Separate opinion, partly concurring and partly dissenting of Judge Robinson

Document Number
164-20230330-JUD-01-07-EN
Parent Document Number
164-20230330-JUD-01-00-EN
Date of the Document
Document File
Bilingual Document File

SEPARATE OPINION, PARTLY CONCURRING AND PARTLY DISSENTING, OF JUDGE ROBINSON
1. In this opinion I explain my disagreement with paragraph 236 (1) of the Judgment, in which the Court upholds the
“objection to jurisdiction raised by the United States of America relating to the claims of the Islamic Republic of Iran under Articles III, IV and V of the 1955 Treaty of Amity, Economic Relations, and Consular Rights, to the extent that they relate to treatment accorded to Bank Markazi and, accordingly, finds that it has no jurisdiction to consider those claims”.
I also offer observations on other aspects of the Judgment.
THE DISSENT
2. By virtue of paragraph 236 (1) of the Judgment, the Court finds that Bank Markazi, Iran’s Central Bank, is not a company within the meaning of Article III (1), and therefore, is not entitled to the protection afforded to companies by Article III, IV, and V of the 1955 Treaty of Amity, Economic Relations, and Consular Rights (“Treaty”). This finding is based on reasoning that is flatly contradicted by the Court’s 2019 preliminary objections Judgment (“2019 Judgment”) in this case.
3. In its third objection to jurisdiction, submitted at the preliminary objections phase of this case, the United States requested the Court to dismiss “as outside the Court’s jurisdiction all claims of purported violations of Article III, IV, and V of the Treaty of Amity that are predicated on treatment accorded to the Government of Iran or Bank Markazi”.
4. The opinion will examine, first, the dicta in the 2019 Judgment relating to characterization of an entity as a company under the Treaty, and then, the Court’s reasoning in this Judgment. It is important to carry out this exercise because the approach taken by this Judgment conflicts with the 2019 Judgment, notwithstanding assertions to the contrary.
5. The Court’s reasoning as to what determines the characterization of an entity as a company within the meaning of Article III (1) is set out in six phases in paragraphs 89 to 92 of the 2019 Judgment.
6. In paragraph 89, which reflects the first phase of the reasoning, the Court indicates that it will “determine[] whether, by the nature of its activities, Bank Markazi may be characterized as a ‘company’ according to the definition given by Article III, paragraph 1, read in its context and in light of the object and purpose of the Treaty of Amity”. In this paragraph, the Court’s objective is to determine whether the characterization of Bank Markazi as a company may be made on the basis of the nature of its activities. Notably, in its proposed analysis, apart from the nature of the activities of Bank Markazi, the Court makes no reference to any other factor, such as the Bank’s function or purpose, as playing a role in determining its characterization as a company.
7. In paragraph 90, which sets out the second phase of the Court’s reasoning, the Court rejects Iran’s argument that the nature of the activities carried out by an entity is irrelevant for the purpose of characterizing it as a company, thereby reaffirming the significance of the nature of the activities in the characterization of an entity as a company.
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8. In paragraph 91, which sets out the third phase of the reasoning, the Court proceeds to interpret the definition of a company in Article III (1) in its relevant context and in light of the object and purpose of the Treaty; such an interpretation, in the view of the Court, “points clearly to the conclusion that the Treaty is aimed at guaranteeing rights and affording protections to natural and legal persons engaging in activities of a commercial nature, even if this latter term is to be understood in a broad sense”. What is noteworthy here is the Court’s finding that the latter term, “activities of a commercial nature”, is not to be interpreted narrowly, but broadly.
9. In the final section of paragraph 91, which sets out the fourth phase of the Court’s reasoning, the Court concludes “that an entity carrying out exclusively sovereign activities, linked to the sovereign functions of the State, cannot be characterized as a ‘company’ within the meaning of the Treaty and, consequently, may not claim the benefit of the rights and protections provided for in Articles III, IV and V”. Here, the Court arrives at a fairly obvious conclusion: if the entity is carrying out exclusively sovereign activities, linked to the sovereign functions of the State, then it is not engaging in activities of a commercial nature; it is in fact engaging in activities which attract sovereign immunity.
10. In light of the Court’s determination in the 2019 Judgment that issues of sovereign immunity are not within its jurisdiction, the Judgment, in some parts, appears to flirt with that question without engaging with it; the first section of paragraph 91 of the 2019 Judgment is an example of this flirtation; another example is paragraph 65 of that Judgment.
11. In paragraph 92, which sets out the fifth phase of the reasoning, the Court states that notwithstanding the previous conclusion, as a matter of principle, nothing prevents an entity from engaging in activities of a commercial nature as well as sovereign activities.
12. In the second sentence of paragraph 92, which sets out the sixth and final phase of the Court’s reasoning, the Court provides the answer to the issue raised in paragraph 89. The Court concluded that,
“[i]n such a case, since it is the nature of the activity actually carried out which determines the characterization of the entity engaged in it, the legal person in question should be regarded as a ‘company’ within the meaning of the Treaty to the extent that it is engaged in activities of a commercial nature, even if they do not constitute its principal activities”.
Two comments may be made on this very important paragraph. First, the phrase “in such a case” means that the Court is addressing the situation where an entity engages both in activities of a commercial nature and in sovereign activities. Second, the phrase “since it is the nature of the activity actually carried out which determines the characterization of the entity engaged in it” emphasizes that, for the Court, it is the nature of the activity in which an entity is engaged that determines whether it is a company. The word “determine” has a special significance. The Concise Oxford Dictionary gives the meaning of the word “determine” as “decide or settle”. Therefore, by this finding, the Court concludes that it is the nature of the activity engaged in by an entity that settles the question whether that entity is a company within the meaning of the Treaty; the nature of the activity settles this question definitively. The Court makes no reference to the function of the entity or purpose of the activity. Moreover, the word “since” in the sentence “since it is the nature of the activity actually carried out which determines the characterization of the entity engaged in it” confirms that there is a causal relationship between the characterization of an entity as a company under the Treaty and the nature of the activities carried out by that entity. The statement that “it is the nature of the activity actually carried out which determines the characterization of the entity engaged in it” is categoric
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and does not admit of any other determinant in the characterization of an entity as a company, such as links between the activities and any sovereign function or purpose to which they relate.
13. Against that background, the opinion now turns to the Court’s Judgment in this phase of the proceedings. According to the Court, the 2019 Judgment “did not state that, in determining whether particular activities were of a commercial nature, there was no need to take into account any link that they may have with a sovereign function” (Judgment, para. 51). The Judgment adds that when an entity carries out a transaction or a series of transactions, that transaction — or series of transactions — must be placed in its context, “taking particular account of any links that it may have with the exercise of a sovereign function”. To begin with, the Court did indeed hold in its 2019 Judgment that, in determining whether particular activities are of a commercial nature, account should not be taken of any link that such activities may have with sovereign activity. The Court so held when it stated that “it is the nature of the activity actually carried out which determines the characterization of the entity engaged in it”. As stated before, a proper reading of the 2019 Judgment is that the Court concluded that the nature of the activity settles definitively the question whether an entity is a company within the meaning of the Treaty. In its present Judgment, the Court has moved away from its analysis and conclusions in its 2019 Judgment, and has introduced an element not to be found in the 2019 Judgment, i.e. links between the activity and a sovereign function or purpose.
14. In paragraph 47, the Court indicates that it would determine whether Bank Markazi is a company within the meaning of the Treaty of Amity, “following the line of reasoning it adopted in its 2019 Judgment”. Regrettably, the Judgment did not follow that line of reasoning. Had it done so, its sole focus would have been on the nature of the activities carried out by Bank Markazi; such a focus would have led to the conclusion that Bank Markazi was a company since, by its nature, the purchase of the 22 security entitlements was a commercial activity.
15. Moreover, and one says this with respect, there would appear to be an element of disingenuousness in the last sentence of paragraph 52: “The Court nevertheless considers that the assertions made by Bank Markazi in the judicial proceedings in the Peterson case, which are cited above, accurately reflect the reality of the bank’s activities.” In the first place, a question of consistency arises, since in the first sentence of that paragraph, the Court indicated that it did not consider “the statements made in United States court proceedings by counsel for Bank Markazi and relied on by the United States . . . to be decisive”. The Court’s statement in the last sentence of this paragraph flies in the face of its earlier statement in the same paragraph. It could only conclude that the statements made by Bank Markazi in the Peterson case “accurately reflect the reality of the bank’s activities” if it treated as consequential, and therefore decisive, the position taken by the bank in that case, that the purchase of the 22 security entitlements was a sovereign governmental function, entitled to immunity. The Court ought to have been more transparent by stating that both Parties changed their positions after the Court, in its 2019 Judgment, found that it had no jurisdiction in respect of the question of the sovereign immunity of the Bank. In the Peterson proceedings before the US district court, the bank argued that it had sovereign immunity and the United States contended that the purchase of the 22 security entitlements was a commercial act, a position with which the US district court agreed. However, in the present case on the merits, the bank has argued that the purchase of the 22 security entitlements was a commercial act, while the United States has contended that the purchase was a sovereign governmental function. The Court should not have joined this strategic, tactical and inconsequential interplay between the Parties.
16. In light of the foregoing, the Court should have confirmed its jurisdiction with regard to the third preliminary objection of the United States.
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DENIAL OF JUSTICE
17. I do not agree with the conclusion, in paragraph 143 of the Judgment, that the United States’ conduct does not “constitute a serious failure in the administration of justice amounting to a denial of justice”.
18. In the Peterson enforcement proceedings (2013), the plaintiffs sought from the court orders to attach assets of Iran and Bank Markazi. During the course of these proceedings, the United States Congress passed legislation, the Iran Threat Reduction and Syria Human Rights Act of 2012 (ITRSHRA), which in Section 502 rendered subject to execution or attachment in aid of execution certain financial assets to satisfy judgments against Iran. The Act states that these assets are “the financial assets that are identified in and the subject of proceedings in the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York in Peterson et al. v. Islamic Republic of Iran et al.”. In other words, the legislation was specifically enacted to influence what was an ongoing trial before the district court.
19. In its judgment, the district court, relying on the 2012 ITRSHRA, ruled that the financial assets should be turned over to the plaintiffs1. This was done despite the fact that Bank Markazi was not itself alleged to have been involved in any underlying terrorist activity. Following the judgment of the United States Court of Appeal upholding the decision of the district court, Bank Markazi appealed to the United States Supreme Court which, in a majority judgment of seven to two, found in favour of the plaintiffs. The majority found the introduction of the legislation in the middle of the case unobjectionable, on the basis that there was a domestic precedent that found that legislation enacted during ongoing cases was lawful; this legislation “applied to cases identified by caption and docket number”2. Chief Justice Roberts and Justice Sotomayor, the two dissenters, opined that Section 502 “chang[ed] the law — for these proceedings alone — simply to guarantee that respondents win”3. The law was changed by ITRSHRA because, up to the time of its enactment, it was not beyond question that Bank Markazi’s financial assets were subject to execution or attachment to satisfy judgments against Iran. Indeed, the majority judgment of the United States Supreme Court itself observed that the legislation was enacted “[t]o place beyond dispute the availability of some of the Executive Order No. 13599-blocked assets for satisfaction of judgments rendered in terrorism cases”4.
