Separate opinion of Judge Cançado Trindade

Document Number
178-20200123-ORD-01-02-EN
Parent Document Number
178-20200123-ORD-01-00-EN
Document File
Bilingual Document File

SEPARATE OPINION OF JUDGE CANÇADO TRINDADE
Table of Contents
Paragraph
I. Prolegomena: Some Introductory Considerations in Historical Perspective. ................. 1
II. Provisional Measures of Protection in ICJ Case under the Convention against
Genocide. ......................................................................................................................... 7
1. Provisional Measures in the First Case on the Application of the
Convention against Genocide. ................................................................................... 8
2. Provisional Measures in the Present Case on the Application of the
Convention against Genocide. .................................................................................. 13
III. International Fact-Finding: Relevant Passages of U.N. Reports of the
Independent International Fact-Finding Mission on Myamar. ....................................... 15
1. Mission’s Report on Myanmar of 12.09.2018. ......................................................... 20
2. Mission’s Report on Myanmar of 08.08.2019. ......................................................... 29
3. Mission’s “Detailed Findings” on Myanmar of 16.09.2019. .................................... 35
IV. International Fact-Finding: Reports of the U.N. Special Rapporteur on Human
Rights in Myanmar. ........................................................................................................ 41
1. Report of the Special Rapporteur on the Situation of Human Rights in
Myanmar (of 30.08.2019). ........................................................................................ 42
2. Report of the Special Rapporteur on the Situation of Human Rights in
Myanmar (of 02.05.2019). ........................................................................................ 45
3. Report of the Special Rapporteur on the Situation of Human Rights in
Myanmar (of 20.08.2018). ........................................................................................ 48
V. Provisional Measures of Protection and the Imperative of Overcoming the
Extreme Vulnerability of Victims. ................................................................................. 53
1. The Legacy of the II World Conference on Human Rights (1993), in Its
Attention to Human Vulnerability. ............................................................................ 55
2. International Case-Law and the Need of Properly Addressing Human
Vulnerability. ............................................................................................................ 66
a) Support for the Relevance of Consideration of Vulnerability of the
Victims. ................................................................................................................ 66
b) Invocation of Occurrence of Extreme Human Vulnerability. .............................. 70
VI. The Utmost Importance of the Safeguard of Fundamental Rights by
Provisional Measures of Protection, in the Domain of Jus Cogens. .............................. 75
1. Fundamental, Rather than “Plausible”, Rights. ......................................................... 75
2. Jus Cogens under the Convention against Genocide and the Corresponding
Customary International Law. ................................................................................... 81
VII. Epilogue. ........................................................................................................................ 88
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I. PROLEGOMENA: SOME INTRODUCTORY CONSIDERATIONS IN HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE.
1. I have voted in support of the present Order of Provisional Measures of Protection, in the case of Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Gambia versus Myanmar), which has just been adopted by the International Court of Justice (ICJ), significantly by unanimity. The provisional measures just ordered are intended to bring the necessary protection to human beings who have been suffering for a long time in a situation of extreme vulnerability.
2. Once again, in the cas d’espèce, the ICJ is seized of a case on the basis of the 1948 Convention against Genocide. Looking back in time, when the Convention was adopted, on 09.12.1948, on the eve of the adoption of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (on 10.12.1948), the ICJ, established in June 1945, was still in its initial years. Shortly afterwards, the ICJ was already called upon to pronounce on the matter, still in the very early years of its existence, when it delivered, on 28.05.1951, its Advisory Opinion on Reservations to the Convention against Genocide.
3.Several years passed until the ICJ became seized of successive contentious cases specifically on the basis of the Convention against Genocide, especially in respect of the victims of wars and of devastation in the Balkans in the last decade of the XXth. century (case of the Application of the Convention against Genocide, Bosnia-Herzegovina versus Serbia and Montenegro, Judgment of 26.02.2007; and case of the Application of the Convention against Genocide, Croatia versus Serbia, Judgment of 03.02.2015).
4. There have also been occasions in which the ICJ addressed the Convention against Genocide together with other U.N. Conventions (on Human Rights): this occurred, e.g., in the ICJ’s Judgment of 03.02.2006 (on jurisdiction and admissibility) in the case of Armed Activities in the Territory of Congo (paras. 27 et seq.). In that decision, the ICJ acknowledged the universality of the Convention against Genocide and the importance of the principles underlying the Convention (para. 64); it referred to the norms contained in the substantive provisions of the Convention as being jus cogens, creating rights and obligations erga omnes (para. 64).
5. Yet, in that same Judgment, when the ICJ turned to its own jurisdiction, and pursued a voluntarist outlook, attentive to the consent of States (paras. 78, 125 and 127). This was unfortunate, as it deprived the Court to develop further its own reasoning in a matter of such importance. This is a point which I shall retake later (cf. parts V-VI, infra). In my own perception, human conscience stands above the will of States. In this understanding, I shall present my Separate Opinion, identifying, at first, the points to be examined in sequence.
6. They are the following ones: a) provisional measures of protection in ICJ cases under the Convention against Genocide; b) international fact-finding: relevant passages of U.N. Reports of the Independent International Fact-Finding Mission on Myanmar, and of the U.N. Special Rapporteur on Human Rights in Myanmar; c) provisional measures of protection and the imperative of overcoming the extreme vulnerability of victims, encompassing the legacy of the II World Conference on Human Rights (1993) in its attention to human vulnerability, and international case-law and the need of properly addressing human vulnerability; d) the great relevance of the safeguard of fundamental rights by provisional measures of protection, in the domain of jus cogens, under the Convention against Genocide and the corresponding customary international law. The way is then paved for the presentation of an epilogue.
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II. PROVISIONAL MEASURES OF PROTECTION IN ICJ CASE UNDER THE CONVENTION AGAINST GENOCIDE.
7. The presence of the invocation of the Convention against Genocide before the ICJ, time and time again, discloses its great importance, given the timeless and most regrettable presence of violence and cruelty in human relations. Yet, the occasions have been rare when the ICJ has been called upon to decide on requests for provisional measures of protection on the basis of the Convention against Genocide (cases of Bosnia-Herzegovina versus Yugoslavia [Serbia and Montenegro] in 1993, and now of Gambia versus Myanmar), as I shall consider in sequence.
1. Provisional Measures in the First Case on the Application of the Convention against Genocide.
8. In the first case before the ICJ on the Application of the Convention against Genocide, following the original request for provisional measures by Bosnia-Herzegovina, the ICJ adopted its Order of 08.04.1993, and, following the second request for additional provisional measures, the ICJ adopted its Order of 13.09.1993. In the first Order, of 08.04.1993, the ICJ held that it has prima facie jurisdiction under Article IX of the Convention against Genocide, and can thus consider indicating provisional measures protecting rights under the Convention. It then stressed that, that under Article I of the Convention against Genocide, all States Parties have undertaken the duty to prevent and punish genocide as a crime under international law1.
9. As there was a grave risk of acts of genocide being committed, the ICJ issued two provisional measures relating to the Convention against Genocide, whereby Yugoslavia should promptly: a) take all measures within its power to prevent the commission of the crime of genocide; and b) ensure that any military or organizations and persons under its control, direction or influence do not commit any acts of genocide, of conspiracy to commit genocide, of incitement to commit genocide, or of complicity in genocide (para. 52A). Moreover, the ICJ issued a more general provisional measure, whereby both Parties should take no action, and ensure that no action is taken, that may aggravate or extend the existing dispute, or make it more difficult to reach a solution (para. 52B).
10. Subsequently, in its Order of 13.09.1993, the ICJ found that the development of the situation in Bosnia-Herzegovina justified consideration of the second request; while Bosnia-Herzegovina attempted to expand the bases of the Court’s prima facie jurisdiction beyond the Convention against Genocide, the ICJ once again held that its jurisdiction is based on Article IX of the Convention. It then proceeded to examine the new request keeping in mind the provisional measures of protection it had already ordered five months earlier.
11. The Court found that the ten additional provisional measures just requested by Bosnia-Herzegovina do not concern the protection of disputed rights which might form the basis of a judgment in the exercise of the Court’s jurisdiction under Article IX of the Convention against Genocide. The ICJ reasserted that the two Parties were already under a clear obligation to do all in their power to prevent the commission of any acts of genocide (under the Convention itself), and, furthermore, to ensure that no action was taken to aggravate or extend the existing dispute (as it determined in the provisional measures indicated in its previous Order of 08.04.1993).
1 Bosnia-Herzegovina and Yugoslavia had thus a clear duty to take all measures to prevent any acts of genocide (irrespective of whether any past acts were legally imputable to them).
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12. As the ICJ was not satisfied with the situation as it remained, it found that it required, instead of additional measures, the prompt and effective compliance with the existing provisional measures indicated by its Order of 08.04.1993. In the same Order of 13.09.1993, the ICJ reiterated the undertaking to prevent and punish genocide contained in Article I of the Convention against Genocide, and the recognition thereunder that the crime of genocide, whether committed in time of peace or in time of war, “shocks the conscience of mankind”, results in “great losses to humanity”, and goes against “the spirit and aims of the United Nations”, as promptly stated in General Assembly resolution 96 (I) of 11.12.1946 (paras. 50-51).
2. Provisional Measures in the Present Case on the Application of the Convention against Genocide.
13. The present case now before the ICJ, opposing Gambia to Myanmar, is a new occasion of requested provisional measures of protection before the ICJ, again concerning the Application of the Convention against Genocide. The Applicant State, as will be seen next (parts III and IV), refers to international fact-finding, comprising U.N. Mission’s Reports (2018 and 2019) and Reports of the U.N. Special Rapporteur on Human Rights in Myanmar (2018 and 2019).
14. An account of their contents will pave the way for an examination of provisional measures of protection and the imperative of overcoming the extreme vulnerability of victims (part IV) in the present Separate Opinion. It is significant that the needed protection of persons and groups in extreme vulnerability is attracting the attention of the United Nations, by the work of its Human Rights Council (infra) as well as of the ICJ, in the present request of provisional measures of protection. This is, in my perception, a matter of great concern in the contemporary law of nations as a whole.
III. INTERNATIONAL FACT-FINDING: RELEVANT PASSAGES OF U.N. REPORTS OF THE INDEPENDENT INTERNATIONAL FACT-FINDING MISSION ON MYANMAR.
15. On 11.11.2019, Gambia has submitted an Application to the ICJ instituting proceedings against Myanmar concerning alleged violations of the 1948 Convention against Genocide, and requesting the indication of provisional measures of protection, in accordance with Article 41 of the ICJ Statute and Articles 73, 74, and 75 of the Rules of Court. In its Application, Gambia describes “a brutal and continuing campaign of sweeping genocidal acts and measures, imposed by Myanmar against members of the Rohingya group, intended to destroy the group in whole or in part”, in violation of the Convention against Genocide (para. 114). Gambia, as a State Party to the Convention, submits that provisional measures are necessary to protect against further irreparable harm to the rights of the Rohingya group under the Convention (para. 115)2.
16. The aforementioned Application by Gambia in the cas d’espèce, on alleged acts of genocide against the Rohingya people in Myanmar, includes references to: a) two reports by the Independent International Fact-Finding Mission on Myanmar, which provide evidence of intent of genocide against the Rohingya population in Myanmar; and b) three reports by the Special Rapporteur of the Human Rights Council on the Situation of Human Rights in Myanmar, which provide evidence of continuing discrimination and potential genocide against the Rohingya population in Myanmar. May I summarize the relevant passages of them.
2 And cf. also paras. 113 et seq.
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17. The Independent International Fact-Finding Mission on Myanmar was established by the U.N. Human Rights Council (resolution 34/22). The Mission found consistent patterns of grave violations of human rights in Kachin, Rakhine and Shan States in Myanmar, in addition to grave violations of International Humanitarian Law, including the deliberate targeting of civilians. The Mission further found that these violations were committed mainly by Myanmar security forces. The Mission also noted a pervasive situation of impunity at domestic level, as well as a lack of cooperation from the Government of Myanmar with the Mission, and recommended that the impetus for accountability must come from the international community.
18. Throughout its Application Instituting Proceedings, Gambia refers to reports (of 2018 and 2019) of the Independent International Fact-Finding Mission on Myanmar, stating that their findings are “especially significant” (para. 10). It refers primarily to two detailed reports on the findings of the Mission, namely, the “Report of the Detailed Findings of the Independent International Fact-Finding Mission on Myanmar” (of 17.09.2018)3 and the “Detailed Findings of the Independent International Fact-Finding Mission on Myanmar” (of 16.09.2019)4.
19. Gambia’s Application refers, furthermore, to the condensed report presented to the U.N. Human Rights Council on 12.09.20185. The aforementioned consolidated reports submitted to the U.N. Human Rights Council, of 12.09.20186 of 08.08.20197, in addition to the extensive “Detailed Findings” of 16.09.2019 (cf. infra), all cited by Gambia in its Application, contain passages deserving particular attention, which I proceed to summarize in sequence.
1. Mission’s Report on Myanmar of 12.09.2018.
20. In considering allegations of grave violations of human rights, the 2018 U.N. Fact-Finding Mission Report focuses on three emblematic situations, namely: the crisis in Rakhine State; the hostilities in Kachin and Shan States; and the infringement on the exercise of fundamental freedoms and the issue of hate speech (para. 15). As to the crisis in Rakhine State, the Mission states that the Government of Myanmar has implemented policies and practices over decades which have steadily marginalized the Rohingya people, and led to their “extreme vulnerability”, resulting in “a continuing situation of severe, systemic and institutionalized oppression from birth to death” (para. 20).
21. The Mission Report outlines as a cornerstone of this oppression of the Rohingya their lack of legal status (para. 21), their restrictions to food, health and education8, disclosing “a looming catastrophe for decades” (para. 22). It then refers to “[o]ther discriminatory restrictions”, such as those to freedom of movement, to marriage authorization, to reproduction, and to birth registration (para. 23).
3 Application Instituting Proceedings, paras. 10-12, and cf. n. (11), citing U.N. Human Rights Council, Report of the Detailed Findings of the Independent International Fact-Finding Mission on Myanmar (17.09.2018), U.N. doc. A/HRC/39/CRP.2.
4 Application, paras. 13-14, and cf. n. (21), citing U.N. Human Rights Council, Detailed Findings of the Independent International Fact-Finding Mission on Myanmar (16.09.2019), U.N. doc. A/HRC/42/CRP.5.
5 Application, paras. 10 et seq. and n. (11); citing U.N. Human Rights Council, Report…, op. cit. infra n. (6).
6 U.N. Human Rights Council, Report of the Independent International Fact-Finding Mission on Myanmar (12.09.2018), U.N. doc. A/HRC/39/64 [2018 Mission Report].
7 U.N. Human Rights Council, Report of the Independent International Fact-Finding Mission on Myanmar (08.08.2019), U.N. doc. A/HRC/42/50 [2019 Mission Report].
8 Their degree of malnutrition witnessed in northern Rakhine State being “alarming” (para. 23).
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22. The Mission, moreover, addresses grave violations of human rights which took place during the outbreak of violence in 2012, as well as during the “clearance operations” of 2017 (paras. 24-54). In relation to Kachin and Shan States, the Report notes that similar patterns of conduct by security forces (Tatmadaw soldiers and others) were witnessed, including violations against ethnic and religious minorities committed with persecutory intent (paras. 55-70).
23. The Report further dwells upon the continuing systematic oppression of the Rohingya in Myanmar, with persisting violence and restrictive policies on the Rohingya (paras. 49-51), including unlawful killings and torture of civilians (against men, women and children  paras. 60 -61). Moreover, it also refers to the systematic appropriation of vacated Rohingya land (para. 50), sexual violence (para. 62), and forced labour (paras. 60-61 and 63-64).
24. The 2018 Mission Report further addresses hate speech, noting dehumanizing and stigmatizing language against the Rohingya and Muslims in general, used by extremist Buddhist groups, which has been condoned and mirrored by the Myanmar authorities themselves (para. 73). The 2018 Mission Report determines, as hallmarks of Tatmadaw operations (paras. 75-82), the following ones: a) the targeting of civilians (paras. 76-78); b) sexual violence as a recurrent feature (para. 79); c) exclusionary rhetoric and systematic discriminatory policies against the Rohingya (paras. 80-81); d) and impunity within the Tatmadaw and in Myanmar more generally (paras. 82, 95-98 and 100).
25. The Mission finds, on the basis of the information it has collected, that it has reasonable grounds to conclude that serious crimes under international law have been committed, considering separately genocide, crimes against humanity, and war crimes (paras. 83-89). As to genocide (paras. 84-87), the Report suggests that the crimes in Rakhine State and the manner whereby they were perpetrated are similar in nature, gravity and scope to facts which have allowed genocidal intent to be established in other contexts (paras. 85-86)9.
26. Furthermore, the Mission states that the primary perpetrator of grave violations of human rights and of crimes under international law, in relation to the facts at issue, was the Tatmadaw, with the contribution of civilian authorities by way of inaction, denial of wrongdoing, blocking independent investigation, and destroying evidence (paras. 90-94)10. Successive paragraphs refer to evidence relating to alleged genocide against the Rohingya people.
27. The Report addresses the systematic oppression of the Rohingya through governmental policies implemented over decades, including restrictions on citizenship, freedom of movement, marriage authorization, reproduction, and birth registration (paras. 20-23). In devoting attention to the escalation of violence in 2012 (paras. 24-30), it singles out, in particular: a) the plan to instigate violence and amplify tensions through a campaign of hate and dehumanization of the Rohingya (para. 25); b) the complicity of Myanmar security forces through inaction or active participation in the violence against the Rohingya (para. 26); c) displacement, and restrictions on freedom of movement, on the right to education and on the right to vote (paras. 29-30).
9 It concludes that there is sufficient information to warrant the investigation and prosecution of senior officials for genocide (para. 87).
10 Cf., in relation to civilian authorities, para. 93.
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28. The 2018 Mission Report then dwells upon the “clearance operations” conducted by Myanmar security forces against the Rohingya in 2017 (paras. 31-54), including, in particular: a) the disproportionate and targeted attacks on the Rohingya villages (para. 33), and the modus operandi of these targeted attacks (para. 34); b) the level of pre-planning and design of the attacks (paras. 35, 43, 45-46, 48 and 53); c) the violence being perpetrated by Myanmar security forces, with the participation of some male civilians of different ethnic groups (paras. 52-53); d) the indiscriminate killing (paras. 36-37 and 39-41); e) the sexual violence (paras. 36 and 38-39); f) the widespread targeted destruction of Rohingya-populated areas (para. 42).
2. Mission’s Report on Myanmar of 08.08.2019.
29. The 2019 Mission Report proceeds to the consolidation of its findings on conflict-related human rights issues in Rakhine, Chin, Shan and Kachin States, with a view to its handover to the Independent Investigative Mechanisms for Myanmar; it also provides an update on the situation of the Rohingya (paras. 76-94). The Mission notes that, despite mass displacement of the Rohingya people, some 600,000 Rohingya are estimated to remain in Rakhine State in Myanmar, and continue to be subjected to discriminatory policies, including segregation and restricted movement, deprivation of citizenship, physical attacks, arbitrary arrests, and other violations of their human rights (para. 76).
30. The Mission focuses its discussion on movement restrictions as “one of the clearest indicators of their chronic persecution”, noting that such restrictions have tightened since the violence perpetrated in 2012, as well as the ways in which the movement restrictions affect access by the Rohingya to economic, social and cultural rights (such as health services, education, and livelihoods) (paras. 77-78 and 80). The Mission also addresses internment camps, wherein some 126,000 Rohingya were still living, subject to appalling conditions, with no foreseeable plan for relocation (para. 82).
31. The Mission adds that the Government of Myanmar appears to be continuing its plan to keep the Rohingya off their lands and further to segregate them, according to satellite imagery and witness testimony about the construction of new camps for displaced Rohingya refugees (para. 84). The Mission further notes the continued discrimination with respect to citizenship laws and forcing Rohingya to accept national verification cards through threat and intimidation (paras. 86-87).
32. The Mission’s update Report indicates that the situation of the Rohingya remains largely unchanged, and warns, as to genocide, that it has reasonable grounds to conclude that there is a strong inference of genocidal intent on the part of the State, that there is a serious risk of recurrence of genocidal actions, and that Myanmar is failing in its obligations to prevent, investigate, and enact legislation to criminalize and punish genocide (paras. 89-90).
33. The Report refers to evidence relating to the alleged genocide against the Rohingya people, encompassing: a) ongoing chronic persecution measures, including movement restrictions affecting the Rohingya’s access to economic, social, and cultural rights (paras. 76-81); b) internment camps for displaced Rohingya, with the Government of Myanmar continuing its plan to keep the Rohingya off their lands and segregated (paras. 82-84); c) forced labour, including Rohingya being forced to build new camps for the displaced Rohingya (para. 88); d) continued discrimination with respect to citizenship laws and forcing Rohingya to accept national verification cards through threat and intimidation (paras. 86-87).
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34. The Mission concludes that the situation of the Rohingya remains largely unchanged and the Myanmar Government’s acts “continue to be part of a widespread and systematic attack that amounts to persecution and other crimes against humanity against the Rohingya in Rakhine State” (para. 89). It adds that
“the Mission also has reasonable grounds to conclude that there is a strong inference of genocidal intent on the part of the State, that there is a serious risk that genocidal actions may recur, and that Myanmar is failing in its obligation to prevent genocide, to investigate genocide, and to enact effective legislation criminalizing and punishing genocide” (para. 90).
3. Mission’s “Detailed Findings” on Myanmar of 16.09.2019.
35. Shortly after its Report of 08.08.2019, the Mission submitted to the U.N. Human Rights Council the extensive “Detailed Findings” on Myanmar, of 16.09.2019, as a complementary factual information (in 190 pages)11. The document starts with a summary of the forms of grave violations incurred into (para. 2), the determination of State responsibility (paras. 45 and 58-59) and the need of reparations (paras. 42-43). The “detailed findings” cover violence in distinct forms (including beatings), torture and cruel treatment, forced labour (paras. 190-194), deprivation of food and of humanitarian relief (paras. 172-175)12, as well as deprivation of health and of land (paras. 139-140).
36. According to the document, violence also encompassed forced displacement of persons and human trafficking (para. 589), as well as other war crimes, amidst humiliation or degradation (para. 192). It stressed the prohibition of torture as one of jus cogens, as a peremptory norm of customary international law (para. 389). Those grave breaches,  it warned,  disclosed the need of assertion of State responsibility, keeping in mind the continuity of the intent of genocide (paras. 230, 233, 238, 667 and 669).
37. The document devoted particular attention to the endeavours of the U.N. Mission (reports of 2018-2019) to infer the “genocidal intent under the rules of State responsibility” on the part of the State of Myanmar (para. 223, and cf. para 220). In the words of the “detailed findings”,
“The Mission has identified seven indicators from which it inferred genocidal intent to destroy the Rohingya people as such, all based on the consideration of indicators of genocidal intent in international case law: first, the Tatmadaw’s extreme brutality during its attacks on the Rohingya; second, the organized nature of the Tatmadaw’s destruction; third, the enormity and nature of the sexual violence perpetrated against women and girls during the “clearances operations”; fourth, the insulting, derogatory, racist and exclusionary utterances of Myanmar officials and others prior, during and after the “clearance operations”; fifth, the existence of discriminatory plans and policies, such as the Citizenship Law and the NVC process, as well as the Government’s efforts to clear, raze, confiscate and build on land in a manner that sought to change the demographic and ethnic composition of Rakhine State, the goal being to reduce the proportion of Rohingya; sixth, the Government’s tolerance for public rhetoric of hatred and contempt for the Rohingya; and seventh, the State’s failure to investigate and prosecute gross violations of international human rights law and serious violations of international humanitarian law, both as they were
11 Cit. in n. (4) supra.
12 It stressed the need of humanitarian relief to be extended to the most vulnerable victims (para. 633).
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occurring and after they occurred. These seven indicators also allow the Mission to infer that the State did not object and in fact endorsed the Tatmadaw’s “clearance operations” and the manner in which they were conducted.
Every one of these indicators is linked to the acts or omissions of Myanmar State organs, including the military, other security forces, ministries, legislative bodies, the UEHRD and other civilian institutions. Collectively they demonstrate a pattern of conduct that infers genocidal intent on the part of the State to destroy the Rohingya, in whole or in part, as a group. For reasons explained in its 2018 report, there is no reasonable conclusion to draw, other than the inference of genocidal intent, from the State’s pattern of conduct” (paras. 224-225).
38. The “detailed findings”, furthermore, revealed a temporal perspective of the grave breaches: it pointed out that, even before the occurrences of violence against the Rohingya in 2012 and 2016-2017, leading to the forced displacement and exodus of those victimized: there were other periods of violence,  it added,  such as the military operations in 1977, which led some 200,000 Rohingya to flee to Bangladesh; this again happened in 1992 (amidst killings, torture, rape and other violations), which led 260,000 Rohingya to flee to Bangladesh (paras. 202-205 and 214-215).
39. Still in this temporal perspective, the document identified in the 1982 Citizenship Law of Myanmar as discriminatory against the Rohingya people, denying them citizenship and other “fundamental rights”, causing them “great physical or mental suffering” constituting “crime against humanity” (paras. 101-106 and 216). It added that there was need of further investigation of the facts, so as to render justice (para. 226), given the grave violations committed mainly by the Tatmadaw (the Myanmar military) of the International Law of Human Rights and International Humanitarian Law (para. 457), as well as of the U.N. Convention on the Rights of the Child (para. 527).
40. Over the last decades those violations have established a level of continuing oppression against the Rohingya rendering their life in Myanmar unbearable. They had to face the denial of their rights, and even of legal status and identity. State-sanctioned laws and policies “occurred in the context of State-sanctioned discriminatory rhetoric”, with “institutionalized oppression” amounting to persecution (para. 210). The attacks against “Myanmar’s Rohingya population” were undertaken with “genocidal intent”, and ever since the Mission’s 2018 Report “the situation of the 600,000 Rohingya remaining in Myanmar is worse after another year of living under deplorable conditions” (paras. 212-213).
IV. INTERNATIONAL FACT-FINDING: REPORTS OF THE U.N. SPECIAL RAPPORTEUR ON HUMAN RIGHTS IN MYANMAR.
41. In its Application, Gambia further notes that the U.N. Human Rights Council’s Special Rapporteur on the Situation of Human Rights in Myanmar (Ms. Yanghee Lee) has carried out extensive fact-finding on Myanmar’s campaign against the Rohingya13. The Special Rapporteur, in addition to her statements made at the U.N. Human Rights Council, also submitted reports to it, on
13 It cites her statement at the 37th. session of the Human Rights Council on 12.03.2018; Application, para. 7 and n. 4.
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the situation of human rights in Myanmar, including a recent report presented on 30.08.201914. Two of her earlier reports (of 02.05.201915 and 20.08.201816) are also of particular interest in relation to allegations of genocide against the Government of Myanmar.
