Separate opinion of Judge Yusuf

Document Number
116-20220209-JUD-01-02-EN
Parent Document Number
116-20220209-JUD-01-00-EN
Date of the Document
Document File
Bilingual Document File

SEPARATE OPINION OF JUDGE YUSUF Disagreement with reasoning leading to determination of amounts of compensation —Disagree also with radical reversal of burden of proof — It requires Uganda to prove double negative fact with respect to injuries in Ituri — A requirement not supported by practice of the Court — Also, inconsistent with nature of duty of vigilance incumbent upon occupying Power as obligation of conduct — Determination of “global sums” by reference to equitable considerations and “range of possibilities indicated by evidence” leaves much to be desired — Equitable considerations not a substitute for a reasoned analysis — Gives impression of decision ex aequo et bono without Parties’ consent — Overly narrow approach to reparations ignores that damage caused by Uganda’s conduct was to human beings — Individuals and communities should have been primary beneficiaries of certain types of reparations — State-centred approach to reparation ignores recent developments in human rights and international humanitarian law — “Global sums” makes distribution of funds by DRC to affected communities and individuals more difficult — Collective reparations would constitute more appropriate form of reparation for certain heads of damage. I. Introductory remarks 1. I have voted with reluctance in favour of the dispositif of this Judgment. The overall amount of compensation awarded by the Court seems reasonable, given the circumstances that have characterized these proceedings. I do not, however, agree with the reasoning that led to this decision or, with regard to certain aspects, the lack of appropriate analysis or explanation; and the radical reversal of the burden of proof which requires the Republic of Uganda (“Uganda”) to prove a double negative fact with respect to injuries that occurred in Ituri. I also disagree with the manner in which the various components of the award were determined; and the designation of the State of the Democratic Republic of Congo (“DRC”) as the sole beneficiary of compensation, thus paying little or no attention to the rights of communities and individuals to reparation for harm suffered as a result of gross violations of human rights and international humanitarian law by Uganda during the armed conflict. 2. This phase of the proceedings in the case concerning Armed Activities on the Territory of the Congo offered the Court a unique opportunity to make a substantial contribution to the development of the jurisprudence on reparations for injury in international law. It is a pity that such an opportunity has been missed. It is of course regrettable that the Applicant did not present sufficient evidence that would enable the Court to come to clear conclusions with respect to the damage caused by Uganda’s wrongful conduct, and the valuation of that damage. I am, however, of the view that the Court could have done better despite the fact that satisfactory evidence was not put at its disposal. II. Evidence and burden of proof 3. In its 2005 Judgment, the Court stated that, failing agreement between the Parties, “The DRC would thus be given the opportunity to demonstrate and prove the exact injury that was suffered as a result of specific actions of Uganda constituting internationally wrongful acts for which it is responsible. It goes without saying, however, as the Court has had the opportunity to state in the past, ‘that in the phase of - 2 - the proceedings devoted to reparation, neither Party may call in question such findings in the present Judgment as have become res judicata’” 1 (emphasis added). This standard is consistent with the express acknowledgement made by the DRC in the oral hearings at the time that “for the purposes of determining the extent of reparation it must specify the nature of the injury and establish the causal link with the initial wrongful act”2. 4. The Court had given ample opportunity to the Applicant to demonstrate and prove the injury that was suffered as a result of the wrongful actions of Uganda for which it was found responsible in 2005. The Parties had more than ten years to resolve the issue of reparation through negotiations, during which they could have collected evidence and information to assist their negotiations, or for the purposes of litigation if these negotiations were to fail. After the filing of the Parties’ pleadings, the Court also availed itself of its powers, under Article 62, paragraph 1, of its Rules, to elicit further information from the Parties, requesting additional information, evidence and explanations with respect to the various heads of damages and the methodologies proposed by the Parties. 5. As noted in various parts of the Judgment, the DRC has failed to furnish appropriate evidence with respect to the injuries suffered and “the evidence included in the case file by the DRC is, for the most part, insufficient to reach a precise determination of the amount of compensation due” (paragraph 125). Faced with this situation, the Court had to take into account other sources of evidence, such as the reports of the United Nations, and those of other intergovernmental organizations and governmental commissions, including the Porter Judicial Commission of Inquiry established by Uganda. It also took into consideration the reports of the Court-appointed experts where it considered them relevant. This is all well and good. The Court could not have done otherwise under the present circumstances in order to fulfil its judicial function. 6. However, with regard to the injuries that occurred in Ituri, the Judgment’s reasoning is predicated on a radical reversal of the burden of proof upon the Respondent. According to paragraph 78, “it is for Uganda to establish, in this phase of the proceedings, that a particular injury alleged by the DRC in Ituri was not caused by Uganda’s failure to meet its obligations as an occupying Power. In the absence of evidence to that effect, it may be concluded that Uganda owes reparation in relation to such injury.” 7. The same standard of proof is expressed at various points throughout the Judgment, concerning the causal nexus between the internationally wrongful acts and the injury suffered (paragraph 95), the burden and standard of proof (paragraph 118), the determination of the extent of the loss of life and other damage to persons in Ituri (paragraphs 149, 155, 161 and 226) as well as damage to property and public infrastructure in Ituri (paragraphs 241 and 257). 8. In essence, the Judgment requires Uganda to prove a double negative fact, namely that every “particular injury” in Ituri that is alleged by the DRC was “not caused” by its “failure” as the occupying Power. If Uganda fails to do so, the Court will make inferences both that the injury alleged 1 Armed Activities on the Territory of the Congo (Democratic Republic of the Congo v. Uganda), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2005, p. 257, para. 260. 2 Ibid., p. 256, para. 258; see also CR 2005/5, p. 53 (original p. 57), para. 20 (Salmon) (“The [DRC] does not deny that, for purposes of determining the extent of the reparation, it must specify the nature of the injury and establish the causal link with the initial wrongful act.”) [Translation by the Registry.] - 3 - by the DRC has occurred, and that this particular injury was causally linked to Uganda’s “failure” to comply with its obligations in Ituri. Such a strict standard places upon Uganda the task of identifying all instances of alleged injury that occurred in Ituri after so many years (even if Uganda is no longer in effective control of that territory); tracing the original cause of that injury to the responsible actor (whether within its sphere of control at the time, or not), and demonstrating the absence of a causal nexus between that damage and its own conduct. Thus, so long as the Applicant makes a prima facie allegation with respect to a “particular injury” in Ituri, the entire burden of proof is placed on the shoulders of the Respondent to disprove these allegations and, in the absence of evidence, an injury causally linked to Uganda’s failures is presumed to have been proven. 9. It is to be noted, however, that even though the standard is repeatedly articulated in several paragraphs of the Judgment as mentioned above, it is not analysed anywhere in the Judgment with respect to the various heads of damage such as loss of life, personal injuries, property loss or natural resources. The Judgment mentions very briefly in two concluding paragraphs (paragraphs 161 and 226) that Uganda did not produce evidence to establish that “particular injuries” alleged by the DRC were “not caused” by its “failures” without any analysis of the evidence Uganda was expected to produce in accordance with this standard. This raises the question as to the purpose of the repeated assertion of this standard in the Judgment if it was not going to be applied to the facts of the case and to the evidence expected from Uganda. 10. In an effort to justify this unprecedented and exceptional evidentiary burden placed on Uganda, references are made in the Judgment to the Corfu Channel and the Diallo cases. However, none of the Judgments in those cases provides support to such a radical reversal of the burden of proof. Paragraphs 120 and 157 of the Judgment refer to the Judgment in the Corfu Channel case in support of the proposition that the Court may have “a more liberal recourse to inferences of fact and circumstantial evidence” in cases where a State that “would normally bear the burden of proof has lost effective control over the territory where crucial evidence is located on account of the belligerent occupation of its territory by another State”3. This is quite true, but the standard of proof applied in the present Judgment differs from the principles enunciated in Corfu Channel with respect to the allocation of the burden of proof. In the latter case, the Court stated that, when the victim of a breach of international law is unable to furnish direct proof of facts giving rise to responsibility due to the exclusive territorial control exercised by another State within its frontiers (as is the case here, with respect to the wrongful occupation of Ituri), the Court may resort to “a more liberal recourse to inferences of fact and circumstantial evidence” as indirect evidence that an injurious event has occurred within that territory. 11. The Court, however, was clear that such reasonable inferences did not involve a reversal of the burden of proof of the kind contemplated in paragraph 78 of the Judgment: “It is true, as international practice shows, that a State on whose territory or in whose waters an act contrary to international law has occurred, may be called upon to give an explanation. It is also true that that State cannot evade such a request by limiting itself to a reply that it is ignorant of the circumstances of the act and of its authors. The State may, up to a certain point, be bound to supply particulars of the use made by it of the means of information and inquiry at its disposal. But it cannot be concluded from the mere fact of the control exercised by a State over its territory and waters that that State necessarily knew, or ought to have known, of any unlawful act perpetrated therein, nor yet that it necessarily knew, or should have known, the authors. This fact, by itself 3 Corfu Channel (United Kingdom v. Albania), Merits, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1949, p. 18. - 4 - and apart from other circumstances, neither involves prima facie responsibility nor shifts the burden of proof.” 4 (Emphasis added.) Thus, in Corfu Channel the Court made a distinction between, on the one hand, drawing adverse inferences where a State having effective control over a certain territory fails to produce explanations and information at its disposal to demonstrate that it complied with its international obligations and, on the other hand, the reversal of the burden of proof upon the respondent, which is required to disprove the allegations of the applicant with adequate evidence. This distinction, which is crucial to the sound administration of justice and the equitable distribution of the burden of proof, is totally ignored in the Judgment. 12. Regarding the Ahmadou Sadio Diallo case, paragraph 116 of the Judgment refers to the fact that the rule onus probandi incumbit actori has been applied “flexibly” in cases where the respondent was in a better position to establish certain facts that lay within its control. In the merits phase of Diallo, the Court held that “where, as in these proceedings, it is alleged that a person has not been afforded, by a public authority, certain procedural guarantees to which he was entitled, it cannot as a general rule be demanded of the Applicant that it prove the negative fact which it is asserting. A public authority is generally able to demonstrate that it has followed the appropriate procedures and applied the guarantees required by law — if such was the case — by producing documentary evidence of the actions that were carried out.”5 (Emphasis added.) 13. This passage calls for certain observations. As a preliminary remark, paragraph 116 of the Judgment refers to the Diallo Judgment in the compensation phase as opposed to the Judgment on the merits, thus giving the impression that the Court reversed the burden of proof for the purposes of establishing the injury suffered by Mr. Diallo within the territory of the DRC. But in the compensation phase of Diallo, the Court did not shift the burden of proof to the DRC in order to demonstrate that the injury alleged by Guinea had not been “caused” by its “failure” to comply with its procedural human rights obligations. On the contrary, it rejected Guinea’s claims to compensation for the pecuniary damage caused by the loss of luxury goods, bank accounts, and the loss of professional remuneration during Mr. Diallo’s unlawful detentions and after his expulsion, specifically due to the applicant’s — not the respondent’s — failure to produce adequate evidence6. Conversely, the two sums of compensation awarded (for non-pecuniary harm and personal effects) were not premised on the shifting of the evidentiary burden, but rather on the evidence presented by the applicant and equitable considerations7. It follows that the Diallo Judgment in the compensation phase does not provide a basis for the radical reversal of the burden of proof enunciated in paragraph 78 of the Judgment. 4 Corfu Channel (United Kingdom v. Albania), Merits, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1949, p. 18. 5 Ahmadou Sadio Diallo (Republic of Guinea v. Democratic Republic of the Congo), Merits, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2010 (II), pp. 660-661, para. 55. 6 Ahmadou Sadio Diallo (Republic of Guinea v. Democratic Republic of the Congo), Compensation, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2012 (I), p. 338, para. 34 (“Guinea has put forward no evidence whatsoever” to support its claim for luxury goods and “[f]or these reasons, the Court rejects Guinea’s claims as to the loss of high-value items not specified on the inventory”) and para. 35 (“Guinea offers no details and no evidence to support its claim” for bank accounts and “[t]hus, it has not been established that Mr. Diallo lost any assets held in his bank accounts in the DRC”); pp. 340 et seq., paras. 41-43, 46 and 50 (noting that “Guinea offers no evidence to support the claim” for loss of earnings and that “Guinea has not proven to the satisfaction of the Court that Mr. Diallo suffered a loss of professional remuneration”). 7 Ibid., pp. 334-335, paras. 24-25 (for non-material injury); pp. 337-338, paras. 32-33, 36 (for personal belongings). - 5 - 14. Nor does the Diallo Judgment in the merits phase provide support for this legal proposition. In fact, the Court did not place the entire burden of proof on the respondent’s shoulders; rather, it dismissed certain allegations of exceptional gravity made by Guinea in the absence of proof; it did not presume the occurrence of these facts on the basis of the DRC’s failure to produce evidence to disprove them8. Furthermore, the Court’s reasoning in paragraph 54 of the merits Judgment of Diallo was guided by a marked concern not to require the applicant in those proceedings to demonstrate “negative facts” in relation to incidents that occurred outside its territory or control (see paragraph 12 above). It is on that basis that the Court shifted the burden on the respondent to establish, for specific factual issues raised in the applicant’s claims (but by no means the entirety of these claims), that it complied with its procedural obligations under international human rights law9 and consular law10. 15. Thus, it seems quite odd to rely on the principles enunciated in Diallo as the basis for requiring Uganda to establish two negative facts (i.e. that an unspecified injury was “not caused” by “its failure”). A more reasonable application of the principle enunciated in Diallo would have been to require Uganda to establish positive facts lying within its sphere of control, namely that it took adequate and effective measures to prevent in Ituri the injuries alleged by the Applicant, in line with its duty of vigilance. 16. The radical reversal of the burden of proof is also inconsistent with the nature of the duty of vigilance incumbent upon the occupying Power as an obligation of due diligence, rather than an obligation of result. The nature of the primary obligation that has been breached is of key import to the allocation of the burden of proof. As stated in Diallo, and subsequently reaffirmed in Croatia v. Serbia with regard to alleged genocidal acts, “[t]he determination of the burden of proof is in reality dependent on the subject-matter and the nature of each dispute brought before the Court; it varies according to the type of facts which it is necessary to establish for the purposes of the decision of the case”11. 17. It follows that when the Court decides how to allocate the burden of proof between the parties, it must pay close attention to the nature of the primary obligation that has been breached and the circumstances of each case. In the present case, the Court found that Uganda was responsible in Ituri for the violation of Article 43 of the Hague Regulations of 1907, which reads as follows: 8 Ahmadou Sadio Diallo (Republic of Guinea v. Democratic Republic of the Congo), Merits, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2010 (II), p. 671, paras. 88-89 (noting that Guinea had “failed to demonstrate convincingly that Mr. Diallo was subjected to [inhuman and degrading] treatment during his detention” and that “[t]here [wa]s no evidence to substantiate the allegation that he received death threats”). 9 Ibid., pp. 668-669, para. 79 (noting that the DRC had “produced no evidence” to prove that the Congolese authorities sought to determine whether it was necessary to detain Mr. Diallo, or that his detention was reviewed every 48 hours, as required by Congolese law); p. 669, para. 82 (noting that the DRC had “never been able to provide grounds which might constitute a convincing basis for Mr. Diallo’s expulsion”); p. 670, para. 84 (noting that the DRC had “failed to produce a single document or any other form of evidence to prove” that Mr. Diallo had been informed, at the time of arrest, of the reasons for his arrest). 10 Ibid., p. 673, para. 96 (noting that the DRC had not provided “the slightest piece of evidence to corroborate” its claim that it had orally informed Mr. Diallo of the possibility of seeking consular assistance from his State). 11 Ibid., p. 660, para. 54. See also Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Croatia v. Serbia), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2015 (I), pp. 73-74, paras. 172 and 174 (“In the present case, neither the subject-matter nor the nature of the dispute makes it appropriate to contemplate a reversal of the burden of proof. It is not for Serbia to prove a negative fact, for example the absence of facts constituting the actus reus of genocide”). - 6 - “The authority of the legitimate power having in fact passed into the hands of the occupant, the latter shall take all the measures in his power to restore, and ensure, as far as possible, public order and safety, while respecting, unless absolutely prevented, the laws in force in the country.”12 18. Article 43 of the Hague Regulations of 1907 imposes a duty of vigilance upon the occupying Power to ensure respect for public order and safety in the occupied territory both by its own forces and private parties13. As the Court stated in 2005, Uganda was under an obligation under that provision “to take all the measures in its power to restore, and ensure, as far as possible, public order and safety in the occupied area, while respecting, unless absolutely prevented, the laws in force in the DRC. This obligation comprised the duty to secure respect for the applicable rules of international human rights law and international humanitarian law, to protect the inhabitants of the occupied territory against acts of violence, and not to tolerate such violence by any third party. The Court, having concluded that Uganda was an occupying Power in Ituri at the relevant time, finds that Uganda’s responsibility is engaged both for any acts of its military that violated its international obligations and for any lack of vigilance in preventing violations of human rights and international humanitarian law by other actors present in the occupied territory, including rebel groups acting on their own account.”14 19. In line with this interpretation, the “duty of vigilance” incumbent upon the occupying Power by Article 43 of the Hague Regulations is not an obligation to achieve a particular result at all times and whatever the circumstances15, but an obligation of conduct, which required Uganda to “take appropriate measures” to prevent wrongful acts committed by private persons in Ituri district, such as pillaging, looting and violations of human rights and humanitarian law16. Pursuant to that duty, Uganda was not responsible for every kind of injury or damage that might have occurred in Ituri at all times and places during its occupation, but only for those damages and injuries that could have been averted, had Uganda taken adequate and effective measures of diligence — the existence of which should normally be within Uganda’s ability to prove to the Court. 20. It follows, in my view, that the shifting of the evidentiary burden for the purposes of quantification of damage cannot go beyond what was required by Uganda under the primary rule. As 12 Convention (IV) respecting the Laws and Customs of War on Land, The Hague, 18 October 1907, Annex: Regulations concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land, Sect. III, Art. 43. 13 Eritrea-Ethiopia Claims Commission, Partial Award: Central Front — Eritrea’s Claims 2, 4, 6, 7, 8 & 22, Decision of 28 April 2004, United Nations, Reports on International Arbitral Awards (RIAA), Vol. XXVI, pp. 138-139, para. 67 (“Whether or not Ethiopian military personnel were directly involved in the looting and stripping of buildings in the town, Ethiopia, as the Occupying Power, was responsible for the maintenance of public order, for respecting private property, and for preventing pillage. Consequently, Ethiopia is liable for permitting the unlawful looting and stripping of buildings in the town during the period of its occupation.”) 14 Armed Activities on the Territory of the Congo (Democratic Republic of the Congo v. Uganda), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2005, p. 231, paras. 178-179. 15 See, mutatis mutandis, Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Serbia and Montenegro), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2007, p. 221, para. 430 (“[a] State does not incur responsibility simply because the desired result is not achieved; responsibility is however incurred if the State manifestly failed to take all measures to prevent genocide which were within its power, and which might have contributed to preventing the genocide”). 16 Armed Activities on the Territory of the Congo (Democratic Republic of the Congo v. Uganda), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2005, p. 253, paras. 