II. Resolutions adopted witbout reference to a Main Commlttee 17
13. Reiterates the hope that, following a comprehensive
political solution, an intergovernmental committee will lte
established to consider a programme of assistance to Kampuchea
for the reconstruction of its economy and for the
economic and social development of ail States in the region;
14. Requests the Secretary-General to report to the General
Assembly at its thirty-eighth session on the implementation
of the present resolution;
15. Decides to include in the provisional agenda of its
thirty-eighth session the item entitled · 'The situation in
Kampuchea".
48th plenary meeting
28 October /982
37/7. World Charter for Nature
The General Assembly,
Having considered the report of the Secretary-General on
the revised draft World Charter for Nature, 14
Recalling that, in its resolution 35/7 of 30 October 1980,
it expressed its conviction that the benefits which could be
obtained from nature depended on the maintenance of natural
processes and on the diversity of life forms and that
those benefits were jeopardized by the excessive exploitation -
and the destruction of natural habitats,
Further recalling that, in the same resolution, it recognized
the need for appropriate measures at the national and
international levels to protect nature and promote international
co-operation in that field,
Recalling that, in its resolution 36/6 of 27 October 1981,
it again expressed its awareness of the crucial importance
attached by the international community to the promotion
and development of co-operation aimed at protecting and
safeguarding the balance and quality of nature and invited
the Secretary-General to transmit to Member States the text
of the revised version of the draft World Charter for Nature
contained in the report of the Ad Hoc Group of Experts on
the draft World Charter for Nature, 15 as well as any further
observations by States, with a view to appropriate consideration
by the General Assembly at its thirty-seventh session,
Conscious of the spirit and terms of its resolutions 35/7
and 36/6, in which it solemnly invited Member States, in
the exercise of their permanent sovereignty over their natural
resources, to conduct their activities in recognition of the
supreme importance of protecting natural systems, maintaining
the balance and quality of nature and conserving
natural resources, in the interests of present and future
generations,
Having considered the supplementary report of the
Secretary-General, 16
Expressing its gratitude to the Ad Hoc Group of Experts
which, through its work, has assembled the necessary elements
for the General Assembly to be able to complete the
consideration of and adopt the revised draft W orld Charter
for Nature at its thirty-seventh session, as it had previously
recommended,
Adopts and solemnly proc:laims the World Charter for
Nature contained in the annex to the present resolution.
14 A/36/539.
" Ibid .. annex 1.
1• A/37/398 and Add. l.
48th plenary meeting
28 October /982
ANNEX
World Charter for Nature
The General Assembly,
Reaffirming the fundamental purposes of the United Nations, in particular
the maintenance of international peace and security, the development of
friendly relations among nations and the achievement of international cooperation
in solving international problems of an economic, social, cultural,
technical, intellectual or humanitarian character,
Awllre that:
(a) Mankind is a part of nature and life depends on the unintenupted
functioning of natural systems which ensure the supply of energy and
nutrients.
(b) Civilization is rooted in nature, which has shaped human culture
and influenced ail artistic and scientific achievement, and living in harmony
with nature gives man the best opportunities for the development of bis
creativity, and for rest and recreation,
Convinced that:
(a) Every form of life is unique, warranting respect regardless of its
worth to man, and, to accord other organisms such recognition, man must
be guided by a moral code of action,
( b) Man can alter nature and exhaust natural resources by his aclion
or its consequences and, therefore, must fully recognize the urgency of
maintaining the stability and quality of nature and of conserving natural
resources,
Persuatled that:
(a) Lasting benefits from nature depend upon the maintenance of essential
ecological processes and life support systems, and upon the diversity
of life forms, which are jeopardized through excessive exploitation and
habitat destruction by man,
(b) The de gradation of natural systems owing to excessive consumption
and misuse of natural resources, as well as to failure to establish an appropriate
economic order among peoples and among States, leads to the
breakdown of the economic, social and political framework of civilization,
(c) Competition for scarce resources creates conflicts, whereas the
conservation of nature and natural resources contributes to justice and the
maintenance of peace and cannot be achieved until mankind leams to live
in peace and to forsake war and armaments,
Reaffirming that man must acquire the knowledge to maintain and enhance
his ability to use natural resources in a manner which ensures the
preservation of the species and ecosystems for the benefit of present and
future generations,
Firmly convinced of the need for appropriate measures, at the national
and international, individual and collective, and private and public levels,
to protect nature and promote international co-operation in this field,
Adopts, to these ends, the present World Charter for Nature, which_
proclaims the following principles of conservation by which ail human
conduct affecting nature is to be guided and judged.
1. GENERAL PRINCIPLES
1. Nature shall be respected and its essential processes shall not be
impaired.
2. The genetic viability on the earth shall not be compromised; the
population levels of ail life forms, wild and domesticated, must be at least
sufficient for their survival, and to this end necessary habitats shall be
safeguarded.
3. Ail areas of the earth, both land and sea, shall be subject to these
principles of conservation; special protection shall be given to unique areas,
to representative samples of ail the different types of ecosystems and to
the habitats of rare or endangered species.
4. Ecosystems and organisms, as well as the land, marine and ltmospheric
resources that arc utilized by man, shall be managed to achieve
and maintain optimum sustainable productivity, but not in such a way as
to endanger the integrity of those other ecosystems or species with which
they coexist.
5. Nature shall be secured against degradation caused by warfarc or
other hostile acti vities.
li FUNCTIONS
6. In the decision-making process it shall be recognized that man's
needs can be met only by ensuring the proper functioning of natural systems
and by respecting the principles set forth in the present Charter.
18 General Assembly-Thlrty-seventh Session
7. ln the planning and implementation of social and economic development
acti vities, due account shall be taken of the facl that the conservation
of nature is an integral part of those activities.
8. ln fonnulating long-tenn plans for economic development, population
growth and the improvement of standards of living, due accounl
shall be taken of the long-tenn capacity of natural systems to ensure the
subsistence and settlement of the populations concemed, recognizing that
this capacity may be enhanced through science and technology.
9. The allocation of areas of the earth to various uses shall be planned
and due account shall be taken of the physical constraints, the biological
productivity and diversity and the natural beauty of the areas concerned.
10. 'Natural resources shall not be wasted, but used with a restraint
appropriate to the principles set forth in the present Charter, in accordance
with the following rules:
(a) Living resources shall not be utilized in excess of their natural
capacity for regeneration;
(b) The productivity of soils shall be maintained or enhanced through
measures which safeguard their long-tenn fertility and the process of organic
decomposition, and prevent erosion and ail other fonns of degradation;
(c) Resources, including water, which are not consumed as they are
used shall be reused or recycled;
(d) Non-renewable resources which are consumed as they are used
shall be exploited with restraint, taking into account their abundance, the
rational possibilities of converting them for consumption, and the compatibility
of their exploitation with the functioning of natural systems.
11. Activities which might have an impact on nature shall be controlled,
and the best available technologies that minimize significant risks
to nature or other adverse effects shall be used; in particular:
(a) Activities which are Iikely to cause irreversible damage to nature
shall be avoided;
(b) Activities which are likely to pose a significant risk to nature shall
be preceded by an exhaustive examination; their proponents shall demonstrate
that expected benefits outweigh potential damage to nature, and
where pocential adverse effects are not fully understood, the activities
should not proceed;
(c) Activities which may disturb nature shall be preceded by assessment
of their consequences, and environmental impact studies of development
projects shall be conducted sufficiently in advance, and if they are to be
undertaken, such activities shall be planned and carried oui so as to minimize
pocential adverse effects;
(d) Agriculture, grazing, forestry and fisheries practices shall be adapted
to the natural characteristics and constraints of given areas;
(e) Areas degraded by human activities shall be rehabilitated for purposes
in accord with their natural potential and compatible with the wellbeing
of affected populations.
12. Discharge of pollutants into natural systems shall be avoided and:
(a) Where this is not feasible, such pollutants shall be treated at the
source, using the best practicable means available;
(b) Special precautions shall be taken to prevent discharge of radioactive
or toxic wastes.
13. Measures intended to prevent, control or limit natural disasters.
infestations and diseases shall be specifically directed to the causes of these
scourges and shall avoid adverse side-effects on nature.
III. IMPCEMENTATION
14. The principles set forth in the present Charter shall be reflected in
the law and practice of each State, as well as at the international level.
15. Knowledge of nature shall be broadly disseminated by ail possible
means, particularly by ecological education as an integral part of general
education.
16. Ali planning shall include, among its essential elements, the formulation
of strategies for the conservation of nature, the establishment of
inventories of ecosystems and assessments of the effects on nature of
proposed policies and activities; ail of these elements shall be disclosed
IO the public by appropriate means in lime to permit effective consultation
and participation.
17. Funds, programmes and administrative structures necessary to
achieve the objective of the conservation of nature shall be provided.
18. Constant efforts shall be made to increase knowledge of nature by
scientific research and to disseminate such knowledge unimpeded by restrictions
of any kind.
19. The status of natural processes, ecosystems and species shall be
closely monitored to enable early detection of degradation or threat, ensure
timely intervention and facilitate the evaluation of conservation policies
and methods.
20. Military activities damaging to nature shall be avoided.
21. States and, to the e,i;tent they are able, other public authorities,
international organizations, individuals, groups and corporations shall:
(a) Co-operate in the task of conserving nature through common activities
and other relevant actions, including information exchange and
consultations;
(b) Establish standards for products and manufacturing processes that
may have adverse effects on nature, as well as agreed methodologies for
assessing these effects;
(c) Implement the applicable international Iegal provisions for the cooservation
of nature and the protection of the environrnent;
(d) Ensure that activities within their jurisdictions or control do not
cause damage to the natural systems located within other States or in the
areas beyond the limits of national jurisdiction;
(e) Safeguard and conserve nature in areas beyond national jurisdiction.
22. Taking fully into account the sovereignty of States over their natural
resources, each State shall give effect to the provisions of the present
Charter through its competent organs and in co-operation with other States.
23. Ali persons, in accordance with their national legislation, shall
have the opportunity to participate, individually or with others, in the
formulation of decisions of direct concem to their environment, and shall
have access to means of redress when their environment bas suffered
damage or degradation.
24. Each person has a duty to act in accordance with the provisions
of the present Charter; acting individually, in association with others or
through participation in the political process, each person shall strive to
ensure that the objectives and requirements of the present Charter are met.
37/8. Co-operation between the United Nations and the
Asian-African Legal Consultative Commlttee
The General Assembly,
Recalling its resolution 36/38 of 18 November 1981,
Having heard the statements of the Secretary-General of
the United Nations17 and the Secretary-General of the AsianAfrican
Legal Consultative Committee18 on further strengthening
and widening the scope of the co-operation between
the United Nations and the Committee,
1. Notes with deep satisfaction the ongoing close and
effective co-operation between the United Nations and the
Asian-African Legal Consultative Committee in the field of
progressive development and codification of international
law and other areas of common interest;
2. Requests the Secretary-General to report to the General
Assembly at its thirty-eighth session on the state of the
co-operation between the United Nations and the AsianAfrican
Legal Consultative Committee;
3. Decides to include in the provisional agenda of its
thirty-eighth session the item entitled • 'Co-operation between
the United Nations and the Asian-African Legal Consultative
Committee''.
49th plenary meeting
29 October 1982
37/9. Question of the Falkland Islands (Malvinas) 19
The General Assembly,
Having considered the question of the Falkland Islands
(Mal vinas),
17 Official Records of the General Assembly, Thirty-.,eventh Sessio11.
Plenary Meetings, 49th meeting, paras. 2-7.
'" Ibid., paras. 9-17.
19 See also sect. I, footnote 10, and sect. X.8.6. decision 37/404.
V. Resolutions adopted on the reports of the Second Committee 141
2. Also decides that the Goveming Council shall hold a
special one-week session every six years, beginning in
1988, to consider and approve the system-wide mediumterm
environment programme and to consider the global
programme on the environment of the proposed United
Nations medium-term plan;
3. Further decides that in 1988 the Goveming Council
shall meet to consider and approve the next system-wide
medium-term environment programme and to consider
appropriate changes to the global programme on the environment
of the extended United Nations medium-term
plan for the period 1984-1989, and that it shall, at its regular
session in 1989, consider the global programme on the
environment of the next United Nations medium-term
plan before submitting it to the General Assembly for approval;
4. Requests the Secretary-General to conduct consultations
with Governments to establish the necessary transitional
arrangements for a change in the term of office of
members of the Goveming Council from three years to
four, with half of the membership being elected every two
years;
5. Decides that the reports requested of the Goveming
Council in section I, paragraph 3, of its resolution
2997 (XXVII) and in paragraph 5 of its resolution
3436 (XXX) shall be submitted biennially instead of annually.
96th plenary meeting
11 December 1987
42/186. Environmental Perspective to the Year 2000
and Beyond
The General Assembly,
Recalling its resolution 38/161 of 19 December 1983 on
the process of preparation of the Environmental Perspective
to the Y ear 2000 and Beyond, in w hich it, in ter a lia,
welcomed the desire of the Governing Council of the
United Nations Environment Programme to develop the
Environmental Perspective and transmit it to the General
Assembly for adoption, benefiting in carrying out that
fonction from its consideration of the relevant proposais
made by a special commission, which adopted the name
World Commission on Environment and Development,
Welcoming the Environmental Perspective to the Year
2000 and Beyond,51 prepared by the Intergovernmental
Inter-sessional Preparatory Committee on the Environmental
Perspective to the Year 2000 and Beyond of the
United Nations Environment Programme, referred to in
General Assembly resolution 38/161, considered further
by the Governing Council of the United Nations Environment
Programme at its fourteenth session and adopted in
its decision 14/13 of 19 June 1987,46 as a basis for the further
elaboration of its programme and operations, while
acknowledging that diff'erent views exist on some aspects,
Appreciating that concepts, ideas and recommendations
contained in the report of the World Commission on Environment
and Development12 have been incorporated into
the Environmental Perspective,
1. Expresses its appreciation for the efforts of the Governing
Council of the United Nations Environment Programme
and its Intergovernmental Inter-sessional
~reparatory Committee on the 1?nvironmental Perspective
to the Year 2000 and Beyond m the preparation of the
Environmental Perspective to the Year 2000 and Beyond;
2. Adopts the Environmental Perspective to the Year
2000 and Beyond, contained in the annex to the present
resolution, as a broad framework to guide national action
and international co-operation on policies and programmes
aimed at achieving environmentally sound development,
and specifically as a guide to the preparation of
further system-wide medium-term environment programmes
and the medium-term programmes of the organizations
and bodies of the United Nations system, in the
light of Goveming Council decision 14/13;
3. Notes that the perceptions generally shared by Governments
of the nature of environmental problems, and
their interrelations with other international problems, and
of the efforts to deal with them include the following:
(a) An international atmosphereofpeace, security and
co-operation, free from the presence and the threat of wars
of ail types, especially nuclear war, in which intellectual
and natural resources are not wasted on armaments by
any nation, would greatly enhance environmentally sound
development;
(b) The imbalance of present world economic conditions
makes it extremely difficult to bring about sustained
improvement in the world's environmental situation; accelerated
and balanced world development and lasting improvements
in the global environment require improved
world economic conditions, especially for the developing
countries;
(c) Since mass poverty is often at the root of environmental
degradation, its elimination and ensuring equitable
access of people to environmental resources are essential
for sustained environmental improvements;
(d) The environment puts constraints on as well as
provides opportunities for economic growth and social
well-being; environmental degradation, in its various
forms, bas assumed such proportions as can cause irreversible
changes in ecosystems, which threaten to undermine
human well-being; environmental constraints, however,
are generally relative to the state of technology and
socio-economic conditions, which can and should be improved
and managed to achieve sustained world economic
growth;
(e) Environmental issues are closely intertwined with
development policies and practices; consequently, environmental
goals and actions need to be defined in relation
to development objectives and policies;
(j) Although it is important to tackle immediate environmental
problems, anticipatory and preventive policies
are the most effective and economical in achieving environmentally
sound development;
(g) The environmental impacts of actions in one sector
are often felt in other sectors; thus internalization of environmental
considerations in sectoral policies and programmes
and their co-ordination are essential for the
achievement of sustainable development;
(h) Since confticts of interest among population
groups, or among countries, are often inherent in the nature
of environmental problems, the participation of the
concerned parties is essential in determining effective environmental
management practices;
(1) Environmental degradation can be controlled and
reversed only by ensuring that the parties causing the
damage will be accountable for their actions, and that they
will participate, on the basis of full access to available
knowledge, in improving environmental conditions;
(J) Renewable resources, as part of complex and interlinked
ecosystems, can have sustainable yields only ifused
142 General Assembly-Forty-second Session
while taking into account system-wide effects of exploitation;
(k) The safeguarding of species is a moral obligation of
humankind and should improve and sustain human wellbeing;
([) Building awareness at various levels of environmental
conditions and management, through the provision
of information, education and training, is essential for
environmental protection and improvement;
(m) Strategies to deal with environmental challenges
have to be flexible and should allow for adjustments to
emerging problems and evolving environmental management
technology;
(n) International environmental disputes, which are
growing in number and variety, need to be resolved by
peaceful means;
4. Welcomes as the overall aspirational goal for the
world community the achievement of sustainable development
on the basis of prudent management of available global
resources and environmental capacities and the
rehabilitation of the environment previously subjected to
degradation and misuse, and the aspirational goals to the
year 2000 and beyond as set out in the Environmental Perspective,
namely:
(a) The achievement over time of such a balance between
population and environmental capacities as would
make possible sustainable development, keeping in view
the links between population levels, consumption patterns,
poverty and the natural resource base;
(b) The achievement of food security without resource
depletion or environmental degradation and restoration of
the resource base where environmental damage has been
occurring;
(c) The provision of sufficient energy at reasonable
cost, notably by increasing access to energy substantially
in the developing countries, to meet current and expanding
needs in ways which minimize environmental degradation
and risks, conserve non-renewable sources of energy
and realize the full potential of renewable sources of
energy;
(d) The sustained improvements in levels of living in
ail countries, especially the developing countries, through
industrial development that prevents or minimizes environmental
damage and risks;
(e) The provision of improved shelter with access to
essential amenities in a clean and secure setting conducive
to health and to the prevention of environment-related
diseases, which would, at the same time, alleviate serious
environmental degradation;
(/) The establishment of an equitable system of international
economic relations aimed at achieving continuing
economic advancement for ail States based on principles
recognized by the international community, in order to
stimulate and sustain environmentally sound development,
especially in developing countries;
5. Agrees that the recommendations for action contained
in the Environmental Perspective should be implemented,
as appropriate, through national and international
action by Governments, intergovernmental and
non-governmental organizations and scientific bodies;
6. Requests the Governing Council to keep under review
the extent to which the long-term environmental actions
recommended in the Environmental Perspective
have been implemented and to identify any new environmental
concerns that may arise;
7. Calls special attention to section IV of the Environmental
Perspective, which spells out instruments of environmental
action, to be used as support in addressing, as
appropriate, problems dealt with in previous sections of
the Environmental Perspective;
8. Stresses the essential role of the United Nations Environment
Programme within the United Nations system
in catalyzing environmentally sound and sustainable development,
and agrees with the Governing Council that
this role should be strengthened and that the resources of
the Environment Fund should be substantially increased
with greater participation;
9. Endorses the priorities and fonctions for the United
Nations Environment Programme set out in paragraph
117 of the Environmental Perspective;
10. Decides to transmit the text of the Environmental
Perspective to ail Governments and to the governing bodies
of the organs and organizations of the United Nations
system as a broad framework to guide national action and
international co-operation on policies and programmes
aimed at achieving environmentally sound and sustainable
development;
11. Calls upon the governing bodies of the organs and
organizations of the United Nations system to consider
the Environmental Perspective and take it into account in
the development of their own medium-term plans and
programmes as relevant to their own mandates;
12. Requests the governing bodies of relevant United
Nations organizations to report regularly to the General
Assembly on the progress made in achieving the objectives
of environmentally sound and sustainable development in
line with paragraph 114 of the Environmental Perspective;
13. Invites the Governing Council of the United Nations
Environment Programme to report to the General
Assembly at its forty-fourth session on the implementation
of the present resolution and the relevant provisions
of the Environmental Perspective to the Year 2000 and
Beyond.
ANNEX
96th plenary meeting
11 December 1987
Environ mental Perspective to the Y ear 2000 and Beyond
CONTENTS
Paragraphs Page
I ):-;TRODUL7ION 1-4 143
II. SECTORAL ISSUES 5-68 143
A. Population 5-9 143
B. Food and agriculture 10-25 144
C Energy 26-35 146
D. Industry 36-47 147
E Health and human settlements 48-59 149
F International economic relations
. 60-68 150
III. ÜTHEll ISSUES OF GLOBAL CONCERN 69-86 151
A. Oceans and seas ......... 70-73 151
B. Outer space ... · .......... 74-75 151
C. Biological diversity . . ...... 76-81 151
D. Security and environment ... 82-86 152
IV. INSTRUMENTS OF ENVIRONMENTAL
ACTION .. - ................ 87-120 152
A. Assessment ............. 88-93 152
B. Planning ............... 94-99 152
V. Resolutions adopted on the reports of the Second Commlttee 143
C. Legislation and environmental
law .................... .
D. Awareness building and training
.................... ••
E. Institutions ............ .
1. INTRODUCTION
100-104
105-109
110-120
153
153
153
1. Awareness of environmental issues bas been growing during the
put decade. This awareness bas emerged among and within the Govemments
as they have addressed environmental problems singly, bilaterally,
regionally and globally. The establishment ofministries for environmental
conservation and enhancement is but one sign of this growth of cornmon
concem. Much of this concem bas crystallized in the decisions of
the Goveming Council of the United Nations Environment Programme.
Despite these noteworthy developments, and the emergence in the world
community of many shared perceptions regarding environmental problems
and actions, environmental degradation bas continued unabated,
threatening human well-being and, in some instances, the very survival
of life on our planet.
2. To meet this challenge, the overall aspirational goal must be sustainable
development on the basis of prudent management of available
global resources and environmental capacities, and the rehabilitation of
the environment previously subjected to degradation and misuse. Development
is sustainable when it meets the needs of the present without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet theirs.
3. The following are some shared perceptions of Govemments of the
nature of environmental issues and their interrelations with other international
problems and the eff'orts to deal with them:
(a) An international atmosphere of peace, security and co-operation,
free from the presence and the threat of wars of ail types, especially nuclear
war, in which intellectual and natural resources are not wasted on
armaments by any nation, would greatly enhance environmentally sound
development;
(b) The imbalance ofpresent world economic conditions makes it extremely
diflicult to bring about sustained improvement in the world's environmental
situation. Accelerated and balanced world development and
lasting improvements in the global environment require improved world
economic conditions, especially in the developing countries;
(c) Since mass poverty is often at the root of environmental degradation,
its elimination and ensuring equitable access of people to environmental
resources are essential for sustained environmental improvements;
(d) The environment puts constraints on as well as provides opportunities
for economic growth and social well-being. Environmental degradation,
in its various forms, bas assumed such proportions as can cause
irreversible changes in ecosystems which threaten to undermine human
well-being. Environmental constraints, however, are generally relative to
the state of technology and socio-economic conditions, which can and
should be improved and managed to achieve sustained world economic
growth;
(e) Environmental issues are closely intertwined with development
policies and practices; consequently, environmental goals and actions
need to be defined in relation to development objectives and policies;
(/) Although it is important to tackle immediate environmental
problems, anticipatory and preventive policies are the most eff'ective and
economical in achieving environmentally sound development;
(g) The environmental impacts of actions in one sector are often felt
in other sectors; thus, intemalization of environmental considerations in
sectoral policies and programmes and their co-ordination are essential
for the achievement of sustainable development;
(h) Since conflicts of interest among population groups, or among
countries, are often inherent in the nature of environmental problems,
participation of the concerned parties is essential in determining effective
environmental management practices;
(!) Environmental degradation can be controlled and reversed only
by ensuring that the parties causing the damage will be accountable for
their actions, and that they will participa te, on the basis of full access to
available knowledge, in improving environmental conditions:
(J) Renewable resources, as part of complex and interlinked ecosystems,
can have sustainable yields only if used while taking into account
system-wide effects of exploitation;
(k) The safeguarding of species is a moral obligation of humankind,
and should improve and sustain human well-being;
(/) Building awareness at various levels of environmental conditions
and management through the provision of information, education and
training is essential for environmental protection and improvement;
(m) Strategies to deal with environmental challenges have to be flexible
and should allow for adjustments to emerging problems and evolving
environmental management technology;
(n) International environmental disputes, which are growing in
number and variety, need to be resolved by peaceful means.
4. Environmental problems eut across a range of policy issues and
are mostly rooted in inappropriate developrnent patterns. Consequently,
environmental issues, goals and actions cannot be framed in isolation
from the development and policy sectors from which they emanate.
Against this background, and in the light of General Assembly resolution
38/161 of 19 December 1983, thepresentdocument reflects an inter•
govemmental consensus on growing environmental challenges to the
year 2000 and beyond, in six main sectors. In addition, the document diseusses
briefly other issues of global concem w hic h dei not fit easily under
the sectoral headings and considers instruments for environmental action,
including the role of institutions in dealing with environmental issues.
Throughout the Environmental Perspective, an attempt bas been
made to reflect consistently the interdependent and integrated nature of
environmental issues. Under each sectoral heading, this document covers:
the issue; the outlook; the goal to be aspired to in dealing with the issue;
and recommended action. While drawing upon the report of the
World Commission on Environment and Development, the Environmental
Perspective has sought to delineate, in an organized manner, the
elements of shared perceptions, environmental issues, aspirational goals
and the agenda for action envisaged for the Environmental Perspective
by the Goveming Council and the General Assembly.
Il. SECTORAL ISSUES
A. Population
1. Issue and outlook
S. Issue: The optimum contribution of human resources for the
achievement of sustainable development bas not been realized. Y et popu•
lation levels, growth and distribution will continue to overload the capacities
of the environment in many countries. Rapid population growth,
among other factors, has exacerbated poverty. The negative interaction
between population and environment bas tended to create social tensions.
6. Outlook: People are the most valuable asset anywhere for the betterment
of economic and social conditions and the quality of life. Y et, in
a number of countries, the momentum of population growt h today, coupied
with poverty, environmental degradation and an unfavourable economic
situation, has tended to create serious disequilibria between population
and environment and to aggravate the problem of "environmental
refugees". Traditions and social attitudes, especially in rural areas, have
been a major impediment to population planning.
7. World population may exceed 6 billion by the year 2000. Severa!
countries have achieved population equilibrium as deftned by low birth
and death rates and high life expectancies. But, for a large part of the developing
world, this bas not happened because of unfavourable economic
conditions. Over 90 percent of the net addition to the world's population
between now and the year 2025, when the world population may exceed
8 billion, will occur in the developing countries. Many of them already
suff'er from desertification, fuelwood deficits, and Joss of forests. Population
planning would help, but is not sufficient, to achieve equilibrium between
population and environmental capacities. Countries have not yet
related population planning to development planning, nor have they
linked population and environmental action for mutually reinforcing improvements.
Equally, there is the need for more concem for human progress
and social justice as factors influencing human resources development
and environmental improvement.
2. Goal and recommended action
8. Goa/: The achievement over time of such a balance between population
and environmental capacities as would make possible sustainable
development, keeping in view the links between population levels, consumption
patterns, poverty and the natural resource base.
144 General Aaembly-Forty-second Session
9. Recommended action:
(a) Development planning which takes into account environmental
considerations should be an important instrument in achieving population
goals. Countries should identify the rural and urban areas with acute
population pressures on the environment. The environmental problems
of large cities in developing countries should receive special attention. As
poverty increases, economic development decreases and population rates
grow, development plans should give special attention to population•
related programmes aimed at improving environmental conditions at local
levels;
(b) Significant changes in natural resources should be monitored and
anticipated. This information should be fed back into sub-national and
national development plans and related to the planning of spatial distribution
of populations;
(c) Land and water use and spatial planning should bring about a
balanced distribution of population through, for example, incentives for
industrial location, and for resettlement and development of intermediate-
sized towns, keeping in view the capacities of the environment;
(d) Public works, including food-for-work programmes, should be
designed and implemented in areas of environmental stress and population
pressures, with a view to providing employment and simultaneously
improving the environment;
(e) Governments and voluntary organizations should increase public
understanding, through formai and non-formai education, of the significance
of population planning for environmental improvement and the
important role of local action. The role of women in improving the environment
and in population planning should receive special attention, as
social changes that raise the status of women can have a profound eff'ect
in bringing down population growth rates;
(/) Private enterprise, and industry in particular, should participate
actively in the work of governmental and non-governmental organizations
aimed al relieving population and environmental stress;
(g) Education should be geared towards making people more capable
of dealing with problems of excessive population density. Such educa•
tion should help people acquire practical and vocational skills to enable
them to become more self-reliant and enhance their participation in the
improvement of the environment at the local level;
(h) International agencies, notably, the United Nations Fund for
Population Activities, the United Nations Children's Fund, the International
Labour Organisation, the World Health Organization and the
World Food Programme, should give priority attention to the geographical
areas experiencing acute population pressures on the environment.
They should reftect sensitivity to environmental improvement in the design
and implementation of their population-related programmes. Multilateral
and bilateral development assistance should be increased to finance
innovative projects to make population programmes more
effective by relating them to environmental improvement;
(1) Population policies must have a broader focus than controlling
numbers. Governments should work on several fronts: to achieve and
maintain population equilibrium, to expand the carrying capacity of the
environment and improve health and sanitation at local levels, to develop
human resources through education and training, and to ensure equitable
distribution of the benefits of economic growth.
B. Food and agriculture
1. Issue and outlook
IO. Issue: The shortage of food in many developing countries creates
insecurity and environmental threats. The quest to meet rapidly growing
food needs, combined with insufficient attention to the environmental
impact of agricultural policies and practices, has been causing great environmental
damage. This includes: degradation and depletion in the form
of loss of soil and forests; drought and desertification; loss and deterioration
of the quality of surface and ground water; reduction in genetic
diversity and of fish stocks; damage to the sea ftoor; waterlogging, salinization,
and siltation; soil, water and air pollution; and eutrophication
caused by improper use of fertilizers and pesticides and by industrial effluents.
11. Outlook: While food production capabilities have increased
greatly over the last three decades, self-reliance in food production bas
not been achieved in many countries. In the absence of proper environmental
management, the conversion of forests and grassland into crop·
land will increase land degradation. For example, in sub-Saharan Africa
desertification and frequent droughts are major concerns causing largescale
migration from rural areas. In most developing countries the pressure
on the natural resources, including those in the public domain, is a
serious concern. ln some developed countries Joss of land productivity
from excessive use of chemicals and Joss of prime quality land to urbanization
are major concerns.
12. Soil erosion has increased in ail regions: increased intensity of
land use has resulted in the reduction of fallowing which, in turn, has undermined
soil conservation, management of moisture and control of
weeds and diseases in small holder agriculture. The main causes of soil
erosion have been deforestation, overgrazing and overworking of farmland.
Inappropriate patterns of land use and inadequate access to land
are other factors which have been at work. Sorne off-site impacts have
been flooding, reduction in hydro-electric capacity, reduced Iife of irrigation
systems and declines in fish catches. The world's rivers may be carrying
24 billion tons of sediment to the seas annually. Technologies
which make optimal use of natural resources, minimum tillage, fallowing
and drought-, pest- and disease-resistant varieties, combined with mixed
cropping, crop rotation, terracing and agro-forestry, have kept erosion
under control in some places.
13. Nearly one third of ail land is at risk of desertification. Over the
last quarter century the population in arid lands has increased by more
than 80 percent. Since the adoption in 1977 of the Plan of Action to
Combat Desertification55 awareness of the problem has grown and so
have organizational eff'orts to deal with it. But the basic elements of the
action needed, namely, to stop the process, to rehabilitate degraded
lands, and to ensure their eff'ective management, do not yet receive the attention
they urgently need. Although long-term economic returns on investments
in the control of dryland degradation are high, insufficient resources
are being devoted toit.
14. Forests cover approximately one third of ail land. Tropical forests
occupy over l.9 billion hectares, of which l.2 billion hectares are
closed forests, and the remaining open tree formations. Although the rate
of tree plantations in the tropics has accelerated recently (about 1.1 million
hectares annually), it amounts to only about one tenth of the rate of
deforestation. Use of forest land for agriculture through shifting or sedentary
cultivation, increasing demand for fuelwood, unmanaged clearance
and Jogging, burning and conversion for pastoral purposes are the
main factors behind tropical deforestation. ln semi-humid and dry climates
lire can be a significant cause as well. Widespread deforestation bas
brought about far-reaching changes in tropical forest ecosystems, which
no longer can perf orm well their essential functions of water retention,
climate control, soi) conservation and provision of livelihood.
15. Timber, an increasingly scarce commodity, has become the subject
of extensive international negotiations. The International Tropical
Timber Agreement, ratified in 1985, aims at promoting international
trade in industrial wood and environmental management of tropical forests.
The Tropical Forestry Action Plan, prepared under the auspices of
the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, puis forward
live priority areas aimed at: forestry land use planning, forestrybased
industrial development, fuelwood and energy planning, conservation
of tropical forest ecosystems and institutional support for better
forestry management.
16. There have been significant changes in weather patterns as aresult
in part ofloss of forests and vegetation cover. This has reduced river
ftows and Jake levels and also lowered agricultural productivity. Irrigation
has greatly improved arability in many areas of uncertain, or inadequate,
rainfall. It has also been playing a vital role in the Green Revolution.
Inappropriate irrigation, however, bas wasted water, washed out
nutrients and, through salinization and alkalinization, damaged the productivity
of millions of hectares. Globally, salinization alone may be
removing as much land from production as the land being irrigated, and
about half of the land under surface irrigation may be saline or waterlogged.
Excessive use of ground water for irrigation has resulted in lower
water tables and semi-arid conditions.
17. Fisheries potential has not yet been tapped sufficiently or in such
ways as to ensure sustainable yields, particularly in the developing
coastal States, which do not possess the necessary infrastructure, technology
or trained manpower to develop and manage fisheries in their exclusive
economic zones. Excessive fishing activities have led to overexploitation
of several important fish stocks and the exhaustion of some. Dy
the year 2000, annual fish supplies may fall short of demand by about 10
to 15 million tons. Regional agreements on co-ordination of national fishing
policies for licensing procedures, catch reporting, monitoring and
surveillance have begun to consider sustainability ofyields and use of appropriate
technology. The World Conference on Fisheries Management
SSReport of the United Nations Conference on Desertification, Nairobi,
29 August-9 September 1977 (A/CONF.74/36), chap. 1.
V. Resolutlons adopted on the reports of the Second Committee 145
and DevelopmentS6 established a framework and programmes of action
for fisheries management.
18. Freshwater fish fanning and aquaculture now produce annually
about 8 million tons of fish. In Europe and in South and South-East Asia,
aquaculture has made important strides. Whether as part of a traditional
way ofsupplementing fann incarnes and protein intake or as an industry,
carefully practised aquaculture holds great promise for integrated environmental
management and rural development in many countries.
19. The use of high-yielding seed varieties has multiplied agricultural
output but has led to a reduction in the genetic diversity of crops and an
increase in their vulnerability to diseases and pests. The emerging technology
of direct gene transfer, or transfer of the symbiotic nitrogen-fixing
capacity of leguminous crops to cereals, can greatly increase production
and reduce costs. Also, the spread of gene banks, through the International
Board for Plant Genetie Resources, and the work of the International
Centre for Genetie Engineering and Biotechnology should improve
the prospects for genetic diversity, and thereby enhance
agricultural productivity.
20. Overuse of pesticides has polluted water and soi!, damaging the
ecology of agriculture and creating hazards for human and animal
health. Pesticides have to be used to increase agricultural production, but
their indiscriminate use has destroyed natural predators and other nontarget
species and increased resistance in target pests. More than 400 insect
species are believed to be resistant to pesticides and their number is
increasing.
21. Use of chemical fertilizers per capita has increased fivefold between
1950 and 1983. In some countries excessive use offertilizers, along
with household and industrial effluents, has caused eutrophication of
lakes, canais, irrigation reservoirs, and even coastal seas through runoffs
ofnitrogen compounds and phosphates. Ground water has also been polluted
by nitrates in many places, and nitrate levels in rivers have risen
steadily over the last two decades. Degradation of the quality of surface
and ground water, caused by chemicals, including nitrates, has been a
significant problem in developed and developing countries alike.
22. In North America, Western Europe and some other areas, food
surpluses have accumulated as a result in part of farm price subsidization.
The push to produce more in response to incentives, coupled with
excessive use of fertilizers and pesticides, has led to degradation and soi!
erosion in some countries. Similarly, export subsidization of food grains
by some countries has undennined agricultural experts of some others,
and also led to environmental neglect of fannland. In some countries,
however, there is a trend towards reducing the scale of fanning, encouraging
organic fanning, restoring the natural beauty of the countryside
and diversifying the rural economy.
23. In the developing countries, fanners receive too little for their
produce, and production is thereby discouraged. City dwellers often buy
food at subsidized prices, and peasants may receive only a fraction of the
market price. In countries where farmers have begun to receive better
prices for their produce, agricultural production has increased and soi!
and water management has improved. When equitable agricultural
prices are accompanied by technical assistance for environmental management
of farming, they can help improve the quality oflife in the countryside
as well as in cities, partly by stemming the flow of rural-urban migration.
Upward adjustment of food prices is, however, a politically
sensitive issue, especially in situations of low resource productivity, low
incarne, large-scale unemployment and slow economic growth.
2. Goal and recommended action
24. Goa/: The achievement of food security without resource depletion
or environmental degradation, and restoration of the resource base
where environmental damage has been occurring.
25. Recommended action:
(a) Policies of Governments for using agricultural land, forests and
water resources should take into account degradation trends as well as
evaluation of potentials. Agricultural policies should vary from region to
region to reflect different regional needs, encouraging fanners to adopt
practices that are ecologically sustainable in their own areas and promote
national food security. Local communities should be involved in the design
and implementation of such policies;
56 Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Report
of the FAO World Conference on Fisheries Management and
Development, Rome, 27 June-6 July 1984.
(b) Policy distortions that have caused undue pressures on marginal
lands, or taken away prime farmland for urbanization, or led to environmental
neglect of natural resources, have to be identified and eliminated;
( c) Govemments should design and implement regulatory measures,
as well as taxation and price policies and incentives, aimed at ensuring
that the right of owning agricultural land carries an obligation to sustain
its productivity. Long-terrn agricultural credits should require fanners to
undertake soi! conservation practices, including keeping a portion of
land fallow, where appropriate;
(d) Governments should promote equity in means for food production
and in distribution. Governments should design and implement
comprehensive agrarian refonns to improve the levels of living of fann
workers who Jack land. Govemments should take decisive action to turn
the terms of trade in favour of farmers, through pricing policy and government
expenditure reallocation;
(e) Governments should ascertain direct and indirect environmental
impacts of alternative crop, forestry and land use patterns. Fiscal and
trade policies should be based on such environmental assessments. Governments
should give priority to establishing a national policy and to
creating or strengthening institutions to restore areas where natural factors
and land use practices have reduced productivity;
(j) In the national development plans and agricultural programmes
of countries experiencing desertification, dryland rehabilitation and
management have to ligure prominently. Better systems of early warning
against drought and other dryland disasters have to be developed, with
the World Meteorological Organization, the Food and Agriculture Organization
of the United Nations, the United Nations Environment Programme
and the relevant regional organizations playing appropriate
raies;
(g) Sound forest policies should be based on an analysis of the
capacity of the forests and the land under them to perfonn various functions.
Programmes to conserve forest resources should start with the local
people. Contracts covering forest use will have to be negotiated or
renegotiated to ensure sustainability. Clear-cutting of large forest areas
should be a voided and replanting of logged forestry areas should be required.
Portions offorests should be designated as protected areas to conserve
soi!, water, wildlife and genetic resources in their natural habitat;
(h) Social and economic costs of deforestation, including clearcutting,
have to be estimated and reported on in relation to the periodic
national reporting on the economic performance of forestry. Similarly,
the damage costs ofwaterlogging and salinization have to be reported in
conjunction with the reporting on irrigation and agricultural production.
The loss of land to deserts and its consequences for food production,
trade, employment and incarne have to be made part of the annual reporting
on economic growth. Economie policies and planning have to reflect
such environmental accounting;
(1) ln areas experiencing deforestation and lack of forest resources,
economic and other incentives should be introduced to manage forests
and woody vegetation from an environmental standpoint and to promote
tree nurseries, tree farming and fuelwood plantations. Local communities
should be encouraged to take major responsibility for such undertakings;
(J) Projects should be designed and implemented to promote afforestation,
agro-forestry systems, water management and soil conservation
measures, such as land contour-levelling and terracing, in areas of environmental
stress. Such projects should respond to the needs of the local
people for food, fodder and fuel, while increasing the long-term productivity
of natural resources. Environmental improvement schemes should
become a regular part of national relief, rural employment and incomesupport
schemes to sustain development in regions prone to drought or
other environmental stress;
(k) Within the framework of a national water policy, which should
facilitate an intersectoral and integrated approach to water development
and use, technical, econornic and organizational means have to be geared
to improving efficiency of water use in farrning and animal husbandry.
Emphasis on ground-water storage in drylands should improve assurance
of water availability. lmprovements in water application techniques
to minimize wastage, co-ordination of fanning patterns with water supply,
and such pricing of water as would cover the cost of its collection,
storage and supply, should be introduced to conserve water in scarcity
areas;
(/) In the choice of technology and the scale of irrigation environmental
costs and benefits should be taken into account. Decentralized
and small-scale irrigation have to receive special attention. Proper drainage
to prevent salinization and waterlogging bas to accornpany irriga146
General Assembly-Forty•second Session
t1on. Development assistance has to play a vital role in improving productivity
of existing irrigation, reducing its environmental damage and
adapting it to the needs of small-scale, diversified agriculture;
(m) The traditional rights of subsistence farmers, particularly shifting
cultivators, pastoralists, and nomads, must be protected from encroachment.
Provision of infrastructure, services and information should
help modernize nomadic life-styles without damaging their traditionally
harmonious relationships with ecosystems. Programmes of land clearance
and resettlement should be based on an assessment of their environmental,
along with their social and economic, impacts. Agro-industry,
mining and schemes of geographical dispersal of settlements should also
aim at improving environmental conditions in rural areas;
(11) Public education, information campaigns, technical assistance,
training, legislation, standard setting and incentives should be oriented
toward encouraging the use of organic matter in agriculture. The use of
fertilizers and pesticides has to be guided, inter a/ia, through training,
awareness building and appropriate price policies, so as to establish integrated
nutrient supply systems responsive to environmental impacts.
Similarly, subsidies, which have led to the overuse or abuse of chemical
ferrilizers and pesticides, have to be phased out;
(o) Decentralized storage facilities, with the upgrading oftraditional
methods to en sure protection of stored grains, should receive attention in
the planning of support services for rural and agricultural development;
(p) Where the agricultural frontier has extended in an uncontrolled
manner, Governments should make special efforts to expand the area under
woodland and nature reserves;
(q) Satellite imagery, aerial photography and geographical information
systems of assessing and monitoring should be deployed to establish
natural resource data bases. Such data should be made available, freely
or at a nominal charge, to the countries in need. The United Nations Env1ronment
Programme should co-ordinate international programmes in
t his field. Such data collection and their socio-economic analyses should
facilitate the design and implementation of land use and natural resource
development plans, and improve international co-operation in the environmental
management of t ransboundary natural resources;
(r) ln international co-operation, priority should be given to schemes
aimed at strengthening skills and institutional capabilities in the developing
countries in fields such as applied genetics, agro-forestry, organic recycling,
integrated pest management, crop rotation, drainage, soilconserving
ploughing, sand-dune stabilization, small-scale irrigation and
environmentally sound management of fresh-water systems;
(s) Biotechnology, including tissue culture, conversion of biomass
into useful produce, micro-electronics and information technology,
should be deployed, after assessing carefully their environmental impacts
and cost effectiveness, with a view to promoting environmental management
of agriculture. Governments should enhance the access of farmers
to such technologies through national policies and international cooperation.
Research should be intensified on new technologies urgently
needed in regions wh1ch have unreliable rainfall, uneven topography,
and poor soils. Governments should also set up targets for the development
of cadres of professionals specializing in environmental management
of soil, water and forests and in biotechnology with a multidisciplinary
and integrated outlook;
( r) Aquaculture should be developed to the fullest, where possible in
conJunction with farming, using low-cost, simple, labour-intensive technology.
Co-operation for environmental management of marine living
resources and fisheries should be intensified, through technical assistance
as well as conventions and agreements;
( u) Because of women 's important role in agriculture in man y developing
countries, they should be provided with adequate education and
training npportunities. They should also have the necessary power to
take decisions regarding agriculture and forestry programmes;
(v) Distortions in the structure of the world food market should be
minimized, and the focus of production should be shifted to food deficit
countries. In developed countries incentive systems should be changed to
discourage overproduction and foster improved soit and water management.
Governments must recognize that all parties !ose through protectionist
barriers, and redesign trade and tax policies using environmental
and economic criteria;
(w) International agreements should be concluded in respect of
agricultural price policies, with a view to minimizing waste and mismanagement
of food and natural resources in agriculture. Such agreements
should aim at bringing about an international division of labour in
agriculture in confonnity with the long-tenn capabilities of countries in
agricultural production. In this context, consideration should be given to
strengthening the work of the World Food Programme through the establishment
of a world food bank from which countries could draw food
supplies in emergency situations;
(x) Special attention should be given to protection and careful development
of wetlands, particularly in view of their long-term economic
value;
(y) Sustainable exploitation of living wild resources should receive
special consideration in the light of its contribution to achieving food
security.
C. Energy
l. Issue and ourlook
26. Issue: There are vast disparities in the patterns of energy consumption.
Accelerated economic growth and growing populations require
a rapid expansion in energy production and consumption. Major
problems in this regard include: depletion of the supplies of, and inadequate
access to, fuelwood, and environmental impacts of fossil energy
production, transmission and use, for example, acidification of the environment,
accumulation of greenhouse gases and consequent climatic
change. Although energy is crucial to the development process, there has
been little concerted action to balance environmental imperatives and energy
demands.
27. Outlook: About three fourths of the world's energy consumption
is in the form of fossil fuels: oil, coal, and natural gas. The remainder is
supplied mainly by biomass, hydropower and nuclear power. The main
problems caused by fossil fuel use are: air pollution, acidification of soil,
fresh water and forests, and climatic change, especially warming of the
atmosphere. The costs of controlling these problems and of dealing with
their environmental and health impacts have been enormous. New and
renewable sources of energy, including solar, wind, ocean and geothermal,
are being developed but are unlikely to make a significant contribution
during the rest of this century
28. International oil prices are fluctuating. The immediate economic
impact of lower prices has been significant, yet the momentum of efforts
to improve energy efficiency and to develop alternatives for fossil fuels,
which began in the wake of high oil prices, may decline.
29. Though developing countries account for about one third of the
world's energy consumption, many of them do net have adequate access
to energy. Most of them depend on oil imports and on biomass and animal
energy. Wood, which provides energy to about half of the world's
people, is becoming scarce, and overcutting has devastated the environment.
Sorne countries have made progress in developing biogas while improving
the environment, but the potential of biogas remains largely untapped.
Given the needs of industrialization and the trends of population
growth, energy needs will increase tremendously during the coming
decades. If energy efficiency measures are not put in place, it will not be
possible to meet those needs.
30. Many countries have made efforts to contrai air pollution by setting
standards and introducing appropriate equipment in factories as
well as automobiles, and by developing clean technologies for cooking,
space heating, industrial processes and power generation. But attempts
to deal with urban and industrial air pollution have often effectively
transported the problem, for example, in the form of acid deposition, to
other areas and countries. At least 5 to 6 percent of the European forests
may have already died because of acidification. As a first step, some
European countries have agreed on a technical co-operation programme
to monitor and contrai long-range transmission of some air pollutants.
Reducing emissions of sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides, however, is
rather costly, although effective reduction technologies have been introduced
in some countries. On the other hand, no effective technologies exist
to contrai carbon dioxide accumulation which can markedly change
climate. Moreover, available technology is not being fully utilized. The
dilli.:ulty is to detennine up to what level the damage costs of polluting
fossil fuels should be accepted and how much to invest in scientific research
to develop clean technologies.
31. Energy is often used in wasteful ways. The costs of this waste are
being borne by ail, but mostly by the poor_ Moreover, part of these costs
are being transferred to children, future generations and other countries.
Severa! countries have experimented successfully over the last decade
with conservation of energy for domestic use, improved efficiency of energy
in industry and agriculture and adoption of energy mixes to minimize
environmental damage. In some countries the nature of industrial
growth has been changing in ways which economize on energy, for example,
rapid growth of electronic, recreation and service industries. ConseV.
Resolutions adopted on the reports of the Second Committee 147
quently, there has been a noticeable delinking of economic growth from
increase in energy consumption. Energy savings, renewable sources and
new technologies can reduce energy consumption while maintaining the
momentum of economic growth.
32. While oil exploration and coal mining have received great attention,
the potential of natural gas has not been realized. Considerable
quantities are being wasted in the absence of necessary infrastructure and
investment. The world also has a relatively untapped capacity to develop
hydropower. ln the past, environmental planning has not received adequate
attention in hydropower development. Decentralized small-scale
hydropower schemes are not yet used on a significant scale, although
they may be capable of providing economical, efficient and environmentally
sound sources of energy.
33. Nuclear energy is widely used as a source of electricity, and the
International Atomic Energy Agency has formulated guidelines to ensure
that it is developed and used safely. The problems associated with it
include the risk of accidentai contamination, which can spread quickly
over long distances, and the safe handling and disposai of radioactive
wastes, including decommissioned nuclear reactors.
2. Goal and recommended action
34. Goal: The provision of sufficient energy at reasonable cost, notably
by increasing access to energy substantially in the developing countries,
to meet current and expanding needs in ways that minimize environmental
degradation and risks, conserve non-renewable sources of
energy and realize the full potential of renewable sources of energy.
35. Recommended action:
(a) Governments' energy plans should systematically take into account
environmental requirements. E.nergy efficiency policies coupled
with environmentally sound energy production and appropriate energy
mixes should be pursued to achieve sustainable energy consumption patterns.
National efforts should be supported by international cooperation,
especially scientific research, establishment of standards and
transfer of technology and information;
(b) Energy pricing, taxation, trade and other policies should take
into account the environmental costs of ail forms of energy. Subsidies for
fossil fuels should be progressively phased out. Private enterprise, consumers
and government institutions should be provided with economic
incentives to make greater use of renewable sources of energy. Where
needed, international co-operation should facilitate the exploration for
and environmentally sound production of energy;
(c) Information should be made available on the harmful environmental
impacts of intensive use of fossil fuels. Urban and industrial air
pollution, accumulation of greenhouse gases and the attendant climatic
change, as well as transfrontier transport of air pollutants in al1 regions
must receive urgent attention, including monitoring by appropriate
methods. Standards must be set and enforced within and among countries,
and conventions and agreements should be concluded to deal with
these problems. ln this context, the "polluter pays principle" should be
accepted. Governments should ensure that clean technologies arc put
into practice on a wider scale than in the past at the local level. The
United Nations system, in conjunction with other intergovernmental
bodies, should improve access to information on renewable sources of energy
and on efficient energy use;
(d) ln view of the significance of fuelwood, national programmes of
afforestation and of environmental management of woodlands should receive
increased resources. Agro-forestry programmes, tree plantations
and village woodlots should receive special encouragement in countries
experiencing fuelwood deficit. Commercial cutting offuelwood should be
subjected to rigorous scrutiny and control, in view of its environmental
costs. Application of fuel-efficient stoves and charcoal should be encouraged.
Pricing of fuelwood should be guided by the consideration of
sustaining supplies consistent with needs;
(e) As biogas can be an important source of energy, the existing technology
for the use of agricultural, animal and human wastes should be
applied more widely by means ofincentives and guidance. Technical cooperation
among developing countries should play a vital part in this
process, bearing in mind its sanitation and agricultural benefits;
(f) Decisions on large-scale hydropower projects should be guided by
analysis of social costs and benefits in the light of likely environmental
impacts. Small-scale hydropower schemes should receive particular attention
since they could facilitate simultaneous attainment of environmental,
economic and social objectives;
(g) Renewable energy sources should receive high priority and
should be applied on a wider scale than in the pas!, giving full consideration
to their environmental impacts. Technologies to develop renewable
sources of energy, such as wind, geo-thermal and especially solar, should
receive particular attention. International co-operation should facilitate
this process;
(h) International co-operation should aim at the creation of a régime
for the safe production and use ofnuclear energy, as well as the safe handling
of radioactive waste, taking into account, through appropriate
mechanisms including prior consultations, the interests and concerns of
countries that have decided not to produce nuclear energy, in particular
concerns regarding the siting of nuclear plants close to their borders.
This régime should extend globally to encompass observance of comparable
standards and procedures on management of reactors and the sharing
of information and technology for nuclear safety. The Convention on
Early Notification of a Nuclear Accident and the Convention on Assistance
in the Case of a Nuclear Accident or Radiological Emergency57
should be complemented by bilateral and subregional agreements and
should also lead to technical co-operation among countries on environmental
management of nuclear energy.
D. Industry
1. Issue and outlook
36. Issue: lndustrial development brings obvious benefits, but it frequently
entails damage to the environment and to human health. The
main negative impacts are: wasteful use and depletion of scarce natural
resources; air, water and soil pollution; congestion, noise and squalor; accumulation
of hazardous wastes; and accidents with significant environmental
consequences. lndustrialization patterns and the consequent exploitation
of natural resources and environmental degradation have been
markedly unbalanced. The prospect for accelerated, yet environmentally
sound, world industrial development is slim in the absence of concerted
international action.
37. Outlook: Although some efforts to deal with environmental problems
of industry have been made, negative impacts will grow in magnitude
if not addressed methodically now. A promising trend is the steadily
growing awareness of industrial environmental risks throughout the
world. While this awareness increasingly informs and influences public
policy, environmental knowledge remains as yet markedly uneven. In the
absence of mechanisms for the unhindered sharing of environmental
knowledge, Governments and industry may import hazardous materials
and allow establishment of processes discarded clsewhere. lnadequate
knowledge at the grassroots level of changes in the environment, and of
their causes as well as economic implications, impedes participation of
the concerned people in decision-making on siting of industrial plants
and choice of industrial technology.
38. Natural resources have been used wastefully in industry. Recently,
a number of countries have made significant progress in developing
and adopting low-waste and clean industrial technologies and in
recovering as well as recycling scarce industrial raw materials. New
materials and processing technologies have made it possible to save raw
materials and energy resources and to reduce environmental stress. Nevertheless,
in many countries resource-intensive processes persist in the
absence of sui table policies and access to proper technology.
39. Uncontrolled industrial practices have led to unacceptably high
levels of harmful or toxic substances in the air, the pollution of rivers,
lakes, coastal waters and soi!, the destruction of forests, and the accumulation
of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases which threaten to
cause climatic changes, including a global warming of the atmosphere.
Sea levels may rise considerably as a result. lndustrial production and
emission of chlorofluorocarbons threaten a significant depletion of the
ozone layer, leading to increased ultraviolet radiation.
40. Recently, there bas been an increase in the seriousness of industrial
accidents, particularly in the chemicals industry. Even in the developed
countries, the state of preparedness to meet such contingencies bas
been inadequate. Also, frameworks for international co-operation in
such situations have been lacking. A crucial problem bas been the lack of
timely warning and of full sharing of information on the nature and magnitude
of the hazards al local and regional levels.
41. With indus trial growth and spread, the transport, storage and
disposai of chemical, toxic and radioactive wastes will pose an increasingly
serious challenge. The "polluter pays principle" bas been applied
with good results in some countries, but in many others it is still not ap-
57 See International Atom1c Energy Agency, Final Document,
Resolutions and Conventions adopted by the first special session of the
General Conference, 24-26 September 1986, sects. 1-IV.
148 General Assembly-Forty-second Session
plied at ail, so that the source of environmental damage often is not held
accountable for the harm caused. In the pursuit of rapid industrialization,
some polluting industries may be relocated from other countries. As
many developing countries do not possess the technical or institutional
capability to analyse or monitor environmental implications of industrial
processes, products or wastes, they are vulnerable to industrial environmental
damage.
42. Many developed countries have successfully applied technology,
policies and institutional and legislative frameworks to deal with industrial
pollution. Severa! have succeeded in innovating or applying lowwaste
or clean technologies. The lndustry and Environment Office of the
United Nations Environment Programme has produced publications
with extensive and detailed information on environmentally sound technologies
in specific industries. Thus, although environmental hazards of
industrial processes, products and wastes persist, there is available considerable
experience, expertise and technology to prevent industrial accidents
and implement environmentally responsible practices.
43. Technical innovation has opened up promising opportunities for
achieving mutually supportive economic and environmental objectives.
Properly guided technology can transform patterns of industrialization
and improve the international division of labour. Innovation in microelectronics
and opto-electronics has revolutionized information and
communications industries and could lead to geographical dispersal of
industry. These innovations hold promise for developing countries suffering
from the twin problems of excessive industrial concentration in urban
areas and relative neglect of rural areas.
44. In the decades ahead, the developing countries will depend more
and more on industry, including processing of their own raw materials,
for incomes and employment. In contras!, in some developed countries,
the pattern of industry is changing in the direction of knowledgeintensive,
energy-saving, and materials-saving activities. Moreover, leisure
and service indus1ries have begun to play a significant part in this
change.
45. Countries have been coming together to forge agreements on preventive
measures to contain global, regional and transfrontier environmental
impacts of industrial products and processes. Examples of this
encouraging trend include: conventions and protocols for the control of
land-based sources of marine pollution within the frameworks of various
regional seas programmes; the Vienna Convention for the Protection of
the Ozone Layer and the evolving international consensus on the contrai
of emission of chlorofluorocarbons; the Convention on Long-range
Transboundary Air Pollution and its Co-operative Programme for the
Monitoring and Evaluation of Long-range Transmission of Air Pollutants
in Europe; and the Cairo Guidelines and Principles for the Environmentally
Sound Management of Hazardous Wastes,48 sponsored by
the United Nations Environment Programme. Such international cooperation
can extend into man y areas of industrial environmental management
and many geographical regions. Moreover, industry itself, following
the World lndustry Conference on Environmental Management
convened in 1984 by the United Nations Environment Programme, is increasingly
ready to undertake environmental responsibilities.
2. Goal and recommended action
46. Goal: Sustained improvements in levels of living in ail countries,
especially the developing countries, through industrial development that
prevents or minimizes environmental damage and risks.
47. Recommended action:
(a} Governments should implement policies to assist in the transition
of economies characterized by the wasteful use of natural resources
and raw materials and dependence on their export, to environmentally
sound industrial development. National efforts to plan and implement
environmentally sound industrial policies should be intensified. Governments
should introduce incentive schemes to help establish facilities for
recovery and recycling of scarce raw materials. The transfer of industrial
technology and skills from developed to developing countries to arrest
environmental degradation associated with industry should be intemationally
supported. The United Nations Development Programme, the
United Nations Environrnent Programme, the Economie Commission
for Europe, and the United Nations Industrial Development Organization
should intensify efforts in this direction;
(b) Governrnents should introduce programmes to monitor air, soi!,
fresh water and coastal pollution from industrial emissions and effluents,
and hazardous industrial activities, where such programmes do not already
exist;
(c) Governments should establish and enforce environmental standards,
and should provide fiscal and other incentives to industry for the
retro-fitting of equipment for pollution control. They should also ensure
penalties for non-compliance, in conformity with the "polluter pays principle".
International organizations should co-operate with Governments
in establishing global or regional standards;
( ci) Governments should require periodic reports by industries on
measures implemented to protect and improve the environment, especially
those industries involving high environmental and health risks;
(e) Industrial enterprises should carry out environmental impact and
social cost-benefit analyses prior to the siting and design of industrial
plants. Govemments should ensure that such analyses are carried out
and made public. Governmental policies should facilitate the location of
industries in areas which would relieve urban congestion and encourage
rural development. Industries which use each other's products and
wastes should be located near each other;
(j) Governments and industrial enterprises should be receptive to the
views of citizen groups, community associations, labour organizations
and professional and scientific bodies in arriving at and implementing
decisions on industrial siting, design and technologies to meet the environmental,
economic and social needs of the people;
(g) Chambers of commerce and federations of industry should collaborate
actively in implementing emissions standards and pollution contrai
measures. They should establish mechanisms to bridge the gap in environmental
management knowledge and capabilities among their
members. Such co-operation should also be encouraged among smallscale
producers;
(h) Transnational corporations should comply with the environmental
legislation of the host country, while respecting similar legislation of
the home country. Legislation cou Id include requirements for public environmental
audits of the activities of transnational corporations and local
enterprises. In accordance with proposed international codes of conduct,
transnational corporations should establish progressively in the
host countries 1he skills and lechnological capabilities needed for environmentally
sound management of industry, even in the absence of legislation
on desirable environmental standards;
(1) International industrial collaboration, like national industry,
should be subjected to environmental impact assessments;
(j) Countries, especially developing countries, should, as a malter of
urgency, design and implement research, training and manpowerplanning
programmes to strengthen the management of hazardous industrial
processes and wastes;
(k} International organizations, including the United Nations Development
Programme, the United Nations lndustrial Development Organization,
the World Health Organization, the Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations, the World Meteorological Organization
and the International Labour Organisation, and intergovernmental
organizations, such as the Organisation for Economie Co-operation
and Development, and the Council for Mutual Economie Assistance,
should ensure that their programmes will progressively strengthen the
capacities of the developing countries for designing and implementing industrial
operations along environmentally sound lines. They should also
assis! in establishing or strengthening information services on environmental
and health implications of industrial processes, products and
wastes. In addition, access of the developing countries to information
and data on environmentally benign technologies should be promoted,
including risk management techniques;
({) International co-operation for the monitoring of the accumulation
of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse ga">Cs and of their impacts
on climate and sea levels must be strengthened to encompass both the
conclusion of international agreements and the formulation of industrial
strategies to mitigate the environmental, economic, and social impacts of
potential changes. Intergovernmental negotiations, based on the Vienna
Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer, should lead to agreements
on the reduction of ozone-depleting substances;
(m) Within the framework oftheir existing legal and technical activities,
United Nations organizations, especially the United Nations Environment
Programme, in doser co-operation with regional organizations,
should progressively establish international agreements and monitoring
mechanisms to deal with spills and other industrial accidents, particularly
chemical; to contrai the transportation, storage, management and
disposai of hazardous industrial wastes; and to settle disputes involving
damages and daims for compensation. United Nations and regional organizations
should encourage Governments to extend the "polluter pays
principle" to transboundary problems;
V. Resolutions adopted on the reports of the Second Committee 149
(n) The International Register of Potentially Toxic Chemicals programme
of the United Nations Environment Programme should maintain
and improve its assistance to Governments in assessing whether producing,
marketing, distributing or disposing of any industrial substances,
including chemicals and wastes, are potentially damaging to health and
environment.
E. Health and human settlements
1. Issue and outlook
48. Issue: Despite considerable advances in dealing with problems of
health and human settlements, the environmental basis for further improving
the situation is deteriorating. Inadequate shelter and basic
amenities, rural underdevelopment, overcrowded cities and urban decay,
lack of access to clean water, poor sanitation and other environmental
deficiencies continue to cause widespread disease and death, ill-health
and intolerable living conditions in many parts of the world. Poverty,
malnutrition and ignorance compound these problems.
49. Outlook: Human ability to prevent disease has grown greatly
over the last few decades, mainly owing to scientific achievements and
better access to sanitation, clean water and safe waste disposai. In many
developed countries better living conditions have helped prevent disease
and have enhanced average life expectancy. In the developing countries,
however, achievements have lagged behind what is technically feasible.
50. More than 4 million children under the age of live die of diarrhoea
in the developing countries annually. Even when it does not cause
death, diarrhoea saps vitality and stops physical and mental growth.
Malaria is another water-borne disease which infects about 100 million
annually. Typhoid and choiera are similarly endemic in the developing
countries. Bilharzia and river blindness are other common diseases
caused by mismanagement of water. Sleeping sickness, caused by the
tsetse fly, elfectively denies the use of vast tracts of land in Africa for pastoral
or settlements development. The burning of coal, oil, wood, dung
and agricultural wastes builds up dangerous concentrations of toxic
gases in houses and factories, and chronic heart and lung diseases, bronchitis,
emphysema and asthma are the result.
51. In warm, humid countries where storage is inadequate, aflatoxins
in food cause liver cancer. On the other hand, over-use of fertilizer has
caused excessive nitrate levels in ground water, endangering children's
health, and nitrate run-off's have led to eutrophication of surface waters
and contamination of shellfish. Phosphates in fertilizer have caused high
concentrations of cadmium in food. Further, pesticides, herbicides and
fungicides pose a direct threat to health in the rural areas when their use
is not properly guided. Over-use of pesticides has also led to high levels of
pesticide residue in food.
52. About a billion people do not have adequate shelter, and millions
practically live on the streets. By the year 2000, about 2 billion people, or
40 percent of the developing countries' population, will Iive in cities and
towns, thereby putting pressure on city planners and Governments. Most
developing countries already do not have the resources required to provide
housing and services to the people who need them. The influx of refugees
in some developing countries has exacerbated health, shelter and
environmental conditions. Also, where rural settlements are widely dispersed,
health, housing and infrastructural services become practically
unattainable.
53. About one third of ail city and town dwellers in the developing
countries live in siums and shanties, with no help or infrastructural support
whatever, and often under adverse conditions. The inexorable trend
towards urbanization will ensure that by the year 2000, 15 of the world's
20 largest urban metropolitan areas will be in the developing countries.
Simultaneously, rural environmental degradation reinforces migration to
urban areas even when people are unable to earn incomes high enough to
ensure decent housing and there is no prospect of meeting their infrastructural
needs.
54. There are three main environmental aspects of urbanization:
characteristics of the dwelling -living space, ventilation, sanitation, water
supply, waste disposai, recreation space, domestic energy; ambient
environmental situation -air pollution, water pollution, environmental
risks and hazards, noise, stress and crime; and environment of the area
surrounding the urban centres -iieforestation, soil erosion, changes in
micro-climate. Between a quarter and a half of ail urban residents in the
developing countries live in unhealthy and degraded dwellings. Consequently,
diarrhoea, dysentery and typhoid are common, and there are
periodic outbreaks of choiera and hepatitis. Tuberculosis and other respiratory
diseases spread easily in ill-ventilated, damp and crowded surroundings.
55. Excessive concentrations of industry and commerce in a few urban
centres often reflect a dualistic development pattern, implying a relative
neglect of rural and agricultural development. Concentrations of
people, settlements and income and employment opportunities often
become mutually reinforcing in such a situation. People continue to migrate
to the urban areas even if their expected incomes are not high
enough to ensure decent housing, or there is no prospect of their infrastructural
needs being met. Thus, the problems of safe disposai of toxic
and hazardous wastes, control of air and water pollution, collection and
disposai of domestic wastes and provision of clean drinking water assume
gigantic proportions, requiring enormous finance and great organizational
and technical capabilities. Photochemical smog, oxides of nitrogen
and sulphur, hydrocarbons, lead, mercury, cadmium poisoning, carbon
monoxide, polychlorinated biphenyls, asbestos and other particulate
malter along with the respiratory and gastroenteritic diseases and malnutrition,
cause serious damage to public health. The consequent stress of
living in such conditions contributes to social tensions and outbreaks of
violence and unrest. When industrial accidents or natural disasters occur,
loss of life and human suff'ering follow on a large scale because of the
congestion, lack of organizational and technical capacities and vulnerability.
56. Heavy urban concentrations have also placed excessive demands
on natural resources and polluted and degraded surrounding areas. High
land prices have caused good agricultural land to be used for construction
and speculation. Urban firewood demand has led to widespread
deforestation, soil erosion and even changes in micro-climate.
57. The congestion of settlements near factories multiplies the health
risks of chemicals production in the developing countries. The accumulation
of toxic wastes and their inappropriate disposai similarly endanger
the health of millions. Awareness of the risks to human health posed by
environmental contamination has increased greatly. Such risks arise
partly through an absence of environmental regulation and management
capability. Most developed countries have succeeded in reducing environmental
pollution and its risks and impacts. International co-operation
has also progressed on several fronts: national programmes launched under
the International Drinking Water Supply and Sanitation Decade, the
World Health Organization/United Nations Children's Fund Programme
on Primary Health Care, the Onchocerciasis Control Programme
in Africain the Volta River basin, the United Nations Environment
Programme/World Health Organization/lntemational Labour
Organisation International Program111e on Chemical Safety, the dissemination
of information on chemicals of environmental concem through
the International Register of Potentially Toxic Chemicals of the United
Nations Environment Programme, the International Code of Conduct
on the Distribution and Use of Pesticides of the Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations and its accompanying technical
guidelines, the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations/
United Nations Environment Programme Panel of Experts on Integrated
Pest Control, the United Nations Development Programme/
World Bank/World Health Organization Special Programme for
Research and Training in Tropical Diseases, the World Health Organization/
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations/
United Nations Environment Programme Panel of Experts on Environmental
Management of Disease Vector Control, the specification of
radiation dose limits by the International Commission on Radiological
Protection, and the two recent international Conventions adopted under
the auspices of the International Atomic Energy Agency on exchange of
information and assistance in the event of a nuclear accident, 57 are some
examples.
2. Goal and recommended action
58. Goal: The provision of improved shelter with access to essential
amenities in a clean and secure setting conducive to health and to the prevention
of environment-related diseases, which would, at the same time,
alleviate serious environmental degradation.
59. Recommended action:
(a) Governments should make health and settlements development
an integral part of environmental management of natural resources and
geographically-balanced development. They should address systematically
the issue of equity in development to ensure provision of basic
health, housing and amenities for their people;
(b) International co-operation should be intensified in the field of
scientific research to deal with the environmental conditions underlying
tropical diseases;
150 General Assembly-Forty-second Session
(c) Rural development, including natural resources management
and provision of drinking water and sanitation, should receive systematic
attention in public policies. Governments should design and implement,
with the participation of the communities concerned, integrated programmes
to improve water supply and management, sanitation and
waste disposai;
(ci) Governments should set targets at national, provincial and district
levels for such priority areas as housing, access to clean water and
sanitation, and contrai of air pollution in urban areas;
(e) To reduce adverse environmental impacts of transportation,
especially in highly populated areas, Governments should give priority
to facilitaring commuting between residential and working areas, enforcing
emission standards for vehicles, encouraging fuel efficiency and improving
rraffic management policies and urban planning;
(fJ Intermediate-sized towns should receive particular attention in
programmes of industrial and seulement development;
(g) Governments should create an "enabling environment", in which
the creativity and resources of people are mobilized to improve the health
conditions, shelter and environmental information at local levels. This
should include collection and disposai of domestic, agricultural and human
wastes, land use planning, area development and self-help construction.
Efforts should be made to encourage the participation of the private
sector and non-govemmental organizations;
(h) Industrial, agricultural, energy, irrigation and land development
and resettlement projects should include a comp<inent which addresses
environmental and health impacts, including risk assessment, which, in
tum, should be inftuential in guiding the location, scale and choice of
technology for the projects. Regulations should be established to prevent
settlements development in high environmental-risk areas, such as those
proximate to chemical or nuclear plants. Responsibility for enforcing
such regulations should be shared with the private sector;
(1) Primary and occupational education should include information
on the environment. The mass media should regularly make available information
and know-how to enable people to improve sanitation, waste
disposai and drinking water quality. Deterrents and incentives should be
introduced at local levels to encourage people to keep their immediate
environment healthy;
(J) Scientific research should be geared to the immediate improvement
of the health and environmental situation of degraded settlements.
Technologies for the safe disposai of wastes with minimum use of water
in arid and semi-arid areas, improvement of water quality, reuseofwaste
water, and harvesting of rain should be developed. The United Nations
Centre for Human Settlements (Habitat), the World Health Organization
and the United Nations Children 's Fund should intensify efforts to
promote the application of such technologies in the developing countries;
(k) Urban planning should receive priority attention, together with
the rational management of natural resources. Staffing, finance and organizational
efforts should reftect the high priority given to this issue. Urban
centres should systematically provide areas to meet the needs of various
income categories, for industry, business, recreation and open spaces.
T echnical co-operation in this field bas to expand greatly under the leadership
of the United Nations Centre for Human Settlements (Habitat);
( 1) Countries hosting a large number of refugees should receive more
international assistance through the Office of the United Nations High
Commissioner for Refugees and other bodies to improve environmental
conditions of refugee settlements.
F. International economic relations
l. Issue and outlook
60. Issue: Inequalities in international economic relations, coupled
with inappropriate economic policies in many developed and developing
countries alike, continue to affect adversely sustainable development and
cause environmental degradation. Deteriorating terms of !rade, chronic
trade deficits, which are partly caused by growing protectionism, heavy
debt-service payments, and inadequate financial ftows have made it very
difficult to allocate resources to environmental protection and improvement,
particularly in developing countries. Specific problems include: insufficient
consideration of environmental impacts in development cooperation;
insufficient contrai of tracte in scarce natural resources and
hazardous substances; and transnational investment and transfer of technology
without adequate observance of environmental standards or information
on environmental management.
61. Outlook: Awareness of the environmental aspects of international
economic relations bas increased, but it bas not yet found adequate
expression in institutional practices and national policies.
62. Development co-operation projects have not helped build significantly
national capabilities to avert environmental disasters. The environmental
damage resulting from the execution of some large-scale projects
is now better understood than in the past. There is also a growing
awareness of the need for additional resources to rehabilitate degraded
environments.
63. Long-term declines in commodity prices, coupled with their
inequity and instability, have adversely affected environmental management
of natural resources. Furthermore, these prices do not fully reftect
the environmental costs of depletion of the resource base. Good quality
land, fishing areas and other natural resources are being overworked, and
tropical forests are being encroached upon in order to achieve additional
income. The substitution of export crops in place of subsistence crops bas
displaced small farmers and pastoralists from good quality land and has
led to excessive pressures on marginal land and natural resources.
64. There is a growing awareness of the hazards associated with
trade in chemicals, pesticides and some other products, but international
practices for controlling the transport of hazardous chemical goods do
not yet provide for a systematic consideration of the environment.
65. Mounting debt burdens, repayment obligations, austerity measures
and reductions in financial ftows to developing countries have endangered
and, in some cases, blocked sustainable development, and this
has had negative economic, environmental and social impacts.
66. Recent years have seen a sharp worsening of the international
economic situation. lts impact has been particularly severe on developing
countries. Lack of economic growth in developing countries could have
devastating consequences.
2. Goal and recommended action
67. Goa/: The establishment of an equitable system of international
economic relations aimed at achieving continuing economic advancement
for all States, based on principles recognized by the international
community, in order to stimulate and sustain environmentally sound development,
especially in developing countries.
68. Recommended action:
(a) In the ongoing search for concerted action to deal with international
economic problems, the urgent need to improve the world environmental
situation and to ensure a solid environmental foundation for sustainable
development has to be recognized. Correcting the deteriorating
terms of trade and stabilizing international commodity prices at equitable
levels, through international commodity agreements such as the Integrated
Programme on Commodities, in conjunction with appropriate environmental
management practices in the producing countries, should
play an important role in this regard;
(b) Especially in situations of environmental stress, development cooperation
should aim at long-term improvement of natural resource productivity
and environmental health. Projects that focus on the alleviation
of poverty and improve the environment should receive greater attention
in development co-operation. Such co-operation has to increase substantially,
keeping in view the growing need for environmental rehabilitation;
(c) Development co-operation institutions should increase significantly
their assistance to the developing countries for environmental restoration,
protection and improvement;
(ci) Country programmes and policy papers prepared by multilateral
and bilateral development co-operation institutions for allocation of aid
resources should provide for analyses of the environmental needs of
recipient countries, with particular focus on major problems, such as
desertification, deforestation and pollution. Developing countries should
be assisted where necessary in preparing environmental accounting and
relating it to the reporting on national economic well-being;
( e) The system of appraising development co-operation projects
should provide for assessments of environmental and socio-economic impacts
of alternative designs and locations. Area development programmes,
in particular, should seek to establish mutual support between
environmental and socio-economic objectives. Development cooperation
institutions should train their staff according to these objectives;
(fJ Trade in hazardous industrial products, such as toxic chemicals
and pesticides, and in some other products, such as phannaceuticals,
should be subjected to regulations to ensure sharing by the contracting
parties, Govemments and consumers of information on their environV.
Resolutions adopted on the reports of the Second Committee 151
mental and health implications and on methods for their safe use and disposai.
Labelling of products should be in local languages. Governments
of the exporting as well as the importing countries should collabora te in
this regard. They should also agree on the selection of chemicals for priority
testing;
(g) International trade and commodity agreements should provide
environmental safeguards, where applicable. They should also encourage
producers to take a long-term view and provide for assistance for diversification
programmes, where appropriate. Governments should study
the environmental impacts of their !rade practices and make the findings
available to their agencies responsible for trade negotiations, which
should take them into account. The United Nations Conference on Trade
and Development and the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade
should develop and apply effective policies and instruments to integrate
environment and development considerations in international trade;
(h) Environmentally related regulations and standards should not be
used for protectionist purposes. The International Trade Centre should
assist countries in meeting such requirements. The United Nations Conference
on Trade and Development should make available information
on such regulations and standards as they apply to commodities and
manufactured products;
( !) Host Governments should institute policies and regulations to ensure
sound environmental management of transnational investments. In
agreements on transnational, including corporate, investments, Governments,
through appropria te con trois, should ensure that information and
technology on environmental management will be provided specifying
the responsibilities of the parties concerned. In accordance with
proposed code of conduct on transnational corporations of the Commission
on Transnational Corporations, transnational corporations should
implement programmes in the host countries to minimize the environmental
hazards of their activities. These programmes should include
training of personnel. The United Nations Centre on Transnational Corporations
should play a role in facilitating this process;
(j) The transfer of clean, low-waste and pollution control technologies
should be promoted through international co-operation. The possibility
of making such technologies available at concessional prices to the
countries in need should be explored. Governments of recipient countries
should establish procedures for ascertaining the environmental implications
of imported technologies;
(k) International financial institutions, while dealing with questions
of structural adjustment in developing countries and world economic reform,
should link short-term financial stabilization to sustainable development.
Ill. ÛTHER ISSUES OF GLOBAL CONCERN
69. This section discusses briefly the major environmental issues of
global concern that have not been adequately dealt with in previous sections.
A. Oceans and seas
70. Oceans and seas are being polluted extensively. The rising pollution
levels and degradation of coastal ecosystems threaten the lifesupport
capacities of oceans and seas and undermine their role in the
food chain. Efforts to monitor the state of oceans and seas, including
those of the United Nations Environment Programme and other international
organizations, confirm that there is cause for concern. This problem
is particularly serions for coastal waters and semi-enclosed seas that
border highly populated and industrialized zones. The situation will gel
much worse unless concerted action is undertaken now. The ongoing
monitoring effort is far from comprehensive and, where it has advanced,
it bas not yet led to adequate change in the practices causing environmental
damage.
71. The challenge is to control and decrease marine pollution, and
establish or strengthen régimes of environmental management of oceans
and seas through international co-operation and national action.
72. A comprehensive data base should be established over time on
which action programmes to restore and preserve the environmental balance
in the world's oceans and seas can be based. Among others, the Global
Environmental Monitoring System, Global Resource Information
Data Base and the oceans and coastal areas programmes of the United
Nations Environment Programme should intensify efforts towards this
~d.
73. Conventions and agreements to monitor and manage human activities
with a view to ensuring environmental protection of the seas and
oceans should be ratified and implemented by all concemed countries.
Where such legal instruments do not exist, they should be negotiated.
Governments should strengthen or introduce policies and measures
aimed at preventing practices harmful to marine ecosystems and ensuring
environmentally sound development of inland areas. Such policies
and measures should include control of the discharge of industrial effluents
and sewage, dumping of wastes, including hazardous and radioactive
materials, disposai of hazardous residues and operational wastes
from ships, incineration at sea, and oil spills from tankers and off-shore
platforms. Environmentally sound land-based technology for the disposai
of hazardous wastes should be developed and promoted. The
United Nations Environment Programme should continue to collaborate
in this work with the Intergovemmental Oceanographic Commission,
the International Maritime Organization and other appropriate international
organizations.
B. Outer space
74. Outer space has now become a recognized area of human activity.
As activity in this area develops over the coming decades, sound
management of outer space will become increasingly important. To this
end, international co-operation exclusively for the peaceful use of outer
space is essential, especially on the part of those countries that now have
the capacity to undertake outer space activities.
75. All countries, in particular those with a major capacity to exploit
the benefits of outer space, should create conditions, including specifically
the maintenance of its non-militarization, for broad international
co-operation in the exploration and use of outer space for peaceful purposes.
This should include the use of space technology to monitor Earth's
environment. The benefits of the peaceful use of outer space, including
weather forecasting, remote sensing and medical benefits, should be
made readily available to the world community, particularly through assistance
to the developing countries.
C. Biological diversity
76. Traditional crop and livestock species are giving way to highyielding
varieties and breeds. As the genetic base of plants, animais and
micro-organisms becomes narrower, some genetic material is being irretrievably
lost at such a rate that the world could !ose one tenth to one
fifth of its 5 to 10 million species by the year 2000.
77. Over 100 countries are collaborating in the global programme
co-ordinated by the International Board for Plant Genetie Resources for
conserving crop genetic resources, and the global gene banks network
con tains over I million samples of crop germ plasm. Yet, in man y countries,
national efforts for conservation are still ill-organized and underfinanced,
and often do not attend systematically to the components of
planning, training, education and research. International co-operation
and technical assistance in this field should be further developed.
78. An international network of protected areas for conserving animal
and plant genetic resources, encompassing about JO percent of the
world's land area, should be established to reverse the trend towards depletion
of species. Management plans for conserving ecosystems as reservoirs
of species diversity have to be prepared.
79. Efforts to conserve crop genetic resources and the global data
banks network have to be extended to cover adequately germ plasm with
economic potential for providing food, fodder, fibres, waxes, oils, gums,
medicines, energy and insecticides. In situ and ex situ components of
conservation have to develop in a complementary manner in the light of
the interdependence of nature conservation and genetic diversity.
80. Mechanisms should be established to provide information on
rates of exploitation of genetic resources to facilitate selection of those to
be conserved.
81. The gap between conservation of species and economic access to
them should be bridgcd through maximum international co-operation.
Agreements involving rights of possession of and access to genetic
material, including research results, should facilitate such co-operation.
Conserved genetic resources should be regarded as a common interest of
mankind.
D. Security and environment
82. The accumulation and deployment of weapons of war and destruction
present very grave risks to the environment. The use of weapons
of mass destruction, including nuclear, chemical and biological
weapons, could bring about far-reaching, even irreversible, changes in
the global environment.
152 General Assembly-Forty-second Session
83. The development and stockpiling of nuclear arms and de!ivery
systems at current levels have made the human race technically capable
ofputting an end toits own existence. ln addition, the growmg capacity
of some States to undertake deliberate manipulation of the environ ment
represents an immense potential danger. If the material, financial and intellectual
resources devoted to armaments were to be used to solve prohlems
such as those of the human environment. food security and shelter,
prospects for sustainable development would be considerably enhanced
84. The World Charter for Nature proclaims that "Nature shall he
secured against degradation caused by warfare or other hostile activities".
58 A comprehensive system of international security is essential in
order to ensure that this declaration is implemented.
85. Progressive disarmament through détente, negotiation, and
avoidance of the use of force a, a means of resolving conflicts should he
pursued to minimize the environmental risks associated with armed cnnflicts.
Governments should continue to pursue, in relevant negotiating
forums, efforts to ban weapons that have the effect ofmodifying the environment.
86. One of the roles of the Umted Nations Env1ronment Programme
is to promote environmentally sound development in harmony with
peace and secunty, and towards this end, issues of disarmament and
security, in so far as they relate to the environment, should continue to
receive appropnate attention.
JV. [NSTRUMENlS OF ENVIRONMENTAL ACTION
87. Sections!, Il and Ill above largely sought to indicate how to deal
effectively with environmental problems by addressmg their policy
sources. However, such actions need to be reinforced by the performance
of certain overarching functions. This section deals with those functions
A. Assessment
88. Environmental rehabilitation and management depend upon the
availability of organized information on the state of the environment, its
trends, and their relationship to social and economic factors. Decisions,
however, continue to be made in ignorance of the changing state of the
environment and its implications for human well-being, It is essential,
therefore, that reliable environmental information, obtained and
analysed using modern technology, is made available to planners and
managers in a usable form. Most developing countries face the constraint
of lack of access to modern technology and to the necessary expertise to
collect and interpret environmental data
89. Environmental and resource data are being collected at global
and regional levels by the United Nations and international organizations
working with Governments. Additional data also exist at the national
level, although often in a fragmented form. The institutional mechanisms
needed to relate such data sets to each other and to analyse them
in the context of existing practices and policies are often lacking. Governments
and intergovernmental organizations at the regional level should
intensify efforts to collect and analyse data, especially data relating to
common environmental problems.
90. The United Nations Environment Programme, working through
the United Nations system, co-ordinates the collection, monitoring and
assessment of selected environmental variables and distributes this information
worldwide through: the Global Environmental Monitoring System,
encompassing the monitoring and assessment systems relating to
climate, health and natural resources and the Global Resource Information
Data Base; data bases and systems for the conservation and management
of genetic resources; the International Register of Potentially Toxic
Chemicals, which operates a global information exchange network to
provide information and data on chemicals and their effects on health
and environment through a query-response service and evaluations of the
effects of chemicals on the environment; INFOTERRA, the International
Referral System for sources of environmental information; and the
state of the enviromnent reports of the United Nations Environment
Programme, which address major issues of topical environmental concern.
91, Through improved collection and analysis of data and its wide
distribution to potential users, which should be a service to countries as
well as international organizations, the United Nations Environment
Programme should become, and corne to be accepted as, a leading
authority in environmental assessment,
58 Resolution 37/7, annex, sect. 1, para. 5.
92. Countries, particularly developing countries, should be assisted,
through international co-operation on environmental assessment, with
the participation of the United Nations system and with the United Nations
Environment Programme playing a leading role, in establishing effective
national monitoring systems, geographic information systems and
assessment capabilities, and improving data compatibility. In order for
this to take place, technical co-operation among countries regionally and
globally has to increase significantly.
93. Notable environmental assessments have been carried out recently
and related to socio-economic factors by non-governmental organizations
in some countries. These have helped expand awareness and
stimulate action to protect and improve the environment. Governments
should encourage such efforts.
B. Planning
94. Environmental planning should provide a conceptual, methodological
and institutional framework within which to internalize progressively
the consideration of the environment in development decisionmaking.
Every country should define its national environmental
objectives and make them part of its plans for socio-economic development.
Just as each country sets targets for sectoral growth, it should set
time-bound targets in respect of environmental resources and indicators
of major concern. Plans and policies at sub-national levels should also
provide for the simultaneous pursuit of the specified environmental and
development objectives,
95. Governments should establish mechanisms and procedures to
facilitate interdepartmental co-ordination of policies and unified direction
for integrating environmental concerns in development planning.
Use of analytical methods to ascertain the environmental and socioeconomic
implications of alternative courses of action should inform
decisions on projects and programmes. lt should also help resolve conflicts
of interest among departments, among population groups and
among regmns.
96. The allocation of investment resources of a national plan among
regions and sectors has to reflect a sensitivity to environmental constraints
and objectives. This should be facilitated by periodic analyses of
the socio-economic significance of the changing state of natural resources
and the environment al national and provincial levels. Efforts should also
be made to prepare an accounting of the use of scarce natural resources,
focusing particularly on the country's major environmental problems,
for example desertification, and to relate it to the periodic reporting on
national income and well-being.
97. Sectoral ministries should be encouraged to apply environmental
impact assessments and social cost-benefit analyses in decision-making
regarding development projects and programmes. Taxation and cconomic
policies should encourage sectoral decisions that favour environmentally
benign technologies and locations, recycling and safe disposai
of wastes and conservation of natural resources, and should establish
mutual support between environmental and economic objectives. Land
and water use plans should be prepared and their implementation monitored.
Already some countries have made progress in planning at the district
level to reflect environmental needs,
98. There have been advances in the analytical methods of environmental
impact and risk assessment, social benefit-cost analyses of environmental
measures, physical planning and environmental accounting.
Theoretical work on decision models with multiple objectives and constraints
has also progressed. The United Nations Environment Programme,
the Scientific Committee on Problems of the Environ ment and
the Organisation for Economie Co-operation and Development have
played a useful role. This work should be strengthened so that it will have
a greater impact on decision-making,
99 Environmental action and economic planning remain insufficiently
related to each other in most countries, Efforts must be intensified
at national and international levels to promote the application of sui table
methods, procedures and institutional arrangements to make economic
planning fully responsive to environmental constraints and opportunities,
The guiding role of the United Nations Environment Programme in
this field should include technical assistance to the developing countries,
Collaborative arrangements should be made at the working level between
the United Nations Environment Programme, the United Nations Development
Programme, the Department of Technical Co-operation for
Development of the United Nations Secretariat and the World Bank.
They should set up, or strengthen, units to conduct environmental analyses
of their projects and programmes and, in collaboration with the
United Nations Environment Programme, assist Governments in systematically
considering the environment in development planning.
V. Resolutions adopted on the reports of the Second Committee 153
C. Legislation and environmental law
100. Increasingly, environmental legislation has been providing
practical frameworks at the national level for implementing environmental
standards and regulating the activities of enterprises and people in the
light of environmental objectives. At the international level, conventions,
protocols and agreements have been providing a basis for co-operation
among countries at bilateral, regional and global levels for the management
of environmental risks, control of pollution and conservation of
natural resources.
