pas fait l'objet de procès-verbaux officiels- il avait étéd'avis que ([lafrontière (latérale)entre les mers territoriales respectives de deux Etats adjacents, là où elle n'a pas déjà étéfixéed'une autre manière, devrait êtretracée selon le principe d'équidistance de la côte de part et d'autre de l'aboutis- sement de la frontière)). Il a cependant ajouté, et cela est significatif: ((Danscertains cas, cette méthode ne permettra pas d'aboutir à une solu- tion équitable, laquelle devraalors êtrerecherchéedans des négociations.1) C'est seulement après cette conclusion que les experts ont précisé,dans une observation annexe, qu'ils s'étaient efforcésde trouver des formules pour tracer les froritières internationales dans les mers territoriales qui CONTINENTALSHELF(JUDGMENT) 53. In this almost impromptu, and certainly contingent manner was the principle of equidistance for the delimitation of continental shelf boundaries propounded. It is clear from the Report of the Commission for 1953 already referred to (paragraph 50) that the latter adopted it largely on the basis of the recommendation of the Committee of Experts, and even so in a text that gave priority to delimitation by agreement and also introduced an exception in favour of "special circumstances" which the Committee had not formally proposed. The Court moreover thinks it to be a legitimate supposition that the experts were actuated by con- siderations not of legal theory but of practical conçenience and carto- graphy of the kind mentioned in paragraph 22 above. Although there are no ofiicial records of their discussions, there is warrant for this view in correspondence passing between certain of them and the Commission's Special Rapporteur on the subject, which was deposited by one of the Parties during the oral hearing at the request of the Court. Nor, even after this, when a decision in principle had been taken in favour of an equidistance rule, was there an end to the Commission's hesitations, for as late as three years after the adoption of the report of the Committee of Experts, when the Commission was finalizing the whole complex of drafts comprised under the topic of the Law of the Sea, various doubts about the equidistance principle were still being voiced in the Commis- sion, on such grounds for instance as that its strict application would be open, in certain cases, to the objection that the geographical configura- tion of the coast would render aboundary drawn on this basis inequitable. 54. A further point of some signifieance is that neither in the Com- mittee of Experts, nor in the Commission itself, nor subsequently at the Geneva Conference, does there appear to have been any discussion of delimitation in the context, not merely of two adjacent States, but of three or more States on the same coast, or in the same viciiiity,-from which it can reasonably be inferred that the possible resulting situations, some of which have been described in paragraph 8 above, were never really envisaged or taken into account. This viewfinds someconfirmation in the fact tliat the relevant part of paragraph 2 of Article 6 of the Geneva Convention speaks of delimiting the continental shelf of "two" adjacent States (although a reference simply to "adjacent States" would have sufficed), whereas in respect ofmedian lines the reference in paragraph 1 of that Article is to "two or more" opposite States. 55. In the light of this history, and of the recordgenerally, it is clear that at no time was the notion of equidistance as an inherent necessity of continental shelf doctrine entertained. Quite a different outlook was indeed manifested from the start in current legal thinking. It was, andpourraieilt en mêmetemps servir pour délimiterles frontières respectives de ((plateau continental ))concerriant les Etats devant les côtes desquels s'étendce plateau ». 53. C'est de cette manièrepresque improviséeet purement contingente que le principe de l'iquidistance a étéenvisagépour la délimitation du plateau continental. 11ressort nettement du rapport de la Comn~ission du droit internation;il pour 1953 (voir paragraphe 50 ci-dessus) que la Commission a adoptéce principe essentiellement sur la recommandation du comitéd'experts mais que, ce faisant, elle a dans le mêmetexte donné priorité à la délimitation par voie d'accord et a introduit une exception dans le cas de (circonstances spéciales 1)que le comitén'avait pas formel- lement proposée. La Cour estime en outre légitimede supposer que les experts ont étémus par le genre de considérations d'ordre pratique et cartographique dont il est fait état au paragraphe 22 ci-dessus et non par des considérations d',ordrejuridique et doctrinal. Bien que leurs discus- sisns n'aient pas fait l'objet de procès-verbaux officiels, cette opinion trouve confirmation dans une correspondance échangéeentre certains d'entre eux et le rapporteur spécialde la Commission, correspondance déposée aucours de la procédure orale par l'une des Parties sur la de- mande de la Cour. D'autre part, mêmeaprès avoir pris une décisionde principe en faveur d'une règle fondéesur l'équidistance,la Commission a continué àfairepreuve d'hésitation: trois ans après l'adoption du rap- port du comitéd'experts, au moment où elle mettait la dernière main à l'ensemble des projets concernant le droit de la mer, le principe de l'équidistance suscitait encore des doutes parmi ses membres, motif pris par exemple de ce que son application stricte pourrait prêter à critique dam des cas où la configuration géographique de la côte rendrait iné- quitable une limite tracéesur cette base. 54. Un autre élémentsignificatif est à considérer: il semble que ni au comitéd'experts, ni à la Commission elle-mzme, ni ultérieurement à la conférence de Genèvela discussion n'ait porté sur les délimitations à effectuer non pas simplement entre deux Etats limitrophes, mais entre trois ou plusieurs Etaitsbordant la mêmecôte ou situésdans le voisinage les uns des autres; il est raisonnable d'en déduireque les situations pou- vant résiilterde cet [Statde choses, et dont certaines ont Stédécritesau paragraphe 8 ci-dessus, n'ont jamais été véritablementenvisagées ou prises en considération. Cette déduction est confirméepar le fait qu'à l'article6, paragraphe 2, de la Convention deGenèvelepassagepertinent parle de la délimitationdu plateau continental entre «deux])Etats limitro- phes - il aurait sufli de dire edes» Etats limitrophes -, alors qu'en ce qui concerne les ligries médianesentre Etats dont les côtes se font face l'article6, paragraphe 1,dit sdeux ou plusieurs » Etats. 55. Compte tenu de ces antécédentsetd'une manièreplus généraledu dossier, il est clairqu'à aucun moment on n'a considéréque la notion d'équidistance soit liéede facon inhérenteet nécessairea la doctrine du plateau continental. L'opinion desjuristes s'estmême, dès le début,mani- 36 CONTINENTAL SHELF (JUDGMENT) it really remained tothe end, governed by two beliefs;-namely, first, that no one singlemethod of delimitation waslikelyto prove satisfactory in al1 circumstances, and that delimitation should, therefore, be carried out by agreement (or by reference to arbitration); and secondly, that it should be effected on equitable principles. It was in pursuance of the first ofese beliefs that in the draft that emerged as Article 6 of the Geneva Con- vention, the Commission gave priority to delimitation by agreement,- and in pursuance of the second that it introduced the exception in favour of "special circumstances". Yet the record shows that, even with these mitigations, doubts persisted, particularly as to whether the equidistance principle would in al1cases prove equitable. 56. In these circumstances, it seems to the Court that the inherency contention as now put forward by Denmark and the Netherlands inverts the true order of things in point of time and that, so far from an equidis- tance rule having been generated by an antecedent principle of proximity inherent in the whole concept of continental shelf appurtenance, the latter is rather a rationalization of the former-an ex postfacto construct directed to providing a logical juristic basis for a method of delimitation propounded largely for different reasons, cartographical and other. Given also that for the reasons already set out (paragraphs 40-46) the theory cannot be said to be endowed with any quality of logical necessity either, the Court is unable to accept it. 57. Before going further it will be convenient to deal briefly with two subsidiary matters. Most of the difficulties felt in the International Law Commission related, as here, to the case of the lateral boundary between adjacent States. Less difficulty was felt over that of the median line boundary between opposite States, although it too is an equidistance line. For this there seems to the Court to be good reason. The continental shelf area off, and dividing, opposite States, can be claimed by each of them to be a natural prolongation of its territory. These prolongations meet and overlap, and can therefore only be delimited by means of a median line; and, ignoring the presence of islets, rocks and minor coastal projections, the disproportionally distorting effect of which can be eliminated by other means, such a line must effect an equal division of the particular area involved. If there is a third State on one of thecoasts concerned, the area of mutual natural prolongation with that of the same or anotlier opposite State will be a separate and distinct one, to be treated in the same way. This type of case is therefore different from that of laterally adjacent States on the same coast with no immediately opposite coast in front of it, and does not give rise to the same kind of problem-a conclusion which also finds some confirmation in the dif-festée en untout autre sens. Elle a procédé,et ellen'a cessédeprocéder,de deux convictions:en premier lieu il étaitpeu probable qu'une méthodede délimitation unique donne satisfaction dans toutes les circonstances et la délimitation devait donc s'opérerpar voie d'accord ou d'arbitrage; en second lieu la délimitation devaits'effectuer selon desprincipeséquitables. C'est en raison de la première conviction que la Commission a donné priorité à la délimitation par voie d'accord dans le projet qui est devenu l'article 6 de la Convention de Genève et c'est en raison de la seconde conviction qu'elle a introduit l'exception des ((circonstances spéciales)). Les documents montrent cependant que, même avecces atténuations, les doutes ont persisté, enparticulier sur le point de savoir si le principe de l'équidistancese révéleraitéquitabledans tous les cas. 56. Dans ces conditions, il semble à la Cour que la thèsedu caractère inhérent, telle qu'elle est formulée maintenant par le Danemark et les Pays-Bas, renverse 1"ordre réel des chosesdans le temps. Loin qu'une règled'équidistanceait étéengendrép ear un principe antérieur de proxi- mité inhérent à la conception fondamentale du plateau continental, c'estplutôt ce principe qui est une rationalisation de la règle, une cons- truction à posteriori destinée à fournir une base juridique logique à une méthode de délimitation proposée pour des raisons surtout extra- juridiques, cartographiques en particulier. Etant donné en outre que, pour les motifs déjàexposésaux paragraphes 40 à 46, on ne saurait non plus dire que la théorie présente un caractère de nécessitélogique, la Cour n'est pas en mesure de l'accepter. 57. Avant d'aller plus loin, il convient d'examiner brièvement deux questions incidentes. La plus grande partie des difficultéséprouvéespar la Commission du droit international concernaient comme ici le cas de la ligne latérale de délimitation entre Etats limitrophes. Les difficultés ont été moindrespour ce qui est de la ligne médiane de délimitationentre Etats dont les côtes se font face, bien qu'il s'agisseà aussi d'une ligne d'équidistance. Il semble à la Cour qu'il y a une bonne raison à cela. En effet les zones de plateau continental se trouvant au large d'Etats dont les côtes se font face et séparant ces Etats peuvent êtreréclamées par chacun d'eux à titre de prolongement naturel de son territoire. Ces zones se rencontrent, se chevauchent et ne peuvent donc êtredélimitées que par une ligne médiane; si 1'011ne tient pas compte des îlots, des rochers ou des légerssaillants de la côte, dont on peut éliminer l'effet exagéré dedéviatiori par d'autres moyens, une telle ligne doit diviser également l'espace clont il s'agit. Si un troisième Etat borde l'une des côtes, la zone où le prolongement naturel de son territoire recoupe celui de 1'Etat déjà considéré luifaisant face, ou celui d'un autre Etat lui faisant face, sera distincte et séparée maisdevra être traitéede la même manière. Tout différentest le cas d7Etats limitrophes se trouvant sur laference of language to be observed in the two paragraphs of Article 6 of the Geneva Convention (reproduced in paragraph 26 above) as respects recourse in the one case to median lines and in the other to lateral equidistance lines, in the event of absence of agreement. 58. If on the other hand, contrary to the view expressed in the preced- ing paragraph, it were correct to say that there is no essential difference in the process of delimiting the continental shelf areas between opposite States and that of delimitations between adjacent States, then the results ought in principle to be the same or at least comparable. But in fact, wliereas a median line divides equally between the two oppositecountries areas that can be regarded as being the natural prolongation of the territory of each of them, a lateral equidistance line often leaves to one of the States concerned areas that are a natural prolongation of the territory of the other. 59. Equally distinct in the opinion of the Court is the case of the lateral boundary between adjacent territorial waters to be drawn onan equidistance basis. As was convincingly demonstrated in the maps and diagrams furnished by the Parties, and as has been noted in paragraph 8, the distorting effects oflateral equidistance lines under certain conditions of coastal configuration are nevertheless comparatively small within the limits of territorial waters, but produce their maximum effect in the localities where the main continental shelf areas lie further out. There is also a direct correlation between the notion of closest proximity to the coast and the sovereign jurisdiction which the coastal State is entitled to exercise and must exercise, not only over the seabed underneath the territorial waters but over the waters themselves, which does not exist in respect of continental shelf areas where there is no jurisdiction over the superjacent waters, and over the seabed only for purposes of explora- tion and exploitation. 