Dissenting Opinion of Judge Xue

Document Number
178-20220722-JUD-01-01-EN
Parent Document Number
178-20220722-JUD-01-00-EN
Date of the Document
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Bilingual Document File

DISSENTING OPINION OF JUDGE XUE 1. Much to my regret, I am unable to concur with the decision of the Court that The Gambia has standing in the present case, which leads me to vote against paragraph 115 (4) and (5). Pursuant to Article 57 of the Statute, I will explain the reasons for my dissent. 2. The Gambia’s institution of the proceedings against Myanmar before the Court for the protection of the common interest of the States parties to the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (hereinafter the “Genocide Convention” or “the Convention”) is, in essence, a collective lawsuit, which renders this case exceptional. Notwithstanding its purported objective, The Gambia’s legal action raises some fundamental issues that bear on the statutory framework of the judicial mechanism for dispute settlement under the Charter of the United Nations. The way in which Article IX of the Genocide Convention is being interpreted in the Judgment, in my opinion, deviates from the rules on treaty interpretation and the settled jurisprudence of the Court with regard to the Genocide Convention. I. ACCESS TO THE COURT AND THE NATURE OF THE CASE 3. In its first preliminary objection, the Respondent claims that the Court lacks jurisdiction, or alternatively that the Application is inadmissible, because the real applicant in these proceedings is the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (hereinafter the “OIC”), which cannot be a party to proceedings before the Court pursuant to Article 34, paragraph 1, of the Statute. It argues that this objection concerns both law and fact. 4. Myanmar’s first preliminary objection raises a substantive issue, namely, whether the Court is competent under the Statute to entertain a case which is in fact initiated by an international organization and entrusted to one of its members to act on its behalf. The evidence and documents adduced by the Respondent, in my view, sufficiently prove that The Gambia was tasked and appointed by the OIC to institute the proceedings against Myanmar in the Court. This is not only supported by the resolutions adopted by the OIC, but also publicly acknowledged by its Member States, in particular The Gambia itself. As is recalled in the Judgment, The Gambia expressly announced in the United Nations General Assembly that “it would champion an accountability mechanism for the alleged crimes against the Rohingya” and “lead concerted efforts to take the Rohingya issue to the International Court of Justice on behalf of the Organization of Islamic Cooperation” (United Nations, Official Records of the General Assembly, UN doc. A/74/PV.8, 26 September 2019, p. 31, emphasis added (see paragraph 69 of the Judgment)). Being the chair of the Ad hoc Ministerial Committee on Accountability for Human Rights Violations against the Rohingyas established by Resolution No. 59/45-POL of the OIC Council of Foreign Ministers in May 2018, The Gambia is specifically instructed and directed by the OIC to take legal action in the International Court of Justice. Moreover, the decision to file a case in the Court was negotiated and agreed upon among its members, particularly with regard to the representation and funding of the envisaged legal action (OIC, Report of the Ad Hoc Ministerial Committee on Human Rights Violations against the Rohingya, 25 September 2019; OIC, Resolution No. 59/47-POL on the Work of the OIC Ad Hoc Ministerial Committee on Accountability for Human Rights Violations against the Rohingyas, November 2020; OIC Secretary General Thanks the ISF for its Support in Financing the Rohingya Case at the ICJ, OIC press release, 7 October 2020). 5. The Gambia does not deny those facts but maintains that it instituted the proceedings in its own name and has a dispute with Myanmar regarding “its own rights” as a State party to the Genocide Convention. Notably, The Gambia does not claim any link with the alleged acts in Myanmar. In its - 2 - own words, it has no individual interest in the case but acts for the common interest of the States parties. Given its character, The Gambia’s legal action, either for the common interest of the OIC Member States, or for the common interest of the States parties to the Genocide Convention, is arguably tantamount to a public-interest litigation. 6. In rejecting the Respondent’s first preliminary objection, the Court simply dismisses as irrelevant Myanmar’s evidence relating to the OIC’s decision and its financial support for The Gambia’s legal action. In the Court’s view, those factors do not detract from The Gambia’s status as the Applicant before the Court, and The Gambia’s motivation to commence the proceedings is irrelevant for establishing the jurisdiction of the Court. This reasoning, in my view, is evasive of the real hard issue before the Court. 7. Article 34, paragraph 1, of the Statute provides that “[o]nly States may be parties in cases before the Court”. By virtue of that provision, international organizations do not enjoy access to the Court. The issue in the present case is not in whose name the proceedings are instituted, what motive the Applicant may pursue, or who has arranged the litigation team; no one has ever challenged The Gambia’s capacity to have access to the Court. The matter for the Court to determine is whether The Gambia is acting on behalf of the OIC for the common interest of its member States, some of which are parties to the Genocide Convention, while others are not. The evidence shows that the issue of the Rohingyas was never considered as a bilateral dispute between The Gambia and Myanmar in the OIC. It was the OIC, not The Gambia, which took the decision to submit the issue of the Rohingyas to the International Court of Justice, and The Gambia was entrusted to find a proper way to implement the OIC’s decision. Although The Gambia independently made its decision to institute proceedings in the Court, the fact remains that The Gambia’s legal action is initiated by the OIC and that The Gambia is acting under the mandate and with the financial support of the OIC. 8. To establish the existence of a bilateral dispute between the Parties, there must be some link — a territorial, national or other form of connection — between the applicant and the alleged acts of the respondent. This linkage requirement has a substantive bearing on the merits phase. Allegations of genocide or other genocidal acts require serious investigation and proof. When the applicant has no link whatsoever with the alleged acts, it is apparently difficult, if not impossible, for it to collect evidence and conduct investigation on its own. Relying entirely on the evidence and material sources collected by third parties, for example United Nations organs, human rights bodies or the State concerned, only reinforces the argument that the case is a public-interest action, actio popularis. Such action, even in the form of a bilateral dispute, may in fact allow international organizations to have access to the Court in the future. 9. Although I agree with the Court’s finding that the conduct of The Gambia to institute the proceedings before the Court does not amount to an abuse of process, I doubt very much the Court’s conclusion that there are no other grounds of inadmissibility which would require it to decline the exercise of its jurisdiction (paragraph 49 of the Judgment). Judicial propriety, in my view, is a relevant issue under the circumstances of the present case. In the administration of justice, the Court must ensure that the principles of international adjudication be observed, both in form and in substance. 10. Under the Statute, the Court’s function in contentious cases is confined to disputes between two or more States. The bilateral and adversarial structure of the dispute settlement mechanism is reflected in the procedural rules of the Court. Such rules are not suitable to entertain public-interest actions. When the applicant is in fact acting on behalf of an international organization, albeit in its own name, the respondent may be placed in a disadvantageous position before the Court. This is - 3 - particularly true if several judges on the bench are nationals of member States of the international organization concerned. With the organization in the shadow, inequality of the Parties may be hidden in the composition of the Court, thereby undermining the principle of equality of the parties, one of the fundamental principles of the Court for dispute settlement. However desirable it is to provide judicial protection to the victims of the alleged acts, the respondent is entitled to a fair legal process in accordance with the provisions of the Statute and the Rules of Court. For a comparison, reference may be made to the International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea (hereinafter “ITLOS”). Under Articles 20 and 37 of its Statute, ITLOS and its Seabed Disputes Chamber shall be open to specific entities, including certain international organizations. Article 22 of the Rules of the Tribunal provides that an international organization which is a party to a dispute before the Tribunal has the right to choose a judge ad hoc if there is a judge of the nationality of a State that is the other party to the dispute and if there is no judge of the nationality of one of the member States of the international organization (Rules of the Tribunal, 25 March 2021, ITLOS/8, Article 22 (1)-(2)). Equally, “[w]here an international organization is a party to a case and there is upon the bench a judge of the nationality of a member State of the organization, the other party may choose a judge ad hoc” (ibid., Article 22 (3)). It is further provided that “[w]here two or more judges on the bench are nationals of member States of the international organization concerned . . . the President may . . . request one or more such judges to withdraw” (ibid., Article 22 (4)). Clearly, proper identification of the character of a legal action before the Court directly concerns the good administration of justice. 11. Moreover, The Gambia’s legal action may challenge the principle of finality in the adjudication of the dispute. Articles 59 and 60 of the Statute provide that the decision of the Court has no binding force except between the parties and in respect of that particular case and that the decision of the Court shall be final and without appeal. In the present case, if any State party has standing to take legal action in the Court for the protection of the common interest of the States parties in compliance with the obligations erga omnes partes of the Genocide Convention, one may wonder whether the Court’s decision has binding force on all other States parties as well. According to Article 59, the effect of res judicata of the judgment should be limited solely to the parties. It follows that, at least in theory, those States parties will not be prevented from exercising their right to institute separate proceedings for the same cause against the same State before the Court. This is not a far-fetched concern. In considering The Gambia’s standing, the Court states that the situation with Bangladesh does not affect the right of all other States parties to assert the common interest in compliance with the obligations erga omnes partes under the Convention (paragraph 113 of the Judgment). In other words, according to the Court, even if Bangladesh is regarded as a specially affected State, whether it files a case or not does not affect the right of other States parties to institute proceedings before the Court. This reasoning apparently is not in line with the rules of State responsibility. 12. These concerns give rise to the issue of judicial propriety for the Court to consider whether it is appropriate to exercise jurisdiction in the present case. Ultimately, they boil down to the very question whether the “dispute” over the alleged acts of Myanmar could be settled by the Court as wished by The Gambia or the OIC. II. ARTICLE IX AND THE ISSUE OF STANDING 13. In the present case, largely due to the character of The Gambia’s legal action, the question of jurisdiction ratione personae and the issue of standing are delicately interlinked. Whether Article IX of the Convention provides jurisdiction ratione personae to a non-injured State party also bears on the standing of the Applicant. - 4 - 14. In determining whether it has jurisdiction ratione personae in the case with regard to the Respondent’s first preliminary objection, the Court only examines whether The Gambia meets the conditions laid down in Articles 34 and 35 of the Statute, without examining the terms of the compromissory clause of the Genocide Convention, which is considered only in relation to the question of standing under Myanmar’s second preliminary objection. Articles 34 and 35, however, basically concern the right or “the legal capacity” of a party to appear before the Court, which is a question of statutory requirements for access to the Court, not a matter of consent for jurisdiction (Legality of Use of Force (Serbia and Montenegro v. Belgium), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2004 (I), p. 295, para. 36). As is pointed out above, the issue before the Court is not about The Gambia’s legal capacity to institute the proceedings, but whether the Court has jurisdiction ratione personae to entertain the case instituted by a non-injured State. The matter relates, first and foremost, to the interpretation of Article IX of the Genocide Convention, namely whether the States parties have agreed to grant a general standing to all the States parties for the invocation of responsibility of any other State party solely on the basis of their common interest in compliance with the obligations under the Convention. 15. Article IX of the Genocide Convention reads as follows: “Disputes between the Contracting Parties relating to the interpretation, application or fulfilment of the present Convention, including those relating to the responsibility of a State for genocide or for any of the other acts enumerated in article III, shall be submitted to the International Court of Justice at the request of any of the parties to the dispute.” 16. The wording of Article IX, per se, does not indicate much about what exactly was intended by the contracting parties. In response to Myanmar’s argument that The Gambia, as a non-injured State, has no standing in the case, the Court states the following: “[T]he terms of Article IX providing that disputes are to be submitted to the Court ‘at the request of any of the parties to the dispute’, as opposed to any of the Contracting Parties, do not limit the category of Contracting Parties entitled to bring claims for alleged breaches of obligations erga omnes partes under the Convention. This phrase clarifies that only a party to the dispute may bring it before the Court, but it does not indicate that such a dispute may only arise between a State party allegedly violating the Convention and a State ‘specially affected’ by such an alleged violation.” (Paragraph 111 of the Judgment.) This interpretation, in my opinion, has unduly expanded the scope of Article IX. Although the international law on State responsibility has evolved significantly since the adoption of the Genocide Convention, the terms of the Genocide Convention must be interpreted in accordance with the applicable rules on treaty interpretation as reflected in Articles 31 and 32 of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties. As the Court stated in its Advisory Opinion on Reservations to the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (hereinafter the “Advisory Opinion”), in interpreting the Genocide Convention, regard should be given to “[t]he origins and character of th[e] Convention, the objects pursued by the General Assembly and the contracting parties, the relations which exist between the provisions of the Convention, inter se, and between those provisions and these objects” (I.C.J. Reports 1951, p. 23). 17. The Genocide Convention provides several means and mechanisms for the implementation of the obligations under the Convention; judicial settlement is just one of them. Most importantly, the States parties must enact national legislation to prevent and punish acts of genocide and any other acts enumerated in Article III (Article V of the Convention). Perpetrators may be tried in national - 5 - courts or by a competent international criminal court (Article VI). The States parties also undertake to co-operate through extradition to bring the alleged offenders to justice (Article VII). In addition, any State party, whether it is directly or indirectly affected by the alleged acts of genocide, may engage the competent organs of the United Nations to take such action under the Charter as they consider appropriate for the prevention and suppression of acts of genocide (Article VIII). Lastly, a dispute between States parties with regard to the interpretation, application or fulfilment of the Convention, including the responsibility of a State for acts of genocide, may be submitted to the Court at the request of any of the parties to the dispute (Article IX). This set of mechanisms takes into account the situation where a non-injured State party may raise the issue of genocide against another State party, but the mechanisms to which such State party may resort apparently do not include the International Court of Justice. This interpretation can be confirmed by the travaux préparatoires of the Genocide Convention. 18. The treaty was drafted at a time when the notions of obligations erga omnes partes or erga omnes were not established in general international law. During the negotiation process of Article IX, contracting parties did not have much discussion on the word “disputes”; its ordinary meaning was presumed to refer to bilateral disputes. The debate among the contracting parties primarily focused on the meaning and scope of the phrase “responsibility of a State for genocide” and whether to include it in the clause. A number of contracting parties expressed doubt and raised questions about the inclusion of State responsibility in so far as that would cover situations in which a State commits genocide against its own nationals (see e.g. United Nations General Assembly, Sixth Committee, Hundred and Third Meeting, 12 November 1948, UN doc. A/C.6/SR.103, pp. 432-433 (Greece), 434 (Peru) and 435 (Poland); ibid., Hundred and Fourth Meeting, 13 November 1948, UN doc. A/C.6/SR.104, p. 443 (Iran)). Upon the understanding that the term “responsibility of a State for genocide” in Article IX refers to reparation for damages inflicted on the nationals of one State party by another State party, they agreed to retain that reference in Article IX. In clarifying the scope of State responsibility, the United States stated that “[i]f the words ‘responsibility of a State’ were taken in their traditional meaning of responsibility towards another State for damages inflicted, in violation of the principles of international law, to the subjects of the plaintiff State; and if, similarly, the words ‘disputes . . . relating to the . . . fulfilment’ referred to disputes concerning the interests of subjects of the plaintiff State, then those words would give rise to no objection. But if, on the other hand, the expression ‘responsibility of a State’ were not used in the traditional meaning, and if it signified that a State could be sued for damages in respect of injury inflicted by it on its own subjects, then there would be serious objections to that provision; and the United States Government would have reservations to make about that interpretation of the phrase.” (Ibid., Hundred and Thirty-Third Meeting, 2 December 1948, UN doc. A/C.6/SR.133, pp. 703-704 (United States of America).) The United States’ position was generally shared and accepted by the contracting parties. 19. The intention of the contracting parties to limit the scope of claims that can be brought to the Court under Article IX is also manifested in the general debate relating to the Belgian/British joint proposal on the compromissory clause of the Genocide Convention. This joint proposal stated as follows: “Any dispute between the High Contracting Parties relating to the interpretation, application or fulfilment of the present Convention, including disputes relating to the responsibility of a State for any of the acts enumerated in articles II and IV, shall be submitted to the International Court of Justice at the request of any of the High Contracting Parties.” (Belgium and United Kingdom: Joint amendment to article X of - 6 - the draft Convention (E/794), 10 November 1948, UN doc. A/C.6/258; emphasis added.) 