101. There is a need to expand the number of accessions to and ratifications
of these conventions and to institute mechanisms at the national
level to ensure their application. The present momentum should be maintained
of concluding conventions on questions such as hazards relating
to chemicals, treatment and international transport ofhazardous wastes,
industrial accidents, climate change, protection of the ozone layer, protection
of the marine environment from pollution from land-based
sources and protection of biological diversity, in which the United Nations
Environment Programme has been playing an active part.
102. Groundwork has been prepared over the last 15 years under the
aegis of the United Nations Environment Programme to establish legal
frameworks to manage regional seas. Governments should intensify their
efforts to implement legislative measures and other policies at national
levels so that the policy sources of the environmental problems of the regional
seas are effectively tackled. Increasingly, environmental management
of rivers, lakes and forests has been posing a challenge to international
co-operation. Governments, with the collaboration of the
Programme and concerned international organizations, should accelerate
action to establish legal régimes at international and national levels to
improve significantly the environmental management of rivers, lakes and
forests. The new programme for environmental management of freshwater
systems, sponsored by the United Nations Environment Programme,
is a promising start.
103. The Montevideo Programme for the Development and Periodic
Review of Environmental Law,59 prepared under the auspices of the
United Nations Environment Programme, should be implemented fully.
Development of international environmental law should continue, with a
view to providing a strong basis for fostering co-operation among countries.
The progressive emergence of general environmental norms and
principles and the codification of existing agreements could lead to a global
convention on protection and enhancement of the environment.
104. Governments should settle their environmental disputes by
peaceful means, making use of existing and emerging agreements and
conventions. The International Court of Justice, the International Court
of Arbitration and regional mechanisms should facilitate peacefol settlement
of environmental disputes.
D. Awareness building and training
105. The participation of people in environmental protection and improvement
depends upon their being aware of the environmental problems
and possibilities, of how the changing state of the environment affects
their well-being, and how their lifestyles affect the environment.
People's effectiveness in dealing with environmental problems depends
upon their technical and organizational capabilities to design and impiement
the needed measures.
106. Since the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment,
held at Stockholm in 1972, awareness of the interrelationship between
human activities and the environment has steadily grown. Voluntary
action groups at the community level, national and global nongovernmental
organizations, scientific bodies, schools and universities,
mass media and Governments ail have played a part in this process. Also
the United Nations Environment Programme, through its programme
and through its information activities, has helped build environmental
awareness.
107. In a large number of developing countries, knowledge of proper
environmental management practices still does not reach millions who
suifer as a result of environmental degradation. People are the most valuable
resource in development, but in order for them to participate constructively
in accelerating and sustaining development, environmental
information must be made available in languages they understand and in
a form that can help them relate it easily to their own situation. Governments
should intensify efforts to make this possible. Non-governmental
organizations, with appropriate support from the United Nations Envi-
59 UNEP/GC.10/5/ Add.2 and Corr. l and 2, annex, chap. II.
ronment Programme, should play an increasingly active role in this field,
especially by way of provision of requisite materials.
108. The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization,
in collaboration with the United Nations Environment Programme
should ensure systematic coverage of environmental education
needs at ail levels of schooling, especially in the developing countries.
They should also prepare and promote course materials which would include
environmental components in professional training given to selected
occupational groups, for example, engineers, builders, foresters,
farm extension workers and managers. Training in analysing environmental
considerations in relation to economic and other goals also has to
receive growing attention. Governments should make environmental
education and training an integral part of their education and communication
policies and programmes.
109. International support for the training of personnel in environmental
assessment and management, especially in the developing countries,
has grown steadily. It is essential, however, to ensure that the content
and modality of such instruction is relevant to the needs of the
countries where it is intended that the skills be applied. International cooperation
and governmental efforts should also help ensure a progressive
strengthening of institutional capabilities within the developing countries
themselves to make available such training.
E. Institutions
110. Consideration of the environment must be internalized in sectoral
policies and practices to ensure that environmental objectives are
met and sustainable development is achieved. Sectoral bodies should be
made accountable for such internalization. Existing environmental problems
also have to be dealt with through concerted action and allocation
of resources. This is true at both national and international levels.
111. At the national level, the mandates of sectoral ministries and
other governmental institutions should explicitly state their responsibility
and accountability for sustainable development and environmental
protection within their sectors. Their policies, fonctions, structures and
budgetary allocations should be consistent with this. As appropriate, the
same should apply at provincial and local levels. Authoritative mechanisms
and procedures are needed to oversee and ensure that national environmental
objectives are met throughout the Government. Governments
should establish or strengthen environmental ministries to
stimulate, guide, support and monitor actions to achieve these objectives.
To this end, essential fonctions should include: environmental assessment,
planning and incentives, legislative and regulatory advice, awareness-
building and training, stimulation of research and application of its
results. Environmental ministries should also provide leadership and coordination
for direct action to deal with environmental problems, including
rehabilitation. Bilateral and multilateral institutions and international
organizations should assist developing countries in this regard.
112. International institutions, both inside and outside of the United
Nations system, dealing with such areas as food and agriculture, health,
industry, energy, science, trade, finance and development assistance,
should reorient their policies and programmes to make steady progress
towards environmentally sound development.
113. These institutions should be accountable for integrating the objectives
of sustainable development into their policies, budgets and staffing
strategies. Governments should ensure, through consistent policy
guidance to these institutions, that their mandates and programmes meet
this objective.
114. The governing bodies of ail United Nations organizations
should report regularly to the General Assembly on the progress made in
achieving the objectives of sustainable development. Such reports should
also be submitted to the Governing Council of the United Nations Environment
Programme for that body to provide comments on matters
within its mandate to the General Assembly. The Administrative Committee
on Co-ordination, under the chairmanship of the SecretaryGeneral,
should oversee effectively the inclusion of the concept of sustainable
development in ail programmes of the United Nations system,
by reviewing and co-ordinating the efforts of ail organs, organizations
and bodies of the United Nations system in this field, and by including
this in its reports to the General Assembly and the Governing Council of
the Programme.
11 S. The inter-agency mechanism of Designated Officiais for Environmental
Matters should guide, support and monitor more effectively
activities within the United Nations system to ensure consistent policy.
116. In parallel with the institutional arrangements al the national
level, the United Nations Environment Programme should promote,
154 General Assembly-Forty-second Session
guide, support and monitor actions to achieve environmentally sound development
and stimulate and co-ordinate action to deal with environmental
problems.
117. The major priorities and fonctions of the United Nations Environ
ment Programme should be:
(a) To provide leadership, advice and guidance in the United Nations
system on restoring, protecting, and improving the environmental
basis for, and in general act as a catalyst in the promotion of, sustainable
development;
(b) To monitor, assess and report regularly on the state of the environment
and natural resources and emerging environmental issues;
(c) To support priority scientific and technological research on major
environmental and natural resource protection issues;
(d) To make available, in co-operation with other agencies where appropriate,
guidance for environmental management, including the development
of management techniques, criteria and indicators for environmental
quality standards and guidelines for the sustainable use and
management of natural resources;
(e) To initiale and support the programmes and activities worked
out by the developing countries for dealing with their serious environmental
problems;
(f) To initiale and facilitate the development and, upon request, the
co-ordination of the implementation of action plans in the developing
countries for the management of ecosystems and critical environmental
problems. Such plans should be implemented and financed by the Governments
concerned with appropriate external assistance;
(g) To encourage and promote international agreements on critical
environmental issues and to support and facilitate the development of international
laws, conventions and co-operative arrangements for environmental
and natural resource conservation and protection;
(h) In co-operation with other concerned institutions, to establish
and strengthen the institutional and professional capacity of developing
countries, with a view to integrating environmental considerations into
their development policy and planning;
(!) To promote awareness of environmental matters through education
and the mass media;
(J) To co-operate with the United Nations Development Programme
and other United Nations agencies, the World Bank and regional development
banks, to strengthen the environmental dimensions oftheir programmes
and technical assistance projects, inter alia, through training
and personnel secondments.
118. Specialized agencies, organizations and bodies of the United
Nations system should more speedily assume full operational and financial
responsibility for environmental programmes supported by the
United Nations Environment Programme in their sectors included in the
system-wide medium-term environment proJramme and the Environment
Fund. The human and financial resources which will become available
to the United Nations Environment Programme as a result should
be concentrated on the priority areas listed above.
119. Environmentally sound development cannot be assured solely
by actions of governmental, intergovernmental or international organizations.
1t requires the participation of other entities, particularly industry,
non-governmental environmental and development organizations
and the scientific community. Non-governmental organizations have important
contributions to make in various areas, including environmental
education and awareness, as well as design and implementation of programmes
at the grass-roots levels. The scientific community should continue
to play an important role in environmental research and risk assessment
and international scientific co-operation.
120. Regional and continental co-operative arrangements are being
established to deal with common environmental problems. For example,
the first session of the African Ministerial Conference on the Environment,
held at Cairo in 1985, adopted the Cairo Programme for African
Co-operation and modalities to implement it. Govemments and development
co-operation agencies should support such institutional arrangements
and programmes.
42/187. Report of the World Commission on Environment
and Development
The General Assembly,
Concerned about the accelerating deterioration of the
human environment and natural resources and the consequences
of that deterioration for economic and social development,
Believing that sustainable development, which implies
meeting the needs of the present without compromising
the ability of future generations to meet their own needs,
should become a central guiding principle of the United
Nations, Governments and private institutions, organizations
and enterprises,
Recognizing, in view of the global character of major environmental
problems, the common interest of all countries
to pursue policies aimed at sustainable and environmentally
sound development,
Convinced of the importance of a reorientation of national
and international policies towards sustainable development
patterns,
Recalling that, in its resolution 38/161 of 19 December
1983 on the process of preparation of the Environmental
Perspective to the Year 2000 and Beyond to be prepared
by the Governing Council of the United Nations Environment
Programme, it welcomed the establishment of a special
commission, which later assumed the name World
Commission on Environment and Development, to make
available a report on environment and the global problématique
to the year 2000 and beyond, including
proposed strategies for sustainable development,
Recognizing the valuable role played in the preparation
of the report of the World Commission by the Intergovernmental
Inter-sessional Preparatory Committee of the
Governing Council of the United Nations Environment
Programme, as envisaged by the General Assembly in its
resolution 38/161,
Reca/ling that in resolution 38/161 it decided that, on
matters within the purview of the United Nations Environment
Programme, the report of the Commission
should in the first instance be considered by the Governing
Council of the Programme, for transmission to the General
Assembly together with the comments of the Council
and for use as basic material in the preparation, for adoption
by the Assembly, of the Environmental Perspective,
and that on those matters which were under consideration
or review by the Assembly itself, it would consider the
relevant aspects of the report of the Commission,
Taking note of Governing Council decision 14/14 of
19 June 198746 transmitting the report of the Commission
to the General Assembly,
Noting that the Environmental Perspective to the Y ear
2000 and Beyond51 bas taken account of the main recommendations
contained in the report of the Commission,
Recognizing the instrumental role of the Commission in
revitalizing and reorienting discussions and deliberations
on environment and development and in enhancing the
understanding of the causes of present environmental and
development problems, as well as in demonstrating the
ways in which they transcend institutional frontiers and in
opening new perspectives on the interrelationship between
environment and development as a guide to the future,
Emphasizing the need for a new approach to economic
growth, as an essential prerequisite for eradication of poverty
and for enhancing the resource base on which present
and future generations depend,
United Nations A/73/419*
General Assembly
Distr.: General
30 November 2018
Original: English
18-03829* (E) 131218
*1803829*
Seventy-third session
Agenda item 14
Integrated and coordinated implementation of and follow-up to the outcomes of the major
United Nations conferences and summits in the economic, social and related fields
Gaps in international environmental law and
environment-related instruments: towards a global pact for
the environment
Report of the Secretary-General
Summary
The present report has been prepared pursuant to General Assembly
resolution 72/277 entitled “Towards a Global Pact for the Environment ”, in which
the Assembly requested the Secretary-General to submit, at its seventy-third
session in 2018, a technical and evidence-based report that identifies and assesses
possible gaps in international environmental law and environment -related
instruments with a view to strengthening their implementation.
The report reviews and analyses the corpus of international enviro nmental
law and environment-related instruments as well as the governance structure and
implementation of international environmental law. It reveals gaps and deficiencies
at multiple levels.
First, there is no single overarching normative framework that sets out what
might be characterized as the rules and principles of general application in
international environmental law even though such principles may help unify the
current, sectoral, approach to international environmental law and help fill the gaps
in the rules laid out in treaties. While some principles of international
environmental law are now well recognized through their incorporation into issue -
specific multilateral environmental agreements and have been affirmed by a
number of international courts and tribunals, others enjoy neither clarity nor
judicial consensus as to their applicability, nor recognition in binding legal
instruments. This has an impact on the predictability and implementation of
sectoral environment regimes.
Second, international environmental law is piecemeal and reactive. It is
characterized by fragmentation and a general lack of coherence and synergy among
a large body of sectoral regulatory frameworks. This leads to an important deficit
A/73/419
2/45 18-03829
in coordination at the law-making and implementation levels and a need for better
policy coherence, mutual supportiveness and synergies in implementation.
Third, the articulation between multilateral environmental agreements and
environment-related instruments remains problematic owing to the lack of clarity,
content-wise and status-wise, of many environmental principles.
Fourth, the structure of international environmental governance is
characterized by institutional fragmentation and a heterogeneous set of actors,
revealing important coherence and coordination challenges. International courts
and tribunals often stress the lack of international consensus concerning
environmental principles.
Fifth, the implementation of international environmental law is challenging
at both the national and international levels. National implementation is
constrained in many countries by the lack of appropriate national legislation,
financial resources, environmentally sound technologies and institutional
capacities. At the international level, implement ation is constrained by the lack of
clarity of many environmental principles.
International environmental law and its effective implementation could be
strengthened through such actions as the clarification and reinforcement of
principles of international environmental law. This could be done through a
comprehensive and unifying international instrument that gathers all the principles
of environmental law. There should also be more effective reporting, review and
verification measures and robust complianc e and enforcement procedures and
mechanisms, ensuring that those States that require support have adequate
resources to enable them to effectively implement their commitments, and the role
of non-State actors should be enhanced at multiple levels.
Building upon the creative approaches that States have thus far adopted to
protect the environment, it is essential that States and the United Nations work
together to address gaps in international environmental law. We must collectively
seize the opportunity to use international environmental law in new and dynamic
ways to provide a strong and effective governance regime with a view to better
safeguarding the environment for future generations.
A/73/419
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Contents
I. Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 4
II. Gaps concerning principles of international environmental law ................................................. 6
A. Scope of the principles ..................................................................................................... 6
B. Status of the principles ..................................................................................................... 7
III. Gaps relating to existing regulatory regimes ..............................................................................13
A. General ............................................................................................................................13
B. Protection of the atmosphere ...........................................................................................14
C. Conservation of biological diversity and protection of soils ...........................................19
D. Protection of freshwater resources ..................................................................................22
E. Protection of oceans and seas ..........................................................................................23
F. Regulation of hazardous substances, wastes and activities .............................................26
IV. Environment-related instruments ...............................................................................................30
A. Trade instruments ............................................................................................................30
B. Investment instruments ...................................................................................................30
C. Intellectual property instruments .....................................................................................31
D. Human rights instruments ...............................................................................................31
V. Gaps relating to the governance structure of international environmental law ..........................33
VI. Gaps relating to the implementation and effectiveness of international environmental law ......36
A. National implementation .................................................................................................36
B. Means of implementation: financial resources, technology transfer
and capacity-building ......................................................................................................36
C. Dispute settlement, compliance and enforcement mechanisms.......................................38
D. Liability and redress for transboundary environmental damage .....................................39
VII. Conclusions ................................................................................................................................42
A/73/419
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I. Introduction
1. Most environmental challenges and problems and their impacts are
transboundary, and some are global in nature, which led to the early recognition that
international cooperation among States through appropriate legal frameworks was
indispensable to the creation of effective responses and solutions. International
environmental law is the area of public international law that addresses States and
international organizations with respect to the protection of the environment. 1 It does
not operate in isolation, but is anchored in the rules and principles of general public
international law. The traditional sources of international law set out in article 38 of
the Statute of the International Court of Justice have given rise to a large body of
international legal obligations whose primary objective is the protection of the
environment and the sustainable use of natural resources. 2
2. International treaties adopted at the regional and global levels, commonly
referred to as multilateral environmental agreements, are the dominant sources of
international environmental law. A vast body of multilateral environmental
agreements, comprising more than 500 instruments, have b een adopted so far. Each
agreement addresses a specific environmental challenge and is legally and
institutionally distinct from the others. The incremental and piecemeal nature of
international environmental law-making has resulted in a proliferation of l argely
sectoral regulatory regimes and a fragmented international legal framework for the
protection of the environment.3 Fragmentation has become a frequent phenomenon in
international law, and is one of the consequences of multilateral decision -making.
3. There is no single overarching normative framework in the area of international
environmental law that sets out what might be characterized as rules and principles
of general application. However, many other areas of international law have some
binding framework instruments that contain general rules whose scope is broad
enough to cover more specific rules and principles in sectoral or regional instruments
and provide for a certain degree of coordination and coherence. Examples include the
human rights covenants, international trade law and the international law of the sea.
In most of these areas, however, the framework agreements codified existing
customary norms and in most cases, if not all, pre -dated the development of more
specific treaties. It has been noted that the fragmented structure of international
environmental law and the incremental process of regime creation inevitably lead to
the situation where some environmental challenges are addressed, while others are
not.
4. Customary international enviro nmental law is sparse. The existence of a rule of
customary international law requires that there be a settled practice together with
opinio juris of States (a belief that the practice is rendered obligatory by the existence
1 See Alan Boyle and Catherine Redgwell, International Law and the Environment, 4th ed.
(Oxford University Press, 2019); Philippe Sands and others, Principles of International
Environmental Law, 4th ed. (Cambridge University Press, 2018); Daniel Bodansky, The Art
and Craft of International Environmental Law (Harvard University Press, 2011); Daniel
Bodansky, Jutta Brunnée and Ellen Hey, eds., The Oxford Handbook of International
Environmental Law (Oxford University Press, 2008).
2 Sands and others, Principles of International Environmental Law, p. 102.
3 While the focus of the present study is on fragmentation within international environmental
law, such incoherence also extends to the interaction between rules of international
environmental law and those applicable to other areas of international law, such as those
relating to armed conflict, a topic currently being considered by the International Law
Commission (ILC) (see A/73/10, paras. 164–218).
A/73/419
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of a rule of law requiring it).4 With regard to international environmental norms, the
identification of rules of customary international law is a challenging task, in
particular in situations where there is a gap between what States say and what they
actually do.5 Nevertheless, existing customary rules of international environmental
law have already been codified in treaties. In addition, several international courts
and tribunals have confirmed the existence of rules of customary international law in
the field of environmental protection.6
5. Owing to the critical challenges posed by environmental issues as well as the
urgency of action and the difficulties inherent in reaching agreement on legally
binding international instruments, an important body of non -binding instruments –
declarations, resolutions, guidelines and recommendations – has emerged in
international environmental law. Notable examples are the Declaration of the
United Nations Conference on the Human Environment (the Stockholm Declaration)
and the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development. 7 Such non-binding
instruments have acted as important guidance for national and international action
and often act as precursors to the subsequent development and adoption of legally
binding instruments. They are also commonly used wit hin the framework of
multilateral environmental agreements to clarify the meaning of specific provisions.
6. The normative and institutional fragmentation of international environmental
law and the sectoral approach to environmental regulation have led over the years to
proposals to enhance the coherence and coordination of global environmental
governance, including successful proposals to enhance coordination among specific
multilateral environmental agreements, and less successful proposals to establish a
World Environment Organization 8 or to adopt an international covenant on
environment and development. 9 More recently, the idea of a global pact for the
environment that synthesizes and codifies the principles of international
environmental law in one docume nt was proposed.10 On 10 May 2018, the General
Assembly adopted resolution 72/277, entitled “Towards a Global Pact for the
Environment”, and requested that the Secretary-General submit, at its seventy-third
session in 2018, a technical and evidence -based report that identifies and assesses
possible gaps in international environmental law and environment -related instruments
4 North Sea Continental Shelf (Federal Republic of Germany/Denmark; Federal Republic of
Germany/Netherlands), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1969 , p. 44, para. 77; Statute of the
International Court of Justice, art. 38 (1) (b); A/73/10, para. 65, conclusion 2.
5 See Daniel Bodansky, “Customary (and not so customary) international environmental law ”,
Indiana Journal of Global Studies, vol. 3, No. 1 (Fall 1995), p. 105.
6 See, for example, The Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons, Advisory Opinion,
I.C.J. Reports 1996; Pulp Mills on the River Uruguay (Argentina v. Uruguay), Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 2010; Responsibilities and Obligations of States Sponsoring Persons and
Entities with Respect to Activities in the Area , Advisory Opinion, Case No. 17, International
Tribunal for the Law of the Sea Reports 2011 .
7 ILC has also developed a number of non -binding instruments (further referred to below)
concerning aspects of international environmental law and matters related thereto.
8 See for example, Frank Biermann, “The emerging debate on the need for a world
environment organization”, Global Environmental Politics, vol. 1, No. 1 (February 2001);
Daniel C. Esty, “The case for a global environmental organization ”, in Peter B. Kenen, ed.,
Managing the World Economy: Fifty Years After Bretton Woods (Institute for International
Economics, 1994).
9 See International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, Draft
International Covenant on Environment and Developme nt: Implementing Sustainability, 5th
ed. (2015) (IUCN Draft Covenant).
10 See “Global pact for the environment”, preliminary draft, 24 June 2017, available at
https://perma.cc/L4PM-PTV2; Le club des juristes, White Paper: Global Pact for the
Environment (2017).
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with a view to strengthening their implementation. The present report has been
prepared pursuant to that request.
7. The report identifies and assesses regulatory and governance gaps in
international environmental law. A “gap” is defined as a lacuna, void, defect or
deficiency. 11 For the purposes of the report, the terms “regulatory gaps” and
“governance gaps” are understood to mean, respectively, substantive/normative
(including procedural and institutional) gaps and implementation gaps in the
international legal framework. A gap can occur within a multilateral environmental
agreement with respect to its content or its ability to fulfil its obj ect and purpose;
between legal frameworks (e.g., substantive or procedural overlaps, discrepancies or
conflicts); or where there is no regulation at all (e.g., limitations in substantive,
institutional or geographical coverage). The term “environment-related instruments”
in paragraph 1 of General Assembly resolution 72/277 is taken to include those
international legal instruments that do not fall exclusively within the field of the
environment or have as their primary objective the protection of the environ ment. In
this regard, it may be noted that environmental concerns have gradually penetrated
other international regulatory frameworks, such as those dealing with international
trade, investment, intellectual property rights, human rights, peace and securit y,
migration and disaster management.12 Some of these regulatory frameworks will be
addressed in the present report.
8. The report is divided into five substantive sections: section II identifies and
assesses the scope and status of the principles of internati onal environmental law;
section III addresses gaps relating to the sectoral regulatory regimes; section IV
identifies and assesses some environment -related instruments; section V deals with
gaps relating to the governance structure of international environ mental law; and
section VI addresses gaps concerning the implementation and effectiveness of
international environmental law.
II. Gaps concerning principles of international environmental
law
A. Scope of the principles
9. Principles of international environmental law are an important building block
and their usage is widespread. Some are included in non -binding instruments,
including political instruments, while others are enshrined in issue -specific
multilateral environmental agreements that are legally binding. When enshrined in
such agreements, the scope of the principles is confined to that particular multilateral
environmental agreement. However, those principles that are not contained in
multilateral environmental agreements also play an important role in guiding the
interpretation and further development of those agreements.
10. More generally, environmental principles also serve to supplement or
complement more specific rules. Indeed, conventions containing environmental law
provisions may expressly acknowledge the gap -filling function of principles.13 The
general character of the principles permits their application to the continuously
evolving interrelationships between human activity and the environment. The
principles also play a role with respect to potential gaps arising from the use of
11 See Bryan A. Garner, A Dictionary of Modern Legal Usage, 2nd ed. (Oxford University
Press, 2001), p. 496.
12 See Sands and others, Principles of International Environmental Law, p. 17.
13 See, for example, United Nations Convention on the Law of the S ea (UNCLOS), preamble.
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different legal sources. Mutual supportiveness in contemporary international law
progresses beyond the gap-filling paradigm of legal principles and instead requires
the synthesis of sources of international law, if possible, in a given instance. 14 In this
context, environmental principles may help to unify international environmental
law’s current sectoral approach. A comprehensive and unifying international
instrument clarifying all the principles of environmental law would contribute to
making them more effective and strengthen their implementation.
B. Status of the principles
Prevention
11. States are required to exercise their sovereignty over natural resources in a
manner which ensures that activities within their jurisdiction or control do not
significantly damage the environment beyond their territorial boundaries. Since it first
appeared in the 1938 Trail Smelter arbitration,15 the prevention of transboundary harm
has been framed as a principle in foundational instruments of international
environmental law, 16 United Nations instruments, 17 regional instruments, 18 texts
drafted by civil society19 and the decisions of the International Court of Justice. 20 This
principle is intrinsic to a core preference in international law for preventing
environmental harm rather than compensating for harm that has already occurred. The
prevention principle is well established as a rule of customary international law,
supported by relevant practice in many environmental treaties and major codification
initiatives.21 In practice, this principle is also related to due diligence obligations,
particularly the duty to undertake an environmental impact assessment prior to
engaging in activities which pose a potential risk of transboundary harm. 22
14 See A/CN.4/L.682, para. 43.
15 Trail Smelter Case (United States, Canada) (1938, 1941), Reports of the International
Arbitral Awards, vol. III, p. 1905, et. seq.
16 See Declaration of the United Nations Conference on the Human Envir onment (Stockholm
Declaration), Principle 21; World Charter for Nature (WCN), arts. 13, 19 and 21; UNCLOS,
art. 194; Convention on Environmental Impact Assessment in a Transboundary Context
(Espoo Convention), preamble and art. 2; Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD),
preamble and art. 3; Rio Declaration on Environment and Development (Rio Declaration),
principles 2, 14, 18 and 19; United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
(UNFCCC), preamble.
17 Draft articles on prevention of transboundary harm from hazardous activities, in Yearbook
of the International Law Commission, 2001, vol. II, Part Two, para. 97. See also resolution
62/68, annex.
18 See Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union (TFEU), art. 191; Association of
Southeast Asian Nations Agreement on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources
(ASEAN Agreement), art. 20.
19 See Earth Charter, principle 6 (d); IUCN Draft Covenant, arts. 6, 14 and 41; Centre
international de droit compare de l ’environnement, Draft International Covenant on the
Human Right to the Environment (CIDCE Draft Covenant), arts. 4 (2)–(4).
20 Corfu Channel Case, Judgment of April 9th 1949, I.C.J. Reports 1949 , pp. 4 and 22;
Gabčíkovo-Nagymaros Project (Hungary/Slovakia), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1997 , p. 7, para.
140; Pulp Mills on the River Uruguay (Argentina v. Uruguay), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2010 ,
p. 14, para. 101.
21 See Leslie Anne Duvic-Paoli and Jorge E. Viñuales, “Principle 2: prevention”, in Jorge E.
Viñuales, ed., The Rio Declaration on Environment and Development: A Commentary (Oxford
University Press, 2015), pp. 107, 120 and 121.
22 Ibid., p. 118.
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Precaution
12. This principle stipulates that States are required to adopt a precautionary
approach when taking decisions or in regard to potential omissions which may harm
the environment. Such a duty remains intact irrespective of the absence of scientific
certainty as to the existence or extent of such risk .23 While the principle as formulated
in Principle 15 of the Rio Declaration reflects other critical pr inciples, such as the
effective implementation of international environmental law, 24 the legal basis of
precaution as a principle is a matter of some controversy and debate. 25 However, the
exercise of precaution in this respect is expressed in other foundati onal instruments
of international environmental law, 26 regional instruments, 27 texts drafted by civil
society28 and rulings of the International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea. 29
Polluter pays
13. States are required not only to take measures against environm ental pollution,
but also to cooperate on liability regimes. This norm has a firm legal basis as a
principle of law deriving from a variety of legal sources, including treaties and
regional customs, particularly in Europe. 30 In practice, the principle reduces the
regulatory burden on States in achieving pollution control objectives. 31 The polluter
pays principle is expressed in Principle 16 of the Rio Declaration, regional
instruments32 and texts drafted by civil society.33
Environmental democracy
14. The concept of environmental democracy is generally constituted by the
principles of access to information, participation in decision -making and access to
environmental justice. These elements of public participation have appeared in
various domestic contexts since at least the early 1970s, and demonstrate links with
23 See António Cançado Trindade, “Principle 15: precaution”, in Viñuales, ed., The Rio
Declaration on Environment and Development, p. 403.
24 See Martina Kunz, “Principle 11: environmental legislation ”, in Viñuales, ed., The Rio
Declaration on Environment and Development, pp. 311 and 321. See further A/HRC/37/59,
(Framework principle 11) para. 33 (c), and (Framework principle 12) paras. 34–35.
25 See Kunz, “Principle 11: environmental legislation ”, p. 412.
26 See WCN, art. 11 (b); Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer (Vienna
Ozone Convention), preamble; International Convention on oil pollution preparedness,
response and cooperation, 1990 (1990 London Convention), preamble; CBD, preamble;
UNFCCC, art. 3 (3); Protocol to the 1979 Convention on Long -Range Transboundary Air
Pollution on Further Reduction of Sulphur Emissions, preamble (LRTAP Convention);
Protocol to the 1972 Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes
and Other Matter, preamble and art. 3; Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety to the Convention on
Biological Diversity (Cartagena Protocol), arts. 10 (6) and 11 (8); Stockholm Convention on
Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs Convention), preamble, arts. 1 and 8 (7) (a).
27 See TFEU, art. 191 (2); Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the
North-East Atlantic (OSPAR Convention), art. 2 (2) (a).
28 See IUCN Draft Covenant, art. 7; 2015 Oslo Pri nciples on Global Climate Change
Obligations (Oslo Principles), paras. 1 (a -b); CIDCE Draft Covenant, arts. 3 (1 -2).
29 Southern Bluefin Tuna (New Zealand v. Japan; Australia v. Japan), Provisional Measures,
Order of 27 August 1999, ITLOS Reports 1999, p. 280, para. 77; Activities in the Area,
Advisory Opinion, Case No. 17, para. 135.
30 See Priscilla Schwartz, “Principle 16: the polluter-pays principle”, in Viñuales, ed., The Rio
Declaration on Environment and Development, pp. 429 and 435.
31 Ibid., p. 429.
32 See TFEU, art. 191 (2); OSPAR Convention, art. 2 (2) (b).
33 See Earth Charter, art. 6 (b); New Delhi Declaration of Principles of International Law
Relating to Sustainable Development (New Delhi Declaration), para. 3.1; IUCN Draft
Covenant, art. 6.
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certain aspects of international human rights law. 34 While most global multilateral
environmental agreements adopted since the United Nations Conference on
Environment and Development, held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, in 1992, endorse public
access to information and public participation by some means, many of the underlying
legal developments have taken place regionally and with remarkably little geographic
symmetry.35 This constitutes a significant gap in international environmental law.
15. The specific requirement that States should make environmental information
held by public authorities available to the public is expressed in foundational
instruments of international environmental law, 36 United Nations instruments, 37
regional instruments38 and texts drafted by civil society.39 The specific requirement
that States should enable the public to participate in the preparation of the decisions,
measures, plans, programmes, activities, policies and normative in struments of public
authorities that may have a significant effect on the environment is also expressed in
foundational instruments of international environmental law, 40 regional instruments41
and texts drafted by civil society.42 The specific requirement that States should ensure
effective and affordable access to administrative and judicial procedures to challenge
the acts or omissions of public authorities or private persons that contravene
environmental law is expressed in Principle 10 of the Rio Declarati on, regional
instruments43 and texts drafted by civil society.44
Cooperation
16. States are required to contribute to the conservation, protection and restoration
of the integrity of the Earth’s ecosystem. This entails an obligation to cooperate in
good faith and in a spirit of global partnership towards the fulfillment of this
objective. The framing of cooperation as a principle of international environmental
law through the adoption of supplementary instruments and norms by conferences of
parties serves the progressive development and dynamic evolution of treaty law. 45 The
principle has been recognized in foundational instruments of international
34 See Jonas Ebbesson, “Principle 10: public participation ”, in Viñuales, ed., The Rio
Declaration on Environment and Development, p. 287.
35 Ibid., p. 293.
36 See WCN, arts. 18 and 21 (a); Rio Declaration, Principle 10; Paris Agreement, art. 12.
37 See draft articles on the prevention of transboundary harm from hazardous activities, in
Yearbook of the International Law Commission , 2001, art. 13; and resolution 62/68, annex.
38 See Convention on Access to Information, Public Participation in Decision -Making and
Access to Justice in Environmental Matters (Aarhus Convention), art. 1; African Convention
on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (African Convention), arts. XVI (1) (a -
b).
39 See Earth Charter, art. 8 (c); Johannesburg Principles on the Role of L aw and Sustainable
Development (Johannesburg Principles); New Delhi Declaration, para. 5.2; IUCN Draft
Covenant, art. 15 (3); Oslo Principles, preamble; World Declaration on the Environmental
Rule of Law (IUCN World Declaration), art. I (d); CIDCE Draft Co venant, arts. 8 (1)–(3) and
9 (1)–(2).
40 See WCN, art. 23; Rio Declaration, Principle 10; Paris Agreement, art. 12.
41 See Aarhus Convention, arts. 6 (2), 7 and 8; African Convention, art. XVI (c).
42 See IUCN Draft Covenant, art. 15 (4); IUCN World Declaration, art. I (a), Principle 10;
CIDCE Draft Covenant, arts. 10 (1)–(3).
43 See European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms,
art. 13; Aarhus Convention, art. 9.
44 See Johannesburg Principles, preamble; IUCN Draft Covenant, art. 15 (5); Oslo Principles,
para. 26; IUCN World Declaration, preamble; 2016 UNESCO First Draft of a Preliminary
Text of a Declaration on Ethical Principles in Relation to Climate Change, art. 5 ( 5).
45 See Peter H. Sand, “Principle 27: cooperation in a spirit of global partnership ”, in Viñuales,
ed., The Rio Declaration on Environment and Development , p. 617.
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environmental law,46 United Nations instruments,47 texts drafted by civil society48 and
the World Trade Organization (WTO).49
17. Cooperation is of vital importance to the objective of preventing the degradation
of the environment and human health that may be caused by certain dangerous
activities and substances, particularly with respect to developing States. 50
Notification and assistance in cases of emergency also serves to prevent the dangers
posed by natural disasters to human life and the environment. 51 While the obligation
to cooperate in the form of notification in cases of emergency is already a part of
customary international law, the duty of assistance in such events has received only
limited recognition. 52 Such specific cases of transboundary cooperation have been
recognized in foundational instruments of international environmental law, 53 in article
19, paragraph 1, of the draft international covenant of the International Union for
Conservation of Nature and in article 7 of the draft articles on the protection of
persons in the event of disasters.54
Right to a clean and healthy environment
18. The relationship between the enjoyment of basic human rights and
environmental quality has long been recognized. However, international treaties have
not defined the threshold below which the level of environmental quality must fall
before a breach of a person´s human rights has occurred. Arguably, that threshold
differs depending on the human right in question.
19. Currently, it is reported that there are at least 155 States that recognize a human
right to a healthy environment in their constitutions or subco nstitutional regulations.55
In addition, such a right is evoked in non -binding declarations, such as the Stockholm
and Rio Declarations. Only a few sector-specific binding international and regional
conventions recognize the right to live in a healthy envir onment.56 Existing regional
46 See Stockholm Declaration, principle 24; UNCLOS, art. 197; WCN, arts. 21 (a) and 22;
Vienna Ozone Convention, art. 2 (2) (a); Agenda 21, chap. 2.1; Rio Declaration, principles 5,
7, 9, 12–14, 24 and 27; UNFCCC, preamble and art. 3 (5); CBD, art. 5; United Nations
Convention to Combat Desertification in those Countries Experiencing Serious Dro ught
and/or Desertification, Particularly in Africa (UNCCD), arts. 3(b) and (c); Paris Agreement,
arts. 7 (6)–(7) (a) and 8 (4) (a)–(f).
47 See draft articles on prevention of transboundary harm from hazardous activities, art. 4.
48 See Oslo Principles, preamble; CIDCE Draft Covenant, art. 20.
49 World Trade Organization, United States—Import Prohibition of Certain Shrimp and
Shrimp Products, WT/DS58/AB/R, AB-1998-4, Report of the Appellate Body, 12 October
1998, para. 168.
50 See Makane M. Mbengue, “Principle 14: dangerous activities and substances”, in Viñuales,
ed., The Rio Declaration on Environment and Development , p. 383.
51 See Phoebe Okowa, “Principle 18: notification and assistance in case of emergency ”, in
Viñuales, ed., The Rio Declaration on Environment and Development, p. 471.
52 Ibid., p. 491.
53 See UNCLOS, arts. 123(a)–(d) and 198; 1990 London Convention, art. 7 (1); Convention
on the Transboundary Effects of Industrial Accidents, preamble; Rio Declaration, principles
14 and 18; CBD, art. 14 (1) (d).
54 Adopted by ILC in 2016. See A/71/10, para. 48.
55 See David R. Boyd, “Catalyst for change: evaluating forty years of experience in
implementing the right to a healthy environment ”, in John H. Knox and Ramin Pejan, eds.,
The Human Right to a Healthy Envi ronment (Cambridge University Press, 2018), pp. 17–42.
56 These include African Charter on Human and Peoples ’ Rights, art. 24; Additional Protocol
to the American Convention on Human Rights in the Area of Economic, Social and Cultural
Rights, art. 11; Aarhus Convention, art. 1; African Convention, art. III; Protocol to the African
Charter on Human and Peoples ’ Rights on the Rights of Women in Africa, art. 18; Arab Charter
on Human Rights, art. 38; Inter-American Convention on Protecting the Human Rights of
Older Persons, art. 25; Regional Agreement on Access to Information, Public Participation
and Justice in Environmental Matters in Latin America and the Caribbean (Escazú
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and international instruments on this subject do not universally or completely define
the scope and content of the right. Regional agreements that recognize the right to a
healthy environment generally pertain to human rights law and do not take into
account the specificities of environmental issues. Several such agreements do not
allow individuals or groups to file individual or public interest claims. While the right
to a healthy environment is not explicitly included in the Eur opean Convention on
Human Rights adopted in 1950, the European Court of Human Rights has used it to
afford indirect protection through those rights that are included, on the basis of a
dynamic interpretation of the Convention. 57 International environmental law also
currently lacks an appropriate legal framework to protect environmental rights
defenders.58
Sustainable development
20. Many international environmental law treaties make explicit or implicit
references to the essential tenets of sustainable develo pment. 59 Sustainable
development is also referred to in other international agreements, such as trade and
investment treaties and WTO agreements.60 International courts and tribunals have
embraced sustainable development as a source of law and policy when ad dressing
treaty implementation and the interpretation of norms. 61 This can be seen in judicial
instances ranging from the International Court of Justice 62 to regional courts,
including those that address related fields, such as the Inter -American Court of Human
Rights, 63 the African Commission on Human and Peoples ’ Rights, 64 specialized
panels and tribunals such as the International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea 65 and
Agreement), art. 4 (1).
57 See European Court of Human Rights (ECHR), López Ostra v. Spain, Application No.
16798/90, Judgment, 9 December 1994, para. 51. In other cases, the Court has felt that the right
to life protected by article 2 of the Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and
Fundamental Freedoms includes the right to be prote cted against risks resulting from hazardous
industrial activities. See ECHR, Öneryildiz v. Turkey, Application No. 48939/99, Judgment, 30
November 2004.
58 Unlike human rights defenders under resolution 53/144 of 9 December 1998.
59 See, for example, Minamata Convention on Mercury (2017); Paris Agreement (2015);
United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification in those Countries Experiencing
Serious Drought and/or Desertification, Particularly in Africa (1994); Vienna Convention f or
the Protection of the Ozone Layer (1988); Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the
Ozone Layer (1989).
60 See Nico Schrijver, “Advancements in the principles of international law on sustainable
development”, in Marie-Claire Cordonier Segger and H.E. Judge C.G. Weeramantry, eds.,
Sustainable Development Principles in the Decisions of International Courts and Tribunals,
1992 – 2012 (Routledge, 2017), pp. 99–102.
61 See Cordonier Segger and Weeramantry, eds., Sustainable Development Principles in the
Decisions of International Courts and Tribunals, 1992 – 2012.
62 See, for example, General list No. 135, in Gabčíkovo-Nagymaros Project (Hungary v.
Slovakia), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1997; Pulp Mills on the River Uruguay (Argentina v.
Uruguay), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2010; Whaling in the Arctic (Australia v. Japan: New
Zealand intervening), Judgement I.C.J. Reports 2014.
63 See the following cases from the Inter-American Court of Human Rights: Saramaka People
v. Suriname, Judgment, 28 November 2007; Yakye Axa Indigenous Community v. Paraguay,
Judgment, 17 June 2005; Mayagna (Sumo) Awas Tingni Community v. Nicaragua , Judgment,
31 August 2001. See also African Commission on Human Rights and Peoples ’ Rights, Centre
for Minority Rights Development (Kenya) and Minority Rights Group International (on behalf
of Endorois Welfare Council) v. Kenya , Communication No. 276/03, 2009.
64 See African Commission on Human Rights and Peoples’ Rights, Social and Economic Rights Action
Center (SERAC) and the Center for Economic and Social Rights (CESR) v. Nigeria, Communication
No. 155/96, 2001.
65 See the following cases from the International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea: Volga Case
(Russian Federation v Australia), 42 ILM 159 (2003); MOX Plant (Ireland v United
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the Dispute Settlement Body of WTO.66 Recently, sustainable development has been
incorporated into the larger global agenda by the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable
Development and the Sustainable Development Goals. 67 The Goals can be seen as
specific indicators for sustainable development and represent a significant milestone.
However, questions remain as to the extent to which the sustainable development
principles represent binding or non-binding rules or indeed whether they should
constitute a source of law. Some have suggested that this reflects the need for further
analysis and a need for the codific ation of sustainable development principles into a
source of law. Others hold that this could undermine the dynamic aspect of sustainable
development. Another gap relates to the fact that sustainable development still awaits
its effective implementation as a holistic legal concept with regard to addressing the
relationship between international environmental law and other fields of international
law. 68
Common but differentiated responsibilities and respective capabilities
21. The principle of common but differentiated responsibilities and respective
capabilities developed from the application of equity in general international law.
Traditionally, international law is underpinned by the principle of the sovereign
equality of States, which aims at guaranteeing that States have equal rights and
obligations. In the Rio Declaration, the principle of common but differentiated
responsibilities refers to instances where developed countries have contributed more
to the environmental problem at stake and have greater capacity to respond to the
environmental challenge. Not all multilateral environmental agreements incorporate
the concept of differentiation. Those that do include it ensure the participation of all
States. As a technique to achieve this objective, States in different situations are
subject to different obligations and enjoy different rights. Multilateral environmental
agreements express the principle in different ways, and a general application of the
principle is not evident.69 Some agreements operate with categories of developed and
developing country parties, with substantively stronger obligations for developed and
less onerous obligations as well as entitlements to financial, technological or
capacity-building support for developing country parties and parties with economies
in transition.70 Other agreements use self-selection,71 or address differentiation based
on criteria such as financial and technological resources, the capability to engage in
Kingdom), Order of 13 November2001; Southern Bluefin Tuna (Australia v. Japan) , Order of
27 August 1999; M/V Saiga (Saint Vincent and the Grenadines v. Guinea) , Case No. 1, Order
of 21 November 1997.
66 See the following reports from WTO: China – Measures Related to the Exportation of
Various Raw Minerals, WT/DS394/AB/R, WT/DS395/AB/R and WT/DS398/AB/R, 30
January 2012; Brazil – Measures Affecting Imports of Retreaded Tyres , WT/DS332/16, 29
August 2008; United States – Import Prohibition of Certain Shrimp and Shrimp P roducts,
WT/DS58/AB/R, 12 October 1998.
67 United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (2015).
68 See Christina Voigt, Sustainable Development as a Principle of International Law:
Resolving Conflicts between Climate Measures and WTO Law (Martinus Nijhoff, 2009).
69 ITLOS Seabed Disputes Chamber, for example, found that “the responsibilities and liability
of the sponsoring State apply equally to all sponsoring States, whether developed or
developing.” It concluded that: “The spread of sponsoring States ‘of convenience’ would
jeopardize uniform application of the highest standards of protection of the marine
environment, the safe development of activities in the Area and protection of common heritage
of mankind”. See Responsibilities and Obligations of States S ponsoring Persons and Entities
with Respect to Activities in the Area , Advisory Opinion, paras. 158–159.
70 Lavanya Rajamani, Differential Treatment in International Environmental Law (Oxford
University Press, 2006).
71 International Civil Aviation Organization resolution A39-3: Consolidated statement of continuing
ICAO policies and practices related to environmental protection – Global Market-based Measure
(MBM) scheme (CORSIA).
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cost-effective environmental mitigation action, whether a State is an export or import
State,72 whether a State is affected by the issue 73 or several other categories.74 The
Paris Agreement states that, in the context of climate change, differentiation is
dynamic, not limited to particular parameters and has to be seen in the light of
different national circumstances.75
Non-regression and progression
22. The principle of non-regression is relatively new to the field of environmental
law, while its underlying idea of disallowing backtracking is well understood in
systems that protect human rights and in labour law. The idea that once a human right
is recognized, it cannot be restrained, destroyed or repealed is shared by all major
international instruments on human rights.76 The corollary to the principle of nonregression
is the principle of progression. Non -regression aims at ensuring that
environmental protection is not weakened, while progression aims at the improvement
of environmental legislation, including by increasing the level of protection, on the
basis of the most recent scientific knowledge. The Paris Agreement is explicit in this
regard and provides, in article 4, paragraph 3, that each successive nationally
determined contribution “will represent a progression beyond the Party's then current
nationally determined contribution and reflect its highest possible ambition ”.
III. Gaps relating to existing regulatory regimes
A. General
23. Most States have become parties to major multilateral environmental
agreements. Since the relevant environmental problems at stake are often of a global
nature, the solution lies in collective action. 77 The challenge is to encourage the
participation of all relevant actors while at the same time ensuring that the
commitments are ambitious enough to provide for an effective response to the
problem, and to ensure that parties comply with their obligations. 78
24. The involvement of a large number of States with diverse national circumstances
and priorities in treaty negotiations leads to the fact that multilateral environmental
agreements often serve multiple objectives which are not always easily reconciled or
mutually enhancing, but arise out of political compromises struck between different
72 See, for example, the Rotterdam Convention on the Prior Informed Consent Proce dure for
Certain Hazardous Chemicals and Pesticides in International Trade (Rotterdam Convention),
or the Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes
and Their Disposal.
73 See UNCCD.
74 Amendment to the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer, decision
XXVIII/1: further amendment of the Montreal Protocol, annex I.
75 See Christina Voigt and Felipe Ferreira, “‘Dynamic differentiation’: the principles of
CBDR-RC, progression and highest possible ambition in the Paris Agreement”, Transnational
Environmental Law, vol. 5, No. 2 (October 2016).
76 See, for example, Universal Declaration of Human Rights, art. 30.
77 See Elinor Ostrom, Governing the Commons: The Evolution of Institutions for Collective
Action (Cambridge University Press, 1990); see also Elinor Ostrom, “Polycentric systems for
coping with collective action and global environmental change ”, Global Environmental
Change, vol. 20, No. 2 (October 2010).
78 See Scott Barrett, Environment and Statecraft: The Strategy of Environmental Treaty-Making
(Oxford University Press, 2003); and Oran R. Young, The Institutional Dimension of
Environmental Change – Fit, Interplay, and Scale (MIT Press, 2002).
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interests. 79 Without these compromises, and their often deliberate constructive
ambiguities and gaps, however, the likelihood of agreement on international
environmental treaties would be significantly diminished, undermining the prospect
for global cooperation on urgent environmental issues.
25. Broad participation also relies on workable notions of fairness, including the
concepts of equitable burden and effort -sharing. Multilateral environmental
agreements therefore often contain provisions that take into account differing
circumstances.80 Accordingly, certain categories of States, often developing countries,
are subject to “softer” obligations, for example longer phase -out periods or more
flexible targets, while developed countries are subject to obligations to provide
financial, technological and capacity-building support to developing countries and
economies in transition. This situation is a necessary requirement to bring all relevant
actors on board. In fact, because the national circumstances and capabilities of States
differ significantly, the future development of international environmental law is
likely to require more, rather than less, differentiation and flexibility. 81
B. Protection of the atmosphere
Climate change
26. The international climate change regime consists of the United Nations
Framework Convention on Climate Change of 1992, 82 its Kyoto Protocol of 1997 83
and the Paris Agreement of 2015.84 The ultimate objective of the Convention is the
stabilization of greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would
prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system. 85 The
Convention is a framework instrument establishing general princi ples, basic
obligations and institutional arrangements. It does not contain binding, individual
quantified emission reduction targets and timetables, but developed country parties
and other parties listed in annex I of the Convention are enjoined to adopt national
policies and take corresponding measures. 86
27. The Kyoto Protocol supplements the Convention by establishing binding,
quantified and economy-wide emission reduction targets for a number of developed
country parties within a framework of successive co mmitment periods. At the
beginning of its first commitment period in 2008, it covered roughly 60 per cent of
global emissions, and at the end of the first commitment period in 2012, this had
declined to 25 per cent of global emissions. The Kyoto Protocol r emains in force. An
amendment adopted in 2012 establishing a second commitment period from 2013 to
202087 is receiving an increased number of ratifications, which, if it enters into force,
would enable a second commitment period under the Kyoto Protocol.
28. The Paris Agreement, adopted at the twenty-first session of the Conference of
the Parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change held in
79 Stephen Humphreys and Yoriko Otomo, “Theorizing international environmental law”, in
Anne Orford and Florian Hoffmann, eds., The Oxford Handbook of the Theory of International
Law (Oxford University Press, 2016).
80 See Rajamani, Differential Treatment in International Environmental Law.
81 Oliver Stuenkel, Post Western World, (Polity Press, 2016).
82 Adopted in New York on 9 May 1992, entry into force on 21 March 1994.
83 Adopted in Kyoto on 11 December 1997, entry into force on 16 February 2005.
84 Adopted in Paris on 12 December 2015, entry into force on 4 November 2016.
85 UNFCC, art. 2.
86 Daniel Bodansky, “The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change: a commentary”,
Yale Journal of International Law, vol. 18, Issue 2 (1993).
87 Doha Amendment to the Kyoto Protocol, adopted on 8 December 2012, not yet in force.
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December 2015, aims, inter alia, at holding the increase in global average
temperatures to well below 2℃ above pre-industrial levels and pursuing efforts to
limit the temperature increase to 1.5℃, thereby specifying the ultimate objective of
the Convention in measurable temperature terms. The Agreement is transformative,
seeking to globally reshape eco nomies and societies towards climate neutrality and
resilience. It explicitly recognizes the link between human rights and the environment,
calling upon States to respect, promote and consider their respective human rights
obligations when taking climate a ction. It requires global emissions to peak as soon
as possible, enjoins States to achieve climate neutrality by the second half of this
century, establishes the goal of enhancing adaptive capacity, reiterates the obligations
of developed country parties regarding the provision of support while encouraging
other parties to do so voluntarily and, in its preamble, calls on parties, when taking
action to address climate change, to consider human rights obligations as well as
gender equality, the empowerment of women and intergenerational equity. The main
obligation, binding on all parties, is the communication of nationally determined
contributions every five years, which will reflect each party´s highest possible
ambition and represent a progression beyond the previous nationally determined
contribution. 88 It may also be noted that the current nationally determined
contributions are so far not sufficiently ambitious, and if they are not increased they
will not lead to the realization of the global temperature go al.89 Arguably, a top-down
allocation of binding, individual emission reduction obligations, perhaps even
combined with an enforcement mechanism, would have been a more direct and
predictable way of staying below that threshold, but that proved impossible t o agree
on. Liability and compensation for climate damage was explicitly excluded from the
regime of the Paris Agreement, and some have argued that such exclusion represents
an important gap.90
29. The Kyoto Protocol and the Paris Agreement have arrangements t o promote and
facilitate compliance as well as address cases of non -compliance. The United Nations
Framework Convention on Climate Change foresaw the establishment of a
multilateral consultative process for the resolution of questions regarding
implementation that was never operationalized. The interplay of multiple treaties that
have different parties and different obligations poses a systemic challenge within the
United Nations climate change regime. There may be a need for harmonization, for
example with respect to reporting, in order to prevent regression and tensions among
the requirements of the three treaties.
Stratospheric ozone layer
30. The international legal framework for the protection of the stratospheric ozone
layer consists of the Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer of
1985 91 and the Montreal Protocol to the Vienna Convention of 1987 92 and its
subsequent amendments. The most recent amendment, adopted in Kigali in 2016,
expanded the scope of the Montreal Protocol to cover the phase-down of
hydrofluorocarbons, 93 which closed a gap between the climate and the ozone
regimes. 94 The amendment ensures the implementation of the two regimes in a
mutually supportive manner. Though the international ozone regime has been largely
88 See Paris Agreement, art. 4 (2); Voigt and Ferreira, “‘Dynamic differentiation’”.
89 United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), The Emissions Gap Report: A UN
Environment Synthesis Report (2017).
90 See FCCC/CP/2015/10/Add.1, para. 51 and art. 8.
91 Adopted in Vienna on 22 March 1985, entry into force on 22 September 1988.
92 Adopted in Montreal on 16 September 1987, entry into force on 1 January 1989.
93 Adopted in Kigali on 15 October 2016, entry into force on 1 January 2019.
94 See Amendment to the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer, art.
IV.
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successful, some important substantive gaps exist. The Montreal Protocol addresses
only the production and consumption of controlled substances. Some ozone -depleting
substances are not controlled under the Montreal Protocol, including some short -lived
chemical pollutants and nitrous oxide (N2O); some specific uses of controlled
substances are not subject to any controls, such as uses in feedstock and for quarantine
and pre-shipment; and the Protocol does not regulate the disposal of controlled
substances that are in banks, such as insulation foams or equipment. With respect to
monitoring and verification, all parties are required by the Protocol to report their
production and consumption of all controlled substances on an annual basis, even if
the substances have been completely phased out. While the Vienna Convention and
the Montreal Protocol both provide for ongoing scientific monitoring of the ozone
layer, there is no explicit requirement for periodic verification at the national level to
ensure that substances that have been phased out remain so. Parties operating under
paragraph 1 of Article 5, that is, developing countries that have levels of consumption
below the limits defined by the Protocol and receive funding under the Multilateral
Fund for the Implementation of the Montreal Protocol for the conversion of
manufacturing industries that are based on the use of controlled substances, are
required to destroy the replaced equipment that used the controlled substances.
Countries receiving funding are also requir ed to report additional data annually to
demonstrate their compliance with their phase -out agreements. Periodic independent
verification is undertaken to confirm this compliance, although in general verification
ceases after a project has been completed.
31. The Montreal Protocol has a non-compliance procedure based on a cooperative
and consultative approach to addressing cases of non -compliance. Parties are directly
responsible for the enforcement of the Protocol ’s restrictions on controlled
substances, and report annually to the secretariat of the Montreal Protocol on their
production and consumption of controlled substances and related matters. These
reports inform the discussions of the Implementation Committee under the Non -
Compliance Procedure for the Montreal Protocol, which reviews compliance issues
and makes recommendations to the Meeting of the Parties to the Montreal Protocol
with respect to decisions to be adopted. The reported data is accepted at face value;
there is no mandate for the secretariat or the Implementation Committee to undertake
verification of any reported data, except at the invitation of the party concerned.
However, in situations where the secretariat, in reviewing the data reports, becomes
aware of possible non-compliance by any party, it may request further information
and, if the matter remains unresolved, refer the matter to the Implementation
Committee for its consideration.
32. Illegal trade in ozone-depleting substances controlled under the Protocol is dealt
with at the country level through a system of export and import licenses enforced by
relevant national authorities.95 The secretariat has a limited role to play by sharing
data on imports and exports with concerned exporting and importing countries,
respectively, and disseminating any information on illegal trade that parties may
provide.96 Beyond this, there is no specific mandate for any institution of the Protocol
to investigate or undertake any verification with respect to illegal trade.
Mercury
33. Mercury and mercury compounds are recognized as chemicals of global concern
as a result of their long-range transport in the atmosphere, persistence in the
95 See “The 1987 Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer as adjusted
and amended by the second meeting of parties”, articles 4, 4A and 4B.
96 Decisions XIV/7, XVII/16 and XXIV/12 of the Meeting of the Parties to the Montreal
Protocol.
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environment, ability to bioaccumulate in ecosystems and significant negative effect
on human health and the environment.97 The Minamata Convention on Mercury of
201398 obligates parties to reduce or control sources of mercury pollution in order to
protect human health and the environment. 99 Reporting is the principal basis for
evaluating both individual government compliance and the o verall effectiveness of
the Minamata Convention. Robust monitoring as well as independent evaluation and
verification of data will be crucial. Some experts have suggested that a consistent and
comprehensive data collection system needs to be established to best evaluate the
effectiveness of the Convention. There is no specific guidance on content and format
for data reported under article 21 of the Convention at this time, nor does the data
allow for assessing collective progress. Furthermore, monitoring of the global levels
could be complemented by observations on the local and regional scale. 100 There is a
general lack of knowledge regarding local situations, especially in developing
countries, due to the dearth of data and the high cost of sampling and anal ysis.101 It
can also be argued that there is a need to collect and compile better export and import
data in support of the Convention’s trade provisions.102
34. Simultaneously addressing mercury supply and demand in a coordinated way
presents an essential governance challenge.103 It might be necessary to identify other
sources of mercury emissions and releases, develop and update guidance on best
available techniques and best environmental practices and/or introduce new
provisions to account for cross-media mercury management. In addition, the
Conference of the Parties to the Minamata Convention may wish to expand its focus
to additional mercury-containing products and processes. The implementation of the
Minamata Convention also intersects with other multilat eral environmental
agreements, thereby raising the issue of coordination. In this regard, the
environmentally safe handling and disposal of mercury wastes creates policymaking
and management linkages with parallel efforts under the Basel Convention on the
Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and Their Disposal, since
the Basel and Stockholm Convention Regional Centres also assist countries with
mercury abatement. 104 As mercury is a by-product of fossil fuel combustion,
implementation of the Minamata Convention will also significantly contribute to
mitigating climate change.105
Transboundary air pollution
35. Air pollution is a major global environmental problem, with various adverse
effects on health and the environment. Transboundary air pollution is addressed by
various sectoral and regional instruments, most prominent among them the
97 UNEP, Global Mercury Assessment (2002); UNEP, The Global Atmospheric Mercury
Assessment: Sources, Emissions and Transport (2008).
98 Adopted in Kumamoto, Japan, on 10 October 2013, entry into force 16 August 2017.
99 Henrik Hallgrim Eriksen and Franz Xaver Perez, “The Minamata Convention: a
comprehensive response to a global problem”, Review of European, Comparative and
International Law, vol. 23, No. 2 (July 2014).
100 David C. Evers and others, “Evaluating the effectiveness of the Minamata Convention on
Mercury: principles and recommendations for next steps ”, Science of the Total Environment,
vol. 569–570, No. 1 (November 2016).
101 Henrik Selin and others, “Linking science and policy to support the implementation of the
Minamata Convention on Mercury”, Ambio, vol. 47, No. 2 (March 2018).
102 UNEP, Global Mercury: Supply, Trade and Demand (2017).
103 Ibid.
104 Henrik Selin, Global Governance of Hazardous Chemicals: Challenges of Multilevel
Management (MIT Press, 2010).
105 Sands and others, Principles of International Environmental Law, p. 276.
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Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution of 1979 106 and its eight
supplementary protocols, the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants
of 2001 and the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) Agreement on
Transboundary Haze Pollution of 2002. 107 The fragmented state of international law
on air pollution results in significant gaps in “geographical coverage, regulated
activities, regulated substances and, most importantly, applicable principles and
rules”.108
36. The Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution addresses the
problem of acid rain and other dispersed pollutants. 68 The Convention is restricted in
regional scope to Europe and North America in a world where rapid economic growth
occurs in many other regions. It does not stipulate specific limits on emissions of
industrial pollutants or targets or timetables. However, it has evolved from addressing
single pollutants (e.g., sulphur dioxide (SO2)) and single problems to a more
comprehensive, more detailed approach of eight protocols addressing multi-pollutants
through multi-effect instruments.109 Moreover, it has served as a model for subsequent
treaties adopted at the global level to address climate change and ozone depletion,
and serves as a precedent for other regions to address transboundary air pollution.
Compliance by parties with their obligations under the protocols to the Convention is
reviewed by the Implementation Committee. There are, however, significant gaps: there
are no rules on liability, some of the protocols have not entered into force and the
geographical scope is limited.
37. As rapid economic development takes place in other regions, there is an urgent
need to address the challenge of air pollution in those regions. Efforts are under way
to expand and/or replicate the Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air
Pollution regime beyond the European and North American regions. 110
38. The ASEAN Agreement on Transbounda ry Haze Pollution addresses
transboundary haze pollution from land and forest fires. Nevertheless, it has been
suggested that the Agreement’s effectiveness is limited by the principle of non -
interference, as it does not set national targets for emission re ductions and was
described as a regime for cooperation and prevention. 111 The Agreement lacks
provisions for liability and compliance and does not address air pollution from
sources other than land and forest fires, such as combustion engines, household
pollution and industrial solid fuel combustion. In addition, and similar to the
Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution, the Agreement contains no
specific provisions on State responsibility and/or compensation for transboundary
haze pollution.
39. The International Law Commission is currently developing a set of draft
guidelines on the protection of the atmosphere in relation to atmospheric pollution
106 Adopted in Geneva on 13 November 1979, entry into force on 16 March 1983.
107 Adopted in Kuala Lumpur, on 10 June 2002, entry into force 25 November 2003.
108 For a list of binding multilateral and bilateral agreements relevant to atmospheric problems,
see A/CN.4/667, para. 30.
109 Adam Byrne, “The 1979 Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution:
assessing its effectiveness as a multilateral environmental regime after 35 years ”,
Transnational Environmental Law, vol. 4, No. 1 (April 2015); Adam Byrne, “Trouble in the
air: recent developments under the 1979 Co nvention on Long-Range Transboundary Air
Pollution”, Review of European, Comparative and International Environmental Law , vol. 26,
No. 3 (November 2017).
110 Sands and others, Principles of International Environmental Law, p. 293.
111 Shawkat Alam and Laely Nurhidayah, “The international law on transboundary haze pollution: what
can we learn from the Southeast Asia region?”, Review of European, Comparative and International
Environmental Law, vol. 26, No. 3 (November 2017).
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and atmospheric degradation112 which, inter alia, purports to recognize the existence
of an international legal obligation to protect the atmosphere. Work on the draft
guidelines is expected to be concluded in 2020, at which time they will be referred to
the General Assembly for action.
C. Conservation of biological diversity and protection of soils
Biological diversity
40. Biological diversity is the variability of living systems. It comprises genetic,
species and ecosystem diversity. Its usage in international environmental law is
relatively new, as older international treaties dealt with single species or referred to
“nature” or “wildlife”. There is scientific consensus that, globally, biodiversity is
being lost at an alarming rate.113 Threats to biodiversity come from a multitude of
direct and indirect sources and activities, ranging from habitat fragmentation,
pollution and the introduction of alien invasive species to climate change. 114 Drivers
of biodiversity loss are often complex, multiple and interlinked, and require the
interplay of many different instruments. 115 Many of the threats, as well as the habitats,
ecosystems or species to which they apply, do not respect national boundaries or are
found in areas beyond national jurisdiction. At the same time, in the light of the
complexity of the issue, the science is incomplete or lacking in some aspe cts.
41. The legal instruments for the conservation of biodiversity have developed
without an overall strategy and have no coherent structure. This situation leaves some
issues without specific, legally binding regulation, including on the conservation and
sustainable use of forests,116 the pollution of marine areas by land -based plastic waste,
the protection of soil, the use of pesticides, noise pollution, human rights and
biodiversity,117 the Arctic area, nanomaterials and some geo -engineering processes.
42. The Convention on Biological Diversity 118 is the central international legal
instrument for the conservation of biological diversity, the sustainable use of its
components and the fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising out of the utilization
of genetic resources. 119 Unlike earlier nature conservation instruments, the
Convention takes a more holistic approach that addresses direct and indirect causes
of biodiversity loss and seeks to “mainstream” biodiversity considerations into all
relevant policy areas.120 A main requirement for parties is the development of national
biodiversity strategies and action plans. 121 It is widely recognized, however, that
insufficient progress has been made on their implementation as well as on integrating
biodiversity considerations into other sectors or cross-sectoral policies. The
establishment of protected areas is a primary tool to implement in situ conservation,
though its effectiveness is a concern. While target 11 of the Aichi Biodiversity Targets
112 See A/73/10, para. 78.
113 Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity, Global Biodiversity Outlook 3 (2010);
Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, Ecosystems and Human Well-Being: Synthesis (Island
Press, 2005).
114 Ibid.
115 Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity, Global Biodiversity Outlook 3.
116 In 1992, the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development adopted the
Non-legally Binding Authoritative Statement of Principles for a Global Consensus on the
Management, Conservation and Sustainable Development of All Types of Forests (see
A/CONF.151/26/Rev.1 (Vol. I)).
117 See CBD, art. 8 (j).
118 Adopted in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, on 5 June 1992, entry into force on 29 December 1993.
119 CBD, art. 1.
120 Sands and others, Principles of International Environmental Law, p. 387.
121 CBD, art. 5.
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provides for protected areas, it does not impose legal obligations. Instead, parties are
urged to develop national and regional plans with a view to contributing to efforts to
reach the global Aichi Targets. This approach may not be sufficient to address the
interconnectedness of ecosystems activities or uses that take place outside the
protected area.122 Binding commitments, or voluntary action combined with stronger
monitoring, reporting and verification, should be considered. 123 In addition, one of the
major deficiencies of the Convention is the limitation of its jurisdictional scope to
areas within national jurisdiction.124
43. The effective implementation of the Convention on Biological Diversity also
depends on cooperation with and mutual support among agreements dealing with
climate change, the protection of the marine environment, freshwater resources and
hazardous wastes. Cooperation is also required with international agreements in other
fields such as trade, intellectual property rights and plant genetic resources for food
and agriculture.125 The complex regulatory environment dealing with invasive alien
species, comprising the Convention on Biological Diversity, the International Civil
Aviation Organization (ICAO), the International Maritime Organization (IMO), WTO
and the World Customs Organization, requires policy coordination and coherence.
More recently, the issues of synthetic biology and digital sequence information have
garnered significant concern and raised questions about the applicability of the
Convention.
44. Although the Nagoya Protocol on Access to Genetic Resources and the Fair and
Equitable Sharing of Benefits Arising from their Utilization to the Convention on
Biological Diversity of 2010 establishes specific requirements regarding access and
the terms and conditions of such acc ess,126 including disclosure requirements for the
use of genetic resources or traditional knowledge associated with genetic resources,
the absence of similar disclosure rules in the international patent system under the
Patent Cooperation Treaty of the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) is
likely to undermine the effectiveness of the regime. There may be a need to develop
measures of cooperation with and mutual support between the two regimes.
45. The conservation and effective management of migrato ry species is the
objective of the Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild
Animals of 1979. Parties that are range states of migratory species listed in appendix
I of the Convention must endeavour to conserve and restore habitats and to prevent
or minimize adverse effects of activities that seriously impede or prevent migration. 127
For species that have an “unfavourable conservation status” the Convention requires
that range states conclude agreements to benefit those species. 128 So far, seven legally
binding agreements have been adopted, 129 but there remains ample scope for further
122 Froukje Maria Platjouw, Environmental Law and the Ecosystem Approach: Maintaining
Ecological Integrity through Consistency in Law (Routledge, 2016).
123 Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity, Global Biodiversity Outlook 4
(2014).
124 CBD, art. 4. The Convention also applies to areas beyond national jurisdiction, but only
for processes and activities carried out under the jurisdiction or control of a party.
125 Sands and others, Principles of International Environmental Law, pp. 388 and 405.
126 Entry into force on 12 October 2014; see also UNEP/CBD/COP/DEC/X/1.
127 Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals, art. III (4).
128 Ibid., art. IV.
129 Agreement on the Conservation of Seals in the Wadden S ea; Agreement on the
Conservation of Populations of European Bats; Agreement on the Conservation of Small
Cetaceans of the Baltic, North East Atlantic, Irish and North Seas; Agreement on the
Conservation of African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbirds; Agreement on the Conservation of
Cetaceans of the Black Sea, Mediterranean Sea and Contiguous Atlantic Area; Agreement on
the Conservation of Albatrosses and Petrels; Agreement on the Conservation of Gorillas and
Their Habitats.
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range state agreements. Several cooperative arrangements between the Convention
and other multilateral environmental agreements and environmental institutions have
been established. It has been noted, however, that the collaboration with the
Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services
lacks any institutional arrangements to make the biodiversity -related decisions and
resolutions of those multilateral environmental agreements a priority of the Platform.
Such a link could also ensure that the Platform’s outputs are considered by other
biodiversity-related multilateral environmental agreements as a basis for their
decision-making processes, thereby avoiding parallel processes.
46. The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna
and Flora130 regulates trade with regard to approximately 36,000 species, which are
included in three appendices to the Convention. 131 The implementation and
enforcement of the Convention relies on national laws and effective administration,
inspections and border controls of permits by competent national authorities.
Compliance and enforcement, including addressing illegal trade, 132 remain significant
challenges. There is a general need to strengthen enforcement through training as well
as a need for additional support and closer collaboration between national
enforcement agencies and intergovernmental organizations such as the World
Customs Organization and the International Criminal Police Organization
(INTERPOL). Better coordination and a clarification of the role of the Convention
and its relationship with those agreements might be needed, especially with respect
to some endangered, or potentially endangered, commercial fisheries species that are
regulated under different agreements, such as the United Nations Convention on the
Law of the Sea, the United Nations Agreement for the Implementation of the
Provisions of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea of 10 December
1982 relating to the Conservation and Management of Straddling Fish Stocks and
Highly Migratory Fish Stocks (the 1995 Fish Stocks Agreement) and regional
fisheries management organizations.
47. The Convention on Wetlands of International Importance especially as
Waterfowl Habitat of 1971 was the first international agreement to protect a particular
habitat, rather than a species. The Convention is not part of the United Nations system,
and that fact is considered to have imp osed some constraints on its operation as well
as its participation in some of United Nations processes.
Land degradation and soil protection
48. Land and soil degradation has long been identified as a global challenge. 133
Despite the potentially severe impacts on agriculture and food security, international
legal responses are limited. Apart from conventions that establish general
obligations,134 and the 1998 Protocol to the Convention on the Protection of the Alps,
which addresses soil protection, no legally binding instruments exist that have as their
primary objective the conservation, improvement and rehabilitation of soil.
49. The United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification in Those Countries
Experiencing Serious Drought and/or Desertification, Particularly in Africa, of
1994135 is the only legally binding international agreement linking environment and
development to sustainable land management. National action programmes are key
130 Adopted in Washington, D.C., on 3 March 1973, entry into force on 1 July 1975.
131 See http://cites.org/eng/app/appendices.php.
132 See Rosalind Reeve, Policing International Trade in Endangered Species: The CITES
Treaty and Compliance (Routledge, 2002).
133 World Resources Institute, World Resources: 1992-93 (Oxford University Press, 1992).
134 African Convention; ASEAN Agreement.
135 Adopted in Paris on 14 October 1994.
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instruments in the implementation of the Convention. Identified gaps relate to the lack
of effective implementation, the setting of standards and an enforcement mechanism.
D. Protection of freshwater resources
Regulatory framework
50. Current international law largely aims to protect freshwater resources, including
groundwaters,136 through a patchwork of global, regional and basin agreements, with
certain general principles and customary rules applicable to the normative and
institutional gaps therein. The global convention which most directly governs the uses
of fresh water is the Convention on the Law of the Non -Navigational Uses of
International Watercourses (the Watercourses Convention) of 1997. The Watercourses
Convention promotes the optimal and sustainable utilization of international
watercourses through a number of provisions that establish broad duties for States
with respect to freshwater governance. 137
51. The transversal nature of fresh water as an object of legal regulation is evident
in the patchwork of other treaties and instruments governing aspects of its use, which
differ substantially in their focus. This range of treaties includes multilateral
environmental agreements of a universal scope. 138 Further diversity of obligations
relating to fresh water arises from a range of binding instruments at the regional or
basin levels. 139 While some treaties governing fresh water may codify or
operationalize general principles relevant to environmental protection, 140 this
patchwork is also supplemented by a number of non-binding instruments that aim to
codify or progressively develop customary rules at the universal level, such as
Sustainable Development Goal 6.141
Normative and institutional gaps
52. The Watercourses Convention is insufficient as a global governance mechanism
for the protection of freshwater resources. Article 1 expressly excludes from the
Convention’s scope “the uses of international watercourses for navigation ”. 142
136 In 2008, ILC adopted the draft articles on the law of transboundary aquifers aimed at
ensuring the equitable and reasonable utilization of transboundary aquifers or aquifer systems.
See Yearbook of the International Law Commission , 2008, vol. II, Part Two, para. 53. See also
resolution 63/124, annex. While, as of the time of writing, the General Assembly has not yet
decided on the future form of the draft articles, they have inspired at least one regional
agreement on the utilization of groundwater resources.
137 See Convention on the Law of the Non -Navigational Uses of International Watercourses
(Watercourses Convention), preamble (recalling arts. 1, 2, and 13 (1) (a) of the Charter of the
United Nations, Rio Declaration and Agenda 21), and Watercourses Convention, arts. 5 and 6
(advancing beyond the Helsinki Rules on the Use s of the Waters of International Rivers).
138 See Convention on Wetlands of International Importance especially as Waterfowl Habitat;
Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage;
Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (Bonn Convention);
CBD; UNCCD; UNFCCC; POPs Convention; Paris Agreement.
139 See European agreement (Convention on the Protection of the Rhine, 1999), African
agreement (Niger Basin Water Charter, 2008), Asian agreement (Agreement on the
Cooperation for the Sustainable Development of the Mekong River Basin, 1995), and bilateral
treaty in the Americas (Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement, 1972).
140 See, for example, Watercourses Convention, arts. 5 and 6.
141 See, generally, Leila M. Harris, Lucy Rodina and Cynthia Morinville, “Revisiting the
human right to water from an environmental justice lens ”, Politics, Groups and Identities
Journal, vol. 3, No. 4 (2015), p. 660.
142 See also commentary on the draft articles of the Watercourses Convention, para 4, in
Yearbook of the International Law Commission, 1994 , vol. II, Part Two, pp. 89–90.
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Pollution of fresh water from vessels falls within a complex arrangement of legal
regimes, giving rise to normative gaps. Moreover, as a framework convention, its
prescriptions are inherently broad and sometimes merely encouraging in nature. This
ensures maximum flexibility for States when they adopt implementing agreements
with respect to individual watercourses, but in so doing sacrifices the benefits of more
specific guidance as to the resulting form of freshwater protection. In particular,
despite the aspirations of article 3, the Convention does not provide any binding
directives as to the establishment of joint enforcement or dispute settlement
mechanisms to ensure that the principle of equitable and reasonable utilization is
given effect.143 The list of factors to be assessed in this utilization, found in article 6,
paragraph 1, is non-exhaustive, leaving to States the difficult task of reaching
subsequent agreement as to specific factors applicable to the use of their shared
watercourses.
53. The interaction of provisions such as articles 6 (“Factors relevant to equitable
and reasonable utilization”) and 7 (“Obligation not to cause significant harm”) of the
Convention is to be interpreted taking into consideration the development of
international environmental law. Taking into account the relevant legal context may
allow for an adaptive and dynamic interpretation and application of water
agreements.144 Yet it must be recalled that this analytical process arises directly from
the fragmented nature of the current framework of freshwater governance and the
need to fill gaps resulting fr om this relative lack of legal integration.
54. The gaps in the current mosaic of binding and non -binding instruments relating
to the protection of freshwater resources are further complicated by the
multidirectional manner in which these instruments interact. In other words, while the
gaps in the Watercourses Convention may be supplemented by subsequent agreements
between riparian States (i.e., States with freshwater resources), so too may the
Convention serve to fill gaps in existing agreements between these States. 145
Ambiguity in the aforementioned provisions may therefore pose particular problems
for regions where river or aquifer systems have not yet been the subject of binding
and specific legal agreements among riparian States.
55. Such fragmentation weakens the normative scope of environmental principles
in the field of water resources protection. 146 This gap leads to uncertainties in the
applicability of these principles. In this respect, the International Court of Justice ’s
conservative vision of the precautio nary approach in the Pulp Mills on the River
Uruguay case147 reflects the legal uncertainties surrounding the application of such
principles in the field of freshwater resources.
E. Protection of oceans and seas
56. Oceans comprise approximately 70 per cent of the Earth’s surface. The health
of the ocean is of vital importance to marine ecosystem functioning and productivity,
which includes ensuring sustainable fisheries, coastal protection and carbon
sequestration and achieving food security. A number of in struments have been
adopted to address various pressures on the marine environment.
143 See also Watercourses Convention, arts. 8 (2), 24 and 32 (2).
144 See Laurence Boisson de Chazournes, Fresh Water in International Law (Oxford
University Press, 2013), p. 143.
145 See Watercourses Convention, art. 3.
146 See Statute of the River Uruguay, chap. X; Charter of Waters of the Senegal River.
147 Pulp Mills on the River Uruguay (Argentina v. Uruguay), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2010 ,
p. 14.
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57. The most comprehensive of these instruments is the United Nations Convention
on the Law of the Sea of 1982, which sets out the legal framework within which all
activities in the oceans and seas must be carried out. 148 The regime established by the
Convention is based on a zonal approach, under which the rights and obligations of
flag, coastal and port States, and applicable rules, depend on the particular maritime
zone in which an activity is taking place as well as the type of activity in question.
The Convention provides for the general obligation to protect and preserve the marine
environment and requires States to take all measures necessary to prevent, reduce and
control the pollution of the marine environment from any source. These measures
must include those necessary to protect and preserve rare or fragile ecosystems as
well as the habitats of depleted, threatened or endangered species and other forms of
marine life. The Convention includes provisions on enforcement with respect to the
various sources of pollution, as well as provisions on cooperation and coordination
for the protection and preservation of the marine environment. It also codifies, inter
alia, the duty not to transfer damage or hazards or transform one type of pollution into
another,149 as well as the obligation of notification of imminent or actual damage, 150
and includes obligations to monitor the risks or effects of pollution and assess the
potential effects of activities.151
58. Part XII of the Convention specifically refers to six sources of pollution, in
addition to the introduction of alien or new species: pollution from land -based
sources; pollution from seabed activities subject to national jurisdiction; poll ution
from activities in the International Seabed Area; pollution from dumping; pollution
from vessels; and pollution from or through the atmosphere . A number of global and
regional instruments applying to these sources and activities, some of which are
legally binding, have been adopted by competent international organizations. 152 Other
complementary instruments encompass in their scope marine biodiversity 153 or
address the management of marine living resources. 154 These instruments have tended
to reflect a sectoral approach to the development and enforcement of rules for the
protection and preservation of the marine environment. In that context, each sector
focuses on its unique issues, priorities and interests, which hampers the
implementation of integrated approaches such as ecosystem approaches, and the
application of cross-sectoral environmental principles and concepts that have
developed since the Convention was negotiated. Furthermore, with regard to land -
based sources of pollution, legal and institutiona l responses are at both the global and
regional levels, with the latter consisting of 18 regional seas programmes. The
regional seas framework does not have a centralized governance: 7 of the programmes
are administered by the United Nations Environment Pr ogramme (UNEP) while 11
operate independently.155 Regional seas treaties reveal normative gaps concerning the
148 See also resolution 72/73.
149 UNCLOS, art. 195.
150 Ibid., art. 198.
151 Ibid., arts. 204–206.
152 See, for example, Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Waster
and Other Matter (1972 London Convention) and its 1996 Protocol; International Convention
for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships and its 1978 Protocol; Agreement relating to the
Implementation of Part XI of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea; Global
Programme of Action for the Protection of the Marine Environment from Land -based
Activities.
153 See, for example, Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna
and Flora (CITES); Bonn Convention; CBD.
154 See, for example, Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries (FAO Code of Conduct).
155 These include, for example, the Baltic Marine Environment Protection Commission and
the Regional Programme of Action for the Protection of the Marine Environment from Land -
based Activities in the Red Sea and t he Gulf of Aden. See also UNEP, “Why does working
with regional seas matter?”, available at www.unenvironment.org/explore-topics/oceansA/
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control of pollution from seabed activities subject to national jurisdiction, as such
treaties contain only very general and often limited obligatio ns regarding the
environmental impact assessment of proposed activities. 156 In addition, coordination
and cooperation among the regional seas frameworks and relevant global multilateral
environmental agreements could be further enhanced.
59. The conservation and management of marine living resources are governed by
a range of instruments in addition to the United Nations Convention on the Law of
the Sea.157 Most fishing takes place in areas under national jurisdiction. In this regard,
the Convention provides coastal States with sovereign rights over marine living
resources in their respective exclusive economic zones and sets out the duty to
conserve and manage such resources to ensure their sustainable use. On the high seas,
the principal responsibilities of conser vation and management fall upon flag States.
States are also required to cooperate with each other in the conservation and
management of living resources in the areas of the high seas, including through the
establishment of regional fisheries management or ganizations. This model has had
varying levels of success in meeting the objectives of sustainable fish stock
management in the face of threats such as unsustainable and/or destructive fishing
practices, climate change and environmental pollution from vari ous sources, in
particular marine debris, including in the form of abandoned, lost or otherwise
discarded fishing gear. The general duty of precaution in the face of scientific
uncertainty is being increasingly acknowledged in this regard. 158
60. The Secretary-General has stressed the importance of the effective
implementation of the legal framework established by the Convention and its
implementing agreements in order to achieve Sustainable Development Goal 14. 159
Continued efforts have been made to strengthen thi s framework, including through
additional instruments to address emerging challenges. In particular, the General
Assembly decided to develop a legally binding instrument under the Convention on
the conservation and sustainable use of marine biodiversity be yond national
jurisdiction. 160 There have also been increased efforts to enhance international
cooperation and coordination, including of a cross -sectoral nature, in support of the
implementation of relevant instruments, for example through UN -Oceans. At the
global level, the Assembly, through its annual review of developments in ocean affairs
and the law of the sea, provides a global mechanism for further enhancing integrated
and coordinated approaches.
61. As noted in the context of the United Nations Conferenc e to Support the
Implementation of Sustainable Development Goal 14: Conserve and sustainably use
the oceans, seas and marine resources for sustainable development (the Ocean
Conference), held in 2017, 161 a number of challenges remain to be addressed, in
particular those resulting from predominantly sectoral approaches to ocean
seas/what-we-do/working-regional-seas/why-does-working-regional-seas-matter.
156 See, for example, Framework Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of
the Caspian Sea, art. 17.
157 See, for example, Agreement to Promote Compliance with International Conservation and
Management Measures by Fishing Vessels on the High Seas; FAO Code of Conduct;
Agreement for the Implementation of the Provisions of the United Nations Convention on the
Law of the Sea of 10 December 1982 relat ing to the Conservation and Management of
Straddling Fish Stocks and Highly Migratory Fish Stocks (FSA); Agreement on Port State
Measures to Prevent, Deter and Eliminate Illegal, Unreported and Unregulated Fishing.
158 See Southern Bluefin Tuna (New Zealand v. Japan; Australia v. Japan), Provisional
Measures, Order of 27 August 1999, p. 280, paras. 77 and 79.
159 See A/71/733, paras 15–19.
160 See resolution 69/292, para. 2.
161 See also https://oceanconference.un.org/commitments/?id=16758 .
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management and the ineffective implementation and compliance that partly stems
from a lack of coordination and capacity. The effectiveness of applicable international
legal instruments is affected by the level of participation by States. Gaps also exist
with regard to the material or geographical scope of relevant instruments; for
example, while some aspects of marine debris, plastics and microplastics are covered
by several global, regional and national instruments, none of them, other than some
regional action plans on marine litter, are specifically dedicated to these issues. Some
geographic areas remain unaddressed by regional instruments relevant to the
implementation of aspects of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea
and the 1995 Fish Stocks Agreement. Implementation of legal and policy instruments
is further affected by regulatory and administrative structures at the national level.
Policies and national legislation related to ocean affairs are still largely fragmented
in many States, and their implementation suffers from insufficient intersectoral
coordination and the constraints resulting from competing interests. Assessments of
implementation remain incomplete owing to a low level of responses to reporting
requirements and limited available information on how States have followed up on
their obligations and commitments. Formal, multilateral compliance committees, as
seen under multilateral environmental agreements, a re not common with regard to the
law of the sea.
F. Regulation of hazardous substances, wastes and activities
62. Over the years, industrial and technological developments have resulted in the
production and use of hazardous substances, the generation of hazardous wastes as a
by-product and the undertaking of activities that pose potential risks to human health
and the environment. High-level political concern has been reflected in Principle 6 of
the Stockholm Declaration, 162 Principle 14 of the Rio Declaration, Agenda 21:
Programme of Action for Sustainable Development, 163 the outcome document of the
United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development (the Rio+20 Conference),
entitled “The future we want”, and Sustainable Development Goal 12.164
Hazardous substances
63. Hazardous substances include industrial chemicals and pesticides. International
legal instruments have addressed the matter through a listing system of substances
deemed hazardous because of their inherent characteristics, 165 through the regulatio n
of specific substances166 or through the regulation of trade,167 and have focused on
accident prevention, preparedness and response; the control of production and use;
the provision of information, including registration, classification, labelling and
packaging; transportation and transboundary movements; and exposure in the
working environment.
64. The existing instruments addressing accident prevention, preparedness and
response are largely regional, covering Europe and North America, 168 and were
162 Stockholm Declaration.
163 Agenda 21, chaps. 19 and 20.
164 Sustainable Development Goals, targets 12.4 and 12.5.
165 Directive 85/337/EEC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 27 June 1985 on
the assessment of the effects on certain public and private projects on the environment; Espoo
Convention.
166 Vienna Ozone Convention and its 1987 Montreal Protocol; Kyoto Protocol; Cartagena
Protocol; POPs Convention; Minamata Convention on Mercury.
167 Rotterdam Convention.
168 Except for ILO Convention No. 174 on the prevention of major industrial accidents, see
for example, Directive 2012/18/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 4 July
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developed in response to major industrial accidents. 169 Three global instruments
regulate or prohibit the production and use of specific chemicals, namely, the
Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer, the Stockholm
Convention on Persistent Organic Po llutants 170 and the Minamata Convention on
Mercury. 171 International rules for the registration, classification, labelling and
packaging of hazardous substances are critical to addressing the associated human
health and environmental risks. Labelling and packa ging requirements are contained
in the Rotterdam Convention on the Prior Informed Consent Procedure for Certain
Hazardous Chemicals and Pesticides in International Trade of 1998, the Convention
concerning Safety in the Use of Chemicals at Work of 1990 172 and Regulation (EC)
No. 1272/2008 of the European Union on classification, labelling and packaging of
substances and mixtures. 173 The international framework for the regulation of
international trade in chemicals and pesticides is composed of non -binding guidelines
developed by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) and
the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) in the 1980s 174
and binding legal instruments such as the previously mentioned Montreal Protocol,
the Minamata Convention on Mercury and the Stockholm Convention, as well as the
Rotterdam Convention, 175 which establishes a prior informed consent procedure
applicable to banned or severely restricted chemicals and severely hazardous
pesticide formulations.176 The international rules governing the transport of hazardous
substances by different modes of transport are underdeveloped and mostly apply to
the European region, except for the International Convention for the Prevention of
Pollution from Ships, 1973, as modi fied by the Protocol of 1978 relating thereto
(MARPOL), annex 18 to the Convention on International Civil Aviation: The Safe
Transport of Dangerous Goods by Air, and the Regulations for the Safe Transport of
Radioactive Material of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA).177 The use
2012 on the control of major-accident hazards involving dangerous sub stances, amending and
subsequently repealing Council Directive 96/82/EC; Convention on the Transboundary
Effects of Industrial Accidents; Agreement of Cooperation Between the United States of
America and United Mexican States Regarding Pollution of the Environment Along the Inland
International Boundary by Discharges of Hazardous Substances.
169 Such as those in Seveso, Italy (1976), Bhopal, India (1984), Basel, Switzerland (1986) and
Baia Mare, Romania (2000).
170 It initially targeted twelve chemicals but provided for subsequent additions through the
Persistent Organic Pollutants Review Committee, see POPs Convention, art. 8.
171 Minamata Convention on Mercury, art. 4 (1), annex A, part I.
172 ILO Convention No. 170 on safety in the use of chemicals at work.
173 See Rotterdam Convention, art. 13 (2). Other instruments such as the Globally Harmonized
System of Classification and Labelling of Chemicals (GHS), the schemes developed by UNEP,
ILO and the World Health Organization (WHO) under the International Programme for
Chemical Safety (IPCS), including WHO, The WHO Recommended Classification of Pesticides
by Hazard and Guidelines to Classification: 2009 (2009) and WHO and FAO, International
Code of Conduct on the Distribution and Use of Pesticides: Guidelines for Registration of
Pesticides (2010); WHO and FAO, Guidelines on Good Labelling Practice for Pesticides
(2015) are voluntary.
