Declaration of Judge Abraham

Document Number
164-20230330-JUD-01-02-EN
Parent Document Number
164-20230330-JUD-01-00-EN
Date of the Document
Document File
Bilingual Document File

DECLARATION OF JUDGE ABRAHAM
[Translation]
1. I am not convinced by the reasons given in the Judgment for the finding that the United States has violated its obligations under Article III, paragraph 1, of the Treaty of Amity, Economic Relations, and Consular Rights of 1955 (hereinafter the “Treaty”). Having set out the reasons why it considers that Article IV, paragraph 1, of the Treaty has been violated in this case by the Respondent, the Court concludes, without offering any further reasoning, that there has also been a violation of Article III, paragraph 1. In my view, there is no link between the two provisions in question that would necessarily result in the reasons given in support of the finding that Article IV has been violated leading to the conclusion that Article III has also been violated. Nor do I believe that any of the reasons given in the Judgment in support of the finding that there has been a violation of Article IV in this case convincingly demonstrates the violation of Article III. While I agree with the conclusion that Article IV, paragraph 1, of the Treaty has been violated in so far as it prohibits any “unreasonable measure” taken by a party that would impair the rights and interests of the companies of the other party, the measures complained of are not, in my view, in violation of Article III, paragraph 1, of the Treaty.
2. The first sentence of Article III, paragraph 1, provides that “[c]ompanies constituted under the applicable laws and regulations of either High Contracting Party shall have their juridical status recognized within the territories of the other High Contracting Party”. The main reason why Iran submitted that this provision had been violated by the United States is that United States law, as applied by the courts, enabled the attachment of assets belonging to certain Iranian companies with a view to paying the amounts obtained to the creditors of judgments against Iran ordering it to compensate the victims of certain terrorist acts. According to Iran, in attaching the property of the companies in order to satisfy creditors of the Iranian State itself, the United States disregarded the distinction between the respective legal personalities of the companies, on the one hand, and the State, on the other, a distinction that exists and that must be respected even where a company is, to whatever extent, the property of the State.
3. I agree that the legislative measures taken by the United States had the effect of, and were even clearly aimed at, waiving some of the most significant consequences normally attached to the distinction between legal personalities, including the fundamental rule that the property of one person cannot be subject to execution in order to settle the debt of another  which means, in particular, that the property of a company cannot be attached in order to settle the debt of its shareholder. It is clear that the legislation in question derogates from ordinary law, and it is to be noted, moreover, that when it was first being discussed in the United States Congress, the planned provisions were strongly criticized by several executive departments, in particular the Department of State and the Treasury Department, on the ground that they violated the basic principles governing the separation of property rights arising from the distinction between legal personalities, as recognized by the jurisprudence of the United States Supreme Court, among others.
4. But does it necessarily follow that this legislation violates a State party’s obligation to “recognize the juridical status of companies” constituted under the legal régime of the other State party, within the meaning of Article III, paragraph 1? I am not convinced. In my view, to consider that obligation to be violated by legislation such as that at issue in this case is to give the provision concerned a scope extending beyond that which the parties, in all likelihood, intended to confer upon it.
- 2 -
It is one thing to say that Article III, paragraph 1, obliges each party to “recognize” the other party’s companies’ own legal personality; it is another to consider that it prohibits a measure intended to evade the consequences normally attached to the separateness of legal personalities.
5. The Court is in fact offering a broad interpretation of Article III, paragraph 1, in finding that this provision has been violated. But, in my opinion, several provisions of Article III instead speak against such a broad interpretation. A case in point is the second sentence of paragraph 1, according to which “[i]t is understood, however, that recognition of juridical status does not of itself confer rights upon companies to engage in the activities for which they are organized”. While it does not directly settle the question that arises in this instance, this sentence clearly suggests that the “recognition of juridical status” required by the preceding sentence is not aimed at guaranteeing substantive rights for companies but rather at conferring on them the right to have their legal personality recognized, thus enabling them to perform the acts that presuppose possession of such a personality. Furthermore, paragraph 1 must be read in conjunction with paragraph 2, which aims to guarantee one party’s companies the right to have access to the courts and administrative agencies of the other party. Recognition of a company’s own legal personality is one of the requirements for that company to exercise its right of access to the courts. The obligation laid down by paragraph 1 must be understood in the light of the right protected by paragraph 2, even if the scope of the former extends beyond that of the latter.
