Separate opinion of Judge Iwasawa

Document Number
164-20230330-JUD-01-09-EN
Parent Document Number
164-20230330-JUD-01-00-EN
Date of the Document
Document File
Bilingual Document File

SEPARATE OPINION OF JUDGE IWASAWA
Allocation of the burden of proof in the context of exhaustion of local remedies  When the applicant makes a prima facie case that the remedies are ineffective, it is incumbent on the respondent to demonstrate that they are in fact effective  The combination of the distinctive features of the measures adopted by the United States and the primacy accorded to a more recent statute over a treaty has led the Court to conclude that the relevant companies had no reasonable possibility of obtaining redress  This reasoning does not automatically apply to other circumstances in States where a statute enacted after a treaty prevails over the treaty.
Standard of review for security exceptions in treaties  The Respondent has the burden of proving that the conditions set forth in Article XX (1) (d) of the Treaty of Amity are met  The provision gives the invoking State a fair measure of discretion  The tests of proportionality and least restrictive alternatives are too stringent for security exceptions  In assessing whether a measure is necessary to protect a State’s essential security interest, an international court should determine whether the measure was rational in light of a consideration of the reasonably available alternatives known to the State at the time  The United States has not demonstrated that EO 13599 was a measure necessary to protect its essential security interests.
The standard of the most constant protection and security is of particular relevance in the form of protection from physical harm by third parties  The standard is not one of strict liability but of due diligence  Full protection and security is better understood as providing for protection different from fair and equitable treatment and should be interpreted as referring to protection from physical harm.
1. I agree for the most part with the conclusions and reasoning of the Court in this Judgment. I regret that I had to vote against operative clause (3) of paragraph 236, in which the Court finds that the United States has violated its obligations under Article III, paragraph 1, of the Treaty of Amity. I will refrain from discussing the reasons for my vote on this clause, since I largely share the views expressed in the opinions of other judges who voted against it.
2. I will discuss three other topics in this opinion: the exhaustion of local remedies, security exceptions in treaties, and the most constant protection and security. As regards the exhaustion of local remedies, I will focus on some points which are not addressed at length by the Court in the Judgment. The other two topics  security exceptions and the most constant protection and security  are issues of significance in international economic law which are often raised in cases and are attracting increasing attention in literature.
I. Exhaustion of local remedies
3. In the present case, the Court does not refer to the burden of proof with respect to the exhaustion of local remedies, even though it affords a significant basis for its conclusions. In previous cases on diplomatic protection, the Court has explained the burden of proof in connection with the exhaustion of local remedies. In the ELSI case, the Court observed first that “the United States [the applicant] was very much aware that it must satisfy the local remedies rule”, and then that “it was for Italy [the respondent] to demonstrate that there was . . . some local remedy that had not been tried;
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or at least, not exhausted. This burden Italy never sought to deny.”
1 In the Diallo case, reaffirming its statements in the ELSI case, the Court declared that,
“[i]n matters of diplomatic protection, it is incumbent on the applicant to prove that local remedies were indeed exhausted or to establish that exceptional circumstances relieved the allegedly injured person . . . of the obligation to exhaust available local remedies (see [ELSI], pp. 43-44, para. 53). It is for the respondent to convince the Court that there were effective remedies in its domestic legal system that were not exhausted (see ibid., p. 46, para. 59).”2
4. In international law, as a rule, the principle onus probandi incumbit actori applies; it is incumbent on the claimant to prove a claim3. In the context of exhaustion of local remedies, the burden of proof is allocated as follows4. Since the exhaustion of local remedies is one of the requirements for the exercise of diplomatic protection5, an applicant which exercises diplomatic protection must specify that the injured person has exhausted local remedies6. If the respondent raises the objection that local remedies have not been exhausted, it must identify the remedies which have not been exhausted7. The applicant then has to demonstrate either that those remedies were exhausted or that exceptions to this rule apply, for example, that the remedies are ineffective8. When the applicant makes a prima facie case that the remedies are ineffective, it is the respondent which must prove that the remedies are in fact effective9.
5. In cases concerned with complaints brought by individuals, international human rights courts have adopted a different distribution of the burden of proof for the exhaustion of local remedies. The respondent State bears the initial burden of demonstrating that an effective remedy exists. Once the respondent has discharged this burden, it falls on the individual to prove either that
1 Elettronica Sicula S.p.A. (ELSI) (United States of America v. Italy), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1989, pp. 43-44, para. 53, and p. 46, para. 59.
2 Ahmadou Sadio Diallo (Republic of Guinea v. Democratic Republic of the Congo), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2007 (II), p. 600, para. 44.
3 E.g. Pulp Mills on the River Uruguay (Argentina v. Uruguay), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2010 (I), p. 71, para. 162.
4 Judge Lauterpacht explained the distribution of the burden of proof in his separate opinion in the Norwegian Loans case:
“(1) As a rule, it is for the plaintiff State to prove that there are no effective remedies to which recourse can be had; (2) no such proof is required if there exists legislation which on the face of it deprives the private claimants of a remedy; (3) in that case it is for the defendant State to show that, notwithstanding the apparent absence of a remedy, its existence can nevertheless reasonably be assumed”. Certain Norwegian Loans (France v. Norway), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1957, separate opinion of Judge Lauterpacht, p. 39.
5 See e.g. Interhandel (Switzerland v. United States of America), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1959, p. 27; Art. 14 (1) of the ILC Articles on Diplomatic Protection.
6 E.g. American and British Claims Commission, Napier Case, 14 November 1872, in History and Digest of the International Arbitrations to Which the United States Has Been a Party, Vol. III, p. 3154 (J. Moore (ed.), 1898).
7 “In order to contend successfully that international proceedings are inadmissible, the defendant State must prove the existence . . . of remedies which have not been used.” The Ambatielos Claim (Greece/United Kingdom), 6 March 1956, Reports of International Arbitral Awards, Vol. XII, p. 119.
8 For example, the Permanent Court of International Justice held that until it had been clearly shown that the courts of the defendant had no jurisdiction to entertain a suit by the applicant’s company, the Court could not accept the contention of the applicant that the rule as to the exhaustion of local remedies did not apply in the case. Panevezys-Saldutiskis Railway, Judgment, 1939, P.C.I.J. Series A./B., No. 76, p. 19.
9 See Ahmadou Sadio Diallo (Republic of Guinea v. Democratic Republic of the Congo), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2007 (II), p. 600, para. 44.
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it has exhausted that remedy or that the remedy is ineffective
10. This specific distribution of the burden of proof adopted by international human rights courts does not necessarily apply in inter-State diplomatic protection cases.
6. In the present case, the Respondent raises the objection that local remedies have not been exhausted with regard to some of the Applicant’s claims (see Judgment, paras. 55-56 and 59). In response, the Applicant has made a prima facie case that the remedies offered by the legal system of the United States are ineffective (see paras. 58 and 60). In these circumstances, it is incumbent on the Respondent to demonstrate that they are in fact effective.
7. Iran complains of a succession of legislative and executive measures which have effectively removed the remedies available to Iranian companies, agencies and instrumentalities to challenge enforcement actions against their assets. United States courts are bound to apply these measures which leave little room for judicial appreciation. Iran contends that the comprehensive régime created by the United States’ measures “is in practice not reviewable in the local courts”. For its part, the United States maintains that local remedies provide a reasonable possibility of redress. However, as the Court points out, “[t]he Iranian companies that succeeded in having certain measures set aside by the courts were only able to do so by demonstrating either that the contested measures fell outside the scope of the statute on which they were said to be founded, or that they were contrary to the statute itself” (Judgment, para. 71).
8. It is the combination of these distinctive features of the measures adopted by the United States and the primacy accorded to a more recent federal statute over a treaty in the jurisprudence of the United States which has led the Court to conclude that the companies in question had no reasonable possibility of successfully asserting their rights in United States court proceedings. The Court adopted this reasoning in the particular circumstances of the present case (Judgment, para. 72). Therefore, this reasoning does not automatically apply to other circumstances in States where a statute enacted after a treaty prevails over the treaty.
II. The security exception in Article XX (1) (d) of the Treaty of Amity
9. The United States claims that Executive Order 13599 (“EO 13599”) falls within the security exception set out in Article XX (1) (d) of the Treaty of Amity. While the Court rejects this claim in one short paragraph (Judgment, para. 108), I will make a more detailed analysis of the claim and give additional reasons in support of the Court’s conclusion.
10. I will focus in particular on the standard of review to be used for analysing claims made under security exceptions such as Article XX (1) (d) of the Treaty of Amity. Many treaties, including other treaties on friendship, commerce and navigation (“FCN”), international investment agreements, and multilateral and regional trade agreements, contain security exceptions. In recent years, States have frequently invoked a security exception in a treaty to claim that measures which are inconsistent with the substantive provisions of the treaty are justified. I consider that the standard of review to be used by international courts for analysing such claims is of crucial importance.
11. Article XX (1) of the Treaty of Amity provides: “The present Treaty shall not preclude the application of measures: . . . (d) necessary to fulfill the obligations of a High Contracting Party for
10 E.g. European Court of Human Rights, Akdivar and Others v. Turkey, judgment of 16 September 1996, No. 21893/93, para. 68; Inter-American Court of Human Rights, Velásquez-Rodríguez v. Honduras, judgment of 29 July 1988, paras. 59-60.
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the maintenance or restoration of international peace and security, or necessary to protect its essential security interests.” The United States argues that EO 13599 was a measure necessary to protect its essential security interests and was not precluded by the Treaty.
12. Article XX (1) (d) may be considered as an affirmative defence. Pursuant to the principle of reus in excipiendo fit actor (the defendant, by raising an exception, becomes a plaintiff), the respondent  in this case, the United States  bears the burden of proving that the conditions set out in Article XX (1) (d) are met. The Court confirms that this burden is placed on the Respondent, declaring that “it was for the United States to show that Executive Order 13599 was a measure necessary to protect its essential security interests” (Judgment, para. 108).
13. Like Article XX (1) of the Treaty of Amity, Article XXI of the GATT 1994 provides for security exceptions, but its formulation is significantly different. Article XXI of the GATT reads as follows:
“Nothing in this Agreement shall be construed
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
(b) to prevent any contracting party from taking any action which it considers necessary for the protection of its essential security interests
(i) relating to fissionable materials or the materials from which they are derived;
(ii) relating to the traffic in arms, ammunition and implements of war and to such traffic in other goods and materials as is carried on directly or indirectly for the purpose of supplying a military establishment;
(iii) taken in time of war or other emergency in international relations”. (Emphasis added.)
14. In Russia  Traffic in Transit, a case filed by Ukraine under the WTO dispute settlement procedures, Russia argued that Article XXI (b) (iii) of the GATT 1994 was “totally ‘self-judging’”. The WTO panel pointed out that “the adjectival clause ‘which it considers’” in the chapeau of Article XXI (b) “can be read to qualify only the word ‘necessary’ . . . or to qualify also the determination of these ‘essential security interests’; or finally and maximally, to qualify the determination of the matters described in the three subparagraphs of Article XXI (b) as well”. The panel concluded that the clause does not qualify the determination of the circumstances in subparagraph (iii), and that for action to fall within the scope of Article XXI (b), “it must objectively be found to meet the requirements in one of the enumerated subparagraphs”. It thus rejected the argument that Article XXI (b) (iii) was “totally ‘self-judging’”11.
15. In the case concerning Military and Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v. United States), the Court analysed Article XXI (1) (d) of the FCN Treaty between Nicaragua and the United States, which is the equivalent provision to Article XX (1) (d) of the Treaty of Amity between Iran and the United States. Neither treaty contains the phrase “which it considers” or a similar expression. In the Military and Paramilitary Activities case and in the case concerning Oil Platforms (Iran v. United States), the Court made clear that the security exceptions in these
11 Panel Report, Russia  Measures concerning Traffic in Transit, WT/DS512/R and Add.1, adopted 26 April 2019, paras. 7.26, 7.63, 7.101-7.102.
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treaties were not “self-judging”, stating that, “by the terms of the Treaty itself, whether a measure is necessary to protect the essential security interests of a party is not . . . purely a question for the subjective judgment of the party”
12. Given this clear statement by the Court, both Parties accept that Article XX (1) (d) of the Treaty of Amity is not “self-judging”13.
16. In the Military and Paramilitary Activities case, the Court contrasted Article XXI of the GATT with Article XXI of the FCN Treaty between Nicaragua and the United States, and emphasized that the latter “speaks simply of ‘necessary’ measures, not of those considered by a party to be such”14. It appears that the Court attempted to distinguish between treaties which contain the phrase “which it considers” and others which do not, suggesting that the latter are not “self-judging”.
17. In the Oil Platforms case, however, the Court itself explained that “[o]n the basis of [Article XX (1) (d) of the Treaty of Amity], a party to the Treaty may be justified in taking certain measures which it considers to be ‘necessary’ for the protection of its essential security interests”15, even though Article XX (1) (d) does not contain the phrase “which it considers”.
18. In Mutual Assistance in Criminal Matters (Djibouti v. France), the Court acknowledged that Article 2 (c) of the Convention on Mutual Assistance in Criminal Matters between Djibouti and France affords “a very considerable discretion” to the requested State because Article 2 (c) contains the phrase “[i]f the requested State considers”. In parentheses, the Court mentioned the Military and Paramilitary Activities and Oil Platforms cases as examples of “the competence of the Court in the face of provisions giving wide discretion”16. Thus, the Court acknowledged that the security exception clauses at issue in those cases, respectively Article XXI (1) (d) of the FCN Treaty between Nicaragua and the United States and Article XX (1) (d) of the Treaty of Amity between Iran and the United States, give wide discretion to the contracting parties, even though the said clauses do not contain the phrase “which it considers”.
19. The presence of the phrase “which it considers” certainly makes explicit the granting of discretion to the State concerned. However, even in the absence of such a phrase, security exceptions should be understood as affording the invoking State a fair measure of discretion17.
12 Military and Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v. United States of America), Merits, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1986, p. 141, para. 282. See also Oil Platforms (Islamic Republic of Iran v. United States of America), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2003, p. 183, para. 43.
13 Reply of Iran, paras. 10.19-10.21. Rejoinder of the United States, para. 7.18.
14 Military and Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v. United States of America), Merits, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1986, p. 116, para. 222.
15 Oil Platforms (Islamic Republic of Iran v. United States of America), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2003, p. 183, para. 43 (emphasis added).
16 Certain Questions of Mutual Assistance in Criminal Matters (Djibouti v. France), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2008, p. 229, para. 145 (emphasis added).
17 An arbitral tribunal used the term “margin of appreciation” to convey the idea of the discretion given by security exceptions to the invoking State: Continental Casualty Company v. The Argentine Republic, ICSID Case No. ARB/03/9, Award of 5 September 2008, para. 181. See also Philip Morris Brands Sàrl, Philip Morris Products S.A. & Abal Hermanos S.A. v. Oriental Republic of Uruguay, ICSID Case No. ARB/10/7, Award of 8 July 2016, paras. 388, 398-399 (accepting the term “margin of appreciation” in the context of examining a claim concerned with fair and equitable treatment, stating that tribunals should pay “great deference” to governmental judgments of national needs in matters such as the protection of public health). Compare it with ibid., concurring and dissenting opinion of Mr. Born, Arbitrator, paras. 87, 137-138, 188.
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20. The Parties to the present case disagree on the standard that the Court should use in reviewing the United States’ claim under Article XX (1) (d) and on the conclusion that it should reach. Iran argues that an examination of necessity entails an assessment of proportionality, finding its authority in WTO and investment arbitration jurisprudence. For its part, the United States contends that Article XX (1) (d) gives wide discretion to a State acting in good faith.
21. In Russia  Traffic in Transit, the WTO panel set out the standard to be used in reviewing measures taken under Article XXI (Security Exceptions) of the GATT 1994. It acknowledged that the article is partly “self-judging”, suggesting that the phrase “which it considers” qualifies not only the word “necessary” but also the determination of the “essential security interests”. The panel thus admitted that “it is left, in general, to every Member to define what it considers to be its essential security interests”. However, according to the panel, “the discretion of a Member to designate particular concerns as ‘essential security interests’ is limited by its obligation to interpret and apply Article XXI (b) (iii) of the GATT 1994 in good faith”, and “[t]he obligation of good faith . . . applies not only to the Member’s definition of the essential security interests . . . but also, and most importantly, to their connection with the measures at issue”. The panel further explained that “this obligation [of good faith] is crystallized in demanding that the measures at issue meet a minimum requirement of plausibility in relation to the proffered essential security interests, i.e. that they are not implausible as measures protective of these interests”18. The analytical framework enunciated by the panel in Russia  Traffic in Transit has generally been accepted by the Members of the WTO and followed by subsequent panels19.