20. The intrusion of the legislature, Congress, in the middle of the proceedings to enact legislation that changed the law, which was done, in the words of the dissenters, “simply to guarantee that respondents win”, was a raw exercise of legislative power that constitutes a denial of justice. Bank Markazi commenced its defence with the law in one place and ended it with the law in another. There was a denial of justice because the enactment of legislation during the proceedings interfered with its fairness in a manner that fundamentally affects the international rule of law by favouring one party over another in the proceeding. There was a denial of justice because the insertion of the law in the middle of the proceedings went beyond a “mere misapplication of the law” (see, for example, Krederi Ltd. v. Ukraine, ICSID Case No. ARB/14/17, paras. 468-472).
1 Peterson et al. v. Islamic Republic of Iran et al., United States District Court, Southern District of New York, 28 February 2013, S.D.N.Y. 2013, p. 52.
2 Bank Markazi v. Peterson et al., United States Supreme Court, 20 April 2016, 578 U.S. 1 (2016), p. 19 (Memorial of the Islamic Republic of Iran (MI), Ann. 66).
3 Ibid., p. 34.
4 Ibid., p. 5.
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21. The United States is correct in its contention “that there is a high threshold for demonstrating a denial of justice, requiring a notoriously unjust or egregious violation in the administration of justice which offends a sense of judicial propriety” (Judgment, para. 142). But it is not correct in its assertion that “there is nothing unjust or egregious about the measures in question” (para. 142). The introduction of legislation in the middle of an ongoing trial for the express purpose of assisting a party in that trial is quintessentially the kind of violation in the administration of justice that offends a sense of judicial propriety.
22. The dissenters in the Peterson case concluded that the effect of the introduction of the ITRSHRA in the middle of the case was that the decision in the case was made by the legislature, and not by the judiciary. Indeed, the interference brought about a miscarriage of justice. If the right to fair and equitable treatment (“FET”) means anything, it must mean that an Iranian company involved in litigation in the United States has the right to a fair hearing. Fair and equitable treatment, in accordance with Article IV, calls for just, unbiased and equitable conduct in the treatment of nationals and companies engaging in trade and investment between the two countries. Moreover, a retroactive law, enacted without compelling reasons, violates the legal certainty that the FET standard would require.
23. The combined effect of Section 502 of ITRSHRA and the judgment of the district court, consequentially attaching the property of Bank Markazi, is that the enactment of legislation during the Peterson case was a denial of justice that breached the bank’s right to fair and equitable treatment, to which, consistent with my dissent, it was entitled. The existence of a domestic precedent that would make such enactment lawful as a matter of US domestic law does not imply that such legislative action would be consistent with the international obligations of the United States as a party to a treaty. By virtue of Article 27 of the 1969 Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, which reflects customary international law, a State cannot invoke the provisions of its internal law as justification for its failure to perform its obligations under a treaty.
Unilateral economic sanctions
24. The views expressed on unilateral economic sanctions are in no way to be construed as a commentary on the merits of the present case, in which the applicable law is the Treaty of Amity and, more generally, the law of treaties. In this part of the separate opinion, I address sanctions under general international law.
25. It is accepted that the international community of States is disorganized. The hope that the post-Second World War era would usher in a period of international co-operation5 has not been realized, and, regrettably, the principle of State sovereignty still prevails. In contrast to the position within a State, there is no single body that reigns supreme in the relationship between States. All the forces are centrifugal, and today it is debatable whether the international community of States is more organized, more unified than it was before 1945. Generally, each State insists upon the exercise of its sovereignty at the expense of international co-operation.
26. In its work on State responsibility, the International Law Commission (“ILC” or “Commission”) addresses unilateral economic sanctions under the concept of countermeasures.
5 Under Article 1 (3) of the Charter, one of the purposes of the United Nations is “to achieve international co-operation in solving international problems of an economic, social, cultural, or humanitarian character”.
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Interestingly, Special Rapporteur Roberto Ago’s proposed term “sanctions” was replaced by “countermeasures”
6.
27. Article 22 of the ILC’s Articles on State Responsibility (the “ILC’s Articles”) addresses countermeasures as a circumstance precluding wrongfulness under Chapter V, as follows: “The wrongfulness of an act of a State not in conformity with an international obligation towards another State is precluded if and to the extent that the act constitutes a countermeasure taken against the latter State in accordance with chapter II of part three.”
28. In the Gabčíkovo-Nagymaros case, the Court confirmed that the fundamental requirement for the lawfulness of a countermeasure is that it must be “taken in response to a previous internationally wrongful act of another State” and “directed against that State”7. This requirement is reflected in Article 49 of the ILC’s Articles. Here, the Commission’s conclusions are consistent with the Court’s findings in Gabčíkovo-Nagymaros. Article 50 identifies certain obligations, such as those relating to the protection of fundamental human rights, that are not affected by countermeasures. Article 51 addresses the need for the countermeasures to be “commensurate with the injury suffered, taking into account the gravity of the internationally wrongful act and the rights in question”. Here again, the Commission’s Articles are consistent with Gabčíkovo-Nagymaros. With regard to the conditions relating to resort to countermeasures, Article 52 of the Commission’s Articles provides as follows:
“1. Before taking countermeasures, an injured State shall:
(a) Call upon the responsible State, in accordance with article 43, to fulfil its obligations under part two;
(b) Notify the responsible State of any decision to take countermeasures and offer to negotiate with that State.
2. Notwithstanding paragraph 1 (b), the injured State may take such urgent countermeasures as are necessary to preserve its rights.
3. Countermeasures may not be taken, and if already taken must be suspended without undue delay if:
(a) The internationally wrongful act has ceased; and
(b) The dispute is pending before a court or tribunal which has the authority to make decisions binding on the parties.
4. Paragraph 3 does not apply if the responsible State fails to implement the dispute settlement procedures in good faith.”
6 The reason for this change is that the Commission reserved the term “sanctions” for
“reactive measures applied by virtue of a decision taken by an international organization following a breach of an international obligation having serious consequences for the international community as a whole, and in particular for certain measures which the United Nations is empowered to adopt, under the system established by the Charter, with a view to the maintenance of international peace and security” (Draft Articles on State Responsibility, Report of the Commission to the General Assembly on the work of its thirty-first session, Yearbook of the International Law Commission, 1979, Vol. II, Part Two, United Nations, New York 1980, p. 121).
7 Gabčíkovo-Nagymaros Project (Hungary/Slovakia), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1997, p. 55, para. 82.
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29. It is not altogether clear whether the conditions relating to resort to countermeasures set out in Article 52 have a customary character.
30. Some may question whether any of the economic sanctions unilaterally imposed by States over the last sixty years meet the requirements set out in Articles 49, 50, 51 and 52. Certainly, there would be a question whether they meet the proportionality test in Article 51. Additionally, to the extent that unilaterally determined economic measures adversely affect the poor, the sick and the vulnerable in the State against which they are taken, there may be a question whether they meet the requirement in Article 50 (1) (b) for countermeasures not to affect “obligations for the protection of fundamental human rights”.
31. In the 1986 Military and Paramilitary Activities case, the Court had to address Nicaragua’s claim that the United States had violated the principle of non-intervention by the economic sanctions it imposed, including a cut-off of economic aid and a 90 per cent reduction in Nicaragua’s sugar quota for imports into the United States. The Court concluded that it had “merely to say that it is unable to regard such action on the economic plane as is here complained of as a breach of the customary-law principle of non-intervention”8.
32. An interesting question is whether, in light of the developments that have taken place since the 1986 Military and Paramilitary Activities Judgment, the Court would today respond in the way that it did in that case to a State’s claim that unilaterally imposed sanctions are in breach of the principle of non-intervention. There is no question about the customary character of the principle of non-intervention; this is acknowledged by the Court itself in Military and Paramilitary Activities. The difficult question relates to the legality of unilaterally imposed sanctions. In that regard, there have been three important developments since 1986. First, in the Gabčíkovo-Nagymaros case, the Court held that Czechoslovakia’s assumption of control of the Danube river did not respect the proportionality that is required by international law, and therefore the diversion of the Danube was not a lawful countermeasure. It is safe to say that the requirement of proportionality is now a part of customary international law.
33. The second development is the ILC’s Articles on State Responsibility. In my view, even if there may be some doubt as to whether Articles 50 and 52 have customary status, there can be no doubt that Articles 49 and 51 reflect customary international law. Article 49 requires that countermeasures may only be taken against a State which is responsible for an internationally wrongful act in order to induce that State to comply with its obligations under Part Two of the ILC’s Articles; and Article 51 requires proportionality in the imposition of unilaterally determined countermeasures.
34. The third development is the work of the United Nations Human Rights Council on the topic of human rights and unilateral coercive measures. Relying, inter alia, on the declarations contained in UNGA resolution 2131 (XX) and resolution 2625 (XXV), the United Nations Human Rights Council, on 26 September 2014 adopted resolution 27/21 and Corr. 1 on human rights and unilateral coercive measures. The most recent renewal of the resolution was on October 2020, HRC resolution 45/5. The resolutions of the United Nations Human Rights Council stress that unilateral coercive measures and practices are contrary to international law, international humanitarian law, the United Nations Charter and the norms and principles governing peaceful relations among States, and highlights that in the long term, these measures may result in social problems and raise humanitarian
8 Military and Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v. United States of America), Merits, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1986, p. 126, para. 245.
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concerns in the States targeted. More specifically, in the resolution adopted on 26 September 2014, the United Nations Human Rights Council strongly objected to the extraterritorial nature of unilateral coercive measures “which . . . threaten the sovereignty of States” and condemned “the continued unilateral application and enforcement by certain powers of such measures as tools of political or economic pressure against any country”.
35. In my view, these three developments since the 1986 Military and Paramilitary Activities signal a departure from the era of unfettered resort to unilateral economic sanctions. Indeed, when these developments are viewed in light of the United Nations General Assembly’s past efforts to develop a norm prohibiting the use of economic sanctions as an instrument of political pressure or coercion, there is a case for concluding that unilateral economic sanctions which are disproportionate, or coercive, do not qualify as countermeasures within the meaning of the ILC’s Articles and may be as violative of the customary principle of non-intervention as military measures. If today the Court were faced with the question that was posed in 1986, in making its determination, it would have to take into consideration the developments outlined.
36. In conclusion, the disorganization of the international community of States explains the phenomenon of unilaterally imposed sanctions. They are particularly objectionable when it is clear from the context in which they are imposed that they are performing a function that the United Nations Charter assigned to the Security Council. It is the dysfunctionality of the Security Council, resulting from the veto power of the five permanent members, that creates a void which States bent on asserting their sovereignty are only too ready to fill.
The inappropriate phraseology
37. In addressing the United States’ objection to admissibility based on the failure to exhaust local remedies, the Judgment states that, “for the reasons set out below, the Court is persuaded that the companies in question did not have any effective means of redress, in the legal system of the United States, that they failed to pursue” (para. 67, my emphasis). In its analysis, the Court relied on the customary rule, set out in Article 15, paragraph (a), of the ILC’s Articles on Diplomatic Protection, that the requirement to exhaust local remedies is satisfied when there are no available local remedies providing the injured persons with a reasonable possibility of obtaining redress. The Court cites favourably Iran’s submission that “according to settled United States jurisprudence, where there is an explicit inconsistency between a treaty and a statute adopted later than that treaty, the statute is deemed to have abrogated the treaty in United States law” (Judgment, para. 69). After noting that the United States did not attempt to contest the validity of that assertion, the Court cited the Weinstein proceedings as an example of a case in which a statute trumped the Treaty of Amity.