174 FAO, International Code of Conduct on Pesticides Management (Conference resolution
10/85); Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), Recommendation
on the Council concerning Information Exchange related to Export of Banned or Severely
Restricted Chemicals OECD/Legal/0210, 1984.
175 Rotterdam Convention.
176 See ibid., arts. 3 (1), 10, 11 and annex III.
177 Several legally binding instruments have been adopted within the European region dealing
with transport by air, rail and inland waterways – see, for example, European Agreement
concerning the International Carriage of Goods by Road; Convention Concerning the
International Carriage of Goods by Rail and its 2015 Regulations concerning the International
Carriage of Dangerous Goods by Rail; Economic Commission for Europe, European
Agreement concerning International Carriage of Dangerous Goods by Inland Waterways.
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of certain hazardous substances in the working environment is strictly regulated
through several legally binding instruments adopted under the auspices of the
International Labour Organization (ILO). 178
Hazardous wastes
65. The current international regime governing hazardous wastes focuses mainly on
their disposal and transboundary movements and trade. It is acknowledged, however,
that an approach that includes the minimization or prevention of the generation of
waste at the source would provide a more holistic and effective response to the
problem. 179 Of note, the European Union, at the regional level, has established
quantitative targets regarding the generation of certain categories of wastes. 180
66. The Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of
Hazardous Wastes and Their Disposal of 1989 is the most comprehensive global treaty
dealing with hazardous wastes and other wastes (household wastes). The Convention
focuses primarily on the control of transboundary mov ements but also aims at
ensuring the minimization of waste generation as well as its environmentally sound
management. International focus on the transboundary movement of and trade in
hazardous wastes arose out of incidents of illegal trafficking in toxic substances and
wastes and the dumping of such products in developing and Eastern European
countries in the late 1980s.181 Several regional agreements were subsequently adopted
to complement the Basel Convention. 182 The Basel Convention establishes a strict
regime for transboundary movements of wastes, based on a prior informed consent
procedure requiring the notification of concerned States, the provision of specified
information in the notification and the receipt of consent before movement. 183 An
amendment seeking to ban hazardous waste exports for final disposal and recycling
from Annex VII parties (members of the European Union, OECD and Liechtenstein)
to non-Annex VII parties (mainly developing countries), adopted in 1995, 184 has yet
to enter into force at the international level, although it has been implemented by
many parties. The Convention’s liability and compensation protocol adopted in 1999
also has yet to enter into force.185
67. The disposal of wastes into specific environmental media is regulated by several
global and regional legal instruments, with disposal at sea being more extensively
178 See, for example, ILO Convention No. 170 on safety in the use of chemicals at work, ILO
Convention No. 155 on occupational safety and health and the working environment and ILO
Convention No. 148 on working environment (air pollution, noise and vibration). Specific
instruments address hazards arising from substances such as ionizing radiation, benzene,
asbestos and carcinogenic substances.
179 Agenda 21 and the Sustainable Development Goals.
180 Directive 2008/98/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 19 Nove mber
2008. The decisions of the Conference of Parties to the Basel Convention have since
underlined the need for future action to focus, inter alia, on prevention and minimization of
generation at source as well as recycling, recovery and the active promot ion and use of clean
technologies, see decision V/33 (UNEP/CHW.5/29) and decision BC -10/2
(UNEP/CHW.10/BC-10/2).
181 See, for example, A/44/362.
182 These include Basel Convention, Bamako Convention on the Ban of the Import into Africa
and the Control of Transboundary Movement and Management of Hazardous Wastes within
Africa (Bamako Convention), Convention to Ban the Importation into the Forum Island
Countries of Hazardous and Radioactive Wastes and to Control the Transboundary and
Management of Hazardous Wastes within the South Pacific Region (Waigani Convention).
183 Basel Convention, art. 6.
184 Amendment to the Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of
Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal, see amendments to art. 4 (A) and annex VII.
185 See Basel Protocol on Liability and Compensation for Damage resulting from the
Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and Their Disposal (Basel Protocol).
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regulated compared with other media, 186 but legal intervention in the areas of land -
based disposal as well as recycling and reuse is either minimal or non -existent. In
addition, important gaps remain with respect to regional coverage as well as the
regulation of the disposal of marine plastic litter and microplastics, mine tailings and
associated wastes from mining operations, and wastes from deep seabed mining. 187
Land-based disposal is sparsely regulated at both the regional and global levels. 188
With regard to recovery, recycling and reuse, only the European Union, in particular
through Directive 2006/12/EC and Directive 2008/98/EC, has established any legal
requirements.
Hazardous activities
68. With regard to hazardous activities, international regulation has focused
primarily on nuclear activities. Treaties adopted under the auspices of IAEA address
the physical protection of nuclear material, the early notifica tion of nuclear accidents,
assistance in case of accidents and emergencies and nuclear safety. 189 The limitations
of the Convention on Nuclear Safety of 1994 were starkly demonstrated by the
incident at the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear power station, and in 201 5 the non-binding
Vienna Declaration on Nuclear Safety was adopted with a view to addressing issues
related to the design, siting and safety assessment of nuclear power plants.
Normative and institutional gaps
69. There are significant gaps in the regulatory regimes of hazardous substances,
wastes and activities. With regard to hazardous substances, these include the absence
of global rules that address accident prevention, preparedness and response; largely
non-binding international classification, labell ing and packaging systems; and the fact
that the frameworks regarding the transport of hazardous substances are mainly
regional in nature. With regard to hazardous wastes, international rules have
predominantly focused on the disposal and transboundary mov ements of such wastes
rather than minimizing the generation of wastes at the source, 190 and lack any
quantitative restrictions within specific time frames. It may be noted, however, that
the Basel Convention provides a basis to address the minimization of th e generation
of wastes at the source. The absence of an operative global liability and compensation
regime with respect to the transboundary movements of hazardous wastes is a major
gap in the international legal framework. Finally, in the area of hazardou s activities,
focus has been on nuclear activities, but even here significant gaps exist, especially
with respect to non-military nuclear activities, as well as limitations regarding legally
binding global rules, principles and standards relating to the de sign, siting and safety
of nuclear power plants.
186 See Bamako Convention, art. 4 (2); South Pacific Nuclear Free Zone Treaty (Rarotonga
Treaty), art. 7; Convention for the Protection of the Natural Resources and Environment of
the South Pacific Region (Noumea Treaty), art. 10 (1); OSPAR Convention, art. 4 and annex
II; 1972 London Convention, art. IV and its 1996 Protocol.
187 See “Report of the thirty-eighth Consultative Meeting of the Contracting Parties to the
London Convention and the eleventh Meeting of the Contracting Parties to the London
Protocol”, document LC 38/16.
188 There are some instruments such as Regulation (EC) No. 1137/2008 and Co uncil Directive
99/31/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council; Espoo Convention, arts. 2, 3 and 5;
POPs Convention, art. 6; Minamata Convention on Mercury, arts. 9, 11 and 12.
189 See Convention on the Physical Protection of Nuclear Material; Conven tion on Early
Notification of a Nuclear Accident; Convention on Assistance in the Case of Nuclear Accident
or Radiological Emergency; Convention on Nuclear Safety; and 1997 Joint Convention on
Safety of Spent Fuel Management and the Safety of Radioactive Waste Management (36 ILM
1431).
190 Sands and others, Principles of International Environmental Law, p. 613.
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70. The proliferation of instruments and the fragmentation in the regulatory regimes
create the need for institutional coordination and cooperation, as well as the
implementation of the various legal instrument s in a mutually supportive manner.
Important steps have been taken to enhance coordination and cooperation among the
Basel, Rotterdam and Stockholm Conventions so as to ensure mutual supportiveness.
The “synergies process” launched in 2008/09 by the three Conferences of the Parties
of the Basel, Rotterdam and Stockholm Conventions aims at strengthening the
implementation of the three Conventions at the national, regional and global levels.
IV. Environment-related instruments
A. Trade instruments
71. WTO is the primary focal point at the nexus of trade and environment. The WTO
Appellate Body has been called upon to address several disputes concerning
environment-related trade measures, and normative gaps have been evident in its
reluctance to apply environmental principles to justify measures that are inconsistent
with trade obligations (unless expressly prescribed in the relevant WTO
agreement). 191 The mutual supportiveness of trade and environment has been
referenced in environmental treaties featuring tra de components. 192 However, the
Doha Round of WTO negotiations has spent 17 years at an impasse over how to apply
that principle. The significant challenge of reaching consensus on the implementation
of mutual supportiveness of trade and environment suggests a widening gap between
these two normative regimes.
B. Investment instruments
72. Clauses referring to environmental concerns are rare in bilateral investment
treaties, but more common in multilateral pacts that include investment provisions.
State practices regarding environmental clauses in treaties vary widely: many States
do not employ such clauses in investment treaties; a few developed States have
systematically begun including environmental clauses in all of their investment
treaties; and several States appear to permit the inclusion of environmental clauses in
investment treaties concluded with States that express a preference for such clauses. 193
Newly concluded investment treaties now tend to include environmental clauses, with
such evolution particularly evident in Africa.194 From a global perspective, however,
in recent years the frequency of approaches that include references to environmental
concerns in investment agreements has declined, including the use of clauses that
reserve policy space for environmental regulation and broader references in treaty
preambles. 195 Normative gaps arise because the specific environmental concerns
191 See, for example, European Communities – Measures concerning Meat and Meat Products
(Hormones), WT/DS26/AB/R, 16 January 1998 (concerning the precau tionary principle and
the agreement on the application of sanitary and phytosanitary measures).
192 See, for example, Rotterdam Convention; Cartagena Protocol; POPs Convention;
Minamata Convention on Mercury.
193 See Kathryn Gordon and Joachim Pohl, “Environmental concerns in international
investment agreements: a survey”, OECD Working Paper on International Investment 2011/01
(2011), p. 5.
194 See, for example, Supplementary Act A/SA.3/12/08 Adopting Community Rules on
Investment and the Rules on Investment and the Modalities for their Implementation with the
Economic Community of West African States; 2012 Southern African Development
Community Model Bilateral Investment Treaty; Pan -African Investment Code.
195 See Gordon and Pohl, “Environmental concerns in international investment agreements ”,
p. 6.
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explicitly addressed in these agreements are limited, and have generally not evolved
to include more recent concerns such as climate change and biodiversity.196
C. Intellectual property instruments
73. Exclusive rights conferred by patents, plant variety rights and utility models can
cover renewable energy technologies,197 medicines for new illnesses that arise as a
result of new climates and new crops bred to flourish in places no longer suitable for
traditional plants. 198 The patenting of plants and plant varieties has caused major
changes in farming practices, inhibiting t he rights of farmers to sow, save, reuse and
sell their seeds and demonstrating a normative gap between patent law and the plant -
breeders’ rights regimes which promote these rights. 199 The privatization of plant and
animal germ plasm through patents and othe r forms of intellectual property has
highlighted a gap between WIPO institutional norms that promote innovation and the
provisions of the Convention on Biological Diversity regarding access and benefit -
sharing, the rights of traditional knowledge holders a nd biodiversity conservation. 200
The requirement under the Agreement on Trade -Related Aspects of Intellectual
Property Rights (the TRIPS Agreement) of 1994 to protect property rights regarding
new plant varieties may also promote the innovation of geneticall y modified
organisms. 201 Such developments raise questions concerning gaps between the
regimes of the TRIPS Agreement and the Convention on Biological Diversity,
including the latter’s requirement to recognize the value of the knowledge,
innovations and practices of local communities relevant to the sustainable use of
biodiversity.202 Gaps are also apparent in the links between the TRIPS Agreement and
the provisions of the Convention on Biological Diversity that establish principles for
access to and the sharing of the benefits from genetic resources. 203
D. Human rights instruments
74. Environmental degradation interferes with the enjoyment of a broad range of
human rights, including those related to housing, water and sanitation, food, health,
development and an adequate standard of living. Under international human rights
law, States have an obligation to prevent foreseeable human rights harms, including
196 Ibid., p. 24.
197 See Eric L. Lane, “Legal aspects of green patents”, in Adree Kirchner and Iris Kirchner-
Freis, eds., Green Innovations and IPR Management (Kluwer Law International, 2013), p.
5021.
198 See Claudio Chiarolla, Intellectual Property, Agriculture and Global Food Security: The
Privatization of Crop Diversity (Edward Elgar Publishing, 2011), pp. 60–74.
199 See Center for International Environmental Law, A Citizen’s Guide to WIPO (2007), p. 3.
Available at www.ciel.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/CitizensGuide_WIPO_Oct07.pdf .
200 Ibid., p. 4.
201 Ibid., p. 33. See also Simon Walker, The TRIPS Agreement, Sustainable Development and
the Public Interest, Environmental Policy and Law Paper No. 41 (IUCN, 2001), p. xii.
Available at https://portals.iucn.org/library/sites/library/files/docu ments/EPLP-041.pdf.
202 Referring to article 8 (j) of CBD, see David Downes, “Using intellectual property as a tool
to protect traditional knowledge: recommendations for next steps ”, discussion paper prepared
for the Convention on Biological Diversity Worksh op on Traditional Knowledge (Madrid,
November 1997), p. 9. See also A. Gupta, “Securing traditional knowledge and contemporary
innovations: can global trade links help grassroots innovations? ”, paper presented at the World
Trade Forum, University of Bern, 1999.
203 See also Marci Baranski, “International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and
Agriculture (2001)”, Arizona State University Embryo Project Encyclopedia, 7 October 2013.
Available at https://embryo.asu.edu/pages/international -treaty-plant-genetic-resources-foodand-
agriculture-2001.
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those caused by environmental degradation. Human rights instruments further reflect
a wide array of principles applied in the context of environmental law, including
solidarity, accountability, transparency, participation, access to information and
remedies, the precautionary principle, equality and equity. In his report setting out a
framework of principles on human rights and the environment, the Special Rapporteur
on the issue of human rights obligations relating to the enjoyment of a safe, clean,
healthy and sustainable environment articulates the application of existing human
rights norms in the environmental context.204
75. Importantly, many human rights instruments explicitly reference the
environment or environmental concerns. The Convention on the Rights of the Child
refers to environmental pollution and environmental sanitation as issues that must be
addressed to ensure the right to health, and also calls for education to help children
develop a respect for the natural environment. 205 Numerous regional human rights
treaties include the right to a healthy environment, 206 as do some environmental
democracy treaties.207 General Assembly resolution 70/169 and general comment No.
15 (2002) of the Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights articulate a right
to water and sanitation that derives from but is not explicitly present in the
International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights.208
76. In a series of resolutions, the Human Rights Council has addressed the issues of
human rights and the environment generally, and also has focused specifically on
environment, toxic substances and climate change, among oth er issues, explicitly
noting the connections between a healthy environment and the effective enjoyment of
human rights.209 Such resolutions, in tandem with the work of other treaty bodies, 210
have raised awareness of environmental health and sustainability as a fundamental
prerequisite to the enjoyment of human rights and the realization of gender equality
and the empowerment of women. Regional courts may fill gaps between sources of
human rights law and environmental law, as seen in the finding of the Inter -American
Court of Human Rights in 2017 that States must take measures to prevent significant
environmental harm to individuals inside and outside their territory. 211
204 See A/HRC/37/59.
205 See Convention on the Rights of the Child, arts. 24 and 29.
206 See for example, African Charter on Human and Peoples ’ Rights, Additional Protocol to
the American Convention on Human Rights in the Area of Economic, Social and Cultural
Rights (San Salvador Protocol), Arab Charte r on Human Rights, and ASEAN Human Rights
Declaration.
207 The Aarhus Convention and the Escazú Agreement.
208 See resolution 70/169 and the Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, general
comment No. 15 (2002) on the right to water.
209 See, for example, Human Rights Council resolutions 38/4 on human rights and climate
change; 37/8 on human rights and the environment; 27/23 on the Mandate of the Special
Rapporteur on the implications for human rights of the environmentally sound management
and disposal of hazardous substances and wastes. See also Dinah Shelton, “Human rights,
health and environmental protection: linkages in law and practice ”, Health and Human Rights
Working Paper Series, No. 1 (World Health Organization, 2002).
210 See, for example, HRI/GEN/1/Rev.3; Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights,
general comment No. 12 (1999) on the right to adequate food; general comment 4 (1991) on
the right to adequate housing, para. 5; CEDAW/C/2000/II/Add.7, para. 38.
211 Inter-American Court of Human Rights, The Environment and Human Rights (State
Obligations in Relation to the Environment in the Context of the Protection and Guarantee of
the Rights to Life and to Personal Integrity (Interpretation and Scope of Articles 4 (1) and 5
(1) of the American Convention on Human Rights), Advisory Opinion OC-23/18, (Ser. A) No.
23, 15 November 2017.
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V. Gaps relating to the governance structure of international
environmental law
77. The structure of international environmental governance is characterized by
institutional fragmentation and a heterogeneous set of actors. Although States remain
the primary actors, international environmental governance is a multi -actor
governance system that includes international institutions, treaty bodies,
non-governmental organizations, the scientific community and the private sector.
78. A multiplicity of global and regional international institutions participate in the
task of international environmental law-making and implementation. They comprise
entities of the United Nations system and treaty bodies established by multilateral
environmental agreements. In the aftermath of the United Nations Conference on the
Human Environment (the Stockholm Confere nce), UNEP was established to promote
international cooperation in the field of the environment and to provide general policy
guidance for the direction and coordination of environmental programmes within the
United Nations system. 212 The role of UNEP as the leading global environmental
authority that sets the global environmental agenda, promotes the coherent
implementation of the environmental dimension of sustainable development within
the United Nations system and serves as the authoritative advocate for the global
environment was reaffirmed in Agenda 21, the Nairobi Declaration on the Role and
Mandate of UNEP 213 and the outcome document of the Rio+20 Conference, entitled
“The future we want”.214 World leaders at the Rio+20 Conference and the General
Assembly in 2012 decided to strengthen and upgrade UNEP and to establish universal
membership in its Governing Council, which was subsequently renamed the
United Nations Environment Assembly by the General Assembly in 2013. Many other
United Nations system institutions have acquired considerable environmental
responsibilities since UNEP was established. These include United Nations
programmes and funds such as the United Nations Development Programme and the
United Nations Human Settlements Programme (UN -Habitat) as well as specialized
agencies such as FAO, IMO, IAEA, ICAO and ILO. In addition, the World Bank and
the regional development banks have established substantial environmental
portfolios.215
79. After the Stockholm Conference, international environmental l aw-making saw
the proliferation of multilateral environmental agreements and the emergence of
treaty-based bodies. According to the Environmental Law Information Service
(ECOLEX), there are currently more than 500 multilateral environmental
agreements,216 and it has been estimated that some 200 or so treaty -based institutions
were established in the two decades after the Stockholm Conference. 217 Such treaty
bodies include supreme policymaking organs, which are invariably Conferences of
the Parties or Meetings of the Parties that are responsible for the further development
of the treaty regime as well as for the supervision and review of treaty
implementation; secretariats that carry out administrative and support functions; and,
in some cases, quasi-judicial and compliance mechanisms and procedures aimed at
promoting compliance and addressing cases of non -compliance with treaty
obligations. Moreover, several multilateral environmental agreements have been
212 See resolution 2997 (XXVII), para. 2.
213 Official Records of the General Assembly, Fifty -second Session, Supplement No. 25
(A/52/25), annex, decision 19/1, annex.
214 See resolution 66/288, para. 88.
215 See A/61/583, para. 37.
216 See www.ecolex.org.
217 Biermann, “The emerging debate on the need for a world environment organization ”, p.
10.
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negotiated under the auspices of and are administered by U NEP and other institutions
of the United Nations system.
80. The proliferation of multilateral environmental agreements and the resultant
distinct and separate mandates ignore the unity, interconnectedness and
interdependence of the Earth’s ecosystem. They also create potential for overlap and
conflict, institutional and policy incoherence and increased financial and
administrative burdens on States parties. 218 Significant efforts, however, are made to
ensure mutual supportiveness among such agreements either in their texts (e.g.,
through cross references with other agreements or clarification of respective scopes)
or in the way they are further developed and implemented (e.g., through decisions
and/or resolutions regarding coordination and cooperation among agre ements). More
efforts could be made to establish or strengthen mechanisms to harness interlinkages
and promote synergies for more effective implementation. 219 The clustering of related
multilateral environmental agreements, for example those dealing with atm osphere,
or biodiversity, or chemicals and wastes, would improve policy coherence and ensure
mutually supportive implementation. The “synergies process” launched by the
Conferences of the Parties of the Basel, Rotterdam and Stockholm Conventions in
2008/09, as well as the UNEP project entitled “Environmental treaties programme –
realizing synergies for biodiversity” launched in November 2017, are commendable
initiatives in this regard.220
81. The significant increase in the number of institutions with environmen tal
responsibilities in the United Nations system, the imperative of integrating the
environment and development and the proliferation of treaty -based institutions
established by multilateral environmental agreements have created the need for
effective coordination among relevant United Nations system institutions as well as
the institutions created by the agreements. Indeed, the High -level Panel on United
Nations System-wide Coherence in the Areas of Development, Humanitarian
Assistance and the Environment underlined the fact that fragmented institutional
structures do not offer an operational framework to address global issues. 221
Institutional fragmentation and a lack of coordination are key challenges with regard
to the current international environmental governance. Previous and current
institutional arrangements for coordination within the United Nations system, such as
the Administrative Committee on Coordination, which was subsequently renamed the
United Nations System Chief Executives Board for Coordin ation, the Inter-Agency
Committee on Sustainable Development and the Environment Management Group,
have proved limited in effectiveness or scope. 222 There have been concerted efforts,
however, through the Environment Management Group, to build coherence amon g
the biodiversity and chemicals regimes.
82. Enhanced coordination might be necessary not only within the field of
international environmental law, but also between multilateral environmental
218 See for example, B. L. Hicks, “Treaty congestion in international environmental law: the
need for greater international coordination ”, University of Richmond Law Review, vol. 32, No.
5 (1999), p. 1659.
219 A study by Oberthur and Gehring noted that institutional interaction led to synergy and t he
improved institutional effectiveness in more than 60 per cent of the case studies of
international and European environmental policy, see Sebastian Oberthur and Thomas
Gehring, eds., Institutional Interaction in Global Environmental Governance: Synergy and
Conflict among International and EU Policies (MIT Press, 2006).
220 See United Nations Environment Assembly resolution 2/17; CBD COP decision XIII/24.
221 See A/61/583, para. 35.
222 See, generally, Adil Najam, Mihaela Papa and Nadaa Taiyab, eds., Global Environmental
Governance: A Reform Agenda (International Institute for Sustainable Development, 2006);
Sands and others, Principles of International Environmental Law.
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agreements and other instruments that directly or indirectly affec t the environment,
such as trade law, investment law and intellectual property rights regimes.
83. Institutional fragmentation and weak coordination between treaties can be
addressed through various means, such as: (a) creating clusters and synergies between
conventions; (b) mapping existing global and regional action plans and agreements to
create an overview of coverage and identify interlinkages; (c) avoiding duplication of
reporting and/or monitoring processes by using the same reporting channels and not
creating additional burdens (“integrated reporting”); (d) sharing lessons learned and
best practices; (e) developing implementation guidelines for multilateral
environmental agreements; and (f) sharing information among the different scientific
bodies that support the work of related multilateral environmental agreements.
Potential conflicts between treaty regimes can be managed by using legal means,
including conflict clauses, mutual supportiveness or the application of the general rule
of treaty interpretation contained in article 31, paragraph 3 (c), of the Vienna
Convention on the Law of Treaties.223
84. The trend in international environmental governance is increasingly towards
broadening the range of actors recognized as having a legitimate role in
governance. 224 Principle 10 of the Rio Declaration, Agenda 21 and the outcome
document of the Rio+20 Conference, entitled “The future we want”, have underlined
the important role of non-State actors such as major groups, women, children and
youth, indigenous peoples, non-governmental organizations, local authorities,
workers and trade unions, business and industry, the scientific and technological
community and farmers, as well as other stakeholders in the development and
implementation of sustainable development polici es. However, the scope and space
for the participation of non-State actors in the international environmental legal
process varies with the different treaty regimes. The preponderant mode of
engagement of non-State actors is participation as observers in t he negotiations that
take place during the conferences of the parties to the multilateral environmental
agreements, but no clear and effective rules have been developed to facilitate their
input regarding the negotiation process. In specific instances, observers can
participate in subsidiary bodies on an equal footing with parties, such as in
partnerships structures.225 In regimes such as climate change and ozone, the scientific
community has direct input into policy development through dedicated institutiona l
mechanisms that provide independent and authoritative information upon which
decisions can be based. Very few regimes provide for public participation in the non -
compliance procedures established to monitor, review and verify compliance with
international obligations. The Convention on Access to Information, Public
Participation in Decision-Making and Access to Justice in Environmental Matters (the
Aarhus Convention) of 1998 provides the broadest latitude for public participation
through procedural rights granted to non-State actors by States parties as well as the
opportunity to participate in the Convention ’s non-compliance mechanism. A similar
approach was adopted in the Regional Agreement on Access to Information, Public
Participation and Justice in Environmental Matters in Latin America and the
Caribbean (the Escazú Agreement) of 2018. 226 Nevertheless, compared to the
international human rights mechanisms there exists a significant gap in international
environmental law regarding effective participation by non-State actors in
international law-making and implementation.
223 See A/CN.4/L.682, paras. 410–480.
224 Sands and others, Principles of International Environmental Law, p. 52.
225 See the various partnerships established under the Basel Convention: the Partnership for
Action on Computing Equipment (PACE), the Mobile Phone Partnership Initiative (MPPI),
the Household Waste Partnership.
226 Adopted in Escazú, Costa Rica, on 4 March 2018.
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VI. Gaps relating to the implementation and effectiveness of
international environmental law
A. National implementation
85. To be effective, international environmental norms must be implemented. 227
That occurs when national laws that contain measures to implement international
commitments are adopted or adapted, when it is ensured that those national measures
correspond to the requirements of international law and are complied with by a ctors
under parties’ jurisdiction and control and when obligations to relevant international
institutions, such as reporting, are fulfilled. 228
86. The lack of effective implementation of many multilateral environmental
agreements has been identified as a major gap in addressing environmental
challenges.229 Many countries face challenges associated with the implementation of
multiple agreements. Implementation deficits arise for different reasons, including
knowledge gaps; a lack of adequate means of implementation, such as finance,
capacity-building or technology; the need for facilitation for compliance; a lack of
coordination between relevant government departments as well as with other sectors;
insufficient monitoring and law enforcement; a lack of political will; and the
inadequate engagement of different stakeholders, such as civil society and women ’s
organizations.230 Coherence, synergy and coordination at the international level could
ease implementation at the national level, as demonstrated by the “synergies process”
under the Basel, Rotterdam and Stockholm Conventions, but is largely limited. 231 The
same challenge applies at the national level, where d ifferent ministries may be
responsible for the implementation of different multilateral environmental
agreements.
B. Means of implementation: financial resources, technology transfer
and capacity-building
87. Access to means of implementation, such as financial resources,
environmentally sound technologies and technical and institutional capacities, is an
important variable in the effective implementation of commitments and compliance
with treaty obligations, especially for developing countries and, in some instances,
countries with economies in transition. The establishment of financial mechanisms
and the provision of technical and technological assistance and capacity -building to
enable compliance and implementation are integral to many multilateral
environmental agreements. 232 Moreover, many international organizations also
227 Bodansky, The Art and Craft of International Environmental Law , p. 223.
228 Sands and others, Principles of International Environmental Law, p. 147.
229 UNEP, “Future shape of international law to address pollutio n of global significance
affecting the Earth's ecosystems: consolidated report of initial consideration by experts ”, 6
April 2018.
230 David Victor, Kal Raustiala and Eugene B. Skolnikoff, eds., The Implementation and
Effectiveness of International Environmental Commitments: Theory and Practice (MIT Press,
1998).
231 UNEP, “Future shape of international law to address pollution of global significance
affecting the Earth's ecosystems”.
232 See, for example, UNFCC, art. 11; CBD, arts. 16, 18, 20 and 21; Montreal Pr otocol, arts.
10 and 11; Basel Convention, arts. 10 and 14; Paris Agreement, arts. 9–11; and Minamata
Convention on Mercury, arts. 13 and 14. Special Funds have also been established under the
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engage in financial and technical support and capacity -building efforts as part of their
programmes.233
88. A number of studies have noted the difficulties relating to the provision of pub lic
finance and the mobilization of private finance across multilateral environmental
agreements. 234 Generally, funding for implementation remains insufficient,
unpredictable and incoherent, and varies considerably among the different regimes. 235
On the other hand, the barriers facing the effective transfer of environmentally sound
technologies include the limited information and decision -support tools required for
transfer; inadequate arrangements for the protection of patents and other intellectual
property rights; the lack of cooperation among governments, corporations and the
financial community with regard to investing in and making available
environmentally sound technologies; and the inadequacy of systems for collecting,
synthesizing and reporting back information and knowledge on such technologies. 236
89. Limited reporting by developed countries regarding the resources that have been
provided and mobilized, the technologies that have been transferred and any other
support that has been provided, as well as the lack of processes to monitor and review
compliance with financial, technology transfer and capacity -building obligations,
have constituted important constraints to the effective implementation of relevant
treaty provisions.237 The reporting and review processes of multilateral environmental
agreements play a significant role in determining whether developed countries are
meeting their commitments relating to technological, technical and financial support,
and failure by treaty parties to provide relevant inf ormation in national reports has a
negative impact on the evaluation of the effectiveness of relevant treaty provisions. 238
Recent developments in treaty-making have demonstrated deliberate efforts by
governments to address this gap.239
climate and ozone regimes (Green Climate Fund and the Multilate ral Fund for the
Implementation of the Montreal Protocol).
233 The Global Environment Facility, jointly administered by the World Bank, the United
Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and UNEP, not only acts as the financial
mechanism for a number of multilateral environmental agreements but also provides financial
resources on the basis of its own mandate such as the Capacity 21 programme of UNDP and
the technical assistance and capacity-building programmes of UNEP.
234 Kamleshan Pillay, Stine Aakre and Asbjø rn Torvanger, “Mobilizing adaptation finance in
developing countries”, 23 March 2017; Aaron Atteridge, “Will private finance support climate
change adaptation in developing countries? ”, Stockholm Environment Institute Working Paper,
No. 2011-05 (November 2011); Tom Conway, “Building capacity for resource mobilization:
improving the financial conditions for implementation of the Basel Convention at the national
and regional levels”, available at www.slideserve.com/rozene/building-capacity-for-resourcemobilization.
235 See Ole Kristian Fauchald, International Environmental Governance: A Legal Analysis of
Selected Options, FNI Report 16/2010 (Fridtjof Nansen Institute, 2010).
236 See Steve Halls, “Barriers to technology transfer: environmentally sound technologies and
implementation of the Kyoto Protocol ”, available at
http://unfccc.int/ttclear/events/2002_event2 ; United Nations, Department of Economic and
Social Affairs, Climate Change: Technology Development and Technology Transfer,
background paper prepared for the Beijing High -level Conference on Climate Change,
November 2008.
237 See, generally, Marc Pallemaerts and Jonathan Armstrong, “Financial support to
developing countries for climate mitigation and adaptation: is the EU meeting its
commitments”, November 2009.
238 Tullio Treves and others, eds., Non-Compliance Procedures and Mechanisms and the
Effectiveness of International Environmental Agreements (T.M.C. Asser Press, 2009), p. 109;
Pallemaerts and Armstrong, “Financial support to developing countries for climate mitigation
and adaptation”.
239 See Minamata Convention on Mercury, art. 22; Paris Agreement, art. 13.
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C. Dispute settlement, compliance and enforcement mechanisms
90. Gaps relating to the implementation and effectiveness of international
environmental law have appeared in several aspects of inter -State dispute settlement.
In the absence of an international environmenta l court, disputes relating to the
environment have been addressed by a variety of international courts and tribunals.
In Gabčíkovo-Nagymaros, the International Court of Justice faced the difficult task of
weighing the rights of parties under circumstances where the likelihood and extent of
environmental harm remained unknown. This highlighted the paucity of rules or
principles addressing unrealized harm, which is a problematic status quo in the light
of the often-significant gap in time between acts and the ir effects on the
environment.240 A more recent case heard by the International Court of Justice reveals
some gaps in the Court’s application of scientific data in environmental dispute
settlement. In Whaling in the Antarctic, the Court’s limited analysis regarding the
meaning of “scientific research” has been lamented as a gap in its approach to
resolving the dispute.241 Data-intensive environmental cases before the Court have
also revealed gaps in judicial practices concerning the use of experts. 242
91. The practice of other intergovernmental institutions also suggests certain gaps
in the settlement of environmental disputes. For example, while the Permanent Court
of Arbitration designed procedural rules in 2001 specifically to facilitate the
arbitration of disputes relating to the environment and natural resources, these were
adopted by parties in only six cases as of November 2017, all of which related
exclusively to climate law.243
92. Compliance mechanisms and procedures established within a multilateral
environment agreement provide a multilateral avenue for addressing party -specific
compliance challenges. At the intersection between diplomacy and law, compliance
bodies do not render judicial decisions, nor do they generally enforce their findings,
per se. However, they have at their disposal a variety of tools that enable them to
better tailor their responses to a specific case. While some treaties have established
mechanisms to monitor compliance and address cases of non -compliance,244 overall
there remains a need to strengthen these procedures in order to promote the effective
implementation of international environmental law. 245 In addition, gaps in this context
240 See Mari Nakamichi, “The International Court of Justice decision regarding the
Gabčíkovo-Nagymaros Project”, Fordham Environmental Law Journal, vol. 9, No. 2 (Spring
1998), pp. 337 and 364.
241 See also Michaela Young, “Whaling in the Antarctic (Australia v. Japan: New Zealand
intervening): progressive judgment or missed opportunity for the development of international
environmental law?”, Comparative and International Law Journal of Southern Africa , vol.
48, No. 1 (March 2015), pp. 59 and 70.
242 See, for example, Joint dissenting opinion of judges Al-Khasawneh and Simma, in Pulp
Mills on the River Uruguay (Argentina v. Uruguay), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2010 , p. 107.
243 See Judith Levine, “A rising tide of cases: what role for arbitration and conciliation in the
climate change context?”, presentation for the IBA/ICC/PCA/SCC side event, Bonn, 16
November 2017, p. 10, available at https://sccinstitute.com/media/225404/cop23 -slidesjudith-
levine.pdf; Permanent Court of Arbitration, “PCA participation in COP21 and
Conference on Climate Change Disputes”, press release, 8 December 2015, note 11; Tamar
Meshel, “Optional rules for arbitration of disputes relating to natural resources and/or the
environment”, MPILux Working Paper, No. 1 (2017), para. 14, available at
www.mpi.lu/research/working-paper-series/2017/wp-2017-1/.
244 See Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer; Kyoto Protocol.
245 Outlining several such means under CITES, see CITES secretari at, “CITES compliance
and enforcement regime”, presentation for the expert meeting on compliance with the Nagoya
Protocol to CBD, Montreal, March 2012). Available at www.cbd.int/doc/meetings/abs/absemcomp-
01/other/absem-comp-01-presentation-cites-en.pdf.
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may be viewed in participatory terms, inasmuch as non -compliance bodies do not
generally permit non-State actors to raise complaints.246
93. Gaps also persist in the enforcement of rights and obligations regarding the
global commons and shared natural resources, such as the high seas, Antarctica 247 and
outer space. 248 In terms of disputes concerning natural resources which do not
originate from environmental treaties, practices under international trade 249 and
investment250 regimes also reveal gaps in the implementation and effectiveness of
environmental norms. Such gaps in regime interaction may also arise insofar as many
environmental treaties do not address their relationships with economic treaties,
which may give rise to distinct sources of applicable law or jurisdiction in a given
dispute.
D. Liability and redress for transboundary environmental damage
94. The Stockholm and Rio Declarations underlined the importance of liability and
redress for transboundary environmental harm as well as the paucity of international
norms on the subject.251 This is a concern precisely because a liability and redress
regime for transboundary environmental harm serves several policy objectives: first,
it serves as an instrument for the internalization of the environmental costs of
polluting activities by making the polluters pay; second, it incentivizes compliance
with international environmental norms and standards and ensures the implementation
of the precautionary and preventive principles; and finally, it ensures the redress of
environmental damage through the implementation of restorative measures. 252
Whereas there has been a remarkable prol iferation of multilateral environmental
agreements since the Stockholm Conference, there has been only limited development
in the area of liability and redress for transboundary environmental harm. State
responsibility and international liability on the on e hand, and civil liability on the
other, represent the two broad categories of liability in international environmental
law.
State responsibility and international liability
95. It is a basic principle of international law that a breach of an international
obligation by a State constitutes an internationally wrongful act which results in the
State’s international responsibility.253 This fundamental principle was restated by the
246 A notable exception exists under the Aarhus Convention. See also Tullio Treves,
“Introduction”, in Tullio Treves and others, eds., Civil Society, International Courts and
Compliance Bodies (Cambridge University Press 2005), pp. 1 and 7.
247 See the Antarctic Treaty, art. XI (conditioning ICJ review on consent from all concerned
States). See also (with relatively limited ratifications) Protocol on Environmental Protection
to the Antarctic Treaty, art. 18.
248 No space law instruments provide for binding and compulsory dispute settlement.
249 See European Communities – Measures concerning Meat and Meat Products (Hormones) ,
WT/DS26/AB/R, 16 January 1998 (demonstrating reluctance to apply environmental
principles to justify trade measures).
250 See International Centre for Settlement of Investment Disputes, Compañía del Desarrollo
de Santa Elena S.A. v. the Republic of Costa Rica , Case No. ARB/96/1, Final Award, 17
February 2000, paras. 71–72 (finding that environmental justifications do not affect
compensation duties).
251 Stockholm Declaration, principle 22; Rio Declaration, principle 13.
252 See Jutta Brunnée, “Of sense and sensibility: reflections on internat ional liability regimes
as tools for environmental protection ”, International Comparative Law Quarterly, vol. 53,
No. 2, p. 351; Sands and others, Principles of International Environmental Law , p. 735.
253 See, generally, James Crawford, Alain Pellet and Simon Olleson, eds., The Law of
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International Law Commission in article 1 of its articles on the responsibility of States
for international wrongful acts.254 The act must not only be attributable to the State
under rules of international law but must also constitute a breach of an international
obligation under either general international law or a treaty in force. 255 A number of
arbitral and judicial decisions have affirmed the existence of an international
obligation for every State to ensure that activities within its territory or control do not
cause damage to the environment of other States or of areas beyond the limits of
national jurisdiction.256 This general obligation was reaffirmed in Principle 21 of the
Stockholm Declaration and Principle 2 of the Rio Declaration and has been
incorporated into a number of multilateral environmental agreements. 257 State
responsibility entails the obligation, in the first instance, to take measures to cease
transboundary environmental harm, and in the second instance to provide reparation
by, inter alia, redressing the damage if such harm occurs.258
96. The rules of State responsibility may need to be further developed if they are to
play any significant role as a tool for redressing transboundary environmental harm. 259
Currently there are some important constraints. In particular, the “due diligence”
standard of care implies a demonstration of fault on the part of the State concerned
since it denotes an obligation of conduct and not of result.
97. On the other hand, international liability for transboundary environmental h arm
is not based on the existence of an internationally wrongful act. 260 It is a product of
treaty practice and focuses on the provision of compensation for transboundary harm
arising from lawful but risk-intensive activities.261 Only a handful of treaties pro vide
for international liability for transboundary environmental damage. 262 In 1978, the
International Law Commission launched work on the topic “International liability for
injurious consequences arising from acts not prohibited by international law ”. Owing
International Responsibility (Oxford University Press, 2010).
254 See resolution 56/83, annex.
255 Ibid., art. 2.
256 See Trail Smelter Case (United States, Canada), pp. 1906–1982; Corfu Channel Case,
Judgment of April 9th 1949, I.C.J. Reports 1949 ; Arbitral Tribunal, Lake Lanoux Arbitration
(France v. Spain), 16 November 1957; Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons,
Advisory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports 1996; Permanent Court of Arbitration, Iron Rhine
Arbitration (Belgium/Netherlands), Final Award, 24 May 2005.
257 See for example, CBD, art. 3; UNCLOS, art. 194; Vienna Ozone Convention, preamble.
258 See resolution 56/83, annex, arts. 30 and 31; Permanent Court of International Just ice,
Chorzów Factory Case, Ser. A, No. 13, 46–48, 1927; Gabčíkovo-Nagymaros Project
(Hungary/Slovakia), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1997; I.C.J., Certain Activities Carried Out By
Nicaragua in the Border Area (Costa Rica v. Nicaragua), General list No. 150 of 2 February
2018; Makane Moise Mbengue, “Critical assessment of reparation in international
environmental law”, Proceedings of the ASIL Annual Meeting, vol. 110 (2016), p. 293.
259 See Brunnée, “Of sense and sensibility”, p. 354; T. Scovazzi, “State responsibility for
environmental harm”, Yearbook of International Environmental Law, vol. 12, No. 1 (January
2001), p. 55; Sands and others, Principles of International Environmental Law , p. 803.
260 See Teresa A. Berwick, “Responsibility and liability for environmental damage: a roadmap
for international environmental law regimes ”, Georgetown International Environmental Law
Review, vol. 10, No. 2 (1998), p. 257; Brunnée, “Of sense and sensibility”, p. 352; Malgosia
Fitzmaurice, “International responsibility and liability”, in Bodansky, Brunnée and Hey, eds.,
The Oxford Handbook of International Environmental Law .
261 Berwick, “Responsibility and liability for environmental damage ”, p. 259.
262 See Convention on International Liability for Damage Caused b y Space Objects (primary
and absolute State liability); UNCLOS, art. 139, and Responsibilities and Obligations of
States Sponsoring Persons and Entities with Respect to Activities in the Area, Advisory
Opinion (with respect to activities in the area); Conv ention on the Regulation of Antarctic
Mineral Resource Activities (which has not entered into force); Madrid Protocol (which, in
annex VI, article 10, imposes State liability).
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to a lack of support for the concept of international liability on the part of some
governments, the Commission shifted its focus to “prevention” and “allocation of
loss”. 263 In 2001, the Commission adopted the draft articles on the prevention of
transboundary harm from hazardous activities, which purport to recognize an
international obligation to take appropriate measures to prevent significant
transboundary harm or to minimize it. This work was supplemented in 2006 by a set
of draft principles on the allocation of loss in the case of transboundary harm arising
out of hazardous activities 264 with the twin objectives of ensuring prompt and
adequate compensation to victims of transboundary harm and preserving and
protecting the environment through the mitigatio n of damage and its restoration or
reinstatement. By requiring States to impose liability on those who conduct hazardous
activities, the draft principles marked a clear shift from any notions of international
liability.265
Civil liability
98. There have been remarkable developments in treaty law relating to civil liability
for transboundary environmental damage. Issue-specific treaty regimes cover diverse
areas such as nuclear energy,266 oil pollution,267 the transport of dangerous goods and
substances, living modified organisms268 and industrial accidents.269 Earlier treaties
dealing with nuclear energy and oil pollution were originally designed to ensure
compensation for injury to person and property, and liability for transboundary
environmental damage was subsequently added through specific amendments.270
99. There exist some notable deficiencies with respect to these regimes. First, the
valuation of environmental damage and its reparation has proved problematic. While
it is agreed that, for liability to arise, environmental damage should exceed a de
minimis threshold, there is no agreed international standard for that threshold. The
instruments refer variously to “significant”, “substantial” or “serious” damage or
damage “above tolerable levels”. 271 Most of the civil liability regimes restrict
263 See A/CN.4/531, para. 152.
264 See A/61/10.
265 The General Assembly has continued to consider, most recently in its resolution 71/143,
the possible future form of both the draft articles and draft principles.
266 The civil liability regime for nuclear damage comprises three interrelated treaties, with
their respective amendments and supplementary instruments: Convention on Third Party
Liability in the Field of Nuclear Energy (Paris Convention) and its 2004 Protocol to Amend
the Paris Convention; Vienna Convention on Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage (Vienna
Convention); Convention Relating to Civil Liability in the Field of Maritime Carriage of
Nuclear Material (Brussels Convention).
267 The oil pollution regime comprises: International Convention on Civil Liability for Oil
Pollution Damage (Oil Pollution Convention), and its 1992 Protocol; International
Convention on the Establishment of an International Fund for Compensation for Oil Pollution
Damage (Oil Fund Convention); Convention on Civil Liability for Oil Pollution Damage
Resulting from Exploration for and Exploitation of Sea bed Mineral Resources.
268 Nagoya-Kuala Lumpur Supplementary Protocol on Liability and Redress to the Cartagena
Protocol on Biosafety.
269 Protocol on Civil Liability and Compensation for Damage Caused by Transboundary
Effects of Industrial Accidents on Transb oundary Waters to the 1992 Convention on the
Protection and Use of Transboundary Watercourses and International Lakes and to the 1992
Convention on the Transboundary Effects of Industrial Accidents.
270 See, for example, Protocol to Amend the Vienna Convent ion on Civil Liability for Nuclear
Damage, art. 2; Convention on Supplementary Compensation for Nuclear Damage, art. 1;
2004 Protocol to Amend the Paris Convention, sect. B; Protocol to Amend the Oil Pollution
Convention.
271 ILC, on the other hand, has settled on the term “significant” in both its draft articles on
prevention of transboundary harm from hazardous activities (arts. 1 and 2) and its draft
principles on the allocation of loss in the case of transboundary harm arising out of hazardous
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compensation to “costs of measures of reinstatement of the impaired environment
undertaken or to be undertaken”. A number of courts and tribunals have, however,
awarded compensation for pure environmental damage. In many cases, environmental
damage in areas beyond the limits of national jurisdiction is not covered. However,
the costs of measures undertaken to prevent or mitigate environmental damage outside
national jurisdiction are covered by a number of the treaties.272 Finally, liability is
limited in terms of the amount of compensation payable. It may also be noted that
several of the civil liability instruments have not entered into force.273
VII. Conclusions
100. The above review and analysis of the state of international environmental law
and environment-related instruments reveals gaps and deficiencies at multiple levels.
There are significant gaps and deficiencies with respect to the applicable principles
of environmental law; the normative and institutional content of t he sectoral
regulatory regimes, as well as their articulation with environment -related regimes; the
governance structure of international environmental law; and the effective
implementation of, compliance with and enforcement of international environmental
law.
101. Environmental principles inform the way in which environmental treaties can
be interpreted, and may fill gaps between the rules laid out in treaties. Such principles
include the duty of States to prevent significant environmental harm beyond their
national boundaries, exercise precaution in making decisions which may harm the
environment, provide reparation for environmental harm, provide public access to
information and decision-making involving potentially significant environmental
harm and cooperate in environmental protection. Some of the principles have been
incorporated into the issue-specific contexts of many multilateral environmental
agreements. In addition, several international courts and tribunals have confirmed the
existence of rules of customary international law relating to environmental protection,
in particular the obligation to prevent environmental harm beyond national
jurisdiction, the performance of due diligence, the duty to conduct an environmental
impact assessment and the obligation of reparation for environmental damage.
102. There are important deficiencies with respect to principles of international
environmental law, in particular with respect to their content and legal status. There
are instances where there is no clarity as to the nature and content of a principle, or
no judicial consensus as to its applicability, or no recognition in binding legal
instruments, or all of the above. The degree of legal uncertainty surrounding many of
these principles has a direct and indirect imp act on the predictability and
implementation of sectoral environmental regimes. Some principles, such as access
to information, participation in decision -making and access to justice, have only
activities (principle 2).
272 See, for example, International Convention on Liability and Compensation for Damage in
Connection with the Carriage of Hazardous and Noxious Substances by Sea (HNS
Convention), and Convention on Civil Liability for Damage caused During Car riage of
Dangerous Goods by Road, Rail and Inland Navigation Vessel ( CRTD).
273 These include the HNS Convention and its 2010 Protocol, the Basel Protocol on Liability
and Compensation for Damage Resulting from Transboundary Movement of Hazardous
Wastes and their Disposal, the Nagoya-Kuala Lumpur Supplementary Protocol on Liability
and Redress to the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety, the Protocol on Civil Liability and
Compensation for Damage Caused by Transboundary Effects of Industrial Accidents, the
Convention on Civil Liability for Damage Resulting from Activities Dangerous to the
Environment and the 1988 Convention on the Regulation of Antarctic Mineral Resource
Activities.
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regional application. Others, such as a right to a clean and h ealthy environment and
the principles of non-regression and progression, have only recently, and only in a
limited number of legal instruments, been recognized and have not yet been fully
developed. Although the principles of sustainable development and co mmon but
differentiated responsibilities and respective capabilities are inherently dynamic and
flexible enough to allow international law to grow and respond to new challenges,
their general application is hardly evident. There is a need to further clarif y the
principles of environmental law, without prejudice to the legal developments already
achieved in the issue-specific contexts of various multilateral environmental
agreements. A comprehensive and unifying international instrument that gathers all
the principles of environmental law could provide for better harmonization,
predictability and certainty.
103. International environmental law is characterized by fragmentation and a general
lack of coherence and synergy among a large body of sectoral regulatory frameworks.
This fragmentation is inevitable given the piecemeal, incremental and reactive nature
of international environmental law-making. However, deliberate efforts will be
required to harness the interlinkages and synergies inherent in specific areas such as
biodiversity, atmosphere or chemicals and wastes. The governance structure of
international environmental law corresponds to its fragmentation. A multiplicity of
institutions have responsibilities and mandates with respect to the environment,
including institutions of the United Nations system, treaty -based bodies established
by multilateral environmental agreements and specialized agencies, as well as
regional institutions. This institutional fragmentation requires better coordination at
both the law-making and implementation levels in order to ensure policy coherence,
mutual supportiveness and synergies in implementation. There is, however, an
important coordination deficit within the United Nations system, between United
Nations system institutions and multilateral environmental agreements, among
multilateral environmental agreements and between multilateral environmental
agreements and other environment-related instruments. Strengthened coordination
and coherence could enhance the effectiveness of international environmental law.
104. There are important gaps and deficiencies in specific sectoral regulatory
regimes. In general, the sectoral approach has also meant that some issues remain
without specific, legally binding regulation, including regulation s on the conservation
and sustainable use of forests, the pollution of marine areas by land -based plastic
waste, the protection of soil, human rights and climate change, biodiversity,
nanomaterials and some geo-engineering activities. Some of these issues can, subject
to political will, find a home in existing multilateral environmental agreements. With
regard to the climate change regime, an important challenge is the articulation
between multiple treaties that have different memberships and contain differ ent,
sometimes overlapping, obligations. There may be a need for the harmonization of
various aspects of the treaties, such as reporting, in order to pre -empt potential
tensions among them. In treaties that deal with the protection of the atmosphere, such
as ozone and mercury regimes, challenges relate to implementation, monitoring,
reporting and verification. On the other hand, air pollution has largely been framed as
a regional issue, notwithstanding the growing evidence of its global effects. Regional
approaches leave significant gaps in coverage in terms of countries and of pollutants
or pollution sources. Some regional approaches show weak implementation and poor
compliance with existing rules. A global approach to air pollution through a global air
pollution treaty or the linking of regional treaties might be desirable.
105. The biodiversity cluster of treaties is also characterized by issues of ineffective
implementation; ineffectual processes relating to monitoring, reporting, review and
verification; and the absence of or inadequate procedures and mechanisms to promote
and enforce compliance. The growing focus on the concept of ecosystem -services,
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which attaches economic value to biodiversity, could help better integrate and
mainstream biodiversity into other policy and law-making arenas. Several more
narrowly focused regional and subregional instruments exist, but there is scope for
further developments that would allow for the adjustment of rules pertaining to
specific transboundary ecological areas or species. More attention needs to be given
to direct and indirect drivers of biodiversity loss, as well as to cooperation and
coherence with other areas of international law that govern those drivers, such as
trade, food security, climate change and marine use.
106. Freshwater resources are regulated through a patchwork of global, r egional and
basin agreements which often utilize ambiguous terms, leading to uncertainty and a
lack of uniformity as to how they are applied. Environmental principles could fill the
resulting normative and institutional gaps in these instruments, and may s erve to
harmonize their application.
107. With regard to the marine environment, while the United Nations Convention
on the Law of the Sea provides a comprehensive set of rules for the protection and
preservation of the marine environment, different complement ary instruments apply
to various activities depending upon the subject matter and the geographical location
concerned. This sectoral approach creates challenges to the implementation of
integrated approaches. Compliance mechanisms are not common and dispar ities
remain in terms of assessing implementation. No specific instruments
comprehensively address the modern challenges of marine debris, plastics and
microplastics. While the Convention provides a unifying legal framework to address
fragmentation, its potential role in that regard has not yet been fully realized.
108. There are significant gaps in the regulatory regimes of hazardous substances,
wastes and activities. With regard to hazardous substances, these gaps lie in the
absence of global rules that addre ss accident prevention, preparedness and response,
as well as binding rules regarding classification, labelling, packaging and transport.
International rules governing hazardous wastes do not impose quantitative restrictions
on the generation of such wastes within specific time frames. The absence of an
operative global liability and compensation regime with respect to the transboundary
movements of hazardous wastes is a major gap in the international legal framework.
Finally, in the area of hazardous activities, international regulation has focused mainly
on nuclear activities. However, there are critical deficiencies with respect to legally
binding global rules, principles and standards relating to the design, siting and safety
of nuclear power plants.
109. The articulation between multilateral environmental agreements and
environment-related instruments remains problematic owing to the lack of clarity,
content-wise and status-wise, of many environmental principles. There is a need for
greater mutual supportiveness of rules concerning trade and environment.
Environmental concerns addressed in investment treaties have not generally evolved
to include issues such as climate change and biodiversity. Intellectual property
instruments have not interacted harmoniously with agricultural concerns, the rights
of indigenous and local communities or access to genetic resources and benefit -
sharing. Regional courts are left to integrate environmental considerations and human
rights on a case-by-case basis.
110. International courts and tribunals often stress the lack of international consensus
concerning environmental principles. Non-specialized courts and tribunals have faced
obstacles related to assessing environmental data, situations where environmental
harm has not yet occurred and applying general rules to environmental damage.
Compliance regimes are largely inadequate and need to be strengthened to promote
the effective implementation of multilateral environmental agreements. Outside the
realm of oil pollution and nuclear damage, liability and redress regimes are either
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non-existent or consist of adopted instruments that have not entered into force.
Implementation gaps also remain with respect to the enforcement of rights and
obligations regarding the high seas and shared nat ural resources.
111. The implementation of international environmental law remains problematic at
both the national and international levels. National implementation is constrained in
many countries by a lack of appropriate national legislation, financial resou rces,
environmentally sound technologies and institutional capacities. National
implementation could be improved through the mainstreaming of environmental
considerations into other sectors and the enhanced participation of non -State actors
in decision-making and implementation.
112. At the international level, implementation is also constrained by the lack of
clarity of many environmental principles. Nevertheless, implementation at this level
could be strengthened through more effective reporting, review and v erification
processes, as well as robust compliance and enforcement procedures and mechanisms.
The role of non-State actors in international environmental law-making,
implementation monitoring and compliance procedures needs to be enhanced in most
sectoral regulatory regimes.
113. Building upon the creative approaches that States have thus far adopted to
protect the environment, it is essential that States and the United Nations work
together to address gaps in international environmental law. We must collectiv ely
seize the opportunity to use international environmental law in new and dynamic ways
to provide a strong and effective governance regime with a view to better safeguarding
the environment for future generations.
United Nations A/RES/73/333
General Assembly
Distr.: General
5 September 2019
19-14897 (E) 090919
*1914897*
Seventy-third session
Agenda item 14
Resolution adopted by the General Assembly
on 30 August 2019
[without reference to a Main Committee (A/73/L.108 and A/73/L.108/Add.1)]
73/333. Follow-up to the report of the ad hoc open-ended working group
established pursuant to General Assembly resolution 72/277
The General Assembly,
Recalling its resolution 72/277 of 10 May 2018, entitled “Towards a Global Pact
for the Environment”,
Reaffirming the purposes and principles of the Charter of the United Nations,
Recalling the Declaration of the United Nations Conference on the Human
Environment,1 the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development, 2 Agenda 21,3
the Programme for the Further Implementation of Agenda 21, 4 the Johannesburg
Declaration on Sustainable Development 5 and the Plan of Implementation of the
World Summit on Sustainable Development (Johannesburg Plan of Implementation) 6
and the outcome document of the United Nations Conference on Sustainable
Development, entitled “The future we want”,7 as well as the outcomes of all the major
United Nations conferences and summits in the economic, social and environmental
fields,
__________________
1 Report of the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment, Stockholm, 5–16 June
1972 (A/CONF.48/14/Rev.1), part one, chap. I.
2 Report of the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, Rio de Janeiro,
3−14 June 1992, vol. I, Resolutions Adopted by the Conference (United Nations publication,
Sales No. E.93.I.8 and corrigendum), resolution 1, annex I.
3 Ibid., annex II.
4 Resolution S-19/2, annex.
5 Report of the World Summit on Sustainable Development, Johan nesburg, South Africa,
26 August–4 September 2002 (United Nations publication, Sales No. E.03.II.A.1 and
corrigendum), chap. I, resolution 1, annex.
6 Ibid., resolution 2, annex.
7 Resolution 66/288, annex.
A/RES/73/333
Follow-up to the report of the ad hoc open-ended working group
established pursuant to General Assembly resolution 72/277
2/4 19-14897
Recognizing existing obligations and commitments under international
environmental law,
Reaffirming all the principles of the Rio Declaration,
Reaffirming also its resolution 70/1 of 25 September 2015, entitled
“Transforming our world: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development ”, in which
it adopted a comprehensive, far-reaching and people-centred set of universal and
transformative Sustainable Development Goals and targets, its commitment to
working tirelessly for the full impleme ntation of the Agenda by 2030, its recognition
that eradicating poverty in all its forms and dimensions, including extreme poverty,
is the greatest global challenge and an indispensable requirement for sustainable
development, its commitment to achieving s ustainable development in its three
dimensions – economic, social and environmental – in a balanced and integrated
manner, and to building upon the achievements of the Millennium Development
Goals and seeking to address their unfinished business,
Stressing the need to continue to address, in a comprehensive and coherent
manner, the challenges posed by environmental degradation in the context of
sustainable development,
1. Welcomes the work of the ad hoc open-ended working group established
pursuant to General Assembly resolution 72/277, as well as its report,8 and endorses
all its recommendations, as set out in the annex to the present resolution;
2. Decides that costs associated with the implementatio n of the present
resolution and with the facilitation of the participation of representatives from
developing countries, in particular the least developed countries, landlocked
developing countries and small island developing States, in any future meeting related
to the implementation of the recommendations on the consideration of further work
as set forth in the annex, shall be met from voluntary contributions, requests the
Secretary-General to continue to make use of the special voluntary trust fund
established pursuant to paragraph 10 of resolution 72/277 for this purpose, and invites
Member States, international financial institutions, donor agencies,
intergovernmental organizations, non-governmental organizations and natural and
juridical persons to make financial contributions to the voluntary trust fund.
103rd plenary meeting
30 August 2019
Annex
Recommendations of the ad hoc open-ended working group
established pursuant to General Assembly resolution 72/277
Objectives guiding the recommendations
(1) Reinforce the protection of the environment for present and future
generations;
(2) Uphold the respective obligations and commitments under international
environmental law of States Members of the United Nations and members of
specialized agencies;
(3) Contribute to the strengthening of the implementation of international
environmental law and environment-related instruments;
__________________
8 A/AC.289/6/Rev.2.
Follow-up to the report of the ad hoc open-ended working group
established pursuant to General Assembly resolution 72/277 A/RES/73/333
19-14897 3/4
(4) Support the full implementation of the 2030 Agenda fo r Sustainable
Development,9 as well as the outcome document of the United Nations Conference
on Sustainable Development, entitled “The future we want”,10 including paragraphs
88 and 89 thereof;
(5) Not undermine existing relevant legal instruments and frameworks and
relevant global, regional and sectoral bodies;
Substantive recommendations
(6) Reaffirm the role of the United Nations Environment Programme as the
leading global environmental authority that sets the global environmental agenda,
promotes the coherent implementation of the environmental dimension of sustainable
development within the United Nations system and serves as an authoritative
advocate for the global environment, and also reaffirm the role of the United Nations
Environment Assembly;
(7) Call for renewed efforts at all levels to enhance the implementation of
existing obligations and commitments under international environmental law,
stressing the importance of enhanced ambition regarding means of implementation,
including the provision and mobilization of all types and sources of means of
implementation, consistent with the Addis Ababa Action Agenda of the Third
International Conference on Financing for Development 11 and the 2030 Agenda for
Sustainable Development;
(8) Recognize the role of discussions on principles of international
environmental law in enhancing the implementation of international environmental
law, also noting the ongoing work in the International Law Commission on general
principles of law;
(9) Invite the scientific community to further its work on interconnected and
cross-cutting issues by sharing information among the leading scientific, technical
and technological bodies that inform the work of multilateral environmental
agreements and environmental pro cesses, and encourage the scientific, technical and
technological bodies to strengthen cooperation among themselves;
(10) Invite the governing bodies of the multilateral environmental agreements,
while preserving their independence and respective mandates , to increase their efforts
to promote policy coherence across environmental instruments at all relevant levels
and to consider identifying and addressing implementation challenges in their
regimes, with a view to strengthening implementation at the nation al and international
levels;
(11) Invite the governing bodies and secretariats of multilateral environmental
agreements to enhance cooperation and collaboration among themselves within the
scope of their respective mandates, as well as between themselves and the United
Nations Environment Programme and the United Nations Environment Assembly,
building on work already done;
(12) Encourage the governing bodies of multilateral environmental agreements
and scientific, technical and technological bodies to exc hange information and
experiences, including with a view to considering the streamlining of reporting and/or
monitoring processes;
__________________
9 Resolution 70/1.
10 Resolution 66/288, annex.
11 Resolution 69/313, annex.
A/RES/73/333
Follow-up to the report of the ad hoc open-ended working group
established pursuant to General Assembly resolution 72/277
4/4 19-14897
(13) Encourage all that have not yet done so to consider ratifying multilateral
environmental agreements and to effectively implement them;
(14) Encourage States Members of the United Nations and all members of the
specialized agencies to strengthen, where needed, environmental laws, policies and
regulatory frameworks at the national level, as well as capacities across all sec tors for
the effective implementation of international environmental law, including in the
administrative and justice sectors in accordance with national legal systems, while
acknowledging the importance of international cooperation in supporting and
complementing national actions;
(15) Encourage States Members of the United Nations and all members of the
specialized agencies to mainstream environment into sectoral policies and
programmes at all levels, including into national development and sustainable
development plans, to enhance the implementation of international environmental law
and applicable environment-related instruments;
(16) Encourage the active and meaningful engagement of all relevant
stakeholders at all levels in the different forums relat ed to the implementation of
international environment law and environment -related instruments;
(17) Encourage the exploration of further ways for States Members of the
United Nations and all members of the specialized agencies to support and make full
use of the fifth Programme for the Development and Periodic Review of
Environmental Law (Montevideo Programme V), adopted at the fourth session of the
United Nations Environment Assembly,12 in order to foster environmental rule of law
and advance the implementation of environmental law at all levels;
(18) Encourage the United Nations Environment Programme, as chair of the
Environment Management Group, in collaboration with the other members of the
Group, to continue to strengthen system-wide inter-agency coordination on the
environment and to call for the active involvement and support of all members of the
Group in the implementation of system-wide strategies on the environment.
Further work
(a) Circulate the above-mentioned recommendations and make them available
to States Members of the United Nations, the members of specialized agencies and
the governing bodies of multilateral environment agreements for their consideration
and action, as appropriate;
(b) Forward these recommendations to the United Nations Environment
Assembly for its consideration, and to prepare, at its fifth session, in February 2021,
a political declaration for a United Nations high -level meeting, subject to voluntary
funding, in the context of the commemoration of the creation of the United Nations
Environment Programme by the United Nations Conference on the Human
Environment, held in Stockholm from 5 to 16 June 1972, with a view to strengthening
the implementation of international environmental law and international
environmental governance, in line with paragraph 88 of the outcome document of the
United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development, entitled “The future
we want”.
__________________
12 See UNEP/EA.4/Res.20 and UNEP/EA.4/19, annex I.
United Nations A/RES/76/208
General Assembly
Distr.: General
6 January 2022
21-19262 (E) 110122
*2119262*
Seventy-sixth session
Agenda item 20 (g)
Sustainable development: report of the United Nations
Environment Assembly of the United Nations
Environment Programme
Resolution adopted by the General Assembly
on 17 December 2021
[on the report of the Second Committee (A/76/533/Add.7, para. 7)]
76/208. Report of the United Nations Environment Assembly of the
United Nations Environment Programme
The General Assembly,
Reaffirming the mandate contained in its resolution 2997 (XXVII) of
15 December 1972, by which it established the United Nations Environment Programme,
and other relevant resolutions that reinforce its mandate, as well as the 1997 Nairobi
Declaration on the Role and Mandate of the United Nations Environment Programme
of 7 February 1997,1 the Malmö Ministerial Declaration of 31 May 2000 2 and the
Nusa Dua Declaration of 26 February 2010, 3
Reaffirming also its commitment to strengthening the role of the United Nations
Environment Programme as the leading global environmental authority that sets the
global environmental agenda, promotes th e coherent implementation of the
environmental dimension of sustainable development within the United Nations
system and serves as an authoritative advocate for the global environment,
Recalling the outcome document of the United Nations Conference on
Sustainable Development, held from 20 to 22 June 2012 in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil,
entitled “The future we want”,4 and noting the follow-up on paragraph 88,
subparagraphs (a) to (h), of the outcome document, including through General
Assembly resolution 67/213 of 21 December 2012,
__________________
1 Official Records of the General Assembly, Fifty -second Session, Supplement No. 25 (A/52/25),
annex, decision 19/1, annex.
2 Ibid., Fifty-fifth Session, Supplement No. 25 (A/55/25), annex I, decision SS.VI/1, annex.
3 Ibid., Sixty-fifth Session, Supplement No. 25 (A/65/25), annex I, decision SS.XI/9.
4 Resolution 66/288, annex.
A/RES/76/208
Report of the United Nations Environment Assembly of the
United Nations Environment Programme
2/7 21-19262
Recalling also the establishment of universal membership in the Governing
Council of the United Nations Environment Programme, as well as other measures to
strengthen its governance and its responsiveness and accountability to Member
States, the attendant change of its designation to the United Nations Environment
Assembly of the United Nations Environment Programme and the evolution in the
periodicity of its sessions,
Recalling further its resolutions 68/215 of 20 December 2013, 69/223 of
19 December 2014, 71/231 of 21 December 2016, 73/260 of 22 December 2018 and
74/222 of 19 December 2019,
Reaffirming the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development 5 and its
principles,
Taking into account Agenda 216 and the Plan of Implementation of the World
Summit on Sustainable Development,7
Recalling the 2005 World Summit Outcome8 and the outcome document of the
special event of the General Assembly to follow up efforts made towards achieving
the Millennium Development Goals,9
Recalling also the Bali Strategic Plan for Technology Support and Capacity -
building,10
Reaffirming its resolution 70/1 of 25 September 2015, entitled “Transforming
our world: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development”, in which it adopted a
comprehensive, far-reaching and people-centred set of universal and transformative
Sustainable Development Goals and targets, its c ommitment to working tirelessly for
the full implementation of the Agenda by 2030, its recognition that eradicating
poverty in all its forms and dimensions, including extreme poverty, is the greatest
global challenge and an indispensable requirement for su stainable development, its
commitment to achieving sustainable development in its three dimensions –
economic, social and environmental – in a balanced and integrated manner, and to
building upon the achievements of the Millennium Development Goals and see king
to address their unfinished business,
Reaffirming also its resolution 69/313 of 27 July 2015 on the Addis Ababa
Action Agenda of the Third International Conference on Financing for Development,
which is an integral part of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, supports
and complements it, helps to contextualize its means of implementation targets with
concrete policies and actions, and reaffirms the strong political commitment to
address the challenge of financing and creating an enabling environment at all levels
for sustainable development in the spirit of global partnership and solidarity,
Reaffirming further the Paris Agreement11 and its early entry into force, and
encouraging all its parties to fully implement the Agreement, and parties to the United
__________________
5 Report of the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, Rio de Ja neiro,
3−14 June 1992, vol. I, Resolutions Adopted by the Conference (United Nations publication,
Sales No. E.93.I.8 and corrigendum), resolution 1, annex I.
6 Ibid., annex II.
7 Report of the World Summit on Sustainable Development, Johannesburg, South Africa,
26 August–4 September 2002 (United Nations publication, Sales No. E.03.II.A.1 and
corrigendum), chap. I, resolution 2, annex.
8 Resolution 60/1.
9 Resolution 68/6.
10 United Nations Environment Programme, document UNEP/GC.23/6/Add.1 and
UNEP/GC.23/6/Add.1/Corr.1, annex.
11 Adopted under the UNFCCC in FCCC/CP/2015/10/Add.1, decision 1/CP.21.
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21-19262 3/7
Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change 12 that have not yet done so to
deposit their instruments of ratification, acceptance, approval or accession, where
appropriate, as soon as possible,
Highlighting the synergies between the implementation of the 2030 Agenda, the
Addis Ababa Action Agenda, the Paris Agreement and other relevant major
intergovernmental outcomes of United Nations conferences and summits in
economic, social and environmental fields,
Welcoming the holding of the first part of the fifteenth meeting of the Conference
of the Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity, in Kunming, China, from 11 to
15 October 2021, under the theme proposed by the host “Ecological civil ization:
building a shared future for all life on Earth”, welcoming also the holding of the twenty -
sixth session of the Conference of the Parties to the United Nations Framework
Convention on Climate Change, in Glasgow, United Kingdom of Great Britain and
Northern Ireland, from 31 October to 13 November 2021, and looking forward to the
twenty-seventh session of the Conference of the Parties to the United Nations
Framework Convention on Climate Change, to be held in Egypt in November 2022,
Looking forward to the second part of the fifteenth meeting of the Conference
of the Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity, to be held in 2022, and the
adoption of an ambitious, balanced, practical, effective, robust and transformative
post-2020 global biodiversity framework that contributes to the 2030 Agenda, the
special session of the United Nations Environment Assembly to commemorate the
fiftieth anniversary of the creation of the United Nations Environment Programme,
UNEP@50, to be held in Nairobi on 3 and 4 March 2022, the high-level meeting to
assess progress on the implementation of the New Urban Agenda, to be held on
28 April 2022, the United Nations Conference to Support the Implementation of
Sustainable Development Goal 14: Conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas and
marine resources for sustainable development, to be held in 2022, the international
meeting entitled “Stockholm+50: a healthy planet for the prosperity of all – our
responsibility, our opportunity”, to be held on 2 and 3 June 2022, an d the fifteenth
session of the Conference of the Parties to the United Nations Convention to Combat
Desertification in Those Countries Experiencing Serious Drought and/or Desertification,
Particularly in Africa, to be held in 2022,
Taking note of the contribution of the United Nations Environment Assembly to
addressing the challenge of, inter alia, climate change, biodiversity loss and pollution,
within its mandate and in collaboration with other relevant organizations and
stakeholders,
Committed to strengthening international environmental governance within the
context of the institutional framework for sustainable development in order to
promote a balanced integration of the economic, social and environmental dimensions
of sustainable development as well as coordination within the United Nations system,
Committed also to enhancing the voice of the United Nations Environment
Programme and its ability to fulfil its coordination mandate within the United Nations
system by strengthening its engagement in key United Nations coordination bodies
and empowering it to lead efforts to formulate United Nations system -wide strategies
on the environment,
Recognizing the important contribution of the United Nations Environment
Assembly to the high-level political forum on sustainable development, which met
under the auspices of the Economic and Social Council in New York in 2020 and 2021
__________________
12 United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 1771, No. 30822.
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and undertook an in-depth review of progress on the implementation of the 2030
Agenda and the Sustainable Development Goals,
Reiterating the need for secure, stable, adequate and predictable financial
resources for the United Nations Environment Programme, and, in accordance with
resolution 2997 (XXVII), underlining the need to consider the adequate reflection of
all the administrative and management costs of the Programme in the context of the
United Nations regular budget, as well as the need to realize efficiency gains,
Reaffirming the commitments, as contained in the ministeri al outcome
document of the first session of the United Nations Environment Assembly of the
United Nations Environment Programme, held in Nairobi from 23 to 27 June 2014, 13
inter alia, to ensure the full integration of the environmental dimension, especiall y
throughout the sustainable development agenda, acknowledging that a healthy
environment is an essential requirement and key enabler for sustainable development,
Reiterating the need to develop and expand partnerships, including between
Governments, the private sector, academia, relevant United Nations entities and
programmes, indigenous peoples and local communities, civil society and individuals,
Noting with great concern the severe negative impact on human health, safety
and well-being caused by the coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic, as well as
the severe disruption to societies and economies and the devastating impact on lives
and livelihoods, and that the poorest and most vulnerable are the hardest hit by the
pandemic, reaffirming the ambition to get back on track to achieve the Sustainable
Development Goals by designing and implementing sustainable and inclusive
recovery strategies to accelerate progress towards the full implementation of the 2030
Agenda for Sustainable Development and to help to reduce the risk of and build
resilience to future shocks, crises and pandemics, including by strengthening health
systems and achieving universal health coverage, and recognizing that equitable and
timely access for all to safe, quality, effective and a ffordable COVID-19 vaccines,
therapeutics and diagnostics are an essential part of a global response based on unity,
solidarity, renewed multilateral cooperation and the principle of leaving no one
behind,
Noting the decision of the United Nations Environment Assembly to hold its
fifth session in two parts, comprising an online meeting, held on 22 and 23 February
2021, and a resumed in-person meeting, to be held from 28 February to 2 March 2022,
owing to the exceptional circumstances associated with the COVID-19 pandemic,
1. Welcomes the holding of the online meeting of the fifth session of the
United Nations Environment Assembly of the United Nations Environment
Programme on 22 and 23 February 2021, also welcomes the decisions of the session,
including on the medium-term strategy for the period 2022 –2025 and the programme
of work and budget for the biennium 2022 –2023,14 takes note of the outcome
message15 and the summary of key messages from the leadership dialogu e,16 and looks
forward to the convening of the resumed meeting of the fifth session of the United
Nations Environment Assembly from 28 February to 2 March 2022;
2. Reiterates the ministerial declaration entitled “Innovative solutions for
environmental challenges and sustainable consumption and production”, 17 adopted by
the United Nations Environment Assembly of the United Nations Environment
__________________
13 Official Records of the General Assembly, Sixty -ninth Session, Supplement No. 25 (A/69/25),
annex, resolution 1/1.
14 Ibid., Seventy-sixth session, Supplement No. 25 (A/76/25), annex I.
15 Ibid., annex II.
16 UNEP/EA.5/25, annex III.
17 UNEP/EA.4/HLS.1.
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21-19262 5/7
Programme at its fourth session, and reaffirms that embracing innovative solutions
for environmental challenges and sustainable consumption and production are
important elements for implementing the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development 18
and achieving the Sustainable Development Goals;
3. Encourages Member States to advance innovative pathways to achieve
sustainable consumption and production, in line with resolution 4/1 of 15 March 2019
of the United Nations Environment Assembly of the United Nations Environment
Programme;19
4. Invites the Statistical Commission, the Commission on Science and
Technology for Development and other relevant United Nations entities to support
the Executive Director of the United Nations Environment Programme in the
development of a global environmental data strategy by 2025, as referred to in the
ministerial declaration adopted by the United Nations Environment Assembly at its
fourth session;
5. Invites Member States and all relevant United Nations bodies and partners
to contribute to the delivery of the implementation plan “Towards a pollution-free
planet” as set out in United Nations Environment Assembly resolution 4/21 of
15 March 2019;20
6. Welcomes the continued commitment of the United Nations Environment
Assembly to contributing to the effective implementation of the environmental
dimension of the 2030 Agenda in an integrated manner, as reflected in its resolutions 2/5
of 27 May 201621 and 3/3 of 6 December 201722 on the contributions of the United
Nations Environment Assembly to the high -level political forum on sustainable
development;
7. Commends the President and the Bureau of the Economic and Social
Council for supporting and facilitating the effective integration of the contributions
of the United Nations Environment Assembly into the preparation, work and
proceedings of, and the participation of the President of the Environment Assembly
in, the high-level political forum on sustainable development under the auspices of
the Economic and Social Council;
8. Encourages the President of the United Nations Enviro nment Assembly to
continue to convey the main messages agreed upon by the Environment Assembly at
its sessions during the high-level political forum on sustainable development under the
auspices of the Economic and Social Council, as appropriate, taking in to account the
integrated nature of the 2030 Agenda, as well as General Assembly resolutions 67/290
of 9 July 2013 and 70/299 of 29 July 2016;
9. Welcomes the contributions of the United Nations Environment Assembly
to the lead-up, inputs and meetings of the high-level political forum on sustainable
development under the auspices of the Economic and Social Council in 2020 and
2021, and looks forward to further contributions to the high -level political forum
under the auspices of the General Assembly and the Economic and Social Council;
10. Reiterates that capacity-building and technology support to developing
countries in environment-related fields are important components of the work of the
United Nations Environment Programme, and in this regard calls for the continued
__________________
18 Resolution 70/1.
19 UNEP/EA.4/Res.1.
20 UNEP/EA.4/Res.21.
21 Official Records of the General Assembly, Seventy -first Session, Supplement No. 25 (A/71/25),
annex, resolution 2/5.
22 UNEP/EA.3/Res.3.
A/RES/76/208
Report of the United Nations Environment Assembly of the
United Nations Environment Programme
6/7 21-19262
and focused implementation of the Bali Strategic Plan for Technology Support and
Capacity-building adopted by the Programme;
11. Recalls the sixth flagship Global Environment Outlook report and its
summary for policymakers, which was reviewed and approved by Member States
from 21 to 24 January 2019 and welcomed with appreciation by the United Nations
Environment Assembly at its fourth session, and reiterates the continuing need for the
United Nations Environment Programme to conduct up -to-date, comprehensive,
scientifically based and policy-relevant global environmental assessments, in close
consultation with Member States, in order to suppo rt decision-making processes at
all levels;
12. Acknowledges the contribution of the International Resource Panel,
including through its report, Global Resources Outlook 2019: Natural Resources for
the Future We Want;
13. Expresses concern about the findings of relevant global environmental
assessments which indicate that, despite the availability of solutions to our common
environmental challenges, our planet is increasingly polluted, affected by the adverse
effects of climate change, quickly losing its biodiversity and experiencing widespread
environmental degradation, and recalls the request by the United Nations
Environment Assembly to the Executive Director of the United Nations Environment
Programme to continue to promote greater coherence and coordi nation of global
assessments undertaken within the United Nations system; 23
14. Recognizes the devastating global effects of the COVID-19 pandemic,
which has created new and serious health, socioeconomic and environmental
challenges, compounded existing ones, especially in developing countries, and
undermined our common efforts to eradicate pov erty and achieve the 2030 Agenda,
and urges support for a sustainable, resilient and inclusive recovery that protects the
planet, stimulates sustainable consumption and production patterns, including
through sustainable economic models and the promotion of life-cycle approaches,
promotes the One Health approach, among other holistic approaches, revitalizes our
economies and creates decent and sustainable jobs and makes real progress in
eradicating poverty, while enhancing our future resilience to similar ch allenges;
15. Takes note with appreciation of the preparations to commemorate the
fiftieth anniversary of the creation of the United Nations Environment Programme by
the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment, held in Stockholm from
5 to 16 June 1972,24 looks forward to the special session to commemorate UNEP@50,
to be held in Nairobi on 3 and 4 March 2022, decides that UNEP@50 will be the
appropriate United Nations high -level meeting for the adoption of the political
declaration pursuant to General Assembly resolution 73/333 of 30 August 2019,
encourages participation at the highest possible level, requests the Secretary -General
to support the commemoration, and encourages Member States and oth er donors in a
position to do so to make voluntary contributions, generously and as soon as possible,
for the preparation of the event and to support the participation of developing
countries;
16. Expresses concern about the sustainability, predictability and stability of
the funding of the United Nations Environment Programme governing body, and
reiterates its request to the Secretary-General to make proposals, as appropriate;
__________________
23 UNEP/EA.4/Res.23, para. 10.
24 Ibid., para. 7.
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17. Notes the request by the United Nations Environment Assembly to the
Executive Director of the United Nations Environment Programme to provide options
to secure the participation of developing countries in the Environment Assembly; 25
18. Decides to include in the provisional agenda of its seventy -seventh
session, under the item entitled “Sustainable development”, the sub -item entitled
“Report of the United Nations Environment Assembly of the United Nations
Environment Programme”.
54th plenary meeting
17 December 2021
__________________
25 See Official Records of the General Assembly, Sixty -ninth Session, Supplement No. 25 (A/69/25),
annex, resolution 1/15.
United Nations A/RES/77/170
General Assembly
Distr.: General
28 December 2022
22-28788 (E) 060123
*2228788*
Seventy-seventh session
Agenda item 18 (i)
Sustainable development: ensuring access to affordable,
reliable, sustainable and modern energy for all
Resolution adopted by the General Assembly on
14 December 2022
[on the report of the Second Committee (A/77/443/Add.9, para. 8)]
77/170. Ensuring access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern
energy for all
The General Assembly,
Recalling its resolutions 53/7 of 16 October 1998, 54/215 of 22 December 1999,
55/205 of 20 December 2000, 56/200 of 21 December 2001, 58/210 of 23 December
2003, 60/199 of 22 December 2005, 62/197 of 19 December 2007, 64/206 of
21 December 2009, 66/206 of 22 December 2011, 69/225 of 19 December 2014,
70/201 of 22 December 2015, 71/233 of 21 December 2016, 72/224 of 20 December
2017, 73/236 of 20 December 2018, 74/225 of 19 December 2019, 75/221 of
21 December 2020 and 76/210 of 17 December 2021, as well as its resolutions 65/151
of 20 December 2010 on the International Year of Sustainable Energy for All and
67/215 of 21 December 2012, in which it decided to declare 2014 –2024 the United
Nations Decade of Sustainable Energy for All,
Reaffirming its resolution 70/1 of 25 September 2015, entitled “Transforming
our world: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development ”, in which it adopted a
comprehensive, far-reaching and people-centred set of universal and transformative
Sustainable Development Goals and targets, its c ommitment to working tirelessly for
the full implementation of the Agenda by 2030, its recognition that eradicating
poverty in all its forms and dimensions, including extreme poverty, is the greatest
global challenge and an indispensable requirement for su stainable development, its
commitment to achieving sustainable development in its three dimensions –
economic, social and environmental – in a balanced and integrated manner, and to
building upon the achievements of the Millennium Development Goals and see king
to address their unfinished business,
Reaffirming also its resolution 69/313 of 27 July 2015 on the Addis Ababa
Action Agenda of the Third International Conference on Financing for Development,
which is an integral part of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, supports
A/RES/77/170
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energy for all
2/10 22-28788
and complements it, helps to contextualize its means of implementation targets with
concrete policies and actions, and reaffirms the strong political commitment to
address the challenge of financing and creating an enabling environment at all levels
for sustainable development in the spirit of global partnership and solidarity,
Reaffirming further the Paris Agreement 1 and its early entry into force, and
encouraging all its parties to fully implement the Agreement and parties to the United
Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change 2 that have not yet done so to
deposit their instruments of ratification, acceptance, approval or accession, where
appropriate, as soon as possible,
Recalling the Climate Action Summit convened by the Secretary -General on
23 September 2019 and the multi-partner initiatives and commitments presented
during the Summit,
Noting the establishment by the Secretary-General of the Global Crisis
Response Group on Food, Energy and Finance,
Highlighting the synergies between the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable
Development and the Paris Agreement,
Recalling the ministerial declaration of the high -level political forum on
sustainable development3 held in 2022, which took note of the Secretary-General’s
proposed global road map for accelerated Sustainable Development Goal 7 action and
reaffirmed the need to continuously engage on the implementation of Goal 7,
Expressing concern that, at current rates of progress, none of the global energy
targets of the Sustainable Development Goals will be achieved by 2030,
Reaffirming the United Nations Millennium Declaration, 4 the Rio Declaration
on Environment and Development5 and Agenda 216 and the principles set out therein,
and recalling the recommendations and conclusions contained in the Plan of
Implementation of the World Summit on Sustainable Development (Johannesburg
Plan of Implementation) 7 and the outcome documents of the United Na tions
Conference on Sustainable Development, entitled “The future we want”,8 the third
International Conference on Small Island Developing States, entitled “SIDS
Accelerated Modalities of Action (SAMOA) Pathway ”,9 the second United Nations
Conference on Landlocked Developing Countries, entitled “Vienna Programme of
Action for Landlocked Developing Countries for the Decade 2014 –2024”, 10 the
Fourth United Nations Conference on the Least Developed Countries, entitled
“Istanbul Programme of Action for the Least Developed Countries for the Decade
2011–2020”, 11 and the Fifth United Nations Conference on the Least Developed
__________________
1 Adopted under the UNFCCC in FCCC/CP/2015/10/Add.1, decision 1/CP.21.
2 United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 1771, No. 30822.
3 See Official Records of the General Assembly, Seventy -seventh Session, Supplement No. 3
(A/77/3), chap. VI, sect. D.
4 Resolution 55/2.
5 Report of the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, Rio de Janeiro,
3–14 June 1992, vol. I, Resolutions Adopted by the Conference (United Nations publication,
Sales No. E.93.I.8 and corrigendum), resolution 1, annex I.
6 Ibid., annex II.
7 Report of the World Summit on Sustainable Development, Johannesburg, South Africa,
26 August–4 September 2002 (United Nations publication, Sales No. E.03.II.A.1 and
corrigendum), chap. I, resolution 2, annex.
8 Resolution 66/288, annex.
9 Resolution 69/15, annex.
10 Resolution 69/137, annex II.
11 Report of the Fourth United Nations Conference on the Least Developed Countries, Istanbul,
Turkey, 9–13 May 2011 (A/CONF.219/7), chap. II.