22. This Court also has considered that clauses containing the phrase “which it considers” or a similar expression are subject to a good faith review. In the Mutual Assistance in Criminal Matters case, the Court accepted that Article 2 (c) of the Convention on Mutual Assistance in Criminal Matters, which contains the phrase “[i]f the requested State considers”, provides the requested State with “a very considerable discretion”. It stressed, however, that “this exercise of discretion is still subject to the obligation of good faith codified in Article 26 of the 1969 Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties”20.
23. In respect of security exception clauses which do not contain the phrase “which it considers” or a similar expression, the standard of review should be more rigorous than a good faith review. In the Military and Paramilitary Activities case, the Court gave a brief outline of the standard to be used in reviewing the measures taken under the security exception clause in the FCN Treaty between Nicaragua and the United States, namely “[t]he Court has . . . to assess whether the risk run by [the] ‘essential security interests’ is reasonable, and secondly, whether the measures presented as
18 Russia  Traffic in Transit, supra note 11, paras. 7.63, 7.101-7.102, 7.131-7.133, 7.138. Ukraine did not file an appeal and the report was adopted by the WTO Dispute Settlement Body on 26 April 2019. Ukraine stated that “[t]he Panel had made a very important and welcome contribution” and that “[m]ost importantly, the Panel had found the existence of appropriate circumstances to be a crucial element for justification under Article XXI of the GATT 1994”. WTO Dispute Settlement Body, Minutes of Meeting Held on 26 April 2019, WT/DSB/M/428, p. 20.
19 In Saudi Arabia  IPRs (case filed by Qatar), the Parties (Qatar and Saudi Arabia), multiple intervening third parties, and the panel all agreed with the analytical framework adopted by the panel in Russia  Traffic in Transit. Panel Report, Saudi Arabia  Measures concerning the Protection of Intellectual Property Rights, WT/DS567/R and Add.1, circulated on 16 June 2020, paras. 7.243-7.255, 7.271. See also Panel Report, United States  Certain Measures on Steel and Aluminium Products (China), WT/DS544/R, Add.1 and Suppl.1, circulated on 9 December 2022, para. 7.128, and other panel reports in related cases brought by Norway (DS552), Switzerland (DS556) and Türkiye (DS564); Panel Report, United States  Origin Marking Requirement (Hong Kong, China), WT/DS597/R, circulated on 21 December 2022, para. 7.185.
20 Certain Questions of Mutual Assistance in Criminal Matters (Djibouti v. France), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2008, p. 229, para. 145.
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being designed to protect these interests are not merely useful but ‘necessary’”
21. The Court emphasized that “the measures taken must not merely be such as tend to protect the essential security interests of the party taking them, but must be ‘necessary’ for that purpose”22. This statement was reaffirmed in the Oil Platforms case with regard to Article XX (1) (d) of the Treaty of Amity23.
24. As the Court explained in the Military and Paramilitary Activities case, in the first stage of inquiry, an international court must assess whether the risk run by the essential security interests is reasonable. The ordinary meaning of the term “essential security interests” in its context suggests that it relates to the existential core of State functions, such as the protection of its territory and its population from external threats and the maintenance of internal public order. It is for the State invoking the exception to articulate the nature of the essential security interests at stake sufficiently precisely to demonstrate their legitimacy in light of the object and purpose of the treaty.
25. In the second stage of inquiry, an international court must examine whether the measures are “necessary” to protect the essential security interests. The Court has stated that the measures must not be “merely useful” nor “merely be such as tend to protect” the essential security interests, but rather must be “necessary” to protect them.
26. In the present case, Iran puts forward a stringent test to assess the necessity of a measure. It argues that “[a]n examination of necessity inevitably entails an examination of proportionality”, relying on WTO and investment arbitration jurisprudence24. The test of proportionality requires an assessment of any adverse impact resulting from the measure in relation to the achievement of the objectives pursued by it. In the areas of international human rights law and domestic constitutional law, courts  both international and domestic  have used the proportionality test in evaluating measures that restrict human rights. In contrast, the WTO adjudicatory bodies have not applied the proportionality test. Commentators have explained that this is because the WTO is not institutionally ready for a balancing of values and interests. On the other hand, a number of investment arbitral tribunals have used the proportionality test in the context of fair and equitable treatment25 and indirect expropriation26. However, investment arbitral tribunals have not used the proportionality test for security exceptions27. In my view, the proportionality test is too stringent for security exceptions.
27. Whereas Iran invokes WTO and investment arbitration jurisprudence in support of its contention that the Court should examine the proportionality of the measures, in those cases the WTO adjudicatory bodies and investment arbitration tribunals in fact used the test of least restrictive
21 Military and Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v. United States of America), Merits, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1986, p. 117, para. 224.
22 Ibid., p. 141, para. 282.
23 Oil Platforms (Islamic Republic of Iran v. United States of America), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2003, p. 183, para. 43.
24 CR 2022/16, p. 40, para. 10 (Pellet).
25 E.g. Occidental Petroleum Corporation & Occidental Exploration and Production Company v. The Republic of Ecuador, ICSID Case No. ARB/06/11, Award of 5 October 2012, para. 404; Philip Morris v. Uruguay, supra note 17, paras. 409-410.
26 E.g. Técnicas Medioambientales Tecmed S.A. v. The United Mexican States, ICSID Case No. ARB(AF)/00/2, Award of 29 May 2003, para. 122; Fireman’s Fund Insurance Company v. The United Mexican States, ICSID Case No. ARB(AF)/02/01, Award of 17 July 2006, para. 176 (j).
27 Some commentators have given Continental Casualty v. Argentina as an example of an investment arbitral tribunal relying on a proportionality test. In fact, however, the tribunal referred to the test of least restrictive alternatives. Continental Casualty v. Argentina, supra note 17, paras. 193-195. See also Deutsche Telekom AG v. The Republic of India, PCA Case No. 2014-10, Interim Award, 13 December 2017, para. 239.
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alternatives, not of proportionality. For example, in Korea  Various Measures on Beef, the WTO Appellate Body quoted the following statement of a GATT panel with approval:
“[A] contracting party [of the GATT] cannot justify a measure inconsistent with another GATT provision as ‘necessary’ in terms of Article XX (d) if an alternative measure which it could reasonably be expected to employ and which is not inconsistent with other GATT provisions is available to it. By the same token, in cases where a measure consistent with other GATT provisions is not reasonably available, a contracting party is bound to use, among the measures reasonably available to it, that which entails the least degree of inconsistency with other GATT provisions.”28
The test of least restrictive alternatives is not the same as the test of proportionality.
28. Panels and the Appellate Body of the GATT/WTO established the test of least restrictive alternatives to assess the “necessity” of measures under Article XX (General Exceptions) of the GATT 1994. They articulated the test first in relation to subparagraph (d), which concerns measures “necessary to secure compliance with laws or regulations”29. They subsequently extended it to subparagraph (b) concerning measures “necessary to protect human, animal or plant life or health”30, and then to subparagraph (a) pertaining to measures “necessary to protect public morals”31. It is inappropriate to import the test of least restrictive alternatives, which was developed for general exceptions under Article XX, into security exceptions under Article XXI. The test of least restrictive alternatives is also too stringent for security exceptions. The WTO adjudicatory bodies have not extended this test to measures under Article XXI. As explained above, the test articulated for Article XXI by the panel in Russia  Traffic in Transit is much less stringent than the test of least restrictive alternatives developed by the WTO adjudicatory bodies for Article XX.
29. Essential security interests relate to the State’s most vital interests. Concerns relating to national security are more sensitive than many other public concerns. In the Mutual Assistance in Criminal Matters case, the Court acknowledged that security exception clauses give States “wide discretion” (see paragraph 18 above). To adopt a stringent test requiring a very high threshold would signify prioritization of commerce, investment, trade and the like over national security. In the sensitive context of national security, it is for the national authorities of a State to make the initial assessment of the existence of a risk and what is necessary to respond to that risk. An international court should be wary of substituting itself for the State to override the latter’s decisions ex post facto. On the other hand, it is the function of an international court to prevent abuse by reviewing a measure taken by a State with a view to ensuring that discretion is exercised reasonably and in good faith32.
30. Based on these considerations, I am of the view that, in assessing whether a measure is necessary to protect a State’s essential security interests under a clause which does not contain the
28 Appellate Body Report, Korea  Measures Affecting Imports of Fresh, Chilled and Frozen Beef, WT/DS161/AB/R, WT/DS169/AB/R, adopted 10 January 2001, para. 165, quoting Panel Report, United States  Section 337 of the Tariff Act of 1930, BISD 36S/345, adopted 7 November 1989, para. 5.26 (emphasis added). See also Deutsche Telekom v. India, supra note 27, para. 239.
29 E.g. Panel Report, United States  Section 337 of the Tariff Act of 1930, supra note 28, para. 5.26.
30 E.g. Panel Report, Thailand  Restrictions on Importation of and Internal Taxes on Cigarettes, BISD 37S/200, adopted 7 November 1990, para. 75.
31 Appellate Body Report, United States  Measures Affecting the Cross-Border Supply of Gambling and Betting Services, WT/DS285/AB/R and Corr.1, adopted 20 April 2005, para. 308 (finding on Article XIV (a) of the GATS, an equivalent to Article XX (a) of the GATT 1994).
32 See Immunities and Criminal Proceedings (Equatorial Guinea v. France), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2020, p. 323, para. 73.
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phrase “which it considers” or a similar expression, such as Article XX (1) (d) of the Treaty of Amity, an international court should determine whether the measure was rational in light of a consideration of the reasonably available alternatives known to that State at the time. In making this evaluation, it should take into account the importance of the security interests at stake, and appraise the contribution the measure was designed to make towards the protection of those interests and its effectiveness in this regard, as well as its impact on commerce, investment, trade and the like. In addition, the court should ascertain whether the State followed proper procedures in exercising its discretion
33. It is widely recognized in national administrative law that, when an authority neglects to follow proper procedures, it can amount to a misuse of discretionary powers (excès de pouvoir).
31. While Article XX (1) (d) of the Treaty of Amity gives the invoking State a fair measure of discretion, I agree with the Court that in the present case the United States “has not convincingly demonstrated” that EO 13599 was a measure necessary to protect its essential security interests (Judgment, para. 108).
32. In this regard, I take particular note of the following. The United States identifies its essential security interests as “preventing terrorist attacks and the financing of terrorist activities . . . and halting the advancement of Iran’s ballistic missile program”. EO 13599 implements the requirements of Section 1245 (c) of the 2012 NDAA. Whereas Section 1245 refers to a report of the Treasury stating that “Treasury is calling out the entire Iranian banking sector . . . as posing terrorist financing, proliferation financing, and money laundering risks for the global financial system”, EO 13599 indicates, as the purpose of the measures, the “deceptive practices” of the Iranian banking sector “to conceal transactions of sanctioned parties”, “the deficiencies in Iran’s anti-money laundering regime and the weaknesses in its implementation”, and “the continuing and unacceptable risk posed to the international financial system”, but does not mention the security interests of the United States. EO 13599 mainly affected the assets of Bank Markazi at issue in the Peterson case, which are outside the Court’s jurisdiction. Other assets affected by EO 13599, notably the assets of Bank Melli and Bank Saderat, had been blocked before 2012 pursuant to other decisions made under the authority of Executive Order 13382 of 2005. EO 13599 does not establish a régime of individualized measures; it applies generally to all Iranian financial institutions. Whereas the United States refers to certain United Nations Security Council resolutions in justifying EO 13599, this Executive Order is broader in scope than what was called for in the relevant resolutions.
III. The most constant protection and security
33. Iran argues that the United States has violated its obligation under Article IV, paragraph 2, of the Treaty of Amity to provide “the most constant protection and security” to the property of Iranian companies. It maintains that the obligation is not limited to protection against physical harm but also includes legal protection (see Judgment, paras. 170-171).
34. Treaties use different terms to refer to this standard: “constant protection”; “full protection”; “continuous protection”; adding “security” before or after “protection”; adding “the most” before the adjective, and so forth. Tribunals have not considered these variations as having any substantial significance34. The standard is commonly referred to as “full protection and security”.
33 Cf. Certain Questions of Mutual Assistance in Criminal Matters (Djibouti v. France), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2008, declaration of Judge Keith, pp. 280-281, paras. 7-8.
34 E.g. Frontier Petroleum Services Ltd. v. The Czech Republic, PCA Case No. 2008-09, Final Award, 12 November 2010, para. 260.
- 10 -
35. This standard has traditionally been understood as protection from physical harm. AAPL v. Sri Lanka (1990), the first investment arbitration case brought under an international investment agreement, was also the first case which addressed this standard. Sri Lankan security forces had destroyed a shrimp farm during a counter-insurgency operation. This case thus concerned protection from physical harm35. The standard of full protection and security was subsequently applied by other arbitral tribunals in situations where the investment was affected by physical violence36.
36. At the beginning of this century, however, some arbitral tribunals started to consider that the standard extends beyond protection from physical harm and includes legal protection. Nonetheless, these tribunals have differed in the degree to which they have broadened the scope of the standard37.
37. On the other hand, other arbitral tribunals have continued to maintain that the standard refers only to protection from physical harm38. For example, the tribunal in Saluka v. Czech Republic (2006) stated that “the ‘full security and protection’ clause is not meant to cover just any kind of impairment of an investor’s investment, but to protect more specifically the physical integrity of an investment against interference by use of force”39. The tribunal in BG Group v. Argentina (2007) found it “inappropriate to depart from the originally understood standard of ‘protection and constant security’”40. The tribunal in Suez and Vivendi v. Argentina (2010) carried out a detailed analysis of the standard, including its historical development. It then pointed out that “an overly extensive interpretation of the full protection and security standard may result in an overlap with the other standards of investment protection, which is neither necessary nor desirable”, concluding that “this Tribunal is not persuaded that it needs to depart from the traditional interpretation given to this term”41.
38. In support of the proposition that the standard includes legal protection, Iran refers to the ELSI case in which the Chamber of the Court examined whether there had been a violation of “the
35 Asian Agricultural Products Ltd. (AAPL) v. Republic of Sri Lanka, ICSID Case No. ARB/87/3, Final Award of 27 June 1990.
36 E.g. American Manufacturing & Trading, Inc. v. Republic of Zaire, ICSID Case No. ARB/93/1, Award of 21 February 1997, para. 6.05; Wena Hotels Ltd. v. Arab Republic of Egypt, ICSID Case No. ARB/98/4, Award of 8 December 2000, paras. 82 and 84; Tecmed. v. Mexico, supra note 26, paras. 175-177.
37 E.g. CME Czech Republic B.V. v. The Czech Republic, Partial Award of 13 September 2001, para. 613; Azurix Corp. v. The Argentine Republic, ICSID Case No. ARB/01/12, Award of 14 July 2006, paras. 406-408; Compañía de Aguas del Aconquija S.A. & Vivendi Universal S.A. v. Argentine Republic, ICSID Case No. ARB/97/3, Award of 20 August 2007, para. 7.4.17; Biwater Gauff (Tanzania) Ltd. v. United Republic of Tanzania, ICSID Case No. ARB/05/22, Award of 24 July 2008, para. 729; National Grid P.L.C. v. Argentine Republic, Award of 3 November 2008, paras. 187-189; Frontier Petroleum Services v. Czech Republic, supra note 34, para. 263; Global Telecom Holding S.A.E. v. Canada, ICSID Case No. ARB/16/16, Award of 27 March 2020, paras. 664-665.
38 E.g. Saluka Investments BV v. The Czech Republic, PCA Case No. 2001-04, Partial Award, 17 March 2006, paras. 483-484; PSEG Global Inc. & Konya Ilgin Elektrik Üretim ve Ticaret Limited Şirketi v. Republic of Turkey, ICSID Case No. ARB/02/5, Award of 19 January 2007, paras. 258-259; BG Group Plc. v. The Republic of Argentina, Final Award of 24 December 2007, paras. 324-326; Rumeli Telekom A.S. & Telsim Mobil Telekomikasyon Hizmetleri A.S. v. Republic of Kazakhstan, ICSID Case No. ARB/05/16, Award of 29 July 2008, para. 668; Liman Caspian Oil BV & NCL Dutch Investment BV v. Republic of Kazakhstan, ICSID Case No. ARB/07/14, Award of 22 June 2010, para. 289; Suez, Sociedad General de Aguas de Barcelona S.A., & Vivendi Universal S.A. v. The Argentine Republic, ICSID Case No. ARB/03/19, Decision on Liability of 30 July 2010, paras. 158-179; Gold Reserve Inc. v. Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela, ICSID Case No. ARB(AF)/09/1, Award of 22 September 2014, para. 622; Olin Holdings Ltd. v. State of Libya, ICC Case No. 20355/MCP, Final Award of 25 May 2018, paras. 364-365; OperaFund Eco-Invest SICAV PLC & Schwab Holding AG v. Kingdom of Spain, ICSID Case No. ARB/15/36, Award of 6 September 2019, para. 576.
