Declaration of Judge Iwasawa

Document Number
155-20220421-JUD-01-08-EN
Parent Document Number
155-20220421-JUD-01-00-EN
Date of the Document
Document File
Bilingual Document File

DECLARATION OF JUDGE IWASAWA Article 33, paragraph 1, of UNCLOS reflects customary international law on the contiguous zone in respect of the powers that a coastal State may exercise in that zone  It is significant that, at the Third United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea, there were no proposals to add other matters to the list in Article 33, paragraph 1. Article 56, paragraph 1, of UNCLOS provides that, in the exclusive economic zone, the coastal State has (a) sovereign rights over natural resources and (b) jurisdiction with regard to the protection of the marine environment  In addition, paragraph 1 (c) indicates that the coastal State has “other rights” provided for in UNCLOS  Nicaragua has freedom of navigation in its exclusive economic zone  Colombia’s integral contiguous zone infringes not only on Nicaragua’s sovereign rights and jurisdiction but also on Nicaragua’s freedom of navigation in its exclusive economic zone. 1. In this declaration, I offer my views on Colombia’s integral contiguous zone and the Court’s reasoning in that regard. * 2. The Court finds that Article 33, paragraph 1, of UNCLOS reflects customary international law on the contiguous zone in respect of the powers that a coastal State may exercise in that zone (paragraph 155 of the Judgment). Thus, the powers that a coastal State may exercise in its contiguous zone are confined to those set out in that provision, namely “customs”, “fiscal”, “immigration”, and “sanitary” matters. A coastal State may not exercise, in its contiguous zone, control with respect to security matters (paragraph 154). 3. In support of the above conclusions, the Court notes that a Polish proposal to add “security” to the list of matters was rejected at the First United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea in 1958, and that the wording of Article 24, paragraph 1, of the 1958 Convention on the Territorial Sea and the Contiguous Zone was adopted in Article 33, paragraph 1, of UNCLOS “without any change as regards the matters in respect of which the coastal State may exercise control” (paragraph 153 of the Judgment). 4. In my view, it is also significant that, at the Third United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea, there were no proposals to add other matters to the list. Of the more than 80 proposals submitted to the Conference’s Second Committee, which dealt with a broad range of items, only two proposals concerned the contiguous zone1. Neither of them was a proposal to add other matters to 1 (1) United Nations, Official Records of the Third United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea, Vol. III (Documents of the Conference, First and Second Sessions), Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, German Democratic Republic, Hungary, Mongolia, Poland and Union of Soviet Socialist Republics: draft article on the contiguous zone, 29 July 1974, doc. A/CONF.62/C.2/L.27, p. 205 (a draft article which reproduced Article 24 of the 1958 Convention on the Territorial Sea and the Contiguous Zone); (2) ibid., Egypt, Honduras, India, Iran, Kuwait, Liberia, Libyan Arab Republic, Mexico, Morocco, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates and Yemen: draft article on the economic and contiguous zone, 23 Aug. 1974, doc. A/CONF.62/C.2/L.78, p. 239 (a proposal to repackage the contiguous zone as the economic zone). - 2 - the list. It was on this basis that Article 33, paragraph 1, of UNCLOS adopted the wording of Article 24, paragraph 1, of the 1958 Convention without any change as regards the matters in respect of which the coastal State may exercise control in its contiguous zone. * 5. Nicaragua contends that Colombia’s integral contiguous zone established by Presidential Decree 1946 “is not consistent with international law”, first, because the limits of the integral contiguous zone exceed the maximum breadth allowed by international law, and secondly, because the powers Colombia grants itself in the contiguous zone “exceed what international law allows”2. 6. The Court finds that Colombia’s integral contiguous zone is indeed “not in conformity with customary international law” (paragraphs 187, 194, 196, and 261 (5) of the Judgment) in two respects. First, the geographical extent of the integral contiguous zone contravenes the 24-nautical-mile rule for the establishment of the contiguous zone. Secondly, certain powers conferred on Colombia by Presidential Decree 1946 extend to matters that are not permitted by customary international law as reflected in Article 33, paragraph 1, of UNCLOS (paragraph 187). 7. With regard to the second respect, the Court further finds that the integral contiguous zone infringes upon Nicaragua’s “sovereign rights and jurisdiction” in its exclusive economic zone (paragraphs 194 and 196 of the Judgment). 8. Article 56, paragraph 1, of UNCLOS provides that, in the exclusive economic zone, the coastal State has (a) sovereign rights for the purpose of exploring and exploiting, conserving and managing the natural resources and (b) jurisdiction with regard to such matters as marine scientific research and the protection and preservation of the marine environment. Paragraph 1 (c) further indicates that the coastal State also has “other rights and duties provided for in this Convention”. 