Separate opinion of Judge ad hoc Momtaz

Document Number
164-20230330-JUD-01-13-EN
Parent Document Number
164-20230330-JUD-01-00-EN
Date of the Document
Document File
Bilingual Document File

SEPARATE OPINION OF JUDGE AD HOC MOMTAZ
[Translation]
Jurisdiction of the Court  Claims relating to Bank Markazi’s rights under Articles III, IV and V of the Treaty of Amity  Jurisdiction ratione materiae of the Court  Primacy of the criterion of the nature of the transaction over the criterion of its function  Article I of the Treaty of Amity —Article I as a lodestar for interpretation of the Treaty’s provisions.
1. To my great regret, I had to vote against the first subparagraph of the operative part of the International Court of Justice’s Judgment of 30 March 2023 on the merits in the case concerning Certain Iranian Assets (Islamic Republic of Iran v. United States of America). I am unable to support the reasoning of the Court in reaching the conclusion that Bank Markazi is not entitled to the treatment provided for by Articles III, IV and V of the 1955 Treaty of Amity, Economic Relations, and Consular Rights (hereinafter “Treaty of Amity”) in respect of its investment activities, and that the Court itself therefore lacks jurisdiction ratione materiae over that question. The Court thus supports the United States’ objection that Bank Markazi is not a “company” within the meaning of those articles.
2. In the opinion of the Court, the investment in and management of the 22 security entitlements purchased by Bank Markazi on the United States financial market during the relevant period (2002-2007) cannot be characterized as commercial activities. According to the Court, “the operations in question were carried out within the framework and for the purposes of [the] principal activity” (Judgment, para. 50) of Bank Markazi, the central bank of Iran, from which they are inseparable, namely the implementation of monetary policies such as maintaining price stability and managing foreign currency reserves — eminently sovereign tasks. Thus, in its view, these operations “are merely a way [for Bank Markazi] of exercising its sovereign function . . . and not commercial activities performed by [it] ‘alongside [its] sovereign functions’, to use the words of the 2019 Judgment” (ibid.). In my view, in characterizing the said operations as sovereign rather than commercial on the basis of the criterion of the purpose pursued by Bank Markazi, the Court preferred to break new ground and disregard the primacy of the criterion of the nature of the transaction, as established in customary international law, as well as the object and purpose of the Treaty of Amity.
3. The primacy of the criterion of the nature of the transaction. The United Nations Convention on Jurisdictional Immunities of States and Their Property of 2 December 2004 establishes the primacy of the criterion of the nature of the transaction. According to Article 2, paragraph 2, of the Convention, in determining whether a transaction is commercial,
“reference should be made primarily to the nature of the contract or transaction, but its purpose should also be taken into account . . . if, in the practice of the State of the forum, that purpose is relevant to determining the non-commercial character of the contract or transaction” (emphasis added).
It would therefore appear that in State practice there is a hierarchy of criteria favouring the nature of the transaction in determining whether it has a commercial character, with priority thus being given to the nature criterion.
4. In its commentary on that provision, the International Law Commission states that the purpose criterion is designed “to provide a supplementary standard for determining, in certain cases, whether a particular contract or transaction is ‘commercial’ or ‘non-commercial’. The ‘purpose’ test
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should not therefore be disregarded totally.”1 According to the same commentary, this test was included in Article 2, paragraph 2, of the Convention with a view to protecting “developing countries” by enabling them to enjoy immunity for certain transactions supported by raison d’État, such as the procurement of food supplies to feed a population, relieve a famine situation or revitalize a vulnerable area, or the purchase of medication to combat a spreading epidemic2, which is clearly not the situation in the present case.
5. Moreover, under that provision, the application of the purpose test depends on the practice of the State that is party to the transaction. However, there is no such practice in the present case. In the United States, for the purpose of determining whether a transaction is commercial, the Foreign Sovereign Immunities Act (FSIA) as amended in 1996 refers only to the criterion of the nature of the activity, making no reference to the criterion of purpose3, as confirmed by the jurisprudence in Weltover4. The same is true of the legal order in Iran, whose 1972 Monetary and Banking Act provides that, like all Iranian State companies, Bank Markazi is subject to income tax if it carries out commercial transactions5.
6. To support its reasoning in the Jurisdictional Immunities of the State case6, the International Court of Justice based itself on the United Nations Convention on Jurisdictional Immunities of States and Their Property despite the fact that it had yet to enter into force7 — a clear recognition of the customary nature of some of its provisions, including those concerning the criteria for determining the commercial nature of a transaction.