60. The conclusions so far reached leave open, and still to be con- sidered, the question whether on some basis other than that of an a prior ogical necessity, i.e., through positive law processes, the equidis- tance principle has come to be regarded as a rule of customary interna- tional Inw, so that it would be obligatory for the Federal Republic in that way, even though Article 6 of the Geneva Convention is not, as such, opposable to it. For this purpose it is necessary to examine the status of the principle as it stood when the Convention was drawn up, as it resulted from the effect of the Convention, and in the light of State practice subsequent to the Convention; but it should be clearly under- stood that in the pronouncements the Court makes on these matters it has in view solely the delimitation provisions (Article 6) of the Conven- tion, not other parts of it, nor the Convention as such.mêmecôte et n'ayant pas de vis-à-vis immédiat; les problèmes soulevés nesont pas du mêmeordre: cette conclusion est confirméepar larédaction différentedes deux paragraphes de l'article 6 de la Convention de Genève reproduits au paragraphe 26 ci-dessus quant à l'utilisation,à défaut d'accord, de lignes médianesou de lignes latérales d'équidistance selon le cas. 58. En revanche si, contrairement à l'opinion émiseau paragraphe précédent,il était exact de dire qu'il n'y a pas de différence essentielle pour la délimitation du plateau continental entre le casd'Etats se faisant face et lecas dlEtatc; limitrophes, les résultats devraient êtreen principe sinon identiques du moins comparables. Or en fait, alors qu'une ligne médiane tracée entre deux paysse faisant face divise égalementdes zones qui peuvent êtreconsidéréescomme le prolongement natureldu territoire de chacun d'eux, il est fréquentqu'une ligne latérale d'équidistancelaisse à l'un des Etats intéressés des zonesqui sont le prolongement naturel du territoire de l'autre. 59. Tout différent aussi est, de l'avis de la Cour, le problème de la délimitation latéraleentre les eaux territorialesd'Etats limitrophes faite selon l'équidistance.Ainsi que l'ont démontréde façon convaincante les cartes et croquis fournis par les Parties et ainsi qu'on l'a vu au para- graphe 8, les effets de déviation que produisent certaines configurations côtières sur les lignes latirales d'équidistance sont relativement faibles dans les limites des eaux territoriales mais jouent au maximum à I'em- placement des zones de plateau continental au large. Il existe aussi une corrilation directe entre la notion de proximité par rapport à la côte et la juridiction souveraine que 1'Etat riverain a le droit et le devoir d'exercer non seulement sur le lit de la mer au-dessous de ses eaux terri- toriales mais aussi sur ces eaux mêmes,corrélation qui n'existe pas en ce qui concerne le plateau continental car 1'Etat n'a aucune juridiction sur leseaux surjacerites et n'a de juridiction sur le lit de la mer qu'à des fins d'exploration et d'exploitation. 60. Les conclusions précédentes laissentencore sans réponsela ques- tion de sa\ oir si le principe de l'équidistanceen est venà êtreconsidéré comme une règle de droit international coutumier pour une autre raison que la nécessitélogique et à priori, c'est-à-dire par les moyens du droit positif, de sorte qu'il s'imposerait à la République fédérale à ce titre bien que l'article6 de la Convention de Genève nelui soit pas opposable en tant que tel.Il fautà cette fin étudierla place qu'occupait ce principe lors de la rédaction de la Convention et celle qui lui a étéconféréepar la Convention elle-mi3me et par la pratique des Etats postérieure à la Convention; mais il1doit êtrenettement entendu que, dans ses énoncia- tions en la matière, la Cour envisage uniquement la clause sur la délimi- tation (article6) et nullement d'autres dispositions de la Convention ni la Con\,ention en tant que telle. 61. The first of these questions can conveniently be considered in the form suggested on behalf of Denmark and the Netherlands themselves in the course of the oral hearing, when it was stated that they had not in fact contended that the delimitation article (Article 6) of the Conven- tion "embodied already received rules of customary lau in the sense that the Convention was merely declaratory of existing rulrs". Their contention was, rather, that although prior to the Conference, continental shelf law was only in the formative stage, and State practice lacked uniformity, yet "the process of the definition and consolidation of the emerging customary law took place through the work of the Interna- tional Law Comniission, the reaction of governments to that work and the proceedings of the Geneva Conference"; and this emerping customary law became "crystallized in the adoption of the Continental Shelf Con- vention by the Conference". 62. Whatever validity this contention may have in respect of at least certain parts of the Convention, the Court cannot accept it as regards the delimitation provision (Article 6),the relevant parts of \\hich were adopted almost unchanged from the draft of the International Law Commission that formed the basis of discussion at the Conference. The status of the rule in the Convention therefore depends mainly on the processes that led ~he Commission to propose it. These processes have already been reviewed in connection with the Danish-Netherlands contention of an a prior iecessity for equidistance, and the Court con- siders this review sufficient for present purposes also, in order to show that the principle of equidistance, as it now figures in Article6 of the Convention, was proposed by the Commission with considerable hesita- tion, somewhat on an experimental basis, at most de lrge fi?rvtlda,and not at al1de lege lata or as an emerging rule of customary international law. This is clearly not the sort of foundation on which Article 6 of the Convention could be said to have reflected or crystallized such arule. 63. The foregoing conclusion receives significant confirmation frorn the fact that Article 6 is one of those in respect of which, under the reservations article of the Convention (Article 12) reservations may be made by any State on signing, ratifying or acceding-for, speaking generally, it is a characteristic of purely conventional rules and obligations that, in regard to them, some faculty of making unilateral reservations may, within certain limits, be admitted;-whereas this cannot be so in the case of general or customary 1aw rules and obligations which, by their very nature, must have equal force for al1members of the interna- tional community, and cannot therefore be the subject of any right of unilateral exclusion exercisable at will by any one of them in its own 61. Il peut être commode d'examiner la première de ces questions sous la forme que lui ont donnéele Danemark et les Pays-Bas dans leurs plaidoiries: ces deux Etats ont alors indiqué qu'en fait ils n'avaient pas soutenu que l'article de la Convention relatifà la délimitation (article 6) (consacrait des règ1e:sdéjàreçues de droit coutumier, en ce sens que la Convention était simplement déclaratoire des règles existantes D. Leur thèse était plutôt la!suivante: si avant la conférencele droit du plateau continental n'étaitqu'embryonnaire et si la pratique des Etats manquait d'uniformité, il n'en restait pas moins que (1la définition et la consoli- dation du droit coutumier en voie de formation s'étaienteffectuéesgrâce aux travaux de la Commission du droit international, aux réactions des gouveriiements devant l'Œuvre de la Commission et aux débats de la conférence de Genève 1)et que ce droit coutumier en voie de formation s'était~ccristallisdu fait de l'adoption de la Convention sur le plateau continental par la conférence 1). 62. Sijuste que salitcette thèseen ce qui concerne du moins certaines parties de la Convention, la Cour ne saurait la retenir pour ce qui est de la clause sur la délimitation (article 6) dont les dispositions pertinentes sont reprises presque sans changement du projet de la Commission du droit international ayant servi de base de discussion à la conférence.La valeur de la règle dans la Convention doit donc surtout êtrejugéepar rapport aux conditions dans lesquelles la Commission a été amenée à la proposer et qui ont déjàétéexaminéesau sujet de la thèse du Dane- mark et des Pays-B,as sur le caractère nécessaireet à priori de I'équi- distance. La Cour considère que cet examen suffit, aux fins du présent raisonnement. à montrer que le principe de l'équidistance, tel qu'il est actuellement énoncé à l'article 6 de la Convention, a été proposépar la Commission avec beaucoup d'hésitation, à titre plutôt expérimental et tout au plus rl~I<~ge,ferendad,onc certainement pas de lege Iata ni même à titre de règlede droit international coutumier en voie de formation. Tel n'est manifestement pas le genre de fondement que l'on pourrait in- voquer pour prétendre que l'article 6 de la Convention a consacré ou cristalliséla règlede I'équidistance. 63. La conclusiorl précédentetrouve une confirmation significative dans le fait que l'articleest l'un desarticlesà l'égard desquelstout Etat peut formuler des réservesau moment de la signature, de la ratification ou de l'adhésion, en vertu de l'article de la Convention relatif aux ré- serves (article 12).Il est en général caractéristique d'unerègleou d'une obligation purement conventionnelle que la faculté d'y apporter des réservesunilatérales soit admise dans certaines limites; mais il ne saurait en êtreainsi dans le cas de règles et d'obligations de droit généralou coutumier qui par nature doivent s'appliquer dans des conditions égales à tous les membres de la communauté internationale et ne peuvent donc êtresubordonnées à un droit d'exclusion exercéunilatéralement et afavour. Consequently, it is to be expected that when, for whatever reason, rules or obligations of this order are embodied, or are intended to be reflected in certain provisions of a convention, such provisions willfigure amongst those in respect of which a right of unilateral reserva- tion is not conferred, or is excluded. This expectation is, in principle, fulfilled by Article 12 of the Geneva Continental Shelf Convention, which permits reservations to be made to al1the articles of the Conven- tion "other than to Articles 1 to 3 inclusive"-these three Articles being the ones which, it is clear, were then regarded as reflecting, or as crys- tallizing, received or at least emergent rules of customary international law relative to the continental shelf, amongst them the question of the seaward extent of the shelf; the juridical character of the coastal State's entitlement; the nature of the rights exercisable; the kind of natural resources to which these relate; and the preservation intact of the legal status as high seas of the waters over the shelf, and the legal status of the superjacent air-space. 64. The normal inference would therefore be that any articles that do not figure among those excluded from the faculty of reservation under Article 12, were not regarded as declaratory of previously existing or emergent rules of law;and this is the inference the Court in fact draws in respect of Article 6 (delimitation), having regard also to the attitude of the International Law Commission to this provision, asalready described in general terms. Naturally this would not of itself prevent this provision from eventually passing into the general corpus of customary interna- tional law by one of the processes considered in paragraphs 70-81 below. But that is not here the issue. What is now under consideration is whether it originally figured in the Convention as such a rule. 65. It has however been suggested that the inference drawii at the beginning of the preceding paragraph is not necessarily warranted, seeing that there are certain other provisions of the Convention, also not excluded from the faculty of reservation, but which do undoubtedly in principle relate to matters that lie within the field of received customary law, such as the obligation not to impede the laying or maintenance of submarine cables or pipelines on the continental shelf seabed (Article 4), and the general obligation not unjustifiably to interfere witli freedom of navigation, fishing, and so on (Article 5, paragraphs 1 and 6). These matters however, al1relate toor are consequential upon principles or rules of general maritime law, very considerably ante-dating the Convention, and not directly connected with but only incidental to continental shelf rights as such. They were mentioned in the Convention, not in order to declare or confirm their existence, which was not necessary, but simply to ensure that they were not prejudiced by the exercise of continental shelf rights as provided for in the Convention. Another method ofvolontépar l'un quelconque des membres de lacommunauté àson propre avantage. Par conséquent, il paraît probable que, si pour une raison quelconque I'on consacre ou I'on entend traduire des règlesou des obli- gations de cet ordre dans certaines dispositions d'une convention, ces dispositions figureront parmi celles au sujet desquelles le droit de for- muler des réservesunilatérales n'est pas accordé ou est exclu. C'est ainsi que I'article12 de 1;iConvention de Genève sur le plateau continental autorise desréserves Iaux articles de laConvention autres que lesarticles 1 a 3inclus »;ces trois articles sont ceux que l'on a alors manifestement considérés comme consacrant ou cristallisant des règlesde droit inter- national coutumier re1atii.e~au plateau continental, règlesétabliesou du moins en voie de formation et visant notamment la question de l'étendue du plateau continental vers le large, le caractère juridique du titre de 1'Etat riverain, la nature des droits pouvant êtreexercés, legenre de ressources naturelles sur lesquelles portent ces droits, le maintien du régimejuridique des eaux surjacentes au plateau continental en tant que haute mer, et le maintien du régimejuridique de l'espace aériensitué au-dessus de ces eaux. 64. 11semble donc normal de conclure que les articles à propos des- quels la facultéde fi~rmulerdes réserves n'estpas exclue par l'article 12 n'ont pas été considérés comme déclaratoires dr eègles de droit pré- existantes ou en voie de formation. Telle est bien, en ce qui concerne l'article 6 sur la délimitation, la déduction tiréepar la Cour, qui tient également compte de l'attitude, déjàexposée entermes généraux,de la Commission du droit international à l'égardde cette disposition. Cela ne suffirait évidemment pas à empêchercette disposition de s'intégrer au droit international coutumier par l'un des moyens considérésaux paragraphes 70 à 81 ci-après. Mais là n'est pas la question. Il s'agit pour l'instant de savoir si la disposition a figurédès l'origine dans la Convention à titre de règlecoutumière. 65. 