248 and 250. - 7 - noted in the Commentary to Article 36 of the International Law Commission’s (“ILC”) Articles on Responsibility of States for Internationally Wrongful Acts, the principles to be applied in the quantification of damages “will vary, depending upon the content of particular primary obligations” 17. When determining the allocation of the burden of proof, Uganda may only be required to prove what was required of it by Article 43 of the Hague Regulations, i.e. that it took “all the measures in [its] power to restore, and ensure, as far as possible, public order and safety”. The Court cannot expect Uganda to disprove each and every injury in Ituri alleged by the DRC, or prove that such injury was “not caused” by its “failures”. To do so is to extend ex post facto the scope of Uganda’s primary obligations under the law of occupation through the mechanism of responsibility. 21. In light of the foregoing, I am of the view that a more balanced outcome could have been achieved through a nuanced allocation of the burden of proof, which would be more in tune with the content of the primary obligation in question that has been breached. In accordance with the onus probandi rule, it should fall upon the DRC to establish the extent of the injuries suffered in Ituri, as the Court held with respect to other regions of the DRC’s territory and in paragraph 260 of the 2005 Judgment. In line with Article 43 of the 1907 Hague Regulations, Uganda would bear the onus to prove that it took measures in compliance with its duty of vigilance, or that the injury would have occurred even if Uganda had taken adequate and effective measures. The burden would then shift to the DRC to disprove Uganda’s contentions. This would be without prejudice to the rule that the distribution of the burden of proof “does not relieve the other party of its duty to co-operate ‘in the provision of such evidence as may be in its possession that could assist the Court in resolving the dispute submitted to it’”18. In line with the Corfu Channel principle, the Court would then be at liberty to draw reasonable inferences from the Parties’ submissions. It is regrettable that the Court has not opted for this approach in the present circumstances. III. Assessment and valuation of damage 22. In view of the deficiencies or, in certain cases, total lack of evidence presented by the DRC, the Court had to make extensive use of information in United Nations reports on the conflict in the DRC and, with respect to certain heads of damage, to rely on the reports of the experts appointed by it in evaluating the damage and the amount of compensation due (paragraph 31). However, in several instances, the Court had to conclude that neither the materials at its disposal nor the reports of the Court-appointed experts provided sufficient evidence to assess the damage suffered by the DRC or by the persons in its territory or to quantify such damage, sometimes even on an approximative basis (see, for example, paragraphs 179, 190 and 363-364). In an attempt to fill this void, the Court resorts to two concepts, the reasons for the use of which are neither adequately explained in the Judgment nor are they necessarily always clearly articulated in order to arrive at the determination of compensation in the form of “global sums”. These concepts are “equitable considerations” and the “range of possibilities indicated by the evidence”. 23. The Judgment refers to equitable considerations as the basis of awarding compensation in the form of a lump sum nine times (cf. paragraphs 106, 164, 166, 181, 193, 206, 225, 258 and 365). Equity is also implied in different parts of the Judgment, related to the difficulties faced by the DRC in the collection of evidence, the non-punitive character of compensation, the potential onerousness of compensation for Uganda and the “reasonableness” of compensation. At the same time, the Judgment uses an obscure concept of the “range of possibilities indicated by the evidence” (cf. 17 Yearbook of the International Law Commission, 2001, Vol. II, Part Two, p. 100, commentary to Article 36. 18 Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Croatia v. Serbia), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2015, p. 73, para. 173; Pulp Mills on the River Uruguay (Argentina v. Uruguay), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2010 (I), p. 71, para. 163. - 8 - paragraphs 106, 126, 166, 181, 193, 206, 223, 225, 258, 275 and 365), a term hitherto unknown in the jurisprudence of the Court which leaves much to be desired. 24. Of course, it is not disputed that the Court may, for the purposes of determining compensation for an internationally wrongful act, rely upon equitable considerations in order to reach a fair and reasonable amount of compensation19. However, there is an essential difference between determining compensation by reference to equitable considerations, and determining compensation ex aequo et bono, within the meaning of Article 38, paragraph 2, of the Statute. A decision ex aequo et bono is to be understood as equity contra legem20, that is to say a decision arrived at not on the basis of certain rules of international law applicable between the parties, but rather “as a matter of abstract justice”21. By contrast, equitable considerations are of an essentially legal character (equity infra legem) and should be understood within the legal framework governing the judicial function of the Court. They cannot serve as the basis to dispense with the applicable rules altogether, or not to provide reasons for their applicability. The Court should have made an attempt at explaining how it intends to apply equity within the general framework of State responsibility and the procedural framework governing the fact-finding procedure before it. 25. Unfortunately, the Judgment seems to rely upon equitable considerations as a substitute for a reasoned analysis that would identify the evidence presented by the Parties as corroborating — albeit in an approximative manner — the extent of the injury caused by Uganda, and a cognizable method for the valuation of that injury. Instead of specifying a method of valuation deemed to be appropriate, the Judgment utilizes equitable considerations as a convenient shorthand in order to reach what is referred to in the Judgment as “global sums” (paragraphs 106-107). 26. This includes a “single global sum” of US$225,000,000 for the loss of life and other damage caused to persons22 (paragraph 226), a “global sum” of US$40,000,000 for damage to public and private property (paragraph 258) and a “global sum” of US$60,000,000 for damage caused by the exploitation of natural resources (paragraphs 364-366). It is not, however, possible to understand from the text of the Judgment how the Court has arrived at these figures. There is no indication as to how the different components of these sums were determined, or the way in which these figures may be justified by the facts. Thus, the impression to the reader is that the Court has arrived at these figures by way of ex aequo et bono, not on the basis of law and evidence. 27. Equitable considerations are relevant primarily for the quantification of damages where the nature of the harm or the circumstances of the dispute make it difficult or impossible to define the value of harm with a high degree of certainty. In such circumstances, it would be contrary to the principle of equity to deny compensation to the injured party for objective circumstances that cannot be attributed to its fault or sphere of responsibility. As the Court recognized in the case concerning Certain Activities Carried Out by Nicaragua in the Border Area relying on the Trail Smelter case: 19 Certain Activities Carried Out by Nicaragua in the Border Area (Costa Rica v. Nicaragua), Compensation, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2018 (I), pp. 26-27, para. 35; Ahmadou Sadio Diallo (Republic of Guinea v. Democratic Republic of the Congo), Compensation, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2012 (I), p. 337, para. 33. 20 Frontier Dispute (Burkina Faso/Republic of Mali), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1986, p. 567, para. 28. 21 North Sea Continental Shelf (Federal Republic of Germany/Denmark; Federal Republic of Germany/Netherlands), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1969, p. 47, para. 85; Land, Island and Maritime Frontier Dispute (El Salvador/Honduras: Nicaragua intervening), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1992, pp. 390-391, para. 47. 22 See, in particular, paragraph 66 of the Judgment for the loss of life, paragraph 181 for non-lethal injuries, paragraph 193 for rape and sexual violence, paragraph 206 for child soldiers; and paragraph 225 for the displacement of persons. - 9 - “Where the tort itself is of such a nature as to preclude the ascertainment of the amount of damages with certainty, it would be a perversion of fundamental principles of justice to deny all relief to the injured person, and thereby relieve the wrongdoer from making any amend for his acts. In such case, while the damages may not be determined by mere speculation or guess, it will be enough if the evidence show the extent of the damages as a matter of just and reasonable inference, although the result be only approximate.”23 28. Nevertheless, recourse to equitable principles is not unfettered. Indeed, it “should not be used to make good the shortcomings in a claimant’s case by being substituted for evidence which could have been produced if it actually existed”24. Nor can equitable considerations be used as an excuse to depart from the Court’s judicial function. Pursuant to Article 56 of the Court’s Statute, a judgment shall state the reasons on which it is based. This obligation stems from the inherently judicial character of the Court25. It contributes not only to greater transparency in the Court’s decision-making function, but also to the authority and persuasiveness that its Judgments command in the field of international law. 29. While the Court has in the past had recourse to equitable considerations for the purposes of quantification of damage, it has never used them as a device to award “global sums” without providing an explanation of how these amounts were reached. In the case of Ahmadou Sadio Diallo, the Court dismissed those claims which it found not to have been proven with sufficient evidence. It then awarded compensation for the non-material damage caused to Mr. Diallo and the pecuniary loss for his personal belongings, relying, on the one hand, on the practice of regional human rights courts and tribunals on this topic and the circumstances surrounding Mr. Diallo’s treatment26; and, on the other hand, an approximation of the value of the assets of Mr. Diallo’s apartment based on the inventory of his apartment and his personal property in the DRC, as well as the practice of human rights bodies on the same topic27. 30. Similarly, in Certain Activities Carried Out by Nicaragua in the Border Area, the Court did not award a “global sum”, but itemized amounts of compensation, namely, (a) US$120,000 for the impairment or loss of environmental goods and services; (b) US$2,708.39 for the restoration costs claimed by the Republic of Costa Rica in respect of the internationally protected wetland; and (c) US$236,032.16 for costs and expenses incurred by Costa Rica as a direct consequence of the Republic of Nicaragua’s unlawful activities on Costa Rican territory. Whilst the latter two categories 23 Certain Activities Carried Out by Nicaragua in the Border Area (Costa Rica v. Nicaragua), Compensation, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2018 (I), p. 27, para. 35, citing Trail Smelter case (United States, Canada), 16 April 1938 and 11 March 1941, RIAA, Vol. III, p. 1920. 24 Ahmadou Sadio Diallo (Republic of Guinea v. Democratic Republic of the Congo), Compensation, I.C.J. Reports 2012 (I), declaration of Judge Greenwood, p. 393, para. 5. 25 Cf. Effect of Awards of Compensation Made by the United Nations Administrative Tribunal, Advisory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports 1954, pp. 52-53. 26 Ahmadou Sadio Diallo (Republic of Guinea v. Democratic Republic of the Congo), Compensation, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2012 (I), pp. 334-335, paras. 24-25. 27 Ibid., pp. 337-338, paras. 31-33 and 36. - 10 - were premised on a detailed scrutiny of the respective invoices, documents and expenses submitted by the parties 28, with respect to the first category the Court considered that it was “appropriate to approach the valuation of environmental damage from the perspective of the ecosystem as a whole, by adopting an overall assessment of the impairment or loss of environmental goods and services prior to recovery, rather than attributing values to specific categories of environmental goods and services and estimating recovery periods for each of them”29. 31. Notwithstanding this language that might imply recourse to equitable considerations, the Court distinguished between the identification of the injury and its valuation and made clear which heads of loss were dismissed within that claim for lack of proof30. With respect to valuation, the Court rejected the two methods proposed by the Parties and instead addressed the “corrected analysis” to Costa Rica’s method (presented by Nicaragua) which provided a basis for the Court’s valuation31. 32. Contrary to the practice of the Court, the Judgment does not offer either an approximative identification of the injury caused by Uganda to the DRC, nor does it proffer a methodological basis upon which the “global sums” were arrived at. With respect to the identification of the injury, the Judgment discusses the evidence presented by the Parties, but does not provide any conclusions on the estimates arrived by the Court (except with respect to heads of damage on the loss of life and population displacement, cf. paragraphs 162, 166 and 223 of the Judgment) that might have served as the basis of these “global sums”. In most instances — again, with the exception of loss of life and population displacement — no precise numbers are given. In fact, the Judgment acknowledges that it is “impossible to determine, even approximately, the number of persons injured” (paragraphs 179 and 181); that “it is impossible to derive even a broad estimate of the number of victims of rape and other forms of sexual violence from the reports and other data available to it” (paragraph 190); that “[t]he evidence presented by the DRC does not permit the Court to assess the extent of the damage even approximately” with respect to property damage in and outside Ituri (paragraphs 246 and 251); and that “the available evidence is not sufficient to determine a reasonably precise or even an approximate number of animal deaths for which Uganda owes reparation” (paragraphs 363 and 364). Instead, the Judgment refers to the “range of possibilities indicated by the evidence” (paragraphs 106, 126, 166, 181, 193, 206, 223, 225, 258, 275 and 365) to justify these “global sums”. But it does not explain what this “range” is. 33. In fact, the impression is given that the “range of possibilities” pertains not so much to the extent of the injury, but the general adequacy of the evidence to sustain the claim. If this “range of possibilities” is a broad estimate of the numbers of victims killed or injured on the basis of the evidence, or of the property or resources destroyed or looted during the conflict, the Statute requires the Court to specify what these estimates are, even at a broad brush. Otherwise, the application of such a vague concept may be understood as an attempt to dispense with the proper consideration and 28 Certain Activities Carried Out by Nicaragua in the Border Area (Costa Rica v. Nicaragua), Compensation, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2018 (I), pp. 41-45, paras. 92-105 (in relation to expenses incurred for fuel and maintenance services for police aircraft used to reach and overfly the northern part of Isla Portillos, as well as the cost of obtaining a report from UNITAR/UNOSAT); pp. 48-53, paras. 115-132 (in relation to expenses for overflights and the purchase of satellite images); and p. 56, para. 146 (in relation to the cost incurred for the construction of a dyke across the 2013 eastern caño). 29 Certain Activities Carried Out by Nicaragua in the Border Area (Costa Rica v. Nicaragua), Compensation, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2018 (I), p. 37, para. 78. 30 Ibid., p. 36, para. 74 (namely, natural hazards mitigation and soil formation/erosion control). 31 Ibid., pp. 38-39, para. 86. - 11 - proof of facts, or of classes of facts, in the assessment of damage. In any event, such an obscure term does not seem appropriate, in my view, for compensation proceedings. A smörgåsbord of possibilities cannot serve as a substitute for a legal standard in the assessment and valuation of damage. 34. Similar considerations apply to the valuation of the unparticularized injuries. Paragraphs 164 and 180 refer to the awards of the Ethiopia-Eritrea Claims Commission (“EECC”) for the proposition that “large per capita awards for non-material damage, which may be justified in individual cases, would be inappropriate in a situation involving significant numbers of unidentified and hypothetical victims”. But the Judgment does not explain on what methodological basis the valuation was based for the purposes of the “global sums”. If the Court opted for smaller per capita awards than those applied in individual human rights cases, at least an attempt ought to have been made at articulating the methodological premise of these lump sums. It is only with respect to decisions ex aequo et bono that the Court is not required to provide reasons. 35. In light of the foregoing, I am of the view that the mere reference to “equitable considerations” cannot serve as an excuse for the Court to dispense with the requirement to state the reasons underlying its decisions. The Court may propose an equitable remedy and apply it; but it has to explain why and on what basis it intends to apply it. It cannot simply refer to it as the be-all and end-all of the assessment of injury or the determination of compensation without any reasoning. 36. Indeed, a decision on compensation that does not identify the extent of the harm, the applicable valuation method and the extent to which other factors might have influenced the quantification of damage does not conform to the requirements of Article 56 of the Statute and may be considered as a decision ex aequo et bono under Article 38, paragraph 2. However, the Parties in the present case have not given their consent to such a decision. IV. An overly narrow approach to reparations 37. In its 2005 Judgment, the Court stated that, “[u]pon examination of the case file, given the character of the internationally wrongful acts for which Uganda has been found responsible (illegal use of force, violation of sovereignty and territorial integrity, military intervention, occupation of Ituri, violations of international human rights law and of international humanitarian law, looting, plunder and exploitation of the DRC’s natural resources), the Court considers that those acts resulted in injury to the DRC and to persons on its territory”32. This recognition by the Court of injuries caused not only to the DRC but also to “persons on its territory” should have found application in the reparations phase through the award of different types of reparations depending on the nature and scope of the injury and on the addressees of the reparation. This is not unfortunately the case. The Judgment seems to be stuck in a time warp as it reflects the State-centred approach to reparation reminiscent of the law of diplomatic protection, while acknowledging gross violations of human rights and humanitarian law the victims of which should be entitled to compensation or other forms of reparation independently of their State. Recent developments in human rights and international humanitarian law have led to a widespread 32 Armed Activities on the Territory of the Congo (Democratic Republic of the Congo v. Uganda), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2005, p. 257, para. 259. - 12 - recognition that, with regard to claims arising from an injury suffered by an individual or a community, reparation should accrue to the injured individual or community 33. 38. In the 2001 Articles on the Responsibility of States for Internationally Wrongful Acts, the ILC stated in Article 33, paragraph 2, that the provisions of Part Two were “without prejudice to any right, arising from the international responsibility of a State, which may accrue directly to any person or entity other than a State”34. In the commentary to that provision, the ILC referred to the Court’s Judgment in LaGrand, and added that, “[w]hen an obligation of reparation exists towards a State, reparation does not necessarily accrue to that State’s benefit. For instance, a State’s responsibility for the breach of an obligation under a treaty concerning the protection of human rights may exist towards all the other parties to the treaty, but the individuals concerned should be regarded as the ultimate beneficiaries and in that sense as the holders of the relevant rights. Individual rights under international law may also arise outside the framework of human rights.”35 (Emphasis added.) Similarly, in the commentary to Article 28 (titled “Legal consequences of an internationally wrongful act”), the ILC explained that a wrongful act may entail obligations towards other non-State actors: “Article 28 does not exclude the possibility that an internationally wrongful act may involve legal consequences in the relations between the State responsible for that act and persons or entities other than States. This follows from article 1, which covers all international obligations of the State and not only those owed to other States. Thus, State responsibility extends, for example, to human rights violations and other breaches of international law where the primary beneficiary of the obligation breached is not a State. . . . In other words, the provisions of Part Two are without prejudice to any right, arising from the international responsibility of a State, which may accrue directly to any person or entity other than a State, and article 33 makes this clear.”36 (Emphasis added.) 39. More recently, in the Draft Articles on Prevention and Punishment of Crimes against Humanity, the ILC referred to the “right of a victim of a crime against humanity to obtain reparation”, obliging States to have or enact necessary laws, regulations, procedures or mechanisms to enable victims to pursue claims against and secure redress for the harm they have suffered from those who are responsible for the harm, be it the State itself or some other actor37. This is further reinforced by resolution 60/147 of the United Nations General Assembly titled “Basic Principles and Guidelines on the Right to a Remedy and Reparation for Victims of Gross Violations of International Human Rights Law and Serious Violations of International Humanitarian Law” (hereinafter “Basic Principles and Guidelines”)38. Principle 11 expressly recognized that individual victims of gross violations of international human rights law and serious violations of international humanitarian law 33 See, for example, United Nations General Assembly, resolution 60/147 of 16 December 2005, “Basic Principles and Guidelines on the Right to a Remedy and Reparation for Victims of Gross Violations of International Human Rights Law and Serious Violations of International Humanitarian Law”, UN doc. A/RES/60/147, Annex. 34 Yearbook of the International Law Commission, 2001, Vol. II, Part Two, p. 94, Article 33, paragraph 2. 35 Ibid., p. 95, commentary to Article 33, citing LaGrand (Germany v. United States of America), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2001, p. 494, para. 77. 36 Ibid., pp. 87-88, commentary to Article 28. 37 ILC, “Draft articles on Prevention and Punishment of Crimes Against Humanity”, UN doc. A/74/10, 15 May 2019, pp. 102 and 106-109, Article 12, paragraph 3, and commentary to Article 13, comments (16)-(24). 38 See also United Nations, Commission on Human Rights, Study Concerning the Right to Restitution, Compensation and Rehabilitation for Victims of Gross Violations of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms: Final report submitted by Special Rapporteur Mr. Theo van Boven, UN doc. E/CN.4/Sub.2/1993/8, 2 July 1993, paras. 131-135. - 13 - have a “right” to “[e]qual and effective access to justice” and “[a]dequate, effective and prompt reparation for harm suffered”. 