7. In the present case, in its Judgment on preliminary objections rendered on 13 February 2019, the Court, in response to the United States’ argument that the treatment of Bank Markazi fell outside
1 Yearbook of the International Law Commission, 1991, Vol. II, Part Two, p. 20, para. 27.
2 Ibid., para. 26.
3 Section 1603 (d) of the FSIA.
4 Republic of Argentina v. Weltover Inc., 504 US 607 (1992), p. 614 (Weltover commercial activity test). See: Avi Lew, “Republic of Argentina v. Weltover, Inc.: Interpreting the Foreign Sovereign Immunity Act’s Commercial Activity Exception to Jurisdictional Immunity”, Fordham International Law Journal, 1993, Vol. 17, Issue 3, pp. 725-775. Further, according to Joseph F. Morrissey,
“[c]ourts have struggled with the first step of the analysis demanded by this provision: defining what constitutes commercial activity. This struggle seems to be abating, with agreement developing among the courts that activity is commercial for purposes of this exception where its nature is commercial and where it is an activity capable of being undertaken by a private party. Purpose is deemed irrelevant.” (“Simplifying the Foreign Sovereign Immunities Act: If a Sovereign Acts like a Private Party, Treat It like One”, Chicago Journal of International Law, 2005, Vol. 5, No. 2, pp. 683-684).
According to Jürgen Bröhmer, “[s]ection 1603 (d) FSIA defines the term ‘commercial activity’ as commercial conduct, transactions, or activities and stipulates that the ‘commercial character of an activity shall be determined by reference to the nature of the course of conduct or particular transaction or act, rather than by reference to its purpose’” (“State Immunity and Sovereign Bonds”, in Anne Peters (ed.), Immunities in the Age of Global Constitutionalism, Brill, 2014, p. 189).
5 Art. 24, para. (b), of the Monetary and Banking Act.
6 Jurisdictional Immunities of the State (Germany v. Italy: Greece intervening), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2012 (I), pp. 138-139, paras. 89-90.
7 According to Art. 30 of the Convention, that instrument “shall enter into force on the thirtieth day following the date of deposit of the thirtieth instrument of ratification, acceptance, approval or accession with the Secretary-General of the United Nations”. However, on the date the present Judgment was rendered, the number of instruments deposited by States had yet to reach that threshold (United Nations Convention on Jurisdictional Immunities of States and Their Property, 2 December 2004).
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its jurisdiction, declared that the objection in question did not possess, in the circumstances of the case, an exclusively preliminary character.
8. A reading of the 2019 Judgment on preliminary objections suggests that this invitation for the Parties to the dispute to present additional factual evidence concerns the nature of Bank Markazi’s activities in the United States during the relevant period. According to the 2019 Judgment,
“there is nothing to preclude, a priori, a single entity from engaging both in activities of a commercial nature (or, more broadly, business activities) and in sovereign activities.
In such a case, since it is the nature of the activity actually carried out which determines the characterization of the entity engaged in it, the legal person in question should be regarded as a ‘company’ within the meaning of the Treaty to the extent that it is engaged in activities of a commercial nature, even if they do not constitute its principal activities.”8
The Court thus considered that it would be necessary to examine the commercial nature of the activities carried out by Bank Markazi9.
9. There is little doubt that Bank Markazi’s purchase and sale of securities are the same operations as those carried out by any commercial bank. Therefore, based on the nature criterion, they must be regarded as commercial transactions and, as such, enjoy the protection accorded in respect of such operations to companies of the parties to the Treaty of Amity, under the relevant provisions thereof.
10. Neither Party to the dispute was able to provide any additional factual evidence relating to Bank Markazi’s commercial activities in the United States during the relevant period at this stage of the proceedings, as the Court had asked them to do. Their inability to do so certainly does not justify the new requirement imposed by the Court that, in order for a transaction carried out by Bank Markazi to be characterized as commercial, it must have no link with a sovereign activity. Indeed, in its Judgment on the merits, the Court affirms:
“consideration cannot be limited to a transaction — or series of transactions — ‘as such’, carried out by that entity. That transaction — or series of transactions — must be placed in its context, taking particular account of any links that it may have with the exercise of a sovereign function.” (Judgment, para. 51.)
Moreover, the fact that the 2019 Judgment, as the Court is careful to note, did not mention that requirement is not in itself sufficient for this new criterion to be considered “relevant” (ibid.) in its examination of the case at the present stage.
11. Conformity of the criterion of the nature of the transaction with the object and purpose of the Treaty. The phrase “the object and purpose” of the treaty to be interpreted — codified in Article 31 of the 1969 Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties — can now be found in the
8 Certain Iranian Assets (Islamic Republic of Iran v. United States of America, Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2019 (I), pp. 38-39, para. 92.
9 Ibid., p. 39, para. 93; see also ibid., p. 38, para. 91.
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methodology of the Court, which consistently recalls that “customary international law [is] reflected” in that provision10.
12. The Treaty of Amity is not merely a commercial treaty, a term which does not even appear in its preamble. Its aim is not only to establish closer relations but also to deepen and strengthen the friendship between the contracting parties. In fact, the object and purpose of the Treaty is set out in Article I, which provides that “[t]here shall be firm and enduring peace and sincere friendship between the United States of America and Iran”.