20. India introduced an amendment to the Belgian/British joint proposal to replace the phrase “at the request of any of the High Contracting Parties” by the phrase “at the request of any of the parties to the dispute” (UN doc. A/C.6/260, as reproduced in United Nations General Assembly, Sixth Committee, Hundred and Third Meeting, 12 November 1948, UN doc. A/C.6/SR.103, p. 428, fn. 1). In its consideration of the Belgian/British proposal, India stated that “the inclusion of all disputes relating to the responsibility of a State for any of the acts enumerated in articles II and IV would certainly give rise to serious difficulties. It would make it possible for an unfriendly State to charge, on vague and unsubstantial allegations, that another State was responsible for genocide within its territory.” (United Nations General Assembly, Sixth Committee, Hundred and Third Meeting, 12 November 1948, UN doc. A/C.6/SR.103, pp. 437-438.) Immediately after India expressed this concern, Luxembourg clarified who might claim rights to reparations following the perpetration of the crime of genocide. It stated “that the principle that no action could be instituted save by a party concerned in a case should be applied in that connexion. [R]esponsibility would thus arise whenever genocide was committed by a State in the territory of another State” (ibid., p. 438). The Indian amendment was approved in the general debate and the text of Article IX was amended accordingly. 21. During the subsequent negotiations, India continued to express its concern over the terms of Article IX. After the adoption of Article IX, it warned that “the provisions of the joint amendment of Belgium and the United Kingdom . . . were capable of being interpreted in a much wider sense than the authors of the amendment had themselves intended” (United Nations General Assembly, Sixth Committee, Hundred and Fifth Meeting, 13 November 1948, UN doc. A/C.6/SR.105, p. 459). After the vote against reconsideration of the text of Article IX, India reiterated its position, stating that “the text of article IX would help to strain relations between States and was therefore contrary to the very purpose of the convention” (United Nations General Assembly, Sixth Committee, Hundred and Thirty-First Meeting, 1 December 1948, UN doc. A/C.6/SR.131, p. 690). India, of course, was not the only contracting parties who indicated its reservation over a possible expansive interpretation of Article IX. 22. The travaux préparatoires demonstrate that the contracting parties were fully conscious of the potential problems of vague, insubstantial and even abusive actions relating to the fulfilment of obligations and responsibility for genocide. Such situations would more likely arise if an unlimited standing was granted to the States parties. There was no indication among the contracting parties that, given the raison d’être of the Genocide Convention, the principle that no action could be instituted save by a party concerned in a case would not apply to cases that are filed under Article IX. 23. I agree with the Court that The Gambia is not exercising diplomatic protection in the present case, but that does not mean there need not be a link between the applicant and the alleged acts of the respondent. Although the word “[d]isputes” in Article IX is without any qualification, opposition of views between the two parties must relate to a legal interest that the applicant may claim for itself under international law. Unless otherwise expressly provided for in a treaty, general standing of the States parties cannot be presumed. In this regard, a provision in contrast can be given. Article 33 of the European Convention on Human Rights provides that “[a]ny High Contracting Party may refer to the [European Court of Human Rights] any alleged breach of the provisions of the Convention and the Protocols thereto by another High Contracting Party”. If the Genocide - 7 - Convention had contained a similar clause, the requirement of a link between the applicant and the respondent’s alleged acts for jurisdictional purpose would be unnecessary. 24. In cases concerning alleged violations of the Genocide Convention, the Court has affirmed that Article IX includes all forms of State responsibility, including the responsibility of a State for an act of genocide perpetrated by the State itself through the acts of its organs (see e.g. Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Yugoslavia), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1996 (II), p. 616, para. 32; see also the divergent views in ibid., joint declaration of Judges Shi and Vereshchetin, pp. 631-632, and declaration of Judge Oda, pp. 626-629, paras. 4-7), which reflects the development of international law on State responsibility. In none of those cases, however, did the Court consider or even imply that a State party may invoke international responsibility of another State party solely on the basis of the raison d’être of the Genocide Convention; the applicant must have a territorial, national or some other form of connection with the alleged acts. 25. To recall what the Court said in the Advisory Opinion, “[i]t is well established that in its treaty relations a State cannot be bound without its consent” (Reservations to the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, Advisory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports 1951, p. 21). It is doubtful that, either at the time when they each became party to the Genocide Convention, the Parties had ever envisaged such treaty relationship between them or more generally, that the States parties ever intended to give such a broad standing to the States parties for addressing alleged breaches of the obligations under the Genocide Convention. The Court’s innovative interpretation has extended well beyond the reasonable expectations of the States parties, inconducive to the security and stability of treaty relations. III. RAISON D’ÊTRE OF THE GENOCIDE CONVENTION AND ITS IMPLICATION 26. By reference to the raison d’être of the Genocide Convention as enunciated in the Advisory Opinion, the Court upholds The Gambia’s standing for the following reasons: “All the States parties to the Genocide Convention . . . have a common interest to ensure the prevention, suppression and punishment of genocide, by committing themselves to fulfilling the obligations contained in the Convention. As the Court has affirmed, such a common interest implies that the obligations in question are owed by any State party to all the other States parties to the relevant convention; they are obligations erga omnes partes, in the sense that each State party has an interest in compliance with them in any given case.” (Paragraph 107 of the Judgment.) It goes on to say that “[t]he common interest in compliance with the relevant obligations under the Genocide Convention entails that any State party, without distinction, is entitled to invoke the responsibility of another State party for an alleged breach of obligations erga omnes partes . . . regardless of whether a special interest can be demonstrated”. It explains that “[i]f a special interest were required for that purpose, in many situations no State would be in a position to make a claim” (paragraph 108 of the Judgment). This reasoning, based on a particular reading of the Advisory Opinion, does not seem consistent with the established practice of the States parties. - 8 - 27. In the Advisory Opinion, the Court was requested by the General Assembly to address exclusively the question of reservations to the Genocide Convention. For that purpose, it considered the characteristics of the Genocide Convention in international law and identified the common interest of the States parties in the accomplishment of the high purposes of the Convention. In the oft cited statement in the Advisory Opinion on which the Court largely relies for its decision in the present case, the Court stated that “[t]he Convention was manifestly adopted for a purely humanitarian and civilizing purpose. It is indeed difficult to imagine a convention that might have this dual character to a greater degree . . . In such a convention the contracting States do not have any interests of their own; they merely have, one and all, a common interest, namely, the accomplishment of those high purposes which are the raison d’être of the convention. Consequently, in a convention of this type one cannot speak of individual advantages or disadvantages to States, or of the maintenance of a perfect contractual balance between rights and duties. The high ideals which inspired the Convention provide, by virtue of the common will of the parties, the foundation and measure of all its provisions.” (Reservations to the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, Advisory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports 1951, p. 23.) Notwithstanding the common interest thus identified, the Court did not consider that reservations to the Genocide Convention should be categorically prohibited. Instead, it took the view that the compatibility of a reservation with the object and purpose of the Convention should furnish a criterion for assessing a particular reservation made by a State on accession and appraising an objection lodged by another State to the reservation, thus limiting both the freedom of making reservations and that of objecting to them. The Court observed that, as the intention of the General Assembly and the States parties was to have as many States as possible participate in the Convention so as to ensure the widest possible scope of application, the complete exclusion of States from the Convention for minor reservations would not be deemed desirable for the fulfilment of the object and purpose of the Convention. In the Advisory Opinion, the Court did not specify which reservations to the provisions of the Convention would be deemed as minor reservations and therefore permissible, and which are incompatible with the object and purpose of the Convention. Pursuant to that criterion, in the subsequent treaty practice, a reservation to Article IX of the Genocide Convention has generally been accepted as permissible by the States parties. To date, 16 States parties maintain reservations to Article IX. 28. This position has also been confirmed by the jurisprudence of the Court. According to the Court, a reservation to Article IX of the Genocide Convention bears on the jurisdiction of the Court, which is meant to exclude a particular method of settling a dispute relating to the interpretation, application or fulfilment of the Convention, and does not affect substantive obligations relating to acts of genocide themselves under that Convention. Therefore, a reservation to Article IX of the Genocide Convention is not incompatible with the object and purpose of the Convention (Armed Activities on the Territory of the Congo (New Application: 2002) (Democratic Republic of the Congo v. Rwanda), Jurisdiction and Admissibility, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2006, p. 32, para. 67; see also Legality of Use of Force (Yugoslavia v. Spain), Provisional Measures, Order of 2 June 1999, I.C.J. Reports 1999 (II), p. 772, paras. 32-33; Legality of Use of Force (Yugoslavia v. United States of America), Provisional Measures, Order of 2 June 1999, I.C.J. Reports 1999 (II), p. 924, paras. 24-25). 29. Reservation to a compromissory clause and standing of a non-injured State, although distinct and separate issues, both concern whether the Court can exercise its jurisdiction. A reservation to Article IX has the effect of blocking other States parties from instituting proceedings against the reserving State for its alleged breaches of obligations erga omnes partes under the Convention. This means that reservations to Article IX of the Genocide Convention could also lead - 9 - to many situations where no State party would be in a position to make a claim before the Court against another State party who has made a reservation to the jurisdiction of the Court, as was the case, for instance, with Rwanda in the Armed Activities case, and Spain and the United States in the Legality of Use of Force cases. No State party has ever asserted that the Court’s decisions upholding the effect of the relevant reservations in those cases prejudiced the common interest of the States parties to the Convention. Logically, the reason given by the Court in the present case for discarding the requirement of a special interest cannot be established; just as, in the situation of a reservation to the jurisdiction of the Court, dismissal of an application for lack of standing of a non-injured State is, in the Court’s own words, also just to exclude a particular method of settling a dispute relating to the interpretation, application or fulfilment of the Convention, and does not affect substantive obligations relating to acts of genocide themselves under that Convention. IV. OBLIGATIONS ERGA OMNES PARTES AND THE BELGIUM V. SENEGAL CASE 30. Introduction of the notion of obligations erga omnes and erga omnes partes is a positive development of international law. In the second phase of the South West Africa cases, the Court rejected the applications submitted by Ethiopia and Liberia, former members of the League of Nations, on the ground that they had no standing in the cases as they each did not have any legal right or interest in the subject-matter of their claim (South West Africa (Ethiopia v. South Africa; Liberia v. South Africa), Second Phase, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1966, p. 51, para. 99). The Court’s decision was severely criticized by the Member States of the United Nations and prompted the General Assembly to adopt the decision placing South West Africa under the direct responsibility of the United Nations. 31. The South West Africa cases stand as a constant reminder that in cases where the common interest of the international community is purportedly at stake, the issue of standing of the applicant must be handled with great care. For the purpose of the present case, it is worthwhile to put the South West Africa cases into perspective. After the dissolution of the League of Nations, the mandate for South West Africa entrusted to the Union of South Africa by the League continued to exist. By virtue of the Court’s Advisory Opinion relating to the international status of South-West Africa, the Union of South Africa as the mandatory remained obliged to submit petitions from the inhabitants of the mandated territory as well as annual reports concerning its administration of the territory to the United Nations for the latter’s exercise of its supervisory functions (International Status of South West Africa, Advisory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports 1950, p. 143). The Union of South Africa, however, adopted apartheid in the territory and refused to fulfil its obligations under the mandate. In 1960, Ethiopia and Liberia instituted proceedings against the Union of South Africa in the Court. 32. In his dissenting opinion appended to the Court’s Judgment in the second phase, Judge Wellington Koo, then Vice-President, described the character of the mandate for South West Africa as follows: “The mandates system has a complex character all of its own, with a set of general and particular obligations for the mandatory to observe or carry out, and with a scheme of multiple control and supervision by the League of Nations with its Council, Assembly, member States and the Permanent Mandates Commission and with judicial protection in the last resort by the Permanent Court. It is a novel international institution. Nothing of the kind had existed before. It is sui generis.” (South West Africa (Ethiopia v. South Africa; Liberia v. South Africa), Second Phase, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1966, dissenting opinion of Vice-President Wellington Koo, p. 217.) - 10 - This sui generis system, in Judge Koo’s words, constituted an international joint enterprise. Among the guarantees provided therefore to ensure its success, an adjudication clause was inserted into Article 7, paragraph 2, of the Mandate for South West Africa, which reads as follows: “The Mandatory agrees that, if any dispute whatever should arise between the Mandatory and another Member of the League of Nations relating to the interpretation or the application of the provisions of the Mandate, such dispute, if it cannot be settled by negotiation, shall be submitted to the Permanent Court of International Justice provided for by Article 14 of the Covenant of the League of Nations.” (Ibid., p. 218.) With regard to the Court’s view that the applicants as individual member States had no legal right or interest in the case, Judge Koo referred to Article 22 of the Covenant and the mandate agreement, by virtue of which, in his view, member States of the League had the legal right and interest in the observation by the mandatory of its obligations both toward the inhabitants of the mandated territory, and toward the League and its members. The adjudication clause was intended as the last resort to enable the member States to seek judicial protection of such right and interest. Obviously, standing of the member States before the Court was based on the statutory provisions of the mandate rather than merely on a common interest; it was granted in advance to the individual member States of the League, and subsequently the member States of the United Nations, on the basis of the consent of the member States (South West Africa (Ethiopia v. South Africa; Liberia v. South Africa), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1962, p. 343). This unique system cannot be generalized to all other conventions, where a common interest of the States parties may exist. 33. Largely as a rectification of its position taken in the South West Africa cases, the Court in the Barcelona Traction case made its first pronouncement on the concept of obligation erga omnes, recognizing the common interest of the international community as a whole in the protection of certain important rights. It stated that “an essential distinction should be drawn between the obligations of a State towards the international community as a whole, and those arising vis-à-vis another State in the field of diplomatic protection. By their very nature the former are the concern of all States. In view of the importance of the rights involved, all States can be held to have a legal interest in their protection; they are obligations erga omnes.” (Barcelona Traction, Light and Power Company, Limited (New Application: 1962) (Belgium v. Spain), Second Phase, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1970, p. 32, para. 33.) The Court, however, stopped short of indicating whether such obligations, either on the basis of treaty provisions or customary international law, would by themselves provide standing for any State to institute proceedings against any other State before the Court for the protection of the common interest. 34. Since Barcelona Traction, the Court has referred to obligations erga omnes in a number of other cases, in none of which, however, it dealt with the relationship between such obligations and the question of standing (see East Timor (Portugal v. Australia), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1995, p. 102, para. 29; Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Yugoslavia), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1996 (II), pp. 615-616, para. 31; Legal Consequences of the Construction of a Wall in the Occupied Palestinian Territory, Advisory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports 2004 (I), p. 199, paras. 155-157; Armed Activities on the Territory of the Congo (New Application: 2002) (Democratic Republic of the Congo v. Rwanda), Jurisdiction and Admissibility, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2006, pp. 31-32, para. 64; Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Serbia and Montenegro), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2007 (I), p. 104, para. 147). In the Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Serbia and Montenegro case, with regard to the - 11 - applicant’s request that the Court make rulings about acts of genocide and other unlawful acts allegedly committed against “non-Serbs” outside its own territory by the respondent, the Court recognized that this request could concern questions about the legal interest or standing of the applicant in respect of such matters and the significance of the jus cogens character of the relevant norms. Before turning to those questions, however, the Court found that the evidence offered by the applicant did not in any way support its allegations and, therefore, it did not see the need to address those questions of law (Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Serbia and Montenegro), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2007 (I), p. 120, para. 185). 35. The only case in which the Court explicitly affirms the entitlement of a State party to make a claim against another State party on the basis of the common interest in compliance with the obligations erga omnes partes is the Questions relating to the Obligation to Prosecute or Extradite (Belgium v. Senegal) case. On the issue of standing, I will not repeat my dissenting opinion appended to that Judgment but highlight three points. 36. First, the issue raised by the applicant in Belgium v. Senegal essentially concerns the interpretation and application of the principle of extradition or prosecution, aut dedere aut judicare, under Article 7, paragraph 1, of the Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment (hereinafter the “Convention against Torture”), with Article 5 establishing universal jurisdiction over criminal offences of torture as defined in that convention. As its national courts were seised of cases against Mr. Hissène Habré, the former President of Chad, for alleged torture offences, Belgium was a specially affected State in the case. By virtue of its national law and Article 8 of the Convention against Torture, Belgium had the right to make a request to Senegal for the extradition of the alleged offender. According to Article 7, paragraph 1, if a State party in whose territory the alleged offender is found decides not to extradite the person concerned, it is obliged to submit the case to its competent authorities for the purpose of prosecution. Belgium claimed that the respondent, having failed to prosecute Mr. Habré and refused to extradite him to Belgium, had breached its obligation under Article 7, paragraph 1, of that convention. Logically, whether Senegal had fulfilled its obligation under Article 6, paragraph 2, to conduct preliminary inquiry into the facts of the alleged offences constituted part of the legal issues relating to the principle of extradition or prosecution. 