9. There is no doubt that the coastal State has freedom of navigation in its exclusive economic zone. Article 87, paragraph 1, of UNCLOS provides that “[t]he high seas are open to all States, whether coastal or land-locked” and that “[f]reedom of the high seas . . . comprises . . . (a) freedom of navigation”. Article 90 of UNCLOS provides that “[e]very State . . . has the right to sail ships flying its flag on the high seas”. The coastal State can establish its exclusive economic zone up to 200 nautical miles from its baselines. That area is subject to a specific legal régime, which confers additional rights and duties on the coastal State. However, the freedoms the coastal State had on the high seas before establishing its exclusive economic zone continue to exist in that zone. In The “Enrica Lexie” Incident case, India argued that it had freedom of navigation in its exclusive economic zone “pursuant to Article 87, paragraph 1, subparagraph (a) and Article 90” of UNCLOS3, 2 Reply of Nicaragua, Chap. III, Secs. A.1 and A.2. 3 The “Enrica Lexie” Incident (Italy v. India), Award of 21 May 2020, PCA Case No. 2015-28, para. 1017; see also paras. 72 and 987. - 3 - and the arbitral tribunal confirmed that Articles 87 and 90 “apply equally to the exclusive economic zone” 4. 10. The Court finds that the scope of Colombia’s powers within its integral contiguous zone to prevent and control infringements of laws and regulations, as set out in Article 5 (3) of Presidential Decree 1946, “is much broader than the material scope of the powers enumerated in Article 33, paragraph 1, of UNCLOS” (paragraph 176 of the Judgment). 11. The Court observes that the power to protect “national maritime interests” in Article 5 (3), through its broad wording alone, “appears to encroach on the sovereign rights and jurisdiction of Nicaragua” (paragraph 178 of the Judgment). As regards the power for “the preservation of the environment” in Article 5 (3), the Court finds that it is contrary to Article 56, paragraph 1(b) (iii), of UNCLOS, which grants Nicaragua jurisdiction with regard to the “protection and preservation of the marine environment” (ibid.). 12. With respect to the power to prevent and control infringements relating to the “integral security of the State”, including drug trafficking, and “conduct contrary to security in the sea”, Nicaragua argues that “[n]either of these matters is covered by customary international law” and that Article 5 (3) therefore “is inconsistent with international law”5. The Court finds that “[t]he inclusion of security in the material scope of Colombia’s powers” is indeed “not in conformity with the relevant customary rule” (paragraph 177 of the Judgment). However, the Court refrains from finding that this power encroaches on Nicaragua’s “sovereign rights and jurisdiction” in its exclusive economic zone. This is appropriate because this power does not, in itself, affect Nicaragua’s sovereign rights over natural resources or jurisdiction with regard to the protection and preservation of the marine environment. However, it unquestionably encroaches on Nicaragua’s freedom of navigation in its exclusive economic zone. 13. In its final submissions, Nicaragua requests the Court to adjudge and declare that, “[b]y its conduct, the Republic of Colombia has breached its international obligation to respect Nicaragua’s maritime zones as delimited in . . . the Court Judgment of 19 November 2012, as well as Nicaragua’s sovereign rights and jurisdiction in these zones” (paragraph 24 of the Judgment; emphasis added). The first part of this request of Nicaragua is made in broader terms than the second part. 14. In respect of Colombia’s integral contiguous zone, Nicaragua contends that “Colombia has infringed and is infringing upon Nicaragua’s maritime zone while implementing its integral contiguous zone”6. Some incidents alleged by Nicaragua in support of this contention point to Colombia’s encroachment on Nicaragua’s freedom of navigation rather than its sovereign rights and 4 Ibid., para. 1036. The arbitral tribunal stated that Articles 87 and 90 apply to the exclusive economic zone “by virtue of Article 58, paragraph 2” of UNCLOS. See also A. Proelss (ed.), United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea: A Commentary (2017), p. 690 (Article 90: Right of navigation). Article 58, paragraph 2, provides that “Articles 88 to 115 . . . apply to the exclusive economic zone in so far as they are not incompatible with this Part”. In the context of The “Enrica Lexie” Incident case, however, the arbitral tribunal’s explanation that Articles 87 and 90 apply to the exclusive economic zone “by virtue of Article 58, paragraph 2” may be questionable. The heading of Article 58 reads “Rights and duties of other States in the exclusive economic zone” (emphasis added), which may suggest that Article 58, including paragraph 2, concerns the rights and duties of States other than the coastal State (in that case, India). 5 Reply of Nicaragua, paras. 3.41 and 3.45. 