38. It is astonishing that in light of the clarity of this analysis, the Court could only conclude, in paragraph 72 of the Judgment, that “it appears to the Court that, in the circumstances of the present case, the companies in question had no reasonable possibility of successfully asserting their rights in United States court proceedings” (my emphasis). Bearing in mind that the Court is responding to a preliminary objection to admissibility, its conclusion should have been more categoric in this semi-final part of its analysis. Its reasoning may be criticized on two grounds. First, the weak, uncertain and hesitant finding, “it appears to the Court”, conflicts with the earlier statement in paragraph 67 that the Court was “persuaded that the companies in question did not have any effective means of redress, in the legal system of the United States, that they failed to pursue” (my emphasis). This is a clear and categoric statement indicating that the Court was convinced that Iranian companies did not have any effective means of redress. Second, the weak, uncertain and hesitant finding, “it appears to the Court”, does not provide a basis for the conclusion in paragraph 73: “For the foregoing reasons, the Court concludes that the objection to admissibility based on the failure to exhaust local
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remedies cannot be upheld.” This unambiguous conclusion cannot be derived from the hesitant formulation in the previous paragraph.
39. The Court ought to have found that, “[g]iven the combination of the legislative character of the contested measures and the primacy accorded to a more recent federal statute over the treaty in the jurisprudence of the United States”, the Court is persuaded “that, in the circumstances of the present case, the companies in question had no reasonable possibility of successfully asserting their rights in United States court proceedings”.
40. It is noteworthy that the Court does not employ a similar formulation, “it appears to the Court”, in disposing of the United States’ objection to jurisdiction or any of its defences on the merits. The Court does however use similar language when it makes an order indicating provisional measures9; however, in relation to an application for such measures, it is settled that the standard of proof is different. This is the problem with the language used by the Court in this case: it suggests that the party bearing the burden of establishing its case discharges that burden by a relatively low standard, and one which suggests that the Court need only have an impression that, in the circumstances of the present case, the companies in question had no reasonable possibility of successfully asserting their rights in United States court proceedings.
The unnecessary genuflection
41. The last sentence in paragraph 72 reads as follows: “The Court is not, by the above finding, making any judgment upon the judicial system of the United States, or on the distribution of powers between the legislative and judicial branches under United States law as regards the fulfilment of international obligations within the domestic legal system.” Here, the Court appears to be in a state of genuflection and apology to the United States for its conclusion that the Iranian companies “had no reasonable possibility of successfully asserting their rights in United States court proceedings”. In light of the Court’s statement in paragraph 67 that it was “persuaded that the companies in question did not have any effective means of redress, in the legal system of the United States, that they failed to pursue” (my emphasis), the Court has indeed made a judgment on the legislative and judicial branches of government of the United States. In the circumstances of this case, the Court has every right and duty to arrive at such a conclusion, and there is no need to qualify it with some kind of disclaimer.
(Signed) Patrick L. ROBINSON.
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9 For example, see Allegations of Genocide under the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Ukraine v. Russian Federation), Provisional Measures, Order of 16 March 2022, para. 24: “The Court may indicate provisional measures only if the provisions relied on by the applicant appear, prima facie, to afford a basis on which its jurisdiction could be founded, but it need not satisfy itself in a definitive manner that it has jurisdiction as regards the merits of the case”. The Court “conclude[d] that, prima facie, it [had] jurisdiction” to adjudicate the case (para. 48), without using the verb “appear”. However, in light of the use of the word “appear” in paragraph 24, it is proper to interpret the conclusion as including the word “appear”.

Bilingual Content

188
SEPARATE OPINION, PARTLY CONCURRING
AND PARTLY DISSENTING, OF JUDGE ROBINSON
1. In this opinion I explain my disagreement with paragraph 236 (1) of the
Judgment, in which the Court upholds the
“objection to jurisdiction raised by the United States of America relating
to the claims of the Islamic Republic of Iran under Articles III, IV and V
of the 1955 Treaty of Amity, Economic Relations, and Consular Rights,
to the extent that they relate to treatment accorded to Bank Markazi and,
accordingly, finds that it has no jurisdiction to consider those claims”.
I also offer observations on other aspects of the Judgment.
The Dissent
2. By virtue of paragraph 236 (1) of the Judgment, the Court finds that
Bank Markazi, Iran’s Central Bank, is not a company within the meaning of
Article III (1), and therefore, is not entitled to the protection afforded to
companies
by Article III, IV, and V of the 1955 Treaty of Amity, Economic
Relations, and Consular Rights (“Treaty”). This finding is based on reasoning
that is flatly contradicted by the Court’s 2019 preliminary objections
Judgment (“2019 Judgment”) in this case.
3. In its third objection to jurisdiction, submitted at the preliminary objections
phase of this case, the United States requested the Court to dismiss
“as outside the Court’s jurisdiction all claims of purported violations of
Article III, IV, and V of the Treaty of Amity that are predicated on treatment
accorded to the Government of Iran or Bank Markazi”.
4. The opinion will examine, first, the dicta in the 2019 Judgment relating
to characterization of an entity as a company under the Treaty, and then, the
Court’s reasoning in this Judgment. It is important to carry out this exercise
because the approach taken by this Judgment conflicts with the 2019 Judgment,
notwithstanding assertions to the contrary.
5. The Court’s reasoning as to what determines the characterization of an
entity as a company within the meaning of Article III (1) is set out in six phases
in paragraphs 89 to 92 of the 2019 Judgment.
188
OPINION INDIVIDUELLE, EN PARTIE CONCORDANTE
ET EN PARTIE DISSIDENTE, DE M. LE JUGE ROBINSON
[Traduction]
1. Dans le présent exposé, j’expliquerai les raisons de mon désaccord avec
le point 1 du dispositif, dans lequel la Cour a retenu
« l’exception d’incompétence soulevée par les États-Unis d’Amérique
relative aux demandes présentées par la République islamique d’Iran au
titre des articles III, IV et V du traité d’amitié, de commerce et de droits
consulaires de 1955, dans la mesure où elles port[ai]ent sur le traitement
réservé à la banque Markazi et, en conséquence, [a] dit qu’elle n’[étai]t
pas compétente pour connaître desdites demandes ».
Je formulerai également certaines observations sur d’autres aspects de
l’arrêt.
Opinion dissidente
2. En vertu du point 1 du dispositif de l’arrêt, la Cour a conclu que la
banque Markazi, la banque centrale de l’Iran, n’était pas une société au sens
du paragraphe 1 de l’article III et, partant, ne pouvait prétendre à bénéficier
de la protection accordée aux sociétés par les articles III, IV et V du traité
d’amitié, de commerce et de droits consulaires de 1955 (ci-après le « traité »).
Le raisonnement qui sous-tend cette conclusion est en totale contradiction
avec l’arrêt sur les exceptions préliminaires que la Cour a rendu en 2019 en
la présente espèce (ci-après l’« arrêt de 2019 »).
3. Par leur troisième exception d’incompétence, soumise dans la phase des
exceptions préliminaires, les États-Unis demandaient à la Cour de rejeter
« comme échappant à sa compétence toute demande se rapportant à des
violations
alléguées des articles III, IV et V du traité d’amitié reposant sur le
traitement accordé à l’État iranien ou à la banque Markazi ».
4. Dans le présent exposé, j’examinerai, dans un premier temps, les dicta
prononcés dans l’arrêt de 2019 quant à la caractérisation d’une entité en tant
que société au sens du traité et, dans un deuxième temps, le raisonnement
que la Cour a adopté dans le présent arrêt. Il est important de procéder à
cet exercice, car l’approche retenue dans le présent arrêt contredit celui de
2019, et ce, malgré des affirmations contraires.
5. Le raisonnement suivi par la Cour pour déterminer ce qui caractérise
une entité en tant que société au sens du paragraphe 1 de l’article III est
exposé en six étapes aux paragraphes 89 à 92 de l’arrêt de 2019.
189
6. In paragraph 89, which reflects the first phase of the reasoning, the
Court indicates that it will
“determine[] whether, by the nature of its activities, Bank Markazi may
be characterized as a ‘company’ according to the definition given by
Article III, paragraph 1, read in its context and in light of the object and
purpose of the Treaty of Amity”.
In this paragraph, the Court’s objective is to determine whether the characterization
of Bank Markazi as a company may be made on the basis of the
nature of its activities. Notably, in its proposed analysis, apart from the
nature of the activities of Bank Markazi, the Court makes no reference to
any other factor, such as the Bank’s function or purpose, as playing a role in
determining its characterization as a company.
7. In paragraph 90, which sets out the second phase of the Court’s reasoning,
the Court rejects Iran’s argument that the nature of the activities carried
out by an entity is irrelevant for the purpose of characterizing it as a company,
thereby reaffirming the significance of the nature of the activities in
the characterization of an entity as a company.
8. In paragraph 91, which sets out the third phase of the reasoning, the
Court proceeds to interpret the definition of a company in Article III (1) in
its relevant context and in light of the object and purpose of the Treaty;
such an interpretation, in the view of the Court, “points clearly to the conclusion
that the Treaty is aimed at guaranteeing rights and affording protections
to natural and legal persons engaging in activities of a commercial nature,
even if this latter term is to be understood in a broad sense”. What is noteworthy
here is the Court’s finding that the latter term, “activities of a
commercial nature”, is not to be interpreted narrowly, but broadly.
9. In the final section of paragraph 91, which sets out the fourth phase of
the Court’s reasoning, the Court concludes
“that an entity carrying out exclusively sovereign activities, linked to
the sovereign functions of the State, cannot be characterized as a ‘company’
within the meaning of the Treaty and, consequently, may not
claim the benefit of the rights and protections provided for in Articles
III, IV and V”.
Here, the Court arrives at a fairly obvious conclusion: if the entity is carrying
out exclusively sovereign activities, linked to the sovereign functions of
the State, then it is not engaging in activities of a commercial nature; it is in
fact engaging in activities which attract sovereign immunity.
10. In light of the Court’s determination in the 2019 Judgment that issues
of sovereign immunity are not within its jurisdiction, the Judgment, in some
parts, appears to flirt with that question without engaging with it; the first
section of paragraph 91 of the 2019 Judgment is an example of this flirtation;
another example is paragraph 65 of that Judgment.
certain iranian assets (sep. op. robinson)
certains actifs iraniens (op. ind. robinson) 189
6. Au paragraphe 89, qui correspond à la première étape du raisonnement,
la Cour a indiqué qu’il
« rest[ait] à déterminer si, par la nature de ses activités, la banque
Markazi p[ouvai]t être qualifiée de “société” selon la définition que
donne le paragraphe 1 de l’article III lue dans le contexte de cette disposition
et à la lumière de l’objet et du but du traité d’amitié ».
Dans ce paragraphe, l’objectif de la Cour était de déterminer s’il était possible
de qualifier
la banque Markazi de société sur la base de la nature de ses
activités. Il est à noter que, dans l’analyse qu’elle proposait alors, en dehors
de la nature des activités de la banque Markazi, la Cour ne s’est référée à
aucun autre facteur, tel que la fonction ou le but de la banque, qui aurait été
de nature à influer sur la caractérisation de la banque en tant que société.
7. Au paragraphe 90, où est exposé la deuxième étape du raisonnement de
la Cour, celle-ci a rejeté l’argumentation de l’Iran selon laquelle la nature des
activités exercées par une entité déterminée était indifférente en vue de la
qualification de ladite entité comme une société, réaffirmant ainsi l’importance
que revêt cet élément à ladite fin.
