Separate opinion of Judge Tomka

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164-20230330-JUD-01-01-EN
Parent Document Number
164-20230330-JUD-01-00-EN
Date of the Document
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Bilingual Document File

SEPARATE OPINION OF JUDGE TOMKA
Interpretation of Article III, paragraph 1, of the 1955 Treaty of Amity  Meaning of the phrase “shall have their juridical status recognized”  Viewed in light of object and purpose of Treaty and against historical background, the recognition of “juridical status” in question concerns the legal personality and legal capacity of companies  Provision not equivalent to a warranty that companies shall have their corporate form respected in any circumstances.
Article X, paragraph 1, of the Treaty of Amity  Finding of the Court that the United States has violated its obligation to ensure “freedom of commerce”  Insufficient evidence for this finding  United States measures not aimed at limiting, or interfering with, freedom of commerce.
1. I regret that I am unable to agree with the decision of the majority of the Court that the United States of America has violated its obligation under Article III, paragraph 1, of the 1955 Treaty of Amity, Economic Relations, and Consular Rights (hereinafter the “Treaty of Amity” or “Treaty”). I feel compelled to explain my position on what I see as the proper interpretation of Article III, paragraph 1, of the Treaty and why the Applicant’s submission in this regard must be rejected.
I am also unable to agree with the Court’s finding that the United States has violated its obligation under Article X, paragraph 1, of the Treaty.
I. ARTICLE III, PARAGRAPH 1, OF THE TREATY
A. Interpretation of Article III, paragraph 1, of the Treaty
2. Article III, paragraph 1, of the Treaty reads as follows:
“Companies constituted under the applicable laws and regulations of either High Contracting Party shall have their juridical status recognized within the territories of the other High Contracting Party. It is understood, however, that recognition of juridical status does not of itself confer rights upon companies to engage in the activities for which they are organized. As used in the present Treaty, ‘companies’ means corporations, partnerships, companies and other associations, whether or not with limited liability and whether or not for pecuniary profit.”
3. Article III, paragraph 1, of the Treaty must be interpreted according to the customary rules of treaty interpretation which, as the Court has repeatedly stated, are reflected in Articles 31 to 33 of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties1.
4. Before interpreting Article III, paragraph 1, of the Treaty, it may be useful, as a preliminary matter, to make two observations. First, Article III, paragraph 1, of the Treaty must be placed in its proper historical context and economic background. When the Treaty was concluded, legal persons
1 See e.g. Territorial Dispute (Libyan Arab Jamahiriya/Chad), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1994, pp. 21-22, para. 41; Question of the Delimitation of the Continental Shelf between Nicaragua and Colombia beyond 200 Nautical Miles from the Nicaraguan Coast (Nicaragua v. Colombia), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2016 (I), p. 116, para. 33.
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were often not recognized as having juridical status outside of their State of incorporation, absent a treaty to this effect. Some States recognized each other’s legal persons on the basis of reciprocity, while others only recognized legal persons that had been granted a special authorization2. Following the 1923 Treaty of Friendship, Commerce and Consular Relations concluded with Germany3, several Friendship, Commerce and Navigation (hereinafter “FCN”) treaties concluded by the United States with other States included provisions guaranteeing the reciprocal recognition of the juridical status of companies4. Indeed, more than two dozen of these FCN treaties contain the exact or a substantially similar provision to Article III, paragraph 1, of the 1955 Treaty of Amity. A similar trend can be observed in bilateral and multilateral treaties concluded at the time. The Hague Conference on Private International Law drew up, in 1956, a Convention concerning the Recognition of the Legal Personality of Foreign Companies, Associations and Foundations5. It is worth recalling that, under customary international law, States have no obligation, as such, to recognize the existence or capacity of legal persons constituted under the laws and regulations of other States6. A recognition of juridical status is therefore necessary for legal persons to operate abroad, e.g. to conclude contracts, to collect debts, or to have standing before courts7. The 1955 Treaty of Amity, and its Article III, paragraph 1, in particular, must be appreciated against this background.
5. Second, it may be worthwhile to draw attention to the structure of Article III, paragraph 1, of the Treaty.
As can be seen, Article III, paragraph 1, contains four elements: the provision (a) defines the term “companies” for the purpose of the Treaty; (b) sets out what is required for a company to establish that it has the nationality of one of the Parties (i.e. it must be “constituted under the applicable laws and regulations of either High Contracting Party”); (c) requires both Parties to “recognize” the “juridical status” of such companies; and (d) provides that the “recognition of juridical status” does not of itself confer rights upon companies to engage in the activities for which they are organized.
While these four elements are laid down together in Article III, paragraph 1, practice shows that that need not necessarily be the case; they stand as independent clauses in some FCN treaties.
6. With this said, I turn to the interpretation of Article III, paragraph 1, of the Treaty.
2 Ernst Rabel, The Conflict of Laws: A Comparative Study, Vol. II (Chicago, Callaghan & Company, 1947), pp. 138-141.
3 Treaty of Friendship, Commerce and Consular Rights between the United States and Germany (1926), American Journal of International Law (AJIL), Vol. 20, Supplement 1, p. 4.
4 Herman Walker Jr., “Provisions on Companies in United States Commercial Treaties” (1956) AJIL, Vol. 50 (2), p. 379.
5 The Hague, 1 June 1956, Hague Conference on Private International Law, Collection of Conventions (1951-1996), p. 28.
6 Florentino P. Feliciano, “Legal Problems of Private International Business Enterprises: An Introduction to the International Law of Private Business Associations and Economic Development” (1966) Recueil des cours/Collected Courses, Vol. 118, p. 265 (stating that the practice of States granting unconditional recognition of the legal personality of a foreign corporation “does not appear to reflect a belief that the grant of such recognition is a matter of obligation imposed by international law”); Thomas C. Drucker, “Companies in Private International Law”, International and Comparative Law Quarterly, Vol. 17, Issue 1 (Jan. 1968), p. 42 (stating that “as a matter of public international law, there is no obligation to recognise a company incorporated under the system of law of another State”).
7 Matthias Herdegen, Principles of International Economic Law (Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2nd ed., 2016), pp. 378-381.
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7. I begin with the ordinary meaning to be given to the terms of the Treaty. The crux of the matter is to ascertain the meaning of the phrase “shall have their juridical status recognized”. In this regard, it is true that the phrase “juridical status” is not in itself very clear, the term “status” having several meanings in international law. The term “recognition”, however, is unmistakeably a term of art. While that term has several meanings8, in the context of private international law (or conflict of laws) “recognition” has a narrow, technical meaning, whereby the recognizing State agrees to extend to its own system certain legal effects attributed to a fact or situation in the legal system of another State9. This could be, for instance, the “recognition” of a foreign award10.
In particular, when used to refer to legal persons constituted under the applicable laws and regulations of another State, the concept refers to the recognition, by the recognizing State, of the legal personality and legal capacity of such legal persons.
8. This meaning of the term “recognition” has a long legal pedigree, as reflected in bilateral and multilateral treaties and in the work of international bodies and learned societies, such as the Committee of Experts for the Progressive Codification of International Law of the League of Nations, which studied the topic “Recognition of the Legal Personality of Foreign Commercial Corporations” in 1927. A report of the Sub-Committee of Experts asserts that recognition
“implies that the corporation [incorporated in one State] . . . must be regarded [by the recognizing State] as possessing a general capacity, in virtue of which it is entitled to defend its rights . . . Supposing that the company should find itself compelled to defend its rights of this character before a foreign court, it would be unable to institute any legal proceedings if it were regarded by the lex fori as non-existent.”11
9. This meaning of the term is also reflected in the resolutions and works of the Institut de droit international12. For instance, a preliminary report prepared by Rapporteur George van Hecke in 1963 on the topic of “Companies in Private International Law” explains that
“[p]revious Institute resolutions, the convention drawn up by the Hague Conference [in 1956] and bilateral treaties generally deal with the ‘recognition’ of the personality of foreign companies. This need to ensure, by a separate rule, the ‘recognition’ of foreign companies as subjects of law (including, in particular, the capacity to conclude contracts and to sue and be sued) can be explained by the difficulties caused in the nineteenth century by certain theories . . . which denied the existence of juridical
8 Dictionnaire de la terminologie du droit international, preface by J. Basdevant (Paris, Sirey for the Union Académique Internationale, 1960), pp. 508-516.
9 Eric Stein, Harmonization of European Company Laws: National Reform and Transnational Coordination (New York, The Bobbs-Merrill Co. Inc., 1971), pp. 394-396.
10 See Reinmar Wolff (ed.), New York Convention: Convention on the Recognition and Enforcement of Foreign Arbitral Awards of 10 June 1956: Article-by-Article Commentary (München, C. H. Beck, 2019), p. 6.
11 Shabtai Rosenne (ed.), League of Nations. Committee of Experts for the Progressive Codification of International Law (1925-1928), Vol. II (Dobbs Ferry, New York, Oceana Publications Inc., 1972), p. 360.
12 The Court has on occasion referred to the work of the Institut de droit international to ascertain the meaning of terms found in a treaty. See e.g. Kasikili/Sedudu Island (Botswana/Namibia), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1999 (II), p. 1062, para. 25.
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persons other than those created by an act of the local authority. It seems that these difficulties can now be considered as belonging to the history of law” (my translation)
13.
10. These materials indicate that the term “recognition” used in Article III, paragraph 1, of the Treaty, had a specific meaning as a concept in treaty practice when the Parties used it14.
11. As noted by the Court, the object and purpose of the Treaty of Amity, which is stated in its preamble, is to “encourag[e] mutually beneficial trade and investments and closer economic intercourse generally” (Judgment, para. 214). This object and purpose throws light upon the appropriate interpretation of Article III, paragraph 1, of the Treaty. The recognition of juridical status set out in Article III, paragraph 1, obviously espouses the goal of “encouraging mutually beneficial trade and investments” between the Parties, for a company of one Party with no recognized existence or no legal capacity would not be able to operate within the territories of the other Party.