6 Reply of Nicaragua, para. 3.61 (emphasis added). - 4 - jurisdiction. For example, according to Nicaragua, a Colombian naval vessel intercepted a Nicaraguan coast guard vessel on patrol and demanded that it withdraw from Colombia’s integral contiguous zone, claiming that it was in Colombian waters 7. These incidents did not necessarily affect Nicaragua’s sovereign rights over natural resources or jurisdiction with regard to the protection and preservation of the marine environment, but they certainly encroached on Nicaragua’s freedom of navigation in its exclusive economic zone. 15. Notwithstanding the foregoing, in its pleadings on Colombia’s integral contiguous zone, Nicaragua focused primarily upon Colombia’s violations of Nicaragua’s “sovereign rights and jurisdiction”. In light of these pleadings by Nicaragua, the Court characterizes Nicaragua’s arguments as such (paragraph 189 of the Judgment) and concludes that Colombia’s integral contiguous zone infringes upon Nicaragua’s “sovereign rights and jurisdiction” in its exclusive economic zone (paragraphs 194 and 196). However, in my view, Colombia’s integral contiguous zone infringes not only on Nicaragua’s sovereign rights and jurisdiction but also on Nicaragua’s freedom of navigation in its exclusive economic zone. 16. As regards appropriate remedies in this respect, the Court finds that Colombia must, by means of its own choosing, bring into conformity with customary international law the provisions of Presidential Decree 1946, “in so far as they relate to maritime areas declared by the Court in its 2012 Judgment to appertain to Nicaragua” (paragraphs 196 and 261 (6) of the Judgment). The Court indicates a remedy in this form in response to Nicaragua’s request in its final submissions (paragraph 24). (Signed) IWASAWA Yuji. ___________ 7 See Memorial of Nicaragua, para. 2.43 (alleged incident of 2 January 2014). See also ibid., Annex 23B (alleged incident of 2 February 2014).

Bilingual Content

424
162
DECLARATION OF JUDGE IWASAWA
Article 33, paragraph 1, of UNCLOS reflects customary international law on
the contiguous zone in respect of the powers that a coastal State may exercise in
that zone — It is significant that, at the Third United Nations Conference on the
Law of the Sea, there were no proposals to add other matters to the list in
Article 33, paragraph 1.
Article 56, paragraph 1, of UNCLOS provides that, in the exclusive economic
zone, the coastal State has (a) sovereign rights over natural resources and
(b) jurisdiction with regard to the protection of the marine environment — In
addition, paragraph 1 (c) indicates that the coastal State has “other rights”
provided for in UNCLOS — Nicaragua has freedom of navigation in its exclusive
economic zone — Colombia’s integral contiguous zone infringes not only on
Nicaragua’s sovereign rights and jurisdiction but also on Nicaragua’s freedom of
navigation in its exclusive economic zone.
1. In this declaration, I offer my views on Colombia’s integral contiguous
zone and the Court’s reasoning in that regard.
*
2. The Court finds that Article 33, paragraph 1, of UNCLOS reflects
customary international law on the contiguous zone in respect of the
powers that a coastal State may exercise in that zone (Judgment,
para. 155). Thus, the powers that a coastal State may exercise in its contiguous
zone are confined to those set out in that provision, namely “customs”,
“fiscal”, “immigration”, and “sanitary” matters. A coastal State
may not exercise, in its contiguous zone, control with respect to security
matters (ibid., para. 154).
3. In support of the above conclusions, the Court notes that a Polish
proposal to add “security” to the list of matters was rejected at the First
United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea in 1958, and that the
wording of Article 24, paragraph 1, of the 1958 Convention on
the Territorial
Sea and the Contiguous Zone was adopted in Article 33,
paragraph 1, of UNCLOS “without any change as regards the matters
in respect of which the coastal State may exercise control” (ibid.,
para. 153).
4. In my view, it is also significant that, at the Third United Nations
Conference on the Law of the Sea, there were no proposals to add other
matters to the list. Of the more than 80 proposals submitted to the Conference’s
Second Committee, which dealt with a broad range of items,
424
162
DÉCLARATION DE M. LE JUGE IWASAWA
[Traduction]
Paragraphe 1 de l’article 33 de la CNUDM reflétant le droit international
coutumier relatif à la zone contiguë en ce qui concerne les pouvoirs qu’un Etat
côtier peut y exercer — Absence significative, à la troisième conférence des
Nations Unies sur le droit de la mer, de proposition d’ajouter d’autres points à la
liste des domaines visés au paragraphe 1 de l’article 33.
Paragraphe 1 de l’article 56 de la CNUDM disposant que, dans la
zone économique exclusive, l’Etat côtier a a) des droits souverains sur les
ressources naturelles ; et b) juridiction en ce qui concerne la protection du milieu
marin — Alinéa c) du paragraphe 1 indiquant en outre que l’Etat côtier jouit
des « autres droits » prévus par la CNUDM — Nicaragua jouissant de la liberté
de navigation dans sa zone économique exclusive — Zone contiguë unique
colombienne portant atteinte non seulement aux droits souverains et à la juridiction
du Nicaragua, mais aussi à sa liberté de navigation dans sa zone économique
exclusive.