13. The Court previously addressed the importance of the position of this provision, and its meaning and scope, at the preliminary objections stage of the Oil Platforms case11, at a time when relations between the parties were already very strained. According to the Court,
“by incorporating into the body of the Treaty the form of words used in Article I, the two States intended to stress that peace and friendship constituted the precondition for a harmonious development of their commercial, financial and consular relations and that such a development would in turn reinforce that peace and that friendship. It follows that Article I must be regarded as fixing an objective, in the light of which the other Treaty provisions are to be interpreted and applied.”12
This important provision can thus be considered a lodestar for interpretation of the Treaty of Amity, one that the Court preferred to disregard in the present case, backtracking without good reason on the interpretative guidelines that it had set out in respect of the same Treaty in its Judgment in the Oil Platforms case.
14. In the opinion of the Court,
“[t]he spirit and intent set out in this Article animate and give meaning to the entire Treaty and must, in case of doubt, incline the Court to the construction which seems more in consonance with its overall objective of achieving friendly relations over the entire range of activities covered by the Treaty”13.
This question arises in the present case as regards the possibility of according Bank Markazi the protections owed under the provisions at issue, in respect of its activities in the United States during the relevant period.
15. Bank Markazi’s activities indisputably fall within this framework. As the central bank of Iran, it plays a key role in fostering commerce with the United States and, as such, is involved in ensuring that this general objective is achieved. Among other things, Bank Markazi provides foreign exchange for Iranian companies that do business with the United States. There is little doubt that the freezing of its assets by the United States authorities has dealt a severe blow to commerce with that country, especially considering that these assets represent approximately US$2 billion, the unblocking of which is the principal object of Iran’s Application instituting proceedings before the Court.
10 Territorial Dispute (Libyan Arab Jamahiriya/Chad), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1994, p. 21, para. 41.
11 Oil Platforms (Islamic Republic of Iran v. United States of America), Preliminary Objection, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1996 (II), p. 814, para. 28, and p. 820, para. 52.
12 Ibid., p. 814, para. 28.
13 Ibid., p. 820, para. 52.
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16. I regret that the approach that the Court itself set out in 1996 was not followed in the present case, making any resumption of commercial relations between the Parties all the more difficult.
(Signed) Djamchid MOMTAZ.
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Bilingual Content

255
OPINION INDIVIDUELLE DE M. LE JUGE AD HOC MOMTAZ
Compétence de la Cour — Demandes se rapportant aux droits de la
banque Markazi en vertu des articles III, IV et V du traité d’amitié
— Compétence ratione materiae de la Cour — Primauté du critère de la
nature de la transaction sur celui de sa fonction — L’article premier du
traité d’amitié — « Torche interprétative » de ses dispositions.
1. À mon grand regret, j’ai été amené à voter contre le premier point du
dispositif de l’arrêt au fond du 30 mars 2023 de la Cour internationale de
Justice en l’affaire relative à Certains actifs iraniens (République islamique
d’Iran c. États-Unis d’Amérique). Je ne peux en effet m’associer au raisonnement
suivi par la Cour pour arriver à la conclusion que la banque Markazi
ne peut prétendre, pour ses activités d’investissement, au traitement prévu
au titre des articles III, IV et V du traité d’amitié, de commerce et de droits
consulaires de 1955 (ci-après le « traité d’amitié ») et qu’elle-même n’est, par
conséquent, pas compétente ratione materiae pour connaître de cette question.
La Cour souscrit ainsi à l’exception soulevée par les États-Unis selon
laquelle la banque Markazi n’est pas une « société » au sens de ces articles.
2. De l’avis de la Cour, les activités d’investissement et de gestion des
22 titres de créance acquis par la banque Markazi sur le marché financier des
États-Unis pendant la période pertinente (2002-2007) ne peuvent être qualifiées
d’activités commerciales. En effet, selon la Cour, « les opérations en
cause ont été réalisées dans le cadre et pour les besoins de l’activité principale
de la banque Markazi » (arrêt, par. 50), banque centrale de l’Iran, dont elles ne
sont pas séparables, à savoir la mise en oeuvre des politiques monétaires telles
que le maintien de la stabilité des prix et la gestion de ses réserves de devises
étrangères, missions éminemment régaliennes. Ainsi, selon la Cour, ces
opérations
« ne constituent qu’une modalité d’exercice de [l]a fonction souveraine
[de la banque Markazi], et non des activités commerciales qu[’elle]
aurait exercées “à côté de [ses] fonctions souveraines”, pour reprendre les
termes de l’arrêt de 2019 » (ibid.). J’estime que, en se fondant sur le critère de
l’objectif poursuivi par la banque Markazi pour qualifier lesdites opérations
de souveraines et non commerciales, la Cour a préféré innover et ne pas tenir
compte de la primauté du critère de la nature de la transaction conformément
au droit international coutumier, ni de l’objet et du but du traité d’amitié.
3. La primauté du critère de la nature de la transaction. La convention
des Nations Unies sur les immunités juridictionnelles des États et de leurs
biens du 2 décembre 2004 établit la primauté du critère de la nature de la
255
SEPARATE OPINION OF JUDGE AD HOC MOMTAZ
[Translation]
Jurisdiction of the Court — Claims relating to Bank Markazi’s rights
under Articles III, IV and V of the Treaty of Amity — Jurisdiction ratione
materiae of the Court — Primacy of the criterion of the nature of the transaction
over the criterion of its function — Article I of the Treaty of
Amity —Article I as a lodestar for interpretation of the Treaty’s provisions.