011 soutient néanmoins que la déduction dont il est fait état au débutdu paragraphe précédent n'est pas nécessairementfondéecar il ne fait pas de doute que certaines autres dispositions de la Convention, à propos desq~iellesla facultéde faire des réserves n'estpas exclue non plus, se rapportent en principe à des questions relevant du droit coutumier établi: telles sont notamment l'obligation de ne pas entraver la pose ou l'entretien decables ou pipe-lines sous-marins sur le plateau continental (article4). l'obligation générale dene pas gênerd'une manière injusti- fiable la navigation, la pèche,etc. (article paragraphes 1et 6). Mais ces questions concernent toutes, directement ou indirectement, des principes ou des règles de droit maritime généralqui sont très antérieurs à la Convention et se rattachent non pas directement mais de manière inci- denre au régimejuridique du plateau continental en tant que tel. Si on les a mentionnée4 dans la Convention, ce n'était pas pour diclarer ou confirmer leur existence, ce qui n'était pasnécessaire,mais simplement pour faire en sorteque l'exercice desdroits relatifs ail plateau continentalprévusdans la Conveiitioii n'y porte pas atteinte. Une autre rédaction aurait pu éviterl'ambiguïté; il n'en reste pas moins qu'un Etat ayant formulé une réserve ne serait pas dégagépour autant des obligations imposéespar le droit maritime généralen dehors et indépendamment de la Convention sur le plateau continental, et notamment des obligations énoncées à I'article 2 de la convention surla haute mer conclue au même moment et définiepar son préambule comme déclaratoire de principes établis du droit international. 66. L-article 6 relatifà la déliniitation paraità la Cour se présenter de manière différente.II se rattache directement au régimejuridique du plateau contine~ital en tant que tel et non à des questions incidentes; puisque Ia faculté de formuler des réservesn'a pas été exclue à son sujet, comme elle l'aétépour les articles 1à 3,il est légitimed'en déduirequ'on lui a attribué une valeur différenteet moins fondamentale et que, con- trairement à ces articles, il ne traduisait pas le droit coutumier préexistant ou en voie de forrlîation. Le Danemark et les Pays-Bas ont pourtant soutenu que le droit d'apporter des réserves à I'article 6 n'étaitpas censé êtreillimitéet qu'eri particulier il n'allait pas jusqu'à exclure totalement le principe de délimitation fondésur l'équidistance,car les articles 1et 2 de la Convention, à propos desquels aucune réserve n'est autorisée, impliqueraient la délimitation sur la base de I'équidistaiîce.11en résul- terait que le droit de faire des réservesI'article 6 ne pourrait êtreexercé que d'une manière compatible avec, au moins, le maintien du principe foiidarnental de l'équidistance. On a souligné à cet égard que, sur les quatre seules réservesformulées jusqu'à présentau sujet de I'article 6 et dont l'une au moins a une portéeassez large, aucune ne viseune exclusion ou un rejet aussi total. 67. La Cour ne juge pas cet argument convaincant pour plusieurs motifs. En premier lieu, il Liesemble pas que les articles 1 et 2 de la Convention de Genève aient un rapport direct avec une délimitatioii entre Etats eii tant que telle. L'article 1 ne vise que la limite extérieure du plateau continental du côté du large et non pas sa délimitation entre Etats se faisant face ou entre Etats limitrophes. L'article 2 ne concerne pas davantage ce dernier point. Or il a étésuggéré, semble-t-il,que la notion d'équidistarice résulteimplicitement du caractère ((exclusif )attri- bué par I'article 2, paragraphe 2, aux droits de 1'Etat riverain sur le plateau continental. A s'en tenir au texte, cette interprétation est mani- festementinexacte. Levéritablesens de cepassage estque, danstoute zone de plateau continental où un Etat riverain a des droits, ces droits sont exclusifs et aucun autre Etat ne peut les exercer. Mais aucune précision n'yest donnéequant aux zones mêmessur lesquelles chaque Etat riverain possède des droits exclusifs. Cette question, qui ne peut se poser qu'en ce quiconcerne les confins du plateau continental d'un Etat, est exacte- nient, comme on l'a vu au paragraphe 20 ci-dessus in$ne, celle que le processus de délimitation doit permettre de résoudre et elle relève de I'article, non de I'article 2.drafting might have clarified the point, but this cannot alter the fact that no reservation could release the reserving party from obligations of general maritime law existing outside and independently of the Con- vention, and especially obligations formalized in Article 2 of the con- temporaneous Convention on the High Seas, expressed by its preamble to be declaratory of established principles of international law. 66. Article 6 (delimitation) appears to the Court to be in a different position. It does directly relate to continental shelf rights as such, rather than to matters incidental to these; and since it was not, as were Articles 1 to 3,excluded from the faculty of reservation, it is a legitimate inference that it was considered to have a different and less fundamental status and not, like those Articles, to reflect pre-existing or emergent customary law. It was however contended on behalf of Dentnark and the Nether- lands that the right of reservation given in respect of Article 6 was not intended to be an unfettered right, and that in particular it does iiot evtend tu effecting a total exclusion of the equidistance principle of delimitation,-for, so it was claiined. delimitation on the basis of thai principle is implicit in Articles 1 and2 of the Convention, in respect of which no reservations are permitted. Hence the right of reservation under Article 6could only be exercised in a manner consistent with the preserva- tion of at least the basic principle of equidistance. In this coiinection it was pointed out that, of the no more than four reser+ations so far entered in respect of Article 6, one at least of which was somewhat far- reaching, none has purported to effect such a total exclusion or denial. 67. The Court finds this argument unconvincing for a nuniber of reasons. In the first place, Articles 1 and 2 of the Geneva Convention do not appear to have any direct connection with inter-Statedelimitation as such. Article 1 is concerned only with the outer, seaward, limit of the shelf generally, not with boundaries between the shelf areas of opposite or adjacent States. Article 2 is equally not concerned uitli such boundaries. The suggestion seems to be that the notion of equidis- tance is implicit in the reference in paragraph 2 of Article2 to the rights of the coastal State over its continental shclf being "exclusive". So far as actual language is concerned this interpretation is clearly incorrect. The true sense of the passage is that in whatever areas of the continental shelf a coastal State has rights, those rights are exclusive rights, not exercisable by any other State. But this says nothing as to what in fact are the precise areas in respect of which each coastal State possesses these exclusive rights. This question, which can arise only as regards the fringes of a coastal State's shelf area is, as explained at the end of para- graph 20 above, exactly what falls to be settled through the process of delimitation, and this is the sphere of Article6, not Article 2. cerned should, at al1 events potentially, be of a fundaiiientally noriii- creating character such as could be regarded as forniing tlie basis of a general rule of law. Considered in ubstracto the equidistance principle might be said to fulfil this rcquirement. Yet in the particulnr form in which it is embodied in Article 6 of the Geneva Convention, and having regard to the relationship of that Article to other provisions of tlie Convention, this niust be open to some doubt. ln the first place, Article 6 is so framed asto put second the obligation to make use of the equidis- tance method, causing it to come after a primary obligation to effect delimitation by agreement. Such a primary obligation coiistitutes an unusual preface to what is clainied to be a potential general rule of law. Without attempting to enter into, still less pronounce upon any question of ,jus cogens, it is well understood that, in practice, rules of international law can, by agreement, be derogated frorn in particular cases, or as between particular parties,-but this is not norinally the subject of any express provision, as it is in Articl6 of the Geneva Con- vention. Secondly the part played by the notion of special circunistances relative to the principle of equidistance as embodied in Article 6, and the very considerable, still unresolved controversies as to the exact mean- ing and scope of this notion, must raise further doubts as tn the poten- tially norm-creating character of the rule. Finally, the faculty of making reservations to Article 6, while it might not of itself prevent thc equidis- tance principle being eventually received as general law, does ndd con- siderably to the difficulty of regarding this result as having been brought about (or being potentially poysible) on the basis of the Convention: for so long as this faculty continues to exist, and is not the subject of any revision brought about in consequence of a request niade under Article 13 of the Conventioii-of which there is at present no official indication-it is tlie Convention itself which would, for tlie reasoiis already indicated, seem to deny to the provisions of Article 6 the same norm-creating character as, for instance, Articles 1and 2 possess. 73. With respect to the other elements usually regarded as necessary before a conventional rule can be considered to have become LIgeneral rule of international law, it might be that, even without the passage of any considerable period of time, a very widespread and representative participation in theconvention might sufficeof itself, pro\ ided it included that of States whose interests were specially affected. In the present case however, the Court notes that, even if allowance is made for the existence of a number of States to whom participation in the Geneva Convention is not open, or which, by reason for instance of being land-locked States, would have no interest in becoining parties to it, tlie number of ratifications and accessions so far secured is, though respectable, hardly sufficient. That non-ratification may sometimes be due to factors other than active disapproval of the convention concerned cari hardly con- stitute a basis on which positive acceptance of its principles can bc implied: the reasons are speculntive, but the facts remain.ment, un caractère fondamentalement normatif et puisse ainsi constituer la base d'une règle généralede droit. On peut dire que le principe de l'équidistance, envisagédans l'abstrait, satisfait à cette condition. Néan- moins, vu la forme particulière qu'il revêtà I'article 6 de la Convention et étant donné le rapport entre cet article et d'autres dispositions de la Convention, on ne peut manquer d'avoir des doutes. En premier lieu, I'article6 est rédigécletelle sorte qu'il fait passer l'obligation de recourir à la méthode de I'équidistance après l'obligation primordiale d'effectuer la délimitation par voie d'accord. Cette obligation primordiale précéde- rait de manière bien inusitée ce que I'on prétend êtrevirtuellement une règlede droit général. Sans chercher à aborder la question du jus cogem et encore moins à se prononcer sur elle, on doit admettre qu'en pratique ilest possible de déroger par voie d'accord aux règles de droit inter- national dans des cas particuliers ou entre certaines parties, mais cela ne fait pas normalement l'objet d'une disposition expresse comme dans I'article6 de la Convention de Genève. En second lieu, le rôle que joue la notion de circonstances spéciales par rapport au principe de l'équi- distance consacré à I'article 6 et les controverses très importantes, non encore résolues, auxquelles ont donné lieu la portée et le sens de cette notion ne peuvent que susciter d'autres doutes quantau caractère virtuelle- ment normatif de la règle. Enfin, si la faculté d'apporter des réserves à I'article6 ne suffit peut-êtrepas à empécher le principe de I'équidistance de s'intégrer finalement au droit général,elle fait du moins qu'il est beaucoup plus difficile de soutenir que ce résultat a étéou pourrait être atteint sur la base di: la Convention: tant que cette faculté demeure et qu'elle n'est pas modifiéeà la suite d'une demande de revision formulée en vertu de l'article 13 - demande qu'aucune indication officielle ne laisse présager pour l'instant -, il semble que ce soit la Convention elle-mêmequi. pour les raisons déjà énoncées, priveles dispositions de I'article6 du caractère normatif q~i'ontpar exemple les dispositions des articles 1et 2. 73. En ce qui concerne les autres éléments généralementtenus pour nécessairesafin qu'une règleconventionnelle soit considéréecomme étant devenue une règle généralede droit international, il se peut que, sans mêmequ'une longue période se soit écoulée, uneparticipation très large et représentative à la convention suffise, à condition toutefois qu'elle comprenne les Etats particulièrement intéressés.S'agissant de la présente affaire, la Cour constate que, mêmesi I'on tient compte du fait que certains dec Etats ne peuvent participer à la Convention de Genève ou, faute de littoral par exemple, n'ont pas d'intérêtà y devenir parties, le nombre des ratifications et adhésions obtenues jusqu'ici est important mais n'est pas suffisant. On ne saurait s'appuyer sur le fait que la non- ratification puisse êtredue parfois à des facteurs autres qu'une désappro- bation active de la convention en cause pour en déduire l'acceptation positive de ces principes: les raisons sont conjecturales mais les faits demeurent. 74. As regards the time element, the Court notes that it is over ten years since the Convention was signed, but that it is even now less than five since it came into force in June 1964, and that when the present proceedings were brought it was less than three years, while less than one had elapsed at the time when the respective negotiations between the Federal Republic and the other two Parties for a complete delimita- tion broke down on the question of the application of the equidistance principle. Although the passage of only a short period of time is not necessarily, or of itself, a bar to the formation of a newle of customary international law on the basis of what bras originally a purely conven- tional rule, an indispensable requirement would be that within the period in question, short though it might be, State practice, including that of States whose interests are specially affected, should have been bot11 extensive and virtually uniform in the sense of the provision invoked;- and should moreover have occurred in such a way as to show a general recognition that a rule of law or legal obligation is involved. 