8. Au paragraphe 91, qui constitue la troisième étape de son raisonnement,
la Cour a interprété la définition d’une société au sens du paragraphe 1 de
l’article III dans le contexte pertinent et à la lumière de l’objet et du but du
traité ; cette interprétation, selon elle, « orient[ait] nettement vers la conclusion
que le traité vise à garantir des droits et à accorder des protections aux
personnes physiques et morales qui exercent des activités de nature commerciale,
même si ce dernier terme doit être compris dans un sens large ». Ce
qu’il convient de retenir ici, c’est que la Cour a conclu que l’expression « activités
de nature commerciale » ne devait pas être interprétée de manière
restrictive, mais dans un sens large.
9. Dans la dernière partie du paragraphe 91, quatrième étape du raisonnement
de la Cour, celle-ci a conclu
« qu’une entité qui exercerait exclusivement des activités de souveraineté,
liées aux fonctions régaliennes de l’État, ne saurait se voir attribuer
la qualification de “société” au sens du traité, et ne saurait par suite
prétendre au bénéfice des droits et protections prévus aux articles III, IV
et V ».
En l’espèce, la Cour a abouti à une conclusion assez évidente : si l’entité
exerce exclusivement des activités de souveraineté, liées aux fonctions régaliennes
de l’État, alors elle ne mène pas d’activités de nature commerciale ;
elle exerce en fait des activités bénéficiant de l’immunité souveraine.
10. La Cour ayant déterminé, dans son arrêt de 2019, que les questions
d’immunité souveraine échappaient à sa compétence, l’arrêt semble, à certains
endroits, effleurer cette question sans toutefois l’aborder ; tel est, par
exemple, le cas dans la première partie du paragraphe 91, ainsi qu’au paragraphe
65.
190 certain iranian assets (sep. op. robinson)
11. In paragraph 92, which sets out the fifth phase of the reasoning, the
Court states that notwithstanding the previous conclusion, as a matter of
principle, nothing prevents an entity from engaging in activities of a commercial
nature as well as sovereign activities.
12. In the second sentence of paragraph 92, which sets out the sixth and
final phase of the Court’s reasoning, the Court provides the answer to the
issue raised in paragraph 89. The Court concluded that,
“[i]n such a case, since it is the nature of the activity actually carried out
which determines the characterization of the entity engaged in it, the
legal person in question should be regarded as a ‘company’ within the
meaning of the Treaty to the extent that it is engaged in activities of a
commercial nature, even if they do not constitute its principal activities”.
Two comments may be made on this very important paragraph. First, the
phrase “in such a case” means that the Court is addressing the situation
where an entity engages both in activities of a commercial nature and in
sovereign
activities. Second, the phrase “since it is the nature of the activity
actually carried out which determines the characterization of the entity
engaged in it” emphasizes that, for the Court, it is the nature of the activity
in which an entity is engaged that determines whether it is a company. The
word “determine” has a special significance. The Concise Oxford Dictionary
gives the meaning of the word “determine” as “decide or settle”.
Therefore, by this finding, the Court concludes that it is the nature of the
activity engaged in by an entity that settles the question whether that entity
is a company within the meaning of the Treaty; the nature of the activity
settles
this question definitively. The Court makes no reference to the function
of the entity or purpose of the activity. Moreover, the word “since” in the
sentence “since it is the nature of the activity actually carried out which
determines the characterization of the entity engaged in it” confirms that
there is a causal relationship between the characterization of an entity as a
company under the Treaty and the nature of the activities carried out by that
entity. The statement that “it is the nature of the activity actually carried
out which determines the characterization of the entity engaged in it” is
categoric
and does not admit of any other determinant in the characterization
of an entity as a company, such as links between the activities and any
sovereign function or purpose to which they relate.
13. Against that background, the opinion now turns to the Court’s Judgment
in this phase of the proceedings. According to the Court, the 2019
Judgment “did not state that, in determining whether particular activities
were of a commercial nature, there was no need to take into account any link
that they may have with a sovereign function” (Judgment, para. 51). The
Judgment adds that when an entity carries out a transaction or a series of
transactions, that transaction — or series of transactions — must be placed
certains actifs iraniens (op. ind. robinson) 190
11. Au paragraphe 92, qui constitue la cinquième étape de son raisonnement,
la Cour a indiqué que, nonobstant la conclusion qui précédait, rien ne
permettait, par principe, d’exclure qu’une même entité exerçât à la fois des
activités de nature commerciale et des activités souveraines.
12. Dans la deuxième phrase du paragraphe 92, où est exposée la sixième
et dernière étape de son raisonnement, la Cour a répondu à la question soulevée
au paragraphe 89. Elle a conclu ce qui suit :
« En pareil cas, puisque c’est la nature de l’activité effectivement exercée
qui détermine la qualification de l’entité qui l’exerce, la personne
morale dont il s’agit devrait être regardée comme une “société” au sens
du traité dans la mesure où elle exerce des activités de nature commerciale,
même si ce n’est pas à titre principal. »
Deux observations peuvent être formulées sur ce paragraphe très important.
Premièrement, l’expression « en pareil cas » signifie que la Cour
examinait la situation où une même entité exerce à la fois des activités de
nature commerciale et des activités souveraines. Deuxièmement, le membre
de phrase « puisque c’est la nature de l’activité effectivement exercée qui
détermine la qualification de l’entité qui l’exerce » souligne que, pour la
Cour, c’est la nature de l’activité à laquelle se livre une entité qui détermine
si elle est ou non une société. Le mot « détermine » revêt une importance
particulière. Selon la définition donnée dans le Concise Oxford Dictionary,
le mot « determine », en anglais, signifie « decide or settle » (« décider ou
régler »). Par conséquent, en formulant ainsi sa conclusion, la Cour a considéré
que c’était la nature de l’activité exercée par une entité qui réglait la
question de savoir si ladite entité était une société au sens du traité ; la
nature de l’activité règle définitivement la question. La Cour n’a fait aucune
référence à la fonction de l’entité ou au but de l’activité. En outre, le mot
« puisque » utilisé dans le membre de phrase « puisque c’est la nature de
l’activité effectivement exercée qui détermine la qualification de l’entité qui
l’exerce » confirme le lien de causalité entre la qualification d’une entité en
tant que société au sens du traité et la nature des activités qu’elle exerce.
L’affirmation selon laquelle « c’est la nature de l’activité effectivement
exercée
qui détermine la qualification de l’entité qui l’exerce » est formulée
de manière catégorique et n’admet la prise en compte d’aucun autre facteur
dans la caractérisation d’une entité en tant que société, comme les liens
entre les activités et toute autre fonction souveraine, ou le but auquel se
rapportent
ces activités.
13. C’est dans ce contexte que je m’intéresserai maintenant à l’arrêt rendu
par la Cour dans la présente phase de la procédure. Selon la Cour, dans son
arrêt de 2019, elle « n’a pas affirmé que, pour déterminer si des activités données
présentaient un caractère commercial, il ne fallait pas tenir compte de
leur lien éventuel avec une fonction souveraine » (arrêt, par. 51). Et la Cour
d’ajouter que, lorsqu’une entité effectue une transaction ou une série de transactions,
ladite transaction — ou série de transactions — doit être replacée
191 certain iranian assets (sep. op. robinson)
in its context, “taking particular account of any links that it may have with
the exercise of a sovereign function”. To begin with, the Court did indeed
hold in its 2019 Judgment that, in determining whether particular activities
are of a commercial nature, account should not be taken of any link that such
activities may have with sovereign activity. The Court so held when it stated
that “it is the nature of the activity actually carried out which determines
the characterization of the entity engaged in it”. As stated before, a proper
reading of the 2019 Judgment is that the Court concluded that the nature of
the activity settles definitively the question whether an entity is a company
within the meaning of the Treaty. In its present Judgment, the Court has
moved away from its analysis and conclusions in its 2019 Judgment, and has
introduced an element not to be found in the 2019 Judgment, i.e. links
between the activity and a sovereign function or purpose.
14. In paragraph 47, the Court indicates that it would determine whether
Bank Markazi is a company within the meaning of the Treaty of Amity,

following the line of reasoning it adopted in its 2019 Judgment”. Regrettably,
the Judgment did not follow that line of reasoning. Had it done so,
its sole focus would have been on the nature of the activities carried out by
Bank Markazi; such a focus would have led to the conclusion that Bank
Markazi was a company since, by its nature, the purchase of the 22 security
entitlements was a commercial activity.
15. Moreover, and one says this with respect, there would appear to be an
element of disingenuousness in the last sentence of paragraph 52: “The
Court nevertheless considers that the assertions made by Bank Markazi in
the judicial proceedings in the Peterson case, which are cited above, accurately
reflect the reality of the bank’s activities.” In the first place, a question
of consistency arises, since in the first sentence of that paragraph, the Court
indicated that it did not consider “the statements made in United States
court proceedings by counsel for Bank Markazi and relied on by the United
States . . . to be decisive”. The Court’s statement in the last sentence of this
paragraph flies in the face of its earlier statement in the same paragraph. It
could only conclude that the statements made by Bank Markazi in the
Peterson
c ase “accurately r eflect t he r eality of t he b ank’s a ctivities” i f i t
treated as consequential, and therefore decisive, the position taken by the
bank in that case, that the purchase of the 22 security entitlements was a
sovereign governmental function, entitled to immunity. The Court ought to
have been more transparent by stating that both Parties changed their positions
after the Court, in its 2019 Judgment, found that it had no jurisdiction
in respect of the question of the sovereign immunity of the bank. In the
Peterson proceedings b efore the U nited States District Court, the bank
argued that it had sovereign immunity and the United States contended that
the purchase of the 22 security entitlements was a commercial act, a position
with which the United States District Court agreed. However, in the
present case on the merits, the bank has argued that the purchase of the
22 security entitlements was a commercial act, while the United States has
certains actifs iraniens (op. ind. robinson) 191
dans son contexte, « en tenant compte notamment de ses liens éventuels avec
l’exercice d’une fonction souveraine ». Tout d’abord, la Cour a bel et bien
conclu dans son arrêt de 2019 que, pour déterminer si des activités données
présentaient un caractère commercial, il ne fallait pas tenir compte de leur
lien éventuel avec une fonction souveraine. Elle l’a fait en considérant que
« c’[étai]t la nature de l’activité effectivement exercée qui détermin[ait] la
qualification de l’entité qui l’exerce ». Comme exposé plus haut, l’arrêt de
2019, interprété comme il se doit, indique que la Cour a conclu que la nature
de l’activité réglait définitivement la question de savoir si une entité était une
société au sens du traité. Dans le présent arrêt, la Cour s’est écartée de l’analyse
et des conclusions qu’elle avait adoptées dans son arrêt de 2019 et a
introduit un élément qui n’y figurait pas, à savoir les liens entre l’activité et
une fonction ou un objectif souverain.
14. Au paragraphe 47, la Cour a précisé qu’elle déterminerait si la banque
Markazi était une société au sens du traité en « se plaçant dans la continuité
des motifs qu’elle a[vait] retenus dans son arrêt de 2019 ». Or, malheureusement,
le présent arrêt ne s’inscrit pas dans la continuité desdits motifs. Si tel
avait été cas, la Cour se serait intéressée uniquement à la nature des activités
de la banque Markazi et aurait ainsi conclu que cette dernière était une
société, puisque, par nature, l’achat des 22 titres de créance était une activité
commerciale.