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Countries, entitled “Doha Programme of Action for the Least Developed Countries ”12
for the decade 2022–2031, as well as the New Urban Agenda, adopted at the United
Nations Conference on Housing and Sustainable Urban Development (Habitat III),
held in Quito from 17 to 20 October 2016, 13 which underlines, inter alia, the
importance of energy for cities,
Reaffirming also that each country must take primary responsibility for its own
development and that the role of national policies and development strategies cannot
be overemphasized in the achievement of sustainable development, and recognizing
the need for the creation of an enabling environment at all levels and across all sectors
for the achievement of sustainable development,
Reaffirming further the sovereign rights of countries over their energy resources
and their right to define appropriate policies for the production and use of energy,
recognizing that the 2030 Agenda shall be implemented for the full benefit of all, for
today’s generation and for future generations,
Emphasizing that universal access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and
modern energy for all is an integral part of poverty eradication and the achievement
of the 2030 Agenda, and that the increased use and promotion of new technologies
and renewable energy, including in off -grid and decentralized systems, and energy
efficiency could make a significant contribution in that regard,
Deeply concerned that, while progress towards the achievement of Goal 7 has
been made in some regions of the world, efforts remain well below the scale required
to meet the Goal by 2030,14
Deeply concerned also that 2.4 billion people in developing countries,
especially in rural areas, rely on traditional biomass, coal and kerosene for cooking
and heating, with disproportionate health and workload impacts on women, children
and people in vulnerable situations, including an estimated 4 million premature deaths
annually, that, while the global population without access to electricity has fallen
below 1 billion, close to 733 million people are still without access to electricity, that
reliability and affordability remain challenges in many countries, even as the number
of household connections increases, that Africa accounts for more than half of both
access figures and that, even when energy services are available, millions of poor
people are unable to pay for them,
Noting with concern that energy represents less than 1 per cent of overall United
Nations expenditure on the Sustainable Development Goals, despite its critical
importance also in achieving other goals,
Noting with great concern the severe negative impact on human health, safety and
well-being caused by the coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic, as well as the
severe disruption to societies and economies and the devastating impact on lives and
livelihoods, and that the poorest and most vulnerable are the hardest hit by the pandemic,
reaffirming the ambition to get back on track to achieve the Sustainable Development
Goals by designing and implementing sustainable and inclusive recovery strategies to
accelerate progress towards the full implementation of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable
Development and to help to reduce the risk of and build resilience to future shocks,
crises and pandemics, including by strengthening health systems and achieving
universal health coverage, and recognizing that equitable and timely access for all to
safe, quality, effective and affordable COVID-19 vaccines, therapeutics and diagnostics
__________________
12 Resolution 76/258, annex.
13 Resolution 71/256, annex.
14 See A/77/211.
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are an essential part of a global response based on unity, solidarity, renewed multilateral
cooperation and the principle of leaving no one behind,
Emphasizing the critical socioeconomic benefits of affordable, reliable,
sustainable and modern energy and the need to reframe the understanding of energy
from a technical unit to a requirement for basic social services, including h ealth care,
economic development and poverty eradication,
Recognizing that affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy services are
essential for effectively responding to and achieving sustainable, inclusive and resilient
recovery from the COVID-19 pandemic and socioeconomic crises, including for
powering health-care and educational facilities, supplying safe drinking water and water
for sanitation, including hand-washing, as well as water for agriculture and food
production, supporting sustainable food systems and providing communications and
digital services to connect people, share information and facilitate education, and further
recognizing that ensuring access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy
for all contributes to the achievement of the 2030 Agenda and the implementation of
other relevant intergovernmentally agreed frameworks in the economic, social and
environmental fields and that reaching Sustainable Development Goal 7 by the end of
the decade requires an urgent and steep rise in investment in and financing of affordable,
reliable, sustainable and modern energy and energy efficiency, while noting that the
unprecedented crisis caused by the COVID-19 pandemic will have serious impacts on
progress towards fulfilling the commitment on ensuring access to affordable, reliable,
sustainable and modern energy for all by 2030, and economic disruptions related to the
COVID-19 crisis have made it even harder for developing countries to reach Goal 7,
noting the announcement of Governments aiming to achieve net-zero emissions, and
taking note of the findings, in the report of the Secretary -General,15 to put the world on
track for reaching this objective,
Highlighting the importance of the empowerment of developing countries to
achieve universal access through the rapid expansion of affordable, reliable,
sustainable and modern energy worldwide,
Highlighting also the significant efforts made in developing countries that
contributed to an increase in the global electrification rate t o 91 per cent in 2020, and
stressing the need to further close the electrification gap in many difficult -to-reach
populations, in particular in sub-Saharan Africa,
Recognizing that each country has primary responsibility for its own economic
and social development and that this will include the mobilization of financial
resources, as well as capacity-building and the transfer of environmentally sound
technologies to developing countries on mutually agreed terms, including
concessional and preferential terms,
Noting with concern that lack of energy access has remained a challenge for
developing countries and that sustainable and resilient and inclusive development
would be unachievable without ensuring access to affordable, reliable, sustainable
and modern energy for all,
Welcoming the increase in the share of renewable energy as a part of total final
energy consumption over the past decade and the significant reductions in the cost of
renewable energy, the sector ’s net positive job contributions and the rapid expansion
of renewable energy capacity additions, which are now greater than those of other
resources in the electricity sector, and noting that the levelized cost of solar and wind
energy in many regions of the world is fully competitive with or un dercuts traditional
energy resources,
__________________
15 A/77/211.
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Noting with appreciation the work of the International Renewable Energy
Agency, which facilitates the widespread and increased adoption and sustainable use
of all forms of renewable energy,
Noting the work of multi-stakeholder partnerships, including Sustainable
Energy for All, which has given strong momentum to the promotion of renewable
energy and energy efficiency, the initiatives of the Global Climate Action Agenda, the
Small Island Developing States Lighthouses Initiative, SIDS DOCK, the Energy
Efficiency Hub and others that can contribute to reaching the objective of ensuring
access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy for all,
Noting with appreciation that the transformation of the world ’s energy systems
is being accelerated by advances in technology, rapid declines in the cost of renewable
energy, the deployment of least-cost decentralized solutions, policy support, new
business models and the sharing of best practices, and noting the conti nuing work of
the International Renewable Energy Agency and the International Solar Alliance,
Stressing the need for a coherent, integrated approach to energy issues and the
promotion of synergies across the global energy agenda, with a focus on eradicat ing
poverty and achieving the Sustainable Development Goals,
Reiterating the pledge that no one will be left behind, reaffirming the
recognition that the dignity of the human person is fundamental, and the wish to see
the Goals and targets met for all nations and peoples and for all segments of society,
and recommitting to endeavour to reach the furthest behind first,
Noting that the transitions to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy
for all should be just, inclusive, equitable and secure, in line with national
circumstances, in order to achieve universal access by 2030, while recognizing the need
to increase the share of renewable and clean energy, including as a cooking source in
urban areas, to significantly reduce negative health impacts and contribute to decreased
greenhouse gas emissions and to achieving the goals of the Paris Agreement,
1. Takes note of the report of the Secretary -General;16
2. Also takes note of the role and activities of the International Renewable
Energy Agency, encouraging the Agency to continue to support its members in the
achievement of their renewable energy objectives, as well as the contributions of the
International Solar Alliance, including in its capacity as an observer of the General
Assembly in accordance with resolution 76/123 of 9 December 2021, and
encouraging its work to collectively address key common challenges to the scalin g
up of solar energy, as well as the contributions of other international and regional
organizations and forums to the global energy agenda;
3. Notes with concern the two-year17 decline in international financial flows
to developing countries in support of clean, sustainable, affordable, reliable, just and
inclusive energy transitions, recognizes that the achievement of Sustainable
Development Goal 7 requires an urgent and steep rise in energy investment and
finance, including investments in clean technolo gies and quality infrastructure with a
priority focus on the needs of the world ’s least developed countries and on universal
access to electricity, and in that regard calls upon countries, public and private
financial institutions and other stakeholders to scale up the provision of finance for
developing countries;
4. Strongly encourages Governments and other relevant stakeholders to take
actions to achieve universal access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern
__________________
16 A/77/211.
17 2018 and 2019.
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energy, increase the global share of renewable energy, improve the inclusion of
developing countries in energy sector cooperation, where relevant, and increase the
rate of improvement in energy efficiency for a clean, low -emission, low-carbon,
climate-resilient, safe, efficient, modern, affordable, reliable and sustainable energy
system, given the systemic sustainable development benefits, while taking into
consideration the diversity of national situations, priorities, policies, specific needs
and challenges and capacities of developing co untries, including their energy mix and
energy systems;
5. Calls for ensuring access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern
energy for all, as such services are an integral part of poverty eradication measures,
human dignity, quality of life, economic opportunity, the combating of inequality, the
promotion of health and the prevention of morbidity and mortality, access to
education, safe drinking water and sanitation, food security, nutrition, disaster risk
reduction and resilience, climate change mitigation and adaptation, environmental
impact reduction, social inclusion and gender equality, including for persons affected
by humanitarian emergencies;
6. Underscores the importance of access to cleaner and more efficient and
sustainable cooking and heating methods, welcomes ongoing efforts, and in this
regard calls for the promotion of an enabling environment at the national and
international levels for the increased usage of sustainable, cleaner and more efficient
cooking and heating methods in all countries, in particular developing countries;
7. Acknowledges that means of implementation must be significantly
strengthened, to enable decisive action and focusing in particular on additional
finance and investment in line with target 7.a of the Sus tainable Development Goals,
and agrees that, without a strong push on innovation, new technologies, capacity -
building and quality data, global efforts to achieve Goal 7 are bound to fail;
8. Encourages Governments, the United Nations system and relevant
stakeholders to leverage the cost-competitiveness of renewable energy, especially in
off-grid areas, in order to achieve universal energy access, such as by establishing
policy frameworks, including for metering and payment systems, cost comparisons
between grid extension and off-grid solutions, facilitating investment by domestic and
foreign banks and educating students, communities, investors and entrepreneurs on
renewable energy, energy efficiency and conservation, among other activities, where
feasible and appropriate;
9. Recognizes the role that natural gas can play in supporting transitions
towards lower-emission energy systems, and calls upon Governments to enhance and
collaborate on energy security, including through the sharing of best practices a nd
knowledge for the security of gas supply and demand, in the broader context of the
transition towards lower-emission energy systems;
10. Supports energy access in accordance with the national needs of
developing countries, in particular the least devel oped countries and small island
developing States, to tackle their energy access challenges according to the specific
needs of each country by mobilizing technical and financial assistance and tools to
deploy affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern en ergy solutions to tackle the
energy access deficit;
11. Calls upon Governments to expand the use of renewable energy beyond
the power sector, taking into account national priorities and constraints, to industry,
heating and cooling, construction and infr astructure and, in particular, the transport
sector, including through sustainable sector coupling and sustainable and modern
bioenergy and hydrogen in the context of sustainable development, including climate
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change, and calls for supportive policy initia tives and investments at the national and
international levels;
12. Recognizes that current global progress in improving energy efficiency
falls well below the pace necessary to double the global rate of improvement in energy
efficiency by 2030, and encourages, in accordance with national laws and regulations,
the promotion of widespread energy efficiency initiatives in all economic sectors, the
adoption and updating of building performance codes and standards, energy
efficiency labelling, the promotion of energy management systems, the retrofitting of
existing buildings and public procurement policies on energy, among other
modalities, as appropriate, as well as the prioritization of smart grid systems, district
energy systems and community energy plans to improve synergies among clean and
effective use of traditional resources, renewable energy and energy efficiency, which
aim to promote the interconnectivity of clean and renewable energy infrastructure and
improve energy efficiency;
13. Calls for strengthened cooperation at the regional level to promote
innovation and facilitate financing, support regional cross -border power grid
connectivity, as appropriate, to advance economic integration and sustainable
development and share best practices that are r esponsive to regional needs with regard
to Sustainable Development Goal 7 and its interlinkages with the other Goals, and in
this regard encourages Governments to reinforce their energy interconnections,
connecting regional energy markets and increasing en ergy security at the global level;
14. Calls upon Governments, as well as relevant international and regional
organizations and other relevant stakeholders, to combine, as appropriate, the
increased use of new technologies and renewable energy resources, other low- or
zero-emissions solutions, more efficient use of energy and greater reliance on
advanced energy technologies, including technologies that avoid, abate and remove
greenhouse gas emissions;
15. Encourages Governments, relevant international an d regional
organizations and other relevant stakeholders to promote investments in developing
sustainable, reliable, modern, inclusive and equitable energy systems, inter alia, by
strengthening energy systems through cross-border grid connections, as appro priate,
and to consider incorporating decentralized renewable energy solutions in energy
planning, as appropriate, and recognizes that energy transitions will take different
paths in different parts of the world;
16. Encourages Governments and all relevant stakeholders to increase
investment and actions to support the implementation of Sustainable Development Goal
7, and to integrate affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy solutions to
enhance responses to and recovery from COVID-19, in line with resilient, inclusive and
sustainable development pathways, and to ensure energy security, and urges developed
countries, relevant international and regional organizations and other relevant
stakeholders to support the efforts of developing countries, e specially the poorest and
most vulnerable, taking into consideration the different national circumstances and in
line with the national development priorities of developing countries, including through
multi-stakeholder partnerships, in order to fulfil the commitment on ensuring access to
affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy for all by 2030, recognizing that
increased investments in affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy solutions
and accelerated action beyond a business-as-usual recovery will aid countries in
responding to the pandemic and economic crisis, for a sustainable, resilient and
inclusive recovery, including by reducing emissions, creating jobs and promoting
resource efficiency, and in advancing long-term resilience and the Sustainable
Development Goals, which are integrated and interrelated;
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8/10 22-28788
17. Encourages Governments, relevant international organizations and other
relevant stakeholders to use and promote an integrated resource planning and
management approach in their energy strategies that considers energy choices in the
context of linked sectors, inter alia, water, waste, air quality and food, taking into
account national circumstances;
18. Recognizes that sustainable energy access and its deployment can be both
improved and accelerated by gender equality and the empowerment of all women and
girls, and calls upon Governments, the United Nations development system and other
stakeholders to increase educational and capacity-building programmes for women in the
sector, further advance equal pay and leadership and other opportunities for women in the
energy sector, promote women’s full, equal and effective participation and leadership in
the design and implementation of energy policies and programmes, mainstream a gende r
perspective in such policies and programmes and ensure women’s full and equal access to
and use of sustainable energy to enhance their economic and social empowerment,
including employment and other income-generating opportunities;
19. Encourages Governments, with the support of relevant stakeholders, as
appropriate, to accelerate the transition towards sustainable economies, according to
national policies and plans, through mitigation and adaptation strategies that improve
energy efficiency and create more and better employment opportunities for all,
including young people, in wage and self -employment;
20. Emphasizes the potential of sustainable energy use to contribute to climate
change mitigation and adaptation, recognizes that increasing the deploy ment of
renewable energy and enhancing energy efficiency are components of many countries ’
nationally determined contributions under the Paris Agreement adopted under the
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, and urges effective and
timely support for the full implementation of all those contributions, as applicable;
21. Notes that the impacts of climate change can also threaten access to and
the supply of energy, and also notes the importance of increasing the resilience of the
energy sector to climate change, which can be facilitated by the expansion of
renewable energy;
22. Emphasizes, while noting progress, that the large-scale deployment of
clean energy technologies has been insufficient and uneven, and that support is
required to realize their potential, along with appropriate policy initiatives and
investments at the national and international levels, with Governments working in
collaboration with relevant stakeholders, including the private sector;
23. Also emphasizes the value of regional and interregional approaches, which
can, among other advantages, enhance the deployment of renewable and sustainable
energy by facilitating the sharing of experiences, reduce transaction costs, leverage
economies of scale, enable greater cross -border interconnectivity to promote energy
system reliability and resilience and augment domestic capacity -building, and
recognizes the work of organizations and initiatives in that regard;
24. Invites all relevant funding institutions and bilateral and multilateral
donors, as well as regional funding institutions, the private sector and
non-governmental organizations, to continue ongoing efforts and take further action
to provide financial resources, as appropriate, to support efforts aimed at ensuring
access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy in developing countries
and countries with economies in transition, including low -emission, low-carbon and
climate-resilient new technologies and renewable resources of energy of
demonstrated viability, especially focused on energy access and economic
development in both urban and rural areas, while noting the potential catalytic effect
Ensuring access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern
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22-28788 9/10
of concessional and other finance and taking fully into account the development
structure of energy-based economies of developing countries;
25. Encourages the development, dissemination, diffusion and transfer of
environmentally sound technologies to developing countries on mutually agreed
terms, including concessional and preferential terms, and highlights the importance
of integrating sustainable energy i n the Technology Facilitation Mechanism;
26. Stresses the importance of strategies and contributions by Governments and
relevant stakeholders to multi-stakeholder partnerships in ensuring access to affordable,
reliable, sustainable and modern energy for a ll, and encourages coordination and
collaboration between the United Nations and relevant multi -stakeholder partnerships
and international organizations, such as Sustainable Energy for All;
27. Recognizes the catalytic effect of the sharing of knowledge and experience,
capacity-building and technical assistance on sustainable energy deployment, and
encourages existing and new efforts to enable Governments of developing countries
and relevant stakeholders to plan, finance, implement and monitor sustainable energy
projects to further strengthen their national institutions and capacities;
28. Encourages the development of viable market-oriented strategies that
could result in further rapid reductions in the cost of new technologies and renewable
resources of energy and could further increase the competitiveness of those
technologies, including through the adoption, as appropriate, of public policies for
research, development and market deployment, including phasing out inefficient
fossil fuel subsidies that encourage wasteful consumption while providing targeted
support to the poor and most vulnerable, in accordance with national circumstances;
29. Emphasizes the value of education, academia, technology and
entrepreneurship in developing solutions to face en ergy challenges and achieve energy
sustainability, as well as the importance of investing in research and development and
demonstrations in sustainable and clean energy technologies, and also emphasizes in
this context the urgent need to enhance international cooperation to facilitate access to
clean energy research and technology, including renewable energy, energy efficiency,
hydrogen, energy storage, carbon capture, utilization and storage, bioenergy with carbon
capture and storage, and advanced and cleaner fossil-fuel technologies, including
technologies that avoid, abate and remove greenhouse gas emissions, and improved
infrastructures for supplying affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy for all;
30. Calls for national efforts to promote access to affordable, reliable,
sustainable and modern energy for all and strengthened local engagement to
complement current approaches, and reaffirms the commitment to supporting
subnational and local efforts, taking advantage of their direct control, whe re
applicable, of local infrastructure and codes to foster uptake in end -use sectors, such
as residential, commercial and industrial buildings, industry, agriculture, transport,
waste and sanitation;
31. Encourages the Secretary-General to continue efforts to promote the
provision of stable, adequate and predictable financial resources and technical
assistance for sustainable energy and to enhance the effectiveness, coordination and
full utilization of appropriate i nternational funds for the effective implementation of
national and regional high-priority projects for ensuring access to affordable, reliable,
sustainable and modern energy for all, and recalls the convening of the high -level
dialogue on the midpoint review of the United Nations Decade of Sustainable Energy
for All (2014–2024), held on 23 and 24 May 2019;
32. Takes note of the high-level dialogue on energy held on 24 September 2021
to promote the implementation of the energy -related goals and targets of the 2030
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10/10 22-28788
Agenda for Sustainable Development18 in support of the implementation of the United
Nations Decade of Sustainable Energy for All and the voluntary commitments in the
form of 200 energy compacts, and also takes note of the Secretary -General’s proposed
road map for accelerated action on Goal 7, as described in the report of the Secretary -
General, and the high-level political forum on sustainable development;
33. Requests the Secretary-General to continue engagement with Member
States on the implementation of Sustainable Development Goal 7, in a comprehensive
and evidence-based manner, as a follow-up to the high-level dialogue on energy and
the United Nations Decade of Sustainable Energy for All;
34. Requests the President of the General Assembly to convene a global
stocktaking, funded from extrabudgetary resources, to be held in 2024, marking the
completion of the ongoing efforts to implement the plan of action of the Decade, and
building on the follow-up to the high-level dialogue on energy, to further accelerate
the implementation of Sustainable Development Goal 7 of the 2030 Agenda;
35. Calls upon the United Nations development system to work through
existing initiatives and resources and within its mandate with relevant stakeholders,
such as international financial institutions, along with development partners, such as
multilateral and regional development banks and the private sector, to address
capacity and funding gaps, particularly in developing countries, to scale up energy -
related investments and to provide support to countries in need so as to ensure access
to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy for all;
36. Encourages UN-Energy to support coherence and coordination among the
energy-related activities of the entities of the United Nations development system,
within their respective mandates, and with existing resources in line with the
implementation of resolutions 71/243 of 21 December 2016, 72/279 of 31 May 2018
and 74/297 of 11 August 2020 and Economic and Social Council resolution 2019/15
of 8 July 2019, in order to assist countries, in particular at the country level, inter alia
through normative support and expertise to the resident coordinator system, upon
request by their Governments, by leveraging partnerships with other international
organizations, donors and relevant stakeholders, including in their efforts to achieve
universal access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy for all and to
accelerate its deployment;
37. Reaffirms the commitment at the very heart of the 2030 Agenda to leave
no one behind and commit to taking more tangible steps to support people in
vulnerable situations and the most vulnerable countries and to reach the furthest
behind first;
38. Calls upon the Secretary-General to promote renewable energy, energy
efficiency and related sustainable practices in all United Nations facilities and
operations around the world, where appropriate and economically viable;
39. Requests the Secretary-General to submit to the General Assembly at its
seventy-eighth session a report on the implementation of the present resolution,
including activities carried out to mark the United Nations Decade of Sustainable
Energy for All, and decides to include in the provisional agenda of its seventy -eighth
session, under the item entitled “Sustainable development”, the sub-item entitled
“Ensuring access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy for all ”.
53rd plenary meeting
14 December 2022
__________________
18 Resolution 70/1.
United Nations A/RES/77/171
General Assembly
Distr.: General
28 December 2022
22-28789 (E) 060123
*2228789*
Seventy-seventh session
Agenda item 18 (j)
Sustainable development: combating sand and dust storms
Resolution adopted by the General Assembly
on 14 December 2022
[on the report of the Second Committee (A/77/443/Add.10, para. 7)]
77/171. Combating sand and dust storms
The General Assembly,
Recalling its resolutions 70/195 of 22 December 2015, 71/219 of 21 December
2016, 72/225 of 20 December 2017, 73/237 of 20 December 2018, 74/226 of
19 December 2019, 75/222 of 21 December 2020 and 76/211 of 17 December 2021
on combating sand and dust storms,
Reaffirming its resolution 70/1 of 25 September 2015, entitled “Transforming
our world: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development”, in which it adopted a
comprehensive, far-reaching and people-centred set of universal and transformative
Sustainable Development Goals and targets, its commitment to working tirelessly for
the full implementation of the Agenda by 2030, its recognition that eradicating
poverty in all its forms and dimensions, including extreme poverty, is the greatest
global challenge and an indispensable requirement for sustainable development, its
commitment to achieving sustainable development in its three dimensions –
economic, social and environmental – in a balanced and integrated manner, and to
building upon the achievements of the Millennium Development Goals and seeking
to address their unfinished business,
Reaffirming also its resolution 69/313 of 27 July 2015 on the Addis Ababa
Action Agenda of the Third International Conference on Financing for Development,
which is an integral part of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, supports
and complements it, helps to contextualize its means of implementation targets with
concrete policies and actions, and reaffirms the strong political commitment to
address the challenge of financing and creating an enabling environmen t at all levels
for sustainable development in the spirit of global partnership and solidarity,
A/RES/77/171 Combating sand and dust storms
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Reaffirming further the Paris Agreement 1 and its early entry into force, and
encouraging all its parties to fully implement the Agreement, and parties to the United
Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change 2 that have not yet done so to
deposit their instruments of ratification, acceptance, approval or accession, where
appropriate, as soon as possible,
Highlighting the synergies between the implementatio n of the 2030 Agenda for
Sustainable Development, the Addis Ababa Action Agenda and the Paris Agreement,
noting with concern the findings contained in the special report of the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change entitled Global Warming of 1.5°C,
noting with concern also the findings of the report of the Asian and Pacific Centre for
the Development of Disaster Information Management of the Economic and Social
Commission for Asia and the Pacific entitled Sand and Dust Storms Risk Assessment
in Asia and the Pacific and the report of the United Nations Environment Programme
entitled Impacts of Sand and Dust Storms on Oceans: A Scientific Environmental
Assessment for Policy Makers, in addition to the World Health Organization global
air quality guidelines and the World Meteorological Organization report entitled 2020
State of Climate Services: Risk Information and Early Warning Systems , noting the
holding of the twenty-sixth session of the Conference of the Parties to the United
Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, hosted by the Government of the
United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland in Glasgow, in partnership
with Italy, from 31 October to 13 November 2021, welcoming the holding of the
twenty-seventh session of the Conference of th e Parties in Egypt from 6 to
20 November 2022, and looking forward to the twenty -eighth session of the
Conference of the Parties, to be held in the United Arab Emirates in November 2023,
Recalling United Nations Environment Assembly resolutions 1/7 of 27 June
2014 on strengthening the role of the United Nations Environment Programme in
promoting air quality,3 2/21 of 27 May 2016 on sand and dust storms 4 and 4/10 of
15 March 2019 on innovation on biodiversity and land degradation, 5
Acknowledging the work done by the secretariat of the United Nations
Convention to Combat Desertification in Those Countries Experiencing Serious
Drought and/or Desertification, Particularly in Africa, 6 towards mitigating sand and
dust storm issues at source, and acknowledging also the continuing support of the
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations for countries affected by
sand and dust storms through the promotion of sustainable land use management,
agroforestry, shelter belts, afforestation/reforestation and land restoration
programmes, which all contribute to sand and dust storm source mitigation,
Welcoming the convening of the fifteenth session of the Conference of the
Parties to the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification, held in Abidjan,
Côte d’Ivoire, from 9 to 20 May 2022, noting the adoption of the Abidjan Call as well
as the Abidjan Legacy Programme, to address drought and preserve and restore the
terrestrial ecosystem, reverse land degradation and halt the loss of biodiversity, noting
also decision 26/COP.15 of 20 May 2022, 7 in which the Conference urged a proactive
approach to enhance cooperation at all levels to address the causes and impacts of
sand and dust storms and called for the organization of a science -policy dialogue to
develop guidance and policies to address sand and dust storms, welcoming the offers
__________________
1 Adopted under the UNFCCC in FCCC/CP/2015/10/Add.1, decision 1/CP.21.
2 United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 1771, No. 30822.
3 See Official Records of the General Assembly, Sixty-ninth Session, Supplement No. 25 (A/69/25),
annex.
4 Ibid., Seventy-first Session, Supplement No. 25 (A/71/25), annex.
5 UNEP/EA.4/Res.10.
6 United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 1954, No. 33480.
7 See ICCD/COP(15)/23/Add.1.
Combating sand and dust storms A/RES/77/171
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made by the Government of Saudi Arabia and the Government of Mongolia to host
the sixteenth and seventeenth sessions, in 2024 and 2026, respectively, looking
forward to the convening of the second part of the fifteenth meeting of the Conference
of the Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity, as well as the meetings of
the Conference of the Parties serving as the Meetings of the Parties to the Protocols
to the Convention, to be held in Montreal, Canada, with the presidency of China, from
7 to 19 December 2022, looking forward also to the post -2020 global biodiversity
framework that contributes to the 2030 Agenda, and looking forward further to the
sixteenth meeting of the Conference of the Parties and the meetings of the Conference
of the Parties serving as the Meetings of the Parties to the Protocols to the Convention,
to be held in Türkiye,
Noting the adoption, by the Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the
Pacific at its seventy-second session, of resolution 72/7 of 19 May 2016 on regional
cooperation to combat sand and dust storms in Asia and the Pacific,
Noting also the endorsement by the Economic and Social Commission for Asia
and the Pacific at its seventy-fifth session of the recommendation by the Governing
Council of the Asian and Pacific Centre for the Development of Disaster Information
Management to establish a subregional cooperation mechanism for slow-onset
hazards with a focus on sand and dust storms in South -West and Central Asia, and
noting the endorsement by the Commission at its seventy -eighth session of the
Regional Plan of Action on Sand and Dust Storms in Asia and the Pacific, which
provides a strategic framework and reference for countries in the region to take action
at the national and regional levels, in the context of multi -hazard disaster risk
reduction, to reduce the negative impact of sand and dust storms and identify
anthropogenic measures that could contribute to or mitigate their formation and
intensity,
Recalling its resolution 66/288 of 27 July 2012, in which it endorsed the outcome
document of the United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development, entitled
“The future we want”,
Recalling also its resolutions 71/229 of 21 December 2016, 72/220 of
20 December 2017, 73/233 of 20 December 2018, 74/220 of 19 December 2019, 75/218
of 21 December 2020 and 76/206 of 17 December 2021 on the implementation of the
United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification in Those Countries
Experiencing Serious Drought and/or Desertification, Particularly in Africa,
Taking note of the Regional Programme to Combat Sand and Dust Storms of the
United Nations Environment Programme, and of other initiatives, including the
ministerial meeting on sand and dust storms held in Nairobi on 21 February 2013 on
the margins of the twenty-seventh session of the Governing Council/Global
Ministerial Environment Forum of the United Nations Environment Programme,
Recalling the Sendai Declaration and the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk
Reduction 2015–2030, adopted at the Third United Nations World Conference on
Disaster Risk Reduction and endorsed by the General Assembly in its resolution
69/283 of 3 June 2015, and recognizing that one of the priorities for action of the
Framework is an understanding of disaster risk for prevention and mitig ation and for
the development and implementation of appropriate preparedness and effective
response to disasters, which continue to undermine efforts to achieve sustainable
development,
Acknowledging that, based on the notion of hazards as defined in the Hyogo
Framework for Action 2005–2015: Building the Resilience of Nations and
A/RES/77/171 Combating sand and dust storms
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Communities to Disasters, 8 addressing multidimensional hazards, including those
posed by sand and dust storms, contributes towards the achievement of the goals,
targets and priorities for action set out in the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk
Reduction 2015–2030,
Noting with great concern the severe negative impact on human health, safety
and well-being caused by the coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic, as well as
the severe disruption to societies and economies and the devastating impact on lives
and livelihoods, and that the poorest and most vulnerable are the hardest hit by the
pandemic, reaffirming the ambition to get back on track to achieve the Sustainable
Development Goals by designing and implementing sustainable and inclusive
recovery strategies to accelerate progress towards the full implementation of the 2030
Agenda for Sustainable Development and to help to reduce the risk of and build
resilience to future shocks, crises and pandemics, including by strengthening health
systems and achieving universal health coverage, and recognizing that equitable and
timely access for all to safe, quality, effective and affordable COVID -19 vaccines,
therapeutics and diagnostics are an essential part of a global response based on unity,
solidarity, renewed multilateral cooperation and the principle of leaving no one
behind,
Stressing the need for cooperation at the global and regional levels with a view
to managing and mitigating the effects of sand and dust storms through the
enhancement of early warning systems and the sharing of climate and weather
information to forecast sand and dust storms, and affirming that resilient action to
combat and prevent sand and dust storms requires a better understanding of the severe
multidimensional impacts of sand and dust storms, including the deterioration of the
health, well-being and livelihood of people, increased desertification and land
degradation, deforestation, loss of biodiversity and land productivity, and their impact
on sustainable economic growth,
Recognizing that sand and dust storms are an issue of international concern, the
costs of which are measured in economic, social and environmental terms, and that
sand and dust storms continue to grow and negatively affect the achievement of 11 of
the 17 Sustainable Development Goals and their means of implementation, expressing
deep concern about the devastating impacts of COVID -19 on human health and wellbeing,
while taking into consideration that the COVID-19 pandemic has exacerbated
the challenges faced by people in vulnerable situations, noting with concern that sand
and dust storms may exacerbate the symptoms of respiratory diseases such as
COVID-19 and may complicate and prolong the recovery from the disease, in addition
to the other negative impacts that can be associated with respiratory disorders such as
asthma, tracheitis, pneumonia and silicosis, which may lead to chronic obstructive
pulmonary disease and cardiovascular and hear t disorders, in addition to eye and skin
irritation, and can also spread other diseases, such as meningitis, and taking into
account that a reduction in cardiovascular and respiratory disease, as comorbidities
linked to COVID-19-related deaths, can produce significant health benefits, when
mitigating measures are taken,
Emphasizing the relevance of the efforts and cooperation of Member States at
the regional and international levels to control and reduce the negative impacts of
sand and dust storms on human settlements in vulnerable regions, recalling its
resolution 72/225, in which it noted the International Conference on Combating Sand
and Dust Storms, held in Tehran from 3 to 5 July 2017, welcoming the h olding of
other meetings with the active participation of all countries, and taking note with
__________________
8 A/CONF.206/6 and A/CONF.206/6/Corr.1, chap. I, resolution 2.
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appreciation of other ongoing initiatives by various countries to combat sand and dust
storms, especially at the regional level,
1. Takes note of the report of the Secretary-General;9
2. Recognizes that sand and dust storms and the unsustainable land
management, soil, agricultural and livestock practices, among other factors, that can
cause or exacerbate these phenomena, including climate change, pose a serious
challenge to the sustainable development of affected countries and regions, also
recognizes that, in the past few years, sand and dust storms have inflicted substantial
economic, social and environmental damage on the inhabitants of the world’s arid,
semi-arid and dry subhumid areas, especially in Africa and Asia, and underscores the
need to treat them and to promptly take measures to address those challenges;
3. Recalls the convening of a high-level interactive dialogue on sand and dust
storms, held at Headquarters in New York on 16 July 2018, bringing together Member
States, observer States and observers of the General Assembly, United Nations system
entities, regional commissions and other stakeholders to discuss action -oriented
recommendations and address the challenges faced by the affected countries,
including ways to improve policy coordination at the global level to tackle those
challenges in the context of the Sustainable Development Goals, during which the
continuing need to confront the challenges presented by sand and dust storms was
highlighted;
4. Welcomes the operationalization of the United Nations Coalition on
Combating Sand and Dust Storms, which is pursuing efforts, within its mandate and
resources, to move to the implementation stage, and aims, inter alia, to promote and
coordinate a collaborative United Nations system response to the growing issue of
sand and dust storms on a local, regional and global scale, ensuring that unified and
coherent action is taken, and to facilitate the capaci ty-building of Member States,
raise their awareness and enhance their preparedness and response to sand and dust
storms in critical regions;
5. Invites the Secretary-General to consider designating a relevant agency or
entity with adequate capacity to act as a focal point on sand and dust storms in the
United Nations system to follow up the decisions in the relevant resolutions and the
United Nations Coalition on Combating Sand and Dust Storms;
6. Recognizes the importance of new and innovative technologies and best
practices in combating sand and dust storms, as well as their sharing and transfer on
mutually agreed terms;
7. Encourages regional, subregional and interregional organizations and
processes to continue to share best practices, experiences and technical expertise in
combating and preventing sand and dust storms to address the root causes and impacts
of sand and dust storms, including through improved implementation of sustainable
land management, soil, agricultural and livestock practices, and to promote regional
cooperation in this matter to reduce the risks and impact of future sand and dust
storms and to provide affected countries with capacity -building and technical support
from the relevant United Nations organizations, such as the World Meteorological
Organization, the United Nations Environment Programme and the World Health
Organization, within their respective mandates, to this end;
8. Acknowledges the generous offer by the Government of the Islamic
Republic of Iran to host an international conference on combating sand and dust
storms, with the cooperation of the United Nations Environment Programme, the
United Nations Development Programme, the World Health Organization, the World
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9 A/77/216.
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Meteorological Organization, the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United
Nations, the Department of Economic and Social Affairs of the Secretariat and the
Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific, as well as other relevant
United Nations entities, in 2023;
9. Invites all affected Member States as well as relevant entities of the United
Nations development system, regional organizations and other relevant stakeholders
to endeavour to meet the objectives set out in the present resolution;
10. Reaffirms that climate change is one of the greatest challenges of our time
and, among other factors, is a serious challenge to the sustainable development of all
countries, including those affected by sand and dust storms, and emphasizes that,
among other factors, climate change is an important potential contributor to future
wind erosion and the risk of sand and dust storms, especially the occurrence of more
extreme wind events and the movement towards drier climates, although reverse
effects are possible;
11. Recognizes that sand and dust storms cause numerous human health
problems in different regions around the world, especially in arid, semi -arid and dry
subhumid regions, and that there is a need to reinforce protective strategies to reduce
the negative impacts of sand and dust storms on human health, invites the World
Health Organization, with the cooperation of other relevant United Nations system
entities, as appropriate, to support affected countries in combating health problems
caused by sand and dust storms, within their respec tive mandates, recognizes the
formation of a working group on sand and dust storms to discuss emerging issues and
share information under the technical advisory group on global air pollution and
health of the World Health Organization, and also recognizes the publication of a
dedicated section on the health effects of sand and dust storms as part of the World
Health Organization global air quality guidelines released in September 2021, and the
development of standard operating procedures to assess and addre ss the short-term
health effects of desert dust by the World Health Organization, in collaboration with
experts from the World Meteorological Organization;
12. Emphasizes that sand and dust storm issues will continue to constitute
important components of the global coalition on health, environment and climate
change launched in May 2018 by the World Health Organization, the United Nations
Environment Programme and the World Meteorological Organization to improve
coordination and reduce the 12.6 million dea ths each year that are attributed to
environmental risks, such as air pollution;
13. Commends the United Nations Environment Assembly on its commitment
to addressing sand and dust storms, and in this regard notes Environment Assembly
resolution 2/21 on sand and dust storms, adopted during its second session, and
resolution 4/10 on innovation on biodiversity and land degradation, adopted during
its fourth session;
14. Takes note of the convening of the regional ministerial meeting on
environmental cooperation for a better future held in the Islamic Republic of Iran on
12 July 2022 to find solutions for regional environmental challenges, especially the
issue of sand and dust storms;
15. Recalls the convening of the fifth session of the United Nations
Environment Assembly in Nairobi from 28 February to 2 March 2022, under the
theme “Strengthening actions for nature to achieve the Sustainable Development
Goals”, and also recalls its ministerial declaration; 10
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10 UNEP/EA.5/HLS.1.
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16. Commends the secretariat of the United Nations Convention to Combat
Desertification in Those Countries Experiencing Serious Drought and/or
Desertification, Particularly in Africa, on its efforts to develop both a global base map
of sand and dust storm sources, in collaboration with the United Nations Environment
Programme and the World Meteorological Organization, and the Sand and Dust
Storms Compendium: Information and Guidance on Assessing and Addressing the
Risks, in collaboration with the Science-Policy Interface of the Convention and other
relevant United Nations system entities, as a comprehensive collation of material
designed to provide information and guidance on how to assess and address the risks
posed by sand and dust storms and plan actions to combat th eir recurrence and
impacts, also commends the World Meteorological Organization for achieving several
improvements to the observation and modelling systems that are part of its Sand and
Dust Storm Warning Advisory and Assessment System, which provides sand and dust
storm forecasts for early warning systems in various countries, and encourages the
World Meteorological Organization and all relevant stakeholders to broaden the
regional domains of this system to cover the highly affected regions and to continue
making technical improvements to it;
17. Welcomes the fifteenth session of the Conference of the Parties to the
United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification, held in Abidjan from 9 to
20 May 2022, takes note of the Abidjan Call and other relevant decisions adopted by
the parties during the Conference, namely decision 26/COP.15, and reaffirms the
importance of addressing sand and dust storms under the Convention;
18. Encourages the relevant entities of the United Nations, including the
World Health Organization, the United Nations Environment Programme, the United
Nations Development Programme, the World Meteorological Organization, the Food
and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations and the Department of Economic
and Social Affairs, within their respective mandates and resources, and donors to
continue to provide capacity-building and technical assistance for combating and
preventing sand and dust storms and to continue to support the implementation of the
national, regional and global action plans of the affected countries;
19. Decides to consider during the seventy-seventh session of the General
Assembly the measures required to designate a day of each year as the International
Day of Combating Sand and Dust Storms, to further raise intern ational awareness of
sand and dust storms;
20. Acknowledges the global assessment of sand and dust storms prepared by
the United Nations Environment Programme in collaboration with other relevant
United Nations system entities, including the World Meteoro logical Organization and
the secretariat of the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification, which
sets out proposals for consolidated and coordinated technical and policy options for
responding to sand and dust storms;
21. Takes note with appreciation of the efforts made by the World Health
Organization so far in conducting and its willingness to conduct further studies
regarding the common effects of both COVID-19 and sand and dust storms on public
health, and invites the United Nations Coalition on Combating Sand and Dust Storms,
within its existing mandate and resources, to intensify its efforts to prepare
recommendations on mitigating the common effects of both COVID -19 and sand and
dust storms on the respiratory systems of infected people, to be included in the report
of the Secretary-General to be submitted to the General Assembly at its seventy -
eighth session;
22. Requests the Secretary-General to further encourage the United Nations
Coalition on Combating Sand and Dust Storms to conduct its priority activities as
identified by the Coalition’s five working groups, which are knowledge -sharing,
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capacity-building, training, awareness-raising and support for the formulation of
national, regional and interregional plans, to mitigate and prevent sa nd and dust storm
hazards, and to encourage the Coalition to enhance resource mobilization efforts so
as to increase voluntary contributions to the Coalition and its member agencies;
23. Also requests the Secretary-General to submit to the General Assembly at
its seventy-eighth session a report on the implementation of the present resolution,
and decides to include in the provisional agenda of its seventy -eighth session, under
the item entitled “Sustainable development”, the sub -item entitled “Combating sand
and dust storms”.
53rd plenary meeting
14 December 2022
United Nations A/RES/77/172
General Assembly
Distr.: General
21 December 2022
22-28790 (E) 281222
*2228790*
Seventy-seventh session
Agenda item 18 (k)
Sustainable development: sustainable mountain development
Resolution adopted by the General Assembly
on 14 December 2022
[on the report of the Second Committee (A/77/443/Add.11, para. 7)]
77/172. Sustainable mountain development
The General Assembly,
Recalling its resolutions 53/24 of 10 November 1998, 55/189 of 20 December
2000, 57/245 of 20 December 2002, 58/216 of 23 December 2003, 59/238 of
22 December 2004, and its resolutions 60/198 of 22 December 2005, 62/196 of
19 December 2007, 64/205 of 21 December 2009, 66/205 of 22 December 2011 and
68/217 of 20 December 2013, 71/234 of 21 December 2016 and 74/227 of
19 December 2019 entitled “Sustainab le mountain development”,
Reaffirming its resolution 70/1 of 25 September 2015, entitled “Transforming
our world: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development”, in which it adopted a
comprehensive, far-reaching and people-centred set of universal and transformative
Sustainable Development Goals and targets, its commitment to working tirelessly for
the full implementation of the Agenda by 2030, its recognition that eradicating
poverty in all its forms and dimensions, including extreme poverty, is the greatest
global challenge and an indispensable requirement for sustainable development, its
commitment to achieving sustainable development in its three dimensions –
economic, social and environmental – in a balanced and integrated manner, and to
building upon the achievements of the Millennium Development Goals and seeking
to address their unfinished business,
Recalling that the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, inter alia,
recognizes that economic and social development depends on the sustainable
management of our planet’s natural resources and confirms the determination of the
international community to conserve and sustainably use oceans and seas and
freshwater resources, as well as forests, mountains a nd drylands, and to conserve
biodiversity, ecosystems and wildlife,
Reaffirming its resolution 69/313 of 27 July 2015 on the Addis Ababa Action
Agenda of the Third International Conference on Financing f or Development, which
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2/10 22-28790
is an integral part of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, supports and
complements it, helps to contextualize its means of implementation targets with
concrete policies and actions, and reaffirms the strong political commitm ent to
address the challenge of financing and creating an enabling environment at all levels
for sustainable development in the spirit of global partnership and solidarity,
Recalling the outcome document of the United Nations Conference on
Sustainable Development, entitled “The future we want”, 1 Agenda 21,2 the Plan of
Implementation of the World Summit on Sustainable Development (Johannesburg
Plan of Implementation)3 and the Aichi Biodiversity Targets of the Strategic Plan for
Biodiversity 2011–2020,
Reaffirming the Paris Agreement4 and its early entry into force, encouraging all
the parties to the Agreement to fully implement the Agreement, and parties to the
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change 5 that have not yet done so
to deposit their instruments of ratification, acceptance, approval or accession, where
appropriate, as soon as possible, and highlighting the synergies between the full
implementation of the 2030 Agenda and the Paris Agreement,
Recalling that the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change,
inter alia, recognizes that developing countries with fragile mountainous ecosystems
are among the countries that are particularly vulnerable to the adverse effects of
climate change,
Noting with concern the findings contained in the special reports entitled Global
Warming of 1.5°C, The Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing Climate and Climate
Change and Land and the reports of the sixth assessment cycle, including the cross -
chapter paper on mountains, of th e Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change,
Noting with concern also the adverse impacts of climate change on high
mountains, including the retreat of mountain glaciers, permafrost thaw, mass loss of
ice sheets and the decline in the depth, extent and d uration of snow cover,
Noting with great concern the severe negative impact on human health, safety
and well-being caused by the coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic, as well as
the severe disruption to societies and economies and the devastating impa ct on lives
and livelihoods, and that the poorest and most vulnerable are the hardest hit by the
pandemic, reaffirming the ambition to get back on track to achieve the Sustainable
Development Goals by designing and implementing sustainable and inclusive
recovery strategies to accelerate progress towards the full implementation of the 2030
Agenda for Sustainable Development and to help to reduce the risk of and build
resilience to future shocks, crises and pandemics, including by strengthening health
systems and achieving universal health coverage, and recognizing that equitable and
timely access for all to safe, quality, effective and affordable COVID -19 vaccines,
therapeutics and diagnostics are an essential part of a global response based on unity,
solidarity, renewed multilateral cooperation and the principle of leaving no one
behind,
__________________
1 Resolution 66/288, annex.
2 Report of the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, Rio de Janeiro,
3–14 June 1992, vol. I, Resolutions Adopted by the Conference (United Nations publication,
Sales No. E.93.I.8 and corrigendum), resolution 1, annex II.
3 Report of the World Summit on Sustainable Development, Johannesburg, South Africa,
26 August–4 September 2002 (United Nations publication, Sales No. E.03.II.A.1 and
corrigendum), chap. I, resolution 2, annex.
4 See FCCC/CP/2015/10/Add.1, decision 1/CP.21, annex.
5 United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 1771, No. 30822.
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Acknowledging the severe consequences of the COVID-19 pandemic for the
sustainable development of mountain regions, including the far-reaching and
enduring consequences for poverty eradication, employment, education, growth,
social welfare, the reduction of inequalities, including gender inequality, and for
livelihoods, ending hunger, food security and nutrition and access to health -care
services, as a result of the unpreced ented contraction of the global economy,
compounding the challenges posed by climate change,
Recalling the holding of the 2019 Climate Action Summit, convened by the
Secretary-General, on 23 September 2019, taking note of the multi -partner initiatives
and commitments presented during the Summit, and recalling the Youth Climate
Summit, held on 21 September 2019,
Taking note with appreciation of the 2021 United Nations Food Systems
Summit, convened by the Secretary-General on 23 and 24 September 2021, as well
as its pre-Summit, held from 26 to 28 July 2021 in Rome, Italy,
Recalling the United Nations Decade on Ecosystem Restoration (2021 –2030),6
with its goal of preventing, halting and reversing the degradation of ecosystems
worldwide, including in moun tain areas,
Recalling also the Convention on Biological Diversity, 7 the Aichi Biodiversity
Targets contained in its Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 2011 –20208 and its programme
of work on mountain biodiversity,
Recalling further the Aspen Declaration, adopted at the sixth global meeting of
the International Partnership for Sustainable Development in Mountain Regions
(Mountain Partnership), convened in Aspen, United States of America, from 26 to
29 September 2022,
Noting with serious concern the findings of the Intergovernmental Science -
Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services, stressing the urgent need to
halt and reverse the unprecedented glob al decline in biodiversity, in this regard
welcoming the first part of the fifteenth meeting of the Conference of the Parties to
the Convention on Biological Diversity, held in Kunming, China, from 11 to
25 October 2021, and looking forward to the second p art of the fifteenth meeting, in
Montreal, Canada, from 7 to 19 December 2022, under the presidency of China, which
is to adopt an ambitious, balanced, practical, effective, robust and transformative
post-2020 global biodiversity framework,
Recalling the United Nations strategic plan for forests 2017 –2030,9 and noting
with appreciation the Bonn Challenge,
Recognizing the Sendai Declaration and the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk
Reduction 2015–2030, adopted at the Third United Nations World Conferen ce on
Disaster Risk Reduction,10 the latter of which, inter alia, identifies a need for focused
action in investing in disaster risk reduction for resilience, and in this regard considers
it important to promote, at the national and local levels, the mains treaming of disaster
risk assessment, mapping and management into rural development planning and
management of, inter alia, mountains, including through the identification of areas
that are safe for human settlement, and at the same time preserving ecosyst em
functions that help to reduce risks,
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6 See resolution 73/284.
7 United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 1760, No. 30619.
8 United Nations Environment Programme, document UNEP/CBD/COP/10/27, annex, decision X/2,
annex.
9 See resolution 71/285.
10 Resolution 69/283, annexes I and II.
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Looking forward to the convening of the United Nations Conference on the
Midterm Comprehensive Review of the Implementation of the Objectives of the
International Decade for Action, “Water for Sustainable Developme nt”, 2018–2028,
in New York from 22 to 24 March 2023, subsequently referred to as the United
Nations 2023 Water Conference, in accordance with General Assembly resolutions
73/226 of 20 December 2018 and 75/212 of 21 December 2020,
Reaffirming its resolution 76/129 of 16 December 2021, in which it proclaimed
2022 the International Year of Sustainable Mount ain Development, on the proposal
of the Government of Kyrgyzstan, 20 years after the International Year of Mountains,
held in 2002, and 20 years after the establishment of the Mountain Partnership,
Recalling its resolution 76/253 of 15 March 2022, in which it decided to declare
2026 the International Year of Rangelands and Pastoralists, on the proposal of
Mongolia, to raise awareness and fill knowledge gaps globally about the considerable
benefits provided by healthy rangelands and sustainable pastoralism,
Recognizing that the benefits derived from mountain regions are essential for
sustainable development and that mountain ecosystems play a crucial role in
providing water and other essential resources a nd services to a large portion of the
world’s population,
Recognizing also that mountain ecosystems are highly vulnerable to the
increasing adverse impacts of climate change, extreme weather events, deforestation,
forest fires and forest degradation, lan d-use change, land degradation and natural
disasters, from which they recover slowly, and that mountain glaciers around the
world are retreating and getting thinner, with increasing impacts on the environment,
sustainable livelihoods and human well -being,
Acknowledging that, despite the progress that has been made in promoting the
sustainable development of mountain regions and the conservation of mountain
ecosystems, including their biodiversity, the prevalence of poverty, food insecurity,
social exclusion, environmental degradation and exposure to the risk of disasters is
still increasing, particularly in developing countries, and access to safe and affordable
drinking water and basic sanitation as well as to sustainable modern energy services
continues to be limited,
Reaffirming that gender equality and the empowerment of all women and girls
will make a crucial contribution to progress across all the Sustainable Development
Goals and targets, and that the achievement of full human potential and sustaina ble
development is not possible if one half of humanity continues to be denied full human
rights and opportunities,
Noting with deep concern that about 340 million people in rural mountain areas
in developing countries – 55 per cent of the total rural mo untain population – were
considered vulnerable to food insecurity in 2017, a steep increase compared with
2012, and in this regard acknowledging the need to prioritize the special and urgent
attention needed by mountain areas, including by focusing on the specific challenges
that they face and the opportunities that they provide,
Encouraging Member States to advance innovative pathways to achieve
sustainable consumption and production in line with United Nations Environment
Assembly resolution 5/11 of 2 March 2022, 11
Noting with appreciation the collaborative efforts of the Mountain Partner ship,
launched during the World Summit on Sustainable Development as a multi -stakeholder
approach benefiting from the committed support of 465 members, including 61
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11 UNEP/EA.5/Res.11.
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Governments, 19 intergovernmental organizations, 372 major groups and 13
subnational authorities, and engaged in the promotion of sustainable development in
its three dimensions – economic, social and environmental – in mountain regions,
Noting with appreciation also the work of groups of friends aimed at the
promotion of sustainable mountain development, such as the Mountain Focus Group,
established in 2001, and the Group of Friends of Mountainous Countries, established
in 2019, and recalling the high-level meeting on sustainable mountain development,
held in New York on 19 September 2022,
1. Takes note of the report of the Secretary -General on sustainable mountain
development;12
2. Encourages States to adopt a long-term vision and holistic approaches,
including by incorporating mountain-specific policies into national sustainable
development strategies, increase efforts to end poverty in all its forms and
dimensions, address food insecurity and malnutrition, promote the conservation and
sustainable use of biodiversity, traditional crops and diets, and fight against social
exclusion, environmental degradation and disaster risk in mountain areas, taking into
account that an integrated landscape approach which addresses natural resources
management, including watershed and sustainable forest management as well as
climate change resilience throug h multi-stakeholder approaches, can lead to the
sustainable development of highland areas, the improvement of the livelihood of the
local mountain communities and the sustainable use of mountain resources;
3. Encourages Member States, and invites international organizations and
other relevant stakeholders, with respect to sustainable mountain development, to
reduce and reverse biodiversity loss and the degradation of land and soil, contributing
to the achievement of the Sustainable Development Goals;
4. Takes note with appreciation of the International Partnership for
Sustainable Development in Mountain Regions (Mountain Partnership), the only
United Nations voluntary alliance of partners dedicated to improving the lives of
people living in mountain areas and protecting mountain environments around the
world, and takes note of the Mountain Partnership framework for action for
implementing the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development for mountains, as well
as the work of the Mountain Partnership Products in itiative;
5. Stresses the special vulnerability of people living in mountain
environments, in particular local communities and Indigenous Peoples, often with
limited access to health, education and economic systems and particularly at risk
because of the negative impact of extreme natural phenomena, and invites States to
strengthen cooperative action, with the effective involvement and sharing of
knowledge and experience of all relevant stakeholders, including traditional
knowledge of Indigenous Peoples and local mountain communities living in mountain
areas and their cultures, by strengthening existing arrangements, agreements and
centres of excellence for sustainable mountain development, as well as exploring new
arrangements and agreements, as appropria te;
6. Also stresses the importance of the diversification of livelihoods and
income enhancement opportunities for local mountain communities, and in this regard
encourages the promotion of innovative solutions and entrepreneurship within local
mountain communities, as appropriate, to end poverty and hunger;
7. Supports energy access in accordance with the national needs of
developing countries, including mountain countries, to tackle their energy access
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12 A/77/217.
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challenges by identifying the specific needs of ea ch country by mobilizing technical
and financial assistance and tools to deploy affordable, reliable, sustainable and
modern energy solutions, and expand the use of renewable energy, to tackle the energy
access deficit;
8. Stresses the importance of mountain family farming communities and
Indigenous Peoples, as one of the custodians of natural and cultural heritage, and
encourages Member States to support the activities related to the United Nations
Decade of Family Farming (2019 –2028), in line with its global action plan, to
promote national policies, as appropriate, that support secure land tenure, provide
access to resources, ensure gender equality and women’s empowerment and empower
people in vulnerable situations, and to implement practical actions th at can safeguard
decent work opportunities, particularly for youth, in rural areas;
9. Recognizes the importance of the One Health and other holistic approaches
that deliver multiple benefits to the health and well -being of people, animals, plants
and ecosystems, including in mountain regions, and would further strengthen the
capacity to address biodiversity loss, prevent, prepare for and respond to the
emergence of diseases, including zoonotic infections and future health emergencies,
and combat antimicrobial resistance;
10. Stresses that the traditions and knowledge of Indigenous Peoples and of
local mountain communities living in mountain areas, particularly in the fields of
agriculture, medicine and the management of natural resources, should be fully
considered, respected and promoted in development policy, strategies and
programmes in mountain regions, and underlines the need to promote the full
participation and involvement of local mountain communities in decisions that affect
them and to integrate Indigenous and local knowledge, heritage and values in all
development initiatives, in consultati on with and with the consent of the Indigenous
Peoples and local mountain communities concerned, as appropriate;
11. Recognizes the need to increase the adaptive capacity, resilience and
sustainability of food and agricultural production with regard to c limate change, notes
that sustainable production practices, agroforestry and the conservation of
agrobiodiversity in mountain areas ensure food security and nutrition and dietary
diversity and quality, generate income for smallholder farmers and aid conser vation
and restoration, addressing the particular vulnerabilities of food production systems
to the adverse impacts of climate change, and also notes that mountain farmers and
pastoralists play a key role in agroecology;
12. Also recognizes that urgent action is needed to reduce poverty in mountain
areas, and in this regard encourages Member States and all relevant stakeholders to
take concrete and targeted measures to eradicate poverty in mountain areas;
13. Notes that women are often the primary manag ers of mountain resources
and the main actors in agriculture, underlines the need for improved access to
resources and productive assets, including land and economic and financial services,
for women in mountain regions, as well as the need to strengthen t he role of women
in mountain regions in decision-making processes that affect their communities,
cultures and environments, and encourages Governments and intergovernmental
organizations to mainstream a gender perspective, including through data
disaggregated by sex, in mountain development activities, programmes and projects
towards the achievement of gender equality and women’s empowerment;
14. Recognizes that mountains provide sensitive indications of climate change
through phenomena such as modifications to biological diversity, the retreat of
mountain glaciers, flash floods and changes in seasonal run -off, which are having an
impact on major sources of freshwater in the world, and stresses the need to take
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actions to minimize the negative effects of t hese phenomena, promote adaptation
measures and prevent the loss of biological diversity;
15. Also recognizes that the mountain cryosphere has an impact on
surrounding lowland areas, even far from the mountains, and that widespread
cryosphere changes affect physical, biological and human systems in the mountains
and surrounding lowlands, with impacts evident even in the ocean;
16. Further recognizes the important role of the cryosphere (glaciers, snow,
ice and permafrost) in maintaining ecosystems that provide essential services, which
are critical foundations for sustainable development and human well -being, especially
for the most vulnerable populations;
17. Encourages Member States to collect at the local, national and regional
levels, as appropriate, disaggregated scientific data on mountain areas through
systematic monitoring, including of trends of progress and change, based on relevant
criteria, to support interdisciplinary research programmes and projects and to enhance
an integrated and inclusive approach to decision-making and planning, and in this
regard notes that the Mountain Green Cover Index is included in the global indicator
framework for the Sustainable Development Goals and targets of the 2030 Agenda
for Sustainable Development13 as an indicator for target 15.4 of the Sustainable
Development Goals, and also notes the need to validate the related national data and
improve its data accuracy and analysis at the country level for the implementation of
appropriate policies aimed at restoring and protecting mountain environments;
18. Calls upon Member States to strengthen cooperation between scientific
institutions, including in the field of mountain glacier studies, on the global and
regional scales, and to promote the availability of resea rch results and findings to
stakeholders to develop public policies and programmes of action at the international,
regional, bilateral and national levels;
19. Encourages Member States and all relevant stakeholders to continue to
increase public awareness, including through the commemoration of International
Mountain Day, on 11 December, established in its resolution 57/245, and the
International Year of Sustainable Mountain Development, in 2022, proclaim ed in its
resolution 76/129, with respect to the economic benefits that mountains provide, for
instance through ecosystem services or sustainable tourism, not only to highland
communities but also to a large portion of the world’s population living in lowland
areas;
20. Welcomes, in this regard, the contribution of sustainable tourism initiatives
in mountain regions as a way to enhance environmental protection and generate
socioeconomic benefits for local communities, Indigenous Peoples and rural
populations, including opportunities for productive employment, economic growth
and the promotion of local culture and products;
21. Expresses its deep concern at the number and scale of natural and man -
made disasters and their increasing impact in recent years, which have resulted in
massive loss of life and long-term negative social, economic and environmental
consequences for societies throughout the world, and recognizes that disaster risk
reduction requires a broader and more people -centred preventive approach, reflecting
the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, and an all -of-society engagement and
partnership, empowerment and inclusive, accessible and non -discriminatory
participation, paying special attention to people disproportionately affected by
disasters, many of which are exacerbated by climate change, especially the poorest,
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13 Resolution 70/1.
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and also taking into account the vulnerability of people living in mountain
environments, especially those in developing countries;
22. Encourages States, as appropriate, to strengthen disaster risk governance,
to invest in disaster risk reduction for resilience and to develop and improve disaster
risk strategies in mountain regions through increased generation and use of climate
and disaster risk information, improved risk communication and participa tion of
mountain communities, development of hazard risk maps and platforms,
improvement of early warning systems and application of the risk -based approach in
all development planning, in order to cope with such extreme events as rockfalls,
avalanches, glacial lake outburst floods and landslides, which can be exacerbated by
climate change and deforestation, consistent with the Sendai Framework for Disaster
Risk Reduction 2015–2030;14
23. Encourages, in this regard, the increased involvement of local auth orities,
as well as other relevant stakeholders, in particular the rural population, Indigenous
Peoples, civil society and the private sector, in the development and implementation
of programmes, land-use planning and land tenure arrangements, and in other relevant
activities related to sustainable development in mountains;
24. Notes with concern that the access to services and infrastructure is lower
in the highlands than in other areas, and encourages Member States to improve basic
infrastructure in mountain areas towards achieving the Sustainable Development
Goals;
25. Recognizes the need for the sustainable management of forests and the
conservation and sustainable use of mountains, which, together with other natural
ecosystems, act as natural sinks and reservoirs of biodiversity and greenhouse gases,
reducing vulnerability to climate change impacts, allowing the continuity of the
hydrological cycle, and encourages Member States to adopt nature -based solutions,
ecosystem-based approaches, in line with United Nations Environment Assembly
resolution 5/5 of 2 March 2022;15
26. Notes the importance of ensuring the protection, restoration and
conservation of mountain ecosystems, including their biodiversity, in order to
enhance their capacity to provide b enefits that are essential for human well-being,
economic activity and sustainable development, and of developing innovative means
of implementation for their protection, in this regard recognizes with appreciation the
establishment of relevant funds, incl uding the Mountain Facility of the Mountain
Partnership Secretariat, focusing on climate resilient business models that enhance
mountain biodiversity, and the efforts made by relevant United Nations entities to
promote the conservation of mountain ecosystems, and encourages Member States
and all relevant stakeholders to financially support it on a voluntary basis;
27. Encourages greater efforts by States, all relevant stakeholders and the
international community towards the conservation of mountain ecosys tems and the
enhancement of the well-being of their local populations, including by promoting
investment in infrastructure in mountain areas, such as transport and information and
communications technologies, and supporting education, culture, extension an d
capacity-building programmes, especially among local mountain communities and
other relevant stakeholders, strengthening the role of youth through education and
training on sustainable mountain development and taking into account the extent of
the current challenges that they face and bearing in mind the increased economic,
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14 Resolution 69/283, annex II.
15 UNEP/EA.5/Res.5.
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social and environmental costs that inaction might represent for countries and
societies;
28. Underlines the fact that action at the national level is a key factor in
achieving progress in sustainable mountain development, welcomes its steady
increase in recent years with a multitude of events, activities and initiatives, and
invites the international community to support the efforts of developing countries to
develop and implement strategies and programmes, including, where required,
enabling policies and laws for the sustainable development of mountains, within the
framework of national sustainable development plans, including by building and
strengthening institutional capacities, as appropriate;
29. Encourages the further undertaking of multi-stakeholder and transboundary
initiatives at the national, regional and global levels, where appropriate, such as those
supported by all relevant international and regional organizations, to e nhance
sustainable development in mountain regions, and notes in this regard the numerous
initiatives undertaken, including the fifth global meeting of the Mountain Partnership,
held in Rome from 11 to 13 December 2017, the fourth World Mountain Forum, hel d
in Bishkek from 23 to 26 October 2018, the High Mountain Summit, held in Geneva
from 29 to 31 October 2019, and the sixth global meeting of the Mountain Partnership,
held in Aspen from 26 to 29 September 2022, and welcomes the generous offer of the
Government of Kyrgyzstan to convene the second Global Mountain Summit in
Bishkek from 9 to 11 December 2027;
30. Decides to proclaim the period 2023–2027 as Five Years of Action for the
Development of Mountain Regions in order to enhance the awareness of the
international community of the problems of mountain countries and to give new
impetus to the international community’s efforts to address the challenges and
problems of mountain countries;
31. Encourages Member States and all relevant stakeholders to con sider, as
appropriate, mountain-related issues in the processes of United Nations conventions
and other relevant global forums, including the process related to a post -2020 global
biodiversity framework, and to implement the programme of work on mountain
biodiversity of the Conference of the Parties to the Convention on Biological
Diversity, and stresses the importance of regional and transboundary collaboration as
means of implementation;
32. Encourages Member States to promote ecosystem-based adaptation,
bearing in mind the guidelines adopted by the fourteenth meeting of the Conference
of the Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity, in 2018, and climate -smart
wildlife conservation as tools for reducing impacts on communities and species, and
welcomes the efforts of partners such as the United Nations Environment Programme,
the International Union for Conservation of Nature and the Mountain Institute in
promoting ecosystem-based adaptation in mountain regions;
33. Encourages all relevant entities of the United Nations system, within their
respective mandates, to further enhance their constructive efforts to strengthen
inter-agency collaboration to promote sustainable mountain development;
34. Recognizes that mountain ranges are usually shared among several
countries, and in this context encourages transboundary cooperation approaches
where the States concerned agree to the sustainable development of mountain ranges
and information-sharing in this regard;
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35. Notes with appreciation, in this context, the Convention on the Protection
of the Alps16 and the Framework Convention on the Protection and Sustainable
Development of the Carpathians, and the recent adoption of the Protocol on
Sustainable Agriculture and Rural Development and the entry int o force of the
Protocol on Sustainable Transport, which promote constructive new approaches to
integrated, sustainable mountain development and provide a forum for dialogue
among stakeholders, and notes other transboundary approaches and initiatives such
as the Andean Initiative for mountains, the Scientific Network for the Caucasus
Mountain Region and the established Caucasus Mountain Forum, the African
Mountains Regional Forum, the European Union Strategy for the Alpine Region and
the Zurich process, the Hindu Kush Himalayan Partnership for Sustainable Mountain
Development, the Hindu Kush Himalayan Monitoring and Assessment Programme,
the International Snow Leopard and Ecosystem Forum of 2017, the fourth World
Nomad Games, in 2022, and the Pyrenean Climate Change Observatory, as well as
other relevant initiatives promoting transboundary cooperation and dialogue
supported by the United Nations Environment Programme and other partners;
36. Invites Member States and relevant United Nations agencies, within t heir
mandates, to further enhance support to sustainable mountain development, including
through participation in the Five Years of Action for the Development of Mountain
Regions;
37. Stresses that the costs of all activities that may arise from the
implementation of the present resolution should be met from voluntary contributions,
and that such activities would be subject to the availability and provision of voluntary
contributions;
38. Calls upon mountain countries, the United Nations system and othe r
relevant stakeholders, such as academia, the private sector and investors, to improve
international cooperation, including by furthering financial mechanisms between
mountain countries and attracting investments;
39. Requests the Secretary-General to report to the General Assembly at its
eightieth session on the implementation of the present resolution, including on the
Five Years of Action for the Development of Mountain Regions, under the sub -item
entitled “Sustainable mountain development” of the item entitled “Sustainable
development”.
53rd plenary meeting
14 December 2022
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16 United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 1917, No. 32724.
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14-62125 15/60
Annex
Resolutions and decisions adopted by the United Nations
Environment Assembly of the United Nations Environment
Programme at its first session
Resolutions
1/1. Ministerial outcome document of the first session of the
United Nations Environment Assembly of the United Nations
Environment Programme
The United Nations Environment Assembly
Adopts the following ministerial outcome document:
Ministerial outcome document of the first session of the United Nations
Environment Assembly of the United Nations Environment Programme
The ministers of environment and heads of delegation gathered at the first
session of the United Nations Environment Assembly of the United Nations
Environment Programme in Nairobi on 26 and 27 June 2014
Recall General Assembly resolution 2997 (XXVII) of 15 December 1972
establishing the United Nations Environment Programme, the Malmö Ministerial
Declaration of 31 May 2000, the 1997 Nairobi Declaration on the Role and Mandate
of the United Nations Environment Programme, declaring the United Nations
Environment Programme to be the leading global environmental authori ty that sets
the global environmental agenda, that promotes the integrated and coherent
implementation of the environmental dimension of sustainable development within
the United Nations system and that serves as an authoritative advocate for the global
environment, as reinforced in the Nusa Dua Declaration of February 2010;
Also recall that, from the 1972 United Nations Conference on the Human
Environment in Stockholm to the United Nations Conference on Environment and
Development in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, in 1992, the adoption of Agenda 21, the
adoption of the Plan of Implementation of the 2002 World Summit on Sustainable
Development and the United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development
(Rio+20), held in Rio de Janeiro in 2012, we have increased our understanding of
the importance of the environment in the context of sustainable development, we
have strengthened our institutions and we have committed ourselves to action;
Reaffirm, therefore, our commitment to the full implementation of the Rio+20
outcome document, “The future we want”,1 and all the principles of the Rio
Declaration on Environment and Development, and call for the implementation of
section IV.C of “The future we want”, on the environmental pillar in the context of
sustainable development, and paragraph 88, on strengthening and upgrading the
United Nations Environment Programme;
Emphasize, with the foregoing in mind, the historic importance of convening
the first universal session of this lead forum and decision-making body to address
__________________
1 General Assembly resolution 66/288, annex.
A/69/25
16/60 14-62125
global environmental challenges and provide overarching policy guidance within the
United Nations system, recognizing the fundamental role of the Environment
Assembly in promoting the full integration and coherent implementation of the
environmental dimension of sustainable development and its potential to identify
opportunities and advance solutions for the global environmental agenda;
Call on the international community, and reaffirm our commitment:
(a) To ensure the full integration of the environmental dimension, especially
throughout the sustainable development agenda, acknowledging that a healthy
environment is an essential requirement and key enabler for sustainable
development;
(b) To achieve an ambitious, universal, implementable and realizable
post-2015 development agenda that fully integrates the economic, social and
environmental dimensions of sustainable development in a coherent, holistic,
comprehensive and balanced manner, including comprehensive and action-oriented
sustainable development goals, with the aim of eradicating poverty, protecting the
environment and promoting inclusive social and economic development in harmony
with nature;
(c) To accelerate and support efforts to promote sustainable consumption and
production patterns, including through sustainable lifestyles and resource efficiency,
and to accelerate actions, with the support of the United Nations Environment
Programme, to implement the 10-year framework of programmes on sustainable
consumption and production patterns as a tool for action on sustainable consumption
and production, including its section on means of implementation;
(d) To take action to prevent, combat and eradicate the illegal trade in
wildlife and wildlife products, which has major economic, social and environmental
impacts, contributes to damage to ecosystems and rural livelihoods, undermines
good governance and the rule of law and threatens national security;
(e) To undertake urgent actions to address climate change, a persistent crisis
that affects all countries, and undermines their ability , in particular developing
countries, to achieve sustainable development, which requires cooperation by all
countries, in accordance with the objective, principles and provisions of the United
Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change;
(f) To continue to work towards the adoption in 2015 of an ambitious
outcome in the form of a protocol, other legal instrument or an agreed outcome with
legal force under the Framework Convention on Climate Change applicable to all
parties in accordance with the Durban Platform for Enhanced Action;
(g) To ensure the full implementation of multilateral environmental
agreements and other international and regional environmental commitments in an
effective and coordinated manner while promoting synergies among them,
acknowledging their positive contribution to sustainable development;
(h) To reinforce efforts to halt biodiversity loss and combat desertification,
drought and land degradation, including through the implementa tion of existing
environmental agreements, and to ensure that ecosystems are resilient and continue
to provide their services;
A/69/25
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(i) To foster and encourage the development of genuine and durable
partnerships to address environmental challenges faced by small island developing
States, looking forward to the discussion that will take place at the Third
International Conference on Small Island Developing States, to be held in Samoa in
September 2014;
Underline the importance of the issues addressed in the resolutions adopted by
the Environment Assembly at its first session, and invite the international
community to join efforts, including those made by the United Nations Environment
Programme, to implement such outcomes;
Welcome the richness of the debate that took place in the margins of the first
session of the Environment Assembly and the contributions of the academic
community and civil society experts in various forums to our understanding of the
challenges and opportunities facing us, including with regard to the rule of law on
the environment, gender, youth, the role of legislators and financing a green
economy, and recommend the continuation of this practice;
Commend the role of the United Nations Environment Programme in
facilitating intergovernmental negotiations on multilateral environmental
agreements, including the adoption of the Minamata Convention on Mercury, and
highlight the important positive contribution of the sound management of chemicals
and waste to sustainable development;
Acknowledge that a strengthened science-policy interface is of key importance
to more efficient and effective policymaking on sustainable development at all
levels and emphasize the role of the United Nations Environment Programme in
providing coherent evidence-based knowledge and information on the state of the
global environment for decision makers, including in the preparation of the
post-2015 development agenda;
Call on the High-level Political Forum on Sustainable Development, the
Economic and Social Council and the General Assembly, within their respective
mandates, to give appropriate consideration to the present outcome document and to
take its messages further with a view to the balanced integration of the three
dimensions of sustainable development in the work of the United Nations and its
Member States.
1/2. Amendments to the rules of procedure
The United Nations Environment Assembly
Adopts the following amendments to the rules of procedure:
1. Rule 2 as amended reads as follows:
1. Each regular session of the United Nations Environment Assembly shall
be held, subject to the provisions of rule 3, at a date fixed by the United Nations
Environment Assembly at its previous session in such a way, if practicable, as to
enable the Economic and Social Council and the General Assembly to consider the
report of the United Nations Environment Assembly in the same year.
2. When setting the date in a given year for the session of the United
Nations Environment Assembly, the dates of meetings of other relevant bodies,
K2200677 250422
UNITED
NATIONS
EP
UNEP/EA.5/Res.5
United Nations
Environment Assembly of the
United Nations Environment
Programme
Distr.: General
7 March 2022
Original: English
United Nations Environment Assembly of the
United Nations Environment Programme
Fifth session
Nairobi (hybrid), 22 and 23 February 2021
and 28 February–2 March 2022
Resolution adopted by the United Nations Environment
Assembly on 2 March 2022
5/5. Nature-based solutions for supporting sustainable development
The United Nations Environment Assembly,
Underlining the importance of strengthening actions for nature for implementing the 2030
Agenda for Sustainable Development and the Sustainable Development Goals, the Rio Declaration on
Environment and Development, the Convention on Biological Diversity and other biodiversity-related
conventions, the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and the Paris Agreement
adopted thereunder, the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification in Those Countries
Experiencing Serious Drought and/or Desertification, Particularly in Africa, the Sendai Framework for
Disaster Risk Reduction 2015–2030, the United Nations Decade on Ecosystem Restoration 2021–2030
and the decade of action and delivery for sustainable development 2020–2030; looking forward to the
adoption and implementation of an ambitious, balanced, practical, effective and robust post-2020
global biodiversity framework; and noting the Leaders’ Pledge for Nature: United to Reverse
Biodiversity Loss by 2030 for Sustainable Development,
Welcoming the report by the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and
Ecosystem Services entitled Global Assessment Report on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services1 and
the contribution of Working Group I, entitled Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis,2 and
Working Group II, entitled Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability,3 to the sixth
assessment report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, and taking note of other relevant
reports,
Recognizing the interdependencies between biodiversity loss, pollution, climate change,
desertification and land degradation and their interlinkages with human well-being, including health,
and the importance of ensuring the integrity of all ecosystems,
1 Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services, Global Assessment Report
on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (Bonn, Germany, IPBES secretariat, 2019).
2 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution
of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
(Cambridge University Press, 2021).
3 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability,
Contribution of Working Group II to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change (Cambridge University Press, 2022).
UNEP/EA.5/Res.5
2
Recognizing also that a key opportunity for strengthening actions for nature to achieve the
Sustainable Development Goals is to enhance cooperation, implementation and the scaling up of
nature-based solutions, while ensuring their social and environmental safeguards, given that
nature-based solutions are efficient and effective when designed on a context-specific basis to achieve
multiple benefits and applied in accordance with the best available science,
Recalling decisions V/6, VI/12, VII/11 and IX/7 of the Conference of the Parties to the
Convention on Biological Diversity on the ecosystem approach, and its decision 14/5 on biodiversity
and climate change, and recognizing, for the parties to the Convention, the indispensable role of the
Convention in the conservation, restoration and sustainable use of biodiversity and in the integrated
management of natural resources,
Acknowledging the need for a multilaterally agreed definition of the concept of nature-based
solutions, cognizant of and in harmony with the concept of ecosystem-based approaches, and in the
light of concerns about the potential misuse of the concept of nature-based solutions,
1. Decides that nature-based solutions are actions to protect, conserve, restore,
sustainably use and manage natural or modified terrestrial, freshwater, coastal and marine ecosystems
which address social, economic and environmental challenges effectively and adaptively, while
simultaneously providing human well-being, ecosystem services, resilience and biodiversity benefits,
and recognizes that nature-based solutions:
(a) Respect social and environmental safeguards, in line with the three “Rio conventions”
(the Convention on Biological Diversity, the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification
and the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change), including such safeguards for
local communities and indigenous peoples;
(b) Can be implemented in accordance with local, national and regional circumstances,
consistent with the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, and can be managed adaptively;
(c) Are among the actions that play an essential role in the overall global effort to achieve
the Sustainable Development Goals, including by effectively and efficiently addressing major social,
economic and environmental challenges, such as biodiversity loss, climate change, land degradation,
desertification, food security, disaster risks, urban development, water availability, poverty
eradication, inequality and unemployment, as well as social development, sustainable economic
development, human health and a broad range of ecosystem services;
(d) Can help to stimulate sustainable innovation and scientific research;
2. Recognizes that nature-based solutions may contribute significantly to climate action,
while recognizing the need for analysis of their effects, including in the long term, and acknowledging
that they do not replace the need for rapid, deep and sustained reductions in greenhouse gas emissions,
but can improve action for adaptation and resilience to and mitigation of climate change and its
impact;
3. Also recognizes the potential of sustainable and environmentally sound bio-based
products, innovation and technologies that result from nature-based solutions, when they contribute to
sustainable consumption and production and are beneficial to nature and consistent with international
commitments and relevant multilateral agreements on biodiversity, climate, environment and
sustainable development, while cognizant of the potential associated risks, including for local
communities and indigenous peoples;
4. Acknowledges that the concept of nature-based solutions is cognizant of and in
harmony with the concept of ecosystem-based approaches identified under the Convention on
Biological Diversity and other management and conservation approaches carried out under existing
national policy and legislative frameworks and established under relevant multilateral environmental
agreements;
5. Requests the Executive Director of the United Nations Environment Programme,
subject to the availability of resources and to further support the implementation of nature-based
solutions, as defined in the present resolution, to convene intergovernmental consultations in a
transparent, inclusive, regionally balanced manner, striving for gender balance, in order to undertake
the following:
(a) Compile examples of best practice in nature-based solutions, based on the best
available science;
UNEP/EA.5/Res.5
3
(b) Assess existing and discuss potential new proposals, criteria, standards and guidelines
to address divergences, with a view to achieving a common understanding among Member States for
the implementation of nature-based solutions, including to support Member States in designing,
implementing and evaluating nature-based solutions, building on existing work, initiatives and
platforms, as appropriate, and without prejudice to existing efforts and initiatives of and new proposals
from individual Member States;
(c) Identify options for supporting sustainable investment in nature-based solutions and
share information on bilateral and multilateral sources of finance to enable developing countries to
develop and deploy nature-based solutions;
6. Also requests the Executive Director, subject to the availability of resources, to support
the intergovernmental consultations, including enabling the participation of developing countries and
relevant partners and stakeholders, consistent with applicable United Nations rules;
7. Calls upon Member States and the Executive Director, in collaboration with other
relevant United Nations entities, to support the implementation of the present resolution in partnership
with local communities, women and youth as well as with indigenous peoples, with their free, prior
and informed consent, as their knowledge and methods have proved effective in conserving, restoring
and sustainably using biodiversity;
8. Calls upon Member States to follow a country-driven, gender-responsive, participatory
and fully transparent approach when designing, implementing and monitoring nature-based solutions.
K2200701 280422
UNITED
NATIONS
EP
UNEP/EA.5/Res.11
United Nations
Environment Assembly of the
United Nations Environment
Programme
Distr.: General
7 March 2022
Original: English
United Nations Environment Assembly of the
United Nations Environment Programme
Fifth session
Nairobi (hybrid), 22 and 23 February 2021
and 28 February–2 March 2022
Resolution adopted by the United Nations Environment
Assembly on 2 March 2022
5/11. Enhancing circular economy as a contribution to achieving sustainable
consumption and production
The United Nations Environment Assembly,
Recalling its resolution 4/1 on innovative pathways to achieve sustainable consumption and
production, which acknowledged that, along with other sustainable production and consumption
approaches, a more circular economy, in which products and materials are designed in such a way that
they can be reused, remanufactured, recycled or recovered and thus maintained in the economy for as
long as possible, along with the resources of which they are made, and the generation of waste,
especially hazardous waste, is avoided or minimized, and greenhouse gas emissions are prevented or
reduced, can contribute significantly to sustainable consumption and production,
Acknowledging that pursuing circular economy approaches as a pathway to achieving
sustainable consumption and production patterns can contribute to addressing climate change,
biodiversity loss, land degradation and the impact of water stress, pollution and the impact thereof on
human health, thus contributing to the achievement of related goals under the 2030 Agenda for
Sustainable Development and other internationally agreed environmental goals,
Taking note of the findings by the Platform for Accelerating the Circular Economy, presented
in the Circularity Gap Report 2020,1 that the global circularity gap is widening, compounded by linear
economy trends that are characterized by high rates of material resource extraction, ongoing stock
build-up and low levels of end-of-use processing and recycling,
Welcoming the analysis by the International Resource Panel in its report Global Resources
Outlook 2019: Natural Resources for the Future We Want2 that policy considerations for a more
circular economy include establishing effective infrastructure for waste management and recycling,
incentivizing extended product life cycles and sustainable product design, reducing national regulatory
barriers to the development or adoption of value-retention processes, and acknowledging the
importance of sustainable material resource management,
1 Circle Economy, The Circularity Gap Report 2020 (2020), available at
https://pacecircular.org/sites/default/files/2020-01/Circularity%20Gap%20Report%202020.pdf.
2 International Resource Panel, Global Resource Outlook 2019: Natural Resources for the Future We Want
(United Nations Environment Programme, 2019).
UNEP/EA.5/Res.11
2
Recognizing that international exchanges, shared experiences, capacity development, finance
and cooperation can help to implement circular economy approaches to achieve sustainable
consumption and production, and welcoming efforts to advance circular economy approaches, noting
in this context the establishment of regional and global initiatives,
Recognizing also that circular economy approaches require scaling up sustainable practices
along value chains and acknowledging that there are business models and best practices that embrace
circular economy approaches, technologies that improve resource management across sectors, and
“leapfrogging technologies” that generate economic savings and improve resource efficiency while
still driving development, notwithstanding the need for circular innovation,
Recognizing further the work undertaken under relevant international agreements, conventions,
organizations and forums, including those related to the sound management of chemicals and waste,
Welcoming the work conducted by the United Nations Environment Programme in its
Partnership for Clean Fuels and Vehicles and the contribution made by the Partnership to a more
circular economy by addressing vehicle-associated emissions, pollution, chemicals and waste,
Recognizing the introduction or strengthening of regulations and standards by Member States
and regional groups to ensure roadworthiness, reduce the negative environmental and health-related
impact of used vehicles and promote clean fuels,
Recognizing also that circular economy approaches provide opportunities for more
resource-efficient, less resource-intensive consumption and production practices and environmentally
sound technologies and infrastructure, while at the same time supporting livelihoods,
Welcoming the extension by the General Assembly, in its resolution 76/202 of 17 December
2021, of the mandate of the 10-Year Framework of Programmes on Sustainable Consumption and
Production Patterns to 2030, and taking note of the decision of the Board of the 10-Year Framework to
continue developing a new global strategy on sustainable consumption and production that will reflect
an ambitious and inclusive pathway for systemic and circular approaches and for multilateral and
multi-stakeholder cooperation,
Welcoming also the holding of the UNEP@50 meeting commemorating the fiftieth
anniversary of the establishment of the United Nations Environment Programme and the
Stockholm+50 international meeting commemorating the fiftieth anniversary of the United Nations
Conference on the Human Environment and its outcome documents,
Welcoming further the work of the International Resource Panel, including through its regular
Global Resources Outlook reports, in developing science-based options for achieving Sustainable
Development Goal 12 and related Sustainable Development Goals,
1. Invites Member States to integrate circular economy approaches into national and
regional strategies and action plans, including those related to relevant multilateral environmental
agreements, taking into account national circumstances and capacities;
2. Also invites Member States to take measures, in cooperation with the private sector, to
enhance the design of products, taking into account life-cycle assessments, to favour product lifetime
extension, repair, re-use and easier recycling in the context of a circular economy, to contribute to
resource efficiency;
3. Further invites Member States, relevant organizations and networks to cooperate in
sharing and discussing best practices regarding relevant product information along value chains in the
context of the circular economy, in line with domestic and international law;
4. Underlines the need for partnerships and invites Member States, the private sector,
non-governmental organizations, the scientific community, relevant international institutions and other
relevant stakeholders to promote and enhance circular economy approaches as well as business
models, innovations and investments to contribute to, among other things, the sustainable
management, use and consumption of natural resources and materials;
5. Invites Member States to engage, as appropriate and in line with national
circumstances and policies, with subnational, national and regional entities to strengthen policies, legal
and regulatory frameworks, such as those concerning sustainable public procurement, technological
innovation, extended producer responsibility, the materials life cycle and industrial symbiosis to
support the uptake of circular economy approaches, with a view to contributing to the achievement of
sustainable consumption and production;
UNEP/EA.5/Res.11
3
6. Encourages Member States to enhance knowledge management and to develop strong
advocacy, communication, outreach and awareness-raising mechanisms, platforms and campaigns; to
support education, research, innovation and development; to enhance capacity-building; to foster
public–private partnerships as appropriate; and to strengthen the sharing of information within and
across countries and regions concerning sustainable consumption and production approaches,
including the circular economy;
7. Invites Member States in a position to do so to improve the predictability of and
enhance access to support, such as sustainable finance from both public and private sources,
environmentally sound technologies for the uptake of circular economy and other approaches to
sustainable consumption and production, especially by micro-, small and medium-sized enterprises, in
particular in developing countries;
8. Recognizes the importance of inclusive multilateral and multi-stakeholder dialogues on
sustainable consumption and production, resource efficiency and the circular economy to promote
sustainable development;
9. Requests the Executive Director of the United Nations Environment Programme, in
consultation with Member States, members of specialized agencies and relevant stakeholders, to
continue to collect information and conduct further analysis on used vehicles and clean fuels, with a
view to reducing the negative environmental and health-related impact of used vehicles, including
end-of-life disposal, and promoting clean fuels, and to support Member States upon request;
10. Requests the Executive Director, in collaboration with other United Nations entities,
including the International Resource Panel, development partners and relevant international
multi-stakeholder networks, including the 10-Year Framework of Programmes on Sustainable
Consumption and Production Patterns, to facilitate collaboration among Member States and members
of specialized agencies in research, capacity-building, knowledge management and the sharing of best
practices for the promotion of innovative pathways for sustainable consumption and production,
including the circular economy, and to facilitate a conversation on natural resources and materials in
the context of the circular economy;
11. Requests the Executive Director to report to the United Nations Environment
Assembly at its sixth session on the implementation of the present resolution.
K2200683 050422
UNITED
NATIONS
EP
UNEP/EA.5/HLS.1
United Nations
Environment Assembly of the
United Nations Environment
Programme
Distr.: General
7 March 2022
Original: English
United Nations Environment Assembly of the
United Nations Environment Programme
Fifth session
High-level segment
Nairobi (hybrid), 22 and 23 February 2021
and 28 February–2 March 2022
Ministerial declaration of the United Nations Environment
Assembly at its fifth session
Strengthening actions for nature to achieve the Sustainable
Development Goals
1. We, the world’s ministers for the environment, have gathered in Nairobi, Kenya, together with
representatives of international organizations, major groups and other stakeholders at the resumed fifth
session of the United Nations Environment Assembly, under exceptional circumstances created by the
coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic, with the urgent aim of strengthening actions for nature to
achieve the Sustainable Development Goals.
2. We reaffirm all the principles set out in the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development
and our commitment to the implementation of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development and its
Sustainable Development Goals, with the United Nations Environment Assembly contributing to the
effective implementation of the environmental dimension of sustainable development in an integrated
manner.
3. We are ready to do our utmost to end plastic pollution worldwide, and we welcome the decision
by the Environment Assembly to establish an intergovernmental negotiating committee towards an
international legally binding instrument on plastic pollution.
4. We are deeply concerned about the devastating impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic on human
lives and health, economies and societies, which further threaten our ability to achieve sustainable
development, and we are aware that we face heightened risks of future pandemics and other health
threats if we maintain the current patterns of interaction with nature and do not take a One Health
approach, and other relevant holistic approaches, in moving forward.
5. We recognize that a clean, healthy and sustainable environment is important for the enjoyment
of human rights and for sustainable development in all its dimensions, and that the well-being of
humanity depends on nature and hence on our ability to sustainably use, restore and protect the
ecosystem services that it provides for poverty eradication, resilience, our health, our economies and
ultimately our existence.
6. We note with profound concern the findings of the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform
on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services that nature is facing severe pressure from human activities,
and we stress the urgent need to halt the global decline of biodiversity and the fragmentation of
habitats, which are unprecedented in human history, their main indirect and direct drivers being
changes in land and sea use, direct exploitation of organisms, unsustainable consumption and
UNEP/EA.5/HLS.1
2
production patterns, climate change, invasive alien species and pollution of ocean and fresh water, air
and soil.
7. We are deeply concerned about the impact of land degradation, desertification and droughts,
especially in the most vulnerable countries, and recognize that practices that restore land and soil and
aim to achieve land degradation neutrality have the potential to bring about positive socioeconomic
change, protect ecosystems, facilitate climate adaptation and act as an accelerator for achieving several
Sustainable Development Goals; and we acknowledge the work done by the United Nations
Convention to Combat Desertification in this regard and look forward to the fifteenth session of the
Conference of the Parties to the Convention, to be held in Abidjan, Côte d’Ivoire, in May 2022.
8. We also note with grave concern that the 2020 goal on sound management of chemicals, agreed
under the Strategic Approach to International Chemicals Management, has not been achieved. The
unsound management of chemicals and waste remains a threat to the environment and our health and
is further aggravated by the COVID-19 pandemic through widespread use of single-use plastics and
disinfectant chemicals, as well as by economic challenges.
9. We recognize the need for transformative and systemic changes and for policies that address
several environmental, economic and social challenges simultaneously, rechannelling financial flows
to serve the attainment of the Sustainable Development Goals through innovative, holistic approaches
that truly value nature.
10. We will build on the strength of innovation, science and knowledge, capacity-building, and
investment in green and sustainable technologies, which show that solutions exist or can be developed
to benefit all countries, and we reaffirm the importance of dedicated North-South, South-South and
triangular cooperation for development partnerships and our strong commitment to multilateralism and
international solidarity.
11. We welcome the outcomes of the twenty-sixth session of the Conference of the Parties to the
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, including the adoption of the Glasgow
Climate Pact, which emphasizes the urgent need for parties to increase their efforts to collectively
reduce emissions through accelerated action and implementation of domestic mitigation measures and
the critical role of protecting, conserving and restoring nature and ecosystems in delivering benefits for
climate adaptation and mitigation while ensuring social and environmental safeguards. The Glasgow
Climate Pact urges developed-country parties to provide enhanced support, including through financial
resources, technology transfer and capacity-building, to assist developing-country parties with respect
to both mitigation and adaptation in continuation of their existing obligations under the Convention
and the Paris Agreement, and encourages other parties to provide or continue to provide such support
voluntarily. The Pact also recognizes the importance of the adequacy and predictability of adaptation
finance, including the value of the Adaptation Fund in delivering dedicated support for adaptation. We
are committed to a successful twenty-seventh session of the Conference of the Parties to the
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, to be held in Egypt in November 2022,
that further enhances global action to tackle climate change.
12. We welcome the holding of the first part of the fifteenth meeting of the Conference of the
Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity, in Kunming, China, in 2021, under the theme
proposed by the host, “Ecological civilization: building a shared future for all life on earth”. We call
for an ambitious and transformational post-2020 global biodiversity framework for adoption at the
second part of the fifteenth Conference of the Parties that, among other things, includes a set of clear
and robust goals and targets supported by increased finance and strengthened reporting and review
mechanisms as a key instrument for achieving the Sustainable Development Goals and the 2050 vision
of the Convention on Biological Diversity of living in harmony with nature.