39 Saluka v. Czech Republic, supra note 38, para. 484.
40 BG Group v. Argentina, supra note 38, para. 326.
41 Suez & Vivendi v. Argentina, supra note 38, paras. 161-169, 174, 179.
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most constant protection and security” provision in the FCN Treaty between Italy and the United States. Iran points out that the Chamber’s examination was made on the basis of the United States’ argument “that the ‘property’ to be protected under this provision of the FCN Treaty was not the plant and equipment the subject of the requisition, but the entity of ELSI itself”
42. However, this does not mean that the Chamber applied the standard as requiring more than protection from physical harm. The Chamber simply did not rule on this point.
39. In the present case, the Court makes a number of important statements with respect to the standard of full protection and security. In particular, it observes that the “core” of the standard “concerns the protection of property from physical harm”, and emphasizes that this standard “is of particular significance and relevance in the form of protection of property from physical harm by third parties”. The Court confirms that the standard is not one of strict liability but requires each State “to exercise due diligence” in providing protection from physical harm within its territory. It notes that FCN treaties and international investment agreements often provide for fair and equitable treatment and full protection and security “consecutively or even in the same sentence”, and considers that “[t]hese two separate standards” would overlap significantly if the full protection and security standard were interpreted to include legal protection (Judgment, para. 190). Accordingly, the Court concludes that the provision relating to the full protection and security standard was not intended to apply to situations covered by the obligation to provide fair and equitable treatment (para. 191) and unanimously rejects Iran’s submission in this respect (para. 236 (9)).
40. Extending the scope of protection of the standard of full protection and security to include legal protection would make this standard similar to the standard of fair and equitable treatment. Indeed, some tribunals have considered that full protection and security is absorbed in fair and equitable treatment43. Triggered by the recent tendency to expand full protection and security beyond physical protection, some treaties have expressly limited the standard to protection from physical harm44. In order to avoid an overlap between separate standards, full protection and security is better understood as providing for protection different from fair and equitable treatment. Unless the relevant treaty expressly provides otherwise, full protection and security should be interpreted as referring to protection from physical harm.
(Signed) IWASAWA Yuji.
___________
42 Elettronica Sicula S.p.A. (ELSI) (United States of America v. Italy), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1989, p. 64, para. 106.
43 See Occidental Exploration & Production Company v. The Republic of Ecuador, London Court of International Arbitration Case No. UN 3467, Final Award of 1 July 2004, para. 187; Azurix v. Argentina, supra note 37, paras. 407-408.
44 E.g. 2007 US-Korea Free Trade Agreement, Art. 11.5 (2) (b); 2016 EU-Canada Comprehensive Economic and Trade Agreement, Art. 8.10 (5); 2016 Rwanda-Morocco Reciprocal Promotion and Protection of Investments Agreement, Art. 2 (2); 2018 EU-Singapore Investment Protection Agreement, Art. 2.4 (5); 2019 EU-Viet Nam Investment Protection Agreement, Art. 2.5 (5). See also 2012 United States Model Bilateral Investment Treaty, Art. 5 (2) (b); 2019 Netherlands Model Bilateral Investment Treaty, Art. 9 (1).

Bilingual Content

210
SEPARATE OPINION OF JUDGE IWASAWA
Allocation of the burden of proof in the context of exhaustion of local
remedies
— When the applicant makes a prima facie case that the remedies
are ineffective, it is incumbent on the respondent to demonstrate that they
are in fact effective — The combination of the distinctive features of the
measures adopted by the United States and the primacy accorded to a more
recent statute over a treaty has led the Court to conclude that the relevant
companies had no reasonable possibility of obtaining redress — This reasoning
does not automatically apply to other circumstances in States where
a statute enacted after a treaty prevails over the treaty.
Standard of review for security exceptions in treaties — The Respondent
has the burden of proving that the conditions set forth in Article XX (1) (d)
of the Treaty of Amity are met — The provision gives the invoking State
a fair measure of discretion — The tests of proportionality and least restrictive
alternatives are too stringent for security exceptions —In assessing
whether a measure is necessary to protect a State’s essential security
interest,
an international court should determine whether the measure was
rational in light of a consideration of the reasonably available alternatives
known to the State at the time — The United States has not demonstrated
that Executive Order 13599 was a measure necessary to protect its essential
security interests.
The standard of the most constant protection and security is of particular
relevance in the form of protection from physical harm by third parties —
The standard is not one of strict liability but of due diligence — Full
protection and security is better understood as providing for protection
different
from fair and equitable treatment and should be interpreted as
referring to protection from physical harm.
1. I agree for the most part with the conclusions and reasoning of the Court
in this Judgment. I regret that I had to vote against operative clause (3) of
paragraph 236, in which the Court finds that the United States has violated
its obligations under Article III, paragraph 1, of the Treaty of Amity. I
will refrain from discussing the reasons for my vote on this clause, since I
largely share the views expressed in the opinions of other judges who voted
against it.
210
OPINION INDIVIDUELLE DE M. LE JUGE IWASAWA
[Traduction]
Répartition de la charge de la preuve en ce qui concerne l’épuisement des
voies de recours internes — Défendeur devant apporter la preuve du
contraire lorsque le demandeur démontre prima facie que les voies de recours
sont inefficaces — Combinaison entre les particularités des mesures adoptées
par les États-Unis et la primauté conférée à une loi plus récente sur un
traité ayant amené la Cour à conclure que les sociétés concernées n’avaient
aucune possibilité raisonnable d’obtenir réparation — Raisonnement ne
s’appliquant pas automatiquement à d’autres circonstances dans les États où
une loi postérieure à un traité l’emporte sur celui-ci.
Critère d’examen applicable aux exceptions relatives à la sécurité prévues
dans les traités — Défendeur devant prouver que les conditions énoncées
à l’alinéa d) du paragraphe 1 de l’article XX du traité d’amitié sont
remplies — Disposition conférant à l’État qui l’invoque un certain pouvoir
discrétionnaire — Critères de la proportionnalité et de la mesure la moins
restrictive étant trop stricts pour être appliqués aux exceptions relatives à
la sécurité — Juridiction internationale devant déterminer si une mesure
était rationnelle au regard des autres possibilités raisonnables dont l’État
avait connaissance à l’époque, aux fins d’apprécier si ladite mesure était
nécessaire à la protection des intérêts vitaux en matière de sécurité
de celui-ci — États-Unis n’ayant pas démontré que le décret présidentiel
no 13599 était une mesure nécessaire à la protection de leurs intérêts
vitaux sur le plan de la sécurité.
Standard de la protection et de la sécurité les plus constantes revêtant
une pertinence particulière en tant que moyen de protection contre des
dommages physiques causés par des tiers — Standard ne mettant pas en jeu
la responsabilité stricte, mais l’obligation de diligence — Standard de protection
et de sécurité complètes devant être entendu comme conférant une
protection distincte de celle offerte par un traitement juste et équitable et
interprété comme désignant une protection contre des dommages physiques.
1. Je souscris pour l’essentiel aux conclusions et au raisonnement que la
Cour a exposés dans le présent arrêt. Je déplore d’avoir dû voter contre le
point 3 du dispositif, dans lequel la Cour dit que les États-Unis d’Amérique
ont violé l’obligation que leur impose le paragraphe 1 de l’article III du traité
d’amitié. Je ne reviendrai cependant pas sur les raisons de mon vote, car je
partage en grande partie les vues que d’autres juges ne souscrivant pas à
cette conclusion ont exprimées dans l’exposé de leur opinion.
211 certain iranian assets (sep. op. iwasawa)
2. I will discuss three other topics in this opinion: the exhaustion of local
remedies, security exceptions in treaties, and the most constant protection
and security. As regards the exhaustion of local remedies, I will focus on
some points which are not addressed at length by the Court in the Judgment.
The other two topics  security exceptions and the most constant protection
and security  are issues of significance in international economic law
which are often raised in cases and are attracting increasing attention in
literature.
I. Exhaustion of Local Remedies
3. In the present case, the Court does not refer to the burden of proof with
respect to the exhaustion of local remedies, even though it affords a significant
basis for its conclusions. In previous cases on diplomatic protection, the
Court has explained the burden of proof in connection with the exhaustion
of local remedies. In the Elettronica Sicula S.p.A. (ELSI) (United States of
America v. Italy) [hereinafter ELSI] case, the Court observed first that “the
United States [the applicant] was very much aware that it must satisfy the
local remedies rule”, and then that “it was for Italy [the respondent] to
demonstrate that there was . . . some local remedy that had not been tried; or
at least, not exhausted. This burden Italy never sought to deny.” 1 In the
Ahmadou Sadio Diallo (Republic of Guinea v. Democratic Republic of the
Congo) [hereinafter Diallo case], reaffirming its statements in the ELSI case,
the Court declared that,
“[i]n matters of diplomatic protection, it is incumbent on the applicant to
prove that local remedies were indeed exhausted or to establish that
exceptional circumstances relieved the allegedly injured person . . . of
the obligation to exhaust available local remedies (see (ELSI), [. . .].
pp. 43-44, para. 53). It is for the respondent to convince the Court that
there were effective remedies in its domestic legal system that were not
exhausted (see ibid., p. 46, para. 59).”2
4. In international law, as a rule, the principle onus probandi incumbit
actori applies; it is incumbent on the claimant to prove a claim3. In the
context
of exhaustion of local remedies, the burden of proof is allocated as
1 Elettronica Sicula S.p.A. (ELSI) (United States of America v. Italy), Judgment, I.C.J.
Reports 1989, pp. 43-44, para. 53, and p. 46, para. 59.
2 Ahmadou Sadio Diallo (Republic of Guinea v. Democratic Republic of the Congo),
Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2007 (II), p. 600, para. 44.
3 E.g. Pulp Mills on the River Uruguay (Argentina v. Uruguay), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports
2010 (I), p. 71, para. 162.
certains actifs iraniens (op. ind. iwasawa) 211
2. J’aborderai trois autres sujets dans le présent exposé : l’épuisement des
voies de recours internes, les exceptions relatives à la sécurité prévues dans
les traités et l’obligation d’assurer la protection et la sécurité de la manière la
plus constante. En ce qui concerne l’épuisement des voies de recours internes,
j’examinerai particulièrement certains points sur lesquels la Cour ne s’est
pas étendue dans son arrêt. Les deux autres sujets, à savoir les exceptions
relatives à la sécurité et l’obligation d’assurer la protection et la sécurité de
la manière la plus constante, sont des questions importantes en droit international
économique, qui sont fréquemment soulevées dans des instances et
font l’objet d’une attention grandissante dans la littérature.
I. Épuisement des voies de recours internes
3. En la présente espèce, la Cour ne s’est pas référée à la charge de la
preuve en ce qui concerne l’épuisement des voies de recours internes, alors
que celle-ci sous-tend en grande partie ses conclusions. Dans des affaires
antérieures relatives à la protection diplomatique, elle a toutefois précisé à
qui incombait la charge de la preuve en la matière. En l’affaire de la Elettronica
Sicula S.p.A. (ELSI) (États-Unis d’Amérique c. Italie) [ci-après ELSI],
elle a ainsi souligné tout d’abord que « les États-Unis [le demandeur] étaient
parfaitement conscients qu’il leur fallait observer la règle de l’épuisement
des recours internes », et ensuite que « l’Italie [le défendeur] devait démontrer
qu’il existait ... un quelconque recours interne qui n’avait pas été tenté ou
du moins tenté mais pas épuisé. Ce devoir, l’Italie n’a jamais essayé de le
nier »1. En l’affaire Ahmadou Sadio Diallo (République de Guinée c. République
démocratique du Congo) [ci-après Diallo], réaffirmant ce qu’elle avait
dit en l’affaire ELSI, la Cour a déclaré ce qui suit :
« En matière de protection diplomatique, c’est au demandeur qu’il
incombe de prouver que les voies de recours internes ont bien été épuisées
ou d’établir que des circonstances exceptionnelles dispensaient la personne
prétendument lésée … d’épuiser les recours internes disponibles
(cf. … (ELSI), p. 43-44, par. 53). Quant au défendeur, il lui appartient de
convaincre la Cour qu’il existait dans son ordre juridique interne des
recours efficaces qui n’ont pas été épuisés (cf. ibid., p. 46, par. 59). »2
4. En règle générale, c’est le principe onus probandi incumbit actori
qui s’applique en droit international ; la charge de la preuve incombe au
demandeur 3. Dans le cas de l’épuisement des voies de recours internes,
1 Elettronica Sicula S.p.A. (ELSI) (États-Unis d’Amérique c. Italie), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1989,
p. 44, par. 53, et p. 46, par. 59.
2 Ahmadou Sadio Diallo (République de Guinée c. République démocratique du Congo),
exceptions préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2007 (II), p. 600, par. 44.
3 Voir, par exemple, Usines de pâte à papier sur le fleuve Uruguay (Argentine c. Uruguay),
arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2010 (I), p. 71, par. 162.
212 certain iranian assets (sep. op. iwasawa)
follows4. Since the exhaustion of local remedies is one of the requirements
for the exercise of diplomatic protection5, an applicant which exercises
diplomatic protection must specify that the injured person has exhausted
local remedies6. If the respondent raises the objection that local remedies
have not been exhausted, it must identify the remedies which have not been
exhausted7. The applicant then has to demonstrate either that those remedies
were exhausted or that exceptions to this rule apply, for example, that
the remedies are ineffective8. When the applicant makes a prima facie case
that the remedies are ineffective, it is the respondent which must prove that
the remedies are in fact effective9.
5. In cases concerned with complaints brought by individuals, international
human rights courts have adopted a different distribution of the burden of
proof for the exhaustion of local remedies. The respondent State bears the
initial burden of demonstrating that an effective remedy exists. Once the
respondent
has discharged this burden, it falls on the individual to prove
either that it has exhausted that remedy or that the remedy is ineffective10.
This specific
distribution of the burden of proof adopted by international
4 Judge Lauterpacht explained the distribution of the burden of proof in his separate opinion
in the Norwegian Loans case:
“(1) As a rule, it is for the plaintiff State to prove that there are no effective remedies to
which recourse can be had; (2) no such proof is required if there exists legislation which
on the face of it deprives the private claimants of a remedy; (3) in that case it is for the
defendant State to show that, notwithstanding the apparent absence of a remedy, its existence
can nevertheless reasonably be assumed”. (Certain Norwegian Loans (France v.
Norway), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1957, separate opinion of Judge Lauterpacht, p. 39.)
5 See e.g. Interhandel (Switzerland v. United States of America), Preliminary Objections,
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1959, p. 27; Article 14 (1) of the ILC Articles on Diplomatic
Protection.
6 E.g. American and British Claims Commission, Napier Case, 14 November 1872, in
History and Digest of the International Arbitrations to Which the United States Has Been a
Party, Vol. III, p. 3154 (J. Moore (ed.), 1898).
7 “In order to contend successfully that international proceedings are inadmissible, the
defendant State must prove the existence . . . of remedies which have not been used.” The
Ambatielos Claim (Greece, United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland), Reports
of International Arbitral Awards (RIAA), 6 March 1956, Vol XII, p. 119.
8 For example, the Permanent Court of International Justice held that until it had been
clearly shown that the courts of the defendant had no jurisdiction to entertain a suit by the
applicant’s company, the Court could not accept the contention of the applicant that the rule as
to the exhaustion of local remedies did not apply in the case. Panevezys-Saldutiskis Railway,
Judgment, 1939, P.C.I.J., Series A/B, No. 76, p. 19.
9 See Ahmadou Sadio Diallo (Republic of Guinea v. Democratic Republic of the Congo),
Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2007 (II), p. 600, para. 44.