15. De surcroît, et je le dis avec respect, la dernière phrase du paragraphe 52
semble sonner un peu faux : « La Cour considère cependant que les déclarations
faites par la banque Markazi dans le cadre de la procédure judiciaire
dans l’affaire Peterson, qui sont citées plus haut, reflètent correctement la
réalité des activités de la banque. » Tout d’abord, un problème de cohérence
se pose, puisque, dans la première phrase de ce même paragraphe, la Cour a
indiqué qu’elle « n’attach[ait] pas une importance décisive aux déclarations
faites dans les procédures judiciaires américaines par les conseils de la banque
Markazi et dont les États-Unis se sont prévalus ». Ce que dit la Cour dans
la dernière phrase du paragraphe est en contradiction totale avec la première
partie de ce même paragraphe. La Cour ne pouvait conclure que les déclarations
faites par la banque Markazi dans l’affaire Peterson « reflét[ai]ent
correctement la réalité des activités de la banque » que si elle considérait
comme portant à conséquence, et donc d’une importance décisive, la thèse
soutenue par la banque dans cette affaire, à savoir que l’achat des 22 titres de
créance relevait de sa fonction gouvernementale souveraine, bénéficiant de
l’immunité. La Cour aurait dû faire preuve de plus de transparence en précisant
que les deux Parties avaient changé de position après qu’elle s’était, dans
son arrêt de 2019, déclarée incompétente à l’égard de la question de l’immunité
souveraine de la banque. Dans l’affaire Peterson, portée devant le
tribunal fédéral de district, la banque avait fait valoir qu’elle bénéficiait de
l’immunité souveraine et les États-Unis avaient soutenu que l’achat des
22 titres de créance était un acte commercial, thèse à laquelle avait souscrit
le tribunal. Or, dans la présente procédure au fond, la banque a fait valoir
192 certain iranian assets (sep. op. robinson)
contended that the purchase was a sovereign governmental function. The
Court should not have joined this strategic, tactical and inconsequential
interplay between the Parties.
16. In light of the foregoing, the Court should have confirmed its jurisdiction
with regard to the third preliminary objection of the United States.
Denial of Justice
17. I do not agree with the conclusion, in paragraph 143 of the Judgment,
that the United States’ conduct does not “constitute a serious failure in the
administration of justice amounting to a denial of justice”.
18. In the Peterson enforcement proceedings (2013), the plaintiffs sought
from the court orders to attach assets of Iran and Bank Markazi. During the
course of these proceedings, the United States Congress passed legislation,
the Iran Threat Reduction and Syria Human Rights Act of 2012 (ITRSHRA),
which in Section 502 rendered subject to execution or attachment in aid of
execution certain financial assets to satisfy judgments against Iran. The Act
states that these assets are “the financial assets that are identified in and the
subject of proceedings in the United States District Court for the Southern
District of New York in Peterson et al. v. Islamic Republic of Iran et al.”. In
other words, the legislation was specifically enacted to influence what was
an ongoing trial before the United States District Court.
19. In its judgment, the United States District Court, relying on the 2012
ITRSHRA, ruled that the financial assets should be turned over to the plaintiffs1.
This was done despite the fact that Bank Markazi was not itself alleged
to have been involved in any underlying terrorist activity. Following the
judgment of the United States Court of Appeal upholding the decision of the
United States District Court, Bank Markazi appealed to the United States
Supreme Court which, in a majority judgment of seven to two, found in
favour of the plaintiffs. The majority found the introduction of the legislation
in the middle of the case unobjectionable, on the basis that there was
a domestic precedent that found that legislation enacted during ongoing
cases was lawful; this legislation “applied to cases identified by caption
and docket number”2. Chief Justice Roberts and Justice Sotomayor, the two
dissenters, opined that Section 502 “chang[ed] the law — for these proceed-
1 Peterson et al. v. Islamic Republic of Iran et al., United States District Court, Southern
District of New York, 28 February 2013, S.D.N.Y. 2013, p. 52.
2 Bank Markazi v. Peterson et al., United States Supreme Court, 20 April 2016, 578 U.S. 1
(2016), p. 19 (Memorial of the Islamic Republic of Iran (MI), Ann. 66).
certains actifs iraniens (op. ind. robinson) 192
que l’achat des 22 titres de créance était un acte commercial, les États-Unis
soutenant pour leur part que cette opération relevait de l’exercice d’une fonction
gouvernementale souveraine. La Cour aurait dû se tenir à l’écart de ce
petit jeu stratégique et tactique joué par les Parties.
16. À la lumière de ce qui précède, la Cour aurait dû confirmer qu’elle
avait compétence pour connaître des demandes visées par la troisième
exception préliminaire des États-Unis.
Déni de justice
17. Je ne souscris pas à la conclusion énoncée au paragraphe 143 de l’arrêt,
selon laquelle le comportement des États-Unis ne « constitue[] pas en [lui]-
même[] un grave manquement dans l’administration de la justice qui
équivaille à un déni de justice ».
18. Dans les procédures en exécution engagées en l’affaire Peterson (2013),
les demandeurs avaient prié le tribunal d’ordonner la saisie d’actifs de
l’Iran et de la banque Markazi. Alors que les procédures étaient en cours, le
Congrès des États-Unis a adopté une loi — la loi de 2012 sur la réduction
de la menace iranienne et les droits de l’homme en Syrie [Iran Threat
Reduction and Syria Human Rights Act] (ci-après la « ITRSHRA ») — dont
l’article 502 rendait susceptibles de mesures d’exécution ou de saisie certains
actifs financiers en exécution de décisions de justice rendues contre l’Iran.
Selon les termes de la loi, ces actifs s’entendaient des « actifs financiers en
cause dans l’affaire Peterson et al. v. Islamic Republic of Iran et al., portée
devant le tribunal fédéral du district sud de l’État de New York ». Autrement
dit, la loi a été promulguée dans le but spécifique d’influencer ce qui était
alors une affaire en cours.
19. Dans son jugement, le tribunal de district, sur le fondement de la
ITRSHRA de 2012, a considéré que les actifs financiers devaient être remis
aux demandeurs1. Cette décision est intervenue alors qu’il n’avait jamais
été allégué que la banque Markazi elle-même avait participé à une quelconque
activité terroriste. Après que la cour d’appel des États-Unis eut
confirmé la décision du tribunal de district, la banque Markazi a saisi la
Cour suprême des États-Unis, qui, par sept voix contre deux, a tranché en
faveur des demandeurs. La majorité a estimé que l’adoption de la loi au
beau milieu de l’affaire ne prêtait pas à contestation, au motif qu’il existait un
précédent en droit interne confirmant la licéité d’une loi promulguée pendant
des affaires en cours ; cette loi « s’appliquait aux affaires portant un
titre et un numéro de rôle »2. Les deux juges dissidents, le président Roberts
et la juge Sotomayor, ont estimé que l’article 502 « modifi[ait] la loi — pour
1 Peterson et al. v. Islamic Republic of Iran et al., tribunal fédéral du district sud de l’État de
New York, 28 février 2013, S.D.N.Y. 2013, p. 52.
2 Bank Markazi v. Peterson et al., Cour suprême des États-Unis, 20 avril 2016, 578 U.S. 1
(2016), p. 19 (mémoire de la République islamique d’Iran (MI), annexe 66).
193 certain iranian assets (sep. op. robinson)
ings alone — simply to guarantee that respondents win”3. The law was
changed by ITRSHRA because, up to the time of its enactment, it was not
beyond question that Bank Markazi’s financial assets were subject to execution
or attachment to satisfy judgments against Iran. Indeed, the majority
judgment of the United States Supreme Court itself observed that the
legislation was enacted “[t]o place beyond dispute the availability of some
of the Executive Order No. 13599-blocked assets for satisfaction of judgments
rendered in terrorism cases”4.
20. The intrusion of the legislature, Congress, in the middle of the proceedings
to enact legislation that changed the law, which was done, in the
words of the dissenters, “simply to guarantee that respondents win”, was a
raw exercise of legislative power that constitutes a denial of justice. Bank
Markazi commenced its defence with the law in one place and ended it with
the law in another. There was a denial of justice because the enactment of
legislation during the proceedings interfered with its fairness in a manner
that fundamentally affects the international rule of law by favouring one
party over another in the proceeding. There was a denial of justice because
the insertion of the law in the middle of the proceedings went beyond a
“mere misapplication of the law” (see, for example, Krederi Ltd. v. Ukraine,
ICSID Case No. ARB/14/17, paras. 468-472).
21. The United States is correct in its contention “that there is a high
threshold for demonstrating a denial of justice, requiring a notoriously
unjust or egregious violation in the administration of justice which offends
a sense of judicial propriety” (Judgment, para. 142). But it is not correct in
its assertion that “there is nothing unjust or egregious about the measures in
question” (ibid.). The introduction of legislation in the middle of an ongoing
trial for the express purpose of assisting a party in that trial is quintessentially
the kind of violation in the administration of justice that offends a
sense of judicial propriety.
22. The dissenters in the Peterson case concluded that the effect of the
introduction of the ITRSHRA in the middle of the case was that the decision
in the case was made by the legislature, and not by the judiciary. Indeed,
the interference brought about a miscarriage of justice. If the right to
fair and equitable treatment (“FET”) means anything, it must mean that
an Iranian company involved in litigation in the United States has the
right to a fair hearing. Fair and equitable treatment, in accordance with
Article IV, calls for just, unbiased and equitable conduct in the treatment
of nationals and companies engaging in trade and investment between
the two countries. Moreover, a retroactive law, enacted without compel-
3 Ibid., p. 34.
4 Ibid., p. 5.
certains actifs iraniens (op. ind. robinson) 193
cette seule procédure — simplement pour garantir que les défendeurs au
pourvoi l’emportent »3. La loi a été modifiée par la ITRSHRA, car, avant son
adoption, il ne pouvait être établi hors de tout doute que les actifs financiers
de la banque Markazi étaient susceptibles de mesures d’exécution ou de
saisie en exécution de jugements rendus contre l’Iran. De fait, la majorité
elle-même a observé dans l’arrêt de la Cour suprême que la loi avait été
adoptée afin « de prévenir toute contestation relative à la saisissabilité de
certains des actifs bloqués par le décret no 13599 pour l’exécution des jugements
rendus en matière de terrorisme »4.
20. L’ingérence de l’assemblée législative, le Congrès, au milieu de la procédure
aux fins de l’adoption d’une loi modifiant le droit — ce qui a été fait,
pour reprendre les termes de l’opinion dissidente des deux juges, « simplement
pour garantir que les défendeurs au pourvoi l’emportent » —, constitue
un exercice grossier du pouvoir législatif emportant déni de justice. Lorsque
la banque Markazi a entamé sa défense devant le tribunal, la loi disait une
chose ; lorsqu’elle a présenté ses conclusions, la loi en disait une autre. Il y a
eu déni de justice, car l’adoption de la loi pendant la procédure a compromis
l’équité de cette dernière au point où elle a fondamentalement porté atteinte
à la primauté du droit sur le plan international en favorisant une partie au
détriment de l’autre. Il y a eu déni de justice, car l’introduction de la loi au
milieu de la procédure ne pouvait être considérée comme une « simple mauvaise
application du droit » (voir, par exemple, Krederi Ltd. v. Ukraine,
affaire CIRDI no ARB/14/17, par. 468-472).