37. In any event, the Court’s pronouncement on the obligations erga omnes partes cannot be taken as a legal basis for Belgium’s standing in the case before the Court. The issue that involves Belgium’s standing relates to the question whether Belgium remained competent to request the extradition of the alleged offender as a result of the amendments to its national laws. In 1993, Belgium enacted a national law establishing universal jurisdiction for its national courts in respect of war crimes (Law on the repression of grave breaches of the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949 and Protocols I and II of 8 June 1977 (Loi relative à la répression des infractions graves aux Conventions internationales de Genève du 12 août 1949 et aux Protocoles I et II du 8 juin 1977), 16 June 1993, Art. 7). In 1999, the scope of punishable offences subject to universal jurisdiction under the 1993 act was expanded to include genocide and crimes against humanity, including torture (Act concerning the punishment of grave breaches of international humanitarian law (Loi relative à la répression des violations graves de droit international humanitaire), 10 February 1999, Art. 1 (1)-(2)). In April 2003, a further amendment was made to the law, requiring a request from the Federal Prosecutor for the criminal investigation of a complaint on the basis of universal jurisdiction (Law amending the law of 16 June 1993 concerning the prohibition of grave breaches of international humanitarian law and article 144ter of the judicial code (Loi modifiant la loi du 16 juin 1993 relative à la répression des violations graves du droit international humanitaire et l’article 144ter du Code judiciaire), 23 April 2003, Art. 5). The 1993 act as thus amended was repealed by an act of 5 August 2003, which also amended the Code of Criminal Procedure. Among the changes introduced therein, - 12 - the new act provides that there must exist some requisite link with Belgium for prosecution of the alleged offences previously proscribed by the 1993 act (Law on grave breaches of international humanitarian law (Loi relative aux violations graves du droit international humanitaire), 5 August 2003, Art. 16 (1)-(2)). All of the above changes to Belgium’s criminal law and procedure preceded Belgium’s application instituting proceedings before the Court in the Obligation to Prosecute or Extradite case. Although Belgium’s criminal investigations against Mr. Hissène Habré could be traced back to 2000 and were being conducted pursuant to the 1993 act as amended in 1999, it was only in 2005 that a Belgian investigating judge issued an international warrant in absentia for Mr. Habré’s arrest and that Belgium subsequently requested his extradition. During the proceedings before the Court, Belgium claimed that the act of 5 August 2003 “imposes no bar to such universal jurisdiction, because the 2003 Law provides that investigations [that] begun before its entry into force may be pursued if they follow from complaints filed by Belgians” (Questions relating to the Obligation to Prosecute or Extradite (Belgium v. Senegal), Memorial of the Kingdom of Belgium, 1 July 2010, Vol. I, p. 20). Apparently, the issue for the Court to decide was whether Belgium was competent in accordance with Article 5 of the Convention against Torture to maintain its request for extradition of Mr. Habré in light of the changes to its national law. The matter concerns the conditions for extradition rather than the obligation to prosecute. The Court’s reasoning that “[i]f a special interest were required for that purpose, in many cases no State would be in the position to make such a claim”, a purported ground for Belgium’s standing in the case, does not, in my view, fit into the situation where the principle of extradition or prosecution is applicable. 38. Secondly, the Court has consistently maintained a clear distinction between substantive norms and procedural rules. It has firmly held that “the erga omnes character of a norm and the rule of consent to jurisdiction are two different things” (East Timor (Portugal v. Australia), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1995, p. 102, para. 29). This position is reiterated in Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide ((Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Serbia and Montenegro), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2007 (I), p. 104, para. 147) (see also Jurisdictional Immunities of the State (Germany v. Italy: Greece intervening), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2012 (I), p. 140, para. 93). The inference drawn from the common interest in the Belgium v. Senegal case and the present case confuses the legal interest of the States parties in the compliance with the substantive obligations of the Genocide Convention and the procedure for dispute settlement. 39. Thirdly, the common interest enunciated by the Court in the Advisory Opinion exists not solely in the Genocide Convention. As the Court found in the Belgium v. Senegal case, the States parties to the Convention against Torture also have a common interest in compliance with the relevant obligations under that convention, which are characterized as obligations erga omnes partes. By analogy, such common interest could equally be identified in many other conventions relating to, for example, human rights, disarmament and environment. If obligations under those conventions are therefore regarded as obligations erga omnes partes, by virtue of the Court’s reasoning in the present case, it means that any of the States parties, specially affected or not by an alleged breach of the relevant obligations, would have standing to institute proceedings in the Court against the alleged State party, provided no reservation to the jurisdiction of the Court is entered by either of the parties. This approach has two potential consequences: one is that more States would make reservations to the jurisdiction of the Court and the second is that India’s concern expressed during the negotiation process on Article IX of the Genocide Convention over vague and insubstantial allegations may be raised again. 40. The situation of the Rohingyas in Myanmar deserves serious responses from the international community. If there is evidence suggesting that there may be commission of genocidal acts in Myanmar, various organs of the United Nations possess powers which can be exercised for the prevention and suppression of acts of genocide pursuant to the initiative of one or more United Nations Member States, even without the exercise of the right under Article VIII of the - 13 - Genocide Convention. The fact is that the situation of Myanmar and the Rohingya refugees has been on the agenda of various United Nations organs for years. The human rights situation of the Rohingyas has also been under the investigation of a UN Fact-Finding Mission and the Special Rapporteur for Myanmar. Above all, Myanmar remains bound by its obligations under the Genocide Convention. 41. The situation in Myanmar, as is found in the 2017 Final Report of the Advisory Commission on Rakhine State, represents a development crisis, a human rights crisis and a security crisis; while all communities have suffered from violence and abuse, protracted statelessness and profound discrimination have made the Muslim community particularly vulnerable to human rights violations. As Kofi Annan, chairman of the Advisory Commission, pointed out, “the challenges facing Rakhine State and its peoples are complex and the search for lasting solutions will require determination, perseverance and trust” (Statement by Kofi Annan, Chair of the Advisory Commission on Rakhine State (Interim Report), 16 March 2017). (Signed) XUE Hanqin. ___________

Bilingual Content

520
47
DISSENTING OPINION OF JUDGE XUE
1. Much to my regret, I am unable to concur with the decision of the
Court that The Gambia has standing in the present case, which leads me
to vote against paragraph 115 (4) and (5). Pursuant to Article 57 of the
Statute, I will explain the reasons for my dissent.
2. The Gambia’s institution of the proceedings against Myanmar
before the Court for the protection of the common interest of the States
parties to the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime
of Genocide (hereinafter the “Genocide Convention” or the “Convention”)
is, in essence, a collective lawsuit, which renders this case exceptional.
Notwithstanding its purported objective, The Gambia’s legal action
raises some fundamental issues that bear on the statutory framework
of the judicial mechanism for dispute settlement under the Charter of
the United Nations. The way in which Article IX of the Genocide Convention
is being interpreted in the Judgment, in my opinion, deviates
from the rules on treaty interpretation and the settled jurisprudence of the
Court with regard to the Genocide Convention.
I. Access to the Court and the Nature of the Case
3. In its first preliminary objection, the Respondent claims that the
Court lacks jurisdiction, or alternatively that the Application is inadmissible,
because the real applicant in these proceedings is the Organisation
of Islamic Cooperation (hereinafter the “OIC”), which cannot be a party
to proceedings before the Court pursuant to Article 34, paragraph 1, of
the Statute. It argues that this objection concerns both law and fact.
4. Myanmar’s first preliminary objection raises a substantive issue,
namely, whether the Court is competent under the Statute to entertain a
case which is in fact initiated by an international organization and
entrusted to one of its members to act on its behalf. The evidence and
documents adduced by the Respondent, in my view, sufficiently prove
that The Gambia was tasked and appointed by the OIC to institute the
proceedings against Myanmar in the Court. This is not only supported by
the resolutions adopted by the OIC, but also publicly acknowledged by
its Member States, in particular The Gambia itself. As is recalled in the
Judgment, The Gambia expressly announced in the United Nations General
Assembly that “it would champion an accountability mechanism for
the alleged crimes against the Rohingya” and “lead concerted efforts to
520
47
OPINION DISSIDENTE DE Mme LA JUGE XUE
[Traduction]
1. A mon grand regret, je ne peux souscrire à la décision de la Cour
selon laquelle la Gambie a qualité pour agir en la présente espèce, ce qui
m’a amenée à voter contre les points 4 et 5 du dispositif de l’arrêt. En
application de l’article 57 du Statut, j’exposerai ci-
après les raisons de ma
position dissidente.
2. L’introduction par la Gambie de l’instance contre le Myanmar
devant la Cour pour la protection de l’intérêt commun des Etats parties à
la convention pour la prévention et la répression du crime de génocide
(ci-
après la « convention sur le génocide » ou la « convention ») constitue,
par essence, une action collective, ce qui rend cette affaire exceptionnelle.
Nonobstant son objectif affiché, l’action en justice de la Gambie soulève
certaines questions fondamentales qui ont trait au cadre statutaire du
mécanisme judiciaire de règlement des différends prévu par la Charte des
Nations Unies. L’interprétation de l’article IX de la convention sur le
génocide qui est retenue dans l’arrêt s’écarte, selon moi, des règles d’interprétation
des traités et de la jurisprudence constante de la Cour concernant
cet instrument.
I. Accès à la Cour et nature de l’affaire
3. Dans sa première exception préliminaire, le défendeur affirmait que
la Cour n’avait pas compétence ou, à titre subsidiaire, que la requête était
irrecevable, car le véritable demandeur en l’espèce était l’Organisation de
la coopération islamique (ci-après l’« OCI »), qui ne saurait être partie à
une instance devant la Cour aux termes du paragraphe 1 de l’article 34 du
Statut. Il faisait valoir que cette exception avait trait à la fois à des questions
de droit et de fait.
4. La première exception préliminaire du Myanmar soulevait une question
de fond, celle de savoir si la Cour a compétence au regard du Statut
pour connaître d’une affaire qui est en fait initiée par une organisation
internationale, laquelle a confié à l’un de ses membres la mission d’agir en
son nom. Les éléments de preuve et documents produits par le défendeur
démontrent suffisamment, à mon sens, que l’OCI a chargé la Gambie d’introduire
l’instance contre le Myanmar devant la Cour et l’a désignée à cet
effet, ce qui est non seulement étayé par les résolutions adoptées par ladite
organisation, mais aussi reconnu publiquement par ses Etats membres, en
particulier la Gambie elle‑même. Comme rappelé dans l’arrêt,
celle-
ci a
expressément annoncé à l’Assemblée générale des Nations Unies qu’elle
avait l’intention de « plaider[] pour la mise en place d’un mécanisme de
521 application of the genocide convention (diss. op. xue)
48
take the Rohingya issue to the International Court of Justice on behalf of
the Organization of Islamic Cooperation” (United Nations, Official
Records of the General Assembly, UN doc. A/74/PV.8, 26 September 2019,
p. 31, emphasis added (Judgment, paras. 69 and 73)). Being the chair of
the Ad hoc Ministerial Committee on Accountability for Human Rights
Violations against the Rohingyas established by resolution No. 59/45-
POL of the OIC Council of Foreign Ministers in May 2018, The Gambia
is specifically instructed and directed by the OIC to take legal action in
the International Court of Justice. Moreover, the decision to file a case in
the Court was negotiated and agreed upon among its members, particularly
with regard to the representation and funding of the envisaged legal
action (OIC, Report of the Ad Hoc Ministerial Committee on Human
Rights Violations against the Rohingya, 25 September 2019; OIC, resolution
No. 59/47-POL on the Work of the OIC Ad Hoc Ministerial Committee
on Accountability for Human Rights Violations against the
Rohingyas, November 2020; OIC Secretary General Thanks the ISF for
its Support in Financing the Rohingya Case at the ICJ, OIC press release,
7 October 2020).
5. The Gambia does not deny those facts but maintains that it instituted
the proceedings in its own name and has a dispute with Myanmar
regarding “its own rights” as a State party to the Genocide Convention.
Notably, The Gambia does not claim any link with the alleged acts in
Myanmar. In its own words, it has no individual interest in the case but
acts for the common interest of the States parties. Given its character,
The Gambia’s legal action, either for the common interest of the OIC
Member States, or for the common interest of the States parties to the
Genocide Convention, is arguably tantamount to a public-interest
litigation.
6. In rejecting the Respondent’s first preliminary objection, the Court
simply dismisses as irrelevant Myanmar’s evidence relating to the OIC’s
decision and its financial support for The Gambia’s legal action. In the
Court’s view, those factors do not detract from The Gambia’s status as
the Applicant before the Court, and The Gambia’s motivation to commence
the proceedings is irrelevant for establishing the jurisdiction of the
Court. This reasoning, in my view, is evasive of the real hard issue before
the Court.
7. Article 34, paragraph 1, of the Statute provides that “[o]nly States
may be parties in cases before the Court”. By virtue of that provision,
international organizations do not enjoy access to the Court. The issue in
the present case is not in whose name the proceedings are instituted, what
motive the Applicant may pursue, or who has arranged the litigation
team; no one has ever challenged The Gambia’s capacity to have access
to the Court. The matter for the Court to determine is whether The Gambia
is acting on behalf of the OIC for the common interest of its member
application de convention génocide (op. diss. xue) 521
48
responsabilisation concernant les crimes qui auraient été commis contre
les Rohingya » et de « jouer un rôle de chef de file dans le cadre d’efforts
concertés visant à porter la question des Rohingya devant la Cour internationale
de Justice au nom de l’Organisation de la coopération islamique »
(Nations Unies, Documents officiels de l’Assemblée générale, doc. A/74/
PV.8, 26 septembre 2019, p. 34 (les italiques sont de moi (arrêt, par. 69
et 73)). En sa qualité de présidente du comité ministériel ad hoc de l’OCI
sur la reddition de comptes pour les violations des droits humains à l’égard
des Rohingya, créé par la résolution no 59/45-POL du conseil des ministres
des affaires étrangères de l’OCI en mai 2018, la Gambie a été expressément
chargée par l’OCI d’introduire une instance devant la Cour internationale
de Justice. En outre, la décision de saisir la Cour a été négociée entre les
membres de l’OCI, qui sont notamment convenus des modalités de représentation
et de financement de l’action judiciaire envisagée (OCI, Report
of the Ad Hoc Ministerial Committee on Human Rights Violations against
the Rohingya, 25 septembre 2019 ; OCI, résolution no 59/47-POL sur les
travaux du comité ministériel ad hoc sur la reddition de comptes pour les
violations des droits humains à l’égard des Rohingya, novembre 2020 ; OIC
Secretary General Thanks the ISF for its Support in Financing the Rohingya
Case at the ICJ, communiqué de presse de l’OCI, 7 octobre 2020).
5. La Gambie ne contestait pas ces faits mais soutenait qu’elle avait
introduit l’instance en son nom propre et qu’un différend l’opposait au
Myanmar au sujet de « ses propres droits » en tant qu’Etat partie à la
convention sur le génocide. Il est à noter qu’elle ne revendique aucun lien
avec les actes qui auraient été commis au Myanmar. Selon ses propres
termes, elle n’a pas d’intérêt individuel dans l’affaire mais agit dans l’intérêt
commun des Etats parties. Compte tenu de sa nature, l’action judiciaire
de la Gambie, qu’elle soit engagée dans l’intérêt commun des Etats
membres de l’OCI ou dans l’intérêt commun des Etats parties à la convention
sur le génocide, peut être assimilée à un litige d’intérêt public.
6. En rejetant la première exception préliminaire du défendeur, la Cour
a purement et simplement jugé non pertinents les éléments de preuve présentés
par le Myanmar concernant la décision de l’OCI et le soutien financier
apporté par celle-
ci à l’action judiciaire de la Gambie. De son point
de vue, ces facteurs ne modifient en rien le statut de la Gambie en tant
que demandeur devant elle et les raisons ayant motivé cet Etat à engager
la procédure n’entrent pas en ligne de compte pour établir sa compétence.
Ce raisonnement, à mon sens, élude l’épineuse question qui se posait en
réalité à la Cour.
7. Le paragraphe 1 de l’article 34 du Statut dispose que « [s]euls les
Etats ont qualité pour se présenter devant la Cour ». En application de
cette disposition, les organisations internationales n’ont pas accès à la
Cour. En l’espèce, la question n’était pas de savoir au nom de qui la procédure
avait été engagée, quelles étaient les motivations du demandeur ou
qui avait constitué l’équipe juridique ; personne n’a jamais contesté la
capacité de la Gambie d’avoir accès à la Cour. La question que devait
trancher la Cour était de savoir si la Gambie agissait au nom de l’OCI
522 application of the genocide convention (diss. op. xue)
49
States, some of which are parties to the Genocide Convention, while others
are not. The evidence shows that the issue of the Rohingyas was never
considered as a bilateral dispute between The Gambia and Myanmar in
the OIC. It was the OIC, not The Gambia, which took the decision to
submit the issue of the Rohingyas to the International Court of Justice,
and The Gambia was entrusted to find a proper way to implement the
OIC’s decision. Although The Gambia independently made its decision
to institute proceedings in the Court, the fact remains that The Gambia’s
legal action is initiated by the OIC and that The Gambia is acting under
the mandate and with the financial support of the OIC.
8. To establish the existence of a bilateral dispute between the parties,
there must be some link — a territorial, national or other form of connection
— between the applicant and the alleged acts of the respondent. This
linkage requirement has a substantive bearing on the merits phase. Allegations
of genocide or other genocidal acts require serious investigation
and proof. When the applicant has no link whatsoever with the alleged
acts, it is apparently difficult, if not impossible, for it to collect evidence
and conduct investigations on its own. Relying entirely on the evidence
and material sources collected by third parties, for example United Nations
organs, human rights bodies or the State concerned, only reinforces the
argument that the case is a public-interest
action, actio popularis. Such
action, even in the form of a bilateral dispute, may in fact allow international
organizations to have access to the Court in the future.