13. We welcome and express our support for the upcoming special session of the United Nations
Environment Assembly, to be held in Nairobi on 3 and 4 March 2022 under the theme "Strengthening
the United Nations Environment Programme for the implementation of the environmental dimension
of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development” to commemorate the fiftieth anniversary of the
creation of the United Nations Environment Programme by the United Nations Conference on the
Human Environment, as a historic opportunity to reflect on the past, present and future contribution of
the United Nations Environment Programme as the leading global environmental authority that sets
the global environmental agenda, promotes the coherent implementation of the environmental
dimension of sustainable development within the United Nations system, and serves as an
authoritative advocate for the global environment.
14. We commit ourselves to promoting an inclusive and sustainable recovery, a green and just
transition, with the goal of revitalizing our economies and livelihoods and ending poverty by
UNEP/EA.5/HLS.1
3
mainstreaming biodiversity, climate change and pollution concerns into all policies and tools; by
making use of green economy pathways that emphasize ecosystem- and knowledge-based
management; by using gender-sensitive approaches and addressing inequalities; and by reducing
carbon and non-carbon greenhouse gas emissions while adapting to climate change and its impact in
line with the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and the Paris Agreement.
15. We reaffirm our commitment to the United Nations Decade of Ecosystem Restoration and
undertake to work across sectors and levels of government, and among governments, to halt the loss,
degradation and fragmentation of ecosystems, focusing on areas of particular importance for
biodiversity; sustainable land, sea and water use; effectively managing and actively designating
protected areas and parks; safeguarding especially vulnerable habitats, types of nature and ecosystems;
promoting ecological connectivity; and addressing deforestation, illegal timber trade and wildlife
trafficking, environmentally harmful and illegal mining, illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing,
and crimes, conflicts, and other unsustainable activities that have a serious impact on the environment.
16. We commit ourselves to promoting the conservation and sustainable use and management of
natural resources and to advancing sustainable consumption and production patterns, including
through resource efficiency and circular economy policy approaches, and by applying appropriate
methods of valuation of nature and assessment of nature-related risks in policymaking.
17. We will promote and strengthen ecosystem-based approaches and nature-based solutions,
including by reducing deforestation and forest degradation and by protecting, conserving, sustainably
managing and restoring degraded land, soil and ecosystems that provide us with food, water and
energy, are habitats for biodiversity, and provide carbon storage and sequestration, thus yielding
multiple benefits across the economic, social and environmental domains and underpinning our efforts
to achieve the Sustainable Development Goals.
18. We recognize the importance of the best available science for effective action and
policymaking on climate change, biodiversity and pollution, and we stress the urgency of enhancing
ambition and action in relation to mitigation, adaptation and finance in this critical decade.
19. We will promote comprehensive land and water use planning with robust national enforcement
as an important tool for sustainable development and will encourage international cooperation to help
create a conducive business environment that stimulates investment in sustainable production and
value chains.
20. We commit ourselves to safeguarding life under water and restoring a clean, healthy, resilient
and productive ocean capable of providing food and sustainable livelihoods and storing carbon, and
we will do so by strengthening efforts to protect, conserve and sustainably manage our oceans, seas,
lakes, rivers and coastal ecosystems while acting to prevent pollution, including eutrophication and
plastic pollution, and to prevent sea level rise, ocean warming and acidification by keeping our efforts
in line with the Paris Agreement and the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. We look forward
to the organization of the second United Nations Ocean Conference in Lisbon in 2022 and the
United Nations Water Conference in New York in 2023.
21. We will continue our dedicated efforts to act to protect nature and human health from adverse
impacts from chemicals and waste and support an ambitious framework for the sound management of
chemicals and waste beyond 2020 at the fifth meeting of the International Conference on Chemicals
Management, recognizing pollution as one of the major drivers of climate change and biodiversity
loss, which in turn requires us to prevent pollution that toxifies land, air, ocean and fresh water.
22. We commit ourselves to pursuing and joining new and innovative partnerships across sectors,
and to engaging all relevant stakeholders, working with youth, women, indigenous peoples and local
communities and with the business, finance, education and science sectors to develop actions for
nature and reverse the persistently negative long-term trend for the environment. We therefore
welcome the Youth Environment Assembly held in Nairobi in February 2022.
23. We welcome and rely on the knowledge gained from the recent scientific assessments from the
Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services, the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, the International Resource Panel and the United Nations
Environment Programme, and we encourage enhanced collaboration among scientific panels. We
further recognize the contribution of indigenous peoples’ expertise and knowledge.
24. We undertake to cooperate across sectors and levels of government, in partnership with other
Governments and local actors and the private sector, to transition to sustainable food systems in line
with the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, the Convention on Biological Diversity and the
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and the Paris Agreement, and inspired by
UNEP/EA.5/HLS.1
4
the outcomes of the United Nations Food Systems Summit held in New York in 2021, with a view to
delivering enhanced food security and resilience and fostering innovation while reducing emissions,
biodiversity loss and freshwater use.
25. We welcome the extension by the General Assembly of the mandate of the 10-Year Framework
of Programmes on Sustainable Consumption and Production Patterns (One Planet Network) to 2030.
26. We call for the decisive, adequate and coherent implementation of the actions and
commitments contained in resolutions adopted by the United Nations Environment Assembly at its
fifth session, as well as in the outcome documents of previous sessions of the Environment Assembly,
addressing the triple crises for our common environment – climate change, biodiversity loss and
pollution. We recognize our role, as ministers for the environment, in following up on these
commitments within our own Governments, contributing to coordinated action across sectors and
levels of government and promoting effective implementation.
27. We recognize that the effective implementation of these actions requires enabling and coherent
legal and policy frameworks at all levels, good governance and enforcement of legislation. We
reaffirm our strong political commitment to addressing the challenge of financing and acknowledge
the need for effective and rapidly mobilized means of implementation from all sources of finance,
including the domestic, international and private sectors as well as innovative sources, in line with the
Addis Ababa Action Agenda of the Third International Conference on Financing for Development,
and from relevant multilateral environmental agreements.
28. In closing, we welcome and express our support for the upcoming international meeting
“Stockholm+50: a healthy planet for the prosperity of all – our responsibility, our opportunity”, to be
held in Stockholm on 2 and 3 June 2022 to further accelerate the transformation to a sustainable
future, and we request the Executive Director of the United Nations Environment Programme, in her
capacity as Secretary-General of the Stockholm+50 international meeting, to forward the present
declaration as the input of the United Nations Environment Assembly to that meeting.
K2200772 230322
UNITED
NATIONS
EP
UNEP/EA.SS.1/4
United Nations
Environment Assembly of the
United Nations Environment
Programme
Distr.: General
8 March 2022
Original: English
First special session: commemoration of the
fiftieth anniversary of the establishment of the
United Nations Environment Programme
Nairobi (hybrid), 3 and 4 March 2022
Political declaration of the special session of the United Nations
Environment Assembly to commemorate the fiftieth
anniversary of the establishment of the United Nations
Environment Programme
We, Heads of State and Government, ministers and high-level representatives, having
gathered, together with the representatives of international organizations and other stakeholders, at the
special session of the United Nations Environment Assembly entitled “UNEP@50: Strengthening
UNEP for the implementation of the environmental dimension of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable
Development” to commemorate the fiftieth anniversary of the establishment of the United Nations
Environment Programme,
Expressing our gratitude to the Government of Kenya for hosting the special session –
a historic milestone for the global community and the United Nations Environment Programme –
to reflect on achievements and lessons learned and envisage future ambitions and actions to support
the implementation of the environmental dimension of sustainable development,
Acknowledging with appreciation the 50-year contribution of the United Nations Environment
Programme in supporting a worldwide effort to overcome the planet’s biggest environmental
challenges,
Recognizing that a clean, healthy and sustainable environment is important for the enjoyment
of human rights, taking note of Human Rights Council resolution 48/13 entitled “The human right to a
clean, healthy and sustainable environment”, and noting that the General Assembly has been invited to
consider the matter,
Recalling the Stockholm Declaration and the Stockholm Plan of Action for the Human
Environment, the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development and Agenda 21, the Programme
for the Further Implementation of Agenda 21, the Johannesburg Declaration on Sustainable
Development and the Plan of Implementation of the World Summit on Sustainable Development, the
Rio+20 Declaration entitled “The future we want” and in particular paragraph 88 thereof, General
Assembly resolution 69/313 of 27 July 2015 entitled “Addis Ababa Action Agenda of the Third
International Conference on Financing for Development”, General Assembly resolution 70/1 of
25 September 2015 entitled “Transforming our world: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable
Development”, General Assembly resolution 73/333 of 30 August 2019 entitled “Follow-up to the
report of the ad hoc open-ended working group established pursuant to General Assembly resolution
72/277” and General Assembly resolution 76/208 of 17 December 2021 entitled “Report of the
United Nations Environment Assembly of the United Nations Environment Programme”, as well as
the outcomes of all the major United Nations conferences and summits in the economic, social and
environmental fields,
UNEP/EA.SS.1/4
2
Recognizing the urgent need and our common objectives to reinforce and advance the
conservation, restoration and sustainable use of the environment for present and future generations, as
it is crucial to urgently reverse the current trends of environmental decline, which are impeding
progress towards sustainable development, while recognizing differing national circumstances,
Reaffirming that eradicating poverty, changing unsustainable patterns of consumption and
production and promoting sustainable ones, and protecting and managing the natural resource base of
economic and social development are the overarching objectives of, and essential requirements for,
sustainable development, while stressing that poverty eradication remains the greatest challenge facing
the world today,
Recognizing the importance of fostering environmental rule of law and effective international
environmental governance through multilateral processes, and conscious of ongoing initiatives to
promote coordinated approaches and complementary actions for addressing biodiversity loss, climate
change, desertification and land degradation, as well as pollution and unsound management of
chemicals and waste,
Recognizing also the crucial importance of effective domestic legal frameworks and
governance structures for promoting compliance with obligations under international environmental
law, and of the delivery of the Sustainable Development Goals, while acknowledging the importance
of international cooperation in this regard,
1. Reaffirm all the principles of the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development
and, recognizing that we face different challenges, we will strengthen our international cooperation
towards the environmental dimension of sustainable development;
2. Support the strengthening of international environmental governance in the context of
the institutional framework for sustainable development, and promote enhanced coordination within
the United Nations system for balanced integration of the environmental, economic and social
dimensions of sustainable development;
3. Commit ourselves to mainstreaming, in a balanced manner, the environmental
dimension of sustainable development into national policies, strategies and planning, including but not
limited to supporting building of the capacity of relevant authorities, taking into account national
circumstances, in order to achieve the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development;
4. Call for renewed efforts at all levels to enhance implementation of existing obligations
and commitments under international environmental law, and to keep the ambition regarding
environmental protection and means of implementation, including through global partnerships and
enabling a sustainable future for our planet and addressing urgent social, economic and environmental
challenges, also considering the backdrop of the coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic and its
disproportionate impact on the poorest and people in vulnerable situations by ensuring an
environmentally, socially and economically sustainable recovery, including by building back better
and greener;
5. Affirm the indispensable role of the United Nations Environment Assembly within the
United Nations system as the intergovernmental decision-making body with universal membership,
while respecting the independence and respective mandates of multilateral environmental agreements,
for enhancing progress in the comprehensive implementation of the environmental dimension of the
2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development within the United Nations system, providing overarching
policy guidance, and strengthening international environmental governance and implementation of the
global environmental agenda in line with the document “The Future We Want”;
6. Reaffirm the role of the United Nations Environment Programme as the leading global
environmental authority that sets the global environmental agenda, promotes the coherent
implementation of the environmental dimension of sustainable development within the United Nations
system, and serves as an authoritative advocate for the global environment, and support continuous
strengthening of intergovernmental oversight and the accountability of the secretariat of the
United Nations Environment Programme in the implementation of the Programme’s mandate in line
with Governing Council decision 27/2;
7. Renew our support for strengthening the collaboration and cooperation between
multilateral environmental agreements and the United Nations Environment Programme while
respecting their independence and respective mandates, with a view to achieving progressive
improvement in the state of the global environment, as well as in the provision of the means of
implementation, and, to that end, invite the governing bodies of multilateral environmental agreements
UNEP/EA.SS.1/4
3
to collaborate with the United Nations Environment Assembly, as appropriate, to promote policy
coherence and its effective implementation;
8. Support the strengthening of the United Nations Environment Programme and its
regional presence, underline the importance of universal membership to the United Nations
Environment Programme, and invite all Member States and members of specialized agencies that have
not yet done so to become accredited to the United Nations Environment Programme, and, in that
regard, take note with interest of the adoption of General Assembly resolution 76/246 and underline
the need to continue improving the United Nations Office at Nairobi, as the only United Nations
headquarters duty station in the global South and the host of the headquarters of the United Nations
Environment Programme, and, furthermore, invite the United Nations Office at Nairobi to provide
more competitive services while inviting the governing bodies of all the multilateral environmental
agreements, in particular those hosted by the United Nations Environment Programme, to consider
convening, within their mandates, their meetings more frequently in Nairobi;
9. Stress the importance of advancing equitable geographic distribution and gender parity
among the staff of the secretariat of the United Nations Environment Programme, particularly with
regard to Professional and senior-level positions, and request the Executive Director of the Programme
to continue ongoing efforts and take effective action in this regard and continue to report regularly to
the Committee of Permanent Representatives on progress achieved;
10. Invite the General Assembly to consider, as appropriate, the level of regular-budget
funding required to help the United Nations Environment Programme to fulfil its mandate, taking into
account the Programme’s approved work programme and General Assembly resolution 2997 (XXVII);
11. Reaffirm that all Member States and members of specialized agencies, taking into
account their economic and social circumstances, should contribute financially to the United Nations
Environment Programme; in this regard, urge Member States and others in a position to do so to
support the United Nations Environment Programme through more stable, adequate and predictable
core contributions to the Environment Fund, with due consideration for the voluntary indicative scale
of contributions, and stress the need for the United Nations Environment Programme to manage its
financial resources prudently and diversify its donor base by encouraging Member States that do not
regularly contribute to the Environment Fund to do so;
12. Encourage the United Nations Environment Programme, as chair of the Environment
Management Group, in collaboration with the other members of the Group, to continue to strengthen
system-wide inter-agency coordination on the environment and to call for active involvement and
support from all members of the Group in the implementation of system-wide strategies on the
environment;
13. Support the key role of the United Nations Environment Programme in promoting and
strengthening the science-policy interface in order to support intergovernmental debate, negotiations
and deliberations, and policy decisions relating to international environmental law and governance,
promote the identification and sharing of the best available science to support effective environmental
action and policymaking, and in cooperation and collaboration between the relevant scientific panels
and to encourage geographical and gender balance in the membership of such panels, and commit
ourselves to investing further in environmental research, including in assessments by the
United Nations Environment Programme, and making more effective use of knowledge generated by
the scientific community;
14. Recognize the importance of access to information, access to public participation in
decision-making processes and access to justice in environmental matters, and invite Member States
and members of specialized agencies to disseminate and share evidence-based environmental
information and raise public awareness regarding critical, persistent and emerging environmental
issues and continue to support the United Nations Environment Programme in developing a global
environmental data strategy;
15. Resolve to continuously strengthen, where needed, environmental laws, policies and
regulatory frameworks at the national, regional and global levels, without reducing the existing levels
of environmental protection, and to strengthen capacity across all sectors for the effective
implementation of international environmental law by closing knowledge gaps, enhancing
cross-sectoral coordination, improving monitoring and law enforcement, increasing political will and
engaging stakeholders, in accordance with national legal systems, while acknowledging the
importance of international cooperation in supporting and complementing national action;
16. Invite Member States and members of specialized agencies to increase their support to
the Fifth Montevideo Programme for the Development and Periodic Review of Environmental Law
UNEP/EA.SS.1/4
4
(Montevideo Programme V), and to promote the development and implementation of environmental
rule of law and welcome the ongoing discussions on this matter while strengthening the capacity of
Member States and members of specialized agencies, upon their request;
17. Encourage Member States and members of specialized agencies that have not yet done
so to consider ratifying relevant multilateral environmental agreements and to effectively implement
them, including through the incorporation of their provisions into national legal systems as
appropriate;
18. Invite Member States and members of specialized agencies to address relevant
principles of international environmental law in their domestic legal systems, as appropriate, noting, in
this context, the ongoing work by the International Law Commission on general principles of law;
19. Commit ourselves to cooperating to strengthen capacity across all sectors for the
effective implementation of international environmental law, including in the administrative and
justice sectors, in accordance with domestic legal systems, while acknowledging the importance of
international cooperation and support in this regard;
20. Call upon Member States and members of specialized agencies to enhance the
provision and mobilization of all types and sources of means of implementation, including
capacity-building, technology and financial support, and to promote global partnerships and
North-South, South-South and triangular cooperation, in order to support developing countries in the
implementation of national environmental policies in the areas in which they require it, and
complementing their national efforts, consistent with the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development
and the Addis Ababa Action Agenda of the Third International Conference on Financing for
Development;
21. Call for the urgent fulfilment of existing financial commitments under various
multilateral environmental agreements to assist developing countries, and stress the importance of
fulfilling relevant pledges;
22. Commit ourselves to further amplifying the mobilization of domestic financial
resources, including through enhanced collaboration with the private sector, to advance the holistic
and balanced implementation of the environmental dimension of sustainable development, taking into
consideration the need of developing countries for enhanced international cooperation and support to
complement their efforts to mobilize domestic resources;
23. Invite the Executive Director of the United Nations Environment Programme to
identify further options, in line with the Programme’s medium-term strategy and programme of work,
for providing assistance to Member States and members of specialized agencies upon their request,
including through United Nations country teams, to improve implementation of their environmental
objectives, international environmental law and the environmental dimension of the 2030 Agenda for
Sustainable Development at the national level, including access to scientific information, technologies,
technical assistance and financial resources, while ensuring complementarity with the work of treaty
bodies;
24. Call on the United Nations, within its mandate, to facilitate effective and efficient use
of and adequate and timely access to existing financial instruments, including to support access by
Member States and members of specialized agencies to capacity-building and technology, with a
special focus on the needs of developing countries, and call on Member States and members of
specialized agencies to make effective and efficient use of existing financial mechanisms and funds for
the purpose of implementing international environmental law and improving the status of the global
environment in promoting environmentally, economically and socially sustainable and resilient
recovery from the COVID-19 pandemic;
25. Encourage the active and meaningful engagement of all relevant stakeholders,
including indigenous peoples and local communities and strengthen the ability of major groups and
stakeholders to participate in meetings and activities of the United Nations Environment Programme in
line with applicable rules and procedures in a geographically and gender-balanced manner, and
commit ourselves to continuing to explore new ways of promoting transparency and the effective
engagement of civil society, including via digital means;
26. Take note of the report “The UNEP We Want” prepared by major groups and
stakeholders, which provides proposals towards a more inclusive and impactful United Nations
Environment Programme.
K1800890 140918
UNITED
NATIONS
BES
IPBES/6/15/Add.5
Intergovernmental Science-Policy
Platform on Biodiversity and
Ecosystem Services
Distr.: General
23 April 2018
Original: English
Plenary of the Intergovernmental Science-Policy
Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services
Sixth session
Medellin, Colombia, 18–24 March 2018
Report of the Plenary of the Intergovernmental Science-Policy
Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services on the work of
its sixth session
Addendum
At its sixth session, in its decision IPBES-6/1, section V, paragraph 1, the Plenary of the
Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES)
approved the summary for policymakers of the thematic assessment of land degradation and
restoration as set out in the annex to the present addendum.
IPBES/6/15/Add.5
2
Annex
Summary for policymakers of the thematic assessment report on
land degradation and restoration of the Intergovernmental
Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services
Authors:
Robert Scholes (co-chair, South Africa), Luca Montanarella (co-chair, Italy/FAO).
Anastasia Brainich (IPBES); Nichole Barger (United States of America), Ben ten Brink (the
Netherlands), Matthew Cantele (United States of America), Barend Erasmus (South Africa), Judith
Fisher (Australia), Toby Gardner (United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland/Sweden),
Timothy G. Holland (Canada); Florent Kohler (Brazil, France), Janne S. Kotiaho (Finland),
Graham Von Maltitz (South Africa), Grace Nangendo (Uganda), Ram Pandit (Nepal), John Parrotta
(United States of America), Matthew D. Potts (United States of America), Stephen Prince
(United States of America), Mahesh Sankaran (India), Louise Willemen (the Netherlands).1
Suggested citation:
IPBES (2018): Summary for policymakers of the thematic assessment report on land degradation and
restoration of the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services.
R. Scholes, L. Montanarella, A. Brainich, N. Barger, B. ten Brink, M. Cantele, B. Erasmus, J. Fisher,
T. Gardner, T. G. Holland, F. Kohler, J. S. Kotiaho, G. Von Maltitz, G. Nangendo, R. Pandit,
J. Parrotta, M. D. Potts, S. Prince, M. Sankaran and L. Willemen (eds.). IPBES secretariat, Bonn,
Germany. [ ] pages.
Members of the management committee who provided guidance for the production of this
assessment: Günay Erpul, Yi Huang, Marie Roué, Leng Guan Saw (Multidisciplinary Expert Panel),
Fundisile G. Mketeni, Rashad Z. O. Allahverdiyev (Bureau).
1 Authors are listed with, in parenthesis, their country of citizenship, or countries of citizenship separated by a
comma when they have several; and, following a slash, their country of affiliation, if different from citizenship, or
their organization if they belong to an international organization: Name of expert (nationality 1, nationality
2/affiliation). The countries or organizations having nominated these experts are listed on the IPBES website.
IPBES/6/15/Add.5
3
I. Key messages
A. Land degradation is a pervasive, systemic phenomenon: it occurs in all parts
of the terrestrial world and can take many forms
Combating land degradation and restoring degraded land is an urgent
priority to protect the biodiversity and ecosystem services vital to all life on
Earth and to ensure human well-being
A1. Currently, degradation of the Earth’s land surface through human activities is negatively
impacting the well-being of at least 3.2 billion people, pushing the planet towards a sixth mass
species extinction, and costing more than 10 per cent of the annual global gross product in loss of
biodiversity and ecosystem services. Loss of ecosystem services through land degradation has
reached high levels in many parts of the world, resulting in negative impacts that challenge the coping
capacity of human ingenuity. Groups in situations of vulnerability feel the greatest negative effects of
land degradation, and often experience them first. These groups also see the greatest benefits from
avoiding, reducing and reversing land degradation (Figure SPM.1). The main direct drivers of land
degradation and associated biodiversity loss are expansion of crop and grazing lands into native
vegetation, unsustainable agricultural and forestry practices, climate change, and, in specific areas,
urban expansion, infrastructure development and extractive industry.
A2. Investing in avoiding land degradation and the restoration of degraded land makes
sound economic sense; the benefits generally by far exceed the cost. Land degradation contributes
to the decline and eventual extinction of species and the loss of ecosystem services to humanity,
making avoidance, reduction and reversal of land degradation essential for human
well-being. Short-term gains from unsustainable land management often turn into long-term losses,
making the initial avoidance of land degradation an optimal and cost-effective strategy. Studies from
Asia and Africa indicate that the cost of inaction in the face of land degradation is at least three times
higher than the cost of action. On average, the benefits of restoration are 10 times higher than the
costs, estimated across nine different biomes. While challenging, the benefits of restoration include,
but are not limited to, increased employment, increased business spending, improved gender equity,
increased local investment in education and improved livelihoods.
A3. Timely action to avoid, reduce and reverse land degradation can increase food and water
security, can contribute substantially to the adaptation and mitigation of climate change and
could contribute to the avoidance of conflict and migration. This is especially important
considering the projected 4 billion people that will be living in drylands in 2050. Inherent feedbacks
between the Earth’s land systems, climate and human societies mean that efforts to address land
degradation and restore land have multiplicative benefits. Land restoration and reduced and avoided
degradation that increases carbon storage or avoids greenhouse gas emissions in global forests,
wetlands, grasslands and croplands could provide more than one third of the most cost-effective
greenhouse gas mitigation activities required by 2030 to keep global warming to below 2°C. By 2050,
land degradation and climate change together are predicted to reduce crop yields by an average of
10 per cent globally and up to 50 per cent in certain regions. Decreasing land productivity, among
other factors, makes societies, particularly on drylands, vulnerable to socioeconomic instability. In
dryland areas, years with extreme low rainfall have been associated with an increase of up to
45 per cent in violent conflict. Every 5 per cent loss of gross domestic product (GDP), itself partly
caused by degradation, is associated with a 12 per cent increase in the likelihood of violent conflict.
Land degradation and climate change are likely to force 50 to 700 million people to migrate by 2050.
IPBES/6/15/Add.5
4
Figure SPM.1
Land degradation is a pervasive, systemic phenomenon: it occurs in all parts of the terrestrial world and can take many
forms. Successful examples of restoration can also be found in all ecosystems
Source: The degradation background map combines a deforestation map by Hansen et al (2013),2 a drylands degradation map by Zika
and Erb (2009),3 a cropland degradation map by Cherlet et al (2013)4 and a wilderness map by Watson et al (2016).5 It is overlaid by a
map of agreement and disagreement between different data sources within a degradation type, adapted from Gibbs and Salmon (2015).6
For further explanation on the metrics and methodology for Figure SPM. 1, see supporting material Appendix 1.1 available from
https://www.ipbes.net/supporting-material-e-appendices-assessments.
A4. Avoiding, reducing and reversing land degradation is essential for meeting the
Sustainable Development Goals contained in Agenda 2030 (Figure SPM.2). Due to the delay
between starting restoration and seeing the full benefits, the window, while still open for limiting land
degradation to a level that does not endanger the achievement of the Sustainable Development Goals,
is estimated to close over the next decade. The area of non-degraded land is progressively shrinking at
the global scale, while land requirements for a range of competing uses continue to grow. Food,
energy, water and livelihood security, as well as the good physical and mental health of individuals
2 Hansen, M. C., Potapov, P. V., Moore, R., Hancher, M., Turubanova, S. A., Tyukavina, A., Thau, D., Stehman,
S. V., Goetz, S. J., Loveland, T. R., Kommareddy, A., Egorov, A., Chini, L., Justice, C. O., and Townshend, J. R.
G. (2013). High-resolution global maps of 21st-century forest cover change. Science, 342, (6160), 850–853. DOI:
10.1126/science.1244693.
3 Zika, M and Erb, K.H. (2009) The global loss of net primary production resulting from human-induced soil
degradation in drylands. Ecological Economics, 69 (2), 310-319. DOI: 10.1016/j.ecolecon.2009.06.014.
4 Cherlet, M., Ivits-Wasser, E., Sommer, S., Toth, G., Jones, A., Montanarella, L., and Belward, A. (2013). Land
productivity dynamics in Europe: Towards a valuation of land degradation in the EU. EUR 26500. DOI:
10.2788/70673.
5 Watson, J. E. M., Shanahan, D. F., Di Marco, M., Allan, J., Laurance, W. F., Sanderson, E. W., Mackey, B., and
Venter, O. (2016). Catastrophic Declines in Wilderness Areas Undermine Global Environment Targets. Current
Biology, 26 (21), 2929–2934. DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2016.08.049.
6 Gibbs, H. K., and Salmon, J. M. (2015). Mapping the world’s degraded lands. Applied Geography, 57, 12–21.
DOI: 10.1016/j.apgeog.2014.11.024.
IPBES/6/15/Add.5
5
and societies, are in whole or in part a product of nature and are negatively impacted by land
degradation processes. In addition, land degradation causes biodiversity loss and reduction of nature´s
contributions to people, erodes cultural identity and, in some cases, leads to loss of the knowledge and
practices that could help halt and reverse land degradation. Full achievement of the Sustainable
Development Goals contained in the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development is likely to only be
possible through urgent, concerted and effective action to avoid and reduce land degradation and
promote restoration.
Figure SPM.2
Avoiding, reducing and reversing land degradation is essential for reaching the majority of the Sustainable
Development Goals and would deliver co-benefits for nearly all of them
The graphic presents the results of a survey of 13 coordinating lead authors of this assessment, who were asked to
synthesize findings of the chapters in order to evaluate the relevance of efforts to address land degradation and
restoration for targets of each Sustainable Development Goal, as well as the extent to which addressing land
degradation would have a positive or negative impact on progress towards each Sustainable Development Goal.
The vertical axis indicates the percentage of experts who believed halting land degradation and restoring
degraded land to be relevant to the achievement of that Goal. The green colours indicate the degree to which the
targets are synergistic with progress to address land degradation: dark green means all targets are aligned, while
lighter green boxes indicate areas where there may be trade-offs between targets and efforts to address land
degradation and restoration. In none of the cases was the relationship between efforts to address land degradation
and meeting the Sustainable Development Goals judged to be more conflictual than synergistic.
B. Unless urgent and concerted action is taken, land degradation will worsen in
the face of population growth, unprecedented consumption, an increasingly
globalized economy and climate change
B1. Widespread lack of awareness of land degradation as a problem is a major barrier to
action. Perceptions of human-environment relationships have a strong influence on the design and
IPBES/6/15/Add.5
6
implementation of land management policies. Land degradation is often not recognized as an
unintended consequence of economic development. Even when the link between land degradation and
economic development is recognized, the consequences of land degradation may not be given due
consideration, which may result in lack of action. Appreciation of the challenges posed by land
degradation is further undermined by the fact that negative impacts can be highly variable and
localized in nature, and are often strongly shaped by distant, indirect drivers. Land degradation and
thus loss of biodiversity and ecosystem services is the most pervasive, systemic phenomenon with
far-reaching negative consequences for human well-being worldwide, including by exacerbating food
and water insecurity and climate change. Thus, raising awareness of the drivers and consequences of
land degradation is essential for moving from high-level policy goals to implementation at the national
and local levels.
B2. High consumption lifestyles in more developed economies, combined with rising
consumption in developing and emerging economies, are the dominant factors driving land
degradation globally. The ultimate driver of land degradation is high and rising per capita
consumption, amplified by continued population growth in many parts of the world. Increases in
consumption often follow the opening up of new economic opportunities that lower the costs of
land-based resources for consumers, leading to a rise in demand. New economic opportunities often
arise from increased access to growing regional and global markets, and from technological
developments, which increase production capacity. Without adequate regulation, these factors could
drive unsustainable levels of agricultural expansion, natural resource and mineral extraction, and
urbanization. The widespread failure of policies and institutions to enforce and incentivize sustainable
practices and internalize the long-term economic costs of unsustainable production has meant that the
exploitation of natural resources typically leads to greater levels of land degradation. Tackling land
degradation thus requires systemic change on a macroeconomic level, including a concerted effort to
improve the sustainability of both production systems and consumer lifestyles, while simultaneously
working to foster a socioeconomic environment conducive to low population growth rates and
per capita consumption.
B3. The full impact of consumption choices on land degradation worldwide is not often
visible due to the distances that can separate many consumers and producers. Land degradation is
often the result of social, political, industrial and economic changes in other parts of the world, with
effects that may involve a lag of months or years. These disconnections mean that many of the actors
who benefit from the overexploitation of natural resources are among the least affected by the direct
negative impacts of land degradation, and therefore have the least incentive to take action. The fact
that regional and local land-use decisions are so strongly influenced by distant drivers can also
undermine the effectiveness of local- and regional-scale governance interventions. Market integration
may also mean that local governance interventions can result in both positive and negative rebound
effects elsewhere, for example, through sustainable investment strategies or the displacement of land
uses where environmental enforcement is weaker.
B4. Institutional, policy and governance responses to address land degradation are often
reactive and fragmented, and fail to address the ultimate causes of degradation. National and
international policy and governance responses to land degradation are often focused on mitigating
damage already caused. Most policies directed at addressing land degradation are fragmented and
target specific, visible drivers of degradation within specific sectors of the economy, in isolation from
other drivers. Land degradation is rarely, if ever, the result of a single cause and can thus only be
addressed through the simultaneous and coordinated use of diverse policy instruments and responses at
the institutional, governance, community and individual levels.
B5. Land degradation is a major contributor to climate change, while climate change can
exacerbate the impacts of land degradation and reduce the viability of some options for
avoiding, reducing and reversing land degradation. The impact of almost all direct drivers of land
degradation will be worsened by climate change. These include, among others, accelerated soil erosion
on degraded lands as a result of more extreme weather events, increased risk of forest fires and
changes in the distribution of invasive species, pests and pathogens. Sustainable land management and
land restoration can assist climate change mitigation and adaptation. Long-established land
management and restoration practices may no longer be viable in the face of climate change.
Notwithstanding this risk, nature-based climate mitigation and adaptation actions remain promising.
B6. Rapid expansion and unsustainable management of croplands and grazing lands is the
most extensive global direct driver of land degradation. Croplands and grazing lands now cover
more than one third of the Earth´s land surface, with recent clearance of native habitats, including
forests, being concentrated in some of the most species-rich ecosystems on the planet. Intensified
land-management systems have greatly increased crop and livestock yields in many areas of the world,
IPBES/6/15/Add.5
7
but, when inappropriately managed, can result in high levels of land degradation, including soil
erosion, fertility loss, excessive ground and surface water extraction, salinization, and eutrophication
of aquatic systems. Increasing demand for food and biofuels will likely lead to a continued increase in
nutrient and chemical inputs and a shift towards industrialized livestock production systems, with
pesticide and fertilizer use expected to double by 2050. Proven management practices currently exist
to avoid and reduce degradation of existing croplands and grazing lands, including sustainable
intensification, conservation agriculture, agroecological practices, agroforestry, grazing pressure
management and silvopastoral management. Avoidance of further agricultural expansion into native
habitats can be achieved through yield increases, shifts towards less land-degrading diets, such as
those with more vegetables, and reductions in food loss and waste.
C. The implementation of known, proven actions to combat land degradation
and thereby transform the lives of millions of people across the planet will
become more difficult and costly over time. An urgent step change in effort is
needed to prevent irreversible land degradation and accelerate the
implementation of restoration measures
C1. Existing multilateral environmental agreements provide a platform of unprecedented
scope and ambition for action to avoid and reduce land degradation and promote restoration.
The United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification in Those Countries Experiencing Serious
Drought and/or Desertification, Particularly in Africa, the United Nations Framework Convention on
Climate Change, the Convention on Biological Diversity, the Convention on Wetlands of International
Importance especially as Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar Convention), the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable
Development and its Sustainable Development Goals and other agreements all have provisions to
avoid, reduce and reverse land degradation. These have found a focus in target 15.3 of the Sustainable
Development Goals, taking into account, among others, the scientific conceptual framework for land
degradation neutrality. However, greater commitment and effective cooperation in using and
implementing these established mechanisms at the national and local levels are vital to enable these
major international agreements to create a world with no net land degradation, no loss of biodiversity
and improved human well-being.
C2. More relevant, credible and accessible information is needed to allow decision makers,
land managers, and purchasers of goods to improve the long-term stewardship of land and
sustainability of natural resource use. Effective monitoring strategies, verification systems and
adequate baseline data—on both socioeconomic and biophysical variables—provide critical
information on how to accelerate efforts to avoid, reduce and reverse land degradation and conserve
biodiversity. Land managers, including indigenous peoples and local communities, as well as experts
and other knowledge holders, all have key roles to play in the design, implementation and evaluation
of more sustainable land management practices. Given the complexity of global supply chains, better
and more open-access information on the impacts of traded commodities is needed to support
decisions, manage risk and guide investments that promote more sustainable commodity production
systems and more sustainable lifestyle choices, within the framework of international commitments
and in accordance with national legislation at the appropriate level. These would also allow consumers
throughout supply chains to make better-informed commodity choices that reward responsible
management practices, and raise awareness about the implications of their choices.
C3. Coordinated policy agendas that simultaneously encourage more sustainable production
and consumption practices of land-based commodities are required to avoid, reduce and reverse
land degradation. Achieving policy reform for sustainable land management requires a step change
in how the design and implementation of more sustainable consumption and production policies are
aligned across different sectors, including between departments and ministries. Key policy agendas
requiring greater alignment include food, energy, water, climate, health, rural, urban and industrial
development. The chances of success are improved by close coordination, sharing of information and
knowledge, adoption of specific policy instruments for both regulatory and incentive-based measures,
and capacity-building that supports a whole supply chain approach to avoiding, reducing and reversing
land degradation. Success in these goals is highly dependent on creating enabling conditions for more
sustainable land management, which include policies that confer and protect individual and collective
land tenure and property rights, in accordance with national legislation at the appropriate level,
empower indigenous peoples and local communities, and recognize the role of indigenous and local
knowledge and practices for sustainable land management. Efforts are also needed to improve
institutional competencies at the national and international levels.
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C4. Eliminating perverse incentives that promote degradation and devising positive
incentives that reward the adoption of sustainable land management practices are required to
avoid, reduce and reverse land degradation. Positive incentives for sustainable land management
could include strengthened regulations that ensure that the environmental, social and economic costs
of unsustainable land use and production practices are reflected in prices. Perverse incentives include
subsidies that reward unsustainable land use and production. Voluntary or regulation-based incentive
mechanisms for safeguarding biodiversity and ecosystem services can help avoid, reduce and reverse
land degradation. Such mechanisms include both market and non-market based approaches. Examples
of market-based approaches include credit lines, insurance policies and future contracts that reward
adoption of more sustainable land management practices, payments for ecosystem services and
conservation tenders, as applied in some countries. Examples of non-market based approaches include
joint mitigation and adaptation mechanisms, justice-based initiatives and ecosystem-based adaptation
and integrated water co-management schemes.
C5. Landscape-wide approaches that integrate the development of agricultural, forest,
energy, water and infrastructure agendas, all informed by the best available knowledge and
experience, are required to avoid, reduce and reverse land degradation. There is no
one-size-fits-all approach to sustainable land management. Achieving success requires selecting from
the full toolkit of approaches that have been effectively implemented in different biophysical, social,
economic and political settings. Such a toolkit includes a wide range of low-impact farming, pastoral,
forest management and urban design practices based on scientific, indigenous and local knowledge
systems. Integrating different practices into landscape-scale planning, including local-level sustainable
finance and business practices, can reduce the impacts of degradation and enhance the resilience of
both ecosystems and rural livelihoods. Participatory planning and monitoring, based on, among others,
land capabilities that include local institutions and land users and are supported by multiple knowledge
and value systems, are more likely to result in agreement among stakeholders and the effective
implementation and monitoring of integrated land management plans
C6. Responses to reduce environmental impacts of urbanization not only address the
problems associated with urban land degradation, but can also significantly improve quality of
life while simultaneously contributing to climate change mitigation and adaptation. Proven
approaches include urban planning, replanting with native species, green infrastructure development,
remediation of contaminated and sealed soils, and wastewater treatment and river channel restoration.
- Landscape-level and ecosystem-based approaches that use, among others, restoration and sustainable
land management techniques to enhance the provision of ecosystem services have proven effective in
reducing flood risk and improving water quality for urban populations.
II. Background to the key messages
A. Land degradation is a pervasive, systemic phenomenon: it occurs in all parts
of the terrestrial world and can take many forms
Combating land degradation and restoring degraded land is an urgent
priority to protect the biodiversity and ecosystem services vital to all life on
Earth and to ensure human well-being
Box SPM.1
For the purposes of this assessment, “land degradation” is defined as the many human-caused processes that drive
the decline or loss in biodiversity, ecosystem functions or ecosystem services in any terrestrial and associated
aquatic ecosystems. “Degraded land” is defined as the state of land which results from the persistent decline or
loss in biodiversity and ecosystem functions and services that cannot fully recover unaided within decadal time
scales. “Degraded land” takes many forms: in some cases, all biodiversity, ecosystem functions and services are
adversely affected; in others, only some aspects are negatively affected while others have been increased.
Transforming natural ecosystems into human-oriented production ecosystems—for instance agriculture or
managed forests—often creates benefits to society but simultaneously can result in losses of biodiversity and
some ecosystem services. Valuing and balancing these trade-offs is a challenge for society as a whole (Figure
SPM.3; Figure SPM.10).
“Restoration” is defined as any intentional activity that initiates or accelerates the recovery of an ecosystem from
a degraded state. “Rehabilitation” is used to refer to restoration activities that may fall short of fully restoring the
biotic community to its pre-degradation state {1.1, 2.2.1.1}.
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Figure SPM.3
Human transformation of natural ecosystems and trade-offs among ecosystem services and biodiversity
This figure shows the trade-offs among ecosystem services and biodiversity with land use intensification, using
food production as an example. In this specific example, as food production increases, there is a decrease in other
ecosystem services and biodiversity (illustrated by reduced bars) as compared to the undegraded state. In extreme
cases, land has been degraded to the point of abandonment (right panel), thus providing less of all ecosystems
services. This pattern generally applies to all ecosystems and land-use types. Deciding whether trade-offs among
land-use types are negative or beneficial depends on values and priorities, and is therefore part of the
socio-political decision-making process. Evidence suggests there are few, if any, beneficiaries from extreme
degradation and the permanent loss of function and services.
Source: Adapted from Van der Esch et al. (2017).7
Box SPM.2
Indigenous and local knowledge consists of bodies of social-ecological knowledge developed and held by local
communities, some of which have interacted with a given ecosystem for a very long time. Indigenous and local
knowledge includes practices and beliefs about relationships of living beings, including humans, with one another
and their environment. This knowledge evolves continuously through interaction of experiences and different
types of knowledge, and can provide information, methods, theory and practice for sustainable management that
has been tested through application and experimentation in real-world situations, by many people, over a wide
range of conditions. Indigenous and local knowledge aids in avoiding, reducing and reversing land degradation
and in sustainable land management to reduce degradation and improve restoration by offering different ways of
thinking about people’s relationship to nature {1.3.1, 2.2.2.1} (Figure SPM.4) and alternative land management
systems {1.3.1.2, 1.3.1.4, 1.4.3.1, 1.4.8.2, 2.2.2.2, 2.3.2.1, 6.3.1, 6.3.2.3, 6.4.2.4} and by promoting good
governance {1.3.1.5, 2.2.2.3}.
7 Van der Esch, S., ten Brink, B., Stehfest, E., Bakkenes, M., Sewell, A., Bouwman, A., Meijer, J., Westhoek, H.,
and van den Berg, M. (2017). Exploring future changes in land use and land condition and the impacts on food,
water, climate change and biodiversity: Scenarios for the UNCCD Global Land Outlook. The Hague: PBL
Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency. Retrieved from
http://www.pbl.nl/sites/default/files/cms/publicaties/pbl-2017-exploring-future-changes-in-land-use-and-landcondition-
2076.pdf.
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Figure SPM.4
This figure was developed by senior knowledge holders of the Ngan’gi set of Aboriginal languages, in
collaboration with the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation,8 and shows the depth and
detail of their understanding of the land. This detailed knowledge can assist to prevent degradation and restore
landscapes, and is representative of indigenous peoples and local communities worldwide. For ease of readability
this figure has been cropped to show a portion of the full year's seasonal knowledge of the Nauiyu Nambiyu
community in Daly River, Northern Territory, Australia.
1. Less than one quarter of the Earth’s land surface remains free from substantial human
impacts (established but incomplete).9 Transformation and degradation of various types and
intensity are causing predominantly negative impacts on biodiversity and ecosystem functions
on the other three quarters (well established) (Figure SPM.5). Ecosystems affected by land
degradation (including, for example, some areas that have been transformed to agricultural systems
and urban areas) mainly include forests, rangelands and wetlands. Wetlands are particularly degraded,
with 87 per cent lost globally in the last 300 years, and 54 per cent since 1900 {4.2.5, 4.2.6.2, 4.3.2.1,
4.3.4}. Land degradation, including transformation to urban areas and to intensive agricultural systems
involving high use of chemicals, frequently leads to eutrophication of water bodies by fertilizers, to
toxic effects of pesticides on non-target species, and to erosion). The extent of transformation in
developed countries is large, even though the rate of transformation has slowed or even reversed in
recent decades. In developing countries, the extent of transformation is lower, but the rate of
transformation remains high. In the future, most degradation and especially transformation is
forecasted to occur in Central and South America, sub-Saharan Africa and Asia, which have the
largest remaining amount of land suitable for agriculture (well established). By 2050, it is estimated
that less than 10 per cent of the Earth’s land surface will remain substantially free of direct human
impact. Most of this remnant will be found in deserts, mountainous areas, tundra and polar systems
that are unsuitable for human use or settlement (well established) {7.2.2, 7.3}.
8 Woodward, E., Marrfurra McTaggart, P., Yawulminy, M., Ariuu, C., Daning, D., Kamarrama, K., Ngulfundi, B.,
Warrumburr, M., and Wawul, M. (2009). Ngan’gi Seasons, Nauiyu - Daly River, Northern Territory, Australia.
Darwin, CSIRO Sustainable Ecosystems.
9 For an explanation of confidence terms, see appendix.
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Figure SPM.5
Status, trend and extent of direct drivers of land degradation across subregions globally
This report is based on expert opinions from the 28 authors working on the assessment with a wide range of land
degradation and regional experience. Three or more experts contributed to each cell unless denoted by an asterisk
(*), which indicates two expert opinions. Data was not reported when fewer than two experts contributed to the
scoring, which is denoted by the grey cells. Within each region, the impacts on biodiversity and ecosystem
services in managed systems (i.e., grazing land, croplands and agroforestry, and native forest and tree plantation)
were evaluated relative to well-managed production systems of that type, rather than relative to their initial
untransformed state, which often existed in the distant past (Figure SPM.10). The five land degradation drivers of
non-timber natural resource extraction, extractive industry and energy development, infrastructure, industry, and
urbanization, fire regime change and introduction of invasive species were evaluated relative to the inferred state
of biodiversity and ecosystem services in the absence of human disturbance (Box 1.1, 2.1). Experts scored
changes in biodiversity and ecosystem services separately. In the analysis, however, the scores of biodiversity and
ecosystem services were highly correlated (range = 0.70-0.98). Consequently, changes in biodiversity and
ecosystem services are reported as one integrated score. Trends in land degradation from 2005 to 2015 due to
specific drivers are shown by the angle of the arrows. The time period 2005–2015 was chosen to identify more
recent trends in land degradation. Within the agricultural production drivers, the extent of land affected by the
degradation driver is expressed as a percentage of the total land area of that land use type. The extent of land
affected by the degradation driver of the remaining five drivers is expressed as the total land area of the subregion.
For further explanation on the metrics and methodology for Figure SPM. 5, see supporting material Appendix 1.2
available from https://www.ipbes.net/supporting-material-e-appendices-assessments.
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2. Habitat loss through transformation and the decline in suitability of the remaining
habitat through degradation are the leading causes of biodiversity loss (well established) {4.2.9}
(Figure SPM.6). Between 1970 and 2012, the index of the average population size of wild terrestrial
vertebrate species declined by 38 per cent and that of freshwater vertebrate species by 81 per cent
(established but incomplete) {4.2.9, 7.2.2}. Species extinction rates are currently hundreds to
thousands of times above the long-term rate of species turnover (established but incomplete) {4.2.9.1,
7.2.2}. There is a body of evidence suggesting a positive association between diversity, especially
functional biodiversity, ecosystem functions and resilience to disturbance (established but incomplete)
{4.2.9.3}.
Figure SPM.6
Projected loss in global biodiversity by 2050 under a range of scenarios (shared socioeconomic pathways,
SSP1, 2 and 3, plus a variant of SSP2 which includes a decline in plant productivity. Biodiversity is
expressed as mean species abundance (MSA), a measure of the size of populations of wild organisms as a
percentage of their inferred abundance in their natural state (% MSA)
The SSP1 scenario describes a world with high economic growth, low population growth, medium to fast
technology change, emphasis on environmental protection and international cooperation, high globalization of
trade, low meat consumption and waste of food, strict land-use regulation (e.g., protected areas) and high
improvement of crop yield and livestock production efficiency.
The SSP2 scenario is a “middle-of-road” scenario, with medium economic and population growth, technological
change, globalization of trade, meat consumption and waste of food, moderate land-use regulation and medium
improvement of crop yield and livestock production efficiency. It represents a continuation of the trends observed
in recent decades.
The SSP3 scenario describes a world with low economic growth, high population growth, less technological
change, little environmental protection, reduced international cooperation, low globalization of trade, high meat
consumption and waste of food, low land-use regulation (e.g., protected areas) and low improvement of crop
yield and livestock production efficiency. The SSP2 “productivity decline scenario” makes the same
socioeconomic assumptions as SSP2 but takes into account the impact of a persistent decline in biomass and crop
yields as observed at particular locations in the last decades, as a result of unsustainable land management.
The left panels show the effects of land use transformation, while the right panels include land
degradation-induced productivity loss. By 2010, 34 per cent of global biodiversity indexed in this way had
already been lost. Biodiversity loss is projected to reach 38–46 per cent by 2050. The global loss in the
middle-of-the-road scenario - SSP2 with productivity decline - projects a future loss of around 10 per cent by
2050. This is equivalent to a complete loss of the original biodiversity of an area about 1.5 times the size of the
United States of America. The strongest drivers of biodiversity loss to date have been agriculture, followed by
forestry, infrastructure, urban encroachment and climate change. In the period 2010–2050, climate change, crop
agriculture and infrastructure development are expected to be the drivers of biodiversity loss with the greatest
projected increase {7.2.2.1}.
Source: Adapted from Van der Esch et al. (2017).10
10 Van der Esch, S., ten Brink, B., Stehfest, E., Bakkenes, M., Sewell, A., Bouwman, A., Meijer, J., Westhoek, H.,
and van den Berg, M. (2017). Exploring future changes in land use and land condition and the impacts on food,
IPBES/6/15/Add.5
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3. Land degradation has already had a pronounced impact on ecosystem functions
worldwide (well established). Net primary productivity of ecosystem biomass and of agriculture is
presently lower than it would have been under natural state on 23 per cent of the global terrestrial area,
amounting to a 5 per cent reduction in total global net primary productivity (established but
incomplete) {4.2.3.2, 4.2.9.3}. Over the past two centuries, soil organic carbon, an indicator of soil
health, has seen an estimated 8 per cent loss globally (176 gigatons of carbon (Gt C)) from land
conversion and unsustainable land management practices (established but incomplete) {4.2.3.1, 7.2.1}
(Figure SPM.7). Projections to 2050 predict further losses of 36 Gt C from soils, particularly in
sub-Saharan Africa {7.2.1.1}. These future losses are projected to come from the expansion of
agricultural land into natural areas (16 Gt C), degradation due to inappropriate land management
(11 Gt C) and the draining and burning of peatlands (9 Gt C) and melting of permafrost (established
but incomplete) {4.2.3, 7.2.1.1}.
Figure SPM.7
Human activity has changed the surface of the planet in profound and far-reaching ways
Panel (a) shows the degree to which humans have appropriated production of biomass.11 In some cases, particularly
areas of intensive agriculture, human use is equivalent to 100 per cent of the total biomass that would have been
produced by plant natural conditions (darker blue). Panel (b) shows the decline in soil organic carbon, an indicator
of soil degradation (decline in red, increase in blue), relative to an estimated historical condition that predates
anthropogenic land use.12 13 Panel (c) shows the parts of the land surface that can be considered as “wilderness”.
The areas shown in green are wilderness in the sense that ecological and evolutionary processes operate there with
minimal human disturbance.14 In the remaining three quarters of the Earth’s surface, natural processes are impaired
by human activities to a significant degree. Panel (d) shows (in purple) the levels of species loss, estimated for all
species groups, relative to the originally-present species composition.15
water, climate change and biodiversity: Scenarios for the UNCCD Global Land Outlook. The Hague: PBL
Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency. Retrieved from
http://www.pbl.nl/sites/default/files/cms/publicaties/pbl-2017-exploring-future-changes-in-land-use-and-landcondition-
2076.pdf.
11 Haberl, H., Erb, K-H., Krausmann, F., Gaube, V., Bondeau, A., Plutzar, C., Gingrich, S., Lucht, W., and
Fischer-Kowalski, M. (2007). Quantifying and mapping the human appropriation of net primary production in
Earth’s terrestrial ecosystems. PNAS, 104 (31), 12942–12947. DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0704243104.
12 Van der Esch, S., ten Brink, B., Stehfest, E., Bakkenes, M., Sewell, A., Bouwman, A., Meijer, J., Westhoek, H.,
and van den Berg, M. (2017). Exploring future changes in land use and land condition and the impacts on food,
water, climate change and biodiversity: Scenarios for the UNCCD Global Land Outlook. The Hague: PBL
Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency. Retrieved from
http://www.pbl.nl/sites/default/files/cms/publicaties/pbl-2017-exploring-future-changes-in-land-use-and-landcondition-
2076.pdf.
13 Stoorvogel, J. J., Bakkenes, M., Temme, A. J., Batjes, N. H., and Ten Brink, B. J. (2017). S‐World: A Global
Soil Map for Environmental Modelling. Land Degradation and Development, 28 (1), 22–33. DOI:
10.1002/ldr.2656.
14 Watson, J. E. M., Shanahan, D. F., Di Marco, M., Allan, J., Laurance, W. F., Sanderson, E. W., Mackey, B.,
and Venter, O. (2016). Catastrophic Declines in Wilderness Areas Undermine Global Environment Targets.
Current Biology, 26 (21), 2929–2934. DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2016.08.049.
15 Newbold, T., Hudson, L. N., Arnell, A. P., Contu, S., De Palma, A., Ferrier, S., Hill, S. L. L., Hoskins, A. J.,
Lysenko, I., Phillips, H. R. P., Burton, V. J., Chng, C. W. T., Emerson, S., Gao, D., P (2016). Has land use pushed
terrestrial biodiversity beyond the planetary boundary? A global assessment. Science, 353(6296), 288–291. DOI:
10.1126/science.aaf2201.
IPBES/6/15/Add.5
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4. Land degradation adversely affects human well-being through the loss of biodiversity
and ecosystem services, which has reached critical levels in many parts of the world (well
established). In many contexts, land degradation negatively impacts food and water security,16 as well
as human health and safety {1.3.1, 1.3.2, 1.4.4, 5.3.2, 5.4, 5.6, 5.8.2}. Degradation-driven losses in
agricultural production—through erosion, soil fertility loss, salinization and other processes—
constitute a risk to food security {4.2.1–4.2.3, 4.3.3, 5.3.2.3, 5.3.2.4}. Soil fertility loss is caused by
three main processes: soil acidification, salinization and waterlogging {4.2.1, 4.2.2}. By 2050, land
degradation and climate change together are predicted to reduce crop yields by an average of 10 per
cent globally and up to 50 per cent in certain regions {5.3.2.6}. Although important advances have
been made in reducing global food insecurity in the past decade, there are still nearly 800 million
people worldwide without access to adequate nutrition {4.2.5.1, 5.3.3.1}. Land degradation impairs
water security through a reduction in the reliability, quantity and quality of water flows {5.8.2}.
Degradation of catchment and aquatic ecosystems, combined with increasing water abstraction and
pollution by human activities, have contributed to deterioration in water quality and supply, such that
four fifths of the world’s population now live in areas where there is a threat to water security {4.2.4.3,
4.2.5.1, 5.8.1}.
5. Transformation of natural ecosystems to human use-dominated ecosystems can increase
the risk of novel diseases such as Ebola, monkeypox and Marburg virus, some of which have
become global health threats, by bringing people into more frequent contact with pathogens
capable of transferring from wild to human hosts (established but incomplete) {5.4.1, 5.4.2, 5.4.3}.
Modifications in hydrological regimes affect the prevalence of pathogens and vectors that spread
disease {2.2.2.4, 4.2.7, 5.4.1}. Land degradation generally increases the number of people directly
exposed to hazardous air, water and land pollution, particularly in developing countries, with the
worst-off countries recording rates of pollution-related loss of life higher than those in wealthy
countries (established but incomplete) {5.4.4; Figure 5.8}. Land degradation generally harms
psychological well-being by reducing benefits to mental balance, attention, inspiration and healing
(established but incomplete) {5.4.6, 5.9.1}. Land degradation has particularly negative impacts on the
mental health and spiritual well-being of indigenous peoples and local communities {1.3.1.2}. Finally,
land degradation, especially in coastal and riparian areas, increases the risk of storm damage, flooding
and landslides, with high socioeconomic costs and human losses {1.3.3, 5.5.1}. With around
10 per cent of the world’s population living in coastal zones less than 10 metres above the mean sea
16 The definition that follows is for the purpose of this assessment only: water security is used to mean the ability
to access sufficient quantities of clean water to maintain adequate standards of food and goods production,
sanitation and health care and for preserving ecosystems.
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level—currently more than 700 million people, expected to increase to more than 1 billion by 2050—
the economic and human risks associated with loss of coastal wetlands are substantial {5.5.1, 5.5.3}.
6. Land degradation negatively affects the cultural identity of some communities,
particularly indigenous peoples and local communities, and erodes their traditional knowledge
and management systems (well established). An individual's or society's relationship to land shapes
identity, traditions and values, as well as spiritual beliefs and moral frameworks {1.2, 1.3.1, 1.3.2,
1.4.3, 2.2.2.1, 5.4.6, 5.9.1, 5.9.2}. There is a strong co-occurrence between linguistic diversity (a proxy
for cultural diversity) and biological diversity (Figure SPM.8). Though difficult to quantify, many
indigenous peoples and local communities consider land degradation to cause pronounced loss of their
cultural identity and indigenous and local knowledge (well established) {1.3.2, 1.4.3, 1.4.6, 1.4.8,
2.2.2.3, 5.9.2.3}, manifested, for instance, in the abandonment of sacred places and rituals (established
but incomplete) {5.9.2.1}. Land degradation causes a loss of sense of place and of spiritual connection
to the land, in indigenous peoples and local communities (established but incomplete) {2.2.3.1}, as
well as in urban residents living far from the affected areas (well established) {5.9.1}.
Figure SPM.8
Cultural diversity and biodiversity are spatially associated
This map shows patterns in cultural diversity, using language diversity as a proxy indicator, and patterns in
biodiversity, using mammal and bird species richness as a proxy indicator. Language diversity is measured as the
geographic concentration of the points of origin of each unique language.17 Biodiversity is represented by the
total species richness of mammals and birds.18 Areas with darker colour are more biodiverse, while the colour
spectrum from green to magenta represents increasing language diversity. Many indigenous peoples and local
communities consider land degradation to cause pronounced loss of their cultural identity.
7. Alienation of indigenous peoples and local communities from the land often leads to the
irreversible loss of accumulated knowledge on how to manage land. In most cases, land management
practices based on indigenous and local knowledge have proven to be sustainable over long time
periods and offer alternative models to the currently dominant human-nature relationship {1.2.1, 1.3.1,
1.3.2.2, 14.1.1, 1.4.3.1, 1.4.8.2, 2.3.2; 5.3.3.1}. The model for human-nature relationships offered by
indigenous and local knowledge holders is based on relational ethics rather than on technological
progress or economic growth {2.3.1.2}. In parallel, novel concepts, such as “Ecological Solidarity”,
“Mother Earth Rights”, “Living Well” and “Systems of Life”, are being adopted by different
countries,19 concepts that acknowledge that humans and ecosystems not only interact, but are also
interdependent {2.2.1.3; 2.2.2.1; 2.2.2.2.}. This cognitive framing of human integration with nature is
likely to create a collective sense of duty at various spatial and political scales to protect and restore
17 Hammarström, H., Forkel, R., and Haspelmath, M. (2017). Glottolog 3.0. Max Planck Institute for the Science
of Human History. Retrieved from http://glottolog.org.
18 Jenkins, C. N., Pimm, S. L., and Joppa, L. N. (2013). Global patterns of terrestrial vertebrate diversity and
conservation. PNAS, 110(28), E2602–E2610. DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1302251110.
19 Ecological solidarity first appeared in France’s Law on National Parks and was adopted in France’s Law for the
Restoration of Biodiversity, Nature and Landscapes (Law No. 2016-1087 of 8 August 2016); the legislation of the
Plurinational State of Bolivia (Law No. 071, of Mother Earth Rights, and Law No. 300, the Framework Law of
Mother Earth and Integral Development for Living Well); and the Constitution of Ecuador {2.2.1.3}. For more
examples, see 2.2.2.
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land and to recognize the obligation to balance current needs with those of future generations {1.3,
1.4.1.2, 1.4.6.3, 1.4.7.3, 2.2.4.3, 2.3.2.2}.
8. Land degradation-associated changes in ecosystem services can exacerbate income
inequality since the negative impacts fall disproportionately on people in vulnerable situations,
including women, indigenous peoples and local communities, and lower-income groups (well
established). Although land degradation exists in both developed and developing parts of the world, it
tends to have the strongest negative impacts on the well-being of people in vulnerable situations and of
those living in economically poor areas {5.2.1, 5.2.2} (Figure SPM.9). People living in more marginal
environments are usually poorer than the national average {5.2.1}. They are particularly dependent on
the ecosystem services for disaster risk reduction that are lost through land degradation, and recover
more slowly following natural disasters {5.2.2.1, 5.5.2, 5.5.3}. The effect of agricultural soil loss on
poverty at the national level can be enormous; negative impacts of land degradation as large as
5 per cent of total GDP have been observed {5.2}. In many countries, lower-income groups are on
average more dependent on the agricultural sector than the population as a whole; in addition, the land
they have access to is often of lower productivity than average {2.2.2.3, 5.2.1}. In lower-income
countries, losses in the agricultural sector are 2.5 times more important to the income of individuals at
the lower end of the income distribution than are losses in other parts of the economy {5.2}. In
addition, people in vulnerable situations have fewer financial resources to invest in technologies, for
instance, in agriculture or sanitation, to mitigate the negative impacts of degradation {1.3.2.2, 1.4.8.2,
5.2.2.2}. Land degradation also reduces the availability of wild-harvested goods that serve as buffers
for vulnerable households in times of hardship {3.3.4, 5.2.2.1}. The poor also rely more than average
on ecosystem-derived fuels, such as wood, charcoal and dung, to meet their energy needs {5.7.2.1}.
Land degradation creates higher labour demands on fuelwood-dependent households, generating an
additional labour burden that often falls disproportionately on women {5.2.3.2, 5.7.2.1}. The negative
impact of land degradation on ecosystem services frequently acts in concert with other stressors, such
as socioeconomic change, climate variability, political instability and inefficient or ineffective
institutions {3.4, 3.6.2.1, 5.6.1.1}. The combined result is decreased livelihood security among the
most vulnerable members of society {2.2.2.3}.
Figure SPM.9
Land degradation affects countries of all income levels and at all levels of human development
Some of the most degraded areas in the world, such as Western Europe and parts of Australia, are also the high
GDP countries. However, the negative impacts of land degradation on human well-being are likely to be more
pronounced in locations where degradation overlaps with poverty, low institutional capacity and weak social
safety nets. In this map, countries are coloured according to their Human Development Index (HDI) score,20
while loss of soil organic carbon relative to estimated original condition (one indicator of land degradation) is
illustrated by the lightness or darkness of each pixel. HDI is a composite statistic that is commonly used to
indicate human development based on data on education, life expectancy and per capita income. Change in soil
organic carbon is modelled relative to estimated quantities prior to anthropogenic land use and land cover
change.
20 United Nations Development Programme (2015). Human Development Data (1990–2015) Retrieved from
http://hdr.undp.org/en/data.
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Source: Data on soil organic carbon from Van der Esch et al. (2017)21 and Stoorvogel et al. (2017).22
9. The economic benefits of sustainable land management practices and/or restoration
actions to avoid, reduce and reverse land degradation have been shown to exceed their costs in
many places (established but incomplete), but their overall effectiveness is context-dependent
(well established). A variety of sustainable land management practices, such as agroforestry, soil and
water conservation techniques and river-channel restoration, have been shown to be effective in
avoiding, reducing and reversing land degradation in both rural and urban settings (well established)
{1.2.2, 1.3, 1.4, 2.2.3.1, 4.2.6.2, 6.3.1, 6.3.2}. Such practices and restoration actions generally produce
positive results, but their effectiveness depends on the degree to which they address the nature, extent
and severity of underlying drivers and processes of degradation, and the biophysical, social, economic
and political settings in which they are implemented {1.2.1, 1.3.2.2, 1.3.3.1, 3.5, 5.2.3.3, 6.3, 6.4}. For
example, land management practices based on indigenous and local knowledge, and community-based
natural resource management systems, have been effective in avoiding and reversing land degradation
in many regions {1.3.1.1, 1.3.2.3, 1.4.3.2, 1.4.7.2, 1.4.8.2, 2.2.2.1, 2.2.2.2, 5.3.3.1, 6.3.1, 6.3.2, 6.4.1.2,
6.4.2.2, 6.4.2.4, 6.4.3, 8.3.1}. For instance, recent advances in valuing ecosystem services, as well as
the non-market benefits of ecological restoration and subsequent incorporation of such values in
benefit-cost analyses of restoration projects, with socially-appropriate discount rates, show that
restoration investments are economically beneficial. Across biomes, at the global level the benefits of
restoration are estimated to exceed the costs by an average margin of 10 to 1 {6.4.2.3} (established but
incomplete). In several Asian and African countries, the cost of inaction has been estimated to be 3.8
to 5 times higher than the estimated costs to avoid land degradation {5.2.3.4}.
10. Desertification currently affects more than 2.7 billion people and can contribute to
migration (well established). Desertification is defined as land degradation in arid, semi-arid and dry
sub-humid areas (collectively called drylands) because of human activities and climatic variations.
Inhabited drylands cover 24 per cent of the Earth’s surface and are home to 38 per cent of the world’s
population, with especially pastoralists and smallholder farmers tending to be disproportionately poor
and vulnerable to changes in the natural resource base {5.6.1.3, 5.6.2.2, 4.2.6.2}. For example, in
sub-Saharan Africa, half of the total population, but three quarters of the poor, live in drylands {5.2.1}.
Populations in drylands are projected to increase by 43 per cent—from 2.7 billion in 2010 to 4.0
21 Van der Esch, S., ten Brink, B., Stehfest, E., Bakkenes, M., Sewell, A., Bouwman, A., Meijer, J., Westhoek, H.,
and van den Berg, M. (2017). Exploring future changes in land use and land condition and the impacts on food,
water, climate change and biodiversity: Scenarios for the UNCCD Global Land Outlook. The Hague: PBL
Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency. Retrieved from
http://www.pbl.nl/sites/default/files/cms/publicaties/pbl-2017-exploring-future-changes-in-land-use-and-landcondition-
2076.pdf.
22 Stoorvogel, J. J., Bakkenes, M., Temme, A. J., Batjes, N. H., and ten Brink, B. J. (2017). S‐World: A Global
Soil Map for Environmental Modelling. Land Degradation and Development, 28 (1), 22–33. DOI:
10.1002/ldr.2656.
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billion in 2050—amplifying the impact of people on dryland landscapes {7.2.4.1}. Drylands are
particularly susceptible to land degradation when one or more of the following features are present:
low-productivity ecosystems; easily degradable soils; highly variable temperature and rainfall; and
dense and rapidly growing populations of economically marginalized populations (well established)
{3.3.1.2, 7.2.1, 7.2.3, 7.2.4, 7.2.5, 7.3.1}. These interrelated characteristics contribute to high rates of
poverty and limit the capacity of populations to develop local mechanisms for coping with
increasingly severe episodic or chronic deficits of food, water, energy and physical security (well
established) {3.6, 7.1, 7.2.3, 7.3.1}. For example, degradation in drylands is one reason why grain
yields in sub-Saharan Africa failed to increase between 1960 and 2005, despite increases in all other
world regions. Land degradation acts in concert with other socioeconomic stressors to result in
increased local or regional violent conflict and out-migration from severely degraded areas
(established but incomplete) {5.6.1.2, 5.6.1.3}. When the rainfall is less than a tenth of its expected
value, an increase of up to 45 per cent in communal conflict has been observed {5.6.1.3}, while a
5 per cent decline in gross domestic product has been associated with a 12 per cent increase in violent
conflict {5.6.1.2}. By 2050, 50 to 700 million people are projected to have migrated as a result of the
combination of climate change and land degradation. Migrants can come into conflict with prior
residents of the areas into which they move, especially if the destinations also have a fully used or
degraded resource base {5.6.2}.
11. The capacity of rangelands to support livestock will continue to diminish in the future,
due to both land degradation and loss of rangeland area. The increased use of intensive livestock
production systems with high off-site impacts increases the risk of degradation in other
ecosystems (established but incomplete). Global demand for livestock products is projected to double
between 2000 and 2050, while competition for land between livestock grazing and other land uses,
such as cropping, mining and human settlements, continues to increase (well established) {3.3.1.1,
4.3.2}. In many of the world’s rangelands, livestock stocking levels are at or above the land’s capacity
to sustain animal production in the long term, leading to overgrazing and long-term declines in plant
and animal production {1.4.7, 3.3.1.1, 4.3.2.2}. In extreme cases, changing land condition has led to a
reduction of up to 90 per cent in the ability of rangelands to support large herbivores {4.2.6.2}. The
impacts have been particularly pronounced in drylands, where 69 per cent of global livestock
production occurs and livestock production is often the only viable agricultural activity {3.3.1, 4.2.6.2,
4.3.2.2}. Reduction in the productivity of the livestock sector negatively impacts the livelihoods of
1.3 billion people, including 600 million poor smallholder farmers {5.2}.
12. A response to the growing demand for animal protein but declining livestock production on
rangelands has been the increased use of intensive “landless” livestock production systems. These
systems have driven the expansion of croplands dedicated to animal feed production, which currently
amount to 30 per cent of all croplands. Increased demand for animal feed is met by increased crop
production per unit of land, displacement of food crops and/or conversion of natural lands to croplands
{3.3.2.2}. Only 26 per cent of ruminants are currently raised fully on rangeland systems, with the rest
partly or fully raised on agricultural crops or crop residue for at least part of their lifespan. An
estimated 76–79 per cent of poultry and pork are fully raised in intensive systems {3.3.2}. While
intensive livestock systems often reduce greenhouse gas emissions per unit of protein produced, they
can have multiple negative indirect and off-site impacts on ecosystem services if not properly
managed {2.2.1.3}, including the transformation of natural ecosystems into feed-producing croplands.
The waste streams from intensive production systems can result in air pollution, water contamination,
human health impacts and eutrophication of freshwater ecosystems {4.3.2.2, 5.4.4, 5.8.2.2}.
13. Avoiding, reducing and reversing land degradation can contribute substantially to
adaptation to and mitigation of climate change, but land-based climate adaptation and
mitigation strategies must be implemented with care if unintended negative impacts on
biodiversity and ecosystem services are to be avoided (well established). Between 2000 and 2009,
land degradation was responsible for annual global emissions of 3.6–4.4 billion tonnes of CO2
(established but incomplete) {4.2.3.2}. The main processes include deforestation and forest
degradation, the drying and burning of peatlands, and the decline of carbon content in many cultivated
soils and rangelands as a result of excessive disturbance and insufficient return of organic matter to the
soil {4.2.3, 4.3.4}. Climate change will be an increasingly important driver of land degradation
throughout the twenty-first century {3.4, 4.2.8, 7.2.5}. Changes in temperature and rainfall patterns
will result in range shifts and in some cases extinction of species, causing a modification in both the
composition and functioning of ecosystems, not necessarily constituting degradation {3.4, 7.2.2}. In
mountainous and high latitude regions, permafrost melt and glacier retreat will result in mass land
movements such as landslides and surface subsidence, and increased greenhouse gas emissions {3.4.1,
4.2.3.3, 4.2.6.4}. In forests, the likelihood of wildfires, pest and disease outbreaks increases in
scenarios where droughts and hot spells are projected to be more frequent {3.4.5}.
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14. Many sustainable land management practices yield net climate benefits (well established).
Actions to avoid, reduce and reverse land degradation can provide more than one third of the most
cost-effective climate mitigation needed to keep global warming under 2°C by 2030 (established but
incomplete) {4.2.3, 4.2.8}. These approaches and practices include, among others, agroecology,
conservation measures, agroforestry and some integrated animal and crop production systems that
promote soil organic matter accumulation and nutrient cycling, restoration of degraded forests,
rangelands and wetlands, and measures that enhance soil carbon storage in managed landscapes such
as reduced or no-till farming practices, cover crops, green manures or intercropping {1.3, 4.2.3,
4.2.8.8, 4.3.4, 6.3.1.1, 6.3.1.2, 6.3.1.3, 6.3.2.3}. However, some activities aimed at climate mitigation,
when not appropriately implemented, can have the unintended consequence of increasing the risk of
land degradation and biodiversity loss, either directly or indirectly, through, for instance: increased
herbicides and pesticides use; afforestation by monoculture plantation on previously non-forest
habitats; expansion of bioenergy crops into lands formerly under natural vegetation; net displacement
of croplands into natural vegetation as a result of increasing competition for land between food and
bioenergy crops; and excessive fire protection in landscapes with an evolutionary history of fire (well
established) {1.4.3, 3.3.7.2, 3.5, 4.2.6.5, 5.3.2.5, 7.2.2, 7.2.5.2, 7.2.6}.
B. Unless urgent and concerted action is taken, land degradation will continue to
accelerate in the face of continued population growth, unprecedented
consumption, an increasingly globalized economy and climate change
15. Quantifying land degradation and its reversal through restoration requires assessments of
both the geographic extent and severity of damage against a reference state (well established). A
range of national and international policies, notably Aichi Biodiversity Target 15 of the Strategic Plan
for Biodiversity 2011–2020, call for the quantification of land degradation and its reversal. Lack of
consensus over baselines and what types of change constitute degradation has resulted in inconsistent
estimates of the extent and severity of land degradation {1.1, 2.2.1.1–2.2.1.3, 4.1.4, 4.1.6, 7.13}, and
thus to differing interpretations of the consequences of degradation for human well-being and to
differences in interpreting and measuring progress towards Aichi Target 15. There are several options
for agreeing on a reference state {1.1, 2.2.1.1, 4.1.4, Box 1.1, Box 2.1, Table 4.2}. Reference states
related to the natural state of the ecosystem may be harder to define than those based on the current
state, but are comparable and fair across countries at different stages of development. If, on the other
hand, the baseline is set to a recent ecosystem state, countries that transformed their ecosystems
centuries ago are able, in practice, to assume much less ambitious restoration measures than countries
that began transformation in the past few decades. Other approaches, such as land degradation
neutrality, which relates to target 15.3 of the Sustainable Development Goals, are addressed from an
agreed point in time, and detailed guidelines have been developed regarding how neutrality can be
monitored and assessed (Figure SPM.10) {2.2.1.1}.
Figure SPM.10
Land degradation can occur either through a loss of biodiversity, ecosystem functions or services, without
a change in land cover class or use (1), or by the transformation to a derived ecosystem type such as the
conversion of natural cover to a crop field (2), delivering a different spectrum of benefits, but also
typically involving loss of biodiversity and reduction of some ecosystem functions and services
The transformed ecosystem can also be degraded with respect to the new social expectations associated with
that land use (3). Degraded natural ecosystems can also be transformed to another ecosystem (4), or restored
towards their original natural state, either completely or partially (“rehabilitated”) (5). Degraded transformed
ecosystems can be rehabilitated towards a less degraded state, with respect to the expectation for a deliberately
modified landscape (6). Both degraded and undegraded transformed lands can, under many circumstances, be
restored or rehabilitated towards their original natural state (7 and 8). Success in achieving the aspirational goal
of land degradation neutrality by 2030 in Sustainable Development Goal 15 may be measured based on whether
biodiversity, ecosystem functions and services are stable or increasing in each of the focal ecosystems compared
to their state in 2015.
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16. High and rising per capita consumption is a major factor underpinning increasing
degradation in many parts of the world (well established). The current unsustainably high rate of
transformation of land and consumption of land-based resources has two underlying drivers: the first is
the massive increase in human population over the past two centuries; and the second is the even
larger increase in per capita consumption rates of many resources {4.3.2.2, 7.1.5}. The future global
population, if multiplied by a per capita consumption rate similar to that currently enjoyed in the
developed world, will greatly exceed the global capacity to deliver food, energy and other land-based
resources {7.2.3, 7.3.1}. While the global population growth rate is declining, especially in developed
countries, it remains high in large parts of the developing world and in some developed countries due
to migration {7.1.5.1}. Measures to address population growth across the world and associated
changes in consumption patterns can deliver significant and lasting environmental and social benefits,
including improved access to education, voluntary family planning and gender equality (well
established); improved access to social welfare to support ageing populations (established but
incomplete); and rethinking the role of subsidies that may be further stimulating population growth in
many more developed nations {2.2.4.2, 2.3.1.4}. Measures to reduce per capita consumption of landderived
goods, especially in places where it is above the global average, include, among others, the
encouragement of recycling and reuse, the reduction of loss and waste and the increase in public
awareness of the land degradation impacts of consumption patterns {2.3.2, 2.3.1.4, 3.3.2.2, 5.3.1.1}.
17. Per capita consumption remains high in developed economies, while in emerging and
developing economies it is growing rapidly {3.6.2, 3.6.3}. Many far-reaching changes in how land is
used and managed result from responses to economic drivers, such as a shift in demand for a particular
commodity or improved market access, mediated by institutional and political settings (established but
incomplete) {1.2.1, 1.3.1.1, 1.3.1.5, 1.3.2.2, 1.3.3.1, 1.3.3.3, 2.2.1.3, 2.2.3.3, 2.2.4.3, 3.6.3, 3.6.4,
6.4.2.3}. Weak institutions and poorly-enforced regulations, including those related to land rights and
access to natural resources, can lead to overexploitation, exacerbating the effect of rising consumption
and population growth on land degradation {1.3.1.2, 1.3.1.4, 3.6.2, 8.3.2.1}.
18. Local-scale land degradation is often the result of social, political and economic processes
in other parts of the world, with effects that may involve a lag of months or years (established but
incomplete). Demand for food imports is increasing across much of the world {3.6.4}. This high
dependency on imports means that between one quarter and one half of the environmental impacts of
consumption—be they CO2 emissions, chemical pollutants, biodiversity loss or the depletion of
freshwater resources—are felt in parts of the world other than where the consumption occurs {3.6.4,
5.8.1.1} (Figure SPM.11). On average, a country’s use of non-domestic natural resources is about
three times larger than the physical volume of goods traded by that country {3.6.4}. The costs imposed
by land degradation are felt disproportionately by low-income nations, the same nations that are
increasingly depended upon for the provision of raw materials and agricultural commodities to the rest
of the world (established but incomplete) {3.6.4}. The globalized nature of many commodity supply
chains can elevate the relative importance of global-scale factors such as trade agreements, market
prices and exchange rates as potential drivers of local land degradation {3.6.4}; it also amplifies the
influence of international consumers and investors over that of national and regional governments and
individual producers {2.2.3, 3.6.2.2}, and underscores the critical importance of global actors,
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including multinational companies and financial institutions, in advancing sustainability everywhere
{1.3.1.1, 1.3.2.2, 2.2.3.2, 3.6.4, 6.4.2.3, 6.4.2.4}. Increased market integration combined with rising
global demand for land-based commodities can have the effect of offsetting the benefits of increased
productivity, resulting in continued pressure to clear remaining areas of native vegetation {3.6.4}.
19. The increasing separation and spatial disconnection between consumers and the
ecosystems that produce the food and other commodities they depend upon has resulted in a
growing lack of awareness and understanding of the implications of consumption choices for
land degradation by these consumers (established but incomplete). The prices of most
internationally traded land-based commodities do not reflect the environmental and social externalities
associated with the production, transportation and processing of those commodities (well established)
{2.2.1.5, 6.4.2.3}. Internalizing and appropriately regulating the environmental and social costs of
traded commodities, while also avoiding market distortions, such as protectionist policies and
subsidies, that prevent a more accurate reflection of the environmental and social costs of traded
commodities, could help boost demand for low-impact products {2.3.2, 3.6.2.3, 6.4.1}. However,
incentives to encourage the production of more sustainably produced land-based commodities are
often low or non-existent, as retail, consumer goods and trading companies often operate with low
margins and are reluctant to lose market share {2.2.3.3, 6.4.2.3}.
20. Land degradation is almost always the result of multiple interacting causes (well
established). Human activities that are the direct causes of land degradation are ultimately determined
by multiple underlying causes, including economic, demographic, technological, institutional and
cultural drivers (well established) {Figure 1.2; 1.2.1, 1.2.2, 1.3.3.1, 1.4.8.1, 2.2.1.3, 3.6.1, 3.6.2.1,
5.2.2.2, 5.2.2.3, 7.3, 8.3.3–8.3.6, 8.4.1}. Overly simplified single-factor explanations for land
degradation overlook such complexities and, as a result, are generally misleading. Similarly,
restoration practices are also generally shaped by multiple drivers {1.3.1–1.3.3, 6.4.2, 8.2.2, 8.3.6,
8.4.2}. For example, increasing agricultural productivity—one of the most widespread
recommendations to address land degradation—can reduce pressure on remaining areas of native
vegetation, but only if strict conditions are met, including the adoption of sustainable land
management practices and protection of areas of native vegetation, to prevent the result being an
expansion of agricultural lands instead (unresolved) {3.6.3}.
21. Extreme poverty, combined with resource scarcity and inequitable access to resources,
can contribute to land degradation and unsustainable levels of natural resource use, but is rarely
the major underlying cause of either (well established). Single-factor explanations, such as extreme
poverty, fail to address the multiplicity of underlying causes that typically lead to unsustainable
land-use practices {5.2.2.2}. In many impoverished rural areas, these underlying causes typically
include disputes over land rights, poor access to markets and financial credit, insufficient investment
in research and development, sector-focused development plans that pay no attention to other sectors,
and weak governance institutions (well established) {1.3.1.1, 1.3.1.4, 3.6.3, 5.2.2.2, 5.2.2.3, 6.4.3–
6.4.5, 8.4}. Local land-use practices that degrade land have to be interpreted in the context of wider
national policies and integration with regional and global markets {2.2.2.3, 5.2.2.2}. Sustainable land
use often depends on collective action by communities {2.2.2.2, 2.2.3.1, 2.3.2.1, 5.2.2.3}. There is
mounting evidence of the effectiveness of community-based approaches for the management of
common pool environmental resources and the benefit of multi-stakeholder-led approaches for
building long-term socioecological resilience {1.3.1.1, 1.3.1.5, 1.3.2.2, 2.2.2.3, 5.2.2.3, 6.4.2.4, 6.4.5,
8.3.2, 8.3.4}. However, developing the social networks to support collective action without substantial
support from public, private or civil society actors is made very difficult by pervasive problems of land
insecurity, household poverty and low levels of individual education and empowerment {2.2.2.3}.
Figure SPM.11
Illustration of the biodiversity impacts of international trade in 2000
This figure shows the top net exporters (orange) and importers (blue) of biodiversity impacts associated with
international commodity trade. Dots are scaled to the total number of threatened species associated with the
exports or imports of that particular country. The biodiversity footprint methodology used in this analysis uses a
high-resolution input-output economic model that traces the commodities whose production is associated with
threatened biodiversity, through several intermediate trade and transportation steps, to the country of final
consumption. As is standard in all consumption-based accounting analyses, imported goods that are used and
embodied in exported goods from the same country are not included in the consumption account for that country,
but in the account of the country of final consumption. The underlying model, which links the Eora global trade
database to the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List of Threatened Species, tracks
18,000 species through more than 5 billion supply chains linking 15,000 sectors across 189 countries. The faint
black lines illustrate a representative sample of biodiversity-implicated trade flows. This figure is intended to be
illustrative, and the pattern of embedded biodiversity impacts of international trade in imports and exports
changes year-on-year with changes in the dynamics of the global economy.
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Source: Based on data from Lenzen et al. (2012).23
22. Institutional, policy and governance responses to address land degradation have in many
cases proven inadequate, since they are often insufficiently comprehensive or fail to address
ultimate causes (established but incomplete). National policy responses to land degradation are
typically focused on short-term and local-level drivers and are often insufficiently resourced, including
with skills, knowledge, technology, finance and institutional capacity {6.3.1, 6.3.2, 6.4.4, 6.5}.
Attempted solutions are often incremental and reactive, focused on mitigating damage rather than
proactively focused on avoiding initial harm. They are frequently poorly coordinated across the
various sectors and ministries that share responsibility for the use of land and natural resources, and
are often regionally uncoordinated and not sustained between different political dynamics such as
electoral cycles {2.2.4, 2.3.1, 3.5, 8.3.4}. Effectiveness of land degradation and restoration policies is
often further undermined by corruption, which erodes financial resources and confounds evaluation
processes by inflating successes and omitting failures {3.6.2.1, 8.3.1.1}. Tackling corruption is
enormously challenging, as practices are deeply rooted in local economy, history and culture {1.3.2.2,
3.6.1, 3.6.2.1, 6.4.5}. Addressing the multiple causality of land degradation—within the context of
simultaneously trying to meet global goals for food, water, energy, climate stability and biodiversity
protection—requires holistic policy responses that transcend narrowly-defined jurisdictions and policy
agendas and put in place the enabling conditions necessary for long-term change {1.3.1.4, 2.2.4.3, 3.5,
6.3.2.4, 6.4.2.6, 6.4.3, 8.4}.
23 Lenzen, M., Moran, D., Kanemoto, K., Foran, B., Lobefaro, L., and Geschke, A. (2012). International trade
drives biodiversity threats in developing nations. Nature, 486, 109–112. DOI: 10.1038/nature11145.
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23. Avoiding land degradation is always preferable to attempting post-degradation
restoration. Notwithstanding long-term benefits, restoration of degraded land is often slow and has
high upfront costs, with both cost and difficulty increasing as degradation becomes more severe,
extensive and protracted (well established). Restoration of degraded land depends upon a series of
interdependent biophysical processes, many of which develop over decadal or centennial timescales,
including: the arrival, establishment, growth and reproduction of recolonizing species; the formation
of soil from parent materials; the rebuilding of soil carbon and nutrient pools; the recovery of
hydrological functions such as infiltration and water retention; and the reestablishment of biotic
interactions among species {1.3.3, 4.2.1, 4.2.2, 6.3.1.5, 6.3.2.3, 6.3.2.4}. In situations of severe land
degradation, the unaided natural recovery of native species and biophysical processes may not be
possible within realistic timeframes {4.1.3}. As ecosystem function is progressively impaired and
biotic populations decline and disappear, the capacity of an ecosystem to self-restore becomes
increasingly restricted. This is because key functional types of organisms are no longer present,
populations become too small to sustain themselves, biotic interactions including competition,
predation and pollination are lost, the environment becomes hostile to the establishment of new
propagules or too distant from sources of replenishment to allow recolonization, and reserves of soil
organic matter and nutrients, water-retention capacity and propagules become depleted {1.3.3.2,
1.4.3.1, 4.2.1–4.2.3, 6.3.1.5, 6.3.2.3, 6.3.2.4}. Inappropriate restoration techniques can further
exacerbate land degradation. An example is the planting of trees where they did not historically occur
(afforestation), which can have a similar impact as deforestation, including the reduction of
biodiversity and disruption of water, energy and nutrient cycles {3.5}. Implemented appropriately,
however, restoration can rehabilitate many ecosystem functions and services {5.2.3, 6.3.2}. Although
it is expensive, restoration is typically more cost-effective than accepting the permanent loss of those
functions and services {6.4.2.3}.
24. Strong two-way interactions between climate change and land degradation mean that the
two issues are best addressed in a coordinated way (well established). Cultivation of crops,
livestock management and land-use change are all substantial contributors of human-induced
greenhouse gas emissions, amounting together to approximately one quarter of global emissions, with
degradation-related emissions accounting for a large part of that quarter {4.2.8}. Deforestation alone
contributes approximately 10 per cent of all human-induced greenhouse gas emissions, and can further
alter the climate through changes in surface reflectivity and the generation of dust particles {4.2.8}.
Land-based activities to mitigate the effects of climate change can have positive or negative effects on
land degradation, depending on where and how they are implemented (well established) {6.3.1.1,
6.3.2.3, 7.2.5, 7.2.6}. For example, indiscriminate tree planting in previously non-forested habitats
such as grasslands and savannas for the purpose of carbon sequestration and more widespread use of
bioenergy crops to mitigate climate change could constitute forms of land degradation from the
perspectives of loss of biodiversity, loss of food production and loss of water yield. Establishment of
species-diverse, sustainably managed plantations on degraded land could restore ecological function,
protect undegraded land by providing alternative sources of products, and help secure livelihoods {3.5,
7.2.6}.
25. Climate change threatens to become an increasingly important driver of land degradation
throughout the twenty-first century, exacerbating both the extent and severity of land degradation as
well as reducing the effectiveness and sustainability of restoration options {3.4}. Climate change can
have a direct effect on agricultural yields, through changes in the means and extremes of temperature,
precipitation and CO2 concentrations, as well as on species distributions and population dynamics, for
instance, pest species {3.4.1, 3.4.2, 3.4.4, 4.2.8, 7.2.6}. However, the greatest effects of climate
change on land is likely to come from interactions with other degradation drivers {3.4.5}.
Long-established sustainable land management and restoration practices may no longer be viable
under future climatic regimes in the places where they were developed, requiring rapid adaptation and
innovation, but also opening new opportunities {3.5}.
C. The implementation of known, proven actions to combat land degradation
and thereby transform the lives of millions of people across the planet will
become more difficult and costly over time. An urgent step change in effort is
needed to prevent irreversible land degradation and accelerate the
implementation of restoration measures
26. World views influence the way individuals, communities and societies manage the
environment (well established) (Figure SPM.12). If prevailing world views result in land degradation,
then promoting alternative world views can foster the shifts in individual and societies’ beliefs, values
and norms required for effective and enduring action to avoid, reduce and reverse land degradation
(well established) {1.3.1, 1.3.2.1, 1.3.2.3, 2.1.2, 2.3.2.2; Figure 2.1}. Education has an important role
IPBES/6/15/Add.5
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to play, empowering decision makers with knowledge on the extent, location, severity and trend of
land degradation to enable them to choose and implement adequate response actions and to avoid
transgressing tipping points beyond which restoration is difficult and costly {7.3.2, 8.2.1}.