12. The context is also relevant. Article III, paragraph 1, of the Treaty is linked with Article III, paragraph 2, which grants nationals and companies freedom of access to the courts of justice and administrative agencies within the territories of the other Party, both in defence and pursuit of their rights. This link, in my opinion, shows that the recognition of juridical status in Article III, paragraph 1, was granted primarily so that the companies of either Party may have free access to courts in the territories of the other.
13. What has been said so far, in my view, is sufficient to arrive at the proper interpretation of Article III, paragraph 1, of the Treaty. Recourse to supplementary means of interpretation, however, puts to rest any doubt on the matter. I refer, in particular, to the preparatory work of the Treaty of Amity.
14. A telegram dated 9 November 1954 from the United States Department of State to the Embassy in Tehran provides additional insight into the meaning of “juridical status”. The telegram was sent during the negotiations between the Parties, as Iran expressed concerns about the scope of the term “companies” in Article III, paragraph 1. The telegram provided the following explanation:
13 Annuaire de l’Institut de droit international, Vol. 51 (I), Session de Varsovie, 1965, pp. 252-253 (emphasis added). The original French text reads as follows:
“Les Résolutions antérieures de l’Institut, la convention élaborée par la Conférence de La Haye [en 1956] et les traités bilatéraux traitent généralement de la ‘reconnaissance’ de la personnalité des sociétés étrangères. Cette nécessité d’assurer, par une règle séparée, la ‘reconnaissance’ des sociétés étrangères comme sujet de droit (comportant notamment la capacité de conclure des contrats et d’ester en justice) s’explique par les difficultés causées, au XIXe siècle, par certaines théories . . . qui niaient l’existence des personnes morales créées autrement que par un acte de l’autorité locale. Il semble qu’on puisse, à l’heure actuelle, considérer ces difficultés comme appartenant à l’histoire du droit.”
14 See also Article 1, Resolution of the Institut de droit international dated 9 September 1891 on “Conflits de lois en matière de sociétés par actions”, Annuaire de l’Institut de droit international, Vol. 11, Session de Hambourg, 1889-1892, p. 171; Article 1, Resolution of the Institut de droit international dated 12 October 1929 on “Statut juridique des sociétés en droit international”, Annuaire de l’Institut de droit international, Vol. 35 (II), Session de New-York, 1929, p. 301; Article 1, Resolution of the Institut de droit international dated 10 September 1965 on “Companies in Private International Law”, Annuaire de l’Institut de droit international, Vol. 51 (II), Session de Varsovie, 1965, p. 272.
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“Paragraph [one] confers no rights [on] corporations [to] engage in business. It merely provides their recognition as corporate entities principally in order [that] they may prosecute or defend their rights in court as corporate entities. In this sense paragraph one [is] related [to] paragraph two [on access to courts]. Under [the] treaty, no U.S. corporation may engage in business in Iran except as permitted by Iran. Corporate status should be recognized [to] assure [the] right [of] foreign corporate entities — those that sell goods or furnish other services to Iran as well as those permitted [to] operate in Iran — [to] free access [to] courts [to] collect debts, protect patent rights, enforce contracts, etc. If this explanation fails [to] remove difficulty, request more detailed statement [of the] problem.”15
A subsequent telegram from the United States Embassy confirmed that Iranian officials had understood the United States’ explanation of this provision16. In my view, these telegrams reveal the shared understanding of the Parties regarding the interpretation of the Treaty.
15. In light of the foregoing, I conclude that Article III, paragraph 1, of the Treaty provides for the obligation of the Parties to recognize the “juridical status” of companies constituted under the applicable laws and regulations of either Party, understood as recognizing their legal personality and legal capacity.
B. Iran’s submission
16. In its final submissions, Iran asks the Court to adjudge and declare that,
“by its acts, in particular its failure to recognise the separate juridical status (including the separate legal personality) of all Iranian companies including Bank Markazi, the United States has breached its obligations to Iran . . . under Article III (1) of the Treaty of Amity” (emphasis added).
As noted in the Judgment (para. 135), the Parties differ on how to interpret Article III, paragraph 1, of the Treaty, and the question whether the United States has breached its obligation under that provision. The Judgment, however, fails to truly capture the heart of their disagreement.
17. For the United States, to recognize a company’s juridical status is to recognize the company’s existence as a legal entity and its legal capacity17. In its view, Article III, paragraph 1, was “only intended to ensure that legal persons could, on the basis of being incorporated in one of the Parties, have ‘legal being’ in the territory of the other Party”18. It maintains that the very fact that Iranian companies have appeared and participated in domestic judicial proceedings demonstrates that their juridical status has been recognized (Judgment, para. 130).
15 Counter-Memorial of the United States of America, Vol. VI, Ann. 135, Telegram No. 936 from the US Department of State to the US Embassy in Tehran, dated 9 November 1954 (emphasis added).
16 Memorial of the Islamic Republic of Iran, Vol. I, Ann. 4, Telegram of the US Embassy in Tehran to the US Department of State, dated 27 November 1954.
17 CR 2022/17, p. 60, para. 3 (Daley).
18 Ibid., p. 61, para. 8 (Daley).
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18. Iran seems to accept that recognition of juridical status includes recognizing a company’s legal personality and capacity19, but it goes one step further, suggesting that recognition of juridical status must include a third element, which it calls the “separate juridical status” of companies20.
19. For Iran, Article III, paragraph 1, operates a renvoi to its domestic laws and regulations, such that the juridical status Iranian companies enjoy within the territories of the United States should be the same as those they enjoy under Iranian laws and regulations21. It refers to the Articles of Association of these companies. Iran asserts that the “juridical status” of a company is established by the law of the State where the company was constituted and includes “not only whether the entity has its own legal personality  which is one thing  but also the specific elements of that legal personality, that is to say, for example, whether it is a limited liability company, a public joint stock company, an association or any other kind of legal person”22. It would follow, says Iran, that “by entirely conflating those ‘companies’ with the Iranian State . . . and conflating their assets with those of the Iranian State, the United States has violated Article III, paragraph 1, of the Treaty”23.
20. Iran does not argue that the United States has failed to recognize the legal personality or legal capacity of Iranian companies as such, for instance by denying their existence altogether or by denying their ability to sue in courts. Rather, Iran refers to legislative and executive measures taken by the United States which have made the assets of Iranian companies subject to attachment and execution to satisfy debts under default judgments against Iran. The question, then, is whether Article III, paragraph 1, requires the United States to recognize the corporate form of Iranian companies, beyond their legal personality and capacity.
21. Iran provides no authority for the proposition that the recognition of a company’s “juridical status” under Article III, paragraph 1, also includes recognizing its corporate form.
22. Iran suggests that the recognition of juridical status in Article III, paragraph 1, is unqualified24. Iran is correct to say that this obligation is unqualified. Contrary to other FCN treaties which qualify the recognition of juridical status25, the 1955 Treaty contains no such qualification. However, this fact does not indicate whether “recognition of juridical status” includes recognizing a company’s corporate form.
In this respect, it is of interest to note that in the Persian-language text of the Treaty of Amity the expression “legal personality” is used as equivalent to the English phrase “juridical status”. As both texts are equally authentic, the terms of the Treaty must be presumed to have the same meaning in both languages. This undermines Iran’s interpretation that “juridical status” means corporate form.
19 CR 2022/15, p. 50, para. 45 (Thouvenin).
20 Reply of the Islamic Republic of Iran, para. 4.8.
21 Reply of the Islamic Republic of Iran, para. 4.7.
22 CR 2022/15, p. 49, para. 42 (Thouvenin).
23 Ibid., p. 50, para. 45 (Thouvenin).
24 Reply of the Islamic Republic of Iran, para. 4.6 (a) (iv).
25 See e.g. Article 6, paragraph 3, of the Treaty of Friendship, Establishment and Navigation between the Kingdom of Belgium and the United States of America, signed at Brussels, on 21 February 1961, United Nations, Treaty Series (UNTS), Vol. 480, p. 159.
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23. In essence, Iran’s submission is premised on a conflation of two different sets of issues: on the one hand, (i) the recognition of the legal personality and legal capacity of a company by the recognizing State under Article III, paragraph 1, and, on the other hand, (ii) the question whether a recognized company may have its assets attached and executed for the debts of its State of incorporation. Article III, paragraph 1, speaks to the former issue, but says nothing about the latter. Indeed, the Treaty of Amity says nothing about veil lifting or corporate form generally.
24. But even accepting that Iran is right that Article III, paragraph 1, provides that Iranian companies shall have their corporate form recognized within the territories of the United States, Iran does not explain why that corporate form should be inviolable or “unpierceable”.
Under the Treaty, an obligation of recognition is not an obligation of respect. While the United States must recognize Iranian companies as existing in its territories, and therefore extend to its own system certain legal effects attributed to such existence, Iranian companies, like other domestic and foreign companies operating in the United States, are subject to its legislation, which is the lex loci. Indeed, the Court accepts as much when it observes in paragraph 137 of the Judgment that the legal situation of a company in the territories of a foreign State will not “always be the same as in the State in which it was constituted”. Under the lex loci, the corporate form of a company may be disregarded or set aside under certain circumstances, for instance, by lifting the corporate veil26.
25. The contrary would be surprising. Natural persons and legal persons, for instance, can be held liable for harm or damage caused by another person. To accept the Applicant’s interpretation would seem to suggest that the companies of either Party are insulated from the lex loci. It is difficult to contemplate that this could have been the intention of the Parties. At no time did the Parties regard Article III, paragraph 1, as having the meaning now given to it by the Applicant (see paragraph 14 above).
C. The Court’s decision
26. I am unable to agree with the decision of the majority of the Court that the United States of America has violated its obligation under Article III, paragraph 1, of the 1955 Treaty of Amity.