75. The Court must now consider whether State practice in the inatter of continental shelf delimitation has, subsequent to the Geneva Conven- tion, been of such a kind as to satisfy this requirement. Leaving aside cases which, for various reasons, the Court does not consider to be reliable guides as precedents, such as delimitations effected between the present Parties themselves, or not relating to international boundaries, some fifteen cases have been cited in the course of the present pro- ceedings, occurring mostly since the signature of the 1958 Geneva Con- vention, in which continental shelf boundaries have been delimited according to the equidistance principle-in the majority of the cases by agreement, in a few others unilaterally-or else the deliniitation was foreshadowed but has not yet been carried out. Amongst these fifteen are the four North Seadelimitations United KingdomJNorway-Denrnark- Netherlands, and NorwayJDenmark already mentioned in paragraph 4 of this Judgment. But even if these various cases constituted inore than a very small proportion of those potentially calling for deliniitation in the world as a whole, the Court would not think it necessary to enuinerate or evaluate them separately, since tliere are, n priori several grounds which deprive them of weight as precedents in the present context. 76. To begin with, over half the States concerned, whether acting unilaterally or conjointly, were or shortly became parties to the Geneva Convention, and were therefore presumably, so far as they were con- cerned, acting actually or potentially in the application of the Con~entioii. From their action no inference could legitimately be drawn as to the existence of a rule of customary international law in favour of the equidistance principle. As regards those States, on the other Iiand, which were not, and have not become parties to the Convention, the basis of 74. En ce qui concerne l'élémentde temps, la Cour constate qu'il y a actuellement plus de dix ans que la Convention a étésignéeet moins de cinq ans qu'elle est entrée en vigueur (juin 1964); lorsque la présente affaire a étéintroduite, ily en avait moins de trois; enfin moins d'un an s'était écoulélorsque les négociations bilatéralestendant à une déli- mitation complète entre la République fédérale et les deux autres Parties ont échoué surla question de l'application du principe de l'équidistance. Bienque le fait qu'il ne se soit écoulé qu'unbref laps de temps ne cons- titue pas nécessairement en soi un empêchement à la formation d'une règle nouvelle de droit international coutumier à partir d'une règle purement conventiorinelle à l'origine, ildemeure indispensable que dans ce laps de temps, aussi bref qu'il ait été,la pratique des Etats, y compris ceux qui sont particulièrement intéressés,ait étéfréquente et pratique- ment uniforme dans le sens de la disposition invoquée et se soit mani- festéede manière à établir une reconnaissance généraledu fait qu'une règlede droit ou une obligation juridique est en jeu. 75. La Cour doit maintenant rechercher si, depuis la Convention de Genève, la pratique des Etats en matière de délimitation du plateau continental a étéde nature à satisfairà cette condition. Abstraction faite des cas que la Cour,pour divers motifs, ne considèrepas comme des précédentssur lesquels on puisse se fonder, notamment les délimitations effectuéesentre les Partiesà la rése enteaffaire ou ne concernant r>asdes limites internationales, on a citéau cours de la procédure une quinzaine de cas où des limites de dateau contnental ont étédéterminéesselon le principe de l'équidistance; la plupart sont postérieursla signature de la Convention de Genève de 1958; le plus souvent la délimitation a été opéréepar voie d'accord, parfois elle l'a été unilatéralement, parfois aussi elle est prévue mais n'a pas encore étéréalisée.Parmi ces quelque quinze exemples, on relève lesquatre délimitations concernant la mer du Nord déjà mentionnéesau paragraphe 4 du préîent arrêt:Royaume-Uni/ Norvège-Danemark-Pays-Bas et Norvège,'Danemark. Mêmes'ils repré- sentaient plus qu'une très faible proportion des cas possibles de délimi- tation dans le monde, la Cour n'estimerait pas nécessairede les énumérer ou de les examiner séparémentcar plusieurs raisons leur enlèvent à priori la valeur de précédentsen l'espèce. 76. Tout d'abord plus de la moitié des Etats intéressés,qu'ils aient agi unilatéralement ou conjointement, étaient, ou sont bientôt devenus, partiesà la Convention de Genèveet il est donc permis de suppoîer que leur action s'inscrivait en fait ou virtuellement dans le cadre de'appli- cation de la Convention. On ne saurait donc légitimement en déduire qu'il existeune règlede droit international coutumier consacrant le prin- cipe de l'équidistance. Pour les Etats qui n'étaient pas et ne sont pas devenus depuis lors partiesà la Convention, les raisons de leur action netheir action can only be problematical and must remain entirely specula- tive. Clearly, they were not applying the Convention. But from that no inference could justifiably be drawn that they believed themselves to be applying a mandatory rule of customary international law. There is not a shred of evidence that they did and, as has been seen (paragraphs 22 and 23), there is no lack of other reasons for using the equidistance method, so that acting, or agreeing to act in a certain way, does not of itself demonstrate anything of a juridical nature. 77. The essential point in this connection-and it seems necessary to stress it-is that even if these instances of action by non-parties to the Convention were much more nunierous than they in fact are, they would not, even in the aggregate, suffice in themselves to constitute the opinio juris;-for, in order to achieve this result, two conditions must be ful- filled. Not only must the acts concerned amount to a settled practice, but they must also be sucli, or be carried out in such a way, as to be evidence of a belief that this practice is rendered obligatory by the existence of a rule of Iaw requiring it. The need for such a belief, Le., the existence of a subjective element, is implicit in the very notion of the opinio juris sive necessitatis. The States concerned must therefore feel that they are conforming to what amounts to a legal obligation. The frequency, or even habitua1 cliaracter of the acts is not in itself enough. There are many international acts, e.g., in the field of ceremonial and protocol, whicli are performed almost invariably,but which are motivated only by considcrations of courtesy, convenience or tradition, and not by any sense of legal duty. 78. In this respect the Court follows the view adopted by the Perma- nent Court of International Justice in the Lotus case, as stated in the fol- lowing passage, the principle of which is, by analogy, applicable almost word for word, nzutatis mutandis, to the present case (P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 10, 1927, at p. 28): "Even if the rarity of the judicial decisions to be found ... were sufficient to prove ... the circunistance alleged .. .,it would merely show that States had often, in practice, abstained from instituting criminal proceedings, and not that they recognized themselves as being obliged to do so; for only if such abstention were based on their being conscious of having a duty to abstain would it be possible to speak of an international custom. The alleged fact does not allow one to infer that States have been conscious of having such a duty; on the other hand, ... there are other circuinstances calculated to show that the contrary is true." Applying this dictum to the present case, the position is simply that in certain cases-not a great nuinber-the States concerned agreed to draw or did draw the boundaries concerned according to the principle of equidistance. There is no evidence that they so acted because they felt PLATEAU CONTINENTAL(ARRET) 44 peuvent être queproblématiques et restent entièrement du domaine de la conjecture. Il est clair que ces Etats n'appliquaient pas la Convention, mais il serait excessif d'en conclure qu'ils croyaient appliquer une règle de droit international coutumier àcaractère obligatoire. Il n'existe pas le moindre indice en ce sens et, comme on l'a vuaux paragraphes 22 ët 23, il ne manquait pas d'autres raisons de recourir à la méthode de l'équi- distance, de sorte que le fait d'avoir agi ou de s'être engagéagir d'une certaine façon ne prouve rien sur le plan juridique. 77. L'élément essentie l cet égard - il semble nécessairede le sou- ligner - est que, mi3mesi pareille attitude avait été beaucoupplus fré- quente de la part des;Etats non parties à la Convention, ces actes, même considérés globalement, ne suffiraient pas en eux-mêmes à constituer l'opiniojuris car, pour parvenir à ce résultat, deux conditions doivent êtreremplies. Non seulement les actes considérésdoivent représenter une pratique constante, mais en outre ils doivent témoigner, par Leur nature ou la manière dont ils sont accomplis, de la conviction que cette pratique est rendue obligatoire par I'existence d'une règle de droit. La nécessitéde pareille conviction, c'est-à-dire l'existenced'un élément sub- jectif, est implicite dans la notion mêmed'opiniojuris sive /i~cessitutis. Les Etats intéressésdoivent donc avoir le sentiment de se conformer à ce qui équivaut à une obligation juridique. Ni la fréquence ni mêmele caractère habituel des actes ne suffisent.II existe nombre d'actes inter- nationaux, dans le domaine du protocole par exemple, qui sont accomplis presque invariablement mais sont motivéspar de simples considérations de courtoisie, d'opportunité ou de tradition et non par le sentiment d'une obligation juridique. 78. A cet égardla Cour fait sienne l'opinion dela Cour permanente de Justice internationaledans l'affairedu Lotus, telle qu'elleest énoncéedans le passage suivant, et dont le principe est applicable par analogie à la présenteespèce presque mot pour mot mutalis nnltandis (C.P.J.I. série A no 10, 1927,p. 28:): n Mêmesilararetédes décisionsjudiciaires que I'on peuttrouver.. . étaitune preuve suffisante du fait invoqué .. .,il en résulteraitsim- plement que les Etats se sont abstenus, en fait, d'exercer despour- suites pénales,et non qu'ils sereconnaissent obligés de ce faire; or, c'est seulement si l'abstention étaitmotivéepar la conscience d'un devoir de s'abstenir que I'on pourrait parler de coutume internatio- nale.Le fait alléguéne permet pas deconclure que lesEtats aient été conscients de pareil devoir; par contre,... ily a d'autres circons- tances qui sont de nature à persuader du contraire. » Si I'on applique ce prononcé à la présente affaire, on doit simplement constater que dans certains cas peu nombreux des Etats sont convenus de tracer, ou ont tracé, les limites qui les concernent suivant le principe de l'équidistance. Rien ne prouve qu'ils aient agi ainsi parce qu'ils s'ylegally compelled to draw them in this way by reason of a rule of custom- ary law obliging them to do so-especially considering that they might have been motivated by other obvious factors. 79. Finally, it appears that in almost al1of the cases cited, the delimi- tations concerned were median-line delimitations between opposite States, not lateral delimitations between adjacent States. For reasons which have already been given (paragraph 57) the Court regards the case of median-line delimitations between opposite States as different in various respects, and as being sufficiently distinct not to constitute a precedent for the delimitation of lateral boundaries. In only onesituation discussed by the Parties does there appear to have been a geographical configuration which to some extent resembles the present one, in the sense that a number of States on the same coastline are grouped around a sharp curve or bend of it. No complete delimitation in this area has however yet been carried out. But the Court is not concerned to deny to this case, or any other of those cited, al1evidential value in favour of the thesis of Denmark and the Netherlands. It simply considers that they are inconclusive, and insufficient to bear the weight sought to be put upon them as evidence of such a settled practice, manifested in such circumstances, as would justify the inference that delimitation according to the principle of equidistance amounts to a mandatory rule of customary international law,-more particularly where lateral delimitations are concerned. 80. There are of course plenty of cases (and a considerable number were cited) of delimitations of waters, as opposed to seabed, being carried out on the basis of equidistance-mostly ofinterna1 waters (lakes, rivers, etc.), and mostly median-line cases. The nearest analogy is that of ad- jacent territorial waters, but as already explained (paragraph 59) the Court does not consider this case to be analogous to that of the con- tinental shelf. 81. The Court accordingly concludes that if the Geneva Convention was not in its origins or inception declaratory of a mandatory rule of customary international law enjoining the use of the equidistance prin- ciple for the delimitation of continental shelf areas between adjacent States, neither has its subsequent effect been constitutive of such a rule; and that State practice up-to-date has equally been insuficient for the purpose. 82. The immediately foregoing conclusion, coupled with that reached earlier (paragraph 56) to the effect that the equidistance principle could not be regarded as being a rule of law on any a priori basis of logicalsentaient juridiquement tenus par une règle obligatoire de droit coutu- mier, surtout si l'on songe que d'autres facteurs ont pu motiver leur action. 79. Enfin il semble que, dans presque tous les cas de délimitation invoqués,il s'est agi de tracer des lignes médianesentre Etats se faisant face et non des limites latérales entre Etats limitrophes. Pour les motifs déjà indiquésau paragraphe 57, la Cour considère que les délimitations effectuées selon des lignes médianesentre Etats se faisant face sont à divers égards différentes des délimitations latérales et qu'elles s'en distinguent suffisamment pour ne pas constituer un précédentpour la fixation de limitesaté:ralesI.l semble qu'une seuledes situations évoquées par les Parties se rapporte une configuration géographiqueressemblant dans une certaine mesure à celle de la présente espèce, ence sens que plusieurs Etats sont groupés le long d'une côte fortement incurvée.Or, jusqu'à présent, il n'a pas étéeffectuéde délimitation complète dans la régiondont il s'agit. Ce n'est pas que la Cour refuse aux exemples cités toute valeur probante à l'appui de la thèsedu Danemark et des Pays-Bas; elle estime simplement qu'ils ne sont pas décisifset ne suffisent pas à établir, comme on le voudrait, une pratique constante manifestéedans des circonstances permettant de conclure que la délimitation suivant le principe de l'équidistanceconstitue une règleobligatoire de droit inter- national coutumier, en particulier en matière de délimitation latérale. 80. Bien entendu, dans de nombreux cas dont beaucoup ont étémen- tionnés, l'équidistancea étéappliquée pour délimiter deseaux, par op- position à des fonds marins: il s'est agi surtout d'eaux intérieures (lacs, fleuves. etc.) et de délimitations suivant les lignes médianes. Le cas le plus voisin est celui des eaux territoriales adjacentes mais, ainsi qu'on l'adéjàvu au paragraphe 59, la Cour ne le considère pas comme analo- gue à celui du plateau continental. 