10 E.g. European Court of Human Rights, Akdivar and Others v. Turkey, Judgment of
16 September 1996, No. 21893/93, para. 68; Inter-American Court of Human Rights,
Velásquez-Rodríguez v. Honduras, Judgment of 29 July 1988, paras. 59-60.
certains actifs iraniens (op. ind. iwasawa) 212
celle-ci est répartie comme suit4. Étant donné que l’épuisement des voies de
recours internes est l’une des conditions préalables à l’exercice de la protection
diplomatique5, un demandeur exerçant pareille protection doit préciser
que la personne lésée a épuisé les recours internes6. Si le défendeur excipe
du non-épuisement des voies de recours internes, il doit indiquer lesquelles
n’ont pas été épuisées7. Le demandeur doit alors démontrer soit que ces
voies ont bien été épuisées, soit que des exceptions à la règle s’appliquent,
par exemple en prouvant le caractère inefficace des voies de recours8.
Lorsque le demandeur démontre prima facie que les voies de recours sont
inefficaces, il incombe au défendeur d’apporter la preuve du contraire9.
5. Dans les affaires portant sur des requêtes individuelles, les juridictions
internationales des droits de l’homme ont adopté une répartition différente
de la charge de la preuve en matière d’épuisement des voies de recours
internes. C’est à l’État défendeur qu’il incombe initialement de démontrer
l’existence d’un recours efficace. Une fois que le défendeur a apporté la
preuve mise à sa charge, c’est à l’individu qui a formé la requête de démontrer
soit qu’il a épuisé ledit recours, soit que celui-ci n’était pas efficace10.
4 Le juge Lauterpacht a expliqué la répartition de la charge de la preuve dans l’exposé de son
opinion individuelle qui a été joint à l’arrêt rendu dans l’affaire relative à Certains emprunts
norvégiens :
« 1) En règle générale, il appartient à l’État demandeur de prouver qu’il n’existe pas de
recours efficace auquel on puisse s’adresser ; 2) cette preuve n’est pas nécessaire s’il existe
une loi qui, à première vue, prive les demandeurs particuliers d’un recours ; 3) dans ce
cas, il appartient à l’État défendeur de démontrer que, nonobstant l’absence apparente
d’un recours, son existence peut néanmoins être raisonnablement présumée ». (Certains
emprunts norvégiens (France c. Norvège), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1957, opinion individuelle
du juge Lauterpacht, p. 39.)
5 Voir, par exemple, Interhandel (Suisse c. États-Unis d’Amérique), exceptions préliminaires,
arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1959, p. 27 ; article 14, paragraphe 1, des Articles sur la protection
diplomatique de la Commission du droit international.
6 Voir notamment American and British Claims Commission, Napier Case, 14 novembre
1872, History and Digest of the International Arbitrations to Which the United States Has
Been a Party, vol. III, p. 3154 (J. Moore (sous la dir. de), 1898).
7 « Pour contester valablement que la procédure internationale n’est pas recevable, l’État
défendeur doit apporter la preuve de l’existence … de voies de recours qui n’ont pas été
utilisées. » La réclamation Ambatielos (Grèce c. Royaume-Uni de Grande-Bretagne et d’Irlande
du Nord), sentence du 6 mars 1956, Recueil des sentences arbitrales (RSA), vol. XII,
p. 119.
8 Voir, par exemple, Chemin de fer Panevezys-Saldutiskis, arrêt, 1939, C.P.J.I. série A/B
no 76, p. 19. La Cour permanente de Justice internationale a considéré que, tant qu’il n’avait pas
été clairement démontré que les tribunaux du défendeur n’avaient pas compétence pour
connaître d’une action introduite par la société du demandeur, la Cour ne pouvait accepter la
thèse du demandeur selon laquelle la règle de l’épuisement des recours internes ne trouverait
pas son application dans l’affaire.
9 Voir Ahmadou Sadio Diallo (République de Guinée c. République démocratique du
Congo), exceptions préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2007 (II), p. 600, par. 44.
10 Voir, par exemple, Cour européenne des droits de l’homme, Akdivar et autres c. Turquie,
arrêt du 16 septembre 1996, no 21893/93, par. 68 ; Cour interaméricaine des droits de l’homme,
Velásquez-Rodríguez c. Honduras, arrêt du 29 juillet 1988, par. 59-60.
213 certain iranian assets (sep. op. iwasawa)
human rights courts does not necessarily apply in inter-State diplomatic
protection
cases.
6. In the present case, the Respondent raises the objection that local remedies
have not been exhausted with regard to some of the Applicant’s claims
(see Judgment, paras. 55-56 and 59). In response, the Applicant has made a
prima facie case that the remedies offered by the legal system of the United
States are ineffective (see ibid., paras. 58 and 60). In these circumstances, it is
incumbent on the Respondent to demonstrate that they are in fact effective.
7. Iran complains of a succession of legislative and executive measures
which have effectively removed the remedies available to Iranian companies,
agencies and instrumentalities to challenge enforcement actions against
their assets. United States courts are bound to apply these measures which
leave little room for judicial appreciation. Iran contends that the comprehensive
régime created by the United States’ measures “is in practice not
reviewable in the local courts”. For its part, the United States maintains that
local remedies provide a reasonable possibility of redress. However, as the
Court points out, “[t]he Iranian companies that succeeded in having certain
measures set aside by the courts were only able to do so by demonstrating
either that the contested measures fell outside the scope of the statute on
which they were said to be founded, or that they were contrary to the statute
itself” (Judgment, para. 71).
8. It is the combination of these distinctive features of the measures adopted
by the United States and the primacy accorded to a more recent federal
statute over a treaty in the jurisprudence of the United States which has led
the Court to conclude that the companies in question had no reasonable possibility
of successfully asserting their rights in United States court
proceedings. The Court adopted this reasoning in the particular circumstances
of the present case (Judgment, para. 72). Therefore, this reasoning
does not automatically apply to other circumstances in States where a statute
enacted after a treaty prevails over the treaty.
II. The Security Exception in Article XX (1) (d)
of the Treaty of Amity
9. The United States claims that Executive Order 13599 falls within the
security exception set out in Article XX (1) (d) of the Treaty of Amity. While
the Court rejects this claim in one short paragraph (Judgment, para. 108), I
will make a more detailed analysis of the claim and give additional reasons
in support of the Court’s conclusion.
10. I will focus in particular on the standard of review to be used for analysing
claims made under security exceptions such as Article XX (1) (d) of
certains actifs iraniens (op. ind. iwasawa) 213
Cette répartition particulière de la charge de la preuve adoptée par les
juridictions
internationales des droits de l’homme ne s’applique pas nécessairement
aux affaires entre États relatives à la protection diplomatique.
6. Dans la présente affaire, le défendeur excipait du défaut d’épuisement
des recours internes pour contester certaines prétentions du demandeur (voir
arrêt, par. 55-56 et 59). En réponse, ce dernier a montré prima facie que les
recours offerts par le système judiciaire américain étaient inefficaces (voir
ibid., par. 58 et 60). Dès lors, c’est au défendeur qu’il incombait de prouver
que ces recours étaient en réalité efficaces.
7. L’Iran tirait grief d’une série de mesures législatives et exécutives ayant
effectivement privé ses sociétés, organismes et agences des recours disponibles,
et contestait sur cette base les actions en exécution engagées contre
leurs actifs. Les juridictions américaines étaient tenues d’appliquer ces
mesures, qui ne laissaient guère de place à l’appréciation judiciaire. Selon
l’Iran, les mesures des États-Unis constituaient un régime global « qui, en
pratique, ne p[ouvait] pas être réexaminé par les juridictions internes ». De
leur côté, les États-Unis soutenaient que les recours internes offraient une
possibilité raisonnable d’obtenir réparation. Toutefois, comme l’a souligné la
Cour, « [l]es sociétés iraniennes qui sont parvenues à faire écarter par les tribunaux
certaines mesures n’ont pu le faire qu’en démontrant soit que les
mesures contestées se situaient hors du champ d’application de la loi sur
laquelle elles étaient supposées être fondées, soit qu’elles étaient contraires à
la loi elle-même » (arrêt, par. 71).
8. C’est la combinaison entre les particularités des mesures adoptées par
les États-Unis et la primauté conférée à une loi fédérale plus récente sur un
traité par la jurisprudence américaine qui a conduit la Cour à conclure que
les sociétés en question n’avaient eu aucune possibilité raisonnable de faire
valoir leurs droits avec succès dans les procédures judiciaires américaines.
La Cour a adopté ce raisonnement dans les circonstances de la présente
affaire (arrêt, par. 72). Celui-ci ne s’applique donc pas automatiquement à
d’autres circonstances dans les États où une loi postérieure à un traité l’emporte
sur celui-ci.
II. Exception relative à la sécurité prévue à l’alinéa d)
du paragraphe 1 de l’article XX du traité d’amitié
9. Les États-Unis affirmaient que le décret présidentiel no 13599 était couvert
par l’exception relative à la sécurité prévue à l’alinéa d) du paragraphe 1
de l’article XX du traité d’amitié. La Cour ayant rejeté cette affirmation dans
un court paragraphe (arrêt, par. 108), je proposerai une analyse plus détaillée
de la prétention des États-Unis et exposerai plusieurs motifs supplémentaires
venant étayer la conclusion énoncée dans l’arrêt.
10. Je m’attarderai en particulier sur le critère d’examen à utiliser pour
analyser les demandes formées au titre d’exceptions relatives à la sécurité
214 certain iranian assets (sep. op. iwasawa)
the Treaty of Amity. Many treaties, including other treaties on friendship,
commerce and navigation, international investment agreements, and multilateral
and regional trade agreements, contain security exceptions. In recent
years, States have frequently invoked a security exception in a treaty to
claim that measures which are inconsistent with the substantive provisions
of the treaty are justified. I consider that the standard of review to be used by
international courts for analysing such claims is of crucial importance.
11. Article XX (1) of the Treaty of Amity provides:
“The present Treaty shall not preclude the application of measures: . . .
(d) necessary to fulfill the obligations of a High Contracting Party for
the maintenance or restoration of international peace and security, or
necessary to protect its essential security interests.”
The United States argues that Executive Order 13599 was a measure necessary
to protect its essential security interests and was not precluded by the
Treaty.
12. Article XX (1) (d) may be considered as an affirmative defence. Pursuant
to the principle of reus in excipiendo fit actor ( the defendant, by
raising an exception, becomes a plaintiff), the respondent  in this case, the
United States  bears the burden of proving that the conditions set out in
Article XX (1) (d) are met. The Court confirms that this burden is placed on
the Respondent, declaring that “it was for the United States to show that
Executive
Order 13599 was a measure necessary to protect its essential
security interests” (Judgment, para. 108).
13. Like Article XX (1) of the Treaty of Amity, Article XXI of the
General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade of 1994 [hereinafter GATT 1994]
provides for security exceptions, but its formulation is significantly different.
Article
XXI of the GATT 1994 reads as follows:
“Nothing in this Agreement shall be construed
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
(b) to prevent any contracting party from taking any action which it
considers necessary for the protection of its essential security
interests
(i) relating to fissionable materials or the materials from which
they are derived;
(ii) relating to the traffic in arms, ammunition and implements of
war and to such traffic in other goods and materials as is carried
certains actifs iraniens (op. ind. iwasawa) 214
telles que celles prévues à l’alinéa d) du paragraphe 1 de l’article XX du
traité d’amitié. De nombreux traités, dont d’autres traités d’amitié, de commerce
et de navigation, des accords internationaux d’investissement, et des
accords commerciaux multilatéraux et régionaux, prévoient des exceptions
relatives à la sécurité. À maintes reprises au cours de ces dernières années,
des États ont invoqué une exception relative à la sécurité prévue dans un
traité pour affirmer que des mesures incompatibles avec les dispositions
substantielles de cet instrument étaient justifiées. Je considère que le critère
d’examen que les juridictions internationales doivent utiliser pour analyser
ce type d’affirmations revêt une importance cruciale.
11. Le paragraphe 1 de l’article XX du traité d’amitié se lit comme suit :
« Le présent Traité ne fera pas obstacle à l’application de mesures … d) []
nécessaires à l’exécution des obligations de l’une ou l’autre des Hautes
Parties contractantes relatives au maintien ou au rétablissement de la
paix et de la sécurité internationales ou à la protection des intérêts vitaux
de cette Haute Partie contractante sur le plan de la sécurité. »
Les États-Unis soutenaient que le décret présidentiel no 13599 était une mesure
nécessaire à la protection de leurs intérêts vitaux en matière de sécurité et que
le traité d’amitié n’y faisait pas obstacle.
12. L’alinéa d) du paragraphe 1 de l’article XX peut être considéré comme
une défense affirmative. Conformément au principe reus in excipiendo fit
actor (le défendeur, en soulevant une exception, devient demandeur),
il incombe au défendeur  en l’espèce, les États-Unis  de prouver que
les conditions énoncées à l’alinéa d) du paragraphe 1 de l’article XX sont
remplies. La Cour l’a d’ailleurs confirmé en indiquant « qu’il appartenait
aux États-Unis de démontrer que le décret [présidentiel] no 13599 constituait
une mesure nécessaire à la protection de leurs intérêts vitaux en matière de
sécurité » (arrêt, par. 108).
13. Comme le paragraphe 1 de l’article XX du traité d’amitié, l’article XXI
de l’accord général sur les tarifs douaniers et le commerce de 1994 [ci-après
le « GATT de 1994 »] prévoit des exceptions concernant la sécurité, mais il
le fait dans des termes sensiblement différents. L’article XXI du GATT de
1994 se lit comme suit :
« Aucune disposition du présent Accord ne sera interprétée
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
b) [] comme empêchant une partie contractante de prendre toutes
mesures qu’elle estimera nécessaires à la protection des intérêts
essentiels de sa sécurité :
i) se rapportant aux matières fissiles ou aux matières qui servent à
leur fabrication ;
ii) se rapportant au trafic d’armes, de munitions et de matériel de
guerre et à tout commerce d’autres articles et matériel destinés
215 certain iranian assets (sep. op. iwasawa)
on directly or indirectly for the purpose of supplying a military
establishment;
(iii) taken in time of war or other emergency in international relations.”
(Emphasis added.)
14. In Russia — Measures concerning Traffic in Transit, a case filed by
Ukraine under the World Trade Organization (WTO) dispute settlement
procedures,
Russia argued that Article XXI (b) (iii) of the GATT 1994 was
“totally ‘self-judging’”. The WTO panel pointed out that “the adjectival
clause ‘which it considers’” in the chapeau of Article XXI (b) “can be read
to qualify only the word ‘necessary’ . . . or to qualify also the determination
of these ‘essential security interests’; or finally and maximally, to qualify
the determination of the matters described in the three subparagraphs of
Article XXI (b) as well”. The panel concluded that the clause does not
qualify the determination of the circumstances in subparagraph (iii), and
that for action to fall within the scope of Article XXI (b), “it must objectively
be found to meet the requirements in one of the enumerated subparagraphs”.
It thus rejected the argument that Article XXI (b) (iii) was “totally
‘self-judging’”11.
15. In the case concerning Military and Paramilitary Activities in and
against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v. United States), the Court analysed Article
XXI (1) (d) of the Treaty of Friendship, Commerce and Navigation
[hereinafter FCN Treaty] between Nicaragua and the United States, which is
the equivalent provision to Article XX (1) (d) of the Treaty of Amity between
Iran and the United States. Neither treaty contains the phrase “which it considers”
or a similar expression. In the Military and Paramilitary Activities
case and in the case concerning Oil Platforms (Islamic Republic of Iran v.
United States), the Court made clear that the security exceptions in these
treaties were not “self-judging”, stating that, “by the terms of the Treaty
itself, whether a measure is necessary to protect the essential security interests
of a party is not . . . purely a question for the subjective judgment of the
party”12. Given this clear statement by the Court, both Parties accept that
Article XX (1) (d) of the Treaty of Amity is not “self-judging”13.
11 Panel Report, Russia — Measures concerning Traffic in Transit, WT/DS512/R and Add.1,
adopted 26 April 2019, paras. 7.26, 7.63, 7.101-7.102.
12 Military and Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v. United
States of America), Merits, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1986, p. 141, para. 282. See also Oil Platforms
(Islamic Republic of Iran v. United States of America), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2003,
p. 183, para. 43.
13 Reply of Iran, paras. 10.19-10.21; Rejoinder of the United States, para. 7.18.
certains actifs iraniens (op. ind. iwasawa) 215
directement ou indirectement à assurer l’approvisionnement des
forces armées ;
iii) appliquées en temps de guerre ou en cas de grave tension internationale.