1. Report of the Special Rapporteur on the Situation of Human Rights in Myanmar (of 30.08.2019).
42. In her Report of 30.08.2019, the Special Rapporteur on the Situation of Human Rights in Myanmar, referring to armed conflict and violence, addresses reports of ongoing violent attacks against the Rohingyas (and property) in the context of the conflict with the Arakan Army in Rakhine State (para. 40). She observes that living conditions for the Rohingya in northern Rakhine State “remain dreadful”, with continuing reports of beatings, killings, and the burning of houses and rice stores (para. 40).
43. She outlines the need to conduct policies “in a rights-based manner”, and to put an end to the root-causes of forced displacement of persons (para. 44). Moreover, as to internally displaced persons, the Special Rapporteur points out that, in central Rakhine State, “128,000 Rohingya and Kaman people remain interned in camps where they have lived in squalid conditions since 2012”, with restrictions on their freedom of movement (para. 45).
44. The Special Rapporteur (Ms. Yanghee Lee) then warns that, if the process being pursued continues, it will result in the permanent segregation of displaced Rohingya and Kaman communities in Rakhine (para. 45). As to Rohingya refugees, she expresses her view that “Myanmar has entirely failed to dismantle the system of persecution under which the Rohingya in Rakhine continue to live. While this situation persists, it is not safe or sustainable for refugees to return” (para. 54)17.
2. Report of the Special Rapporteur on the Situation of Human Rights in Myanmar (of 02.05.2019).
45. Earlier on, in her Report of 02.05.2019, the Special Rapporteur notes that the campaign to impose national verification cards on the Rohingya is continuing unabated, and the Rohingya are still required to apply for permission to leave their villages in accordance with existing restrictions on their movement (para. 34). Furthermore, in relation to Rohingya refugees, the Special Rapporteur observes that the conditions for voluntary, safe, dignified and sustainable returns do not exist, despite the Governments of Bangladesh and Myanmar having agreed to begin repatriation in mid-November 2018 (para. 43).
14 U.N. Human Rights Council, Report of the Special Rapporteur on the Situation of Human Rights in Myanmar  Yanghee Lee (30.08.2019), U.N. doc. A/74/342 [August 2019 Report of the Special Rapporteur].
15 U.N. Human Rights Council, Report of the Special Rapporteur on the Situation of Human Rights in Myanmar  Yanghee Lee (02.05.2019), U.N. doc. A/HRC/40/68.
16 U.N. Human Rights Council, Report of the Special Rapporteur on the Situation of Human Rights in Myanmar  Yanghee Lee (20.08.2018), U.N. doc. A/73/332.
17 Furthermore, she expresses concern that national verification cards will be issued to Rohingya returnees after their biometric data is collected, noting the possibility that any biometric data collected could be used to place further controls on Rohingya who return to Myanmar (para. 55).
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46. She addresses the overcrowded conditions for the Rohingya refugees in Bangladesh, as well as the fear of refugees of forced repatriation following the aforementioned agreement between the Governments of Bangladesh and Myanmar (paras. 41-43). The Special Rapporteur (Ms. Yanghee Lee) further notes that this planned repatriation has caused high levels of fear and anxiety among the refugee population at the prospect of forced return, leading some refugees to go into hiding or even attempt to take their own lives to avoid forced return to Myanmar (para. 43).
47. And, as to institutionalized hate speech, she expresses alarm at its pervasive nature, particularly due to the use of hate speech by senior governmental officials (para. 51). She warns that “hate speech and misinformation” have come from “public institutions linked to the military” (para. 53), and calls for definitely avoiding to teach children ideas promoting “racial superiority and communal disharmony”, removing “all incendiary passages from all textbooks” (para. 52).
3. Report of the Special Rapporteur on the Situation of Human Rights in Myanmar (of 20.08.2018).
48. Even earlier, in her Report of 20.08.2018, the Special Rapporteur condemns the widespread and systematic violations of the International Law of Human Rights and International Humanitarian Law committed by the Tatmadaw against the Rohingya population in Myanmar for decades, with particular attention to the armed conflict and situations of violence from March 2018 (para. 36). She declares that there is “credible information” that the 33rd. and 99th. Light Infantry Divisions of the Tatmadaw were among those responsible for perpetrating “extreme violence against the Rohingya population in northern Rakhine State” (as from 25.08.2017) (para. 37), including massacres involving “the killings of many men, women and children, beatings, rapes and the burning of houses” (paras. 38-39)18.
49. The Special Rapporteur (Ms. Yanghee Lee) specifically addresses sexual violence, stating that “the widespread threat and use of sexual violence” was part of the “Tatmadaw’s strategy of humiliating, terrorizing and collectively punishing the Rohingya community” and forcing them “to flee and prevent their return” (para. 48). She also expresses concern in relation to the dire living conditions in the internment camps, given the continuing violence and discrimination against the Rohingya in Rakhine State, as well as in relation to its intended closure of the camps to hasten the return of displaced persons to their places of origin (paras. 52-53).
50. The Special Rapporteur’s concern also encompasses the ongoing discrimination in citizenship laws in Myanmar, with the lack of citizenship status of the Rohingya people in Myanmar, and the lack of recognition of refugee status for the Rohingya people in Bangladesh (paras. 58-60 and 62). She notes that, according to statements from newly arrived Rohingya refugees in Cox’s Bazar, conditions for the Rohingya in Rakhine State have “worsened significantly since before the violence of August 2017 as a result of heightened movement restrictions, lack of access to livelihoods, education, health and basic services, and ongoing violence, intimidation and extortion by security forces” (para. 61).
51. Furthermore, discriminatory laws, including those relating to freedom of movement, family registration, marriage and birth, remain in place (para. 61). The Special Rapporteur notes that pressure by security forces for the Rohingya to accept national verification cards has led to violence (para. 62). As to the destruction of Rohingya villages, the Special Rapporteur notes that
18 Citing Amnesty International, “We Will Destroy Everything: Military Responsibility for Crimes against Humanity in Rakhine State” (27.06.2018).
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bases for security forces, reception and transit centres for repatriation and model villages  which have historically been used to encourage the resettlement of Buddhists to Rakhine State, displacing the Muslim population,  have been built on land that was previously home to the Rohingya (para. 63).
52. The Special Rapporteur (Ms. Yanghee Lee) comes to the conclusion that the aforementioned situation in Myanmar calls for accountability, and “[j]ustice and the right of victims to reparation should not be contingent on any political or economic interest”, keeping in mind that “there can be no genuine or meaningful accountability unless the victims’ concerns are addressed” (para. 73). To that effect, she presents a series of recommendations (paras. 75-80).
V. PROVISIONAL MEASURES OF PROTECTION AND THE IMPERATIVE OF OVERCOMING THE EXTREME VULNERABILITY OF VICTIMS.
53. The U.N. reports above reviewed give accounts of great suffering on the part of the numerous victims of the tragedy in Myanmar; further to those who were killed or died, the surviving ones remain in a situation of extreme vulnerability. I ascribe considerable importance to human vulnerability, to which I have always been attentive, and I shall address this point further in the following paragraphs of the present part V of the Separate Opinion.
54. The Provisional Measures of Protection just ordered by the ICJ in the cas d’espèce aim to safeguard the fundamental rights of the surviving victims. The suffering of victims has marked presence in the writings of thinkers along the centuries. May I here just recall that, in the mid-XXth. century, Cecília Meireles observed, in her poem “Os Mortos/The Ones Who Died” (1945):
“Creio que o morto ainda tinha chorado, depois da morte:
enquanto os pensamentos se desagregavam,
depois de o coração se acostumar de ter parado. (...)
Creio que o morto chorou depois da morte.
Chorou por não ter sido outro. (...)
Mas sobre seus olhos havia uns outros, mais infelizes,
que estavam vendo, e entendendo, e continuavam sem nada.
Sem esperança de lágrima.
Recuados para um mundo sem vibração.
Tão incapazes de sentir que se via o tempo de sua morte.
Antiga morte já entrada em esquecimento.
Já de lágrimas secas”.
[“I believe that the one who died had still cried, after death:
while the thoughts disaggregated themselves,
after the heart gets used to have stopped. (...)
I believe the one who died cried after death.
Cried for not having been someone else. (...)
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But over his eyes there were some others, more unfortunate ones,
who were seeing, and understanding, and remained without anything.
Without hope of tear.
Moved back into a world without vibration.
So incapable of feeling that one was seeing the time of their death.
Ancient death already entered into oblivion.
Already of dry tears”.  [My own translation].
1. The Legacy of the II World Conference on Human Rights (1993), in Its Attention to Human Vulnerability.
55. May I now turn to another issue of particular importance here. In the course of the work of the II World Conference on Human Rights (Vienna, 1993),  as I recall in my memories of it,  a special attention was turned to vulnerable persons and groups in great need of protection, so as to overcome their defenselessness19. There was stress on the need of positive measures and obligations to this effect20. The II World Conference on Human Rights left an important legacy, as found in its final document, the Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action,  of which I keep a very good memory, having participated in the work of its Drafting Committee.
56. One of the key points of the 1993 Declaration and Programme of Action was its special attentiveness to discriminated or disadvantaged persons, to vulnerable persons and groups, to the poor and the socially excluded, in sum, to all those in greater need of protection21. It was not surprising that the 1993 World Conference was particularly attentive, inter alia, to the condition of vulnerable groups and persons,  as the issue which was already under the attention of U.N. organs.
57. In effect, due to the endeavours of international supervisory organs at global and regional levels, numerous lives had been spared, reparations for damages had been awarded, legislative measures had been adopted or modified for the sake of protection, wrongful administrative practices had to the same effect been terminated22. Its legacy as a whole is to be kept in mind nowadays23, given the subsequent and current occurrence of atrocities against human beings.
58. In the adjudication by the ICJ of recent cases pertaining to human violence affecting vulnerable victims, I have deemed it fit to focus on the legacy of the II World Conference on Human Rights in relation to the vulnerability of the victims. Thus, in my three extensive Dissenting Opinions in the three cases of the Obligation of Nuclear Disarmament (Judgments
19 A.A. Cançado Trindade, A Proteção dos Vulneráveis como Legado da II Conferência Mundial de Direitos Humanos (1993-2013), Fortaleza/Brazil, IBDH/IIDH/SLADI, 2014, pp. 59, 65, 73, 93 and 103-104.
20 Ibid., p. 76; emphasis was given to the 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights (ibid., p. 97 n. 151), and the universal juridical conscience was acknowledged as the ultimate material source of the law of nations, of all Law (ibid., p. 106).
21 United Nations, Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action, New York, U.N., 1993, pp. 25-71.  As it became clear that human rights permeate all areas of human activity, the incorporation of the human rights dimension in all programs and activities of the United Nations was propounded in the Vienna Conference.
22 In addition, national democratic institutions had been strengthened, and positive measures and educational programmes had been adopted.
23 Cf. A.A. Cançado Trindade, “The International Law of Human Rights Two Decades After the Second World Conference on Human Rights in Vienna in 1993”, in The Realization of Human Rights: When Theory Meets Practice  Studies in Honour of Leo Zwaak (eds. Y. Haeck et alii), Cambridge/Antwerp/Portland, Intersentia, 2013, pp. 15-39.
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of 10.05.2016  cf. infra), in my firm support of that universal obligation I drew attention to the focus on “attention on vulnerable segments of the populations” and the concern with “meeting basic human needs” (para. 124).
59. I added that a basic concern of the II World Conference on Human Rights
“ as I have pointed out on distinct occasions along the last two decades24  can be found in the recognition of the legitimacy of the concern of the international community as a whole with the conditions of living of all human beings everywhere. The placing of the well-being of peoples and human beings, of the improvement of their conditions of living, at the centre of the concerns of the international community, is remindful of the historical origins of the droit des gens25” (para. 125).
60. Moreover, I have retaken my considerations on the matter in my subsequent Separate Opinion in the ICJ’s Order (of 19.04.2017) in the case of the Application of the International Convention for the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism (ICSFT) and of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (CERD) (Ukraine versus Russian Federation), wherein I have stressed the relevance of provisional measures of protection in a situation of a strong adversity and sufferings of the victimized persons. I have proceeded, in this new and long Separate Opinion, to elucidate a series of issues, some of which raised also now in the cas d’espèce.
61. It is not my intention to reiterate here all my clarifications made and examined in my Separate Opinion of almost three years ago. May I just refer briefly here to some of the points I have made on that occasion in the ICJ’s decision in that case opposing Ukraine to the Russian Federation. To start with, I have examined the treatment of human vulnerability  including cases of extreme vulnerability  in the case-law of contemporary international tribunals, such as the ICJ, the Inter-American Court of Human Rights (IACtHR) and the European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR) (paras. 12-20).
62. In my examination of such treatment in successive cases, I have pondered, inter alia, that
“It is significant that, in our times, cases pertaining to situations of extreme adversity or vulnerability of human beings have been brought to the attention of the ICJ as well as other international tribunals. This is, in my perception, a sign of the new
24 A.A. Cançado Trindade, A Proteção dos Vulneráveis..., op. cit. supra n. (19), 2014, pp. 13-356; A.A. Cançado Trindade, “Sustainable Human Development and Conditions of Life as a Matter of Legitimate International Concern: The Legacy of the U.N. World Conferences”, in Japan and International Law  Past, Present and Future (International Symposium to Mark the Centennial of the Japanese Association of International Law), The Hague, Kluwer, 1999, pp. 285-309; A.A. Cançado Trindade, “The Contribution of Recent World Conferences of the United Nations to the Relations between Sustainable Development and Economic, Social and Cultural Rights”, in Les hommes et l’environnement: Quels droits pour le vingt-et-unième siècle?  Études en hommage à Alexandre Kiss (eds. M. Prieur and C. Lambrechts), Paris, Éd. Frison-Roche, 1998, pp. 119-146; A.A. Cançado Trindade, “Memória da Conferência Mundial de Direitos Humanos (Viena, 1993)”, 87/90 Boletim da Sociedade Brasileira de Direito Internacional (1993-1994) pp. 9-57.
25 Those Conferences acknowledged that human rights do in fact permeate all areas of human activity, and contributed decisively to the reestablishment of the central position of human beings in the conceptual universe of the law of nations (droit des gens). Cf., on the matter, A.A. Cançado Trindade, Évolution du Droit international au droit des gens - L’accès des particuliers à la justice internationale: le regard d’un juge, Paris, Pédone, 2008, pp. 1-187.
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paradigm of the humanized international law, the new jus gentium 26of our times, sensitive and attentive to the needs of protection of the human person in any circumstances of vulnerability. The case-law of international human rights tribunals is particularly illustrative in this respect” (para. 17).
63. In the same case of Ukraine versus Russian Federation,  I have gone on,  a worrisome illustration of the urgent need for provisional measures of protection was provided by the continuous indiscriminate shelling of the civilian population from all sides, in densely populated areas (in east of Ukraine), in breach of the International Law of Human Rights and of International Humanitarian Law (paras. 27-28). Non-compliance with the needed provisional measures of protection generates the responsibility of the State, with legal consequences (para. 8).
64. The gravity of the situation in the cas d’espèce,  I have proceeded,  required provisional measures of protection, oriented by the principle pro persona humana, pro victima (para. 85). This,  I have added, 
“requires the ICJ to go beyond the strict inter-State dimension (the one it is used to, attached to a dogma of the past), and to concentrate attention on victims (including the potential ones27),  be they individuals28, groups of individuals29, peoples or humankind30, as subjects of international law,  and not on inter-State susceptibilities. Human beings in vulnerability are the ultimate beneficiaries of provisional measures of protection, endowed nowadays with a truly tutelary character, as true jurisdictional guarantees of preventive character” (para 86).
65. I have then warned that the need of greater attention to human vulnerability was to be carefully faced with full awareness of the pressing need to secure protection to the affected human beings (paras. 87-88). The principle of humanity comes to the fore (para. 90), permeating the whole corpus juris of contemporary international law, with “a clear incidence on the protection of persons in situations of great vulnerability. (…) Human beings stand in need, ultimately, of protection against evil, which lies within themselves” (para. 91).
26 Cf. A.A. Cançado Trindade, A Humanização do Direito Internacional, 2nd. rev. ed., Belo Horizonte, Edit. Del Rey, 2015, pp. 3-782; A.A. Cançado Trindade, La Humanización del Derecho Internacional Contemporáneo, México, Edit. Porrúa/IMDPC, 2013, pp. 1-324; A.A. Cançado Trindade, Los Tribunales Internacionales Contemporáneos y la Humanización del Derecho Internacional, Buenos Aires, Ed. Ad-Hoc, 2013, pp. 7-185.
27 On the notion of potential victims in the framework of the evolution of the notion of victim (or the condition of the complainant) in the domain of the International Law of Human Rights, cf. A.A. Cançado Trindade, “Co-Existence and Co-Ordination of Mechanisms of International Protection of Human Rights (At Global and Regional Levels)”, 202 Recueil des Cours de l’Académie de Droit International de Haye (1987), ch. XI, pp. 243-299, esp. pp. 271-292.
28 As I pointed out in my Separate Opinions of the A.S. Diallo case (Judgments of 30.11.2010, merits; and of 19.06.2012, reparations).
29 As I sustained in my Dissenting and Separate Opinions in the case of the Obligation to Prosecute or Extradite (Order of 28.05.2009, and Judgment of 20.07.2012, respectively), as well as in my Dissenting Opinion in the case of the Application of the Convention against Genocide (Judgment of 03.02.2015).
30 As I upheld in my three Dissenting Opinions in the three cases of the Obligations of Nuclear Disarmament (Judgments of 05.10.2016).
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2. International Case-Law and the Need of Properly Addressing Human Vulnerability.
a) Support for the Relevance of Consideration of Vulnerability of the Victims.
66. The II World Conference on Human Rights remained faithful to the legacy of the 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights, and provided responses to new challenges. The warning of the Universal Declaration has been kept in mind, to the effect that “disregard and contempt for human rights have resulted in barbarous acts which have outraged the conscience of mankind” (preamble, para. 2). The Declaration further warns that “it is essential, if man is not compelled to have recourse, as a last resort, to rebellion against tyranny and oppression, that human rights should be protected by the rule of law” (preamble, para. 3). And it asserts that “recognition of the inherent dignity and of the equal and inalienable rights of all members of the human family is the foundation of freedom, justice and peace in the world” (preamble, para. 1).
67. International case-law is gradually reckoning the need of properly addressing human vulnerability. Within the ICJ, I have been constantly attentive to this needed development. Thus, in my Separate Opinion in the ICJ’s Order of Provisional Measures of Protection (of 18.07.2011) in the case of the Temple of Preah Vihear (Cambodia versus Thailand), I pointed out that there have been cases where the ICJ, in indicating such measures, like in the cas d’espèce, “most significantly went beyond the inter-State dimension, in expressing its concern also for the human persons (les personnes humaines) in situations of risk, or vulnerability and adversity” (para. 74).
68. In my Separate Opinion in the ICJ’s Judgment (on reparations, of 19.06.2012) in the case of A.S. Diallo (Guinea versus D.R. Congo), I pondered that measures adopted for the rehabilitation of those victimized in cases of grave violations of their rights, “have intended to overcome the extreme vulnerability of victims, and to restore their identity and integrity” (para. 84). Earlier on, in the same case of A.S. Diallo (merits, Judgment of 30.11.2010), I related, in my Separate Opinion, the pressing need to overcome the situation of vulnerability or even defenselessness of victims to the principle of humanity in its wide dimension (para. 105).
69. On other occasions, likewise, I have addressed the matter in the ICJ: for example, in my Dissenting Opinion in the case of the Jurisdictional Immunities of the State (Judgment of 03.02.2012), I drew attention to the increased vulnerability of victimized persons (para. 175); and in my Separate Opinion in the case of the Obligation to Prosecute or Extradite (Judgment of 20.07.2012), I considered the vulnerability and rehabilitation of victims (para. 174). All these ponderations, in addition to others, are duly systematized31.
b) Invocation of Occurrence of Extreme Human Vulnerability.
70. In the oral proceedings before the ICJ in the cas d’espèce, the applicant State has been attentive to the utter vulnerability of the Rohingya; thus, in the public hearing of 10.12.2019, it has referred, in this respect, to the point made by the U.N. Mission’s Report (of 17.09.2018)32 that their “extreme vulnerability” has been “a consequence of State policies and practices implemented over
31 Cf. Judge A.A. Cançado Trindade  The Construction of a Humanized International Law  A Collection of Individual Opinions (1991-2013), vol. II (International Court of Justice), The Hague/Leiden, Brill/Nijhoff, 2014, pp. 967, 1779-1780, 1685, 1469 and 1597, respectively.
32 U.N. Human Rights Council, Report of the Detailed Findings of the Independent International Fact-Finding Mission on Myanmar, U.N. doc. A/HRC/39/CRP.2 (17.09.2018), para. 458.
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decades”33. Gambia has devoted a whole part of its oral arguments to “The Rohingya’s Vulnerability to Continuing Acts of Genocide” (part IV); in assessing “the situation of the approximately 600,000 Rohingya who remain in Myanmar today” (p. 37, para. 1), it characterized their situation as “one of extreme vulnerability, with ongoing acts of genocide against them, and the grave risk that even more heinous atrocities (...) will be inflicted upon them at any time” (p. 37, para. 2).
71. Moreover, in referring to occasions in which the ICJ took note of human vulnerability in its own case-law (p. 58, paras. 9 and 11), Gambia has added that in the present case “the Rohingya are not only deprived of their political, social and cultural rights, they are threatened with massive loss of life itself, and, striking at the heart of these proceedings, with loss of their very existence as a group” (p. 58, para. 11).
72. Invocation of extreme human vulnerability is a key element to be taken into account in a decision concerning provisional measures of protection, in a case like the present one, on the Application of the Convention against Genocide. In effect, from time to time, the ICJ has been seized of cases disclosing human cruelty, always present in the history of humankind. For example, in its three Judgments in the three cases of the Obligation of Nuclear Disarmament (Marshall Islands versus United Kingdom, India and Pakistan; of 10.05.2016), as the Court has found itself  by a split majority  without jurisdiction to adjudicate them, I have appended three strong Dissenting Opinions thereto.
73. In my three dissents, I have warned as to the manifest illegality of nuclear weapons, which constitute a continuing threat to humankind as a whole. I dwelt extensively upon evil and cruelty in human relations, having deemed it fit to devote one part (XVI) of my Dissenting Opinions to “The Principle of Humanity and the Universalist Approach: Jus Necessarium Transcending the Limitations of Jus Voluntarium”, preceded inter alia by another part (VIII) on “Human Wickedness: From the XXIst. Century Back to the Book of Genesis”.
74. In this earlier part of my dissents, I have recalled the presence in the reasoning of many influential thinkers of the XXth. century (inter alii, in the middle of last century, Mahatma Gandhi and Stefan Zweig, among several others in distinct continents) warning against human wickedness with its numerous victims of the atrocities perpetrated at that time and before, and continuing nowadays. And I have stressed, in face of persistence of human cruelty, the great need of a people-centred approach, keeping in mind the fundamental right to life, with the raison d’humanité prevailing over the raison d’État.
VI. THE UTMOST IMPORTANCE OF THE SAFEGUARD OF FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS BY PROVISIONAL MEASURES OF PROTECTION, IN THE DOMAIN OF JUS COGENS.
1. Fundamental, Rather than “Plausible”, Rights.
75. The rights protected by the present Order of Provisional Measures of Protection are truly fundamental rights, starting with the right to life, right to personal integrity, right to health, among others. The ICJ, once again, refers to rights which appear to it “plausible” (e.g., para. 56), as it has
33 Cit. in ICJ, doc. CR 2019/18, of 10.12.2019, p. 23, para. 9.
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become used to, always with my criticisms. In referring to the arguments of the contending parties, only in paragraphs 46-47 of the present Order, among others, there appear ten references to “plausible”, related to rights, acts, facts, claims, genocidal intent, inferences.
76. There is great need of serious reflection on this superficial use of “plausible”, devoid of a meaning. I do not intend to reiterate here all the criticisms I have been making on resort to “plausible”, whatever that means. May I just recall that, in the course of last year (2018), on more than one occasion I dwelt upon this matter. Thus, in my Separate Opinion in the case of Application of the U.N. Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (CERD  Qatar versus United Arab Emirates, provisional measures of protection, Order of 23.07.2018), I pondered that
“The test of so-called ‘plausibility’ of rights is, in my perception, an unfortunate invention  a recent one  of the majority of the ICJ. (…)
It appears that each one feels free to interpret so-called ‘plausibility’ of rights in the way one feels like; this may be due to the fact that the Court’s majority itself has not elaborated on what such ‘plausibility’ means. To invoke ‘plausibility’ as a new ‘precondition’, creating undue difficulties for the granting of provisional measures of protection in relation to a continuing situation, is misleading, it renders a disservice to the realization of justice” (paras. 57 and 59).
77. In sequence, in the same Separate Opinion, I deemed it fit to warn inter alia that
“The so-called ‘plausibility’ of rights is surrounded by uncertainties, which are much increased in trying to add to it the so-called ‘plausibility’ of admissibility, undermining provisional measures of protection as jurisdictional guarantees of a preventive character. It is time to awaken and to concentrate attention on the nature of provisional measures of protection, particularly under human rights treaties, to the benefit of human beings experiencing a continuing situation of vulnerability affecting their rights” (para. 60).
78. Shortly afterwards, in my Separate Opinion in the case of Alleged Violations of the 1955 Treaty of Amity, Economic Relations, and Consular Rights (Iran versus United States, provisional measures of protection, Order of 03.10.2018), I criticized the unnecessary resort by the ICJ to “plausibility” in a continuing situation of vulnerability (paras. 72-76)34. I pondered that
“the avoidance of referring to ‘plausibility’ would have enhanced the Court’s reasoning, rendering it clearer. Particularly in cases, like the present one, where the rights  the protection of which is sought by means of provisional measures  are clearly defined in a treaty, to invoke ‘plausibility’ makes no sense. The legal profession, in also indulging here in so-called ‘plausibility’ (whatever that means), is incurring likewise into absurd uncertainties” (para. 77).
34 As I had earlier done also in my Separate Opinion in the case of Jadhav (India versus Pakistan, Order of 18.05.2017), para. 19.
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79. As in the present Order of Provisional Measures of Protection we are really in face of fundamental rights (not “plausible” ones), the basic principle of equality and non-discrimination also marks its presence here. I addressed this point in my aforementioned recent Separate Opinion in the case of Application of the CERD Convention (Order of 23.07.2018  para. 76, supra), where I pointed out that
“The advances in respect of the basic principle of equality and non-discrimination at normative and jurisprudential levels35, have not, however, been accompanied by the international legal doctrine, which so far has not dedicated sufficient attention to that fundamental principle; it stands far from guarding proportion to its importance both in theory and practice of Law. This is one of the rare examples of international case-law preceding international legal doctrine, and requiring from it due and greater attention” (para. 18).
80. I then drew attention to the sufferings affecting numerous migrants nowadays, and warned that
“Nothing has been learned from sufferings of past generations; hence the need to remain attached to the goal of the realization of justice, bearing in mind that law and justice go indissociably together. The ICJ has a mission to keep on endeavouring to contribute to a humanized law of nations, in the dehumanized world of our days” (para. 28).