27. The Judgment does not adequately explain the basis for the Court’s finding. Paragraph 159 of the Judgment merely states that,
“[o]n the basis of its finding that the measures taken by the United States were unreasonable (see paragraphs 156-157), the Court concludes that the United States has violated its obligation under Article IV, paragraph 1, of the Treaty of Amity.
In reaching this conclusion, the Court has determined that the measures of the United States disregarded the Iranian companies’ own legal personality, and that this was not justified. In light of all of the foregoing, the Court also concludes that the United States has violated its obligation to recognize the juridical status of Iranian companies under Article III, paragraph 1.” (Emphasis added.)
26 Barcelona Traction, Light and Power Company, Limited (New Application: 1962) (Belgium v. Spain), Second Phase, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1970, pp. 38-39, paras. 56-58.
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Not only does such a conclusion on Article III, paragraph 1, not flow from a finding that the United States’ measures were unreasonable under Article IV, paragraph 1, but, in my view, the Court’s decision is inconsistent with a proper interpretation of the Treaty.
II. ARTICLE X, PARAGRAPH 1, OF THE TREATY
28. Article X, paragraph 1, of the Treaty provides that “[b]etween the territories of the two High Contracting Parties there shall be freedom of commerce and navigation”. In Iran’s submission, the measures adopted by the United States interfered with “freedom of commerce”.
The Court has interpreted this provision in the past, in particular in the Oil Platforms case27. I do not believe that there is any compelling reason to revisit this interpretation28. Freedom of commerce under Article X, paragraph 1, is not confined to maritime commerce29.
29. In fact, Article X, paragraph 1, refers to two freedoms: freedom of commerce and freedom of navigation. In relation to the exercise of the freedom of navigation, more detailed provisions are contained in paragraphs 2 to 6 of Article X. If the Parties wished to limit freedom of commerce to “maritime commerce”, they could have done so simply by adding the adjective “maritime” into the text of Article X, paragraph 1.
30. According to the Court, “it would be a natural interpretation of the word ‘commerce’ in Article X, paragraph 1, . . . that it includes commercial activities in general — not merely the immediate act of purchase and sale, but also the ancillary activities integrally related to commerce”30.
31. Subsequently, the Court specified that “freedom of commerce cannot cover matters that have no connection, or too tenuous a connection, with the commercial relations between the States Parties to the Treaty”31.
32. As emphasized in the Oil Platforms Judgment, Article X, paragraph 1, of the Treaty of Amity “contains an important territorial limitation. In order to enjoy the protection provided by that text, the commerce or the navigation is to be between the territories of the United States and Iran.”32
33. In my view, Iran has not provided sufficient evidence of interference by the United States’ measures with actual commerce. These measures were not aimed at limiting, or interfering with, the freedom of commerce enjoyed by the Parties between their territories. Rather, they concerned the
27 Oil Platforms (Islamic Republic of Iran v. United States of America), Preliminary Objection, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1996 (II), pp. 817-820, paras. 37-50.
28 In the present case, the Court itself stated, in its Judgment on preliminary objections, that it saw “no reason to depart now from the interpretation of the concept of ‘freedom of commerce’ that it adopted in the [Oil Platforms] case”: Certain Iranian Assets (Islamic Republic of Iran v. United States of America), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2019 (I), p. 34, para. 79.
29 Oil Platforms (Islamic Republic of Iran v. United States of America), Preliminary Objection, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1996 (II), p. 817, para. 43.
30 Ibid., p. 819, para. 49.
31 Certain Iranian Assets (Islamic Republic of Iran v. United States of America), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2019 (I), p. 34, para. 79.
32 Oil Platforms (Islamic Republic of Iran v. United States of America), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2003, pp. 214-215, para. 119; emphasis in the original.
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enforcement of judgments rendered by United States courts against Iran. The purpose of Article X, paragraph 1, of the Treaty certainly is not to provide protection against the enforcement of judgments.
34. Therefore, I am unable to support the Court’s finding that the United States has violated its obligation under Article X, paragraph 1, of the Treaty of Amity (Judgment, para. 236 (6)).
(Signed) Peter TOMKA.
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Bilingual Content

131
SEPARATE OPINION OF JUDGE TOMKA
Interpretation of Article III, paragraph 1, of the 1955 Treaty of Amity —
Meaning of the phrase “shall have their juridical status recognized” —
Viewed in light of object and purpose of Treaty and against historical background,
the recognition of “ juridical status” in question concerns the legal
personality and legal capacity of companies — Provision not equivalent to
a warranty that companies shall have their corporate form respected in any
circumstances.
Article X, paragraph 1, of the Treaty of Amity — Finding of the Court that
the United States has violated its obligation to ensure “ freedom of commerce”
— Insufficient evidence for this finding — United States measures
not aimed at limiting, or interfering with, freedom of commerce.
1. I regret that I am unable to agree with the decision of the majority of the
Court that the United States of America has violated its obligation under
Article III, paragraph 1, of the 1955 Treaty of Amity, Economic Relations,
and Consular Rights (hereinafter the “Treaty of Amity” or “Treaty”). I feel
compelled to explain my position on what I see as the proper interpretation
of Article III, paragraph 1, of the Treaty and why the Applicant’s submission
in this regard must be rejected.
I am also unable to agree with the Court’s finding that the United States
has violated its obligation under Article X, paragraph 1, of the Treaty.
I. Article III, Paragraph 1, of the Treaty
A. Interpretation of Article III, Paragraph 1, of the Treaty
2. Article III, paragraph 1, of the Treaty reads as follows:
“Companies constituted under the applicable laws and regulations of
either High Contracting Party shall have their juridical status recognized
within the territories of the other High Contracting Party. It is
understood, however, that recognition of juridical status does not of
itself confer rights upon companies to engage in the activities for which
they are organized. As used in the present Treaty, ‘companies’ means
corporations, partnerships, companies and other associations, whether
or not with limited liability and whether or not for pecuniary profit.”
131
OPINION INDIVIDUELLE DE M. LE JUGE TOMKA
[Traduction]
Interprétation du paragraphe 1 de l’article III du traité d’amitié de 1955 —
Sens de la proposition « [l]e statut juridique … sera reconnu » — Considérée
à la lumière de l’objet et du but du traité et compte tenu de son contexte
historique,
la reconnaissance du « statut juridique » en question concerne la
personnalité juridique et la capacité juridique des sociétés — Disposition
n’étant pas équivalente à une garantie que la forme sociale des sociétés sera
respectée en toutes circonstances.
Paragraphe 1 de l’article X du traité d’amitié — Conclusion de la Cour
selon laquelle les États-Unis ont violé leur obligation de garantir la « liberté
de commerce » — Insuffisance des éléments de preuve à l’appui de cette
conclusion — Mesures des États-Unis ne visant pas à limiter ou entraver la
liberté de commerce.
1. Je regrette de ne pouvoir souscrire à la décision de la majorité des
membres de la Cour selon laquelle les États-Unis d’Amérique ont violé l’obligation
que leur impose le paragraphe 1 de l’article III du traité d’amitié, de
commerce et de droits consulaires de 1955 (ci-après le « traité d’amitié » ou le
« traité »). J’estime
qu’il est de mon devoir d’expliquer ce que je pense être l’interprétation
correcte du paragraphe 1 de l’article III du traité d’amitié et pour
quelles raisons la conclusion du demandeur sur ce point devait être rejetée.
Je regrette également de ne pouvoir souscrire à la conclusion de la Cour
selon laquelle les États-Unis ont violé l’obligation que leur impose le paragraphe
1 de l’article X du traité.
I. Paragraphe 1 de l’article III du traité
A. Interprétation du paragraphe 1 de l’article III du traité
2. Le paragraphe 1 de l’article III du traité se lit comme suit :
« Le statut juridique des sociétés constituées sous le régime des lois et
règlements de l’une des Hautes Parties contractantes applicables en la
matière sera reconnu dans les territoires de l’autre Haute Partie contractante.
Il est entendu toutefois qu’en elle-même la reconnaissance de ce
statut juridique ne donnera pas aux sociétés le droit de se livrer à l’activité
en vue de laquelle elles sont organisées. Au sens du présent Traité,
le terme “sociétés” doit s’entendre des sociétés de capitaux ou de personnes,
des compagnies et de toutes associations, qu’elles soient ou non
à responsabilité limitée et à but lucratif. »
132 certain iranian assets (sep. op. tomka)
3. Article III, paragraph 1, of the Treaty must be interpreted according to
the customary rules of treaty interpretation which, as the Court has repeatedly
stated, are reflected in Articles 31 to 33 of the Vienna Convention on the
Law of Treaties1.
4. Before interpreting Article III, paragraph 1, of the Treaty, it may be useful,
as a preliminary matter, to make two observations. First, Article III,
paragraph 1, of the Treaty must be placed in its proper historical context and
economic background. When the Treaty was concluded, legal persons were
often not recognized as having juridical status outside of their State of incorporation,
absent a treaty to this effect. Some States recognized each other’s
legal persons on the basis of reciprocity, while others only recognized legal
persons that had been granted a special authorization2. Following the
1923 Treaty of Friendship, Commerce and Consular Relations concluded
with Germany3, several Friendship, Commerce and Navigation (hereinafter
“FCN”) treaties concluded by the United States with other States included
provisions guaranteeing the reciprocal recognition of the juridical status of
companies4. Indeed, more than two dozen of these FCN treaties contain the
exact or a substantially similar provision to Article III, paragraph 1, of the
1955 Treaty of Amity. A similar trend can be observed in bilateral and
multilateral
treaties concluded at the time. The Hague Conference on Private
International Law drew up, in 1956, a Convention concerning the Recognition
of the Legal Personality of Foreign Companies, Associations and
Foundations5. It is worth recalling that, under customary international law,
States have no obligation, as such, to recognize the existence or capacity
of legal persons constituted under the laws and regulations of other States6.