1. Dans la présente déclaration, j’entends présenter mon point de vue
sur la zone contiguë unique colombienne et sur le raisonnement de la
Cour à cet égard.
*
2. La Cour considère que le paragraphe 1 de l’article 33 de la CNUDM
reflète le droit international coutumier relatif à la zone contiguë, en ce qui
concerne les pouvoirs que l’Etat côtier peut y exercer (arrêt, par. 155).
Par conséquent, lesdits pouvoirs se limitent à ceux prévus par cette disposition,
à savoir les domaines des « douanes », de la « fiscalité », de
l’« immigration
» ou des questions « sanitaires ». Un Etat côtier ne peut
exercer, dans sa zone contiguë, un contrôle en matière de sécurité (ibid.,
par. 154).
3. A l’appui des conclusions qui précèdent, la Cour relève qu’une proposition
de la Pologne tendant à ajouter la « sécurité » à la liste de ces
domaines a été rejetée à la première conférence des Nations Unies sur le
droit de la mer tenue en 1958, et que le libellé du paragraphe 1 de l’article
24 de la convention de 1958 sur la mer territoriale et la zone contiguë
a été repris au paragraphe 1 de l’article 33 de la CNUDM « sans aucune
modification quant aux domaines dans lesquels l’Etat côtier peut exercer
un contrôle » (ibid., par. 153).
4. Selon moi, il n’est pas non plus anodin que, à la troisième conférence
des Nations Unies sur le droit de la mer, aucune proposition d’ajouter
d’autres domaines à la liste n’ait été faite. Sur les plus de 80 propositions
soumises à la deuxième commission de la conférence, qui s’est penchée
425 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (decl. iwasawa)
163
only two proposals concerned the contiguous zone 1. Neither of them
was a proposal to add other matters to the list. It was on this basis that
Article 33, paragraph 1, of UNCLOS adopted the wording of Article 24,
paragraph 1, of the 1958 Convention without any change as regards the
matters in respect of which the coastal State may exercise control in its
contiguous zone.
*
5. Nicaragua contends that Colombia’s integral contiguous zone established
by Presidential Decree 1946 “is not consistent with international
law”, first, because the limits of the integral contiguous zone exceed the
maximum breadth allowed by international law, and secondly, because
the powers Colombia grants itself in the contiguous zone “exceed what
international law allows” 2.
6. The Court finds that Colombia’s integral contiguous zone is indeed
“not in conformity with customary international law” (Judgment,
paras. 187, 194, 196, and 261 (5)) in two respects. First, the geographical
extent of the integral contiguous zone contravenes the 24‑nautical‑mile
rule for the establishment of the contiguous zone. Secondly, certain powers
conferred on Colombia by Presidential Decree 1946 extend to matters
that are not permitted by customary international law as reflected in Article
33, paragraph 1, of UNCLOS (ibid., para. 187).
7. With regard to the second respect, the Court further finds that the
integral contiguous zone infringes upon Nicaragua’s “sovereign rights
and jurisdiction” in its exclusive economic zone (ibid., paras. 194
and 196).
8. Article 56, paragraph 1, of UNCLOS provides that, in the exclusive
economic zone, the coastal State has (a) sovereign rights for the purpose
of exploring and exploiting, conserving and managing the natural
resources and (b) jurisdiction with regard to such matters as marine scientific
research and the protection and preservation of the marine environment.
Paragraph 1 (c) further indicates that the coastal State also has “other
rights and duties provided for in this Convention”.
1 (1) United Nations, Official Records of the Third United Nations Conference on
the Law of the Sea, Vol. III (Documents of the Conference, First and Second Sessions),
Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, German Democratic
Republic, Hungary, Mongolia, Poland and Union of Soviet Socialist Republics: draft
Article on the contiguous zone, 29 July 1974, UN doc. A/CONF.62/C.2/L.27, p. 205 (a
draft Article which reproduced Article 24 of the 1958 Convention on the Territorial Sea
and the Contiguous Zone); (2) ibid., Egypt, Honduras, India, Iran, Kuwait, Liberia, Libyan
Arab Republic, Mexico, Morocco, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates and
Yemen: draft Article on the economic and contiguous zone, 23 August 1974, UN doc. A/
CONF.62/C.2/L.78, p. 239 (a proposal to repackage the contiguous zone as the economic
zone).