It is necessary to keep in mind that the principle of equality and non-discrimination lies in the foundations of the rights safeguarded under the Convention against Genocide, and human rights Conventions, also by means of provisional measures of protection.
2. Jus Cogens under the Convention against Genocide and the Corresponding Customary International Law.
81. As examined in a recent study of the developing international case-law on the matter, provisional measures of protection are nowadays endowed with an autonomous legal regime of their own36, which is of great significance for the protection of fundamental human rights. Such rights remain in the domain of jus cogens. This is a point which did not pass unperceived in the oral procedure before the ICJ: in the public hearing of 10.12.2019, the delegation of Gambia made a reference to such acknowledgment of jus cogens37, an issue which could have been addressed by the ICJ in its present Order.
82. It would not have been the first time, as the issue is present in the ICJ’s case-law, though it requires nowadays further development. May I just recall, in this respect, the main points addressed by the Court so far. Thus, looking further back in time, in the aforementioned case of Armed Activities in the Territory of Congo, opposing D.R. Congo to Rwanda (cf. para. 4, supra), the ICJ recognized (in its Judgment on jurisdiction and admissibility, of 03.02.2006) the prohibition of genocide as a peremptory norm of international law (para. 64).
35 To the study of which I have dedicated my extensive book: A.A. Cançado Trindade, El Principio Básico de Igualdad y No-Discriminación: Construcción Jurisprudencial, 1st. ed., Santiago de Chile, Ed. Librotecnia, 2013, pp. 39-748.
36 Cf. A.A. Cançado Trindade, O Regime Jurídico Autônomo das Medidas Provisórias de Proteção, The Hague/Fortaleza, IBDH/IIDH, 2017, pp. 13-348.
37 ICJ, doc. CR 2019/18, of 10.12.2019, p. 51, para. 7.
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83. One decade earlier, in the case of Application of the Convention against Genocide (Bosnia-Herzegovina versus Serbia and Montenegro (Judgment on preliminary objections, of 11.07.1996), the ICJ observed inter alia that the terms of Article IX of the Convention against Genocide do “not exclude any form of State responsibility” (para. 32). In my understanding, State responsibility and individual criminal responsibility cannot be dissociated in cases of massacres38.
84. The subsequent case-law of the ICJ again addressed the matter, in the aforementioned cases (cf. para. 3, supra) of Application of the Convention against Genocide, opposing Bosnia-Herzegovina to Serbia and Montenegro (Judgment of 26.02.2007), as well as of Application of the Convention against Genocide, opposing Croatia to Serbia (Judgment of 03.02.2015). On both occasions, the treatment of the matter by the Court was incomplete and unsatisfactory.
85. Thus, in its 2007 Judgment, the Court confirmed the applicability of the rules on State responsibility between States in the context of genocide (para. 167), but not without underlining that in its view the recognition of State responsibility should not be understood as making room for State crimes , thus imposing limitations on the matter (paras. 167-170). And in its 2015 Judgment, the Court briefly referred to jus cogens without considering its legal effects (para. 87).
86. In my Dissenting Opinion appended thereto, I sustained that grave violations of human rights and of International Humanitarian Law, and acts of genocide, among other atrocities, are in breach of responsibility and call for reparations to the victims. This is in line with the idea of rectitude (in conformity with the recta ratio of natural law), underlying the conception of Law (in distinct legal systems  Droit / Right / Recht / Direito / Derecho / Diritto) as a whole (paras. 318-319).
87. I then added, inter alia, that the Convention against Genocide is people-oriented (paras. 521, 529, 542 and 545), with attention needing to be focused on the segment of the population concerned, in pursuance of a humanist outlook, in the light of the principle of humanity (part XVIII). The Convention,  I further added,  calls for care to be turned to the victims, rather than to inter-State susceptibilities (paras. 494-496)39. In sum, jus cogens is to be properly considered under the Convention against Genocide and the corresponding customary international law.
VII. EPILOGUE.
88. In my understanding, it is necessary to take all the above considerations into account in order to secure the advances in the domain of the autonomous legal regime of provisional measures of protection. As to the cas d’espèce, it is significant that the present Order of Provisional Measures of Protection has just been adopted by the ICJ by unanimity. The measures of protection have, in my understanding, been ordered by the ICJ to safeguard the fundamental rights of those who remain, in the tragedy of Myanmar, in a continuing situation of extreme vulnerability, if not defenselessness.
38 On the lessons from the international adjudication of such cases, cf. A.A. Cançado Trindade, State Responsibility in Cases of Massacres: Contemporary Advances in International Justice, Utrecht, Universiteit Utrecht, 2011, pp. 1-71; A.A. Cançado Trindade, La Responsabilidad del Estado en Casos de Masacres - Dificultades y Avances Contemporáneos en la Justicia Internacional, México, Edit. Porrúa/Escuela Libre de Derecho, 2018, pp. 1-104.
39 For a recent case-study, on the basis of my extensive Dissenting Opinion in this case, cf. A.A. Cançado Trindade, A Responsabilidade do Estado sob a Convenção contra o Genocídio: Em Defesa da Dignidade Humana, Fortaleza, IBDH/IIDH, 2015, pp. 9-265.
- 21 -
89. Last but not least, may I proceed to a brief recapitulation of the main points I have deemed it fit to make, in the present Separate Opinion, in respect of provisional measures of protection under the Convention against Genocide. Primus: In a case like the present one, the provisions of the Convention conform a Law of protection (a droit de protection), oriented towards the safeguard of the fundamental rights of those victimized in a continuing situation of human vulnerability, so as also to secure the prevalence of the rule of law (la prééminence du droit).
90. Secundus: The ICJ has, along the years, been giving its contribution to the international case-law concerning the Convention against Genocide; yet, the Court’s Orders on provisional measures of protection under the Convention have been rather rare, though they play their role of extending protection to the fundamental rights of persons and groups in extreme vulnerability. Tertius: In relation to the occurrences in the tragedy in Myanmar, international fact-finding has been undertaken by the Reports of the U.N. Mission on Myanmar (of 2018 and 2019), including “detailed findings”, as well as by the Reports of the U.N. Special Rapporteur on Human Rights in Myanmar (of 2018 and 2019).
91. Quartus: These successive U.N. Reports give account of a continuing situation affecting human rights of numerous persons under the Convention against Genocide. Quintus: Provisional measures of protection, like the ones indicated in the present Order, are intended to put an end to a continuing situation of extreme vulnerability of the victimized persons. Sextus: In a continuing situation of the kind, the fundamental rights requiring protection are clearly known, there being no sense to wonder whether they are “plausible”. Septimus: A continuing situation in breach of human rights is a point which has been attracting the attention of the ICJ in recent cases, at distinct stages of the proceedings.
92. Octavus: Provisional measures of protection have, in recent years, been protecting growing numbers of persons in situations of extreme vulnerability, having thus been transformed into a true jurisdictional guarantee of preventive character. Nonus: Extreme human vulnerability is a test more compelling than resort to so-called ‘plausibility’ of rights for the ordering of provisional measures of protection under the Convention against Genocide.
93. Decimus: The legacy of the II World Conference on Human Rights (Vienna, 1993) has been much contributing to the protection of human beings in situations of great vulnerability. Undecimus: Furthermore, international case-law, as the cas d’espèce shows, can serve the need of properly addressing extreme human vulnerability. Duodecimus: It is of the utmost importance the safeguard of fundamental rights by provisional measures of protection, in the domain of jus cogens, under the Convention against Genocide and the corresponding customary international law.
94. Tertius decimus: There continues to be an advance towards the consolidation of what I have been calling, along the years, the autonomous legal regime of provisional measures of protection. Quartus decimus: The historical formation of the corpus juris of international protection of the rights of the human person has much contributed to a growing awareness of the importance of the prevalence also of the basic principle of equality and non-discrimination.
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Quintus decimus: The present case once again shows that the determination and ordering of provisional measures of protection under the Convention against Genocide, and under human rights Conventions, can only be properly undertaken from a humanist perspective, necessarily avoiding the pitfalls of an outdated and impertinent State voluntarist outlook.
(Signed) Antônio Augusto CANÇADO TRINDADE.
___________

Bilingual Content

36
37
SEPARATE OPINION
OF JUDGE CANÇADO TRINDADE
table of contents
Paragraphs
I. Prolegomena: Some Introductory Considerations in
Historical
Perspective 1-6
II. Provisional Measures of Protection in ICJ Cases under
the Convention against Genocide 7-14
1. Provisional measures in the first case on the Application of
the Convention against Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v.
Yugoslavia (Serbia and Montenegro)) 8-12
2. Provisional measures in the present case on the Application
of the Convention against Genocide 13-14
III. International Fact-Finding:
Relevant Passages of UN
Reports of the Independent International Fact-Finding
Mission on Myanmar 15-40
1. Mission’s report on Myanmar of 12 September 2018 20-28
2. Mission’s report on Myanmar of 8 August 2019 29-34
3. Mission’s “detailed findings” on Myanmar of 16 September
2019 35-40
IV. International Fact-Finding:
Reports of the UN Special
Rapporteur on Human Rights in Myanmar 41-52
1. Report of the Special Rapporteur on the situation of human
rights in Myanmar (of 30 August 2019) 42-44
2. Report of the Special Rapporteur on the situation of human
rights in Myanmar (of 2 May 2019) 45-47
3. Report of the Special Rapporteur on the situation of human
rights in Myanmar (of 20 August 2018) 48-52
V. Provisional Measures of Protection and the Imperative of
Overcoming the Extreme Vulnerability of Victims 53-74
1. The legacy of the Second World Conference on Human
Rights (1993), in its attention to human vulnerability 55-65
36
37
OPINION INDIVIDUELLE
DU JUGE CANÇADO TRINDADE
[Traduction]
table des matières
Paragraphes
I. Prolégomènes : quelques considérations introductives
formulées
dans une perspective historique 1-6
II. Les mesures conservatoires dans les affaires portées
devant la Cour au titre de la convention sur le génocide 7-14
1. Les mesures conservatoires dans la première affaire relative
à l’Application de la convention sur le génocide (Bosnie-Herzégovine
c. Yougoslavie (Serbie-et-Monténégro) 8-12
2. Les mesures conservatoires en la présente espèce relative à
l’Application de la convention sur le génocide 13-14
III. Travaux d’établissement des faits sur le plan international
: les passages pertinents des rapports de la mission
internationale indépendante d’établissement des faits des
Nations Unies sur le Myanmar 15-40
1. Le rapport de la mission sur le Myanmar du 12 septembre
2018 20-28
2. Le rapport de la mission sur le Myanmar du 8 août 2019 29-34
3. Les « constatations détaillées » de la mission sur le Myanmar
du 16 septembre 2019 35-40
IV. Travaux d’établissement des faits sur le plan international
: les rapports de la rapporteuse spéciale des
Nations Unies sur les droits de l’homme au Myanmar 41-52
1. Le rapport de la rapporteuse spéciale sur la situation des
droits de l’homme au Myanmar du 30 août 2019 42-44
2. Le rapport de la rapporteuse spéciale sur la situation des
droits de l’homme au Myanmar du 2 mai 2019 45-47
3. Le rapport de la rapporteuse spéciale sur la situation des
droits de l’homme au Myanmar du 20 août 2018 48-52
V. Les mesures conservatoires et l’impératif de remédier à
l’extrême vulnérabilité des victimes 53-74
1. L’héritage de la deuxième conférence mondiale sur les
droits de l’homme (1993), du point de vue de l’attention
portée à la vulnérabilité humaine 55-65
37 application of the genocide convention (sep. op. cançado trindade)
38
2. International case law and the need of properly addressing
human vulnerability 66-74
(a) Support for the relevance of consideration of vulnerability
of the victims 66-69
(b) Invocation of occurrence of extreme human vulnerability
70-74
VI. The Utmost Importance of the Safeguard of Fundamental
Rights by Provisional Measures of Protection, in the
Domain of Jus Cogens 75-87
1. Fundamental, rather than “plausible”, rights 75-80
2. Jus cogens under the Convention against Genocide and the
corresponding customary international law 81-87
VII. Epilogue 88-94
I. Prolegomena: Some Introductory Considerations
in Historical Perspective
1. I have voted in support of the present Order of provisional measures
of protection, in the case of Application of the Convention on the Prevention
and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (The Gambia v. Myanmar)
[hereinafter Application of the Convention against Genocide], which has
just been adopted by the International Court of Justice (ICJ), significantly
by unanimity. The provisional measures just ordered are intended to
bring the necessary protection to human beings who have been suffering
for a long time in a situation of extreme vulnerability.
2. Once again, in the cas d’espèce, the ICJ is seized of a case on the
basis of the 1948 Convention against Genocide. Looking back in time,
when the Convention was adopted, on 9 December 1948, on the eve of
the adoption of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (on 10 December
1948), the ICJ, established in June 1945, was still in its initial years.
Shortly afterwards, the ICJ was already called upon to pronounce on the
matter, still in the very early years of its existence, when it delivered, on
28 May 1951, its Advisory Opinion on Reservations to the Convention
against Genocide.
3. Several years passed until the ICJ became seized of successive contentious
cases specifically on the basis of the Convention against Genocide,
especially in respect of the victims of wars and of devastation in the
Balkans in the last decade of the twentieth century (case of the Application
of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide
(Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Serbia and Montenegro) [hereinafter
Application of the Convention against Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v.
Serbia and Montenegro)], Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2007 (I), and case of
the Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the
Crime of Genocide (Croatia v. Serbia), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2015 (I)).
application de convention génocide (op. ind. cançado trindade) 37
38
2. La jurisprudence internationale et la nécessité de traiter
comme il se doit la vulnérabilité humaine 66-74
a) Eléments attestant la pertinence de la prise en compte
de la vulnérabilité des victimes 66-69
b) L’invocation de cas d’extrême vulnérabilité humaine 70-74
VI. L’importance primordiale de la sauvegarde des droits fondamentaux
au moyen de mesures conservatoires, dans le
domaine du jus cogens 75-87
1. Des droits fondamentaux, et non « plausibles » 75-80
2. Le jus cogens au titre de la convention sur le génocide et du
droit international coutumier correspondant 81-87
VII. Epilogue 88-94
I. Prolégomènes : quelques considérations introductives
formulées dans une perspective historique
1. J’ai voté en faveur de la présente ordonnance en indication de
mesures conservatoires que la Cour vient d’adopter dans l’affaire relative
à l’Application de la convention pour la prévention et la répression du crime
de génocide (Gambie c. Myanmar) [ci-après Application de la convention
sur le génocide], et ce — il convient de le souligner —, à l’unanimité. Les
mesures conservatoires qui ont été indiquées visent à apporter la protection
nécessaire à des êtres humains qui se trouvent de longue date dans
une situation d’extrême vulnérabilité.
2. En la présente espèce, la Cour était de nouveau saisie sur la base de
la convention sur le génocide de 1948. A l’époque où celle-
ci a été adoptée,
le 9 décembre 1948, à la veille de l’adoption de la Déclaration universelle
des droits de l’homme (le 10 décembre 1948), la Cour, créée en
juin 1945, n’avait démarré ses travaux que depuis quelques années. Peu de
temps après, c’est-à-dire encore pendant ses toutes premières années
d’existence, elle était déjà appelée à se prononcer sur la convention, donnant
ainsi, le 28 mai 1951, son avis consultatif sur les Réserves à la convention
sur le génocide.
3. De longues années se sont ensuite écoulées avant que la Cour ne soit
saisie de deux affaires contentieuses successives portant spécifiquement
sur la convention sur le génocide et concernant les victimes des guerres et
de la dévastation dans les Balkans pendant la dernière décennie du
XXe siècle (affaires relatives à l’Application de la convention pour la prévention
et la répression du crime de génocide (Bosnie‑Herzégovine c. Serbie-et-
Monténégro) [ci-après Application de la convention sur le génocide
(Bosnie-Herzégovine c. Serbie-et-Monténegro)], arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2007
(I) et à l’Application de la convention pour la prévention et la répression du
crime de génocide (Croatie c. Serbie), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2015 (I)).
38 application of the genocide convention (sep. op. cançado trindade)
39
4. There have also been occasions in which the ICJ addressed the Convention
against Genocide together with other United Nations conventions
(on human rights): this occurred, e.g., in the ICJ’s Judgment of 3 February
2006 (on jurisdiction and admissibility) in the case of Armed Activities on
the Territory of the Congo (New Application: 2002) (Democratic Republic
of the Congo v. Rwanda) (Jurisdiction and Admissibility, Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 2006, paras. 27 et seq.). In that decision, the ICJ acknowledged
the universality of the Convention against Genocide and the importance
of the principles underlying the Convention (para. 64); it referred to
the norms contained in the substantive provisions of the Convention as
being jus cogens, creating rights and obligations erga omnes (ibid.).
5. Yet, in that same Judgment, when the ICJ turned to its own jurisdiction,
and pursued a voluntarist outlook, it was attentive to the consent of
States (paras. 78, 125 and 127). This was unfortunate, as it deprived the
Court to develop further its own reasoning in a matter of such importance.
This is a point which I shall retake later (cf. Parts V-VI, infra). In
my own perception, human conscience stands above the will of States. In
this understanding, I shall present my separate opinion, identifying, at
first, the points to be examined in sequence.
6. They are the following ones: (a) provisional measures of protection
in ICJ cases under the Convention against Genocide; (b) international
fact-finding:
relevant passages of UN reports of the Independent International
Fact-Finding
Mission on Myanmar, and of the UN Special Rapporteur
on Human Rights in Myanmar; (c) provisional measures of
protection and the imperative of overcoming the extreme vulnerability of
victims, encompassing the legacy of the Second World Conference on
Human Rights (1993) in its attention to human vulnerability, and
international
case law and the need of properly addressing human vulnerability;
(d) the great relevance of the safeguard of fundamental rights
by provisional measures of protection, in the domain of jus cogens, under
the Convention against Genocide and the corresponding customary
international
law. The way is then paved for the presentation of an epilogue.
II. Provisional Measures of Protection in ICJ Cases under
the Convention against Genocide
7. The presence of the invocation of the Convention against Genocide
before the ICJ, time and time again, discloses its great importance, given
the timeless and most regrettable presence of violence and cruelty in
human relations. Yet, the occasions have been rare when the ICJ has
been called upon to decide on requests for provisional measures of protection
on the basis of the Convention against Genocide (Application of
application de convention génocide (op. ind. cançado trindade) 38
39
4. La Cour a également eu l’occasion d’examiner la convention sur le
génocide en même temps que d’autres conventions des Nations Unies (relatives
aux droits de l’homme) : cela s’est par exemple produit dans l’arrêt
qu’elle a rendu le 3 février 2006 (sur la compétence et la recevabilité) dans
l’affaire des Activités armées sur le territoire du Congo (nouvelle requête :
2002) (République démocratique du Congo c. Rwanda) (compétence et recevabilité,
arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2006, par. 27 et suiv.). Dans cette décision, la
Cour a reconnu le caractère universel de la convention sur le génocide et
l’importance des principes qui la sous-tendent
(par. 64) ; elle a en outre qualifié
les normes contenues dans les dispositions de fond de cet instrument de
normes de jus cogens, créant des droits et obligations erga omnes (ibid.).
5. Cela n’a cependant pas empêché la Cour, dans ce même arrêt,
d’adopter une perspective volontariste, soucieuse du consentement des
Etats, lorsqu’elle en est venue à examiner la question de sa propre compétence
(par. 78, 125 et 127). Cette approche était regrettable, puisque la
Cour s’est ainsi trouvée privée de la possibilité de développer son propre
raisonnement sur une question revêtant la plus haute importance. Je
reviendrai plus tard sur ce point (voir parties V-VI). Selon moi, la
conscience humaine l’emporte en effet sur la volonté des Etats. C’est dans
cette perspective que j’exposerai ci-
après mon opinion individuelle, en
commençant par énumérer les points qui seront examinés tour à tour.
6. Ces points sont les suivants : a) les mesures conservatoires dans les
affaires portées devant la Cour au titre de la convention sur le génocide ;
b) les travaux d’établissement des faits sur le plan international : passages
pertinents des rapports de la mission internationale indépendante d’établissement
des faits sur le Myanmar et de la rapporteuse spéciale des
Nations Unies sur les droits de l’homme au Myanmar ; c) les mesures
conservatoires et l’impératif de remédier à l’extrême vulnérabilité des victimes,
ce point englobant l’héritage de la deuxième conférence mondiale
sur les droits de l’homme (1993) en ce qui concerne la vulnérabilité
humaine, ainsi que la jurisprudence internationale et la nécessité de traiter
cette vulnérabilité comme il se doit ; d) l’importance primordiale que revêt
la sauvegarde des droits fondamentaux au moyen de mesures conservatoires,
dans le domaine du jus cogens, au titre de la convention sur le génocide
et du droit international coutumier correspondant. Une fois traités ces
différents points, le moment sera venu de présenter un épilogue.
II. Les mesures conservatoires dans les affaires portées devant
la Cour au titre de la convention sur le génocide
7. Le fait que la convention sur le génocide soit régulièrement invoquée
devant la Cour révèle la grande importance de cet instrument,
compte tenu de la violence et de la cruauté — aussi intemporelles que
profondément regrettables — qui règnent dans les relations humaines.
Pourtant, ce n’est que rarement que la Cour a été appelée à se prononcer
sur des demandes en indication de mesures conservatoires formulées au
39 application of the genocide convention (sep. op. cançado trindade)
40
the Convention against Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Yugoslavia
(Serbia and Montenegro)) in 1993, and now of Application of the Convention
against Genocide, as I shall consider in sequence.
1. Provisional Measures in the First Case on
the Application of the Convention against Genocide
(Bosnia and Herzgovina v. Yugoslavia (Serbia and Montenegro))
8. In the first case before the ICJ on the Application of the Convention
against Genocide, following the original request for provisional measures
by Bosnia and Herzegovina, the ICJ adopted its Order of 8 April 1993,
and, following the second request for additional provisional measures,
the ICJ adopted its Order of 13 September 1993. In the first Order, of
8 April 1993, the ICJ held that it has prima facie jurisdiction under Article
IX of the Convention against Genocide, and can thus consider indicating
provisional measures protecting rights under the Convention. It
then stressed that, under Article I of the Convention against Genocide, all
States parties have undertaken the duty to prevent and punish genocide
as a crime under international law 1.
9. As there was a grave risk of acts of genocide being committed, the
ICJ issued two provisional measures relating to the Convention against
Genocide, whereby Yugoslavia should promptly: (a) take all measures
within its power to prevent the commission of the crime of genocide; and
(b) ensure that any military or organizations and persons under its control,
direction or influence do not commit any acts of genocide, of conspiracy
to commit genocide, of incitement to commit genocide, or of
complicity in genocide (para. 52A). Moreover, the ICJ issued a more
general
provisional measure, whereby both Parties should take no action,
and ensure that no action is taken, that may aggravate or extend
the existing
dispute, or make it more difficult to reach a solution
(para. 52B).
10. Subsequently, in its Order of 13 September 1993, the ICJ found
that the development of the situation in Bosnia and Herzegovina justified
consideration of the second request; while Bosnia and Herzegovina
attempted to expand the bases of the Court’s prima facie jurisdiction
beyond the Convention against Genocide, the ICJ once again held that its
jurisdiction is based on Article IX of the Convention. It then proceeded
to examine the new request keeping in mind the provisional measures of
protection it had already ordered five months earlier.
1 Bosnia and Herzegovina and Yugoslavia had thus a clear duty to take all measures to
prevent any acts of genocide (irrespective of whether any past acts were legally imputable
to them).
application de convention génocide (op. ind. cançado trindade) 39
40
titre de la convention sur le génocide (Application de la convention sur le
génocide (Bosnie-Herzégovine
c. Yougoslavie (Serbie-et-Monténégro)) en
1993, et aujourd’hui Application de la convention sur le génocide, affaires
que j’examinerai tour à tour ci‑après.
1. Les mesures conservatoires dans la première affaire relative à
l’Application de la convention sur le génocide
(Bosnie-Herzégovine
c. Yougoslavie (Serbie-et-Monténégro))
8. Dans la première affaire qui a été portée devant elle au sujet de l’Application
de la convention sur le génocide, la Cour a, comme suite à la
demande en indication de mesures conservatoires initiale formulée par la
Bosnie-Herzégovine,
adopté son ordonnance du 8 avril 1993 et, comme
suite à la seconde demande en indication de mesures conservatoires,
adopté son ordonnance du 13 septembre 1993. Dans sa première ordonnance,
elle a jugé qu’elle avait prima facie compétence en vertu de l’article
IX de la convention sur le génocide et pouvait, partant, envisager
d’indiquer des mesures conservatoires visant à protéger certains droits au
titre de cet instrument. La Cour a ensuite souligné que, par l’article premier
de celui-
ci, tous les Etats parties s’étaient engagés à prévenir et à
punir le génocide en tant que crime au regard droit international 1.
9. Le risque que soient commis des actes de génocide étant important,
la Cour a indiqué deux mesures conservatoires découlant de la convention,
aux termes desquelles la Yougoslavie devait immédiatement :
a) prendre toutes les mesures en son pouvoir afin de prévenir la commission
du crime de génocide ; et b) veiller à ce qu’aucune unité militaire et
aucune organisation ou personne se trouvant sous son pouvoir, son autorité
ou son influence ne commette le crime de génocide, ne participe à une
entente en vue de commettre ce crime, n’incite directement et publiquement
à le commettre ou ne s’en rende complice (point A du dispositif). La
Cour a en outre indiqué une mesure conservatoire d’ordre plus général,
aux termes de laquelle les deux Parties devaient ne prendre aucune mesure
et veiller à ce qu’il n’en soit prise aucune, qui soit de nature à aggraver ou
étendre le différend existant, ou à en rendre la solution plus difficile
(point B du dispositif).
10. Par la suite, dans son ordonnance du 13 septembre 1993, la Cour a
estimé que l’évolution de la situation en Bosnie-Herzégovine
justifiait
qu’elle se penchât sur la seconde demande ; alors que la Bosnie-Herzégovine
tentait d’élargir les bases de sa compétence prima facie
au-
delà de la convention sur le génocide, la Cour a de nouveau jugé que
sa compétence était fondée sur l’article IX de cet instrument. Elle a ensuite
examiné la nouvelle demande en gardant à l’esprit les mesures conservatoires
qu’elle avait déjà indiquées cinq mois plus tôt.
1 La Bosnie-Herzégovine
et la Yougoslavie avaient donc clairement l’obligation de
prendre toutes les mesures voulues afin de prévenir tout acte de génocide (que des actes
passés leur soient juridiquement attribuables ou non).
40 application of the genocide convention (sep. op. cançado trindade)
41
11. The Court found that the ten additional provisional measures just
requested by Bosnia and Herzegovina do not concern the protection of
disputed rights which might form the basis of a judgment in the exercise
of the Court’s jurisdiction under Article IX of the Convention against
Genocide. The ICJ reasserted that the two Parties were already under a
clear obligation to do all in their power to prevent the commission of any
acts of genocide (under the Convention itself), and, furthermore, to
ensure that no action was taken to aggravate or extend the existing dispute
(as it determined in the provisional measures indicated in its previous
Order of 8 April 1993).