» (Les italiques sont de moi.)
14. Dans l’affaire Russie — Mesures concernant le trafic en transit, introduite
par l’Ukraine conformément aux procédures de l’Organisation mondiale
du commerce (OMC) régissant le règlement des différends, la Russie soutenait
que le sous-alinéa iii) de l’alinéa b) de l’article XXI du GATT de 1994 était
« entièrement “fondé sur une autonomie de jugement” ». Le groupe spécial
de
l’OMC a estimé que « l’expression adjectivale “qu’elle estimera” » (« which it
considers ») figurant dans le texte introductif de l’alinéa b) de l’article
XXI
« p[ouvait] être interprétée comme qualifiant uniquement le mot “nécessaires”
… ou comme qualifiant également la détermination de ces “intérêts
essentiels de … sécurité” ; ou enfin et au maximum, comme qualifiant aussi la
détermination des questions décrites dans les trois sous-alinéas de l’article
XXI b) ». Le groupe spécial a conclu que cette disposition ne s’étendait
pas à la détermination des circonstances visées au sous-alinéa iii) et que, pour
que des mesures relèvent de l’alinéa b) de l’article XXI, « il d[eva]it être
constaté objectivement qu’elles satisf[aisaie]nt aux prescriptions énoncées
dans l’un des sous-alinéas énumérés de cette disposition ». Par conséquent, le
groupe spécial a rejeté l’argument selon lequel le sous-alinéa iii) de l’alinéa b)
de l’article XXI était « totalement “fondé sur une autonomie de jugement” »11.
15. En l’affaire des Activités militaires et paramilitaires au Nicaragua et
contre celui-ci (Nicaragua c. États-Unis d’Amérique), la Cour a analysé l’alinéa
d) du paragraphe 1 de l’article XXI du traité d’amitié, de commerce et de
navigation entre le Nicaragua et les États-Unis, qui est le pendant de l’alinéa
d) du paragraphe 1 de l’article XX du traité d’amitié entre l’Iran et les
États-Unis. Aucun de ces instruments ne contient l’expression « qu’elle estimera
» (« which it considers ») ou une autre expression similaire. Dans l’affaire
des Activités militaires et paramilitaires et dans celle des Plates-formes
pétrolières (République islamique d’Iran c. États-Unis d’Amérique), la Cour
a clairement établi que les exceptions relatives à la sécurité prévues dans ces
traités n’étaient pas « fondé[es] sur une autonomie de jugement », affirmant
que, « d’après les termes du traité lui-même, la question de savoir si une
mesure [étai]t nécessaire à la protection des intérêts vitaux de sécurité d’une
partie ne rel[evait] pas de l’appréciation subjective de la partie intéressée »12.
Compte tenu de cette déclaration sans équivoque de la Cour, les deux Parties
à la présente espèce convenaient que l’alinéa d) du paragraphe 1 de l’article
XXI du traité d’amitié ne revêtait pas un « caractère discrétionnaire »13.
11 Rapport du groupe spécial, Russie — Mesures concernant le trafic en transit, WT/
DS512/R et Add.1, adoptés le 26 avril 2019, par. 7.26, 7.63 et 7.101-7.102.
12 Activités militaires et paramilitaires au Nicaragua et contre celui-ci (Nicaragua c.
États-Unis d’Amérique), fond, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1986, p. 141, par. 282. Voir également
Plates-formes pétrolières (République islamique d’Iran c. États-Unis d’Amérique), arrêt,
C.I.J. Recueil 2003, p. 183, par. 43.
13 Réplique de l’Iran, par. 10.19-10.21 ; duplique des États-Unis, par. 7.18.
216 certain iranian assets (sep. op. iwasawa)
16. In the Military and Paramilitary Activities case, the Court contrasted
Article XXI of the GATT 1994 with Article XXI of the FCN Treaty between
Nicaragua and the United States, and emphasized that the latter “speaks simply
of ‘necessary’ measures, not of those considered by a party to be such”14.
It appears that the Court attempted to distinguish between treaties which
contain the phrase “which it considers” and others which do not, suggesting
that the latter are not “self-judging”.
17. In the Oil Platforms case, however, the Court itself explained that
“[o]n the basis of [Article XX (1) (d) of the Treaty of Amity], a party to the
Treaty may be justified in taking certain measures which it considers to be
‘necessary’ for the protection of its essential security interests”15, even
though Article XX (1) (d) does not contain the phrase “which it considers”.
18. In Certain Questions of Mutual Assistance in Criminal Matters
(Djibouti v. France), the Court acknowledged that Article 2 (c) of the
Convention on Mutual Assistance in Criminal Matters between Djibouti and
France affords “a very considerable discretion” to the requested State
because Article 2 (c) contains the phrase “[i]f the requested State considers”.
In parentheses, the Court mentioned the Military and Paramilitary Activities
and Oil Platforms cases as examples of “the competence of the Court in the
face of provisions giving wide discretion”16. Thus, the Court acknowledged
that the security exception clauses at issue in those cases, respectively
Article
XXI (1) (d) of the FCN Treaty between Nicaragua and the
United States and Article XX (1) (d) of the Treaty of Amity between Iran and
the United States, give wide discretion to the contracting parties, even
though the said clauses do not contain the phrase “which it considers”.
19. The presence of the phrase “which it considers” certainly makes
explicit the granting of discretion to the State concerned. However, even in
the absence of such a phrase, security exceptions should be understood as
affording the invoking State a fair measure of discretion17.
14 Military and Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v. United
States of America), Merits, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1986, p. 116, para. 222.
15 Oil Platforms (Islamic Republic of Iran v. United States of America), Judgment, I.C.J.
Reports 2003, p. 183, para. 43 (emphasis added).
16 Certain Questions of Mutual Assistance in Criminal Matters (Djibouti v. France), Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 2008, p. 229, para. 145 (emphasis added).
17 An arbitral tribunal used the term “margin of appreciation” to convey the idea of
the discretion given by security exceptions to the invoking State: Continental Casualty
Company v. The Argentine Republic, ICSID Case No. ARB/03/9, Award of 5 September 2008,
para. 181. See also Philip Morris Brands Sàrl, Philip Morris Products S.A. and Abal
Hermanos S.A. v. Oriental Republic of Uruguay, ICSID Case No. ARB/10/7, Award of 8 July
2016, paras. 388, 398-399 (accepting the term “margin of appreciation” in the context of examcertains
actifs iraniens (op. ind. iwasawa) 216
16. En l’affaire des Activités militaires et paramilitaires, la Cour a mis en
regard l’article XXI du GATT de 1994 et l’article XXI du traité d’amitié, de
commerce et de navigation entre le Nicaragua et les États-Unis, soulignant que
cette dernière disposition « fai[sai]t simplement état … des mesures “nécessaires”
et non pas de celles considérées comme telles par une partie »14. Il semble
que la Cour ait tenté de faire une distinction entre les traités qui contiennent
l’expression « which it considers » et d’autres où cette expression est absente,
donnant à penser que ces derniers n’ont pas un « caractère discrétionnaire ».
17. En l’affaire des Plates-formes pétrolières, toutefois, la Cour elle-même
a précisé que, « [c]ompte tenu de [l’alinéa d) du paragraphe 1 de l’article XX
du traité d’amitié], une partie au traité p[ouvai]t être fondée à prendre certaines
mesures qu’elle consid[érait] “nécessaires” à la protection de ses
intérêts vitaux sur le plan de la sécurité »15, bien que cette disposition ne
contienne pas l’expression « qu’elle considère » (« which it considers »).
18. Dans l’affaire relative à Certaines questions concernant l’entraide judiciaire
en matière pénale (Djibouti c. France), la Cour a reconnu que l’alinéa c)
de l’article 2 de la convention d’entraide judiciaire en matière pénale entre
Djibouti et la France donnait « un très large pouvoir discrétionnaire » à l’État
requis, car cette disposition renfermait l’expression « [s]i l’État requis estime ».
Entre parenthèses, la Cour a cité en exemple les affaires des Activités militaires
et paramilitaires et des Plates-formes pétrolières pour illustrer « la
compétence de la Cour à l’égard de dispositions accordant un large pouvoir
discrétionnaire »16. Par conséquent, elle a reconnu que les dispositions portant
sur les exceptions relatives à la sécurité en cause dans ces affaires, à
savoir respectivement l’alinéa d) du paragraphe 1 de l’article XXI du traité
d’amitié, de commerce et de navigation entre le Nicaragua et les États-Unis et
l’alinéa d) du paragraphe 1 de l’article XX du traité d’amitié entre l’Iran et les
États-Unis, conféraient un large pouvoir discrétionnaire aux parties contractantes,
alors même que lesdites dispositions ne contiennent pas l’expression
« qu’elle considère » (« which it considers »).
19. À n’en pas douter, la présence de l’expression « which it considers »
permet d’établir expressément qu’un pouvoir discrétionnaire est accordé à
l’État concerné. Toutefois, même en l’absence d’une telle expression, les
exceptions relatives à la sécurité doivent être considérées comme conférant
à l’État qui les invoque un certain pouvoir discrétionnaire17.
14 Activités militaires et paramilitaires au Nicaragua et contre celui-ci (Nicaragua c.
États-Unis d’Amérique), fond, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1986, p. 116, par. 222.
15 Plates-formes pétrolières (République islamique d’Iran c. États-Unis d’Amérique), arrêt,
C.I.J. Recueil 2003, p. 183, par. 43 (les italiques sont de moi).
16 Certaines questions concernant l’entraide judiciaire en matière pénale (Djibouti
c. France), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2008, p. 229, par. 145 (les italiques sont de moi).
17 Un tribunal arbitral a utilisé l’expression « marge d’appréciation » (« margin of appreciation
») pour rendre compte de la notion de pouvoir discrétionnaire conféré par les exceptions
relatives à la sécurité à l’État qui les invoque : Continental Casualty Company v. The Argentine
Republic, affaire CIRDI no ARB/03/9, sentence du 5 septembre 2008, par. 181. Voir également
Philip Morris Brands Sàrl, Philip Morris Products S.A. and Abal Hermanos S.A. v. Oriental
Republic of Uruguay, affaire CIRDI no ARB/10/7, sentence du 8 juillet 2016, par. 388
217 certain iranian assets (sep. op. iwasawa)
20. The Parties to the present case disagree on the standard that the
Court should use in reviewing the United States’ claim under Article
XX (1) (d) and on the conclusion that it should reach. Iran argues that an
examination of necessity entails an assessment of proportionality, finding
its authority in WTO and investment arbitration jurisprudence. For its part,
the United States contends that Article XX (1) (d) gives wide discretion to a
State acting
in good faith.
21. In Russia — Measures concerning Traffic in Transit, the WTO panel
set out the standard to be used in reviewing measures taken under
Article XXI (Security Exceptions) of the GATT 1994. It acknowledged that
the article is partly “self-judging”, suggesting that the phrase “which it
considers” qualifies not only the word “necessary” but also the determination
of the “essential security interests”. The panel thus admitted that “it is
left, in general, to every Member to define what it considers to be its essential
security interests”. However, according to the panel, “the discretion of
a Member to designate particular concerns as ‘essential security interests’ is
limited by its obligation to interpret and apply Article XXI (b) (iii) of the
GATT 1994 in good faith”, and “[t]he obligation of good faith . . . applies not
only to the Member’s definition of the essential security interests . . . but
also, and most importantly, to their connection with the measures at issue”.
The panel further explained that
“this obligation [of good faith] is crystallized in demanding that the
measures at issue meet a minimum requirement of plausibility in relation
to the proffered essential security interests, i.e. that they are not
implausible as measures protective of these interests”18.
The analytical framework enunciated by the panel in Russia — Measures
concerning Traffic in Transit has generally been accepted by the Members of
the WTO and followed by subsequent panels19.
ining a claim concerned with fair and equitable treatment, stating that tribunals should pay
“great deference” to governmental judgments of national needs in matters such as the protection
of public health). Compare it with ibid., concurring and dissenting opinion of Mr Born,
Arbitrator, paras. 87, 137-138, 188.
18 Russia — Measures concerning Traffic in Transit, supra note 11, paras. 7.63, 7.101-7.102,
7.131-7.133, 7.138. Ukraine did not file an appeal and the report was adopted by the WTO
Dispute Settlement Body on 26 April 2019. Ukraine stated that “[t]he Panel had made a very
important and welcome contribution” and that “[m]ost importantly, the Panel had found the
existence of appropriate circumstances to be a crucial element for justification under Article
XXI of the GATT 1994”. WTO Dispute Settlement Body, Minutes of Meeting Held on
26 April 2019, WT/DSB/M/428, p. 20.
19 In Saudi Arabia — IPRs (case filed by Qatar), the parties (Qatar and Saudi Arabia), multiple
intervening third parties, and the panel all agreed with the analytical framework adopted
certains actifs iraniens (op. ind. iwasawa) 217
20. Les Parties à la présente affaire ne s’accordaient ni sur le critère que la
Cour devait employer pour examiner la demande présentée par les États-Unis
en vertu de l’alinéa d) du paragraphe 1 de l’article XX, ni sur la conclusion à
laquelle elle devait aboutir. L’Iran soutenait que la nécessité s’évalue au regard
du critère de proportionnalité, dont font foi, selon lui, la jurisprudence de
l’OMC et celle des procédures arbitrales relatives aux investissements. Les
États-Unis, quant à eux, alléguaient que l’alinéa d) du paragraphe 1 de l’article
XX confère un large pouvoir discrétionnaire à l’État qui agit de bonne foi.
21. Dans l’affaire Russie — Mesures concernant le trafic en transit, le
groupe spécial de l’OMC a défini le critère à utiliser pour évaluer les mesures
prises en vertu de l’article XXI (Exceptions concernant la sécurité) du GATT
de 1994. Il a reconnu que cette disposition était en partie « fondé[e] sur une
autonomie de jugement », avançant que l’expression « qu’elle estimera »
(« which it considers ») qualifiait non seulement le mot « nécessaires », mais
aussi la détermination des « intérêts essentiels de … sécurité ». Le groupe
spécial a donc admis qu’« il appart[enai]t, en général, à chaque Membre de
définir ce qu’il estim[ait] comme étant les intérêts essentiels de sa sécurité ».
Toutefois, selon le groupe spécial, « le pouvoir discrétionnaire dont dispose
un Membre pour désigner des préoccupations particulières comme “intérêts
essentiels de sécurité” est limité par son obligation d’interpréter et d’appliquer
de bonne foi l’article XXI b) iii) du GATT de 1994 » et « [l]’obligation de
bonne foi … s’applique non seulement à la définition donnée par le Membre
des intérêts essentiels de sécurité … mais aussi, et surtout, à leur lien avec les
mesures en cause ». Le groupe spécial a en outre précisé que
« cette obligation [de bonne foi] [prenait] corps dans l’exigence que les
mesures en cause satisfassent à une prescription minimale de plausibilité
par rapport aux intérêts essentiels de sécurité invoqués, c’est-à-dire
qu’elles ne soient pas dénuées de plausibilité en tant que mesures visant
à protéger ces intérêts »18.
Le cadre d’analyse énoncé par le groupe spécial dans l’affaire Russie — Mesures
concernant le trafic en transit a été généralement accepté par les membres de
l’OMC, et suivi par les groupes spéciaux constitués ultérieurement19.
et 398-399 (acceptant l’expression « marge d’appréciation » dans le contexte de l’examen d’une
demande relative au traitement juste et équitable, affirmant que les juridictions devraient
traiter avec « grande déférence » les jugements des États concernant les besoins nationaux sur
des questions telles que la protection de la santé publique). À comparer avec l’opinion concordante
et dissidente de M. Born, arbitre, ibid., par. 87, 137-138 et 188.
18 Russie — Mesures concernant le trafic en transit, supra note 11, par. 7.63, 7.10-17.102, 7.131-
7.133 et 7.138. L’Ukraine n’a pas fait appel et le rapport du groupe spécial a été adopté le 26 avril
2019 par l’Organe de règlement des différends de l’OMC. L’Ukraine a affirmé que
« [l]e Groupe spécial avait apporté une contribution très importante et opportune » et que, « [p]lus
important encore, il avait constaté que l’existence de circonstances appropriées était un élément
crucial de la justification au titre de l’article XXI du GATT de 1994 ». Organe de règlement des
différends de l’OMC, compte rendu de la réunion du 26 avril 2019, WT/DSB/M/428, p. 20.