9. Although I agree with the Court’s finding that the conduct of
The Gambia to institute the proceedings before the Court does not amount
to an abuse of process, I doubt very much the Court’s conclusion that there
are no other grounds of inadmissibility which would require it to decline
the exercise of its jurisdiction (Judgment, para. 49). Judicial propriety,
in my view, is a relevant issue under the circumstances of the present case.
In the administration of justice, the Court must ensure that the principles
of international adjudication be observed, both in form and in substance.
10. Under the Statute, the Court’s function in contentious cases is confined
to disputes between two or more States. The bilateral and adversarial
structure of the dispute settlement mechanism is reflected in the procedural
rules of the Court. Such rules are not suitable to entertain public-interest
actions. When the applicant is in fact acting on behalf of an international
organization, albeit in its own name, the respondent may be placed in a
disadvantageous position before the Court. This is particularly true if several
judges on the bench are nationals of member States of the international
organization concerned. With the organization in the shadow,
inequality of the Parties may be hidden in the composition of the Court,
thereby undermining the principle of equality of the parties, one of the
fundamental principles of the Court for dispute settlement. However desirable
it is to provide judicial protection to the victims of the alleged acts,
application de convention génocide (op. diss. xue) 522
49
dans l’intérêt commun de ses Etats membres, dont certains sont parties à
la convention sur le génocide et d’autres non. Or, il ressort des éléments
de preuve que la question des Rohingya n’a jamais été considérée comme
un différend bilatéral entre la Gambie et le Myanmar au sein de l’OCI.
C’est cette organisation, et non la Gambie, qui a pris la décision de soumettre
la question des Rohingya à la Cour internationale de Justice, et la
Gambie a été chargée de trouver un moyen approprié de donner suite à sa
décision. Bien que la Gambie ait décidé de manière indépendante d’engager
une procédure devant la Cour, il n’en demeure pas moins que son
action judiciaire est initiée par l’OCI et qu’elle agit sous mandat de cette
dernière et avec son soutien financier.
8. Pour établir l’existence d’un différend bilatéral entre les parties, il doit
exister un lien — territorial, national ou autre — entre le demandeur et les
actes allégués du défendeur. Cette exigence a une incidence importante sur
la phase de l’examen au fond. Les allégations de génocide ou d’autres actes
génocidaires nécessitent une enquête et des preuves solides. Lorsque le
demandeur n’a pas le moindre lien avec les actes allégués, il lui est, semblet-
il, difficile, voire impossible, de recueillir des éléments de preuve et de
mener une enquête par ses propres moyens. Le fait de s’appuyer entièrement
sur les preuves et les sources matérielles recueillies par des tiers, par exemple
des organes des Nations Unies, des organismes de défense des droits de
l’homme ou l’Etat concerné, ne fait que renforcer l’argument selon lequel
l’affaire est une action d’intérêt public ou actio popularis. Une telle action,
même si elle revêt la forme d’un différend bilatéral, pourrait de fait, à terme,
permettre aux organisations internationales d’avoir accès à la Cour.
9. Bien que je souscrive à la constatation de la Cour selon laquelle la
façon dont la Gambie a introduit la présente instance ne constitue pas un
abus de procédure, la conclusion de la Cour selon laquelle il n’existait pas
d’autres motifs d’irrecevabilité lui imposant de décliner l’exercice de sa
compétence m’inspire les plus sérieux doutes (arrêt, par. 49). L’opportunité
judiciaire était, à mon sens, une question pertinente dans les circonstances
de la présente affaire. Dans l’administration de la justice, la Cour
doit en effet veiller à ce que les principes du système judiciaire international
soient respectés, tant sur la forme que sur le fond.
10. Aux termes du Statut, la fonction de la Cour en matière contentieuse
se limite aux différends entre deux ou plusieurs Etats. La structure bilatérale
et contradictoire du mécanisme de règlement des différends trouve son
expression dans les règles de procédure de la Cour. Or, ces règles ne sont pas
adaptées à l’examen d’actions d’intérêt public. Le fait que le demandeur
agisse en réalité pour le compte d’une organisation internationale, fût-ce en
son nom propre, peut placer le défendeur dans une position défavorable
devant la Cour. Cela est d’autant plus vrai lorsque plusieurs juges siégeant
en l’affaire sont des ressortissants d’Etats membres de l’organisation internationale
en question. Compte tenu de la présence de l’organisation en arrièreplan,
une inégalité pourrait se cacher dans la composition de la Cour et
compromettre ainsi le principe de l’égalité des parties, l’un des principes fondamentaux
de la Cour aux fins du règlement des différends. Aussi souhaitable
523 application of the genocide convention (diss. op. xue)
50
the respondent is entitled to a fair legal process in accordance with the
provisions of the Statute and the Rules of Court. For a comparison, reference
may be made to the International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea
(hereinafter “ITLOS”). Under Articles 20 and 37 of its Statute, ITLOS
and its Seabed Disputes Chamber shall be open to specific entities, including
certain international organizations. Article 22 of the Rules of the Tribunal
provides that an international organization which is a party to a
dispute before the Tribunal has the right to choose a judge ad hoc if there
is a judge of the nationality of a State that is the other party to the dispute
and if there is no judge of the nationality of one of the member States of
the international organization (Rules of the Tribunal, 25 March 2021,
ITLOS/8, Art. 22 (1)-(2)). Equally, “[w]here an international organization
is a party to a case and there is upon the bench a judge of the nationality
of a member State of the organization, the other party may choose a judge
ad hoc” (ibid., Art. 22 (3)). It is further provided that “[w]here two or more
judges on the bench are nationals of member States of the international
organization concerned . . . the President may . . . request one or more
such judges to withdraw” (ibid., Art. 22 (4)). Clearly, proper identification
of the character of a legal action before the Court directly concerns the
good administration of justice.
11. Moreover, The Gambia’s legal action may challenge the principle
of finality in the adjudication of the dispute. Articles 59 and 60 of the
Statute provide that the decision of the Court has no binding force except
between the parties and in respect of that particular case and that the
decision of the Court shall be final and without appeal. In the present
case, if any State party has standing to take legal action in the Court for
the protection of the common interest of the States parties in compliance
with the obligations erga omnes partes of the Genocide Convention, one
may wonder whether the Court’s decision has binding force on all other
States parties as well. According to Article 59, the effect of res judicata of
the judgment should be limited solely to the parties. It follows that, at
least in theory, those States parties will not be prevented from exercising
their right to institute separate proceedings for the same cause against the
same State before the Court. This is not a far‑fetched concern. In considering
The Gambia’s standing, the Court states that the situation with
Bangladesh does not affect the right of all other States parties to assert
the common interest in compliance with the obligations erga omnes partes
under the Convention (Judgment, para. 113). In other words, according
to the Court, even if Bangladesh is regarded as a specially affected State,
whether it files a case or not does not affect the right of other States parties
to institute proceedings before the Court. This reasoning apparently
is not in line with the rules of State responsibility.
12. These concerns give rise to the issue of judicial propriety for the
Court to consider whether it is appropriate to exercise jurisdiction in
the present case. Ultimately, they boil down to the very question whether
application de convention génocide (op. diss. xue) 523
50
que soit la protection judiciaire des victimes des actes allégués, le défendeur
a droit à un procès équitable conformément aux dispositions du Statut et du
Règlement de la Cour. A titre de comparaison, on peut se référer au Tribunal
international du droit de la mer (ci-après le « TIDM »). Aux termes des
articles 20 et 37 de son Statut, le TIDM et sa Chambre pour le règlement des
différends relatifs aux fonds marins sont ouverts à des entités déterminées,
dont certaines organisations internationales. L’article 22 du Règlement du
Tribunal prévoit qu’une organisation internationale qui est partie à un différend
devant celui-
ci peut désigner un juge ad hoc si le Tribunal compte sur le
siège un juge de la nationalité d’un Etat qui est l’autre partie au différend et
s’il ne compte pas sur le siège de juge de la nationalité de l’un de ses
Etats membres (Règlement du Tribunal, 25 mars 2021, ITLOS/8, art. 22,
par. 1‑2). De même, « [s]i une organisation internationale est partie à une
affaire et que le Tribunal compte sur le siège un juge de la nationalité d’un
Etat membre de cette organisation, la partie adverse peut désigner un juge
ad hoc » (ibid., art. 22, par. 3). Il est en outre prévu que, « [s]i le Tribunal
compte sur le siège deux ou plusieurs juges de la nationalité des Etats membres
de l’organisation internationale concernée … le Président peut … demander
à un ou plusieurs de ces juges de se retirer » (ibid., art. 22, par. 4). De toute
évidence, la détermination adéquate de la nature d’une action judiciaire devant
la Cour a une incidence directe sur la bonne administration de la justice.
11. En outre, l’action judiciaire de la Gambie peut remettre en cause le
principe du caractère définitif de l’arrêt. Les articles 59 et 60 du Statut
disposent que la décision de la Cour n’est obligatoire qu’entre les parties
au litige et pour le cas qui a été décidé, et que l’arrêt de la Cour est définitif
et sans recours. En la présente espèce, si tout Etat partie a qualité
pour saisir la Cour afin de protéger l’intérêt commun qu’ont les Etats
parties à ce que les obligations erga omnes partes de la convention sur le
génocide soient respectées, il est permis de se demander si la décision de
la Cour a également force obligatoire pour tous les autres Etats parties.
Selon l’article 59, l’autorité de la chose jugée qui s’attache à l’arrêt ne doit
concerner que les parties en litige. Il s’ensuit que, du moins en théorie, les
autres Etats parties gardent la possibilité d’exercer leur droit d’engager
devant la Cour des procédures distinctes pour la même cause contre le
même Etat. Il ne s’agit pas là d’une préoccupation dénuée de fondement.
En examinant la question de la qualité pour agir de la Gambie, la Cour a
précisé que la situation du Bangladesh n’avait pas d’incidence sur le droit
de tous les autres Etats parties de faire valoir l’intérêt commun à ce qu’il
soit satisfait aux obligations erga omnes partes énoncées dans la convention
(arrêt, par. 113). Autrement dit, selon la Cour, même si le Bangladesh
est considéré comme un Etat spécialement atteint, le fait qu’il dépose
ou non une requête n’a aucune incidence sur le droit des autres Etats
parties d’engager une procédure devant la Cour. Ce raisonnement n’est,
semble-t-il, pas conforme aux règles de la responsabilité de l’Etat.
12. Les préoccupations exposées ci-
dessus
soulevaient la question de
l’opportunité judiciaire pour la Cour d’examiner s’il convenait d’exercer
sa compétence en l’espèce. En définitive, elles débouchent sur le point
524 application of the genocide convention (diss. op. xue)
51
the “dispute” over the alleged acts of Myanmar could be settled by the
Court as wished by The Gambia or the OIC.
II. Article IX and the Issue of Standing
13. In the present case, largely due to the character of The Gambia’s
legal action, the question of jurisdiction ratione personae and the issue of
standing are delicately interlinked. Whether Article IX of the Convention
provides jurisdiction ratione personae to a non-injured
State party also
bears on the standing of the Applicant.
14. In determining whether it has jurisdiction ratione personae in the
case with regard to the Respondent’s first preliminary objection, the
Court only examines whether The Gambia meets the conditions laid
down in Articles 34 and 35 of the Statute, without examining the terms of
the compromissory clause of the Genocide Convention, which is considered
only in relation to the question of standing under Myanmar’s second
preliminary objection. Articles 34 and 35, however, basically concern the
right or “the legal capacity” of a party to appear before the Court, which
is a question of statutory requirements for access to the Court, not a
matter
of consent for jurisdiction (Legality of Use of Force (Serbia and
Montenegro v. Belgium), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports
2004 (I), p. 295, para. 36). As is pointed out above, the issue before the
Court is not about The Gambia’s legal capacity to institute the proceedings,
but whether the Court has jurisdiction ratione personae to entertain
the case instituted by a non-injured
State. The matter relates, first and
foremost, to the interpretation of Article IX of the Genocide Convention,
namely whether the States parties have agreed to grant a general standing
to all the States parties for the invocation of responsibility of any other
State party solely on the basis of their common interest in compliance
with the obligations under the Convention.
15. Article IX of the Genocide Convention reads as follows:
“Disputes between the Contracting Parties relating to the interpretation,
application or fulfilment of the present Convention, including
those relating to the responsibility of a State for genocide or for any
of the other acts enumerated in article III, shall be submitted to the
International Court of Justice at the request of any of the parties to
the dispute.”
16. The wording of Article IX, per se, does not indicate much about
what exactly was intended by the contracting parties. In response to
Myanmar’s argument that The Gambia, as a non-injured
State, has no
standing in the case, the Court states the following:
“[T]he terms of Article IX providing that disputes are to be submitted
to the Court ‘at the request of any of the parties to the dispute’,
application de convention génocide (op. diss. xue) 524
51
même de savoir si le « différend » relatif aux actes allégués du Myanmar
peut être tranché par la Cour comme le souhaitent la Gambie ou l’OCI.
II. Article IX et question de la qualité pour agir
13. En l’espèce, en raison principalement de la nature de l’action judiciaire
de la Gambie, la question de la compétence ratione personae et celle
de la qualité pour agir sont étroitement liées. Le point de savoir si l’article
IX de la convention confère une compétence ratione personae à
l’égard d’un Etat partie non lésé a également une incidence sur la qualité
pour agir du demandeur.
14. Pour déterminer si elle avait compétence ratione personae à l’égard
de la première exception préliminaire du défendeur, la Cour s’est contentée
de rechercher si la Gambie remplissait les conditions énoncées aux
articles 34 et 35 du Statut, sans analyser les termes de la clause compromissoire
de la convention sur le génocide, qui n’a été prise en compte qu’en
relation avec la question de la qualité pour agir au titre de la deuxième
exception préliminaire du Myanmar. Or, les articles 34 et 35 concernent
essentiellement le droit ou « la capacité juridique » d’une partie de saisir la
Cour, ce qui est une question de conditions d’accès à la Cour relevant du
Statut et non une question de consentement à la compétence (Licéité de
l’emploi de la force (Serbie‑et‑Monténégro c. Belgique), exceptions préliminaires,
arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2004 (I), p. 295, par. 36). Comme il a été souligné
plus haut, la question qui se posait à la Cour était non pas celle de la
capacité juridique de la Gambie d’engager la procédure, mais celle de savoir
si la Cour avait compétence ratione personae pour connaître de l’affaire
portée devant elle par un Etat non lésé. Ce qui était en cause avant tout ici,
c’était l’interprétation de l’article IX de la convention sur le génocide,
c’est‑à‑dire le point de savoir si les Etats parties sont convenus d’accorder à
tous les Etats parties une qualité générale pour invoquer la responsabilité
de tout autre Etat partie sur la seule base de leur intérêt commun à ce que
soient respectées les obligations découlant de la convention.
15. L’article IX de la convention sur le génocide se lit comme suit :
« Les différends entre les Parties contractantes relatifs à l’interprétation,
l’application ou l’exécution de la présente Convention, y compris
ceux relatifs à la responsabilité d’un Etat en matière de génocide
ou de l’un quelconque des autres actes énumérés à l’article III, seront
soumis à la Cour internationale de Justice, à la requête d’une partie
au différend. »
16. Le libellé de l’article IX, en soi, ne donne guère d’indications quant
à l’intention précise des parties contractantes. En réponse à l’argument du
Myanmar selon lequel la Gambie, en tant qu’Etat non lésé, n’avait pas
qualité pour agir en l’espèce, la Cour a déclaré ce qui suit :
« [L]’indication, à l’article IX, que les différends doivent être soumis
à la Cour « à la requête d’une partie au différend », et non de
525 application of the genocide convention (diss. op. xue)
52
as opposed to any of the Contracting Parties, do not limit the category
of Contracting Parties entitled to bring claims for alleged breaches of
obligations erga omnes partes under the Convention. This phrase clarifies
that only a party to the dispute may bring it before the Court,
but it does not indicate that such a dispute may only arise between a
State party allegedly violating the Convention and a State ‘specially
affected’ by such an alleged violation.” (Judgment, para. 111.)
This interpretation, in my opinion, has unduly expanded the scope of Article
IX. Although the international law on State responsibility has evolved
significantly since the adoption of the Genocide Convention, the terms of
the Genocide Convention must be interpreted in accordance with the
applicable rules on treaty interpretation as reflected in Articles 31 and 32
of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties. As the Court stated in
its Advisory Opinion on Reservations to the Convention on the Prevention
and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (hereinafter the “Advisory Opinion”),
in interpreting the Genocide Convention, regard should be given to
“[t]he origins and character of th[e] Convention, the objects pursued by the
General Assembly and the contracting parties, the relations which exist
between the provisions of the Convention, inter se, and between those provisions
and these objects” (I.C.J. Reports 1951, p. 23).
