Separate opinion of Judge Cançado Trindade

Document Number
166-20191108-JUD-01-03-EN
Parent Document Number
166-20191108-JUD-01-00-EN
Document File
Bilingual Document File

SEPARATE OPINION OF JUDGE CANÇADO TRINDADE
Table of Contents
Paragraph
I. Prolegomena ................................................................................................................. 1
II. Basis of Jurisdiction: Its Importance for the Protection of the Vulnerable under U.N. Human Rights Conventions. ................................................................................ 4
III. The Rationale of the Compromissory Clause of the CERD Convention (Article 22). ................................................................................................................. 11
1. Compromissory Clause and the Justiciables’ Right of Access to Justice. ............. 12
2. Compromissory Clause Within a Victim-Oriented Human Rights Convention. ............................................................................................................ 25
IV. Rationale of the Local Remedies Rule in International Human Rights Protection: Protection and Redress, Rather than Exhaustion. ..................................... 29
1. Undue Invocation of the Rule, in the Case of Application of the CERD Convention, Opposing Qatar to UAE. ........................................................ 30
2. Undue Invocation of the Rule, in the Case of Application of the CERD Convention, Opposing Ukraine to Russian Federation. .............................. 33
3. The Overriding Importance of Redress. ................................................................. 39
V. The Relevance of Jurisdiction in Face of the Need to Secure Protection to Those in Situations of Vulnerability. ........................................................................... 44
1. Protection in Face of Vulnerability. ....................................................................... 45
2. Protection against Arbitrariness. ............................................................................ 49
VI. Concluding Considerations. ......................................................................................... 52
VII. Epilogue: A Recapitulation. ........................................................................................ 69
I. PROLEGOMENA
1. I have concurred, with my vote, for the adoption today, 08 November 2019, of the present Judgment of the International Court of Justice (ICJ), wherein it dismisses the preliminary objections raised before it in the present case of Application of the Convention for the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism and of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (Ukraine versus Russian Federation). In an earlier case (of 2011) concerning also the Application of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (CERD  Georgia versus Russian Federation), as the ICJ decided to uphold one of the four preliminary objections (the second) raised by the Respondent, thus finding itself without jurisdiction, I appended a lengthy Dissenting Opinion to the Judgment (of 01.04.2011), in support of the ICJ’s jurisdiction for the reasons which I carefully examined.
2. Eight years later, I find that some of the reflections that I developed therein remain relevant for the consideration of the present case as well. I proceed thus to recall them, in relation to the cas d’espèce as well, singling out some points. I find it necessary to do so in the present Separate Opinion, as I reach the same decision of the ICJ to dismiss all preliminary objections in
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the present case, on the basis of a distinct reasoning in respect of the selected points, which, in my perception, require further attention on the part of the Court.
3. I shall focus on the following points: a) basis of jurisdiction: its importance for the protection of the vulnerable under U.N. human rights Conventions; b) the rationale of the compromissory clause of the CERD Convention (Article 22); c) the rationale of the local remedies rule in the international safeguard of human rights: protection and redress, rather than exhaustion; d) the relevance of jurisdiction in face of the need to secure protection to those in situations of vulnerability; e) concluding considerations. After examination of the whole matter at issue, the way will then be paved for the presentation, in an epilogue, of a recapitulation of all the points that I sustain in the present Separate Opinion.
II. BASIS OF JURISDICTION: ITS IMPORTANCE FOR THE PROTECTION OF THE VULNERABLE UNDER U.N. HUMAN RIGHTS CONVENTIONS
4. In the decision the ICJ has just taken today, in the case concerning the Application of the CERD Convention (Ukraine versus Russian Federation), the Court moved a step forward in relation to its earlier decision in the case of Application of the CERD Convention (Georgia versus Russian Federation, 2011); yet, it has not succeeded in freeing itself from the outdated and unfounded view of ascribing utmost importance to State consent in relation to its own jurisdiction. Once again, the ICJ, keeping in mind Article 22 of the CERD Convention1 (cf. infra), stated that “its jurisdiction is based on the consent of the parties and is confined to the extent accepted by them” (para. 33).
5. This being so, I deem it necessary to recall here that, contrary to the Court’s majority and in my firm support of the ICJ’s jurisdiction in the earlier case of Application of the CERD Convention (Georgia versus Russian Federation, 2011), I warned in my Dissenting Opinion that the rationale of human rights Conventions cannot be overlooked by the ICJ’s “mechanical and reiterated search for State consent”, continued in time and placed above the “fundamental values” underlying those Conventions (paras. 140 and 202). In my understanding, human rights and values stand well above a State’s “will” or “interests” (paras. 139 and 194), and access to justice is not conditioned by any requirement of “prior negotiations” (para. 138).
6. I further held, in my Dissenting Opinion, that one cannot keep on approaching the Court’s jurisdiction as from an outdated voluntarist outlook privileging State consent, as done almost one century ago (para. 44). In our times, human rights Conventions go beyond the strict inter-State dimension, so as to ensure the safeguard of the rights of the human person, in light of the principle pro persona humana, pro victima (para. 72). There is need to endeavours,  I proceeded,  to secure the progressive development of international law (para. 45), attentive to the relevance of compulsory jurisdiction for the realization of justice (paras. 60, 65, 68 and 141).
7. Moreover, I drew attention to the importance of keeping in mind the vulnerability or defencelessness of the members of the victimized segments of the population (para. 146), as shown in that case by the human tragedy surrounding the victims and their need for justice (paras. 163-165 and 208). Those in situations of vulnerability or adversity stood in need of a higher standard of protection, not conditioned by State “consent” (para. 162).
1 In addition to Article 24(1) of the Convention for the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism (ICSFT).
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8. These pitiless situations,  and not the old notions of State’s “will” or “interests”,  required far more attention (paras. 196 and 199). After all,  I concluded on this issue,  the realization of justice under a human rights Convention like CERD can only be achieved taking due account and properly valuing the sufferings and needs of protection of the members of the victimized segments of the population (paras. 194 and 209).
9. May I here add that attention to the need to preserve human beings from their own violence and propensity to destruction has been constant in human history and thinking2, until current times3, at times focusing attention on certain historical occurrences4. Already in antiquity, there were endeavours in search of the recta ratio5 (as in the writings of Cicero, and in the Letters to Lucilius of Seneca), as the search of the perfection of reason. The exponents of the school of thinking of stoicism (Seneca, Epictetus, Marco Aurelio) always valued the use of reason, seeking the correct attitude in face of the fragility of human life, dedicating particular attention to the ethical questions.
10. In face of the presence of evil, there have been advices given which have maintained their perennial value along the centuries. For example, the words of Seneca’s On Anger, dated from the year 49 A.D., seem to have been written nowadays:
2 For an aetiology of evil in the historical evolution of human thinking, cf. A.-D. Sertillanges, Le problème du mal, Paris, Aubier/Éd. Montaigne, 1948, pp. 5-412; A.J. Toynbee, Civilization on Trial, Oxford/N.Y., OUP, 1948, pp. 3-263; A.J. Toynbee, Guerra y Civilización (1952), Madrid/Buenos Aires, Alianza/Emecé Eds., 1984 (reed.), pp. 7-169; S. Weil, Force et malheur (1933), Bordeaux, Éd. La Tempête, 2019 (reed.), pp. 21-50, and cf. pp. 197-209; S. Weil, L’agonie d’une civilisation (1943), Saint Clément de Rivière, Éd. Fata Morgana, 2017 (reed.), pp. 9-51; S. Weil, Oeuvres (1929-1943), Paris, Gallimard, 1999 (reed.), pp. 449-462 and 503-507; R. Rolland and S. Zweig, Correspondence (1910-1919), Paris, Éd. A. Michel, 2014, pp. 73-622; S. Zweig, Seuls les vivants créent le monde (1914-1918), Paris, Éd. R. Laffont, 2018, pp. 25-160; A. Schweitzer, Pilgrimage to Humanity (1961), N.Y., Philosophical Library Ed., 1961, pp. 1-106; and cf., subsequently, e.g., G. Bataille, La littérature et le mal (1957), Paris, Gallimard, 2016 (reed.), pp. 9-201; F. Alberoni, Las Razones del Bien y del Mal, Mexico, Ed. Gedisa, 1988, pp. 9-196; P. Ricoeur, Le mal - Un défi à la philosophie et à la théologie, 3rd ed., Geneva, Ed. Labor et Fides, 2004, pp. 19-65; P. Ricoeur, A Simbólica do Mal, Lisbon, Edic. 70, 2017, pp. 17-375; C. Crignon (coord.), Le mal, Paris, Flammarion, 2000, pp. 11-232; M. Buber, Imágenes del Bien y del Mal, Buenos Aires, Ed. Lilmod, 2006, pp. 11-227; among others.