12. As the ICJ was not satisfied with the situation as it remained, it
found that it required, instead of additional measures, the prompt and
effective compliance with the existing provisional measures indicated by
its Order of 8 April 1993. In the same Order of 13 September 1993, the
ICJ reiterated the undertaking to prevent and punish genocide contained
in Article I of the Convention against Genocide, and the recognition
thereunder that the crime of genocide, whether committed in time of
peace or in time of war, “shocks the conscience of mankind”, results in
“great losses to humanity”, and goes against “the spirit and aims of the
United Nations”, as promptly stated in General Assembly resolution
96 (I) of 11 December 1946 (paras. 50-51).
2. Provisional Measures in the Present Case on the Application of
the Convention against Genocide
13. The present case now before the ICJ, opposing The Gambia to
Myanmar, is a new occasion of requested provisional measures of protection
before the ICJ, again concerning the Application of the Convention
against Genocide. The Applicant State, as will be seen next (Parts III
and IV), refers to international fact-finding,
comprising UN Mission’s
Reports (2018 and 2019) and reports of the UN Special Rapporteur on
Human Rights in Myanmar (2018 and 2019).
14. An account of their contents will pave the way for an examination
of provisional measures of protection and the imperative of overcoming
the extreme vulnerability of victims (Part IV) in the present separate opinion.
It is significant that the needed protection of persons and groups in
extreme vulnerability is attracting the attention of the United Nations, by
the work of its Human Rights Council (infra) as well as of the ICJ, in the
present request of provisional measures of protection. This is, in my perception,
a matter of great concern in the contemporary law of nations as
a whole.
application de convention génocide (op. ind. cançado trindade) 40
41
11. La Cour a conclu que les dix mesures conservatoires additionnelles
que la Bosnie‑Herzégovine venait de solliciter ne se rapportaient pas à la
protection de droits en litige susceptibles de fonder un arrêt rendu dans
l’exercice de sa compétence en vertu de l’article IX de la convention sur le
génocide. Elle a réaffirmé que les deux Parties avaient déjà clairement
l’obligation (en application de ce instrument lui-
même) de prendre toutes
les mesures en leur pouvoir pour prévenir la commission de quelque acte
de génocide et, par ailleurs, celle de veiller à ce qu’aucune mesure ne soit
prise qui puisse aggraver ou étendre le différend existant (comme elle
l’avait prescrit par les mesures conservatoires qu’elle avait indiquées dans
son ordonnance antérieure du 8 avril 1993).
12. La Cour n’étant pas satisfaite de la situation telle qu’elle perdurait,
elle a jugé que, plutôt que d’indiquer des mesures additionnelles, il convenait
que soient exécutées immédiatement et de manière effective celles
qu’elle avait indiquées dans son ordonnance du 8 avril 1993. Dans cette
même ordonnance du 13 septembre 1993, elle a réaffirmé l’engagement de
prévenir et de punir le génocide énoncé à l’article premier de la convention,
et le fait que, au regard de cette disposition, le crime de génocide,
qu’il soit commis en temps de paix ou en temps de guerre, « boulevers[ait]
la conscience humaine, inflige[ait] de grandes pertes à l’humanité … et
[était] contraire à la loi morale ainsi qu’à l’esprit et aux fins des
Nations Unies », comme l’Assemblée générale l’avait aussitôt indiqué
dans sa résolution 96 (I) du 11 décembre 1946 (par. 50-51).
2. Les mesures conservatoires en la présente espèce relative
à l’Application de la convention sur le génocide
13. En la présente affaire, qui oppose la Gambie au Myanmar, la Cour
était de nouveau priée d’indiquer des mesures conservatoires ayant trait à
l’application de la convention sur le génocide. Le demandeur, comme on
le verra ci-
après (parties III et IV), se référait à des travaux d’établissement
des faits menés sur le plan international, à savoir des rapports d’une
mission des Nations Unies (datant de 2018 et de 2019) et des rapports de
la rapporteuse spéciale des Nations Unies sur les droits de l’homme au
Myanmar (établis ces deux mêmes années).
14. L’examen du contenu desdits rapports servira ici de base à une
analyse des mesures conservatoires et de l’impératif de remédier à l’extrême
vulnérabilité des victimes (partie IV). Aux fins de la présente procédure
en indication de mesures conservatoires, il importe de relever que la
protection requise pour les personnes et groupes se trouvant en pareille
situation a retenu l’attention des Nations Unies, tant par les travaux du
Conseil des droits de l’homme (voir ci-
après) que par ceux de la Cour, ce
qui, selon moi, est extrêmement préoccupant dans le cadre du droit des
gens contemporain considéré dans son ensemble.
41 application of the genocide convention (sep. op. cançado trindade)
42
III. International Fact-Finding:
Relevant Passages of
UN Reports of the Independent International
Fact-Finding
Mission on Myanmar
15. On 11 November 2019, The Gambia submitted an Application to
the ICJ instituting proceedings against Myanmar concerning alleged violations
of the 1948 Convention against Genocide, and requesting the indication
of provisional measures of protection, in accordance with Article 41
of the ICJ Statute and Articles 73, 74, and 75 of the Rules of Court. In its
Application, The Gambia describes “a brutal and continuing campaign of
sweeping genocidal acts and measures, imposed by Myanmar against
members of the Rohingya group, intended to destroy the group in whole
or in part”, in violation of the Convention against Genocide (para. 114).
The Gambia, as a State party to the Convention, submits that provisional
measures are necessary to protect against further irreparable harm the
rights of the Rohingya group under the Convention (para. 115) 2.
16. The aforementioned Application by The Gambia in the cas d’espèce,
on alleged acts of genocide against the Rohingya people in Myanmar,
includes references to: (a) two reports by the Independent International
Fact-Finding
Mission on Myanmar, which provide evidence of intent of
genocide against the Rohingya population in Myanmar; and (b) three
reports by the Special Rapporteur of the Human Rights Council on the
Situation of Human Rights in Myanmar, which provide evidence of continuing
discrimination and potential genocide against the Rohingya population
in Myanmar. May I summarize the relevant passages of them.
17. The Independent International Fact-Finding
Mission on Myanmar
was established by the UN Human Rights Council (resolution 34/22). The
Mission found consistent patterns of grave violations of human rights in
Kachin, Rakhine and Shan States in Myanmar, in addition to grave violations
of international humanitarian law, including the deliberate targeting of
civilians. The Mission further found that these violations were committed
mainly by Myanmar security forces. The Mission also noted a pervasive
situation of impunity at domestic level, as well as a lack of co-operation
from the Government of Myanmar with the Mission, and recommended
that the impetus for accountability must come from the international community.
18. Throughout its Application instituting proceedings, The Gambia
refers to reports (of 2018 and 2019) of the Independent International
Fact-Finding
Mission on Myanmar, stating that their findings are “espe-
2 And cf. also paras. 113 et seq.
application de convention génocide (op. ind. cançado trindade) 41
42
III. Travaux d’établissement des faits sur le plan international :
les passages pertinents des rapports de la mission internationale
indépendante d’établissement des faits des Nations Unies sur
le Myanmar
15. Le 11 novembre 2019, la Gambie a soumis à la Cour une requête
introductive d’instance contre le Myanmar au sujet de violations alléguées
de la convention sur le génocide de 1948, et l’a priée d’indiquer des mesures
conservatoires conformément à l’article 41 de son Statut et aux articles 73,
74 et 75 de son Règlement. Dans sa requête, la Gambie décrivait « la campagne
violente et radicale que continu[ait] de mener le Myanmar contre les
membres du groupe des Rohingya au moyen de mesures et actes de génocide,
en vue de détruire ledit groupe en tout ou en partie », et ce, en violation
de la convention sur le génocide (par. 114). En tant qu’Etat partie à la
convention, elle affirmait que des mesures conservatoires étaient nécessaires
pour empêcher qu’un nouveau préjudice irréparable ne soit causé
aux droits que le groupe des Rohingya tient dudit instrument (par. 115) 2.
16. Dans sa requête, qui fait état d’actes de génocide visant, selon elle,
le peuple rohingya au Myanmar, la Gambie se réfère à : a) deux rapports
établis par la mission internationale indépendante d’établissement des faits
sur le Myanmar, qui contiennent des éléments de preuve d’une intention
génocidaire à l’encontre de ce peuple ; et b) trois rapports établis par la
rapporteuse spéciale du Conseil des droits de l’homme sur la situation des
droits de l’homme au Myanmar, qui contiennent des éléments de preuve
d’une discrimination continue et d’un possible génocide contre ce même
peuple. Je résumerai ci-
après les passages pertinents de ces rapports.
17. La mission internationale indépendante d’établissement des faits sur
le Myanmar, établie par le Conseil des droits de l’homme des Nations Unies
(résolution 34/22), a dressé le constat de violations graves et systématiques
des droits de l’homme et du droit international humanitaire — y compris
le fait de prendre délibérément pour cible des civils — dans les Etats
kachin, rakhine et shan au Myanmar. Elle a également constaté que
ces violations étaient, pour l’essentiel, le fait des forces de sécurité de cet
Etat, relevant en outre une situation d’impunité générale sur le plan interne
et l’absence de coopération du Gouvernement du Myanmar. Enfin,
la mission
a estimé que c’est à la communauté internationale qu’il
incombait
d’oeuvrer afin que les auteurs soient amenés à rendre compte de
leurs actes.
18. Tout au long de sa requête introductive d’instance, la Gambie
se réfère à des rapports (datant de 2018 et 2019) de la mission internationale
indépendante d’établissement des faits sur le Myanmar — notamment
2 Voir également par. 113 et suiv.
42 application of the genocide convention (sep. op. cançado trindade)
43
cially significant” (para. 10). It refers primarily to two detailed reports on
the findings of the Mission, namely, the Report of the Detailed Findings of
the Independent International Fact-Finding
Mission on Myanmar (of
17 September 2018) 3 and the report of 16 September 2019 4.
19. The Gambia’s Application refers, furthermore, to the condensed
report presented to the UN Human Rights Council on 12 September
2018 5. The aforementioned consolidated reports submitted to the
UN Human Rights Council, of 12 September 2018 6 of 8 August 2019 7, in
addition to the extensive detailed findings of 16 September 2019 (cf. infra),
all cited by The Gambia in its Application, contain passages deserving
particular attention, which I proceed to summarize in sequence.
1. Mission’s Report on Myanmar of 12 September 2018
20. In considering allegations of grave violations of human rights, the
2018 UN Fact‑Finding Mission Report focuses on three emblematic situations,
namely: the crisis in Rakhine State; the hostilities in Kachin and
Shan States; and the infringement on the exercise of fundamental
freedoms
and the issue of hate speech (para. 15). As to the crisis in
Rakhine
State, the Mission states that the Government of Myanmar has
implemented policies and practices over decades which have steadily
marginalized
the Rohingya people, and led to their “extreme
vulnerability”,
resulting in “a continuing situation of severe, systemic and
institutionalized oppression from birth to death” (para. 20).
21. The Mission Report outlines as a cornerstone of this oppression of
the Rohingya their lack of legal status (para. 21), their restrictions to
food, health and education 8, disclosing “a looming catastrophe for
decades” (para. 22). It then refers to “[o]ther discriminatory restrictions”,
3 Application instituting proceedings, paras. 10-12, and cf. note 11, citing UN Human
Rights Council, Report of the Detailed Findings of the Independent International Fact-Finding
Mission on Myanmar (17 September 2018), UN doc. A/HRC/39/CRP.2.
4 Application instituting proceedings, paras. 13-14, and cf. note 21, citing UN Human
Rights Council, Detailed Findings of the Independent International Fact-Finding
Mission on
Myanmar (16 September 2019), UN doc. A/HRC/42/CRP.5.
5 Application instituting proceedings, paras. 10 et seq. and note 11; citing UN Human
Rights Council, Report. . ., op. cit. infra note 6.
6 UN Human Rights Council, Report of the Independent International Fact-Finding
Mission on Myanmar (12 September 2018), UN doc. A/HRC/39/64 [2018 Mission Report].
7 UN Human Rights Council, Report of the Independent International Fact-Finding
Mission on Myanmar (8 August 2019), UN doc. A/HRC/42/50 [2019 Mission Report].
8 Their degree of malnutrition witnessed in northern Rakhine State being “alarming”
(para. 23).
application de convention génocide (op. ind. cançado trindade) 42
43
les rapports portant constatations détaillées des 17 septembre 2018 3 et
16 septembre 2019 4 —, jugeant « particulièrement importantes » (par. 10)
les constatations qui y sont énoncées.
19. Est également mentionné dans la requête de la Gambie le rapport
condensé que la mission a présenté au Conseil des droits de l’homme
des Nations Unies le 12 septembre 2018 5. Les rapports de synthèse
(des 12 septembre 2018 6 et 8 août 2019 7), qui ont été soumis au Conseil,
ainsi que le rapport portant constatations détaillées du 16 septembre 2019
(voir ci-après), tous cités par la Gambie dans sa requête, contiennent
des passages méritant une attention particulière que je vais résumer tour
à tour.
1. Le rapport de la mission sur le Myanmar du 12 septembre 2018
20. Dans le cadre de son examen des allégations de violations graves des
droits de l’homme, la mission d’établissement des faits s’est attachée, dans
son rapport de 2018, à trois situations emblématiques, à savoir : la crise dans
l’Etat rakhine ; les hostilités dans les Etats kachin et shan ; ainsi que l’atteinte
à l’exercice des libertés fondamentales et la question des discours de haine
(par. 15). En ce qui concerne la crise dans l’Etat rakhine, elle indique que le
Gouvernement du Myanmar met en oeuvre, depuis plusieurs décennies, des
politiques et des pratiques ayant entraîné une marginalisation progressive de
la population des Rohingya et son « extrême vulnérabilité », ce qui a conduit
à « une situation permanente d’oppression grave, systémique et institutionnalisée,
dès la naissance et jusqu’à la mort » (par. 20).
21. Dans son rapport, la mission souligne que l’un des éléments sur
lesquels repose cette oppression des Rohingya est leur absence de statut
juridique (par. 21), les restrictions qui leur sont imposées en matière d’alimentation,
de santé et d’éducation 8, ce qui donne à penser, « [d]epuis des
3 Requête introductive d’instance, par. 10-12 ; voir également note de bas de page 11,
citant Conseil des droits de l’homme des Nations Unies, Report of the Detailed Findings
of the Independent International Fact-Finding
Mission on Myanmar (17 septembre 2018),
doc. A/HRC/39/CRP.2.
4 Requête, par. 13-14 ; voir également note de bas de page 21, citant Conseil des droits
de l’homme des Nations Unies, Detailed Findings of the Independent International Fact-Finding
Mission on Myanmar (16 septembre 2019), doc. A/HRC/42/CRP.5.
5 Requête, par. 10 et suiv., et note de bas de page 11, citant Conseil des droits de
l’homme des Nations Unies, op. cit. infra note 6.
6 Rapport de la mission internationale indépendante d’établissement des faits sur le
Myanmar (12 septembre 2018), Conseil des droits de l’homme des Nations Unies, doc. A/
HRC/39/64 (
« rapport de la mission de 2018 »).
7 Rapport de la mission internationale indépendante d’établissement des faits sur le
Myanmar (8 août 2019), Conseil des droits de l’homme des Nations Unies, doc. A/
HRC/42/50 (
« rapport de la mission de 2019 »).
8 Leur niveau de malnutrition observé dans le nord de l’Etat rakhine étant qualifié
d’« alarmant » (par. 23).
43 application of the genocide convention (sep. op. cançado trindade)
44
such as those to freedom of movement, to marriage authorization, to
reproduction, and to birth registration (para. 23).
22. The Mission, moreover, addresses grave violations of human rights
which took place during the outbreak of violence in 2012, as well as during
the “clearance operations” of 2017 (paras. 24-54). In relation to
Kachin and Shan States, the Report notes that similar patterns of conduct
by security forces (Tatmadaw soldiers and others) were witnessed,
including violations against ethnic and religious minorities committed
with persecutory intent (paras. 55-70).
23. The Report further dwells upon the continuing systematic oppression
of the Rohingya in Myanmar, with persisting violence and restrictive
policies on the Rohingya (paras. 49-51), including unlawful killings and
torture of civilians (against men, women and children — paras. 60‑61).
Moreover, it also refers to the systematic appropriation of vacated
Rohingya land (para. 50), sexual violence (para. 62) and forced labour
(paras. 60-61 and 63-64).
24. The 2018 Mission Report further addresses hate speech, noting
dehumanizing and stigmatizing language against the Rohingya and Muslims
in general, used by extremist Buddhist groups, which has been condoned
and mirrored by the Myanmar authorities themselves (para. 73).
The 2018 Mission Report determines, as hallmarks of Tatmadaw operations
(paras. 75-82), the following ones: (a) the targeting of civilians
(paras. 76-78); (b) sexual violence as a recurrent feature (para. 79); (c)
exclusionary rhetoric and systematic discriminatory policies against the
Rohingya (paras. 80-81); (d) and impunity within the Tatmadaw and in
Myanmar more generally (paras. 82, 95-98 and 100).
25. The Mission finds, on the basis of the information it has collected,
that it has reasonable grounds to conclude that serious crimes under
international law have been committed, considering separately genocide,
crimes against humanity, and war crimes (paras. 83-89). As to genocide
(paras. 84-87), the Report suggests that the crimes in Rakhine State and
the manner whereby they were perpetrated are similar in nature, gravity
and scope to facts which have allowed genocidal intent to be established
in other contexts (paras. 85-86) 9.
26. Furthermore, the Mission states that the primary perpetrator of
grave violations of human rights and of crimes under international law, in
relation to the facts at issue, was the Tatmadaw, with the contribution of
9 It concludes that there is sufficient information to warrant the investigation and prosecution
of senior officials for genocide (para. 87).
application de convention génocide (op. ind. cançado trindade) 43
44
dizaines d’années … qu’une catastrophe est imminente » (par. 22). Elle
mentionne ensuite « d’autres restrictions discriminatoires », telles que
celles qui sont imposées à la liberté de circulation, la nécessité d’obtenir
une autorisation pour se marier ou les restrictions à la reproduction et à
l’enregistrement des naissances (par. 23).
22. La mission examine en outre les graves violations des droits de
l’homme qui se sont produites au moment où les violences ont éclaté en
2012, ainsi que pendant « les opérations de nettoyage » de 2017 (par. 24‑54).
S’agissant des Etats kachin et shan, elle relève dans son rapport que des
lignes de conduite analogues y ont été observées de la part des forces de
sécurité (soldats de la Tatmadaw et autres), notamment des actes perpétrés
contre des minorités ethniques et religieuses avec une volonté de persécution
(par. 55‑70).
23. Le rapport décrit l’oppression systématique et continue dont sont
victimes les Rohingya au Myanmar, les violences et les restrictions imposées
aux membres de ce groupe (par. 49‑51) — dont des meurtres et des
actes de torture perpétrés contre des civils (hommes, femmes et enfants ;
par. 60‑61) — se poursuivant. Y sont également mentionnés l’appropriation
systématique des terres rohingya libérées (par. 50), les violences
sexuelles (par. 62) et le travail forcé (par. 60‑61 et 63‑64).
24. Dans ce même rapport de 2018, la mission s’intéresse aux discours
de haine, relevant l’emploi d’un langage déshumanisant et stigmatisant à
l’encontre des Rohingya, et des musulmans en général, par des groupes
bouddhistes extrémistes, les autorités du Myanmar elles‑mêmes cautionnant
cette rhétorique et s’en faisant l’écho (par. 73). Parmi les traits caractéristiques
des opérations de la Tatmadaw (par. 75‑82), sont recensés les
éléments suivants : a) les attaques dirigées contre des civils (par. 76‑78) ;
b) les violences sexuelles récurrentes (par. 79) ; c) les discours d’exclusion
et les politiques de discrimination systématique contre les Rohingya
(par. 80‑81) ; d) et l’impunité régnant au sein de la Tatmadaw et, plus
généralement, du Myanmar (par. 82, 95‑98 et 100).
25. Sur la base des informations qu’elle a recueillies, la mission estime
avoir des motifs raisonnables de conclure que de graves crimes de droit
international ont été commis, et traite séparément le génocide, les crimes
contre l’humanité et les crimes de guerre (par. 83‑89). En ce qui concerne
le génocide (par. 84‑87), elle avance que les crimes qui ont été commis
dans l’Etat rakhine et la manière dont ils l’ont été s’apparentent, du point
de vue de leur nature, de leur gravité et de leur portée, à des faits qui,
dans d’autres contextes, ont permis d’établir l’existence d’une intention
génocidaire (par. 85‑86) 9.
26. Il est précisé dans le rapport que le principal auteur des graves violations
des droits de l’homme et des crimes de droit international qui ont été
constatés est la Tatmadaw, les autorités civiles y ayant contribué par leur
9 La mission conclut qu’il existe des informations suffisantes pour justifier que de hauts
responsables fassent l’objet d’enquêtes et de poursuite pour génocide (par. 87).
44 application of the genocide convention (sep. op. cançado trindade)
45
civilian authorities by way of inaction, denial of wrongdoing, blocking
independent investigation, and destroying evidence (paras. 90-94) 10. Successive
paragraphs refer to evidence relating to alleged genocide against
the Rohingya people.
27. The Report addresses the systematic oppression of the Rohingya
through governmental policies implemented over decades, including
restrictions on citizenship, freedom of movement, marriage authorization,
reproduction, and birth registration (paras. 20-23). In devoting attention
to the escalation of violence in 2012 (paras. 24-30), it singles out, in particular:
(a) the plan to instigate violence and amplify tensions through a
campaign of hate and dehumanization of the Rohingya (para. 25); (b) the
complicity of Myanmar security forces through inaction or active participation
in the violence against the Rohingya (para. 26); (c) displacement,
and restrictions on freedom of movement, on the right to education and
on the right to vote (paras. 29-30).
28. The 2018 Mission Report then dwells upon the “clearance operations”
conducted by Myanmar security forces against the Rohingya in
2017 (paras. 31-54), including, in particular: (a) the disproportionate and
targeted attacks on the Rohingya villages (para. 33), and the modus operandi
of these targeted attacks (para. 34); (b) the level of pre-planning
and design of the attacks (paras. 35, 43, 45-46, 48 and 53); (c) the violence
being perpetrated by Myanmar security forces, with the participation
of some male civilians of different ethnic groups (paras. 52‑53);
(d) the indiscriminate killing (paras. 36-37 and 39-41); (e) the sexual violence
(paras. 36 and 38‑39); (f) the widespread targeted destruction of
Rohingya-populated
areas (para. 42).
2. Mission’s Report on Myanmar of 8 August 2019
29. The 2019 Mission Report proceeds to the consolidation of its
findings
on conflict-related
human rights issues in Rakhine, Chin, Shan
and Kachin States, with a view to its handover to the Independent Investigative
Mechanisms for Myanmar; it also provides an update on the situation
of the Rohingya (paras. 76-94). The Mission notes that, despite
mass displacement of the Rohingya people, some 600,000 Rohingya are
estimated to remain in Rakhine State in Myanmar, and continue to be
subjected to discriminatory policies, including segregation and restricted
movement, deprivation of citizenship, physical attacks, arbitrary arrests,
and other violations of their human rights (para. 76).
30. The Mission focuses its discussion on movement restrictions as
“one of the clearest indicators of their chronic persecution”, noting that
such restrictions have tightened since the violence perpetrated in 2012, as
10 Cf., in relation to civilian authorities, para. 93.
application de convention génocide (op. ind. cançado trindade) 44
45
inaction et leur déni des actes illicites commis, ainsi qu’en faisant obstacle à
des enquêtes indépendantes et en détruisant des éléments de preuve
(par. 90‑94) 10. Les éléments de preuve relatifs au génocide qui aurait été commis
contre le peuple rohingya sont exposés dans une série de paragraphes.
27. La mission décrit l’oppression systématique dont les Rohingya
sont l’objet au moyen de politiques gouvernementales mises en oeuvre
pendant des décennies, notamment les restrictions en matière de citoyenneté
et de liberté de circulation, la nécessité d’obtenir une autorisation
pour se marier et les restrictions à la reproduction et à l’enregistrement
des naissances (par. 20‑23). En analysant l’escalade de la violence en 2012
(par. 24‑30), la mission évoque en particulier : a) le plan visant à provoquer
la violence et à exacerber les tensions par une campagne de haine et
de déshumanisation des Rohingya (par. 25) ; b) la complicité des forces de
sécurité du Myanmar par leur inaction ou leur participation active aux
violences contre ces derniers
(par. 26) ; c) les déplacements de populations
et les restrictions à la liberté de circulation, au droit à l’éducation et au
droit de vote (par. 29‑30).
28. Dans son rapport de 2018, la mission examine ensuite les « opérations
de nettoyage » menées par les forces de sécurité du Myanmar contre
les Rohingya en 2017 (par. 31‑54) et, en particulier : a) les attaques disproportionnées
et ciblées contre les villages rohingya (par. 33) et leur
modus operandi (par. 34) ; b) le niveau auquel ces attaques ont été planifiées
et conçues (par. 35, 43, 45‑46, 48 et 53) ; c) les violences qui ont été
perpétrées par les forces de sécurité du Myanmar avec la participation de
certains civils de sexe masculin de différents groupes ethniques (par. 52‑53) ;
d) les meurtres aléatoires (par. 36‑37 et 39‑41) ; e) les violences sexuelles
(par. 36 et 38‑39) ; f) la destruction ciblée à grande échelle de zones peuplées
par des Rohingya (par. 42).
2. Le rapport de la mission sur le Myanmar du 8 août 2019
29. Dans son rapport de 2019, la mission procède à une synthèse de ses
constatations concernant la question des droits de l’homme dans le cadre
du conflit dans les Etats rakhine, chin, shan et kachin, en vue de les
remettre au mécanisme d’enquête indépendant pour le Myanmar ; elle fait
également le point sur la situation des Rohingya (par. 76‑94). La mission
relève que, malgré les déplacements massifs de population, quelque
600 000 Rohingya demeurent dans l’Etat rakhine au Myanmar et continuent
de faire l’objet de politiques discriminatoires, notamment par une
ségrégation et des restrictions à la liberté de circulation, la privation de
nationalité, des agressions physiques, des arrestations arbitraires et
d’autres violations des droits de l’homme (par. 76).
30. Au sujet des restrictions à la liberté de circulation des Rohingya, la
mission souligne qu’il s’agit de « l’un des éléments indiquant le plus clairement
que ces personnes font l’objet d’une persécution systématique »,
10 Pour ce qui concerne les autorités civiles, voir le paragraphe 93.
45 application of the genocide convention (sep. op. cançado trindade)
46
well as the ways in which the movement restrictions affect access by the
Rohingya to economic, social and cultural rights (such as health services,
education, and livelihoods) (paras. 77-78 and 80). The Mission also
addresses internment camps, wherein some 126,000 Rohingya were still
living, subject to appalling conditions, with no foreseeable plan for relocation
(para. 82).