6. In the present case, the Iranian companies were able, as separate legal entities, to access the United States courts. The courts never denied the applicant companies their legal personality and never found the legal actions undertaken to be inadmissible on such a ground. The fact that the courts rejected on the merits the arguments put forward by the Iranian companies to persuade them that the federal measures that had been adopted violated the United States’ treaty obligations, including the obligation to recognize their juridical status, in no way implies that those courts failed to recognize the applicant companies’ own legal personality. Besides, in considering their claims, the courts respected the companies’ “right of access” guaranteed by Article III, paragraph 2. I am of the view that neither the United States courts nor the federal legislature violated the obligation to “recognize” the juridical status of the Iranian companies, according to the ordinary meaning of the terms used in Article III, paragraph 1, read in their context, and from which I can see no reason to deviate.
7. I would add that if the parties to the treaty had intended to confer on Article III, paragraph 1, as broad a scope as that which the Applicant claimed it had  and which the Court has implicitly accepted , namely that it precluded measures derogating from the principle of the separation of property rights between a company and its shareholders, it would be highly unlikely for them not to have included a clause allowing for exceptions in the provision concerned: “piercing the corporate veil” is widely accepted, in certain circumstances and for certain reasons, by both national laws and international law itself (as recalled in paragraph 137 of the present Judgment).
8. It is another matter whether, in evading some of the most significant consequences normally attached to the separateness of legal personalities, the United States authorities (the legislature first and foremost) complied with the obligation to afford fair and equitable treatment to Iranian companies, as provided in Article IV, paragraph 1. In this regard, as stated above, I share the Court’s finding that they did not.
(Signed) Ronny ABRAHAM.
___________

Bilingual Content

141
DÉCLARATION DE M. LE JUGE ABRAHAM
1. Je ne suis pas convaincu par les motifs pour lesquels l’arrêt conclut à la
violation, par les États-Unis, de leurs obligations résultant du paragraphe 1
de l’article III du traité d’amitié, de commerce et de droits consulaires de
1955 (ci-après le « traité »). Après avoir énoncé les motifs pour lesquels elle
considère que le paragraphe 1 de l’article IV du traité a été méconnu en
l’espèce
par le défendeur, la Cour conclut, sans ajouter aucune raison supplémentaire,
qu’il y a eu également une violation du paragraphe 1 de l’article III.
Je ne crois pas qu’il existe entre les deux dispositions en cause un lien tel que
les motifs retenus au soutien de la conclusion selon laquelle l’article IV a été
violé conduisent nécessairement à la conclusion que l’article III l’a été également.
Je ne suis pas non plus d’avis que l’un quelconque des motifs que
retient l’arrêt au soutien du constat de violation, en l’espèce, de l’article IV
démontre de façon convaincante la violation de l’article III. Si j’adhère à la
conclusion selon laquelle le paragraphe 1 de l’article IV du traité a été violé
en tant qu’il prohibe toute « mesure déraisonnable » prise par une partie
pouvant
porter atteinte aux droits ou aux intérêts des sociétés de l’autre partie,
je ne pense pas, en revanche, que les mesures incriminées aient emporté
violation
du paragraphe 1 de l’article III du traité.
2. Cette disposition prévoit, dans sa première phrase, que « [l]e statut juridique
des sociétés constituées sous le régime des lois et règlements de l’une
des Hautes Parties contractantes applicables en la matière sera reconnu dans
les territoires de l’autre Haute Partie contractante ». La raison essentielle
pour laquelle l’Iran a soutenu que cette disposition a été méconnue par les
États-Unis consiste en ce que la législation américaine, appliquée par les tribunaux,
a permis la saisie d’actifs appartenant à certaines sociétés iraniennes
en vue du versement des sommes ainsi obtenues aux bénéficiaires des jugements
condamnant l’Iran à indemniser les victimes de certains actes de
caractère terroriste. Selon l’Iran, en saisissant les biens des sociétés en vue
de satisfaire les créanciers de l’État iranien lui-même, les États-Unis ont
méconnu la distinction entre les personnalités juridiques respectives des
sociétés, d’une part, et de l’État, d’autre part, distinction qui existe et doit
être respectée même dans le cas où une société est la propriété de l’État, dans
quelque mesure que ce soit.