Figure SPM.12
Perceptions are organized into a hierarchy of concepts dependent on collective systems of knowledge,
norms, values and beliefs, which in turn guide cultural, governance and land management practices, as
well as resource use and consumer behaviours. Taken together, these elements constitute a world view.
When dominant or mainstream perceptions and concepts have an undesired impact on nature and its
contributions to people, promoting alternative perceptions and concepts may transform practices towards more
desired impacts. Policies defending new concepts and associated practices are expected by civil society, as
environmental degradation affects human well-being.
27. Education and awareness-raising at the individual level, especially among consumers, is
also of great importance to expose the environmental impacts associated with the full chain of
production, transportation and, ultimately, waste management related to consumer products
and services (well established) {2.2.1.3, 2.3.2.2, 6.4.2.4}. Internalizing the environmental costs of the
production of food, clothing and other goods into prices is likely to stimulate demand for lower-impact
products {2.2.1.5, 2.3.2.1, 6.4.2.4}. There is significant potential to build on current efforts to promote
more land-friendly production and consumption choices through information and awareness-raising, as
experimented with in some countries through voluntary eco-labelling, certification and corporate
social responsibility (established but incomplete) {6.4.2.4}. Civil society has a major role to play in
this shift towards increased awareness and understanding of the consequences of consumer choices
{2.3.2, 2.3.2.2}.
28. Information systems—including for baseline assessment, land-use planning, monitoring,
verification and reporting —are needed to support the sustainable and adaptive long-term
stewardship of land (well established). We now have at our disposal a greater range of approaches,
tools and actions for understanding and acting upon land degradation than at any other time in human
history {6.3.2, 6.4.2–6.4.4}. Most of the current decision-support tools focus on assessing the
biophysical state of the land; more-integrated tools are under development that combine
socioeconomic and biophysical variables and are needed to capture social-ecological interactions and
impacts {8.2, 8.3.5}. Recent years have seen new information technologies, including remote-sensing
capabilities, mobile applications, open-access data and decision-support platforms, to inform
decision-making and monitor the effectiveness of efforts to avoid, reduce and reverse land
degradation, yet they are not commonly used {8.2.3}. Concerted multidisciplinary and cross-sectoral
efforts to improve the conceptual, technical and operational harmonization of inputs and outputs of
different decision support systems could lead to a substantial improvement in evidence-based
decision-making {8.2.3}. Since local resource users are often the first to experience ecosystem
changes and the impacts of land degradation, monitoring programmes and the design of restoration
management plans can benefit from participatory approaches involving local ecosystem experts,
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including indigenous and local knowledge holders, working together with scientific experts {1.3.1.4,
1.3.3.2, 2.2.2, 8.3.5}.
29. Efforts to address land degradation and biodiversity loss require a multifaceted response
(well established). Adopting holistic policy responses to the multiple causes of land degradation
requires transcending institutional, governance and sectoral boundaries to create the enabling
conditions necessary for long-term change (established but incomplete) {Figure 1.2; 1.2, 1.3, 2.2.4.3,
6.4.1, 6.4.2, 6.4.3, 6.5, 8.4} (Table SPM.1). Integrated approaches that harmonize sectoral
development policies can reduce land degradation, enhance the resilience of rural livelihoods and
minimize environment-development trade-offs (established but incomplete) {1.2, 1.3.2, 6.4.2.3, 6.4.3,
8.4.3}. Participatory planning and monitoring, in addition to land capability and condition assessments
that include local institutions and land users and incorporate both scientific and indigenous and local
knowledge, are more likely to result in agreement among stakeholders on the nature of integrated use
of landscapes and in monitoring of the effectiveness of land-use plans {1.3, 2.2.2.2, 2.2.2.4, 6.3.1.1,
6.3.1.2, 6.4.2.4, 6.4.3, 6.4.5, 8.3.4, 8.3.5}. Since financial resources, technical capacities and skill and
knowledge gaps often constrain response options (established but incomplete) {6.4.4, 6.5} (Table
SPM.3), there is a need to develop capacities for sustainable land management and associated
information systems, particularly in developing countries that are prone to and most affected by land
degradation. This may involve, for example, appropriate measures to enhance sharing of indigenous
and local knowledge that has been effective in addressing land degradation problems in certain
contexts (established but incomplete) {1.2.1, 1.3.1.2, 1.3.3.2, 1.3.3.7, 2.2.2.1, 6.4.2.2, 6.4.2.3}.
30. Strategies and actions to combat land degradation that are well aligned with other
decision-making areas can more effectively address multiple environmental and social
challenges, while unlocking the potential to harness synergies (well established) (Table SPM.2).
Institutional coordination, multi-stakeholder engagement and the development of governance
structures that bridge different government functions, types of knowledge, sectors and stakeholder
groups (including consumers) are a prerequisite for reducing trade-offs, enhancing alignment and
harnessing synergies among decision-making areas {1.3.1.5, 2.2.1.3, 2.2.4.3, 6.4.2, 6.4.3, 8.4.2, 8.4.3}.
For example, national-level decisions seeking to ensure availability of adequate food through
reduction of land degradation would be more effective if they considered the impacts of the selected
strategies on achievement of policy goals regarding, for instance, water, energy and shelter provision
for the growing population at other scales {2.2.1.3, 8.4.2}. Effective means for enhancing such
coordination and collaboration include the engagement of scientists with leaders in government,
business and civil society to develop the knowledge, tools and practices necessary to integrate
social-ecological interactions into decision-making {1.3.2.1, 2.3.2.2, 6.4.3, 6.4.4, 8.2.3}, and
cross-disciplinary and multi-actor collaboration in research, restoration planning and implementation
{6.4.2.3, 6,4,3, 8.2.3}.
31. Sound decision-making by landowners, communities, governments and private investors
can be achieved through more inclusive analyses of the short-, medium- and long-term costs and
benefits of avoiding and reversing land degradation (established but incomplete). Most current
economic analyses only consider financial or private benefits while overlooking biodiversity,
non-market ecosystem services, public values and intergenerational benefits, among others.
Furthermore, they often apply inappropriately high discount rates, which favour investments in land
uses and management practices promising short-term gains over those with long-term benefits
{2.2.3.1, 2.2.3.3, 2.3.1.2, 2.3.2.2, 6.4.2.3, 8.3.4}. Thus, the inclusion of a full range of market and
non-market benefits and costs using socially appropriate discount rates in decision-making processes
could help to avoid or reverse land degradation. Fulfilling national and subnational aspirations, such as
land degradation neutrality aspirations, and attaining restoration goals can be achieved by creating
incentives that encourage landowners, land managers and investors to recognize the public values of
non-degraded land {1.3.1.1, 2.2.3.2, 2.2.3.3, 2.3.1.2, 6.4.2.3}.
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Table SPM.1
Responses to address land degradation, their impacts and outcomes for biodiversity and ecosystem
services
Sustainable land management practices and restoration, supported by coordinated policies, institutions,
governance arrangements, better informed consumer demand and corporate social responsibility, can lead to
significant improvements in land condition, reduce biodiversity loss and enhance the provision of
environmental services essential for the future survival and well-being of the growing numbers of people
adversely affected by land degradation.
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Table SPM.2
Aspirations for addressing land degradation and possible actions and pathways
The appropriateness and relevance of different aspirations varies from place to place, depending on regional
and national contexts. The lists of actions are indicative, non-exhaustive and non-exclusive.
Aspirations Possible actions and pathways
Safeguarded
biodiversity
Greater protection of biodiversity through enlarged and more effective protected
area systems, halting conversion of natural land, large-scale restoration of degraded
land, biodiversity offsetting where land transformation is unavoidable
Low-consumption
lifestyles
Lower per-capita consumption patterns, including the adoption of less
land-degrading diets, such as more vegetable-based diets, and low- and
renewable-energy-based housing, transportation and industrial systems
Global human
population at
near-zero growth
Improving gender equality and moving towards improved access to education,
voluntary family-planning, and social-welfare for ageing populations
Circular economy Reduced food loss and waste, sustainable waste and sanitation management systems,
reuse and recycling of materials
Low-input
production systems
and resource
management
More land-, energy-, water-, and material-efficient and low-emission production
systems for food, fiber, bioenergy, mining, and other commodities
Sustainable land
management
Sustainable land management practices in croplands, rangelands, forestry, water
systems, human settlements, and their surrounding landscapes, specifically directed
at avoiding, reducing and reversing land degradation
32. Strengthening institutional competencies can enhance the effectiveness of policy
instruments designed to avoid, reduce and reverse land degradation (established but incomplete).
There exist various market and non-market mechanisms to mitigate land degradation and to promote
land restoration. Market mechanisms may include, among others, financial and economic instruments,
payments for ecosystem services, farm subsidies, conservation tenders and biodiversity offsets.
Effective implementation of such instruments requires institutional capacities and context-specific
governance mechanisms {1.3.1.1, 1.3.2.2, 2.2.1.5, 6.4.2.3, 8.3.1, 8.3.3, 8.3.6}. However, the more
markets are used to finance the restoration of complex ecosystems, the more institutional capacity and
regulations are needed to ensure and safeguard the restoration outcomes {8.3.3}. For example,
increasing agricultural productivity to minimize pressure on remaining areas of native vegetation is
more likely to be effective where market demand for agricultural products is relatively inelastic to
price change, and strong regulatory measures or other limits to expansion are in place (unresolved)
{3.6.3}. Examples of non-market based approaches include joint mitigation and adaptation
mechanisms, justice-based initiatives, ecosystem-based adaptation and integrated water
co-management schemes. Building an adequate set of institutional competencies and appropriate
governance mechanisms—based on the monitoring of response impacts and adaptive management—is
crucial for the design, selection and implementation of effective policy instruments to avoid, reduce
and reverse land degradation {1.3, 3.5, 6.4.2.4, 6.4.3, 6.4.5, 8.3}. In most countries, the design and
implementation of national policies addressing land degradation is constrained by a lack of
national-level information on ecosystems and their contribution to economic development {8.3.3,
6.4.2.3}. A shift in decision-making focus from narrowly-defined analysis based on affordability and
effectiveness to an approach that includes the consideration of social acceptability and environmental
sustainability would help to achieve desired outcomes of response actions {1.3.1.1, 2.3.1.2, 2.3.2.2,
6.4.2.3, 8.2.2}.
33. Secure land tenure, property and land-use rights, vested in individuals and/or
communities, in accordance with national legislation at the appropriate level, are enabling
conditions for actions to prevent land degradation and biodiversity loss and restore degraded
lands (well established). The customary practices and knowledge used by indigenous peoples and
within local communities can be effective for conserving biodiversity and avoiding, reducing and
reversing land degradation {1.3.1.5, 2.2.2.1, 2.2.2.2, 5.3.3.1, 6.3.1, 6.3.2}. The continued viability of
such practices is supported by, among other things, secure land tenure, property and land-use rights in
accordance with national legislation at the appropriate level {1.3.1.2, 1.3.1.4, 6.4.2.2–6.4.2.4}. This
can be achieved by formalizing customary practices and local knowledge, which requires adequate
institutional competencies within communities for participation in decision-making and responsible
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governance of land and natural resources, taking into account the voluntary guidelines on the
responsible governance of tenure of land, fisheries and forests in the context of national food security,
and in line with human rights principles {1.3.1.5, 2.2.2.3, 5.2.2.3, 5.3.3.1, 6.4.2.2, 6.4.2.3, 6.4.2.4,
8.3.2.1, 8.3.2.3}.
34. A wide range of practices already exists to avoid, reduce and reverse land degradation in
many ecosystems and urban areas and reduce the impacts of many land degradation drivers
(well established). Degradation of agricultural lands can be avoided or reversed through many
well-tested practices and techniques, both traditional and modern. On croplands, these include, for
example, reducing soil loss and improving soil quality/soil health, the use of salt-tolerant crops,
agroforestry and agroecological practices, conservation agriculture and integrated crop and livestock
and forestry systems (well established) {2.2.3.1, 6.3.1.1, 6.3.2.4, 6.3.2.5, 7.2.3}. On rangelands, they
include: land capability and condition assessments and monitoring; grazing pressure management;
pasture and forage crop improvement; silvopastoral management; and ecologically-sound weed and
pest management (well established) {6.3.1.3}. The maintenance of appropriate24 fire regimes, and the
reinstatement or development of local livestock management practices and institutions in rangelands
with traditional grazing, have proven effective in many dryland regions (established but incomplete)
{4.3.2.2, 6.3.1.3}. A variety of passive or active forest management and restoration techniques have
been successfully used to conserve biodiversity and avoid forest degradation, while yielding multiple
economic, social and environmental benefits (well established) {6.3.1.2}—although adoption of more
sustainable forest production systems continues to be slow {3.5, 5.3.2, 6.3.1.2}. Proven approaches to
avoid, reduce and reverse land degradation in urban areas include urban planning, replanting with
native species, green infrastructure development, remediation of contaminated and sealed soils, and
wastewater treatment and river channel restoration {6.3.1.4, 6.3.2.4}.
35. Combating land degradation resulting from invasive species involves identification and
monitoring of invasion pathways and the adoption of eradication and control measures (mechanical,
cultural, biological and chemical) (well established) {3.5, 6.3.2.1}. Responses to land degradation
from mineral resource extraction include on-site management of mining wastes (soils and water),
reclamation of mine site topography, conservation and early replacement of topsoil, and restoration
and rehabilitation measures to recreate functioning grassland, forest, wetland and other ecosystems
(well established) {1.4.2, 6.3.2.2}. Effective responses to avoid, reduce and reverse wetland
degradation include: controlling point and diffuse pollution sources; adopting integrated land and
water management strategies {6.3.2.4}; and restoring wetland hydrology, biodiversity and ecosystem
functions through restoration and rehabilitation measures, such as constructed wetlands (well
established) {1.4.1; Box 2.3; 6.3.1.5, 6.3.2.4}. Similarly, effective responses to improve water quality
include soil and water conservation practices, controlling pollution sources and purification (and
where appropriate desalination) of wastewater (established but incomplete) {6.3.2.4}.
36. Major, transformative changes in consumption patterns, demographic growth,
technology and business models can contribute to avoid, reduce and reverse land degradation
and achieve food, energy, water and livelihood security for all, while mitigating and adapting to
climate change and halting biodiversity loss (well established). No mid-century scenarios examined
in this assessment simultaneously met the global goals for the avoidance of land degradation, limiting
of climate change and halting of biodiversity loss given the accelerating growing demand for food,
energy, fibre, timber, housing, infrastructure and water. The projected unprecedented growth in
consumption, demography and technology will roughly quadruple the global economy in the first half
of the twenty-first century {7.2.2.2}. Under these conditions, only transformative changes both within
and across all sectors would be sufficient to meet the goals (established but incomplete) {3.6.2.1, 7.2,
7.3}. Adjustments towards lower consumption lifestyles in developed and emerging economies may
include changes in food—particularly reductions in meat-intensive diets and in the consumption of
water-, energy-, material- and space-intensive goods and services {7.2.2.2, 7.2.4, 7.3}. Adjustments to
production systems may be achieved by sustainable improvements in agricultural productivity, in
combination with strong environmental protection and social safeguards to avoid the environmental
and social externalities of intensive production systems and damaging rebound effects {1.3.1.1,
1.3.2.2, 3.6.3}. Particular care is needed to ensure that increased demand for bioenergy does not
exacerbate land degradation by replacing land previously used for food crops and driving agricultural
land expansion {5.3.2.5, 7.2.6}. Finally, various interventions in infrastructure and information may
improve the efficiency with which consumers use food, water and energy to and further their reuse,
recycling and their reduction of waste {7.2.2, 7.2.4, 7.3}.
24 Many ecosystems require fire to remain healthy and safe. The frequency and type of fire used depends on the
circumstances and intent, which may use managed burns or simulate natural ignition and spread {3.3.7, 4.2.6.3}.
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37. The IPBES thematic assessment on land degradation and restoration provides clear
evidence for the urgent need to address the unprecedented loss of ecosystem functions and
services vital to all life on Earth. Existing international agreements and conventions, such as the
United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification, the United Nations Framework Convention on
Climate Change and its associated agreements, the Convention on Biological Diversity, and the
Ramsar Convention, already provide a range of mechanisms to support national and international
responses to land degradation and can benefit greatly from the multidisciplinary knowledge base
provided by this assessment (Box SPM.3).
Box SPM.3
United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification
Land degradation in drylands is a reality affecting millions of people, and results from a combination of local,
regional and global causes (well established). The diminishing capacity of dryland systems to support the needs
of the populations of humans and other organisms that live there is widespread and demonstrated {1.4.7,
4.2.6.2, 4.3.2.2, 6.4}. The emerging view of dryland degradation—as primarily human-induced and the
consequence of processes at the local, national, regional and global scales—differs substantively from earlier
concepts of desertification, such as of the inexorable advance of deserts into formerly productive lands. It
implies that the responsibility for addressing the underlying drivers of dryland degradation is found locally,
nationally, regionally and globally. For instance, the achievement of land degradation neutrality by 2030 will
only be achieved by a strong deviation from current trends and world views (well established) {2.2.1.3, 4.2.6.2,
6.2.1, 6.4.2.2, 6.5}.
Convention on Biological Diversity
Land degradation is accompanied, in almost all cases, by a reduction in the populations of wild organisms, and
frequently by a loss of species (well established) {3.4.1, 3.4.2, 3.4.4, 4.2.7, 4.2.9, 4.3, 7.2.2}. Losses occur not
only at the species level but also in genetic diversity of individual species. The distribution of declines is not
geographically uniform; losses are greater in some land cover and land use types than in others: croplands,
pastures and urban areas have the greatest decreases compared with undisturbed and recovering ecosystems.
The main causes of biodiversity loss are habitat loss and fragmentation, overexploitation of species by humans,
pollution and the impact of invasive species and diseases of wild organisms {4.2.6.3, 4.2.6.4, 4.2.7} (Figure
SPM.13). The type and intensity of degradation drivers determines the magnitude of biodiversity loss, as well as
options for restoration. Restoration of vegetation cover following degradation is possible and often successful,
but seldom attains, within decades, the pre-degradation levels of ecosystem function or compositional biological
diversity {1.4.2}.
Figure SPM.13
The most common drivers of biodiversity loss among some animal taxa
Note: Data includes 703 populations from the Living Planet Report (WWF, 2016).25
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and its associated agreements
Climate change is already contributing to land degradation, and will be an increasingly important driver of land
degradation throughout the twenty-first century {3.4, 4.2.3, 4.2.6.1, 4.2.6.2, 4.2.8, 6.3.1.1, 6.3.2.3}. Moreover,
the strength of land ecosystem-based carbon sinks, the stability of soil carbon stocks and the ecosystem-based
adaptive capacity are weakened by degradation {4.2.3.2}. Avoiding land degradation or restoring degraded land
usually, but not always, helps to mitigate and adapt to climate change {1.4.3, 7.2.6}. Tapping into the potential
of land-based climate change mitigation and adaptation requires strong protection measures, sustainable
management and the development of agricultural and natural production systems that combine high yields and
close-to-natural soil organic carbon levels as promoted by, among others, the Global Soil Partnership for Food
Security and Climate Change Adaptation and Mitigation and the 4 per 1000 initiative (established but
incomplete) {7.2.1.2, 7.2.5, 7.2.6}. Such agricultural systems can have positive or negative effects on land
25 WWF. (2016). Living Planet Report 2016. Risk and resilience in a new era. Gland, Switzerland: WWF
International. Retrieved from http://wwf.panda.org/about_our_earth/all_publications/lpr_2016/.
IPBES/6/15/Add.5
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degradation, depending on where and how they are practiced (established but incomplete) {4.2.3, 4.2.8, 6.3.1.1,
6.3.2.3}. Implementation of land-based climate mitigation actions that require more land than is available for
restoration would exacerbate land degradation by displacing existing food or fibre crops or natural ecosystems.
Ramsar Convention
Despite comprising a small fraction of the global land area, wetlands provide a disproportionately large amount
of critical ecosystem services, particularly those associated with the filtration and supply of fresh water and
coastal protection (well established) {1.4.1, 4.2.3.3, 4.2.5.2} (Figure SPM.14). Wetlands also have high
biodiversity importance, including being critical habitat for many migratory species. Treating wetlands as
natural infrastructure can help meet a wide range of policy objectives, such as water and food security, as well
as climate change mitigation and adaptation {6.3.1.5}. Restored wetlands recover most of their ecosystem
services and functions within 50 to 100 years, providing a wide range of benefits for both biodiversity and
human well-being {4.5.2.5, 5.4.4}. Considering the role of wetlands in freshwater catchments, river basins and
coastal zones, future wetland restoration efforts could be greatly enhanced by the development of indicators and
restoration targets aimed at evaluating and recovering the range of interactions between organisms and their
abiotic environment {6.3.1.5}.
Figure SPM.14
The Wetland Extent Trends (WET) index representing the trends in natural wetland extent per region
relative to 1970
Source: Based on Ramsar Convention secretariat and UNEP-WCMC (2017)26 and Dixon et al. (2016).27
26 Ramsar Convention secretariat and UNEP-WCMC (2017). Wetland Extent Trends (WET) Index - 2017 Update.
Technical Update 2017. Gland, Switzerland: Ramsar Convention secretariat.
27 Dixon, M. J. R., Loh, J., Davidson, N. C., Beltrame, C., Freeman, R., Walpole, M. (2016). Tracking global
change in ecosystem area: The Wetland Extent Trends Index. Biological Conservation, 193, 27–35. DOI:
10.1016/j.biocon.2015.10.023.
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Table SPM.3
Critical gaps in knowledge and understanding of land degradation and restoration
The summary for policymakers of this assessment represents the current state of knowledge regarding the
biophysical, social and economic consequences and drivers of land degradation and restoration as well as
approaches for avoiding, reducing and reversing land degradation. The research areas listed below represent the
highest priorities identified by the assessment team to further enable evidence-based decisions regarding land
degradation and restoration.
The evidence base
required to address land
degradation
Priority gaps in each area of knowledge
What are the
consequences of land
degradation for
biodiversity, ecosystem
functioning, natures
contributions to people,
and human well-being?
Methods to effectively monitor and map changes in different forms of
degradation over time and at relevant spatial scales and resolutions
Spatial and temporal patterns of, and changes in, soil health
Consequences of land degradation on freshwater and coastal ecosystems,
including mangroves and seagrass systems
Consequences of land degradation for physical and mental health and spiritual
well-being
Consequences of land degradation for infectious disease prevalence and
transmission
The potential for land degradation to exacerbate climate change
What are the causes of
land degradation?
The social and environmental consequences of interactions between climate
change and land degradation drivers, including for efforts to avoid land
degradation and restore degraded land
Linkages between land degradation and restoration and distant social, economic
and political processes
Interactions among land degradation, poverty, climate change and the risk of
conflict and of migration
What are the key factors
that can facilitate efforts
to avoid, reduce and
reverse land degradation?
Effectiveness of mechanisms for raising awareness and influencing the
behaviour of actors across all stages of supply chains in ways that may improve
the sustainability of internationally traded commodities
The relative importance of various enabling conditions for avoiding, reducing
and reversing land degradation in different social, cultural, economic and
governance contexts, including regarding technical capacities, technologies, data
and information access, knowledge-sharing, decision support tools and
institutional competencies
Methods for integrating conventional science and indigenous and local
knowledge, in order to achieve a more broadly-based understanding of the
causes and consequences of land degradation, its progression over time
(including future projections) and potential solutions
Methods and tools for achieving a more inclusive understanding of the short,
medium and long-term monetary and non-monetary implications of various
approaches to the restoration of degraded land
What needs to be done to
avoid, reduce and reverse
land degradation, and
what is the effectiveness
of different approaches
available?
Interactions amongst policies and land and resource-management practices to
address different Sustainable Development Goals and other multilateral
agreements, and the consequences of these efforts for land degradation and
restoration outcomes
Methods for internalizing the environmental and social costs of unsustainable
production practices into commodity prices, and the allocation of such costs to
different stages of production, processing and consumption in the life cycle of a
product
Evaluation of the effectiveness of different policy instruments designed to avoid,
reduce and reverse land degradation, including legal, regulatory, social and
economic instruments, for both environmental and social outcomes
Spatially-explicit multi-model scenarios of change in biodiversity and ecosystem
services and the implications of these scenarios for achieving progress towards
multilateral agreements, including land degradation neutrality at the national
level
IPBES/6/15/Add.5
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Appendix
Communication of the degree of confidence
In this assessment, the degree of confidence in each main finding is based on the quantity and quality
of evidence and the level of agreement regarding that evidence (Figure SPM.A1). The evidence
includes data, theory, models and expert judgement. Further details of the approach are documented in
the note by the secretariat on the information on work related to the guide on the production of
assessments (IPBES/6/INF/17).
The summary terms to describe the evidence are:
Well established: comprehensive meta-analysis or other synthesis or multiple independent
studies that agree.
Established but incomplete: general agreement although only a limited number of studies
exist; no comprehensive synthesis and/or the studies that exist address the question
imprecisely.
Unresolved: multiple independent studies exist but conclusions do not agree.
Inconclusive: limited evidence, recognizing major knowledge gaps.
Figure SPM.A1
The four-box model for the qualitative communication of confidence.
Confidence increases towards the top-right corner as suggested by the increasing strength of shading.
Source: IPBES, 2016.28
28 IPBES, Summary for policymakers of the assessment report of the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform
on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services on pollinators, pollination and food production. S.G. Potts, V. L.
Imperatriz-Fonseca, H. T. Ngo, J. C. Biesmeijer, T. D. Breeze, L. V. Dicks, L. A. Garibaldi, R. Hill, J. Settele, A.
J. Vanbergen, M. A. Aizen, S. A. Cunningham, C. Eardley, B. M. Freitas, N. Gallai, P. G. Kevan,
A. Kovács-Hostyánszki, P. K. Kwapong, J. Li, X. Li, D. J. Martins, G. Nates-Parra, J. S. Pettis, R. Rader, and B.
F. Viana (eds.)., secretariat of the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem
Services, Bonn, Germany, 2016. Available from
www.ipbes.net/sites/default/files/downloads/pdf/spm_deliverable_3a_pollination_20170222.pdf.
K1902429 180919
UNITED
NATIONS
BES
IPBES/7/10/Add.1
Intergovernmental Science-Policy
Platform on Biodiversity and
Ecosystem Services
Distr.: General
29 May 2019
Original: English
Plenary of the Intergovernmental Science-Policy
Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services
Seventh session
Paris, 29 April–4 May 2019
Report of the Plenary of the Intergovernmental Science-Policy
Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services on the work of
its seventh session
Addendum
Summary for policymakers of the global assessment report on
biodiversity and ecosystem services of the Intergovernmental
Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services
At its seventh session, in its decision IPBES-7/1, section II, paragraph 1 the Plenary of the
Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES)
approved the summary for policymakers of the global assessment of biodiversity and ecosystem
services as set out in the annex to the present addendum.
IPBES/7/10/Add.1
2
Annex
Summary for policymakers of the global assessment report on
biodiversity and ecosystem services of the Intergovernmental
Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services
Authors1
Sandra Díaz (Co-Chair, Argentina), Josef Settele (Co-Chair, Germany), Eduardo Brondízio (Co-Chair,
Brazil/United States of America)
Hien T. Ngo (IPBES), Maximilien Guèze (IPBES); John Agard (Trinidad and Tobago), Almut Arneth
(Germany), Patricia Balvanera (Mexico), Kate Brauman (United States of America), Stuart Butchart
(United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland/BirdLife International), Kai Chan (Canada),
Lucas A. Garibaldi (Argentina), Kazuhito Ichii (Japan), Jianguo Liu (United States of America),
Suneetha Mazhenchery Subramanian (India/United Nations University), Guy F. Midgley (South
Africa), Patricia Miloslavich (Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela/Australia), Zsolt Molnár (Hungary),
David Obura (Kenya), Alexander Pfaff (United States of America), Stephen Polasky (United States of
America), Andy Purvis (United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland), Jona Razzaque
(Bangladesh/United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland), Belinda Reyers (South Africa),
Rinku Roy Chowdhury (United States of America), Yunne-Jai Shin (France),
Ingrid Visseren-Hamakers (Netherlands/United States of America), Katherine Willis (United Kingdom
of Great Britain and Northern Ireland), Cynthia Zayas (Philippines)
Members of the management committee who provided guidance for the production of this
assessment
Robert T. Watson, Ivar A. Baste, Anne Larigauderie, Paul Leadley, Unai Pascual, Brigitte Baptiste,
Sebsebe Demissew, Luthando Dziba, Günay Erpul, Asghar Fazel, Markus Fischer, Ana María
Hernández, Madhav Karki, Vinod Mathur, Tamar Pataridze, Isabel Sousa Pinto, Marie Stenseke,
Katalin Török, Bibiana Vilá
Overall review editors
Manuela Carneiro da Cunha, Georgina M. Mace, Harold Mooney
Disclaimer:
The designations employed and the presentation of material on the maps used in the present report do
not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Intergovernmental
Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services concerning the legal status of any
country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or
boundaries. These maps have been prepared for the sole purpose of facilitating the assessment of the
broad biogeographical areas represented therein.
1 Authors are listed with, in parentheses, their country or countries of citizenship, separated by a comma when
they have more than one; and, following a slash, their country of affiliation, if different from that or those of their
citizenship, or their organization if they belong to an international organization. The countries and organizations
having nominated the experts are listed on the IPBES website.
IPBES/7/10/Add.1
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Key messages
A. Nature and its vital contributions to people, which together embody
biodiversity and ecosystem functions and services, are deteriorating
worldwide.
Nature embodies different concepts for different people, including biodiversity, ecosystems,
Mother Earth, systems of life and other analogous concepts. Nature’s contributions to people
embody different concepts, such as ecosystem goods and services and nature’s gifts. Both nature
and nature’s contributions to people are vital for human existence and good quality of life
(human well-being, living in harmony with nature, living well in balance and harmony with
Mother Earth, and other analogous concepts).While more food, energy and materials than ever
before are now being supplied to people in most places, this is increasingly at the expense of
nature’s ability to provide such contributions in the future, and frequently undermines nature’s
many other contributions, which range from water quality regulation to sense of place. The
biosphere, upon which humanity as a whole depends, is being altered to an unparalleled degree
across all spatial scales. Biodiversity – the diversity within species, between species and of
ecosystems – is declining faster than at any time in human history.
A1 Nature is essential for human existence and good quality of life. Most of nature’s
contributions to people are not fully replaceable, and some are irreplaceable. Nature plays a
critical role in providing food and feed, energy, medicines and genetic resources and a variety of
materials fundamental for people’s physical well-being and for maintaining culture. For example,
more than 2 billion people rely on wood fuel to meet their primary energy needs, an estimated 4 billion
people rely primarily on natural medicines for their health care and some 70 per cent of drugs used for
cancer are natural or are synthetic products inspired by nature. Nature, through its ecological and
evolutionary processes, sustains the quality of the air, fresh water and soils on which humanity
depends, distributes fresh water, regulates the climate, provides pollination and pest control and
reduces the impact of natural hazards. For example, more than 75 per cent of global food crop types,
including fruits and vegetables and some of the most important cash crops, such as coffee, cocoa and
almonds, rely on animal pollination. Marine and terrestrial ecosystems are the sole sinks for
anthropogenic carbon emissions, with a gross sequestration of 5.6 gigatons of carbon per year (the
equivalent of some 60 per cent of global anthropogenic emissions). Nature underpins all dimensions of
human health and contributes to non-material aspects of quality of life – inspiration and learning,
physical and psychological experiences, and supporting identities – that are central to quality of life
and cultural integrity, even if their aggregated value is difficult to quantify. Most of nature’s
contributions are co-produced with people, but while anthropogenic assets – knowledge and
institutions, technology infrastructure and financial capital – can enhance or partially replace some of
those contributions, some are irreplaceable. The diversity of nature maintains humanity’s ability to
choose alternatives in the face of an uncertain future.
A2 Nature’s contributions to people are often distributed unequally across space and time and
among different segments of society. There are often trade-offs in the production and use of
nature’s contributions. Benefits and burdens associated with co-production and use of nature’s
contributions are distributed and experienced differently among social groups, countries and regions.
Giving priority to one of nature’s contributions to people, such as food production, can result in
ecological changes that reduce other contributions. Some of these changes may benefit some people at
the expense of others, particularly the most vulnerable, as may changes in technological and
institutional arrangements. For example, although food production today is sufficient to satisfy global
needs, approximately 11 per cent of the world’s population is undernourished, and diet-related disease
drives 20 per cent of premature mortality, related both to undernourishment and to obesity. The great
expansion in the production of food, feed, fibre and bioenergy has occurred at the cost of many other
contributions of nature to quality of life, including regulation of air and water quality, climate
regulation and habitat provision. Synergies also exist, such as sustainable agricultural practices that
enhance soil quality, thereby improving productivity and other ecosystem functions and services, such
as carbon sequestration and water quality regulation.
A3 Since 1970, trends in agricultural production, fish harvest, bioenergy production and harvest
of materials have increased, but 14 of the 18 categories of contributions of nature that were
assessed, mostly regulating and non-material contributions, have declined. The value of
agricultural crop production ($2.6 trillion in 2016) has increased approximately threefold since 1970
and raw timber harvest has increased by 45 per cent, reaching some 4 billion cubic metres in 2017,
with the forestry industry providing about 13.2 million jobs. However, indicators of regulating
contributions, such as soil organic carbon and pollinator diversity, have declined, indicating that gains
IPBES/7/10/Add.1
4
in material contributions are often not sustainable. Currently, land degradation has reduced
productivity in 23 per cent of the global terrestrial area, and between $235 billion and $577 billion2 in
annual global crop output is at risk as a result of pollinator loss. Moreover, loss of coastal habitats and
coral reefs reduces coastal protection, which increases the risk from floods and hurricanes to life and
property for the 100 million to 300 million people living within coastal 100-year flood zones.
A4 Nature across most of the globe has now been significantly altered by multiple human
drivers, with the great majority of indicators of ecosystems and biodiversity showing rapid
decline. Seventy-five per cent of the land surface is significantly altered, 66 per cent of the ocean area
is experiencing increasing cumulative impacts, and over 85 per cent of wetlands (area) has been lost.
While the rate of forest loss has slowed globally since 2000, this is distributed unequally. Across much
of the highly biodiverse tropics, 32 million hectares of primary or recovering forest were lost between
2010 and 2015. The extent of tropical and subtropical forests is increasing within some countries, and
the global extent of temperate and boreal forests is increasing. A range of actions – from restoration of
natural forest to planting of monocultures – contributes to these increases, but these actions have very
different consequences for biodiversity and its contributions to people. Approximately half the live
coral cover on coral reefs has been lost since the 1870s, with accelerating losses in recent decades due
to climate change exacerbating other drivers. The average abundance of native species in most major
terrestrial biomes has fallen by at least 20 per cent, potentially affecting ecosystem processes and
hence nature’s contributions to people; this decline has mostly taken place since 1900 and may be
accelerating. In areas of high endemism, native biodiversity has often been severely impacted by
invasive alien species. Population sizes of wild vertebrate species have tended to decline over the last
50 years on land, in freshwater and in the sea. Global trends in insect populations are not known but
rapid declines have been well documented in some places. {BG 4, 5}
A5 Human actions threaten more species with global extinction now than ever before. An
average of around 25 per cent of species in assessed animal and plant groups are threatened (Figure
SPM.3), suggesting that around 1 million species already face extinction, many within decades, unless
action is taken to reduce the intensity of drivers of biodiversity loss. Without such action, there will be
a further acceleration in the global rate of species extinction, which is already at least tens to hundreds
of times higher than it has averaged over the past 10 million years. {Figure SPM.4, BG 6}
A6 Globally, local varieties and breeds of domesticated plants and animals are disappearing.
This loss of diversity, including genetic diversity, poses a serious risk to global food security by
undermining the resilience of many agricultural systems to threats such as pests, pathogens and
climate change. Fewer and fewer varieties and breeds of plants and animals are being cultivated,
raised, traded and maintained around the world, despite many local efforts, which include those by
indigenous peoples and local communities. By 2016, 559 of the 6,190 domesticated breeds of
mammals used for food and agriculture (over 9 per cent) had become extinct and at least 1,000 more
are threatened. In addition, many crop wild relatives that are important for long-term food security
lack effective protection, and the conservation status of wild relatives of domesticated mammals and
birds is worsening. Reductions in the diversity of cultivated crops, crop wild relatives and
domesticated breeds mean that agroecosystems are less resilient against future climate change, pests
and pathogens.
A7 Biological communities are becoming more similar to each other in both managed and
unmanaged systems within and across regions. This human-caused process leads to losses of local
biodiversity, including endemic species, ecosystem functions and nature’s contributions to people.
A8 Human-induced changes are creating conditions for fast biological evolution - so rapid that
its effects can be seen in only a few years or even more quickly. The consequences can be positive
or negative for biodiversity and ecosystems, but can create uncertainty about the sustainability
of species, ecosystem functions and the delivery of nature’s contributions to people.
Understanding and monitoring these biological evolutionary changes is as important for informed
policy decisions as it is in cases of ecological change. Sustainable management strategies then can be
designed to influence evolutionary trajectories so as to protect vulnerable species and reduce the
impact of unwanted species (such as weeds, pests or pathogens). The widespread declines in
geographic distribution and population sizes of many species make clear that, although evolutionary
adaptation to human-caused drivers can be rapid, it has often not been sufficient to mitigate them fully.
2 Value adjusted to 2015 United States dollars, taking into account inflation only.
IPBES/7/10/Add.1
5
B. Direct and indirect drivers of change have accelerated during the past
50 years
The rate of global change in nature during the past 50 years is unprecedented in human history.
The direct drivers of change in nature with the largest global impact have been (starting with
those with most impact): changes in land and sea use; direct exploitation of organisms; climate
change; pollution; and invasion of alien species. Those five direct drivers result from an array of
underlying causes – the indirect drivers of change – which are in turn underpinned by societal
values and behaviours that include production and consumption patterns, human population
dynamics and trends, trade, technological innovations and local through global governance.
The rate of change in the direct and indirect drivers differs among regions and countries.
B1 For terrestrial and freshwater ecosystems, land-use change has had the largest relative
negative impact on nature since 1970, followed by the direct exploitation, in particular
overexploitation, of animals, plants and other organisms, mainly via harvesting, logging, hunting
and fishing. In marine ecosystems, direct exploitation of organisms (mainly fishing) has had the
largest relative impact, followed by land-/sea-use change. Agricultural expansion is the most
widespread form of land-use change, with over one third of the terrestrial land surface being used for
cropping or animal husbandry. This expansion, alongside a doubling of urban area since 1992 and an
unprecedented expansion of infrastructure linked to growing population and consumption, has come
mostly at the expense of forests (largely old-growth tropical forests), wetlands and grasslands. In
freshwater ecosystems, a series of combined threats that include land-use change, including water
extraction, exploitation, pollution, climate change and invasive species, are prevalent. Human
activities have had a large and widespread impact on the world’s oceans. These include direct
exploitation, in particular overexploitation, of fish, shellfish and other organisms, land- and sea-based
pollution, including from river networks, and land-/sea-use change, including coastal development for
infrastructure and aquaculture.
B2 Climate change is a direct driver that is increasingly exacerbating the impact of other drivers
on nature and human well-being. Humans are estimated to have caused an observed warming of
approximately 1°C by 2017 relative to pre-industrial levels, with average temperatures over the past
30 years rising by 0.2°C per decade. The frequency and intensity of extreme weather events, and the
fires, floods and droughts that they can bring, have increased in the past 50 years, while the global
average sea level has risen by between 16 and 21 cm since 1900, and at a rate of more than 3 mm per
year over the past two decades. These changes have contributed to widespread impacts in many
aspects of biodiversity, including species distribution, phenology, population dynamics, community
structure and ecosystem function. According to observational evidence, the effects are accelerating in
marine, terrestrial and freshwater ecosystems and are already impacting agriculture, aquaculture,
fisheries and nature’s contributions to people. The compounding effects of drivers such as climate
change, land-/sea-use change, overexploitation of resources, pollution and invasive alien species are
likely to exacerbate the negative impacts on nature, as seen in different ecosystems including coral
reefs, the Arctic systems and savannas.
B3 Many types of pollution, as well as invasive alien species, are increasing, with negative
impacts for nature. Although global trends are mixed, air, water and soil pollution have continued to
increase in some areas. Marine plastic pollution in particular has increased tenfold since 1980,
affecting at least 267 species, including 86 per cent of marine turtles, 44 per cent of seabirds and
43 per cent of marine mammals. This can affect humans through food chains. Greenhouse gas
emissions, untreated urban and rural waste, pollutants from industrial, mining and agricultural
activities, oil spills and toxic dumping have had strong negative effects on soil, freshwater and marine
water quality and on the global atmosphere. Cumulative records of alien species have increased by
40 per cent since 1980, associated with increased trade and human population dynamics and trends.
Nearly one fifth of the Earth’s surface is at risk of plant and animal invasions, impacting native
species, ecosystem functions and nature’s contributions to people, as well as economies and human
health. The rate of introduction of new invasive alien species seems higher than ever before and shows
no signs of slowing.
B4 In the past 50 years, the human population has doubled, the global economy has grown
nearly fourfold and global trade has grown tenfold, together driving up the demand for energy
and materials. A variety of economic, political and social factors, including global trade and the
spatial decoupling of production from consumption, have shifted the economic and environmental
gains and losses of production and consumption, contributing to new economic opportunities, but also
to impacts on nature and its contributions to people. Levels of consumption of material goods (food,
feed, timber and fibre) vary greatly, and unequal access to material goods can be associated with
inequity and may lead to social conflict. Economic exchange contributes to aggregate economic
IPBES/7/10/Add.1
6
development, yet often is negotiated between actors and institutions of unequal power, which
influences the distribution of benefits and long-term impacts. Countries at different levels of
development have experienced different levels of deterioration of nature for any given gain in
economic growth. Exclusion, scarcity and/or the unequal distribution of nature’s contributions to
people may fuel social instability and conflict in a complex interaction with other factors. Armed
conflicts have an impact on ecosystems beyond their destabilizing effects on societies, and a range of
indirect impacts, including the displacement of people and activities.
B5 Economic incentives have generally favoured expanding economic activity, and often
environmental harm, over conservation or restoration. Incorporating the consideration of the
multiple values of ecosystem functions and of nature’s contribution to people into economic
incentives has, in the economy, been shown to permit better ecological, economic and social
outcomes. Local, national, regional and global governance initiatives have improved outcomes in this
way by supporting policies, innovation and the elimination of environmentally harmful subsidies,
introducing incentives in line with the value of nature’s contribution to people, increasing sustainable
land-/sea-use management and enforcing regulations, among other measures. Harmful economic
incentives and policies associated with unsustainable practices in fisheries, aquaculture, agriculture
(including fertilizer and pesticide use), livestock management, forestry, mining and energy (including
fossil fuels and biofuels) are often associated with land-/sea-use change and overexploitation of natural
resources, as well as inefficient production and waste management. Vested interests may oppose the
removal of subsidies or the introduction of other policies. Yet policy reforms to deal with such causes
of environmental harm offer the potential to both conserve nature and provide economic benefits,
including when policies are based on more and better understanding of the multiple values of nature’s
contributions.
B6 Nature managed by indigenous peoples and local communities is under increasing pressure.
Nature is generally declining less rapidly in indigenous peoples’ land than in other lands, but is
nevertheless declining, as is the knowledge of how to manage it. At least a quarter of the global
land area is traditionally owned, managed,3 used or occupied by indigenous peoples. These areas
include approximately 35 per cent of the area that is formally protected and approximately 35 per cent
of all remaining terrestrial areas with very low human intervention. In addition, a diverse array of local
communities, including farmers, fishers, herders, hunters, ranchers and forest users, manage
significant areas under various property and access regimes. Among the local indicators developed and
used by indigenous peoples and local communities, 72 per cent show negative trends in nature that
underpin local livelihoods and well-being. The areas managed (under various types of tenure and
access regimes) by indigenous peoples and local communities are facing growing resource extraction,
commodity production, mining and transport and energy infrastructure, with various consequences for
local livelihoods and health. Some climate change mitigation programmes have had negative impacts
on indigenous peoples and local communities. The negative impacts of all these pressures include
continued loss of subsistence and traditional livelihoods resulting from ongoing deforestation, loss of
wetlands, mining, the spread of unsustainable agriculture, forestry and fishing practices and impacts
on health and well-being from pollution and water insecurity. These impacts also challenge traditional
management, the transmission of indigenous and local knowledge, the potential for sharing of benefits
arising from the use of, and the ability of indigenous peoples and local communities to conserve and
sustainably manage, wild and domesticated biodiversity that are also relevant to broader society.
C. Goals for conserving and sustainably using nature and achieving
sustainability cannot be met by current trajectories, and goals for 2030 and
beyond may only be achieved through transformative changes4 across
economic, social, political and technological factors
Past and ongoing rapid declines in biodiversity, ecosystem functions and many of nature’s
contributions to people mean that most international societal and environmental goals, such as
those embodied in the Aichi Biodiversity Targets and the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable
Development, will not be achieved based on current trajectories. These declines will also
undermine other goals, such as those specified in the Paris Agreement adopted under the
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and the 2050 Vision for
3 These data sources define land management here as the process of determining the use, development and care of
land resources in a manner that fulfils material and non-material cultural needs, including livelihood activities
such as hunting, fishing, gathering, resource harvesting, pastoralism and small-scale agriculture and horticulture.
4 A fundamental, system-wide reorganization across technological, economic and social factors, including
paradigms, goals and values.
IPBES/7/10/Add.1
7
Biodiversity. The negative trends in biodiversity and ecosystem functions are projected to
continue or worsen in many future scenarios in response to indirect drivers such as rapid human
population growth, unsustainable production and consumption and associated technological
development. In contrast, scenarios and pathways that explore the effects of low-to-moderate
population growth, and transformative changes in the production and consumption of energy,
food, feed, fibre and water, sustainable use, equitable sharing of the benefits arising from use
and nature-friendly climate adaptation and mitigation will better support the achievement of
future societal and environmental objectives.
C1 The implementation of policy responses and actions to conserve nature and manage it more
sustainably has progressed, yielding positive outcomes relative to scenarios of no intervention,
but progress is not sufficient to stem the direct and indirect drivers of nature deterioration. It is
therefore likely that most of the Aichi Biodiversity Targets for 2020 will be missed. Some of the
Aichi Biodiversity Targets will be partially achieved, for example those related to policy responses,
such as the spatial extent of terrestrial and marine protected areas, the identification and prioritization
of invasive alien species, national biodiversity strategies and action plans, and the Nagoya Protocol on
Access to Genetic Resources and the Fair and Equitable Sharing of Benefits Arising from their
Utilization to the Convention on Biological Diversity. However, while protected areas now cover
15 per cent of terrestrial and freshwater environments and 7 per cent of the marine realm, they only
partly cover important sites for biodiversity and are not yet fully ecologically representative and
effectively or equitably managed. There has been significant growth in official development assistance
in support of the Convention on Biological Diversity and in funding provided by the Global
Environment Facility, with biodiversity aid flows reaching $8.7 billion annually. However, current
resource mobilization from all sources is not sufficient to achieve the Aichi Biodiversity Targets. In
addition, only one in five of the strategic objective and goals across six global agreements5 relating to
nature and the protection of the global environment are demonstrably on track to be met. For nearly
one third of the goals of these conventions, there has been little or no progress towards them or,
instead, movement away from them.
C2 Nature is essential for achieving the Sustainable Development Goals. However, taking into
consideration that the Sustainable Development Goals are integrated, indivisible, and nationally
implemented, current negative trends in biodiversity and ecosystems will undermine progress
towards 80 per cent (35 out of 44) of the assessed targets of Goals related to poverty, hunger,
health, water, cities, climate, oceans and land (Sustainable Development Goals 1, 2, 3, 6, 11, 13,
14, and 15). Important positive synergies between nature and the Goals related to education, gender
equality, reducing inequalities and promoting peace and justice (Sustainable Development Goals 4, 5,
10 and 16) were found. Land or resource tenure insecurity, as well as declines in nature, have greater
impacts on women and girls, who are most often negatively impacted. However, the current focus and
wording of the targets of these Goals obscures or omits their relationship to nature, thereby preventing
their assessment here. There is a critical need for future policy targets, indicators and datasets to more
explicitly account for aspects of nature and their relevance to human well-being in order to more
effectively track the consequences of trends in nature on the Sustainable Development Goals. Some
pathways chosen to achieve the Goals related to energy, economic growth, industry and infrastructure,
and sustainable consumption and production (Sustainable Development Goals 7, 8, 9 and 12), as well
as the targets related to poverty, food security and cities (Sustainable Development Goals 1, 2 and 11),
could have substantial positive or negative impacts on nature and therefore on the achievement of the
other Sustainable Development Goals.
C3 Areas of the world projected to experience significant negative effects from global changes in
climate, biodiversity, ecosystem functions and nature’s contributions to people are also home to
large concentrations of indigenous peoples and many of the world’s poorest communities.
Because of their strong dependency on nature and its contributions for subsistence, livelihoods and
health, those communities will be disproportionately hard-hit by those negative changes. Those
negative effects also influence the ability of indigenous peoples and local communities to manage and
conserve wild and domesticated biodiversity and nature’s contributions to people. Indigenous peoples
and local communities have been proactively confronting such challenges in partnership with each
other and with an array of other stakeholders, through co-management systems and local and regional
monitoring networks and by revitalizing and adapting local management systems. Regional and global
5 Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals, Convention on International Trade in
Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora, Convention concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and
Natural Heritage, International Plant Protection Convention, United Nations Convention to Combat
Desertification in Those Countries Experiencing Serious Drought and/or Desertification, Particularly in Africa,
and Convention on Wetlands of International Importance especially as Waterfowl Habitat.
IPBES/7/10/Add.1
8
scenarios lack an explicit consideration of the views, perspectives and rights of indigenous peoples and
local communities, their knowledge and understanding of large regions and ecosystems, and their
desired future development pathways.
C4 Except in scenarios that include transformative change, negative trends in nature, in
ecosystem functions and in many of nature’s contributions to people are projected to continue to
2050 and beyond, due to the projected impacts of increasing land-/and sea-use change,
exploitation of organisms and climate change. Negative impacts arising from pollution and invasive
alien species will likely exacerbate these trends. There are large regional differences in the projected
patterns of future biodiversity and ecosystem functions and in the losses and changes in nature’s
contributions to people. These differences arise from the direct and indirect drivers of change, which
are projected to impact regions in different ways. While regions worldwide face further declines in
biodiversity in future projections, tropical regions face particular combined risks of declines due to the
interactions between climate change, land-use change and fisheries exploitation. Marine and terrestrial
biodiversity in boreal, subpolar and polar regions is projected to decline mostly because of warming,
sea ice retreat and enhanced ocean acidification. The magnitude of the impacts and the differences
between regions are much greater in scenarios with rapid increases in consumption or human
population than in scenarios based on sustainability. Acting immediately and simultaneously on the
multiple indirect and direct drivers has the potential to slow, halt and even reverse some aspects of
biodiversity and ecosystem loss.
C5 Climate change is projected to become increasingly important as a direct driver of changes in
nature and its contributions to people in the next decades. Scenarios show that meeting the
Sustainable Development Goals and the 2050 Vision for Biodiversity depends on taking into
account climate change impacts in the definition of future goals and objectives. The future
impacts of climate change are projected to become more pronounced in the next decades, with variable
relative effects depending on scenario and geographic region. Scenarios project mostly adverse climate
change effects on biodiversity and ecosystem functioning, which worsen, in some cases exponentially,
with incremental global warming. Even for global warming of 1.5°C to 2°C, the majority of terrestrial
species ranges are projected to shrink dramatically. Changes in ranges can adversely affect the
capacity of terrestrial protected areas to conserve species, greatly increase local species turnover and
substantially increase the risk of global extinctions. For example, a synthesis of many studies estimates
that the fraction of species at risk of climate-related extinction is 5 per cent at 2°C warming and rises
to 16 per cent at 4.3°C warming. Coral reefs are particularly vulnerable to climate change and are
projected to decline to 10 to 30 per cent of former cover at 1.5°C warming and to less than 1 per cent
of former cover at 2°C warming. Therefore, scenarios show that limiting global warming to well
below 2°C plays a critical role in reducing adverse impacts on nature and its contributions to people.
D. Nature can be conserved, restored and used sustainably while other global
societal goals are simultaneously met through urgent and concerted efforts
fostering transformative change
Societal goals, including those related to food, water, energy, health and the achievement of
human well-being for all, mitigating and adapting to climate change and conserving and
sustainably using nature, can be achieved in sustainable pathways through the rapid and
improved deployment of existing policy instruments and new initiatives that more effectively
enlist individual and collective action for transformative change. Since current structures often
inhibit sustainable development and actually represent the indirect drivers of biodiversity loss,
such fundamental, structural change is called for. By its very nature, transformative change can
expect opposition from those with interests vested in the status quo, but such opposition can be
overcome for the broader public good. If obstacles are overcome, a commitment to mutually
supportive international goals and targets, supporting actions by indigenous peoples and local
communities at the local level, new frameworks for private sector investment and innovation,
inclusive and adaptive governance approaches and arrangements, multi-sectoral planning, and
strategic policy mixes can help to transform the public and private sectors to achieve
sustainability at the local, national and global levels.
D1 The global environment can be safeguarded through enhanced international cooperation and
linked, locally relevant measures. The review and renewal of internationally agreed
environment-related goals and targets, based on the best available scientific knowledge and the
widespread adoption and funding of action on conservation, ecological restoration and
sustainable use by all actors, including individuals, are key to this safeguarding. Such widespread
adoption implies advancing and aligning local, national and international sustainability efforts and
mainstreaming biodiversity and sustainability across all extractive and productive sectors, including
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mining, fisheries, forestry and agriculture, so that together, individual and collective actions result in a
reversal of the deterioration of ecosystem services at the global level. Yet these bold changes to the
direct drivers of the deterioration of nature cannot be achieved without transformative change that
simultaneously addresses the indirect drivers.
D2 Five main interventions (“levers”) can generate transformative change by tackling the
underlying indirect drivers of the deterioration of nature: (1) incentives and capacity-building;
(2) cross-sectoral cooperation; (3) pre-emptive action; (4) decision-making in the context of
resilience and uncertainty; and (5) environmental law and implementation. Using these levers
will involve the following: (1) developing incentives and widespread capacity for environmental
responsibility and eliminating perverse incentives; (2) reforming sectoral and segmented decisionmaking
to promote integration across sectors and jurisdictions; (3) taking pre-emptive and
precautionary actions in regulatory and management institutions and businesses to avoid, mitigate and
remedy the deterioration of nature, and monitoring their outcomes; (4) managing for resilient social
and ecological systems in the face of uncertainty and complexity, to deliver decisions that are robust in
a wide range of scenarios; and (5) strengthening environmental laws and policies and their
implementation, and the rule of law more generally. All five levers may require new resources,
particularly in low-capacity contexts, such as in many developing countries.
D3 Transformations towards sustainability are more likely when efforts are directed at the
following key leverage points, where efforts yield exceptionally large effects (Figure SPM.9): (1)
visions of a good life; (2) total consumption and waste; (3) values and action; (4) inequalities; (5)
justice and inclusion in conservation; (6) externalities and telecouplings; (7) technology,
innovation and investment; and (8) education and knowledge generation and sharing.
Specifically, the following changes are mutually reinforcing: (1) enabling visions of a good quality of
life that do not entail ever-increasing material consumption; (2) lowering total consumption and waste,
including by addressing both population growth and per capita consumption differently in different
contexts; (3) unleashing existing, widely-held values of responsibility to effect new social norms for
sustainability, especially by extending notions of responsibility to include the impacts associated with
consumption; (4) addressing inequalities, especially regarding income and gender, which undermine
the capacity for sustainability; (5) ensuring inclusive decision-making and the fair and equitable
sharing of benefits arising from the use of and adherence to human rights in conservation decisions;
(6) accounting for nature deterioration from local economic activities and socioeconomic and
environmental interactions over distances (telecouplings), including, for example, international trade;
(7) ensuring environmentally friendly technological and social innovation, taking into account
potential rebound effects and investment regimes; and (8) promoting education, knowledge generation
and the maintenance of different knowledge systems, including in the sciences and indigenous and
local knowledge, regarding nature, conservation and its sustainable use.
D4 The character and trajectories of transformation will vary across contexts, with challenges
and needs differing, among others, in developing and developed countries. Risks related to the
inevitable uncertainties and complexities in transformations towards sustainability can be
reduced through governance approaches that are integrative, inclusive, informed and adaptive.
Such approaches typically take into account the synergies and trade-offs between societal goals and
alternative pathways and recognize a plurality of values, diverse economic conditions, inequity, power
imbalances and vested interests in society. Risk-reducing strategies typically include learning from
experience that is based on a combination of precautionary measures and existing and emerging
knowledge. These approaches involve stakeholders in the coordination of policies across sectors and
in the creation of strategic, locally relevant mixes of successful policy instruments. The private sector
can play a role in partnership with other actors, including national and subnational governments and
civil society; for example, public-private partnerships in the water sector have been an important
vehicle for financing investments to meet the Sustainable Development Goals. Some effective policy
measures include the expansion and strengthening of ecologically representative, well-connected
protected-area networks and of other effective area-based conservation measures; the protection of
watersheds; and incentives and sanctions to reduce pollution {Table SPM.1}.
D5 Recognizing the knowledge, innovations, practices, institutions and values of indigenous
peoples and local communities, and ensuring their inclusion and participation in environmental
governance, often enhances their quality of life and the conservation, restoration and sustainable
use of nature, which is relevant to broader society. Governance, including customary institutions
and management systems and co-management regimes that involve indigenous peoples and local
communities, can be an effective way to safeguard nature and its contributions to people by
incorporating locally attuned management systems and indigenous and local knowledge. The
positive contributions of indigenous peoples and local communities to sustainability can be facilitated
through national recognition of land tenure, access and resource rights in accordance with national
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legislation, the application of free, prior and informed consent, and improved collaboration, fair and
equitable sharing of benefits arising from the use, and co-management arrangements with local
communities.
D6 Feeding humanity and enhancing the conservation and sustainable use of nature are
complementary and closely interdependent goals that can be advanced through sustainable
agriculture, aquaculture and livestock systems, the safeguarding of native species, varieties,
breeds and habitats, and ecological restoration. Specific actions include promoting sustainable
agricultural and agroecological practices, such as multifunctional landscape planning and
cross-sectoral integrated management, that support the conservation of genetic diversity and the
associated agricultural biodiversity. Further actions to simultaneously achieve food security,
biodiversity protection and sustainable use are context-appropriate climate change mitigation and
adaptation; incorporating knowledge from various systems, including the sciences and sustainable
indigenous and local practices; avoiding food waste; empowering producers and consumers to
transform supply chains; and facilitating sustainable and healthy dietary choices. As part of integrated
landscape planning and management, prompt ecological restoration, emphasizing the use of native
species, can offset the current degradation and save many endangered species, but is less effective if
delayed.
D7 Sustaining and conserving fisheries and marine species and ecosystems can be achieved
through a coordinated mix of interventions on land, in freshwater and in the oceans, including
multilevel coordination across stakeholders on the use of open oceans. Specific actions could
include, for example, ecosystem-based approaches to fisheries management, spatial planning, effective
quotas, marine protected areas, protecting and managing key marine biodiversity areas, reducing
run-off pollution into oceans and working closely with producers and consumers {Table SPM.1}. It is
important to enhance capacity-building for the adoption of best fisheries management practices; adopt
measures to promote conservation financing and corporate social responsibility; develop new legal and
binding instruments; implement and enforce global agreements for responsible fisheries; and urgently
take all steps necessary to prevent, deter and eliminate illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing.
D8 Land-based climate change mitigation activities can be effective and support conservation
goals {Table SPM.1}. However, the large-scale deployment of bioenergy plantations and
afforestation of non-forest ecosystems can come with negative side effects for biodiversity and
ecosystem functions. Nature-based solutions with safeguards are estimated to provide 37 per cent of
climate change mitigation until 2030 needed to meet the goal of keeping climate warming below 2°C,
with likely co-benefits for biodiversity. Therefore, land-use actions are indispensable, in addition to
strong actions to reduce greenhouse gas emissions from fossil fuel use and other industrial and
agricultural activities. However, the large-scale deployment of intensive bioenergy plantations,
including monocultures, replacing natural forests and subsistence farmlands, will likely have negative
impacts on biodiversity and can threaten food and water security as well as local livelihoods, including
by intensifying social conflict.
D9 Nature-based solutions can be cost-effective for meeting the Sustainable Development Goals
in cities, which are crucial for global sustainability. Increased use of green infrastructure and other
ecosystem-based approaches can help to advance sustainable urban development while reinforcing
climate mitigation and adaptation. Urban key biodiversity areas should be safeguarded. Solutions can
include retrofitting green and blue infrastructure, such as creating and maintaining green spaces and
biodiversity-friendly water bodies, urban agriculture, rooftop gardens and expanded and accessible
vegetation cover in existing urban and peri-urban areas and new developments. Green infrastructure in
urban and surrounding rural areas can complement large-scale “grey infrastructure” in areas such as
flood protection, temperature regulation, cleaning of air and water, treating wastewater and the
provision of energy, locally sourced food and the health benefits of interaction with nature.
D10 A key component of sustainable pathways is the evolution of global financial and economic
systems to build a global sustainable economy, steering away from the current, limited paradigm
of economic growth. That implies incorporating the reduction of inequalities into development
pathways, reducing overconsumption and waste and addressing environmental impacts, such as
externalities of economic activities, from the local to the global scales. Such an evolution could be
enabled through a mix of policies and tools (such as incentive programmes, certification and
performance standards) and through more internationally consistent taxation, supported by multilateral
agreements and enhanced environmental monitoring and evaluation. It would also entail a shift beyond
standard economic indicators such as gross domestic product to include those able to capture more
holistic, long-term views of economics and quality of life.
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BACKGROUND
A. Nature and its vital contributions to people, which together embody
biodiversity and ecosystem functions and services, are deteriorating
worldwide
1. Nature underpins quality of life by providing basic life support for humanity
(regulating), as well as material goods (material) and spiritual inspiration (non-material) (well
established) {2.3.1, 2.3.2}. Most of nature’s contributions to people (NCP) are co-produced by
biophysical processes and ecological interactions with anthropogenic assets such as knowledge,
infrastructure, financial capital, technology and the institutions that mediate them (well
established) {2.3.2} (Appendix I). For example, marine and freshwater-based food is co-produced by
the combination of fish populations, fishing gear, and access to fishing grounds {2.3.3}. There is
unequal access to nature’s contributions and unequal impact of nature’s contributions on different
social groups (established but incomplete) {2.3.5}. Furthermore, increases in the production of some
of nature’s contributions cause declines in others (Figure SPM.1) {2.3.2, 2.3.5}, which also affects
people differently (well established). For example, clearing of forest for agriculture has increased the
supply of food, feed, (NCP 12) and other materials important for people (such as natural fibres and
ornamental flowers: NCP 13), but has reduced contributions as diverse as pollination (NCP 2), climate
regulation (NCP 4), water quality regulation (NCP 7), opportunities for learning and inspiration (NCP
15) and the maintenance of options for the future (NCP 18). However, very few large-scale systematic
studies exist on those relationships {2.3.2}. Land degradation has reduced productivity in 23 per cent
of the global terrestrial area, and between $235 billion and $577 billion in annual global crop output is
at risk as a result of pollinator loss {2.3.5.3} (established but incomplete).
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Figure 1. Global trends in the capacity of nature to sustain contributions to good quality of life from 1970
to the present, which show a decline for 14 of the 18 categories of nature’s contributions to people analysed.
Data supporting global trends and regional variations come from a systematic review of over 2,000 studies
{2.3.5.1}. Indicators were selected on the basis of availability of global data, prior use in assessments and
alignment with 18 categories. For many categories of nature’s contributions, two indicators are included that show
different aspects of nature’s capacity to contribute to human well-being within that category. Indicators are
defined so that an increase in the indicator is associated with an improvement in nature’s contributions.
2. Many of nature’s contributions to people are essential for human health (well established)
and their decline thus threatens a good quality of life (established but incomplete) {2.3.4}. Nature
provides a broad diversity of nutritious foods, medicines and clean water (well established) {2.3.5.2,
3.3.2.1, 3.3.2.2 (Sustainable Development Goal 3)}; can help to regulate disease and the immune
system {2.3.4.2}; can reduce levels of certain air pollutants (established but incomplete) {2.3.4.2,
3.3.2.2}; and can improve mental and physical health through exposure to natural areas (inconclusive),
among other contributions {2.3.2.2, 2.3.4.2, 3.3.2.2 (Sustainable Development Goal 3)}. Nature is the
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origin of most infectious diseases (negative impact), but also the source of medicines and antibiotics
for treatment (positive contribution) (well established). Zoonotic diseases are significant threats to
human health, with vector-borne diseases accounting for approximately 17 per cent of all infectious
diseases and causing an estimated 700,000 deaths globally per annum (established but incomplete)
{3.3.2.2}. Emerging infectious diseases in wildlife, domestic animals, plants or people can be
exacerbated by human activities such as land clearing and habitat fragmentation (established but
incomplete) or the overuse of antibiotics driving rapid evolution of antibiotic resistance in many
bacterial pathogens (well established) {3.3.2.2}. The deterioration of nature and consequent disruption
of benefits to people has both direct and indirect implications for public health (well established)
{2.3.5.2} and can exacerbate existing inequalities in access to health care or healthy diets (established
but incomplete) {2.3.4.2}. Shifting diets towards a diversity of foods, including fish, fruit, nuts and
vegetables, significantly reduces the risk of certain preventable non-communicable diseases, which are
currently responsible for 20 per cent of premature mortality globally (well established) {2.3.4.2,
2.3.5.2 (NCP 2 and 12)}.
3. Most of nature’s contributions are not fully replaceable, yet some contributions of nature
are irreplaceable (well established). Loss of diversity, such as phylogenetic and functional diversity,
can permanently reduce future options, such as wild species that might be domesticated as new crops
and be used for genetic improvement {2.3.5.3}. People have created substitutes for some other
contributions of nature, but many of them are imperfect or financially prohibitive {2.3.2.2}. For
example, high-quality drinking water can be realized either through ecosystems that filter pollutants or
through human-engineered water treatment facilities {2.3.5.3}. Similarly, coastal flooding from storm
surges can be reduced either by coastal mangroves or by dikes and sea walls {2.3.5.3}. In both cases,
however, built infrastructure can be extremely expensive, incur high future costs and fail to provide
synergistic benefits such as nursery habitats for edible fish or recreational opportunities {2.3.5.2}.
More generally, human-made replacements often do not provide the full range of benefits provided by
nature {2.3.2.2} (Figure SPM.1).
4. Humanity is a dominant global influence on life on earth, and has caused natural
terrestrial, freshwater and marine ecosystems to decline (well established) {2.2.5.2} (Figure
SPM.2). Global indicators of ecosystem extent and condition have shown a decrease by an average of
47 per cent of their estimated natural baselines, with many continuing to decline by at least 4 per cent
per decade (established but incomplete) {2.2.5.2.1}. On land, particularly sensitive ecosystems include
old-growth forests, insular ecosystems, and wetlands; and only around 25 per cent of land is
sufficiently unimpacted that ecological and evolutionary processes still operate with minimal human
intervention (established but incomplete) {2.2.3.4.1, 2.2.5.2.1}. In terrestrial “hotspots” of endemic
species, natural habitats have generally undergone greater reductions to date in extent and condition,
and tend to be experiencing more rapid ongoing decline, on average than other terrestrial regions
{2.2.5.2.1}. Globally, the net rate of forest loss has halved since the 1990s, largely because of net
increases in temperate and high latitude forests; high-biodiversity tropical forests continue to dwindle,
and global forest area is now approximately 68 per cent of the estimated pre-industrial level
(established but incomplete) {2.2.5.2.1}. Forests and natural mosaics sufficiently undamaged to be
classed as “intact” (defined as being larger than 500 km2 where satellites can detect no human
pressure) were reduced by 7 per cent (919, 000 km2) between 2000 and 2013, shrinking in both
developed and developing countries {2.2.5.2.1}. Inland waters and freshwater ecosystems show
among the highest rates of decline. Only 13 per cent of the wetland present in 1700 remained by 2000;
recent losses have been even more rapid (0.8 per cent per year from 1970 to 2008) (established but
incomplete) {2.2.7.9}.
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Figure 2. Examples of global declines in nature, emphasizing declines in biodiversity, that have been and are
being caused by direct and indirect drivers of change. The direct drivers (land-/sea-use change; direct exploitation
of organisms; climate change; pollution; and invasive alien species)6 result from an array of underlying societal
causes7. These causes can be demographic (e.g., human population dynamics), sociocultural (e.g., consumption
patterns), economic (e.g., trade), technological, or relating to institutions, governance, conflicts and epidemics.
They are called indirect drivers8 and are underpinned by societal values and behaviours. The colour bands
represent the relative global impact of direct drivers, from top to bottom, on terrestrial, freshwater and marine
nature, as estimated from a global systematic review of studies published since 2005. Land- and sea-use change
and direct exploitation account for more than 50 per cent of the global impact on land, in fresh water and in the
sea, but each driver is dominant in certain contexts {2.2.6}. The circles illustrate the magnitude of the negative
human impacts on a diverse selection of aspects of nature over a range of different time scales based on a global
synthesis of indicators {2.2.5, 2.2.7}.
5. Marine ecosystems, from coastal to deep sea, now show the influence of human actions,
with coastal marine ecosystems showing both large historical losses of extent and condition as
well as rapid ongoing declines (established but incomplete) {2.2.5.2.1, 2.2.7.15} (Figure SPM.2).
Over 40 per cent of ocean area was strongly affected by multiple drivers in 2008, and 66 per cent was
experiencing increasing cumulative impacts in 2014. Only 3 per cent of the ocean was described as
free from human pressure in 2014 (established but incomplete) {2.2.5.2.1, 3.2.1}. Seagrass meadows
decreased in extent by over 10 per cent per decade from 1970 to 2000 (established but incomplete)
{2.2.5.2.1}. Live coral cover on reefs has nearly halved in the past 150 years, the decline dramatically
accelerating over the past two or three decades due to increased water temperature and ocean
acidification interacting with and further exacerbating other drivers of loss (well established)
{2.2.5.2.1}. These coastal marine ecosystems are among the most productive systems globally, and
their loss and deterioration reduce their ability to protect shorelines, and the people and species that
live there, from storms, as well as their ability to provide sustainable livelihoods (well established)
{2.2.5.2.1, 2.3.5.2}. Severe impacts to ocean ecosystems are illustrated by 33 per cent of fish stocks
being classified as overexploited and greater than 55 per cent of ocean area being subject to industrial
fishing (established but incomplete) {2.1.11.1; 2.2.5.2.4, 2.2.7.16}.
6. The global rate of species extinction is already at least tens to hundreds of times higher
than the average rate over the past 10 million years and is accelerating (established but
incomplete) {2.2.5.2.4} (Figure SPM.3). Human actions have already driven at least 680 vertebrate
species to extinction since 1500, including the Pinta Giant Tortoise in the Galapagos in 2012, even
though successful conservation efforts have saved from extinction at least 26 bird species and 6
ungulate species, including the Arabian Oryx and Przewalski’s Horse {3.2.1}. The threat of extinction
is also accelerating: in the best-studied taxonomic groups, most of the total extinction risk to species is
estimated to have arisen in the past 40 years (established but incomplete) {2.2.5.2.4}. The proportion
6 The classification of direct drivers used throughout this assessment is in {2.1.12 - 2.1.17}
7 The interactions among indirect and direct drivers are addressed in {2.1.11, 2.1.18}
8 The classification of indirect drivers used throughout this assessment is in {2.1.12 - 2.1.17}
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of species currently threatened with extinction according to the International Union for the
Conservation of Nature’s Red List criteria averages around 25 per cent across the many terrestrial,
freshwater and marine vertebrate, invertebrate and plant groups that have been studied in sufficient
detail to support a robust overall estimate (established but incomplete) {2.2.5.2.4, 3.2}. More than
40 per cent of amphibian species, almost a third of reef-forming corals, sharks and shark relatives and
over a third of marine mammals are currently threatened {2.2.5.2.4, 3}. The proportion of insect
species threatened with extinction is a key uncertainty, but available evidence supports a tentative
estimate of 10 per cent (established but incomplete) {2.2.5.2.4}. Those proportions suggest that, of an
estimated 8 million animal and plant species (75 per cent of which are insects), around 1 million are
threatened with extinction (established but incomplete) {2.2.5.2.4}. A similar picture also emerges
from an entirely separate line of evidence. Habitat loss and deterioration, largely caused by human
actions, have reduced global terrestrial habitat integrity by 30 per cent relative to an unimpacted
baseline; combining that with the longstanding relationship between habitat area and species numbers
suggests that around 9 per cent of the world’s estimated 5.9 million terrestrial species – more than
500,000 species – have insufficient habitat for long-term survival, and are committed to extinction,
many within decades, unless their habitats are restored (established but incomplete){2.2.5.2.4}.
Population declines often give warning that a species’ risk of extinction is increasing. The Living
Planet Index, which synthesises trends in vertebrate populations, shows that species have declined
rapidly since 1970, with reductions of 40 per cent for terrestrial species, 84 per cent for freshwater
species and 35 per cent for marine species (established but incomplete) {2.2.5.2.4}. Local declines of
insect populations such as wild bees and butterflies have often been reported, and insect abundance
has declined very rapidly in some places even without large-scale land-use change, but the global
extent of such declines is not known (established but incomplete) {2.2.5.2.4}. On land, wild species
that are endemic (narrowly distributed) have typically seen larger-than-average changes to their
habitats and shown faster-than-average declines (established but incomplete) {2.2.5.2.3, 2.2.5.2.4}.
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Figure 3. A substantial proportion of assessed species are threatened with extinction and overall trends are
deteriorating, with extinction rates increasing sharply in the past century. (A) Percentage of species
threatened with extinction in taxonomic groups that have been assessed comprehensively, or through a ‘sampled’
approach, or for which selected subsets have been assessed, by the International Union for Conservation of Nature
(IUCN) Red List of Threatened Species. Groups are ordered according to the best estimate for the percentage of
extant species considered threatened (shown by the vertical blue lines), assuming that data deficient species are as
threatened as non-data deficient species. (B) Extinctions since 1500 for vertebrate groups. Rates for reptiles and
fishes have not been assessed for all species. (C) Red List Index of species survival for taxonomic groups that
have been assessed for the IUCN Red List at least twice. A value of 1 is equivalent to all species being
categorized as Least Concern; a value of zero is equivalent to all species being classified as Extinct. Data for all
panels derive from www.iucnredlist.org (see Chapter 3 Figure 3.4 and Chapter 2 Figure 2.7).
7. The number of local varieties and breeds of domesticated plants and animals and their
wild relatives has been reduced sharply as a result of land use change, knowledge loss, market
preferences and large-scale trade (well established) {2.2.5.2.6, 2.2.5.3.1}. Domestic varieties of
plants and animals are the result of natural and human-managed selection, sometimes over centuries or
millennia, and tend to show a high degree of adaptation (genotypic and phenotypic) to local conditions
(well established) {2.2.4.4}. As a result, the pool of genetic variation which underpins food security
has declined (well established) {2.2.5.2.6}. Ten per cent of domesticated breeds of mammals were
recorded as extinct, as well as some 3.5 per cent of domesticated breeds of birds (well established)
{2.2.5.2.6} Many hotspots of agrobiodiversity and crop wild relatives are also under threat or not
formally protected. The conservation status of wild relatives of domesticated livestock has also
deteriorated. These wild relatives represent critical reservoirs of genes and traits that may provide
resilience against future climate change, pests and pathogens and may improve current heavily
depleted gene pools of many crops and domestic animals {2.2.3.4.3}. The lands of indigenous peoples
and local communities, including farmers, pastoralists and herders, are often important areas for in situ
conservation of the remaining varieties and breeds (well established) {2.2.5.3.1}. Available data
suggest that genetic diversity within wild species globally has been declining by about 1 per cent per
decade since the mid-19th century; and genetic diversity within wild mammals and amphibians tends
to be lower in areas where human influence is greater (established but incomplete) {2.2.5.2.6}.
8. Human-driven changes in species diversity within local ecological communities vary
widely, depending on the net balance between species loss and the influx of alien species,
disturbance-tolerant species, other human-adapted species or climate migrant species (well
established) {2.2.5.2.3}. Even though human-dominated landscapes are sometimes species-rich, their
species composition is markedly altered from that in natural landscapes (well established) {2.2.5.2.3,
2.2.7.10, 2.2.7.11}. As a result of human-caused changes in community composition, naturally
occurring species in local terrestrial ecosystems worldwide are estimated to have lost at least 20 per
cent of their original abundance on average, with hotspots of endemic species tending to have lost
even more (established but incomplete) {2.2.5.2.3}. The traits of species influence whether they
persist or even thrive in human-modified ecosystems (well established) {2.2.3.6, 2.2.5.2.5}. For
example, species that are large, grow slowly, are habitat specialists or are carnivores – such as great
apes, tropical hardwood trees, sharks and big cats – are disappearing from many areas. Many other
species, including those with opposite characteristics, are becoming more abundant locally and are
spreading quickly around the world; across a set of 21 countries with detailed records, the numbers of
invasive alien species per country have risen by some 70 per cent since 1970 {2.2.5.2.3}. The effects
of invasive alien species are often particularly severe for the native species and assemblages on islands
and in other settings with high proportions of endemic species (well established) {2.2.3.4.1, 2.2.5.2.3}.
Invasive alien species can have devastating effects on mainland assemblages as well: for example, a
single invasive pathogen species, Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis, is a threat to nearly 400 amphibian
species worldwide and has already caused a number of extinctions (well established) {2.2.5.2.3}.
Many drivers add already widespread species to ecological communities in many places; and many
drivers cause endemic species to decline in many places. These two processes have contributed to the
widespread erosion of differences between ecological communities in different places, a phenomenon
known as biotic homogenization or the “anthropogenic blender” (well established) {2.2.5.2.3}. The
consequences of all these changes for ecosystem processes and hence nature’s contributions to people
can be very significant. For example, the decline and disappearance of large herbivores and predators
has dramatically affected the structure, fire regimes, seed dispersal, land surface albedo and nutrient
availability within many ecosystems (well established) {2.2.5.2.1}. However, the consequences of
changes often depend on details of the ecosystem, remain hard to predict and are still understudied
(established but incomplete) {2.2.5.2.3}.
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9. Many organisms show ongoing biological evolution so rapid that it is detectable within
only a few years or even more quickly – in response to anthropogenic drivers (well established)
{2.2.5.2.5, 2.2.5.2.6}. Management decisions that take those evolutionary changes into account
will be noticeably more effective (established but incomplete) {Box 2.5}. This human-driven
contemporary evolution, which has long been recognized in microbes, viruses, agricultural insect pests
and weeds (well established), is now being observed in some species within all major taxonomic
groups (animals, plants, fungi and microorganisms). Such changes are known to occur in response to
human activities or drivers, such as hunting, fishing, harvesting, climate change, ocean acidification,
soil and water pollution, invasive species, pathogens, pesticides and urbanization (established but
incomplete) {2.2.5.2.5}. However, management strategies typically assume that evolutionary changes
occur only over much longer time periods and thus ignore rapid evolution. These policy considerations
span many spheres in which management actions designed to slow or speed evolution can dramatically
change outcomes, as the following examples indicate. Insects, weeds and pathogens evolve resistance
to insecticides, herbicides and other control agents, yet management strategies such as refuges, crop
rotation, and crop diversity can dramatically slow that undesirable evolution (well established) {Box
2.5}. Commercial fish populations have evolved to mature earlier under intensive harvesting, which
sometimes can be minimized by mandating changes in fishing gear or fish size limits (established but
incomplete) {2.2.5.2.5}. Climate change favours the evolution of seasonally earlier reproduction in
many organisms, which can in principle be facilitated through the introduction of individuals from
populations already adapted to such conditions (established but incomplete) {2.2.5.2.5}. Mosquitoes
rapidly evolve resistance to efforts to control them, but evolutionarily informed management actions
can dramatically slow that undesirable evolution (established but incomplete) {2.2.5.2.5}.
Contemporary evolution is thus relevant to many policy concerns. Understanding and working with
contemporary evolution can address important concerns surrounding pollination and dispersal, coral
persistence in the face of ocean acidification, water quality, pest regulation, food production and
options for the future (established but incomplete). The specific actions taken will typically be casespecific
and therefore will require careful assessment of evolutionary potential and consequences. In
many cases, the best strategy could be to simply maintain the ability of natural populations to respond
evolutionarily on their own - rather than through direct human manipulation of evolution.
B. Direct and indirect drivers of change have accelerated during the past
50 years
10. Today, humans extract more from the Earth and produce more waste than ever before
(well established). Globally, land-use change is the direct driver with the largest relative impact
on terrestrial and freshwater ecosystems, while direct exploitation of fish and seafood has the
largest relative impact in the oceans (well established) (Figure SPM.2) {2.2.6.2}. Climate change,
pollution and invasive alien species have had a lower relative impact to date but are accelerating
(established but incomplete) {2.2.6.2, 3.2, 4.2}. Although the pace of agricultural expansion into intact
ecosystems {2.1.13} has varied from country to country, losses of intact ecosystems have occurred
primarily in the tropics, home to the highest levels of biodiversity on the planet (for example, 100
million hectares of tropical forest from 1980 to 2000), due to cattle ranching in Latin America
(~42 million ha) and plantations in South-East Asia (~7.5 million hectares, 80 per cent in oil palm)
among others {2.1.13}, noting that plantations can also increase total forest area. Within land-use
change, urban areas have more than doubled since 1992. In terms of direct exploitation, approximately
60 billion tons9 of renewable and non-renewable resources {2.1.2} are being extracted each year. That
total has nearly doubled since 1980, as population has grown considerably while the average per capita
consumption of materials (e.g., plants, animals, fossil fuels, ores, construction material) has risen by
15 per cent since 1980 (established but incomplete) {2.1.6, 2.1.11, 2.1.14}. This activity has generated
unprecedented impacts: since 1980, greenhouse gas emissions have doubled {2.1.11, 2.1.12}, raising
average global temperatures by at least 0.7 °C {2.1.12}, while plastic pollution in oceans has increased
tenfold {2.1.15}. Over 80 per cent of global wastewater is being discharged back into the environment
without treatment, while 300–400 million tons of heavy metals, solvents, toxic sludge and other wastes
from industrial facilities are dumped into the world’s waters each year {2.1.15}. Excessive or
inappropriate application of fertilizer can lead to run-off from fields and enter freshwater and coastal
ecosystems, producing more than 400 hypoxic zones that affected a total area of more than 245,000
km2 as early as 2008{2.1.15}. In some island countries, invasive alien species have a significant
impact on biodiversity, with introduced species being a key driver of extinctions.
9 All references to “tons” are to metric tons.
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11. Land-use change is driven primarily by agriculture, forestry and urbanization, all of
which are associated with air, water and soil pollution. Over one third of the world’s land surface
and nearly three-quarters of available freshwater resources are devoted to crop or livestock production
{2.1.11}. Crop production occurs on some 12 per cent of total ice-free land. Grazing occurs on about
25 per cent of total ice-free lands and approximately 70 per cent of drylands {2.1.11}. Approximately
25 per cent of the globe’s greenhouse gas emissions come from land clearing, crop production and
fertilization, with animal-based food contributing 75 per cent of that. Intensive agriculture has
increased food production at the cost of regulating and non-material contributions from nature, though
environmentally beneficial practices are increasing. Small landholdings (less than 2 hectares)
contribute approximately 30 per cent of global crop production and 30 per cent of the global food
caloric supply, using around a quarter of agricultural land and usually maintaining rich
agrobiodiversity {2.1.11}. Moving to logging, between 1990 and 2015, clearing and wood harvest
contributed to a total reduction of 290 million hectares in native forest cover, while the area of planted
forests grew by 110 million hectares {2.1.11}. Industrial roundwood harvest is falling within some
developed countries but rising on average in developing countries {2.1.11}. Illegal timber harvests and
related trade supply 10–15 per cent of global timber, and up to 50 per cent in certain areas, hurting
revenues for state owners and livelihoods for the rural poor. All mining on land has increased
dramatically and, while still using less than 1 per cent of the Earth’s land, has had significant negative
impacts on biodiversity, emissions of highly toxic pollutants, water quality and water distribution, and
human health {2.1.11}. Mined products contribute more than 60 per cent of the GDP of 81 countries.
There are approximately 17,000 large-scale mining sites in 171 countries, with the legal sites mostly
managed by international corporations, but there is also extensive illegal and small-scale mining that is
harder to trace, and both types of sites are often in locations relevant for biodiversity {2.1.11}.
12. In marine systems, fishing has had the most impact on biodiversity (target species,
non-target species and habitats) in the past 50 years alongside other significant drivers
(well established) {2.1.11, 2.2.6.2} (Figure SPM.2). Global fish catches have been sustained by
expanding fishing geographically and penetrating into deeper waters (well established) {3.2.1}. An
increasing proportion of marine fish stocks are overfished (33 per cent in 2015), including stocks of
economically important species, while 60 per cent are maximally sustainably fished and only 7
per cent are underfished (well established) {Box 3.1}. Industrial fishing, concentrated in a few
countries and corporations {2.1.11}, covers at least 55 per cent of the oceans, largely concentrated in
the northeast Atlantic, the northwest Pacific and upwelling regions off South America and West Africa
(established but incomplete) {2.1.11}. Small-scale fisheries account for more than 90 per cent of
commercial fishers (over 30 million people), and nearly half of global fish catch (established but
incomplete). In 2011, illegal, unreported or unregulated fishing represented up to one third of the
world’s reported catch (established but incomplete) {2.1.11}. Since 1992, regional fisheries bodies
have been adopting sustainable development principles. For instance, more than 170 members of the
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) adopted the Code of Conduct for
Responsible Fisheries in 1995, and as of 1 April 2018, 52 countries and one member organization had
become Parties to the Agreement on Port State Measures to Prevent, Deter and Eliminate Illegal,
Unreported and Unregulated Fishing, in order to address the depletion of marine fisheries (established
but incomplete) {2.1.11}, reduce by-catch {3, box 3.3} and lower damage to seabeds and reefs. In
addition, the set of established marine protected areas has been growing (well established) {2.1.11.1,
2.2.7.16}.
13. The direct driver with the second highest relative impact on the oceans is the many
changes in the uses of the sea and coastal land (well established) (Figure SPM.2) {2.2.6.2}. Coastal
habitats, including estuaries and deltas critical for marine biota and regional economies, have been
severely affected by sea-use changes (coastal development, offshore aquaculture, mariculture and
bottom trawling) and land-use changes (onshore land clearance and urban sprawl along coastlines,
plus pollution of rivers). Pollution from land sources is already a major driver of negative
environmental change. Ocean mining, while relatively small, has expanded since 1981 to ~ 6,500
offshore oil and gas installations worldwide in 53 countries (60 per cent in the Gulf of Mexico by
2003) and likely will expand into the Arctic and Antarctic regions as the ice melts {2.1.11}. Ocean
acidification from increased carbon dioxide levels largely affects shallow waters, with the ecosystems
of the subarctic Pacific and western Arctic Ocean particularly affected. Plastic microparticles and
nanoparticles are entering food webs in poorly understood ways {2.1.15.3}. Coastal waters hold the
highest levels of metals and persistent organic pollutants from industrial discharge and agricultural
run-off, poisoning coastal fish harvests. Severe effects from excess nutrient concentrations in certain
locations include damage to fish and seabed biota. The dynamics of ocean and airborne transport of
pollutants mean that the harm from inputs of plastics, persistent organic pollutants, heavy metals and
ocean acidification is felt worldwide, including with consequences for human health.
IPBES/7/10/Add.1
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14. Climate change is already having an impact on nature, from genes to ecosystems. It poses
a growing risk owing to the accelerated pace of change and interactions with other direct drivers
(well established) {2.1.12, 2.1.18, 2.2.6.2}. Shifts in species distribution, changes in phenology, altered
population dynamics and changes in the composition of species assemblage or the structure and
function of ecosystems, are evident {2.2.5.3.2, 2.2.5.2.3, 2.2.6.2} and accelerating in marine,
terrestrial and freshwater systems (well established) {2.2.3.2}. Almost half (47 per cent) of threatened
terrestrial mammals, excluding bats, and one quarter (23 per cent) of threatened birds may have
already been negatively affected by climate change in at least part of their distribution (birds in North
America and Europe suggest effects of climate change in their population trends since the 1980s)
(established but incomplete) {2.2.6.2}. Ecosystems such as tundra and taiga and regions such as
Greenland, previously little affected by people directly, are increasingly experiencing the impacts of
climate change (well established) {2.2.7.5}. Large reductions and local extinctions of populations are
widespread (well established) {2.2.6.2}. This indicates that many species are unable to cope locally
with the rapid pace of climate change, through either evolutionary or behavioural processes, and that
their continued existence will also depend on the extent to which they are able to disperse, to track
suitable climatic conditions, and to preserve their capacity to evolve (well established) {2.2.5.2.5}.
Many of these changes can have significant impacts on a number of important economic sectors, and
cascading effects for other components of biodiversity. Island nations, in particular those in East Asia
and the Pacific region, will be most vulnerable to sea-level rise (1m) as projected by all climate change
scenarios, {2.1.1.7.1} which will displace close to 40 million people {2.1.1.7.1; 2.2.7.1.8}.