31. The Mission adds that the Government of Myanmar appears to be
continuing its plan to keep the Rohingya off their lands and further to
segregate them, according to satellite imagery and witness testimony
about the construction of new camps for displaced Rohingya refugees
(para. 84). The Mission further notes the continued discrimination with
respect to citizenship laws and forcing Rohingya to accept national verification
cards through threat and intimidation (paras. 86-87).
32. The Mission’s update Report indicates that the situation of the
Rohingya remains largely unchanged, and warns, as to genocide, that it
has reasonable grounds to conclude that there is a strong inference of
genocidal intent on the part of the State, that there is a serious risk of
recurrence of genocidal actions, and that Myanmar is failing in its obligations
to prevent, investigate, and enact legislation to criminalize and punish
genocide (paras. 89-90).
33. The Report refers to evidence relating to the alleged genocide
against the Rohingya people, encompassing: (a) ongoing chronic persecution
measures, including movement restrictions affecting the Rohingya’s
access to economic, social, and cultural rights (paras. 76-81);
(b) internment camps for displaced Rohingya, with the Government of
Myanmar continuing its plan to keep the Rohingya off their lands and
segregated (paras. 82-84); (c) forced labour, including Rohingya being
forced to build new camps for the displaced Rohingya (para. 88); (d) continued
discrimination with respect to citizenship laws and forcing
Rohingya to accept national verification cards through threat and intimidation
(paras. 86-87).
34. The Mission concludes that the situation of the Rohingya remains
largely unchanged and the Myanmar Government’s acts “continue to be
part of a widespread and systematic attack that amounts to persecution
and other crimes against humanity against the Rohingya in Rakhine
State” (para. 89). It adds that
“the Mission also has reasonable grounds to conclude that there is a
strong inference of genocidal intent on the part of the State, that there
is a serious risk that genocidal actions may recur, and that Myanmar
is failing in its obligation to prevent genocide, to investigate genocide,
application de convention génocide (op. ind. cançado trindade) 45
46
relevant que ces restrictions ont été renforcées depuis les violences perpétrées
en 2012 et décrivant les incidences qu’elles ont sur la jouissance des
droits économiques, sociaux et culturels des intéressés (notamment en ce
qui concerne l’accès aux services en matière de santé et d’éducation, et
aux moyens de subsistance) (par. 77‑78 et 80). Elle se penche également
sur la question des camps d’internement, dans lesquels environ
126 000 Rohingya vivent toujours dans des conditions épouvantables,
sans aucune solution envisageable en vue de leur retour (par. 82).
31. La mission ajoute que, d’après les images satellite et les témoignages
recueillis concernant la construction de nouveaux camps de réfugiés
rohingya déplacés, le Gouvernement du Myanmar semble poursuivre
son plan d’éloignement des Rohingya de leurs terres afin de creuser encore
le fossé qui les sépare du reste de la population (par. 84). Elle relève en
outre que la discrimination en matière de droit de la citoyenneté se poursuit
et que les Rohingya ont été contraints d’accepter des cartes de vérification
de la nationalité par la menace et l’intimidation (par. 86‑87).
32. La mission indique que la situation des Rohingya demeure largement
inchangée et précise, en ce qui concerne le génocide, qu’elle a des
motifs raisonnables de conclure que l’Etat est animé d’une forte intention
génocidaire, qu’il existe un risque sérieux que des actes de génocide soient de
nouveau commis et que le Myanmar manque aux obligations qui lui
incombent de prévenir le génocide, de mener les enquêtes voulues et d’adopter
les mesures législatives incriminant et réprimant le génocide (par. 89‑90).
33. Le rapport contient des éléments de preuve du génocide qui aurait
été commis contre le peuple rohingya, parmi lesquels : a) le fait que les
intéressés continuent de faire l’objet d’une persécution systématique,
notamment par les restrictions imposées à leur liberté de circulation, qui
affectent leur accès aux droits économiques, sociaux et culturels
(par. 76‑81) ; b) les camps de personnes déplacées, le Gouvernement du
Myanmar poursuivant son plan d’éloignement des Rohingya de leurs
terres et sa politique de ségrégation (par. 82‑84) ; c) le travail forcé,
notamment le fait que les Rohingya soient forcés de construire de nouveaux
camps pour les personnes déplacées (par. 88) ; d) la poursuite de la
discrimination en matière de droit de la citoyenneté et le fait que les
Rohingya soient contraints d’accepter des cartes de vérification de la
nationalité par la menace et l’intimidation (par. 86‑87).
34. La mission conclut en précisant que la situation des Rohingya
demeure largement inchangée et que les actes du Gouvernement du
Myanmar « continuent de s’inscrire dans le cadre d’une attaque généralisée
et systématique qui constitue une forme de persécution et s’apparente
à d’autres crimes contre l’humanité visant les Rohingya demeurant dans
l’Etat rakhine » (par. 89). Et d’ajouter :
« la mission a également des motifs raisonnables de conclure que
l’Etat a une forte intention génocidaire, que des actes génocidaires
risquent sérieusement d’être à nouveau commis, et que le Myanmar
manque aux obligations qui lui incombent de prévenir le génocide,
46 application of the genocide convention (sep. op. cançado trindade)
47
and to enact effective legislation criminalizing and punishing genocide”
(para. 90).
3. Mission’s “Detailed Findings” on Myanmar
of 16 September 2019
35. Shortly after its Report of 8 August 2019, the Mission submitted to
the UN Human Rights Council the extensive “detailed findings” on Myanmar,
of 16 September 2019, as a complementary factual information (in
190 pages) 11. The document starts with a summary of the forms of grave
violations incurred into (para. 2), the determination of State responsibility
(paras. 45 and 58-59) and the need of reparations (paras. 42-43). The
“detailed findings” cover violence in distinct forms (including beatings),
torture and cruel treatment, forced labour (paras. 190-194), deprivation of
food and of humanitarian relief (paras. 172-175) 12, as well as deprivation
of health and of land (paras. 139‑140).
36. According to the document, violence also encompassed forced displacement
of persons and human trafficking (para. 589), as well as other
war crimes, amidst humiliation or degradation (para. 192). It stressed the
prohibition of torture as one of jus cogens, as a peremptory norm of customary
international law (para. 389). Those grave breaches, — it
warned, — disclosed the need of assertion of State responsibility, keeping
in mind the continuity of the intent of genocide (paras. 230, 233, 238, 667
and 669).
37. The document devoted particular attention to the endeavours of
the UN Mission (reports of 2018-2019) to infer the “genocidal intent
under the rules of State responsibility” on the part of the State of
Myanmar
(para. 223, and cf. para. 220). In the words of the “detailed
findings”,
“The Mission has identified seven indicators from which it inferred
genocidal intent to destroy the Rohingya people as such, all based on
the consideration of indicators of genocidal intent in international
case law: first, the Tatmadaw’s extreme brutality during its attacks on
the Rohingya; second, the organized nature of the Tatmadaw’s
destruction; third, the enormity and nature of the sexual violence perpetrated
against women and girls during the ‘clearances operations’;
fourth, the insulting, derogatory, racist and exclusionary utterances
of Myanmar officials and others prior, during and after the ‘clearance
operations’; fifth, the existence of discriminatory plans and policies,
such as the Citizenship Law and the NVC process, as well as the
Government’s efforts to clear, raze, confiscate and build on land in a
11 See note 4 supra.
12 It stressed the need of humanitarian relief to be extended to the most vulnerable
victims (para. 633).
application de convention génocide (op. ind. cançado trindade) 46
47
de mener les enquêtes voulues en la matière et d’adopter des textes de
loi qui incriminent et répriment effectivement le génocide » (par. 90).
3. Les « constatations détaillées » de la mission sur le Myanmar
du 16 septembre 2019
35. Peu après son rapport du 8 août 2019, la mission a, le 16 septembre
de la même année, présenté au Conseil des droits de l’homme des
Nations Unies un volumineux rapport (190 pages) portant « constatations
détaillées » sur le Myanmar, à titre d’informations factuelles complémentaires
11. Ce document débute par un résumé des formes qu’ont prises les
graves violations qui ont été commises (par. 2) ; y sont également abordées
les questions de la détermination de la responsabilité de l’Etat (par. 45
et 58‑59) et de la nécessité de fournir réparation (par. 42‑43). Les « constatations
détaillées » se rapportent à différentes formes de violence (y compris
les passages à tabac), la torture et les traitements cruels, le travail
forcé (par. 190‑194), la privation de nourriture et d’aide humanitaire
(par. 172‑175) 12 ainsi que de services de santé et de terres (par. 139‑140).
36. Selon ce document, les violences ont également pris la forme de déplacements
forcés et de trafic d’êtres humains (par. 589), ainsi que d’autres
crimes de guerre, le tout sur fond d’humiliations ou de dégradations
(par. 192). La mission souligne que l’interdiction de la torture fait partie du
jus cogens, en tant que norme impérative de droit international coutumier
(par. 389). Ces graves violations, est-il précisé dans le rapport, révèlent que
la responsabilité de l’Etat doit être mise en cause, et ce, en gardant à l’esprit
la poursuite de l’intention génocidaire (par. 230, 233, 238, 667 et 669).
37. Une attention particulière est consacrée aux efforts de la mission
(rapports de 2018‑2019) pour déduire, « conformément aux règles de la
responsabilité de l’Etat, l’intention génocidaire » de la part de l’Etat du
Myanmar (par. 223 ; voir également par. 220). Pour reprendre les termes
employés dans ce rapport portant « constatations détaillées »,
« [l]a mission a recensé sept indicateurs à partir desquels elle a déduit
l’existence d’une intention génocidaire de détruire le peuple rohingya
comme tel, tous fondés sur la jurisprudence internationale : premièrement,
l’extrême brutalité dont a fait montre la Tatmadaw pendant ses
attaques contre les Rohingya ; deuxièmement, le caractère organisé de
la destruction entreprise par la Tatmadaw ; troisièmement, l’ampleur
considérable et la nature des violences sexuelles perpétrées contre les
femmes et les jeunes filles au cours des « opérations de nettoyage » ;
quatrièmement, les propos insultants, méprisants et racistes ainsi que
les discours d’exclusion proférés notamment par les représentants du
Myanmar avant, pendant et après les « opérations de nettoyage » ; cinquièmement,
l’existence de plans et de politiques discriminatoires, tels
11 Cité dans la note no 4 supra.
12 Il y est souligné qu’une aide humanitaire doit être apportée aux victimes les plus
vulnérables (par. 633).
47 application of the genocide convention (sep. op. cançado trindade)
48
manner that sought to change the demographic and ethnic composition
of Rakhine State, the goal being to reduce the proportion of
Rohingya; sixth, the Government’s tolerance for public rhetoric of
hatred and contempt for the Rohingya; and seventh, the State’s failure
to investigate and prosecute gross violations of international
human rights law and serious violations of international humanitarian
law, both as they were occurring and after they occurred. These
seven indicators also allow the Mission to infer that the State did not
object and in fact endorsed the Tatmadaw’s ‘clearance operations’
and the manner in which they were conducted.
Every one of these indicators is linked to the acts or omissions of
Myanmar State organs, including the military, other security forces,
ministries, legislative bodies, the UEHRD and other civilian institutions.
Collectively they demonstrate a pattern of conduct that infers
genocidal intent on the part of the State to destroy the Rohingya, in
whole or in part, as a group. For reasons explained in its 2018 Report,
there is no reasonable conclusion to draw, other than the inference of
genocidal intent, from the State’s pattern of conduct.” (Paras. 224-
225.)
38. The “detailed findings”, furthermore, revealed a temporal perspective
of the grave breaches: it pointed out that, even before the occurrences
of violence against the Rohingya in 2012 and 2016‑2017, leading to the
forced displacement and exodus of those victimized: there were other
periods of violence — it added — such as the military operations in 1977,
which led some 200,000 Rohingya to flee to Bangladesh; this again
happened
in 1992 (amidst killings, torture, rape and other violations),
which led 260,000 Rohingya to flee to Bangladesh (paras. 202‑205 and
214‑215).
39. Still in this temporal perspective, the document identified in the
1982 Citizenship Law of Myanmar as discriminatory against the Rohingya
people, denying them citizenship and other “fundamental rights”, causing
them “great physical or mental suffering” constituting “crime against
humanity” (paras. 101‑106 and 216). It added that there was need of further
investigation of the facts, so as to render justice (para. 226), given the
grave violations committed mainly by the Tatmadaw (the Myanmar military)
of the international law of human rights and international humanitarian
law (para. 457), as well as of the United Nations Convention on
the Rights of the Child (para. 527).
application de convention génocide (op. ind. cançado trindade) 47
48
que la législation en matière de citoyenneté et l’institution des cartes de
vérification de la nationalité, ainsi que les mesures du gouvernement
visant à libérer, raser et confisquer les terres pour y effectuer des
constructions, de sorte à modifier la composition démographique et
ethnique de l’Etat rakhine, l’objectif étant d’y réduire la proportion de
Rohingya ; sixièmement, la tolérance manifestée par le gouvernement
à l’égard des discours haineux et méprisants visant les Rohingya ; et,
septièmement, le fait que l’Etat n’ait pas enquêté sur les violations
flagrantes du droit international des droits de l’homme et les graves
infractions au droit international humanitaire, et n’ait pas engagé les
poursuites qui s’imposaient, aussi bien pendant qu’après la commission
des actes en question. Ces sept indicateurs permettent également
à la mission de conclure que l’Etat ne s’est pas opposé aux « opérations
de nettoyage » menées par la Tatmadaw ni la manière dont elles se
sont déroulées et, de fait, les a cautionnées.
Pour chacun de ces indicateurs, le lien est établi avec les actes ou
omissions des organes de l’Etat du Myanmar, notamment son armée,
d’autres forces de sécurité, ses ministères et organes législatifs, le
UEHRD et d’autres institutions civiles. Considérés conjointement, lesdits
indicateurs mettent au jour une ligne de conduite qui porte à
conclure à l’existence d’une intention génocidaire de la part de l’Etat
visant à détruire le groupe des Rohingya, en tout ou en partie, comme
tel. Pour les raisons qui ont été exposées dans le rapport de 2018,
aucune conclusion autre que l’existence d’une intention génocidaire ne
peut être raisonnablement tirée de la ligne de conduite de l’Etat. »
(Par. 224‑225.) »
38. Dans ce rapport portant « constatations détaillées », les graves violations
qui ont été commises sont, de surcroît, replacées dans une dimension
temporelle : il y est souligné que, avant même les violences des années
2012 et 2016‑2017, qui ont conduit au déplacement forcé et à l’exode des
victimes, il y avait eu d’autres périodes de violences, telles que les opérations
militaires de 1977, qui avaient conduit quelque 200 000 Rohingya à
se réfugier au Bangladesh ; cela s’est produit de nouveau en 1992 (sur
fond de meurtres, d’actes de torture, de viols et d’autres crimes),
260 000 Rohingya ayant fui au Bangladesh (par. 202‑205 et 214‑215).
39. Dans cette même perspective temporelle, il est précisé dans le rapport
que la loi sur la citoyenneté adoptée par le Myanmar en 1982 est
discriminatoire à l’encontre du peuple rohingya, puisque la citoyenneté et
d’autres « droits fondamentaux » y sont refusés aux membres de ce groupe,
leur causant « de graves souffrances physiques ou mentales » constitutives
d’un « crime contre l’humanité » (par. 101‑106 et 216). Et la mission
d’ajouter qu’il convient de continuer d’enquêter sur les faits pour que justice
puisse être rendue (par. 226), compte tenu des graves violations du
droit international des droits de l’homme et du droit international humanitaire
(par. 457), ainsi que de la convention des Nations Unies sur les
droits de l’enfant (par. 527), violations principalement commises par la
Tatmadaw (l’armée du Myanmar).
48 application of the genocide convention (sep. op. cançado trindade)
49
40. Over the last decades those violations have established a level of
continuing oppression against the Rohingya rendering their life in Myanmar
unbearable. They had to face the denial of their rights, and even of
legal status and identity. State-sanctioned
laws and policies “occurred in
the context of State-sanctioned
discriminatory rhetoric”, with “institutionalized
oppression” amounting to persecution (para. 210). The attacks
against “Myanmar’s Rohingya population” were undertaken with “genocidal
intent”, and ever since the Mission’s 2018 Report “the situation of
the 600,000 Rohingya remaining in Myanmar is worse after another year
of living under deplorable conditions” (paras. 212-213).
IV. International Fact-Finding:
Reports
of the UN Special Rapporteur on Human Rights
in Myanmar
41. In its Application, The Gambia further notes that the UN Human
Rights Council’s Special Rapporteur on the Situation of Human Rights
in Myanmar (Ms Yanghee Lee) has carried out extensive fact-finding
on
Myanmar’s campaign against the Rohingya 13. The Special Rapporteur,
in addition to her statements made at the UN Human Rights Council,
also submitted reports to it, on the situation of human rights in Myanmar,
including a recent report presented on 30 August 2019 14. Two of her
earlier reports (of 2 May 2019 15 and 20 August 2018 16) are also of particular
interest in relation to allegations of genocide against the Government
of Myanmar.
1. Report of the Special Rapporteur on the Situation of Human Rights
in Myanmar (of 30 August 2019)
42. In her Report of 30 August 2019, the Special Rapporteur on the
Situation of Human Rights in Myanmar, referring to armed conflict and
violence, addresses reports of ongoing violent attacks against the Rohing-
13 It cites her statement at the thirty-seventh session of the Human Rights Council on
12 March 2018; Application instituting proceedings, para. 7 and note 4.
14 UN Human Rights Council, Report of the Special Rapporteur on the Situation of
Human Rights in Myanmar — Yanghee Lee (30 August 2019), UN doc. A/74/342 [August
2019 Report of the Special Rapporteur].
15 UN Human Rights Council, Report of the Special Rapporteur on the Situation of
Human Rights in Myanmar — Yanghee Lee (2 May 2019), UN doc. A/HRC/40/68.
16 UN Human Rights Council, Report of the Special Rapporteur on the Situation of
Human Rights in Myanmar — Yanghee Lee (20 August 2018), UN doc. A/73/332.
application de convention génocide (op. ind. cançado trindade) 48
49
40. Ces violations, qui se sont produites au cours de ces dernières
décennies, constituent une oppression continue à l’encontre des Rohingya
qui rend insupportable leur vie au Myanmar. Les membres de ce groupe
doivent faire face au déni non seulement de leurs droits, mais même de
leurs statut juridique et identité. Ces lois et politiques de l’Etat « se sont
inscrites dans le cadre d’une rhétorique discriminatoire cautionnée par »
celui-
ci et d’une « oppression institutionnalisée » relevant de la persécution
(par. 210). Les attaques dirigées contre « la population rohingya du
Myanmar » ont été menées avec « une intention génocidaire », « la situation
des 600 000 Rohingya demeurant au Myanmar a[yant] encore empiré
après un an passé à vivre dans des conditions déplorables », c’est‑à‑dire
depuis le rapport de la mission de 2018 (par. 212‑213).
IV. Travaux d’établissement des faits sur le plan international :
les rapports de la rapporteuse spéciale des Nations Unies
sur les droits de l’homme au Myanmar
41. Dans sa requête, la Gambie observe en outre que la rapporteuse
spéciale du Conseil des droits de l’homme des Nations Unies sur la situation
des droits de l’homme au Myanmar (Mme Yanghee Lee) s’est livrée à
d’importants travaux d’établissement des faits en ce qui concerne la campagne
menée par le Myanmar contre les Rohingya 13. Outre les déclarations
qu’elle a faites devant lui, la rapporteuse spéciale a également soumis
au Conseil des rapports sur la situation des droits de l’homme au Myanmar,
dont un rapport récent présenté le 30 août 2019 14. Deux de ses rapports
précédents (ceux des 2 mai 2019 15 et 20 août 2018 16) revêtent
également un intérêt particulier pour apprécier les allégations de génocide
formulées contre le Gouvernement du Myanmar.
1. Le rapport de la rapporteuse spéciale sur la situation des droits de
l’homme au Myanmar du 30 août 2019
42. Dans son rapport du 30 août 2019, la rapporteuse spéciale sur la
situation des droits de l’homme au Myanmar, se référant au conflit armé
et aux violences, examine des informations faisant état d’attaques vio-
13 Elle cite la déclaration faite par la rapporteuse spéciale à la trente-septième
session du
Conseil des droits de l’homme le 12 mars 2018 ; requête, par. 7 et note de bas de page no 4.
14 Nations Unies, Rapport de la rapporteuse spéciale sur la situation des droits de
l’homme au Myanmar (30 août 2019), Conseil des droits de l’homme des Nations Unies,
doc. A/74/342 (ci‑après, le « rapport de la rapporteuse spéciale d’août 2019 »).
15 Nations Unies, Rapport de la rapporteuse spéciale sur la situation des droits de
l’homme au Myanmar (2 mai 2019), Conseil des droits de l’homme des Nations Unies,
doc. A/HRC/40/68.
16 Nations Unies, Rapport de la rapporteuse spéciale sur la situation des droits de
l’homme au Myanmar (20 août 2018), Conseil des droits de l’homme des Nations Unies,
doc. A/73/332.
49 application of the genocide convention (sep. op. cançado trindade)
50
yas (and property) in the context of the conflict with the Arakan Army in
Rakhine State (para. 40). She observes that living conditions for the
Rohingya in northern Rakhine State “remain dreadful”, with continuing
reports of beatings, killings and the burning of houses and rice stores
(ibid.).
43. She outlines the need to conduct policies “in a rights-based manner”,
and to put an end to the root-causes
of forced displacement of persons
(para. 44). Moreover, as to internally displaced persons, the Special
Rapporteur points out that, in central Rakhine State, “128,000 Rohingya
and Kaman people remain interned in camps where they have lived in
squalid conditions since 2012”, with restrictions on their freedom of
movement (para. 45).
44. The Special Rapporteur (Ms Yanghee Lee) then warns that, if the
process being pursued continues, it will result in the permanent segregation
of displaced Rohingya and Kaman communities in Rakhine
(para. 45). As to Rohingya refugees, she expresses her view that “Myanmar
has entirely failed to dismantle the system of persecution under which
the Rohingya in Rakhine continue to live. While this situation persists, it
is not safe or sustainable for refugees to return” (para. 54) 17.
2. Report of the Special Rapporteur on the Situation of Human Rights
in Myanmar (of 2 May 2019)
45. Earlier on, in her Report of 2 May 2019, the Special Rapporteur
notes that the campaign to impose national verification cards on the
Rohingya is continuing unabated, and the Rohingya are still required to
apply for permission to leave their villages in accordance with existing
restrictions on their movement (para. 34). Furthermore, in relation to
Rohingya refugees, the Special Rapporteur observes that the conditions
for voluntary, safe, dignified and sustainable returns do not exist, despite
the Governments of Bangladesh and Myanmar having agreed to begin
repatriation in mid-November
2018 (para. 43).
46. She addresses the overcrowded conditions for the Rohingya refugees
in Bangladesh, as well as the fear of refugees of forced repatriation following
the aforementioned agreement between the Governments of Bangladesh
and Myanmar (paras. 41-43). The Special Rapporteur (Ms Yanghee Lee)
further notes that this planned repatriation has caused high levels of fear
and anxiety among the refugee population at the prospect of forced return,
17 Furthermore, she expresses concern that national verification cards will be issued to
Rohingya returnees after their biometric data is collected, noting the possibility that any
biometric data collected could be used to place further controls on Rohingya who return
to Myanmar (para. 55).
application de convention génocide (op. ind. cançado trindade) 49
50
lentes et persistantes contre les Rohingya (et leurs biens) dans le cadre du
conflit avec l’armée arakanaise dans l’Etat rakhine (par. 40). Elle observe
que les conditions de vie des Rohingya dans le nord de l’Etat rakhine
« restent déplorables » et qu’elle continue de recevoir des informations faisant
état de passage à tabac et de meurtres, ainsi que d’incendies de maisons
et de magasins de riz (ibid.).
43. La rapporteuse spéciale précise qu’il est nécessaire de mener des
politiques « dans le cadre d’une démarche fondée sur les droits » et de
s’attaquer aux causes profondes du déplacement forcé de personnes
(par. 44). Par ailleurs, en ce qui concerne les personnes déplacées à l’intérieur
du pays, elle indique que, dans le centre de l’Etat rakhine, « 128 000
Rohingya et Kaman restent internés dans des camps où ils vivent dans
des conditions sordides depuis 2012 », des restrictions étant imposées à
leur liberté de circulation (par. 45).
44. La rapporteuse spéciale prévient que, si le processus engagé se
poursuit, il aboutira à la ségrégation permanente des communautés
rohingya et kaman déplacées (par. 45). En ce qui concerne les réfugiés
rohingya, elle estime que « le Myanmar n’a absolument pas réussi à
démanteler le système de persécution dans lequel les Rohingya de l’Etat
rakhine continuent de vivre. Tant que cette situation persiste, le retour
des réfugiés n’est ni sûr ni durable » (par. 54) 17.
2. Le rapport de la rapporteuse spéciale sur la situation des droits
de l’homme au Myanmar du 2 mai 2019
45. Quelques mois auparavant, dans son rapport du 2 mai 2019, la
rapporteuse spéciale relevait que la campagne visant à imposer aux Rohinya
des cartes de vérification de la nationalité se poursuivait sans relâche
et que ces derniers restaient tenus de demander une autorisation pour
pouvoir quitter leur village, conformément aux règles et règlements restreignant
leurs déplacements (par. 34). Au sujet des réfugiés rohingya, elle
observait que les conditions d’un retour volontaire, sûr, digne et durable
n’étaient pas réunies, en dépit du fait que les Gouvernements du Bangladesh
et du Myanmar étaient convenus de commencer le rapatriement à la
mi‑novembre 2018 (par. 43).
46. La rapporteuse spéciale examinait également les conditions de surpopulation
dans lesquelles vivaient les réfugiés rohingya au Bangladesh,
ainsi que leur crainte d’être forcés de retourner au Myanmar à la suite de
l’accord susmentionné entre les Gouvernements du Bangladesh et du
Myanmar (par. 41‑43). Elle notait encore que ce rapatriement prévu avait
suscité beaucoup d’inquiétude et d’anxiété chez les réfugiés, conduisant
17 De plus, la rapporteuse spéciale se dit troublée par le fait que les cartes nationales
de vérification seront délivrées après la collecte des données biométriques des rapatriés,
soulignant la possibilité que ces données puissent être utilisées pour contrôler davantage
les Rohingya qui rentrent au Myanmar (par. 55).
50 application of the genocide convention (sep. op. cançado trindade)
51
leading some refugees to go into hiding or even attempt to take their own
lives to avoid forced return to Myanmar (para. 43).
47. And, as to institutionalized hate speech, she expresses alarm at its
pervasive nature, particularly due to the use of hate speech by senior governmental
officials (para. 51). She warns that “hate speech and misinformation”
have come from “public institutions linked to the military”
(para. 53) and calls for definitely avoiding to teach children ideas promoting
“racial superiority and communal disharmony”, removing “all incendiary
passages from all textbooks” (para. 52).