1. To my great regret, I had to vote against the first subparagraph of the
operative part of the International Court of Justice’s Judgment of 30 March
2023 on the merits in the case concerning Certain Iranian Assets (Islamic
Republic of Iran v. United States of America). I am unable to support the reasoning
of the Court in reaching the conclusion that Bank Markazi is not
entitled to the treatment provided for by Articles III, IV and V of the 1955
Treaty of Amity, Economic Relations, and Consular Rights (hereinafter
“Treaty of Amity”) in respect of its investment activities, and that the Court
itself therefore lacks jurisdiction ratione materiae over that question. The
Court thus supports the United States’ objection that Bank Markazi is not a
“company” within the meaning of those articles.
2. In the opinion of the Court, the investment in and management of the
22 security entitlements purchased by Bank Markazi on the United States
financial market during the relevant period (2002-2007) cannot be characterized
as commercial activities. According to the Court, “the operations in
question were carried out within the framework and for the purposes of [the]
principal activity” (Judgment, para. 50) of Bank Markazi, the central bank
of Iran, from which they are inseparable, namely the implementation of
monetary policies such as maintaining price stability and managing foreign
currency reserves — eminently sovereign tasks. Thus, in its view, these
operations “are merely a way [for Bank Markazi] of exercising its sovereign
function . . . and not commercial activities performed by [it] ‘alongside [its]
sovereign functions’, to use the words of the 2019 Judgment” (ibid.). In my
view, in characterizing the said operations as sovereign rather than commercial
on the basis of the criterion of the purpose pursued by Bank Markazi, the
Court preferred to break new ground and disregard the primacy of the criterion
of the nature of the transaction, as established in customary international
law, as well as the object and purpose of the Treaty of Amity.
3. The primacy of the criterion of the nature of the transaction. The
United Nations Convention on Jurisdictional Immunities of States and Their
Property of 2 December 2004 establishes the primacy of the criterion of
256 certains actifs iraniens (op. ind. momtaz)
transaction. D’après l’article 2, paragraphe 2, de cette convention, afin de
déterminer si une transaction est commerciale,
« il convient de tenir compte en premier lieu de la nature du contrat ou
de la transaction, mais il faudrait aussi prendre en considération son but
si les parties au contrat ou à la transaction en sont ainsi convenues, ou si,
dans la pratique de l’État du for, ce but est pertinent pour déterminer la
nature non commerciale du contrat ou de la transaction » (les italiques
sont de moi).
Il existerait donc dans la pratique des États une hiérarchie de critères en
faveur de la nature de la transaction pour déterminer le caractère commercial
d’une transaction, la priorité revenant ainsi au critère de la nature.
4. Dans le commentaire de cette disposition préparé par la Commission
du droit international, il est précisé que le critère du but est destiné à « fournir
une norme supplémentaire pour la détermination, dans certains cas, du
caractère “commercial” ou “non commercial” d’un contrat ou d’une transaction
donnés. En d’autres termes, il ne faut pas écarter complètement le critère
du “but”. »1 Ce dernier critère, selon ce même commentaire, a été inclus dans
l’article 2, paragraphe 2, de ce texte en vue de protéger les « pays en développement
» en leur permettant de bénéficier de l’immunité pour certaines
transactions répondant à une raison d’État, par exemple l’achat de vivres
pour nourrir la population, combattre la famine, secourir une zone menacée
ou acheter des médicaments pour enrayer une épidémie2, ce qui de toute évidence
n’est pas le cas en la présente affaire.
5. En outre, l’application du critère du but est conditionnée, d’après cette
disposition, par l’existence de la pratique de l’État qui est partie à la transaction.
Or, en la présente affaire, une telle pratique fait défaut. Dans le cas
des États-Unis, la législation sur l’immunité des États étrangers (Foreign
Sovereign Immunities Act (FSIA)) telle que modifiée en 1996 ne se réfère
qu’au critère de la nature de l’activité pour déterminer si la transaction
est commerciale, aucune référence n’étant faite au critère du but3, ce qui a été
confirmé par la jurisprudence Weltover4. Il en va de même pour l’ordre
1 Annuaire de la Commission de droit international, 1991, vol. II, deuxième partie, p. 20,
par. 27.