3 Cf., e.g., N. Dubos (coord.), Le mal extrême - La guerre civile vue par les philosophes, Paris, CNRS Éd., 2010, pp. V-XXI and 1-361; H. Bouchilloux, Qu’est-ce que le mal?, 2nd ed., Paris, Éd. J. Vrin, 2010, pp. 7-124; J. Waller, Becoming Evil - How Ordinary People Commit Genocide and Mass Killing, 2nd ed., Oxford, OUP, 2007, pp. 3-330; L. Svendsen, A Philosophy of Evil, 2nd ed., Champaign, Dalkey Archive Press, 2011, pp. 17-282; S. Baron-Cohen, The Science of Evil - On Empathy and the Origins of Cruelty, N.Y., Basic Books Ed., 2012, pp. 1-194; D.J. Goldhagen, Worse than War - Genocide, Eliminationism, and the Ongoing Assault on Humanity, London, Abacus, 2012 (reed.), pp. 3-628; É. Barnavi, Dix thèses sur la guerre, Paris, Flammarion, 2014, pp. 7-137; S. Neiman, Evil in Modern Thought - An Alternative History of Philosophy, Princeton/Oxford, Princeton University Press, 2015, pp. 1-359; [Various Authors,] Le sarcasme du mal - Histoire de la cruauté de la Renaissance à nos jours (eds. F. Chauvaud, A. Rauch and M. Tsikounas), Rennes, Presses Universitaires de Rennes, 2016, pp. 9-356; F.-X. Putallaz, Le mal, Paris, Éd. Cerf, 2017, pp. 7-185; L. Devillairs, Être quelqu’un de bien - Philosophie du bien et du mal, Paris, PUF, 2019, pp. 9-217; among others.
4 Cf., e.g., J. de Romilly, La Grèce antique contre la violence, Paris, Éd. de Fallois, 2000, pp. 7-214; K. Mann, Contre la barbarie (1925-1948), Paris, Éd. Phébus, 2009 (reed.), pp. 19-436; C.G. Jung, Aspects du drame contemporain, Geneva/Paris, Libr. Univ. Georg/Éds. Colonne Vendôme, 1948, pp. 71-233; K. Jaspers, The Question of German Guilt (1947), N.Y., Fordham University Press, 2000 (reed.), pp. 1-117; H. Arendt, Compreensão e Política e Outros Ensaios (1930-1954), Lisbon, Antropos/Relógio d’Água Ed., 2001, pp. 41-287, esp. pp. 61-75; H. Arendt, Responsabilité et jugement, Paris, Éd. Payot & Rivages, 2009 (reed.), pp. 57-359; S. Sontag, Regarding the Pain of Others, London, Penguin Books, 2004 (reed.), pp. 3-113; R. Muchembled, Une histoire de la violence - De la fin du Moyen Âge à nos jours, Paris, Éd. du Seuil, 2008, pp. 7-460; Ph. Spencer, Genocide since 1945, London/N.Y., Routledge, 2012, pp. 1-142; J.-J. Becker, Comment meurent les civilisations, Paris, Vendémiaire Éd., 2013, pp. 5-182; D. Muchnik, La Humanidad frente a la Barbarie - Reflexiones sobre la Guerra, la Muerte y la Supervivencia, Buenos Aires, Ariel, 2017, pp. 13-194; among others.
5 And virtue itself was at times described as recta ratio.
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“There is nothing more dangerous than animosity: it is anger that breeds this. Nothing is more deadly than war (…); it repudiates human nature, (…) while it incites hatred (…) to do harm. (…) [O]ne may learn (…): how much evil is inherent in anger when it has at its service all the power of extremely powerful men (…).
(…) [O]ne should take into account the boundaries of our human condition, if we are to be fair judges of all that happens (…). Let us grant to our soul that peace which will be provided by constant study of beneficial instruction, by noble actions, and a mind fixed on desire only for what is honourable.
(…) The benefits of life are not to be squandered (…). (…) Fate stands above our heads and numbers our days as they go by, drawing nearer and nearer to us (…). Let us rather spend the brief span we have left in rest and peace (…). [L]et us behave as men should; let us not be a cause of fear or danger to anyone (…)”6.
III. THE RATIONALE OF THE COMPROMISSORY CLAUSE OF THE CERD CONVENTION (ARTICLE 22)
11. Keeping in mind the importance of the basis of jurisdiction for the protection of vulnerable persons under U.N. human rights Conventions, I shall now turn to my considerations on the rationale of the compromissory clause of the CERD Convention (Article 22), as related to the justiciables’ right of access to justice. This is a key point that I have been addressing within the ICJ along this last decade. Once again, in the present Separate Opinion, I shall stress the need and relevance of a proper understanding of the compromissory clause within a victim-oriented human rights Convention, like CERD.
1. Compromissory Clause and the Justiciables’ Right of Access to Justice
12. In effect, along the years, the ICJ has unfortunately been experiencing an unnecessary difficulty in understanding the rationale of a compromissory clause within a human rights Convention. May I recall that, in the aforementioned earlier case of the Application of the CERD Convention (Georgia versus Russian Federation, Judgment of 01.04.2011), I found it necessary to present my strong and extensive Dissenting Opinion furthermore sustaining that the ICJ’s strict interpretation of its compromissory clause (Article 22) of the CERD Convention was mistaken: in my understanding  I explained  compromissory clauses such as that of Article 22 of the CERD Convention are directly linked to the justiciables’ right of access to justice itself, under human rights treaties (para. 207).
13. In that case, the ICJ should, in my understanding, have dismissed the preliminary objections, by means of the interpretation of the compromissory clause in the light of the CERD Convention as a whole, keeping in mind its legal nature, its material content, and its object and purpose (paras. 64-78), mainly to protect the justiciables in situation of particular vulnerability (para. 185). Only in this way it would secure the CERD Convention’s proper effects, to the benefit of human beings in need of protection (para. 78).
14. In that decision of 2011, the ICJ, in declaring itself without competence to proceed to the examination of the claim as to the merits, in my understanding failed to value, from the correct humanist perspective, the sufferings and needs of protection of the victimized population (summum jus, summa injuria) (paras. 145-166). Human rights Conventions are essentially victim-oriented,
6 Seneca, On Anger (circa 49 A.D.), book 3, parts 5, 13, 26 and 41-43.
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and can only be properly interpreted and applied from a humanist outlook, and not at all from a State-centric and voluntarist one.
15. In my aforementioned Dissenting Opinion I further sustained that the compromissory clause (Article 22) of the CERD Convention ought to be interpreted bearing in mind the nature and material content of that Convention, besides its object and purpose, as a human rights treaty (paras. 64-118), and I underlined the pressing need of the realization of justice on the basis of that compromissory clause; I thus disagreed with the voluntarist and restrictive posture assumed by the Court’s majority in the cas d’espèce (paras. 1-214).
16. In the present case of Ukraine versus Russian Federation (2019), the ICJ once again reiterated its finding in the case of Georgia versus Russian Federation (2011) that the phrase any dispute which is “not settled by negotiation or by the procedures expressly provided for in this Convention” sets up procedural “preconditions” to be fulfilled by the Parties for the Court to be validly seized (para. 106).
17. On my part, just as I explained in my Dissenting Opinion attached to the ICJ Judgment of eight years ago in the aforementioned case opposing Georgia to the Russian Federation (2011), I keep on sustaining that Article 22 of the CERD Convention does not provide that “preconditions” should be fulfilled for seizing the ICJ (para. 92). As I then stressed, Article 22 of the CERD Convention, taking into account the object and purpose of the Convention, “a victim-oriented human rights treaty”, should have led the ICJ to interpret it as not setting forth any procedural “precondition” (paras. 92-96).
18. As to the present Judgment of the ICJ in the case of Ukraine versus Russian Federation (2019), I can live  not entirely pleased  with its finding that the “preconditions” set forth in Article 22 are not “cumulative”, as such characterization would not be reasonable in respect of the relevant CERD provisions; the “cumulative” approach creates an unnecessary obstacle to access to justice, and the ICJ itself ponders that this would not be reasonable (para. 110). Although I do not agree with the view that Article 22 of the CERD Convention sets out “preconditions” (supra), as the Court’s majority here interprets rather distinctly that “preconditions” are alternative (not at all cumulative), I can then live with that, to the extent that it preserves the ICJ’s jurisdiction.
19. In the present case of Application of the ICSFT and the CERD Conventions, the ICJ, in addressing what it considers the “preconditions” under Article 22 of the CERD Convention, rightly concluded that Article 22 “must also be interpreted in light of the object and purpose of the Convention” (para. 111, and cf. also para. 112). In this respect, I go further than the ICJ. The due attention to the object and purpose of a human rights Convention like CERD also calls, in my understanding, for a proper understanding of the relevance of the basis of jurisdiction under human rights Conventions (Article 22 of CERD), as I have already pointed out, with fundamental human rights and values standing well above a misguided search for State “consent” (paras. 4-10, supra).
20. After all, the approach (of alternatives) adopted by the ICJ in the cas d’espèce is confirmed by the nature and substance of the CERD Convention, a victim-oriented human rights treaty. To attempt to consider that the “preconditions” would be “cumulative” would be contrary to the object and purpose of the CERD Convention, as I warned in my Dissenting Opinion (para. 96) in the previous ICJ decision in the case of Georgia versus Russian Federation (2011). And as I further stated in my Dissenting Opinion in that earlier case of Application of the CERD Convention (Georgia versus Russian Federation),
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“with regard to the question whether the previous engagement in negotiations and recourse to the procedures expressly provided for in the CERD Convention (referred to in Article 22) are cumulative or alternative, the conjunction ‘or’ indicates that the draftsmen of the CERD Convention clearly considered ‘negotiation’ or ‘the procedures expressly provided for in this Convention’ as alternatives. The Court could well  and should  have discarded any doubts that could persist on this point; instead, it deliberately preferred to abstain from pronouncing (para. 183) on this aspect of the controversy raised before it. Instead of clarifying the point, of saying what the law is (juris dictio), it felt there was ‘no need’ to do so” (para. 116).