3. Report of the Special Rapporteur on the Situation of Human Rights
in Myanmar (of 20 August 2018)
48. Even earlier, in her Report of 20 August 2018, the Special Rapporteur
condemns the widespread and systematic violations of the international
law of human rights and international humanitarian law committed
by the Tatmadaw against the Rohingya population in Myanmar for
decades, with particular attention to the armed conflict and situations of
violence from March 2018 (para. 36). She declares that there is “credible
information” that the 33rd and 99th Light Infantry Divisions of the Tatmadaw
were among those responsible for perpetrating “extreme violence
against the Rohingya population in northern Rakhine State” (as from
25 August 2017) (para. 37), including massacres involving “the killings of
many men, women and children, beatings, rapes and the burning of
houses” (paras. 38-39) 18.
49. The Special Rapporteur (Ms Yanghee Lee) specifically addresses
sexual violence, stating that “the widespread threat and use of sexual violence”
was part of the “Tatmadaw’s strategy of humiliating, terrorizing
and collectively punishing the Rohingya community” and forcing them
“to flee and prevent their return” (para. 48). She also expresses concern
in relation to the dire living conditions in the internment camps, given
the continuing violence and discrimination against the Rohingya in
Rakhine State, as well as in relation to its intended closure of the camps
to hasten the return of displaced persons to their places of origin
(paras. 52-53).
50. The Special Rapporteur’s concern also encompasses the ongoing discrimination
in citizenship laws in Myanmar, with the lack of citizenship
status of the Rohingya people in Myanmar, and the lack of recognition of
refugee status for the Rohingya people in Bangladesh (paras. 58-60 and
62). She notes that, according to statements from newly arrived Rohingya
refugees in Cox’s Bazar, conditions for the Rohingya in Rakhine State have
18 Citing Amnesty International, “We Will Destroy Everything: Military Responsibility
for Crimes against Humanity in Rakhine State” (27 June 2018).
application de convention génocide (op. ind. cançado trindade) 50
51
certains d’entre eux à se cacher, voire à tenter de mettre fin à leurs jours
pour éviter un retour forcé au Myanmar (par. 43).
47. Enfin, la rapporteuse spéciale se disait alarmée par le caractère
omniprésent du discours de haine institutionnalisé, notamment parce
qu’il était le fait de hauts responsables du Gouvernement (par. 51). Elle
soulignait que « le discours de haine et les fausses informations » venaient
« des institutions publiques liées à l’armée » (par. 53), et demandait instamment
qu’il soit définitivement mis fin à un enseignement promouvant
l’idée « d’une supériorité raciale et aliment[ant] la mésentente entre les
communautés », en supprimant « tous les passages incendiaires … des
manuels scolaires » (par. 52).
3. Le rapport de la rapporteuse spéciale sur la situation des droits
de l’homme au Myanmar du 20 août 2018
48. Encore auparavant, dans son rapport du 20 août 2018, la rapporteuse
spéciale avait condamné les violations généralisées et systématiques
du droit international des droits de l’homme et du droit international
humanitaire commises par la Tatmadaw contre la population rohingya au
Myanmar pendant des décennies, s’attachant plus particulièrement au
conflit armé et aux situations de violence à partir du mois de mars 2018
(par. 36). Elle déclarait ainsi que, selon des « informations fiables », les
33e et 99e divisions d’infanterie légère de la Tatmadaw s’étaient rendues
coupables, avec d’autres, de « violences extrêmes contre le peuple rohingya »
dans le nord de l’Etat rakhine (depuis le 25 août 2017) (par. 37), commettant
notamment des massacres au cours desquels « [b]eaucoup d’hommes,
de femmes et d’enfants [avaient] trouvé la mort » (par. 38‑39) 18.
49. La rapporteuse spéciale traitait spécifiquement des violences
sexuelles, estimant que « la menace et l’usage généralisés de la violence
sexuelle » faisaient partie de « la stratégie employée par la Tatmadaw,
visant à humilier, terroriser et soumettre les Rohingya à une répression
collective », dans l’intention de les forcer « à fuir leur foyer et de les dissuader
d’y retourner » (par. 48). Elle se disait également préoccupée des
conditions de vie effroyables dans les camps d’internement, compte tenu
de la violence et de la discrimination continues contre les Rohingya dans
l’Etat rakhine, ainsi que de la volonté de fermer les camps pour accélérer
le retour des personnes déplacées dans leur lieu d’origine (par. 52‑53).
50. La rapporteuse spéciale s’inquiétait en outre de la poursuite de la
discrimination dans la législation sur la citoyenneté au Myanmar, les
Rohingya n’ayant pas le statut de citoyen et ne voyant pas leur statut de
réfugié reconnu au Bangladesh (par. 58‑60 et 62). Elle relevait que, selon
les témoignages recueillis auprès de réfugiés récemment arrivés à Cox’s
Bazar, les conditions de vie des Rohingya dans l’Etat rakhine s’étaient
18 Citant Amnesty International, « We Will Destroy Everything: Military Responsibility
for Crimes against Humanity in Rakhine State » (27 juin 2018).
51 application of the genocide convention (sep. op. cançado trindade)
52
“worsened significantly since before the violence of August 2017 as a
result of heightened movement restrictions, lack of access to livelihoods,
education, health and basic services, and ongoing violence,
intimidation and extortion by security forces” (para. 61).
51. Furthermore, discriminatory laws, including those relating to freedom
of movement, family registration, marriage and birth, remain in
place (para. 61). The Special Rapporteur notes that pressure by security
forces for the Rohingya to accept national verification cards has led to
violence (para. 62). As to the destruction of Rohingya villages, the Special
Rapporteur notes that bases for security forces, reception and transit centres
for repatriation and model villages — which have historically been
used to encourage the resettlement of Buddhists to Rakhine State, displacing
the Muslim population, — have been built on land that was previously
home to the Rohingya (para. 63).
52. The Special Rapporteur comes to the conclusion that the aforementioned
situation in Myanmar calls for accountability, and “[j]ustice
and the right of victims to reparation should not be contingent on any
political or economic interest”, keeping in mind that “there can be no
genuine or meaningful accountability unless the victims’ concerns are
addressed” (para. 73). To that effect, she presents a series of recommendations
(paras. 75-80).
V. Provisional Measures of Protection and the Imperative of
Overcoming the Extreme Vulnerability of Victims
53. The UN reports above reviewed give accounts of great suffering on
the part of the numerous victims of the tragedy in Myanmar; further to
those who were killed or died, the surviving ones remain in a situation of
extreme vulnerability. I ascribe considerable importance to human vulnerability,
to which I have always been attentive, and I shall address this
point further in the following paragraphs of the present Part V of the
separate opinion.
54. The provisional measures of protection just ordered by the ICJ in
the cas d’espèce aim to safeguard the fundamental rights of the surviving
victims The suffering of victims has marked presence in the writings of
thinkers along the centuries. May I here recall that, in the mid‑twentieth
century, Cecília Meireles observed, in her poem “Os Mortos/The Ones
Who Died” (1945):
“Creio que o morto ainda tinha chorado, depois da morte :
enquanto os pensamentos se desagregavam,
depois de o coração se acostumar de ter parado. (. . .)
application de convention génocide (op. ind. cançado trindade) 51
52
« considérablement détériorées, avant même les violences d’août 2017,
du fait de nouvelles restrictions imposées aux déplacements, des difficultés
d’accès à des moyens de subsistance, à l’éducation, à la santé et
aux services de base, et des actes de violence, d’intimidation et d’extorsion
que les forces de sécurité continu[ai]ent de perpétrer » (par. 61).
51. De surcroît, les lois discriminatoires, notamment celles relatives à
la liberté de circulation, à l’enregistrement des familles, aux mariages et
aux naissances, étaient toujours en vigueur (par. 61). La rapporteuse spéciale
notait que les pressions exercées par les forces de sécurité pour faire
accepter les cartes de vérification de la nationalité avaient entraîné des
violences (par. 62). En ce qui concerne la destruction de villages rohingya,
elle relevait que des bases pour les forces de sécurité, des centres d’accueil
et de transit pour les rapatriés et des villages modèles — qui avaient par
le passé servi à encourager les bouddhistes à se réinstaller dans l’Etat
rakhine en déplaçant la population musulmane — avaient été construits
sur les terres où vivaient autrefois les Rohingya (par. 63).
52. La rapporteuse spéciale concluait que la situation au Myanmar
décrite ci-
dessus
exigeait que soit promu le principe de responsabilité et
que « [l]a justice et le droit des victimes à réparation ne devraient pas
dépendre d’intérêts politiques ou économiques », étant entendu qu’« on ne
p[ouvait] véritablement ou réellement parler de responsabilité si les préoccupations
des victimes n[’étaient] pas prises en compte » (par. 73). A cet
effet, elle présentait une série de recommandations (par. 75‑80).
V. Les mesures conservatoires et l’impératif de remédier
à l’extrême vulnérabilité des victimes
53. Les rapports des Nations Unies examinés ci-
dessus
font état des
grandes souffrances qu’ont subies les nombreuses victimes de la tragédie
au Myanmar. Outre ceux qui ont été tués ou ont autrement perdu la vie,
les survivants demeurent dans une situation d’extrême vulnérabilité. J’attache
une importance considérable à la vulnérabilité humaine, à laquelle
j’ai toujours été attentif. Aussi approfondirai-je ce point dans les paragraphes
suivants de la partie V de l’exposé de mon opinion individuelle.
54. Les mesures conservatoires qui viennent d’être indiquées par la Cour
en la présente espèce ont pour but de préserver les droits fondamentaux des
victimes survivantes. La souffrance des victimes a toujours été présente
dans les écrits des penseurs au fil des siècles. Permettez-moi simplement de
rappeler ici ce que disait Cecila Meireles, au milieu du XXe siècle, dans son
poème intitulé Os Mortos [Ceux qui sont morts] (1945) :
« Creio que o morto ainda tinha chorado, depois da morte :
enquanto os pensamentos se desagregavam,
depois de o coração se acostumar de ter parado.
�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������
52 application of the genocide convention (sep. op. cançado trindade)
53
Creio que o morto chorou depois da morte.
Chorou por não ter sido outro. (. . .)
Mas sobre seus olhos havia uns outros, mais infelizes,
que estavam vendo, e entendendo, e continuavam sem nada.
Sem esperança de lágrima.
Recuados para um mundo sem vibração.
Tão incapazes de sentir que se via o tempo de sua morte.
Antiga morte já entrada em esquecimento.
Já de lágrimas secas.”
[“I believe that the one who died had still cried, after death:
while the thoughts disaggregated themselves,
after the heart gets used to having stopped. (. . .)
I believe the one who died cried after death.
Cried for not having been someone else. (. . .)
But over his eyes there were some others, more unfortunate ones,
who were seeing, and understanding, and remained without anything.
Without hope of a tear.
Moved back into a world without vibration.
So incapable of feeling that one was seeing the time of their death.
Ancient death already entered into oblivion.
Already of dry tears.”] [My own translation.]
1. The Legacy of the Second World Conference on Human
Rights (1993), in Its Attention
to Human Vulnerability
55. May I now turn to another issue of particular importance here. In
the course of the work of the Second World Conference on Human
Rights (Vienna, 1993), — as I recall in my memories of it, — special
attention was turned to vulnerable persons and groups in great need of
protection, so as to overcome their defencelessness 19. There was stress on
the need of positive measures and obligations to this effect 20. The Second
World Conference on Human Rights left an important legacy, as found
in its final document, the Vienna Declaration and Programme of
19 A. A. Cançado Trindade, A Proteção dos Vulneráveis como Legado da II Conferência
Mundial de Direitos Humanos (1993-2013), Fortaleza/Brazil, IBDH/IIDH/SLADI, 2014,
pp. 59, 65, 73, 93 and 103-104.
20 Ibid., p. 76; emphasis was given to the 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights
(ibid., p. 97, note 151), and the universal juridical conscience was acknowledged as the
ultimate material source of the law of nations, of all law (ibid., p. 106).
application de convention génocide (op. ind. cançado trindade) 52
53
Creio que o morto chorou depois da morte.
Chorou por não ter sido outro.
�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������
Mas sobre seus olhos havia uns outros, mais infelizes,
que estavam vendo, e entendendo, e continuavam sem nada.
Sem esperança de lágrima.
Recuados para um mundo sem vibração.
Tão incapazes de sentir que se via o tempo de sua morte.
Antiga morte já entrada em esquecimento.
Já de lágrimas secas. »
[« Je crois que le mort pleurait toujours après son trépas :
tandis que ses pensées se désintégraient,
son coeur déjà résigné à ne plus battre
�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������
Je crois que le mort pleurait après son trépas.
Pleurait de n’avoir pas été un autre.
�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������
Mais au-
dessus
de ses yeux, d’autres, plus malheureux,
voyaient, et comprenaient, et n’avaient toujours rien.
Pas même l’espoir des larmes.
Confinés dans un monde sans vibrations.
Bien incapables de sentir que l’on voyait l’heure de leur mort.
Mort ancienne, déjà tombée dans l’oubli.
Dont les larmes sont déjà sèches. »] [Traduction du Greffe.]
1. L’héritage de la deuxième conférence mondiale sur les droits
de l’homme (1993), du point de vue de l’attention portée
à la vulnérabilité humaine
55. J’aborderai maintenant une autre question revêtant une importance
particulière aux fins du présent examen. Je me rappelle que, dans le
cadre des travaux de la deuxième conférence mondiale sur les droits de
l’homme (Vienne, 1993), une attention particulière a été portée aux personnes
et aux groupes vulnérables ayant grand besoin de protection afin
de surmonter leur impuissance 19. La nécessité que soient définies des
mesures et obligations positives à cet effet a été soulignée 20. La deuxième
conférence mondiale sur les droits de l’homme a laissé un héritage impor-
19 A. A. Cançado Trindade, A Proteção dos Vulneráveis como Legado da II Conferência
Mundial de Direitos Humanos (1993-2013), Fortaleza/Brazil, IBDH/IIDH/SLADI, 2014,
p. 59, 65, 73, 93 et 103‑104.
20 Ibid., p. 76 ; l’accent a été mis sur la Déclaration universelle des droits de l’homme
de 1948 (ibid., p. 97, note de bas de page no 151), la conscience juridique universelle ayant
été reconnue comme la source matérielle ultime du droit des gens et, de fait, de tout droit
(ibid., p. 106).
53 application of the genocide convention (sep. op. cançado trindade)
54
Action, — of which I keep a very good memory, having participated in
the work of its Drafting Committee.
56. One of the key points of the 1993 Declaration and Programme of
Action was its special attentiveness to discriminated or disadvantaged
persons, to vulnerable persons and groups, to the poor and the socially
excluded, in sum, to all those in greater need of protection 21. It was not
surprising that the 1993 World Conference was particularly attentive,
inter alia, to the condition of vulnerable groups and persons, — as the
issue which was already under the attention of United Nations organs.
57. In effect, due to the endeavours of international supervisory organs
at global and regional levels, numerous lives had been spared, reparations
for damages had been awarded, legislative measures had been adopted or
modified for the sake of protection, wrongful administrative practices had
to the same effect been terminated 22. Its legacy as a whole is to be kept in
mind nowadays 23, given the subsequent and current occurrence of atrocities
against human beings.
58. In the adjudication by the ICJ of recent cases pertaining to human
violence affecting vulnerable victims, I have deemed it fit to focus on the
legacy of the Second World Conference on Human Rights in relation to
the vulnerability of the victims. Thus, in my three extensive dissenting
opinions in the three cases of the Obligations concerning Negotiations
relating to Cessation of the Nuclear Arms Race and to Nuclear Disarmament
(Judgments of 10 May 2016 — cf. infra), in my firm support of that
universal obligation I drew attention to the focus on “attention on vulnerable
segments of the populations” and the concern with “meeting
basic human needs” (para. 124).
59. I added that a basic concern of the Second World Conference on
Human Rights
“as I have pointed out on distinct occasions along the last two decades
24 — can be found in the recognition of the legitimacy of the
21 United Nations, Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action, New York, 1993,
pp. 25‑71. As it became clear that human rights permeate all areas of human activity,
the incorporation of the human rights dimension in all programmes and activities of the
United Nations was propounded in the Vienna Conference.
22 In addition, national democratic institutions had been strengthened, and positive
measures and educational programmes had been adopted.
23 Cf. A. A. Cançado Trindade, “The International Law of Human Rights Two Decades
after the Second World Conference on Human Rights in Vienna in 1993”, The Realization
of Human Rights: When Theory Meets Practice — Studies in Honour of Leo Zwaak (eds.
Y. Haeck et al.), Cambridge/Antwerp/Portland, Intersentia, 2013, pp. 15‑39.
24 A. A. Cançado Trindade, A Proteção dos Vulneráveis, op. cit. supra note 19, 2014,
pp. 13‑356; A. A. Cançado Trindade, “Sustainable Human Development and Conditions of
application de convention génocide (op. ind. cançado trindade) 53
54
tant, que l’on retrouve dans son document final, la déclaration et le programme
d’action de Vienne, dont je me souviens fort bien puisque j’ai
participé aux travaux de son comité de rédaction.
56. L’un des points essentiels de la déclaration et du programme d’action
de 1993 est l’attention particulière qui y est portée aux personnes discriminées
ou désavantagées, aux personnes et aux groupes vulnérables,
aux pauvres et aux personnes socialement exclues — en somme, à tous
ceux qui ont grand besoin de protection 21. Il n’est guère surprenant que la
conférence mondiale de 1993 se soit spécialement intéressée, entre autres,
à la condition des groupes et personnes vulnérables, étant donné que certains
organes des Nations Unies se penchaient déjà sur cette question.
57. En effet, grâce aux efforts des organes de surveillance internationaux
aux niveaux mondial et régional, nombre de vies avaient été épargnées, des
réparations avaient été accordées, des mesures avaient été adoptées ou
modifiées en vue d’assurer une protection, et, à cette même fin, il avait été
mis fin à certaines pratiques administratives illicites 22. Compte tenu des
atrocités qui ont été commises par la suite contre des êtres humains — et
qui le sont encore aujourd’hui —, il convient cependant de garder à l’esprit
l’héritage de la conférence de Vienne dans son ensemble 23.
58. Dans le cadre de récentes affaires se rapportant à la violence humaine
affectant des victimes vulnérables dans lesquelles la Cour s’est prononcée,
j’ai jugé utile de m’attacher à l’héritage de la deuxième conférence mondiale
sur les droits de l’homme, du point de vue de la vulnérabilité des victimes.
Ainsi, dans les trois exposés approfondis de mon opinion dissidente qui ont
été joints aux arrêts rendus dans les affaires des Obligations relatives à des
négociations concernant la cessation de la course aux armes nucléaires et le
désarmement nucléaire (arrêts du 10 mai 2016 — voir ci-après), soutenant
fermement cette obligation universelle, j’ai appelé l’attention sur « la condition
des couches les plus vulnérables de la population » et la nécessité de
« répondre aux besoins essentiels des individus » (par. 124).
59. J’ai ajouté que la deuxième conférence mondiale sur les droits de
l’homme avait un trait essentiel,
« [c]omme j’ai eu plusieurs fois l’occasion de le dire au cours des vingt
dernières années 24 … à savoir qu’elles consacraient la légitimité des
21 Nations Unies, Déclaration et programme d’action de Vienne, New York, 1993,
p. 25‑71 ; étant donné qu’il apparaissait clairement que les droits de l’homme imprégnaient
tous les domaines de l’activité humaine, il a été proposé à la conférence de Vienne d’incorporer
la dimension des droits de l’homme dans l’ensemble des programmes et activités des
Nations Unies.
22 En outre, les institutions démocratiques nationales avaient été renforcées et des
mesures et programmes éducatifs, adoptés.
23 Voir A. A. Cançado Trindade, « The International Law of Human Rights Two Decades
after the Second World Conference on Human Rights in Vienna in 1993 », The Realization of
Human Rights: When Theory Meets Practice — Studies in Honour of Leo Zwaak (Y. Haeck
et alii (dir. publ.)), Cambridge/Anvers/Portland, Intersentia, 2013, p. 15‑39.
24 A. A. Cançado Trindade, A Proteção dos Vulneráveis, op. cit. supra note de bas de
page no 19, 2014, p. 13‑356 ; A. A. Cançado Trindade, « Sustainable Human Development
54 application of the genocide convention (sep. op. cançado trindade)
55
concern of the international community as a whole with the conditions
of living of all human beings everywhere. The placing of the
well-being of peoples and human beings, of the improvement of their
conditions of living, at the centre of the concerns of the international
community, is remindful of the historical origins of the droit des
gens.” 25 (Para. 125.)
60. Moreover, I have retaken my considerations on the matter in my
subsequent separate opinion in the ICJ’s Order (of 19 April 2017) in the
case of the Application of the International Convention for the Suppression
of the Financing of Terrorism and of the International Convention on the
Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (Ukraine v. Russian
Federation), wherein I have stressed the relevance of provisional measures
of protection in a situation of a strong adversity and sufferings of
the victimized persons. I have proceeded, in this new and long separate
opinion, to elucidate a series of issues, some of which raised also now in
the cas d’espèce.
61. It is not my intention to reiterate here all my clarifications made
and examined in my separate opinion of almost three years ago. May I
just refer briefly here to some of the points I have made on that occasion
in the ICJ’s decision in that case opposing Ukraine to the Russian Federation.
To start with, I have examined the treatment of human vulnerability
— including cases of extreme vulnerability — in the case law of
contemporary international tribunals, such as the ICJ, the Inter-American
Court of Human Rights (IACtHR) and the European Court of Human
Rights (ECHR) (paras. 12-20).
62. In my examination of such treatment in successive cases, I have
pondered, inter alia, that
“It is significant that, in our times, cases pertaining to situations of
extreme adversity or vulnerability of human beings have been brought
Life as a Matter of Legitimate International Concern: The Legacy of the UN World Conferences”,
Japan and International Law — Past, Present and Future (International Symposium
to Mark the Centennial of the Japanese Association of International Law), The Hague,
Kluwer, 1999, pp. 285‑309; A. A. Cançado Trindade, “The Contribution of Recent World
Conferences of the United Nations to the Relations between Sustainable Development
and Economic, Social and Cultural Rights”, Les hommes et l’environnement: Quels droits
pour le vingt‑et‑unième siècle? — Etudes en hommage à Alexandre Kiss (eds. M. Prieur and
C. Lambrechts), Paris, Ed. Frison‑Roche, 1998, pp. 119‑146; A. A. Cançado Trindade,
“Memória da Conferência Mundial de Direitos Humanos (Vienna, 1993)”, 87/90 Boletim
da Sociedade Brasileira de Direito Internacional (1993‑1994), pp. 9‑57.
25 Those conferences acknowledged that human rights do in fact permeate all areas of
human activity, and contributed decisively to the re-establishment
of the central position
of human beings in the conceptual universe of the law of nations (droit des gens). Cf., on
the matter, A. A. Cançado Trindade, Evolution du droit international au droit des gens —
L’accès des particuliers à la justice internationale: le regard d’un juge, Paris, Pedone, 2008,
pp. 1‑187.
application de convention génocide (op. ind. cançado trindade) 54
55
préoccupations que la détérioration des conditions d’existence
constatée partout dans le monde inspirait à la communauté internationale
tout entière. Ces conférences, plaçant le bien‑être des peuples
et des individus et l’amélioration de leurs conditions de vie au centre
des préoccupations de la communauté internationale, nous invitent à
un retour aux origines historiques du droit des gens. » 25 (Par. 125.)
60. Par la suite, je suis revenu sur mes considérations en la matière
dans l’exposé de mon opinion individuelle qui a été joint à l’ordonnance
rendue par la Cour le 19 avril 2017 en l’affaire relative à l’Application de
la convention internationale pour la répression du financement du terrorisme
et de la convention internationale sur l’élimination de toutes les formes de
discrimination raciale (Ukraine c. Fédération de Russie), dans lequel j’ai
souligné la pertinence des mesures conservatoires lorsque les victimes se
trouvent en situation de grande adversité et souffrance. Dans ces nouveaux
développements approfondis, j’ai en outre mis en lumière un certain
nombre de questions qui, pour partie, se sont de nouveau posées en
la présente espèce.
61. Ne souhaitant pas réitérer ici l’ensemble des éclairages que j’ai
apportés dans cet exposé, qui remonte à près de trois ans, je me contenterai
d’en reprendre certains points. Pour commencer, je me suis penché,
dans le cadre de la décision que la Cour a rendue en l’affaire opposant
l’Ukraine à la Fédération de Russie, sur le traitement réservé à la vulnérabilité
humaine — y compris en cas d’extrême vulnérabilité — dans la
jurisprudence des juridictions internationales contemporaines, telles que
la Cour internationale de Justice, la Cour interaméricaine des droits de
l’homme et la Cour européenne des droits de l’homme (par. 12‑20).
62. En examinant ce traitement, j’ai notamment estimé qu’
« [i]l [était] révélateur que la Cour, comme d’autres juridictions internationales,
se voie aujourd’hui saisie d’affaires dans le cadre desquelles
and Conditions of Life as a Matter of Legitimate International Concern : The Legacy of the
UN World Conferences », Japan and International Law — Past, Present and Future (International
Symposium to Mark the Centennial of the Japanese Association of International
Law), La Haye, Kluwer, 1999, p. 285‑309 ; A. A. Cançado Trindade, « The Contribution
of Recent World Conferences of the United Nations to the Relations between Sustainable
Development and Economic, Social and Cultural Rights », Les hommes et l’environnement
: Quels droits pour le vingt‑et‑unième siècle ? — Etudes en hommage à Alexandre Kiss
(ouvrage collectif, M. Prieur et C. Lambrechts
(dir. publ.)), Paris, Ed. Frison‑Roche, 1998,
p. 119‑146 ; A. A. Cançado Trindade, « Memória da Conferência Mundial de Direitos
Humanos (Vienne, 1993) », Boletim da Sociedade Brasileira de Direito Internacional
(1993‑1994), vol. 87/90, p. 9‑57.
25 Les participants à ces conférences ont reconnu que, de fait, l’idéal des droits de
l’homme imprégnait tous les domaines de l’activité humaine, et avait contribué de façon
décisive à replacer les êtres humains au centre de l’appareil conceptuel du droit des gens.
Voir à ce sujet A. A. Cançado Trindade, Evolution du droit international au droit des
gens — L’accès des particuliers à la justice internationale : le regard d’un juge, Paris, Pedone,
2008, p. 1‑187.
55 application of the genocide convention (sep. op. cançado trindade)
56
to the attention of the ICJ as well as other international tribunals.
This is, in my perception, a sign of the new paradigm of the humanized
international law, the new jus gentium 26 of our times, sensitive and
attentive to the needs of protection of the human person in any
circumstances
of vulnerability. The case law of international human
rights tribunals is particularly illustrative in this respect.” (I.C.J. Reports
2017, p. 162, para. 17.)
63. In the same case of Ukraine v. Russian Federation, — I went on, —
a worrisome illustration of the urgent need for provisional measures of
protection was provided by the continuous indiscriminate shelling of the
civilian population from all sides, in densely populated areas (in eastern
Ukraine), in breach of the international law of human rights and of international
humanitarian law (ibid., pp. 165‑166, paras. 27-28). Non-compliance
with the needed provisional measures of protection generates
the responsibility of the State, with legal consequences (ibid., p. 159,
para. 8).