40. At the oral hearings, the Agent and counsel for the DRC addressed the arrangements for a fund established by the Government of the DRC in the expectation of compensation for the wrongful acts committed by Uganda, and stated that “the DRC reiterates that it is willing to take due account of any guidance that the Court may wish to provide on the organization and functioning of that fund”39. This request by the DRC offered the Court an opportunity to go beyond the timid dictum in the Diallo Judgment40 and to state clearly and unequivocally that, for heads of damage such as loss of life, injuries to persons, rape, conscription of child soldiers, destruction of private property and displacement of populations, the individuals and communities that directly suffered the injury are the addressees and beneficiaries of the compensation awarded by the Court for such damages. Instead of making such a clear statement, the Court has adopted again a Diallo-like formula in paragraph 408 of the Judgment, taking note of the statements made by the DRC during the oral proceedings. In doing so, the Court has opted for the easy solution, by awarding global sums to the State, totally ignoring the fact that the damage caused by Uganda’s wrongful conduct was, above all, to human beings. This might have been due in part to the overly narrow approach adopted in the Judgment with regard to reparations. 41. Indeed, the one-size-fits-all approach to reparation, adopted in the form of “global sums” with respect to three cumulative heads of damage, does not adequately do justice to the injuries suffered by individuals and communities that had been well documented in the 2005 Judgment of the Court. Nor does the fact that the State of the DRC is the sole addressee of the aggregated compensation, awarded under those three “global sums”, ensure that those individuals and communities will be adequately compensated. As the Court stated in the case concerning Avena and other Mexican nationals, “[w]hat constitutes ‘reparation in an adequate form’ clearly varies depending upon the concrete circumstances surrounding each case and the precise nature and scope of the injury, since the question has to be examined from the viewpoint of what is the ‘reparation in an adequate form’ that corresponds to the injury”41. 42. The Judgment does not provide any explanation as to how these “global sums” were arrived at, and what exact figures are to be assigned to their distinct components, except for the estimate with regard to the loss of life. As a result, it is simply impossible to parse through the various heads of loss (at least between the funds intended for the public purse and those intended for private individuals). Consequently, it is not possible to identify, for example, how much money should be assigned to the fund established by the DRC for the purposes of distributing the compensation awarded by the Court to the actual victims or their beneficiaries, for which types of injury, for how many victims, and for how much value. This could have helped the DRC itself to disburse fairly and effectively, through the fund it has established, the compensation allocated to the individuals and communities concerned. 39 CR 2021/11, pp. 72-73, para. 20 (Mingashang) [translation by the Registry]. 40 Ahmadou Sadio Diallo (Republic of Guinea v. Democratic Republic of the Congo), Compensation, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2012 (I), p. 334, para. 57 (“[t]he Court recalls that the sum awarded to Guinea in the exercise of diplomatic protection of Mr. Diallo is intended to provide reparation for the latter’s injury”). 41 Avena and Other Mexican Nationals (Mexico v. United States of America), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2004 (I), p. 59, para. 119, citing Factory at Chorzów, Jurisdiction, Judgment No. 8, 1927, P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 9, p. 21. - 14 - 43. It is therefore my view that one of the inadequacies of the reparation awarded by the Court in this case flows from the overly narrow approach to reparations adopted in the Judgment and the lack of consideration of the communities, collectivities and individuals who have directly suffered as a result of the wrongful acts of Uganda through loss of life, personal injuries, destruction of private properties, conscription of child soldiers and the displacement of population. These individuals and communities have not yet recovered from the impact of the violent conflict on their lives. Their plight, therefore, deserved to be taken into account by adopting different forms of reparation that would fit their different circumstances and by clearly indicating that they were the direct addressees of these reparations. To this end, a wide range of forms of reparation, depending on the specific head of alleged injury, was available to the Court and could have been used without necessarily altering the interstate nature of the proceedings. They include individual and collective reparations, compensation, rehabilitation and non-pecuniary satisfaction. 44. The possibility of collective reparations, for example, has been envisaged in the Inter-American System of Human Rights42, the ILC in the Draft Articles on Crimes Against Humanity43, and the Rules of Procedure and Evidence of the International Criminal Court (“ICC”)44. Collective reparations may be most appropriate for the provision of institutionalized assistance, in the form of vocational schools, hospitals, clinics and counselling services in their respective communities, to individuals who suffered twenty or twenty-five years ago personal injuries, rape and sexual violence, or conscription as child soldiers, as well as for the reconstruction of public buildings such as schools, hospitals and places of worship. 45. With regard to child soldiers, in particular, a set of principles and guidelines on children associated with armed forces or armed groups adopted by UNICEF in 2007 (the “Paris Principles”)45, state that “[d]irect cash benefits to released or returning children are not an appropriate form of assistance, as experience has repeatedly shown”46. Instead, a better approach might be alternative measures such as “[i]nclusive programming which supports children who have been recruited or used as well as other vulnerable children”47. This kind of “collective post-conflict reparations” may also be found in the practice of the ICC Trust Fund for Victims with respect to Uganda and the DRC. 42 Inter-American Court of Human Rights (IACtHR), Case of the Mayagna (Sumo) Awas Tingni Community v. Nicaragua (Merits, Reparations, and Costs), Judgment of 31 August 2001, para. 167 (providing for works or services of collective interest for the benefit of the Awas Tingni Community in the amount of US$50,000); see also IACtHR, Case of the Plan de Sánchez Massacre v. Guatemala (Reparations), Judgment of 19 November 2004, paras. 93, 106-108, 117 and 125 (7) (providing for the free of charge medical treatment required by the victims, a specialized program of psychological and psychiatric treatment, adequate housing to the surviving victims, and communal programmes for the benefit of the entire community). 43 ILC, “Draft articles on Prevention and Punishment of Crimes Against Humanity”, UN doc. A/CN.4/L.935, 15 May 2019, Art. 12, para. 3 (referring to “reparation for material and moral damages, on an individual or collective basis, consisting, as appropriate, of . . . rehabilitation”; emphases added). 44 ICC, Rules of Procedure and Evidence, Official Records of the Assembly of States Parties to the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, First session, New York, 3-10 September 2002, Rule 97, para. 1: “Taking into account the scope and extent of any damage, loss or injury, the Court may award reparations on an individualized basis or, where it deems it appropriate, on a collective basis or both.” (Emphasis added.) For a summary of the practice of the ICC, see ICC, Trial Chamber I, The Prosecutor v. Thomas Lubanga Dyilo, ICC-01/04-01/06, Corrected version of the “Decision Setting the Size of the Reparations Award for which Thomas Lubanga Dyilo is Liable” of 21 December 2017 (public redacted version), paras. 33, 36, 192-194, 246-248, 288, 294-296; Trial Chamber VIII, The Prosecutor v. Ahmad Al Faqi Al Mahdi, ICC-01/12-01/15, Reparations Order of 17 August 2017, operative clause, subpara. 1. 45 UNICEF, “The Paris Principles. Principles and Guidelines on Children Associated with Armed Forces or Armed Groups”, February 2007, available at http://www.refworld.org/docid/465198442.html (accessed 28 January 2021). 46 Ibid., Principle 7.35. 47 Ibid., Principle 7.30. - 15 - 46. Thus, despite the inter-State nature of the proceedings, and in light of recent developments with regard to remedies for gross violations of human rights and international humanitarian law, it was possible to envisage different forms of reparation, that take into account the sensitivities involved in these categories of injury, particularly twenty or twenty-five years after the events, and the need for a fair and effective redress of the harm caused. This approach would have strengthened the performance of the obligation to make reparation in the interest of the beneficiaries of the obligation breached and would effectively enable such reparation to accrue to the injured individuals and communities. In the present case, it would also have given the DRC authorities the guidance that they had formally requested the Court to provide them with on the functioning of the fund they have established. (Signed) Abdulqawi Ahmed YUSUF. ___________

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136
SEPARATE OPINION OF JUDGE YUSUF
Disagreement with reasoning leading to determination of amounts of
compensation — Disagree also with radical reversal of burden of proof —
It requires Uganda to prove double negative fact with respect to injuries in Ituri —
A requirement not supported by practice of the Court — Also, inconsistent with
nature of duty of vigilance incumbent upon occupying Power as obligation of
conduct — Determination of “global sums” by reference to equitable considerations
and “range of possibilities indicated by evidence” leaves much to be desired —
Equitable considerations not a substitute for a reasoned analysis — Gives
impression of decision ex aequo et bono without Parties’ consent — Overly narrow
approach to reparations ignores that damage caused by Uganda’s conduct was to
human beings — Individuals and communities should have been primary
beneficiaries of certain types of reparations — State‑centred approach to
reparation ignores recent developments in human rights and international
humanitarian law — “Global sums” makes distribution of funds by DRC to
affected communities and individuals more difficult — Collective reparations
would constitute more appropriate form of reparation for certain heads of damage.
I. Introductory Remarks
1. I have voted with reluctance in favour of the dispositif of this Judgment.
The overall amount of compensation awarded by the Court seems
reasonable, given the circumstances that have characterized these proceedings.
I do not, however, agree with the reasoning that led to this decision
or, with regard to certain aspects, the lack of appropriate analysis or
explanation; and the radical reversal of the burden of proof which requires
the Republic of Uganda (“Uganda”) to prove a double negative fact with
respect to injuries that occurred in Ituri. I also disagree with the manner
in which the various components of the award were determined; and the
designation of the State of the Democratic Republic of the Congo
(“DRC”) as the sole beneficiary of compensation, thus paying little or no
attention to the rights of communities and individuals to reparation for
harm suffered as a result of gross violations of human rights and international
humanitarian law by Uganda during the armed conflict.
2. This phase of the proceedings in the case concerning Armed Activities
on the Territory of the Congo offered the Court a unique opportunity
145
136
OPINION INDIVIDUELLE DE M. LE JUGE YUSUF
[Traduction]
Désaccord avec le raisonnement suivi pour déterminer le montant des
indemnités — Désaccord en outre avec le renversement radical de la charge de la
preuve — Renversement imposant à l’Ouganda de prouver un fait doublement
négatif concernant les préjudices causés en Ituri — Exigence non justifiée dans la
jurisprudence de la Cour — Exigence par ailleurs incompatible avec la nature du
devoir de vigilance incombant à la puissance occupante, devoir participant d’une
obligation de moyens — Détermination de « sommes globales » sur la base de
considérations d’équité et des « possibilités offertes par les éléments de preuve »
laissant fort à désirer — Considérations d’équité ne pouvant remplacer une analyse
rationnelle — Impression d’une décision ex aequo et bono prise sans le
consentement des Parties — Conception étriquée des réparations ne tenant pas
compte du fait que les victimes du préjudice causé par le comportement de
l’Ouganda sont des êtres humains — Personnes et communautés méritant d’être les
principaux bénéficiaires de certaines formes de réparation — Conception des
réparations axée sur l’Etat ne tenant pas compte de l’évolution récente du droit
relatif aux droits de l’homme et du droit international humanitaire — Octroi de
« sommes globales » rendant plus difficile, pour la RDC, le versement de fonds aux
communautés et aux personnes touchées — Réparations collectives constituant une
forme de réparation plus indiquée pour certains chefs de dommages.
I. Introduction
1. Ce n’est pas sans réserve que j’ai voté en faveur du dispositif du
présent arrêt. Le montant global de l’indemnisation octroyée par la Cour
semble raisonnable au regard des circonstances de l’espèce. Je n’adhère
toutefois pas au raisonnement qu’a suivi la Cour pour parvenir à cette
décision et déplore, à certains égards, l’insuffisance de l’analyse et des
explications fournies, ainsi que le renversement radical de la charge de la
preuve, qui a imposé à la République de l’Ouganda (ci-
après l’« Ouganda »)
de prouver un fait doublement négatif s’agissant des préjudices causés en
Ituri. Je ne souscris pas non plus à la manière dont les diverses composantes
de l’indemnisation ont été déterminées, ni à la désignation de l’Etat
de la République démocratique du Congo (ci-
après la « RDC ») comme
bénéficiaire unique de l’indemnité, ce qui revenait à ne tenir pour ainsi
dire aucun compte des droits des communautés et des personnes à obtenir
réparation au titre des préjudices subis en conséquence des violations
flagrantes du droit relatif aux droits de l’homme et du droit international
humanitaire commises par l’Ouganda pendant le conflit armé.
2. La présente phase de la procédure en l’affaire des Activités armées
sur le territoire du Congo offrait à la Cour une occasion unique d’apporter
146 armed activities (sep. op. yusuf)
137
to make a substantial contribution to the development of the jurisprudence
on reparations for injury in international law. It is a pity that such
an opportunity has been missed. It is of course regrettable that the Applicant
did not present sufficient evidence that would enable the Court to
come to clear conclusions with respect to the damage caused by Uganda’s
wrongful conduct, and the valuation of that damage. I am, however, of
the view that the Court could have done better despite the fact that satisfactory
evidence was not put at its disposal.
II. Evidence and Burden of Proof
3. In its 2005 Judgment, the Court stated that, failing agreement
between the Parties,
“The DRC would thus be given the opportunity to demonstrate and
prove the exact injury that was suffered as a result of specific actions
of Uganda constituting internationally wrongful acts for which it is
responsible. It goes without saying, however, as the Court has had the
opportunity to state in the past, ‘that in the phase of the proceedings
devoted to reparation, neither Party may call in question such findings
in the present Judgment as have become res judicata’” 1 (emphasis
added).
This standard is consistent with the express acknowledgement made by
the DRC in the oral hearings at the time that “for the purposes of determining
the extent of reparation it must specify the nature of the injury
and establish the causal link with the initial wrongful act” 2.
4. The Court had given ample opportunity to the Applicant to demonstrate
and prove the injury that was suffered as a result of the wrongful
actions of Uganda for which it was found responsible in 2005. The Parties
had more than ten years to resolve the issue of reparation through negotiations,
during which they could have collected evidence and information
to assist their negotiations, or for the purposes of litigation if these negotiations
were to fail. After the filing of the Parties’ pleadings, the Court
also availed itself of its powers, under Article 62, paragraph 1, of its
Rules, to elicit further information from the Parties, requesting additional
information, evidence and explanations with respect to the various heads
of damages and the methodologies proposed by the Parties.
5. As noted in various parts of the Judgment, the DRC has failed to
furnish appropriate evidence with respect to the injuries suffered and “the
1 Armed Activities on the Territory of the Congo (Democratic Republic of the Congo v.
Uganda), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2005, p. 257, para. 260.
2 Ibid., p. 256, para. 258; see also CR 2005/5, p. 53 (original p. 57), para. 20 (Salmon)
(“The [DRC] does not deny that, for purposes of determining the extent of the reparation,
it must specify the nature of the injury and establish the causal link with the initial
wrongful act.”).
activités armées (op. ind. yusuf) 146
137
une importante contribution à la jurisprudence en matière de réparation
des préjudices en droit international. Il est regrettable qu’elle n’ait pas su
la saisir. On peut évidemment déplorer que le demandeur n’ait pas présenté
de preuves suffisantes pour lui permettre de tirer des conclusions
précises au sujet des dommages causés par le comportement illicite de
l’Ouganda, ainsi que de la valeur de ces dommages. Je suis néanmoins
d’avis que, même en l’absence de preuves satisfaisantes, la Cour aurait pu
mieux faire.
II. Administration et charge de la preuve
3. Dans son arrêt de 2005, la Cour a indiqué ce qui suit, dans l’hypothèse
où les Parties seraient incapables d’en venir à un accord :
« La RDC aurait … l’occasion de démontrer, en en apportant la
preuve, le préjudice exact qu’elle a subi du fait des actions spécifiques
de l’Ouganda constituant des faits internationalement illicites dont il
est responsable. Il va sans dire cependant, ainsi [qu’elle] a déjà eu
l’occasion de l’indiquer, « que, dans la phase de la procédure consacrée
à la réparation, ni l’une ni l’autre des Parties ne pourra remettre
en cause les conclusions du présent arrêt qui seront passées en force
de chose jugée » » 1 (les italiques sont de moi).
Cette norme de preuve cadrait avec la déclaration que la RDC avait faite
pendant la procédure orale, reconnaissant à l’époque que, « pour déterminer
l’étendue de la réparation, il lui incomb[ait] de préciser la nature du
préjudice et d’établir le lien de causalité avec le fait illicite initial » 2.
4. La Cour avait donné toute latitude au demandeur pour démontrer, en
en apportant la preuve, le préjudice subi du fait des actes illicites dont l’Ouganda
avait été reconnu responsable en 2005. Les Parties, qui ont eu plus de
dix ans pour régler la question des réparations au moyen de négociations,
auraient pu mettre ce temps à profit pour recueillir des éléments de preuve et
des informations utiles à cet égard, ou s’adresser à la justice en cas d’échec
des négociations. Après le dépôt des pièces de procédure, la Cour s’est également
prévalue des pouvoirs que lui conférait le paragraphe 1 de l’article 62
de son Règlement pour inviter les Parties à fournir des renseignements, des
moyens de preuve ou des explications supplémentaires concernant les divers
chefs de dommages et les méthodes qu’elles proposaient.
5. Comme il est relevé à divers endroits dans l’arrêt, la RDC n’a pas
fourni de preuves satisfaisantes s’agissant des préjudices subis et « les élé-
1 Activités armées sur le territoire du Congo (République démocratique du Congo
c. Ouganda), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2005, p. 257, par. 260.
2 Ibid., p. 256, par. 258 ; voir également CR 2005/5, p. 53, par. 20 (Salmon) : « La République
démocratique du Congo ne conteste pas que, pour déterminer l’étendue de la réparation,
il lui appartiendra de spécifier la nature du préjudice et d’établir le lien causal avec
l’acte illicite initial. »
147 armed activities (sep. op. yusuf)
138
evidence included in the case file by the DRC is, for the most part, insufficient
to reach a precise determination of the amount of compensation
due” (para. 125). Faced with this situation, the Court had to take into
account other sources of evidence, such as the reports of the United
Nations, and those of other intergovernmental organizations and governmental
commissions, including the Porter Judicial Commission of Inquiry
established by Uganda. It also took into consideration the reports of the
Court-appointed
experts where it considered them relevant. This is all
well and good. The Court could not have done otherwise under the present
circumstances in order to fulfil its judicial function.
6. However, with regard to the injuries that occurred in Ituri, the Judgment’s
reasoning is predicated on a radical reversal of the burden of proof
upon the Respondent. According to paragraph 78,
“it is for Uganda to establish, in this phase of the proceedings, that a
particular injury alleged by the DRC in Ituri was not caused by Uganda’s
failure to meet its obligations as an occupying Power. In the
absence of evidence to that effect, it may be concluded that Uganda
owes reparation in relation to such injury.”
7. The same standard of proof is expressed at various points throughout
the Judgment, concerning the causal nexus between the internationally
wrongful acts and the injury suffered (para. 95), the burden and
standard of proof (para. 118), the determination of the extent of the loss
of life and other damage to persons in Ituri (paras. 149, 155, 161 and 226)
as well as damage to property and public infrastructure in Ituri (paras. 241
and 257).
8. In essence, the Judgment requires Uganda to prove a double negative
fact, namely that every “particular injury” in Ituri that is alleged by
the DRC was “not caused” by its “failure” as the occupying Power. If
Uganda fails to do so, the Court will make inferences both that the injury
alleged by the DRC has occurred, and that this particular injury was
causally linked to Uganda’s “failure” to comply with its obligations in
Ituri. Such a strict standard places upon Uganda the task of identifying
all instances of alleged injury that occurred in Ituri after so many years
(even if Uganda is no longer in effective control of that territory); tracing
the original cause of that injury to the responsible actor (whether within
its sphere of control at the time, or not), and demonstrating the absence
of a causal nexus between that damage and its own conduct. Thus, so
long as the Applicant makes a prima facie allegation with respect to a
“particular injury” in Ituri, the entire burden of proof is placed on the
shoulders of the Respondent to disprove these allegations and, in the
absence of evidence, an injury causally linked to Uganda’s failures is presumed
to have been proven.
9. It is to be noted, however, that even though the standard is repeatedly
articulated in several paragraphs of the Judgment as mentioned
above, it is not analysed anywhere in the Judgment with respect to the
various heads of damage such as loss of life, personal injuries, property
activités armées (op. ind. yusuf) 147
138
ments de preuve [qu’elle a] versés au dossier … ne sont pas, en grande
partie, suffisants pour … permettre [à la Cour] de déterminer les montants
de l’indemnisation due avec précision » (par. 125). Dans ces conditions, la
Cour a dû prendre en considération d’autres moyens de preuve, tels que
des rapports de l’ONU, d’autres organisations intergouvernementales et
de commissions publiques, notamment la commission judiciaire d’enquête
(dite « commission Porter ») établie par l’Ouganda. Elle a également tenu
compte des rapports des experts désignés par ses soins qu’elle a jugés pertinents.
Tout cela est fort bien. La Cour n’aurait pu s’y prendre autrement,
dans les circonstances de l’espèce, pour exercer sa fonction judiciaire.