21. In the present case of Ukraine versus Russian Federation (2019), once again, throughout the arguments of the parties on preliminary objections submitted to the ICJ, attention has been concentrated on Article 22 of the CERD Convention7, from two distinct approaches. Thus, in the Preliminary Objections it submitted, the Russian Federation presents its view that the requirements contained in Article 22 are cumulative, requiring Ukraine to have exhausted negotiations and to have attempted to resolve the dispute using the special procedures provided for in the CERD Convention itself (paras. 373-410)8. Russia further refers to four other human rights Conventions9, arguing that the compromissory clauses found in them are similar to that in the CERD Convention, and that the cumulative requirements are to be complied with by the applicant State before seizing the ICJ (paras. 404-410).
22. For its part, Ukraine, in its Written Statement, firmly contests this view, holding that Article 22 of the CERD Convention does not contain preconditions, there being a misconstruction in reading Article 22 as requiring a dispute to be referred to the CERD Committee after negotiations have failed and before seizing the ICJ. Ukraine relies on the ordinary meaning of the disjunctive word ‘or’ in interpreting Article 22 of the CERD Convention, indicating alternatives (para. 314). To Ukraine, this is the most natural reading and the ordinary meaning of Article 22 (para. 315).
23. Ukraine contends that the CERD Committee procedures referred to in Article 22 are voluntary and not mandatory, and the respondent State’s interpretation of it would deprive the compromissory clause of effect; moreover, Article 11 concerns only the application of the Convention. Ukraine adds that if the draftsmen of the CERD Convention had intended the ICJ’s jurisdiction to be contingent upon the use of the CERD Committee procedures, they would have addressed such conditions in Part II and not in Part III of the Convention (paras. 316-323).
24. According to Ukraine, the drafting history of Article 22, and the object and purpose of the CERD Convention (the prompt elimination of racial discrimination), support the conclusion that Article 22 does not require recourse to the CERD Convention inter-State complaints procedure (paras. 324-327). In considering the ICJ’s treatment of Article 22 of the CERD Convention in the
7 Which reads as follows:
- “Any dispute between two or more States Parties with respect to the interpretation or application of this Convention, which is not settled by negotiation or by the procedures expressly provided for in this Convention, shall, at the request of any of the parties to the dispute, be referred to the International Court of Justice for decision, unless the disputants agree to another mode of settlement”.
8 On its view of the “cumulative meaning” of Article 22, cf. also paras. 376, 378 and 387-403.
9 Namely, Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment (CAT), Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of their Families (CMW), Convention for the Protection of All Persons from Enforced Disappearance (CED), and Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW).
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earlier case of Georgia versus Russian Federation (paras. 341-348), Ukraine submits that the better interpretation of Article 22 (para. 346) is to read it as creating no “precondition” to the ICJ’s jurisdiction to hear disputes concerning the interpretation or application of the CERD Convention.
2. Compromissory Clause Within a Victim-Oriented Human Rights Convention
25. On my part, may I recall that, in my Dissenting Opinion in the earlier Judgment of the ICJ (of 01.04.2011) in the case of Georgia versus Russian Federation, I sustained the understanding that Article 22 of the CERD Convention does not set up “preconditions” for the ICJ to be seized (para. 92); this is in conformity with the object and purpose of the Convention, “a victim-oriented” human rights treaty (para. 96). As I clearly explained in my Dissenting Opinion of eight years ago,
“In effect, Article 22 is located in Part III of the CERD Convention, dealing with the settlement of disputes concerning the interpretation and application of the Convention as a whole. Article 11, located in Part II of the CERD Convention, establishes a special complaints procedure, which is not mandatory. The location of Article 22 in a part of the Convention distinct from that which governs the functioning of the Committee (Part II) is thus not without relevance, and should not pass unnoticed. A brief analysis of the special complaints procedure contained in Article 11 of the CERD Convention indicates that Article 22 of the CERD Convention is not to be read as requiring prior ‘exhaustion’ of the procedures set forth in Articles 11 and 12 of the CERD Convention, as an alleged ‘precondition’ to the Court’s jurisdiction.
It may be recalled that Article 11(1) of the CERD Convention establishes a distinct procedure that allows a State party to bring to the attention of the CERD Committee its concerns as to acts or omissions of another State party. The language provides that a State party ‘may’ (not ‘shall’) invoke this procedure if it wishes to do so; this makes it clear that it is not required to refer to this procedure for any further purpose. The language is clearly not mandatory, and this is not the only indication to this effect.
It is noteworthy, moreover, that Article 11(2) of the CERD Convention, which deals with the right to return to the CERD Committee ‘if the matter is not adjusted’, is subject to two procedural conditions, namely: (a) the right must be exercised within six months from the receipt by the receiving State of the initial communication to the Committee; and (b) the Committee must have determined that the matter has not been adjusted to the satisfaction of both Parties, either by bilateral negotiations or by any other procedure open to them. In case these two conditions were not met, the State concerned could not go back to the CERD Committee.
This confirms that, when the draftsmen of the CERD Convention considered it necessary to establish a procedural condition, they clearly did so, leaving no margin or room for further interpretation or doubts. If no such condition was clearly set forth, it could not at all be simply inferred, as that would not be in conformity with the nature and substance of the CERD Convention, a victim-oriented human rights treaty, and would clearly militate against the fulfilment of its object and purpose. This discloses the ordinary meaning of Article 22 of the CERD Convention” (paras. 93-96)10.
10 I added that the travaux préparatoires of the CERD Convention do not support or confirm the conclusion of the Court’s majority (paras. 97-109), and that resort to negotiation was generally referred to as a factual effort or attempt only, rather than as a resolutory obligation (para. 101).
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26. Moreover, from the standpoint of the justiciables, a compromissory clause such as that of Article 22 of the CERD Convention is directly related to their access to justice; the realization of justice thereunder can hardly be attained from a strict State-centered voluntarist perspective, and a recurring search for State “consent”. As I further sustained in that Dissenting Opinion,
“In my understanding, consent is not ‘fundamental’, it is not even a ‘principle’. What is ‘fundamental’, i.e., what lays in the foundations of this Court, since its creation, is the imperative of the realization of justice, by means of compulsory jurisdiction. State consent is but a rule to be observed in the exercise of compulsory jurisdiction for the realization of justice. It is a means, not an end, it is a procedural requirement, not an element of treaty interpretation; it surely does not belong to the domain of the prima principia. (…)
Fundamental principles are those of pacta sunt servanda, of equality and non-discrimination (at substantive law level), of equality of arms (égalité des armes - at procedural law level). Fundamental principle is, furthermore, that of humanity (permeating the whole corpus juris of International Human Rights Law, International Humanitarian Law, and International Refugee Law). Fundamental principle is, moreover, that of the dignity of the human person (laying a foundation of International Human Rights Law). (…)
These are some of the true prima principia, which confer to the international legal order its ineluctable axiological dimension. These are some of the true prima principia, which reveal the values which inspire the corpus juris of the international legal order, and which, ultimately, provide its foundations themselves” (paras. 211-213).
27. In sum, in my aforementioned Dissenting Opinion of 2011, I firmly disagreed with the Court’s majority in the cas d’espèce, and I stressed that Article 22 of the CERD Convention does not establish “preconditions” to the Court’s jurisdiction; neither the ordinary meaning of Article 22, nor its drafting history, would support any such formal “preconditions” to the ICJ’s jurisdiction. Article 22 refers only to “alternatives”, pursuant to a teleological approach, ensuring and rendering effective human rights protection under the CERD Convention (para. 116). Article 22 must therefore be interpreted in a manner that is conducive to ensuring human rights protection. To this effect, the ICJ is to construe the options contained in Article 22 as alternatives, and not at all as “preconditions”.
28. As I have already pointed out, in its present Judgment in the case of Ukraine versus Russian Federation (2019), the ICJ does not reiterate the strict outlook that it adopted in the earlier case of Georgia versus Russian Federation (2011), also under the CERD Convention, and does not sustain any of the corresponding preliminary objections; it correctly dismisses them. Yet, I find it necessary to reiterate my dissenting reflections of 2011 at this end of the present decade (2019), so as to keep on contributing to achieve a proper understanding of the rationale of the compromissory clause of the CERD Convention (Article 22) as well as of other U.N. human rights Conventions.
IV. RATIONALE OF THE LOCAL REMEDIES RULE IN INTERNATIONAL HUMAN RIGHTS PROTECTION: PROTECTION AND REDRESS, RATHER THAN EXHAUSTION
29. May I turn to the next selected point to consider, namely, that of the rationale of the local remedies rule under human rights Conventions. Once again, the point is raised in respect of the CERD Convention. I shall first review the undue invocation of the rule in the recent case of Application of the CERD Convention (Qatar versus UAE, 2018). Then, I shall proceed to consider
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the undue invocation of the rule in the present case of Application of the CERD Convention, opposing Ukraine to the Russian Federation. I shall then examine the overriding importance of redress.
1. Undue Invocation of the Rule, in the Case of Application of the CERD Convention, Opposing Qatar to UAE
30. Moving now to the other point, this is not the first time that I deem it necessary to warn against the inadequacy of the invocation of the local remedies rule in an inter-State case before the ICJ pertaining to the Application of the CERD Convention. In a recent case of the kind, opposing Qatar to UAE, for example, I appended a Separate Opinion to the ICJ’s Order of 23.07.2018, where I began by finding entirely inadequate and regrettable the invocation of the rule of exhaustion of local remedies at the early stage of a request for provisional measures of protection, and not on admissibility (para. 48).
31. And I added that the incidence of the local remedies rule in human rights protection is certainly distinct from its application in the practice of diplomatic protection of nationals abroad, there being nothing to hinder the application of that rule with greater or lesser rigour in such different domains (para. 49). And I then pondered that
“Its rationale is quite distinct in the two contexts. In the domain of the safeguard of the rights of the human person, attention is focused on the need to secure the faithful realization of the object and purpose of human rights treaties, and on the need of effectiveness of local remedies; attention is focused, in sum, on the needs of protection. The rationale of the local remedies rule in the context of diplomatic protection is entirely distinct, focusing on the process of exhaustion of such remedies.