15. Unsustainable use of the Earth’s resources is underpinned by a set of demographic and
economic indirect drivers that have increased, and that furthermore interact in complex ways,
including through trade (well established) {2.1.6}. The global human population has increased from
3.7 to 7.6 billion since 1970 unevenly across countries and regions, which has strong implications for
the degradation of nature. Per capita consumption also has grown, and also is unequal, with wide
variations in lifestyles and access to resources across and within regions, plus consequences for nature
that are distributed globally through trade. Total gross domestic product is four times higher and is
rising faster in developed than in least developed countries. Approximately 821 million people face
food insecurity in Asia and Africa, while 40 per cent of the global population lacks access to clean,
safe drinking water. Generally, environmentally-based health burdens, such as air and water pollution,
are more prevalent in least developed countries {2.1.2., 2.1.15}
16. Due to expansions of infrastructure, extensive areas of the planet are being opened up to
new threats (well established) {2.1.11}. Globally, paved road lengths are projected to increase by
25 million kilometres by 2050, with nine tenths of all road construction occurring within least
developed and developing countries. The number of dams has increased rapidly in the past 50 years.
Worldwide, there are now about 50,000 large dams (higher than 15 metres) and approximately 17
million reservoirs (larger than 0.01 hectares or 100m2) {2.1.11}. The expansions of roads, cities,
hydroelectric dams and oil and gas pipelines can come with high environmental and social costs,
including deforestation, habitat fragmentation, biodiversity loss, land grabbing, population
displacement and social disruption, including for indigenous peoples and local communities
(established but incomplete). Yet infrastructure can generate positive economic effects and even
environmental gains, based on efficiency, innovation, migration, and urbanization, depending on
where and how investment is implemented and governed (well established) {2.1.11}. Understanding
this variation in impacts is critical.
17. Long-distance transportation of goods and people, including for tourism, have grown
dramatically in the past 20 years, with negative consequences for nature overall (established but
incomplete). The rise in airborne and seaborne transportation of both goods and people, including a
threefold increase in travel from developed and developing countries in particular, has increased
pollution and significantly increased the presence of invasive alien species (well established) {2.1.15}.
Between 2009 and 2013, the carbon footprint from tourism rose 40 per cent to 4.5 gigatons of carbon
dioxide, and overall, 8 per cent of total greenhouse gas emissions are from tourism-related
transportation and food consumption {2.1.11, 2.1.15}. The demand for nature-based tourism or
ecotourism has also risen, with mixed effects on nature and local communities, including some
potential for contributions to local conservation, in particular when carried out at a smaller scale
{2.1.11}.
18. Distant areas of the world are increasingly connected, as consumption, production, and
governance decisions increasingly influence materials, waste, energy, and information flows in
other countries, generating aggregate economic gains while shifting economic and
environmental costs, which can link to conflicts (established but incomplete) (Figure SPM.4).
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As per capita consumption has risen, developed countries and rapidly growing developing countries
{2.1.2, 2.1.6}, while at times supporting efficient production for exports, often reduce water
consumption and forest degradation nationally {2.1.6, 2.1.11} by importing crops and other resources,
mainly from developing countries {2.1.6}. The latter, as a result, see declines in nature and its
contributions to people (habitat, climate, air and water quality) different from the exported food, fibre
and timber products (Figures SPM.1 and 5). Reduced, declining and unequal access to nature’s
contributions to people may, in a complex interaction with other factors, be a source of conflict within
and among countries (established but incomplete). Least developed countries, often rich in and more
dependent upon natural resources, have suffered the greatest land degradation, have also experienced
more conflict and lower economic growth, and have contributed to environmental outmigration by
several million people {2.1.2, 2.1.4}. When indigenous peoples or local communities are expelled
from or threatened on their lands, including by mining or industrial logging for export, this too can
spark conflict – often between actors with different levels of power, as today a few actors can control
large shares of any market or capital asset rivalling those of most countries {2.1.6}, while funds
channelled through tax havens support most vessels implicated in illegal, unreported and unregulated
fishing. More than 2,500 conflicts over fossil fuels, water, food and land are currently occurring across
the planet, and at least 1,000 environmental activists and journalists were killed between 2002 and
2013 {2.1.11, 2.1.18}.
Figure 4. Development pathways since 1970 for selected key indicators of human-environment interactions,
which show a large increase in the scale of global economic growth and its impacts on nature, with strong
contrasts across developed, developing, and least developed countries. Countries are classified according to
the United Nations World Economic Situation and Prospects
(https://www.un.org/development/desa/dpad/publication/world-economic-situation-and-prospects-2019/). Global
gross domestic product has risen fourfold in real terms, with the vast majority of growth occurring in developed
and developing countries (A). Extraction of living biomass (e.g., crops, fish) to meet the demand for domestic
consumption and for export is highest in developing countries and rising rapidly (B). However, material
consumption per capita within each country (from imports and domestic production) is highest in developed
countries (C). Overall protection of Key Biodiversity Areas is rising, being highest within developed countries
(D). Air pollution is highest in least developed countries (E), while the challenges of non-point-source pollution
from the use of fertilizers are highest in developing countries (F). Data sources: A, E, F:
www.data.worldbank.org; B, C: www.materialflows.net; D: www.keybiodiversityareas.org,
www.protectedplanet.net.
IPBES/7/10/Add.1
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19. Governance has at many levels moved slowly to further and better incorporate into
policies and incentives the values of nature’s contributions to people. However, around the
globe, subsidies with harmful effects on nature have persisted (well established) {2.1, 3, 5, 6.4}.
The incorporation by society of the value of nature’s contributions to people will entail shifts in
governance even within private supply chains, for instance when civil society certifies and helps to
reward desired practices, or when States block access to markets because of undesirable practices
{2.1.7}. Successful local governance supported by recognition of local rights has often incorporated
knowledge of how nature contributes to human wellbeing to motivate such behaviours {2.1.8}.
National agencies have also promoted land management strategies that are more sustainable and
introduced regulations, among other policy measures {2.1.9.2}, and have coordinated with other
nations on global agreements to maintain nature’s contributions to people (2.1.10}. Economic
instruments that may be harmful to nature include subsidies, financial transfers, subsidized credit, tax
abatements, and prices for commodities and industrial goods that hide environmental and social costs.
Such instruments favour unsustainable production and, as a consequence, can promote deforestation,
overfishing, urban sprawl, and wasteful uses of water. In 2015, agricultural support potentially harmful
to nature amounted to $100 billion in countries belonging to the Organization for Economic
Cooperation and Development, although some subsidy reforms to reduce unsustainable pesticide uses
and adjust several other consequential development practices have been introduced {2.1.9.1, 6.4.5}.
Fossil fuel subsidies valued at $345 billion result in global costs of $5 trillion when including the
reduction of nature’s contributions (coal accounts for about half of these costs, petroleum for about
one third and natural gas for about one tenth {2.1.9.1.2}). In fisheries, subsidies to increase and
maintain capacity, which in turn often lead to the degradation of nature, constitute perhaps a majority
of the tens of US$ billions spent on supports {5.3.2.5}.
Figure 5. Contributions of indigenous peoples and local communities to the enhancement and maintenance
of wild and domesticated biodiversity and landscapes. Indigenous and local knowledge systems are locally
based, but regionally manifested and thus globally relevant. A wide diversity of practices actively and
positively contributes to wild and domestic biodiversity through “accompanying” natural processes with
anthropogenic assets (knowledge, practices and technology). Indigenous peoples often manage land and coastal
areas based on culturally specific world views, applying principles and indicators such as the health of the land,
caring for the country and reciprocal responsibility. As lifestyles, values and external pressures change with
IPBES/7/10/Add.1
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globalization, however, unsustainable practices are becoming increasingly common in certain regions10. The
image in the centre of the above figure shows the global overlap between 1) land areas traditionally owned,
managed11, used or occupied by indigenous peoples; 2) formally designated protected areas; and 3) remaining
terrestrial areas with very low human intervention (areas that score <4 on the Human Footprint Index12). Circles
and overlapping sections are proportional in area. Land areas traditionally owned, managed11, used, or occupied
by indigenous peoples overlap with approximately 35 per cent of the area that is formally protected, and
approximately 35 per cent of all remaining terrestrial areas with very low human intervention. The topics and
pictures in the figure aim to illustrate, not represent, the types and diversity of the following contributions of
indigenous peoples and local communities to biodiversity: (a) domestication and maintenance of locally adapted
crop and fruit varieties (potatoes, Peru) and (b) animal breeds (rider and sheep, Kyrgyzstan) {2.2.4.4}; (c) creation
of species-rich habitats and high ecosystem diversity in cultural landscapes (hay meadows, Central Europe)
{2.2.4.1-2}; (d) identification of useful plants and their cultivation in high-diversity ecosystems (multi-species
forest garden, Indonesia) {2.2.4.3}; (e) and (f) management and monitoring of wild species, habitats and
landscapes for wildlife and for increased resilience ((e) - Australia, (f) - Alaska) {2.2.4.5-6}; (g) restoration of
degraded lands (Niger) {3.2.4}; (h) prevention of deforestation in recognized indigenous territories (Amazon
basin, Brazil) {2.2.4.7}; (i) offering alternative concepts of relations between humanity and nature (Northern
Australia).
20. Much of the world’s terrestrial wild and domesticated biodiversity lies in areas
traditionally managed, owned, used or occupied by indigenous peoples and local communities
(well established) (Figure SPM.5) {2.2.4}. In spite of efforts at all levels, although nature on
indigenous lands is declining less rapidly than elsewhere, biodiversity and the knowledge
associated with its management are still deteriorating (established but incomplete) {2.2.4, 2.2.5.3}.
Despite a long history of resource use, conservation conflicts related to colonial expansion and land
appropriation for parks and other uses {3.2} (well established), indigenous peoples and local
communities have often managed their landscapes and seascapes in ways that were adjusted to local
conditions over generations. These management methods often remain compatible with or actively
support biodiversity conservation by “accompanying” natural processes with anthropogenic assets
(established but incomplete) {2.2.4, 2.2.5.3.1} (Figure SPM.5). At least one quarter of the global land
area is traditionally managed, owned, used or occupied by indigenous peoples13. These areas include
approximately 35 per cent of the area that is formally protected, and approximately 35 per cent of all
remaining terrestrial areas with very low human intervention (established but incomplete) {2.2.5.3.1}.
Community-based conservation institutions and local governance regimes have often been effective, at
times even more effective than formally established protected areas, in preventing habitat loss
(established but incomplete). Several studies have highlighted contributions by indigenous peoples and
local communities in limiting deforestation, as well as initiatives showing synergies between these
different mechanisms (well established) {6.3.2, 2.2.5.3}. In many regions, however, the lands of
indigenous peoples are becoming islands of biological and cultural diversity surrounded by areas in
which nature has further deteriorated (established but incomplete) {2.2.5.3}. Among the local
indicators developed and used by indigenous peoples and local communities, 72 per cent show
negative trends in nature that underpinned local livelihoods (established but incomplete) {2.2.5.3.2}.
Major trends include declining availability of resources – due in part to legal and illegal territory
reductions, despite expanding indigenous populations – as well as declining health and populations of
culturally important species; new pests and invasive alien species as climate changes; losses in both
natural forest habitats and grazing lands; and declining productivity in remnant ecosystems. A more
detailed global synthesis of trends in nature observed by indigenous peoples and local communities is
hindered by the lack of institutions that gather data for these locations and then synthesize them within
regional and global summaries {2.2.2}.
10 In Stephen Garnett et al., “A spatial overview of the global importance of Indigenous lands for conservation”,
Nature Sustainability, Vol. 1 (July 2018) pp. 369–374.
11 These data sources define land management here as the process of determining the use, development and care
of land resources in a manner that fulfils material and non-material cultural needs, including livelihood activities
such as hunting, fishing, gathering, resource harvesting, pastoralism, and small-scale agriculture and horticulture.
12 Venter, O. et al. Global terrestrial Human Footprint maps for 1993 and 2009. Sci. Data 3, sdata201667 (2016).
13 These data sources define land management as the process of determining the use, development and care of
land resources in a manner that fulfils material and non-material cultural needs, including livelihood activities
such as hunting, fishing, gathering, resource harvesting, pastoralism, and small-scale agriculture and horticulture.
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C. Goals for conserving and sustainably using nature and achieving
sustainability cannot be met by current trajectories, and goals for 2030 and
beyond may only be achieved through transformative14 changes across
economic, social, political and technological factors
21. There has been good progress towards the components of 4 of the 20 Aichi Biodiversity
Targets under the Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 2011–2020. Moderate progress has been
achieved towards some components of 7 more targets, but for 6 others, poor progress has been
made towards all components. There is insufficient information to assess progress towards some
or all components of the remaining 3 targets (established but incomplete) {3.2}. Overall, the state
of nature continues to decline (12 of 16 indicators show significantly worsening trends) (well
established) {3.2} (Figure SPM.6). By 2015, greater progress had been made in implementing policy
responses and actions to conserve biodiversity for drivers with an impact on coral reefs and other
ecosystems vulnerable to climate change (established but incomplete) {3.2}. Anthropogenic drivers of
biodiversity loss, including habitat loss as a result of land-use and sea-use change (addressed by Aichi
Target 5), unsustainable agriculture, aquaculture and forestry (Aichi Target 7), unsustainable fishing
(Aichi Target 6), pollution (Aichi Target 8), and invasive alien species (Aichi Target 9) are increasing
globally, despite national efforts to meet the Aichi Targets (established but incomplete) {3.2}.
14 A fundamental, system-wide reorganization across technological, economic and social factors, including
paradigms, goals and values.
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Abbreviations: ILK: indigenous and local knowledge; IPLCs: indigenous peoples and local communities;
NBSAPs: national biodiversity strategies and action plans.
a Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 2011–2020.
Figure 6. Summary of progress towards the Aichi Targets. Scores are based on a quantitative analysis of
indicators, a systematic review of the literature, the fifth National Reports to the Convention on Biological
Diversity and the information available on countries’ stated intentions to implement additional actions by 2020.
Progress towards target elements is scored as “Good” (substantial positive trends at a global scale relating to most
aspects of the element); “Moderate” (the overall global trend is positive, but insubstantial or insufficient, or there
may be substantial positive trends for some aspects of the element, but little or no progress for others; or the
trends are positive in some geographic regions, but not in others); “Poor” (little or no progress towards the
element or movement away from it; or, despite local, national or case-specific successes and positive trends for
IPBES/7/10/Add.1
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some aspects, the overall global trend shows little or negative progress); or “Unknown” (insufficient information
to score progress).
22. Conservation actions, including protected areas, efforts to manage unsustainable use and
address the illegal capture and trade of species, and the translocation and eradication of invasive
species, have been successful in preventing the extinction of some species (established but
incomplete). For example, conservation investment during the period between 1996 and 2008 reduced
the extinction risk for mammals and birds in 109 countries by a median value of 29 per cent per
country, while the rate of decrease in extinction risk for birds, mammals and amphibians would have
been at least 20 per cent higher without conservation action in recent decades. Similarly, it is likely
that at least 6 species of ungulate (e.g., the Arabian Oryx and Przewalski’s Horse) would now be
extinct or surviving only in captivity without conservation measures. At least 107 highly threatened
birds, mammals and reptiles (e.g., the Island Fox and the Seychelles Magpie-Robin) are estimated to
have benefited from invasive mammal eradication on islands {3.2.2}. Although still few and spatially
localized, such cases show that with prompt and appropriate action, it is possible to reduce humaninduced
extinction rates (established but incomplete) {2.2.5.2.4, 4}. There are, however, few other
counterfactual studies assessing how trends in the state of nature or pressures upon nature would have
been different in the absence of conservation efforts (well established) {3.2}.
23. Biodiversity and ecosystem functions and services directly underpin the achievement of
several of the Sustainable Development Goals, including those on water and sanitation, climate
action, life below water and life on land (Sustainable Development Goals 6, 13, 14 and 15), (well
established) {3.3.2.1}. Nature also plays an important and complex role in the achievement of the
Sustainable Development Goals related to poverty, hunger, health and well-being and
sustainable cities (Sustainable Development Goals 1, 2, 3 and 11) (established but incomplete)
{3.3.2.2} (Figure SPM.7). Several examples illustrate the interdependencies between nature and the
Sustainable Development Goals. For example, nature and its contributions may play an important role
in reducing vulnerability to climate-related extreme events and other economic, social and
environmental shocks and disasters, although anthropogenic assets are also involved (established but
incomplete). Nature’s underpinning of specific health targets varies across regions and ecosystems, is
influenced by anthropogenic assets and remains understudied. The relationship can be positive or
negative, as in the case of certain aspects of biodiversity and infectious diseases (see paragraph 2 of
the present document). Nature directly underpins the livelihoods of indigenous peoples and local
communities and the rural and urban poor, largely through direct consumption or through the income
generated by trade in material contributions such as food (see paragraphs 2 and 36 of the present
document) and energy (well established). Such contributions are generally underrepresented in poverty
analyses (established but incomplete). Nature and its contributions are also relevant to the Goals for
education, gender equality, reducing inequalities and promoting peace, justice and strong institutions
(Sustainable Development Goals 4, 5, 10 and 16), but the current focus and wording of the related
targets obscures or omits their relationship to nature (established but incomplete).
IPBES/7/10/Add.1
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Figure 7. Summary of recent status and trends in aspects of nature and nature’s contributions to people
that support progress towards achieving selected targets of the Sustainable Development Goals. The targets
selected are those where the current evidence and wording of the target make it possible to assess the
consequences of the trends in nature and nature’s contribution to people as they relate to the achievement of the
target. Chapter 3, Section 3.3 provides an assessment of the evidence of the links between nature and the
Sustainable Development Goals. The scores for the targets are based on a systematic assessment of the literature
and a quantitative analysis of the indicators, where possible. None of the targets scored “Full support” (that is,
having a good status or substantial positive trends on a global scale). Consequently, the score of “Full support”
was not included in the table. “Partial support” means that the overall global status and trends are positive, but
still insubstantial or insufficient; or there may be substantial positive trends for some relevant aspects, but
negative trends for others; or the trends are positive in some geographic regions, but negative in others.
“Poor/Declining support” indicates poor status or substantial negative trends at a global scale. “Uncertain
relationship” means that the relationship between nature and/or nature’s contributions to people and the
achievement of the target is uncertain. “Unknown” indicates that there is insufficient information to score the
status and trends.
IPBES/7/10/Add.1
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24. To achieve the Sustainable Development Goals and the 2050 Vision for Biodiversity,
future targets are likely to be more effective if they take into account the impacts of climate
change (well established) {3.2, 3.3}. For example, climate change is projected to greatly increase the
number of species under threat, with fewer species expanding their ranges or experiencing more
suitable climatic conditions than the number of species experiencing range contraction or less suitable
conditions (established but incomplete) {4.2, 3.2}. The impact of climate change on the effectiveness
of protected areas calls for a re-evaluation of conservation objectives; meanwhile, there are currently
few protected areas whose objectives and management take climate change into account (established
but incomplete). The Sustainable Development Goals for poverty, health, water and food security, and
sustainability targets are closely linked through the impacts of multiple direct drivers, including
climate change, on biodiversity and ecosystem functions and services, nature and nature’s
contributions to people and good quality of life. In a post-2020 global biodiversity framework, placing
greater emphasis on the interactions between the targets of the Sustainable Development Goals {4.6,
3.7} may provide a way forward for achieving multiple targets, as synergies (and trade-offs) can be
considered. Future targets are expected to be more effective if they take into account the impacts of
climate change, including on biodiversity, and action to mitigate and adapt to climate change {4.6,
3.7}.
25. The adverse impacts of climate change on biodiversity are projected to increase with
increasing warming, so limiting global warming to well below 2°C would have multiple cobenefits
for nature and nature’s contributions to people and quality of life; however, it is
projected that some large-scale land-based mitigation measures to achieve that objective will
have significant impacts on biodiversity (established but incomplete) {4.2, 4.3, 4.4, 4.5}. All climate
model trajectories show that limiting human-induced climate change to well below 2°C requires
immediate, rapid reductions in greenhouse gas emissions or a reliance on substantial carbon dioxide
removal from the atmosphere. However, the land areas required for bioenergy crops (with or without
carbon capture and storage), afforestation and reforestation to achieve the targeted carbon uptake rates
are projected to be very large {4.2.4.3., 4.5.3}. The biodiversity and environmental impact of largescale
afforestation and reforestation depends to a large degree on where these occur (prior vegetation
cover, state of degradation), and the tree species planted (established but incomplete). Likewise, large
bioenergy crop or afforested areas are expected to compete with areas set aside for conservation,
including restoration, or agriculture (established but incomplete). Consequently, large-scale land-based
mitigation measures may jeopardize the achievement of other Sustainable Development Goals that
depend on land resources (well established) {4.5.3}. In contrast, the benefits of avoiding and reducing
deforestation and promoting restoration can be significant for biodiversity (well established) and are
expected to have co-benefits for local communities (established but incomplete) {4.2.4.3}.
26. Biodiversity and nature’s regulating contributions to people are projected to decline
further in most scenarios of global change over the coming decades, while the supply and
demand for nature’s material contributions to people that have current market value (food,
feed, timber and bioenergy) are projected to increase (well established) {4.2, 4.3} (for example, see
Figure SPM.8). These changes arise from continued human population growth, increasing purchasing
power, and increasing per capita consumption. The projected effects of climate change and land use
change on terrestrial and freshwater biodiversity are mostly negative, increase with the degree of
global warming and land use change, and have an impact on marine biodiversity through increased
eutrophication and deoxygenation of coastal waters (well established) {4.2.2.3.2, 4.2.3, 4.2.4}. For
instance, a synthesis of many studies estimates that the fraction of species at risk of extinction due to
climate change is 5 per cent at 2°C warming, rising to 16 per cent at 4.3°C warming {4.2.1.1}. Climate
change and business-as-usual fishing scenarios are expected to worsen the status of marine
biodiversity (well established) {4.2.2.2, 4.2.2.3.1}. Climate change alone is projected to decrease
ocean net primary production by between 3 and 10 per cent, and fish biomass by between 3 and 25
per cent (in low and high warming scenarios, respectively) by the end of the century (established but
incomplete) {4.2.2.2.1}. Whether or not the current removal of nearly 30 per cent of anthropogenic
carbon dioxide emissions by terrestrial ecosystems continues into the future varies greatly from one
scenario to the next and depends heavily on how climate change, atmospheric carbon dioxide and
land-use change interact. Important regulating contributions of nature, such as coastal and soil
protection, crop pollination and carbon storage, are projected to decline (established but incomplete)
{4.2.4, 4.3.2.1}. In contrast, substantial increases in food, feed, timber and bioenergy production are
predicted in most scenarios (well established) {4.2.4, 4.3.2.2}. Scenarios that include substantial shifts
towards sustainable management of resource exploitation and land use, market reform, globally
equitable and moderate animal protein consumption, and reduction of food waste and losses result in
low loss or even recovery of biodiversity (well established) {4.2.2.3.1, 4.2.4.2, 4.3.2.2, 4.5.3}.
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27. The magnitude of the impacts on biodiversity and ecosystem functions and services and
the differences between regions are smaller in scenarios that focus on global or regional
sustainability (well established) (Figure SPM.8). Sustainability scenarios that explore moderate and
equitable consumption result in substantially lower negative impacts on biodiversity and ecosystems
due to food, feed and timber production (well established) {4.1.3, 4.2.4.2, 4.3.2, 4.5.3}. The general
patterns at the global level – namely, declines in biodiversity and regulating contributions versus
increases in the production of food, bioenergy and materials – are evident in nearly all subregions
{4.2.2, 4.2.3, 4.2.4, 4.3.3}. For terrestrial systems, most studies indicate that South America, Africa
and parts of Asia will be much more significantly affected than other regions, especially in scenarios
that are not based on sustainability objectives (see Figure SPM.8 as an example). That is due in part to
regional climate change differences and in part to the fact that scenarios generally foresee the largest
land use conversions to crops or bioenergy in those regions {4.1.5, 947 4.2.4.2}. Regions such as
North America and Europe are expected to have low conversion to crops and continued reforestation
{4.1.5, 4.2.4.2}.
Figure 8. Projections of the impacts of land use and climate change on biodiversity and nature’s material
and regulating contributions to people between 2015 and 2050. This figure illustrates three main messages: i)
the impacts on biodiversity and on nature’s contributions to people (NCP) are the lowest in the “global
sustainability” scenario in nearly all sub-regions, ii) regional differences in impacts are high in the regional
competition and economic optimism scenario, and iii) material NCP increase the most in the regional competition
and economic optimism scenarios, but this comes at the expense of biodiversity and regulating NCP. Projected
impacts are based on a subset of the Shared Socioeconomic Pathway (SSP) scenarios and greenhouse gas
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emissions trajectories (RCP) developed in support of Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change assessments.
This figure does not cover the scenarios that include transformative change that are discussed in Chapter 5.
• The “Global sustainability” scenario combines proactive environmental policy and sustainable
production and consumption with low greenhouse gas emissions (SSP1, RCP2.6; top rows in each panel);
• The “Regional competition” scenario combines strong trade and other barriers and a growing gap
between rich and poor with high emissions (SSP3, RCP6.0; middle rows); and
• The “Economic optimism” scenario combines rapid economic growth and low environmental regulation
with very high greenhouse emissions (SSP5, RCP8.5; bottom rows).
Multiple models were used with each of the scenarios to generate the first rigorous global-scale model
comparison estimating the impact on biodiversity (change in species richness across a wide range of terrestrial
plant and animal species at regional scales; orange bars), material NCP (food, feed, timber and bioenergy: purple
bars) and regulating NCP (nitrogen retention, soil protection, crop pollination, crop pest control and ecosystem
carbon storage and sequestration: white bars). The bars represent the normalized means of multiple models and
the whiskers indicate the standard errors. The global means of percentage changes in individual indicators can be
found in Figure 4.2.14.
28. Climate change impacts also play a major role in regionally-differentiated projections of
biodiversity and ecosystem functioning in both marine and terrestrial systems. Novel
communities, where species will co-occur in historically unknown combinations, are expected to
emerge (established but incomplete) {4.2.1.2., 4.2.4.1} Substantial climate change-driven shifts of
terrestrial biome boundaries, in particular in boreal, subpolar and polar regions and in (semi-)arid
environments, are projected for the coming decades; a warmer, drier climate will reduce productivity
in many places (well established) {4.2.4.1}. In contrast, rising atmospheric carbon dioxide
concentrations can be beneficial for net primary productivity and can enhance woody vegetation
cover, especially in semi-arid regions (established but incomplete) {4.2.4.1}. For marine systems,
impacts are expected to be geographically variable, with many fish populations projected to move
poleward due to ocean warming, meaning that local species extinctions are expected in the tropics
(well established) {4.2.2.2.1}. However, that does not necessarily imply an increase in biodiversity in
the polar seas, because of the rapid rate of sea ice retreat and the enhanced ocean acidification of cold
waters (established but incomplete) {4.2.2.2.4}. Along coastlines, the upsurge in extreme climatic
events, sea level rise and coastal development are expected to cause increased fragmentation and loss
of habitats. Coral reefs are projected to undergo more frequent extreme warming events, with less
recovery time in between, declining by a further 70–90 per cent at global warming of 1.5°C, and by
more than 99 per cent at warming of 2°C, causing massive bleaching episodes with high coral
mortality rates (well established) {4.2.2.2.2}.
D. Nature can be conserved, restored and used sustainably while simultaneously
meeting other global societal goals through urgent and concerted efforts
fostering transformative change
29. The Sustainable Development Goals and the 2050 Vision for Biodiversity cannot be
achieved without transformative change, the conditions for which can be put in place now (well
established) {2, 3, 5, 6.2} (Figure SPM.9). Increasing awareness of interconnectedness in the context
of the environmental crisis and new norms regarding interactions between humans and nature would
support that change (well established) {5.3, 5.4.3}. In the short term (before 2030), all decision makers
could contribute to sustainability transformations, including through enhanced and improved
implementation and enforcement of effective existing policy instruments and regulations, and the
reform and removal of harmful existing policies and subsidies (well established). Additional measures
are necessary to enable transformative change over the long term (up to 2050) to address the indirect
drivers that are the root causes of the deterioration of nature (well established), including changes in
social, economic and technological structures within and across nations {6.2, 6.3, 6.4, SPM Table.1}.
30. Sustainability transformations call for cross-sectoral thinking and approaches (Figure
SPM.9). Sectoral policies and measures can be effective in particular contexts, but often fail to
account for indirect, distant and cumulative impacts, which can have adverse effects, including
the exacerbation of inequalities (well established). Cross-sectoral approaches, including landscape
approaches, integrated watershed and coastal zone management, marine spatial planning, bioregional
scale planning for energy, and new urban planning paradigms offer opportunities to reconcile multiple
interests, values and forms of resource use, provided that these cross-sectoral approaches recognize
trade-offs and uneven power relations between stakeholders (established but incomplete) {5.4.2, 5.4.3,
6.3, 6.4}.
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31. Transformative change is facilitated by innovative governance approaches that
incorporate existing approaches, such as integrative, inclusive, informed and adaptive
governance. While such approaches have been extensively practised and studied separately, it is
increasingly recognized that together, they can contribute to transformative change (established
but incomplete) {6.2}. They help to address governance challenges that are common to many sectors
and policy domains and create the conditions for implementing transformative change. Integrative
approaches, such as mainstreaming across government sectors, are focused on the relationships
between sectors and policies, and help to ensure policy coherence and effectiveness (well established).
Inclusive approaches help to reflect a plurality of values and ensure equity (established but
incomplete), including through equitable sharing of benefits arising from their use and rights-based
approaches (established but incomplete). Informed governance entails novel strategies for knowledge
production and co-production that are inclusive of diverse values and knowledge systems (established
but incomplete). Adaptive approaches, including learning from experience, monitoring and feedback
loops, contribute to preparing for and managing the inevitable uncertainties and complexities
associated with social and environmental changes (established but incomplete) {6.2, 5.4.2}.
Figure 9. Transformative change in global sustainability pathways. Collaborative implementation of priority
governance interventions (levers) targeting key points of intervention (leverage points) could enable
transformative change from current trends towards more sustainable ones. Most levers can be applied at multiple
leverage points by a range of actors, such as intergovernmental organizations, governments, non-governmental
organizations, citizen and community groups, indigenous peoples and local communities, donor agencies, science
and educational organizations, and the private sector, depending on the context. Implementing existing and new
instruments through place-based governance interventions that are integrative, informed, inclusive and adaptive,
using strategic policy mixes and learning from feedback, could enable global transformation.
32. A summary of the evidence related to the components of pathways to sustainability
suggests that there are five overarching types of management interventions, or levers, and eight
leverage points that are key for achieving transformative change (Figure SPM.9; D3 and D4
above) {5.4.1, 5.4.2}. The notion of levers and leverage points recognizes that complex global systems
cannot be managed simply, but that in certain cases, specific interventions can be mutually reinforcing
and can generate larger-scale changes towards achieving shared goals (well established) (Table
SPM.1). For example, changes in laws and policies can enable and underpin changes in resource
management and consumption, and in turn, changes in individual and collective behaviour and habits
can facilitate the implementation of policies and laws {5.4.3}.
33. Changes towards sustainable production and consumption and towards reducing and
transforming residues and waste, particularly changes in consumption among the affluent, is
recognized by some individuals and communities worldwide as central to sustainable
development and reducing inequalities. While actual reductions have been limited, actions
already being taken at different levels can be improved, coordinated and scaled up (well
established). Those include introducing and improving standards, systems and relevant regulations
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aimed at internalizing the external costs of production, extraction and consumption (such as pricing
wasteful or polluting practices, including through penalties); promoting resource efficiency and
circular and other economic models; voluntary environmental and social certification of market
chains; and incentives that promote sustainable practices and innovation. Importantly, they also
involve a change in the definition of what a good quality of life entails – decoupling the idea of a good
and meaningful life from ever-increasing material consumption. All those approaches are more
effective when they are mutually reinforcing. Actions that help to voluntarily unleash existing social
values of responsibility in the form of individual, collective and organizational actions towards
sustainability can have a powerful and lasting effect in shifting behaviour and cultivating stewardship
as a normal social practice (established but incomplete) {5.4.1.2, 5.4.1.3, 6.4.2, 6.4.3}.
34. Expanding and effectively managing the current network of protected areas, including
terrestrial, freshwater and marine areas, is important for safeguarding biodiversity (well
established), particularly in the context of climate change. Conservation outcomes also depend
on adaptive governance, strong societal engagement, effective and equitable benefit-sharing
mechanisms, sustained funding, and monitoring and enforcement of rules (well established) {6.2,
5.4.2}. National Governments play a central role in supporting primary research, effective
conservation and the sustainable use of multi-functional landscapes and seascapes. This entails
planning ecologically representative networks of interconnected protected areas to cover key
biodiversity areas and managing trade-offs between societal objectives that represent diverse
worldviews and multiple values of nature (established but incomplete) {6.3.2.3, 6.3.3.3}. Safeguarding
protected areas into the future also entails enhancing monitoring and enforcement systems, managing
biodiversity-rich land and sea beyond protected areas, addressing property rights conflicts and
protecting environmental legal frameworks against the pressure of powerful interest groups. In many
areas, conservation depends on building capacity and enhancing stakeholder collaboration, involving
non-profit groups as well as indigenous peoples and local communities to establish and manage
marine protected areas and marine protected area networks, and proactively using instruments such as
landscape-scale and seascape-scale participatory scenarios and spatial planning, including
transboundary conservation planning (well established) {5.3.2.3, 6.3.2.3, 6.3.3.3}. Implementation
beyond protected areas includes combating wildlife and timber trafficking through effective
enforcement and ensuring the legality and sustainability of trade in wildlife. Such actions include
prioritizing the prosecution of wildlife trafficking in criminal justice systems, using community-based
social marketing to reduce demand and implementing strong measures to combat corruption at all
levels (established but incomplete) {6.3.2.3}.
35. Integrated landscape governance entails a mix of policies and instruments that together
ensure nature conservation, ecological restoration and sustainable use, sustainable production
(including of food, materials and energy), and sustainable forest management and infrastructure
planning, and that address the major drivers of biodiversity loss and nature deterioration (well
established) {6.3.2, 6.3.6}. Policy mixes that are harmonized across sectors, levels of governance and
jurisdictions can account for ecological and social differences across and beyond the landscape, build
on existing forms of knowledge and governance and address trade-offs between tangible and
non-tangible benefits in a transparent and equitable manner (established but incomplete). Sustainable
landscape management can be better achieved through multifunctional, multi-use, multi-stakeholder
and community-based approaches (well established), using a combination of measures and practices,
including: (a) well-managed and connected protected areas and other effective area-based conservation
measures; (b) reduced impact logging, forest certification, payment for ecosystem services, among
other instruments, and reduced emissions from deforestation and forest degradation; (c) support for
ecological restoration; (d) effective monitoring, including public access and participation as
appropriate; (e) addressing illegal activities; (f) the effective implementation of multilateral
environmental agreements and other relevant international agreements by their parties; and (g)
promoting sustainable, biodiversity-based food systems. (well established) {6.3.2.1, 6.3.2.3, 6.3.2,
6.3.2.4}.
36. Feeding the world in a sustainable manner, especially in the context of climate change
and population growth, entails food systems that ensure adaptive capacity, minimize
environmental impacts, eliminate hunger, and contribute to human health and animal welfare
(established but incomplete) {5.3.2.1, 6.3.2.1}. Pathways to sustainable food systems entail
land-use planning and sustainable management of both the supply/producer and the
demand/consumer sides of food systems (well established) {5.3.2.1, 6.3.2.1, 6.4}. Options for
sustainable agricultural production are available and continue to be developed, with some having more
impacts on biodiversity and ecosystem functions than others {6.3.2.1}. These options include
integrated pest and nutrient management, organic agriculture, agroecological practices, soil and water
conservation practices, conservation agriculture, agroforestry, silvopastoral systems, irrigation
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management, small or patch systems and practices to improve animal welfare. These practices could
be enhanced through well-structured regulations, incentives and subsidies, the removal of distorting
subsidies {2.3.5.2, 5.3.2.1, 5.4.2.1, 6.3.2}, and – at landscape scales – by integrated landscape
planning and watershed management. Ensuring the adaptive capacity of food production entails the
use of measures that conserve the diversity of genes, varieties, cultivars, breeds, landraces and species,
which also contributes to diversified, healthy and culturally-relevant nutrition. Some incentives and
regulations may contribute to positive changes at both the production and consumption ends of supply
chains, such as the creation, improvement and implementation of voluntary standards, certification and
supply-chain agreements (e.g., the Soy Moratorium) and the reduction of harmful subsidies.
Regulatory mechanisms could also address the risks of co-option and lobbying, where commercial or
sectoral interests may work to maintain high levels of demand, monopolies and continued use of
pesticides and chemical inputs {5.3.2.1}. Non-regulatory alternatives are also important, and
potentially include technical assistance – especially for small-holders – and appropriate economic
incentive programs, for example, some payment for ecosystem services programmes and other
non-monetary instruments {5.4.2.1}. Options that address and engage other actors in food systems
(including the public sector, civil society, consumers and grassroots movements) include participatory
on-farm research, the promotion of low-impact and healthy diets and the localization of food systems.
Such options could help reduce food waste, overconsumption, and the demand for animal products
that are produced unsustainably, which could have synergistic benefits for human health (established
but incomplete) {5.3.2.1, 6.3.2.1}.
37. Ensuring sustainable food production from the oceans while protecting biodiversity
entails policy action to apply sustainable ecosystem approaches to fisheries management; spatial
planning (including the implementation and expansion of marine protected areas); and more
broadly, policy action to address drivers such as climate change and pollution (well established)
{5.3.2.5, 6.3.3}. Scenarios show that the pathways to sustainable fisheries entail conserving, restoring
and sustainably using marine ecosystems, rebuilding overfished stocks (including through targeted
limits on catches or fishing efforts and moratoria), reducing pollution (including plastics), managing
destructive extractive activities, eliminating harmful subsidies and illegal, unreported and unregulated
fishing, adapting fisheries management to climate change impacts and reducing the environmental
impact of aquaculture (well established) {4, 5.3.2.5, 6.3.3.3.2}. Marine protected areas have
demonstrated success in both biodiversity conservation and improved local quality of life when
managed effectively and can be further expanded through larger or more interconnected protected
areas or new protected areas in currently underrepresented regions and key biodiversity areas
(established but incomplete) {5.3.2.5; 6.3.3.3.1}. Due to major pressures on coasts (including from
development, land reclamation and water pollution), implementing marine conservation initiatives,
such as integrated coastal planning, outside of protected areas is important for biodiversity
conservation and sustainable use (well established) {6.3.3.3}. Other measures to expand multi-sectoral
cooperation on coastal management include corporate social responsibility measures, standards for
building and construction, and eco-labelling (well established) {6.3.3.3.2, 6.3.3.3.4}. Additional tools
could include both non-market and market-based economic instruments for financing conservation,
including for example payment for ecosystem services, biodiversity offset schemes, blue-carbon
sequestration, cap-and-trade programmes, green bonds and trust funds and new legal instruments, such
as the proposed international, legally binding instrument on the conservation and sustainable use of
marine biological diversity in areas beyond national jurisdiction under the United Nations Convention
on the Law of the Sea (established but incomplete) {6.3.3.2, 6.3.3.1.3, 5.4.2.1, 5.4.1.7}.
38. Sustaining freshwater in the context of climate change, rising demand for water
extraction and increased levels of pollution involves both cross-sectoral and sector-specific
interventions that improve water-use efficiency, increase storage, reduce sources of pollution,
improve water quality, minimize disruption and foster the restoration of natural habitats and
flow regimes (well established) {6.3.4}. Promising interventions include practising integrated water
resource management and landscape planning across scales; protecting wetland biodiversity areas;
guiding and limiting the expansion of unsustainable agriculture and mining; slowing and reversing the
de-vegetation of catchments; and mainstreaming practices that reduce erosion, sedimentation, and
pollution run-off and minimize the negative impact of dams (well established) {6.3.4.6}.
Sector-specific interventions include improved water-use efficiency techniques (including in
agriculture, mining and energy), decentralized rainwater collection (for example, household-based),
integrated management of surface and groundwater (e.g., “conjunctive use”), locally-developed water
conservation techniques, and water pricing and incentive programmes (such as water accounts and
payment for ecosystem services programmes) {6.3.4.2, 6.3.4.4}. With regard to watershed payment
for ecosystem services programmes, their effectiveness and efficiency can be enhanced by
acknowledging multiple values in their design, implementation and evaluation and setting up impact
evaluation systems (established but incomplete) {6.3.4.4}. Investment in infrastructure, including in
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green infrastructure, is important, especially in developing countries, but it can be undertaken in a way
that takes into account ecological functions and the careful blending of built and natural infrastructure
{5.3.2.4, 6.3.4.5}.
39. Meeting the Sustainable Development Goals in cities and making cities resilient to
climate change entails solutions that are sensitive to social, economic and ecological contexts.
Integrated city-specific and landscape-level planning, nature-based solutions and built
infrastructure, and responsible production and consumption can all contribute to sustainable
and equitable cities and make a significant contribution to the overall climate change adaptation
and mitigation effort. Urban planning approaches to promote sustainability include encouraging
compact communities, designing nature-sensitive road networks and creating low-impact
infrastructure and transportation systems (from an emissions and land-use perspective), including
active, public and shared transport {5.3.2.6, 6.3.5}. However, given that most urban growth between
now and 2030 will take place in the Global South, major sustainability challenges include creatively
and inclusively addressing the lack of basic infrastructure (water, sanitation and mobility), the absence
of spatial planning, and the limited governance capacity and financing mechanisms. Those challenges
also offer opportunities for locally-developed innovation and experimentation, which will create new
economic opportunities. A combination of bottom-up and city-level efforts through public, private,
community and Government partnerships, can be effective in promoting low-cost and
locally-adapted solutions to maintaining and restoring biodiversity and ecosystem functions and
services. Nature-based options include combining grey and green infrastructure (such as wetland and
watershed restoration and green roofs), enhancing green spaces through restoration and expansion,
promoting urban gardens, maintaining and designing for ecological connectivity, and promoting
accessibility for all (with benefits for human health). Additional solutions include disseminating new,
low-cost technologies for decentralized wastewater treatment and energy production and creating
incentives to reduce over-consumption {6.3.5}. Integrating cross-sectoral planning at the local,
landscape and regional levels is important, as is involving diverse stakeholders (well established).
Particularly important at the regional scale are policies and programmes that promote
sustainability-minded collective action {5.4.1.3}, protect watersheds beyond city jurisdictions and
ensure the connectivity of ecosystems and habitats (e.g., through green belts). At the regional scale,
cross-sectoral approaches to mitigating the impact of infrastructure and energy projects entail support
for comprehensive environmental impact assessments and strategic environmental assessments of
local and regional cumulative impacts {6.3.6.4, 6.3.6.6}.
40. Decision makers have a range of options and tools for improving the sustainability of
economic and financial systems (well established) {6.4}. Achieving a sustainable economy
involves making fundamental reforms to economic and financial systems and tackling poverty
and inequality as vital parts of sustainability (well established) {6.4}. Governments could reform
subsidies and taxes to support nature and its contributions to people, removing perverse incentives and
instead promoting diverse instruments such as payments linked to social and environmental metrics, as
appropriate (established but incomplete) {6.4.1}. At the international level, options for reacting to the
challenges generated by the displacement of the impacts of unsustainable consumption and production
on nature include both rethinking established instruments and developing new instruments to account
for long-distance impacts. Trade agreements and derivatives markets could be reformed to promote
equity and prevent the deterioration of nature, although there are uncertainties associated with
implementation (established but incomplete) {6.4.4}. Alternative models and measures of economic
welfare (such as inclusive wealth accounting, natural capital accounting and degrowth models) are
increasingly considered as possible approaches to balancing economic growth and the conservation of
nature and its contributions and to recognizing trade-offs, the pluralism of values, and long-term goals
(established but incomplete) {6.4.5}. Structural changes to economies are also key to shifting action
over long timescales. Such changes include technological and social innovation regimes and
investment frameworks that internalize environmental impacts, such as the externalities of economic
activities, including by addressing environmental impacts in socially just and appropriate ways (well
established) {5.4.1.7}. Although such market-based policy instruments as payments for ecosystem
services, voluntary certification and biodiversity offsetting have increased in use, their effectiveness is
mixed, and they are often contested; thus, they should be carefully designed and applied to avoid
perverse effects in context (established but incomplete) {5.4.2.1, 6.3.2.2, 6.3.2.5, 6.3.6.3}. The
widespread internalization of environmental impacts, including externalities associated with
long-distance trade, is considered both an outcome and a component of national and global
sustainable economies (well established) {5.4.1.6, 6.4}.
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Table SPM.1. Approaches for sustainability and possible actions and pathways for achieving them.
The appropriateness and relevance of different approaches varies according to place, system,
decision-making process and scale. The list of actions and pathways in the following table is
illustrative rather than exhaustive and uses examples from the assessment report.
Approaches for
sustainability
Possible actions and pathways to achieve transformative change
Key actors: (IG=intergovernmental organizations, G=Governments, NGOs =nongovernmental
organizations, CG=citizen and community groups, IPLC =
indigenous peoples and local communities, D=donor agencies, SO= science and
educational organizations, P=private sector)
Enabling
integrative
governance to
ensure policy
coherence and
effectiveness
• Implementing cross-sectoral approaches that consider linkages and
interconnections between sectoral policies and actions (e.g., IG, G, D, IPLC)
{6.2} {D1}.
• Mainstreaming biodiversity within and across different sectors (e.g.,
agriculture, forestry, fisheries, mining, tourism) (e.g., IG, G, NGO, IPLC, CG,
P, D) {6.2, 6.3.5.2} {D5}.
• Encouraging integrated planning and management for sustainability at
the landscape and seascape levels (e.g., IG, G, D) {6.3.2} {D5}.
• Incorporating environmental and socioeconomic impacts, including
externalities, into public and private decision-making (e.g., IG, G, P) {5.4.1.6}
{B5}.
• Improving existing policy instruments and using them strategically and
synergistically in smart policy mixes (e.g., IG, G) {6.2; 6.3.2; 6.3.3.3.1;
6.3.4.6; 6.3.5.1; 6.3.6.1} {D4}.
Promoting
inclusive
governance
approaches
through
stakeholder
engagement and
the inclusion of
indigenous peoples
and local
communities to
ensure equity and
participation
• Recognizing and enabling the expression of different value systems and
diverse interests while formulating and implementing policies and actions
(e.g., IG, G, IPLCs, CG, NGO, SO, D) {6.2} {B5, D5}.
• Enabling the inclusion and participation of indigenous peoples and local
communities, and women and girls in environmental governance, and
recognizing and respecting the knowledge, innovations, practices,
institutions and values of indigenous peoples and local communities, in
accordance with national legislation (e.g., G, IPLC, P) {6.2; 6.2.4.4} {D5}.
• Facilitating national recognition for land tenure, access and resource
rights in accordance with national legislation, and the application of free,
prior and informed consent and fair and equitable benefit-sharing arising
from their use (e.g., G, IPLC, P) {D5}.
• Improving collaboration and participation among indigenous peoples and
local communities, other relevant stakeholders, policymakers and scientists to
generate novel ways of conceptualizing and achieving transformative change
towards sustainability (e.g., G, IG, D, IPLC, CG, SO) {D5}.
Practicing
informed
governance for
nature and
nature’s
contributions to
people
• Improving the documentation of nature (e.g., biodiversity inventory and
other inventories) and the assessment of the multiple values of nature,
including the valuation of natural capital by both private and public entities
(e.g., SO, D, G, IG, P) {6.2} {D2}.
• Improving the monitoring and enforcement of existing laws and policies
through better documentation and information-sharing and regular,
informed and adaptive readjustments to ensure transparent and enhanced
results as appropriate (e.g., IG, G, IPLC, P) {D2}.
• Advancing knowledge co-production and including and recognizing
different types of knowledge, including indigenous and local knowledge and
education, that enhances the legitimacy and effectiveness of environmental
policies (e.g., SO, IG, G, D) {B6, D3}.
Promoting
adaptive
governance and
management
• Enabling locally tailored choices about conservation, restoration, sustainable
use and development connectivity that account for uncertainty in
environmental conditions and scenarios of climate change (e.g., G, IPLC, CG,
P) {D3}.
• Promoting public access to relevant information as appropriate in
decision-making and responsiveness to assessments by improving monitoring,
including setting goals and objectives with multiple relevant stakeholders, who
often have competing interests (e.g., IG, G).
• Promoting awareness-raising activities around the principles of adaptive
management, including through using short, medium and long-term goals that
are regularly reassessed towards international targets (e.g., IG, G, SO, CG, D)
{D4}.
• Piloting and testing well-designed policy innovations that experiment with
scales and models (e.g., G, D, SO, CG, IPLC) {D4}.
IPBES/7/10/Add.1
35
Approaches for
sustainability
Possible actions and pathways to achieve transformative change
Key actors: (IG=intergovernmental organizations, G=Governments, NGOs =nongovernmental
organizations, CG=citizen and community groups, IPLC =
indigenous peoples and local communities, D=donor agencies, SO= science and
educational organizations, P=private sector)
• Increasing the effectiveness of current and future international biodiversity
targets and goals (such as those of the post-2020 global biodiversity
framework and of the Sustainable Development Goals), (e.g., IG, G, D) {6.2;
6.4}.
Managing sustainable and multifunctional landscapes and seascapes and some of the actions they may
entail
Producing and
consuming food
sustainably
• Promoting sustainable agricultural practices, including good agricultural
practices, agroecology, among others multifunctional landscape planning and
cross-sectoral integrated management {6.3.2}.
• Sustainable use of genetic resources in agriculture, including by conserving
gene diversity, varieties, cultivars, breeds, landraces and species (e.g., SO,
IPLC, CG) {6.3.2.1} {A6}.
• Promoting the use of biodiversity-friendly management practices in crop
and livestock production, forestry, fisheries and aquaculture, including, where
relevant, the use of traditional management practices associated with
indigenous peoples and local communities {6.3.2.1} {D6}.
• Promoting areas of natural or semi-natural habitat within and around
production systems, including those that are intensively managed, and
restoring or reconnecting damaged or fragmented habitats where necessary.
{6.3.2.1} {D6}.
• Improving food market transparency (e.g., traceability of biodiversity
impacts, transparency in supply chains) through tools such as labelling and
sustainability certification.
• Improving equity in food distribution and in the localization of food
systems, where appropriate and where beneficial to nature or nature’s
contributions to people (NCP).
• Reducing food waste from production to consumption.
• Promoting sustainable and healthy diets {6.3.2.1} {D6}.
Integrating
multiple uses for
sustainable forests
• Promoting multifunctional, multi-use and multi-stakeholder approaches
and improving community-based approaches to forest governance and
management to achieve sustainable forest management (e.g., IG, G, CG, IPLC,
D, SO, P) {6.3.2.2} {A4}.
• Supporting the reforestation and ecological restoration of degraded forest
habitats with appropriate species, giving priority to native species (e.g., G,
IPLC, CG, D, SO) {6.3.2.2} {A4}.
• Promoting and strengthening community-based management and
governance, including customary institutions and management systems,
and co-management regimes involving indigenous peoples and local
communities (e.g., IG, G, CG, IPLC, D, SO, P) {6.3.2.2} {D5}.
• Reducing the negative impact of unsustainable logging by improving and
implementing sustainable forest management and addressing illegal logging
(e.g., IG, G, NGO, P) {6.3.2.2} {D1}.
• Increasing efficiency in forest product use, including incentives for adding
value to forest products (such as sustainability labelling or public procurement
policies), as well as promoting intensive production in well-managed forests so
as to reduce pressures elsewhere (e.g., P, D, NGO) {6.3.2.2} {B1}.
Conserving,
effectively
managing and
sustainably using
terrestrial
landscapes
• Supporting, expanding and promoting effectively managed and
ecologically representative networks of well-connected protected areas and
other multifunctional conservation areas, such as other effective area-based
conservation measures (e.g., IG, G, IPLC, CG, D) {3.2.1, 6.3.2.3} {C1, D7}.
• Using extensive, proactive and participatory landscape-scale spatial
planning to prioritize land uses that balance and further safeguard nature and
to protect and manage key biodiversity areas and other important sites for
present and future biodiversity (e.g., IG, G, D) {B1, D7}.
• Managing and restoring biodiversity beyond protected areas (e.g., IG, G, CG,
IPLC, P, NGO, D) {B1}.
• Developing robust and inclusive decision-making processes that facilitate
the positive contributions of indigenous peoples and local communities to
sustainability by incorporating locally-attuned management systems and
indigenous and local knowledge {B6, D5}.
IPBES/7/10/Add.1
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Approaches for
sustainability
Possible actions and pathways to achieve transformative change
Key actors: (IG=intergovernmental organizations, G=Governments, NGOs =nongovernmental
organizations, CG=citizen and community groups, IPLC =
indigenous peoples and local communities, D=donor agencies, SO= science and
educational organizations, P=private sector)
• Improving and expanding the levels of financial support for conservation
and sustainable use through a variety of innovative options, including through
partnerships with the private sector {6.3.2.5} {D5, D7, D10}.
• Prioritizing land-based adaptation and mitigation measures that do not
have negative impacts on biodiversity (e.g., reducing deforestation, restoring
land and ecosystems, improving the management of agricultural systems such
as soil carbon, and preventing the degradation of wetlands and peatlands)
{D8}.
• Monitoring the effectiveness and impacts of protected areas and other
effective area-based conservation measures.
Promoting
sustainable
governance and
management of
seascapes, oceans
and marine
systems
• Promoting shared and integrated ocean governance, including for
biodiversity, beyond national jurisdictions (e.g., IG, G, NGO, P, SO, D)
{6.3.3.2} {D7}.
• Expanding, connecting and effectively managing marine protected area
networks (e.g., IG, G, IPLC, CG {5.3.2.3} {D7}, including protecting and
managing priority marine key biodiversity areas and other important sites for
present and future biodiversity, and increasing protection and connectivity.
• Promoting the conservation and/or restoration of marine ecosystems
through rebuilding overfished stocks; preventing, deterring and eliminating
illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing; encouraging ecosystem-based
fisheries management; and controlling pollution through the removal of
derelict gear and through addressing plastic pollution (e.g., IG, G, P, IPLC,
CG, SO, D) {B1, D7}.
• Promoting ecological restoration, remediation and the multifunctionality
of coastal structures, including through marine spatial planning (e.g., IG, G,
NGO, P, CG, IPLC, SO, D) {6.3.3.3.1} {B1, D7}.
• Integrating ecological functionality concerns into the planning phase of
coastal construction (e.g., IG, G, NGO, P, CG, IPLC, SO, D) {6.3.3.3.1}
{B1, D7}.
• Expanding multi-sectoral cooperation by increasing and improving
corporate social responsibility measures and regulation in building and
construction standards, eco-labelling and best practices (e.g., IG, G, NGO, P,
CG, IPLC, SO, D) {6.3.3.3.1} {B1, D7}.
• Encouraging effective fishery reform strategies through incentives with
positive impacts on biodiversity and through the removal of environmentally
harmful subsidies (e.g., IG, G) {6.3.3.2} {D7}.
• Reducing the environmental impacts of aquaculture by voluntary
certification and by using best practices in fisheries and aquaculture
production methods (e.g., G, IPLC, NGO, P) {6.3,3,3,5} {6.3.3.3.2} {B1,
D7}.
• Reducing point and nonpoint source pollution, including by managing
marine microplastic and macroplastic pollution through effective waste
management, incentives and innovation (e.g., G, P, NGO) {6.3.3.3.1} {B1,
D7}.
• Increasing ocean conservation funding (e.g., G, D, P) {6.3.3.1.3} {D7}.
Improving
freshwater
management,
protection and
connectivity
• Integrating water resource management and landscape planning,
including through increased protection and connectivity of freshwater
ecosystems, improving transboundary water cooperation and management,
addressing the impacts of fragmentation caused by dams and diversions, and
incorporating regional analyses of the water cycle (e.g., IG, G, IPLC, CG,
NGO, D, SO, P) {6.3.4.6; 6.3.4.7} {B1}.
• Supporting inclusive water governance, e.g., through developing and
implementing invasive alien species management with relevant stakeholders
(e.g., IG, G, IPLC, CG, NGO, D, SO, P) {6.3.4.3} {D4}.
• Supporting co-management regimes for collaborative water management
and to foster equity between water users (while maintaining a minimum
ecological flow for the aquatic ecosystems), and engaging stakeholders and
using transparency to minimize environmental, economic and social conflicts
{D4}.
• Mainstreaming practices that reduce soil erosion, sedimentation and
pollution run-off (e.g., G, CG, P) {6.3.4.1}.
IPBES/7/10/Add.1
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Approaches for
sustainability
Possible actions and pathways to achieve transformative change
Key actors: (IG=intergovernmental organizations, G=Governments, NGOs =nongovernmental
organizations, CG=citizen and community groups, IPLC =
indigenous peoples and local communities, D=donor agencies, SO= science and
educational organizations, P=private sector)
• Reducing the fragmentation of freshwater policies by coordinating
international, national and local regulatory frameworks (e.g., G, SO) {6.3.4.7;
6.3.4.2}.
• Increasing water storage by facilitating groundwater recharge, wetlands
protection and restoration, alternative storage techniques and restrictions on
groundwater abstraction. (e.g., G, CG, IPLC, P, D) {6.3.4.2} {B1, B3}.
• Promoting investment in water projects with clear sustainability criteria
(e.g., G, P, D, SO) {6.3.4.5} {B1, B3}.
Building
sustainable cities
that address
critical needs while
conserving nature,
restoring
biodiversity,
maintaining and
enhancing
ecosystem services
• Engaging sustainable urban planning (e.g., G, CG, IPLC, NGO, P) {6.3.5.1}
{D9}.
• Encouraging densification for compact communities, including through
brownfield development and other strategies {6.3.5.3}.
• Including biodiversity protection, biodiversity offsetting, river basin
protection and ecological restoration in regional planning {6.3.5.1}.
• Safeguarding urban key biodiversity areas and ensuring that they do not
become isolated through incompatible uses of surrounding land {6.3.5.2; SM
6.4.2}.
• Promoting biodiversity mainstreaming through stakeholder engagement
and integrative planning (e.g., G, NGO, CG, IPLC) {6.3.5.3}.
• Encouraging alternative business models and incentives for urban
conservation {6.3.2.1}.
• Promoting sustainable production and consumption {6.3.6.4}.
• Promoting nature-based solutions (e.g., G, NGO, SO, P) {6.3.5.2} {D8,
D9}.
• Promoting, developing, safeguarding or retrofitting green and blue
infrastructure for water management while improving grey (hard)
infrastructure to address biodiversity outcomes {6.3.5.2}.
• Promoting ecosystem-based adaptation within communities {3.7; 5.4.2.2}.
• Maintaining and designing for ecological connectivity within urban spaces,
particularly with native species {6.3.5.2; SM 6.4.1}.
• Increasing urban green spaces and improving access to them {6.3.2}.
• Increasing access to urban services for low-income communities, with
priorities for sustainable water management, integrated sustainable solid waste
management and sewage systems and safe and secure shelter and transport
(e.g., G, NGO) {6.3.5.4} {D9}.
Promoting
sustainable energy
and infrastructure
projects and
production
• Developing sustainable strategies, voluntary standards and guidelines for
sustainable renewable energy and bioenergy projects (e.g., G, SO, P) {6.3.6}
{D8}.
• Strengthening and promoting biodiversity-inclusive environmental impact
assessments, laws and guidelines {6.3.6.2} {B1}.
• Mitigating environmental and social impacts where possible and
promoting innovative financing and restoration when necessary (e.g., G, P,
NGO, D) {6.3.6.3} {B1}, including by redesigning incentive programmes
and policies to promote bioenergy systems that optimize trade-offs between
biodiversity loss and benefits (e.g., through life cycle analysis) {D8}.
• Supporting community-based management and decentralized sustainable
energy production (e.g., G, CG, IPLC, D) {6.3.6.4} {6.3.6.5} {D9}.
• Reducing energy demands so as to reduce the demand for biodiversityimpacting
infrastructure (e.g., through energy efficiency, new clean energy and
reducing unsustainable consumption) (e.g., G, P) {B1}.
Improving the
sustainability of
economic and
financial systems
• Developing and promoting incentive structures to protect biodiversity (e.g.,
removing harmful incentives) (e.g., IG, G) {6.4} {D10}.
• Promoting sustainable production and consumption, such as through
sustainable sourcing, resource efficiency and reduced production impacts,
circular and other economic models, corporate social responsibility, life-cycle
assessments that include biodiversity, trade agreements and public
procurement policies (e.g., G, CA, NGO, SO) {6.4.3, 6.3.2.1} {D10}.
• Exploring alternative methods of economic accounting, such as natural
capital accounting and Material and Energy Flow Accounting, among others
(e.g., IG, G, SO) {6.4.5} {D10}.
IPBES/7/10/Add.1
38
Approaches for
sustainability
Possible actions and pathways to achieve transformative change
Key actors: (IG=intergovernmental organizations, G=Governments, NGOs =nongovernmental
organizations, CG=citizen and community groups, IPLC =
indigenous peoples and local communities, D=donor agencies, SO= science and
educational organizations, P=private sector)
• Encouraging policies that combine poverty reduction with measures to
increase the provision of nature’s contributions and the conservation and
sustainable use of nature (e.g., IG, G, D) {3.2.1} {C2}.
• Improving market-based instruments, such as payment for ecosystem
services, voluntary certification and biodiversity offsetting, to address
challenges such as equity and effectiveness (e.g., G, P, NGO, IPLC, CG, SO)
{B1}.
• Reducing consumption (e.g., encouraging consumer information to reduce
overconsumption and waste, using public policies and regulations and
internalizing environmental impacts)
(e.g., G, P, NGO) {B4, C2}.
• Creating and improving supply-chain models that reduce the impact on
nature {D3}.
IPBES/7/10/Add.1
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Appendix I
Conceptual framework and definitions
Figure 10. The IPBES Conceptual Framework is a highly simplified model of the complex interactions
between the natural world and human societies. The model identifies the main elements (boxes within the
main panel outlined in grey), together with their interactions (arrows in the main panel), that are most relevant to
the Platform’s goal. “Nature”, “nature’s contributions to people” and “good quality of life” (indicated as black
headlines and defined in each corresponding box) are inclusive categories that were identified as meaningful and
relevant to all stakeholders involved in IPBES during a participatory process, including various disciplines of the
natural and social sciences and the humanities, and other knowledge systems, such as those of indigenous peoples
and local communities. Text in green denotes scientific concepts, and text in blue denotes concepts originating in
other knowledge systems. The solid arrows in the main panel denote influence between elements, and dotted
arrows denote links that are acknowledged as important, but that are not the main focus of the Platform. The thick
coloured arrows below and to the right of the central panel indicate the scales of time and space, respectively.
This conceptual framework was accepted by the Plenary in decision IPBES/2/4, and the Plenary took note of an
update presented in IPBES/5/INF/24 and in decision IPBES/5/1. Further details and examples of the concepts
defined in the box can be found in the glossary and in Chapter 1.
Nature, in the context of the Platform, refers to the natural world, with an emphasis on biodiversity.
Within the context of science, it includes categories such as biodiversity, ecosystems, ecosystem
functioning, evolution, the biosphere, humankind’s shared evolutionary heritage, and biocultural
diversity. Within the context of other knowledge systems, it includes categories such as Mother Earth
and systems of life. Other components of nature, such as deep aquifers, mineral and fossil reserves,
and wind, solar, geothermal and wave power, are not the focus of the Platform. Nature contributes to
societies through the provision of contributions to people.
Anthropogenic assets refers to built-up infrastructure, health facilities, knowledge (including
indigenous and local knowledge systems and technical or scientific knowledge, as well as formal and
non-formal education), technology (both physical objects and procedures), and financial assets, among
others. Anthropogenic assets have been highlighted to emphasize that a good life is achieved by a
co-production of benefits between nature and societies.
Nature’s contributions to people refers to all the benefits that humanity obtains from nature.
Ecosystem goods and services, considered separately or in bundles, are included in this category.
Within other knowledge systems, nature’s gifts and similar concepts refer to the benefits of nature
from which people derive good quality of life. Aspects of nature that can be negative to people
(detriments), such as pests, pathogens or predators, are also included in this broad category.
Nature’s regulating contributions to people refers to functional and structural aspects of organisms
and ecosystems that modify the environmental conditions experienced by people, and/or sustain and/or
regulate the generation of material and non-material contributions. For example, these contributions
include water purification, climate regulation and the regulation of soil erosion.
IPBES/7/10/Add.1
40
Nature’s material contributions to people refers to substances, objects or other material elements
from nature that sustain people’s physical existence and the infrastructure (i.e. the basic physical and
organizational structures and facilities, such as buildings, roads, power supplies) needed for the
operation of a society or enterprise. They are typically physically consumed in the process of being
experienced, such as when plants or animals are transformed into food, energy, or materials for shelter
or ornamental purposes.
Nature’s non-material contributions to people refers to nature’s contribution to people’s subjective
or psychological quality of life, individually and collectively. The entities that provide these intangible
contributions can be physically consumed in the process (e.g., animals in recreational or ritual fishing
or hunting) or not (e.g., individual trees or ecosystems as sources of inspiration).
Drivers of change refers to all those external factors that affect nature, anthropogenic assets, nature’s
contributions to people and good quality of life. They include institutions and governance systems and
other indirect drivers, and direct drivers (both natural and anthropogenic).
Institutions and governance systems and other indirect drivers are the ways in which societies
organize themselves and the resulting influences on other components. They are the underlying causes
of environmental change that are exogenous to the ecosystem in question. Because of their central
role, influencing all aspects of human relationships with nature, they are key levers for
decision-making. “Institutions” encompasses all formal and informal interactions among stakeholders
and the social structures that determine how decisions are taken and implemented, how power is
exercised, and how responsibilities are distributed. To varying degrees, institutions determine the
access to and control, allocation and distribution of the components of nature and of anthropogenic
assets and their contributions to people. Examples of institutions are systems of property and access
rights to land (e.g., public, common-pool or private), legislative arrangements, treaties, informal social
norms and rules, including those emerging from indigenous and local knowledge systems, and
international regimes such as agreements against stratospheric ozone depletion or for the protection of
endangered species of wild fauna and flora. Economic policies, including macroeconomic, fiscal,
monetary or agricultural policies, play a significant role in influencing people’s decisions and
behaviour and the way in which they relate to nature in the pursuit of benefits. However, many of the
drivers of human behaviour and preferences, which reflect different perspectives on a good quality of
life, work largely outside the market system.
Direct drivers, both natural and anthropogenic, affect nature directly. “Natural drivers” are those that
are not the result of human activities and are beyond human control. These include earthquakes,
volcanic eruptions and tsunamis, extreme weather or ocean-related events such as prolonged drought
or cold periods, tropical cyclones and floods, the El Niño/La Niña Southern Oscillation and extreme
tidal events. The direct anthropogenic drivers are those that are the result of human decisions, namely,
of institutions and governance systems and other indirect drivers. Anthropogenic drivers include
habitat conversion, e.g., degradation of land and aquatic habitats, deforestation and afforestation,
exploitation of wild populations, climate change, pollution of soil, water and air and species
introductions. Some of these drivers, such as pollution, can have negative impacts on nature; others, as
in the case of habitat restoration, or the introduction of a natural enemy to combat invasive species,
can have positive effects.
Good quality of life is the achievement of a fulfilled human life, a notion which varies strongly across
different societies and groups within societies. It is a context-dependent state of individuals and human
groups, comprising access to food, water, energy and livelihood security, and also health, good social
relationships and equity, security, cultural identity, and freedom of choice and action. From virtually
all standpoints, a good quality of life is multidimensional, having material as well as immaterial and
spiritual components. What a good quality of life entails, however, is highly dependent on place, time
and culture, with different societies espousing different views of their relationships with nature and
placing different levels of importance on collective versus individual rights, the material versus the
spiritual domain, intrinsic versus instrumental values, and the present time versus the past or the
future. The concept of human well-being used in many western societies and its variants, together with
those of living in harmony with nature and living well in balance and harmony with Mother Earth, are
examples of different perspectives on a good quality of life.
IPBES/7/10/Add.1
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Appendix II
Communication of the degree of confidence
In this assessment, the degree of confidence in each main finding is based on the quantity and quality
of evidence and the level of agreement regarding that evidence (Figure SPM.A1). The evidence
includes data, theory, models and expert judgement. Further details of the approach are documented in
the note by the secretariat on the information on work related to the guide on the production of
assessments (IPBES/6/INF/17).
The summary terms to describe the evidence are:
• Well established: there is a comprehensive meta-analysis or other synthesis or multiple
independent studies that agree.
• Established but incomplete: there is general agreement, although only a limited number of
studies exist; there is no comprehensive synthesis, and/or the studies that exist address the
question imprecisely.
• Unresolved: multiple independent studies exist but their conclusions do not agree.
• Inconclusive: there is limited evidence and a recognition of major knowledge gaps.
Figure SPM.A1
The four-box model for the qualitative communication of confidence.
Confidence increases towards the top-right corner as suggested by the increasing strength of shading.
Source: IPBES, 2016.15
15 IPBES, Summary for policymakers of the assessment report of the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform
on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services on pollinators, pollination and food production. S.G. Potts, V. L.
Imperatriz-Fonseca, H. T. Ngo, J. C. Biesmeijer, T. D. Breeze, L. V. Dicks, L. A. Garibaldi, R. Hill, J. Settele, A.
J. Vanbergen, M. A. Aizen, S. A. Cunningham, C. Eardley, B. M. Freitas, N. Gallai, P. G. Kevan, A. Kovács-
Hostyánszki, P. K. Kwapong, J. Li, X. Li, D. J. Martins, G. Nates-Parra, J. S. Pettis, R. Rader, and B. F. Viana
(eds.)., secretariat of the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services,
Bonn, Germany, 2016. Available at http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.2616458.
IPBES/7/10/Add.1
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Appendix III
Knowledge gaps
In the course of conducting this assessment key information needs were identified. See draft table
Appendix IV.
• Data, inventories and monitoring on nature and the drivers of change
• Gaps on biomes and units of analysis
• Taxonomic gaps
• NCP-related gaps
• Links between nature, nature’s contributions to people and drivers with respect to targets and
goals
• Integrated scenarios and modelling studies
• Potential policy approaches
• Indigenous peoples and local communities
IPBES/7/10/Add.1
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Appendix IV
Draft table of knowledge gaps
Disclaimer: This table of knowledge gaps was prepared by the experts of the global assessment and
presented to and considered by a working group established by the Plenary at its seventh session. The
Plenary did not approve this table as part of the summary for policymakers. It is therefore included in
draft form, which does not imply working group or Plenary approval.
Sector Knowledge gaps (in data, indicators, inventories, scenarios)16
Data,
inventories and
monitoring on
nature and the
drivers of
change
● Data on ecosystem processes (including rates of change) that underpin nature’s
contributions to people and ecosystem health
● Data from monitoring of ecosystem condition (generally less well represented than
ecosystem extent)
● Data on changing interactions among organisms and taxa
● Impacts of increasing CO2 upon the total Net Primary Production of marine systems, and
consequences for ecosystem function and nature’s contributions to people
● Syntheses of how human impacts affect organismal traits and global patterns and trends
in genetic composition
● Data on extinction risks and population trends, especially for insects, parasites and
fungal and microbial species
● Indicators on the global extent and consequences of biotic homogenization, including
genetic homogenization
● Global spatial datasets on key threats, e.g., data on patterns in the intensity of
unsustainable exploitation of species and ecosystems
● More comprehensive understanding of how human-caused changes to any Essential
Biodiversity Variable class (e.g., ecosystem structure) have impacts on others (e.g.,
community composition) and on nature’s contributions to people.
● Data gaps in key inventories: World Database on Protected Areas, the World Database
of Key Biodiversity Areas™, red lists of threatened species and ecosystems, and the
Global Biodiversity Information Facility
● Monitoring of many listed species in the Convention on International Trade in
Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora.
● Monitoring of the long-term effects of dumped waste, especially radioactive material and
plastics
● Data on the impacts of war and conflict on nature and nature’s contributions to people
Gaps on
biomes and
units of
analysis
● Inventories on under-studied ecosystems: freshwater, Arctic, marine/ocean, seabed, and
wetlands
● Inventories in soil, benthic and freshwater environments, and the implications for
ecosystem functions.
Taxonomic
gaps
● Basic data on many taxa (86 per cent of existing species on Earth and 91 per cent of
species in the ocean still await description)
● Extinction risks and population trends for the following taxonomic groups: insects,
fungal species, microbial species (microorganisms) and parasites
● Data on the genetic diversity and conservation status of breeds of farmed and domestic
plants and animals
NCP-related
gaps
● Data on the status of species and nature’s contributions to people linked to specific
ecosystem functions
● Systematic indicators to report the status and trends for categories of nature’s
contributions to people
● Data on the impacts and extent of nature’s contributions to people on quality of life, by
major user group (also lacking an agreed typology on major user groups)
● Data on the interrelationships between gender equality, nature and nature’s contributions
to people
● Data and information on NCP 10: regulation of detrimental organisms and biological
processes (populations of vectors and vector-borne diseases) and overlaps with
vulnerable human populations and ecosystem interactions
● Data and information on NCP 9: the role of nature and nature’s contributions to people
in mitigating or reducing vulnerability to disasters
16 This list of knowledge gaps in the IPBES Global Assessment on Biodiversity and Ecosystem services is not
exhaustive.
IPBES/7/10/Add.1
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Sector Knowledge gaps (in data, indicators, inventories, scenarios)16
Links between
nature,
nature’s
contributions
to people and
drivers with
respect to
targets and
goals
● Understanding on how nature contributes to achieving targets (the positive and negative
relationships between nature and targets/goals like the Sustainable Development Goals)
● Disaggregated data on the impacts that nature has on good quality of life, particularly
across regions, societies, governance systems, and ecosystems
● Need for indicators for some Sustainable Development Goals and Aichi Biodiversity
Targets (e.g., Aichi Biodiversity Target 15 on ecosystem resilience and contribution of
biodiversity to carbon stocks and Target 18 on integration of traditional knowledge and
effective participation of indigenous and local communities.)
● Better quantitative data to assess the Sustainable Development Goals and Aichi Targets
where qualitative indicators have been dominant (9 out of 44 targets under the
Sustainable Development Goals reviewed)
● Data on the benefits to human mental health from exposure to natural environments
● Indicators that reflect the heterogeneity of indigenous peoples and local communities
Integrated
scenarios and
modelling
studies
● Regional and global socioeconomic scenarios explicitly considering the knowledge,
views and perspectives of indigenous peoples and local communities
● Regional and global socioeconomic scenarios developed for, by and in collaboration
with indigenous peoples and local communities and their associated institutions
● Quantitative data showing how nature, its contributions to people, and good quality of
life interact and change in time along different pathways
● Scenarios of the future of biodiversity which quantify the possible co-benefits related to
nature’s contributions to people
● Scenarios about nonmaterial benefits to people compared to material benefits and
regulating benefits
● Integrated scenarios for areas projected to experience significant impacts and possible
regime shifts (e.g., Arctic, semi-arid regions, and small islands)
● Knowledge about the interaction, feedback and spill-overs among regions within future
global scenarios
● Assessment of nature's contributions to people across scenario archetypes with robust
knowledge and quantitative estimates
Potential
policy
approaches
• Data to analyse the effectiveness of many policy options and interventions, including:
a) Data on the comparative effectiveness of different area-based conservation
mechanisms (e.g., protected areas, other effective area-based conservation measures)
in conserving nature and nature’s contributions to people and contributing to good
quality of life
b) Indicators of the effectiveness of different restoration methodologies and to assess
restoration progress over time (including values)
c) Data on the comparative effectiveness of different processes of access and benefit
sharing to ensure fairness and equity
d) Better data on the global extent and forms of wildlife trafficking and its impacts on
nature and nature’s contributions to people.
e) Data on the comparative effectiveness of different models for reconciling bioenergy
and biodiversity conservation
f) Data on the effectiveness of different schemes and models for payment for
ecosystem services (PES), particularly the trade-offs that arise between policy goals,
the integration of multiple values in PES, data on the profiles of PES participants
and long-term monitoring of relational and behavioural implications of participation
g) Data on the comparative effectiveness of different models of marine governance
relating to conservation
● Data on the extent of the participation of indigenous peoples and local communities in
environmental governance
● Indicators on the impacts of environmentally harmful subsidies and trends and
effectiveness of their removal at the global level
● Data on areas of uncertainty in applying the precautionary principle
● Data on the monitoring of policy effectiveness to adapt and adjust policies and to share
lessons.
● Data on the impacts of resource mobilization, using robust program evaluation methods
(e.g., examples of successful use of funding including impacts of donor funding for
conservation and impacts of specific biodiversity financing projects).
● Data on the impacts of climate change on marine and coastal governance regimes
● Data on the impacts of mainstreaming biodiversity across sectors
● Better data to develop biodiversity and environmental quality standards
IPBES/7/10/Add.1
45
Sector Knowledge gaps (in data, indicators, inventories, scenarios)16
Indigenous
Peoples and
Local
Communities
● Agreed-upon methods to enable systematic processes of knowledge generation,
collection and synthesis regarding indigenous and local knowledge (for assessments
and elsewhere) and participation of indigenous peoples and local communities in this
process.
● Syntheses of indigenous and local knowledge about the status and trends in nature
● Data to assess how progress in achieving goals and targets affects indigenous peoples
and local communities, either in positive or in negative ways
● Trends in relation to the socioeconomic status of indigenous peoples and local
communities (e.g., noting the lack of data differentiation in aggregate statistics)
United Nations A/RES/62/98
General Assembly Distr.: General
31 January 2008
Sixty-second session
Agenda item 54
07-46965
Resolution adopted by the General Assembly on 17 December 2007
[on the report of the Second Committee (A/62/419 (Part I))]
62/98. Non-legally binding instrument on all types of forests
The General Assembly,
Recalling Economic and Social Council resolution 2006/49 of 28 July 2006, in
which the Council requested the United Nations Forum on Forests to conclude and
adopt at its seventh session a non-legally binding instrument on all types of forests,
1. Decides to adopt the non-legally binding instrument on all types of
forests as contained in the annex to the present resolution;
2. Invites members of the governing bodies of the member organizations of
the Collaborative Partnership on Forests to support the implementation of the nonlegally
binding instrument on all types of forests, consistent with the mandates of
those organizations, and, to that end, invites the United Nations Forum on Forests to
provide guidance to the Partnership;
3. Also invites donor Governments and other countries in a position to do
so, financial institutions and other organizations to make voluntary financial
contributions to the trust fund for the United Nations Forum on Forests so that the
Forum may address, within the context of its multi-year programme of work, the
implementation of the non-legally binding instrument and provide support for
participants from developing countries and countries with economies in transition to
attend its meetings;
4. Decides that the Forum will review the effectiveness of the non-legally
binding instrument as part of the overall review of the effectiveness of the
international arrangement on forests decided upon by the Economic and Social
Council in its resolution 2006/49.
74th plenary meeting
17 December 2007
Annex
Non-legally binding instrument on all types of forests
Member States,
Recognizing that forests and trees outside forests provide multiple economic,
social and environmental benefits, and emphasizing that sustainable forest
A/RES/62/98
2
management contributes significantly to sustainable development and poverty
eradication,
Recalling the Non-legally Binding Authoritative Statement of Principles for a
Global Consensus on Management, Conservation and Sustainable Development of
All Types of Forests (Forest Principles);0F
1 chapter 11 of Agenda 21;1F
2 the proposals
for action of the Intergovernmental Panel on Forests/Intergovernmental Forum on
Forests; resolutions and decisions of the United Nations Forum on Forests; the
Johannesburg Declaration on Sustainable Development and the Plan of
Implementation of the World Summit on Sustainable Development;2F
3 the Monterrey
Consensus of the International Conference on Financing for Development;3F
4 the
internationally agreed development goals, including the Millennium Development
Goals; the 2005 World Summit Outcome;4F
5 and existing international legally binding
instruments relevant to forests,
Welcoming the accomplishments of the international arrangement on forests
since its inception by the Economic and Social Council in its resolution 2000/35 of
18 October 2000, and recalling the decision of the Council, in its resolution 2006/49
of 28 July 2006, to strengthen the international arrangement on forests,
Reaffirming their commitment to the Rio Declaration on Environment and
Development,5F
6 including that States have, in accordance with the Charter of the
United Nations and the principles of international law, the sovereign right to exploit
their own resources pursuant to their own environmental and developmental policies
and the responsibility to ensure that activities within their jurisdiction or control do
not cause damage to the environment of other States or of areas beyond the limits of
national jurisdiction, and to the common but differentiated responsibilities of
countries, as set out in Principle 7 of the Rio Declaration,
Recognizing that sustainable forest management, as a dynamic and evolving
concept, is intended to maintain and enhance the economic, social and
environmental value of all types of forests, for the benefit of present and future
generations,
Expressing their concern about continued deforestation and forest degradation,
as well as the slow rate of afforestation and forest cover recovery and reforestation,
and the resulting adverse impact on economies, the environment, including
biological diversity, and the livelihoods of at least a billion people and their cultural
heritage, and emphasizing the need for more effective implementation of sustainable
forest management at all levels to address these critical challenges,
_______________
1 Report of the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, Rio de Janeiro, 3-14 June
1992, vol. I, Resolutions Adopted by the Conference (United Nations publication, Sales No. E.93.I.8 and
corrigendum), resolution 1, annex III.
2 Ibid., annex II.
3 Report of the World Summit on Sustainable Development, Johannesburg, South Africa, 26 August–
4 September 2002 (United Nations publication, Sales No. E.03.II.A.1 and corrigendum), chap. I, resolution
1, annex, and resolution 2, annex.
4 Report of the International Conference on Financing for Development, Monterrey, Mexico, 18-22 March
2002 (United Nations publication, Sales No. E.02.II.A.7), chap. I, resolution 1, annex.
5 See resolution 60/1.
6 Report of the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, Rio de Janeiro, 3-14 June
1992, vol. I, Resolutions Adopted by the Conference (United Nations publication, Sales No. E.93.I.8 and
corrigendum), resolution 1, annex I.
A/RES/62/98
3
Recognizing the impact of climate change on forests and sustainable forest
management, as well as the contribution of forests to addressing climate change,
Reaffirming the special needs and requirements of countries with fragile forest
ecosystems, including those of low-forest-cover countries,
Stressing the need to strengthen political commitment and collective efforts at
all levels, to include forests in national and international development agendas, to
enhance national policy coordination and international cooperation and to promote
intersectoral coordination at all levels for the effective implementation of
sustainable management of all types of forests,
Emphasizing that effective implementation of sustainable forest management
is critically dependent upon adequate resources, including financing, capacity
development and the transfer of environmentally sound technologies, and
recognizing in particular the need to mobilize increased financial resources,
including from innovative sources, for developing countries, including least
developed countries, landlocked developing countries and small island developing
States, as well as countries with economies in transition,
Also emphasizing that implementation of sustainable forest management is
also critically dependent upon good governance at all levels,
Noting that the provisions of this instrument do not prejudice the rights and
obligations of Member States under international law,
Have committed themselves as follows:
I. Purpose
1. The purpose of this instrument is:
(a) To strengthen political commitment and action at all levels to implement
effectively sustainable management of all types of forests and to achieve the shared
global objectives on forests;
(b) To enhance the contribution of forests to the achievement of the
internationally agreed development goals, including the Millennium Development
Goals, in particular with respect to poverty eradication and environmental
sustainability;
(c) To provide a framework for national action and international cooperation.
II. Principles
2. Member States should respect the following principles, which build upon the
Rio Declaration on Environment and Development6 and the Rio Forest Principles:1
(a) The instrument is voluntary and non-legally binding;
(b) Each State is responsible for the sustainable management of its forests
and for the enforcement of its forest-related laws;
(c) Major groups as identified in Agenda 21,6F
7 local communities, forest
owners and other relevant stakeholders contribute to achieving sustainable forest
_______________
7 The major groups identified in Agenda 21 are women, children and youth, indigenous people and their
communities, non-governmental organizations, local authorities, workers and trade unions, business and
industry, scientific and technological communities, and farmers.
A/RES/62/98
4
management and should be involved in a transparent and participatory way in forest
decision-making processes that affect them, as well as in implementing sustainable
forest management, in accordance with national legislation;
(d) Achieving sustainable forest management, in particular in developing
countries as well as in countries with economies in transition, depends on
significantly increased, new and additional financial resources from all sources;
(e) Achieving sustainable forest management also depends on good
governance at all levels;
(f) International cooperation, including financial support, technology
transfer, capacity-building and education, plays a crucial catalytic role in supporting
the efforts of all countries, particularly developing countries as well as countries
with economies in transition, to achieve sustainable forest management.
III. Scope
3. The present instrument applies to all types of forests.
4. Sustainable forest management, as a dynamic and evolving concept, aims to
maintain and enhance the economic, social and environmental values of all types of
forests, for the benefit of present and future generations.
IV. Global objectives on forests
5. Member States reaffirm the following shared global objectives on forests and
their commitment to work globally, regionally and nationally to achieve progress
towards their achievement by 2015:
Global objective 1
Reverse the loss of forest cover worldwide through sustainable forest
management, including protection, restoration, afforestation and reforestation, and
increase efforts to prevent forest degradation;
Global objective 2
Enhance forest-based economic, social and environmental benefits, including
by improving the livelihoods of forest-dependent people;
Global objective 3
Increase significantly the area of protected forests worldwide and other areas
of sustainably managed forests, as well as the proportion of forest products from
sustainably managed forests;
Global objective 4
Reverse the decline in official development assistance for sustainable forest
management and mobilize significantly increased, new and additional financial
resources from all sources for the implementation of sustainable forest management.
V. National policies and measures
6. To achieve the purpose of the present instrument, and taking into account
national policies, priorities, conditions and available resources, Member States
should:
A/RES/62/98
5
(a) Develop, implement, publish and, as necessary, update national forest
programmes or other strategies for sustainable forest management which identify
actions needed and contain measures, policies or specific goals, taking into account
the relevant proposals for action of the Intergovernmental Panel on
Forests/Intergovernmental Forum on Forests and resolutions of the United Nations
Forum on Forests;
(b) Consider the seven thematic elements of sustainable forest management,7F
8
which are drawn from the criteria identified by existing criteria and indicators
processes, as a reference framework for sustainable forest management and, in this
context, identify, as appropriate, specific environmental and other forest-related
aspects within those elements for consideration as criteria and indicators for
sustainable forest management;
(c) Promote the use of management tools to assess the impact on the
environment of projects that may significantly affect forests, and promote good
environmental practices for such projects;
(d) Develop and implement policies that encourage the sustainable
management of forests to provide a wide range of goods and services and that also
contribute to poverty reduction and the development of rural communities;
(e) Promote efficient production and processing of forest products, with a
view, inter alia, to reducing waste and enhancing recycling;
(f) Support the protection and use of traditional forest-related knowledge
and practices in sustainable forest management with the approval and involvement
of the holders of such knowledge, and promote fair and equitable sharing of benefits
from their utilization, in accordance with national legislation and relevant
international agreements;
(g) Further develop and implement criteria and indicators for sustainable
forest management that are consistent with national priorities and conditions;
(h) Create enabling environments to encourage private-sector investment, as
well as investment by and involvement of local and indigenous communities, other
forest users and forest owners and other relevant stakeholders, in sustainable forest
management, through a framework of policies, incentives and regulations;
(i) Develop financing strategies that outline the short-, medium- and longterm
financial planning for achieving sustainable forest management, taking into
account domestic, private-sector and foreign funding sources;
(j) Encourage recognition of the range of values derived from goods and
services provided by all types of forests and trees outside forests, as well as ways to
reflect such values in the marketplace, consistent with relevant national legislation
and policies;
(k) Identify and implement measures to enhance cooperation and crosssectoral
policy and programme coordination among sectors affecting and affected by
forest policies and management, with a view to integrating the forest sector into
national decision-making processes and promoting sustainable forest management,
including by addressing the underlying causes of deforestation and forest
degradation, and by promoting forest conservation;
_______________
8 The elements are (i) extent of forest resources; (ii) forest biological diversity; (iii) forest health and
vitality; (iv) productive functions of forest resources; (v) protective functions of forest resources; (vi)
socio-economic functions of forests; and (vii) legal, policy and institutional framework.