81. La Cour conclut donc que, si la Convention de Genève n'étaitni dans ses origines ni dans ses prémicesdéclaratoire d'une règleobligatoire de droit international coutumier imposant l'emploi du principe de l'équi- distance pour la délimitation du plateau continental entre Etats limi- trophes, elle n'a pas non plus par ses effets ultérieurs aboutila forma- tion d'une telle règle; et que la pratique des Etats jusqu'à ce jour a égalementétéinsuffisante à cet égard. 82. La conclusion qui précède, jointeà celle qui a déjàétéformuléeau paragraphe 56 et suivant laquelle le principe de l'équidistancene saurait êtreconsidérécomme constituant à priori une règle de droit découlant necessity deriving froin the fundamental theory of the continental shelf, leads to the final conclusion on this part of the case that the use of the equidistance method is not obligatory for the delimitation of the areas concerned in the present proceedings. In these circumstances, it becomes unnecessary for the Court to determine whether or not the configuration of the German North Sea Coastconstitutes a "special circumstance" for thepurposes either of Article 6 of the Geneva Convention or of any rule of customary international law,-since once the use of the equidistance method of delimitation is deterinined not to be obligatory in any event, itceases to be legally necessary to prove the existence of special circum- stances in order to justify not using that method. 83. The legal situation therefore is that the Parties areder no obliga- tion to apply either the 1958Convention, which is not opposable to the Federal Republic, or the equidistaiice method as a mandatory rule of customary law, which it is not. But as between States faced with an issue concerning the lateral delimitation of adjacent continental shelves, there are still rules and principles of law to be applied; and in the present case it is not the fact either thatules are lacking, or that the situation is one for the unfettered appreciation of the Parties. Equally, it is not the case that if the equidistance principle is not arule of law, there has to be as an alternative some other single equivalent rule. 84. As already indicated, the Court is riot called upon itself to delimit the areas of continental shelf appertaining respectively to each Party, and in consequence is not bound to prescribe the methods to be em- ployed for the purposeâ of such a delimitation. TheCourt has to indicate to the Parties the principles and rules of law in the light of which the methods for eventually effecting the delimitation will have to be chosen. TheCourt will discharge this task in such a way as to provide the Parties with the requisite directions,without substitutiiig itself for them byans of a detailed indication of the methods to be followed and the factors to be taken into account for the purposes of a delimitation the carrying out of which the Parties have expressly reserved to themselves. 85. It emerges from the history of the development of the legal régime of thecontinental shelf, which has been reviewedearlier, that the essential reason why the equidistance method is not to be regarded as a rule of law is that, if it were to be compulsorily applied in al1 situations, this would not be consonant with certain basic legal notions which, as has been observed in paragraphs 48 and 55, have from the beginning reflected the opini ouriisn the inatter of delimitation; those principles being that delimitation must be the object of agreement between the States con- cerned, and that such agreement must be arrived at in accordance with equitable principles. On a foundation of very general precepts of justice and good faith, actual rules of law are here involved which govern thelogiquement de la conception fondamentale du plateau continental, amène à conclure sur cet aspect de l'affaire que l'emploi de la méthode de l'équidistance n'est pasobligatoire pour la délimitation des zones en cause. Dans cesconditions, la Cour n'a pas àdéterminer silaconfiguration de la côte allemande de la mer du Nord constitue ou non une (circons- tance spéciale ))aux fins de l'article 6 de la Convention de Genève ou de toute règle de droit international coutumier; en effet, dèslors qu'il est établi que la méthode de délimitation fondéesur l'équidistance n'est en aucune façon obligatoire, il cesse d'êtrejuridiquement nécessaire de prouver l'existeilce cle circonstances spéciales pour en justifier la non- application. 83. La situation juridique est donc que les Parties ne sont tenues d'ap- pliquer ni la Convention de 1958qui n'est pas opposable à la République fédérale, nila méthode de l'équidistanceen tant que règleobligatoire de droit coutumier, ce qu'elle n'est pas. Mais entre Etats qui ont un pro- blème de délimitation latérale de plateaux continentaux limitrophes il demeure des règles et principes de droit à appliquer et il ne s'agit, en l'espèce,ni d'une absence de règles, ni d'une appréciation entièrement libre de la situation par les Parties. ne s'agit pas non plus, si le principe de l'équidistance n'est pasla règlede droit, d'avoirà titre subsidiaire une autre règleunique équivalente. 84. Comnie il a éttSindiqué plushaut, la Cour n'a pas à faire elle-même une délimitation des zones de plateau continental relevant respectivement de chaque Partie et elle n'est par conséquent pas tenue de prescrire les méthodes à utiliser pour procéder à cette délimitation. La Cour doit indiquer aux Parties les principes et règlesde droit en fonction desquels devra se faire le choix des méthodes pour effectuer finalement la délimi- tation. La Cour s'acquittera de cette tâche de manière à fournir aux Parties les direction:$nécessaires,sans se substituer à elles par une in- dication détaillée desméthodes à suivre et des éléments à prendre en considération aux firisd'une délimitation que les Parties se sont formelle- ment réservéde faire elles-mêmes. 85. 11ressort de l'histoire du développement du régimejuridique du plateau continental, qui a étérappelée ci-dessus,que la raison essentielle pour laquelle la méthode de l'équidistancene peut êtretenue pour une règle de droit est que, si elle devait êtreappliquée obligatoirement en toutes situations, cette méthode ne coirespondrait pas à certainesnotions juridiques de base qui, comme on l'a constatéaux paragraphes 48 et 55, reflètent depuis l'origine l'opiniojuris en matière de délimitation; ces principes sont que la délimitation doit êtrel'objet d'un accord entre les Etats intéressés etque cet accord doit se réaliser selon des principes équitables. Il s'agit là, sur la base de préceptes très généraxejustice et de bonne foi, de véritablesrèglesde droit en matière de délimitationdesdelimitation of adjacent continent shelves-that is to say, rules binding upon States for al1de1imitations;-i"\, .short, it is not a question of apply- ing equity simply as a matter of abstract justice, but of applying a rule of law which itself requires the appllcation of equitable principles, in accordance with the ideas which have always underlain the development of the legal régimeof the continental shelf in this field, namely: (a) the parties are under an obligation to enter into negotiations with a view to arriving at an agreement, and not merely to go through a forma1 process of negotiation as a sort of prior condition for the automatic application of a certain method of delimitation in the absence of agreement; they are under an obligation so to conduct themselves that the negotiations are meaningful, which will not be the case when either of them insists upon its own position without contemplating any modification of it; (6) the parties are under an obligation to act in such a way that, in the particular case, and taking al1 the circumstances into account, equitable principles are applied,-for this purpose the equidistance method can be used, biit other methods exist and may be employed, alone or in combination, according to the areas involved; (c) for the reasons given in paragraphs 43 and 44, the continental shelf of any State must be the natural prolongation of its land territory and must not encroach upon what is the natural prolongation of the territory of another State. 86. It is now necessary to examine these rules more closely, as also certain problems relative to their application. So far as the first rule is concerned, the Court would recall not only that the obligation to nego- tiate which the Parties assumed by Article 1, paragraph 2, of the Special Agreements arises out of the Truman Proclamation, wliich, for the reasons given in paragraph 47, inust be considered as having propounded the rules of Iriwin this field,but also that this obligation merelyconstitutes a special application of a principle which underlies al1 international relations, and which is moreover recognized in Article 33 of the Charter of the United Nations as one of the methods for the peaceful settlement of international disputes.There is no need to insist upon the fundamental character of this method of settlement, except to point out that it is emphasized by the observable fact that judicial or arbitral settlement is not universally accepted. 87. As the Permanent Court of International Justice said in its Order of 19August 1929in the case of the Free Zones of UpperSavoy and the District of Gex, the judicial settlement of international disputes "is simply an alternative to the direct and friendly settlement of such dis- putes between the parties" (P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 22, at p. 13).Defining the content of the obligation to negotiate, the Permanent Court, in itsplateaux continentaux lin~itrophes, c'est-à-dire, de règles obligatoires pour les Etats pour toute délimitation; en d'autres termes, il ne s'agit pas d'appliquer l'équité simplementcomme une représentation de la justice abstraite, mais d'appliquer une règle de droit prescrivant le recours à des principes équitables conformémentaux idéesqui ont tou- jours inspiréle développementdu régimejuridique du plateau continental en la matière, à savoir: a) les parties sont tenues d'engager une négociation en vue de réaliser un accord et non pas simplement de procéder à une négociation formelle comme une sorte de condition préalable à l'application automatique d'une certaine méthode de délimitation faute d'accord; les parties ont l'obligation de se comporter de telle manière que la négociation ait un sens, ce qui n'est pas le cas lorsque l'une d'elles insistesur sa propre position sans envisager aucune modification; h) les parties sont tenues d'agir de telle sorte que, dans le cas d'espèce et compte tenu de toutes les circonstances, des principes équitables soient appliqués; à cet effet la méthode de l'équidistance peut être appliquée; d'autres aussi existent et peuvent être utilisées exclusive- ment ou conjointement selon les secteurs envisagés; c) pour les raisons exposéesaux paragraphes 43 et 44, le plateau con- tinental de tout Etat doit 2tre le prolongement naturel de son terri- toire et ne doit pas empiétersur ce qui est le prolongement naturel du territoire'un autre Etat. 86. 11convient maintenant d'examiner ces règles de plus près, ainsi que certains problén~esrelatifs à leur application. En ce qui coiicerne la première règle, laCour rappelle que l'obligation de négocierassuméepar les Parties dans l'article, paragraphe 2, des compromis, non seulement découle de la proclamation Truman qui, pour les motifs énoncésau paragraphe 47, doit etre considéréecomme ayant poséles règlesde droit en la matiPre, mais encore ne constitue qu'une application particulière d'un principe, qui est à la base de toutes relations internationales et qui est d'ailleurs reconnu dans l'article33 de la Charte des Nations Unies comme l'une des méthodes de règlement pacifique des différendsinter- nationaux; ilest inutile d'insister sur le caractère fondamental de cette forme de règlement sinon pour remarquer qu'il est renforcé par la constatation que le règlement judiciaire ou arbitral n'est pas générale- ment accepté. 87. Comme l'a dit la Cour permanente de Justice internationale dans son ordonnance du 19 août 1929 en l'affaire des Zoriesfranclzes de la Haute-Suvoie et du Pays de Gex, le règlement judiciaire des conflits internationaux «n'est qu'un succédanéau règlement direct et amiable de ces conflits entre les partie»(C.P.J.I. sérieA no22, p. 13).Définissant dans son avis consultatif sur le Traficferroviaire entre la Lithuanie et la48 CONTINENTAL SHELF (JUDGMENT) Advisory Opinion in the case of Railicay Trafic between Litll~raniuat7d Poland, said that the obligation was "not only to enter into negotiations but also to pursue them as far as possible with a view to coiicluding agreements", even if an obligation to negotiate did not imply an obliga- tion to reach agreement (P.C.I.J., Series AjB, No. 42, 1931, at p. 116). In the present case, it needs to be observed that whatever the details of the negotiations carried on in 1965and 1966,they failed of their purpose because the Kingdoms of Denmark and the Netherlands, convinced that the equidistance principle alone was applicable, in consequence of a rule binding upon the Federal Republic, saw no reason to depart from that rule; and equally, given the geographical considerations stated in the last sentence of paragraph 7 above, the Federal Republic could not accept the situation resulting from the application of that rule. So far therefore the negotiations have not satisfied the conditions indicated in paragraph 85 (a), but fresh negotiations are to take place on the basis of the present Judgment. 