3. Je suis d’accord pour considérer que les mesures législatives prises par
les États-Unis ont eu pour effet, et ont même eu clairement pour objet,
d’écarter
certaines des conséquences les plus importantes qui s’attachent
normalement à la distinction des personnalités juridiques, parmi lesquelles
la règle élémentaire selon laquelle les biens d’une personne ne peuvent pas
faire l’objet de mesures d’exécution en vue de régler la dette d’une autre
141
DECLARATION OF JUDGE ABRAHAM
[Translation]
1. I am not convinced by the reasons given in the Judgment for the finding
that the United States has violated its obligations under Article III, paragraph
1, of the Treaty of Amity, Economic Relations, and Consular Rights of
1955 (hereinafter the “Treaty”). Having set out the reasons why it considers
that Article IV, paragraph 1, of the Treaty has been violated in this case by
the Respondent, the Court concludes, without offering any further reasoning,
that there has also been a violation of Article III, paragraph 1. In my
view, there is no link between the two provisions in question that would necessarily
result in the reasons given in support of the finding that Article IV has
been violated leading to the conclusion that Article III has also been violated.
Nor do I believe that any of the reasons given in the Judgment in support of
the finding that there has been a violation of Article IV in this case convincingly
demonstrates the violation of Article III. While I agree with the
conclusion that Article IV, paragraph 1, of the Treaty has been violated in so
far as it prohibits any “unreasonable measure” taken by a party that would
impair the rights and interests of the companies of the other party, the measures
complained of are not, in my view, in violation of Article III, paragraph
1, of the Treaty.
2. The first sentence of Article III, paragraph 1, provides that “[c]ompanies
constituted under the applicable laws and regulations of either High
Contracting Party shall have their juridical status recognized within the
territories of the other High Contracting Party”. The main reason why Iran
submitted that this provision had been violated by the United States is that
United States law, as applied by the courts, enabled the attachment of assets
belonging to certain Iranian companies with a view to paying the amounts
obtained to the creditors of judgments against Iran ordering it to compensate
the victims of certain terrorist acts. According to Iran, in attaching the property
of the companies in order to satisfy creditors of the Iranian State itself,
the United States disregarded the distinction between the respective legal
personalities of the companies, on the one hand, and the State, on the other,
a distinction that exists and that must be respected even where a company is,
to whatever extent, the property of the State.
3. I agree that the legislative measures taken by the United States had the
effect of, and were even clearly aimed at, waiving some of the most significant
consequences normally attached to the distinction between legal
personalities, including the fundamental rule that the property of one person
cannot be subject to execution in order to settle the debt of another  which
means, in particular, that the property of a company cannot be attached in
142
 ce qui implique, notamment, que les biens d’une société ne peuvent pas
être saisis en vue de régler la dette de son actionnaire. Le caractère exorbitant
de la législation en cause est manifeste, et l’on peut d’ailleurs observer que,
lorsque cette législation a commencé à être discutée au Congrès des
États-Unis, les dispositions projetées ont été vivement critiquées par plusieurs
départements ministériels, notamment le département d’État et celui
du Trésor, au motif qu’elles méconnaissaient les principes de base régissant
la séparation des patrimoines résultant de la distinction des personnalités
juridiques, tels qu’ils sont consacrés, notamment, par la jurisprudence de la
Cour suprême des États-Unis.
4. En résulte-t-il pour autant que cette législation viole l’obligation pour un
État partie de « reconnaître le statut juridique des sociétés » constituées
sous le régime des lois de l’autre État partie, au sens du paragraphe 1 de l’article
III ? Je n’en suis pas convaincu. C’est, selon moi, attribuer à la disposition
en cause une portée allant au-delà de celle que, selon toute vraisemblance,
les parties ont entendu lui conférer que de considérer qu’elle est méconnue
par une législation du type de celle qui est en cause en l’espèce.