2 Ibid., par. 26.
3 Section 1603 d) de la FSIA.
4 Republic of Argentina v. Weltover Inc., 504 US 607 (1992), p. 614 (« Weltover commercial
activity test »). Voir Avi Lew, « Republic of Argentina v. Weltover, Inc.: Interpreting the
Foreign Sovereign Immunity Act’s Commercial Activity Exception to Jurisdictional Immunity
», Fordham International Law Journal, vol. 17, no 3 (1993), p. 725-775. En outre, selon
Joseph F. Morrissey,
« [l]es juridictions ont rencontré des difficultés à la première étape de l’analyse qu’impose
cette disposition, à savoir la définition de ce qui constitue une activité commerciale. Ces
difficultés semblent cependant s’aplanir, les juridictions s’accordant de plus en plus sur le
fait qu’une activité est commerciale aux fins de l’exception en question si elle est de
nature commerciale et si elle est susceptible d’être menée par une partie privée. Le but
256
certain iranian assets (sep. op. momtaz)
the nature of the transaction. According to Article 2, paragraph 2, of the
Convention, in determining whether a transaction is commercial,
“reference should be made primarily to the nature of the contract or
transaction, but its purpose should also be taken into account . . . if, in
the practice of the State of the forum, that purpose is relevant to determining
the non-commercial character of the contract or transaction”
(emphasis added).
It would therefore appear that in State practice there is a hierarchy of criteria
favouring the nature of the transaction in determining whether it has a commercial
character, with priority thus being given to the nature criterion.
4. In its commentary on that provision, the International Law Commission
states that the purpose criterion is designed “to provide a supplementary
standard for determining, in certain cases, whether a particular contract or
transaction is ‘commercial’ or ‘non-commercial’. The ‘purpose’ test should
not therefore be disregarded totally.”1 According to the same commentary,
this test was included in Article 2, paragraph 2, of the Convention with a
view to protecting “developing countries” by enabling them to enjoy immunity
for certain transactions supported by raison d’État, such as the
procurement of food supplies to feed a population, relieve a famine situation
or revitalize a vulnerable area, or the purchase of medication to combat a
spreading epidemic2, which is clearly not the situation in the present case.
5. Moreover, under that provision, the application of the purpose test
depends on the practice of the State that is party to the transaction. However,
there is no such practice in the present case. In the United States, for the purpose
of determining whether a transaction is commercial, the Foreign
Sovereign Immunities Act (FSIA) as amended in 1996 refers only to the criterion
of the nature of the activity, making no reference to the criterion of
purpose3, as confirmed by the jurisprudence in Weltover4. The same is true
of the legal order in Iran, whose 1972 Monetary and Banking Act provides
1 Yearbook of the International Law Commission, 1991, Vol. II, Part Two, p. 20, para. 27.
2 Ibid., para. 26.
3 Section 1603 (d) of the FSIA.
4 Republic of Argentina v. Weltover Inc., 504 US 607 (1992), p. 614 (Weltover commercial
activity test). See Avi Lew, “Republic of Argentina v. Weltover, Inc.: Interpreting the Foreign
Sovereign Immunity Act’s Commercial Activity Exception to Jurisdictional Immunity”,
Fordham International Law Journal, 1993, Vol. 17, Issue 3, pp. 725-775. Further, according to
Joseph F. Morrissey,
“[c]ourts have struggled with the first step of the analysis demanded by this provision:
defining what constitutes commercial activity. This struggle seems to be abating, with
agreement developing among the courts that activity is commercial for purposes of this
exception where its nature is commercial and where it is an activity capable of being
undertaken by a private party. Purpose is deemed irrelevant.” (“Simplifying the Foreign
257 certains actifs iraniens (op. ind. momtaz)
juridique
de l’Iran, dont la loi monétaire et bancaire de 1972 stipule que la
banque Markazi est redevable d’impôt sur le revenu si elle accomplit des
transactions commerciales, à l’instar de toutes ses entreprises d’État5.
6. La Cour internationale de Justice s’est fondée sur la convention des
Nations Unies sur les immunités juridictionnelles des États et de leurs biens,
pourtant non en vigueur6, pour renforcer son argumentation en l’affaire
relative aux Immunités juridictionnelles de l’État7. Preuve s’il en est de la
nature coutumière de certaines de ses dispositions, dont celles concernant
les critères de la détermination de la nature commerciale d’une transaction.
7. En la présente affaire, la Cour, dans l’arrêt sur les exceptions préliminaires
rendu le 13 février 2019, déclarait, en réponse à l’argument des
États-Unis selon lequel le traitement réservé à la banque Markazi échappait
à sa compétence, que cette exception ne présentait pas, dans les circonstances
de l’espèce, un caractère exclusivement préliminaire.
8. La lecture de l’arrêt de 2019 sur les exceptions préliminaires laisse supposer
que cet appel lancé aux Parties au différend pour présenter des éléments
factuels supplémentaires concerne la nature des activités de la banque
Markazi aux États-Unis pendant la période pertinente. En effet, selon l’arrêt
de 2019,
« rien ne permet d’exclure a priori qu’une même entité exerce à la fois
des activités de nature commerciale (ou, plus largement, des activités
d’affaires) et des activités souveraines.
En pareil cas, puisque c’est la nature de l’activité effectivement exercée
qui détermine la qualification de l’entité qui l’exerce, la personne
morale dont il s’agit devrait être regardée comme une « société » au sens
du traité dans la mesure où elle exerce des activités de nature commerciale,
même si ce n’est pas à titre principal. »8
n’est pas considéré comme pertinent. » (« Simplifying the Foreign Sovereign Immunities
Act: If a Sovereign Acts like a Private Party, Treat It like One », Chicago Journal of International
Law, vol. 5, no 2 (2005), p. 683-684.)