88. TheCourt comes next to the rule of equity. The legal basis of that rule in the particular case of the delimitation of the continental shelf as between adjoining States has already been stated. It must however be noted that the rule rests also on a broader basis. Whatever the legal reasoning of a court of justice, its decisions must by definition be just, and therefore in that sense equitable. Nevertheless, when mention is made of a court dispensing justice or declaring the law, what is meant is that the decision finds its objective justification in considerations lying not outside but within the rules, and in this field it is precisely a rule of law that calls for the application of equitable principles. There is con- sequently no question in this case of any decision ex aequo et bono, such as would only be possible under the conditions prescribed by Article 38, paragraph 2, of the Court's Statute. Nor would this be the first time that the Court has adopted such an attitude, as is shown by the following passage from the Advisory Opinion given in the case of Judgmetztsof the Admitzistratii7eTribunul of the I.L.O. upon Cornplaints Made against Unesco(I.C.J. Reports 1956,at p. 100) : "In view of this the Court need not examine the allegation that the validity of the judgments of the Tribunal is vitiated by excess of jurisdiction on the ground that it awarded compensation ex aequo etbono. Ttwill confine itself to stating that, in the reasons given by the Tribunal in support of its decision on the merits, the Tribunal said: 'That redress will be ensured ex aequo et bon0 by the granting to the complainant of the sum set forth below.' It does not appear from the context of the judgment that the Tribunal thereby intended to depart from principles of law. The apparent intention was to SayPologtzela teneur de l'obligation de négocier,la Cour permanente a dit que cette obligation (n'est pas seulement d'entamer des négociations, n-iaisencore de les poursuivre autant que possible, en vue d'arriver à des accords 11,mêmesi l'engagement de négociern'impliquait pas celui de s'entendre (C.Y.J.I. sérieA!B no 42, 1931, p. 116). Dans la présente affaire on doit noter que, quels qu'en aient étélesdétails,les négociations menéesen1965et 1966n'ont pas atteint leur but parce que lesRoyaumes du Danemark et des Pays-Bas, convaincus que le principe de l'équidis- tance était seul applicable et cela par l'effetd'une règleobligatoire pour la République fédérale,ne voyaient aucun motif de s'écarter de cette règle,de mêmeque, vu les considérations d'ordre géographique dont il est fait étatau paragraphe 7 ci-dessus injîne, la République fédéralene pouvait accepter la situation résultant de l'application de cette règle; les négociations menéesjusqu'à présent n'ont donc pas satisfait aux conditions énoncéesau paragraphe 85 a), mais de nouvelles négociations doivent se tenir sur la base du présentarrêt. 88. La Cour en vient maintenant à la règlede l'équité.Le fondement juridique de cette règledans lecas particulier dela délimitation du plateau continental entre Etats limitrophes a déjàétéprécisé. Il faut noter cepen- dant que cette règle repose aussi sur unc base plus large. Quel que soit le raisonnement juridique du juge, ses décisions doivent par définition êtrejustes, donc en ce sens équitables. Néanmoins, lorsqu'on parle du juge qui rend la justice ou qui dit le droit, il s'agit de justification ob- jective de sesdécisiorisnon pas au-delà des textes mais selon les textes et dans ce domaine c'est précisément unerèglede droit qui appelle l'applica- tion de principes équitables. Il n'est par conséquent pas question en l'espèced'une décision ex aequo et bot~o,ce qui ne serait possible que dans les conditions prescrites à l'article 38, paragraphe 2,du Statut de la Cour. Ce ne serait d'ailleurs pas la première fois que la Cour adopterait une telle position, airisi que cela ressort de son avis consultatif en l'affaire des Jugenzents du tribunal administratif de ['O.I.T. sur requête contre /'Unesco (C.I.J. Recueil 1956, p. 100) : (1Dans ces conditions, la Cour n'a pas à examiner la prétention selon laquelle la validitédes jugements du tribunal serait viciéepar un dépassement decompétencedu fait qu'il a été accordé des indem- nitése.r aequo PI bono. Elle se bornera à dire que si le tribunal, dans les motifs de sa décisionsur le fond, a dit ((que la réparation sera assurée ex aequo et bon0 par l'allocation au requérant du montant ci-après»,lecontexte ne fait nullement apparaître que le tribunal ait entendu par là se départirdes principes du droit. Il a voulu seulement énoncer que, le calcul du montant de l'indemnité nepouvant pas that, as the precise determination of theactual amount to be awarded could not be based on any specific rule of law, the Tribunal fixed what the Court, in other circumstances, has described as the true measure of compensation and the reasonable figure of such corn- pensation (Corfu Channel case, Judgment of December 15th, 1949, Z.C.J. Reports 1949, p. 249)." 89. It must next be observed that, in certain geographical circuin- stances which are quite frequently met with, the equidistance method, despite its known advantages, leads unquestionably to inequity, in the following sense: (a) The slightest irregularity in a coastline is automatically magnified by the equidistance line as regards the consequences for the delimita- tion of the continental shelf. Thus it has been seen in the case of concave or convex coastlines that if the equidistance method is employed, then the greater the irregularity and the further from the coastline the area to be delimited, the more unreasonctble are the results produced. So great an exaggeration of the consequences of a natural geographical feature must be remedied or compensated for as far as possible, being of itself creative of inequity. (b) In the case of the North Sea in particular, where there is no outer boundary to the continental shelf, it happens that the claims of several States converge, meet and intercross in localities where, despite their distance from the coast, the bed of the sea still uii- questionably consists of continental shelf. A study of these con- vergences, as revealed by the maps, shows how inequitable would be the apparent simplification brought about by a delirnitation which, ignoring such geographical circumstances, was based solely on the equidistance method. 90. If for the above reasons equity excludes the use of the eqiiidistance method in the present instance, as the sole method of delimitation, the question arises whether there is any necessity to employ only one method for the purposes of a given delimitation. There is no logical basis for this, and no objection need be felt to the idea of effecting a delimitation of adjoining continental shelf areas by the concurrent use of various methods. The Court has already stated why it considers that the inter- national law of continental shelf delimitation does not involve any im- perative rule and permits resort to various principles or metliods, as may be appropriate, or a combination of them, provided that, by the applicn- tion of equitable principles, a reasonable result is arrived at. 91. Equity does not necessarily imply equality. There can never be any question of completely refashioning nature, and equity does not require that a State without access to the sea should be allotted an area of continental shelf, any more than tliere could be a question of rendering the situation of a State with an extensive coastline similar to that of a PLATEAU CONTINENTAL(ARRÊT) 49 être déduitde règlesde droit posées à cet effet, il entendait fixer ce que la Cour a, en d'autres circonstances, appelé la juste mesure de la réparation, le chiffre raisonnable de celle-ci(affaire du Dktrdet Corfou, arrêtdu 15 décembre 1949, C.I.J. Recueil 1949, p. 249). )) 89. 11faut ensuite constater que, malgré ses avantages reconnus, la méthodedel'équidistanceaboutit dans certainesconditions géographiques assez fréquentes à créerune incontestable inéquité: a) La moindre déformationd'unecôte est automatiquement amplifiéepar la ligne d'équidistancedans ses conséquencespour la délimitation du plateau continental. C'est ainsi qu'on a vu dans le cas des côtes con- caves ou convexes que, si l'onapplique la méthodede l'équidistance, on aboutit à des résultatsd'autant plus déraisonnables que la défor- mation est considérable et que la zone à délimiterest éloignéede la côte. Une exagération d'une telle importance des conséquencesd'un accident géographique naturel doit être réparéo eu compenséedans la mesure du possible parce qu'elle est en soi créatriced'inéquité. h) Particulièrement dans le cas de la mer du Nord où le plateau wn- tinental ne rencontre aucune limite extérieure, il se trouve que les prétentions de plusieurs Etats convergent, se rencontrent et s'entre- croisent en des endroits où, en dépit dela distance des côtes, le lit de la mer consiste encore en un plateau continental. La constatation de ces convergences, manifestes sur la carte, révèlecombien inéquitable serait la simplification apparente d'une délimitation qui ne serait fondée que sur la méthode de l'équidistance en ignorant cette cir- constance géographique. 90. Si, pour les raisons indiquées ci-dessus, l'équitéinterdit l'emploi de l'équidistancedans lecas présentcommel'unique méthode dedélimita- tion, la question se pose de savoir s'il existeune nécessitéquelconque de n'employer pour une délimitation déterminée qu'uneseule méthode. Il n'y a aucune base logique à cela et l'on ne voit aucune objection à l'idéequ'une délimitation de zones limitrophes du plateau continental puisse être faitepar l'emploi concurrent de diverses méthodes.La Cour a déjàdit pourquoi elle: coiisidère que le droit international en matière de délimitation du plateau continental ne comporte pas de règle impérativeet autorise le recours à divers principes ou méthodes, selonle cas, ainsi qu'à leur combinaison, pourvu qu'on aboutisse par application de principes équitables àun résultat raisonnable. 91. L'équitén'implique pas nécessairement l'égalité. Il n'est jamais question de refaire la nature entièrement et l'équité necommande pas qu'un Etat sans accès à la mer se voie attribuer une zone de plateau con- tinental, pas plus qu'il ne s'agit d'égalila situation d'un Etat dont les côtes sont étendueset celled'un Etatdont lescôtes sont réduites.L'égalitéState with a restricted coastline. Equality is to be reckoned within the same plane, and it is not such natural inequalities as these that equity could remedy. But in the present case there are three States whose North Sea coastlines are in fact comparable in length and which, therefore, have been given broadly equal treatment by nature except that the con- figuration of one of the coastlines would, if the equidistance method is used, deny to one of these States treatment equal or comparable to that given the other two. Here indeed is a case where, in a theoretical situation of equality within the same order, an inequity is created. What is un- acceptable in this instance is that a State should enjoy continental shelf rights considerably different from those of its neiglibours merely because in the one case the coastline is roughly convex in form and in the other it is markedly concave, although those coastlines are comparable in length. It is therefore not a question of totally refashioning geography whatever the facts of the situation but, given a geographical situation of quasi-equality as between a number of States, of abating the effects of an incidental special feature from which an unjustifiable difference of treatment could result. 92. It has however been maintained that no one method of delimita- tion can prevent such results and that al1can lead to relative injustices. This argumenthas in effect already been dealt with. It can only strengthen the view that it is necessary to seek not one method of delimitation but one goal. It is in this spirit that the Court must examine the question of how the continental shelf can be delimited when it is in fact the case that the equidistance principle does not provide an equitable solution. As the operation of delimiting is a matter of determining areas appertaining to different jurisdictions, it is a truism to say that the determination must be equitable; rather is the problem above al1one of defining the means where- by the delimitation can be carried out in such a way as to be recognized as equitable. Although the Parties have made it known that they intend to reserve for themselves the application of the principles and rules laid down by the Court, it would, even so, be insufficient simply to rely on the rule of equity without giving some degree of indication as to the possible ways in which it might be applied in the present case, it being understood that the Parties will be free to agree upon one method rather than an- other, or different methods if they so prefer. 93. In fact, there is no legal limit to the considerations which States may take account of for the purpose of making sure that they apply equitable procedures, and more often than not it is the balancing-up of al1 such considerations that will produce this result rather than reliance on one to the exclusion of al1others. The problem of the relative weight to be accorded to different considerations naturally varies with the circum- stances of the case. 94. In balancing the factors in question it would appear that various aspects must be taken into account. Some are related to the geological. others to the geographical aspect of the situation, others again to these mesure dans un mêmeplan et ce n'est pas à de telles inégalitésna- turelles que l'équitépourrait porter remède. Mais en l'espèceil s'agit de trois Etatsdont lescôtes surla mer du Nord sont justement d'une longueur comparable et qui par conséquent ont ététraités à peu près également par la nature, sauf que l'une de ces côtes par sa configuration priverait l'un des Etats d'un traitement égalou comparable à celui que recevraient les deux autres si l'on utilisait la méthode de I'équidistance. C'est bien un cas où, dans une situation théorique d'égalitédans le mêmeplan, une inéquitéest créée. Cequi est inacceptable en l'espèceest qu'un Etat ait des droits considérablement différents de ses voisins sur le plateau coii- tinental du seul fait que l'un a une côte de configuration plutôt convexe et I'autre une côte de configuration fortement concave, même si la longueur de ces côtes est comparable. 11ne s'agit donc pas de refaire tota- lement la géographie dans n'importe quelle situation de fait mais, en présence d'une situation géographique de quasi-égalitéentre plusieurs Etats, de remédier à. une particularité non essentielle d'où pourrait résulter une injustifiable différence de traitement. 92. Il a ét6soutenu qu'aucune méthode de délimitation ne peut em- pêcherde tels résultats et que toutes peuvent éventuellement aboutir à une relative injustice. Une réponsea déjkété donnéeà cet argument. 11 renforce d'ailleurs l'opinion selon laquelle on doit rechercher non pas une méthode unique de délimitation mais un but unique. C'est dans cet esprit que la Cour doit rechercher comment une délimitation de plateau continental peut êtreassuréelorsque le principe de I'équidistance ne donne précisément pas unesolution équitable. Délimiter étant une opération de détermination de zones relevant respectivement de coin- pétences différentes,c'est une vérité première dedire que cette détermina- tion doit êtreéquitable; le problème est surtout de définirles moyens par lesquels la délimitation peut êtrefixéede manière à êtrereconnue comme équitable. Bien que les Parties aient manifeîté leur intention de se réserver l'application des principes et règles établis par la Cour, il serait cepen- dant insufisant de s'en tenir à la règlede l'équitésansen préciserquelque peu les possibilitésd'application en l'espèce,étantentendu que les Parties pourront choisir l'une plutôt quel'autre de ces méthodes 011 qu'elles pour- ront en préférerde différentes. 