2 Reply of Nicaragua, Chap. III, Secs. A.1 and A.2.
droits souverains et espaces maritimes (décl. iwasawa) 425
163
sur une grande variété de questions, seules deux concernaient la zone
contiguë 1, et ni l’une ni l’autre ne visait à ajouter de nouveaux domaines
à la liste. C’est sur cette base qu’a été repris, au paragraphe 1 de l’article
33 de la CNUDM, le libellé du paragraphe 1 de l’article 24 de la
convention de 1958, sans aucune modification quant aux domaines dans
lesquels l’Etat côtier peut exercer un contrôle dans sa zone contiguë.
*
5. Le Nicaragua soutient que la zone contiguë unique de la Colombie,
établie en vertu du décret présidentiel 1946, est « incompatible avec le
droit international coutumier », car, d’une part, l’étendue de cette zone
dépasse la largeur maximale autorisée par le droit international et, d’autre
part, les pouvoirs que la Colombie s’y arroge « excèdent ceux admis par le
droit international » 2.
6. La Cour conclut que la zone contiguë unique de la Colombie n’est
de fait « pas conforme au droit international coutumier » (arrêt, par. 187,
194, 196 et point 5 du dispositif) à deux égards. Premièrement, son étendue
géographique contrevient à la règle des 24 milles marins applicable à
l’établissement de la zone contiguë. Deuxièmement, le décret présidentiel
1946 confère à la Colombie certains pouvoirs qui s’étendent à des
domaines non autorisés par les règles coutumières telles que reflétées au
paragraphe 1 de l’article 33 de la CNUDM (ibid., par. 187).
7. En ce qui concerne ce second aspect, la Cour conclut en outre que la
zone contiguë unique porte atteinte aux « droits souverains et à la juridiction
» du Nicaragua dans sa zone économique exclusive (ibid., par. 194
et 196).
8. Selon le paragraphe 1 de l’article 56 de la CNUDM, dans la zone économique
exclusive, l’Etat côtier a a) des droits souverains aux fins d’exploration
et d’exploitation, de conservation et de gestion des ressources
naturelles ; et b) juridiction en ce qui concerne des questions telles que la
recherche scientifique marine et la protection et la préservation du milieu
marin. L’alinéa c) du paragraphe 1 précise de plus que l’Etat côtier jouit
également des « autres droits et obligations prévus par la Convention ».
1 1) Nations Unies, Documents officiels de la troisième conférence sur le droit de la mer,
vol. III (documents de la conférence, première et deuxième sessions), Bulgarie, Hongrie,
Mongolie, Pologne, République démocratique allemande, République socialiste soviétique
de Biélorussie, Tchécoslovaquie et Union des Républiques socialistes soviétiques :
draft Article on the contiguous zone [projet d’article sur la zone contiguë], 29 juillet
1974, Nations Unies, doc. A/CONF.62/C.2/L.27, p. 205 (projet d’article reproduisant
l’article 24 de la convention de 1958 sur la mer territoriale et la zone contiguë) ; 2) ibid.,
Arabie saoudite, Egypte, Emirats arabes unis, Honduras, Inde, Iran, Koweït, Libéria,
Maroc, Mexique, Oman, Qatar, République arabe libyenne et Yémen : draft Article on
the economic and contiguous zone [projet d’article sur la zone économique et contiguë],
23 août 1974, Nations Unies, doc. A/CONF.62/C.2/L.78, p. 239 (proposition de redéfinir
la zone contiguë en tant que zone économique).
2 Réplique du Nicaragua, chap. III, sect. A.1 et A.2.
426 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (decl. iwasawa)
164
9. There is no doubt that the coastal State has freedom of navigation
in its exclusive economic zone. Article 87, paragraph 1, of UNCLOS provides
that “[t]he high seas are open to all States, whether coastal or land-locked”
and that “[f]reedom of the high seas . . . comprises . . . (a) freedom
of navigation”. Article 90 of UNCLOS provides that “[e]very State . . .
has the right to sail ships flying its flag on the high seas”. The coastal
State can establish its exclusive economic zone up to 200 nautical miles
from its baselines. That area is subject to a specific legal régime, which
confers additional rights and duties on the coastal State. However, the
freedoms the coastal State had on the high seas before establishing its
exclusive economic zone continue to exist in that zone. In The “Enrica
Lexie” Incident case, India argued that it had freedom of navigation in its
exclusive economic zone “pursuant to Article 87, paragraph 1, subparagraph
(a) and Article 90” of UNCLOS 3, and the arbitral tribunal
confirmed
that Articles 87 and 90 “apply equally to the exclusive economic
zone” 4.
10. The Court finds that the scope of Colombia’s powers within its
integral contiguous zone to prevent and control infringements of laws
and regulations, as set out in Article 5 (3) of Presidential Decree 1946, “is
much broader than the material scope of the powers enumerated in Article
33, paragraph 1, of UNCLOS” (Judgment, para. 176).