21. Les États-Unis ont fait valoir à juste titre « que le niveau de preuve en
matière de déni de justice [étai]t élevé, puisqu’il conv[enai]t de démontrer
l’existence d’une violation notoirement injuste ou grave dans l’administration
de la justice, qui soit contraire à la bonne règle judiciaire » (arrêt,
par. 142). En revanche, ils ont affirmé à tort que « les mesures en question
n’[avaie]nt rien d’injuste ou de grave » (ibid.). L’introduction d’une loi au
milieu d’un procès en cours dans le but exprès d’aider une des parties est, par
essence, le type de violation dans l’administration de la justice qui est
contraire à la bonne règle judiciaire.
22. Les juges dissidents dans l’affaire Peterson ont conclu que l’effet de
l’adoption de la ITRSHRA au milieu de l’affaire avait été tel que la décision
avait été rendue par le pouvoir législatif, et non par le pouvoir judiciaire. De
fait, cette ingérence a été à l’origine d’un déni de justice. Si le droit à un traitement
juste et équitable a un sens, il signifie nécessairement qu’une société
iranienne prenant part à une procédure aux États-Unis a le droit de faire
entendre sa cause équitablement. Le traitement juste et équitable, au sens
de l’article IV, commande l’adoption d’un comportement juste, impartial et
équitable dans le traitement des ressortissants et des sociétés participant à
des échanges et à des investissements entre les deux pays. En outre, une loi
3 Ibid., p. 34.
4 Ibid., p. 5.
194 certain iranian assets (sep. op. robinson)
ling reasons, violates the legal certainty that the FET standard would
require.
23. The combined effect of Section 502 of ITRSHRA and the judgment of
the United States District Court, consequentially attaching the property of
Bank Markazi, is that the enactment of legislation during the Peterson case
was a denial of justice that breached the bank’s right to fair and equitable
treatment, to which, consistent with my dissent, it was entitled. The existence
of a domestic precedent that would make such enactment lawful as a
matter of US domestic law does not imply that such legislative action would
be consistent with the international obligations of the United States as a
party to a treaty. By virtue of Article 27 of the 1969 Vienna Convention on
the Law of Treaties, which reflects customary international law, a State cannot
invoke the provisions of its internal law as justification for its failure to
perform its obligations under a treaty.
Unilateral Economic Sanctions
24. The views expressed on unilateral economic sanctions are in no way
to be construed as a commentary on the merits of the present case, in which
the applicable law is the Treaty of Amity and, more generally, the law of
treaties. In this part of the separate opinion, I address sanctions under general
international law.
25. It is accepted that the international community of States is disorganized.
The hope that the post-Second World War era would usher in a
period of international co-operation5 has not been realized, and, regrettably,
the principle of State sovereignty still prevails. In contrast to the position
within a State, there is no single body that reigns supreme in the relationship
between States. All the forces are centrifugal, and today it is debatable
whether the international community of States is more organized, more unified
than it was before 1945. Generally, each State insists upon the exercise
of its sovereignty at the expense of international co-operation.
26. In its work on State responsibility, the International Law Commission
(“ILC” or “Commission”) addresses unilateral economic sanctions under
the concept of countermeasures. Interestingly, Special Rapporteur Roberto
Ago’s proposed term “sanctions” was replaced by “countermeasures”6.
5 Under Article 1 (3) of the Charter, one of the purposes of the United Nations is “to achieve
international cooperation in solving international problems of an economic, social, cultural, or
humanitarian character”.
6 The reason for this change is that the Commission reserved the term “sanctions” for
“reactive measures applied by virtue of a decision taken by an international organization
following a breach of an international obligation having serious consequences for the
certains actifs iraniens (op. ind. robinson) 194
à effet rétroactif, adoptée sans raisons impérieuses, constitue une violation
du principe de sécurité juridique sur lequel doit reposer le standard du traitement
juste et équitable.
23. L’effet conjugué de l’article 502 de la ITRSHRA et de la décision rendue
par le tribunal de district, qui a eu pour conséquence la saisie des actifs
de la banque Markazi, est tel que l’adoption du texte pendant l’affaire Peterson
a conduit à un déni de justice, en violation du droit de la banque au
traitement juste et équitable auquel, conformément au présent exposé, elle
était fondée à prétendre. L’existence d’un précédent interne qui confirmerait
qu’une loi ainsi adoptée est licite en droit interne américain n’implique pas
que cette mesure législative sera conforme aux obligations internationales
incombant aux États-Unis en tant que partie à un traité. En vertu de l’article
27 de la convention de Vienne sur le droit des traités de 1969, qui reflète
le droit international coutumier, un État ne peut invoquer les dispositions de
son droit interne comme justifiant la non-exécution des obligations lui
incombant au titre d’un traité.
Sanctions économiques unilatérales
24. Les vues exprimées sur les sanctions économiques unilatérales ne
doivent en aucun cas être interprétées comme un commentaire sur le fond de
la présente affaire, dans laquelle le droit applicable est le traité d’amitié et,
plus généralement, le droit des traités. Dans cette partie du présent exposé,
j’aborderai la question des sanctions au regard du droit international général.
25. Il est admis que la communauté internationale des États forme un
tout désorganisé. L’espoir qu’une période de coopération internationale succéderait
à la seconde guerre mondiale5 est resté vain et, malheureusement, le
principe de la souveraineté étatique prévaut à ce jour. Contrairement à ce que
l’on retrouve à l’échelle d’un État, il n’existe aucun organe suprême régissant
les relations entre les États. Toutes les forces sont centrifuges et la question
de savoir si la communauté internationale des États est plus organisée et
unifiée aujourd’hui qu’elle ne l’était avant 1945 reste ouverte. En règle générale,
chaque État persiste à exercer sa souveraineté au détriment de la
coopération internationale.
26. Dans ses travaux sur la responsabilité des États, la Commission du
droit international (ci-après la « CDI » ou la « Commission ») aborde les sanctions
économiques unilatérales sous l’angle des contre-mesures. À cet égard,
on relèvera que ce terme de « contre-mesures » a été préféré au terme « sanctions
», proposé par le rapporteur spécial Roberto Ago6.
5 Aux termes du paragraphe 3 de l’article 1 de la Charte, l’un des buts des Nations Unies est
de « [r]éaliser la coopération internationale en résolvant les problèmes internationaux d’ordre
économique, social, intellectuel ou humanitaire ».
6 La raison en est que la Commission a réservé le terme « sanction » aux
« mesures de réaction appliquées en vertu d’une décision prise par une organisation internationale
à la suite d’une violation d’une obligation internationale ayant de graves
195 certain iranian assets (sep. op. robinson)
27. Article 22 of the ILC’s Articles on State Responsibility (the “ILC’s
Articles”) addresses countermeasures as a circumstance precluding wrongfulness
under Chapter V, as follows:
“The wrongfulness of an act of a State not in conformity with an
international obligation towards another State is precluded if and to the
extent that the act constitutes a countermeasure taken against the latter
State in accordance with chapter II of part three.”
28. In the Gabčíkovo-Nagymaros Project case [hereinafter Gabčíkovo-
Nagymaros], the Court confirmed that the fundamental requirement for the
lawfulness of a countermeasure is that it must be “taken in response to a
previous
internationally wrongful act of another State” and “directed against
that State”7. This requirement is reflected in Article 49 of the ILC’s Articles.
Here, the Commission’s conclusions are consistent with the Court’s findings
in Gabčíkovo-Nagymaros. Article 50 identifies certain obligations, such as
those relating to the protection of fundamental human rights, that are not
affected by countermeasures. Article 51 addresses the need for the countermeasures
to be “commensurate with the injury suffered, taking into account
the gravity of the internationally wrongful act and the rights in question”.
Here again, the Commission’s Articles are consistent with Gabčíkovo-
Nagymaros. With regard to the conditions relating to resort to countermeasures,
Article 52 of the Commission’s Articles provides as follows:
“1. Before taking countermeasures, an injured State shall:
(a) Call upon the responsible State, in accordance with article 43, to
fulfil its obligations under part two;
(b) Notify the responsible State of any decision to take countermeasures
and offer to negotiate with that State.
2. Notwithstanding paragraph 1 (b), the injured State may take such
urgent countermeasures as are necessary to preserve its rights.
3. Countermeasures may not be taken, and if already taken must be
suspended without undue delay if:
(a) The internationally wrongful act has ceased; and
(b) The dispute is pending before a court or tribunal which has the
authority to make decisions binding on the parties.
international community as a whole, and in particular for certain measures which the
United Nations is empowered to adopt, under the system established by the Charter, with
a view to the maintenance of international peace and security” (Draft Articles on State
Responsibility, Report of the Commission to the General Assembly on the Work of Its
Thirty-First Session, Yearbook of the International Law Commission, 1979, Vol. II,
Part Two, United Nations, New York 1980, p. 121).
7 Gabčíkovo-Nagymaros Project (Hungary/Slovakia), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1997, p. 55,
para. 83.
certains actifs iraniens (op. ind. robinson) 195
27. Dans les articles de la CDI sur la responsabilité de l’État (ci-après les
« articles de la CDI »), l’article 22 envisage les contre-mesures comme une
circonstance excluant l’illicéité au sens du chapitre V :
« L’illicéité du fait d’un État non conforme à l’une de ses obligations
internationales à l’égard d’un autre État est exclue si, et dans la mesure
où, ce fait constitue une contre-mesure prise à l’encontre de cet autre
État conformément au chapitre II de la troisième partie. »
28. Dans l’affaire relative au Projet Gabčíkovo-Nagymaros, la Cour a
confirmé que, pour être licite, une contre-mesure devait impérativement
avoir été « prise pour riposter à un fait internationalement illicite d’un autre
État » et avoir été « dirigée contre ledit État »7. Cette exigence trouve son
expression à l’article 49 des articles de la CDI. Sur ce point, les conclusions
de la Commission vont dans le sens de celles de la Cour dans l’affaire précitée.
L’article 50 énonce certaines obligations, telles que celles concernant la
protection des droits fondamentaux de l’homme, qui ne peuvent être affectées
par des contre-mesures. L’article 51 dispose que les contre-mesures doivent
être « proportionnelles au préjudice subi, compte tenu de la gravité du fait
internationalement illicite et des droits en cause ». Là encore, les articles de la
Commission et l’affaire relative au Projet Gabčíkovo-Nagymaros vont dans
le même sens. S’agissant des conditions régissant le recours à des contremesures,
l’article 52 des articles de la Commission dispose ce qui suit :
« 1. Avant de prendre des contre-mesures, l’État lésé doit :
a) Demander à l’État responsable, conformément à l’article 43, de
s’acquitter des obligations qui lui incombent en vertu de la deuxième
partie ;
b) Notifier à l’État responsable toute décision de prendre des contremesures
et offrir de négocier avec cet État.
2. Nonobstant l’alinéa b) du paragraphe 1, l’État lésé peut prendre
les contre-mesures urgentes qui sont nécessaires pour préserver ses
droits.
3. Des contre-mesures ne peuvent être prises et, si elles sont déjà
prises, doivent être suspendues sans retard indu si :
a) Le fait internationalement illicite a cessé ; et
b) Le différend est en instance devant une cour ou un tribunal habilité à
rendre des décisions obligatoires pour les parties.
conséquences pour l’ensemble de la communauté internationale, et notamment pour
certaines mesures que l’ONU est autorisée à adopter, dans le cadre du système prévu par
la Charte, en vue du maintien de la paix et de la sécurité internationales » (Projet d’articles
sur la responsabilité des États, rapport de la Commission à l’Assemblée générale sur
les travaux de sa trente et unième session, Annuaire de la Commission du droit international,
1979, vol. II, deuxième partie, Nations Unies, New York, 1980, p. 134).