93. En réalitéil n'y a pas de limites juridiques aux considérations que les Etats peuvent examiner afin de s'assurer qu'ils vont appliquer des procédéséquitables et c'est le plus souvent la balance entre toutes ces considéiations qui créera l'équitable plutôt que l'adoption d'une seule considération en excluant toutes les autres. De tels problèmes d'équilibre entre diverses considérations varient naturellement selon les ci~constances de l'espèce. 94. Dans la balance des élémentsen cause divers facteurs semblent devoii êtrepris en considération. Les uns tiennent à l'aspect géologique, d'autres à l'aspect géographique de la situation, d'autres enfin à l'idéeidea of the unity of any deposits. These criteria, thougli not entirely prccisc, can provide adequate bases for decision adapted to the factual situation. 95. The institution of the continental shelf has ariscn out of the recog- nition of a physical fact; and the link between this fact and the law, with- out which that institution would never have existed, remains an im- portant element for the application of its legal régime. The continental shelf is, by definition, an area physically extending the territory of niost coastal States into a species of platforni whicli has attracted the attention first of geographers and hydrographers and then of jurists. The iinpor- tance of the geological aspect is empliasired by the care which, at the beginning of its investigation, the International Law Con-iniission took to acquire exact information as to its characteristics, as can be seen in pnrticular from the definitions to be found on page 131 of Volume 1 of the k'c~trrhook of'tlre /~~tenrcctionlnbc.Comtnissio~zfor 1956. The ap- purtenance of the shelf to the countries in front of whose coastlines it lies. is thereforc LIfact, and it can be useful to consider the geology of tliat shelf in order to find out whether the direction taken by certain configurational features should influence delimitation because, in certain localities, they point-up the whole notion of the appurtenance of the continental shelf to the State whose tcrritory it does iii fact prolong. 96. The doctrine of the continental slielf is a rccent instance of en- croachinent on maritime cxpanses whicli, during the greater part of iiistory, appertained to no-one. Thc contiguouj zone and the continental shelf are in tliis respect coriczpts of the same kind. In both instances the principle is applied that the land dominates the sen; it is consequently necessary to examine closely the gcographicnl configuration of the coast- lines of the countries whose continental shelves are to be delimited. This is one of the rensons why the Court does not consider that markedlq pronounced configurations can bz ignoreci; for, since the land is the legal source of the power which a State inay cvcrcise over territorial extensions to seaward, it must first bc clearly established what features do in fact constitute sucli extensions. Abovc al1 is this the case when what is in- volved is no longer areas of sca, such as the contiguouszone, but stretches of submerged land; for the legal régime of the continental shelf is that of a sail and a subsoil, two words evocativc of the land and not of the sea. 97. Anothcr factor to be taken into consideration in the delimitation of areas of continental slielf as between abiricent States is the unity of any deposits. Tlic natural resourccs of the siibsoil of the sea in those parts which consist of continental shelf are the very object of the legal régime established subsequent to the Truman Proclamation. Yet it frequently occurs that the saine deposit lies on both sides of the line dividing a con- tinental shelf between two States, and since it is possible to exploit such a deposit from either side, a problem iminediately arises on account of the risk of prejudicial or wasteful exploitation by one or other of the States concerned. To look no farther than the North Sea, the practice d'unité de gisement. Ces critères,a défaut de précision rigoureuse, four- nissent des bases de décisionadaptées aux situations de fait. 95. L'institution du plateau continental est néede la constatation d'un fait naturel et le lien entre ce fait et le droit, sans lequel elle n'eût jamais existé,demeure un élémentimportant dans l'application du régimejuri- dique de l'institution.Le plateau continental est par définition une zone prolongeant physiquement le territoire de la plupart des Etats maritimes par cette espèce de socle qui a appelé en preniie~ lieu l'attention des géographes et hydrographes, puis celle des juristes. L'importance de l'aspect géologique est marquée par le soin qu'a pris au debut de ses études la Commission du droit international pour se documenter exac- tement sur ses caractéristiques, ainsi que cela ressort notamment des définitions contenues dans l'Annuaire de la Commission du droit inrcrnario~îal, 1956, volume 1, page 141. L'appartenance géologique du plateau coritinental aux pays riverains devant leurs cotes est donc un fait et l'examen de la géologiede ce plateau peut êtreutile afin de savoir si quelques orientations ou mouvements influencent la délimitation en précisant en certains points la notion mêmed'appartenance du plateau continental à 1'Etat dont il prolonge en fait le territoire. 96. La doctrine du plateau continental est I'un des cas récents d'em- piétement sur des espaces maritimes qui, pendant la plus grande partie de l'histoire, ne relevaient de personne. Zone contiguë et plateau con- tinental sont a cet égard du mêmeordre. Dans les deux hypothèses on applique le principe que la terre domine la mer; il est donc nécessaire de regarder de près la configuration géographique des côfes des pays dont on doit délimiter le plateau continental. C'est l'une des raisons pour lesquelles la Cour ne pense pas qu'on puisse négliger les configurations nettement excentriques, car puisque la terre est la source juridique du pouvoii qu'un Etat peut exercer dans les prolongementsmaritimes,encore faiit-il bien établir en quoi consistent en fait ces prolongemeiits. Et cela surtout lorsqu'il ne s'agit plus de zones aquatiques comme la zone contiguë mais d'espaces terrestres submergés, car le régimejilridique du plateau continental est celui d'un sol et d'un sous-sol, deux mots qui évoquent la terre et non pas la mer. 97. Un autre élénientà prendre en considération dans la délimitation des zones de plateau continental entre Etats limitrophes est l'unité de gisement. Les ressources naturelles du sous-sol de la mer dans la partie qui constitue le plateau continental sont l'objet mêmedu régimejuri- dique institué A la suite de la proclamation Truman. Or il est fréquent qu'un gisenlent s'étende desdeux côtésde la limite du plateau continental entre deux Etats et, l'exploitation de ce gisement étantpossible de chaque côté,un problkme naît immédiatement en raison du danger d'une exploi- tation préjudiciable ou exagéréepar I'un ou l'autre des Etats intéressés. Sans aller plus loin que la mer du Nord, la pratique des Etats montreof States shows how this problem has been dealt with, and al1 that is needed is to refer to the undertakings entered into by the coastal States of that sea with a view to ensuring the most efficient exploitation or the apportionment of the products extracted-(see in particular the agree- ment of 10 March 1965 between the United Kingdom and Norway, Article 4; the agreement of 6 October 1965between the Netherlands and the United Kingdom relating to "the exploitation of single geological structures extending across the dividing line on the continental shelf under the North Sea"; and the agreement of 14 May 1962 between the Federal Republic and the Netherlands concerning a joint plan for ex- ploiting the natural resources underlying the area of the Ems Estuary where the frontier between the two States has not been finally delimited.) The Court does not consider that unity of deposit constitutes anything more than a factual element which it is reasonable to take into considera- tion in the course of the negotiations for a delimitation. The Parties are fully aware of the existence of the problem as also of the possible ways of sol vi"^ it. 98. A final factor to be taken account of is the element of a reason- able degree of proportionality which a delimitation effected according to equitable principles ought to bring about between the extent of the continental shelf appertaining to the States concerned and the lengths of their respective coastlines,-these being measured according to their general direction in order to establish the necessary balance between States with straight, and those \vith markedly concave or convex coasts, or to reduce very irregular coastlines to their truer proportions. The choice and application of the appropriate technical methods would be a matter for the parties. One method discussed in the course of the pro- ceedings, under the name of the principle of the coastal front, consists in drawing a straight baseline between the extreme points at either end of the Coast concerned, or in soine cases a series of such lines. Where the parties mis11to employ in particular the equidistance method of delimita- tion. the establishment of one or more baselines of this kind can ~lav a us'eful part in eliminating or diminishing the distortions that might . , result from the use of that method. 99. In a sea with the particular configuration of the North Sea, and in view of the particular geographical situation of the Parties' coastlines upon that sea, the methods chosen by them for the purpose of fixing the delimitation of their respective areas may happen in certain localities to lead to an overlapping of the areas appertaining to them. The Court considcrs that such a situation must be accepted as a given fact and resolved either by an agrecd, or failing that by an equal division of the overlapping areas, or by agreements for joint exploitation, the latter solution appearing particularly appropriate when it is a question of preserving the unity of a deposit.comment ce probleme a ététraité et il suffira de relever les engagements pris par des Etats riverains de la mer du Nord pou1 assurer l'exploitation la plus efficace ou la répartition des produits extraits (cf. notamment I'accord du 10mars 1965entre le Royaume-Uni et la Norvège, aiticle 4, l'accord du 6 octobre 1965 entre le Royaume-Uni et les Pays-Bas sur cl'exploitation de structures géologiquess'étendantde part et d'aut~ede la ligne deGparation du plateau continentalsitué sous la mer du Nord », et l'accord du 14mai 1962entre la République fédérale et lesPays-Bas sur un plan d'exploitation commune des richesses du sous-sol dans la zone de l'estuaire del'Emsoù lafrontièreentre lesdeux Etats n'a pas étédélimitée de façon définitive).La Cour ne corîsidère pas que l'unité degisement constitue plus qu'un élémentde fait qu'il est raisonnable de prendre en considéiation au cours d'une négociation sur une délimitation. Les Parties sont pleinement informées de l'existencedu probleme coinme des possibilitésde solution. 98. Un dernier élémenta prendre en considération est le rapport raisonnable qu'une clélimitation effectuée selon desprincipes équitables devrait faire apparaître entre l'étenduedu plateau continental relevant des Etats intéresséset la longueur de leurs côtes; on mesurerait ces côtes d'après leur direction générale afind'établirl'équilibre nécessaireentre les Etats ayant des côtes droites et les Etats ayant des côtes fortement concaves ou convexes ou afin de ramener des côtes très irrégulières 2 des proportions plus exactes. Le choix et l'application des méthodes tech- niques appropriées appartiendraient aux parties. L'une des méthodes examinéespendant la procédure, sous le noin de principe de la façade maritime, consiste a tracer une ligne de base droite ou, dans certains cas, une sériede lignes de base droites entre les points extrêmesde la côte dont il s'agit. Lorsque les parties veulent recourir notamment à la méthode de délimitation fondée sur l'équidistance, le tracé d'une ou plusieurs lignes de base de ce genre peut contribuer utilement à éliminer ou à atténuer les distorsions que l'emploi de cette méthode risque d'en- traîner. 99. Dans une mer qui a la configuration particulière de la mer du Nord et en raison de la situation géographique particulière des côtes des Parties dans cette mer, il peut se faire que les méthodeschoisies pour fixer la délimitationdes zones respectives conduisent en certains secteurs iides chevauchements entre les zones relevant des Parties. La Cour con- sidère qu'ilfaut accepter cette situation comme une donnée de fait et la résoudresoit par unr: division des zones de chevauchement effectuéepar voie d'accord ou, a défaut, par parts égales,soit par des accords d'ex- ploitation en commun, cette dernièresolution paraissant particulièrement appropriée lorsqu'il :s'agitde préserverl'unitéd'un gisement. 100. The Court has examined the problems raised by the present case in its own context, which is strictly that of delimitation. Other questions relating to the general legal régime ofthe continental shelf, have been examined for that purpose only. This régimefurnishes an example of a legal theory derived from a particular source that has secured a general following. As the Court has recalled in the first part of its Judgment, it was the Truman Proclamation of 28 September 1945 which was at the origin of the theory, whose special features reflect that origin. It would therefore not be in harmony with this history to over-systematize a pragmatic construct the developments of which have occurred within a relatively short space of time. 101. For these reasons, by eleven votes to six, finds that, in each case, (A) the use of the equidistance method of delimitation not being obligatory as between the Parties; and (B) there being no other single method of delimitation the use of which is in al1circumstances obligatory; (C) the principles and rules of international law applicable to the delimitation as between the Parties of the areas of the continental shelf in the North Sea which appertain to each of them beyond the partial boundary determined by the agreements of 1 December 1964and 9 June 1965, respectively, are as follows: (1) delimitation is to be effected by agreement in accordance with equitablc principles, and taking account of al1the relevant circum- stances, in such a way as to leave as much as possible to each Party :il1thosc parts of the continental shelf that constitute a natural prolongation of its land territory into and under the sea, without encroachment on the natural prolongation of the land territory of the other; (2) if, in the applicationof the preceding sub-paragraph, the delimitation leaves to the Parties areas that overlap, these are to be divided be- tween them in agreed proportions or, failing agreement, equally, unless they decide on a réginieofjoint jurisdiction, user, or exploita- tion for the zones of overlap or any part of them; (D) in the course of the negotiations, the factors to be taken into account are to include: 100. La Cour a examinéles problèmes soulevéspar la présenteaffaire dans son contexte propre, c'est-à-dire aux seules fins de la délimitation. Si la Cour a abordé d'autres questions ayant trait au régimejuridique généraldu plateau continental, elle ne l'a fait que dans ce cadre. Le régimedu plateau continental est l'exemple d'une théorie juridique née d'une solution particulière qui a fait école.Comme la Cour l'a rappelé dans la première partie de l'arrêt,c'est la proclamation Truman du 28 septembre 1945qui est à l'origine de la théorieet les particularités de celle-ci sont le reflet de cette origine.erait donc contraireà l'histoire de systématiserà l'excèsuneconstruction pragmatique dont lesdéveloppe- ments se sont présentésdans un délai relativement court. 