6. Cependant, en ce qui concerne les préjudices causés en Ituri, le raisonnement
suivi par la Cour repose sur un renversement radical, sur le
défendeur, de la charge de la preuve. Ainsi, aux termes du paragraphe 78 :
« il incombe à l’Ouganda, dans la présente phase de la procédure,
d’établir que tel ou tel préjudice en Ituri, allégué par la RDC, n’a pas
été causé par son manquement à ses obligations de puissance occupante.
En l’absence d’éléments de preuve à cet égard, il est possible
de conclure que l’Ouganda doit réparation pour ce préjudice. »
7. On retrouve la même norme de preuve dans différentes parties de
l’arrêt, concernant le lien de causalité entre faits internationalement illicites
et préjudices causés (par. 95), la charge de la preuve et la norme
applicable (par. 118), l’évaluation de l’ampleur des pertes en vies humaines
et des autres dommages aux personnes en Ituri (par. 149, 155, 161 et 226),
ainsi que les dommages aux biens et aux infrastructures publiques en Ituri
(par. 241 et 257).
8. En substance, la Cour attendait de l’Ouganda qu’il prouve un fait
doublement négatif, à savoir que « tel ou tel préjudice » dont la RDC soutenait
qu’il s’était produit en Ituri n’avait « pas été causé » par un « manquement
» de sa part en tant que puissance occupante. S’il n’y parvenait pas,
elle en déduirait non seulement que le préjudice invoqué par la RDC s’était
effectivement produit, mais encore qu’il existait un lien de causalité entre ce
préjudice et le « manquement » par l’Ouganda à ses obligations en Ituri.
Une norme de preuve aussi stricte imposait à l’Ouganda de recenser, de
nombreuses années après les faits, tous les préjudices censément causés en
Ituri (alors même qu’il n’exerçait plus de contrôle effectif sur le territoire en
question), de retrouver l’acteur responsable de chaque préjudice causé (que
celui-
ci ait à l’époque été sous son contrôle ou non) et de démontrer l’absence
de lien de causalité entre ce préjudice et son propre comportement.
Ainsi, pour peu que le demandeur fasse état prima facie de « tel ou tel »
préjudice survenu en Ituri, il incomberait entièrement au défendeur de réfuter
pareille allégation et, en l’absence de preuves, tout préjudice ayant un
lien de causalité avec les manquements de l’Ouganda serait présumé établi.
9. Il y a toutefois lieu de noter que, si cette norme est exprimée à plusieurs
reprises dans l’arrêt, comme il est mentionné précédemment, elle ne
fait l’objet d’aucune analyse dans la perspective des différents chefs de
dommages, notamment les pertes en vies humaines et les atteintes aux per-
148 armed activities (sep. op. yusuf)
139
loss or natural resources. The Judgment mentions very briefly in two concluding
paragraphs (paras. 161 and 226) that Uganda did not produce
evidence to establish that “particular injuries” alleged by the DRC were
“not caused” by its “failures” without any analysis of the evidence
Uganda was expected to produce in accordance with this standard. This
raises the question as to the purpose of the repeated assertion of this standard
in the Judgment if it was not going to be applied to the facts of the
case and to the evidence expected from Uganda.
10. In an effort to justify this unprecedented and exceptional evidentiary
burden placed on Uganda, references are made in the Judgment to
the Corfu Channel and the Diallo cases. However, none of the Judgments
in those cases provides support to such a radical reversal of the burden of
proof. Paragraphs 120 and 157 of the Judgment refer to the Judgment in
the Corfu Channel case in support of the proposition that the Court may
have “a more liberal recourse to inferences of fact and circumstantial evidence”
in cases where a State that “would normally bear the burden of
proof has lost effective control over the territory where crucial evidence is
located on account of the belligerent occupation of its territory by another
State” 3. This is quite true, but the standard of proof applied in the present
Judgment differs from the principles enunciated in Corfu Channel
with respect to the allocation of the burden of proof. In the latter case,
the Court stated that, when the victim of a breach of international law is
unable to furnish direct proof of facts giving rise to responsibility due to
the exclusive territorial control exercised by another State within its frontiers
(as is the case here, with respect to the wrongful occupation of Ituri),
the Court may resort to “a more liberal recourse to inferences of fact and
circumstantial evidence” as indirect evidence that an injurious event has
occurred within that territory.
11. The Court, however, was clear that such reasonable inferences did
not involve a reversal of the burden of proof of the kind contemplated in
paragraph 78 of the Judgment:
“It is true, as international practice shows, that a State on whose
territory or in whose waters an act contrary to international law has
occurred, may be called upon to give an explanation. It is also true
that that State cannot evade such a request by limiting itself to a reply
that it is ignorant of the circumstances of the act and of its authors.
The State may, up to a certain point, be bound to supply particulars
of the use made by it of the means of information and inquiry at its
disposal. But it cannot be concluded from the mere fact of the control
exercised by a State over its territory and waters that that State necessarily
knew, or ought to have known, of any unlawful act perpetrated
3 Corfu Channel (United Kingdom v. Albania), Merits, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1949,
p. 18.
activités armées (op. ind. yusuf) 148
139
sonnes ou aux biens, ou afférentes aux ressources naturelles. La Cour
mentionne brièvement, dans deux paragraphes où elle énonce ses conclusions
(161 et 226), que l’Ouganda n’a pas produit les éléments de preuve
permettant d’établir que « tel ou tel préjudice » dénoncé par la RDC n’avait
« pas été causé » par « ses manquements », sans toutefois fournir la moindre
analyse des preuves que l’Ouganda était censé apporter pour répondre à
cette norme. On peut donc se demander à quoi il peut bien servir d’énoncer
cette norme à maintes reprises dans l’arrêt sans pour autant l’appliquer
aux faits de l’espèce ou aux éléments de preuve attendus de l’Ouganda.
10. S’efforçant de justifier le fardeau de la preuve inédit et exceptionnel
pesant sur l’Ouganda, la Cour évoque l’affaire du Détroit de Corfou et l’affaire
Diallo. Or, aucun des arrêts rendus dans ces instances ne va dans le
sens d’un renversement aussi radical du fardeau de la preuve. Aux paragraphes
120 et 157 de son arrêt en la présente espèce, la Cour s’appuie sur
celui qu’elle a rendu dans l’affaire du Détroit de Corfou pour proposer de
« recourir plus largement aux présomptions de fait, aux indices ou preuves
circonstancielles » dans les cas où l’Etat « auquel incomberait normalement
la charge de la preuve a perdu le contrôle effectif du territoire où se trouvent
des éléments de preuve cruciaux en raison de l’occupation de guerre de ce
territoire par un autre Etat » 3. Cela est tout à fait juste, mais la norme de
preuve appliquée dans le présent arrêt s’écarte des principes énoncés dans
celui du Détroit de Corfou pour ce qui est de l’attribution de la charge de la
preuve. En l’occurrence, la Cour a dit que, lorsque l’Etat victime d’une
violation du droit international se trouve dans l’impossibilité de faire la
preuve directe des faits d’où découlerait la responsabilité lui incombant du
fait du contrôle territorial exclusif exercé par un autre Etat dans les limites
de ses frontières (comme c’est le cas ici, avec l’occupation illicite de l’Ituri),
il peut « recourir plus largement aux présomptions de fait, aux indices ou
preuves circonstancielles » en tant que moyens de preuve indirecte qu’un
événement dommageable s’est produit sur ce territoire.
11. La Cour a toutefois précisé que le recours à de telles présomptions
raisonnables n’opérait pas un renversement du fardeau de la preuve de
l’ordre de celui qui est envisagé au paragraphe 78 du présent arrêt :
« Il est vrai, ainsi que le démontre la pratique internationale, qu’un
Etat, sur le territoire duquel s’est produit un acte contraire au droit
international, peut être invité à s’en expliquer. Il est également vrai
qu’il ne peut se dérober à cette invitation en se bornant à répondre
qu’il ignore les circonstances de cet acte ou ses auteurs. Il peut,
jusqu’à un certain point, être tenu de fournir des indications sur
l’usage qu’il a fait des moyens d’information et d’enquête à sa disposition.
Mais on ne saurait conclure du seul contrôle exercé par un Etat
sur son territoire terrestre ou sur ses eaux territoriales que cet Etat a
nécessairement connu ou dû connaître tout fait illicite international qui
3 Détroit de Corfou (Royaume‑Uni c. Albanie), fond, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1949, p. 18.
149 armed activities (sep. op. yusuf)
140
therein, nor yet that it necessarily knew, or should have known, the
authors. This fact, by itself and apart from other circumstances, neither
involves prima facie responsibility nor shifts the burden of proof.” 4
(Emphasis added.)
Thus, in Corfu Channel the Court made a distinction between, on the one
hand, drawing adverse inferences where a State having effective control
over a certain territory fails to produce explanations and information at
its disposal to demonstrate that it complied with its international obligations
and, on the other hand, the reversal of the burden of proof upon the
respondent, which is required to disprove the allegations of the applicant
with adequate evidence. This distinction, which is crucial to the sound
administration of justice and the equitable distribution of the burden of
proof, is totally ignored in the Judgment.
12. Regarding the Ahmadou Sadio Diallo case, paragraph 116 of the
Judgment refers to the fact that the rule onus probandi incumbit actori has
been applied “flexibly” in cases where the respondent was in a better position
to establish certain facts that lay within its control. In the merits
phase of Diallo, the Court held that
“where, as in these proceedings, it is alleged that a person has not
been afforded, by a public authority, certain procedural guarantees
to which he was entitled, it cannot as a general rule be demanded of
the Applicant that it prove the negative fact which it is asserting. A
public authority is generally able to demonstrate that it has followed
the appropriate procedures and applied the guarantees required by
law — if such was the case — by producing documentary evidence of
the actions that were carried out.” 5 (Emphasis added.)
13. This passage calls for certain observations. As a preliminary
remark, paragraph 116 of the Judgment refers to the Diallo Judgment in
the compensation phase as opposed to the Judgment on the merits, thus
giving the impression that the Court reversed the burden of proof for the
purposes of establishing the injury suffered by Mr. Diallo within the
territory
of the DRC. But in the compensation phase of Diallo, the Court
did not shift the burden of proof to the DRC in order to demonstrate that
the injury alleged by Guinea had not been “caused” by its “failure” to
comply with its procedural human rights obligations. On the contrary, it
rejected Guinea’s claims to compensation for the pecuniary damage
caused by the loss of luxury goods, bank accounts, and the loss of professional
remuneration during Mr. Diallo’s unlawful detentions and after his
expulsion, specifically due to the applicant’s — not the respondent’s —
4 Corfu Channel (United Kingdom v. Albania), Merits, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1949,
p. 18.
5 Ahmadou Sadio Diallo (Republic of Guinea v. Democratic Republic of the Congo),
Merits, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2010 (II), pp. 660‑661, para. 55.
activités armées (op. ind. yusuf) 149
140
y a été perpétré non plus qu’il a nécessairement connu ou dû connaître
ses auteurs. En soi, et indépendamment d’autres circonstances, ce fait
ne justifie ni responsabilité prima facie ni déplacement dans le fardeau
de la preuve. » 4 (Les italiques sont de moi.)
Ainsi, dans l’affaire du Détroit de Corfou, la Cour a fait une distinction
entre, d’une part, la possibilité de tirer des conclusions défavorables
concernant l’Etat qui, exerçant un contrôle effectif sur un territoire donné,
ne fournit pas les explications et informations dont il dispose pour démontrer
qu’il s’est acquitté de ses obligations internationales et, d’autre part,
l’attribution du fardeau de la preuve au défendeur, qui doit alors réfuter,
preuves à l’appui, les allégations du demandeur. Or il n’est tenu aucun
compte dans l’arrêt de cette distinction, pourtant cruciale pour la bonne
administration de la justice et la répartition équitable de la charge de la
preuve.
12. En ce qui concerne l’affaire Ahmadou Sadio Diallo, il est mentionné
au paragraphe 116 du présent arrêt que la règle onus probandi incumbit
actori a été appliquée avec « souplesse » dans les affaires où le défendeur
était mieux à même d’établir certains faits qui relevaient de son autorité.
Au stade du fond dans l’affaire Diallo, la Cour a dit ce qui suit :
« lorsque, comme en l’espèce, il est allégué qu’une personne n’a pas
bénéficié, de la part d’une autorité publique, de certaines garanties
procédurales auxquelles elle avait droit, on ne saurait, en règle générale,
exiger du demandeur qu’il prouve le fait négatif qu’il invoque. Une
autorité publique est en général à même de démontrer qu’elle a bien
suivi les procédures appropriées et respecté les garanties exigées par le
droit — si tel a été le cas — en produisant des documents qui font la
preuve des actes qui ont été accomplis. » 5 (Les italiques sont de moi.)
13. Ce passage appelle certaines observations. A titre de remarque préliminaire,
je relèverai que le paragraphe 116 de l’arrêt en l’espèce évoque celui
portant sur la question de l’indemnisation en l’affaire Diallo, et non l’arrêt
au fond, ce qui donne l’impression que la Cour a renversé la charge de la
preuve aux fins d’établissement du préjudice subi par M. Diallo sur le territoire
congolais. Or, au stade de l’indemnisation en l’affaire Diallo, la Cour n’a pas
décidé qu’il incomberait à la RDC de faire la preuve que le préjudice avancé
par la Guinée n’avait pas été « causé » par son « manquement » à ses obligations
procédurales en matière de droits de l’homme. Au contraire, elle a rejeté
les demandes d’indemnisation de la Guinée au titre des dommages pécuniaires
causés par la perte d’articles de luxe, de sommes détenues sur des comptes en
banque et de la rémunération professionnelle de M. Diallo durant ses détentions
illicites et après son expulsion, précisément en raison de l’incapacité du
4 Détroit de Corfou (Royaume‑Uni c. Albanie), fond, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1949, p. 18.
5 Ahmadou Sadio Diallo (République de Guinée c. République démocratique du Congo),
fond, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2010 (II), p. 660‑661, par. 55.
150 armed activities (sep. op. yusuf)
141
failure to produce adequate evidence 6. Conversely, the two sums of compensation
awarded (for non-pecuniary
harm and personal effects) were
not premised on the shifting of the evidentiary burden, but rather on the
evidence presented by the applicant and equitable considerations 7. It follows
that the Diallo Judgment in the compensation phase does not provide
a basis for the radical reversal of the burden of proof enunciated in
paragraph 78 of the Judgment.
14. Nor does the Diallo Judgment in the merits phase provide support
for this legal proposition. In fact, the Court did not place the entire burden
of proof on the respondent’s shoulders; rather, it dismissed certain
allegations of exceptional gravity made by Guinea in the absence of
proof; it did not presume the occurrence of these facts on the basis of the
DRC’s failure to produce evidence to disprove them 8. Furthermore, the
Court’s reasoning in paragraph 54 of the merits Judgment of Diallo was
guided by a marked concern not to require the applicant in those proceedings
to demonstrate “negative facts” in relation to incidents that
occurred outside its territory or control (see paragraph 12 above). It is on
that basis that the Court shifted the burden on the respondent to
establish,
for specific factual issues raised in the applicant’s claims (but by
no means the entirety of these claims), that it complied with its procedural
obligations under international human rights law 9 and consular
law 10.
6 Ahmadou Sadio Diallo (Republic of Guinea v. Democratic Republic of the Congo),
Compensation, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2012 (I), p. 338, para. 34 (“Guinea has put
forward no evidence whatsoever” to support its claim for luxury goods and “[f]or these
reasons, the Court rejects Guinea’s claims as to the loss of high-value items not specified
on the inventory”) and para. 35 (“Guinea offers no details and no evidence to support its
claim” for bank accounts and “[t]hus, it has not been established that Mr. Diallo lost any
assets held in his bank accounts in the DRC”); pp. 340 et seq., paras. 41‑43, 46 and 50
(noting that “Guinea offers no evidence to support the claim” for loss of earnings and that
“Guinea has not proven to the satisfaction of the Court that Mr. Diallo suffered a loss of
professional remuneration”).
7 Ibid., pp. 334‑335, paras. 24-25 (for non-material
injury); pp. 337‑338, paras. 32-33
and 36 (for personal belongings).
8 Ahmadou Sadio Diallo (Republic of Guinea v. Democratic Republic of the Congo),
Merits, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2010 (II), p. 671, paras. 88-89 (noting that Guinea
had “failed to demonstrate convincingly that Mr. Diallo was subjected to [inhuman and
degrading] treatment during his detention” and that “[t]here [wa]s no evidence to substantiate
the allegation that he received death threats”).
9 Ibid., pp. 668‑669, para. 79 (noting that the DRC had “produced no evidence” to
prove that the Congolese authorities sought to determine whether it was necessary to detain
Mr. Diallo, or that his detention was reviewed every 48 hours, as required by Congolese
law); p. 669, para. 82 (noting that the DRC had “never been able to provide grounds which
might constitute a convincing basis for Mr. Diallo’s expulsion”); p. 670, para. 84 (noting
that the DRC had “failed to produce a single document or any other form of evidence
to prove” that Mr. Diallo had been informed, at the time of arrest, of the reasons for his
arrest).
10 Ibid., p. 673, para. 96 (noting that the DRC had not provided “the slightest piece of
evidence to corroborate” its claim that it had orally informed Mr. Diallo of the possibility
of seeking consular assistance from his State).
activités armées (op. ind. yusuf) 150
141
demandeur, et non du défendeur, à produire des preuves suffisantes 6. En
revanche, l’octroi des deux indemnités (au titre du préjudice immatériel et de
la perte des biens personnels) ne reposait pas sur un renversement du fardeau
de la preuve, mais sur les éléments de preuve présentés par le demandeur et
sur des considérations d’équité 7. Il s’ensuit que l’arrêt sur l’indemnisation
rendu dans l’affaire Diallo ne permet pas de justifier le renversement radical
de la charge de la preuve proposé au paragraphe 78 du présent arrêt.
14. La proposition ne trouve pas davantage d’appui dans l’arrêt au fond
rendu en l’affaire Diallo. De fait, plutôt que de faire peser le fardeau de la
preuve entièrement sur le défendeur, la Cour a rejeté certaines allégations
d’une gravité exceptionnelle que la Guinée avait soulevées sans aucune
preuve ; elle n’a pas supposé que les faits en cause étaient avérés parce que la
RDC n’avait pas apporté de preuve pour les réfuter 8. En outre, le raisonnement
suivi par la Cour au paragraphe 54 de l’arrêt au fond en l’affaire Diallo
se caractérise par le souci évident de ne pas exiger du demandeur qu’il prouve
des « faits négatifs » relativement à des épisodes survenus en dehors de son
territoire ou de son contrôle (voir le paragraphe 12 ci-
dessus).
Or c’est sur
cette base que la Cour a renversé le fardeau de la preuve de sorte qu’il incombe
au défendeur d’établir, s’agissant de certaines questions de fait soulevées par
les réclamations du demandeur (mais en aucun cas pour l’ensemble des griefs
de celui-
ci), qu’il s’était acquitté des obligations procédurales qui étaient les
siennes au regard du droit international des droits de l’homme 9 et du droit
consulaire 10.
6 Ahmadou Sadio Diallo (République de Guinée c. République démocratique du Congo),
indemnisation, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2012 (I), p. 338, par. 34 : « La Guinée n’a présenté aucune
preuve » à l’appui de sa demande concernant les articles de luxe et, « [p]our ces motifs, la Cour
rejette les demandes formulées par la Guinée au titre de la perte d’objets de grande valeur
omis de l’inventaire » ; p. 338, par. 35 : « la Guinée n’a fourni aucun détail ni aucune preuve à
l’appui de ce qu’elle avance » s’agissant des comptes en banque et « [i]l n’a donc pas été établi
que M. Diallo aurait perdu tout ou partie de ses avoirs en banque en RDC » ; p. 340 et suiv.,
par. 41‑43, 46 et 50, où il est relevé que « la Guinée n’[]apporte aucune preuve » de la perte de
revenus et qu’elle « n’a pas prouvé à la satisfaction de la Cour que M. Diallo aurait subi une
perte de rémunération professionnelle ».
7 Ibid., p. 334‑335, par. 24‑25 (concernant le préjudice immatériel) ; p. 337‑338,
par. 32‑33 et 36 (concernant les biens personnels).