17. The Genocide Convention provides several means and mechanisms
for the implementation of the obligations under the Convention; judicial
settlement is just one of them. Most importantly, the States parties must
enact national legislation to prevent and punish acts of genocide and any
other acts enumerated in Article III (Article V of the Convention). Perpetrators
may be tried in national courts or by a competent international
criminal court (Art. VI). The States parties also undertake to co-operate
through extradition to bring the alleged offenders to justice (Art. VII). In
addition, any State party, whether it is directly or indirectly affected by
the alleged acts of genocide, may engage the competent organs of the
United Nations to take such action under the Charter as they consider
appropriate for the prevention and suppression of acts of genocide
(Art. VIII). Lastly, a dispute between States parties with regard to the
interpretation, application or fulfilment of the Convention, including the
responsibility of a State for acts of genocide, may be submitted to the
Court at the request of any of the parties to the dispute (Art. IX). This set
of mechanisms takes into account the situation where a non-injured
State
party may raise the issue of genocide against another State party, but the
mechanisms to which such State party may resort apparently do not
include the International Court of Justice. This interpretation can be confirmed
by the travaux préparatoires of the Genocide Convention.
18. The treaty was drafted at a time when the notions of obligations
erga omnes partes or erga omnes were not established in general international
law. During the negotiation process of Article IX, Contracting Par-
application de convention génocide (op. diss. xue) 525
52
toute partie contractante, ne limite pas la catégorie des parties
contractantes autorisées à intenter une action à raison de violations
alléguées d’obligations erga omnes partes découlant de la convention.
Ce membre de phrase précise que seule une partie au différend peut
porter celui-
ci devant la Cour, mais n’impose en aucun cas
qu’un tel différend oppose un Etat partie qui aurait violé la convention
à un Etat « spécialement atteint » par la violation alléguée. »
(Arrêt, par. 111.)
Cette interprétation, à mon sens, étend indûment la portée de l’article IX.
Bien que le droit international sur la responsabilité de l’Etat ait beaucoup
évolué depuis l’adoption de la convention sur le génocide, les termes de
celle-
ci doivent être interprétés conformément aux règles applicables en
matière d’interprétation des traités, telles qu’elles trouvent leur expression
aux articles 31 et 32 de la convention de Vienne sur le droit des traités.
Comme la Cour l’a indiqué dans son avis consultatif sur les Réserves à la
convention pour la prévention et la répression du crime de génocide (ci-
après
l’« avis consultatif »), il faut, pour interpréter la convention sur le génocide,
tenir compte des « origines et [du] caractère de la Convention, [des]
fins poursuivies par l’Assemblée générale et par les parties contractantes,
[des] rapports que présentent les dispositions de la Convention entre elles
et avec ces fins » (C.I.J. Recueil 1951, p. 23).
17. La convention sur le génocide prévoit plusieurs moyens et mécanismes
pour la mise en oeuvre des obligations découlant de ses dispositions ;
le règlement judiciaire n’est que l’un d’entre eux. Plus important encore, les
Etats parties doivent adopter une législation nationale pour prévenir et
punir les actes de génocide et tout autre acte énuméré à l’article III (article V
de la convention). Les auteurs de ces actes peuvent être jugés par des tribunaux
nationaux ou par une cour criminelle internationale compétente
(art. VI). Les Etats parties s’engagent également à coopérer par voie d’extradition
pour traduire les auteurs présumés en justice (art. VII). En outre,
tout Etat partie, qu’il soit directement ou indirectement atteint par les actes
de génocide allégués, peut saisir les organes compétents de l’Organisation
des Nations Unies afin que ceux-
ci prennent, conformément à la Charte, les
mesures qu’ils jugent appropriées pour la prévention et la répression de ces
actes (art. VIII). Enfin, un différend entre Etats parties relatif à l’interprétation,
l’application ou l’exécution de la convention, y compris la responsabilité
d’un Etat pour des actes de génocide, peut être soumis à la Cour à la
requête de l’une quelconque des parties au différend (art. IX). Cet ensemble
de mécanismes prévoit qu’un Etat partie non lésé puisse mettre en cause un
autre Etat partie pour génocide, mais il ne semble pas que, parmi les mécanismes
auxquels il lui est loisible de recourir, figure la Cour internationale
de Justice. Cette interprétation peut être confirmée par les travaux préparatoires
de la convention sur le génocide.
18. La convention a été rédigée à une époque où les notions d’obligations
erga omnes partes ou erga omnes n’étaient pas établies en droit international
général. Au cours du processus de négociation de l’article IX, les
526 application of the genocide convention (diss. op. xue)
53
ties did not have much discussion on the word “disputes”; its ordinary
meaning was presumed to refer to bilateral disputes. The debate among
the Contracting Parties primarily focused on the meaning and scope of the
phrase “responsibility of a State for genocide” and whether to include it
in the clause. A number of Contracting Parties expressed doubt and raised
questions about the inclusion of State responsibility in so far as that
would cover situations in which a State commits genocide against its own
nationals (see e.g. United Nations General Assembly, Sixth Committee,
Hundred and Third Meeting, 12 November 1948, UN doc. A/C.6/SR.103,
pp. 432‑433 (Greece), 434 (Peru) and 435 (Poland); ibid., Hundred and
Fourth Meeting, 13 November 1948, UN doc. A/C.6/SR.104, p. 443
(Iran)). Upon the understanding that the term “responsibility of a State
for genocide” in Article IX refers to reparation for damages inflicted on
the nationals of one State party by another State party, they agreed to
retain that reference in Article IX. In clarifying the scope of State responsibility,
the United States stated that
“[i]f the words ‘responsibility of a State’ were taken in their traditional
meaning of responsibility towards another State for damages inflicted,
in violation of the principles of international law, to the subjects of
the plaintiff State ; and if, similarly, the words ‘disputes . . . relating
to the . . . fulfilment’ referred to disputes concerning the interests of
subjects of the plaintiff State, then those words would give rise to no
objection. But if, on the other hand, the expression ‘responsibility of
a State’ were not used in the traditional meaning, and if it signified
that a State could be sued for damages in respect of injury inflicted
by it on its own subjects, then there would be serious objections to
that provision ; and the United States Government would have reservations
to make about that interpretation of the phrase.” (Ibid., Hundred
and Thirty-Third Meeting, 2 December 1948, UN doc. A/C.6/
SR.133, pp. 703‑704 (United States of America).)
The United States’ position was generally shared and accepted by the Contracting
Parties.
19. The intention of the Contracting Parties to limit the scope of claims
that can be brought to the Court under Article IX is also manifested in
the general debate relating to the Belgian/British joint proposal on the
compromissory clause of the Genocide Convention. This joint proposal
stated as follows:
“Any dispute between the High Contracting Parties relating to the
interpretation, application or fulfilment of the present Convention,
including disputes relating to the responsibility of a State for any of
the acts enumerated in articles II and IV, shall be submitted to the
International Court of Justice at the request of any of the High Contracting
Parties.” (Belgium and United Kingdom : Joint amendment
to article X of the draft Convention (E/794), 10 November 1948,
UN doc. A/C.6/258 ; emphasis added.)
application de convention génocide (op. diss. xue) 526
53
parties contractantes n’ont guère débattu du mot « différends » ; le sens
ordinaire de celui-
ci était présumé renvoyer aux différends bilatéraux. Le
débat entre les parties contractantes a principalement visé le sens et la
portée de l’expression « responsabilité d’un Etat en matière de génocide »
et sur l’opportunité de l’inclure dans la clause. Plusieurs parties contractantes
ont exprimé des doutes et soulevé des questions quant à la mention
de la responsabilité de l’Etat dans la mesure où seraient ainsi couvertes les
situations dans lesquelles un Etat commet un génocide contre ses propres
ressortissants (voir, par exemple, Nations Unies, Assemblée générale,
Sixième Commission, 103e séance, 12 novembre 1948, doc. A/C.6/SR.103,
p. 432‑433 (Grèce), 434 (Pérou) et 435 (Pologne) ; ibid., 104e séance,
13 novembre 1948, doc. A/C.6/SR.104, p. 443 (Iran)). Il a toutefois été
convenu de conserver cette référence à l’article IX, étant entendu que l’expression
« responsabilité d’un Etat en matière de génocide » figurant à
l’article IX visait la réparation des dommages infligés aux ressortissants
d’un Etat partie par un autre Etat partie. Précisant la portée de la responsabilité
de l’Etat, les Etats‑Unis ont déclaré ce qui suit :
« Si les mots « responsabilité d’un Etat » sont pris dans leur acception
traditionnelle de responsabilité envers un autre Etat pour dommages
causés, en violation des principes de droit international, à des
ressortissants de l’Etat demandeur, et, de même, si les mots « différends
… relatifs … à l’exécution » désignent les différends mettant en
jeu des intérêts de ressortissants de l’Etat demandeur, ces mots ne
rencontreraient aucune objection. Mais si l’expression « responsabilité
d’un Etat » n’est pas employée dans son sens traditionnel et si elle
signifie qu’un Etat peut être tenu à des dommages-intérêts
pour le
préjudice causé par lui à ses propres ressortissants, il y a de sérieuses
objections à élever contre cette disposition et le Gouvernement des
Etats-Unis formule des réserves quant à cette interprétation. » (Ibid.,
133e séance, 2 décembre 1948, doc. A/C.6/SR.133, p. 704‑705 (Etats-
Unis d’Amérique).)
Les parties contractantes ont généralement souscrit à la position des Etats-Unis.
19. L’intention des parties contractantes de limiter la portée des réclamations
pouvant être soumises à la Cour en vertu de l’article IX ressort
également du débat général relatif à la proposition commune belgo-britannique
sur la clause compromissoire de la convention sur le génocide.
Cette proposition commune se lisait comme suit :
« Tout différend entre les Hautes Parties contractantes relatif à
l’interprétation, l’application ou l’exécution de la présente Convention,
y compris les différends relatifs à la responsabilité d’un Etat
dans les actes énumérés aux articles II et IV, sera soumis à la Cour
internationale de Justice, à la requête d’une Haute Partie contractante.
» (Nations Unies, Belgique et Royaume-Uni : amendement
commun à l’article X du projet de Convention (E/794), 10 novembre
1948, doc. A/C.6/258 ; les italiques sont de moi.)
527 application of the genocide convention (diss. op. xue)
54
20. India introduced an amendment to the Belgian/British joint proposal
to replace the phrase “at the request of any of the High Contracting
Parties” by the phrase “at the request of any of the parties to the dispute”
(UN doc. A/C.6/260, as reproduced in United Nations General Assembly,
Sixth Committee, Hundred and Third Meeting, 12 November 1948,
UN doc. A/C.6/SR.103, p. 428, fn. 1). In its consideration of the Belgian/
British proposal, India stated that
“the inclusion of all disputes relating to the responsibility of a State
for any of the acts enumerated in articles II and IV would certainly
give rise to serious difficulties. It would make it possible for an
unfriendly State to charge, on vague and unsubstantial allegations,
that another State was responsible for genocide within its territory.”
(Ibid., pp. 437‑438.)
Immediately after India expressed this concern, Luxembourg clarified
who might claim rights to reparations following the perpetration of the
crime of genocide. It stated that
“the principle that no action could be instituted save by a party concerned
in a case should be applied in that connexion. [R]esponsibility
would thus arise whenever genocide was committed by a State in the
territory of another State.” (Ibid., p. 438.)
The Indian amendment was approved in the general debate and the text
of Article IX was amended accordingly.
21. During the subsequent negotiations, India continued to express its
concern over the terms of Article IX. After the adoption of Article IX, it
warned that “the provisions of the joint amendment of Belgium and the
United Kingdom . . . were capable of being interpreted in a much wider
sense than the authors of the amendment had themselves intended” (ibid.,
Hundred and Fifth Meeting, 13 November 1948, UN doc. A/C.6/SR.105,
p. 459). After the vote against reconsideration of the text of Article IX,
India reiterated its position, stating that “the text of article IX would help
to strain relations between States and was therefore contrary to the very
purpose of the convention” (ibid., Hundred and Thirty-First Meeting,
1 December 1948, UN doc. A/C.6/SR.131, p. 690). India, of course, was
not the only Contracting Party who indicated its reservation over a possible
expansive interpretation of Article IX.
22. The travaux préparatoires demonstrate that the Contracting Parties
were fully conscious of the potential problems of vague, insubstantial and
even abusive actions relating to the fulfilment of obligations and responsibility
for genocide. Such situations would more likely arise if an unlimited
standing was granted to the States parties. There was no indication
among the Contracting Parties that, given the raison d’être of the Genocide
Convention, the principle that no action could be instituted save by
a party concerned in a case would not apply to cases that are filed under
Article IX.
application de convention génocide (op. diss. xue) 527
54
20. L’Inde a introduit un amendement à la proposition commune
belgo-britannique
tendant à remplacer la formule « à la requête d’une
Haute Partie contractante » par les mots « à la requête d’une partie au
différend » (Nations Unies, doc. A/C.6/260, tel que reproduit dans Assemblée
générale, Sixième Commission, 103e séance, 12 novembre 1948,
doc. A/C.6/SR.103, p. 428, note de bas de page 1). Dans son examen de
la proposition belgo-britannique,
l’Inde a déclaré ce qui suit :
« L’inclusion de tous les différends se rapportant à la responsabilité
d’un Etat en ce qui concerne l’un quelconque des actes énumérés
aux articles II et IV donnerait certainement lieu à de sérieuses difficultés.
Un Etat animé d’intentions hostiles pourrait, en effet, en s’appuyant
sur des allégations vagues et sans fondement, accuser un
autre Etat d’être responsable de génocide commis sur son propre territoire.
» (Ibid., p. 437‑438.)
Immédiatement après que l’Inde eut exprimé cette préoccupation, le
Luxembourg a précisé qui pourrait faire valoir des droits à réparation à
la suite d’un crime de génocide. Il a déclaré que
« la règle « pas d’intérêt, pas d’action » d[evait] trouver ici son application.
C’est ainsi que cette responsabilité existera chaque fois que le
génocide aura été commis par un Etat sur le territoire d’un autre
Etat. » (Ibid., p. 438.)
L’amendement indien a été approuvé lors du débat général et le texte de
l’article IX a été modifié en conséquence.
21. Au cours des négociations qui ont suivi, l’Inde a continué d’exprimer
sa préoccupation au sujet du libellé de l’article IX. Après l’adoption
de celui-
ci, elle a averti que « les dispositions de l’amendement commun
de la Belgique et du Royaume-Uni … étaie[nt] susceptibles d’une trop
large interprétation, dépassant certainement l’intention des auteurs de cet
amendement » (ibid., 105e séance, 13 novembre 1948, doc. A/C.6/SR.105,
p. 459). Après le vote contre le réexamen du texte de l’article IX, l’Inde a
réitéré sa position, déclarant que « le texte de l’article IX contribuera[it]
à tendre les relations entre Etats et qu’il [étai]t donc contraire aux intérêts
mêmes de la convention » (ibid., 131e séance, 1er décembre 1948,
doc. A/C.6/SR.131, p. 690). L’Inde, bien évidemment, n’était pas la seule
partie contractante ayant fait part de ses réserves sur une possible interprétation
extensive de l’article IX.
22. Les travaux préparatoires montrent que les parties contractantes
avaient pleinement conscience des problèmes que pourraient poser des
actions vagues, infondées, voire abusives, visant l’exécution des obligations
et la mise en cause de la responsabilité pour génocide. De telles situations
seraient plus à même de se produire si une qualité pour agir illimitée
était accordée aux Etats parties. Les parties contractantes n’ont pas indiqué
que, compte tenu de la raison d’être de la convention sur le génocide,
le principe selon lequel seule une partie concernée pouvait intenter une
action ne s’appliquerait pas aux affaires introduites en vertu de l’article IX.
528 application of the genocide convention (diss. op. xue)
55
23. I agree with the Court that The Gambia is not exercising diplomatic
protection in the present case, but that does not mean there need
not be a link between the applicant and the alleged acts of the respondent.
Although the word “[d]isputes” in Article IX is without any qualification,
opposition of views between the two parties must relate to a legal interest
that the applicant may claim for itself under international law. Unless
otherwise expressly provided for in a treaty, general standing of the States
parties cannot be presumed. In this regard, a provision in contrast can be
given. Article 33 of the European Convention on Human Rights provides
that “[a]ny High Contracting Party may refer to the [European Court of
Human Rights] any alleged breach of the provisions of the Convention
and the Protocols thereto by another High Contracting Party”. If the
Genocide Convention had contained a similar clause, the requirement of
a link between the applicant and the respondent’s alleged acts for jurisdictional
purpose would be unnecessary.
24. In cases concerning alleged violations of the Genocide Convention,
the Court has affirmed that Article IX includes all forms of State responsibility,
including the responsibility of a State for an act of genocide perpetrated
by the State itself through the acts of its organs (see e.g.
Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the
Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Yugoslavia), Preliminary
Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1996 (II), p. 616, para. 32; see also
the divergent views in ibid., joint declaration of Judges Shi and Vereshchetin,
pp. 631‑632, and declaration of Judge Oda, pp. 626‑629,
paras. 4-7), which reflects the development of international law on State
responsibility. In none of those cases, however, did the Court consider or
even imply that a State party may invoke international responsibility of
another State party solely on the basis of the raison d’être of the Genocide
Convention; the applicant must have a territorial, national or some
other form of connection with the alleged acts.
25. To recall what the Court said in the Advisory Opinion, “[i]t is well
established that in its treaty relations a State cannot be bound without its
consent” (Reservations to the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment
of the Crime of Genocide, Advisory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports 1951,
p. 21). It is doubtful that, either at the time when they each became party
to the Genocide Convention, the Parties had ever envisaged such treaty
relationship between them or more generally, that the States parties ever
intended to give such a broad standing to the States parties for addressing
alleged breaches of the obligations under the Genocide Convention. The
Court’s innovative interpretation has extended well beyond the reasonable
expectations of the States parties, inconducive to the security and
stability of treaty relations.
application de convention génocide (op. diss. xue) 528
55
23. Je conviens avec la Cour que la Gambie n’exerce pas sa protection
diplomatique en l’espèce, ce qui ne signifie cependant pas qu’il ne doit pas
y avoir de lien entre le demandeur et les actes allégués du défendeur. Bien
que le mot « différends » figurant à l’article IX ne soit pas qualifié, la
divergence
de vues entre les deux parties doit porter sur un intérêt juridique
que le demandeur s’estime en droit de revendiquer pour lui-
même en vertu
du droit international. A moins qu’un traité n’en dispose autrement de
manière expresse, l’on ne saurait présumer que les Etats parties disposent
d’une qualité générale pour agir. A cet égard, une disposition a contrario
peut être citée. L’article 33 de la convention européenne des droits de
l’homme prévoit que « [t]oute Haute Partie contractante peut saisir la Cour
[européenne des droits de l’homme] de tout manquement aux dispositions
de la Convention et de ses protocoles qu’elle croira pouvoir être imputé à
une autre Haute Partie contractante ». Si la convention sur le génocide
avait contenu une clause similaire, l’exigence d’un lien entre le demandeur
et les actes allégués du défendeur à des fins juridictionnelles serait
inutile.
24. Dans des affaires concernant des violations alléguées de la convention
sur le génocide, la Cour a affirmé que l’article IX incluait toutes les
formes de responsabilité de l’Etat, y compris la responsabilité d’un Etat à
raison d’un acte de génocide perpétré par l’Etat lui-
même par le fait de ses
organes (voir, par exemple, Application de la convention pour la prévention
et la répression du crime de génocide (Bosnie-Herzégovine
c. Yougoslavie),
exceptions préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1996 (II), p. 616, par. 32 ;
voir aussi les opinions divergentes dans ibid., déclaration commune de
MM. les juges Shi et Vereshchetin, p. 631‑632, et déclaration de M. le
juge Oda, p. 626‑629, par. 4‑7), ce qui reflète l’évolution du droit international
sur la responsabilité de l’Etat. Dans aucune de ces affaires, cependant,
la Cour n’a considéré ni même laissé entendre qu’un Etat partie
pouvait invoquer la responsabilité internationale d’un autre Etat partie
uniquement sur la base de la raison d’être de la convention sur le génocide
; le demandeur doit avoir un lien territorial, national ou d’une autre
nature avec les actes allégués.
25. Pour rappeler ce que la Cour a dit dans son avis consultatif,
« [i]l est bien établi qu’un Etat ne peut, dans ses rapports conventionnels,
être lié sans son consentement » (Réserves à la convention pour la prévention
et la répression du crime de génocide, avis consultatif, C.I.J.
Recueil 1951, p. 21). Il est peu probable que, au moment où elles sont chacune
devenues partie à la convention sur le génocide, les Parties à la présente
espèce aient jamais envisagé une telle relation conventionnelle entre elles
ou, plus généralement, que les Etats parties à la convention aient jamais
eu l’intention de conférer une qualité pour agir aussi large aux parties
contractantes pour traiter des violations alléguées des obligations
découlant
dudit instrument. L’interprétation novatrice de la Cour est
allée bien au-
delà des attentes raisonnables des Etats parties, ce qui
n’est pas propice à la sécurité et à la stabilité des relations conventionnelles.
529 application of the genocide convention (diss. op. xue)
56
III. Raison d’être of the Genocide Convention
and Its Implication
26. By reference to the raison d’être of the Genocide Convention as
enunciated in the Advisory Opinion, the Court upholds The Gambia’s
standing for the following reasons :
“All the States parties to the Genocide Convention . . . have a
common interest to ensure the prevention, suppression and punishment
of genocide, by committing themselves to fulfilling the obligations
contained in the Convention. As the Court has affirmed, such a
common interest implies that the obligations in question are owed by
any State party to all the other States parties to the relevant convention
; they are obligations erga omnes partes, in the sense that each
State party has an interest in compliance with them in any given case.”
(Judgment, para. 107.)
It goes on to say that
“[t]he common interest in compliance with the relevant obligations
under the Genocide Convention entails that any State party, without
distinction, is entitled to invoke the responsibility of another State
party for an alleged breach of obligations erga omnes partes . . .
regardless of whether a special interest can be demonstrated” (ibid.,
para. 108).
It explains that “[i]f a special interest were required for that purpose, in
many situations no State would be in a position to make a claim” (ibid.).
This reasoning, based on a particular reading of the Advisory Opinion,
does not seem consistent with the established practice of the States parties.
27. In the Advisory Opinion, the Court was requested by the General
Assembly to address exclusively the question of reservations to the Genocide
Convention. For that purpose, it considered the characteristics of the
Genocide Convention in international law and identified the common
interest of the States parties in the accomplishment of the high purposes
of the Convention. In the oft cited statement in the Advisory Opinion on
which the Court largely relies for its decision in the present case, the
Court stated that
“[t]he Convention was manifestly adopted for a purely humanitarian
and civilizing purpose. It is indeed difficult to imagine a convention
that might have this dual character to a greater degree . . . In such a
convention the contracting States do not have any interests of their
own ; they merely have, one and all, a common interest, namely, the
accomplishment of those high purposes which are the raison d’être of
the convention. Consequently, in a convention of this type one cannot
speak of individual advantages or disadvantages to States, or of the
maintenance of a perfect contractual balance between rights and
application de convention génocide (op. diss. xue) 529
56
III. Raison d’être de la convention sur le génocide
et ses implications
26. Se référant à la raison d’être de la convention sur le génocide telle
qu’elle est énoncée dans l’avis consultatif, la Cour a estimé que la Gambie
avait qualité pour agir pour les raisons suivantes :
« Tous les Etats parties à la convention sur le génocide ont … un
intérêt commun à veiller à ce que le génocide soit prévenu, réprimé et
puni. Ainsi que la Cour l’a précisé, un tel intérêt commun implique
que les obligations en cause sont dues par tout Etat partie à tous les
autres Etats parties au traité en question ; ce sont des obligations
erga omnes partes, en ce sens que, quelle que soit l’affaire, chaque
Etat partie a un intérêt à ce qu’elles soient respectées. » (Arrêt,
par. 107.)
Et d’ajouter ce qui suit :
« Il découle de l’intérêt commun à ce que soient respectées les obligations
pertinentes énoncées dans la convention sur le génocide que
tout Etat partie, sans distinction, est en droit d’invoquer la responsabilité
d’un autre à raison d’une violation alléguée d’obligations erga
omnes partes … qu’un intérêt particulier puisse, ou non, être établi »
(ibid., par. 108).
A cet égard, la Cour a précisé que, « [s]i un tel intérêt était requis à cette
fin, aucun Etat ne serait, dans bien des situations, en mesure de présenter
une telle demande » (ibid.). Ce raisonnement, fondé sur une lecture particulière
de l’avis consultatif, ne semble pas conforme à la pratique établie
des Etats parties.
27. La Cour avait été priée par l’Assemblée générale de traiter exclusivement
dans son avis consultatif la question des réserves à la convention
sur le génocide. A cette fin, elle a examiné les caractéristiques de la
convention en droit international et mis en évidence l’intérêt commun des
Etats parties à la réalisation des nobles buts dudit instrument. Dans
le passage souvent cité de l’avis sur lequel elle s’est largement appuyée
pour prendre sa décision en la présente espèce, la Cour a déclaré ce qui
suit :
« La Convention a été manifestement adoptée dans un but purement
humain et civilisateur. On ne peut même pas concevoir une
convention qui offrirait à un plus haut degré ce double caractère
… Dans une telle convention, les Etats contractants n’ont pas
d’intérêts propres ; ils ont seulement, tous et chacun, un intérêt commun,
celui de préserver les fins supérieures qui sont la raison d’être
de la convention. Il en résulte que l’on ne saurait, pour une convention
de ce type, parler d’avantages ou de désavantages individuels
des Etats, non plus que d’un exact équilibre contractuel à maintenir
530 application of the genocide convention (diss. op. xue)
57
duties. The high ideals which inspired the Convention provide, by
virtue of the common will of the parties, the foundation and measure
of all its provisions.” (Reservations to the Convention on the Prevention
and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, Advisory Opinion, I.C.J.
Reports 1951, p. 23.)
Notwithstanding the common interest thus identified, the Court did not
consider that reservations to the Genocide Convention should be categorically
prohibited. Instead, it took the view that the compatibility of a reservation
with the object and purpose of the Convention should furnish a
criterion for assessing a particular reservation made by a State on accession
and appraising an objection lodged by another State to the reservation,
thus limiting both the freedom of making reservations and that of
objecting to them. The Court observed that, as the intention of the General
Assembly and the States parties was to have as many States as possible
participate in the Convention so as to ensure the widest possible
scope of application, the complete exclusion of States from the Convention
for minor reservations would not be deemed desirable for the fulfilment
of the object and purpose of the Convention. In the Advisory
Opinion, the Court did not specify which reservations to the provisions of
the Convention would be deemed as minor reservations and therefore
permissible, and which are incompatible with the object and purpose of
the Convention. Pursuant to that criterion, in the subsequent treaty practice,
a reservation to Article IX of the Genocide Convention has generally
been accepted as permissible by the States parties. To date, 16 States parties
maintain reservations to Article IX.
28. This position has also been confirmed by the jurisprudence of the
Court. According to the Court, a reservation to Article IX of the Genocide
Convention bears on the jurisdiction of the Court, which is meant to
exclude a particular method of settling a dispute relating to the interpretation,
application or fulfilment of the Convention, and does not affect
substantive obligations relating to acts of genocide themselves under that
Convention. Therefore, a reservation to Article IX of the Genocide Convention
is not incompatible with the object and purpose of the Convention
(Armed Activities on the Territory of the Congo (New Application:
2002) (Democratic Republic of the Congo v. Rwanda), Jurisdiction and
Admissibility, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2006, p. 32, para. 67; see also
Legality of Use of Force (Yugoslavia v. Spain), Provisional Measures,
Order of 2 June 1999, I.C.J. Reports 1999 (II), p. 772, paras. 32-33;
Legality of Use of Force (Yugoslavia v. United States of America), Provisional
Measures, Order of 2 June 1999, I.C.J. Reports 1999 (II), p. 924,
paras. 24‑25).
29. Reservation to a compromissory clause and standing of a non-injured
State, although distinct and separate issues, both concern whether
the Court can exercise its jurisdiction. A reservation to Article IX has the
effect of blocking other States parties from instituting proceedings against
the reserving State for its alleged breaches of obligations erga omnes par-
application de convention génocide (op. diss. xue) 530
57
entre les droits et les charges. La considération des fins supérieures
de la Convention est, en vertu de la volonté commune des parties, le
fondement et la mesure de toutes les dispositions qu’elle renferme. »
(Réserves à la convention pour la prévention et la répression du crime
de génocide, avis consultatif, C.I.J. Recueil 1951, p. 23.)
Malgré l’intérêt commun ainsi mis au jour, la Cour n’a pas jugé que les
réserves à la convention sur le génocide devaient être catégoriquement
interdites. Elle a plutôt estimé que la compatibilité avec l’objet et le but de
la convention devait constituer un critère pour l’évaluation d’une réserve
particulière formulée par un Etat lors de son adhésion ainsi que pour
l’appréciation d’une objection faite par un autre Etat à cette réserve, limitant
ainsi à la fois la liberté de formuler des réserves et celle d’y objecter.
La Cour a observé que, l’intention de l’Assemblée générale et des Etats
parties étant de faire participer le plus grand nombre possible d’Etats afin
d’assurer à la convention le champ d’application le plus large possible,
l’exclusion complète de certains Etats pour des réserves mineures ne pouvait
être souhaitable pour la réalisation de l’objet et du but de cet instrument.
Dans son avis consultatif, la Cour n’a pas précisé quelles réserves
aux dispositions de la convention seraient considérées comme des réserves
mineures et donc autorisées, et lesquelles étaient incompatibles avec l’objet
et le but de la convention. Conformément au critère retenu, dans la
pratique conventionnelle ultérieure, les réserves à l’article IX de la convention
sur le génocide ont généralement été considérées comme admissibles
par les Etats parties. A ce jour, 16 Etats parties maintiennent des réserves
à cette disposition.
28. Cette position a également été confirmée par la jurisprudence de la
Cour. Selon cette dernière, une réserve à l’article IX de la convention sur
le génocide porte sur la compétence de la Cour, l’objectif étant d’exclure
un mode particulier de règlement d’un différend relatif à l’interprétation,
à l’application ou à l’exécution de la convention, sans que cela n’ait d’incidence
sur les obligations de fond relatives aux actes de génocide euxmêmes
découlant de cet instrument. Par conséquent, une réserve à
l’article IX n’est pas incompatible avec l’objet et le but de la convention
(Activités armées sur le territoire du Congo (nouvelle requête : 2002)
(République démocratique du Congo c. Rwanda), compétence et recevabilité,
arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2006, p. 32, par. 67 ; voir également Licéité de
l’emploi de la force (Yougoslavie c. Espagne), mesures conservatoires,
ordonnance du 2 juin 1999, C.I.J. Recueil 1999 (II), p. 772, par. 32‑33 ;
Licéité de l’emploi de la force (Yougoslavie c. Etats‑Unis d’Amérique),
mesures conservatoires, ordonnance du 2 juin 1999, C.I.J. Recueil 1999 (II),
p. 924, par. 24‑25).
29. Une réserve à une clause compromissoire et la qualité pour agir
d’un Etat non lésé, bien qu’étant des aspects distincts et séparés,
concernent l’une et l’autre la question de savoir si la Cour peut exercer sa
compétence. Une réserve à l’article IX a pour effet d’empêcher les autres
Etats parties d’introduire une instance contre l’Etat auteur de ladite
531 application of the genocide convention (diss. op. xue)
58
tes under the Convention. This means that reservations to Article IX of
the Genocide Convention could also lead to many situations where no
State party would be in a position to make a claim before the Court
against another State party who has made a reservation to the jurisdiction
of the Court, as was the case, for instance, with Rwanda in the
Armed Activities case, and Spain and the United States in the Legality of
Use of Force cases. No State party has ever asserted that the Court’s decisions
upholding the effect of the relevant reservations in those cases prejudiced
the common interest of the States parties to the Convention.
Logically, the reason given by the Court in the present case for discarding
the requirement of a special interest cannot be established; just as, in the
situation of a reservation to the jurisdiction of the Court, dismissal of an
application for lack of standing of a non‑injured State is, in the Court’s
own words, also just to exclude a particular method of settling a dispute
relating to the interpretation, application or fulfilment of the Convention,
and does not affect substantive obligations relating to acts of genocide
themselves under that Convention.
IV. Obligations Erga omnes partes and the Belgium
v. Senegal Case
30. Introduction of the notion of obligations erga omnes and erga
omnes partes is a positive development of international law. In the second
phase of the South West Africa cases, the Court rejected the applications
submitted by Ethiopia and Liberia, former members of the League of
Nations, on the ground that they had no standing in the cases as they
each did not have any legal right or interest in the subject-matter
of their
claim (South West Africa (Ethiopia v. South Africa ; Liberia v. South
Africa), Second Phase, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1966, p. 51, para. 99).
The Court’s decision was severely criticized by the Member States of the
United Nations and prompted the General Assembly to adopt the decision
placing South West Africa under the direct responsibility of the United
Nations.