101. Par ces motifs, LA COUR, par onze voix contre six, dit que, pour l'une et l'autre affaire, A) l'application de la méthode de délimitation fondéesur l'équidis- tance n'est pas obligatoire entre les Parties; B) il n'existe pas d'autre méthodeunique de délimitation qui soit d'un emploi obligatoire en toutes circonstances; C) les principes et les règles du droit international applicablesà la délimitation entrelesParties deszones du plateau continental de la mer du Nord relevant de chacune d'elles, au-delà des lignes de délimitation partiellerespectivenlent déterminéespar les accords du 1" décembre 1964et du 9juin 1965,sont les suivants: 1) la délimitation doit s'opérerpar voie d'accord conformément à des principes équitables et compte tenu de toutes les circonstances per- tinentes, de manière à attribuer, dans toute la mesure du possible,à chaque Partie latotalité des zones du plateau continental qui cons- tituent le prolongement naturel de son territoire sous la mer et n'empiètent pas sur le prolongement naturel du territoire de l'autre; 2) si, par suite de l'application de l'alinéaprécédent,la délimitation at- tribue aux Parties des zones qui se chevauchent, celles-ci doivent êtrediviséesentre les Parties par voie d'accord ou,àdéfaut,par parts égales, a moins que les Parties n'adoptent un régimede juridiction, d'utilisation ou d'exploitation commune pour tout ou partie des zones de chevauchement; D) au cours des négociations, les facteursà prendre en considération comprendront : (1) the general configuration of the coasts of the Parties, as well as the presence of any special or unusual features; (2) so far as known or readily ascertainable, the physical and geological structure, and natural resources, of the continental shelfreas in- volved ; (3) the element of a reasonable degree of proportionality, which a delimi- tation carried out in accordance with equitable principles ought to bring about between the extent of the continental shelf areas apper- taining to the coastal State and the length of its Coast measured in the general direction of the coastline, account beingaken for this purpose of the effects, actual or prospective, of any other continental shelf delimitations between adjacent States in theme region. Done in English and in French, the English text being authoritative at the Peace Palace, The Hague, this twentieth day of February, one thousand nine hundred and sixty-nine, in four copies, one of which will be placed in the archives of the Court and the others transmitted to the Government of the Federal Republic of Germany, to the Government of the Kingdom of Denmark and to the Government of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, respectively. (Signed ).L. BUSTAMANT R., President. (Signed S).AQUARONE, Registrar. Judge Sir Muhammad ZAFRULLA KHANmakes the following declara- tion : 1am in agreement with the Judgment throughout but would wish to add the following observations. The essence of the dispute between the Parties is that the twodoms claim that the delimitation effected between them under the Agreement of 31 March 1966 is binding upon the Federal Republic and that the Federal Republic is bound to accept the situation resulting therefrom, which would confine its continental shelf to the triangle formed bynes A-B-E and C-D-E in Map 3. The Federal Republic stoutly resists that claim. Not only is Article 6 of the Geneva Convention of 1958not opposable to the Federal Republic but the delimitation effectedunder the Agree- ment of 31March 1966 does not derive fromthe provisions of that Article as Denmark and the Netherlands are neither States "whose coasts are opposite each other" within the meaning of the first paragraph of that Article nor are they "two adjacent States" within the meaning of the PLATEAU CONTINENTAL (AR~T) 54 1) la configuration générale des côtes desParties et la présencede toute caractéristique spécialeou inhabituelle; 2) pour autant que cela soit connu ou facile à déterminer, la structure physique et géologiquz et les ressources naturelles des zones de plateau continental en cause; 3) le rapport raisonnable qu'une délimitation opérée conformément à des principes équitables devrait faire apparaître entre l'étendue des zones de plateau continental relevant de 1'Etatriverain et la longueur de son littoral rnesurée suivant la direction généralede celui-ci, compte tenu à cette fin des effets actuels ou éventuelsde toute autre délimitation du plateau continental effectuéeentre Etats limitrophes dans la mêmerégion. Fait en anglais et en français, le texte anglais faisant foi, au palais de la Paix, à La Haye, le vingt février mil neufcent soixante-neuf, en quatre exemplaires, dont l'un restera déposéaux archives de la Cour et dont les autres seront transniis respectivement au Gouvernement de la Répu- blique fédéraled'Allemagne, au Gouvernement du Royaume du Dane- mark et au Gouvernement du Royaume des Pays-Bas. Le Président, (SignéJ ). L. BUSTAMANT RE. Le Greffier, (Signr')S. AQUARONE. Sir Muhammad Z.AFRULLK AHAN.juge, fait la déclaration suivante: Je souscris à l'arrêtdans son intégralité mais voudraisajouter les ob- servations ci-après. Le différend entre les Parties se ramène pour l'essentiel à ceci: le Danemark et les Pays-Bas soutiennent que la délimitationeffectuéeentre eux conformément àl'accord du 31 mars 1966lie la République fédérale et que celle-ci est tenue d'accepter la situation ainsi créée,dans laquelle son plateau continental se trouverait limité au triangle formé par les lignes ABE et CDE de la carte 3. La République fédéralerejette caté- goriquement cette thèse. Or. non seulement l'article 6 de la Convention de Genève de 1958 n'est pas opposable à la République fédérale, maisla délimitation ef- fectuée par l'accord du 31 mars 1966 ne procède pas des dispositions dudit article, puisque le Danemark et les Pays-Bas ne sont ni des Etats ((dont les côtes se forit face sens du premier paragraphe de cet article, ni des Etats I(limitrophes11au sens du second paragraphe. La situationsecond paragraph of that Article. The situation resulting from that delimi- tation, so far as it affects the Federal Republic is not, therefore, brought about by the application of the principle set out in either of theparagraphs of Article 6 of the Convention. Had paragraph 2 of Article 6 been applicable to the deliinitation of the continental shelf between the Parties to the dispute, a boundary line, determined by the application of the principle of equidistance, would have had to allow for the configuration of the coastline of the Federal Republic as a "special circumstance". ln the course of the oral pleadings the contention that the principle of equidistance cum special circumstances had crystallized into a rule of customary international law was not advanced on behalf of the two Kingdoms as an alternative to the claim that that principle was inherent in the very concept of the continental shelf. The Judgment has, in fair- ness, dealt with these two contentions as if they had been put forward in the alternative and were thus consistent with each other, and has rejected each of them on the merits. 1am in agreement with the reasoning of the Judgment on both these points. But, 1consider, it is worth men- tioning that Counsel for the two Kingdoms summed up their position in regard to the effect of the 1958 Convention as follows: ". .. They have not maintained that the Convention embodied al- ready received rules of customary law in the sense that the Conven- tion was merely declaratory of existing rules. Their position is rather that the doctrine of the coastal State's exclusive rights over the adjacent continental shelf was in process of formation between 1945 and 1958; that the State practice prior to 1958 showed fundamental variations in the nature and scope of the rights claimed: that, in consequence, in State practice the emerging doctrine was wholly Iacking in any definition of these crucial elements as it was also of the legal rCgime applicable to the coastal State with respect to the continental shelf;that the process of the definition and consolidation of the emerging customary law took place through the work of the International Law Commission, the reaction of governments to that work and the proceedings of the Geneva Conference; that the emerging customary law, iiow become more defined, both as to the rights of the coastal State and the applicable régime, crystallized in the adoption of the Continental Shelf Convention by the Conference; and that the numerous signatures and ratifications of the Convention and the other State practice based on the principles set out in the Convention had the effect of consolidating those principles as cus- tomary law." If it were correct that the doctrine of the coastal State's exclusive rights over the adjacent continental shelf was in process of formationcrééepar cette délimïtation, dans les effets qu'elle a pour la République fédérale,n'est par conséquent pas due à l'application du principe énoncé dans l'un ou l'autre cleces deux paragraphes de l'article 6 de la Conven- tion. Le paragraphe 2 de l'article6 eût-il été applicableà la délimitation du plateau continental entre les Parties que la ligne de délimitation déter- minéepar applicationdu principe de l'équidistanceaurait dû tenir compte de la configuration de la côte de la République fédéralecomme d'une ccirconstance spéciale )). Au cours de la procédure orale, le Danemark et les Pays-Bas n'ont pas présentéla thèse suivant laquelle le principe ccéquidistance-cii-constances spéciales 1se serait cristallisé enune règlede droit international coutumier comme I'un des termes d'une alternative. l'autre étant que ce principe serait inhérent à la notion mêmede plateau continental. Dans son arrSt la Cour a cru devoir examiner ces deux thèses comme si elles avaient été présentéessous la forme d'une alternative et étaient par conséquent compatibles l'une avec l'autre, et la Cour a rejetéchacune d'elles au fond. Je souscris dans les deux cas au raisonnement de l'arrêt. Mais je crois utile de signaler que l'agent du Danemark et des Pays-Bas a résuméla position des deux gouvernements quant à l'effetde la Convention de 1958 de la façon suivante (1[Les deux gouvernements] n'ont pas soutenu que la Convention consacrait des rkgles déjà reçues dedroit coutumier en ce sens qu'elle était simplement déclaratoire des règles existantes. Ils estiment plutôt que la doctrine des droits exclusifs d'un Etat riverain sur le plateau continental adjacent se trouvait en voie de formation entre 1945 et 1958; que la pratique des Etats antérieure a 1958 témoignait de variations fondamentales quant à la nature et à la portée des droits revendiqués; qu'en conséquence, dans la pratique des Etats, la doctrine en voie de formation ne définissait nullement ces éléments essentiels pas plus qu'elle ne définissait lerégimejuridique applicable aux Etats riverains en ce qui concerne le plateau continental; que la définition et la consolidation du droit coutumier en voie de for- mation s'étaient effectuéesgrâce aux travaux de la Commission du droit international, aux réactions des gouvernements devant I'aeuvre de la Commission et aux débats de la conférence de Genève; que ce droit coutumier en formation, désormais plus précis sur la double question des droits des Etats riverairis et du régimeapplicabls, s'est cristallisé du fait de l'adoption de la Convention sur le plateau continental par la conférence; et que les nombreuses signatures et ratifications recueillies par la Convention, ainsi que la pratique des Etats s'inspirant des principes énoncésdans la Convention, ont eu pour effet de consolider ces principes en tant que droit coutumier. )) Si l'on admet que la doctrine des droits exclusifs de 1'Etat riverain sur le plateau continental adjacent à sa côte était en voie de formation entre56 CONTINENTAL SHELF (DECL.BENGZON) between 1945 and 1958 and that in State practice prior to 1958 it was wholly lacking in any definition of crucial elements as it was also of the legal régimeapplicable to the coastal State with respect to the continental shelf,then it would seem to follow conclusively that the principle of equidistance was not inherent in the concept of the continental shelf. Judge BENGZON makes the following declarati:n 1 regret my inability to concur with the main conclusions of the majority of the CourT.agree with my colleagues who maintain the view that Article of the Geneva Convention is the applicable international law and that as betweenhese Parties equidistance is the rule for delimita- tion, which rule may even be derived from the general principles of law. PresidentBUSTAMANT Y ERIVEROJ,udges JESSUPP,ADILLA NERVO and AMMOUa Nppend Separate Opinions to the Judgment of the Court. Vice-PresidentKORETSKY Ju,dges TANAKAM, ORELLIL,ACHS and Judge ad hoc SDRENSEa ppend Dissenting Opinions to the Judgrnent of the Court. (Initialled) J. L. B.-R. (Initialled) S. A.1945et 1958et que la pratique des Etats antériàu1958ne fournissait aucune définition, ni de certains éléments essentiels nidu régimejuri- dique applicable1'Etatriverain encequi concerne le plateau continental, on doit, semble-t-il, en tirer la conclusion que le principe de l'équidis- tance n'était pas inhérent notion de plateau continental. M. BENGZOjN u,ge,!fait la déclaration su:vante Je regrette de ne pouvoir souscrire aux conclusions principales émises par la majoritéde la Cour. Je suis d'accord avec ceux de mescollèguesqui soutiennent que l'articlede la Convention de Genève constitue le droit international applicable et qu'entre les Parties la règle de délimi- tation estl'équidistiance,cette règle pouvant mêmeêtre déduitedes principes généraux dedroit. M. BUSTAMAN YTEIVFRO Pr,ésident,MM. JESSUPP,ADILLANERVO et AMMOUN ju,ges, joignànl'arrêtlesexposésde leur opinion individuelle. M. KORETSKV Yi,ce-Président,MM. TANAKA , ORELL LI, CHSj,ges, etM. SPIRENSE jug,e ad Iroc,joignàl'arrêtles exposésde leur opinion dissidente. (Paraphé)J. L. B.-R. (Paraphé)S. A.

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Judgment of 20 February 1969

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