C’est une chose de dire que le paragraphe 1 de l’article III oblige chaque
partie à « reconnaître » la personnalité juridique propre des sociétés de l’autre
partie ; c’est autre chose de considérer qu’il prohibe une mesure visant à
déroger aux conséquences qui s’attachent normalement à la distinction des
personnalités juridiques.
5. C’est, en réalité, à une interprétation extensive du paragraphe 1 de l’article
III que se livre la Cour en retenant la violation de cette disposition.
Mais, à mon avis, plusieurs dispositions de l’article III militent plutôt contre
une telle interprétation extensive. Il en va ainsi de la deuxième phrase du
paragraphe 1, selon laquelle « [i]l est entendu toutefois qu’en elle-même la
reconnaissance de ce statut juridique ne donnera pas aux sociétés le droit de
se livrer à l’activité en vue de laquelle elles sont organisées ». Sans trancher
directement la question qui se pose en l’espèce, cette phrase suggère nettement
que la « reconnaissance du statut juridique » exigée par la phrase
précédente n’a pas pour objet de garantir au profit des sociétés des droits
substantiels, mais plutôt de leur conférer le droit à la reconnaissance de leur
personnalité juridique, leur permettant ainsi d’accomplir les actes qui supposent
la possession d’une telle personnalité. En outre, le paragraphe 1 doit
être lu en conjonction avec le paragraphe 2, qui vise à garantir aux sociétés
d’une partie le droit d’accéder aux tribunaux et organismes administratifs
de l’autre partie. La reconnaissance de la personnalité juridique propre
d’une société est une des conditions de l’exercice par cette société de son
droit d’accès
aux tribunaux. L’obligation prévue par le paragraphe 1 doit être
comprise à la lumière du droit protégé par le paragraphe 2, même si la portée
de la première
va au-delà de celle du second.
6. En l’espèce, les sociétés iraniennes ont pu saisir, en tant que personnes
morales distinctes, les tribunaux américains. Ceux-ci n’ont jamais dénié aux
sociétés requérantes leur personnalité juridique, et n’ont jamais déclaré
certains actifs iraniens (décl. abraham)
142
order to settle the debt of its shareholder. It is clear that the legislation in
question derogates from ordinary law, and it is to be noted, moreover, that
when it was first being discussed in the United States Congress, the planned
provisions were strongly criticized by several executive departments, in particular
the Department of State and the Treasury Department, on the ground
that they violated the basic principles governing the separation of property
rights arising from the distinction between legal personalities, as recognized
by the jurisprudence of the United States Supreme Court, among others.
4. But does it necessarily follow that this legislation violates a State party’s
obligation to “recognize the juridical status of companies” constituted under
the legal régime of the other State party, within the meaning of Article III,
paragraph 1? I am not convinced. In my view, to consider that obligation to
be violated by legislation such as that at issue in this case is to give the provision
concerned a scope extending beyond that which the parties, in all
likelihood, intended to confer upon it.
It is one thing to say that Article III, paragraph 1, obliges each party to
“recognize” the other party’s companies’ own legal personality; it is another
to consider that it prohibits a measure intended to evade the consequences
normally attached to the separateness of legal personalities.
5. The Court is in fact offering a broad interpretation of Article III, paragraph
1, in finding that this provision has been violated. But, in my opinion,
several provisions of Article III instead speak against such a broad interpretation.
A case in point is the second sentence of paragraph 1, according to
which “[i]t is understood, however, that recognition of juridical status does
not of itself confer rights upon companies to engage in the activities for
which they are organized”. While it does not directly settle the question that
arises in this instance, this sentence clearly suggests that the “recognition of
juridical status” required by the preceding sentence is not aimed at guaranteeing
substantive rights for companies but rather at conferring on them the
right to have their legal personality recognized, thus enabling them to perform
the acts that presuppose possession of such a personality. Furthermore,
paragraph 1 must be read in conjunction with paragraph 2, which aims to
guarantee one party’s companies the right to have access to the courts and
administrative agencies of the other party. Recognition of a company’s own
legal personality is one of the requirements for that company to exercise its
right of access to the courts. The obligation laid down by paragraph 1 must
be understood in the light of the right protected by paragraph 2, even if the
scope of the former extends beyond that of the latter.