Local remedies, in turn, form an integral part of the very system of international human rights protection, the emphasis falling on the element of redress rather than on the process of exhaustion. The local remedies rule bears witness of the interaction between international law and domestic law in the present context of protection11. We are here before a droit de protection, with a specificity of its own, fundamentally victim-oriented, concerned with the rights of individual human beings rather than of States. Such rights are accompanied by obligations of States.
Generally recognized rules of international law (which the formulation of the local remedies rule in human rights treaties refers to), besides following an evolution of their own in the distinct contexts in which they apply, necessarily undergo, when inserted in human rights treaties, a certain degree of adjustment or adaptation, dictated by the special character of the object and purpose of those treaties and by the widely recognized specificity of the international protection of human rights” (paras. 50-52).
32. In my same Separate Opinion in the case of Application of the CERD Convention (Qatar versus UAE), I further pointed out that, in its handling of successive cases under the CERD Convention, for example, the Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination (CERD Committee) has deemed it necessary to single out that petitioners are only required to
11 Cf. A.A. Cançado Trindade, The Application of the Rule of Exhaustion of Local Remedies in International Law, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1983, pp. 1-445; A.A. Cançado Trindade, O Esgotamento de Recursos Internos no Direito Internacional, 2nd ed., Brasília, Edit. University of Brasília, 1997, pp. 1-327; A.A. Cançado Trindade, “Origin and Historical Development of the Rule of Exhaustion of Local Remedies in International Law”, 12 Revue belge de droit international/Belgisch Tijdschrift voor internationaal Recht - Bruxelles (1976) pp. 499-527.
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exhaust local remedies which are effective in the circumstances of the cas d’espèce (paras. 53-54). And I concluded, on this point, that
“The local remedies rule has a rationale of its own under human rights treaties; this cannot be distorted by the invocation of the handling of inter-State cases in the exercise of diplomatic protection, where the local remedies rule has an entirely distinct rationale. The former stresses redress, the latter outlines exhaustion. One cannot deprive a human rights Convention of its effet utile by using the distinct rationale of the rule in diplomatic protection.
Contemporary international tribunals share the common mission of realization of justice. There is here a fundamental unity of conception and mission. International human rights tribunals, created by Conventions at regional levels, operate within the conceptual framework of the universality of human rights. International human rights tribunals have been faithful to the rationale of effectiveness of local remedies and redress12. There is in this respect a complementarity in outlook between mechanisms of dispute-settlement at U.N. and regional levels, all operating under the conceptualized universality of the rights inherent to the human person” (paras. 55-56).
2. Undue Invocation of the Rule, in the Case of Application of the CERD Convention13, Opposing Ukraine to Russian Federation
33. In its Judgment in the present case opposing Ukraine to the Russian Federation, the ICJ, in the part of it relating to the CERD Convention, rightly dismissed the preliminary objection of alleged non-exhaustion of local remedies. In its submission, the Russian Federation intended to widen its scope (p. 223, para. 447) so as to cover any claim under the CERD Convention,  in the light of its Articles 11(3) and 14(7)(a),  including inter-State claims (p. 224, paras. 448-449).
34. Ukraine, for its part, contested the applicability of the local remedies rule in this context, and held that this rule applied only in claims by a State on behalf of specific individuals or entities; in the present case, however,  Ukraine added,  its claims under the CERD Convention related to “a broad pattern of conduct” by the respondent State resulting in breaches of its obligations under the CERD Convention (p. 199, para. 373).
35. As to my own position on the matter at issue, it is clear from the wording of Article 11(3) of the CERD Convention that the local remedies rule only applies to procedures before the CERD Committee. More specifically, it is only when the dispute is brought before the CERD Committee for the second time, because the matter is not adjusted to the satisfaction of both parties, that the Committee will ascertain that local remedies have been exhausted in the case at issue.
12 To this effect, cf., for an analysis of the vast case-law of the ECtHR on the matter, e.g., P. van Dijk, F. van Hoof, A. van Rijn and Leo Zwaak, Theory and Practice of the European Convention on Human Rights, 4th ed., Antwerpen/Oxford, Intersentia, 2006, pp. 125-161 and 560-563; D.J. Harris, M. O’Boyle, E.P. Bates and C.M. Buckley, Law of the European Convention on Human Rights, 2nd. ed., Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2009, pp. 759-776; as to the case-law of the IACtHR, cf. A.A. Cançado Trindade, El Agotamiento de los Recursos Internos en el Sistema Interamericano de Protección de los Derechos Humanos, San José/C.R., IIDH, 1991, pp. 1-60; and as to the case-law of the African Court on Human and Peoples’ Rights (AfCtHPR), cf. M. Löffelmann, Recent Jurisprudence of the African Court on Human and Peoples’ Rights - Developments 2014 to 2016, Arusha, Tanzania/Eschborn, Germany, Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ), 2016, pp. 1-63, esp. pp. 5-8, 22, 24-26 and 29-30.
13 Besides the Convention for the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism (ICSFT).
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36. This is in contrast with the respondent State’s argument of drawing the relevance of the wording in Articles 11(3) and 14(7)(a) of the CERD Convention, which cannot be sustained14. On the contrary, Article 22 of the CERD Convention, as the compromissory clause on the basis of which the ICJ is seized, makes no mention of a requirement to exhaust local remedies prior to seizing the Court. In effect, Article 22 is to interpreted in a way conducive to ensuring human rights protection, and thus provides alternative (not cumulative) options.
37. In the present case, Ukraine, instead of protecting nationals, complains of an alleged internationally wrongful act of the respondent State against it, in breach of the CERD Convention. As such, it cannot be litigated in domestic courts of another State, and the local remedies rule does not apply. Ukraine is thus correct in pointing to the impossibility of bringing such a case in the respondent State’s domestic courts.
38. It is clear that individual rights are here also at stake, and human rights treaties such as the CERD Convention protect them to the benefit of the human persons concerned. But a breach of the CERD Convention also entails the commission of an internationally wrongful act by a State, and here the Convention’s enforcement does not require the application of the rule of exhaustion of local remedies. In the cas d’espèce, Ukraine points out that it does bring its claim on behalf of the individuals concerned, but rather in its own right; as a result, the respondent State’s preliminary objection of alleged non-exhaustion of local remedies does not stand, and has been rightly dismissed by the ICJ.
3. The Overriding Importance of Redress
39. In any case, the ultimate beneficiaries of the application of the CERD Convention, among other human rights treaties, are the human beings protected by them, even in an inter-State claim thereunder, as the present one. It is necessary to keep in mind that the fundamental rights of human beings stand well above the States, which were historically created to secure those rights. After all, States exist for human beings, and not vice-versa.
40. The prevalence of human beings over States marked presence in the writings of the “founding fathers” of the law of nations, already attentive to the need of redress for the harm done to the human person. This concern marks presence in the writings of the “founding fathers” of the XVIth. century, namely: Francisco de Vitoria (Second Relectio - De Indis, 1538-1539)15; Juan de la Peña (De Bello contra Insulanos, 1545); Bartolomé de Las Casas (De Regia Potestate, 1571); Juan Roa Dávila (De Regnorum Justitia, 1591); and Alberico Gentili (De Jure Belli, 1598).
41. Attention to the need of redress is likewise present in the writings of the “founding fathers” of the following XVIIth. century, namely: Juan Zapata y Sandoval (De Justitia Distributiva et Acceptione Personarum ei Opposita Disceptatio, 1609); Francisco Suárez (De Legibus ac Deo Legislatore, 1612); Hugo Grotius (De Jure Belli ac Pacis, 1625, book II, ch. 17);
14 The respondent State’s invocation of those provisions is linked to its unsustainable view that Article 22 of the CERD Convention contains cumulative requirements to be fulfilled for the Court to have jurisdiction over the case.
15 Already in his pioneering writings, F. de Vitoria conceived the law of nations (droit des gens) as regulating an international community (totus orbis) comprising human beings organized socially in emerging States and conforming humanity; the reparation of violations of their rights reflected an international necessity addressed by the law of nations (droit des gens), with the same principles of justice applying likewise to States and individuals and peoples conforming them. Cf. A.A. Cançado Trindade, “Totus Orbis: A Visão Universalista e Pluralista do Jus Gentium: Sentido e Atualidade da Obra de Francisco de Vitoria”, 24 Revista da Academia Brasileira de Letras Jurídicas - Rio de Janeiro (2008) n. 32, pp. 197-212.
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and Samuel Pufendorf (Elementorum Jurisprudentiae Universalis - Libri Duo, 1672; and On the Duty of Man and Citizen According to Natural Law, 1673); and is also present in the writings of other thinkers of the XVIIIth. century. This is to be kept in mind.
42. The rationale of the local remedies rule in human rights protection discloses the overriding importance of the element of redress, the provision of which being a matter of ordre public; what ultimately matters is the redress obtained for the wrongs complained of, and not the mechanical exhaustion of local remedies. The incidence of the local remedies rule in human rights protection is certainly distinct from its application in diplomatic protection; as those two contexts are also distinct, there is nothing to hinder the application of that rule with lesser or greater rigour in such different situations16.