A recognition of juridical status is therefore necessary for legal persons
to operate abroad, e.g. to conclude contracts, to collect debts, or to have
1 See e.g. Territorial Dispute (Libyan Arab Jamahiriya/Chad), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports
1994, pp. 21-22, para. 41; Question of the Delimitation of the Continental Shelf between
Nicaragua
and Colombia beyond 200 Nautical Miles from the Nicaraguan Coast (Nicaragua
v. Colombia), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2016 (I), p. 116, para. 33.
2 Ernst Rabel, The Conflict of Laws: A Comparative Study, Vol. II (Chicago: Callaghan &
Company, 1947), pp. 138-141.
3 Treaty of Friendship, Commerce and Consular Rights between the United States and
Germany (1926), American Journal of International Law (AJIL), Vol. 20, Supplement 1, p. 4.
4 Herman Walker Jr, “Provisions on Companies in United States Commercial Treaties”
(1956) AJIL, Vol. 50 (2), p. 379.
5 Hague Conference on Private International Law, 1 June 1956, Collection of Conventions
(1951-1996), p. 28.
6 Florentino P. Feliciano, “Legal Problems of Private International Business Enterprises:
An Introduction to the International Law of Private Business Associations and Economic
Development” (1966) Recueil des cours/Collected Courses, Vol. 118, p. 265 (stating that the
practice of States granting unconditional recognition of the legal personality of a foreign
corporation “does not appear to reflect a belief that the grant of such recognition is a matter of
obligation imposed by international law”); Thomas C. Drucker, “Companies in Private International
Law”, International & Comparative Law Quarterly, Vol. 17, Issue 1 (January 1968),
p. 42 (stating that “as a matter of public international law, there is no obligation to recognise a
company incorporated under the system of law of another State”).
certains actifs iraniens (op. ind. tomka) 132
3. Le paragraphe 1 de l’article III du traité doit s’interpréter conformément
aux règles coutumières de l’interprétation des traités qui, comme la Cour l’a
indiqué à plusieurs reprises, ont trouvé leur expression dans les articles 31
à 33 de la convention de Vienne de 1969 sur le droit des traités1.
4. Avant d’interpréter le paragraphe 1 de l’article III du traité, il peut être
utile, à titre liminaire, de formuler deux observations. La première est que ce
paragraphe doit être replacé dans son juste contexte historique et économique.
À l’époque où le traité a été conclu, le statut juridique des personnes
morales n’était souvent pas reconnu en dehors de l’État où celles-ci étaient
constituées, sauf convention à cet effet. Certains États s’accordaient mutuellement
la reconnaissance de leurs personnes morales respectives, sous
condition de réciprocité, tandis que d’autres ne reconnaissaient que les
personnes morales auxquelles il avait été délivré une autorisation spéciale2.
À la suite du traité d’amitié, de commerce et de droits consulaires
conclu en 1923 avec l’Allemagne3, plusieurs instruments de ce type conclus
par les États-Unis avec d’autres États ont inclus des dispositions qui garantissaient
la reconnaissance réciproque du statut juridique de leurs sociétés4.
De fait, plus d’une vingtaine de ces traités d’amitié, de commerce et de navigation
contiennent une disposition identique ou largement semblable à celle
du paragraphe 1 de l’article III du traité d’amitié de 1955. On observe la
même tendance dans les traités bilatéraux et multilatéraux conclus à cette
époque. En 1956, la conférence de La Haye de droit international privé a
adopté une convention concernant la reconnaissance de la personnalité juridique
des sociétés, associations et fondations étrangères5. Il convient de
rappeler que le droit international coutumier n’impose pas aux États, à proprement
parler, de reconnaître l’existence ou la capacité des personnes
morales constituées sous le régime des lois et règlements d’autres États6. La
1 Voir, par exemple, Différend territorial (Jamahiriya arabe libyenne/Tchad), arrêt, C.I.J.
Recueil 1994, p. 21-22, par. 41 ; Question de la délimitation du plateau continental entre le
Nicaragua et la Colombie au-delà de 200 milles marins de la côte nicaraguayenne
(Nicaragua c. Colombie), exceptions préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2016 (I), p. 116, par. 33.
2 Ernst Rabel, The Conflict of Laws : A Comparative Study, vol. II, Chicago, Callaghan &
Company, 1947, p. 138-141.
3 Treaty of Friendship, Commerce and Consular Rights between the United States and
Germany, 1926, American Journal of International Law (AJIL), vol. 20, supplément no 1, p. 4.
4 Herman Walker Jr , « Provisions on Companies in United States Commercial Treaties »,
1956, AJIL, vol. 50, supplément no 2, p. 379.
5 Conférence de La Haye de droit international privé, 1er juin 1956, Recueil de conventions
(1951-1996), p. 28.
6 Florentino P. Feliciano, « Legal Problems of Private International Business Enterprises :
An Introduction to the International Law of Private Business Associations and Economic
Development », 1966, Recueil des cours/Collected Courses, vol. 118, p. 265 (où il est dit que la
pratique des États reconnaissant sans conditions la personnalité juridique des sociétés étrangères
« ne semble pas refléter l’idée selon laquelle cette reconnaissance est une obligation
qu’imposerait le droit international ») ; Thomas C. Drucker, « Companies in Private International
Law », International & Comparative Law Quarterly, vol. 17, no 1, janvier 1968, p. 42
(où il est dit que, « en droit international, il n’existe pas d’obligation de reconnaître une société
constituée selon les lois d’un autre État »).
133 certain iranian assets (sep. op. tomka)
standing
before courts7. The 1955 Treaty of Amity, and its Article III, paragraph
1, in particular, must be appreciated against this background.
5. Second, it may be worthwhile to draw attention to the structure of Article
III, paragraph 1, of the Treaty.
As can be seen, Article III, paragraph 1, contains four elements: the provision
(a) defines the term “companies” for the purpose of the Treaty; (b) sets
out what is required for a company to establish that it has the nationality of
one of the Parties (i.e. it must be “constituted under the applicable laws and
regulations of either High Contracting Party”); (c) requires both Parties to
“recognize” the “juridical status” of such companies; and (d) provides that
the “recognition of juridical status” does not of itself confer rights upon
companies to engage in the activities for which they are organized.
While these four elements are laid down together in Article III, paragraph
1, practice shows that that need not necessarily be the case; they stand
as independent clauses in some FCN treaties.
6. With this said, I turn to the interpretation of Article III, paragraph 1, of
the Treaty.
7. I begin with the ordinary meaning to be given to the terms of the Treaty.
The crux of the matter is to ascertain the meaning of the phrase “shall have
their juridical status recognized”. In this regard, it is true that the phrase
“juridical status” is not in itself very clear, the term “status” having several
meanings in international law. The term “recognition”, however, is unmistakeably
a term of art. While that term has several meanings8, in the context
of private international law (or conflict of laws) “recognition” has a narrow,
technical meaning, whereby the recognizing State agrees to extend to its
own system certain legal effects attributed to a fact or situation in the legal
system of another State9. This could be, for instance, the “recognition” of a
foreign award10.
In particular, when used to refer to legal persons constituted under the
applicable laws and regulations of another State, the concept refers to the
7 Matthias Herdegen, Principles of International Economic Law (Oxford University Press,
2nd ed., 2016), pp. 378-381.
8 Dictionnaire de la terminologie du droit international, preface by Jules Basdevant (Paris:
Sirey for the Union Académique Internationale, 1960), pp. 508-516.
9 Eric Stein, Harmonization of European Company Laws: National Reform and Transnational
Coordination (New York: The Bobbs-Merrill Co. Inc., 1971), pp. 394-396.
10 See Reinmar Wolff (ed.), New York Convention: Convention on the Recognition and
Enforcement of Foreign Arbitral Awards of 10 June 1956: Article-by-Article Commentary
(Munich: C. H. Beck, 2019), p. 6.
certains actifs iraniens (op. ind. tomka) 133
reconnaissance de leur statut juridique est par conséquent une condition
nécessaire pour que des personnes morales puissent exercer leurs activités à
l’étranger, c’est-à-dire y conclure des contrats, y recouvrer des créances ou
ester en justice7. C’est dans ce contexte que doit s’apprécier le traité d’amitié
de 1955, et en particulier le paragraphe 1 de son article III.
5. En second lieu, il peut être utile d’examiner de plus près la structure du
paragraphe 1 de l’article III du traité.
Comme on le voit, cette disposition est composée de quatre éléments :
a) elle définit le terme « sociétés » aux fins du traité ; b) elle énonce les conditions
requises pour qu’une société puisse établir qu’elle a la nationalité de
l’une des Parties (elle doit être « constituée sous le régime des lois et règlements
de l’une des Hautes Parties contractantes ») ; c) elle impose aux
deux Parties de « reconnaître » le « statut juridique » de ces sociétés ; et
d) elle précise que la « reconnaissance de ce statut juridique » ne donnera pas
aux sociétés le droit de se livrer à l’activité en vue de laquelle elles sont
organisées.
Bien que ces quatre éléments soient énoncés ensemble dans le paragraphe
1 de l’article III, la pratique montre que tel n’est pas nécessairement
le cas ; dans certains traités d’amitié, de commerce et de navigation, ils
constituent des clauses indépendantes.
6. Cela étant posé, j’en viens à présent à l’interprétation du paragraphe 1 de
l’article III du traité.
7. Je commencerai par le sens ordinaire à donner aux termes employés. La
principale difficulté est de déterminer le sens de la proposition « [leur] statut
juridique … sera reconnu ». À cet égard, il est vrai que l’expression « statut
juridique » n’est pas très claire, le terme « statut » ayant plusieurs significations
en droit international. Le terme « reconnaissance », en revanche, est
sans conteste un terme juridique consacré. Bien qu’il ait lui aussi plusieurs
sens8, dans un contexte de droit international privé (ou de conflit de lois), le
terme « reconnaissance » a un sens technique étroit par lequel l’État qui
« reconnaît » accepte d’étendre à son propre système certains effets juridiques
attachés à un fait ou à une situation donnés dans le système juridique
d’un autre État9. Il pourrait s’agir, par exemple, de la « reconnaissance »
d’une sentence arbitrale étrangère10.