19 Dans l’affaire Arabie saoudite — Mesures concernant la protection des droits de propriété
intellectuelle (instance introduite par le Qatar), les parties (Qatar et Arabie saoudite), de
218 certain iranian assets (sep. op. iwasawa)
22. This Court also has considered that clauses containing the phrase
“which it considers” or a similar expression are subject to a good faith
review. In the Certain Questions of Mutual Assistance in Criminal Matters
(Djibouti v. France) case, the Court accepted that Article 2 (c) of the Convention
on Mutual Assistance in Criminal Matters, which contains the
phrase “[i]f the requested State considers”, provides the requested State with
“a very considerable discretion”. It stressed, however, that “this exercise of
discretion is still subject to the obligation of good faith codified in Article 26
of the 1969 Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties”20.
23. In respect of security exception clauses which do not contain the
phrase “which it considers” or a similar expression, the standard of review
should be more rigorous than a good faith review. In the Military and Paramilitary
Activities case, the Court gave a brief outline of the standard to be
used in reviewing the measures taken under the security exception clause in
the FCN Treaty between Nicaragua and the United States, namely “[t]he
Court has . . . to assess whether the risk run by [the] ‘essential security interests’
is reasonable, and secondly, whether the measures presented as being
designed to protect these interests are not merely useful but ‘necessary’”21.
The Court emphasized that “the measures taken must not merely be such as
tend to protect the essential security interests of the party taking them, but
must be ‘necessary’ for that purpose”22. This statement was reaffirmed in the
Oil Platforms case with regard to Article XX (1) (d) of the Treaty of Amity23.
24. As the Court explained in the Military and Paramilitary Activities
case, in the first stage of inquiry, an international court must assess whether
the risk run by the essential security interests is reasonable. The ordinary
meaning of the term “essential security interests” in its context suggests that
it relates to the existential core of State functions, such as the protection of
by the panel in Russia — Measures concerning Traffic in Transit. Panel Report, Saudi
Arabia — Measures concerning the Protection of Intellectual Property Rights, WT/DS567/R
and Add.1, circulated on 16 June 2020, paras. 7.243-7.255, 7.271. See also Panel Report,
United States — Certain Measures on Steel and Aluminium Products (China), WT/DS544/R,
Add.1 and Suppl.1, circulated on 9 December 2022, para. 7.128, and other panel reports in
related cases brought by Norway (DS552), Switzerland (DS556) and Türkiye (DS564); Panel
Report, United States — Origin Marking Requirement (Hong Kong, China), WT/DS597/R,
circulated on 21 December 2022, para. 7.185.
20 Certain Questions of Mutual Assistance in Criminal Matters (Djibouti v. France), Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 2008, p. 229, para. 145.
21 Military and Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v. United
States of America), Merits, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1986, p. 117, para. 224.
22 Ibid., p. 141, para. 282.
23 Oil Platforms (Islamic Republic of Iran v. United States of America), Judgment, I.C.J.
Reports 2003, p. 183, para. 43.
certains actifs iraniens (op. ind. iwasawa) 218
22. La Cour a elle aussi considéré que les dispositions contenant l’expression
« which it considers » ou une expression similaire devaient être
examinées au regard du critère de la bonne foi. Dans l’affaire relative à Certaines
questions concernant l’entraide judiciaire en matière pénale (Djibouti
c. France), elle a ainsi admis que l’alinéa c) de l’article 2 de la convention
d’entraide judiciaire en matière pénale, qui renferme l’expression « [s]i l’État
requis estime », donnait à ce dernier « un très large pouvoir discrétionnaire »,
soulignant toutefois que « l’exercice de ce pouvoir demeur[ait] soumis à
l’obligation de bonne foi codifiée à l’article 26 de la convention de Vienne de
1969 sur le droit des traités »20.
23. En ce qui concerne les dispositions portant sur les exceptions relatives
à la sécurité qui ne contiennent pas l’expression « which it considers » ou des
termes similaires, le critère d’examen devrait être plus rigoureux que celui
de la bonne foi. En l’affaire des Activités militaires et paramilitaires, la Cour
a décrit succinctement le critère à utiliser pour évaluer les mesures adoptées
au titre des exceptions relatives à la sécurité prévues dans le traité d’amitié,
de commerce et de navigation entre le Nicaragua et les États-Unis : « [l]a
Cour doit … se prononcer sur le caractère raisonnable du péril encouru par
[l]es “intérêts vitaux en ce qui concerne la sécurité” et ensuite sur le caractère
non seulement utile mais “nécessaire” des mesures présentées comme
destinées à en assurer la protection »21. Elle a souligné que « les mesures ne
d[evai]ent pas simplement tendre à protéger les intérêts vitaux de sécurité de
la partie qui les adopte ; elles doivent être “nécessaires” à cette fin »22. La
Cour l’a réaffirmé en référence à l’alinéa d) du paragraphe 1 de l’article XX
du traité d’amitié dans l’affaire des Plates-formes pétrolières23.
24. Ainsi que la Cour l’a expliqué en l’affaire des Activités militaires et
paramilitaires, au premier stade de l’examen, une juridiction internationale
doit se prononcer sur le caractère raisonnable du péril encouru par les intérêts
vitaux en ce qui concerne la sécurité. Compte tenu du sens ordinaire à
donner, dans son contexte, à l’expression « intérêts vitaux en ce qui concerne
nombreuses tierces parties au différend et le groupe spécial ont tous souscrit au cadre analytique
énoncé par le groupe spécial Russie — Mesures concernant le trafic en transit. Rapport
du groupe spécial, Arabie saoudite — Mesures concernant la protection des droits de propriété
intellectuelle, WT/DS567/R et Add.1, diffusés le 16 juin 2020, par. 7.243-7.255 et 7.271. Voir
aussi le rapport du groupe spécial, États-Unis — Certaines mesures visant les produits en acier
et en aluminium, WT/DS544/R, Add.1 et Suppl. no 1, diffusés le 9 décembre 2022, par. 7.128, et
d’autres rapports du groupe spécial adoptés pour des affaires connexes intentées par la Norvège
(DS552), la Suisse (DS556) et la Türkiye (DS564) ; rapport du groupe spécial, États-Unis —
Prescription en matière de marquage de l’origine (Hong Kong, Chine), WT/DS597/R, diffusé
le 21 décembre 2022, par. 7.185.
20 Certaines questions concernant l’entraide judiciaire en matière pénale (Djibouti
c. France), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2008, p. 229, par. 145.
21 Activités militaires et paramilitaires au Nicaragua et contre celui-ci (Nicaragua c. États-
Unis d’Amérique), fond, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1986, p. 117, par. 224.
22 Ibid., p. 141, par. 282.
23 Plates-formes pétrolières (République islamique d’Iran c. États-Unis d’Amérique), arrêt,
C.I.J. Recueil 2003, p. 183, par. 43.
219 certain iranian assets (sep. op. iwasawa)
its territory and its population from external threats and the maintenance
of internal public order. It is for the State invoking the exception to articulate
the nature of the essential security interests at stake sufficiently precisely
to demonstrate their legitimacy in light of the object and purpose of the
treaty.
25. In the second stage of inquiry, an international court must examine
whether the measures are “necessary” to protect the essential security interests.
The Court has stated that the measures must not be “merely useful” nor
“merely be such as tend to protect” the essential security interests, but rather
must be “necessary” to protect them.
26. In the present case, Iran puts forward a stringent test to assess the
necessity of a measure. It argues that “[a]n examination of necessity inevitably
entails an examination of proportionality”, relying on WTO and
investment arbitration jurisprudence 24. The test of proportionality requires
an assessment of any adverse impact resulting from the measure in relation
to the achievement of the objectives pursued by it. In the areas of international
human rights law and domestic constitutional law, courts  both
international and domestic  have used the proportionality test in evaluating
measures that restrict human rights. In contrast, the WTO adjudicatory
bodies have not applied the proportionality test. Commentators have
explained that this is because the WTO is not institutionally ready for a balancing
of values and interests. On the other hand, a number of investment
arbitral tribunals have used the proportionality test in the context of fair and
equitable treatment25 and indirect expropriation26. However, investment
arbitral tribunals have not used the proportionality test for security exceptions27.
In my view, the proportionality test is too stringent for security
exceptions.
24 CR 2022/16, p. 40, para. 10 (Pellet).
25 E.g. Occidental Petroleum Corporation and Occidental Exploration and Production
Company v. The Republic of Ecuador, ICSID Case No. ARB/06/11, Award of 5 October 2012,
para. 404; Philip Morris v. Uruguay, supra note 17, paras. 409-410.
26 E.g. Técnicas Medioambientales Tecmed S.A. v. The United Mexican States, ICSID
Case No. ARB(AF)/00/2, Award of 29 May 2003, para. 122; Fireman’s Fund Insurance
Company v. The United Mexican States, ICSID Case No. ARB(AF)/02/01, Award of 17 July
2006, para. 176 (j).
27 Some commentators have given Continental Casualty v. Argentina as an example of an
investment arbitral tribunal relying on a proportionality test. In fact, however, the tribunal
referred to the test of least restrictive alternatives. Continental Casualty v. Argentina, supra
note 17, paras. 193-195. See also Deutsche Telekom AG v. The Republic of India, PCA Case
No. 2014-10, Interim Award of 13 December 2017, para. 239.
certains actifs iraniens (op. ind. iwasawa) 219
la sécurité », on peut penser que cette expression renvoie à l’essence même
des fonctions régaliennes de l’État, telles que la protection de son territoire
et de sa population contre des menaces extérieures et le maintien de l’ordre
public interne. Il incombe à l’État invoquant l’exception de décrire avec suffisamment
de précision la nature des intérêts vitaux en matière de sécurité
qui sont en jeu, afin de démontrer que ces derniers sont légitimes à la lumière
de l’objet et du but du traité.
25. Au deuxième stade de l’examen, la juridiction internationale doit
rechercher si les mesures sont « nécessaires » à la protection des intérêts
vitaux en matière de sécurité. La Cour a jugé que ces mesures ne devaient
pas être « seulement utile[s] » ni « simplement tendre à protéger » les intérêts
vitaux de sécurité, mais qu’elles devaient être « nécessaire[s] » pour en assurer
la protection.
26. Dans la présente affaire, l’Iran proposait l’application d’un critère strict
pour évaluer la nécessité d’une mesure. Il soutenait que « [l]’examen de la
nécessité impliqu[ait] inévitablement celui de la proportionnalité », se fondant
sur la jurisprudence de l’OMC et sur celle des tribunaux d’arbitrage d’investissement24.
L’examen de la proportionnalité suppose d’évaluer toute incidence
négative résultant de la mesure examinée au regard de la réalisation des
objectifs qu’elle poursuit. Dans les domaines du droit international des droits
de l’homme et du droit constitutionnel national, les juridictions — tant internationales
qu’internes — se sont appuyées sur le critère de la proportionnalité
pour évaluer des mesures de restriction des droits de l’homme. En revanche,
les organes juridictionnels de l’OMC n’ont pas fait appel à ce critère. Les
commentateurs l’expliquent par un manque de disposition institutionnelle de
l’OMC à mettre en balance les valeurs et intérêts concernés. Un certain
nombre de tribunaux arbitraux constitués pour connaître de différends
relatifs aux investissements ont, quant à eux, employé le critère de la proportionnalité
pour examiner le traitement juste et équitable25 ou l’expropriation
indirecte 26, sans toutefois y recourir en ce qui concerne les exceptions
relatives à la sécurité 27. À mon sens, le critère de la proportionnalité est trop
strict pour être appliqué aux exceptions relatives à la sécurité.
24 CR 2022/16, p. 40, par. 10 (Pellet).
25 Voir, par exemple, Occidental Petroleum Corporation and Occidental Exploration and
Production Company v. The Republic of Ecuador, affaire CIRDI no ARB/06/11, sentence du
5 octobre 2012, par. 404 ; Philip Morris v. Uruguay, supra note 17, par. 409-410.
26 Voir notamment Técnicas Medioambientales Tecmed S.A. v. The United Mexican States,
affaire CIRDI no ARB(AF)/00/2, sentence du 29 mai 2003, par. 122 ; Fireman’s Fund
Insurance Company v. The United Mexican States, affaire CIRDI no ARB(AF)/02/01, sentence
du 17 juillet 2006, par. 176, point j).
27 Pour certains commentateurs, dans l’affaire Continental Casualty v. Argentina, on trouve
un exemple d’utilisation du critère de la proportionnalité par un tribunal d’arbitrage en matière
d’investissement. En réalité, dans cette affaire, le tribunal s’est référé au critère de la mesure la
moins restrictive. Continental Casualty v. Argentina, supra note 17, par. 193-195. Voir également
Deutsche Telekom AG v. The Republic of India, affaire CPA no 2014-10, sentence
intérimaire du 13 décembre 2017, par. 239.
220 certain iranian assets (sep. op. iwasawa)
27. Whereas Iran invokes WTO and investment arbitration jurisprudence
in support of its contention that the Court should examine the proportionality
of the measures, in those cases the WTO adjudicatory bodies and
investment arbitration tribunals in fact used the test of least restrictive alternatives,
not of proportionality. For example, in Korea — Various Measures
on Beef, the WTO Appellate Body quoted the following statement of a GATT
panel with approval:
“[A] contracting party [of the GATT] cannot justify a measure inconsistent
with another GATT provision as ‘necessary’ in terms of
Article XX (d) if an alternative measure which it could reasonably be
expected to employ and which is not inconsistent with other GATT provisions
is available to it. By the same token, in cases where a measure
consistent with other GATT provisions is not reasonably available, a
contracting party is bound to use, among the measures reasonably available
to it, that which entails the least degree of inconsistency with other
GATT provisions.”28
The test of least restrictive alternatives is not the same as the test of
proportionality.
28. Panels and the Appellate Body of the GATT/WTO established the test
of least restrictive alternatives to assess the “necessity” of measures under
Article XX (General Exceptions) of the GATT 1994. They articulated the
test first in relation to subparagraph (d), which concerns measures “necessary
to secure compliance with laws or regulations”29. They subsequently
extended it to subparagraph (b) concerning measures “necessary to protect
human, animal or plant life or health”30, and then to subparagraph (a) pertaining
to measures “necessary to protect public morals”31. It is inappropriate to
import the test of least restrictive alternatives, which was developed for
general exceptions under Article XX, into security exceptions under
Article XXI. The test of least restrictive alternatives is also too stringent for
security exceptions. The WTO adjudicatory bodies have not extended this
28 Appellate Body Report, Korea — Measures Affecting Imports of Fresh, Chilled and
Frozen Beef, WT/DS161/AB/R, WT/DS169/AB/R, adopted 10 January 2001, para. 165, quoting
Panel Report, United States — Section 337 of the Tariff Act of 1930, BISD 36S/345, adopted
7 November 1989, para. 5.26 (emphasis added). See also Deutsche Telekom v. India, supra
note 27, para. 239.
29 E.g. Panel Report, United States — Section 337 of the Tariff Act of 1930, supra note 28,
para. 5.26.
30 E.g. Panel Report, Thailand — Restrictions on Importation of and Internal Taxes on
Cigarettes, BISD 37S/200, adopted 7 November 1990, para. 75.
31 Appellate Body Report, United States — Measures Affecting the Cross-Border Supply of
Gambling and Betting Services, WT/DS285/AB/R and Corr.1, adopted 20 April 2005,
para. 308 (finding on Article XIV (a) of the GATS, an equivalent to Article XX (a) of the
GATT 1994).
certains actifs iraniens (op. ind. iwasawa) 220
27. Alors que l’Iran invoquait la jurisprudence de l’OMC et celle des tribunaux
d’arbitrage en matière d’investissement pour étayer sa thèse selon
laquelle la Cour devait examiner la proportionnalité des mesures, il faut
savoir que, dans les affaires citées, les instances concernées se sont en fait
appuyées sur le critère de la mesure la moins restrictive, et non sur celui de
la proportionnalité. Par exemple, dans l’affaire Corée — Mesures affectant
les importations de viande de boeuf, l’Organe d’appel de l’OMC a souscrit à
l’explication suivante donnée par un groupe spécial du GATT :
« [U]ne partie contractante [du GATT] ne peut justifier une mesure
incompatible avec une autre disposition de l’Accord général en la déclarant
“nécessaire” au sens de l’article XX d) si elle dispose d’une autre
mesure dont on pourrait attendre raisonnablement qu’elle l’emploie et
qui n’est pas incompatible avec d’autres dispositions de l’Accord général.