43. This law of protection of the rights of the human person, within the framework of which international and domestic law appear in constant interaction, is inspired by common superior values: this goes pari passu with an increasing emphasis on the State’s duty to provide effective local remedies. In sum, as I have been pointing out along the years,
“local remedies form an integral part of the very system of international human rights protection, the emphasis falling on the element of redress rather than on the process of exhaustion. The local remedies rule bears witness to the interaction between international law and domestic law in the present domain of protection, applying only when those remedies are indeed effective and capable to provide redress. We are here before a droit de protection, with a specificity of its own, fundamentally victim-oriented, concerned with the rights of individual human beings rather than of States. Generally recognized rules of international law (which the formulation of the local remedies rule in human rights treaties refers to), besides following an evolution of their own in the distinct contexts in which they apply, necessarily undergo, when inserted in human rights treaties, a certain degree of adjustment or adaptation, dictated by the special character of the object and purpose of those treaties and by the widely recognized specificity of the international protection of human rights”17.
V. THE RELEVANCE OF JURISDICTION IN FACE OF THE NEED TO SECURE PROTECTION TO THOSE IN SITUATIONS OF VULNERABILITY
44. My considerations in the present Separate Opinion leave it clear that there are aggravating circumstances which increase the need to secure protection to those directly affected by them. This is another point which cannot pass here unnoticed. The factual context of the present case of Application of the ICSFT and the CERD Conventions discloses that those who seek protection find themselves in utmost vulnerability, if not defenselessness, and, in addition, in need to safeguard themselves against arbitrariness. The ICJ cannot, and does not, make abstraction of such increased need of protection.
1. Protection in Face of Vulnerability
45. In effect, even in an earlier stage of the handling of the cas d’espèce, I have appended a Separate Opinion to the ICJ’s Order (of 19.04.2017) on Provisional Measures of Protection,
16 A.A. Cançado Trindade, The Access of Individuals to International Justice, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2011, pp. 101, 103 and 105.
17 Ibid., p. 107; and cf. A.A. Cançado Trindade, The Application of the Rule of Exhaustion of Local Remedies in International Law, op. cit. supra n. (11), 1983, pp. 1-443.
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wherein I have dwelt upon the importance of such measures in face of the aggravated human vulnerability and defencelessness of the segments of the population affected (paras. 21-29). As shown in the course of the proceedings, indiscriminate shelling against civilians (in eastern Ukraine) struck and damaged residential buildings, hospitals, schools, kindergartens, ambulances (paras. 30-31), causing physical injuries and imposing limitations on freedom of movement (paras. 32-35).
46. Hence the importance  I proceeded  of due consideration of the test of human vulnerability, insufficiently considered by the ICJ at that stage (paras. 36 and 41-44). I then deemed it fit to recall that
“the CERD Convention is a core U.N. human rights Convention intended to protect rights of the human person at intra-State level. Accordingly, concern for the protection of vulnerable segments of the population must inform the Court’s finding that the test of human vulnerability here applies, requiring provisional measures of protection” (para. 48).
47. In effect, this is a consideration to be kept in mind in all stages of the handling of the present case, including the present one on preliminary objections, here duly dismissed. I then stressed that “the vulnerability of victims, with its implications, are (…) clearly acknowledged in contemporary international case-law, of distinct international tribunals” (para. 53). I recalled, e.g., that the European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR), has likewise been seized, since 2015, of two cases of Ukraine versus Russian Federation (paras. 60-61),  the matter remaining pending with it18 to date (November 2019).
48. I then pointed out that the handling of the present case of the Application of the ICSFT Convention and of the CERD Convention requires “a humanist outlook”, going beyond the strict inter-State dimension, given the great need of protection of those in situations of great vulnerability or even defencelessness (paras. 84 and 86). I added that here “[t]he principle of humanity comes to the fore”; it “permeates the whole corpus juris of contemporary international law” with “a clear incidence on the protection of persons in situations of great vulnerability. The raison d’humanité prevails here over the raison d’État. Human beings stand in need, ultimately, of protection against evil, which lies within themselves” (paras. 90-91).
2. Protection against Arbitrariness
49. In cases of extreme violence like the present one, human beings stand in need of protection against arbitrariness on the part not only of State authorities, but also of other (unidentified) individuals. In a wider horizon, human beings need protection ultimately against themselves19. Human rights Conventions, like CERD, enable the exercise of protection against arbitrariness, in any circumstances. There is an absolute prohibition of arbitrariness in the rationale
18 Cf. ECtHR, Press Release ECHR 173(2018), of 09.05.2018, pp. 1-3.
19 Extreme violence has regrettably accompanied human relations along the centuries. Even those who survived acts of brutality became deeply harmed physically and psychologically by them for the rest of their lives. To recall only one example, of the mid-XXth. century, a survival of the acts of cruelty of the II world war, Elie Wiesel, expressed in his reflections (of 1958-1961) his deep anguish. In referring to “the tragic fate of those who came back, left over, living-dead”, he pondered: - “Anyone who has seen what they have seen cannot be like the others, cannot laugh, love, pray, bargain, suffer, have fun, or forget. (…) Something in them shudders and makes you turn your eyes away. These people have been amputated; they haven’t lost their legs or eyes but their will and their taste for life. (…) What it comes down to is that man lives while dying, that he represents death to the living, and that’s where tragedy begins”. E. Wiesel, The Night Trilogy - Night, Dawn, Day (1958-1961), N.Y., Hill and Wang, 2008 (reed.), pp. 295-296 and 298.
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of those Conventions, in support of the imperative of access to justice lato sensu, the right to the Law (le droit au Droit, el derecho al Derecho), to secure the realization of justice even in situations of utmost human vulnerability
20.
50. Fundamental principles of law reveal the right to the Law of which are titulaires all human beings in need of protection. Those principles do not depend on the State’s “will” or “consent”, and the inalienable rights under human rights Conventions, like CERD, rest on the foundations of jus gentium itself21. Human beings in situations of great vulnerability or adversity stand in need of a higher standard of protection under human rights Conventions, like CERD. The Court cannot remain hostage of State “consent” to the point of losing sight of the imperative of realization of justice, also in these situations.
51. After all, the safeguard and prevalence of dignity of the human person,  even amidst utmost vulnerability and facing arbitrariness,  are identified with the end itself of Law. General principles of law conform the substratum of the legal order itself, guaranteeing its unity, integrity and cohesion. Such indispensable principles, consubstantial to the international legal order itself, form the jus necessarium (not a jus voluntarium), prior and superior to the State’s “will”, and expressing an idea of objective justice, in the line of jusnaturalist thinking.
VI. CONCLUDING CONSIDERATIONS
52. In effect, U.N. human rights Conventions, like CERD, attribute a central place to the human person in the domain of protection of rights inherent to her, setting limits to State voluntarism, and thus safeguarding their integrity and the primacy of considerations of ordre public over the “will” of individual States. May I recall that, in the ICJ Judgment in the case of Jurisdictional Immunities of the State (Germany versus Italy, with Greece intervening, merits, of 03.02.2012), where the Court upheld the sovereign immunities of Germany in the cas d’espèce (originated historically in the crimes of the Third Reich in the II world war, in 1943-1945), I presented my extensive Dissenting Opinion (paras. 1-316), strongly opposing the ICJ’s voluntarist-positivist approach, based on the “will” of the States; I further singled out that situations of injustice are unsustainable.
53. There have unfortunately been other recent examples to the same effect, wherein I have appended other lengthy Dissenting Opinions22. The central place,  may I here reiterate,  as clearly indicated by cases concerning human rights, is that of the human person, and the basic posture is principiste, without making undue concessions to State voluntarism. The assertion of an
20 Cf. A.A. Cançado Trindade, El Principio Básico de Igualdad y No-Discriminación: Construcción Jurisprudencial, Santiago de Chile, Ed. Librotecnia, 2013, pp. 308 and 706-708.
21 A.A. Cançado Trindade, Tratado de Direito Internacional dos Direitos Humanos, vol. III, Porto Alegre/Brazil, S.A. Fabris Ed., 2003, pp. 524-525, and cf. pp. 376-380, 383, 386 and 389-390.
22 For example, in its Judgment (of 03.02.2015) in the case of the Application of the Convention against Genocide (Croatia versus Serbia), the ICJ held that, while the prohibition of genocide has the character of jus cogens, with obligations erga omnes, its own jurisdiction is based on consent, on which it depends even when the dispute submitted to it relates to alleged violation of norms having peremptory character. After its own examination of the facts, it decided to reject the Applicant’s claim, and once again I appended an extensive Dissenting Opinion (paras. 1-547). Other recent examples to the same effect can be found in the three recent Judgments (of 10.05.2016) of the ICJ in the three cases of Obligations Concerning Negotiations Relating to Cessation of the Nuclear Arms Race and to Nuclear Disarmament (Marshall Islands versus United Kingdom, India and Pakistan). The ICJ decided, by a split-majority, to uphold one of the preliminary objections, grounded on the alleged absence of a dispute between the contending parties, and, thus, not to proceed to the merits of the cases. Once again, I appended three extensive Dissenting Opinions (paras. 1-331) to those three Judgments.
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objective law, beyond the “will” of individual States, is, in my perception, a revival of jusnaturalist thinking.
54. After all, the basic foundations of international law, the law of nations (droit des gens), emanate ultimately from the human conscience, from the universal juridical conscience, and not from the “will” of individual States. Human rights Conventions, like CERD, are people-centered and victim-oriented (rather than State-centric), focusing on the protection of human beings, in particular in situations of vulnerability or defenselessness. They acknowledge the need, in the adjudication of cases, to go beyond the strict inter-State outlook, with due attention on the persons concerned in need of protection, in pursuance of a humanist outlook, in the light of the principle of humanity23.