En particulier, lorsqu’elle renvoie à des personnes morales constituées
sous le régime des lois et règlements applicables d’un autre État, cette notion
7 Matthias Herdegen, Principles of International Economic Law, Oxford University Press,
2e éd., 2016, p. 378-381.
8 Dictionnaire de la terminologie du droit international, publié sous le patronage de
l’Union académique internationale, préface de Jules Basdevant, Paris, Sirey, 1960, p. 508-516.
9 Eric Stein, Harmonization of European Company Laws : National Reform and Transnational
Coordination, New York, The Bobbs-Merrill Co. Inc., 1971, p. 394-396.
10 Voir Reinmar Wolff (sous la dir. de), New York Convention : Convention on the Recognition
and Enforcement of Foreign Arbitral Awards of 10 June 1956 : Article-by-Article
Commentary, Munich, C. H. Beck, 2019, p. 6.
134 certain iranian assets (sep. op. tomka)
recognition, by the recognizing State, of the legal personality and legal
capacity of such legal persons.
8. This meaning of the term “recognition” has a long legal pedigree, as
reflected in bilateral and multilateral treaties and in the work of international
bodies and learned societies, such as the Committee of Experts for the Progressive
Codification of International Law of the League of Nations, which
studied the topic “Recognition of the Legal Personality of Foreign Commercial
Corporations” in 1927. A report of the Sub-Committee of Experts
asserts that recognition
“implies that the corporation [incorporated in one State] . . . must be
regarded [by the recognizing State] as possessing a general capacity, in
virtue of which it is entitled to defend its rights . . . Supposing that the
company should find itself compelled to defend its rights of this character
before a foreign court, it would be unable to institute any legal
proceedings if it were regarded by the lex fori as non-existent.”11
9. This meaning of the term is also reflected in the resolutions and works
of the Institut de droit international12. For instance, a preliminary report prepared
by Rapporteur George van Hecke in 1963 on the topic of “Companies
in Private International Law” explains that
“[p]revious Institute resolutions, the convention drawn up by the Hague
Conference [in 1956] and bilateral treaties generally deal with the ‘recognition’
of the personality of foreign companies. This need to ensure, by
a separate rule, the ‘recognition’ of foreign companies as subjects of law
(including, in particular, the capacity to conclude contracts and to sue
and be sued) can be explained by the difficulties caused in the nineteenth
century by certain theories . . . which denied the existence of
juridical persons other than those created by an act of the local authority.
It seems that these difficulties can now be considered as belonging to the
history of law” (my translation)13.
10. These materials indicate that the term “recognition” used in Article
III, paragraph 1, of the Treaty, had a specific meaning as a concept in
treaty practice when the Parties used it14.
11 Shabtai Rosenne (ed.), League of Nations. Committee of Experts for the Progressive
Codification of International Law (1925-1928), Vol. II (Dobbs Ferry, New York: Oceana Publications
Inc., 1972), p. 360.
12 The Court has on occasion referred to the work of the Institut de droit international to
ascertain the meaning of terms found in a treaty. See e.g. Kasikili/Sedudu Island (Botswana/
Namibia), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1999 (II), p. 1062, para. 25.
13 Annuaire de l’Institut de droit international, Vol. 51 (I), Session de Varsovie, 1965,
pp. 252-253 (emphasis added).
14 See also Article 1, Resolution of the Institut de droit international dated 9 September
1891 on “Conflits de lois en matière de sociétés par actions”, Annuaire de l’Institut de droit
certains actifs iraniens (op. ind. tomka) 134
désigne la reconnaissance, par l’État reconnaissant, de la personnalité juridique
et de la capacité juridique desdites personnes morales.
8. Ce sens du terme « reconnaissance » est admis de longue date, ce qu’attestent
des traités bilatéraux et multilatéraux ainsi que les travaux d’organes
internationaux et de sociétés savantes tels que le comité d’experts de la
Société des Nations pour la codification progressive du droit international,
qui a étudié en 1927 le sujet de « La reconnaissance de la personnalité
juridique
des sociétés de commerce étrangères ». Dans son rapport, le
sous-comité d’experts chargé d’examiner la question a précisé que cette
reconnaissance
« signifi[ait] qu’une société [constituée dans un État] … d[eva]it être
regardée [par l’État reconnaissant] comme possédant une capacité générale,
en vertu de laquelle elle est autorisée à faire valoir ses droits… Au
cas où la société se verrait contrainte de faire valoir, de ce chef, ses droits
devant les tribunaux étrangers, elle ne pourrait intenter aucune action
judiciaire, si elle [étai]t réputée comme inexistante par la lex fori. »11
9. Le sens de ce terme trouve également son expression dans les résolutions
et les travaux de l’Institut de droit international12. Ainsi, dans le rapport
provisoire qu’il a établi en 1963 sur « Les sociétés anonymes en droit international
privé », le rapporteur, George van Hecke, indiquait ce qui suit :
« Les Résolutions antérieures de l’Institut, la convention élaborée par la
Conférence de La Haye [en 1956] et les traités bilatéraux traitent généralement
de la « reconnaissance » de la personnalité des sociétés étrangères.
Cette nécessité d’assurer, par une règle séparée, la “reconnaissance” des
sociétés étrangères comme sujets de droit (comportant notamment la
capacité de conclure des contrats et d’ester en justice) s’explique par les
difficultés causées, au XIXe siècle, par certaines théories … qui niaient
l’existence des personnes morales créées autrement que par un acte de
l’autorité locale. Il semble qu’on puisse, à l’heure actuelle, considérer ces
difficultés comme appartenant à l’histoire du droit. »13
10. Il ressort de ces documents que le terme « reconnaissance » employé
au paragraphe 1 de l’article III du traité revêtait, lorsque les parties l’ont
employé, un sens spécifique en tant que notion relevant de la pratique
conventionnelle14.
11 Shabtai Rosenne (sous la dir. de), League of Nations. Committee of Experts for the
Progressive Codification of International Law (1925-1928), vol. II, Dobbs Ferry, New York,
Oceana Publications Inc., 1972, p. 360.
12 La Cour s’est parfois référée aux travaux de l’Institut de droit international pour déterminer
le sens de certains termes figurant dans un traité. Voir, par exemple, Île de Kasikili/Sedudu
(Botswana/Namibie), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1999 (II), p. 1062, par. 25.
13 Annuaire de l’Institut de droit international, vol. 51, première partie, session de Varsovie,
1965, p. 252-253 (les italiques sont de moi).
14 Voir également article 1, résolution du 9 septembre 1891 de l’Institut de droit international,
intitulée « Conflit de lois en matière de sociétés par actions », Annuaire de l’Institut de
135 certain iranian assets (sep. op. tomka)
11. As noted by the Court, the object and purpose of the Treaty of Amity,
which is stated in its preamble, is to “encourag[e] mutually beneficial trade
and investments and closer economic intercourse generally” (Judgment,
para. 214). This object and purpose throws light upon the appropriate interpretation
of Article III, paragraph 1, of the Treaty. The recognition of
juridical status set out in Article III, paragraph 1, obviously espouses the
goal of “encouraging mutually beneficial trade and investments” between
the Parties, for a company of one Party with no recognized existence or no
legal capacity would not be able to operate within the territories of the other
Party.
12. The context is also relevant. Article III, paragraph 1, of the Treaty is
linked with Article III, paragraph 2, which grants nationals and companies
freedom of access to the courts of justice and administrative agencies within
the territories of the other Party, both in defence and pursuit of their rights.
This link, in my opinion, shows that the recognition of juridical status in
Article III, paragraph 1, was granted primarily so that the companies of
either Party may have free access to courts in the territories of the other.
13. What has been said so far, in my view, is sufficient to arrive at the
proper interpretation of Article III, paragraph 1, of the Treaty. Recourse to
supplementary means of interpretation, however, puts to rest any doubt on
the matter. I refer, in particular, to the preparatory work of the Treaty of
Amity.
14. A telegram dated 9 November 1954 from the United States Department
of State to the Embassy in Tehran provides additional insight into the
meaning of “juridical status”. The telegram was sent during the negotiations
between the Parties, as Iran expressed concerns about the scope of the term
“companies” in Article III, paragraph 1. The telegram provided the following
explanation:
“Paragraph 1 confers no rights [on] corporations [to] engage in business.
It merely provides their recognition as corporate entities
principally in order [that] they may prosecute or defend their rights in
court as corporate entities. In this sense paragraph 1 [is] related [to]
paragraph 2 [on access to courts]. Under [the] treaty, no U.S. corporation
may engage in business in Iran except as permitted by Iran.
Corporate status should be recognized [to] assure [the] right [of]
international, Vol. 11, Session de Hambourg, 1889-1892, p. 171; Article 1, Resolution of the
Institut de droit international dated 12 October 1929 on “Statut juridique des sociétés en droit
international”, ibid., Vol. 35 (II), Session de New York, 1929, p. 301; Article 1, Resolution of
the Institut de droit international dated 10 September 1965 on “Companies in Private International
Law”, ibid., Vol. 51 (II), Session de Varsovie, 1965, p. 272.
certains actifs iraniens (op. ind. tomka) 135
11. Ainsi que l’a observé la Cour, le traité d’amitié a pour objet et pour but,
comme indiqué dans son préambule, d’« encourager les échanges et les
investissements mutuellement profitables et l’établissement de relations
économiques
plus étroites » (arrêt, par. 214). Cet objet et ce but éclairent l’interprétation
qu’il convient de donner du paragraphe 1 de l’article III du traité.