8 Ahmadou Sadio Diallo (République de Guinée c. République démocratique du Congo),
fond, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2010 (II), p. 671, par. 88‑89, où il est constaté que la Guinée « n’a
pas démontré de façon suffisamment convaincante que M. Diallo aurait été soumis lors de
sa détention à [des] … traitements [inhumains et dégradants] » et que « [l]’allégation selon
laquelle il aurait reçu des menaces de mort n’est étayée par aucune preuve ».
9 Ibid., p. 668‑669, par. 79, où il est relevé que la RDC n’a « produit aucune preuve »
tendant à établir que les autorités congolaises avaient recherché s’il était nécessaire de détenir
M. Diallo ou si sa détention avait fait l’objet d’un réexamen toutes les 48 heures, comme
l’exigeait la loi congolaise ; p. 669, par. 82, où il est constaté que la RDC n’a « jamais été à
même … de fournir des motifs qui puissent être de nature à donner un fondement convaincant
à l’expulsion de M. Diallo » ; p. 670, par. 84, où il est dit que la RDC n’a « produit
aucun document ni aucun autre élément de preuve de nature à établir » que M. Diallo avait
été informé, au moment de son arrestation, de la raison pour laquelle il était arrêté.
10 Ibid., p. 673, par. 96, où il est relevé que la RDC n’a pas fourni le « moindre élément
de nature à … corroborer » sa prétention selon laquelle elle a informé oralement M. Diallo
de la possibilité de solliciter l’assistance consulaire de son pays.
151 armed activities (sep. op. yusuf)
142
15. Thus, it seems quite odd to rely on the principles enunciated in
Diallo as the basis for requiring Uganda to establish two negative facts (i.e.
that an unspecified injury was “not caused” by “its failure”). A more reasonable
application of the principle enunciated in Diallo would have been
to require Uganda to establish positive facts lying within its sphere of control,
namely that it took adequate and effective measures to prevent in
Ituri the injuries alleged by the Applicant, in line with its duty of vigilance.
16. The radical reversal of the burden of proof is also inconsistent with
the nature of the duty of vigilance incumbent upon the occupying Power
as an obligation of due diligence, rather than an obligation of result. The
nature of the primary obligation that has been breached is of key import
to the allocation of the burden of proof. As stated in Diallo, and subsequently
reaffirmed in Croatia v. Serbia with regard to alleged genocidal
acts, “[t]he determination of the burden of proof is in reality dependent on
the subject-matter
and the nature of each dispute brought before the Court;
it varies according to the type of facts which it is necessary to establish for
the purposes of the decision of the case” 11.
17. It follows that when the Court decides how to allocate the burden
of proof between the parties, it must pay close attention to the nature of
the primary obligation that has been breached and the circumstances of
each case. In the present case, the Court found that Uganda was responsible
in Ituri for the violation of Article 43 of the Hague Regulations of
1907, which reads as follows:
“The authority of the legitimate power having in fact passed into
the hands of the occupant, the latter shall take all the measures in his
power to restore, and ensure, as far as possible, public order and
safety, while respecting, unless absolutely prevented, the laws in force
in the country.” 12
18. Article 43 of the Hague Regulations of 1907 imposes a duty of
vigilance upon the occupying Power to ensure respect for public order
and safety in the occupied territory both by its own forces and private
parties 13. As the Court stated in 2005, Uganda was under an obligation
under that provision
11 Ahmadou Sadio Diallo (Republic of Guinea v. Democratic Republic of the Congo),
Merits, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2010 (II), p. 660, para. 54. See also Application of the
Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Croatia v. Serbia),
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2015 (I), pp. 73‑74, paras. 172 and 174 (“In the present case,
neither the subject-matter
nor the nature of the dispute makes it appropriate to contemplate
a reversal of the burden of proof. It is not for Serbia to prove a negative fact, for
example the absence of facts constituting the actus reus of genocide”).
12 Convention (IV) respecting the Laws and Customs of War on Land, The Hague,
18 October 1907, and Annex: Regulations concerning the Laws and Customs of War on
Land, Sect. III, Art. 43.
13 Eritrea-Ethiopia
Claims Commission, Partial Award: Central Front — Eritrea’s
Claims 2, 4, 6, 7, 8 and 22, Decision of 28 April 2004, United Nations, Reports of International
Arbitral Awards (RIAA), Vol. XXVI, pp. 138‑139, para. 67:
activités armées (op. ind. yusuf) 151
142
15. Il semble donc assez étrange de se fonder sur les principes énoncés en
l’affaire Diallo pour exiger de l’Ouganda qu’il établisse deux faits négatifs (à
savoir qu’un préjudice non spécifié n’a « pas été causé » par son « manquement
»). Il aurait été plus judicieux à cet égard de demander à l’Ouganda
d’établir des faits positifs relevant de son contrôle, en démontrant qu’il avait
pris, conformément à son devoir de vigilance, des mesures suffisantes et efficaces
pour prévenir, en Ituri, les préjudices dénoncés par le demandeur.
16. Ce renversement radical de la charge de la preuve n’est pas non plus
compatible avec la nature du devoir de vigilance incombant à la puissance
occupante, lequel participe d’une obligation de diligence plutôt que d’une
obligation de résultat. La question de la nature de l’obligation primaire qui
a été violée revêt une importance cruciale s’agissant de l’attribution du fardeau
de la preuve. Comme il a été dit dans l’affaire Diallo et réaffirmé ensuite
dans Croatie c. Serbie à propos des actes de génocide dénoncés, « [l]’établissement
de la charge de la preuve dépend, en réalité, de l’objet et de la nature
de chaque différend soumis à la Cour ; il varie en fonction de la nature des
faits qu’il est nécessaire d’établir pour les besoins du jugement de l’affaire » 11.
17. Il s’ensuit que, pour déterminer à laquelle des parties doit incomber
la charge de la preuve, la Cour doit prêter une attention particulière à la
nature de l’obligation primaire violée et aux circonstances de l’espèce. En
la présente instance, elle a conclu que l’Ouganda était responsable, en
Ituri, de la violation des dispositions de l’article 43 du règlement de
La Haye de 1907, dont voici le libellé :
« L’autorité du pouvoir légal ayant passé de fait entre les mains de
l’occupant, celui-
ci prendra toutes les mesures qui dépendent de lui
en vue de rétablir et d’assurer, autant qu’il est possible, l’ordre et la
vie publics en respectant, sauf empêchement absolu, les lois en
vigueur dans le pays. » 12
18. L’article 43 du règlement de La Haye de 1907 impose à la puissance
occupante un devoir de vigilance qui l’oblige à veiller à ce que les
acteurs de droit privé aussi bien que ses propres forces armées respectent
l’ordre public et la sécurité des personnes sur le territoire occupé 13.
Comme l’a dit la Cour en 2005, l’Ouganda se trouvait dans l’obligation,
au titre de cette disposition,
11 Ahmadou Sadio Diallo (République de Guinée c. République démocratique du Congo),
fond, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2010 (II), p. 660, par. 54. Voir également Application de la
convention pour la prévention et la répression du crime de génocide (Croatie c. Serbie), arrêt,
C.I.J. Recueil 2015 (I), p. 73‑74, par. 172 et 174 : « En l’espèce, ni l’objet ni la nature du
différend ne permettent d’envisager un renversement de la charge de la preuve. Il n’incombe
pas à la Serbie d’apporter la preuve d’un fait négatif, par exemple l’absence de faits
constituant l’élément matériel du génocide ».
12 Convention (IV) concernant les lois et coutumes de la guerre sur terre, La Haye,
18 octobre 1907, et annexe : Règlement concernant les lois et coutumes de la guerre sur
terre, sect. III, art. 43.
13 Commission des réclamations Erythrée-Ethiopie, Sentence partielle : Front central —
Réclamations de l’Erythrée nos 2, 4, 6, 7, 8 et 22, décision du 28 avril 2004, Nations Unies,
Recueil des sentences arbitrales (RSA), vol. XXVI, p. 138-139, par. 67 :
152 armed activities (sep. op. yusuf)
143
“to take all the measures in its power to restore, and ensure, as far as
possible, public order and safety in the occupied area, while respecting,
unless absolutely prevented, the laws in force in the DRC. This
obligation comprised the duty to secure respect for the applicable
rules of international human rights law and international humanitarian
law, to protect the inhabitants of the occupied territory against
acts of violence, and not to tolerate such violence by any third party.
The Court, having concluded that Uganda was an occupying Power
in Ituri at the relevant time, finds that Uganda’s responsibility is
engaged both for any acts of its military that violated its international
obligations and for any lack of vigilance in preventing violations of
human rights and international humanitarian law by other actors
present in the occupied territory, including rebel groups acting on
their own account.” 14
19. In line with this interpretation, the “duty of vigilance” incumbent
upon the occupying Power by Article 43 of the Hague Regulations is not
an obligation to achieve a particular result at all times and whatever the
circumstances 15, but an obligation of conduct, which required Uganda to
“take appropriate measures” to prevent wrongful acts committed by private
persons in Ituri district, such as pillaging, looting and violations of
human rights and humanitarian law 16. Pursuant to that duty, Uganda
was not responsible for every kind of injury or damage that might have
occurred in Ituri at all times and places during its occupation, but only
for those damages and injuries that could have been averted, had Uganda
taken adequate and effective measures of diligence — the existence of
which should normally be within Uganda’s ability to prove to the Court.
“Whether or not Ethiopian military personnel were directly involved in the
looting and stripping of buildings in the town, Ethiopia, as the Occupying Power,
was responsible for the maintenance of public order, for respecting private property,
and for preventing pillage. Consequently, Ethiopia is liable for permitting the
unlawful looting and stripping of buildings in the town during the period of its occupation.”
14 Armed Activities on the Territory of the Congo (Democratic Republic of the Congo v.
Uganda), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2005, p. 231, paras. 178-179.
15 See, mutatis mutandis, Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment
of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Serbia and Montenegro), Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 2007 (I), p. 221, para. 430:
“A State does not incur responsibility simply because the desired result is not
achieved; responsibility is however incurred if the State manifestly failed to take all
measures to prevent genocide which were within its power, and which might have
contributed to preventing the genocide.”
16 Armed Activities on the Territory of the Congo (Democratic Republic of the Congo v.
Uganda), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2005, p. 253, paras. 248 and 250.
activités armées (op. ind. yusuf) 152
143
« de prendre toutes les mesures qui dépendaient de lui en vue de rétablir
et d’assurer, autant qu’il était possible, l’ordre public et la sécurité
dans le territoire occupé en respectant, sauf empêchement absolu, les
lois en vigueur en RDC. Cette obligation comprend le devoir de veiller
au respect des règles applicables du droit international relatif aux
droits de l’homme et du droit international humanitaire, de protéger
les habitants du territoire occupé contre les actes de violence et de ne
pas tolérer de tels actes de la part d’une quelconque tierce partie.
La Cour ayant conclu que l’Ouganda était une puissance occupante
en Ituri à l’époque pertinente, la responsabilité de celui-
ci est
donc engagée à raison à la fois de tout acte de ses forces armées
contraire à ses obligations internationales et du défaut de la vigilance
requise pour prévenir les violations des droits de l’homme et du droit
international humanitaire par d’autres acteurs présents sur le territoire
occupé, en ce compris les groupes rebelles agissant pour leur
propre compte. » 14
19. Conformément à cette interprétation, le « devoir de vigilance » que
l’article 43 du règlement de La Haye impose à la puissance occupante est
non pas une obligation de parvenir à un résultat particulier en tout temps
et quelles que soient les circonstances 15, mais une obligation de moyens
exigeant de l’Ouganda qu’il « prenne les mesures voulues » pour prévenir
la commission, par des personnes de droit privé dans le district de l’Ituri,
de tout acte illicite, tels le pillage et les violations du droit relatif aux
droits de l’homme et du droit humanitaire 16. Il ne rend pas l’Ouganda
responsable de tout type de préjudice ou de dommage qui aurait pu se
produire en tout lieu et en tout temps pendant l’occupation de l’Ituri,
mais seulement de ceux qui auraient pu être évités s’il avait pris des
mesures de précaution suffisantes et efficaces, ce qu’il aurait normalement
dû être en mesure de prouver à la Cour.
« Que les militaires éthiopiens aient directement participé ou non au pillage et
à la dégradation de bâtiments dans la ville, il incombait à l’Ethiopie, en tant que
puissance occupante, de faire respecter l’ordre public et l’intégrité de la propriété
privée, et d’empêcher tout pillage. En conséquence, la responsabilité de l’Ethiopie
est engagée car elle a permis que des actes illicites de pillage et de dégradation des
bâtiments soient commis alors qu’elle occupait la ville. »
14 Activités armées sur le territoire du Congo (République démocratique du Congo
c. Ouganda), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2005, p. 231, par. 178‑179.
15 Voir, mutatis mutandis, Application de la convention pour la prévention et la
répression du crime de génocide (Bosnie‑Herzégovine c. Serbie‑et‑Monténégro), arrêt,
C.I.J. Recueil 2007 (I), p. 221, par. 430 :
« La responsabilité d’un Etat ne saurait être engagée pour la seule raison que le
résultat recherché n’a pas été atteint ; elle l’est, en revanche, si l’Etat a manqué manifestement
de mettre en oeuvre les mesures de prévention du génocide qui étaient à sa
portée, et qui auraient pu contribuer à l’empêcher. »
16 Activités armées sur le territoire du Congo (République démocratique du Congo
c. Ouganda), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2005, p. 253, par. 248 et 250.
153 armed activities (sep. op. yusuf)
144
20. It follows, in my view, that the shifting of the evidentiary burden
for the purposes of quantification of damage cannot go beyond what was
required by Uganda under the primary rule. As noted in the Commentary
to Article 36 of the International Law Commission’s (“ILC”) Articles on
Responsibility of States for Internationally Wrongful Acts, the principles
to be applied in the quantification of damages “will vary, depending upon
the content of particular primary obligations” 17. When determining the
allocation of the burden of proof, Uganda may only be required to prove
what was required of it by Article 43 of the Hague Regulations, i.e. that
it took “all the measures in [its] power to restore, and ensure, as far as
possible, public order and safety”. The Court cannot expect Uganda to
disprove each and every injury in Ituri alleged by the DRC, or prove that
such injury was “not caused” by its “failures”. To do so is to extend
ex post facto the scope of Uganda’s primary obligations under the law of
occupation through the mechanism of responsibility.
21. In light of the foregoing, I am of the view that a more balanced
outcome could have been achieved through a nuanced allocation of the
burden of proof, which would be more in tune with the content of the
primary obligation in question that has been breached. In accordance
with the onus probandi rule, it should fall upon the DRC to establish the
extent of the injuries suffered in Ituri, as the Court held with respect to
other regions of the DRC’s territory and in paragraph 260 of the
2005 Judgment. In line with Article 43 of the Hague Regulations of 1907,
Uganda would bear the onus to prove that it took measures in compliance
with its duty of vigilance, or that the injury would have occurred
even if Uganda had taken adequate and effective measures. The burden
would then shift to the DRC to disprove Uganda’s contentions. This
would be without prejudice to the rule that the distribution of the burden
of proof “does not relieve the other party of its duty to co‑operate ‘in
the provision of such evidence as may be in its possession that could assist
the Court in resolving the dispute submitted to it’” 18. In line with
the Corfu Channel principle, the Court would then be at liberty to draw
reasonable inferences from the Parties’ submissions. It is regrettable that
the Court has not opted for this approach in the present circumstances.
III. Assessment and Valuation of Damage
22. In view of the deficiencies or, in certain cases, total lack of evidence
presented by the DRC, the Court had to make extensive use of informa-
17 Yearbook of the International Law Commission (YILC), 2001, Vol. II, Part Two,
p. 100, commentary to Article 36.
18 Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide
(Croatia v. Serbia), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2015 (I), p. 73, para. 173; Pulp Mills on the
River Uruguay (Argentina v. Uruguay), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2010 (I), p. 71, para. 163.
activités armées (op. ind. yusuf) 153
144
20. Il s’ensuit, à mon sens, qu’on ne pouvait, pour les besoins de la quantification
du préjudice, faire peser sur l’Ouganda un fardeau de la preuve
allant au-
delà de ce qui était attendu de lui au titre de la règle primaire. On
peut lire dans le commentaire relatif à l’article 36 du projet d’articles de la
Commission du droit international (CDI) sur la responsabilité de l’Etat
pour fait internationalement illicite que les principes à appliquer aux fins de
quantification du préjudice « varient selon le contenu des obligations primaires
en cause » 17. Du point de vue de la charge de la preuve, la seule chose
que l’on pouvait exiger de l’Ouganda était qu’il fît la preuve, conformément
aux dispositions de l’article 43 du règlement de La Haye, qu’il avait pris
« toutes les mesures qui dépend[ai]ent de lui en vue de rétablir et d’assurer,
autant qu’il [étai]t possible, l’ordre et la vie publics ». La Cour ne pouvait
attendre de l’Ouganda qu’il réfutât chacune des allégations de préjudice en
Ituri formulée par la RDC, ou qu’il démontrât que les préjudices en cause
n’avaient « pas été causé[s] » par ses « manquement[s] » ; cela revenait à
étendre ex post facto, par le mécanisme de la responsabilité, la portée des
obligations primaires incombant à l’Ouganda en droit de l’occupation.
21. A la lumière de ce qui précède, j’estime qu’il aurait été plus judicieux
de procéder à une répartition nuancée de la charge de la preuve, en
tenant davantage compte du contenu de l’obligation primaire qui avait
été violée. Selon le principe onus probandi, c’est à la RDC qu’il aurait dû
revenir d’établir l’ampleur des préjudices subis en Ituri, comme l’a dit la
Cour concernant les autres régions de la RDC et au paragraphe 260 de
son arrêt de 2005. Aux termes de l’article 43 du règlement de La Haye de
1907, il incombait à l’Ouganda de prouver qu’il avait pris les mesures
qu’imposait son devoir de vigilance, ou que le préjudice se serait produit
même s’il avait pris des mesures suffisantes et efficaces, à charge pour la
RDC de réfuter les allégations de l’Ouganda, et cela, sans préjudice de la
règle voulant que l’attribution du fardeau de la preuve « ne relève pas
pour autant l’autre partie de son devoir de coopérer « en produisant tout
élément de preuve en sa possession susceptible d’aider la Cour à régler le
différend dont elle est saisie » » 18. Dans le droit fil de l’affaire du Détroit
de Corfou, la Cour aurait ensuite été libre de tirer des déductions raisonnables
des moyens présentés par les Parties. Il est regrettable qu’elle n’ait
pas fait ce choix dans les circonstances de l’espèce.
III. Détermination des dommages et estimation de leur valeur
22. Devant l’insuffisance, voire, dans certains cas, l’absence totale de
preuves présentées par la RDC, la Cour a été contrainte de s’en remettre
17 Annuaire de la Commission du droit international (ACDI), 2001, vol. II, deuxième
partie, p. 106, commentaire relatif à l’article 36.
18 Application de la convention pour la prévention et la répression du crime de génocide
(Croatie c. Serbie), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2015 (I), p. 73, par. 173 ; Usines de pâte à papier
sur le fleuve Uruguay (Argentine c. Uruguay), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2010 (I), p. 71, par. 163.
154 armed activities (sep. op. yusuf)
145
tion in United Nations reports on the conflict in the DRC and, with
respect to certain heads of damage, to rely on the reports of the experts
appointed by it in evaluating the damage and the amount of compensation
due (para. 31). However, in several instances, the Court had to
conclude that neither the materials at its disposal nor the reports of
the Court-appointed
experts provided sufficient evidence to assess the
damage suffered by the DRC or by the persons in its territory or to quantify
such damage, sometimes even on an approximative basis (see, for
example, paragraphs 179, 190 and 363‑364). In an attempt to fill this void,
the Court resorts to two concepts, the reasons for the use of which are neither
adequately explained in the Judgment nor are they necessarily always
clearly articulated in order to arrive at the determination of compensation
in the form of “global sums”. These concepts are “equitable considerations”
and the “range of possibilities indicated by the evidence”.