55. In the course of the recent public hearings before the ICJ (of June 2019) on preliminary objections in the present case of Application of the ICSFT and the CERD Conventions, the contending parties, in addition to their arguments on specific legal points, also addressed the factual context of the cas d’espèce. In doing so, occurrences of extreme violence were referred to by Ukraine24 and the Russian Federation25 (for example, the indiscriminate shelling victimizing civilians in Eastern Ukraine - Mariupol, Volnovakha, Kramatorsk and Avdiivka). This shows that, in a case like the present one, in my perception, one cannot make abstraction of events of extreme violence in the examination of preliminary objections themselves.
56. The decision of the ICJ, in the present case opposing Ukraine to the Russian Federation, to dismiss the preliminary objections, is in conformity with the rationale of human rights Conventions, like CERD, but its reasoning could also have been likewise, if the Court had not once again relied mechanically upon the relevance it is used to attribute to State “consent” (cf. supra). Conscience stands above the “will”. Human beings, even in the most adverse conditions, stand as subjects of international law, endowed under human rights Conventions with juridical personality together with procedural capacity.
57. This is the position that I have been sustaining for a long time. For example, almost two decades ago I pondered, in another international jurisdiction26, that
“The considerable scientific-technological advances of our times has much increased the capacity of the human being to do all that is both good and evil. As to this latter, one cannot deny nowadays the importance and pressing need to devote greater attention to victimization, human suffering, and rehabilitation of the victims,  keeping in mind the current diversification of the sources of violations of human rights. The systematic violations of human rights and the growth of violence (in its multiple forms) in our days and everywhere disclose that, regrettably, the much
23 For a recent study, cf. A.A. Cançado Trindade, “Reflexiones sobre la Presencia de la Persona Humana en el Contencioso Interestatal ante la Corte Internacional de Justicia: Desarrollos Recientes”, 17 Anuario de los Cursos de Derechos Humanos de Donostia-San Sebastián - Universidad del País Vasco (2017) pp. 223-271.
24 Cf. ICJ, doc. CR 2019/10, of 04.06.2019, p. 13, paras. 8-9, and pp. 42-44, paras. 59-62 and 68-71; ICJ, doc. CR 2019/12, of 07.06.2019, p. 32, para. 6, and p. 39, paras. 41-42, and pp. 40-42, paras. 50-54 and 58-59.
25 Cf. ICJ doc. CR 2019/9, of 03.06.2019, p. 18, paras. 22-23, and pp. 29-31, pp. 39-42; ICJ doc. CR 2019/11, of 06.06.2019, pp. 23-24, paras. 44-48.
26 The Inter-American Court of Human Rights (IACtHR).
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praised material progress (enjoyed, in reality, by very few) has simply not been accompanied pari pasu of concomitant advances at spiritual level”
27.
58. Attention is to remain turned to the victimized persons, rather than to inter-State susceptibilities. In my perception, legal positivism has always been subservient to the established power (irrespective of the orientation of this latter), paving the way for decisions that do not realize justice. This cannot be overlooked, in particular in cases under human rights Conventions; law cannot prescind from justice, they come ineluctably together.
59. Cases under U.N. human rights Conventions, like the cas d’espèce, call for a reasoning beyond the strict inter-State outlook, and transcending the “will” of States. The voluntarist outlook is unsustainable. Nowadays, more than ever, human beings stand in need of protection from themselves. The basic foundations and the evolution of contemporary jus gentium emanates from human conscience, the universal juridical conscience, rather than the inscrutable “will” of States.
60. I have already made the point that the jus gentium of our times finds its historical roots in the conception and the ideals of the “founding fathers” of the law of nations along the XVIth. and XVIIth. centuries (cf. paras. 40-41, supra). Theirs was, in my own perception, a universalist perspective (the civitas maxima gentium),
“outrepassant les relations purement inter-étatiques. Ses fondements sont indépendants de la ‘volonté’ de ses sujets de droit (États ou autres). Il est en définitive le fruit de la conscience humaine, et s’appuie sur des principes éthiques qui intègrent des valeurs fondamentales partagées par la communauté internationale dans son ensemble et par l’humanité”28.
61. It may be argued that the world wherein the “founding fathers” lived in the XVIth. and XVIIth. centuries is quite distinct from the world of our times; yet, the ideals and aspirations are recurring for the realization of justice (also at international level). I have considered this point in an address that I delivered in Athens half a decade ago, wherein I pondered that
“Bien que le scénario international contemporain soit entièrement distinct de celui de l’époque des célèbres ‘pères fondateurs’ du droit international (personne ne peut le nier) qui ont avancé une civitas maxima régie par le droit des gens, il y a une aspiration humaine récurrente, transmise de génération en génération au cours des siècles, menant à la construction d’un ordre juridique international applicable à la fois aux États (et organisations internationales) et aux individus, conformément à certains standards universels de justice. Cela explique l’importance, dans ce nouveau corpus
27 Separate Opinion (para. 23) of Judge Cançado Trindade, in the case of the “Street Children” (Villagrán Morales and Others versus Guatemala), IACtHR’s Judgment (reparations) of 26.05.2001.
28 A.A. Cançado Trindade, “Le Droit international contemporain et la personne humaine”, 120 Revue générale de Droit international public (2016) n. 3, p. 501. And, on the perennial legacy of the “founding fathers” of the law of nations, cf. A.A. Cançado Trindade, “La Perennidad del Legado de los ‘Padres Fundadores’ del Derecho Internacional”, 13 Revista Interdisciplinar de Direito da Faculdade de Direito de Valença (2016) n. 2, pp. 15-43; A.A. Cançado Trindade, “La Perennidad del Legado de los `Padres Fundadores’ del Derecho Internacional”, in Discurso del Acto de Investidura como Doctor Honoris Causa del Profesor A.A. Cançado Trindade, Madrid, Ed. Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, 20.05.2016, pp. 17-55, esp. pp. 25-26, 38, 42 and 55.
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juris de protection, que la personnalité juridique internationale de l’individu a assumé, étant à la fois sujet de droit interne et de droit international”
29.
62. States have humane ends, emanating from recta ratio, human conscience, resting on the foundations of jus gentium, as propounded by the jusnaturalist vision. The rights inherent to the human person are anterior and superior to the States, thus deauthorizing the archaic positivist dogma which intended to reduce such rights to those “granted” by the States. The State is not an end in itself, it was created for human beings, and conceived to be law-abiding (état de Droit), so as to achieve its humane ends.
63. Over nine decades ago, Nicolas Politis had warned that the State is subjected to Law, which has always the same end, namely, “il vise partout l’homme, et rien que l’homme. Cela est tellement évident, qu’il serait inutile d’y insister si les brumes de la souveraineté n’avaient pas obscurci les vérités les plus élémentaires”30. Human societies,  he added,  “n’existent que pour assurer à l’homme la possibilité de vivre et de se développer”31. There are other related points that can here be added, in the light of the evolution of contemporary international law.
64. Thus, the principle of humanity, with its wide dimension, gives expression to the raison d’humanité imposing limits to the raison d’État. It identifies itself, in my perception, with the aim of the international legal order, in acknowledging the [relevance of the] rights inherent to the human person. As I have been pointing out within the ICJ32, the principle of humanity permeates the whole corpus juris gentium, enhancing the international protection of the rights of the human person.
65. Furthermore, the principle of humanity extends itself, in my perception, to conventional and customary international law, having an incidence on all and any circumstances, in particular when persons seeking protection are in situations of great vulnerability or defencelessness. The principle of humanity counts on judicial recognition in a corpus juris gentium oriented towards the victims, in the line  as I have already pointed out  of jusnaturalist thinking. Human rights Conventions have enriched this corpus juris, conforming a true law of protection (droit de protection), well beyond the outdated and strict inter-State dimension.
66. Such conception has thus paved the way to the evolution of the law of nations itself. The imperative of the realization of justice acknowledges that conscience (recta ratio), the universal juridical conscience, necessarily stands well above the “will” of States. It is in this understanding that the realization of justice at international level has been assuming a much wider dimension. There is nowadays a vast corpus juris communis on matters of concern to the international community as a whole (e.g., those dealt with by U.N. human rights Conventions), overcoming the traditional inter-State paradigm of the international legal order.
29 A.A. Cançado Trindade, “L’humanisation du droit international: la personne humaine en tant que sujet du droit des gens / The Humanization of International Law: The Human Person as Subject of the Law of Nations” [Discours de doctorat honoris causa], in TIMH/Hommage à A.A. Cançado Trindade for a Humanized International Law, Athens, I. Sideris Ed., 01.07.2014, pp. 32-33.
30 N. Politis, Les nouvelles tendances du Droit international, Paris, Libr. Hachette, 1927, pp. 76-78.
31 Ibid., pp. 78-79.
32 Cf., earlier on, e.g., my Dissenting Opinion in the case of the Application of the Convention against Genocide (Judgment of 03.02.2015), paras. 65, 68-69, 84 and 523.
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67. In effect, the inter-State mechanism of the contentieux before the ICJ cannot be invoked in justification for a strictly inter-State reasoning in cases concerning the safeguard of vulnerable or defenseless human beings. The nature and substance of a case of the kind before the ICJ, on the basis of a human rights Convention like CERD, thus calls for a reasoning going well beyond that strict inter-State dimension, with attention focused on victimized human beings, in pursuance of a humanist outlook.
68. In sum, the law of nations is endowed with universality, with human conscience (recta ratio) prevailing over the “will” of States, of all legal subjects. Moreover, the concomitant expansion of international jurisdiction, responsibility, personality and capacity, rescues and enhances the position of the human person as subject of international law. As I have been firmly sustaining along the years, the evolution of contemporary jus gentium does not emanate from the inscrutable “will” of the States, but rather from human conscience (recta ratio),  the universal juridical conscience as the ultimate material source of the law of nations.