7 Projet Gabčíkovo-Nagymaros (Hongrie/Slovaquie), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1997, p. 55,
par. 83.
196 certain iranian assets (sep. op. robinson)
4. Paragraph 3 does not apply if the responsible State fails to implement
the dispute settlement procedures in good faith.”
29. It is not altogether clear whether the conditions relating to resort to
countermeasures set out in Article 52 have a customary character.
30. Some may question whether any of the economic sanctions unilaterally
imposed by States over the last 60 years meet the requirements set out in
Articles 49, 50, 51 and 52. Certainly, there would be a question whether they
meet the proportionality test in Article 51. Additionally, to the extent that
unilaterally determined economic measures adversely affect the poor, the
sick and the vulnerable in the State against which they are taken, there may
be a question whether they meet the requirement in Article 50 (1) (b) for
countermeasures not to affect “obligations for the protection of fundamental
human rights”.
31. In the 1986 Military and Paramilitary Activities (Nicaragua v. United
States of America) case, the Court had to address Nicaragua’s claim that the
United States had violated the principle of non-intervention by the economic
sanctions it imposed, including a cut-off of economic aid and a 90 per cent
reduction in Nicaragua’s sugar quota for imports into the United States. The
Court concluded that it had “merely to say that it is unable to regard such
action on the economic plane as is here complained of as a breach of the
customary-law principle of non-intervention”8.
32. An interesting question is whether, in light of the developments that
have taken place since the 1986 Military and Paramilitary Activities Judgment,
the Court would today respond in the way that it did in that case to
a State’s claim that unilaterally imposed sanctions are in breach of the
principle of non-intervention. There is no question about the customary
character of the principle of non-intervention; this is acknowledged by
the Court itself in Military and Paramilitary Activities. The difficult question
relates to the legality of unilaterally imposed sanctions. In that regard,
there have been three important developments since 1986. First, in the
Gabčíkovo-Nagymaros case, the Court held that Czechoslovakia’s assumption
of control of the Danube River did not respect the proportionality that
is required by international law, and therefore the diversion of the Danube
was not a lawful countermeasure. It is safe to say that the requirement of
proportionality is now a part of customary international law.
8 Military and Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v. United States
of America), Merits, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1986, p. 126, para. 245.
certains actifs iraniens (op. ind. robinson) 196
4. Le paragraphe 3 ne s’applique pas si l’État responsable ne met pas
en oeuvre de bonne foi les procédures de règlement des différends. »
29. On ne peut dire avec une totale certitude si les conditions entourant
le recours aux contre-mesures énoncées à l’article 52 sont de nature
coutumière.
30. D’aucuns pourraient se demander si l’une quelconque des sanctions
économiques qui ont été imposées unilatéralement par les États au cours
des 60 dernières années satisfaisait aux conditions énoncées aux articles 49,
50, 51 et 52. La question de savoir si elles ont respecté le critère de proportionnalité
énoncé à l’article 51 se poserait assurément. De plus, dès lors que
des mesures économiques imposées de manière unilatérale portent préjudice
aux pauvres, aux personnes malades et aux personnes vulnérables
dans l’État à l’encontre duquel elles sont prises, on peut se poser la question
de savoir si elles satisfont à la condition énoncée à l’alinéa b) du paragraphe
1 de l’article 50, à savoir que les contre-mesures ne doivent pas
porter atteinte aux « obligations concernant la protection des droits fondamentaux
de l’homme ».
31. En l’affaire des Activités militaires et paramilitaires (1986), la Cour a
dû examiner l’allégation du Nicaragua selon laquelle les États-Unis avaient
violé le principe de non-intervention en imposant des sanctions économiques,
dont une interruption de l’aide économique et une réduction de 90 %
du quota de sucre importé aux États-Unis en provenance du Nicaragua. Elle
a conclu qu’« il suffira[it] d’indiquer que la Cour ne p[ouvai]t considérer les
mesures économiques mises en cause comme des violations du principe
coutumier de la non-intervention »8.
32. Il serait intéressant de savoir si, à la lumière des évolutions constatées
depuis que l’arrêt de 1986 a été rendu en l’affaire des Activités militaires
et paramilitaires, la Cour réagirait aujourd’hui de la même manière face à
un État qui prétend que des sanctions imposées de manière unilatérale
constituent une violation du principe de non-intervention. La nature coutumière
du principe de non-intervention ne fait aucun doute ; la Cour
elle-même l’a reconnue dans l’affaire des Activités militaires et paramilitaires.
La question difficile qui se pose concerne la licéité des sanctions
unilatérales. À cet égard, trois évolutions importantes sont intervenues
depuis 1986. Premièrement, dans l’affaire relative au Projet Gabčíkovo-
Nagymaros, la Cour a jugé que la Tchécoslovaquie, en prenant le contrôle
du Danube, n’avait pas respecté la proportionnalité exigée par le droit
international et que, par conséquent, le détournement du Danube n’était
pas une contre-mesure licite. On peut affirmer sans crainte de se tromper
que la condition de proportionnalité fait désormais partie du droit international
coutumier.
8 Activités militaires et paramilitaires au Nicaragua et contre celui-ci (Nicaragua c.
États-Unis d’Amérique), fond, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1986, p. 126, par. 245.
197 certain iranian assets (sep. op. robinson)
33. The second development is the ILC’s Articles on State Responsibility.
In my view, even if there may be some doubt as to whether Articles 50
and 52 have customary status, there can be no doubt that Articles 49 and 51
reflect customary international law. Article 49 requires that countermeasures
may only be taken against a State which is responsible for
an internationally wrongful act in order to induce that State to comply
with its obligations under Part Two of the ILC’s Articles; and Article 51
requires proportionality in the imposition of unilaterally determined
countermeasures.
34. The third development is the work of the United Nations Human
Rights Council on the topic of human rights and unilateral coercive
measures. Relying, inter alia, on the declarations contained in UNGA resolution
2131 (XX) and resolution 2625 (XXV), the United Nations Human
Rights Council, on 26 September 2014 adopted resolution 27/21 and Corr. 1
on human rights and unilateral coercive measures. The most recent renewal
of the resolution was on October 2020, HRC resolution 45/5. The resolutions
of the United Nations Human Rights Council stress that unilateral coercive
measures and practices are contrary to international law, international
humanitarian law, the United Nations Charter and the norms and principles
governing peaceful relations among States, and highlights that in the long
term, these measures may result in social problems and raise humanitarian
concerns in the States targeted. More specifically, in the resolution adopted
on 26 September 2014, the United Nations Human Rights Council strongly
objected to the extraterritorial nature of unilateral coercive measures
“which . . . threaten the sovereignty of States” and condemned “the continued
unilateral application and enforcement by certain powers of such measures
as tools of political or economic pressure against any country”.
35. In my view, these three developments since the 1986 Military and
Paramilitary Activities case signal a departure from the era of unfettered
resort to unilateral economic sanctions. Indeed, when these developments
are viewed in light of the United Nations General Assembly’s past efforts to
develop a norm prohibiting the use of economic sanctions as an instrument
of political pressure or coercion, there is a case for concluding that unilateral
economic sanctions which are disproportionate, or coercive, do not qualify
as countermeasures within the meaning of the ILC’s Articles and may be
as violative of the customary principle of non-intervention as military
measures. If today the Court were faced with the question that was posed in
1986, in making its determination, it would have to take into consideration
the developments outlined.
36. In conclusion, the disorganization of the international community of
States explains the phenomenon of unilaterally imposed sanctions. They are
certains actifs iraniens (op. ind. robinson) 197
33. Deuxièmement, intéressons-nous aux articles de la CDI sur la responsabilité
des États. À mon sens, même s’il est permis de s’interroger sur la
nature coutumière des articles 50 et 52, il ne fait aucun doute que les
articles 49 et 51 reflètent le droit international coutumier. Conformément à
l’article 49, une contre-mesure ne peut être prise à l’encontre d’un État responsable
d’un fait internationalement illicite que pour amener cet État à
s’acquitter des obligations qui lui incombent au regard de la deuxième partie
des articles de la CDI ; et l’article 51 exige le respect de la condition de proportionnalité
en cas d’imposition de contre-mesures résultant d’une décision
unilatérale.
34. Troisièmement, examinons les travaux du Conseil des droits de
l’homme des Nations Unies sur la question des droits de l’homme et des
mesures coercitives unilatérales. S’appuyant entre autres sur les déclarations
contenues dans les résolutions 2131 (XX) et 2625 (XXV) de l’Assemblée
générale des Nations Unies, le Conseil des droits de l’homme a adopté, le
26 septembre 2014, la résolution 27/21 et Corr. 1 sur les droits de l’homme et
les mesures coercitives unilatérales, qu’il a renouvelée pour la dernière fois
en octobre 2020 par sa résolution 45/5. Dans ces résolutions, le Conseil a
souligné que les mesures et pratiques coercitives unilatérales étaient
contraires au droit international, au droit international humanitaire, à la
Charte des Nations Unies et aux normes et principes régissant les relations
pacifiques entre les États, et a mis en lumière le fait que, à long terme, ces
mesures pouvaient engendrer des problèmes sociaux et soulever des préoccupations
d’ordre humanitaire dans les États ciblés. Plus spécifiquement,
dans la résolution adoptée le 26 septembre 2014, il a fait part de sa vive
désapprobation quant à la forme extraterritoriale des mesures coercitives
unilatérales « qui … menacent la souveraineté des États » et a condamné le
fait que « certaines puissances continu[ai]ent d’appliquer et d’exécuter unilatéralement
des mesures de cette nature pour exercer des pressions politiques
ou économiques sur tel ou tel pays ».
35. Selon moi, ces trois évolutions intervenues depuis l’arrêt rendu en 1986
dans l’affaire des Activités militaires et paramilitaires marquent la fin d’une
période de recours immodéré à des sanctions économiques unilatérales. En
effet, si l’on considère ces évolutions à la lumière des efforts déployés par le
passé par l’Assemblée générale des Nations Unies pour élaborer une norme
interdisant le recours aux sanctions économiques en tant qu’instrument de
pression politique ou de coercition, il est permis de conclure que les sanctions
économiques unilatérales qui sont disproportionnées ou revêtent un caractère
coercitif ne peuvent être qualifiées de contre-mesures au sens des articles de
la CDI et peuvent, au même titre que des mesures militaires, emporter violation
du principe coutumier de non-intervention. Si la Cour devait répondre
aujourd’hui à la question qui lui a été posée en 1986, elle devrait, pour rendre
sa décision, prendre en compte les évolutions décrites ci-dessus.
36. En conclusion, la désorganisation de la communauté internationale
des États explique le phénomène des sanctions imposées de manière unilaté198
certain iranian assets (sep. op. robinson)
particularly objectionable when it is clear from the context in which they
are imposed that they are performing a function that the United Nations
Charter assigned to the Security Council. It is the dysfunctionality of the
Security Council, resulting from the veto power of the five permanent members,
that creates a void which States bent on asserting their sovereignty are
only too ready to fill.
The Inappropriate Phraseology
37. In addressing the United States’ objection to admissibility based on the
failure to exhaust local remedies, the Judgment states that, “for the reasons
set out below, the Court is persuaded that the companies in question did not
have any effective means of redress, in the legal system of the United States,
that they failed to pursue” (Judgment, para. 67, my emphasis). In its analysis,
the Court relied on the customary rule, set out in Article 15, paragraph (a),
of the ILC’s Articles on Diplomatic Protection, that the requirement to
exhaust local remedies is satisfied when there are no available local remedies
providing the injured persons with a reasonable possibility of obtaining
redress. The Court cites favourably Iran’s submission that “according to settled
United States jurisprudence, where there is an explicit inconsistency
between a treaty and a statute adopted later than that treaty, the statute is
deemed to have abrogated the treaty in United States law” (Judgment,
para. 69). After noting that the United States did not attempt to contest the
validity of that assertion, the Court cited the Weinstein proceedings as an
example of a case in which a statute trumped the Treaty of Amity.