23. The Judgment refers to equitable considerations as the basis of
awarding compensation in the form of a lump sum nine times (cf. paragraphs
106, 164, 166, 181, 193, 206, 225, 258 and 365). Equity is also
implied in different parts of the Judgment, related to the difficulties faced
by the DRC in the collection of evidence, the non-punitive
character of
compensation, the potential onerousness of compensation for Uganda
and the “reasonableness” of compensation. At the same time, the Judgment
uses an obscure concept of the “range of possibilities indicated by
the evidence” (cf. paragraphs 106, 126, 166, 181, 193, 206, 223, 225, 258,
275 and 365), a term hitherto unknown in the jurisprudence of the Court
which leaves much to be desired.
24. Of course, it is not disputed that the Court may, for the purposes
of determining compensation for an internationally wrongful act, rely
upon equitable considerations in order to reach a fair and reasonable
amount of compensation 19. However, there is an essential difference
between determining compensation by reference to equitable considerations,
and determining compensation ex aequo et bono, within the meaning
of Article 38, paragraph 2, of the Statute. A decision ex aequo et bono
is to be understood as equity contra legem 20, that is to say a decision
arrived at not on the basis of certain rules of international law applicable
between the parties, but rather “as a matter of abstract justice” 21. By contrast,
equitable considerations are of an essentially legal character (equity
19 Certain Activities Carried Out by Nicaragua in the Border Area (Costa Rica v. Nicaragua),
Compensation, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2018 (I), pp. 26‑27, para. 35; Ahmadou
Sadio Diallo (Republic of Guinea v. Democratic Republic of the Congo), Compensation,
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2012 (I), p. 337, para. 33.
20 Frontier Dispute (Burkina Faso/Republic of Mali), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1986,
p. 567, para. 28.
21 North Sea Continental Shelf (Federal Republic of Germany/Denmark; Federal
Republic of Germany/Netherlands), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1969, p. 47, para. 85; Land,
activités armées (op. ind. yusuf) 154
145
très largement aux informations contenues dans les rapports établis par
l’ONU sur le conflit en RDC et, concernant certains chefs de préjudice,
de s’appuyer sur les rapports des experts qu’elle avait désignés pour évaluer
les dommages et déterminer le montant des indemnités dues (par. 31).
A plusieurs reprises, cependant, elle a dû conclure que ni les documents à
sa disposition, ni les rapports des experts désignés par elle ne contenaient
suffisamment d’éléments de preuve pour lui permettre d’évaluer les
dommages
subis par la RDC ou par les personnes se trouvant sur son
territoire, ou de quantifier ces dommages, parfois même de façon approximative
(voir, par exemple, les paragraphes 179, 190 et 363‑364). S’efforçant
de combler cette lacune et pour des raisons qui, dans l’arrêt, ne sont
ni suffisamment justifiées, ni forcément toujours bien exprimées, elle a eu
recours à deux concepts pour parvenir à la détermination d’une indemnisation
sous la forme de « sommes globales ». Ces concepts sont ceux des
« considérations d’équité » et des « possibilités offertes par les éléments de
preuve ».
23. La Cour se réfère neuf fois à des considérations d’équité pour
octroyer une indemnisation sous la forme d’une somme forfaitaire (voir
les paragraphes 106, 164, 166, 181, 193, 206, 225, 258 et 365). La notion
d’équité est aussi implicitement évoquée dans différentes parties de l’arrêt,
notamment en ce qui concerne les difficultés rencontrées par la RDC pour
recueillir des éléments de preuve, l’absence de caractère punitif de la réparation,
la charge que pourrait représenter, pour l’Ouganda, le versement
de l’indemnisation, ainsi que le caractère raisonnable de celle-
ci. Parallèlement,
il est fait mention des « possibilités offertes par les éléments de
preuve » (voir les paragraphes 106, 126, 166, 181, 193, 206, 223, 225, 258,
275 et 365), concept obscur et jusque-là inconnu dans la jurisprudence de
la Cour, qui laisse fort à désirer.
24. Bien entendu, nul ne conteste que la Cour puisse, afin de déterminer
l’indemnisation due pour un fait internationalement illicite, se fonder
sur des considérations d’équité pour fixer un montant juste et raisonnable
19. Il existe toutefois une différence fondamentale entre la détermination
de l’indemnisation sur la base de considérations d’équité et la
faculté qu’a la Cour de statuer ex aequo et bono au sens du paragraphe 2
de l’article 38 du Statut. La décision ex aequo et bono relève de l’équité
contra legem 20, c’est-à-dire qu’elle repose non pas sur les règles du droit
international applicables entre les parties, mais plutôt sur une « représentation
de la justice abstraite » 21. En revanche, les considérations d’équité
sont intimement liées à la règle de droit (équité infra legem) et s’inscrivent
19 Certaines activités menées par le Nicaragua dans la région frontalière (Costa Rica
c. Nicaragua), indemnisation, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2018 (I), p. 26‑27, par. 35 ; Ahmadou
Sadio Diallo (République de Guinée c. République démocratique du Congo), indemnisation,
arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2012 (I), p. 337, par. 33.
20 Différend frontalier (Burkina Faso/République du Mali), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1986,
p. 567, par. 28.
21 Plateau continental de la mer du Nord (République fédérale d’Allemagne/Danemark ;
République fédérale d’Allemagne/Pays‑Bas), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1969, p. 47, par. 85 ;
155 armed activities (sep. op. yusuf)
146
infra legem) and should be understood within the legal framework governing
the judicial function of the Court. They cannot serve as the basis
to dispense with the applicable rules altogether, or not to provide reasons
for their inapplicability. The Court should have made an attempt at
explaining how it intends to apply equity within the general framework of
State responsibility and the procedural framework governing the fact-finding
procedure before it.
25. Unfortunately, the Judgment seems to rely upon equitable considerations
as a substitute for a reasoned analysis that would identify the
evidence presented by the Parties as corroborating — albeit in an approximative
manner — the extent of the injury caused by Uganda, and a cognizable
method for the valuation of that injury. Instead of specifying a
method of valuation deemed to be appropriate, the Judgment utilizes
equitable considerations as a convenient shorthand in order to reach
what is referred to in the Judgment as “global sums” (paras. 106-107).
26. This includes a “single global sum” of US$225,000,000 for the loss
of life and other damage caused to persons 22 (para. 226), a “global sum”
of US$40,000,000 for damage to public and private property (para. 258)
and a “global sum” of US$60,000,000 for damage caused by the exploitation
of natural resources (paras. 364-366). It is not, however, possible to
understand from the text of the Judgment how the Court has arrived at
these figures. There is no indication as to how the different components of
these sums were determined, or the way in which these figures may be
justified by the facts. Thus, the impression to the reader is that the Court
has arrived at these figures by way of ex aequo et bono, not on the basis
of law and evidence.
27. Equitable considerations are relevant primarily for the quantification
of damages where the nature of the harm or the circumstances of the
dispute make it difficult or impossible to define the value of harm with a
high degree of certainty. In such circumstances, it would be contrary to
the principle of equity to deny compensation to the injured party for
objective circumstances that cannot be attributed to its fault or sphere of
responsibility. As the Court recognized in the case concerning Certain
Activities Carried Out by Nicaragua in the Border Area relying on the
Trail Smelter case:
“Where the tort itself is of such a nature as to preclude the ascertainment
of the amount of damages with certainty, it would be a
perversion of fundamental principles of justice to deny all relief to the
Island and Maritime Frontier Dispute (El Salvador/Honduras: Nicaragua intervening),
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1992, pp. 390‑391, para. 47.
22 See, in particular, paragraph 166 of the Judgment for the loss of life, paragraph 181
for non-lethal
injuries, paragraph 193 for rape and sexual violence, paragraph 206 for child
soldiers; and paragraph 225 for the displacement of persons.
activités armées (op. ind. yusuf) 155
146
dans le cadre qui régit la fonction judiciaire de la Cour. On ne saurait y
avoir recours pour s’affranchir totalement des règles applicables ni pour
s’abstenir de motiver une décision concernant l’applicabilité de celles-
ci.
La Cour aurait dû s’efforcer d’expliquer comment elle comptait recourir
au principe de l’équité à l’intérieur du régime général de la responsabilité
de l’Etat et des règles régissant la procédure d’établissement des faits.
25. Malheureusement, la Cour semble substituer les considérations
d’équité à une analyse rationnelle permettant de recenser les éléments de
preuve présentés par les Parties qui auraient corroboré, même de façon
approximative, l’ampleur du préjudice causé par l’Ouganda, et à une
méthode reconnue aux fins de déterminer la valeur de ce préjudice. Or, au
lieu de désigner la méthode d’évaluation qu’elle juge indiquée, elle se sert
des considérations d’équité comme d’un raccourci commode pour parvenir
à ce qu’elle appelle des « sommes globales » (par. 106‑107).
26. La Cour a notamment adjugé une « somme globale unique » de
225 000 000 dollars des Etats-Unis au titre des pertes en vies humaines et
autres dommages causés aux personnes 22 (par. 226), une « somme globale
» de 40 000 000 dollars au titre des dommages aux biens publics et
privés (par. 258) et une « somme globale » de 60 000 000 dollars pour
les dommages causés par l’exploitation des ressources naturelles
(par. 364‑366). Il est toutefois impossible, à la lecture du texte de l’arrêt,
de comprendre comment elle est parvenue à ces montants. Elle n’indique
pas de quelle manière elle en a déterminé les différentes composantes, ni
n’explique comment ces chiffres seraient justifiés par les faits, ce qui donne
l’impression qu’elle a statué ex aequo et bono, et non sur la base du droit
et des preuves.
27. Les considérations d’équité servent essentiellement à la quantification
des dommages lorsque la nature de l’atteinte ou les circonstances du
différend rendent difficile, voire impossible, l’établissement de la valeur
du préjudice avec un degré élevé de certitude. Dans une telle situation, il
serait contraire au principe de l’équité de priver la partie lésée de l’indemnisation
découlant de faits objectifs qui ne peuvent être considérés comme
ayant été causés par sa faute ou comme relevant de sa sphère de responsabilité.
Comme la Cour l’a reconnu dans l’affaire relative à Certaines
activités menées par le Nicaragua dans la région frontalière, s’appuyant sur
l’arbitrage relatif à la Fonderie de Trail,
« [c]e serait pervertir les principes fondamentaux de la justice que de
refuser tout secours à la victime — et par là même libérer l’auteur du
préjudice de l’obligation de réparation — sous prétexte que l’acte
Différend
frontalier terrestre, insulaire et maritime (El Salvador/Honduras ; Nicaragua
(intervenant)), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1992, p. 390‑391, par. 47.
22 Voir, en particulier, le paragraphe 166 de l’arrêt, concernant les pertes en vies
humaines, le paragraphe 181 pour les atteintes aux personnes, le paragraphe 193 pour
les viols et les violences sexuelles, le paragraphe 206 pour les enfants‑soldats et le paragraphe
225 pour le déplacement de personnes.
156 armed activities (sep. op. yusuf)
147
injured person, and thereby relieve the wrongdoer from making any
amend for his acts. In such case, while the damages may not be determined
by mere speculation or guess, it will be enough if the evidence
show the extent of the damages as a matter of just and reasonable
inference, although the result be only approximate.” 23
28. Nevertheless, recourse to equitable principles is not unfettered.
Indeed, it “should not be used to make good the shortcomings in a
claimant’s
case by being substituted for evidence which could have been
produced if it actually existed” 24. Nor can equitable considerations be
used as an excuse to depart from the Court’s judicial function. Pursuant
to Article 56 of the Court’s Statute, a judgment shall state the reasons
on which it is based. This obligation stems from the inherently judicial
character of the Court 25. It contributes not only to greater transparency
in the Court’s decision-making
function, but also to the authority and persuasiveness
that its Judgments command in the field of international law.
29. While the Court has in the past had recourse to equitable considerations
for the purposes of quantification of damage, it has never used
them as a device to award “global sums” without providing an explanation
of how these amounts were reached. In the case of Ahmadou Sadio
Diallo, the Court dismissed those claims which it found not to have been
proven with sufficient evidence. It then awarded compensation for the
non-material
damage caused to Mr. Diallo and the pecuniary loss for his
personal belongings, relying, on the one hand, on the practice of regional
human rights courts and tribunals on this topic and the circumstances
surrounding Mr. Diallo’s treatment 26; and, on the other hand, an approximation
of the value of the assets of Mr. Diallo’s apartment based on the
inventory of his apartment and his personal property in the DRC, as well
as the practice of human rights bodies on the same topic 27.
30. Similarly, in Certain Activities Carried Out by Nicaragua in the Border
Area, the Court did not award a “global sum”, but itemized amounts
of compensation, namely, (a) US$120,000 for the impairment or loss of
environmental goods and services; (b) US$2,708.39 for the restoration
costs claimed by the Republic of Costa Rica in respect of the internation-
23 Certain Activities Carried Out by Nicaragua in the Border Area (Costa Rica v.
Nicaragua), Compensation, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2018 (I), p. 27, para. 35, citing
Trail Smelter case (United States, Canada), Awards of 16 April 1938 and 11 March 1941,
United Nations, RIAA, Vol. III, p. 1920.
24 Ahmadou Sadio Diallo (Republic of Guinea v. Democratic Republic of the Congo),
Compensation, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2012 (I), declaration of Judge Greenwood, p. 393,
para. 5.
25 Cf. Effect of Awards of Compensation Made by the United Nations Administrative
Tribunal, Advisory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports 1954, pp. 52‑53.
26 Ahmadou Sadio Diallo (Republic of Guinea v. Democratic Republic of the Congo),
Compensation, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2012 (I), pp. 334‑335, paras. 24-25.
27 Ibid., pp. 337‑338, paras. 31-33 and 36.
activités armées (op. ind. yusuf) 156
147
illicite est de nature à empêcher que le montant de l’indemnité puisse
être déterminé avec certitude : en pareil cas, si le montant de l’indemnité
ne doit pas être établi par simple spéculation ou conjecture, il
suffit néanmoins que l’ampleur des dommages soit démontrée par
une déduction juste et raisonnable, quand bien même le résultat n’en
serait qu’approximatif » 23.
28. Le recours aux principes d’équité n’est toutefois pas exempt de restrictions.
En effet, ces principes « ne sont pas destinés à combler les
lacunes du dossier du demandeur, en suppléant à l’absence d’éléments de
preuve qui auraient pu être produits s’ils avaient véritablement existé » 24.
Les considérations d’équité ne peuvent pas non plus justifier que la Cour
s’écarte de sa fonction judiciaire. Selon l’article 56 du Statut, tout arrêt
doit être motivé. Cette obligation, qui découle du caractère intrinsèquement
judiciaire de la Cour 25, contribue à assurer non seulement la transparence
du processus décisionnel de cette dernière, mais également
l’autorité et la force de conviction de ses arrêts en droit international.
29. Si, par le passé, la Cour a eu recours aux considérations d’équité
aux fins de quantification des dommages, elle ne s’en est jamais servie
comme d’un moyen d’octroyer des « sommes globales » sans expliquer
comment leur montant avait été calculé. Dans l’affaire Ahmadou Sadio
Diallo, elle a rejeté les réclamations dont elle estimait qu’elles n’avaient
pas été suffisamment étayées. Elle a octroyé une indemnisation à raison
des dommages immatériels causés à M. Diallo et du préjudice pécuniaire
que représentait la perte de ses biens personnels, s’appuyant, d’une part,
sur la pratique des juridictions régionales des droits de l’homme à ce sujet
et sur les circonstances entourant le traitement subi par M. Diallo 26, et,
d’autre part, sur une estimation de la valeur des biens de l’appartement de
M. Diallo reposant sur l’inventaire du contenu de cet appartement et de
ses biens personnels en RDC, ainsi que sur la pratique des organismes de
défense des droits de l’homme en la matière 27.
30. De même, en l’affaire relative à Certaines activités menées par le
Nicaragua dans la région frontalière, la Cour n’a pas octroyé de « somme
globale » mais a ventilé les différents éléments des indemnités à verser, à
savoir : a) 120 000 dollars pour la dégradation ou la perte de biens et services
environnementaux ; b) 2708,39 dollars à raison des frais réclamés
23 Certaines activités menées par le Nicaragua dans la région frontalière (Costa Rica
c. Nicaragua), indemnisation, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2018 (I), p. 27, par. 35, citant Trail
Smelter case (United States, Canada), sentences des 16 avril 1938 et 11 mars 1941,
Nations Unies, RSA, vol. III, p. 1920.
24 Ahmadou Sadio Diallo (République de Guinée c. République démocratique du Congo),
indemnisation, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2012 (I), déclaration de M. le juge Greenwood, p. 393,
par. 5.
25 Voir Effet de jugements du Tribunal administratif des Nations Unies accordant indemnité,
avis consultatif, C.I.J. Recueil 1954, p. 52‑53.
26 Ahmadou Sadio Diallo (République de Guinée c. République démocratique du Congo),
indemnisation, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2012 (I), p. 334‑335, par. 24‑25.
27 Ibid., p. 337‑338, par. 31‑33 et 36.
157 armed activities (sep. op. yusuf)
148
ally protected wetland; and (c) US$236,032.16 for costs and expenses
incurred by Costa Rica as a direct consequence of the Republic of Nicaragua’s
unlawful activities on Costa Rican territory. Whilst the latter two
categories were premised on a detailed scrutiny of the respective invoices,
documents and expenses submitted by the parties 28, with respect to the
first category the Court considered that it was
“appropriate to approach the valuation of environmental damage
from the perspective of the ecosystem as a whole, by adopting an
overall assessment of the impairment or loss of environmental goods
and services prior to recovery, rather than attributing values to specific
categories of environmental goods and services and estimating
recovery periods for each of them” 29.
31. Notwithstanding this language that might imply recourse to equitable
considerations, the Court distinguished between the identification of
the injury and its valuation and made clear which heads of loss were dismissed
within that claim for lack of proof 30. With respect to valuation,
the Court rejected the two methods proposed by the Parties and instead
addressed the “corrected analysis” to Costa Rica’s method (presented by
Nicaragua) which provided a basis for the Court’s valuation 31.
32. Contrary to the practice of the Court, the Judgment does not offer
either an approximative identification of the injury caused by Uganda to
the DRC, nor does it proffer a methodological basis upon which the
“global sums” were arrived at. With respect to the identification of the
injury, the Judgment discusses the evidence presented by the Parties, but
does not provide any conclusions on the estimates arrived by the Court
(except with respect to heads of damage on the loss of life and population
displacement, cf. paragraphs 162, 166 and 223 of the Judgment) that
might have served as the basis of these “global sums”. In most instances —
again, with the exception of loss of life and population displacement —
no precise numbers are given. In fact, the Judgment acknowledges that it
28 Certain Activities Carried Out by Nicaragua in the Border Area (Costa Rica v. Nicaragua),
Compensation, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2018 (I), pp. 41‑45, paras. 92-105 (in relation
to expenses incurred for fuel and maintenance services for police aircraft used to reach
and overfly the northern part of Isla Portillos, as well as the cost of obtaining a report from
UNITAR/UNOSAT); pp. 48‑53, paras. 115-132 (in relation to expenses for overflights and
the purchase of satellite images); and p. 56, para. 146 (in relation to the cost incurred for
the construction of a dyke across the 2013 eastern caño).
29 Ibid., p. 37, para. 78.
30 Ibid., p. 36, para. 74 (namely, natural hazards mitigation and soil formation/erosion
control).