A/RES/62/98
6
(l) Integrate national forest programmes, or other strategies for sustainable
forest management, as referred to in paragraph 6 (a) above, into national strategies
for sustainable development, relevant national action plans and poverty-reduction
strategies;
(m) Establish or strengthen partnerships, including public-private
partnerships, and joint programmes with stakeholders to advance the
implementation of sustainable forest management;
(n) Review and, as needed, improve forest-related legislation, strengthen
forest law enforcement and promote good governance at all levels in order to
support sustainable forest management, to create an enabling environment for forest
investment and to combat and eradicate illegal practices, in accordance with
national legislation, in the forest and other related sectors;
(o) Analyse the causes of, and address solutions to, threats to forest health
and vitality from natural disasters and human activities, including threats from fire,
pollution, pests, disease and invasive alien species;
(p) Create, develop or expand, and maintain networks of protected forest
areas, taking into account the importance of conserving representative forests, by
means of a range of conservation mechanisms, applied within and outside protected
forest areas;
(q) Assess the conditions and management effectiveness of existing
protected forest areas with a view to identifying improvements needed;
(r) Strengthen the contribution of science and research in advancing
sustainable forest management by incorporating scientific expertise into forest
policies and programmes;
(s) Promote the development and application of scientific and technological
innovations, including those that can be used by forest owners and local and
indigenous communities to advance sustainable forest management;
(t) Promote and strengthen public understanding of the importance of and
the benefits provided by forests and sustainable forest management, including
through public awareness programmes and education;
(u) Promote and encourage access to formal and informal education,
extension and training programmes on the implementation of sustainable forest
management;
(v) Support education, training and extension programmes involving local
and indigenous communities, forest workers and forest owners, in order to develop
resource management approaches that will reduce the pressure on forests,
particularly fragile ecosystems;
(w) Promote active and effective participation by major groups, local
communities, forest owners and other relevant stakeholders in the development,
implementation and assessment of forest-related national policies, measures and
programmes;
(x) Encourage the private sector, civil society organizations and forest
owners to develop, promote and implement in a transparent manner voluntary
instruments, such as voluntary certification systems or other appropriate
mechanisms, to develop and promote forest products from sustainably managed
forests harvested in accordance with domestic legislation, and to improve market
transparency;
A/RES/62/98
7
(y) Enhance access by households, small-scale forest owners, forestdependent
local and indigenous communities, living in and outside forest areas, to
forest resources and relevant markets in order to support livelihoods and income
diversification from forest management, consistent with sustainable forest
management.
VI. International cooperation and means of implementation
7. To achieve the purpose of the present instrument, Member States should:
(a) Make concerted efforts to secure a sustained high-level political
commitment to strengthen the means of implementation of sustainable forest
management, including financial resources, to provide support, in particular for
developing countries and countries with economies in transition, as well as to
mobilize and provide significantly increased, new and additional financial resources
from private, public, domestic and international sources to and within developing
countries, as well as countries with economies in transition;
(b) Reverse the decline in official development assistance for sustainable
forest management and mobilize significantly increased, new and additional
financial resources from all sources for the implementation of sustainable forest
management;
(c) Take action to raise the priority of sustainable forest management in
national development plans and other plans, including poverty-reduction strategies,
in order to facilitate increased allocation of official development assistance and
financial resources from other sources for sustainable forest management;
(d) Develop and establish positive incentives, in particular for developing
countries as well as countries with economies in transition, to reduce the loss of
forests, to promote reforestation, afforestation and rehabilitation of degraded forests,
to implement sustainable forest management and to increase the area of protected
forests;
(e) Support the efforts of countries, particularly developing countries as well
as countries with economies in transition, to develop and implement economically,
socially and environmentally sound measures that act as incentives for the
sustainable management of forests;
(f) Strengthen the capacity of countries, in particular developing countries,
to significantly increase the production of forest products from sustainably managed
forests;
(g) Enhance bilateral, regional and international cooperation with a view to
promoting international trade in forest products from sustainably managed forests
harvested according to domestic legislation;
(h) Enhance bilateral, regional and international cooperation to address illicit
international trafficking in forest products through the promotion of forest law
enforcement and good governance at all levels;
(i) Strengthen, through enhanced bilateral, regional and international
cooperation, the capacity of countries to combat effectively illicit international
trafficking in forest products, including timber, wildlife and other forest biological
resources;
(j) Strengthen the capacity of countries to address forest-related illegal
practices, including wildlife poaching, in accordance with domestic legislation,
through enhanced public awareness, education, institutional capacity-building,
A/RES/62/98
8
technological transfer and technical cooperation, law enforcement and information
networks;
(k) Enhance and facilitate access to and transfer of appropriate,
environmentally sound and innovative technologies and corresponding know-how
relevant to sustainable forest management and to efficient value-added processing of
forest products, in particular to developing countries, for the benefit of local and
indigenous communities;
(l) Strengthen mechanisms that enhance sharing among countries and the
use of best practices in sustainable forest management, including through freewarebased
information and communications technology;
(m) Strengthen national and local capacity in keeping with their conditions
for the development and adaptation of forest-related technologies, including
technologies for the use of fuelwood;
(n) Promote international technical and scientific cooperation, including
South-South cooperation and triangular cooperation, in the field of sustainable
forest management, through the appropriate international, regional and national
institutions and processes;
(o) Enhance the research and scientific forest-related capacities of
developing countries and countries with economies in transition, particularly the
capacity of research organizations to generate and have access to forest-related data
and information, and promote and support integrated and interdisciplinary research
on forest-related issues, and disseminate research results;
(p) Strengthen forestry research and development in all regions, particularly
in developing countries and countries with economies in transition, through relevant
organizations, institutions and centres of excellence, as well as through global,
regional and subregional networks;
(q) Strengthen cooperation and partnerships at the regional and subregional
levels to promote sustainable forest management;
(r) As members of the governing bodies of the organizations that form the
Collaborative Partnership on Forests, help ensure that the forest-related priorities
and programmes of members of the Partnership are integrated and mutually
supportive, consistent with their mandates, taking into account relevant policy
recommendations of the United Nations Forum on Forests;
(s) Support the efforts of the Collaborative Partnership on Forests to develop
and implement joint initiatives.
VII. Monitoring, assessment and reporting
8. Member States should monitor and assess progress towards achieving the
purpose of the present instrument.
9. Member States should submit, on a voluntary basis, taking into account the
availability of resources and the requirements and conditions for the preparation of
reports for other bodies or instruments, national progress reports as part of their
regular reporting to the Forum.
VIII. Working modalities
10. The Forum should address, within the context of its multi-year programme of
work, the implementation of the present instrument.
United Nations E/CN.18/2009/4
Economic and Social Council Distr.: General
11 February 2009
Original: English
09-23599 (E) 050309
*0923599*
United Nations Forum on Forests
Eighth session
New York, 20 April-1 May 2009
Item 5 (a) of the provisional agenda*
Forests in a changing environment
Forests and climate change
Report of the Secretary-General**
Summary
Climate change poses a very serious threat to forests throughout the world and
to millions of people who depend on forests to various degrees for their livelihoods,
shelter, food and water. The present report examines the impact of climate change on
forests and sustainable forest management, addresses the important roles that forests
can play in mitigating and adaptation to climate change and identifies possible
actions on the part of the United Nations Forum on Forests to that end.
Globally, forest ecosystems in 2005 contained 638 billion tons of carbon, half
of it (321 billion tons) in forest biomass and dead wood. The amount of carbon in
forests is greater than the amount of carbon currently in the atmosphere.
Deforestation and forest degradation are the primary drivers of carbon emissions
from forests, accounting for 17.4 per cent of total human-generated carbon dioxide
emissions in 2004. Reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation,
and ensuring the sustainable management and conservation of forests can contribute
significantly to mitigating climate change.
Any decision by the secretariat of the United Nations Framework Convention
on Climate Change on issues regarding reducing emissions from deforestation and
forest degradation may open up new prospects for a funding source for the
sustainable management and conservation of forests in the post-2012 Kyoto Protocol
commitment period.
* E/CN.18/2009/1.
** The issuance of the present report was delayed owing to the need for extended consultations.
E/CN.18/2009/4
2 09-23599
Consideration should be given to closer cooperation between the Forum on
Forests and the secretariats of the Framework Convention on Climate Change, the
Convention on Biological Diversity and the United Nations Convention to Combat
Desertification in Those Countries Experiencing Serious Drought and/or
Desertification, Particularly in Africa, as well as among member organizations of the
Collaborative Partnership on Forests, on the role of forests in mitigating and
adapting to climate change.
Contents
Page
I. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
II. Forests as a microcosm of sustainable development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
III. Forests in the climate change equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
A. Impact of climate change on forests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
B. Impact of deforestation and forest degradation on climate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
IV. Role of forests in responding to climate change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
V. Importance of reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
VI. Opportunities and challenges for the forest sector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
A. Opportunities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
B. Constraints and challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
C. Promoting climate change mitigation and adaptation strategies in national forest
programmes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
VII. Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
E/CN.18/2009/4
09-23599 3
I. Introduction
1. The non-legally binding instrument on all types of forests, hereinafter referred
to as the forest instrument, agreed upon by the United Nations Forum on Forests at
its seventh session, was adopted by the General Assembly on 17 December 2007
(see resolution 62/98, annex). In the preambular part of the forest instrument,
Member States recognized the impact of climate change on forests and sustainable
forest management, as well as the important contributions that forests can make to
addressing climate change. At its seventh session, the Forum also adopted the
multi-year programme of work for the period 2007-2015, which calls for the eighth
session, to be held in 2009, to address the issue of forests in a changing
environment, including the themes “forests and climate change”, “reversing the loss
of forest cover, preventing forest degradation in all types of forests and combating
desertification, including in low forest cover countries” and “forests and
biodiversity conservation, including protected areas”. The present report addresses
the first of those interconnected themes, the other two being the focus of separate
reports of the Secretary-General. This issue is also of great importance to the
member organizations of the Collaborative Partnership on Forests (CPF), which
together have prepared a paper for the session entitled “Strategic framework for
forests and climate change: a proposal by the Collaborative Partnership on Forests
for a coordinated forest-sector response to climate change”.
2. Although the issue of forests and climate change was discussed by the Forum’s
predecessors, the Intergovernmental Panel on Forests (IPF) and the
Intergovernmental Forum on Forests (IFF), no proposals for action were agreed
upon regarding the issue.1 With the adoption of the programme of work for the
period 2007-2015, the Forum has the opportunity to effectively engage in addressing
and supporting the global climate change agenda as it pertains to forests.
3. The present report draws on various sources, including the work of the
secretariat of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and general literature. Contributions
from member organizations of the Collaborative Partnership on Forests, particularly
the strategic framework, were important in its elaboration. Proposals and
recommendations of the Secretary-General are presented in his report on
recommendations for addressing key challenges of forests in a changing
environment (E/CN.18/2009/8).
II. Forests as a microcosm of sustainable development
4. In addressing the issue of forests and climate change, care must be taken to
consider the full scope of forests in sustainable development. Forests provide much
more than the carbon sequestration valued in the context of climate change, and it
would be a mistake to let that one issue dominate the global forest agenda. If a
single good or service among the many covered by sustainable forest management is
the subject of a disproportionate focus, including significant financing, there is a
__________________
1 United Nations Forum on Forests secretariat, Subject index and thematic clustering of the
IPF/IFF proposals for action, United Nations Forum on Forests resolutions and decisions and
relevant Economic and Social Council resolutions, 2007 (unpublished).
E/CN.18/2009/4
4 09-23599
risk that sustainable forest management could be distorted to the detriment of other
goods and services.
5. In the forest instrument, Member States recognized that forests and trees
outside forests provide multiple economic, social and environmental benefits and
that sustainable forest management contributes significantly to sustainable
development and poverty eradication. As is set out, in its statement of purpose, the
forest instrument is aimed at enhancing the contribution of forests to the
achievement of the internationally agreed development goals, including the
Millennium Development Goals, in particular with respect to the eradication of
extreme poverty and hunger and environmental sustainability.
6. Forests contribute to the livelihoods of at least 1.6 billion people. Some
60 million people, mainly indigenous communities, live within forests, and another
350 million people are highly dependent on forests. Forest industries, both formal
and informal, employ 50 million people. It is estimated that the annual value of
international trade in forest products is approximately $270 billion, with 20 per cent
corresponding to developing countries. The forest sector continues to grow in
economic importance.2
7. Forests are critically important for maintaining vital ecosystem functions and
the services required for sustainable development, such as the conservation of
biodiversity, soil conservation, carbon sequestration, water quality and supply, flood
control and climate regulation. It is estimated that at least 80 per cent of the Earth’s
remaining terrestrial biodiversity is found in forests, which are also a major carbon
sink for regulating the global climate (see sect. III below).
8. Given the importance of forests to sustainable development, societal wellbeing
and the provision of key environmental services, climate change poses a very
serious threat not only to forests and forest ecosystems but also to millions of people
who depend on forests to various degrees for their livelihoods, shelter, food and
water.
III. Forests in the climate change equation
9. Anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions, principally carbon dioxide, are the
main causes of climate change, including global warming. Over the past century,
there has been an average temperature increase of 0.74°C, and 11 of the 12 years
from 1995 to 2006 rank among the 12 warmest years since 1850. Projected increases
in the frequency and intensity of storms, floods, heat waves and drought will affect
the lives of billions of people worldwide. It has been projected by the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change that, if the current trend continues
unabated, global temperature will have increased by 1.8 to 4°C by the end of this
century, affecting most severely the planet’s poorest and most vulnerable and
disadvantaged people.3
10. According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, the largest
increase in greenhouse gas emissions in the period from 1970 to 2004 resulted from
__________________
2 World Bank, Forests Sourcebook (World Bank, Washington, D.C., 2006).
3 United Nations Environment Programme, Global Environment Outlook: Environment for
Development (GEO-4), Summary for Decision Makers (Valletta, 2007), p. 8.
E/CN.18/2009/4
09-23599 5
the energy supply, transport and industry sectors, with lower increases for
residential and commercial buildings and the forest and agriculture sectors. In 2004,
it was estimated that energy supply accounted for 25.9 per cent of all greenhouse
gas emissions; industry, for 19.4 per cent; and forests, for 17.4 per cent, owing
primarily to deforestation and forest degradation.4
11. The parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change,
in decision 5/CP.13, welcomed the fourth assessment report of the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, recognizing it as the most
comprehensive and authoritative assessment on climate change to date. The fourth
assessment report addresses options for limiting greenhouse gas emissions and
mitigating climate change, and concludes that unmitigated climate change would, in
the long term, be likely to exceed the capacity of natural, managed and human
systems to adapt. For the lowest mitigation scenario category assessed, emissions
would need to peak by 2015, and for the highest, by 2090.5
A. Impact of climate change on forests
12. The impact of climate change on forests can be negative or positive, depending
on their geographic location. The impact in drylands or lands with lower
precipitation rates, particularly in Africa and Asia, of increased temperatures and a
drop in rainfall will have far-reaching consequences for forests and the forestdependent
poor, who are already highly vulnerable. In other regions, such as eastern
Central America, there have been increases in precipitation, which can be beneficial,
although higher temperatures and drought during El Niño episodes can still
adversely affect forest ecology.
13. Climate change is having a significant effect on forests through changes in
their physiology, structure, species composition and health, largely resulting from
changes in temperature and rainfall. Also at risk are the important environmental
services that they provide. Of particular concern are the effects that increased
temperatures and drought are having on forest health and productivity: more
frequent outbreaks of pest infestations, more forest fires and increasing alterations
in the populations of plant and animal species.
14. In its fourth assessment report, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change projected that by 2050 increases in temperature and associated decreases in
soil water would lead to the gradual replacement of tropical forests by savannahs in
eastern Amazonia. Many tropical forests in Latin America will experience a loss in
biodiversity.6 It is projected that by 2030, productivity from forests will have
declined over much of southern and eastern Australia and parts of eastern New
Zealand as a result of drought and fire.7
15. One of the most publicized examples of the effects of climate change is the
catastrophic infestation, owing to increased temperatures, of trees in Canada by the
mountain pine beetle (Dendroctonus ponderosae), which has devastated large
__________________
4 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Climate Change 2007: Synthesis Report, available
at http://www.ipcc.ch/ipccreports/ar4-syr.htm.
5 Ibid.
6 Ibid.
7 Ibid.
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6 09-23599
expanses of forests there. In the period from 1997 to 2007, an estimated 13 million
hectares, or 130,000 km2, were destroyed by that pest in western Canada. This
destruction is one order of magnitude greater than that caused by any previous
outbreak.8
16. Global warming due to climate change can also have some positive effects on
forest ecosystems, for example by providing longer growing seasons, especially in
temperate and boreal regions, leading to faster growth. However, unpredictable
changes in composition of flora and fauna and other environmental factors should
not be underestimated.
B. Impact of deforestation and forest degradation on climate
17. Carbon, which is stored in large amounts in trees, understory vegetation and
forest soils, is the key component of the main greenhouse gas contributing to global
warming. Globally, forest ecosystems contained 638 billion tons of carbon in 2005,
half of it (321 billion tons) in forest biomass and dead wood. The amount of carbon
in forests is greater than the amount of carbon currently in the atmosphere.9
18. Deforestation and forest degradation in developing countries are among the
primary sources of carbon emissions from forests, as carbon stored in trees and soil
is quickly released into the atmosphere by burning forests. In 2004, the forest sector
accounted for release of approximately 8.5 billion tons of carbon dioxide, mostly
from deforestation, which is equivalent to 17.4 per cent of total human-generated
carbon dioxide emissions.4
19. In contributing to forest degradation and destruction, climate change is also
exacerbating the release of carbon dioxide and further compounding global
warming. For example, it is estimated that the cumulative impact of the destruction
of forests in western Canada by the mountain pine beetle in the period from 2000 to
2020 as a result of warmer temperatures will be 270 million tons of carbon, an
amount equivalent to the reduction in gas emissions by 2012 to which Canada
committed itself under the Kyoto Protocol.10
IV. Role of forests in responding to climate change
20. Discussion of the role of forests in addressing climate change has been a long
and ongoing process. The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
Change, which was adopted in 1992, recognizes the importance of forests as a sink
for greenhouse gases. In article 4, paragraph 1 (d) of the Convention, parties commit
themselves to promoting sustainable management, and promoting and cooperating
in the conservation and enhancement, as appropriate, of sinks and reservoirs of all
greenhouse gases not controlled by the Montreal Protocol, including biomass,
forests and oceans as well as other terrestrial, coastal and marine ecosystems.
__________________
8 Brian Hoyle (2008), “Plight of the pines”, Nature Reports Climate Change, available at
http://www.nature.com/climate/2008/0805/full/climate.2008.35.html.
9 Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Global Forest Resources Assessment
2005, Forestry Paper 147 (FAO, Rome, 2005), pp. 34 and 35.
10 W. A. Kurtz and others, “Mountain pine beetle and forest carbon feedback to climate change”,
Nature (24 April 2008), pp. 987-990.
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21. Several articles of the Kyoto Protocol, adopted in 1997, including, in
particular, article 3, paragraph 3, make provision for the inclusion of land use, landuse
change and forestry activities by parties as part of their efforts to implement the
Protocol and contribute to the mitigation of climate change. Article 12 of the
Protocol defines the clean development mechanism that allows emission-reduction
projects in developing countries to earn certified emission reduction credits. Such
credits can be traded, sold and used by industrialized countries to meet a part of
their emission-reduction targets. It should be noted, however, that, under the clean
development mechanism, with regard to forestry, only afforestation and
reforestation activities are considered eligible.11
22. Despite the provision for the inclusion of afforestation and reforestation
projects in the clean development mechanism, owing to various methodological and
policy constraints, so far only a negligible number of such projects on forests have
been registered.
23. More recently, forests have been receiving greater attention in climate change
deliberations, not only because of their role in mitigating and adapting to climate
change, but also because of growing concerns about carbon emissions resulting from
deforestation and forest degradation in developing countries, where emissions are
considerable and increasing. Deforestation and forest degradation are receiving
particular attention owing to their significant contribution to global carbon
emissions. Deforestation is causing 35 per cent of emissions in developing
countries, and in the least developed countries the figure is as high as 65 per cent.12
24. The inclusion of the issue of deforestation and forest degradation in
developing countries in the context of combating global warming is gaining ground
in international negotiations and public discussions. The discussions include various
options for public payments and market-based mechanisms to avoid deforestation
and degradation.
25. The Bali Action Plan, adopted by the Conference of the Parties to the United
Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change in December 2007
(decision 1/CP.13), is a two-year process aimed at finalizing a post-2012 regime for
the Kyoto Protocol at the fifteenth session of the Conference of the Parties, to be
held in December 2009. The Bali Action Plan established the Ad Hoc Working
Group on Long-Term Cooperative Action under the Convention to conduct the longterm
cooperative action process, which should be complete by the end of 2009.
Issues to be considered include a shared vision for long-term cooperative action,
mitigation, adaptation, technology development and transfer, as well as finance. In
particular, the Bali Action Plan will address mitigation action by considering policy
approaches and positive incentives on issues relating to reducing emissions from
deforestation and forest degradation in developing countries; and the role of
conservation, sustainable management of forests and enhancement of forest carbon
stocks in developing countries.
__________________
11 See decision 17/CP.7 of the Conference of the Parties to the United Nations Framework
Convention on Climate Change and decisions 3/CMP.1, 5/CMP.1, 6/CMP.1 and 16/CMP.1 of the
Conference of the Parties serving as the Meeting of the Parties to the Kyoto Protocol.
12 Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, State of the World’s Forests 2007
(FAO, Rome, 2007), p. 75.
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26. To this end, the forest instrument can provide a framework for closer
cooperation and collaboration between the Forum on Forest and the Framework
Convention on Climate Change. Global objectives on forests 1 and 3 of the forest
instrument aim, respectively, to reverse the loss of forest cover worldwide through
sustainable forest management, including protection, restoration, afforestation and
reforestation, and increase efforts to prevent forest degradation, and to increase
significantly the area of protected forests worldwide and other areas of sustainably
managed forests, and increase the proportion of forest products from sustainably
managed forests. Moreover, the IPF and IFF proposals for action and resolutions of
the Forum provide a policy body of work which addresses the drivers of
deforestation and forest degradation at the national and international levels that can
contribute significantly to reducing emissions from deforestation and forest
degradation and that can enhance forest carbon stocks through sustainable forest
management.
V. Importance of reducing emissions from deforestation and
forest degradation
27. Reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation was first
addressed as an agenda item at the eleventh session of the Conference of the Parties
to the of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, held in
Montreal in 2005. Two years later, the Conference of the Parties adopted the Bali
Action Plan. In anticipation of an agreement at the fifteenth session of the
Conference of the Parties, a number of activities supported by substantial financial
resources have been initiated in pursuit of the objectives relating to reducing
emissions from deforestation and forest degradation since the thirteenth session of
the Conference of the Parties.
28. In its decision 2/CP.13, entitled “Reducing emissions from deforestation in
developing countries: approaches to stimulate action”, the Conference of the Parties
acknowledged that deforestation and forest degradation result in global
anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions and that such emissions need to be
urgently addressed. It also noted that the reduction of emissions from deforestation
and forest degradation in developing countries requires stable and predictable
resources. It also requested the Subsidiary Body for Scientific and Technological
Advice of the Framework Convention on Climate Change to work on
methodological issues — including estimating and monitoring changes in forest
cover and associated carbon stocks and greenhouse gas emissions — related to a
range of policy approaches and incentives for reducing emissions from deforestation
and forest degradation in developing countries. At the twenty-ninth session of the
Subsidiary Body for Scientific and Technological Advice, held during the fourteenth
session of the Conference of the Parties, the Subsidiary Body adopted a number of
significant conclusions in this regard.13 The Subsidiary Body, inter alia,
(a) Requested its Chair to organize an expert meeting to focus on
methodological issues relating to reference emission levels for deforestation and
forest degradation; the relationship among the reference emission levels and
__________________
13 See FCCC/SBSTA/2008/L.23. In due course, the relevant meeting reports will be available at
the website of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change.
E/CN.18/2009/4
09-23599 9
relevant reference levels; and the role and contribution of conservation, sustainable
management of forests, changes in forest cover and associated carbon stocks and
greenhouse gas emissions and the enhancement of forest carbon stocks to enhance
action on mitigation of climate change and to the consideration of reference levels;
(b) Recommended methodological guidance noting the importance of,
inter alia, promoting the readiness of developing countries, and further mobilization
of resources, in relation to decision 2/CP.13, and recognizing the need to promote
the full and effective participation of indigenous people and local communities,
taking into account national circumstances and noting relevant international
agreements;
(c) Recommended taking into account methodological guidance, including,
inter alia, the use of the Revised 1996 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse
Inventories, and encouraging the use of the Good Practice Guidance for Land Use,
Land-use Change and Forestry, as appropriate;
(d) Requested the secretariat to prepare a technical paper on the cost of
implementing methodologies and monitoring systems;
(e) Invited parties and accredited observers to submit, if appropriate, their
views on issues relating to indigenous people and local communities for the
development and application of methodologies;
(f) Recognized the importance of coordination among parties, organizations
and relevant non-governmental organizations, and requested its Chair to explore
ways of facilitating the coordination of the activities;
(g) Concluded that guidance from the Ad Hoc Working Group on Long-Term
Cooperative Action would facilitate further progress on methodological issues.
29. Accordingly, in order for the initiative to reduce emissions from deforestation
and forest degradation to be finalized, further negotiations are needed, including on
technical, methodological and policy issues, such as the rights of stakeholders, in
particular indigenous peoples, and the opportunity costs of other land uses and
forest management systems. There is also a concern that it should not put at a
disadvantage those countries that have already taken steps to eliminate or reduce
deforestation and to manage their forests sustainably, including through conserving
carbon held in forests. Another concern repeatedly expressed by stakeholders is the
need for a comprehensive approach to forests and sustainable forest management
that goes beyond emission and carbon potentials of forests.
30. Most of the current investment in and financial flows to the forest sector are
not directed at addressing climate change, and less than 25 per cent is invested in
developing countries and countries with economies in transition. Current financial
and investment flows fall far short of what is needed in order for sustainable forest
management to contribute to poverty alleviation, sustainable economic growth and
the effective protection of critical environmental services in developing countries
and countries with economies in transition.14
31. Reducing deforestation and forest degradation in the tropics has the biggest
mitigation potential in the forest sector. The financial flow required for reducing
__________________
14 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, Investment and financial flows to
address climate change (Bonn, Germany, 2007), p. 78.
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deforestation and forest degradation is estimated as the opportunity cost of
converting forests to other land uses, which can differ from one country to another
according to the direct drivers (commercial agriculture, subsistence farming and
wood extraction).15 Based on the Global Forest Resources Assessment update
(FRA 2005) figure that 12.9 million hectares of forest cover were lost per year in the
period from 2000 to 2005, it is estimated that the opportunity cost for reducing
emissions from deforestation and forest degradation is $12.2 billion per year. This
would result in a reduction of 5.8 billion tons of carbon dioxide emissions by
2030.16
32. During the thirteenth session of the Conference of the Parties to the United
Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, held in Bali, the Government
of Norway announced its willingness to provide $600 million annually towards
efforts to reduce carbon emissions from deforestation and forest degradation in
developing countries. The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), the
United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and the Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations (FAO) have established the United Nations
Collaborative Programme on Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest
Degradation in Developing Countries with the short-term aim of working with
countries in the development of national strategies to build monitoring, reporting
and verification capacity. The Collaborative Programme is expected to provide
inputs on experiences gained for negotiations in the context of the Framework
Convention on Climate Change, including the negotiation of a new international
climate change agreement that takes into account emissions from deforestation and
forest degradation, which should be concluded at the fifteenth session of the
Conference of the Parties, to be held in Copenhagen in December 2009. The
Collaborative Programme is initiating quick-start actions for pilot projects in six
developing countries — two each in Africa, Asia and Latin America.17
VI. Opportunities and challenges for the forest sector
A. Opportunities
33. Forests provide great opportunities for adaptation to climate change by
increasing the resilience of people and ecosystems. They will also be a major
mitigation option over the next 30 to 40 years and represent a necessary transitional
measure towards a low-carbon economy. However, given the wide range of goods
and services provided by forests, mitigation and adaptation options in the forest
sector need to be fully understood and used in the context of promoting sustainable
development. Moreover, if forests are to effectively contribute to climate change
solutions, countries, and the international community as a whole, will need to
address several critical governance issues affecting forests, including those relating
to rights, tenure, access, land-use planning, benefit-sharing, institutional and crosssectoral
coordination and law enforcement.
__________________
15 Ibid., pp. 80 and 81.
16 Ibid., table IV-35, p. 81.
17 Communication to the Office of the Secretary-General from the Permanent Mission of Norway
to the United Nations, 21 July 2008.
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34. CPF provides a unique opportunity for a more comprehensive strategic
approach to addressing every aspect of sustainable forest management, including
those aspects related to climate change. The strategic framework for forests and
climate change proposed by CPF provides a strong argument in support of the
strategic role that sustainable forest management can play in achieving long-term
climate change mitigation and a robust and flexible framework for effective
adaptation to climate change.
Key messages of the strategic framework for forests and climate
change of the Collaborative Partnership on Forests
The strategic framework for forests and climate change, prepared
by the Collaborative Partnership on Forests (CPF) for the eighth session
of the Forum on Forests, provides a good foundation for discussing the
issue of forests and climate change, including an analysis of mitigation
and adaptation. It also addresses the key subject of the monitoring and
verification of carbon stock in forests and emissions from deforestation
and forest degradation. The framework presents six messages to the
international community:
Message 1: Sustainable forest management provides an effective
framework for forest-based climate change mitigation and
adaptation.
Message 2: Forest-based climate change mitigation and adaptation
measures should proceed concurrently.
Message 3: Intersectoral collaboration, economic incentives and the
provision of alternative livelihoods are essential for
reducing deforestation and forest degradation.
Message 4: Capacity-building and governance reforms are urgently
required.
Message 5: Accurate forest monitoring and assessment helps informed
decision-making but requires greater coordination at all
levels.
Message 6: CPF members are committed to a collaborative and
comprehensive approach to forest-based climate change
mitigation and adaptation.
35. Several CPF member organizations, including the World Bank, the
International Tropical Timber Organization, FAO, UNEP and UNDP, are already
mobilizing substantial funds in preparing for and implementing initiatives to reduce
emissions from deforestation and forest degradation. At the same time, however, the
forest community needs to intensify its efforts to coordinate activities to address
gaps and identify solutions. In this context, closer collaboration and cooperation
between the Forum on Forests and CPF members would be desirable.
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B. Constraints and challenges
36. The issue of forests and climate change is complicated and requires closer
collaboration among leading players. For example, at its twenty-ninth session, the
Subsidiary Body for Scientific and Technological Advice emphasized the need for
further coordination of activities among parties, organizations and civil society. As
the CPF strategic framework makes clear, intersectoral collaboration, economic
incentives and the provision of alternative livelihoods are essential for reducing
deforestation and forest degradation.
37. Opportunities for synergies in the context of reduction of emissions from
deforestation and forest degradation should be explored with a view to reinforcing
the implementation of mitigation measures aimed at achieving such reductions and
the promotion of sustainable forest management in developing countries (see
E/CN.18/2008/2, sect. V).
38. One principal concern is the fact that, when one single good or service, among
the many covered by sustainable forest management, attracts significant finance,
there is a risk that it can distort or skew the goals of sustainable forest management
to the detriment of other goods and services.
39. The development of a mechanism for reduction of emissions from
deforestation and forest degradation must be based on sound methodologies for
estimating and monitoring changes in forest cover and associated carbon stocks and
greenhouse gas emissions, incremental changes owing to the sustainable
management of forests, and reductions in emissions resulting from deforestation and
forest degradation. The methodological challenges involved have proved to be much
more complicated for forest degradation than for deforestation. A workshop
organized by the secretariat of the Framework Convention on Climate Change on
methodological issues related to reduction of emissions from deforestation and
forest degradation in developing countries, held in Tokyo in 2008, concluded that
addressing the issue of emissions from forest degradation was more difficult than
addressing the issue of emissions from deforestation. It was also noted that there are
different types of forest degradation, and some may be easier to measure than others
(FCCC/SBSTA/2008/11, para. 46).
40. Many developing countries would need extensive capacity-building and
training activities on monitoring, reporting and verification in order to be able to
effectively apply the methodologies for estimating and monitoring carbon emissions
from deforestation and forest degradation. Such an undertaking would require
adequate financial resources. In addition, capacity-building, institutional
development and training are needed for those countries not able to meet even the
minimum requirements for sustainable forest management in the context of the
objectives of the initiative, and even for those that are closer to achieving the
capacity to incorporate monitoring, reporting and verification into their national
processes.
41. The issue of forests and climate change affects a wide range of stakeholders,
who need to be taken into account. The Forest Dialogue has brought many of those
stakeholders together, and, in 2008, in a joint statement entitled “Beyond REDD: the
role of forests in climate change”, they expressed their concern that the
implementation of measures for forest-related climate change mitigation and
adaptation provides not only opportunities, but also risks for indigenous peoples and
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other marginalized groups. Five principles were listed that should be considered in
guiding post-2012 arrangements on climate change:
(a) Ensuring that forest-related climate change options support sustainable
development in both forest-rich and forest-poor countries;
(b) Tackling the drivers of deforestation that lie outside the forest sector;
(c) Supporting transparent, inclusive and accountable forest governance;
(d) Encouraging local processes to clarify and strengthen tenure, property
and carbon rights, giving full recognition to indigenous peoples, small-forest
owners, the forest workplace and local communities;
(e) Providing substantial additional funding to build the capacity to put the
above principles in practice.
C. Promoting climate change mitigation and adaptation strategies
in national forest programmes
42. If mitigation and adaptation options in the forest sector are to be successful,
they need to be fully understood and used in the context of promoting sustainable
development.18 Mitigation and adaptation strategies in response to climate change
will need to be developed and integrated into national forest programmes and, in
turn, into national development strategies. Innovative and emerging solutions are
required, supported by economic policy instruments and public and private sector
investment in sustainable forest management technologies and carbon sequestration
approaches — many of which are already being used. The Forum on Forests, with
the support of the Collaborative Partnership on Forests, could contribute to such a
process.
43. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change defines mitigation as “An
anthropogenic intervention to reduce the anthropogenic forcing of the climate
system; it includes strategies to reduce greenhouse gas sources and emissions and
enhancing greenhouse gas sinks”.19 Mitigation measures for reducing emissions
from deforestation and forest degradation in the forest sector are promising. The
Panel has identified a number of available technologies and practices: afforestation;
reforestation; forest management; reduced deforestation; harvested wood production
management; use of forest products for bioenergy and to replace fossil fuels; tree
species improvement to increase biomass production and carbon sequestration;
improved remote-sensing technologies for analysis of vegetation/soil carbon
sequestration potential; and the mapping of land-use change.
44. The policy measures required are financial incentives to increase forest area,
reduce deforestation, rehabilitate degraded forests, maintain and sustainably manage
forests; and land-use regulation and enforcement. Such policies and corresponding
mitigation measures would contribute to poverty alleviation.4
__________________
18 J. Blaser and C. Robledo, “Not for timber alone — the role of forests in climate change”,
presentation made at Washington, D.C., 2008.
19 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and
Vulnerability, contribution of Working Group II to the fourth assessment report, 2007, appendix I.
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45. Adaptation is defined by the Intergovernmental Panel as “Initiatives and
measures to reduce the vulnerability of natural and human systems against actual or
expected climate change effects”.20 Adaptation is divided into three principal types:
anticipatory adaptation, which refers to actions taken before the impacts of climate
change are observed; autonomous adaptation, also known as spontaneous
adaptation, which is not a conscious response but one that is prompted by ecological
changes in natural systems or in human systems; and planned adaptation, which is
the product of deliberate policy decisions, based on an awareness of changing
conditions and that actions are required to return to, maintain or reach a desired
state.19 While mitigation measures aim to fix and maintain carbon, adaptation seeks
to increase the resilience of people and ecosystems.18
46. According to the Intergovernmental Panel, key vulnerabilities exist in the short
term in the form of drought, insects and fire. Models used by the Panel indicate that
there will be significant forest dieback towards the end of this century and beyond
in tropical, boreal and mountain areas, accompanied by the loss of key services.
Losses of biodiversity are projected, particularly in tropical forest diversity hot
spots such as north-eastern Amazonia and tropical Africa. Mountain forests are
being affected, with a loss of high-altitude habitats.
47. Adaptation practices fall into three different temporal categories: responses to
current variability, which can take advantage of lessons learned from past
adaptations; responses to observed medium- and long-term climate trends; and
anticipatory planning in response to model-based scenarios of long-term climate
change.21 Most practices in the forest sector fall under the first category and
include:
(a) Season climate forecasting, as in the case of El Niño-Southern
Oscillation;
(b) Disease surveillance systems;
(c) Regulation and rationing of the usage of water provided by forests;
(d) Strategies for drought and coastal management;
(e) Strategies for preventing and combating forest fires, including the
construction of fire lines and controlled burning;
(f) Reforestation of mangroves;
(g) Utilization of drought and fire-resistant tree species, such as teak, in
tropical forest plantations;
(h) Establishment of biological reserves and ecological corridors for
protecting ecosystems from the impact of climate change;
(i) Compensation paid to forest owners for environmental services provided
by those forests to society.
48. Adaptive capacity — the ability or potential of a system to respond
successfully to climate change — is a prerequisite for the design and
__________________
20 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Climate Change 2007: Synthesis Report, annex II,
available at http://www.ipcc.ch/ipccreports/ar4-syr.htm.
21 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and
Vulnerability, chap. 17.2.
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implementation of effective adaptation strategies. For most developing countries,
capacity-building and technology transfer will be required. Successful adaptation to
climate change is complex and can be difficult. Policy and planning processes need
to take into account the fact that capacities for adaptation and the processes by
which it occurs differ greatly within and across regions, countries, sectors and
communities. Adaptation can be limited by the extent and rate of climate change, as
well as by technological limitations, financial barriers, informational and cognitive
barriers and social and cultural barriers. In most cases, adaptation is undertaken as
part of broader social and development initiatives.22
49. Much of the focus on adaptation to climate change has been in the areas of
energy demand, sea-level rise and coastal protection, water management, agriculture
and infrastructure. Less attention has been paid to the forest sector. However, at its
eighth session, the Forum on Forests will be afforded the opportunity to address this
important issue in depth for the first time. Through the CPF global forest expert
panel (formerly the joint initiative on science and technology), led by the
International Union of Forest Research Organizations, with the participation of
FAO, UNEP, the secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity, the Centre
for International Forestry Research, the World Agroforestry Centre and the Forum
secretariat, and following consultations during the seventh session of the Forum in
2007 and the twelfth session of the Subsidiary Body for Scientific, Technical and
Technological Advice of the Convention on Biological Diversity, also in 2007, an
expert panel on adaptation of forests to climate change has been established. The
task of the expert panel is to assess the state of knowledge on the adaptation of
forests and forest-dependent people to climate change. The assessment report, which
includes current information about environmental and socio-economic impacts and
vulnerabilities, as well as policy and management options for adaptation, has been
prepared as a contribution to the discussion at the eighth session of the Forum under
the agenda item “Forests in a changing environment”, specifically under the
sub-item “Forests and climate change”.23
VII. Conclusions
50. There is increasing evidence that climate change is seriously affecting
forests throughout the world. Boreal, temperate, subtropical and tropical
forests, including mangroves, are at risk throughout the world.
51. Forests are important for sustainable development, societal well-being and
the provision of key environmental services. Climate change imposes additional
stresses on millions of people on the Earth who depend on forests to different
degrees for their livelihoods, shelter, food and water and, in particular, on the
forest-dependent poor, who are already highly vulnerable.
52. Carbon, thought to be a leading element contributing to global warming,
is stored in large amounts in forest ecosystems, which in 2005 were estimated to
contain 638 billion tons of carbon. The amount of carbon in forests is greater
than the amount of carbon currently in the atmosphere.
__________________
22 Ibid., chap 17.4.
23 See www.iufro.org/publications/view/article/2008/policies-and-instruments-for-the-adaptationof-
forests-and-the-forest-sector-to-impacts-of-climate-c/.
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16 09-23599
53. Deforestation and forest degradation are the primary drivers of carbon
emissions from forests, accounting in 2004 for 17.4 per cent of total humangenerated
carbon dioxide emissions.
54. By contributing to forest degradation and deforestation, climate change is
also exacerbating the release of carbon dioxide and further compounding
global warming.
55. Although forests can play an important role in addressing climate change,
agreement on that role has been a continuing process in the negotiations and
implementation of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
Change and the Kyoto Protocol. Forests have great potential to contribute to
the overall climate change strategy.
56. More recently, the issue of forests has been receiving attention in climate
change negotiations, in particular with respect to the need for reductions in
developing countries’ emissions resulting from deforestation and forest
degradation, which account for 35 per cent of emissions in developing countries
and 65 per cent in the least developed countries.
57. The Bali Action Plan noted the importance of forests in mitigating and
adapting to climate change. The fifteenth session of the Conference of the
Parties to the Framework Convention on Climate Change, to be held in 2009, is
expected to reach agreement on issues relating to reducing emissions from
deforestation and forest degradation in developing countries, which will have a
long-term impact on forest management and financial flows to forests in the
future.
58. In addressing the issue of forests and climate change, care must be taken
to consider the full scope of forests in sustainable development. Forests provide
much more than the carbon sequestration valued in the context of climate
change, and care should be taken so that that one issue does not dominate the
global forest agenda.
59. The best opportunity for the Forum on Forests and its member States to
contribute to the global climate change agenda appears to be through the
promotion of sustainable forest management, including mitigation and
adaptation measures related to climate change. Sustainable forest management
can also contribute to addressing other environmental, social and economic
challenges. In this context, the outcome of the negotiations under the Forum on
financing sustainable forest management could contribute substantively to the
ongoing climate change negotiations.
60. The Collaborative Partnership on Forests provides a unique opportunity
for a more comprehensive strategic approach to addressing every aspect of
sustainable forest management, including those aspects related to climate
change.
United Nations E/RES/2017/4
Economic and Social Council Distr.: General
7 July 2017
2017 session
Agenda item 18 (k)
17-10602 (E)
*1710602*
Resolution adopted by the Economic and Social Council on 20 April 2017
[on the recommendation of the United Nations Forum on Forests (E/2017/10)]
2017/4. United Nations strategic plan for forests 2017–2030 and
quadrennial programme of work of the United Nations
Forum on Forests for the period 2017–2020
The Economic and Social Council,
Recalling its resolution 2015/33 of 22 July 2015, in which it decided that the
United Nations Forum on Forests should develop a concise strategic plan for the
period 2017–2030 to serve as a strategic framework to enhance the coherence of and
guide and focus the work of the international arrangement on forests and its
components, and that it should consider proposals on the replacement of the reference
to the Millennium Development Goals in paragraph 1 (b) of the non-legally binding
instrument on all types of forests 1 with an appropriate reference to the Sustainable
Development Goals and targets, and on the strategic plan for the period 2017 –2030,
Recalling also General Assembly resolution 70/199 of 22 December 2015, in
which the Assembly renamed the non-legally binding instrument on all types of
forests as the United Nations forest instrument,
1. Approves the United Nations strategic plan for forests 2017 –2030 contained
in annex I to the present resolution, and recommends to the General Assembly its
adoption prior to the twelfth session of the United Nations Forum on Forests;
2. Also approves the quadrennial programme of work of the Forum for the
period 2017–2020 contained in annex II to the present resolut ion;
3. Recommends that the General Assembly amend the reference to the
Millennium Development Goals in paragraph 1 (b) of the United Nations forest
instrument2 to read: “To enhance the contribution of forests to the achievement of
the internationally agreed development goals, including the 2030 Agenda for
Sustainable Development3 and the Sustainable Development Goals”.
21st plenary meeting
20 April 2017
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1 General Assembly resolution 62/98, annex.
2 See General Assembly resolutions 62/98 and 70/199.
3 General Assembly resolution 70/1.
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Annex I
United Nations strategic plan for forests 2017–2030
I. Introduction
A. Vision and mission
1. Forests are among the world’s most productive land -based ecosystems and are
essential to life on Earth. The United Nations strategic plan for forests 2017 –2030
provides a global framework for action at all levels to sustainably manage all types
of forests and trees outside forests, and to halt deforestation and forest degradation.
The strategic plan also provides a framework for forest -related contributions to the
implementation of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, 4 the Paris
Agreement adopted under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
Change,5 the Convention on Biological Diversity, 6 the United Nations Convention to
Combat Desertification in Those Countries Experiencing Serious Drought and/or
Desertification, Particularly in Afri ca, 7 the United Nations forest instrument 8 and
other international forest-related instruments, processes, commitments and goals.
2. The strategic plan serves as a reference framework for the forest -related work
of the United Nations system and for the fostering of enhanced coherence,
collaboration and synergies among United Nations bodies and partners towards the
vision and mission set out below. It also serves as a framework to enhance the
coherence of and guide and focus the work of the international arra ngement on
forests and its components.
Shared United Nations vision
3. The shared United Nations vision is of a world in which all types of forests
and trees outside forests are sustainably managed, contribute to sustainable
development and provide economic, social, environmental and cultural benefits for
present and future generations.
Shared United Nations mission
4. The shared United Nations mission is to promote sustainable forest
management and the contribution of forests and trees outside forests to the 2030
Agenda for Sustainable Development, including by strengthening cooperation,
coordination, coherence, synergies and political commitment and action at all levels.
B. Importance of forests to people and the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable
Development
5. Forests cover 30 per cent of the Earth’s land area, or nearly 4 billion
hectares, and are essential to human well -being, sustainable development and the
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4 General Assembly resolution 70/1.
5 See FCCC/CP/2015/10/Add.1, decision 1/CP.21, annex.
6 United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 1760, No. 30619.
7 Ibid., vol. 1954, No. 33480.
8 The United Nations forest instrument was adopted by the United Nations Forum on Forests and the
General Assembly in 2007. It sets out four shared global objectives on forests and 44 national and
international policies, measures and actions to implement sustainable forest management and enhance the
contribution of forests to the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development (see General Assembly
resolutions 62/98 and 70/199).
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health of the planet.9 An estimated 1.6 billion people, or 25 per cent of the global
population, depend on forests for subsistence, livelihood, employment and income
generation.
6. Forests provide essential ecosystem services, such as timber, food, fuel,
fodder, non-wood products and shelter, as well as contribute to soil and water
conservation and clean air. Forests prevent land degradation and desertification and
reduce the risk of floods, landslides, avalanches, droughts, dust storms, sandstorms
and other natural disasters. Forests are home to an estimated 80 per cent of all
terrestrial species. Forests contribute substantially to climate change mitigation and
adaptation and to the conservation of biodiversity.
7. When sustainably managed, all types of forests are healthy, productive,
resilient and renewable ecosystems, providing essential goods and services to
people worldwide. In many regions, forests also have important cultural and
spiritual value. As set out in the United Nations forest instrument, “ sustainable
forest management, as a dynamic and evolving concept, is intended to maintain and
enhance the economic, social and environmental value of all types of forests, for the
benefit of present and future generations”.
8. The sustainable management of forests and trees outside forests is vi tal to the
integrated implementation of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development,
including the achievement of the Sustainable Development Goals, especially
Goal 15, sustainably manage forests, combat desertification, halt and reverse land
degradation and halt biodiversity loss.
9. In recognition of the extraordinary importance of forests to people, the General
Assembly, in its resolution 67/200 of 21 December 2012, proclaimed 21 March as
the International Day of Forests, which is celebrated around the world each year to
raise awareness of and promote action on forest issues.
C. Trends and challenges
10. Despite the crucial contribution of forests to life on Earth and human wellbeing,
deforestation and forest degradation continue in many regions, often in
response to the demand for wood, food, fuel and fibre. Many drivers of
deforestation lie outside the forest sector and are rooted in wider social and
economic issues, including challenges related to reducing poverty, urban
development and policies that favour land uses that produce higher and more rapid
financial returns, such as agriculture, energy, mining and transportation.
11. Forests are also at risk from illegal or unsustainable logging, unmanaged fires,
pollution, dust storms, sandstorms and wind storms, disease, pests, invasive alien
species, fragmentation and the impact of climate change, including severe weather
events, all of which threaten the health of forests and their ability to function as
productive and resilient ecosystems.
12. Continued rapid population growth, as well as rising per capita income, is
accelerating the global demand for and consumption of forest products and services
and putting pressure on forests. With the world population projected to reach
9.6 billion by 2050, meeting future demand for forest products and services depends
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9 For a glossary of forest-related definitions, see the terms and definitions for the most recent Global Forest
Resources Assessment of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (available from
www.fao.org/docrep/017/ap862e/ap862e00.pdf).
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on urgent action and cross-sectoral policy coordination at all levels to secure
sustainable forest management, including forest conservation, restoration and
expansion.
13. At the global level, there is a need to reduce fragmentation and enhance
coordination among the many international organizations, institutions and
instruments addressing forest issues.
14. At the national, local and regional levels, cross -sectoral coordination on
forests can be weak, and forest authorities and stakeholders may not be full partners
in land use planning and development decisions.
15. The effective implementation of sustaina ble forest management is critically
dependent upon adequate resources, including financing, capacity development and
the transfer of environmentally sound technologies and, in particular, the need to
mobilize increased financial resources, including from i nnovative sources, for
developing countries, including least developed countries, landlocked developing
countries and small island developing States, as well as countries with economies in
transition. Implementation of sustainable forest management is also critically
dependent upon good governance at all levels.
D. Opportunities for enhanced and value-added action on sustainable
forest management
16. The launch of the United Nations strategic plan for forests 2017 –2030 comes
at a time of unprecedented opportunity for strengthened and decisive action by all
actors at all levels, within and beyond the United Nations system, to safeguard the
world’s forests and their multiple values, functions and benefits, now and in the
future.
17. The strategic plan is aimed at building on the momentum provided by the 2015
global milestones represented by the adoption of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable
Development, the Addis Ababa Action Agenda of the Third International Conference
on Financing for Development10 and the Paris Agreement adopted under the United
Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change.
18. The United Nations system can contribute to these initiatives and achieve the
vision and mission for forests by advancing a set of global goals and targets in
support of the sustainable management of all types of forests and trees outside
forests.
E. International arrangement on forests
19. The international arrangement on forests is composed of the United Nations
Forum on Forests, a functional commission of the Ec onomic and Social Council,
and the 197 States members thereof, the secretariat of the Forum, the Collaborative
Partnership on Forests, the Global Forest Financing Facilitation Network and the
Trust Fund for the United Nations Forum on Forests. The Forum is the United
Nations body mandated to address forest-related issues in an integrated and holistic
manner and oversees the implementation of the strategic plan and the United
Nations forest instrument, as well as the operation of the Global Forest Financing
Facilitation Network.
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10 General Assembly resolution 69/313, annex.
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20. The work of the Forum is supported by its secretariat, the Trust Fund for the
United Nations Forum on Forests and the Collaborative Partnership on Forests. The
Collaborative Partnership is a voluntary partnership chaired by the Food and
Agriculture Organization of the United Nations and comprising 14 international
organizations with significant programmes on forests. 11 The functions of the Forum,
its secretariat and the Partnership are contained in Economic and Social Council
resolution 2015/33 of 22 July 2015.
21. The international arrangement on forests involves as partners a variety of
international, regional, subregional and non -governmental organizations and
processes with forest-related programmes, and recognizes the important role of
major groups and other relevant stakeholders at all levels in promoting and
achieving sustainable forest management worldwide.
22. The objectives of the international arrangement on forests are:
(a) To promote the implementation of sustainable management of all types of
forests, in particular the implementation of the United Nations forest instrument;
(b) To enhance the contribution of all types of forests and trees outside
forests to the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development;
(c) To enhance cooperation, coordination, coherence and synergies on forest -
related issues at all levels;
(d) To foster international cooperation, including North -South, South-South,
North-North and triangular cooperation, as well as public-private partnerships and
cross-sectoral cooperation, at all levels;
(e) To support efforts to strengthen forest governance frameworks and means
of implementation, in accordance with the United Nations forest instrument, in
order to achieve sustainable forest management.
II. Global forest goals and targets
23. At the heart of the strategic plan are six global forest goals and 26 associated
targets to be achieved by 2030. These goals and targets, set out below, fully
encompass and build on the solid foundation provided by the four global objectives
on forests included in the United Nations forest instrument.
24. The global forest goals and targets are voluntary and universal. They support
the objectives of the international arrangement on forests and are aimed at
contributing to progress on the Sustainable Development Goals, the Aichi
Biodiversity Targets, 12 the Paris Agreement adopted under the United Nations
Framework Convention on Climate Change and other international forest -related
instruments, processes, commitments and goals.
25. The vision, principles and commitments set out in the 2030 Agenda for
Sustainable Development provide the context for the global forest goals and targets,
which are interconnected and integrate the economic, s ocial and environmental
dimensions of sustainable forest management and sustainable development.
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11 For a list of member organizations of the Collaborative Partnership on Forests, see the website of the
Partnership (www.cpfweb.org).
12 See United Nations Environment Programme, document UNEP/CBD/COP/10/27, annex, decision X/2,
annex.
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26. The global forest goals and targets are intended to stimulate and provide a
framework for voluntary actions, contributions and enhanced cooperation by
countries and international, regional, subregional and non -governmental partners
and stakeholders. They also provide a reference for enhanced coherence and
collaboration on forests within the United Nations system and among member
organizations of the Collaborative Partnership on Forests, as well as among other
forest-related organizations and processes.
27. The global forest goals and targets encompass a wide variety of thematic areas
in regard to which voluntary actions, contributions and cooperation are need ed to
advance their achievement. These thematic areas reflect and encompass the
44 policies, measures and actions set out in the United Nations forest instrument.
A non-exhaustive list of indicative thematic areas for action is contained in the
appendix to the present document. Indicative thematic areas may correspond to
more than one goal.
Global forest goal 1
Reverse the loss of forest cover worldwide through sustainable forest
management, including protection, restoration, afforestation and
reforestation, and increase efforts to prevent forest degradation
and contribute to the global effort of addressing climate change
1.1 Forest area is increased by 3 per cent worldwide 13
1.2 The world’s forest carbon stocks are maintained or enhanced
1.3 By 2020, promote the implementation of sustainable management of all
types of forests, halt deforestation, restore degraded forests and
substantially increase afforestation and reforestation globally
1.4 The resilience and adaptive capacity of all types of forest s to natural
disasters and the impact of climate change is significantly strengthened
worldwide
Goal 1 and its targets support and contribute to the achievement of, among other
things, Sustainable Development Goal targets 6.6, 12.2, 13.1, 13.3, 14.2, 15.1 –15.4
and 15.8, as well as Aichi Biodiversity Targets 5, 7, 9, 11, 14 and 15
Global forest goal 2
Enhance forest-based economic, social and environmental benefits, including
by improving the livelihoods of forest-dependent people
2.1 Extreme poverty for all forest-dependent people is eradicated
2.2 Increase the access of small-scale forest enterprises, in particular in
developing countries, to financial services, including affordable credit,
and their integration into value chains and markets
2.3 The contribution of forests and trees to food security is significantly
increased
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13 Based on the Global Forest Resources Assessment 2015.
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2.4 The contribution of forest industry, other forest -based enterprises and
forest ecosystem services to social, economic and environmental
development, among other things, is si gnificantly increased
2.5 The contribution of all types of forests to biodiversity conservation and
climate change mitigation and adaptation is enhanced, taking into
account the mandates and ongoing work of relevant conventions and
instruments
Goal 2 and its targets support and contribute to the achievement of, among other
things, Sustainable Development Goal targets 1.1, 1.4, 2.4, 4.4, 5.a, 6.6, 8.3, 9.3,
12.2, 12.5, 15.6 and 15.c, as well as Aichi Biodiversity Targets 4, 14 and 18
Global forest goal 3
Increase significantly the area of protected forests worldwide and other areas of
sustainably managed forests, as well as the proportion of forest products from
sustainably managed forests
3.1 The area of forests worldwide designated as protected areas or conserved
through other effective area-based conservation measures is significantly
increased
3.2 The area of forests under long-term forest management plans is
significantly increased
3.3 The proportion of forest products from sustainably managed fores ts is
significantly increased
Goal 3 and its targets support and contribute to the achievement of, among other
things, Sustainable Development Goal targets 7.2, 12.2, 12.6, 12.7, 14.2, 14.5, 15.2
and 15.4, as well as Aichi Biodiversity Targets 7, 11, 12 and 16
Global forest goal 4
Mobilize significantly increased, new and additional financial resources from
all sources for the implementation of sustainable forest management and
strengthen scientific and technical cooperation and partnerships
4.1 Mobilize significant resources from all sources and at all levels to
finance sustainable forest management and provide adequate incentives
to developing countries to advance such management, including for
conservation and reforestation
4.2 Forest-related financing from all sources at all levels, including public
(national, bilateral, multilateral and triangular), private and philanthropic
financing, is significantly increased
4.3 North-South, South-South, North-North and triangular cooperation and
public-private partnerships on science, technology and innovation in the
forest sector are significantly enhanced and increased
4.4 The number of countries that have developed and implemented forest
financing strategies and have access to financing from all sou rces is
significantly increased
4.5 The collection, availability and accessibility of forest -related information
is improved through, for example, multidisciplinary scientific assessments
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Goal 4 and its targets support and contribute to the achievement o f, among other
things, Sustainable Development Goal targets 12.a, 15.7, 15.a, 15.b, 17.1 –17.3,
17.6, 17.7 and 17.16–17.19, as well as Aichi Biodiversity Target 19
Global forest goal 5
Promote governance frameworks to implement sustainable forest managemen t,
including through the United Nations forest instrument, and enhance the
contribution of forests to the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development
5.1 The number of countries that have integrated forests into their national
sustainable development plans and/or poverty reduction strategies is
significantly increased
5.2 Forest law enforcement and governance are enhanced, including through
significantly strengthening national and subnational forest authorities,
and illegal logging and associated trade are si gnificantly reduced
worldwide
5.3 National and subnational forest-related policies and programmes are
coherent, coordinated and complementary across ministries, departments
and authorities, consistent with national laws, and engage relevant
stakeholders, local communities and indigenous peoples, fully
recognizing the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous
Peoples14
5.4 Forest-related issues and the forest sector are fully integrated into
decision-making processes concerning land use plannin g and development
Goal 5 and its targets support and contribute to the achievement of, among other
things, Sustainable Development Goal targets 1.4 , 2.4, 5.a, 15.9, 15.c, 16.3,
16.5–16.7, 16.10 and 17.14, as well as Aichi Biodiversity Targets 2 and 3
Global forest goal 6
Enhance cooperation, coordination, coherence and synergies on forest -related
issues at all levels, including within the United Nations system and across
member organizations of the Collaborative Partnership on Forests,
as well as across sectors and relevant stakeholders
6.1 Forest-related programmes within the United Nations system are
coherent and complementary and integrate the global forest goals and
targets, where appropriate
6.2 Forest-related programmes across member organiza tions of the
Collaborative Partnership on Forests are coherent and complementary
and together encompass the multiple contributions of forests and the
forest sector to the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development
6.3 Cross-sectoral coordination and cooperation to promote sustainable
forest management and halt deforestation and forest degradation are
significantly enhanced at all levels
6.4 A greater common understanding of the concept of sustainable forest
management is achieved and an associated set of ind icators is identified
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14 General Assembly resolution 61/295, annex.
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6.5 The input and involvement of major groups and other relevant
stakeholders in the implementation of the strategic plan and in the work
of the Forum, including intersessional work, is strengthened
Goal 6 and its targets support and contribute to the achievement of, among other
things, Sustainable Development Goal target 17.14
III. Implementation framework
28. The United Nations strategic plan for forests 2017 –2030 provides a reference
for ambitious and transformational actions by all actors, at all levels, to achieve its
global forest goals and targets. An overview of roles and responsibilities and means
of implementation is outlined below.
A. Roles and responsibilities
1. Members of the United Nations Forum on Forests
29. The individual and collective actions and commitments of members of the
United Nations Forum on Forests are decisive for the successful implementation of
the strategic plan and achievement of its global forest goals and targets.
30. Members may, on a voluntary basis, determine their contributions towards
achieving the global forest goals and targets, taking into account their national
circumstances, policies, priorities, capacities, levels of development and forest
conditions.
31. Members may include in their voluntary national contributions, as appropriate,
the forest-related contributions they intend to make with regard to other
international forest-related commitments and goals, such as the implementation of
the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development and the Sustainable Development
Goals, the Aichi Biodiversity Targets and actions to address climate change under
the Paris Agreement adopted under the United Nations Framework Convention on
Climate Change.
32. Members may, on a voluntary basis, communicate their progress on the
voluntary national contributions to the United Nations Forum on Forests at regular
intervals determined by the Forum, in accordance with paragraph 67 of the strategic
plan. In order to avoid any additional repo rting burden, such voluntary
communications on their voluntary national contributions may be part of their
voluntary reporting on the strategic plan and the United Nations forest instrument.
33. Members of the Forum, as members of the governing bodies of forest-related
international, regional and subregional organizations and processes, as appropriate,
are encouraged to promote the integration of the global forest goals and targets into
the strategies and programmes of these organizations, processes and in struments,
consistent with their mandates and priorities.
2. United Nations Forum on Forests and its secretariat
34. As part of the United Nations system and the international arrangement on
forests, the United Nations Forum on Forests, in carrying out its core functions as
defined in Economic and Social Council resolution 2015/33, should be guided by
the strategic plan. The Forum’s quadrennial programmes of work are to reflect its
contribution to the global forest goals and targets for each quadrennium.
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35. The Forum is the responsible intergovernmental body for follow -up and
review of the implementation of the strategic plan, including through providing
guidance to the Collaborative Partnership on Forests and ensuring the smooth
interplay between its odd- and even-year sessions.
36. The Forum secretariat services and supports the Forum in all matters related to
the Forum’s quadrennial programmes of work and the strategic plan.
37. The Forum should structure its annual sessions and enhance its intersessi onal
activities to maximize the impact and relevance of its work under the quadrennial
programmes of work, including by fostering cross -sectoral exchanges to enhance
synergies inside and outside the United Nations.
3. Collaborative Partnership on Forests and its member organizations
38. Member organizations of the Collaborative Partnership on Forests play an
important role in implementing the strategic plan and are encouraged to integrate
relevant global forest goals and targets into their forest -related plans and
programmes, where appropriate and consistent with their respective mandates.
39. The Partnership is invited to support the Forum and its members in advancing
the global forest goals and targets, including through cooperation and partnership
among its members, implementing a joint workplan with the Partnership which is
aligned with the Forum’s quadrennial programmes of work and identifying
collective actions by all or subsets of the Partnership’s members, as well as
associated resource needs.
40. Members of the Forum are encouraged to support the Partnership workplan as
an essential strategy for improving cooperation, synergies and coherence among
member organizations of the Partnership. Members of the Forum are also
encouraged to provide voluntary financial contributions to suppo rt the activities of
the Partnership and its member organizations.
4. United Nations system
41. Several United Nations bodies, organizations and specialized agencies not
participating in the Collaborative Partnership on Forests address issues that are
relevant to forests, such as eradication of poverty in its all forms, gender equality
and the empowerment of women, labour standards, small and medium -sized
enterprises, scientific and technical cooperation, disaster risk reduction, ecotourism
and issues related to the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous
Peoples. These bodies, organizations and specialized agencies, within the scope of
their mandates, are invited to use the strategic plan as a reference, with a view to
building synergies between the global forest goals and targets of the strategic plan
and their respective policies and programmes, including their contributions to the
achievement of the Sustainable Development Goals.
42. Close cooperation with the secretariats of, and the par ties to, the Rio
conventions, 15 and mutually supportive implementation of their forest -related
objectives, is important to achieve the global forest goals and targets.
_______________
15 Convention on Biological Diversity, United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification in Those
Countries Experiencing Serious Drought and/or Desertification, Particularly in Africa, and United Nations
Framework Convention on Climate Change.
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43. The United Nations System Chief Executives Board for Coordination is also
invited to promote the use of the strategic plan as a reference for forest -related work
within the United Nations system, where appropriate.
5. Other intergovernmental partners and stakeholders at the international level
44. In addition to under the multilateral environmental agreements that are
represented in the Collaborative Partnership on Forests, forest -related activities are
undertaken under a number of other multilateral environmental agreements, such as
the Convention on Wetlands of International Importanc e especially as Waterfowl
Habitat, 16 the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild
Fauna and Flora 17 and the Convention concerning the Protection of the World
Cultural and Natural Heritage,18 and can make important contributions to the g lobal
forest goals and targets. The secretariats of and parties to these agreements are
invited to seek opportunities to contribute to the implementation of the strategic
plan, where appropriate and consistent with their mandates.
6. Regional and subregional organizations and processes
45. Regional bodies, notably the United Nations regional economic commissions
and the regional forestry commissions of the Food and Agriculture Organization of
the United Nations, and other regional and subregional bodies and processes provide
a crucial bridge between international policies and national actions and are
important partners in efforts to implement the strategic plan and achieve its global
forest goals and targets.
46. The Forum works with regional and subregi onal bodies and processes to
identify ways to contribute to the global forest goals and targets, including by
encouraging them to exchange information, enhance cooperation, raise awareness,
strengthen stakeholder engagement and build capacity to scale up b est practices
within and across regions.
47. Regional and subregional bodies and processes, including those within the
United Nations system, as well as the criteria and indicator processes, are
encouraged to build and strengthen synergies between the st rategic plan and their
policies and programmes, including in the context of their contributions to the
implementation of the Sustainable Development Goals.
48. Members are invited to consider strengthening regional and subregional forest
policy development, dialogue and coordination to advance the strategic plan.
7. Major groups and other stakeholders
49. The effective implementation of sustainable forest management depends on the
contributions of all relevant stakeholders, including forest owners, indi genous
peoples, local communities, local authorities, the private sector (including small,
medium and large forest-based enterprises), non-governmental organizations,
women, children, youth, and scientific, academic and philanthropic organizations at
all levels.
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16 United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 996, No. 14583.
17 Ibid., vol. 993, No. 14537.
18 Ibid., vol. 1037, No. 15511.
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50. The Forum endeavours to work with major groups and other relevant
stakeholders to identify ways to enhance their contributions to the achievement of
the global forest goals and targets at all levels and their interactions with the Forum
and the Collaborative Partnership on Forests, including through networks, advisory
groups and other mechanisms, to raise awareness, foster information exchange and
dissemination and facilitate coordinated inputs.
51. Major groups and other relevant stakeholders s uch as private philanthropic
organizations, educational and academic entities, volunteer groups and others are
encouraged to autonomously establish and maintain effective coordination
mechanisms at all levels for interaction and participation in the Forum and other
forest-related United Nations bodies.
B. Means of implementation
52. Building on the Addis Ababa Action Agenda, which is an integral part of the
2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, the strategic plan provides a reference
for international cooperation and means of implementation, including finance and
capacity-building related to forests, supported by effective institutions, sound
policies, legal frameworks, good governance and partnerships at all levels.
Recognizing that there is no single solution to address all of the needs in terms of
financing for actions to achieve the global forest goals and targets, a combination of
actions is required at all levels to mobilize resources, by all stakeholders and from
all sources, public and private, domestic and international, bilateral and multilateral.
53. The means of implementation targets under Goal 17 and under each
Sustainable Development Goal are key to realizing the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable
Development and are of equal importance with the other Goals and targets. The
Agenda, including the Sustainable Development Goals, can be met within the
framework of a revitalized Global Partnership for Sustainable Development,
supported by the concrete policies and actions as outlined in the Addis Ababa Action
Agenda. Welcoming the endorsement by the General Assembly of the Addis Ababa
Action Agenda, which is an integral part of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable
Development, it is recognized that full implementation of the Addis Ababa Action
Agenda is critical for the realization of the Sustainable Development Goals and
targets.
54. Mobilization of and effective use of financial resources, including new and
additional resources from all sources and at all levels, is crucial. Public policies and
the mobilization and effective use of domestic resources, underscored by the
principle of national ownership and leadership, are central to our common pursuit of
sustainable development.
55. Private business activity, investment and innovation are major drivers of
productivity, inclusive economic growth and job creation, and private international
capital flows, particularly foreign direct investment, along with a stable
international system, are vital complements to national development efforts.
56. International public finance plays an important role in complementing the
efforts of countries to mobilize public resources domestically, especially those with
the greatest needs and the least ability to mobilize other resources. An important use
of international public finance, including official development assistance, is to
catalyse additional resource mobilization from other sources, public and private.
57. Philanthropic organizations and foundations, as well as public -private and multistakeholder
partnerships, also play important roles in the scaling -up of resources for
sustainable forest management and the implementation of the strategic plan.
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58. In advancing the global forest goals and targets, members are encouraged:
(a) To enhance North-South, South-South and triangular regional and
international cooperation on and access to science, technology and innovation and
enhance knowledge-sharing on mutually agreed terms, including through improved
coordination among existing mechanisms, in particular a t the United Nations level,
and through a global technology facilitation mechanism;
(b) To promote the development, transfer, dissemination and diffusion of
environmentally sound technologies to developing countries on favourable terms,
including on concessional and preferential terms, as mutually agreed;
(c) To make full use of the grant and concessional and innovative resources
available to them through United Nations system programmes, funds and
specialized agencies; national funds and domestic resourc es; private funding;
multilateral, regional and subregional development banks and funding institutions;
bilateral development assistance agencies; and funding opportunities provided
through foundations and philanthropic organizations.
59. Eligible countries are encouraged to make full use of the international
resources available, including through:
(a) The Global Environment Facility strategy for sustainable forest
management and the focal areas of the Facility on biodiversity, climate change and
land degradation, which serve as funding mechanisms for the Rio conventions;
(b) The Global Environment Facility strategy and financing for sustainable
forest management under the replenishment processes of the Facility, including
through harnessing synergies acr oss the focal areas of the Facility in order to
reinforce the importance of sustainable forest management for integrating
environmental and development aspirations;
(c) The United Nations Collaborative Programme on Reducing Emissions
from Deforestation and Forest Degradation in Developing Countries, activities
under the Forest Carbon Partnership Facility and the Forest Investment Programme,
and the Green Climate Fund.
60. Members are invited to make full use of the potential of innovative funding
mechanisms, including payment for ecosystem services schemes and existing
mechanisms under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. 19
61. Effective attainment of the global forest goals and targets also requires the
mobilization of the best available scientific and traditional forest -related knowledge.
The scientific community, in cooperation with the Forum and its members, is
encouraged to support the implementation of the strategic plan, through scientific
inputs presented to the Forum. In doing so, the Forum is invited to build upon
existing joint initiatives of the Collaborative Partnership on Forests and further
strengthen these initiatives.
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19 Ibid., Treaty Series, vol. 1771, No. 30822.
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1. Global Forest Financing Facilitation Network
62. The Global Forest Financing Facilitation Network of the United Nations
Forum on Forests, in close cooperation with members of the Collaborative
Partnership on Forests, contributes to the scaling -up of sustainable forest
management by facilitating access by countries to resources to implement the
strategic plan and to achieve its global forest goals and targets. To this end, the
priorities for the Network are:
(a) To promote and assist members in designing n ational forest financing
strategies to mobilize resources for sustainable forest management, including
existing national initiatives, within the framework of national forest programmes or
other appropriate national frameworks;
(b) To assist countries in mobilizing, accessing and enhancing the effective
use of existing financial resources from all sources for sustainable forest
management, taking into account national policies and strategies;
(c) To serve as a clearing house and database on existing, new a nd emerging
financing opportunities and as a tool for sharing lessons learned and best practices
from successful projects, building on the Collaborative Partnership on Forests
online sourcebook for forest financing;
(d) To contribute to the achievement of the global forest goals and targets, as
well as priorities contained in the quadrennial programmes of work.
63. Special consideration should be given to the special needs and circumstances
of Africa, the least developed countries, countries with low fores t cover, countries
with high forest cover, countries with medium forest cover and low deforestation,
and small island developing States, as well as countries with economies in
transition, in gaining access to funds.
2. Trust Fund for the United Nations Forum on Forests
64. The Trust Fund for the United Nations Forum on Forests was established in
2001 to finance activities in support of the Forum from voluntary extrabudgetary
resources to support its activities. The Trust Fund can be used to support the
activities of the Global Forest Financing Facilitation Network. Members of the
Forum are encouraged to provide voluntary contributions to the Trust Fund.
65. The Forum is to monitor and assess the work and performance of the Global
Forest Financing Facilitation Network on a regular basis, including the availability
of Trust Fund resources.
IV. Review framework
A. Review of the international arrangement on forests
66. In accordance with section XII of Economic and Social Council resolution
2015/33, the Forum is to conduct in 2024 a midterm review of the effectiveness of
the international arrangement on forests in achieving its objectives, and a final
review in 2030. In the context of the midterm review, the Forum could consider:
(a) A full range of options, including the adoption of a legally binding
instrument on all types of forests, the strengthening of the current arrangement and
the continuation of the current arrangement;
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(b) A full range of financing options, inter alia, the establishment of a
voluntary global forest fund, in order to mobilize resources from all sources in
support of the sustainable management of all types of forests. This can be further
considered, if there is a consensus to do so, at a session of the Forum prior to 2024.
B. Progress in implementing the United Nations strategic plan for forests
2017–2030
67. The Forum should assess progress in implementing the United Nations strategic
plan for forests 2017–2030 in the context of its midterm and final reviews of the
effectiveness of the international arrangement on forests, in 2024 and 2030. The
assessment should be based on internationally agreed indicators, including relevant
Sustainable Development Goal indicators, that are relevant to the global forest goals
and targets.
68. The assessment should take into account voluntary national reporting on the
implementation of the strategic plan, the United Nations forest instrument, voluntary
national contributions and the results of the most recent Global Forest Resources
Assessment of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations , as well
as inputs from the Collaborative Partnership on Forests and its member
organizations and other partners within and outside the United Nations system,
including regional and subregiona l organizations and relevant stakeholders.
69. To reduce the reporting burden, the Forum is to establish a cycle and format
for voluntary national reporting by its members, taking into account the cycle of the
Global Forest Resources Assessments and the S ustainable Development Goal review
cycle at the global level.
C. Contributing to the follow-up to and review of the 2030 Agenda
for Sustainable Development
70. The United Nations Forum on Forests, as a functional commission of the
Economic and Social Council, should contribute to the follow-up to and review of
the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development and the Sustainable Development
Goals, including through the work of the Collaborative Partnership on Forests on
global forest indicators, as well as high light the contribution of forests to the
Sustainable Development Goals, to be reviewed in depth at the annual sessions of
the high-level political forum on sustainable development.
V. Communication and outreach strategy
71. Communication and outreach are essential components of the strategic plan,
which is itself an important communication tool. A communication and outreach
strategy should be developed to raise awareness, within and outside the forest
sector, of the vital contribution of all types of fore sts and trees to life on Earth and
human well-being. The communication and outreach strategy should draw on the
strategic plan, synchronize with the quadrennial programmes of work and consider
relevant themes, including those which are relevant to the high -level political forum
on sustainable development. Actors at all levels are encouraged to contribute to
these efforts.
72. The communication and outreach strategy should raise the awareness of the
strategic plan, including through its graphic visualization.
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73. The Forum should develop the communication and outreach strategy for the
strategic plan. This strategy should identify, inter alia, target audience s, key
messages, methods, activities and success criteria.
74. The United Nations system, the Collaborative Partnership on Forests and its
member organizations and other partners are encouraged to enhance cooperation and
synergies on forest-related communication and outreach to increase the impact of
their messaging, and to consider joint events and products with national, regional,
subregional and non-governmental organizations and processes.
75. The International Day of Forests on 21 March provides a po werful annual
event to promote implementation of the strategic plan, and is a platform for
individual and collective public outreach activities by all actors on forests at all
levels. Members are encouraged to observe this day in collaboration with other
relevant stakeholders and to inform the Forum about their activities.
Appendix
Indicative thematic areas for action associated with the global forest goals and
targets of the United Nations strategic plan for forests 2017 –2030
The list of indicative thematic areas for action set out below is not exhaustive and is
in no particular order.
Global forest goal 1
Reverse the loss of forest cover worldwide through sustainable forest
management, including protection, restoration, afforestation and reforestat ion,
and increase efforts to prevent forest degradation and contribute to the global
effort of addressing climate change
The indicative thematic areas for action are:
(a) Reduction in/halting of deforestation
(b) Reduction in/halting of forest degradation
(c) Maintenance and improvement of forest health
(d) Reforestation and afforestation
(e) Forest landscape restoration and rehabilitation
(f) Natural forest regeneration
(g) Contribution of forests to climate change mitigation and adaptation
(h) Reduction in/halting of loss of forest biodiversity
(i) Mitigating the impact of invasive alien species
(j) Mitigating the impact of air pollution
(k) Fire control and management
(l) The role of forests in preventing land degradation and desertification
(m) Combating sandstorms and dust storms
(n) Wildlife protection and management
(o) Innovative approaches to the sustainable management of natural and planted
forests
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(p) Disaster risk reduction
(q) Control of mining activities within and adjacent to fores ts
(r) Mitigating the impact of air, water and soil pollution
Global forest goal 2
Enhance forest-based economic, social and environmental benefits, including
by improving the livelihoods of forest-dependent people
The indicative thematic areas for action are:
(a) Contribution of forests to poverty eradication and livelihoods
(b) Community/collaborative forest management
(c) Value-added forest product production and processing
(d) Working conditions and wages of forest workers
(e) Competitiveness and diversification of forest products
(f) Valuation of forest goods and services
(g) Payments for ecosystem services
(h) Protective functions of forests (soil and water management)
(i) Conservation and sustainable use of genetic diversity of forests and trees
outside forests
(j) Traditional forest-related knowledge
(k) Forest-related education, training and extension
(l) Forests and trees in the urban context
(m) Sustainable production and consumption of forest products
(n) Socioeconomic functions of forests
(o) Ecotourism development
(p) Importance and characteristics of different forest types (e.g. boreal, temperate,
tropical)
(q) Agroforestry
(r) Research
(s) New and innovative forest products
(t) The role of women and girls in sustainable forest management
(u) Sustainable building materials
Global forest goal 3
Increase significantly the area of protected forests worldwide and other areas
of sustainably managed forests, as well as the proportion of forest products
from sustainably managed forests
The indicative thematic areas for action are:
(a) Management of protected forest areas and networks
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(b) Enhancing conservation through other effective area -based conservation
measures, including by establishing and expanding national parks where
appropriate
(c) Conservation and sustainable use of forest biodiversity, including in
production forests
(d) Sustainable management of forests used for production of wood and non -wood
forest products
(e) Productive functions of forests
(f) Wood for energy and fuelwood, including sustainable use of woody biomass
(g) Competitiveness of sustainably managed forest products
(h) Market-based tools
(i) Incentives for sustainable forest management and other public policy tools
(j) Legality verification and traceability of for est products
(k) Approaches for reduced-impact logging
(l) Application of spatial and land use planning tools
(m) The role of indigenous peoples and local communities in sustainable forest
management
(n) Building markets and infrastructure to promote prod uction and consumption of
sustainably managed forest products
(o) Conservation and sustainable use of forest biodiversity
Global forest goal 4
Mobilize significantly increased, new and additional financial resources from
all sources for the implementation of sustainable forest management and
strengthen scientific and technical cooperation and partnerships
The indicative thematic areas for action are:
(a) Means of implementation to achieve sustainable forest management
(b) Funding support for implementation of the United Nations forest instrument
(c) International public funding and national budgets
(d) Foreign and domestic private sector investment in sustainable forest
management and forest-based enterprises
(e) Capacity-building to access and mobilize funds for sustainable forest
management
(f) Expertise in expanding capacity-building in developing countries
(g) Public-private partnerships
(h) Environmentally sound and innovative forest -based technology and know-how
(i) North-South, South-South and triangular technical and scientific cooperation
(j) North-North technical and scientific cooperation
(k) Efficiency of forest-based industries
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(l) Forest science-policy interface
(m) Best practices and innovative tools
(n) Regional and subregional financing sources and mechanisms
(o) Programmes and pilots for the implementation of the United Nations forest
instrument and strategic plan
Global forest goal 5
Promote governance frameworks to implement sustainable forest management,
including through the United Nations forest instrument, and enhance the
contribution of forests to the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development
The indicative thematic areas for action are:
(a) Cross-sectoral coordination at all levels
(b) Integration of forest values into national planning and accounting
(c) Enabling environments for investment in sustainable forest management
(d) Forest law enforcement, governance and trade
(e) Illegal logging and associated trade
(f) Forest land tenure and land ownership
(g) Gender equality in the forest sector, including empowerment of women and girls
(h) Stakeholder engagement at all levels
(i) Public involvement in forest decision-making
(j) Civil society partnerships
(k) The role of research in sustainable forest management
(l) Criteria and indicators for sustainable forest management
(m) Forest inventories and availability of reliable forest data and statistics
(n) National forest inventories and other official forest -related data
(o) Legal policy and institutional framework for sustainable forest management
Global forest goal 6
Enhance cooperation, coordination, coherence and synergies on forest -related
issues at all levels, including within the United Nations system and across
member organizations of the Collaborative Partnership on Forests,
as well as across sectors and relevant stakeholders
The indicative thematic areas for action are:
(a) Enhanced coherence and reduced fragmentation in global forest governance
(b) Coherence, collaboration and cooperation among forest -related programmes
and initiatives
(c) Joint initiatives and joint programming of the Collaborative Partnership on
Forests
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(d) Collaboration and cooperation between members of the Forum, the
Collaborative Partnership on Forests and regional and subregional
organizations and processes, as well as major groups and other nongovernmental
stakeholders
(e) Harmonized programmes of work and programmes of action at all levels
(f) Strengthened and harmonized data collection and reporting cycles and formats
(g) Coordination initiatives among criteria and indicator processes
(h) Common understanding of sustainable forest management
(i) Regional and subregional coordination mechanisms
Annex II
Quadrennial programme of work of the United Nations Forum
on Forests for the period 2017–2020
1. The United Nations Forum on Forests carries out its core functions on the basis
of the United Nations strategic plan for forests 2017–2030. The Forum’s quadrennial
programme of work represents its contribution to implementing the strategic plan and
sets the agenda for each session of the Forum within the quadrennium.
2. The quadrennial programme of work identifies thematic and operational
priorities, priority actions and resource needs.
3. The quadrennial programme of work reflects the linkage between odd -year and
even-year sessions of the Forum. As a general rule:
(a) Odd-year sessions focus on discussions on implementation and technical
advice, including exchange of experiences among members of the Forum, member
organizations of the Collaborative Partnership on Forests, regional and subregional
organizations, major groups and other relevant stakeholders, and th e science-policy
interface. The output of odd-year sessions is a chair ’s summary report of those
discussions, including possible proposals, which is reported to the Forum at its
subsequent session in the even-numbered year for further consideration and
recommendations;
(b) Even-year sessions focus on policy dialogue, development and decision -
making, taking into account the discussions and proposals of the previous session.
The substantive output of even-year sessions is a concise Forum resolution or
decision on the next steps;
(c) Odd-year and even-year sessions for a given biennium are thematically
linked. Thematic and operational priorities, priority actions and resource needs for
each biennium are identified by the Forum on the basis of the global forest goals
and targets contained in the strategic plan, taking into account the annual themes
and Sustainable Development Goals20 under review by the high-level political forum
on sustainable development;
(d) The Forum sessions and their outcomes, as well as intersessional work,
should maximize the impact and relevance of the work of the Forum.
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20 See General Assembly resolution 70/1.
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4. Intersessional activities, including country-led initiatives and other similar
initiatives, can contribute to the quadrennial programmes of work and the
implementation of the strategic plan.
5. The twelfth and fourteenth sessions of the Forum will focus on technical
advice, and the thirteenth and fifteenth sessions on policy dialogue, development
and decision-making (see tables 1 to 4 below).
6. Given that the twelfth session of the Forum, to be held in 2017, is the first
session following the adoption of Economic and Social Council resolution 2015/33
on 22 July 2015 and the strategic plan, it is transitional in nature and may take
decisions on matters called for in the resolution as needed to facilitate the work of
the Forum.
Table 1
Twelfth session of the United Nations Forum on Forests, 2017
Priority actions
1. Implementation of the United Nations strategic plan for forests 2017–2030
(a) Technical discussion and exchange of experiences on the thematic and operational
priorities, priority actions and resource needs for the period 2017 –2018, taking into account the
review cycle of the high-level political forum on sustainable development during the bi ennium
and the theme of the International Day of Forests
(b) Format for voluntary national contributions and voluntary announcement, where
appropriate
(c) United Nations system-wide contributions to the implementation of the global forest goals
and targets
2. Monitoring, assessment and reporting
(a) Cycle and format for voluntary national reporting on the implementation of the strategic
plan, including the United Nations forest instrument (para. 16 ( c)) 21 and voluntary national
contributions
(b) Progress on the development of global forest indicators
(c) Measures to better synchronize data collection and reduce the reporting burden (para. 16 ( b))
3. Means of implementation
(a) Initial discussions on the guidelines for the operation of the Glo bal Forest Financing
Facilitation Network and the availability of resources (para. 6 ( f) (iv))
(b) Progress on the activities and operation of the Global Forest Financing Facilitation Network
4. Enhanced cooperation, coordination and engagement on forest-related issues
(a) Information on the Collaborative Partnership on Forests workplan and actions to strengthen
its operations in support of the strategic plan and the quadrennial programme of work for the
period 2017–2020
(b) Regional and subregional partners
(c) Major groups and other relevant stakeholders
_______________
21 Citations in parentheses refer to the relevant paragraphs of Economic and Social Council resolution 2015/33.
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Priority actions
(d) Revision of the existing guidelines for country-led initiatives and similar initiatives to
enhance their contribution to the work of the Forum (para. 6 (e))
(e) Communication and outreach activities
(f) Information on intersessional activities
5. Emerging issues and challenges
6. Trust Fund for the United Nations Forum on Forests
Table 2
Thirteenth session of the United Nations Forum on Forests, 2018 (policy session)
Priority actions
1. Implementation of the United Nations strategic plan for forests 2017–2030
(a) Policy dialogue on the thematic and operational priorities, priority actions and resource
needs for the period 2017–2018, taking into account the review cycle of the high-level political
forum on sustainable development during the biennium and the theme of the International Day
of Forests
(b) Voluntary announcement of voluntary national contributions
(c) United Nations system-wide contributions to the implementation of the global forest goals
and targets
(d) Development of the strategic plan communication and outreach strategy
2. Monitoring, assessment and reporting
(a) Progress on the implementation of the strategic plan, including the United Nations forest
instrument and voluntary national contributions
(b) Progress on the development of global forest indicators
3. Means of implementation
(a) Progress on the activities and the operation of the Global Forest Financing Facilitation Network
(b) Guidelines for the operation of the Global Forest Financing Facilitation Network
(c) Measures to increase the effectiveness and efficiency of the Global Forest Financing
Facilitation Network (para. 14 ( a))21
4. Emerging issues and challenges
5. Trust Fund for the United Nations Forum on Forests
6. Information on intersessional activities
7. Progress in the implementation of Economic and Social Council resolution 2015/33 (para. 56)
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Table 3
Fourteenth session of the United Nations Forum on Forests, 2019 (implementation
and technical advice)
Priority actions
1. Implementation of the United Nations strategic plan for forests 2017–2030
(a) Technical discussion and exchange of experiences on the thematic and operational
priorities, priority actions and resource needs for the period 2019 –2020, taking into account the
review cycle of the high-level political forum on sustainable development during the biennium
and the theme of the International Day of Forests
(b) Voluntary announcement of voluntary national contributions
(c) United Nations system-wide contributions to the implementation of the global forest goals
and targets
2. Monitoring, assessment and reporting
(a) Progress on the implementation of the strategic plan, including the United Nations forest
instrument and voluntary national contributions
(b) Progress on the development of global forest indicators
3. Means of implementation: progress on activities and the operation of the Global Forest
Financing Facilitation Network, and availability of resources (para s. 6 (f) (iii) and (iv))21
4. Enhancing global forest policy coherence and a common international understanding of
sustainable forest management (para. 6 (f) (ii))
5. Enhanced cooperation, coordination and engagement on forest -related issues
(a) Activities of the Collaborative Partnership on Forests in support of the strategic plan and
the quadrennial programme of work for the period 2017 –2020
(b) United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change : implementation of the Paris
Agreement
(c) Convention on Biological Diversity: Aichi Biodiversity Targets
(d) Regional and subregional partners
(e) Major groups and other relevant stakeholders
(f) Communication and outreach activities
(g) Cross-sectoral engagement
(h) Information on intersessional activities
6. Emerging issues and challenges
7. Trust Fund for the United Nations Forum on Forests
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Table 4
Fifteenth session of the United Nations Forum on Forests, 2020 (policy session)
Priority actions
1. Implementation of the United Nations strategic plan for forests 2017–2030
(a) Policy dialogue on the thematic and operational priorities, priority actions and resource
needs for the period 2019–2020, taking into account the review cycle of the high -level political
forum on sustainable development during the biennium and the theme of the International Day
of Forests
(b) Voluntary announcement of voluntary national contributions
(c) United Nations system-wide contributions to the implementation of the global forest goals
and targets
2. Monitoring, assessment and reporting: progress on the implementation of the strategic plan,
including the United Nations forest instrument and voluntary national contributions
3. Means of implementation: availability of resources for the Global Forest Financing Facilitation
Network (para. 14 (a))21 and its priority actions and resource needs for the quadrennial programme
of work for the period 2021 –2024
4. Emerging issues and challenges
5. Trust Fund for the United Nations Forum on Fo rests
6. High-level segment, including forest partnership forum with the Collaborative Partnership on
Forests and non-governmental organizations and private sector chief executive officers (para. 6 (d))
7. Adoption of the quadrennial programme of work for the period 2021–2024, including
consideration of its priority actions and the resources needed
United Nations A/RES/71/285
General Assembly Distr.: General
1 May 2017
Seventy-first session
Agenda item 19
17-06823 (E)
*1706823* Please recycle
Resolution adopted by the General Assembly on 27 April 2017
[without reference to a Main Committee (A/71/L.63)]
71/285. United Nations strategic plan for forests 2017–2030
The General Assembly,
Recalling Economic and Social Council resolution 2017/4 of 20 April 2017, in
which the Council adopted the United Nations strategic plan for forests 2017 –2030
on the recommendation of the United Nations Forum on Forests at its special
session held on 20 January 2017,1
Decides to adopt the United Nations strate gic plan for forests 2017–2030 as
contained in annex I to Economic and Social Council resolution 2017/4.
79th plenary meeting
27 April 2017
_______________
1 See E/2017/10.
PART V (C): Other select documents on the environment