31. The South West Africa cases stand as a constant reminder that in
cases where the common interest of the international community is purportedly
at stake, the issue of standing of the applicant must be handled
with great care. For the purpose of the present case, it is worthwhile to
put the South West Africa cases into perspective. After the dissolution of
the League of Nations, the mandate for South West Africa entrusted to
the Union of South Africa by the League continued to exist. By virtue of
the Court’s Advisory Opinion relating to the international status of South
West Africa, the Union of South Africa as the mandatory remained
obliged to submit petitions from the inhabitants of the mandated territory
as well as annual reports concerning its administration of the terri-
application de convention génocide (op. diss. xue) 531
58
réserve à raison de ses manquements allégués aux obligations erga omnes
partes de la convention. Cela signifie que les réserves à l’article IX de la
convention sur le génocide peuvent également conduire à de nombreuses
situations dans lesquelles aucun Etat partie ne sera en mesure de présenter
une réclamation devant la Cour contre un autre Etat partie ayant formulé
une réserve à la compétence de celle-
ci, comme cela a été le cas, par
exemple, du Rwanda dans l’affaire des Activités armées et de l’Espagne et
des Etats-Unis dans les affaires relatives à la Licéité de l’emploi de la force.
Aucun Etat partie n’a jamais avancé que les décisions de la Cour confirmant
l’effet des réserves pertinentes dans ces affaires portaient atteinte à
l’intérêt commun des Etats parties à la convention. En toute logique, la
raison invoquée par la Cour en la présente espèce pour écarter l’exigence
d’un intérêt particulier ne peut donc être établie ; comme dans le cas d’une
réserve à la compétence de la Cour, le rejet d’une requête pour défaut de
qualité pour agir d’un Etat non lésé revient uniquement, selon les propres
termes de la Cour, à exclure un mode particulier de règlement d’un différend
relatif à l’interprétation, à l’application ou à l’exécution de la
convention, mais n’a pas d’incidence sur les obligations de fond relatives
aux actes de génocide que celle-ci énonce.
IV. Obligations erga omnes partes et affaire Belgique
c. Sénégal
30. L’introduction de la notion d’obligations erga omnes et erga omnes
partes est une évolution positive du droit international. Dans la deuxième
phase des affaires du Sud-Ouest africain, la Cour a rejeté les requêtes présentées
par l’Ethiopie et le Libéria, anciens membres de la Société des
Nations, au motif qu’ils n’avaient pas qualité pour agir car ils n’avaient
chacun aucun droit ou intérêt juridique au regard de l’objet de leur
demande (Sud-Ouest africain (Ethiopie c. Afrique du Sud ; Libéria
c. Afrique du Sud), deuxième phase, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1966, p. 51,
par. 99). La décision de la Cour a été vivement critiquée par les Etats
Membres de l’Organisation des Nations Unies et a incité l’Assemblée
générale à adopter la décision plaçant le Sud-Ouest africain sous la responsabilité
directe de l’Organisation.
31. Les affaires du Sud-Ouest africain sont là pour nous rappeler que,
dans les cas où l’intérêt commun de la communauté internationale est
prétendument en jeu, la question de la qualité pour agir du demandeur
doit être traitée avec une grande prudence. Aux fins de la présente espèce,
il est utile de replacer les affaires du Sud-Ouest africain dans leur contexte.
Après la dissolution de la Société des Nations, le mandat pour le Sud-
Ouest africain que celle-
ci avait confié à l’Union sud-africaine
a perduré.
Aux termes de l’avis consultatif de la Cour relatif au statut international
du Sud-Ouest africain, l’Union sud-africaine,
en tant que mandataire, est
restée tenue de soumettre à l’Organisation des Nations Unies les pétitions
des habitants du territoire sous mandat ainsi que les rapports annuels
532 application of the genocide convention (diss. op. xue)
59
tory to the United Nations for the latter’s exercise of its supervisory
functions (International Status of South West Africa, Advisory Opinion,
I.C.J. Reports 1950, p. 143). The Union of South Africa, however,
adopted apartheid in the territory and refused to fulfil its obligations
under the mandate. In 1960, Ethiopia and Liberia instituted proceedings
against the Union of South Africa in the Court.
32. In his dissenting opinion appended to the Court’s Judgment in the
second phase, Judge Wellington Koo, then Vice-President,
described the
character of the mandate for South West Africa as follows:
“[T]he mandates system has a complex character all of its own, with
a set of general and particular obligations for the mandatory to
observe or carry out, and with a scheme of multiple control and supervision
by the League of Nations with its Council, Assembly, member
States and the Permanent Mandates Commission and with judicial
protection in the last resort by the Permanent Court. It is a novel
international institution. Nothing of the kind had existed before. It is
sui generis.” (South West Africa (Ethiopia v. South Africa ; Liberia
v. South Africa), Second Phase, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1966,
dissenting opinion of Vice-President
Wellington Koo, p. 217.)
This sui generis system, in Judge Koo’s words, constituted an international
joint enterprise. Among the guarantees provided therefore to
ensure its success, an adjudication clause was inserted into Article 7,
paragraph 2, of the Mandate for South West Africa, which reads as follows
:
“The Mandatory agrees that, if any dispute whatever should arise
between the Mandatory and another Member of the League of
Nations relating to the interpretation or the application of the provisions
of the Mandate, such dispute, if it cannot be settled by negotiation,
shall be submitted to the Permanent Court of International
Justice provided for by Article 14 of the Covenant of the League of
Nations.” (Ibid., p. 218.)
With regard to the Court’s view that the applicants as individual member
States had no legal right or interest in the case, Judge Koo referred to
Article 22 of the Covenant and the mandate agreement, by virtue of
which, in his view, member States of the League had the legal right and
interest in the observation by the mandatory of its obligations both
toward the inhabitants of the mandated territory, and toward the League
and its members. The adjudication clause was intended as the last resort
to enable the member States to seek judicial protection of such right and
interest. Obviously, standing of the member States before the Court was
based on the statutory provisions of the mandate rather than merely on a
common interest ; it was granted in advance to the individual member
application de convention génocide (op. diss. xue) 532
59
concernant son administration du territoire, afin que l’Organisation
puisse exercer ses fonctions de contrôle (Statut international du Sud-Ouest
africain, avis consultatif, C.I.J. Recueil 1950, p. 143). L’Union sud-africaine
ayant cependant instauré le régime d’apartheid sur le territoire
en cause et refusé de remplir ses obligations en application du mandat,
l’Ethiopie et le Libéria ont, en 1960, introduit contre elle une instance
devant la Cour.
32. Dans l’exposé de son opinion dissidente joint à l’arrêt de la Cour
dans la deuxième phase, M. le juge Wellington Koo, alors vice-président,
a
décrit comme suit les caractéristiques du mandat pour le Sud-Ouest africain :
« [L]e système des Mandats a un caractère complexe qui lui est
tout à fait propre ; il est assorti d’une série d’obligations générales et
particulières que le Mandataire doit remplir, d’un dispositif de
contrôle et de surveillance multiple faisant intervenir la Société des
Nations (Conseil, Assemblée, Etats Membres et Commission permanente
des Mandats) et il s’accompagne en dernier ressort de la protection
judiciaire de la Cour permanente. C’est une institution
internationale nouvelle. Rien de semblable n’avait existé auparavant.
C’est une institution sui generis. » (Sud-Ouest africain (Ethiopie
c. Afrique du Sud ; Libéria c. Afrique du Sud), deuxième phase, arrêt,
C.I.J. Recueil 1966, opinion dissidente de M. le juge Wellington Koo,
vice-président,
p. 217.)
Ce système sui generis, pour reprendre les termes du juge Koo, constituait
une entreprise internationale commune. Parmi les garanties prévues en
conséquence pour assurer son succès, une clause juridictionnelle avait été
insérée dans le paragraphe 2 de l’article 7 du mandat pour le Sud‑Ouest
africain, qui se lisait comme suit :
« Le Mandataire accepte que tout différend, quel qu’il soit, qui
viendrait à s’élever entre lui et un autre Membre de la Société des
Nations relatif à l’interprétation ou à l’application des dispositions
du Mandat, et qui ne soit pas susceptible d’être réglé par des négociations,
soit soumis à la Cour permanente de Justice internationale,
prévue par l’article 14 du Pacte de la Société des Nations. » (Ibid.,
p. 218.)
En ce qui concerne la position de la Cour selon laquelle les demandeurs,
en tant qu’Etats Membres agissant à titre individuel, n’avaient aucun
droit ou intérêt juridique dans l’affaire, M. le juge Koo s’est référé à l’article
22 du Pacte et à l’accord de mandat, en vertu desquels, selon lui, les
Etats Membres de la Société des Nations avaient le droit et l’intérêt juridique
à ce que le mandataire respecte ses obligations tant à l’égard des
habitants du territoire sous mandat qu’à l’égard de la Société des Nations
et de ses Membres. La clause juridictionnelle avait été conçue comme le
dernier recours pour permettre aux Etats Membres de demander la protection
judiciaire de ce droit et de cet intérêt. De toute évidence, la qualité
pour agir des Etats Membres devant la Cour était fondée sur les disposi-
533 application of the genocide convention (diss. op. xue)
60
States of the League, and subsequently the member States of the
United Nations, on the basis of the consent of the member States (South
West Africa (Ethiopia v. South Africa ; Liberia v. South Africa), Preliminary
Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1962, p. 343). This unique system
cannot be generalized to all other conventions, where a common
interest of the States parties may exist.
33. Largely as a rectification of its position taken in the South West
Africa cases, the Court in the Barcelona Traction case made its first pronouncement
on the concept of obligation erga omnes, recognizing the
common interest of the international community as a whole in the protection
of certain important rights. It stated that
“an essential distinction should be drawn between the obligations of
a State towards the international community as a whole, and those
arising vis-
à-vis another State in the field of diplomatic protection. By
their very nature the former are the concern of all States. In view of
the importance of the rights involved, all States can be held to have
a legal interest in their protection ; they are obligations erga omnes.”
(Barcelona Traction, Light and Power Company, Limited (New Application:
1962) (Belgium v. Spain), Second Phase, Judgment, I.C.J.
Reports 1970, p. 32, para. 33.)
The Court, however, stopped short of indicating whether such obligations,
either on the basis of treaty provisions or customary international
law, would by themselves provide standing for any State to institute proceedings
against any other State before the Court for the protection of the
common interest.
34. Since Barcelona Traction, the Court has referred to obligations
erga omnes in a number of other cases, in none of which, however, it dealt
with the relationship between such obligations and the question of standing
(see East Timor (Portugal v. Australia), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1995,
p. 102, para. 29; Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment
of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Yugoslavia),
Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1996 (II), pp. 615‑616,
para. 31; Legal Consequences of the Construction of a Wall in the Occupied
Palestinian Territory, Advisory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports 2004 (I), p. 199,
paras. 155-157; Armed Activities on the Territory of the Congo (New
Application: 2002) (Democratic Republic of the Congo v. Rwanda), Jurisdiction
and Admissibility, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2006, pp. 31‑32,
para. 64; Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment
of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Serbia and Montenegro),
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2007 (I), p. 104, para. 147). In the Bosnia
and Herzegovina v. Serbia and Montenegro case, with regard to the applicant’s
request that the Court make rulings about acts of genocide and
application de convention génocide (op. diss. xue) 533
60
tions mêmes du mandat et non sur un simple intérêt commun ; elle avait
été accordée par avance aux Etats Membres de la Société des Nations à
titre individuel, puis aux Etats Membres de l’Organisation des Nations
Unies, sur la base du consentement des Etats Membres (Sud-Ouest africain
(Ethiopie c. Afrique du Sud ; Libéria c. Afrique du Sud), exceptions
préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1962, p. 343). Ce système unique ne
saurait cependant être étendu à toutes les autres conventions au regard
desquelles il peut exister un intérêt commun des Etats parties.
33. Rectifiant dans une large mesure la position qu’elle avait adoptée
dans les affaires du Sud‑Ouest africain, la Cour, dans l’affaire de la Barcelona
Traction, s’est prononcée pour la première fois sur la notion d’obligations
erga omnes en reconnaissant l’intérêt commun de la communauté
internationale dans son ensemble à ce que soient protégés certains droits
importants. Elle a déclaré ce qui suit :
« Une distinction essentielle doit en particulier être établie entre les
obligations des Etats envers la communauté internationale dans son
ensemble et celles qui naissent vis-
à-vis d’un autre Etat dans le cadre
de la protection diplomatique. Par leur nature même, les premières
concernent tous les Etats. Vu l’importance des droits en cause, tous
les Etats peuvent être considérés comme ayant un intérêt juridique à
ce que ces droits soient protégés ; les obligations dont il s’agit sont
des obligations erga omnes. » (Barcelona Traction, Light and Power
Company, Limited (nouvelle requête : 1962) (Belgique c. Espagne),
deuxième phase, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1970, p. 32, par. 33.)
La Cour s’est toutefois abstenue d’indiquer si de telles obligations,
fondées
soit sur des dispositions conventionnelles, soit sur le droit international
coutumier, donneraient en elles-mêmes à un Etat qualité pour
agir contre tout autre Etat devant elle pour la protection de l’intérêt commun.
34. Depuis l’affaire de la Barcelona Traction, la Cour a fait mention
d’obligations erga omnes dans plusieurs autres affaires, sans jamais,
cependant, se pencher sur la relation entre ces obligations et la question
de la qualité pour agir (voir Timor oriental (Portugal c. Australie), arrêt,
C.I.J. Recueil 1995, p. 102, par. 29 ; Application de la convention pour la
prévention et la répression du crime de génocide (Bosnie-Herzégovine
c. Yougoslavie), exceptions préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1996 (II),
p. 615‑616, par. 31 ; Conséquences juridiques de l’édification d’un mur dans
le territoire palestinien occupé, avis consultatif, C.I.J. Recueil 2004 (I),
p. 199, par. 155-157 ; Activités armées sur le territoire du Congo (nouvelle
requête : 2002) (République démocratique du Congo c. Rwanda),
compétence et recevabilité, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2006, p. 31‑32, par. 64 ;
Application de la convention pour la prévention et la répression du crime
de génocide (Bosnie‑Herzégovine c. Serbie‑et‑Monténégro), arrêt, C.I.J.
Recueil 2007 (I), p. 104, par. 147). Dans l’affaire Bosnie‑Herzégovine
c. Serbie‑et‑Monténégro,
s’agissant de la requête du demandeur tendant
à ce qu’elle se prononce sur des actes de génocide et d’autres actes
534 application of the genocide convention (diss. op. xue)
61
other unlawful acts allegedly committed against “non-Serbs” outside its
own territory by the respondent, the Court recognized that this request
could concern questions about the legal interest or standing of the applicant
in respect of such matters and the significance of the jus cogens character
of the relevant norms. Before turning to those questions, however, the
Court found that the evidence offered by the applicant did not in any way
support its allegations and, therefore, it did not see the need to address
those questions of law (Application of the Convention on the Prevention
and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Serbia
and Montenegro), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2007 (I), p. 120,
para. 185).
35. The only case in which the Court explicitly affirms the entitlement
of a State party to make a claim against another State party on the basis
of the common interest in compliance with the obligations erga omnes
partes is the Questions relating to the Obligation to Prosecute or Extradite
(Belgium v. Senegal) case. On the issue of standing, I will not repeat my dissenting
opinion appended to that Judgment but highlight three points.
36. First, the issue raised by the applicant in Belgium v. Senegal essentially
concerns the interpretation and application of the principle of extradition
or prosecution, aut dedere aut judicare, under Article 7, paragraph 1,
of the Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading
Treatment or Punishment (hereinafter the “Convention against Torture”),
with Article 5 establishing universal jurisdiction over criminal
offences of torture as defined in that convention. As its national courts
were seised of cases against Mr. Hissène Habré, the former President of
Chad, for alleged torture offences, Belgium was a specially affected State
in the case. By virtue of its national law and Article 8 of the Convention
against Torture, Belgium had the right to make a request to Senegal for
the extradition of the alleged offender. According to Article 7, paragraph
1, if a State party in whose territory the alleged offender is found
decides not to extradite the person concerned, it is obliged to submit the
case to its competent authorities for the purpose of prosecution. Belgium
claimed that the respondent, having failed to prosecute Mr. Habré and
refused to extradite him to Belgium, had breached its obligation under
Article 7, paragraph 1, of that convention. Logically, whether Senegal
had fulfilled its obligation under Article 6, paragraph 2, to conduct
preliminary
inquiry into the facts of the alleged offences constituted part
of the legal issues relating to the principle of extradition or prosecution.
37. In any event, the Court’s pronouncement on the obligations erga
omnes partes cannot be taken as a legal basis for Belgium’s standing in the
case before the Court. The issue that involves Belgium’s standing relates to
the question whether Belgium remained competent to request the extradition
of the alleged offender as a result of the amendments to its national
application de convention génocide (op. diss. xue) 534
61
illicites que le défendeur aurait commis à l’encontre du groupe « non serbe »
hors du territoire de la Bosnie-Herzégovine,
la Cour a reconnu que cette
requête pouvait soulever certaines interrogations quant à l’intérêt juridique
ou à la qualité pour agir du demandeur à l’égard de telles questions et
quant au caractère de jus cogens s’attachant aux normes pertinentes. Ayant
constaté que les éléments de preuve présentés par le demandeur n’étayaient
nullement ses allégations, la Cour n’a cependant pas jugé nécessaire
d’examiner ces questions de droit (Application de la convention pour la
prévention et la répression du crime de génocide (Bosnie‑Herzégovine c.