11. The Court observes that the power to protect “national maritime
interests” in Article 5 (3), through its broad wording alone, “appears to
encroach on the sovereign rights and jurisdiction of Nicaragua” (ibid.,
para. 178). As regards the power for “the preservation of the environment”
in Article 5 (3), the Court finds that it is contrary to Article 56,
paragraph 1(b) (iii), of UNCLOS, which grants Nicaragua jurisdiction
with regard to the “protection and preservation of the marine environment”
(ibid.).
12. With respect to the power to prevent and control infringements
relating to the “integral security of the State”, including drug trafficking,
3 The “Enrica Lexie” Incident (Italy v. India), Award of 21 May 2020, Permanent Court
of Arbitration (PCA) Case No. 2015‑28, para. 1017; see also paras. 72 and 987.
4 Ibid., para. 1036. The arbitral tribunal stated that Articles 87 and 90 apply to the
exclusive economic zone “by virtue of Article 58, paragraph 2” of UNCLOS. See also
A. Proelss (ed.), United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea: A Commentary, Oxford,
Hart Publishing, 2017, p. 690 (Article 90: Right of navigation). Article 58, paragraph 2,
provides that “Articles 88 to 115 . . . apply to the exclusive economic zone in so far as they
are not incompatible with this Part”. In the context of The “Enrica Lexie” Incident case,
however, the arbitral tribunal’s explanation that Articles 87 and 90 apply to the exclusive
economic zone “by virtue of Article 58, paragraph 2” may be questionable. The heading
of Article 58 reads “Rights and duties of other States in the exclusive economic zone”
(emphasis added), which may suggest that Article 58, including paragraph 2, concerns the
rights and duties of States other than the coastal State (in that case, India).
droits souverains et espaces maritimes (décl. iwasawa) 426
164
9. Il ne fait aucun doute que l’Etat côtier jouit de la liberté de navigation
dans sa zone économique exclusive. Le paragraphe 1 de l’article 87
de la CNUDM dispose que « [l]a haute mer est ouverte à tous les Etats,
qu’ils soient côtiers ou sans littoral » et que la « liberté de la haute mer …
comporte … a) la liberté de navigation ». Aux termes de l’article 90 de la
CNUDM, « [t]out Etat … a le droit de faire naviguer en haute mer des
navires battant son pavillon ». L’Etat côtier peut établir sa zone économique
exclusive jusqu’à 200 milles marins de ses lignes de base. Cette
zone est régie par un régime juridique particulier, qui confère des droits et
obligations supplémentaires à l’Etat côtier. Toutefois, les libertés dont
celui‑ci jouissait en haute mer avant d’établir sa zone économique exclusive
continuent d’exister dans cette zone. Dans l’affaire de l’arbitrage relatif
à L’incident de l’« Enrica Lexie », l’Inde a fait valoir qu’elle jouissait de
la liberté de navigation dans sa zone économique exclusive « en vertu
de l’alinéa a) du paragraphe 1 de l’article 87 et de l’article 90 » de la
CNUDM 3, et le tribunal d’arbitrage a confirmé que les articles 87 et 90
« s’appliquaient de la même façon à la zone économique exclusive » 4.
10. La Cour considère que le champ des pouvoirs que peut exercer la
Colombie dans sa zone contiguë unique en vue de prévenir les infractions
et de contrôler le respect des lois et règlements, tel que défini au paragraphe
3 de l’article 5 du décret présidentiel 1946, « est bien plus vaste
que celui des pouvoirs énumérés au paragraphe 1 de l’article 33 de la
CNUDM » (arrêt, par. 176).
11. La Cour relève que le pouvoir de protéger les « intérêts maritimes
nationaux » visé au paragraphe 3 de l’article 5, du simple fait de son libellé
général, « semble porter atteinte aux droits souverains et à la juridiction
du Nicaragua » (ibid., par. 178). En ce qui concerne le pouvoir conféré à
la Colombie aux fins de « la préservation de l’environnement » prévu au
paragraphe 3 de l’article 5, la Cour le juge contraire au litt. iii) de l’alinéa
b) du paragraphe 1 de l’article 56 de la CNUDM, qui donne au Nicaragua
juridiction en matière de « protection et [de] préservation du milieu
marin » (ibid.).
12. S’agissant du pouvoir nécessaire pour prévenir les infractions et
contrôler le respect des lois et règlements touchant à la « sûreté de l’Etat »,
3 L’incident de l’« Enrica Lexie » (Italie c. Inde), décision du 21 mai 2020, Cour permanente
d’arbitrage (CPA), affaire no 2015‑28, par. 1017 ; voir également par. 72 et 987.