VII. EPILOGUE: A RECAPITULATION
69. I deem it fit, at this final stage of my present Separate Opinion in the cas d’espèce, to recapitulate briefly, in this epilogue, the points of my own reasoning developed herein, for the sake of clarity, and in order to stress their interrelatedness. Primus: The rationale of U.N. human rights Conventions, like CERD, cannot be overlooked by a misguided search for State “consent”. Secundus: Attention is to focus on the relevance of the basis of jurisdiction for the protection of the vulnerable under human rights Conventions.
70. Tertius: Human rights Conventions, like CERD, go beyond the outdated inter-State outlook, ascribing a central position to the individual victims, rather than to their States. Quartus: In doing so, human rights Conventions, like CERD, are turned to securing the effective protection of the rights of the human person, in light of the principle pro persona humana, pro victima. Quintus: Had the inter-State dimension not been surmounted, not much development would have taken place in the present domain.
71. Sextus: Careful account is to be taken of the needs of protection of persons in situations of vulnerability or defencelessness. Septimus: The realization of justice, with the judicial recognition of the sufferings of the victims, is an imperative. Octavus: The compromissory clause of a victim-oriented human rights Convention, like CERD (Article 22), is related to the justiciables’ right of access to justice. Nonus: This requires a necessary humanist outlook, and not at all a State-centric and voluntarist one.
72. Decimus: In the consideration of utmost vulnerability or defencelessness of the human person, the principle of humanity comes to the fore. Undecimus: The principle of humanity assumes a clear incidence in the protection of human beings, in particular in situations of vulnerability or defencelessness of those victimized. Duodecimus: The principle of humanity, which has met with judicial recognition, permeates human rights Conventions, and the whole corpus juris of protection of human beings.
73. Tertius decimus: The principle of humanity is in line with the longstanding jusnaturalist thinking (recta ratio), - permeating likewise the Law of the United Nations. Quartus decimus: General principles of law enshrine common and superior values, shared by the international community as a whole. Quintus decimus: Article 22 of the CERD Convention does not set forth “preconditions”; in
- 19 -
any case, the ICJ’s jurisdiction is rightly preserved in the cas d’espèce, with due attention to be given to the object and purpose of the Convention, as a victim-oriented human rights treaty.
74. Sextus decimus: We are here before a law of protection (droit de protection), where the local remedies rule has a rationale entirely distinct from the one in diplomatic protection: the former stresses redress, the latter outlines exhaustion. Septimus decimus: The prevalence of human beings over States marked presence in the writings of the “founding fathers” of the law of nations (XVIth.-XVIIth. centuries), already attentive to the need of redress for the harm done to the human person.
75. Duodevicesimus: Human beings stand in need of protection against evil, they need protection ultimately against themselves. Undevicesimus: Furthermore, they stand in need of protection against arbitrariness, hence the importance of the imperative of access to justice lato sensu, the right to the Law (le droit au Droit, el derecho al Derecho), to secure the realization of justice also in situations of utmost human vulnerability. Vicesimus: Fundamental principles of law conform the substratum of the jus necessarium (not a jus voluntarium) in protection of human beings, expressing an idea of objective justice, in the line of jusnaturalist thinking.
76. Vicesimus primus: The basic foundations of the law of nations emanate ultimately from the universal juridical conscience. Vicesimus secundus: Human beings are subjects of the law of nations, and attention is to remain turned to the victimized persons, rather than to inter-State susceptibilities. Vicesimus tertius: Overcoming the limitations of legal positivism, attention is to focus on the humane ends of States, emanating from recta ratio, as propounded by the jusnaturalist vision. Vicesimus quartus: Rights inherent to the human person are anterior and superior to the States.
77. Vicesimus quintus: The principle of humanity counts on judicial recognition in a corpus juris gentium oriented towards the victims, in the line of jusnaturalist thinking. Vicesimus sextus: The universal juridical conscience (recta ratio) necessarily prevails over the “will” of States. Vicesimus septimus: A decision under human rights Conventions, like CERD, calls for a reasoning going well beyond the strict inter-State dimension, with attention turned to victimized human beings, in pursuance of a humanist outlook.
78. Vicesimus octavus: The concomitant expansion of international jurisdiction, responsibility, personality and capacity, rescues and enhances the position of the human person as subject of international law. Vicesimus nonus: The law of nations is endowed with universality, with human conscience (recta ratio) prevailing over the “will” (of any of the subjects of law), as its ultimate material source. Trigesimus: The prevalence of the universal juridical conscience as the ultimate material source of the law of nations points to securing the realization of justice in any circumstances.
(Signed) Antônio Augusto CANÇADO TRINDADE.
___________

Bilingual Content

625
71
SEPARATE OPINION
OF JUDGE CANÇADO TRINDADE
table of contents
Paragraphs
I. PROLEGOMENA 1-3
II. Basis of Jurisdiction: Its Importance for the Protection of
the Vulnerable under UN Human Rights Conventions 4-10
III. The Rationale of the Compromissory Clause of the
CERD Convention (Article 22) 11-28
1. Compromissory clause and the justiciables’ right of access
to justice 12-24
2. Compromissory clause within a victim- oriented human
rights convention 25-28
IV. Rationale of the Local Remedies Rule in International
Human Rights Protection: Protection and Redress,
Rather than Exhaustion 29-43
1. Undue invocation of the rule, in the case of Application of
the CERD Convention, opposing Qatar to UAE 30-32
2. Undue invocation of the rule, in the case of Application of
the CERD Convention, opposing Ukraine to Russian Federation
33-38
3. The overriding importance of redress 39-43
V. The Relevance of Jurisdiction in Face of the Need to
Secure Protection to Those in Situations of Vulnerability 44-51
1. Protection in face of vulnerability 45-48
2. Protection against arbitrariness 49-51
VI. Concluding Considerations 52-68
VII. Epilogue: A Recapitulation 69-78
625
71
OPINION INDIVIDUELLE
DE M. LE JUGE CANÇADO TRINDADE
[Traduction]
table des matières
Paragraphes
I. Prolégomènes 1-3
II. De la base de compétence : son importance du point de vue
de la protection garantie aux personnes vulnérables par
les conventions des Nations Unies relatives aux droits de
l’homme 4-10
III. De la raison d’être de la clause compromissoire de la
CIEDR (article 22) 11-28
1. De la clause compromissoire et du droit d’accès à la justice
du justiciable 12-24
2. De la clause compromissoire dans une convention relative
aux droits de l’homme axée sur les victimes 25-28
IV. De la raison d’être de la règle de l’épuisement des voies
de recours internes dans la protection internationale
des droits de l’homme : protection et réparation, et non
épuisement 29-43
1. De l’invocation fautive de la règle en l’affaire relative à
l’Application de la CIEDR (Qatar. c. Emirats arabes unis) 30-32
2. De l’invocation fautive de la règle en l’affaire relative à
l’Application de la CIEDR (Ukraine c. Fédération de Russie)
33-38
3. De l’importance primordiale de la réparation 39-43
V. De l’intérêt de la compétence face à la nécessité d’assurer
la protection de personnes en état de vulnérabilité 44-51
1. De la protection face à un état de vulnérabilité 45-48
2. De la protection contre l’arbitraire 49-51
VI. Conclusion 52-68
VII. Épilogue : récapitulatif 69-78
626 application of the icsft and cerd (sep. op. cançado trindade)
72
I. PROLEGOMENA
1. I have concurred, with my vote, for the adoption today, 8 November
2019, of the present Judgment of the International Court of Justice (ICJ),
wherein it dismisses the preliminary objections raised before it in the present
case of Application of the Convention for the Suppression of the Financing of
Terrorism and of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial
Discrimination (Ukraine v. Russian Federation) (hereinafter the Application
of the ICSFT and CERD (Ukraine v. Russian Federation) case). In an earlier
case (of 2011) concerning also the Application of the International Convention
on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (Georgia v.
Russian Federation) (hereinafter the Application of the CERD Convention
(Georgia v. Russian Federation) case), as the ICJ decided to uphold one of
the four preliminary objections (the second) raised by the Respondent, thus
finding itself without jurisdiction, I appended a lengthy dissenting opinion
to the Judgment (of 1 April 2011), in support of the ICJ’s jurisdiction for the
reasons which I carefully examined.
2. Eight years later, I find that some of the reflections that I developed
therein remain relevant for the consideration of the present case as well. I
proceed thus to recall them, in relation to the cas d’espèce as well, singling
out some points. I find it necessary to do so in the present separate opinion,
as I reach the same decision of the ICJ to dismiss all preliminary
objections in the present case, on the basis of a distinct reasoning in
respect of the selected points, which, in my perception, require further
attention on the part of the Court.
3. I shall focus on the following points: (a) basis of jurisdiction : its
importance for the protection of the vulnerable under UN human rights
conventions; (b) the rationale of the compromissory clause of the
CERD Convention (Article 22); (c) the rationale of the local remedies
rule in the international safeguard of human rights : protection and
redress, rather than exhaustion; (d) the relevance of jurisdiction in face of
the need to secure protection to those in situations of vulnerability;
(e) concluding considerations. After examination of the whole matter at
issue, the way will then be paved for the presentation, in an epilogue, of a
recapitulation of all the points that I sustain in the present separate
opinion.