31 Ibid., pp. 38‑39, para. 86.
activités armées (op. ind. yusuf) 157
148
par la République du Costa Rica pour la restauration de la zone humide
sous protection internationale ; c) 236 032,16 dollars à raison des frais et
dépenses occasionnés au Costa Rica en conséquence directe des activités
illicites auxquelles la République du Nicaragua s’était livrée sur le territoire
costaricien. En ce qui concerne les deux dernières catégories, elle
s’est fondée sur un examen approfondi des factures, documents et notes
de frais présentés par chaque partie 28, mais, à propos de la première, elle
a considéré qu’il convenait,
« pour estimer les dommages environnementaux, d’appréhender
l’écosystème dans son ensemble en procédant à une évaluation globale
de la dégradation ou perte de biens et services environnementaux
avant reconstitution, plutôt que d’attribuer une valeur à telle ou
telle catégorie de biens et services environnementaux et d’estimer la
période de reconstitution applicable à chacune » 29.
31. Indépendamment de la formulation, qui pourrait évoquer le
recours à des considérations d’équité, la Cour a établi une distinction
entre la détermination du préjudice et l’estimation de sa valeur, et a
clairement
indiqué les chefs de dommages relevant de cette réclamation qui
avaient été rejetés, faute de preuves 30. En ce qui concerne l’estimation de
la valeur des dommages, la Cour n’a retenu aucune des deux méthodes
proposées par les Parties, se fondant sur l’« analyse corrigée » de la
méthode du Costa Rica (présentée par le Nicaragua) pour établir ellemême
cette valeur 31.
32. Contrairement à sa pratique, la Cour ne présente, dans son arrêt,
ni détermination approximative du préjudice causé à la RDC par l’Ouganda,
ni base méthodologique sur laquelle elle se serait fondée pour parvenir
aux « sommes globales ». S’agissant de la détermination du préjudice,
elle examine les éléments de preuve présentés par les Parties, mais ne dit
rien des estimations effectuées (sauf en ce qui touche les chefs de dommages
tels que les pertes en vies humaines et les déplacements de population
; voir les paragraphes 162, 166 et 223 de l’arrêt) sur lesquelles elle
aurait pu s’appuyer pour arriver à ces « sommes globales ». Le plus souvent,
à l’exception, là encore, des pertes en vies humaines et des déplacements
de population, aucun chiffre précis n’est donné. D’ailleurs, la Cour
28 Certaines activités menées par le Nicaragua dans la région frontalière (Costa Rica
c. Nicaragua), indemnisation, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2018 (I), p. 41‑45, par. 92‑105, pour les
chefs de dépenses liés aux frais de carburant et de maintenance des aéronefs de la police
utilisés pour atteindre et survoler la partie septentrionale d’Isla Portillos, ainsi qu’au coût
de l’obtention d’un rapport de l’UNITAR/UNOSAT ; p. 48‑53, par. 115‑132, pour les
dépenses liées aux survols et à l’achat d’images satellite ; et p. 56, par. 146, concernant les
dépenses engagées pour la construction d’une digue destinée à barrer le caño oriental de
2013.
29 Ibid., p. 37, par. 78.
30 Ibid., p. 36, par. 74, à savoir l’atténuation des risques naturels et la formation du sol
ou la lutte contre l’érosion.
31 Ibid., p. 38‑39, par. 86.
158 armed activities (sep. op. yusuf)
149
is “impossible to determine, even approximately, the number of persons
injured” (paras. 179 and 181); that “it is impossible to derive even a broad
estimate of the number of victims of rape and other forms of sexual violence
from the reports and other data available to it” (para. 190); that
“[t]he evidence presented by the DRC does not permit the Court to assess
the extent of the damage even approximately” with respect to property
damage in and outside Ituri (paras. 246 and 251); and that “the available
evidence is not sufficient to determine a reasonably precise or even an
approximate number of animal deaths for which Uganda owes reparation”
(paras. 363 and 364). Instead, the Judgment refers to the “range of
possibilities indicated by the evidence” (paras. 106, 126, 166, 181, 193,
206, 223, 225, 258, 275 and 365) to justify these “global sums”. But it does
not explain what this “range” is.
33. In fact, the impression is given that the “range of possibilities” pertains
not so much to the extent of the injury, but the general adequacy of
the evidence to sustain the claim. If this “range of possibilities” is a broad
estimate of the numbers of victims killed or injured on the basis of the
evidence, or of the property or resources destroyed or looted during the
conflict, the Statute requires the Court to specify what these estimates are,
even at a broad brush. Otherwise, the application of such a vague concept
may be understood as an attempt to dispense with the proper consideration
and proof of facts, or of classes of facts, in the assessment of
damage. In any event, such an obscure term does not seem appropriate,
in my view, for compensation proceedings. A smörgåsbord of possibilities
cannot serve as a substitute for a legal standard in the assessment and
valuation of damage.
34. Similar considerations apply to the valuation of the unparticularized
injuries. Paragraphs 164 and 180 refer to the awards of the Ethiopia-Eritrea
Claims Commission (“EECC”) for the proposition that “large per
capita awards for non-material
damage, which may be justified in individual
cases, would be inappropriate in a situation involving significant
numbers of unidentified and hypothetical victims”. But the Judgment
does not explain on what methodological basis the valuation was based
for the purposes of the “global sums”. If the Court opted for smaller per
capita awards than those applied in individual human rights cases, at
least an attempt ought to have been made at articulating the methodological
premise of these lump sums. It is only with respect to decisions
ex aequo et bono that the Court is not required to provide reasons.
35. In light of the foregoing, I am of the view that the mere reference
to “equitable considerations” cannot serve as an excuse for the Court to
dispense with the requirement to state the reasons underlying its decisions.
The Court may propose an equitable remedy and apply it; but it
has to explain why and on what basis it intends to apply it. It cannot
activités armées (op. ind. yusuf) 158
149
reconnaît « qu’il est impossible de déterminer, fût-ce approximativement,
le nombre de blessés » (par. 179 et 181) ; « qu’il est impossible de déduire
des rapports et des autres données dont elle dispose une estimation, même
générale, du nombre de victimes de viols et d’autres formes de violence
sexuelle » (par. 190) ; que, « [a]u vu des éléments de preuve présentés par
la RDC, [elle] n’est pas en mesure de déterminer, fût-ce approximativement,
l’ampleur des dommages » causés aux biens en Ituri comme à l’extérieur
(par. 246 et 251) ; et que « les preuves disponibles ne so[]nt pas
suffisantes pour lui permettre de déterminer un nombre raisonnablement
précis ou même approximatif d’animaux tués pour lesquels l’Ouganda
doit réparation » (par. 363‑364). Au lieu de cela, elle se réfère aux « possibilités
offertes par les éléments de preuve » (par. 106, 126, 166, 181, 193,
206, 223, 225, 258, 275 et 365) pour justifier ces « sommes globales », sans
toutefois expliquer quelles sont ces « possibilités ».
33. De fait, on a l’impression que les « possibilités offertes » concernent
moins l’étendue du préjudice que le caractère généralement satisfaisant
des preuves apportées à l’appui de la réclamation. Si ces « possibilités »
correspondent à une estimation grossière du nombre de personnes tuées
ou blessées à partir des éléments de preuve disponibles, ou encore des
biens ou ressources détruits ou pillés pendant le conflit, le Statut impose
à la Cour de préciser quelles sont ces estimations, même à grands traits.
Autrement, l’application d’un concept aussi vague pourrait être interprétée
comme une tentative d’esquiver un examen suffisant des faits ou de
certaines catégories de faits, ainsi que des preuves y afférentes, dans le
cadre de l’évaluation des dommages. En tout état de cause, une expression
aussi absconse ne me semble pas convenir à une procédure d’indemnisation.
Une panoplie de possibilités ne peut être substituée à une norme
de droit aux fins de détermination des dommages et d’estimation de leur
valeur.
34. Des considérations analogues s’appliquent à l’appréciation des préjudices
non ventilés. Les paragraphes 164 et 180 font référence aux sentences
de la Commission des réclamations entre l’Erythrée et l’Ethiopie,
selon lesquelles, « si elle pouvait se justifier dans des cas individuels, l’allocation
d’indemnités élevées pour chaque personne ayant subi un dommage
moral serait inappropriée dans le contexte d’un nombre important
de victimes non identifiées ou hypothétiques ». La Cour n’explique cependant
pas la base méthodologique de l’évaluation qui a servi à arrêter les
« sommes globales ». Si elle a choisi d’octroyer des montants par tête
moins élevés que dans les affaires individuelles en matière de droits de
l’homme, elle aurait tout au moins dû s’efforcer d’exposer clairement le
fondement méthodologique de la détermination des sommes forfaitaires.
Seules les décisions ex aequo et bono ne nécessitent pas d’être motivées.
35. A la lumière de ce qui précède, j’estime que la simple mention de
« considérations d’équité » ne peut dispenser la Cour de l’obligation d’exposer
les motifs qui sous-tendent
ses décisions. Cette dernière est en droit
de proposer une mesure de réparation équitable et de l’appliquer, mais
elle doit expliquer pourquoi et sur quelle base elle compte le faire. Elle ne
159 armed activities (sep. op. yusuf)
150
simply refer to it as the be-all and end-all of the assessment of injury or
the determination of compensation without any reasoning.
36. Indeed, a decision on compensation that does not identify the
extent of the harm, the applicable valuation method and the extent to
which other factors might have influenced the quantification of damage
does not conform to the requirements of Article 56 of the Statute and
may be considered as a decision ex aequo et bono under Article 38, paragraph
2. However, the Parties in the present case have not given their
consent to such a decision.
IV. An Overly Narrow Approach to Reparations
37. In its 2005 Judgment, the Court stated that,
“[u]pon examination of the case file, given the character of the internationally
wrongful acts for which Uganda has been found responsible
(illegal use of force, violation of sovereignty and territorial
integrity, military intervention, occupation of Ituri, violations of
international human rights law and of international humanitarian
law, looting, plunder and exploitation of the DRC’s natural resources),
the Court considers that those acts resulted in injury to the DRC and
to persons on its territory.” 32
This recognition by the Court of injuries caused not only to the DRC but
also to “persons on its territory” should have found application in the
reparations phase through the award of different types of reparations
depending on the nature and scope of the injury and on the addressees of
the reparation. This is not unfortunately the case. The Judgment seems to
be stuck in a time warp as it reflects the State‑centred approach to reparation
reminiscent of the law of diplomatic protection, while acknowledging
gross violations of human rights and humanitarian law the victims of
which should be entitled to compensation or other forms of reparation
independently of their State. Recent developments in human rights and
international humanitarian law have led to a widespread recognition that,
with regard to claims arising from an injury suffered by an individual or
a community, reparation should accrue to the injured individual or community
33.
32 Armed Activities on the Territory of the Congo (Democratic Republic of the Congo v.
Uganda), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2005, p. 257, para. 259.
33 See, for example, United Nations General Assembly, resolution 60/147 of
16 December 2005, “Basic Principles and Guidelines on the Right to a Remedy and Reparation
for Victims of Gross Violations of International Human Rights Law and Serious
Violations of International Humanitarian Law”, UN doc. A/RES/60/147, Annex.
activités armées (op. ind. yusuf) 159
150
peut, sans motivation, faire de ces considérations l’alpha et l’oméga de
l’évaluation du préjudice ou de la détermination de l’indemnité.
36. Ainsi, la décision relative à l’indemnisation qui ne définit ni l’ampleur
du préjudice, ni la méthode d’appréciation applicable, ni la mesure
dans laquelle d’autres facteurs ont pu influencer la quantification des
dommages n’est pas conforme aux exigences de l’article 56 du Statut et
peut être considérée comme une décision ex aequo et bono au sens du
paragraphe 2 de l’article 38. Or, en l’affaire, les Parties n’ont pas consenti
à une telle décision.
IV. Conception étriquée des réparations
37. Dans son arrêt de 2005, la Cour a dit ce qui suit :
« Après examen du dossier de l’affaire et compte tenu de la nature
des faits internationalement illicites dont l’Ouganda a été reconnu
responsable (emploi illicite de la force, violation de la souveraineté et
de l’intégrité territoriale, intervention militaire, occupation de l’Ituri,
violations du droit international relatif aux droits de l’homme et du
droit international humanitaire, pillage et exploitation des ressources
naturelles de la RDC), la Cour considère que ces faits ont entraîné
un préjudice pour la RDC, ainsi que pour des personnes présentes
sur son territoire. » 32
Cette reconnaissance par la Cour de préjudices causés non seulement à la
RDC mais également aux « personnes présentes sur son territoire » aurait
dû se manifester, au stade des réparations, par l’octroi de différents types
d’indemnités selon la nature et l’ampleur du préjudice et le bénéficiaire
visé. Tel n’est malheureusement pas le cas. L’arrêt, qui semble avoir fait
un bond dans le passé, reflète une conception des réparations axée sur
l’Etat qui rappelle le droit de la protection diplomatique, tout en reconnaissant
que les victimes des violations flagrantes du droit relatif aux
droits de l’homme et du droit international humanitaire commises
devraient pouvoir prétendre à une indemnisation ou à d’autres formes de
réparation indépendamment de l’Etat. Grâce à l’évolution récente du
droit relatif aux droits de l’homme et du droit international humanitaire,
il est désormais généralement admis que, en cas de réclamation relative à
des préjudices causés à des personnes ou à des communautés, c’est au
bénéfice de celles-
ci que les réparations doivent être accordées 33.
32 Activités armées sur le territoire du Congo (République démocratique du Congo
c. Ouganda), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2005, p. 257, par. 259.
33 Voir, par exemple, Nations Unies, Assemblée générale, résolution 60/147 du
16 décembre 2005, doc. A/RES/60/147, annexe, « Principes fondamentaux et directives
concernant le droit à un recours et à réparation des victimes de violations flagrantes du
droit international des droits de l’homme et de violations graves du droit international
humanitaire ».
160 armed activities (sep. op. yusuf)
151
38. In the 2001 Articles on the Responsibility of States for Internationally
Wrongful Acts, the ILC stated in Article 33, paragraph 2, that the
provisions of Part Two were “without prejudice to any right, arising from
the international responsibility of a State, which may accrue directly to
any person or entity other than a State” 34. In the commentary to that
provision, the ILC referred to the Court’s Judgment in LaGrand, and
added that,
“[w]hen an obligation of reparation exists towards a State, reparation
does not necessarily accrue to that State’s benefit. For instance, a
State’s responsibility for the breach of an obligation under a treaty
concerning the protection of human rights may exist towards all the
other parties to the treaty, but the individuals concerned should be
regarded as the ultimate beneficiaries and in that sense as the holders
of the relevant rights. Individual rights under international law may
also arise outside the framework of human rights.” 35 (Emphasis
added.)
Similarly, in the commentary to Article 28 (titled “Legal consequences of
an internationally wrongful act”), the ILC explained that a wrongful act
may entail obligations towards other non‑State actors:
“Article 28 does not exclude the possibility that an internationally
wrongful act may involve legal consequences in the relations between
the State responsible for that act and persons or entities other than
States. This follows from article 1, which covers all international obligations
of the State and not only those owed to other States. Thus,
State responsibility extends, for example, to human rights violations and
other breaches of international law where the primary beneficiary of the
obligation breached is not a State. . . . In other words, the provisions
of Part Two are without prejudice to any right, arising from the international
responsibility of a State, which may accrue directly to any
person or entity other than a State, and article 33 makes this clear.” 36
(Emphasis added.)
39. More recently, in the Draft Articles on Prevention and Punishment
of Crimes against Humanity, the ILC referred to the “right of a victim of
a crime against humanity to obtain reparation”, obliging States to have
or enact necessary laws, regulations, procedures or mechanisms to enable
victims to pursue claims against and secure redress for the harm they
34 YILC, 2001, Vol. II, Part Two, p. 94, Art. 33, para. 2.
35 Ibid., p. 95, commentary to Article 33, citing LaGrand (Germany v. United States of
America), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2001, p. 494, para. 77.
36 Ibid., pp. 87‑88, commentary to Article 28.
activités armées (op. ind. yusuf) 160
151
38. Dans les articles de 2001 sur la responsabilité internationale de
l’Etat pour fait internationalement illicite, la CDI précisait, au paragraphe
2 de l’article 33, que les dispositions de la deuxième partie étaient
« sans préjudice de tout droit que la responsabilité internationale de l’Etat
p[ouvai]t faire naître directement au profit d’une personne ou d’une entité
autre qu’un Etat » 34. Dans le commentaire relatif à cette disposition, la
CDI s’est référée à l’arrêt rendu par la Cour dans l’affaire LaGrand, ajoutant
ce qui suit :
« Lorsqu’une obligation de réparation est due à un Etat, la réparation
n’est pas nécessairement effectuée au bénéfice de cet Etat. Par
exemple, la responsabilité d’un Etat peut être engagée pour la violation
d’une obligation conventionnelle concernant la protection des
droits de l’homme envers toutes les autres parties du traité en question,
mais les individus concernés doivent être considérés comme les
bénéficiaires ultimes et, en ce sens, comme les titulaires des droits en
question. Des droits individuels peuvent aussi, en droit international,
naître en dehors du domaine des droits de l’homme. » 35 (Les italiques
sont de moi.)
De même, dans le commentaire relatif à l’article 28 (intitulé « Conséquences
juridiques d’un fait internationalement illicite »), la CDI explique
qu’un fait illicite peut impliquer des obligations à l’endroit d’autres
acteurs non étatiques :
« L’article 28 n’exclut pas la possibilité qu’un fait internationalement
illicite puisse entraîner des conséquences juridiques dans les
relations entre l’Etat responsable de ce fait et des personnes ou des
entités autres que des Etats. C’est ce qui découle de l’article premier
qui vise toutes les obligations internationales de l’Etat et non pas
seulement celles qui sont dues à d’autres Etats. Ainsi, la responsabilité
des Etats s’étend par exemple aux violations des droits de l’homme
et autres violations du droit international lorsque le bénéficiaire principal
de l’obligation violée n’est pas un Etat… Autrement dit, les dispositions
de la deuxième partie sont sans préjudice de tout droit que la
responsabilité internationale d’un Etat peut faire naître directement
au profit d’une personne ou d’une entité autre qu’un Etat et l’article
33 l’indique clairement. » 36 (Les italiques sont de moi.)
39. Plus récemment, dans le projet d’articles sur la prévention et la
répression des crimes contre l’humanité, la CDI s’est référée au « droit »
qu’ont les victimes d’un crime contre l’humanité « d’obtenir réparation »,
droit obligeant les Etats à avoir ou à adopter les lois, règlements, procédures
ou mécanismes nécessaires pour permettre aux victimes de faire
34 ACDI, 2001, vol. II, deuxième partie, p. 101, art. 33, par. 2.
35 Ibid., commentaire relatif à l’article 33, citant LaGrand (Allemagne c. Etats‑Unis
d’Amérique), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2001, p. 494, par. 77.
36 Ibid., p. 93, commentaire relatif à l’article 28.
161 armed activities (sep. op. yusuf)
152
have suffered from those who are responsible for the harm, be it the State
itself or some other actor 37. This is further reinforced by resolution 60/147
of the United Nations General Assembly titled “Basic Principles and
Guidelines on the Right to a Remedy and Reparation for Victims of
Gross Violations of International Human Rights Law and Serious Violations
of International Humanitarian Law” (hereinafter “Basic Principles
and Guidelines”) 38. Principle 11 expressly recognized that individual victims
of gross violations of international human rights law and serious
violations of international humanitarian law have a “right” to “[e]qual
and effective access to justice” and “[a]dequate, effective and prompt reparation
for harm suffered”.
40. At the oral hearings, the Co-Agent and counsel for the DRC
addressed the arrangements for a fund established by the Government of
the DRC in the expectation of compensation for the wrongful acts committed
by Uganda, and stated that “the DRC reiterates that it is willing
to take due account of any guidance that the Court may wish to provide
on the organization and functioning of that fund” 39. This request by the
DRC offered the Court an opportunity to go beyond the timid dictum in
the Diallo Judgment 40 and to state clearly and unequivocally that, for
heads of damage such as loss of life, injuries to persons, rape, conscription
of child soldiers, destruction of private property and displacement of
populations, the individuals and communities that directly suffered the
injury are the addressees and beneficiaries of the compensation awarded
by the Court for such damages. Instead of making such a clear statement,
the Court has adopted again a Diallo‑like formula in paragraph 408 of
the Judgment, taking note of the statements made by the DRC during the
oral proceedings. In doing so, the Court has opted for the easy solution,
by awarding global sums to the State, totally ignoring the fact that the
damage caused by Uganda’s wrongful conduct was, above all, to human
beings. This might have been due in part to the overly narrow approach
adopted in the Judgment with regard to reparations.