4 Ibid., par. 1036. Le tribunal d’arbitrage a déclaré que les articles 87 et 90 s’appliquaient
à la zone économique exclusive « en vertu du paragraphe 2 de l’article 58 » de la CNUDM.
Voir également A. Proelss (dir. publ.), United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea : A
Commentary, Oxford, Hart Publishing, 2017, p. 690 (Article 90 : Droit de navigation). Le
paragraphe 2 de l’article 58 dispose que « [l]es articles 88 à 115 … s’appliquent à la zone économique
exclusive dans la mesure où ils ne sont pas incompatibles avec la présente partie ».
Dans le contexte de l’affaire de l’arbitrage relatif à L’incident de l’« Enrica Lexie », toutefois,
l’explication du tribunal d’arbitrage, selon laquelle les articles 87 et 90 s’appliqueraient à la
zone économique exclusive « en vertu du paragraphe 2 de l’article 58 », est discutable. Le titre
de l’article 58, « Droits et obligations des autres Etats dans la zone économique exclusive »
(les italiques sont de moi), pourrait indiquer que cet article 58, y compris son paragraphe 2,
concerne les droits et obligations des Etats autres que l’Etat côtier (en l’occurrence, l’Inde).
427 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (decl. iwasawa)
165
and “conduct contrary to security in the sea”, Nicaragua argues that
“[n]either of these matters is covered by customary international law” and
that Article 5 (3) therefore “is inconsistent with international law” 5. The
Court finds that “[t]he inclusion of security in the material scope of
Colombia’s powers” is indeed “not in conformity with the relevant
customary
rule” (Judgment, para. 177). However, the Court refrains from
finding that this power encroaches on Nicaragua’s “sovereign rights and
jurisdiction” in its exclusive economic zone. This is appropriate because
this power does not, in itself, affect Nicaragua’s sovereign rights over
natural resources or jurisdiction with regard to the protection and
preservation
of the marine environment. However, it unquestionably
encroaches on Nicaragua’s freedom of navigation in its exclusive economic
zone.
13. In its final submissions, Nicaragua requests the Court to adjudge
and declare that,
“[b]y its conduct, the Republic of Colombia has breached its international
obligation to respect Nicaragua’s maritime zones as delimited
in . . . the Court Judgment of 19 November 2012, as well as Nicaragua’s
sovereign rights and jurisdiction in these zones” (ibid., para. 24;
emphasis added).
The first part of this request of Nicaragua is made in broader terms than
the second part.
14. In respect of Colombia’s integral contiguous zone, Nicaragua contends
that “Colombia has infringed and is infringing upon Nicaragua’s
maritime zone while implementing its integral contiguous zone” 6. Some
incidents alleged by Nicaragua in support of this contention point to
Colombia’s encroachment on Nicaragua’s freedom of navigation rather
than its sovereign rights and jurisdiction. For example, according to
Nicaragua, a Colombian naval vessel intercepted a Nicaraguan coast
guard vessel on patrol and demanded that it withdraw from Colombia’s
integral contiguous zone, claiming that it was in Colombian waters 7.
These incidents did not necessarily affect Nicaragua’s sovereign rights
over natural resources or jurisdiction with regard to the protection and
preservation of the marine environment, but they certainly encroached on
Nicaragua’s freedom of navigation in its exclusive economic zone.
15. Notwithstanding the foregoing, in its pleadings on Colombia’s
integral contiguous zone, Nicaragua focused primarily upon Colombia’s
violations of Nicaragua’s “sovereign rights and jurisdiction”. In light of
these pleadings by Nicaragua, the Court characterizes Nicaragua’s argu-
5 Reply of Nicaragua, paras. 3.41 and 3.45.
6 Ibid., para. 3.61 (emphasis added).
7 See Memorial of Nicaragua, para. 2.43 (alleged incident of 2 January 2014). See also
ibid., Annex 23B (alleged incident of 2 February 2014).
droits souverains et espaces maritimes (décl. iwasawa) 427
165
notamment le trafic de stupéfiants, ainsi que les « comportements qui
attentent à la sûreté en mer », le Nicaragua soutient qu’« [a]ucune de ces
questions n’est couverte par le droit international coutumier » et que le
paragraphe 3 de l’article 5 est par conséquent « incompatible avec le droit
international » 5. La Cour constate qu’il est effectivement « contraire à la
règle coutumière pertinente d’inclure la sécurité dans le champ d’application
matériel des pouvoirs reconnus à la Colombie » (arrêt, par. 177). Cela
étant, la Cour s’abstient de dire que ce pouvoir empiète sur « les droits
souverains et la juridiction » du Nicaragua dans sa zone économique
exclusive. C’est là une conclusion appropriée car ce pouvoir n’a pas d’incidence,
en soi, au regard des droits souverains du Nicaragua sur les ressources
naturelles ni de sa juridiction à l’égard de la protection et de la
préservation du milieu marin, alors qu’il empiète incontestablement sur sa
liberté de navigation dans sa zone économique exclusive.