6. In the present case, the Iranian companies were able, as separate legal
entities, to access the United States courts. The courts never denied the
applicant companies their legal personality and never found the legal actions
certain iranian assets (decl. abraham)
143 certains actifs iraniens (décl. abraham)
irrecevables,
pour un tel motif, les actions judiciaires engagées. Que les tribunaux
aient rejeté au fond les arguments que leur présentaient les sociétés
iraniennes en vue de les convaincre que les mesures fédérales adoptées
méconnaissaient les obligations conventionnelles des États-Unis, parmi lesquelles
celle de reconnaître leur statut juridique, n’implique aucunement que
ces tribunaux aient méconnu la personnalité juridique propre des sociétés
requérantes. En examinant leurs demandes, ils ont respecté, par ailleurs, le
« droit d’accès » que leur garantit le paragraphe 2 de l’article III. Je considère
que ni les tribunaux américains ni le législateur fédéral n’ont méconnu
l’obligation
de « reconnaître » le statut juridique des sociétés iraniennes,
selon le sens ordinaire des termes employés au paragraphe 1 de l’article III
lus dans leur contexte, dont je ne vois aucune raison de s’écarter.
7. J’ajoute que si les parties au traité avaient entendu conférer au paragraphe
1 de l’article III une portée aussi étendue que celle que la demanderesse
a prétendu qu’il possédait  et que la Cour a implicitement admise , à
savoir que la disposition en cause faisait obstacle aux mesures dérogeant au
principe de la séparation des patrimoines d’une société et de ses actionnaires,
il serait hautement invraisemblable qu’elles n’y eussent pas introduit
une clause permettant des exceptions : la « levée du voile social » est en effet
largement admise, dans certaines circonstances et pour certains motifs, tant
par les législations nationales que par le droit international lui-même (comme
le rappelle le présent arrêt au paragraphe 137).
8. C’est une autre question de savoir si, en dérogeant à certaines des conséquences
les plus importantes qui s’attachent normalement à la distinction
des personnalités juridiques, les autorités américaines (au premier chef le
législateur) ont respecté l’obligation d’accorder aux sociétés iraniennes le
traitement juste et équitable prévu par le paragraphe 1 de l’article IV. À cet
égard, j’adhère, comme je l’ai dit plus haut, à la réponse négative donnée par
la Cour.
(Signé) Ronny Abraham.
certain iranian assets (decl. abraham) 143
undertaken to be inadmissible on such a ground. The fact that the courts
rejected on the merits the arguments put forward by the Iranian companies
to persuade them that the federal measures that had been adopted violated
the United States’ treaty obligations, including the obligation to recognize
their juridical status, in no way implies that those courts failed to recognize
the applicant companies’ own legal personality. Besides, in considering their
claims, the courts respected the companies’ “right of access” guaranteed by
Article III, paragraph 2. I am of the view that neither the United States courts
nor the federal legislature violated the obligation to “recognize” the juridical
status of the Iranian companies, according to the ordinary meaning of the
terms used in Article III, paragraph 1, read in their context, and from which
I can see no reason to deviate.
7. I would add that if the parties to the treaty had intended to confer on
Article III, paragraph 1, as broad a scope as that which the Applicant claimed
it had  and which the Court has implicitly accepted , namely that it precluded
measures derogating from the principle of the separation of property
rights between a company and its shareholders, it would be highly unlikely
for them not to have included a clause allowing for exceptions in the provision
concerned: “piercing the corporate veil” is widely accepted, in certain
circumstances and for certain reasons, by both national laws and international
law itself (as recalled in paragraph 137 of the present Judgment).
8. It is another matter whether, in evading some of the most significant
consequences normally attached to the separateness of legal personalities,
the United States authorities (the legislature first and foremost) complied
with the obligation to afford fair and equitable treatment to Iranian companies,
as provided in Article IV, paragraph 1. In this regard, as stated above,
I share the Court’s finding that they did not.
(Signed) Ronny Abraham.

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Declaration of Judge Abraham

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