Selon Jürgen Bröhmer, « [s]ection 1603 (d) FSIA defines the term “commercial activity” as
commercial conduct, transactions, or activities and stipulates that the “commercial character
of an activity shall be determined by reference to the nature of the course of conduct or
particular
transaction or act, rather than by reference to its purpose” » (« State Immunity and
Sovereign Bonds », dans Anne Peters (sous la dir. de), Immunities in the Age of Global Constitutionalism,
Brill Nijhoff (2014), p. 189).
5 Paragraphe b) de l’article 24 de la loi monétaire et bancaire.
6 D’après l’article 30 de cet instrument, la convention « entrera en vigueur le trentième jour
suivant la date de dépôt du trentième instrument de ratification, d’acceptation, d’approbation
ou d’adhésion auprès du Secrétaire général de l’Organisation des Nations Unies » ; or, à la date
où le présent arrêt a été rendu, le nombre d’instruments déposés par les États n’avait pas encore
atteint ce seuil (convention des Nations Unies sur les immunités juridictionnelles des États et
de leurs biens, New York, 2 décembre 2004).
7 Immunités juridictionnelles de l’État (Allemagne c. Italie ; Grèce (intervenant)), arrêt,
C.I.J. Recueil 2012 (I), p. 138-139, par. 89-90.
8 Certains actifs iraniens (République islamique d’Iran c. États-Unis d’Amérique), exceptions
préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2019 (I), p. 38-39, par. 92.
certain iranian assets (sep. op. momtaz) 257
that, like all Iranian State companies, Bank Markazi is subject to income tax
if it carries out commercial transactions5.
6. To support its reasoning in the Jurisdictional Immunities of the State
case6, the International Court of Justice based itself on the United Nations
Convention on Jurisdictional Immunities of States and Their Property
despite the fact that it had yet to enter into force7 — a clear recognition of the
customary nature of some of its provisions, including those concerning the
criteria for determining the commercial nature of a transaction.
7. In the present case, in its Judgment on preliminary objections rendered
on 13 February 2019, the Court, in response to the United States’ argument
that the treatment of Bank Markazi fell outside its jurisdiction, declared that
the objection in question did not possess, in the circumstances of the case, an
exclusively preliminary character.
8. A reading of the 2019 Judgment on preliminary objections suggests that
this invitation for the Parties to the dispute to present additional factual evidence
concerns the nature of Bank Markazi’s activities in the United States
during the relevant period. According to the 2019 Judgment,
“there is nothing to preclude, a priori, a single entity from engaging
both in activities of a commercial nature (or, more broadly, business
activities) and in sovereign activities.
In such a case, since it is the nature of the activity actually carried out
which determines the characterization of the entity engaged in it, the legal
person in question should be regarded as a ‘company’ within the meaning
of the Treaty to the extent that it is engaged in activities of a commercial
nature, even if they do not constitute its principal activities.”8
Sovereign Immunities Act: If a Sovereign Acts like a Private Party, Treat It like One”,
Chicago Journal of International Law, 2005, Vol. 5, No. 2, pp. 683-684).
According to Jürgen Bröhmer, “[s]ection 1603 (d) FSIA defines the term ‘commercial activity’
as commercial conduct, transactions, or activities and stipulates that the ‘commercial
character of an activity shall be determined by reference to the nature of the course of conduct
or particular transaction or act, rather than by reference to its purpose’” (“State Immunity and
Sovereign Bonds”, in Anne Peters (ed.), Immunities in the Age of Global Constitutionalism,
Brill Nijhoff, 2014, p. 189).
5 Article 24, paragraph (b), of the Monetary and Banking Act.
6 Jurisdictional Immunities of the State (Germany v. Italy: Greece intervening), Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 2012 (I), pp. 138-139, paras. 89-90.
7 According to Article 30 of the Convention, that instrument “shall enter into force on the
thirtieth day following the date of deposit of the thirtieth instrument of ratification, acceptance,
approval or accession with the Secretary-General of the United Nations”. However, on
the date the present Judgment was rendered, the number of instruments deposited by States
had yet to reach that threshold (United Nations Convention on Jurisdictional Immunities of
States and Their Property, 2 December 2004).
8 Certain Iranian Assets (Islamic Republic of Iran v. United States of America, Preliminary
Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2019 (I), pp. 38-39, para. 92.
258 certains actifs iraniens (op. ind. momtaz)
La Cour a ainsi considéré qu’il serait nécessaire de se pencher sur la nature
commerciale des activités qu’exerce la banque Markazi9.
9. Il ne fait guère de doute que l’achat ou la vente de valeurs mobilières
par la banque Markazi constituent des opérations identiques à celles exécutées
par toute banque commerciale. Par conséquent, en se fondant sur le
critère de la nature, elles doivent être considérées comme des transactions
commerciales, et, en tant que telles, bénéficier de la protection des dispositions
pertinentes du traité d’amitié, accordées aux sociétés des parties pour
une telle opération.