Serbie‑et‑Monténégro), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2007 (I), p. 120, par. 185).
35. La seule affaire dans laquelle la Cour a expressément affirmé le
droit d’un Etat partie de présenter une réclamation contre un autre Etat
partie sur la base de l’intérêt commun à ce que soient respectées des obligations
erga omnes partes est l’affaire concernant des Questions relatives à
l’obligation de poursuivre ou d’extrader (Belgique c. Sénégal). Sur la question
de la qualité pour agir, je ne répéterai pas l’exposé de mon opinion
dissidente joint à cet arrêt, mais soulignerai trois points.
36. Premièrement, la question soulevée par le demandeur dans l’affaire
Belgique c. Sénégal concernait essentiellement l’interprétation et l’application
du principe aut dedere aut judicare (extrader ou poursuivre), conformément
au paragraphe 1 de l’article 7 de la convention contre la torture
et autres peines ou traitements cruels, inhumains ou dégradants (ci-
après
la « convention contre la torture »), l’article 5 établissant une compétence
universelle pour les actes de torture constituant des infractions au regard
du droit pénal telles que définies dans ledit instrument. Ses juridictions
nationales ayant été saisies de demandes visant M. Hissène Habré, ancien
président du Tchad, pour des faits de torture présumés, la Belgique était
un Etat spécialement atteint dans cette affaire. En application de son
droit national et de l’article 8 de la convention contre la torture, elle avait
le droit de demander au Sénégal l’extradition de l’auteur présumé. Selon
le paragraphe 1 de l’article 7, un Etat partie sur le territoire duquel l’auteur
présumé d’une infraction est découvert doit, s’il décide de ne pas
extrader ce dernier, soumettre l’affaire à ses autorités compétentes pour
l’exercice de l’action pénale. Le demandeur faisait valoir que le défendeur,
n’ayant pas poursuivi M. Habré et ayant refusé de l’extrader vers la Belgique,
avait manqué à l’obligation lui incombant au regard du paragraphe
1 de l’article 7 de la convention. En toute logique, le point de
savoir si le Sénégal avait satisfait à l’obligation lui incombant au titre du
paragraphe 2 de l’article 6 de procéder à une enquête préliminaire en vue
d’établir les faits intéressant les infractions alléguées faisait partie des
questions juridiques relatives au principe d’extrader ou de poursuivre.
37. En tout état de cause, le prononcé de la Cour sur les obligations erga
omnes partes ne pouvait être considéré comme une base juridique de la qualité
pour agir de la Belgique dans l’affaire précitée. La question relative
à la
qualité pour agir de la Belgique portait sur le point de savoir si celle-
ci
demeurait compétente pour demander l’extradition de l’auteur présumé de
535 application of the genocide convention (diss. op. xue)
62
laws. In 1993, Belgium enacted a national law establishing universal jurisdiction
for its national courts in respect of war crimes (Law on the repression
of grave breaches of the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949 and
protocols I and II of 8 June 1977 (loi relative à la répression des infractions
graves aux conventions internationales de Genève du 12 août 1949 et aux protocoles
I et II du 8 juin 1977), 16 June 1993, Art. 7). In 1999, the scope of
punishable offences subject to universal jurisdiction under the 1993 act was
expanded to include genocide and crimes against humanity, including torture
(Act concerning the punishment of grave breaches of international
humanitarian law (loi relative à la répression des violations graves du droit
international humanitaire), 10 February 1999, Art. 1 (1)‑(2)). In April 2003,
a further amendment was made to the law, requiring a request from the
Federal Prosecutor for the criminal investigation of a complaint on the
basis of universal jurisdiction (Law amending the law of 16 June 1993 concerning
the prohibition of grave breaches of international humanitarian
law and article 144ter of the judicial code (loi modifiant la loi du 16 juin
1993 relative à la répression des violations graves du droit international
humanitaire et l’article 144ter du code judiciaire), 23 April 2003, Art. 5). The
1993 act as thus amended was repealed by an act of 5 August 2003, which
also amended the Code of Criminal Procedure. Among the changes introduced
therein, the new act provides that there must exist some requisite link
with Belgium for prosecution of the alleged offences previously proscribed
by the 1993 act (Law on grave breaches of international humanitarian law
(loi relative aux violations graves du droit international humanitaire),
5 August 2003, Art. 16 (1)-(2)). All of the above changes to Belgium’s criminal
law and procedure preceded Belgium’s application instituting proceedings
before the Court in the Obligation to Prosecute or Extradite case.
Although Belgium’s criminal investigations against Mr. Hissène Habré
could be traced back to 2000 and were being conducted pursuant to the
1993 act as amended in 1999, it was only in 2005 that a Belgian investigating
judge issued an international warrant in absentia for Mr. Habré’s arrest
and that Belgium subsequently requested his extradition. During the proceedings
before the Court, Belgium claimed that the act of 5 August 2003
“imposes no bar to such universal jurisdiction, because the 2003 Law provides
that investigations [that] begun before its entry into force may be pursued
if they follow from complaints filed by Belgians” (Questions relating to
the Obligation to Prosecute or Extradite (Belgium v. Senegal), Memorial of
the Kingdom of Belgium, 1 July 2010, Vol. I, p. 20). Apparently, the issue
for the Court to decide was whether Belgium was competent in accordance
with Article 5 of the Convention against Torture to maintain its request for
extradition of Mr. Habré in light of the changes to its national law. The
matter concerns the conditions for extradition rather than the obligation to
prosecute. The Court’s reasoning that “[i]f a special interest were required
for that purpose, in many cases no State would be in the position to make
such a claim”, a purported ground for Belgium’s standing in the case, does
not, in my view, fit into the situation where the principle of extradition or
prosecution is applicable.
application de convention génocide (op. diss. xue) 535
62
l’infraction à la suite des modifications apportées à sa législation nationale.
En 1993, la Belgique avait adopté une loi établissant la compétence universelle
de ses tribunaux nationaux en matière de crimes de guerre (loi relative
à la répression des infractions graves aux conventions internationales de
Genève du 12 août 1949 et aux protocoles I et II du 8 juin 1977 additionnels
à ces conventions, 16 juin 1993, art. 7). En 1999, le champ des infractions
punissables relevant de la compétence universelle en vertu de la loi de
1993 avait été élargi pour inclure le génocide et les crimes contre l’humanité,
y compris la torture (loi relative à la répression des violations graves
du droit international humanitaire, 10 février 1999, art. 1, par. 1‑2). En avril
2003, une nouvelle modification avait été apportée à la loi, exigeant une
demande du procureur fédéral pour l’instruction pénale d’une plainte fondée
sur la compétence universelle (loi modifiant la loi du 16 juin 1993 relative
à la répression des violations graves du droit international humanitaire
et de l’article 144ter du code judiciaire, 23 avril 2003, art. 5). La loi de 1993
ainsi modifiée avait été abrogée par une loi du 5 août 2003, qui avait également
modifié le code de procédure pénale. Parmi les changements introduits,
la nouvelle loi prévoyait qu’il devait exister un lien avec la Belgique
pour que des poursuites puissent être engagées à l’encontre des auteurs des
infractions présumées précédemment proscrites par la loi de 1993 (loi relative
aux violations graves du droit international humanitaire, 5 août 2003,
art. 16, par. 1‑2). Toutes les modifications susmentionnées du droit pénal et
de la procédure pénale de la Belgique étaient antérieures à la requête introductive
d’instance de cet Etat dans l’affaire relative à des Questions concernant
l’obligation de poursuivre ou d’extrader. Alors même que les enquêtes
pénales menées par la Belgique à l’encontre de M. Hissène Habré remontaient
à 2000 et avaient été conduites conformément à la loi de 1993 telle
que modifiée en 1999, il avait fallu attendre 2005 pour qu’un juge d’instruction
belge émette un mandat d’arrêt international par défaut à l’encontre de
M. Habré et pour que la Belgique demande ensuite l’extradition de l’intéressé.
Pendant la procédure devant la Cour, la Belgique avait affirmé que la
loi du 5 août 2003 ne faisait pas obstacle à la compétence universelle car
elle « prevo[ya]it que les instructions commencées avant l’entrée en vigueur
de cette loi p[ouvai]ent se poursuivre si elles résult[ai]ent de plaintes déposées
par des Belges » (Questions concernant l’obligation de poursuivre ou
d’extrader (Belgique c. Sénégal), mémoire du Royaume de Belgique,
1er juillet 2010, vol. I, p. 20). Apparemment, la question que la Cour devait
trancher était de savoir si la Belgique était compétente, conformément à
l’article 5 de la convention contre la torture, pour maintenir sa demande
d’extradition de M. Habré à la lumière des modifications apportées à son
droit national. Elle concernait les conditions d’extradition et non l’obligation
de poursuivre. Le raisonnement de la Cour selon lequel, « [s]i un intérêt
particulier était requis à cet effet, aucun Etat ne serait, dans bien des cas, en
mesure de présenter une telle demande », qui était le fondement allégué de
la qualité pour agir de la Belgique dans cette affaire, ne correspond pas, à
mon avis, à la situation dans laquelle le principe extrader ou poursuivre est
applicable.
536 application of the genocide convention (diss. op. xue)
63
38. Secondly, the Court has consistently maintained a clear distinction
between substantive norms and procedural rules. It has firmly held that
“the erga omnes character of a norm and the rule of consent to jurisdiction
are two different things” (East Timor (Portugal v. Australia), Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 1995, p. 102, para. 29). This position is reiterated in
Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the
Crime of Genocide ((Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Serbia and Montenegro),
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2007 (I), p. 104, para. 147) (see also Jurisdictional
Immunities of the State (Germany v. Italy: Greece intervening),
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2012 (I), p. 140, para. 93). The inference drawn
from the common interest in the Belgium v. Senegal case and the present
case confuses the legal interest of the States parties in the compliance with
the substantive obligations of the Genocide Convention and the procedure
for dispute settlement.
39. Thirdly, the common interest enunciated by the Court in the Advisory
Opinion exists not solely in the Genocide Convention. As the Court
found in the Belgium v. Senegal case, the States parties to the Convention
against Torture also have a common interest in compliance with the relevant
obligations under that convention, which are characterized as obligations
erga omnes partes. By analogy, such common interest could
equally be identified in many other conventions relating to, for example,
human rights, disarmament and environment. If obligations under those
conventions are therefore regarded as obligations erga omnes partes, by
virtue of the Court’s reasoning in the present case, it means that any of
the States parties, specially affected or not by an alleged breach of the
relevant obligations, would have standing to institute proceedings in the
Court against the alleged State party, provided no reservation to the
jurisdiction of the Court is entered by either of the parties. This approach
has two potential consequences: one is that more States would make reservations
to the jurisdiction of the Court and the second is that India’s
concern expressed during the negotiation process on Article IX of the
Genocide Convention over vague and insubstantial allegations may be
raised again.
40. The situation of the Rohingyas in Myanmar deserves serious
responses from the international community. If there is evidence suggesting
that there may be commission of genocidal acts in Myanmar, various
organs of the United Nations possess powers which can be exercised for
the prevention and suppression of acts of genocide pursuant to the initiative
of one or more United Nations Member States, even without the
exercise of the right under Article VIII of the Genocide Convention. The
fact is that the situation of Myanmar and the Rohingya refugees has been
on the agenda of various United Nations organs for years. The human
rights situation of the Rohingyas has also been under the investigation of
a UN Fact-Finding
Mission and the Special Rapporteur for Myanmar.
application de convention génocide (op. diss. xue) 536
63
38. Deuxièmement, la Cour a toujours établi une distinction claire entre
les normes de fond et les règles de procédure. Elle a résolument affirmé que
« l’opposabilité erga omnes d’une norme et la règle du consentement à la
juridiction sont deux choses différentes » (Timor oriental (Portugal c. Australie),
arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1995, p. 102, par. 29). Cette position a été réitérée
dans l’affaire relative à l’Application de la convention pour la prévention
et la répression du crime de génocide (Bosnie‑Herzégovine
c. Serbie‑et‑Monténégro),
arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2007 (I), p. 104, par. 147 ; voir également
Immunités juridictionnelles de l’Etat (Allemagne c. Italie ; Grèce (intervenant)),
arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2012 (I), p. 140, par. 93). La conclusion tirée
de l’intérêt commun tant dans l’affaire Belgique c. Sénégal que dans la
présente espèce confond l’intérêt juridique des Etats parties à ce que soient
respectées les obligations de fond de la convention sur le génocide avec la
procédure de règlement des différends.
39. Troisièmement, l’intérêt commun mentionné par la Cour dans
l’avis consultatif n’existe pas seulement pour la convention sur le génocide.
Ainsi que la Cour l’a constaté dans l’affaire Belgique c. Sénégal, les
Etats parties à la convention contre la torture ont également un intérêt
commun à ce que soient respectées les obligations pertinentes découlant
de cette convention, qui sont qualifiées d’obligations erga omnes partes.
Par analogie, un tel intérêt commun pourrait également être mis en évidence
dans le cadre de nombreuses autres conventions relatives, par
exemple, aux droits de l’homme, au désarmement et à l’environnement. Si
les obligations découlant de ces conventions sont donc considérées comme
des obligations erga omnes partes, suivant le raisonnement de la Cour
dans la présente espèce, il s’ensuit que n’importe lequel des Etats parties,
spécialement atteint ou non par une violation alléguée des obligations
pertinentes, aurait qualité pour introduire une instance devant la Cour
contre l’Etat partie visé, à condition qu’aucune réserve à la compétence
de cette dernière n’ait été formulée par l’une ou l’autre des parties. Cette
approche a deux conséquences potentielles : la première est qu’un plus
grand nombre d’Etats émettraient des réserves à la compétence de la
Cour ; la seconde est que la préoccupation exprimée par l’Inde au cours
du processus de négociation de l’article IX de la convention sur le génocide
concernant les allégations vagues et infondées pourrait être soulevée
de nouveau.
40. La situation des Rohingya au Myanmar appelle de la part de la communauté
internationale des réponses à la hauteur de la situation. S’il existe
des éléments donnant à penser que des actes génocidaires peuvent être commis
dans ce pays, divers organes de l’Organisation des Nations Unies sont
dotés de prérogatives pouvant être exercées pour la prévention et la répression
de ces actes à l’initiative d’un ou de plusieurs Etats Membres, même
sans invoquer le droit prévu à l’article VIII de la convention sur le génocide.
De fait, la situation du Myanmar et des réfugiés rohingya est à l’ordre
du jour de différents organes de l’Organisation depuis des années. La situation
des droits de l’homme des Rohingya a également fait l’objet d’une
enquête de la part d’une mission d’établissement des faits de l’Organisation
537 application of the genocide convention (diss. op. xue)
64
Above all, Myanmar remains bound by its obligations under the Genocide
Convention.
41. The situation in Myanmar, as is found in the 2017 Final Report of
the Advisory Commission on Rakhine State, represents a development
crisis, a human rights crisis and a security crisis; while all communities
have suffered from violence and abuse, protracted statelessness and profound
discrimination have made the Muslim community particularly vulnerable
to human rights violations. As Kofi Annan, Chair of the
Advisory Commission, pointed out, “the challenges facing Rakhine State
and its peoples are complex and the search for lasting solutions will
require determination, perseverance and trust” (Statement by Kofi
Annan, Chair of the Advisory Commission on Rakhine State (Interim
Report), 16 March 2017).
(Signed) Xue Hanqin.
application de convention génocide (op. diss. xue) 537
64
des Nations Unies et du rapporteur spécial sur la situation des droits de
l’homme au Myanmar. Enfin, et surtout, le Myanmar reste lié par les obligations
qui lui incombent au regard de la convention sur le génocide.
41. La situation au Myanmar, telle que décrite dans le rapport final de
2017 de la commission consultative sur l’Etat rakhine, représente une
crise de développement, une crise des droits de l’homme et une crise de
sécurité ; si toutes les communautés ont souffert d’actes de violence, l’apatridie
prolongée et l’existence de graves discriminations ont toutefois
rendu la communauté musulmane particulièrement vulnérable face aux
violations des droits de l’homme. Comme l’a souligné M. Kofi Annan,
président de la commission consultative, « les défis auxquels sont confrontés
l’Etat rakhine et ses habitants sont complexes et la recherche de solutions
durables exigera de la détermination, de la persévérance et de la
confiance » (Déclaration de M. Kofi Annan, président de la commission
consultative sur l’Etat rakhine (rapport intérimaire), 16 mars 2017).
(Signé) Xue Hanqin.

Document file FR
Document Long Title

Dissenting Opinion of Judge Xue

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