De même, dans les cas où une mesure compatible avec d’autres
dispositions de l’Accord général n’est pas raisonnablement disponible,
une partie contractante a l’obligation d’utiliser, parmi les mesures dont
elle dispose raisonnablement, celle qui comporte le moindre degré d’incompatibilité
avec les autres dispositions de l’Accord général. »28
Le critère de la mesure la moins restrictive n’est pas identique au critère de
la proportionnalité.
28. Les groupes spéciaux et l’Organe d’appel du GATT/OMC ont opté pour
le critère de la mesure la moins restrictive pour évaluer la « nécessité » des
mesures prises au titre de l’article XX (Exceptions générales) du GATT de
1994. Dans un premier temps, ils ont développé ce critère par référence au
sous-alinéa d), qui traite des mesures « nécessaires pour assurer le respect des
lois et règlements »29. Ils l’ont par la suite étendu au sous-alinéa b), qui porte
sur les mesures « nécessaires à la protection de la santé et de la vie des personnes
et des animaux ou à la préservation des végétaux »30, puis au
sous-alinéa a), qui a trait aux mesures « nécessaires à la protection de la moralité
publique »31. Il est malvenu de transposer le critère de la mesure la moins
restrictive, qui a été établi pour l’examen des exceptions générales énoncées
à l’article XX, aux exceptions relatives à la sécurité prévues à l’article XXI.
28 Rapport de l’Organe d’appel, Corée — Mesures affectant les importations de viande de
boeuf fraîche, réfrigérée et congelée, WT/DS161/AB/R, WT/DS169/AB/R, adopté le 10 janvier
2001, par. 165, citant le rapport du groupe spécial, États-Unis — Article 337 de la Loi douanière
de 1930 et modifications y relatives, IBDD 36S/345, adopté le 7 novembre 1989, par. 5.26 (les
italiques sont de moi). Voir également Deutsche Telekom v. India, supra note 27, par. 239.
29 Voir, par exemple, le rapport du groupe spécial, États-Unis — Article 337 de la Loi douanière
de 1930 et modifications y relatives, supra note 28, par. 5.26.
30 Voir le rapport du groupe spécial, Thaïlande — Restrictions à l’importation et taxes intérieures
touchant les cigarettes, IBDD 37S/200, adopté le 7 novembre 1990, par. 75.
31 Rapport de l’Organe d’appel, États-Unis — Mesures visant la fourniture transfrontière de
services de jeux et paris, WT/DS285/AB/R et Corr.1, adopté le 20 avril 2005, par. 308 (conclusion
concernant l’alinéa a) de l’article XIV du GATS, pendant de l’alinéa a) de l’article XX du
GATT de 1994).
221 certain iranian assets (sep. op. iwasawa)
test to measures under Article XXI. As explained above, the test articulated
for Article XXI by the panel in Russia — Measures concerning Traffic in
Transit is much less stringent than the test of least restrictive alternatives
developed by the WTO adjudicatory bodies for Article XX.
29. Essential security interests relate to the State’s most vital interests.
Concerns relating to national security are more sensitive than many other
public concerns. In the Mutual Assistance in Criminal Matters case, the
Court acknowledged that security exception clauses give States “wide
discretion”
(see paragraph 18 above). To adopt a stringent test requiring a
very high threshold would signify prioritization of commerce, investment,
trade and the like over national security. In the sensitive context of national
security, it is for the national authorities of a State to make the initial assessment
of the existence of a risk and what is necessary to respond to that risk.
An international court should be wary of substituting itself for the State
to override the latter’s decisions ex post facto. On the other hand, it is the
function
of an international court to prevent abuse by reviewing a measure
taken by a State with a view to ensuring that discretion is exercised reasonably
and in good faith32.
30. Based on these considerations, I am of the view that, in assessing
whether a measure is necessary to protect a State’s essential security interests
under a clause which does not contain the phrase “which it considers” or
a similar expression, such as Article XX (1) (d) of the Treaty of Amity, an
international court should determine whether the measure was rational in
light of a consideration of the reasonably available alternatives known to that
State at the time. In making this evaluation, it should take into account the
importance of the security interests at stake, and appraise the contribution
the measure was designed to make towards the protection of those interests
and its effectiveness in this regard, as well as its impact on commerce, investment,
trade and the like. In addition, the court should ascertain whether the
State followed proper procedures in exercising its discretion33. It is widely
recognized in national administrative law that, when an authority neglects to
follow proper procedures, it can amount to a misuse of discretionary powers
(excès de pouvoir).
32 See Immunities and Criminal Proceedings (Equatorial Guinea v. France), Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 2020, p. 323, para. 73.
33 Cf. Certain Questions of Mutual Assistance in Criminal Matters (Djibouti v. France),
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2008, declaration of Judge Keith, pp. 280-281, paras. 7-8.
certains actifs iraniens (op. ind. iwasawa) 221
Le critère de la mesure la moins restrictive est lui aussi trop strict pour évaluer
les exceptions relatives à la sécurité. Les instances juridictionnelles de
l’OMC n’ont pas appliqué ce critère aux mesures adoptées en vertu de
l’article
XXI. Comme expliqué ci-dessus, le critère défini pour l’article XXI
par le groupe spécial en l’affaire Russie — Mesures concernant le trafic en
transit est bien moins exigeant que le critère de la mesure la moins restrictive
établi par les instances juridictionnelles de l’OMC pour l’article XX.
29. Les intérêts essentiels de sécurité renvoient aux intérêts les plus vitaux
de l’État. Les questions relatives à la sécurité nationale sont plus sensibles
que nombre d’autres préoccupations publiques. Dans l’affaire relative à Certaines
questions concernant l’entraide judiciaire en matière pénale (Djibouti
c. France), la Cour a reconnu que les dispositions portant sur les exceptions
relatives à la sécurité conféraient un « large pouvoir discrétionnaire » aux
États (voir le paragraphe 18 ci-dessus). L’adoption d’un critère de la preuve
très strict supposerait que la priorité est donnée au commerce, à l’investissement,
aux échanges et aux autres éléments apparentés au détriment de la
sécurité nationale. Dans le contexte sensible de la sécurité nationale, il
appartient aux autorités nationales d’un État de déterminer, après évaluation
initiale, s’il existe un péril et ce qu’il est nécessaire de faire pour y répondre.
Une juridiction internationale doit se garder de se substituer à l’État en infirmant
les décisions de ce dernier ex post facto. En revanche, une juridiction
internationale remplit sa fonction de prévention des abus lorsqu’elle examine
une mesure prise par un État en vue de s’assurer que son pouvoir discrétionnaire
est exercé de manière raisonnable et de bonne foi32.
30. Sur la base de ces considérations, je suis d’avis que, pour évaluer si une
mesure est nécessaire à la protection des intérêts essentiels de sécurité d’un
État au titre d’une disposition ne contenant pas l’expression « which it considers
» ou une autre expression similaire, comme c’est le cas de l’alinéa d) du
paragraphe 1 de l’article XX du traité d’amitié, une juridiction internationale
devrait déterminer si ladite mesure était rationnelle au regard des autres possibilités
raisonnables dont l’État avait connaissance à l’époque. Lorsqu’elle
procède à cette évaluation, la juridiction en question devrait tenir compte de
l’importance des intérêts en jeu sur le plan de la sécurité et apprécier la
contribution que la mesure était censée apporter à la protection de ces intérêts
et son efficacité à cet égard, ainsi que son incidence sur le commerce,
l’investissement, les échanges et autres domaines apparentés. En outre, la
juridiction devrait déterminer si l’État a suivi les procédures appropriées
pour exercer son pouvoir discrétionnaire33. Il est en effet largement admis
dans le droit administratif national que, lorsqu’une autorité néglige de suivre
les procédures appropriées, cela peut être assimilé à une utilisation abusive
d’un pouvoir discrétionnaire (excès de pouvoir).
32 Voir Immunités et procédures pénales (Guinée équatoriale c. France), arrêt, C.I.J.
Recueil 2020, p. 323, par. 73.
33 Cf. Certaines questions concernant l’entraide judiciaire en matière pénale (Djibouti
c. France), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2008, déclaration du juge Keith, p. 280-281, par. 7-8.
222 certain iranian assets (sep. op. iwasawa)
31. While Article XX (1) (d) of the Treaty of Amity gives the invoking
State a fair measure of discretion, I agree with the Court that in the present
case the United States “has not convincingly demonstrated” that Executive
Order 13599 was a measure necessary to protect its essential security
interests
(Judgment, para. 108).
32. In this regard, I take particular note of the following. The United States
identifies its essential security interests as “preventing terrorist attacks and
the financing of terrorist activities . . . and halting the advancement of Iran’s
ballistic missile program”. Executive Order 13599 implements the requirements
of Section 1245 (c) of the 2012 National Defense Authorization Act
(NDAA). Whereas Section 1245 refers to a report of the Treasury stating
that “Treasury is calling out the entire Iranian banking sector . . . as posing
terrorist financing, proliferation financing, and money laundering risks for
the global financial system”, Executive Order 13599 indicates, as the purpose
of the measures, the “deceptive practices” of the Iranian banking sector
“to conceal transactions of sanctioned parties”, “the deficiencies in Iran’s
anti-money laundering regime and the weaknesses in its implementation”,
and “the continuing and unacceptable risk posed to the international financial
system”, but does not mention the security interests of the United States.
Executive Order 13599 mainly affected the assets of Bank Markazi at issue
in the Peterson case, which are outside the Court’s jurisdiction. Other assets
affected by Executive Order 13599, notably the assets of Bank Melli and
Bank Saderat, had been blocked before 2012 pursuant to other decisions
made under the authority of Executive Order 13382 of 2005. Executive
Order 13599 does not establish a régime of individualized measures; it
applies generally to all Iranian financial institutions. Whereas the
United States refers to certain United Nations Security Council resolutions
in justifying Executive Order 13599, this Executive Order is broader in
scope than what was called for in the relevant resolutions.
III. The Most Constant Protection and Security
33. Iran argues that the United States has violated its obligation under
Article IV, paragraph 2, of the Treaty of Amity to provide “the most constant
protection and security” to the property of Iranian companies. It maintains
that the obligation is not limited to protection against physical harm but also
includes legal protection (see Judgment, paras. 170-171).
certains actifs iraniens (op. ind. iwasawa) 222
31. Bien que l’alinéa d) du paragraphe 1 de l’article XX du traité d’amitié
donne un certain pouvoir discrétionnaire à l’État qui invoque l’exception, je
partage l’avis de la Cour selon lequel, dans la présente affaire, les États-Unis
« n’ont pas fait [la] démonstration de manière convaincante » que le décret
présidentiel no 13599 constituait une mesure nécessaire à la protection de
leurs intérêts vitaux en matière de sécurité (arrêt, par. 108).
32. À cet égard, je relève en particulier les éléments suivants. Les États-
Unis
estiment qu’il en va de leurs intérêts vitaux sur le plan de la sécurité de
« prévenir les attentats terroristes et le financement des activités terroristes
… et de mettre fin aux progrès du programme de missiles balistiques de
l’Iran ». Le décret présidentiel no 13599 met en application les prescriptions
énoncées à l’alinéa c) de l’article 1245 de la loi sur le budget de la défense
nationale pour l’exercice 2012 [2012 National Defense Authorization Act].
Tandis que l’article 1245 fait référence à un rapport du Trésor, dans lequel il
est indiqué que « [l]e Trésor déclare publiquement que l’ensemble du secteur
bancaire iranien … expose le système financier mondial à des risques de
financement du terrorisme, de financement de la prolifération et de blanchiment
de capitaux », le décret présidentiel no 13599 indique que les mesures ont
pour objet les « pratiques trompeuses » du secteur bancaire iranien
visant à
« dissimuler des transactions de parties faisant l’objet de sanctions », les
« insuffisances du dispositif de lutte contre le blanchiment de capitaux de
l’Iran et les faiblesses de sa mise en oeuvre », ainsi que « le risque permanent
et intolérable que les activités de l’Iran font courir au système financier international
», mais il ne mentionne pas les intérêts des États-Unis sur le plan de
la sécurité. Le décret présidentiel no 13599 frappait principalement les actifs
de la banque Markazi en cause dans l’affaire Peterson, qui n’entraient pas
dans le champ de compétence de la Cour. D’autres actifs tombant
sous le coup
du décret présidentiel no 13599, notamment les actifs de la banque Melli et
de la banque Saderat, avaient été bloqués avant 2012 en application d’autres
décisions prises sous l’égide du décret présidentiel no 13382 de 2005. Celui-ci
ne crée pas de régime de mesures individualisées
; il s’applique de manière
générale à toutes les institutions financières iraniennes. Bien que les États-
Unis se soient référés à certaines résolutions du Conseil de sécurité des
Nations Unies pour justifier son adoption, le décret présidentiel no 13599 a un
champ plus large que ce que prévoient les résolutions pertinentes.
III. Obligation d’assurer la protection et la sécurité
de la manière la plus constante
33. L’Iran affirmait que les États-Unis avaient violé l’obligation qui leur
incombe en vertu du paragraphe 2 de l’article IV du traité d’amitié d’assurer
« la protection et la sécurité de la manière la plus constante » des biens des
sociétés iraniennes. Il soutenait que cette obligation ne se limitait pas à la
protection physique, mais qu’elle revêtait aussi un caractère juridique (voir
arrêt, par. 170-171).
223 certain iranian assets (sep. op. iwasawa)
34. Treaties use different terms to refer to this standard: “constant protection”;
“full protection”; “continuous protection”; adding “security” before or
after “protection”; adding “the most” before the adjective, and so forth.
Tribunals
have not considered these variations as having any substantial
significance34. The standard is commonly referred to as “full protection and
security”.
35. This standard has traditionally been understood as protection from
physical harm. AAPL v. Sri Lanka (1990), the first investment arbitration
case brought under an international investment agreement, was also the
first case which addressed this standard. Sri Lankan security forces had
destroyed a shrimp farm during a counter-insurgency operation. This case
thus concerned protection from physical harm35. The standard of full protection
and security was subsequently applied by other arbitral tribunals in
situations where the investment was affected by physical violence36.
36. At the beginning of this century, however, some arbitral tribunals
started to consider that the standard extends beyond protection from physical
harm and includes legal protection. Nonetheless, these tribunals have
differed in the degree to which they have broadened the scope of the
standard37.
37. On the other hand, other arbitral tribunals have continued to maintain
that the standard refers only to protection from physical harm38. For 34
E.g. Frontier Petroleum Services Ltd. v. The Czech Republic, PCA Case No. 2008-09,
Final Award of 12 November 2010, para. 260.
35 Asian Agricultural Products Ltd. (AAPL) v. Republic of Sri Lanka, ICSID Case
No. ARB/87/3, Final Award of 27 June 1990.
36 E.g. American Manufacturing and Trading, Inc. v. Republic of Zaire, ICSID Case
No. ARB/93/1, Award of 21 February 1997, para. 6.05; Wena Hotels Ltd. v. Arab Republic of
Egypt, ICSID Case No. ARB/98/4, Award of 8 December 2000, paras. 82 and 84; Tecmed. v.
Mexico, supra note 26, paras. 175-177.
37 E.g. CME Czech Republic B.V. v. The Czech Republic, Partial Award of 13 September
2001, para. 613; Azurix Corp. v. The Argentine Republic, ICSID Case No. ARB/01/12, Award
of 14 July 2006, paras. 406-408; Compañía de Aguas del Aconquija S.A. and Vivendi Universal
S.A. v. The Argentine Republic, ICSID Case No. ARB/97/3, Award of 20 August 2007,
para. 7.4.17; Biwater Gauff (Tanzania) Ltd. v. United Republic of Tanzania, ICSID Case
No. ARB/05/22, Award of 24 July 2008, para. 729; National Grid P.L.C. v. The Argentine
Republic, Award of 3 November 2008, paras. 187-189; Frontier Petroleum Services v. The
Czech Republic, supra note 34, para. 263; Global Telecom Holding S.A.E. v. Canada, ICSID
Case No. ARB/16/16, Award of 27 March 2020, paras. 664-665.