La reconnaissance du statut juridique prévue par ce paragraphe obéit de
toute évidence au but consistant à « encourager les échanges et les investissements
mutuellement profitables » entre les Parties, puisqu’une société
d’une Partie dont l’existence ou la capacité juridique ne serait pas reconnue
serait dans l’impossibilité d’exercer ses activités dans les territoires de l’autre
Partie.
12. Le contexte importe également. Le paragraphe 1 de l’article III du traité
est lié au paragraphe 2 de ce même article, qui accorde aux ressortissants
et aux sociétés de chacune des Parties libre accès aux tribunaux judiciaires
et aux organismes administratifs de l’autre Partie, dans les territoires
de celle-ci, à tous les degrés de la juridiction et tant pour faire valoir que
pour défendre leurs droits. À mon sens, il ressort de ce lien que la reconnaissance
du statut juridique prévue au paragraphe 1 de l’article III est accordée
principalement pour que les sociétés de l’une ou l’autre partie aient libre
accès aux tribunaux de l’autre partie dans les territoires de celle-ci.
13. Les considérations qui précèdent ne suffisent pas, selon moi, à établir
l’interprétation correcte du paragraphe 1 de l’article III du traité. Tout doute
sur la question sera cependant dissipé si l’on fait appel aux moyens complémentaires
d’interprétation. Je me référerai, en particulier, aux travaux
préparatoires du traité d’amitié.
14. Un télégramme en date du 9 novembre 1954 adressé à l’ambassade
des États-Unis à Téhéran par le département d’État apporte un éclairage
supplémentaire
sur le sens de l’expression « statut juridique ». Ce télégramme
a été envoyé pendant les négociations entre les Parties, en réponse aux préoccupations
exprimées par l’Iran quant à la portée du terme « sociétés » au
paragraphe 1 de l’article III. Il offre l’explication suivante :
« Le paragraphe [1] ne confère pas aux sociétés le droit d’exercer des
activités commerciales. Il ne fait que garantir leur reconnaissance en
tant que personnes morales, principalement pour qu’elles puissent faire
valoir ou défendre leurs droits en justice en cette qualité. En ce sens, le
paragraphe 1 est lié au paragraphe 2 [qui porte sur l’accès aux tribunaux].
Aux termes du traité, une société américaine ne peut exercer des
activités commerciales en Iran que dans la mesure où ce dernier le
droit international, vol. 11, session de Hambourg, 1889-1892, p. 171 ; article 1, résolution du
12 octobre 1929 de l’Institut de droit international, intitulée « Statut juridique des sociétés en
droit international », ibid., vol. 35, deuxième partie, session de New York, 1929, p. 301 ;
article 1, résolution du 10 septembre 1965 de l’Institut de droit international, intitulée « Companies
in Private International Law », ibid., vol. 51, deuxième partie, session de Varsovie,
1965, p. 272.
136 certain iranian assets (sep. op. tomka)
foreign corporate entities — those that sell goods or furnish other services
to Iran as well as those permitted [to] operate in Iran — [to] free
access [to] courts [to] collect debts, protect patent rights, enforce contracts,
etc. If this explanation fails [to] remove difficulty, request [a]
more detailed statement [of the] problem.”15
A subsequent telegram from the United States Embassy confirmed that Iranian
officials had understood the United States’ explanation of this provision16.
In my view, these telegrams reveal the shared understanding of the Parties
regarding the interpretation of the Treaty.
15. In light of the foregoing, I conclude that Article III, paragraph 1, of the
Treaty provides for the obligation of the Parties to recognize the “juridical
status” of companies constituted under the applicable laws and regulations
of either Party, understood as recognizing their legal personality and legal
capacity.
B. Iran’s Submission
16. In its final submissions, Iran asks the Court to adjudge and declare
that,
“by its acts, in particular its failure to recognise the separate juridical
status (including the separate legal personality) of all Iranian companies
including Bank Markazi, the United States has breached its
obligations to Iran . . . under Article III (1) of the Treaty of Amity”
(emphasis added).
As noted in the Judgment (para. 135), the Parties differ on how to interpret
Article III, paragraph 1, of the Treaty, and the question whether the
United States has breached its obligation under that provision. The Judgment,
however, fails to truly capture the heart of their disagreement.
17. For the United States, to recognize a company’s juridical status is to
recognize the company’s existence as a legal entity and its legal capacity17.
In its view, Article III, paragraph 1, was “only intended to ensure that
legal persons could, on the basis of being incorporated in one of the Parties,
15 Counter-Memorial of the United States of America, Vol. VI, Ann. 135, Telegram No. 936
from the US Department of State to the US Embassy in Tehran, dated 9 November 1954
(emphasis added).
16 Memorial of the Islamic Republic of Iran, Vol. I, Ann. 4, Telegram of the US Embassy in
Tehran to the US Department of State, dated 27 November 1954.
17 CR 2022/17, p. 60, para. 3 (Daley).
certains actifs iraniens (op. ind. tomka) 136
permet. Le statut de personne morale doit être reconnu afin de garantir
le droit des personnes morales étrangères — celles qui vendent des
marchandises ou fournissent des services à l’Iran et celles qui sont
autorisées à exercer leurs activités en Iran — d’avoir libre accès aux
tribunaux pour recouvrer des créances, protéger des droits attachés
à des brevets, faire exécuter des contrats, etc. Si cette explication ne
suffit pas à lever la difficulté, demander un exposé du problème
plus détaillé. »15
Un télégramme ultérieur de l’ambassade des États-Unis confirme que les
fonctionnaires iraniens avaient compris l’explication de cette disposition
donnée
par les États-Unis16. Selon moi, ces télégrammes mettent au jour l’interprétation
commune que les Parties faisaient du traité.
15. À la lumière de ce qui précède, je conclus que le paragraphe 1 de l’article
III du traité fait obligation à chacune des Parties de reconnaître le
« statut juridique » des sociétés constituées sous le régime des lois et règlement
applicables de l’autre Partie, à savoir de reconnaître leur personnalité
et leur capacité juridiques.
B. Les conclusions de l’Iran
16. Dans ses conclusions finales, l’Iran priait la Cour de dire et juger
que,
« par leurs actes, en particulier la non-reconnaissance du statut juridique
distinct (en ce compris la personnalité juridique distincte) de toutes les
sociétés iraniennes, parmi lesquelles la banque Markazi, les États-Unis
[avaie]nt manqué à leurs obligations envers l’Iran, notamment à celles
que leur impos[ait] le paragraphe 1 de l’article III du traité d’amitié » (les
italiques sont de moi).
Comme l’a fait observer la Cour au paragraphe 135 de son arrêt, le désaccord
entre les Parties portait sur l’interprétation à donner du paragraphe 1 de l’article
III du traité et sur la question de savoir si les États-Unis avaient violé
l’obligation que leur imposait cette disposition. Le coeur de ce désaccord
n’est cependant pas réellement appréhendé dans le présent arrêt.
17. Pour les États-Unis, reconnaître le statut juridique d’une société, c’est
reconnaître l’existence de cette société en tant qu’entité juridique ainsi que
sa capacité juridique17. Selon eux, le paragraphe 1 de l’article III « visait uniquement
à garantir que les personnes morales possédaient, par le simple fait
15 Contre-mémoire des États-Unis d’Amérique, vol. VI, annexe 135, télégramme no 936 en
date du 9 novembre 1954 adressé à l’ambassade des États-Unis à Téhéran par le département
d’État des États-Unis (les italiques sont de moi).
16 Mémoire de la République islamique d’Iran, vol. I, annexe 4, télégramme en date du
27 novembre 1954 adressé au département d’État des États-Unis par l’ambassade des États-
Unis
à Téhéran.
17 CR 2022/17, p. 60, par. 3 (Daley).
137 certain iranian assets (sep. op. tomka)
have ‘legal being’ in the territory of the other Party”18. It maintains that the
very fact that Iranian companies have appeared and participated in domestic
judicial proceedings demonstrates that their juridical status has been recognized
(Judgment, para. 130).
18. Iran seems to accept that recognition of juridical status includes recognizing
a company’s legal personality and capacity19, but it goes one step
further, suggesting that recognition of juridical status must include a third
element, which it calls the “separate juridical status” of companies20.
19. For Iran, Article III, paragraph 1, operates a renvoi to its domestic laws
and regulations, such that the juridical status Iranian companies enjoy within
the territories of the United States should be the same as those they enjoy
under Iranian laws and regulations21. It refers to the Articles of Association
of these companies. Iran asserts that the “juridical status” of a company is
established by the law of the State where the company was constituted and
includes
“not only whether the entity has its own legal personality  which is one
thing  but also the specific elements of that legal personality, that is
to say, for example, whether it is a limited liability company, a public
joint stock company, an association or any other kind of legal person”22.
It would follow, says Iran, that “by entirely conflating those ‘companies’ with
the Iranian State . . . and conflating their assets with those of the Iranian State,
the United States has violated Article III, paragraph 1, of the Treaty”23.
20. Iran does not argue that the United States has failed to recognize the
legal personality or legal capacity of Iranian companies as such, for instance
by denying their existence altogether or by denying their ability to sue in
courts. Rather, Iran refers to legislative and executive measures taken by the
United States which have made the assets of Iranian companies subject to
attachment and execution to satisfy debts under default judgments against
Iran. The question, then, is whether Article III, paragraph 1, requires the
United States to recognize the corporate form of Iranian companies, beyond
their legal personality and capacity.
21. Iran provides no authority for the proposition that the recognition of a
company’s “juridical status” under Article III, paragraph 1, also includes
recognizing its corporate form.
18 Ibid., p. 61, para. 8 (Daley).
19 CR 2022/15, p. 50, para. 45 (Thouvenin).
20 Reply of the Islamic Republic of Iran, para. 4.8.
21 Ibid., para. 4.7.
22 CR 2022/15, p. 49, para. 42 (Thouvenin).
23 Ibid., p. 50, para. 45 (Thouvenin).
certains actifs iraniens (op. ind. tomka) 137
d’avoir été constituées dans l’une des Parties, la personnalité juridique sur le
territoire de l’autre Partie »18. Les États-Unis soutenaient que le fait même
que certaines sociétés iraniennes aient comparu dans des procédures judiciaires
et participé à celles-ci démontrait que leur statut juridique avait été
reconnu (arrêt, par. 130).