64. The gravity of the situation in the cas d’espèce, I proceeded, required
provisional measures of protection, oriented by the principle pro persona
humana, pro victima (ibid., pp. 184‑185, para. 85). This — I added —
“requires the ICJ to go beyond the strict inter-State dimension (the
one it is used to, attached to a dogma of the past), and to concentrate
attention on victims (including the potential ones 27), — be they individuals
28, groups of individuals 29, peoples or humankind 30, as subjects
of international law, — and not on inter-State susceptibilities.
26 Cf. A. A. Cançado Trindade, A Humanização do Direito Internacional, 2nd rev. ed.,
Belo Horizonte, Edit. Del Rey, 2015, pp. 3‑782; A. A. Cançado Trindade, La Humanización
del Derecho Internacional Contemporáneo, México, Edit. Porrúa/IMDPC, 2013,
pp. 1‑324; A. A. Cançado Trindade, Los Tribunales Internacionales Contemporáneos y la
Humanización del Derecho Internacional, Buenos Aires, Ed. Ad-Hoc, 2013, pp. 7‑185.
27 On the notion of potential victims in the framework of the evolution of the notion
of victim (or the condition of the complainant) in the domain of the International Law of
Human Rights, cf. A. A. Cançado Trindade, “Co-existence
and Co-ordination
of Mechanisms
of International Protection of Human Rights (At Global and Regional Levels)”,
202 Recueil des cours de l’Académie de droit international de La Haye (1987), Chap. XI,
pp. 243‑299, esp. pp. 271‑292.
28 As I pointed out in my separate opinions of the Ahmadou Sadio Diallo (Republic
of Guinea v. Democratic Republic of the Congo) case (Judgments of 30 November 2010,
Merits; and of 19 June 2012, Reparations).
29 As I sustained in my dissenting and separate opinions in the case of Questions relating
to the Obligation to Prosecute or Extradite (Belgium v. Senegal) (Order of 28 May 2009,
and Judgment of 20 July 2012, respectively), as well as in my dissenting opinion in the
case of the Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of
Genocide (Croatia v. Serbia) (Judgment of 3 February 2015).
30 As I upheld in my three dissenting opinions in Obligations concerning Negotiations
relating to Cessation of the Nuclear Arms Race and to Nuclear Disarmament (Marshall
Islands v. India) (Marshall Islands v. Pakistan) (Marshall Islands v. United Kingdom)
(Jurisdiction and Admissibility, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2016 (I), p. 255 et seq.).
application de convention génocide (op. ind. cançado trindade) 55
56
des êtres humains se trouvent en situation d’extrême adversité ou vulnérabilité.
Cela témoigne selon moi de l’émergence d’un nouveau paradigme
— celui du droit international humanisé, du jus gentium des temps
modernes 26, reflétant le souci et la volonté de protéger toute personne
humaine en situation de vulnérabilité. La jurisprudence des juridictions
internationales garantes des droits de l’homme en offre une illustration
particulièrement éclairante. » (C.I.J. Recueil 2017, p. 162, par. 17.)
63. Dans cette même affaire opposant l’Ukraine à la Fédération de
Russie, ai-je poursuivi, une illustration préoccupante du besoin urgent de
mesures conservatoires était fournie par les tirs d’artillerie continus et
sans discrimination, imputables aux différentes parties, ayant frappé la
population civile dans des zones densément peuplées (d’Ukraine orientale),
en violations des droits de l’homme et du droit international humanitaire
(ibid., p. 165-166, par. 27‑28). Le non-respect
des mesures
conservatoires requises entraîne la responsabilité de l’Etat, avec les conséquences
qui s’ensuivent sur le plan juridique (ibid., p. 159, par. 8).
64. J’ai ensuite indiqué que la gravité de la situation dans cette affaire
exigeait l’indication de mesures conservatoires guidées par le principe pro
persona humana, pro victima (ibid., p. 184-185, par. 85), ce qui, ai-je ajouté,
« impos[ait] … à la Cour de dépasser la dimension strictement interétatique
(celle qu’elle a coutume d’appliquer, associée au dogme du
passé), et de centrer son attention sur les victimes (y compris les victimes
potentielles 27) — qu’il s’agisse de personnes 28, de groupes de
personnes 29, de peuples ou du genre humain dans son ensemble 30, en
26 Voir A. A. Cançado Trindade, A Humanização do Direito Internacional, 1re éd. Belo
Horizonte (Brésil), éd. Del Rey, 2006, p. 3‑409 ; 2e éd. rev., Belo Horizonte (Brésil), éd. Del
Rey, 2015, p. 3‑782 ; A. A. Cançado Trindade, La Humanización del Derecho Internacional
Contemporáneo, Mexico, Ed. Porrúa/IMDPC, 2013, p. 1‑324 ; A. A. Cançado Trindade,
Los Tribunales Internacionales Contemporáneos y la Humanización del Derecho Internacional,
Buenos Aires, éd. Ad-Hoc, 2013, p. 7‑185.
27 Sur la notion de victimes potentielles dans le contexte de l’évolution de la notion de
victime (ou de la condition du demandeur) dans le domaine de la protection internationale
des droits de l’homme, voir A. A. Cançado Trindade, « Co‑existence and Co‑ordination
of Mechanisms of International Protection of Human Rights (At Global and Regional
Levels) », Recueil des cours de l’Académie de droit international de La Haye, vol. 202 (1987),
chap. XI, p. 243‑299, en particulier p. 271‑292.
28 Ainsi que je l’ai souligné dans l’exposé des opinions individuelles que j’ai jointes
en l’affaire Ahmadou Sadio Diallo (République de Guinée c. République démocratique du
Congo) (fond, 30 novembre 2010 ; réparations, 19 juin 2012).
29 Ainsi que je l’ai affirmé dans les opinions dissidente et individuelle que j’ai jointes en
l’affaire relative à des Questions concernant l’obligation de poursuivre ou d’extrader (Belgique
c. Sénégal) (ordonnance du 28 mai 2009 et arrêt du 20 juillet 2012, respectivement), ainsi
que dans mon opinion dissidente en l’affaire relative à l’Application de la convention pour la
prévention et la répression du crime de génocide (Croatie c. Serbie) (arrêt du 3 février 2015).
30 Ainsi que je l’ai soutenu dans les trois récentes opinions dissidentes dans les trois
affaires des Obligations relatives à des négociations concernant la cessation de la course
aux armes nucléaires et le désarmement nucléaire (Iles Marshall c. Indes) (Iles Marshall c.
Pakistan) (Iles Marshall c. Royaume Uni) (compéténce et recevabilité, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil
2016 (I), p. 255 et suiv.).
56 application of the genocide convention (sep. op. cançado trindade)
57
Human beings in vulnerability are the ultimate beneficiaries of provisional
measures of protection, endowed nowadays with a truly tutelary
character, as true jurisdictional guarantees of preventive
character.” (I.C.J. Reports 2017, p. 185, para. 86.)
65. I then warned that the need of greater attention to human vulnerability
was to be carefully faced with full awareness of the pressing need
to secure protection to the affected human beings (ibid., pp. 185‑186,
paras. 87-88). The principle of humanity comes to the fore (ibid., p. 186,
para. 90), permeating the whole corpus juris of contemporary international
law, with “a clear incidence on the protection of persons in situations
of great vulnerability. (. . .) Human beings stand in need, ultimately,
of protection against evil, which lies within themselves” (ibid., p. 185,
para. 91).
2. International Case Law and the Need of Properly
Addressing Human Vulnerability
(a) Support for the relevance of consideration of vulnerability of the victims
66. The Second World Conference on Human Rights remained faithful
to the legacy of the 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights and
provided responses to new challenges. The warning of the Universal Declaration
has been kept in mind, to the effect that “disregard and contempt
for human rights have resulted in barbarous acts which have outraged the
conscience of mankind” (preamble, para. 2). The Declaration further
warns that “it is essential, if man is not compelled to have recourse, as a
last resort, to rebellion against tyranny and oppression, that human rights
should be protected by the rule of law” (ibid., para. 3). And it asserts that
“recognition of the inherent dignity and of the equal and inalienable
rights of all members of the human family is the foundation of freedom,
justice and peace in the world” (ibid., para. 1).
67. International case law is gradually reckoning the need of properly
addressing human vulnerability. Within the ICJ, I have been constantly
attentive to this needed development. Thus, in my separate opinion in the
ICJ’s Order of provisional measures of protection (of 18 July 2011) in the
case of the Request for Interpretation of the Judgment of 15 June 1962 in
the Case concerning the Temple of Preah Vihear (Cambodia v. Thailand)
(Cambodia v. Thailand), I pointed out that there have been cases where
the ICJ, in indicating such measures, like in the cas d’espèce, “most significantly
went beyond the inter-State dimension, in expressing its concern
also for the human persons (les personnes humaines) in situations of risk,
or vulnerability and adversity” (I.C.J. Reports 2011 (II), p. 591,
para. 74).
application de convention génocide (op. ind. cançado trindade) 56
57
tant que sujets de droit international —, et non pas sur les susceptibilités
interétatiques. Les êtres humains en situation de vulnérabilité sont
en définitive les bénéficiaires des mesures conservatoires, qui revêtent
aujourd’hui un caractère véritablement tutélaire et constituent une
réelle garantie juridictionnelle de nature préventive. » (C.I.J. Recueil
2017, p. 185, par. 86.)
65. J’ai ensuite précisé que la nécessité qu’il soit porté une plus grande
attention à la vulnérabilité humaine devait être soigneusement appréciée
en tenant pleinement compte du besoin impérieux d’assurer la protection
des êtres humains affectés (ibid., p. 185-186, par. 87-88). Le principe d’humanité
passe en premier (ibid., p. 186, par. 90) ; il imprègne l’ensemble du
corpus juris du droit international contemporain et « a une incidence avérée
sur la protection des êtres humains particulièrement vulnérables. … En
définitive, les êtres humains ont besoin d’être protégés du mal inhérent à
l’homme » (ibid., p. 185, par. 91).
2. La jurisprudence internationale et la nécessité de traiter
comme il se doit la vulnérabilité humaine
a) Eléments attestant la pertinence de la prise en compte de la vulnérabilité
des victimes
66. La deuxième conférence mondiale sur les droits de l’homme est
demeurée fidèle à l’héritage de la Déclaration universelle des droits de
l’homme de 1948, tout en apportant des réponses à de nouveaux défis. La
mise en garde formulée dans la Déclaration, selon laquelle « la méconnaissance
et le mépris des droits de l’homme ont conduit à des actes de barbarie
qui révoltent la conscience de l’humanité » (alinéa 2 du préambule), est restée
présente à l’esprit. Ainsi que le précise également la Déclaration, « il est essentiel
que les droits de l’homme soient protégés par un régime de droit pour
que l’homme ne soit pas contraint, en suprême recours, à la révolte contre la
tyrannie et l’oppression » (alinéa 3 du préambule). Enfin, il y est affirmé que
« la reconnaissance de la dignité inhérente à tous les membres de la famille
humaine et de leurs droits égaux et inaliénables constitue le fondement de la
liberté, de la justice et de la paix dans le monde » (alinéa 1 du préambule).
67. La nécessité de traiter comme il se doit la vulnérabilité humaine est
progressivement reconnue dans la jurisprudence internationale. En tant
que membre de la Cour, j’ai toujours été attentif à cette évolution indispensable.
Ainsi, dans l’exposé de mon opinion individuelle qui a été joint
à l’ordonnance en indication de mesures conservatoires que la Cour a rendue
le 18 juillet 2011 en l’affaire de la Demande en interprétation de l’arrêt
du 15 juin 1962 en l’affaire du Temple de Préah Vihéar (Cambodge c. Thaïlande),
j’ai précisé qu’il y avait eu des affaires, telle que celle-
ci, dans lesquelles
la Cour, en indiquant pareilles mesures, « [était] — démarche très
importante — allée au-
delà de la dimension interétatique, en s’inquiétant
aussi du sort des personnes qui se trouvaient en danger ou en situation de
vulnérabilité ou de détresse » (C.I.J. Recueil 2011 (II), p. 591, par. 74).
57 application of the genocide convention (sep. op. cançado trindade)
58
68. In my separate opinion in the ICJ’s Judgment (on reparations, of
19 June 2012) in the case of Ahmadou Sadio Diallo (Republic of Guinea v.
Democratic Republic of the Congo), I pondered that measures adopted for
the rehabilitation of those victimized in cases of grave violations of their
rights, “have intended to overcome the extreme vulnerability of victims,
and to restore their identity and integrity” (Compensation, Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 2012 (I), p. 379, para. 84). Earlier on, in the same case of
Ahmadou Sadio Diallo (Merits, Judgment of 30 November 2010), I related,
in my separate opinion, the pressing need to overcome the situation of
vulnerability or even defencelessness of victims to the principle of humanity
in its wide dimension (I.C.J. Reports 2010 (II), p. 762, para. 105).
69. On other occasions, likewise, I have addressed the matter in the
ICJ: for example, in my dissenting opinion in the case of the Jurisdictional
Immunities of the State (Germany v. Italy: Greece intervening), I drew
attention to the increased vulnerability of victimized persons (Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 2012 (I), pp. 243-244, para. 175); and in my separate opinion
in the case of the Questions relating to the Obligation to Prosecute or
Extradite (Belgium v. Senegal), I considered the vulnerability and rehabilitation
of victims (Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2012 (II), p. 555, para. 174).
All these ponderations, in addition to others, are duly systematized 31.
(b) Invocation of occurrence of extreme human vulnerability
70. In the oral proceedings before the ICJ in the cas d’espèce, the
Applicant State has been attentive to the utter vulnerability of the
Rohingya; thus, in the public hearing of 10 December 2019, it referred, in
this respect, to the point made by the UN Mission’s Report (of 17 September
2018) 32 that their “extreme vulnerability” was “a consequence of
State policies and practices implemented over decades” 33. The Gambia
has devoted a whole part of its oral arguments to “The Rohingya’s Vulnerability
to Continuing Acts of Genocide” (Part IV); in assessing “the
situation of the approximately 600,000 Rohingya who remain in Myanmar
today” (p. 37, para. 1), it characterized their situation as “one of
extreme vulnerability, with ongoing acts of genocide against them, and
the grave risk that even more heinous atrocities (. . .) will be inflicted
upon them at any time” (ibid., p. 37, para. 2).
31 Cf. Judge A. A. Cançado Trindade — The Construction of a Humanized International
Law — A Collection of Individual Opinions (1991-2013), Vol. II (International Court of
Justice), The Hague/Leiden, Brill/Nijhoff, 2014, pp. 967, 1779-1780, 1685, 1469 and 1597,
respectively.
32 UN Human Rights Council, Report of the Detailed Findings of the Independent International
Fact-Finding
Mission on Myanmar, UN doc. A/HRC/39/CRP.2 (17 September
2018), para. 458.
33 CR 2019/18, of 10 December 2019, p. 23, para. 9.
application de convention génocide (op. ind. cançado trindade) 57
58
68. Dans l’exposé de mon opinion individuelle qui a été joint à l’arrêt
que la Cour a rendu sur les réparations le 19 juin 2012 en l’affaire Ahmadou
Sadio Diallo (République de Guinée c. République démocratique du Congo),
j’ai considéré que les mesures adoptées en vue de la réhabilitation des victimes
ayant subi de graves violations de leurs droits « visaient à permettre
aux victimes de surmonter leur extrême vulnérabilité et de recouvrer leur
identité et leur intégrité » (indemnisation, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2012 (I),
p. 379, par. 84). Dans le cadre de l’arrêt rendu au fond en cette même
affaire le 30 novembre 2010, j’avais déjà, en exposant mon opinion individuelle,
souligné la nécessité pressante de surmonter la situation de vulnérabilité
voire d’impuissance des victimes en appliquant le principe d’humanité
au sens large (C.I.J. Recueil 2010 (II), p. 762, par. 105).
69. J’ai également examiné cette question en d’autres occasions dans
l’exercice de mes fonctions à la Cour. Ainsi, dans l’exposé de mon opinion
dissidente qui a été joint à l’arrêt rendu le 3 février 2012 en l’affaire relative
aux Immunités juridictionnelles de l’Etat (Allemagne c. Italie ; Grèce (intervenant)),
j’ai appelé l’attention sur la vulnérabilité croissante des victimes
(arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2012 (I), p. 243-244, par. 175) ; dans l’exposé de mon
opinion individuelle qui a été joint à l’arrêt rendu le 20 juillet 2012 en l’affaire
relative à des Questions concernant l’obligation de poursuivre ou d’extrader
(Belgique c. Sénégal), je me suis penché sur la vulnérabilité et la
réhabilitation des victimes (arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2012 (II), p. 555, par. 174).
Toutes ces réflexions, et d’autres encore, ont été dûment systématisées 31.
b) L’invocation de cas d’extrême vulnérabilité humaine
70. Au cours de la procédure orale en la présente espèce, le demandeur
a été attentif à la terrible vulnérabilité des Rohingya. Ainsi, à l’audience
du 10 décembre 2019, il s’est référé à cet égard à ce qu’avait indiqué la
mission des Nations Unies dans son rapport du 17 septembre 2018 32, à
savoir que cette « extrême vulnérabilité » était « la conséquence de politiques
et de pratiques de l’Etat mises en oeuvre depuis plusieurs décennies
» 33. La Gambie a consacré une partie entière de ses exposés oraux à
« la vulnérabilité des Rohingya aux actes de génocide qui se poursuivent »
(partie IV) ; en examinant « la situation des quelque 600 000 Rohingya qui
demeurent aujourd’hui au Myanmar » (p. 37, par. 1), elle a précisé que les
intéressés « se trouv[ai]ent dans une situation d’extrême vulnérabilité,
continuant d’être victimes d’actes de génocide et de risquer de se voir à
tout moment infliger des atrocités plus graves encore » (ibid., p. 37, par. 2).
31 Voir Judge A. A. Cançado Trindade — The Construction of a Humanized International
Law — A Collection of Individual Opinions (1991-2013), vol. II (International Court
of Justice), La Haye/Leyde, Brill/Nijhoff, 2014, p. 967, 1779‑1780, 1685, 1469 et 1597,
respectivement.
32 Report of the Detailed Findings of the Independent International Fact-Finding
Mission
on Myanmar, Conseil des droits de l’homme des Nations Unies, doc. A/HRC/39/CRP.2
(17 septembre 2018), par. 458.
33 CR 2019/18, p. 23, par. 9.
58 application of the genocide convention (sep. op. cançado trindade)
59
71. Moreover, in referring to occasions in which the ICJ took note of
human vulnerability in its own case law (p. 58, paras. 9 and 11), The Gambia
has added that in the present case “the Rohingya are not only deprived
of their political, social and cultural rights, they are threatened with massive
loss of life itself, and, striking at the heart of these proceedings, with
loss of their very existence as a group” (p. 58, para. 11).
72. Invocation of extreme human vulnerability is a key element to be
taken into account in a decision concerning provisional measures of protection,
in a case like the present one, on the Application of the Convention
against Genocide. In effect, from time to time, the ICJ has been seized of
cases disclosing human cruelty, always present in the history of humankind.
For example, in its three Judgments in the three cases of the Obligations
concerning Negotiations relating to Cessation of the Nuclear Arms
Race and to Nuclear Disarmament (Marshall Islands v. United Kingdom)
(Marshall Islands v. India) (Marshall Islands v. Pakistan), as the Court
has found itself — by a split majority — without jurisdiction to adjudicate
them, I have appended three strong dissenting opinions thereto.
73. In my three dissents, I have warned of the manifest illegality of
nuclear weapons, which constitute a continuing threat to humankind as a
whole. I dwelt extensively upon evil and cruelty in human relations, having
deemed it fit to devote one part (XVI) of my dissenting opinions to
“The Principle of Humanity and the Universalist Approach: Jus Necessarium
Transcending the Limitations of Jus Voluntarium”, preceded, inter
alia, by another part (VIII) on “Human Wickedness: From the Twenty-
First Century Back to the Book of Genesis”.
74. In the earlier parts of my dissents, I recalled the presence in the
reasoning of many influential thinkers of the twentieth century (inter alia,
in the middle of last century, Mahatma Gandhi and Stefan Zweig, among
several others in distinct continents) warning against human wickedness
with its numerous victims of the atrocities perpetrated at that time and
before, and continuing nowadays. And I have stressed, in face of the persistence
of human cruelty, the great need for a people-centred
approach,
keeping in mind the fundamental right to life, with the raison d’humanité
prevailing over the raison d’Etat.
VI. The Utmost Importance of the Safeguard of Fundamental
Rights by Provisional Measures of Protection,
in the Domain of Jus Cogens
1. Fundamental, Rather than “Plausible”, Rights
75. The rights protected by the present Order of provisional measures
of protection are truly fundamental rights, starting with the right to life,
application de convention génocide (op. ind. cançado trindade) 58
59
71. De plus, se référant aux cas dans lesquels la Cour avait pris note de
la vulnérabilité humaine (p. 58, par. 9 et 11), la Gambie a ajouté que, en
la présente espèce, « les Rohingya [étaient] non seulement privés de leurs
droits politiques, sociaux et culturels, mais … menacés de la perte massive
de vies humaines et, ce qui est au coeur même de cette procédure, cour[ai]ent
le risque de perdre leur existence même en tant que groupe » (p. 58, par. 11).
72. L’extrême vulnérabilité humaine est un élément essentiel à prendre
en considération dans une décision relative à des mesures conservatoires
dans le cadre d’une affaire telle que la présente espèce, sur l’Application de
la convention sur le génocide. De fait, la Cour a été saisie de certaines
affaires mettant au jour la cruauté humaine, laquelle a toujours été présente
dans l’histoire de l’humanité. Lorsqu’elle a jugé — à la majorité —,
dans les arrêts qu’elle a rendus le 10 mai 2016 dans les trois affaires des
Obligations relatives à des négociations concernant la cessation de la course
aux armes nucléaires et le désarmement nucléaire (Iles Marshall
c. Royaume-Uni) (Iles Marshall c. Inde) (Iles Marshall c. Pakistan),
qu’elle n’avait pas compétence pour se prononcer dans ces affaires, j’ai
exposé avec fermeté mon opinion dissidente.
73. Dans ces trois exposés, j’ai souligné l’illicéité manifeste des armes
nucléaires, qui représentent une menace permanente pour l’humanité
dans son ensemble. J’ai alors examiné de manière approfondie les problèmes
du mal et de la cruauté dans les relations humaines, jugeant utile
de consacrer une partie desdits exposés (la partie XVI) au thème suivant :
« Le principe d’humanité et la conception universaliste du droit : le jus
necessarium transcende les limites du jus voluntarium ». Cette partie était
notamment précédée de la partie VIII, consacrée au thème suivant : « La
malfaisance de l’homme : actualité du Livre de la Genèse au XXIe siècle ».
74. Dans cette partie des exposés de mon opinion dissidente, j’ai rappelé
que nombre de penseurs influents du XXe siècle (parmi lesquels, au
milieu du siècle dernier, le Mahatma Gandhi et Stefan Zweig — d’autres
ayant, sur des continents différents, exprimé la même idée) avaient alerté
le monde sur la malfaisance de l’homme, les atrocités perpétrées à cette
époque et auparavant — atrocités qui se poursuivent aujourd’hui —
ayant fait de très nombreuses victimes. Enfin, face à la persistance de la
cruauté humaine, j’ai souligné la nécessité impérieuse d’adopter une
approche centrée sur les peuples en ayant à l’esprit le droit fondamental à
la vie, la raison d’humanité devant l’emporter sur la raison d’Etat.
VI. L’importance primordiale de la sauvegarde des droits
fondamentaux au moyen de mesures conservatoires,
dans le domaine du jus cogens
1. Des droits fondamentaux, et non « plausibles »
75. Les droits protégés par la présente ordonnance en indication de
mesures conservatoires sont réellement des droits fondamentaux, à com-
59 application of the genocide convention (sep. op. cançado trindade)
60
right to personal integrity, right to health, among others. The ICJ, once
again, refers to rights which appear to it “plausible” (e.g., para. 56), as it
has become used to, always with my criticisms. In referring to the arguments
of the Contending Parties, only in paragraphs 46-47 of the present
Order, among others, there appear ten references to “plausible”, related
to rights, acts, facts, claims, genocidal intent, inferences.
76. There is great need of serious reflection on this superficial use of
“plausible”, which is devoid of a meaning. I do not intend to reiterate
here all the criticisms I have been making on resort to “plausible”, whatever
that means. May I just recall that, in the course of last year (2018),
on more than one occasion I dwelt upon this matter. Thus, in my separate
opinion in the case of Application of the International Convention on the
Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (Qatar v. United Arab
Emirates), I pondered that
“The test of so-called
‘plausibility’ of rights is, in my perception,
an unfortunate invention — a recent one — of the majority of the
ICJ.
�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������
It appears that each one feels free to interpret so-called
‘plausibility’
of rights in the way one feels like; this may be due to the fact that the
Court’s majority itself has not elaborated on what such ‘plausibility’
means. To invoke ‘plausibility’ as a new ‘precondition’, creating
undue difficulties for the granting of provisional measures of protection
in relation to a continuing situation, is misleading, it renders a
disservice to the realization of justice.” (Provisional Measures, Order
of 23 July 2018, I.C.J. Reports 2018 (II), pp. 456‑457, paras. 57 and
59.)
77. In sequence, in the same separate opinion, I deemed it fit to warn,
inter alia, that
“The so-called
‘plausibility’ of rights is surrounded by uncertainties,
which are much increased in trying to add to it the so-called
‘plausibility’ of admissibility, undermining provisional measures of
protection as jurisdictional guarantees of a preventive character. It is
time to awaken and to concentrate attention on the nature of provisional
measures of protection, particularly under human rights treaties,
to the benefit of human beings experiencing a continuing situation
of vulnerability affecting their rights.” (Ibid., p. 457, para. 60.)
78. Shortly afterwards, in my separate opinion in the case of Alleged
Violations of the 1955 Treaty of Amity, Economic Relations, and Consular
Rights (Islamic Republic of Iran v. United States of America), I criticized
application de convention génocide (op. ind. cançado trindade) 59
60
mencer, entre autres, par le droit à la vie, le droit à l’intégrité personnelle,
le droit à la santé. Une fois encore, la Cour s’est référée à des droits lui
apparaissant « plausibles » (voir, notamment, par. 56) ; c’est désormais
son habitude, ce que je ne manque jamais de critiquer. En présentant les
arguments des Parties, dans les seuls paragraphes 46‑47 de la présente
ordonnance, la Cour emploie le mot « plausible » à dix reprises pour qualifier
des droits, actes, faits ou demandes, l’intention génocidaire, ou
encore des conclusions qu’il est permis de tirer.
76. Point n’est besoin de s’appesantir sur cet emploi superficiel du mot
« plausible », lequel est dépourvu de sens. Je ne répéterai donc pas ici
toutes les critiques que j’ai formulées sur le recours à ce terme, quelle que
soit sa signification, et me contenterai de rappeler que, dans le courant de
l’année 2018, j’ai eu plusieurs fois l’occasion de me pencher sur cette question.