38 E.g. Saluka Investments B.V. v. The Czech Republic, PCA Case No. 2001-04, Partial Award
of 17 March 2006, paras. 483-484; PSEG Global Inc. and Konya Ilgin Elektrik Üretim ve
Ticaret Limited Şirketi v. Republic of Turkey, ICSID Case No. ARB/02/5, Award of 19 January
2007, paras. 258-259; BG Group Plc. v. The Republic of Argentina, Final Award of 24 December
2007, paras. 324-326; Rumeli Telekom A.S. and Telsim Mobil Telekomikasyon Hizmetleri
A.S. v. The Republic of Kazakhstan, ICSID Case No. ARB/05/16, Award of 29 July 2008,
para. 668; Liman Caspian Oil BV and NCL Dutch Investment BV v. The Republic of Kazakhstan,
ICSID Case No. ARB/07/14, Award of 22 June 2010, para. 289; Suez, Sociedad General
certains actifs iraniens (op. ind. iwasawa) 223
34. Ce standard s’exprime en des termes divers dans les traités : « protection
constante », « protection pleine et entière », « protection continue », avec
ajout du terme « sécurité » avant ou après « protection », avec ajout de l’expression
« la plus » avant l’adjectif, etc. Les juridictions n’ont pas considéré
que, sur le fond, ces variations revêtaient une quelconque importance34. Le
standard évoqué en l’espèce est souvent désigné sous l’appellation « protection
et sécurité complètes ».
35. Ce standard a traditionnellement été interprété comme une exigence
de protection physique. L’affaire AAPL v. Sri Lanka (1990), première procédure
d’arbitrage introduite en vertu d’un accord international d’investissement,
était aussi la première affaire dans laquelle ce standard était en
cause. Les forces de sécurité sri-lankaises avaient détruit une ferme d’élevage
de crevettes
au cours d’une opération de contre-insurrection. L’affaire
portait donc sur la protection contre des dommages physiques35. Le standard
de la protection et de la sécurité complètes a par la suite été appliqué par
d’autres tribunaux d’arbitrage dans des situations où l’investissement était
touché par des violences physiques36.
36. Au début de ce siècle, certains tribunaux arbitraux ont toutefois commencé
à considérer que ce standard s’étendait au-delà de la protection contre
des dommages physiques et était aussi d’ordre juridique. Néanmoins, ils
n’ont pas tous élargi sa portée dans la même mesure37.
37. D’autres tribunaux arbitraux, en revanche, ont maintenu que le standard
se limitait à la protection contre des dommages physiques38. Par
34 Voir Frontier Petroleum Services Ltd. v. The Czech Republic, affaire CPA no 2008-09,
sentence finale du 12 novembre 2010, par. 260.
35 Asian Agricultural Products Ltd. (AAPL) v. Republic of Sri Lanka, affaire CIRDI
no ARB/87/3, sentence finale du 27 juin 1990.
36 Voir notamment American Manufacturing and Trading, Inc. v. Republic of Zaire, affaire
CIRDI no ARB/93/1, sentence du 21 février 1997, par. 6.05 ; Wena Hotels Ltd. v. Arab Republic
of Egypt, affaire CIRDI no ARB/98/4, sentence du 8 décembre 2000, par. 82 et 84 ; Tecmed. v.
Mexico, supra note 26, par. 175-177.
37 Voir également CME Czech Republic B.V. v. The Czech Republic, sentence partielle du
13 septembre 2001, par. 613 ; Azurix Corp. v. The Argentine Republic, affaire CIRDI
no ARB/01/12, sentence du 14 juillet 2006, par. 406-408 ; Compañía de Aguas del Aconquija
S.A. and Vivendi Universal S.A. v. The Argentine Republic, affaire CIRDI no ARB/97/3,
sentence du 20 août 2007, par. 7.4.17 ; Biwater Gauff (Tanzania) Ltd. v. United Republic of
Tanzania, affaire CIRDI no ARB/05/22, sentence du 24 juillet 2008, par. 729 ; National Grid
P.L.C. v. The Argentine Republic, sentence du 3 novembre 2008, par. 187-189 ; Frontier Petroleum
Services v. The Czech Republic, supra note 34, par. 263 ; Global Telecom Holding
S.A.E. v. Canada, affaire CIRDI no ARB/16/16, sentence du 27 mars 2020, par. 664-665.
38 Voir, par exemple, Saluka Investments B.V. v. The Czech Republic, affaire CPA no 2001-
04, sentence partielle du 17 mars 2006, par. 483-484 ; PSEG Global Inc. and Konya Ilgin
Elektrik Üretim ve Ticaret Limited Şirketi v. Republic of Turkey, affaire CIRDI no ARB/02/5,
sentence du 19 janvier 2007, par. 258-259 ; BG Group Plc. v. The Republic of Argentina,
sentence finale du 24 décembre 2007, par. 324-326 ; Rumeli Telekom A.S. and Telsim Mobil
Telekomikasyon Hizmetleri A.S. v. The Republic of Kazakhstan, affaire CIRDI no ARB/05/16,
sentence du 29 juillet 2008, par. 668 ; Liman Caspian Oil BV and NCL Dutch Investment B.V. v.
The Republic of Kazakhstan, affaire CIRDI no ARB/07/14, sentence du 22 juin 2010, par. 289 ;
224 certain iranian assets (sep. op. iwasawa)
example, the tribunal in Saluka v. The Czech Republic (2006) stated that
“the ‘full security and protection’ clause is not meant to cover just any kind
of impairment of an investor’s investment, but to protect more specifically
the physical integrity of an investment against interference by use of force” 39.
The tribunal in BG Group v. Argentina (2007) found it “inappropriate to
depart from the originally understood standard of ‘protection and constant
security’” 40. The tribunal in Suez and Vivendi v. Argentina (2010) carried out
a detailed analysis of the standard, including its historical development. It
then pointed out that “an overly extensive interpretation of the full protection
and security standard may result in an overlap with the other standards
of investment protection, which is neither necessary nor desirable”, concluding
that “this Tribunal is not persuaded that it needs to depart from the
traditional interpretation given to this term” 41.
38. In support of the proposition that the standard includes legal protection,
Iran refers to the ELSI case in which the Chamber of the Court examined
whether there had been a violation of “the most constant protection and
security” provision in the FCN Treaty between Italy and the United States.
Iran points out that the Chamber’s examination was made on the basis of the
United States’ argument “that the ‘property’ to be protected under this provision
of the FCN Treaty was not the plant and equipment the subject of the
requisition, but the entity of ELSI itself” 42. However, this does not mean that
the Chamber applied the standard as requiring more than protection from
physical harm. The Chamber simply did not rule on this point.
39. In the present case, the Court makes a number of important statements
with respect to the standard of full protection and security. In particular, it
observes that the “core” of the standard “concerns the protection of property
from physical harm”, and emphasizes that this standard “is of particular significance
and relevance in the form of protection of property from physical
harm by third parties”. The Court confirms that the standard is not
one of strict liability but requires each State “to exercise due diligence” in
de Aguas de Barcelona
S.A., and Vivendi Universal S.A. v. The Argentine Republic, ICSID
Case No. ARB/03/19, Decision on Liability of 30 July 2010, paras. 158-179; Gold Reserve
Inc. v. Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela, ICSID Case No. ARB(AF)/09/1, Award of 22 September
2014, para. 622; Olin Holdings Ltd. v. State of Libya, ICC Case No. 20355/MCP, Final
Award of 25 May 2018, paras. 364-365; OperaFund Eco-Invest SICAV PLC and Schwab Holding
AG v. Kingdom of Spain, ICSID Case No. ARB/15/36, Award of 6 September 2019,
para. 576.
39 Saluka Investments B.V. v. The Czech Republic, supra note 38, para. 484.
40 BG Group v. Argentina, supra note 38, para. 326.
41 Suez and Vivendi v. Argentina, supra note 38, paras. 161-169, 174, 179.
42 Elettronica Sicula S.p.A. (ELSI) (United States of America v. Italy), Judgment, I.C.J.
Reports 1989, p. 64, para. 106.
certains actifs iraniens (op. ind. iwasawa) 224
exemple, dans l’affaire Saluka v. The Czech Republic (2006), le tribunal a
estimé que « la disposition relative à la “sécurité et la protection pleines et
entières” n’[étai]t pas conçue pour couvrir toute forme de détérioration du
bien de l’investisseur, mais pour protéger plus précisément son intégrité physique
contre l’ingérence par l’usage de la force »39. Dans l’affaire BG Group v.
Argentina (2007), le tribunal a jugé « inapproprié de s’écarter du standard de
“protection et sécurité … constante(s)” », tel qu’envisagé à l’origine40. Dans
l’affaire Suez and Vivendi v. Argentina (2010), le tribunal a procédé à une analyse
détaillée du standard, notamment de son évolution historique. Il a ensuite
souligné qu’« une interprétation trop large du standard de protection et de
sécurité complètes p[ouvai]t conduire à son chevauchement avec d’autres
standards de protection des investissements, ce qui n’est ni nécessaire ni souhaitable
», concluant que « le présent tribunal n’[étai]t pas convaincu qu’il
faille s’écarter de l’interprétation traditionnelle de ce terme »41.
38. Pour étayer sa thèse selon laquelle le standard à l’examen s’étend aussi
à la protection juridique, l’Iran s’est référé à l’affaire ELSI, dans laquelle la
chambre de la Cour a examiné la question de savoir s’il y avait eu violation
de la disposition garantissant « la protection et la sécurité les plus constantes »,
énoncée dans le traité d’amitié, de commerce et de navigation conclu entre
l’Italie et les États-Unis. L’Iran soulignait que, pour ce faire, la chambre
s’était fondée sur l’argumentation des États-Unis selon laquelle « les “biens” à
protéger au sens de cette disposition du traité [d’amitié, de commerce et de
navigation] n’étaient pas l’usine et l’équipement, lesquels étaient l’objet de la
réquisition, mais l’entité formée par 1’ELSI elle-même »42. Cela ne signifie
cependant pas que la chambre ait appliqué ce standard comme exigeant une
protection supérieure à la seule protection contre des dommages physiques ;
elle ne s’est simplement pas prononcée sur ce point.
39. En la présente espèce, la Cour a fait un certain nombre de déclarations
importantes concernant le standard de protection et de sécurité complètes.
En particulier, elle a observé que l’« élément essentiel » de ce standard
« résid[ait] dans la protection des biens contre les dommages physiques » et
souligné que ce standard « revêt[ait] une importance et une pertinence pratiques
particulières en ce qu’il garanti[ssai]t la protection des biens contre les
dommages physiques susceptibles d’être causés par des tiers ». La Cour a
Suez, Sociedad General de Aguas de Barcelona S.A. and Vivendi Universal S.A. v. The
Argentine
Republic, affaire CIRDI no ARB/03/19, décision sur la responsabilité du 30 juillet
2010, par. 158-179 ; Gold Reserve Inc. v. Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela, affaire CIRDI
no ARB(AF)/09/1, sentence du 22 septembre 2014, par. 622 ; Olin Holdings Ltd. v. State of
Libya, affaire CCI no 20355/MCP, sentence finale du 25 mai 2018, par. 364-365 ; OperaFund
Eco-Invest SICAV PLC and Schwab Holding AG v. Kingdom of Spain, affaire CIRDI
no ARB/15/36, sentence du 6 septembre 2019, par. 576.
39 Saluka Investments B.V. v. The Czech Republic, supra note 38, par. 484.
40 BG Group v. Argentina, supra note 38, par. 326.
41 Suez and Vivendi v. Argentina, supra note 38, par. 161-169, 174, 179.
42 Elettronica Sicula S.p.A. (ELSI) (États-Unis d’Amérique c. Italie), arrêt, C.I.J.
Recueil 1989, p. 64, par. 106.
225 certain iranian assets (sep. op. iwasawa)
providing protection from physical harm within its territory. It notes that
FCN treaties and international investment agreements often provide for fair
and equitable treatment and full protection and security “consecutively or
even in the same sentence”, and considers that “[t]hese two separate standards”
would overlap significantly if the full protection and security standard
were interpreted to include legal protection (Judgment, para. 190). Accordingly,
the Court concludes that the provision relating to the full protection
and security standard was not intended to apply to situations covered by the
obligation to provide fair and equitable treatment (ibid., para. 191) and unanimously
rejects Iran’s submission in this respect (ibid., para. 236 (9)).
40. Extending the scope of protection of the standard of full protection
and security to include legal protection would make this standard similar to
the standard of fair and equitable treatment. Indeed, some tribunals have
considered that full protection and security is absorbed in fair and equitable
treatment43. Triggered by the recent tendency to expand full protection and
security beyond physical protection, some treaties have expressly limited the
standard to protection from physical harm44. In order to avoid an overlap
between separate standards, full protection and security is better understood
as providing for protection different from fair and equitable treatment.
Unless the relevant treaty expressly provides otherwise, full protection and
security should be interpreted as referring to protection from physical harm.
(Signed) Iwasawa Yuji.
43 See Occidental Exploration and Production Company v. The Republic of Ecuador,
London Court of International Arbitration Case No. UN 3467, Final Award of 1 July 2004,
para. 187; Azurix v. Argentina, supra note 37, paras. 407-408.
44 E.g. 2007 US-Korea Free Trade Agreement, Art. 11.5 (2) (b); 2016 EU-Canada Comprehensive
Economic and Trade Agreement, Art. 8.10 (5); 2016 Rwanda-Morocco Reciprocal
Promotion and Protection of Investments Agreement, Art. 2 (2); 2018 EU-Singapore
Investment Protection Agreement, Art. 2.4 (5); 2019 EU-Viet Nam Investment Protection
Agreement, Art. 2.5 (5). See also 2012 United States Model Bilateral Investment Treaty,
Art. 5 (2) (b); 2019 Dutch Model Bilateral Investment Treaty (Netherlands), Art. 9 (1).
certains actifs iraniens (op. ind. iwasawa) 225
confirmé que ce standard ne mettait pas en jeu la responsabilité stricte des
États, mais faisait obligation à chaque État « de faire preuve de la diligence
due » pour assurer une protection contre les dommages physiques sur son
territoire. Elle a constaté que les traités d’amitié, de commerce et de navigation
et les accords internationaux d’investissement prévoyaient souvent un
traitement juste et équitable ainsi qu’une protection et une sécurité complètes
« dans des phrases consécutives, voire dans la même phrase », et
considéré que « [c]es deux standards de protection distincts » se recouperaient
dans une large mesure si l’on interprétait celui de la protection et de
la sécurité complètes comme incluant la protection juridique (arrêt, par. 190).
Par conséquent, la Cour a conclu que la disposition relative au standard
de protection et de sécurité complètes n’était pas censée s’appliquer à des
situations régies par l’obligation d’assurer un traitement juste et équitable
(ibid., par. 191) et a rejeté à l’unanimité la conclusion soumise par l’Iran à
cet égard (ibid., point 9 du dispositif).
40. Étendre à la protection juridique la portée du standard de protection et
de sécurité complètes en ferait un standard similaire à celui du traitement
juste et équitable. De fait, certaines juridictions ont considéré que la protection
et la sécurité complètes étaient incluses dans le standard de traitement
juste et équitable43. Face à la tendance récente à l’extension de la protection
et de la sécurité complètes au-delà de la protection physique, certains traités
ont expressément limité le standard à la protection contre des dommages
physiques44. Pour éviter que ces deux standards distincts se chevauchent, il
vaut mieux envisager la protection et la sécurité complètes comme conférant
une protection distincte de celle offerte par un traitement juste et équitable.
Sauf disposition contraire dans le traité considéré, il convient d’interpréter la
protection et la sécurité complètes comme désignant une protection contre
des dommages physiques.
(Signé) Iwasawa Yuji.
43 Voir Occidental Exploration and Production Company v. The Republic of Ecuador, Cour
d’arbitrage international de Londres, affaire no UN 3467, sentence finale du 1er juillet 2004,
par. 187 ; Azurix v. Argentina, supra note 37, par. 407-408.
44 Voir, par exemple, US-Korea Free Trade Agreement, art. 11.5, par. 2, al. b), 2007 ; accord
économique et commercial global entre le Canada, d’une part, et l’Union européenne et ses
États membres, d’autre part, art. 8.10, point 5, 2016 ; accord entre le Gouvernement du
Royaume du Maroc et le Gouvernement de la République du Rwanda sur l’encouragement et
la protection réciproques des investissements, art. 2, par. 2, 2016 ; accord de protection des
investissements entre l’Union européenne et Singapour, art. 2.4, point 5, 2018 ; accord de
protection des investissements entre l’Union européenne et le Viêt Nam, art. 2.5, point 5, 2019.
Voir également United States Model Bilateral Investment Treaty, art. 5, par. 2, al. b), 2012 ;
Dutch Model Bilateral Investment Treaty (Pays-Bas), art. 9, par. 1, 2019.

Document file FR
Document Long Title

Separate opinion of Judge Iwasawa

Order
9
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