10. Aucune des deux Parties au différend n’a pu fournir, à ce stade de la
procédure, d’éléments factuels supplémentaires sur les activités commerciales
de la banque Markazi aux États-Unis au cours de la période pertinente,
comme la Cour le leur avait demandé. Cette incapacité ne justifie certainement
pas la nouvelle exigence imposée par la Cour pour qualifier une
transaction de la banque Markazi de commerciale en l’absence de lien de
cette opération avec une activité souveraine. En effet, la Cour, dans son arrêt
au fond, affirme que
« [l]’on ne saurait se borner à considérer une transaction  ou une série
de transactions  effectuée par elle, “en tant que telle” ; il est nécessaire
de replacer cette transaction  ou série de transactions  dans son
contexte, en tenant compte notamment de ses liens éventuels avec l’exercice
d’une fonction souveraine » (arrêt, par. 51).
De plus, le fait que l’arrêt de 2019 se soit abstenu d’invoquer cette exigence,
comme la Cour prend soin de le préciser, ne suffit pas en soi à considérer ce
nouveau critère « comme pertinent » (ibid.) lors de l’examen de l’affaire à ce
stade.
11. La conformité du critère de la nature de la transaction avec l’objet et
le but du traité. « L’objet et le but » du traité à interpréter, formule codifiée
par l’article 31 de la convention de Vienne sur le droit des traités de 1969,
figure désormais dans la méthodologie de la Cour, qui ne cesse de rappeler
que « le droit international coutumier … a trouvé son expression » dans cette
disposition10.
12. Le traité d’amitié n’est pas un simple traité de commerce, ce terme
n’apparaissant même pas dans son préambule. Ce n’est pas seulement
l’établissement
de relations plus étroites qu’il vise mais aussi l’approfondissement
et la consolidation de l’amitié des parties contractantes. En réalité,
c’est l’article premier du traité qui fixe son objet et son but en affirmant
qu’« [i]l y aura paix stable et durable et amitié sincère entre les États-Unis
d’Amérique et l’Iran ».
9 Ibid., p. 39, par. 93 ; voir aussi ibid., p. 38, par. 91.
10 Différend territorial (Jamahiriya arabe libyenne/Tchad), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1994, p. 21,
par. 41.
certain iranian assets (sep. op. momtaz) 258
The Court thus considered that it would be necessary to examine the commercial
nature of the activities carried out by Bank Markazi9.
9. There is little doubt that Bank Markazi’s purchase and sale of securities
are the same operations as those carried out by any commercial bank.
Therefore,
based on the nature criterion, they must be regarded as commercial
transactions and, as such, enjoy the protection accorded in respect of
such operations to companies of the parties to the Treaty of Amity, under the
relevant
provisions thereof.
10. Neither Party to the dispute was able to provide any additional factual
evidence relating to Bank Markazi’s commercial activities in the United
States during the relevant period at this stage of the proceedings, as the
Court had asked them to do. Their inability to do so certainly does not justify
the new requirement imposed by the Court that, in order for a transaction
carried out by Bank Markazi to be characterized as commercial, it must have
no link with a sovereign activity. Indeed, in its Judgment on the merits, the
Court affirms:
“consideration cannot be limited to a transaction — or series of transactions
— ‘as such’, carried out by that entity. That transaction — or
series of transactions — must be placed in its context, taking particular
account of any links that it may have with the exercise of a sovereign
function.” (Judgment, para. 51.)
Moreover, the fact that the 2019 Judgment, as the Court is careful to note,
did not mention that requirement is not in itself sufficient for this new criterion
to be considered “relevant” (ibid.) in its examination of the case at the present
stage.
11. Conformity of the criterion of the nature of the transaction with the
object and purpose of the Treaty. The phrase “the object and purpose” of the
treaty to be interpreted — codified in Article 31 of the 1969 Vienna Convention
on the Law of Treaties — can now be found in the methodology of the
Court, which consistently recalls that “customary international law [is]
reflected” in that provision10.
12. The Treaty of Amity is not merely a commercial treaty, a term which
does not even appear in its preamble. Its aim is not only to establish closer
relations but also to deepen and strengthen the friendship between the contracting
parties. In fact, the object and purpose of the Treaty is set out in
Article I, which provides that “[t]here shall be firm and enduring peace and
sincere friendship between the United States of America and Iran”.
9 Ibid., p. 39, para. 93; see also ibid., p. 38, para. 91.
10 Territorial Dispute (Libyan Arab Jamahiriya/Chad), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1994,
p. 21, para. 41.