18. L’Iran semblait admettre que la reconnaissance du statut juridique
incluait la reconnaissance de la personnalité et de la capacité juridiques
d’une société19, mais il allait plus loin en avançant que cette reconnaissance
du statut juridique devait inclure un troisième élément, qu’il appelait le « statut
juridique distinct » des sociétés20.
19. Pour l’Iran, le paragraphe 1 de l’article III opère un renvoi aux lois
et règlements internes iraniens, de sorte que les sociétés iraniennes devraient
jouir dans les territoires des États-Unis du même statut juridique que celui
qu’elles possèdent sous le régime des lois et règlements iraniens21 ; il se
réfère aux textes constitutifs desdites sociétés. L’Iran affirmait que le « statut
juridique
» d’une société est fixé par le droit de l’État où elle a été créée et
détermine
« non seulement si l’entité a une personnalité juridique propre — ce qui
est un aspect — mais également les éléments spécifiques de sa personnalité
juridique propre, à savoir, par exemple, si elle est une société à
responsabilité limitée, une société anonyme, une association, ou toute
autre forme de personne morale »22.
Dès lors, soutenait l’Iran, « en opérant une totale confusion entre ces “sociétés”
et l’État iranien … et en confondant leur patrimoine avec celui de l’État
iranien, les États-Unis ont violé le paragraphe 1 de l’article III du traité »23.
20. L’Iran ne prétendait pas que les États-Unis n’avaient pas reconnu la
personnalité juridique ou la capacité juridique des sociétés iraniennes en
tant que telles, par exemple en niant complètement leur existence ou en leur
déniant la capacité à ester en justice. Il se référait aux décisions législatives
et exécutives prises par les États-Unis qui avaient soumis les actifs des sociétés
iraniennes à des mesures de saisie et d’exécution en faveur des
bénéficiaires de jugements rendus par défaut contre l’Iran. La question qui
se posait était donc celle de savoir si le paragraphe 1 de l’article III imposait
aux États-Unis de reconnaître la forme sociale des sociétés iraniennes, audelà
de leur personnalité et de leur capacité juridiques.
21. L’Iran ne s’est appuyé sur aucune source faisant autorité pour affirmer
que la reconnaissance du « statut juridique » d’une société visée au paragraphe
1 de l’article III comprenait la reconnaissance de la forme sociale de
cette société.
18 Ibid., p. 61, par. 8 (Daley).
19 CR 2022/15, p. 50, par. 45 (Thouvenin).
20 Réplique de la République islamique d’Iran, par. 4.8.
21 Ibid., par. 4.7.
22 CR 2022/15, p. 49, par. 42 (Thouvenin).
23 Ibid., p. 50, par. 45 (Thouvenin).
138 certain iranian assets (sep. op. tomka)
22. Iran suggests that the recognition of juridical status in Article III,
paragraph 1, is unqualified24. Iran is correct to say that this obligation is
unqualified. Contrary to other FCN treaties which qualify the recognition of
juridical status25, the 1955 Treaty contains no such qualification. However,
this fact does not indicate whether “recognition of juridical status” includes
recognizing a company’s corporate form.
In this respect, it is of interest to note that in the Persian-language text of
the Treaty of Amity the expression “legal personality” is used as equivalent
to the English phrase “juridical status”. As both texts are equally authentic,
the terms of the Treaty must be presumed to have the same meaning in both
languages. This undermines Iran’s interpretation that “juridical status”
means corporate form.
23. In essence, Iran’s submission is premised on a conflation of two different
sets of issues: on the one hand, (i) the recognition of the legal personality
and legal capacity of a company by the recognizing State under Article III,
paragraph 1, and, on the other hand, (ii) the question whether a recognized
company may have its assets attached and executed for the debts of its State
of incorporation. Article III, paragraph 1, speaks to the former issue, but
says nothing about the latter. Indeed, the Treaty of Amity says nothing about
veil lifting or corporate form generally.
24. But even accepting that Iran is right that Article III, paragraph 1, provides
that Iranian companies shall have their corporate form recognized
within the territories of the United States, Iran does not explain why that
corporate form should be inviolable or “unpierceable”.
Under the Treaty, an obligation of recognition is not an obligation of
respect. While the United States must recognize Iranian companies as existing
in its territories, and therefore extend to its own system certain legal
effects attributed to such existence, Iranian companies, like other domestic
and foreign companies operating in the United States, are subject to its legislation,
which is the lex loci. Indeed, the Court accepts as much when it
observes in paragraph 137 of the Judgment that the legal situation of a company
in the territories of a foreign State will not “always be the same as in
the State in which it was constituted”. Under the lex loci, the corporate form
of a company may be disregarded or set aside under certain circumstances,
for instance, by lifting the corporate veil26.
24 Reply of the Islamic Republic of Iran, para. 4.6 (a) (iv).
25 See e.g. Article 6, paragraph 3, of the Treaty of Friendship, Establishment and Navigation
between the Kingdom of Belgium and the United States of America, signed at Brussels, on
21 February 1961, United Nations, Treaty Series (UNTS), Vol. 480, p. 159.
26 Barcelona Traction, Light and Power Company, Limited (New Application: 1962)
(Belgium v. Spain), Second Phase, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1970, pp. 38-39, paras. 56-58.
certains actifs iraniens (op. ind. tomka) 138
22. L’Iran faisait valoir que l’obligation de reconnaître le statut juridique
visée au paragraphe 1 de l’article III n’était assortie d’aucune réserve24. Sur ce
point, il avait raison. Contrairement à d’autres traités d’amitié, de commerce
et de navigation25, le traité de 1955 ne contient aucune réserve de ce genre.
Cela n’indique cependant pas si la « reconnaissance du statut juridique »
comprend la reconnaissance de la forme sociale de la société considérée.
À cet égard, il est intéressant de relever que, dans la version en langue
perse du texte du traité d’amitié, c’est l’expression « personnalité juridique »
qui est retenue comme l’équivalent de l’expression anglaise « statut juridique
». Les deux versions faisant également foi, il convient de présumer que
les termes du traité ont le même sens dans les deux langues. Cela compromet
l’interprétation de l’Iran selon laquelle « statut juridique » signifierait
« forme sociale ».
23. En substance, l’argumentation de l’Iran reposait sur la confusion de
deux questions différentes : d’un côté, i) la reconnaissance de la personnalité
et de la capacité juridiques d’une société par l’État reconnaissant selon le
paragraphe 1 de l’article III ; et, de l’autre côté, ii) la question de savoir si les
actifs d’une société ainsi reconnue étaient susceptibles de saisie conservatoire
ou saisie-exécution en paiement de dettes de l’État où cette société s’est
constituée. Le paragraphe 1 de l’article III répond à la première question,
mais ne dit rien de la seconde. À vrai dire, et plus généralement, le traité
d’amitié ne dit rien ni de la levée du voile social ni de la forme sociale.
24. Cela dit, à supposer même qu’il ait été fondé à soutenir que le paragraphe
1 de l’article III garantissait aux sociétés iraniennes la reconnaissance
de leur forme sociale dans les territoires des États-Unis, l’Iran n’expliquait
nullement pourquoi cette forme sociale serait inviolable ou pourquoi leur
voile social ne pourrait pas être levé.
Dans le traité, l’obligation de reconnaître n’est pas une obligation de
respecter.
Si les États-Unis sont tenus de reconnaître dans leurs territoires
l’existence des sociétés iraniennes et, partant, d’étendre à leur propre système
certains effets juridiques attachés à cette existence, lesdites sociétés
iraniennes actives aux États-Unis, comme les autres sociétés, tant nationales
qu’étrangères, sont cependant soumises à la législation américaine, qui est la
lex loci. C’est d’ailleurs ce que la Cour a admis en faisant observer, au paragraphe
137 de son arrêt, qu’« [i]l ne s’ensui[vai]t pas, toutefois, que la situation
juridique d’une telle entité sera[it] toujours la même que dans l’État dans
lequel cette dernière a été constituée ». Selon la lex loci, la forme sociale
d’une société peut être ignorée ou écartée dans certaines circonstances, par
exemple en levant le voile social26.
24 Réplique de la République islamique d’Iran, par. 4.6, al. a), s.-al. iv).
25 Voir, par exemple, le paragraphe 3 de l’article 6 du traité d’amitié, d’établissement et de
navigation entre le Royaume de Belgique et les États-Unis d’Amérique, signé à Bruxelles le
21 février 1961, Nations Unies, Recueil des traités (RTNU), vol. 480, p. 158.
26 Barcelona Traction, Light and Power Company, Limited (nouvelle requête : 1962)
(Belgique c. Espagne), deuxième phase, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1970, p. 38-39, par. 56-58.
139 certain iranian assets (sep. op. tomka)
25. The contrary would be surprising. Natural persons and legal persons,
for instance, can be held liable for harm or damage caused by another
person. To accept the Applicant’s interpretation would seem to suggest that
the companies of either Party are insulated from the lex loci. It is difficult to
contemplate that this could have been the intention of the Parties. At no time
did the Parties regard Article III, paragraph 1, as having the meaning now
given to it by the Applicant (see paragraph 14 above).
C. The Court’s Decision
26. I am unable to agree with the decision of the majority of the Court that
the United States of America has violated its obligation under Article III,
paragraph 1, of the 1955 Treaty of Amity.
27. The Judgment does not adequately explain the basis for the Court’s
finding. Paragraph 159 of the Judgment merely states that,
“[o]n the basis of its finding that the measures taken by the United States
were unreasonable (see paragraphs 156-157), the Court concludes that
the United States has violated its obligation under Article IV, paragraph
1, of the Treaty of Amity.