Ainsi, dans l’exposé de mon opinion individuelle qui a été joint à
l’ordonnance rendue en l’affaire relative à l’Application de la convention
internationale sur l’élimination de toutes les formes de discrimination raciale
(Qatar c. Emirats arabes unis), j’ai livré la réflexion suivante :
« Cette épreuve de la prétendue « plausibilité » des droits me semble
être une invention récente et malavisée de la majorité des membres
de la CIJ
�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������
On dirait que chacun se sent libre d’interpréter à sa guise cette
prétendue « plausibilité » des droits ; la raison en est peut-être que la
majorité de la Cour elle‑même ne s’est guère étendue sur le sens à
donner à ladite « plausibilité ». Or, invoquer la « plausibilité » comme
s’il s’agissait d’une nouvelle « condition préalable » et opposer ainsi
de nouveaux obstacles à l’indication de mesures conservatoires dans
le cadre d’une situation continue est à la fois spécieux et préjudiciable
à la réalisation de la justice. » (Mesures conservatoires, ordonnance du
23 juillet 2018, C.I.J. Recueil 2018 (II), p. 456-457, par. 57 et 59.)
77. Dans ce même texte, j’ai notamment jugé utile de préciser ce qui
suit :
« La prétendue « plausibilité » des droits est environnée d’incertitudes
qui ne font que s’accroître quand on prétend lui ajouter la prétendue
« plausibilité » de la recevabilité, avec pour résultat que l’on
compromet le principe même des mesures conservatoires en tant que
garanties juridictionnelles à caractère préventif. Le moment est venu
d’en prendre conscience et de prêter attention à la nature de mesures
conservatoires, en particulier celles qui relèvent de traités relatifs aux
droits de l’homme, qui sont au service d’êtres humains connaissant
une situation de vulnérabilité continue affectant leurs droits. » (Ibid.,
p. 457, par. 60.)
78. Peu de temps après, dans l’exposé de mon opinion individuelle qui
a été joint à l’arrêt rendu en l’affaire relative à des Violations alléguées du
traité d’amitié, de commerce et de droits consulaires de 1955 (République
60 application of the genocide convention (sep. op. cançado trindade)
61
the unnecessary resort by the ICJ to “plausibility” in a continuing situation
of vulnerability, (Provisional Measures, Order of 3 October 2018
I.C.J. Reports 2018 (II), pp. 676‑677, paras. 72-76) 34. I pondered that
“the avoidance of referring to ‘plausibility’ would have enhanced the
Court’s reasoning, rendering it clearer. Particularly in cases, like the
present one, where the rights — the protection of which is sought by
means of provisional measures — are clearly defined in a treaty, to
invoke ‘plausibility’ makes no sense. The legal profession, in
also indulging here in so-called
‘plausibility’ (whatever that means),
is incurring likewise into absurd uncertainties.” (Ibid., p. 677, para. 77.)
79. As in the present Order of provisional measures of protection we
are really in face of fundamental rights (not “plausible” ones), the basic
principle of equality and non-discrimination
also marks its presence here.
I addressed this point in my aforementioned recent separate opinion in
the case of Application of the International Convention on the Elimination
of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (Qatar v. United Arab Emirates),
Provisional Measures, Order of 23 July 2018 (see para. 76 supra), where I
pointed out that
“The advances in respect of the basic principle of equality and
non‑discrimination at normative and jurisprudential levels 35, have
not, however, been accompanied by the international legal doctrine,
which so far has not dedicated sufficient attention to that fundamental
principle; it stands far from guarding proportion to its importance
both in theory and practice of law. This is one of the rare examples
of international case law preceding international legal doctrine, and
requiring from it due and greater attention.” (I.C.J. Reports 2018 (II),
p. 444, para. 18.)
80. I then drew attention to the sufferings affecting numerous migrants
nowadays, and warned that
“Nothing has been learned from sufferings of past generations;
hence the need to remain attached to the goal of the realization of
justice, bearing in mind that law and justice go indissociably together.
The ICJ has a mission to keep on endeavouring to contribute to a
humanized law of nations, in the dehumanized world of our days.”
(Ibid., p. 447, para. 28.)
34 As I had earlier done also in my separate opinion in the case of Jadhav (India v. Pakistan),
Provisional Measures, Order of 18 May 2017, I.C.J. Reports 2017, p. 254, para. 19.
35 To the study of which I have dedicated my extensive book: A. A. Cançado Trindade,
El Principio Básico de Igualdad y No-Discriminación:
Construcción Jurisprudencial, 1st ed.,
Santiago de Chile, Ed. Librotecnia, 2013, pp. 39‑748.
application de convention génocide (op. ind. cançado trindade) 60
61
islamique d’Iran c. Etats-Unis d’Amérique), j’ai critiqué le recours inutile
par la Cour à la notion de « plausibilité » dans le cas d’une situation de
vulnérabilité continue (mesures conservatoires, ordonnance du 3 octobre
2018, C.I.J. Recueil 2018 (II), p. 676-677, par. 72‑76) 34, considérant que
« la Cour aurait renforcé et clarifié son raisonnement si elle s’était
abstenue de faire référence à la « plausibilité ». Dans les affaires
comme celle à l’examen, en particulier, où les droits — dont la protection
est recherchée au moyen de mesures conservatoires — sont
clairement définis dans un traité, invoquer la « plausibilité » n’a
aucun sens. La profession juridique, en invoquant ici encore une prétendue
« plausibilité » (quoi qu’elle entende par-là), s’expose elle aussi
à des incertitudes absurdes. » (Ibid., p. 677, par. 77.)
79. Etant donné que, en la présente espèce, nous avons affaire à des
droits réellement fondamentaux (et non « plausibles »), le principe essentiel
d’égalité et de non-discrimination
entre lui aussi en jeu. J’ai récemment
examiné ce point dans l’exposé de mon opinion individuelle qui a
été joint à l’arrêt rendu en l’affaire relative à l’Application de la convention
internationale sur l’élimination de toutes les formes de discrimination raciale
(Qatar c. Emirats arabes unis), mesures conservatoires, ordonnance du
23 juillet 2018 (voir par. 76 ci-
dessus),
dans lequel j’ai exposé ceci :
« Les progrès accomplis par le principe d’égalité et de non-discrimination
sur les plans normatif et jurisprudentiel 35 n’ont pas
été suivis par la doctrine internationale, qui a jusqu’à maintenant
consacré à ce principe fondamental une attention insuffisante et sans
aucune commune mesure avec l’importance dudit principe pour la
théorie et la pratique du droit. Il s’agit là d’un des rares cas où la
jurisprudence internationale est en avance sur la doctrine juridique,
laquelle devrait s’y intéresser de plus près. » (C.I.J. Recueil 2018 (II),
p. 444, par. 18.)
80. J’ai ensuite appelé l’attention sur les souffrances que subissent
aujourd’hui de nombreux migrants, et souligné ce qui suit :
« Les souffrances des générations passées ne nous ont rien appris ;
c’est pourquoi nous devons continuer de nous fixer comme objectif
la réalisation de la justice, en gardant à l’esprit que droit et justice
vont indissociablement de pair. La Cour se doit de poursuivre ses
efforts pour faire advenir un droit international humanisé dans un
monde contemporain déshumanisé. » (Ibid., p. 447, par. 28.)
34 Comme je l’avais fait précédemment dans l’exposé de mon opinion individuelle qui
a été joint à l’arrêt rendu en l’affaire Jadhav (Inde c. Pakistan), mesures conservatoires,
ordonnance du 18 mai 2017, C.I.J. Recueil 2017, p. 254, par. 19.
35 Progrès auxquels j’ai consacré un ouvrage substantiel : A. A. Cançado Trindade, El
Principio Básico de Igualdad y No-Discriminación
: Construcción Jurisprudencial, première
édition, Santiago du Chili, Ed. Librotecnia, 2013, p. 39‑748.
61 application of the genocide convention (sep. op. cançado trindade)
62
It is necessary to keep in mind that the principle of equality and non-discrimination
lies in the foundations of the rights safeguarded under the
Convention against Genocide, and human rights conventions, also by
means of provisional measures of protection.
2. Jus Cogens under the Convention against Genocide and
the Corresponding Customary International Law
81. As examined in a recent study of the developing international case
law on the matter, provisional measures of protection are nowadays
endowed with an autonomous legal regime of their own 36, which is of
great significance for the protection of fundamental human rights. Such
rights remain in the domain of jus cogens. This is a point which did not
pass unperceived in the oral procedure before the ICJ: in the public hearing
of 10 December 2019, the delegation of The Gambia made a reference
to such acknowledgment of jus cogens 37, an issue which could have been
addressed by the ICJ in its present Order.
82. It would not have been the first time, as the issue is present in the
ICJ’s case law, though it requires nowadays further development. May I
just recall, in this respect, the main points addressed by the Court so far.
Thus, looking further back in time, in the aforementioned case of Armed
Activities on the Territory of the Congo(Democratic Republic of the Congo
v. Rwanda) (cf. para. 4, supra), the ICJ recognized (in its Judgment on
jurisdiction and admissibility, of 3 February 2006) the prohibition of
genocide as a peremptory norm of international law (I.C.J. Reports 2006,
p. 55, para. 64).
83. One decade earlier, in the case of Application of the Convention on
the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina
v. Yugoslavia), Preliminary Objections, Judgment), the ICJ
observed, inter alia, that the terms of Article IX of the Convention against
Genocide do “not exclude any form of State responsibility” (I.C.J. Reports
1996 (II), p. 616, para. 32). In my understanding, State responsibility and
individual criminal responsibility cannot be dissociated in cases of massacres
38.
84. The subsequent case law of the ICJ again addressed the matter, in
the aforementioned cases (cf. para. 3, supra) of Application of the Convention
against Genocide, opposing Bosnia and Herzegovina to Serbia and
Montenegro (Judgment of 26 February 2007), as well as of Application of
36 Cf. A. A. Cançado Trindade, O Regime Jurídico Autônomo das Medidas Provisórias
de Proteção, The Hague/Fortaleza, IBDH/IIDH, 2017, pp. 13‑348.
37 CR 2019/18, of 10 December 2019, p. 51, para. 7.
38 On the lessons from the international adjudication of such cases, cf. A. A. Cançado
Trindade, State Responsibility in Cases of Massacres: Contemporary Advances in International
Justice, Utrecht, Universiteit Utrecht, 2011, pp. 1‑71; A. A. Cançado Trindade, La
Responsabilidad del Estado en Casos de Masacres — Dificultades y Avances Contemporáneos
en la Justicia Internacional, Mexico, Edit. Porrúa/Escuela Libre de Derecho, 2018,
pp. 1‑104.
application de convention génocide (op. ind. cançado trindade) 61
62
Il convient de garder à l’esprit que le principe d’égalité et de non-discrimination
est à la base des droits protégés par la convention sur le
génocide et les conventions relatives aux droits de l’homme, qui le sont
également au moyen de mesures conservatoires.
2. Le jus cogens au titre de la convention sur le génocide
et du droit international coutumier correspondant
81. Ainsi que je l’ai indiqué dans une récente étude sur le développement
de la jurisprudence internationale relative aux mesures conservatoires,
celles-
ci sont désormais dotées d’un régime juridique autonome 36,
qui revêt la plus grande importance aux fins de la protection des droits de
l’homme fondamentaux. Ces derniers relèvent du domaine du jus cogens,
ce qui a été dûment rappelé lors de la procédure orale en la présente
espèce, la délégation de la Gambie en ayant fait mention à l’audience du
10 décembre 2019 37 ; la Cour aurait pu traiter cette question dans la présente
ordonnance.
82. Cela n’aurait pas été la première fois, puisque cette question est présente
dans la jurisprudence de la Cour, même si elle devrait aujourd’hui être
développée plus avant. A cet égard, je rappellerai simplement les différents
points que la Cour a examinés jusqu’à présent. Dans l’arrêt qu’elle a rendu
sur la compétence et la recevabilité le 3 février 2006 en l’affaire des Activités
armées sur le territoire du Congo (République démocratique du Congo
c. Rwanda) — affaire que j’ai déjà mentionnée — (cf. par. 4 ci-
dessus),
elle
a ainsi reconnu que l’interdiction du génocide était une norme impérative
du droit international (C.I.J. Recueil 2006, p. 55, par. 64).
83. Dix ans auparavant, dans l’affaire relative à l’Application de la
convention pour la prévention et la répression du crime de génocide (Bosnie‑Herzégovine
c. Yougoslavie) (arrêt sur les exceptions préliminaires du
11 juillet 1996), la Cour avait notamment observé que le libellé de l’article
IX de la convention sur le génocide « n’exclu[ai]t aucune forme de
responsabilité d’Etat » (C.I.J. Recueil 1996 (II), p. 616, par. 32). Selon
moi, la responsabilité de l’Etat et la responsabilité pénale individuelle ne
sauraient être dissociées dans les cas de massacres 38.
84. Par la suite, la Cour s’est de nouveau penchée sur la question dans
les affaires relatives à l’Application de la convention pour la prévention et
la répression du crime de génocide (Bosnie‑Herzégovine c. Serbie‑et‑Monténégro)
(arrêt du 26 février 2007) et à l’Application de la convention
36 Voir A. A. Cançado Trindade, O Regime Jurídico Autônomo das Medidas Provisórias
de Proteção, La Haye/Fortaleza, IBDH/IIDH, 2017, p. 13‑348.
37 CR 2019/18, p. 51, par. 7.
38 Pour les enseignements de la jurisprudence internationale en la matière, voir
A. A. Cançado Trindade, State Responsibility in Cases of Massacres : Contemporary
Advances in International Justice, Universiteit Utrecht, 2011, p. 1‑71 ; A. A. Cançado Trindade,
La Responsabilidad del Estado en Casos de Masacres — Dificultades y Avances
Contemporáneos en la Justicia Internacional, Mexico, Edit. Porrúa/Escuela Libre de
Derecho, 2018, p. 1‑104.
62 application of the genocide convention (sep. op. cançado trindade)
63
the Convention against Genocide, opposing Croatia to Serbia (Judgment
of 3 February 2015). On both occasions, the treatment of the matter by
the Court was incomplete and unsatisfactory.
85. Thus, in its 2007 Judgment, the Court confirmed the applicability
of the rules on State responsibility between States in the context of genocide
(Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment
of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Serbia and Montenegro),
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2007 (I), p. 114, para. 167), but not
without underlining that in its view the recognition of State responsibility
should not be understood as making room for State crimes, thus imposing
limitations on the matter (ibid., pp. 114‑115, paras. 167‑170). And in
its 2015 Judgment, the Court briefly referred to jus cogens without considering
its legal effects (Application of the Convention on the Prevention and
Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Croatia v. Serbia), Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 2015 (I), p. 47, para. 87).
86. In my dissenting opinion appended thereto, I sustained that grave
violations of human rights and of international humanitarian law, and
acts of genocide, among other atrocities, are in breach of responsibility
and call for reparations to the victims This is in line with the idea of rectitude
(in conformity with the recta ratio of natural law), underlying the
conception of law (in distinct legal systems — Droit/Right/Recht/Direito/
Derecho/Diritto) as a whole (ibid., p. 311, paras. 318‑319).
87. I then added, inter alia, that the Convention against Genocide is
people-oriented
(ibid., pp. 374, 376 and 379, paras. 521, 529, 542 and 545),
with attention needing to be focused on the segment of the population
concerned, in pursuance of a humanist outlook, in the light of the principle
of humanity (Part XVIII). The Convention, I further added, calls
for care to be turned to the victims, rather than to inter‑State susceptibilities
(ibid., pp. 367‑368, paras. 494-496) 39. In sum, jus cogens is to be
properly considered under the Convention against Genocide and the corresponding
customary international law.
VII. Epilogue
88. In my understanding, it is necessary to take all the above considerations
into account in order to secure the advances in the domain of the
autonomous legal regime of provisional measures of protection. As to the
cas d’espèce, it is significant that the present Order of provisional mea-
39 For a recent case study, on the basis of my extensive dissenting opinion in this case,
cf. A. A. Cançado Trindade, A Responsabilidade do Estado sob a Convenção contra o
Genocídio: Em Defesa da Dignidade Humana, Fortaleza, IBDH/IIDH, 2015, pp. 9‑265.
application de convention génocide (op. ind. cançado trindade) 62
63
pour la prévention et la répression du crime de génocide (Croatie c. Serbie)
(arrêt du 3 février 2015), que j’ai déjà mentionnées (voir par. 3 ci-
dessus).
Dans les deux cas, elle a traité la question de manière incomplète et insatisfaisante.
85. Ainsi, dans son arrêt de 2007, la Cour a confirmé l’applicabilité des
règles régissant la responsabilité de l’Etat dans un contexte de génocide
(Application de la convention pour la prévention et la répression du crime de
génocide (Bosnie-Herzégovine c. Serbie et Monténégro), arrêt, C.I.J.
Recueil 2007 (I), p. 114, par. 167), non sans souligner cependant que,
selon elle, la reconnaissance de la responsabilité de l’Etat ne devait pas
être entendue comme s’étendant aux crimes d’Etat, imposant ainsi des
limites en la matière (ibid., p. 114‑115, par. 167‑170). Dans son arrêt de
2015, elle s’est succinctement référée au jus cogens, sans en examiner les
effets juridiques (Application de la convention pour la prévention et la
répression du crime de génocide (Croatie c. Serbie), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil
2015 (I), p. 47, par. 87).
86. Dans l’exposé de mon opinion dissidente qui a été joint à cette dernière
décision, j’ai soutenu que les graves violations des droits de l’homme
et du droit international humanitaire, ainsi que les actes de génocide
— parmi d’autres atrocités —, constituaient un manquement à la responsabilité
de l’Etat et exigeaient que les victimes reçoivent réparation. Cela
est conforme à l’idée de rectitude (conformément à la recta ratio du droit
naturel) qui sous-tend la conception du droit (dans différents systèmes
juridiques : Droit / Right / Recht / Direito / Derecho / Diritto) dans son
ensemble (ibid., p. 311, par. 318‑319).
87. J’ai ensuite précisé, entre autre choses, que la convention sur le
génocide était axée sur les personnes (ibid., p. 374, 376 et 379, par. 521,
529, 542 et 545), l’attention devant être portée sur le segment de la population
concerné, conformément à une perspective humaniste et à la
lumière du principe d’humanité (partie XVIII). La convention, ai-je
encore ajouté, commande de se préoccuper des victimes, et non des susceptibilités
interétatiques (ibid., p. 367-368, par. 494‑496) 39. En somme, le
jus cogens au titre de la convention sur le génocide et du droit international
coutumier correspondant doit être dûment pris en considération.
VII. Epilogue
88. Selon moi, il est nécessaire de tenir compte toutes les considérations
qui précèdent afin de consolider les avancées réalisées dans le
domaine du régime juridique autonome des mesures conservatoires.
S’agissant de la présente espèce, le fait que l’ordonnance en indication de
39 Pour une récente étude, fondée sur l’exposé approfondi de mon opinion dissidente
dans cette affaire, voir A. A. Cançado Trindade, A Responsabilidade do Estado sob a
Convenção contra o Genocídio : Em Defesa da Dignidade Humana, Fortaleza, IBDH/IIDH,
2015, p. 9‑265.
63 application of the genocide convention (sep. op. cançado trindade)
64
sures of protection has just been adopted by the ICJ by unanimity. The
measures of protection have, in my understanding, been ordered by the
ICJ to safeguard the fundamental rights of those who remain, in the tragedy
of Myanmar, in a continuing situation of extreme vulnerability, if not
defencelessness.
89. Last but not least, may I proceed to a brief recapitulation of the
main points I have deemed it fit to make, in the present separate opinion,
in respect of provisional measures of protection under the Convention
against Genocide. Primus: In a case like the present one, the provisions of
the Convention conform a Law of protection (droit de protection), oriented
towards the safeguard of the fundamental rights of those victimized
in a continuing situation of human vulnerability, so as also to secure the
prevalence of the rule of law (la prééminence du droit).
90. Secundus: The ICJ has, along the years, been giving its contribution
to the international case law concerning the Convention against
Genocide; yet, the Court’s Orders on provisional measures of protection
under the Convention have been rather rare, though they play their role
of extending protection to the fundamental rights of persons and groups
in extreme vulnerability. Tertius: In relation to the occurrences in the
tragedy in Myanmar, international fact-finding
has been undertaken by
the reports of the UN Mission on Myanmar (of 2018 and 2019), including
“detailed findings”, as well as by the reports of the UN Special Rapporteur
on Human Rights in Myanmar (of 2018 and 2019).
91. Quartus: These successive United Nations reports give account of a
continuing situation affecting human rights of numerous persons under
the Convention against Genocide. Quintus: Provisional measures of protection,
like the ones indicated in the present Order, are intended to put
an end to a continuing situation of extreme vulnerability of the victimized
persons. Sextus: In a continuing situation of the kind, the fundamental
rights requiring protection are clearly known, there being no sense to
wonder whether they are “plausible”. Septimus: A continuing situation in
breach of human rights is a point which has been attracting the attention
of the ICJ in recent cases, at distinct stages of the proceedings.
92. Octavus: Provisional measures of protection have, in recent years,
been protecting growing numbers of persons in situations of extreme vulnerability,
having thus been transformed into a true jurisdictional guarantee
of preventive character. Nonus: Extreme human vulnerability is a test
more compelling than resort to so-called
‘plausibility’ of rights for the
ordering of provisional measures of protection under the Convention
against Genocide.
93. Decimus: The legacy of the Second World Conference on Human
Rights (Vienna, 1993) has been much contributing to the protection of
human beings in situations of great vulnerability. Undecimus: Further-
application de convention génocide (op. ind. cançado trindade) 63
64
mesures conservatoires qui vient d’être adoptée par la Cour l’ait été à
l’unanimité est significatif. Les mesures qui y sont contenues ont, selon
moi, été indiquées pour préserver les droits fondamentaux des victimes de
la tragédie du Myanmar qui se trouvent encore dans une situation continue
d’extrême vulnérabilité, sinon d’impuissance.
89. Enfin, je me livrerai à présent — et ce n’est pas le moins important
— à un récapitulatif succinct des principales observations que j’ai jugé
utile de formuler dans le présent exposé de mon opinion individuelle
concernant les mesures conservatoires au titre de la convention sur le
génocide. Primus : dans une affaire telle que la présente espèce, les dispositions
de la convention forment un droit de protection, orienté vers la
sauvegarde des droits fondamentaux des personnes devant faire face à
une situation continue de vulnérabilité, de sorte à garantir la prééminence
du droit.
90. Secundus : La Cour a, au fil des années, contribué à la formation de
la jurisprudence internationale relative à la convention sur le génocide ;
pourtant, les ordonnances en indication de mesures conservatoires qu’elle
a rendues au titre de cet instrument ont été plutôt rares, même si elles ont
joué leur rôle consistant à apporter une protection aux droits fondamentaux
de personnes et de groupes se trouvant dans une situation d’extrême
vulnérabilité. Tertius : s’agissant des évènements tragiques qui se déroulent
au Myanmar, des travaux d’établissement des faits ont été effectués, qui
ont donné lieu aux rapports de la mission des Nations Unies au Myanmar
(de 2018 et 2019), y compris ceux « portant constatations détaillées »,
ainsi qu’aux rapports de la rapporteuse spéciale sur les droits de l’homme
au Myanmar (de 2018 et 2019).
91. Quartus : Ces rapports successifs des Nations Unies font état d’une
situation continue affectant les droits de l’homme de nombreuses personnes
au titre de la convention sur le génocide. Quintus : les mesures
conservatoires, telles que celles qui ont été indiquées dans la présente
ordonnance, visent à mettre fin à la situation continue d’extrême vulnérabilité
des victimes. Sextus : dans une situation continue de ce type, les
droits fondamentaux nécessitant une protection sont bien connus, le point
de savoir s’ils sont « plausibles » n’ayant aucun sens. Septimus : la Cour,
dans des affaires récentes, et à différents stades de l’instance en cause, a eu
à connaître d’une situation continue constituant une violation des droits
de l’homme.
92. Octavus : les mesures conservatoires ont, ces dernières années, permis
de protéger un nombre croissant de personnes se trouvant dans des
situations d’extrême vulnérabilité, ce qui les a ainsi transformées en une
véritable garantie juridictionnelle à caractère préventif. Nonus : aux fins de
l’indication de mesures conservatoires au titre de la convention sur le
génocide, l’extrême vulnérabilité humaine est un critère plus déterminant
que celui de la « plausibilité » de certains droits.
93. Decimus : l’héritage de la deuxième conférence mondiale sur les
droits de l’homme (Vienne, 1993) a grandement contribué à la protection
des êtres humains se trouvant dans des situations de grande vulnérabilité.
64 application of the genocide convention (sep. op. cançado trindade)
65
more, international case law, as the cas d’espèce shows, can serve the need
of properly addressing extreme human vulnerability. Duodecimus: It is of
the utmost importance the safeguard of fundamental rights by provisional
measures of protection, in the domain of jus cogens, under the
Convention against Genocide and the corresponding customary international
law.
94. Tertius decimus: There continues to be an advance towards the
consolidation of what I have been calling, along the years, the autonomous
legal regime of provisional measures of protection. Quartus decimus:
The historical formation of the corpus juris of international
protection of the rights of the human person has much contributed to a
growing awareness of the importance of the prevalence also of the basic
principle of equality and non-discrimination.
Quintus decimus: The present
case once again shows that the determination and ordering of provisional
measures of protection under the Convention against Genocide,
and under human rights conventions, can only be properly undertaken
from a humanist perspective, necessarily avoiding the pitfalls of an outdated
and impertinent State voluntarist outlook.
(Signed) Antônio Augusto Cançado Trindade.
application de convention génocide (op. ind. cançado trindade) 64
65
Undecimus : par ailleurs, la jurisprudence internationale, comme le montre
la présente espèce, peut répondre à la nécessité de traiter comme il se doit
l’extrême vulnérabilité humaine. Duodecimus : le fait de préserver les
droits fondamentaux au moyen de mesures conservatoires, dans le
domaine du jus cogens, au titre de la convention sur le génocide et du
droit international coutumier correspondant revêt la plus haute importance.
94. Tertius decimus : les progrès vers la consolidation de ce que j’appelle,
depuis des années, le régime juridique autonome des mesures conservatoires
se poursuivent. Quartus decimus : la formation historique du
corpus juris de la protection internationale des droits de la personne
humaine a grandement contribué à une prise de conscience croissante de
l’importance que revêt également le principe fondamental d’égalité et de
non-discrimination.
Quintus decimus : la présente espèce démontre une
fois encore que des mesures conservatoires au titre de la convention sur le
génocide, ou de conventions relatives aux droits de l’homme, ne peuvent
être déterminées et indiquées comme il se doit que si l’on se place dans
une perspective humaniste, en évitant nécessairement les écueils d’un
volontarisme étatique dépassé et dépourvu de pertinence.
(Signé) Antônio Augusto Cançado Trindade.

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Separate opinion of Judge Cançado Trindade

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