259 certains actifs iraniens (op. ind. momtaz)
13. La Cour s’est déjà prononcée dans l’affaire des Plates-formes
pétrolières11,
au stade des exceptions préliminaires, sur l’importance de
l’emplacement de cette disposition, ainsi que son sens et sa portée, alors
que les relations entre les Parties étaient déjà très tendues. D’après la
Cour,
« en insérant dans le corps même du traité la formule figurant à
l’article
premier, les deux États ont entendu souligner que la paix et
l’amitié constituaient la condition du développement harmonieux de
leurs relations commerciales, financières et consulaires et qu’un tel
développement renforcerait à son tour cette paix et cette amitié. Par voie
de conséquence, l’article premier doit être regardé comme fixant un
objectif à la lumière duquel les autres dispositions du traité doivent être
interprétées et appliquées. »12
On peut ainsi considérer cette importante disposition comme étant une
« torche interprétative » du traité d’amitié que la Cour a préféré ignorer dans
la présente affaire, revenant sans raison justifiée sur les directives interprétatives
qu’elle avait formulées dans l’arrêt sur les Plates-formes pétrolières
concernant le même traité.
14. De l’avis de la Cour,
« [l]’esprit qui anime cet article et l’intention qu’il exprime inspirent
l’ensemble du traité et lui donnent sa signification ; ils doivent, en cas de
doute, inciter la Cour à adopter l’interprétation qui semble la plus
conforme à l’objectif général d’établir des relations amicales dans tous
les domaines d’activité couverts par le traité »13.
Cette question se pose en la présente affaire en ce qui concerne l’éventualité
d’accorder à la banque Markazi les protections qui sont dues par ces dispositions
à ses activités pendant la période pertinente aux États-Unis.
15. L’activité de la banque Markazi se place incontestablement dans cette
perspective. En effet, cette banque, en tant que banque centrale de l’Iran,
joue un rôle déterminant dans l’épanouissement du commerce avec les États-
Unis et est, à ce titre, partie prenante dans la réalisation de cet objectif
général. La banque Markazi fournit entre autres des devises aux sociétés
iraniennes qui commercent avec ce pays. Il ne fait guère de doute que le gel
de ses actifs par les autorités américaines porte un coup sévère au commerce
avec les États-Unis, et ce d’autant plus que ces actifs représentent approximativement
quelque 2 milliards de dollars, leur libération constituant
l’objet principal de la requête introductive d’instance de l’Iran devant la
Cour.
11 Plates-formes pétrolières (République islamique d’Iran c. États-Unis d’Amérique), exception
préliminaire, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1996 (II), p. 814, par. 28, et p. 820, par. 52.
12 Ibid., p. 814, par. 28.
13 Ibid., p. 820, par. 52.
certain iranian assets (sep. op. momtaz) 259
13. The Court previously addressed the importance of the position of
this provision, and its meaning and scope, at the preliminary objections
stage of the Oil Platforms case11, at a time when relations between the
parties were already very strained. According to the Court,
“by incorporating into the body of the Treaty the form of words used
in Article I, the two States intended to stress that peace and friendship
constituted the precondition for a harmonious development of their
commercial, financial and consular relations and that such a development
would in turn reinforce that peace and that friendship. It follows
that Article I must be regarded as fixing an objective, in the light of
which the other Treaty provisions are to be interpreted and applied.”12
This important provision can thus be considered a lodestar for interpretation
of the Treaty of Amity, one that the Court preferred to disregard in the
present
case, backtracking without good reason on the interpretative guidelines
that it had set out in respect of the same Treaty in its Judgment in the
Oil Platforms case.
14. In the opinion of the Court,
“[t]he spirit and intent set out in this Article animate and give meaning
to the entire Treaty and must, in case of doubt, incline the Court to the
construction which seems more in consonance with its overall objective
of achieving friendly relations over the entire range of activities covered
by the Treaty”13.
This question arises in the present case as regards the possibility of according
Bank Markazi the protections owed under the provisions at issue, in
respect of its activities in the United States during the relevant period.
15. Bank Markazi’s activities indisputably fall within this framework. As
the central bank of Iran, it plays a key role in fostering commerce with the
United States and, as such, is involved in ensuring that this general objective
is achieved. Among other things, Bank Markazi provides foreign
exchange for Iranian companies that do business with the United States.
There is little doubt that the freezing of its assets by the United States
authorities has dealt a severe blow to commerce with that country, especially
considering that these assets represent approximately US$2 billion,
the unblocking of which is the principal object of Iran’s Application instituting
proceedings before the Court.
11 Oil Platforms (Islamic Republic of Iran v. United States of America), Preliminary Objection,
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1996 (II), p. 814, para. 28, and p. 820, para. 52.
12 Ibid., p. 814, para. 28.
13 Ibid., p. 820, para. 52.
260 certains actifs iraniens (op. ind. momtaz)
16. Je regrette que la voie indiquée par la Cour elle-même en 1996 n’ait
pas été suivie en la présente affaire, ce qui rendra d’autant plus difficile une
reprise éventuelle des relations commerciales entre les protagonistes.
(Signé) Djamchid Momtaz.
certain iranian assets (sep. op. momtaz) 260
16. I regret that the approach that the Court itself set out in 1996 was not
followed in the present case, making any resumption of commercial relations
between the Parties all the more difficult.
(Signed) Djamchid Momtaz.
 

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Separate opinion of Judge ad hoc Momtaz

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