In reaching this conclusion, the Court has determined that the measures
of the United States disregarded the Iranian companies’ own legal
personality, and that this was not justified. In light of all of the foregoing,
the Court also concludes that the United States has violated its
obligation to recognize the juridical status of Iranian companies under
Article III, paragraph 1.” (Emphasis added.)
Not only does such a conclusion on Article III, paragraph 1, not flow from a
finding that the United States’ measures were unreasonable under Article
IV, paragraph 1, but, in my view, the Court’s decision is inconsistent with
a proper interpretation of the Treaty.
II. Article X, Paragraph 1, of the Treaty
28. Article X, paragraph 1, of the Treaty provides that “[b]etween the territories
of the two High Contracting Parties there shall be freedom of
commerce and navigation”. In Iran’s submission, the measures adopted by
the United States interfered with “freedom of commerce”.
The Court has interpreted this provision in the past, in particular in the
Oil Platforms case27. I do not believe that there is any compelling reason to
27 Oil Platforms (Islamic Republic of Iran v. United States of America), Preliminary Objection,
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1996 (II), pp. 817-820, paras. 37-50.
certains actifs iraniens (op. ind. tomka) 139
25. Le contraire serait surprenant. Les personnes physiques et les personnes
morales, par exemple, peuvent être amenées à répondre des atteintes
ou dommages causés par une autre personne. Souscrire à l’interprétation du
demandeur reviendrait apparemment à dire que les sociétés de chacune des
Parties échappent à la lex loci. On a du mal à imaginer que telle ait pu être
l’intention des Parties. À aucun moment celles-ci n’ont considéré que le
paragraphe 1 de l’article III avait le sens que lui prêtait le demandeur en la
présente instance (voir le paragraphe 14 ci-dessus).
C. La décision de la Cour
26. Je ne saurais me rallier à la décision de la majorité de la Cour selon
laquelle les États-Unis d’Amérique ont violé l’obligation que leur impose le
paragraphe 1 de l’article III du traité d’amitié de 1955.
27. La Cour n’explique pas suffisamment dans son arrêt la base sur laquelle
elle appuie sa conclusion. Au paragraphe 159 de l’arrêt, elle se contente de
déclarer que,
« [a]yant établi que les mesures prises par les États-Unis étaient déraisonnables
(voir les paragraphes 156-157), la Cour conclut que le défendeur
a manqué à l’obligation mise à sa charge par le paragraphe 1 de
l’article IV du traité d’amitié.
En parvenant à cette conclusion, elle a déterminé que lesdites mesures
méconnaissaient la personnalité juridique propre des sociétés iraniennes,
et que cela n’était pas justifié. Au vu de l’ensemble des
considérations qui précèdent, la Cour conclut également que les États-
Unis ont manqué à l’obligation de reconnaître le statut juridique des
sociétés iraniennes que leur impose le paragraphe 1 de l’article III. »
(Les italiques sont de moi.)
Non seulement une telle conclusion concernant le paragraphe 1 de l’article
III ne découle pas de celle selon laquelle les mesures prises par les
États-Unis étaient déraisonnables au sens du paragraphe 1 de l’article IV,
mais encore, selon moi, la décision de la Cour est incompatible avec une
juste interprétation du traité.
II. Paragraphe 1 de l’article X du traité
28. Le paragraphe 1 de l’article X du traité dispose qu’« [i]l y aura liberté de
commerce et de navigation entre les territoires des deux Hautes Parties
contractantes ». L’Iran considérait que les mesures adoptées par les États-Unis
constituaient une entrave à la « liberté de commerce ».
La Cour a interprété cette disposition par le passé, en particulier dans
l’affaire
des Plates-formes pétrolières27. Selon moi, il n’y avait pas de raisons
27 Plates-formes pétrolières (République islamique d’Iran c. États-Unis d’Amérique),
exception préliminaire, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1996 (II), p. 817-820, par. 37-50.
140
certain iranian assets (sep. op. tomka)
revisit this interpretation28. Freedom of commerce under Article X, paragraph
1, is not confined to maritime commerce 29.
29. In fact, Article X, paragraph 1, refers to two freedoms: freedom of
commerce and freedom of navigation. In relation to the exercise of the
freedom
of navigation, more detailed provisions are contained in paragraphs
2 to 6 of Article X. If the parties wished to limit freedom of commerce
to “maritime commerce”, they could have done so simply by adding the
adjective “maritime” into the text of Article X, paragraph 1.
30. According to the Court,
“it would be a natural interpretation of the word ‘commerce’ in Article X,
paragraph 1, . . . that it includes commercial activities in general — not
merely the immediate act of purchase and sale, but also the ancillary
activities integrally related to commerce”30.
31. Subsequently, the Court specified that “freedom of commerce cannot
cover matters that have no connection, or too tenuous a connection, with the
commercial relations between the States Parties to the Treaty”31.
32. As emphasized in the Oil Platforms Judgment, Article X, paragraph 1,
of the Treaty of Amity “contains an important territorial limitation. In order
to enjoy the protection provided by that text, the commerce or the navigation
is to be between the territories of the United States and Iran.”32
33. In my view, Iran has not provided sufficient evidence of interference
by the United States’ measures with actual commerce. These measures were
not aimed at limiting, or interfering with, the freedom of commerce enjoyed
by the Parties between their territories. Rather, they concerned the enforcement
of judgments rendered by United States courts against Iran. The
purpose of Article X, paragraph 1, of the Treaty certainly is not to provide
protection against the enforcement of judgments.
34. Therefore, I am unable to support the Court’s finding that the United
States has violated its obligation under Article X, paragraph 1, of the Treaty
of Amity (Judgment, para. 236 (6)).
(Signed) Peter Tomka.
28 In the present case, the Court itself stated, in its Judgment on preliminary objections, that
it saw “no reason to depart now from the interpretation of the concept of ‘freedom of
commerce’ that it adopted in the [Oil Platforms] case”: Certain Iranian Assets (Islamic Republic
of Iran v. United States of America), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports
2019 (I), p. 34, para. 79.
29 Oil Platforms (Islamic Republic of Iran v. United States of America), Preliminary Objection,
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1996 (II), p. 817, para. 43.
30 Ibid., p. 819, para. 49.
31 Certain Iranian Assets (Islamic Republic of Iran v. United States of America), Preliminary
Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2019 (I), p. 34, para. 79.
32 Oil Platforms (Islamic Republic of Iran v. United States of America), Judgment, I.C.J.
Reports 2003, pp. 214-215, para. 119; emphasis in the original.
140
certains actifs iraniens (op. ind. tomka)
impérieuses de s’écarter de cette interprétation28. La liberté de commerce visée
au paragraphe 1 de l’article X n’est pas limitée au commerce maritime29.
29. En fait, le paragraphe 1 de l’article X mentionne deux libertés : la liberté
de commerce et la liberté de navigation. Les paragraphes 2 à 6 de ce même
article contiennent des dispositions plus détaillées concernant l’exercice de la
liberté de navigation. Si les parties avaient voulu limiter la liberté de commerce
au « commerce maritime », elles auraient pu le faire en insérant
simplement l’adjectif « maritime » dans le texte du paragraphe 1 de l’article X.
30. Selon la Cour,
« il serait naturel d’interpréter le mot “commerce” au paragraphe 1 de
l’article
… comme incluant des activités commerciales en général — non
seulement les activités mêmes d’achat et de vente, mais également les
activités accessoires qui sont intrinsèquement liées au commerce »30.
31. La Cour a ensuite précisé que « la liberté de commerce ne saurait couvrir
des questions qui ne présentent aucun lien, ou qui présentent un lien trop
ténu, avec les relations commerciales entre les États parties au traité »31.
32. Comme la Cour l’a souligné dans l’arrêt qu’elle a rendu en l’affaire des
Plates-formes pétrolières, le paragraphe 1 de l’article X du traité d’amitié
« contient une limitation territoriale importante. Pour bénéficier de la protection
prévue par ce texte, le commerce ou la navigation doivent s’effectuer
entre les territoires des États-Unis et de l’Iran. »32
33. À mon sens, l’Iran n’a pas fourni suffisamment de preuves de ce que les
mesures des États-Unis avaient réellement constitué une entrave au commerce.
Ces mesures ne visaient pas à limiter la liberté de commerce dont
jouissaient les Parties entre leurs territoires respectifs, ni à l’entraver. Elles
concernaient l’exécution de décisions rendues par les juridictions des États-
Unis contre l’Iran. Or, le paragraphe 1 de l’article X du traité n’a certainement
pas pour objet d’offrir une protection contre l’exécution de jugements.
34. En conséquence, je ne puis me rallier à la conclusion de la Cour selon
laquelle les États-Unis ont violé les obligations que leur impose le paragraphe
1 de l’article X du traité d’amitié (arrêt, par. 236, point 6).
(Signé) Peter Tomka.
28 En la présente affaire, la Cour elle-même a déclaré, dans son arrêt sur les exceptions préliminaires,
qu’elle « ne vo[ya]it aucune raison de s’écarter à présent de l’interprétation de la
notion de “liberté de commerce” qu’elle avait retenue dans l’affaire [des Plates-formes pétrolières]
», Certains actifs iraniens (République islamique d’Iran c. États-Unis d’Amérique),
exceptions préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2019 (I), p. 34, par. 79.
29 Plates-formes pétrolières (République islamique d’Iran c. États-Unis d’Amérique),
exception préliminaire, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1996 (II), p. 817, par. 43.
30 Ibid., p. 819, par. 49.
31 Certains actifs iraniens (République islamique d’Iran c. États-Unis d’Amérique), exceptions
préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2019 (I), p. 34, par. 79.
32 Plates-formes pétrolières (République islamique d’Iran c. États-Unis d’Amérique), arrêt,
C.I.J. Recueil 2003, p. 214-215, par. 119 (les italiques sont dans l’original).

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Separate opinion of Judge Tomka

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