38. It is astonishing that in light of the clarity of this analysis, the Court
could only conclude, in paragraph 72 of the Judgment, that “it appears to
the Court that, in the circumstances of the present case, the companies in
question had no reasonable possibility of successfully asserting their rights
in United States court proceedings” (my emphasis). Bearing in mind that
the Court is responding to a preliminary objection to admissibility, its conclusion
should have been more categoric in this semi-final part of its analysis.
Its reasoning may be criticized on two grounds. First, the weak, uncertain
and hesitant finding, “it appears to the Court”, conflicts with the earlier
statement in paragraph 67 that the Court was “persuaded that the companies
in question did not have any effective means of redress, in the legal system
of the United States, that they failed to pursue” (my emphasis). This is a clear
and categoric statement indicating that the Court was convinced that Iranian
companies did not have any effective means of redress. Second, the weak,
uncertain and hesitant finding, “it appears to the Court”, does not provide a
basis for the conclusion in paragraph 73: “For the foregoing reasons, the
Court concludes that the objection to admissibility based on the failure to
certains actifs iraniens (op. ind. robinson) 198
rale. Celles-ci prêtent particulièrement à contestation lorsqu’il ressort
clairement du contexte dans lequel elles ont été imposées qu’elles remplissent
une fonction qui, conformément à la Charte des Nations Unies,
revient au Con-seil de sécurité. C’est le dysfonctionnement de ce dernier,
résultat du droit de veto dont bénéficient les cinq membres permanents, qui
crée un vide que s’empressent de combler les États déterminés à affirmer
leur souveraineté.
Phraséologie inappropriée
37. Dans la partie de l’arrêt où est examinée l’exception d’irrecevabilité
des États-Unis tirée du défaut d’épuisement des voies de recours internes, il
est indiqué que, « pour les raisons qui vont être exposées à présent, la Cour
est convaincue que les sociétés en cause ne disposaient, dans le système
judiciaire américain, d’aucun recours efficace qu’elles se seraient abstenues
d’exercer » (par. 67, les italiques sont de moi). Dans son analyse, la Cour s’est
appuyée sur la règle coutumière énoncée à l’alinéa a) de l’article 15 des
articles de la CDI sur la protection diplomatique, qui veut que la règle de
l’épuisement des voies de recours internes est respectée dès lors qu’il n’existe
aucun recours interne disponible offrant aux personnes lésées une possibilité
raisonnable d’obtenir réparation. La Cour a souscrit à l’assertion de l’Iran
suivant laquelle, « selon une jurisprudence constante américaine, en cas de
contradiction explicite entre un traité et une loi adoptée postérieurement à ce
traité, la loi est réputée abroger le traité dans l’ordre juridique américain »
(arrêt, par. 69). Après avoir relevé que les États-Unis n’avaient pas cherché à
contester la validité de cette affirmation, la Cour a cité l’affaire Weinstein
comme exemple de procédure ayant consacré la prééminence d’une loi sur le
traité d’amitié.
38. Il est étonnant que, face à la clarté de cette analyse, la Cour n’ait été en
mesure que de conclure, au paragraphe 72, qu’il lui « appara[issai]t … que
les sociétés en question, dans les circonstances de la présente affaire,
n’avaient aucune possibilité raisonnable de faire valoir leurs droits avec succès
dans les procédures judiciaires américaines » (les italiques sont de moi).
Sachant qu’elle se prononçait en l’espèce sur une exception d’irrecevabilité,
la Cour aurait dû livrer une conclusion plus catégorique dans cette partie
presque finale de son analyse. Ce raisonnement peut être critiqué à deux
égards. Premièrement, la rédaction édulcorée, incertaine et hésitante du
membre de phrase « il apparaît à la Cour » se heurte à ce qui est dit précédemment
au paragraphe 67, où la Cour se disait « convaincue que les sociétés
en cause ne disposaient, dans le système judiciaire américain, d’aucun
recours efficace qu’elles se seraient abstenues d’exercer » (les italiques sont
de moi). Il s’agissait là d’une affirmation claire et catégorique indiquant que
la Cour était convaincue que les sociétés iraniennes ne disposaient d’aucun
recours efficace. Deuxièmement, cette même rédaction édulcorée, incertaine
et hésitante du membre de phrase « il apparaît à la Cour » n’offre aucune
199 certain iranian assets (sep. op. robinson)
exhaust local remedies cannot be upheld.” This unambiguous conclusion
cannot be derived from the hesitant formulation in the previous paragraph.
39. The Court ought to have found that, “[g]iven the combination of the
legislative character of the contested measures and the primacy accorded to
a more recent federal statute over the treaty in the jurisprudence of the
United States”, the Court is persuaded “that, in the circumstances of the
present case, the companies in question had no reasonable possibility of successfully
asserting their rights in United States court proceedings”.
40. It is noteworthy that the Court does not employ a similar formulation,
“it appears to the Court”, in disposing of the United States’ objection to
jurisdiction or any of its defences on the merits. The Court does however use
similar language when it makes an order indicating provisional measures9;
however, in relation to an application for such measures, it is settled that the
standard of proof is different. This is the problem with the language used by
the Court in this case: it suggests that the party bearing the burden of establishing
its case discharges that burden by a relatively low standard, and
one which suggests that the Court need only have an impression that, in
the circumstances of the present case, the companies in question had no
reasonable possibility of successfully asserting their rights in United States
court proceedings.
The Unnecessary Genuflection
41. The last sentence in paragraph 72 reads as follows:
“The Court is not, by the above finding, making any judgment upon
the judicial system of the United States, or on the distribution of powers
between the legislative and judicial branches under United States law as
regards the fulfilment of international obligations within the domestic
legal system.”
9 For example, see Allegations of Genocide under the Convention on the Prevention and
Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Ukraine v. Russian Federation), Provisional Measures,
Order of 16 March 2022, I.C.J. Reports 2022 (I), pp. 217-218, para. 24:
“The Court may indicate provisional measures only if the provisions relied on by the
applicant appear, prima facie, to afford a basis on which its jurisdiction could be founded,
but it need not satisfy itself in a definitive manner that it has jurisdiction as regards the
merits of the case.”
The Court “conclude[d] that, prima facie, it [had] jurisdiction” to adjudicate the case
(para. 48), without using the verb “appear”. However, in light of the use of the word “appear”
in paragraph 24, it is proper to interpret the conclusion as including the word “appear”.
certains actifs iraniens (op. ind. robinson) 199
base sur laquelle fonder la conclusion formulée au paragraphe 73 : « Pour les
motifs qui précèdent, la Cour conclut que l’exception d’irrecevabilité tirée du
défaut d’épuisement des voies de recours internes ne saurait être accueillie. »
Une telle conclusion sans équivoque ne saurait être tirée de la formulation
hésitante du paragraphe qui précède.
39. La Cour aurait dû conclure que, « [é]tant donné la combinaison entre le
caractère législatif des mesures contestées et la primauté conférée à la loi
fédérale plus récente sur le traité par la jurisprudence américaine », elle était
convaincue « que les sociétés en question, dans les circonstances de la présente
affaire, n’avaient aucune possibilité raisonnable de faire valoir leurs
droits avec succès dans les procédures judiciaires américaines ».
40. On notera que la Cour n’a pas opté pour la formule « il apparaît à la
Cour » quand elle s’est prononcée sur l’exception d’incompétence des
États-Unis et sur leurs moyens de défense au fond. Elle a certes recours à ce
type de formulations lorsqu’elle rend une ordonnance en indication de
mesures conservatoires9, mais il est admis que le critère de la preuve est
différent dans ce contexte. C’est le problème que pose la phraséologie
utilisée par la Cour dans la présente affaire : elle donne à penser que la partie
à qui revient la charge de prouver ses arguments s’en acquitte à l’aune
d’un critère de la preuve assez peu exigeant, lequel semble indiquer qu’il
suffisait à la Cour d’avoir l’impression que, dans les circonstances de l’espèce,
les sociétés en question n’avaient aucune possibilité raisonnable de
faire valoir leurs droits avec succès dans les procédures judiciaires
américaines.
Génuflexion inutile
41. La dernière phrase du paragraphe 72 se lit comme suit :
« La Cour ne porte, par le constat qui précède, aucun jugement sur la
qualité du système judiciaire américain, ni sur la répartition des compétences
entre le pouvoir législatif et le pouvoir judiciaire, en droit
américain, en ce qui concerne l’exécution des obligations internationales
dans l’ordre juridique interne. »
9 Voir, par exemple, Allégations de génocide au titre de la convention pour la prévention et
la répression du crime de génocide (Ukraine c. Fédération de Russie), mesures conservatoires,
ordonnance du 16 mars 2022, C.I.J. Recueil 2022 (I), p. 217-218, par. 24 :
« La Cour ne peut indiquer des mesures conservatoires que si les dispositions invoquées
par le demandeur semblent prima facie constituer une base sur laquelle sa
compétence pourrait être fondée, mais n’a pas besoin de s’assurer de manière définitive
qu’elle a compétence quant au fond de l’affaire. »
La Cour a « conclu[] que, prima facie, elle a[vait] compétence » pour connaître de l’affaire
(par. 48), sans utiliser le verbe « sembler ». Toutefois, à la lumière de l’utilisation du
mot « semblent » au paragraphe 24, il y a lieu d’interpréter la conclusion comme incluant elle
aussi le verbe « sembler ».
200 certain iranian assets (sep. op. robinson)
Here, the Court appears to be in a state of genuflection and apology to the
United States for its conclusion that the Iranian companies “had no reasonable
possibility of successfully asserting their rights in United States court
proceedings”. In light of the Court’s statement in paragraph 67 that it was
“persuaded that the companies in question did not have any effective means
of redress, in the legal system of the United States, that they failed to
pursue” (my emphasis), the Court has indeed made a judgment on the
legislative and judicial branches of government of the United States. In the
circumstances
of this case, the Court has every right and duty to arrive at
such a conclusion, and there is no need to qualify it with some kind of
disclaimer.
(Signed) Patrick L. Robinson.
certains actifs iraniens (op. ind. robinson) 200
En l’espèce, la Cour semble s’incliner devant les États-Unis et s’excuser
d’avoir conclu que les sociétés iraniennes « n’avaient aucune possibilité
raisonnable de faire valoir leurs droits avec succès dans les procédures
judiciaires américaines ». S’étant déclarée, au paragraphe 67, « convaincue
que les sociétés en cause ne disposaient, dans le système judiciaire américain,
d’aucun recours efficace qu’elles se seraient abstenues d’exercer »
(les italiques sont de moi), la Cour a, de fait, porté un jugement sur les
pouvoirs législatif et judiciaire aux États-Unis. Dans les circonstances de
l’espèce, elle avait tout à fait le droit — et le devoir — de formuler une telle
conclusion et il n’était pas nécessaire d’en atténuer la portée en émettant
quelque forme de réserve.
(Signé) Patrick L. Robinson.

Document file FR
Document Long Title

Separate opinion, partly concurring and partly dissenting of Judge Robinson

Order
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