41. Indeed, the one-size-fits-all approach to reparation, adopted in the
form of “global sums” with respect to three cumulative heads of damage,
does not adequately do justice to the injuries suffered by individuals and
37 ILC, “Draft Articles on Prevention and Punishment of Crimes against Humanity”,
UN doc. A/74/10, 15 May 2019, pp. 102 and 106-109, Art. 12, para. 3, and commentary to
Article 13, comments (16)-(24).
38 See also United Nations, Commission on Human Rights, Study concerning the
Right to Restitution, Compensation and Rehabilitation for Victims of Gross Violations of
Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms: Final report submitted by Special Rapporteur
Mr. Theo van Boven, UN doc. E/CN.4/Sub.2/1993/8, 2 July 1993, pp. 53-54, paras. 131‑135.
39 CR 2021/11, pp. 72‑73, para. 20 (Mingashang).
40 Ahmadou Sadio Diallo (Republic of Guinea v. Democratic Republic of the Congo),
Compensation, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2012 (I), p. 344, para. 57 (“[t]he Court recalls
that the sum awarded to Guinea in the exercise of diplomatic protection of Mr. Diallo is
intended to provide reparation for the latter’s injury”).
activités armées (op. ind. yusuf) 161
152
valoir des réclamations à raison du préjudice leur ayant été causé par
l’Etat ou d’autres acteurs, et d’obtenir réparation à cet égard 37. Ce droit
est réaffirmé dans les « Principes fondamentaux et directives concernant le
droit à un recours et à réparation des victimes de violations flagrantes du
droit international des droits de l’homme et de violations graves du droit
international humanitaire », annexés à la résolution 60/147 de l’Assemblée
générale des Nations Unies 38. Le principe 11 reconnaît expressément que
les victimes de violations flagrantes du droit international des droits de
l’homme ont « droit » aux garanties suivantes : « [a]ccès effectif à la justice,
dans des conditions d’égalité » et « [r]éparation adéquate, effective et
rapide du préjudice subi ».
40. A l’audience, le coagent et conseil de la RDC a mentionné les
arrangements pris au sujet de l’établissement par le Gouvernement congolais
d’un fonds en prévision de l’indemnisation des faits illicites commis
par l’Ouganda, ajoutant que « la RDC réit[érait] sa disposition à prendre
dûment en compte toute orientation que la Cour pourrait être amenée à
donner pour ce qui [étai]t de l’organisation et du fonctionnement de ce
fonds » 39. Cette demande de la RDC offrait à la Cour la possibilité de ne
pas s’en tenir au timide dictum de l’arrêt Diallo 40 et d’indiquer clairement
et sans équivoque que, pour les chefs de dommages tels que les pertes en
vies humaines, les atteintes aux personnes, le viol, le recrutement
d’enfants-soldats
et les déplacements de population, les personnes et les
communautés directement lésées étaient les destinataires et les bénéficiaires
de l’indemnisation octroyée par la Cour au titre de ces dommages.
Or, au lieu de saisir cette occasion, la Cour a, au paragraphe 408 de son
arrêt, usé d’une formule semblable à celle employée dans l’arrêt Diallo, en
prenant acte des déclarations de la RDC au cours de la procédure orale.
Ainsi, elle a choisi la solution de facilité en octroyant des sommes globales
à l’Etat, ne tenant aucun compte du fait que ce sont avant tout des
êtres humains qui ont souffert des dommages causés par le comportement
illicite de l’Ouganda. Il est possible que cela soit dû, en partie, à la conception
étriquée des réparations retenue dans l’arrêt.
41. En effet, la solution toute faite consistant à octroyer des « sommes
globales » au titre de trois chefs de dommages cumulés ne rend pas dûment
justice aux personnes et aux communautés ayant subi les préjudices pour-
37 CDI, « Projet d’articles sur la prévention et la répression des crimes contre l’humanité
», Nations Unies, doc. A/74/10, 15 mai 2019, p. 107 et 112‑116, art. 12, par. 3 ; et
commentaire relatif à l’article 13, p. 121‑124, par. 16‑24.
38 Voir également Nations Unies, Commission des droits de l’homme, Etude concernant
le droit à restitution, à indemnisation et à réadaptation des victimes de violations
flagrantes des droits de l’homme et des libertés fondamentales, rapport final présenté par
M. Theo van Boven, rapporteur spécial, doc. E/CN.4/Sub.2/1993/8, 2 juillet 1993, p. 57‑58,
par. 131‑135.
39 CR 2021/11, p. 72‑73, par. 20 (Mingashang).
40 Ahmadou Sadio Diallo (République de Guinée c. République démocratique du Congo),
indemnisation, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2012 (I), p. 344, par. 57 : « La Cour tient à rappeler que
l’indemnité accordée à la Guinée, dans l’exercice par celle-
ci de sa protection diplomatique
à l’égard de M. Diallo, est destinée à réparer le préjudice subi par celui-
ci. »
162 armed activities (sep. op. yusuf)
153
communities that had been well documented in the 2005 Judgment of the
Court. Nor does the fact that the State of the DRC is the sole addressee
of the aggregated compensation, awarded under those three “global
sums”, ensure that those individuals and communities will be adequately
compensated. As the Court stated in the case concerning Avena and Other
Mexican Nationals,
“[w]hat constitutes ‘reparation in an adequate form’ clearly varies
depending upon the concrete circumstances surrounding each case
and the precise nature and scope of the injury, since the question has
to be examined from the viewpoint of what is the ‘reparation in an
adequate form’ that corresponds to the injury” 41.
42. The Judgment does not provide any explanation as to how these
“global sums” were arrived at, and what exact figures are to be assigned
to their distinct components, except for the estimate with regard to the
loss of life. As a result, it is simply impossible to parse through the various
heads of loss (at least between the funds intended for the public purse
and those intended for private individuals). Consequently, it is not possible
to identify, for example, how much money should be assigned to the
fund established by the DRC for the purposes of distributing the compensation
awarded by the Court to the actual victims or their beneficiaries,
for which types of injury, for how many victims, and for how much value.
This could have helped the DRC itself to disburse fairly and effectively,
through the fund it has established, the compensation allocated to the
individuals and communities concerned.
43. It is therefore my view that one of the inadequacies of the reparation
awarded by the Court in this case flows from the overly narrow
approach to reparations adopted in the Judgment and the lack of consideration
of the communities, collectivities and individuals who have
directly suffered as a result of the wrongful acts of Uganda through loss
of life, personal injuries, destruction of private properties, conscription of
child soldiers and the displacement of population. These individuals and
communities have not yet recovered from the impact of the violent conflict
on their lives. Their plight, therefore, deserved to be taken into
account by adopting different forms of reparation that would fit their
different circumstances and by clearly indicating that they were the direct
addressees of these reparations. To this end, a wide range of forms of
reparation, depending on the specific head of alleged injury, was available
to the Court and could have been used without necessarily altering the
interstate nature of the proceedings. They include individual and collective
reparations, compensation, rehabilitation and non-pecuniary
satisfaction.
41 Avena and Other Mexican Nationals (Mexico v. United States of America), Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 2004 (I), p. 59, para. 119, citing Factory at Chorzów, Jurisdiction,
Judgment No. 8, 1927, P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 9, p. 21.
activités armées (op. ind. yusuf) 162
153
tant bien établis dans l’arrêt rendu par la Cour en 2005. Le fait que l’Etat
congolais soit le seul récipiendaire de l’indemnité constituée de l’agrégat
de ces trois « sommes globales » ne permet pas non plus de garantir que
ces personnes et communautés recevront une indemnisation satisfaisante.
Comme l’a dit la Cour dans l’affaire Avena et autres ressortissants mexicains,
« [q]uant à savoir ce qui constitue une « réparation dans une forme
adéquate », cela dépend, manifestement, des circonstances concrètes
de chaque affaire ainsi que de la nature exacte et de l’importance du
préjudice, puisqu’il s’agit de déterminer quelle est la « réparation
dans une forme adéquate » qui correspond à ce préjudice » 41.
42. La Cour n’explique nullement comment elle est parvenue à ces
« sommes globales », ni quels chiffres exacts correspondent à chaque composante
distincte, à l’exception de l’estimation établie pour les pertes en
vies humaines. En conséquence, il est tout simplement impossible de ventiler
les différents chefs de dommages (du moins entre les fonds destinés à
l’Etat et ceux réservés aux particuliers). On ne peut donc déterminer, par
exemple, quel montant devrait être alloué au fonds établi par la RDC
pour le versement de l’indemnité octroyée par la Cour aux victimes ellesmêmes
ou à leurs ayants droit, pour quels types de préjudice, pour combien
de victimes et pour quelle valeur. Une telle détermination aurait pu
aider la RDC elle-même à distribuer justement et efficacement, au moyen
du fonds qu’elle a créé, l’indemnité allouée aux personnes et aux communautés
touchées.
43. Dans ces conditions, il me semble que l’une des faiblesses de la
réparation adjugée par la Cour en l’espèce tient à la conception étriquée
des réparations adoptée dans l’arrêt et au manque de considération à
l’égard des communautés, collectivités et personnes ayant directement
subi les conséquences des actes illicites commis par l’Ouganda, sous la
forme de pertes en vies humaines, d’atteintes aux personnes, de destruction
de biens privés, de recrutement d’enfants-soldats
ou de déplacements
de population. Ces personnes et communautés ne se sont pas encore
remises des effets que ce conflit violent a eus sur leur vie. Elles méritaient
que l’on retienne des formes de réparation différentes en fonction de leurs
situations individuelles, en indiquant clairement qu’elles en étaient les
destinataires directs. A cette fin, la Cour disposait de formes de réparation
très diverses, selon le chef de préjudice en cause, auxquelles elle aurait
pu recourir sans nécessairement modifier le caractère interétatique de la
procédure et au nombre desquelles figurent les réparations individuelles
et collectives, l’indemnisation, la réadaptation et la satisfaction non
pécuniaire.
41 Avena et autres ressortissants mexicains (Mexique c. Etats‑Unis d’Amérique), arrêt,
C.I.J. Recueil 2004 (I), p. 59, par. 119, citant Usine de Chorzów, compétence, arrêt no 8,
1927, C.P.J.I. série A no 9, p. 21.
163 armed activities (sep. op. yusuf)
154
44. The possibility of collective reparations, for example, has been
envisaged in the Inter‑American System of Human Rights 42, the ILC in
the Draft Articles on Crimes against Humanity 43, and the Rules of
Procedure
and Evidence of the International Criminal Court (“ICC”) 44.
Collective reparations may be most appropriate for the provision of
institutionalized
assistance, in the form of vocational schools, hospitals,
clinics and counselling services in their respective communities, to individuals
who suffered 20 or 25 years ago personal injuries, rape and sexual
violence, or conscription as child soldiers, as well as for the reconstruction
of public buildings such as schools, hospitals and places of worship.
45. With regard to child soldiers, in particular, a set of principles and
guidelines on children associated with armed forces or armed groups
adopted by UNICEF in 2007 (the “Paris Principles”) 45, state that “[d]irect
cash benefits to released or returning children are not an appropriate
form of assistance, as experience has repeatedly shown” 46. Instead, a better
approach might be alternative measures such as “[i]nclusive programming
which supports children who have been recruited or used as well as
42 Inter-American
Court of Human Rights (IACtHR), Case of the Mayagna (Sumo)
Awas Tingni Community v. Nicaragua, Judgment of 31 August 2001 (Merits, Reparations
and Costs), para. 167 (providing for works or services of collective interest for the benefit
of the Awas Tingni Community in the amount of US$50,000); see also IACtHR, Case
of the Plan de Sánchez Massacre v. Guatemala, Judgment of 19 November 2004 (Reparations),
paras. 93, 106-108, 117 and 125 (7) (providing for the free of charge medical
treatment required by the victims, a specialized program of psychological and psychiatric
treatment, adequate housing to the surviving victims, and communal programmes for the
benefit of the entire community).
43 ILC, “Draft Articles on Prevention and Punishment of Crimes against Humanity”,
UN doc. A/CN.4/L.935, 15 May 2019, Art. 12, para. 3 (referring to “reparation for material
and moral damages, on an individual or collective basis, consisting, as appropriate,
of . . . rehabilitation”; emphases added).
44 ICC, Rules of Procedure and Evidence, Official Records of the Assembly of States
Parties to the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, First Session, New York,
3-10 September 2002, Rule 97, para. 1: “Taking into account the scope and extent of any
damage, loss or injury, the Court may award reparations on an individualized basis or,
where it deems it appropriate, on a collective basis or both.” (Emphasis added.) For a
summary of the practice of the ICC, see The Prosecutor v. Thomas Lubanga Dyilo,
ICC-01/04-01/06, Trial Chamber II, corrected version of the “Decision Setting the Size
of the Reparations Award for which Thomas Lubanga Dyilo Is Liable” of 21 December
2017 (public redacted version), paras. 33, 36, 192‑194, 246‑248, 288 and 294‑296; The Prosecutor
v. Ahmad Al Faqi Al Mahdi, ICC-01/12-01/15, Trial Chamber VIII, Reparations
Order of 17 August 2017, operative clause, subpara. 1.
45 UNICEF, “The Paris Principles. Principles and Guidelines on Children Associated
with Armed Forces or Armed Groups”, February 2007, available at http://www.refworld.org/
docid/465198442.html (accessed 28 January 2021).
46 Ibid., Principle 7.35.
activités armées (op. ind. yusuf) 163
154
44. La possibilité de recourir à des réparations collectives, par exemple,
a été envisagée par le système interaméricain des droits de l’homme 42, par
la CDI dans le projet d’articles sur la prévention et la répression des
crimes contre l’humanité 43 et par la Cour pénale internationale (CPI)
dans son Règlement de procédure et de preuve 44. Cette forme de réparation
pourrait être la plus indiquée pour fournir une aide institutionnelle,
sous forme d’écoles techniques, d’hôpitaux, de dispensaires et de services
d’assistance sociopsychologique, dans leurs communautés respectives,
aux personnes qui ont subi, il y a 20 ou 25 ans, un préjudice corporel, un
viol ou des violences sexuelles, ou qui ont été recrutées comme enfants-soldats,
ou pour reconstruire des bâtiments publics tels que des écoles, des
hôpitaux et des lieux de culte.
45. En ce qui concerne en particulier les enfants-soldats,
un ensemble
de principes et de lignes directrices sur les enfants associés aux forces
armées ou aux groupes armés (les « Principes de Paris ») 45, adopté par
l’UNICEF en 2007, confirme que, « [c]omme l’expérience l’a maintes fois
montré, les prestations en espèces versées directement aux enfants libérés
ou retournant chez eux ne constituent pas une forme d’aide appropriée
» 46. Il vaut sans doute mieux recourir à des mesures telles qu’« [u]ne
42 Cour interaméricaine des droits de l’homme (CIADH), Case of the Mayagna (Sumo)
Awas Tingni Community v. Nicaragua, arrêt du 31 août 2001 (fond, réparations et dépens),
par. 167, prévoyant que des travaux ou services d’intérêt collectif d’une valeur de 50 000
dollars soient fournis à la communauté Awas Tingni ; voir également CIADH, Case of
the Plan de Sánchez Massacre v. Guatemala, arrêt du 19 novembre 2004 (réparations),
par. 93, 106‑108, 117 et 125, al. 7, prévoyant une prise en charge médicale gratuite pour les
victimes, un programme spécialisé de suivi psychologique et psychiatrique, des logements
décents pour les victimes ayant survécu et des programmes à destination de la communauté
dans son ensemble.
43 CDI, « Crimes contre l’humanité — Textes et titres du projet de préambule, des
projets d’articles et du projet d’annexe provisoirement adoptés par le Comité de rédaction
en deuxième lecture — Prévention et répression des crimes contre l’humanité », doc. A/
CN.4/L.935, 15 mai 2019, art. 12, par. 3, faisant référence à la « réparation des dommages
matériels et moraux subis, à titre individuel ou collectif, consistant, le cas échéant, en une
… réadaptation » (les italiques sont de moi).
44 CPI, Règlement de procédure et de preuve, Documents officiels de l’Assemblée des
Etats parties au Statut de Rome de la Cour pénale internationale, première session, New York,
3-10 septembre 2002, règle no 97, par. 1 : « Compte tenu de l’ampleur du dommage, de la
perte ou du préjudice, la Cour peut accorder une réparation individuelle ou, lorsqu’elle
l’estime appropriée, une réparation collective, ou les deux. » (Les italiques sont de moi.)
Pour un aperçu de la pratique de la CPI, voir Le Procureur c. Thomas Lubanga Dyilo,
ICC-01/04-01/06, chambre de première instance II, version publique expurgée, rectificatif
de la « Décision fixant le montant des réparations auxquelles Thomas Lubanga Dyilo est
tenu », 21 décembre 2017, par. 33, 36, 192‑194, 246‑248, 288 et 294‑296 ; Le Procureur
c. Ahmad Al Faqi Al Mahdi, ICC-01/12-01/15, chambre de première instance VIII, ordonnance
de réparation, 17 août 2017, point 1 du dispositif.
45 UNICEF, « Les principes de Paris — Principes et lignes directrices sur les enfants
associés aux forces armées ou aux groupes armés », février 2007, accessible à l’adresse
suivante : https://www.refworld.org/cgi-bin/texis/vtx/rwmain/opendocpdf.pdf?reldoc=
y&docid=4a290f862 (dernière consultation, le 28 janvier 2021).
46 Ibid., principe 7.35.
164 armed activities (sep. op. yusuf)
155
other vulnerable children” 47. This kind of “collective post-conflict
reparations”
may also be found in the practice of the ICC Trust Fund for Victims
with respect to Uganda and the DRC.
46. Thus, despite the inter-State nature of the proceedings, and in light
of recent developments with regard to remedies for gross violations of
human rights and international humanitarian law, it was possible to
envisage different forms of reparation, that take into account the sensitivities
involved in these categories of injury, particularly 20 or 25 years
after the events, and the need for a fair and effective redress of the harm
caused. This approach would have strengthened the performance of the
obligation to make reparation in the interest of the beneficiaries of the
obligation breached and would effectively enable such reparation to
accrue to the injured individuals and communities. In the present case, it
would also have given the DRC authorities the guidance that they had
formally requested the Court to provide them with on the functioning of
the fund they have established.
(Signed) Abdulqawi Ahmed Yusuf.
47 See note 45 supra, Principle 7.30.
activités armées (op. ind. yusuf) 164
155
programmation ouverte à tous qui apporte un soutien aux enfants qui ont
été recrutés ou employés tout comme aux autres enfants vulnérables » 47.
On retrouve ce genre de « réparations collectives postconflit » dans la pratique
du Fonds au profit des victimes de la CPI concernant l’Ouganda et
la RDC.
46. Ainsi, en dépit du caractère interétatique de la présente instance et
à la lumière de l’évolution récente des voies de droit au titre des violations
flagrantes du droit relatif aux droits de l’homme et du droit international
humanitaire, il était possible d’envisager différentes formes de réparation
tenant compte de la nature délicate des préjudices concernés, en particulier
20 ou 25 ans après les faits, et de la nécessité de réparer équitablement
et efficacement les dommages causés. Une telle démarche aurait contribué
au respect de l’obligation de réparation au profit des bénéficiaires de
l’obligation violée et aurait effectivement permis de faire en sorte que
cette réparation revienne aux personnes et aux communautés lésées. Elle
aurait également fourni, en l’espèce, les orientations formellement demandées
à la Cour par les autorités congolaises pour ce qui est du fonctionnement
du fonds qu’elles ont établi.
(Signé) Abdulqawi Ahmed Yusuf.
47 Voir supra note 45, principe 7.30.

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Separate opinion of Judge Yusuf

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