13. Dans ses conclusions finales, le Nicaragua prie la Cour de dire et
juger que,
« par son comportement, la République de Colombie a manqué à son
obligation internationale de respecter les espaces maritimes du Nicaragua
tels que délimités [dans] … l’arrêt rendu par la Cour le 19 novembre
2012, ainsi que les droits souverains et la juridiction du Nicaragua dans
lesdits espaces » (ibid., par. 24 ; les italiques sont de moi).
La première partie de cette demande est formulée par le Nicaragua en
termes plus larges que la seconde.
14. S’agissant de la zone contiguë unique colombienne, le Nicaragua
considère que « la Colombie a usurpé et continue d’usurper sur la zone
maritime du Nicaragua dans le cadre de la mise en oeuvre de sa zone contiguë
unique » 6. Certains incidents allégués par le Nicaragua à l’appui de
cette thèse semblent révéler un empiètement de la Colombie sur la liberté
de navigation du Nicaragua, plutôt que sur ses droits souverains et sa juridiction.
Par exemple, selon le Nicaragua, un navire de la marine colombienne
avait intercepté un navire garde‑côtes nicaraguayen en patrouille et
avait exigé de lui qu’il se retirât de la zone contiguë unique colombienne,
au motif qu’il se trouvait dans les eaux colombiennes 7. Ces incidents n’ont
pas nécessairement eu d’incidence au regard des droits souverains du
Nicaragua sur les ressources naturelles ni de sa juridiction à l’égard de la
protection et de la préservation du milieu marin, mais ils ont bel et bien
empiété sur sa liberté de navigation dans sa zone économique exclusive.
15. Nonobstant ce qui précède, le Nicaragua, dans ses écritures portant
sur la zone contiguë unique colombienne, s’est principalement
concentré sur les violations, par la Colombie, de « ses droits souverains et
de sa juridiction ». A la lumière de ces écritures, c’est bien ainsi que la
5 Réplique du Nicaragua, par. 3.41 et 3.45.
6 Ibid., par. 3.61 (les italiques sont de moi).
7 Voir mémoire du Nicaragua, par. 2.43 (incident allégué du 2 janvier 2014). Voir également
ibid., annexe 23B (incident allégué du 2 février 2014).
428 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (decl. iwasawa)
166
ments as such (Judgment, para. 189) and concludes that Colombia’s
integral
contiguous zone infringes upon Nicaragua’s “sovereign rights
and jurisdiction” in its exclusive economic zone (ibid., paras. 194 and 196).
However, in my view, Colombia’s integral contiguous zone infringes not
only on Nicaragua’s sovereign rights and jurisdiction but also on
Nicaragua’s
freedom of navigation in its exclusive economic zone.
16. As regards appropriate remedies in this respect, the Court finds
that Colombia must, by means of its own choosing, bring into conformity
with customary international law the provisions of Presidential
Decree 1946, “in so far as they relate to maritime areas declared by the
Court in its 2012 Judgment to appertain to Nicaragua” (ibid.,
paras. 196 and 261 (6)). The Court indicates a remedy in this form
in response to Nicaragua’s request in its final submissions (ibid., para. 24).
(Signed) Iwasawa Yuji.
droits souverains et espaces maritimes (décl. iwasawa) 428
166
Cour analyse les arguments avancés par le Nicaragua (arrêt, par. 189),
concluant que la zone contiguë unique colombienne porte atteinte « aux
droits souverains et à la juridiction » du Nicaragua dans sa zone économique
exclusive (ibid., par. 194 et 196). A mon avis, cependant, la zone
contiguë unique de la Colombie porte non seulement atteinte aux droits
souverains et à la juridiction du Nicaragua, mais aussi à sa liberté de
navigation dans sa zone économique exclusive.
16. Quant aux remèdes appropriés à cet égard, la Cour dit que la
Colombie doit, par les moyens de son choix, mettre en conformité avec le
droit international coutumier les dispositions du décret présidentiel 1946,
« en tant que celles‑ci ont trait aux espaces maritimes que la Cour a reconnus
au Nicaragua dans son arrêt de 2012 » (ibid., par. 196, et point 6 du
dispositif). C’est sous cette forme que la Cour prescrit un remède en
réponse aux demandes que lui a soumises le Nicaragua dans ses conclusions
finales (ibid., par. 24).
(Signé) Iwasawa Yuji.

Document file FR
Document Long Title

Declaration of Judge Iwasawa

Order
8
Links