II. Basis of Jurisdiction: Its Importance for the Protection
of the Vulnerable under
UN Human Rights Conventions
4. In the decision the ICJ has just taken today, in the case concerning
the Application of the ICSFT and CERD (Ukraine v. Russian Federation),
the Court moved a step forward in relation to its earlier decision in the
case of Application of the CERD Convention (Georgia v. Russian Federa-
application de la cirft et de la ciedr (op. ind. cançado trindade) 626
72
I. Prolégomènes
1. J’ai voté ce 8 novembre 2019 pour l’adoption du présent arrêt par
lequel la Cour internationale de Justice (la « Cour ») rejette l’ensemble des
exceptions préliminaires soulevées en l’affaire relative à l’Application de la
convention internationale pour la répression du financement du terrorisme et
de la convention internationale sur l’élimination de toutes les formes de discrimination
raciale (Ukraine c. Fédération de Russie). Dans une affaire
antérieure relative à l’Application de la convention internationale sur l’élimination
de toutes les formes de discrimination raciale (Géorgie c. Fédération
de Russie), la Cour avait retenu, dans son arrêt du 1er avril 2011, la
seconde des quatre exceptions préliminaires soulevées par la Fédération
de Russie et s’était par conséquent déclarée incompétente en l’espèce.
J’avais donc joint à cet arrêt un long exposé de mon opinion dissidente,
dans lequel j’exposais en détail les raisons qui militaient en faveur de la
compétence de la Cour.
2. Huit années plus tard, je constate que certaines des observations que
j’avais formulées dans cette opinion dissidente conservent toute leur pertinence
pour la présente espèce. J’entends donc les rappeler ici, en insistant
sur quelques points en particulier. Il me semble important de procéder
à ce rappel parce que, si je m’associe à la décision de la Cour de rejeter
toutes les exceptions préliminaires en la présente espèce, c’est en suivant
un raisonnement différent en ce qui concerne ces points particuliers qui, à
mon avis, méritaient de retenir davantage l’attention de la Cour.
3. Je m’arrêterai sur les points suivants : a) la base de compétence : son
importance du point de vue de la protection garantie aux personnes vulnérables
par les conventions des Nations Unies relatives aux droits de
l’homme ; b) la raison d’être de la clause compromissoire de la convention
internationale sur l’élimination de toutes les formes de discrimination
raciale (la « CIEDR ») (article 22) ; c) la raison d’être de la règle de l’épuisement
des voies de recours internes dans la protection internationale des
droits de l’homme : protection et réparation, et non épuisement ; d) l’intérêt
de la compétence compte tenu de la nécessité de garantir la protection
des personnes en état de vulnérabilité ; et e) observations finales. Lorsque
j’aurai examiné l’ensemble de la question, je procéderai dans un épilogue
à une récapitulation de ces divers points.
II. De la base de compétence : son importance du point de vue
de la protection garantie aux personnes vulnérables par
les conventions des Nations Unies relatives aux droits de l’homme
4. Dans sa décision rendue aujourd’hui en l’affaire relative à l’Application
de la convention internationale pour la répression du financement du
terrorisme et de la convention internationale sur l’élimination de toutes les
formes de discrimination raciale (Ukraine c. Fédération de Russie), la Cour
627 application of the icsft and cerd (sep. op. cançado trindade)
73
tion); yet, it has not succeeded in freeing itself from the outdated and
unfounded view of ascribing utmost importance to State consent in relation
to its own jurisdiction. Once again, the ICJ, keeping in mind Article
22 of the CERD Convention 1 (cf. infra), stated that “its jurisdiction is
based on the consent of the parties and is confined to the extent accepted
by them” (Judgment, para. 33).
5. This being so, I deem it necessary to recall here that, contrary to the
Court’s majority and in my firm support of the ICJ’s jurisdiction in the
earlier case of Application of the CERD Convention (Georgia v. Russian
Federation), I warned in my dissenting opinion that the rationale of
human rights conventions cannot be overlooked by the ICJ’s “mechanical
and reiterated search for State consent”, continued in time and placed
above the “fundamental values” underlying those conventions (Preliminary
Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2011 (I), p. 298, para. 140 and
p. 318, para. 202). In my understanding, human rights and values stand
well above a State’s “will” or “interests” (ibid., p. 298, para. 139 and
p. 316, para. 194), and access to justice is not conditioned by any requirement
of “prior negotiations” (ibid., p. 298, para. 138).
6. I further held, in my dissenting opinion, that one cannot keep on
approaching the Court’s jurisdiction from an outdated voluntarist outlook
privileging State consent, as done almost one century ago (ibid.,
p. 257, para. 44). In our times, human rights conventions go beyond the
strict inter-State dimension, so as to ensure the safeguard of the rights of
the human person, in light of the principle pro persona humana, pro victima
(ibid., p. 270, para. 72). There is need to endeavour, I proceeded, to
secure the progressive development of international law (ibid., pp. 257-258,
para. 45), attentive to the relevance of compulsory jurisdiction for the
realization of justice (ibid., p. 63, para. 60, pp. 265-266, para. 65, p. 267,
para. 68 and p. 298, para. 141).
7. Moreover, I drew attention to the importance of keeping in mind
the vulnerability or defencelessness of the members of the victimized segments
of the population (ibid., p. 300, para. 146), as shown in that case by
the human tragedy surrounding the victims and their need for justice
(ibid., pp. 305-306, paras. 163-165 and p. 321, para. 208). Those in situations
of vulnerability or adversity stood in need of a higher standard of
protection, not conditioned by State “consent” (ibid., p. 305, para. 162).
8. These pitiless situations, and not the old notions of State’s “will” or
“interests”, required far more attention (ibid., p. 316, para. 196 and
p. 317, para. 199). After all, I concluded on this issue, the realization of
1 In addition to Article 24 (1) of the Convention for the Suppression of the Financing
of Terrorism (ICSFT).
application de la cirft et de la ciedr (op. ind. cançado trindade) 627
73
a certes fait un pas en avant par rapport à ce qu’elle avait décidé en 2011
en l’affaire relative à l’Application de la CIEDR (Géorgie c. Fédération de
Russie), mais elle n’a pas réussi à se libérer d’une vision dépassée et malavisée
consistant à faire primer le consentement de l’Etat à sa compétence.
Une fois de plus, convoquant l’article 22 de la CIEDR 1 (voir ci-après), elle
a rappelé que « sa compétence est fondée sur le consentement des parties,
dans la seule mesure reconnue par celles-ci » (arrêt, par. 33).
5. Cela étant, il me semble nécessaire de rappeler ici que, dans l’affaire
relative à l’Application de la CIEDR (Géorgie c. Fédération de Russie), à
l’opposé de la majorité des membres de la Cour et fermement convaincu
de sa compétence en l’affaire, j’ai exhorté la Cour, dans une opinion dissidente,
à ne pas méconnaître la raison d’être des traités relatifs aux droits
de l’homme en continuant de se livrer à une « recherche mécanique et
systématique du consentement de l’Etat » qu’elle fait passer avant les
« valeurs fondamentales » qui sous- tendent ces conventions (exceptions
préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2011 (I), p. 298, par. 240, et p. 318,
par. 202). A mon sens, les droits de l’homme et les valeurs fondamentales
se situent nettement au- dessus de la « volonté » ou des « intérêts » de tel ou
tel Etat (ibid., p. 298, par. 139, et p. 316, par 194), et l’accès à la justice ne
saurait être subordonné à quelque obligation de « négociation préalable »
(ibid., p. 298, par. 138).
6. Je soutenais encore, dans cette opinion dissidente, que l’on ne devrait
plus envisager la question de la compétence de la Cour selon une conception
dépassée du droit international privilégiant le consentement de l’Etat,
comme on le faisait il y a près d’un siècle (ibid., p. 257, par. 44). Je faisais
valoir que de nos jours les conventions relatives aux droits de l’homme
débordent le cadre des relations purement étatiques afin de pouvoir sauvegarder
les droits de la personne humaine selon le principe pro humana persona,
pro victima (ibid., p. 270, par. 72). J’affirmais ensuite que, pour
assurer le développement progressif du droit international, il fallait prendre
des dispositions (ibid., p. 257-258, par. 45) qui reconnaissent l’intérêt de la
juridiction obligatoire pour la réalisation de la justice (ibid., p. 63, par. 50,
p. 265-266, par. 65, p. 267, par. 68, et p. 298, par. 141).
7. J’attirais aussi l’attention sur l’importance de garder à l’esprit la vulnérabilité
et l’impuissance des victimes au sein de la population (ibid.,
p. 300, par. 146), dans une affaire qui mettait en évidence la tragédie
humaine subie par ces victimes ainsi que leur besoin de justice (ibid.,
p. 305-306, par. 163-165, et p. 321, par. 208). Les personnes concernées,
qui se trouvaient en situation de grande vulnérabilité ou de grande détresse,
auraient dû bénéficier d’un degré de protection plus élevé et qui ne soit pas
subordonné au « consentement » de l’Etat (ibid., p. 305, par. 162).
8. Des situations aussi cruelles méritent beaucoup plus notre attention
que les vieilles notions de « volonté » ou d’« intérêts » de l’Etat (ibid.,
p. 316, par. 196, et p. 317, par. 199). Après tout, concluais-je, on ne peut
1 Ainsi que le paragraphe 1 de l’article 24 de la convention internationale pour la
répression du financement du terrorisme (CIRFT).
628 application of the icsft and cerd (sep. op. cançado trindade)
74
justice under a human rights convention like CERD can only be achieved
taking due account and properly valuing the sufferings and needs of protection
of the members of the victimized segments of the population
(I.C.J. Reports 2011 (I), p. 316, para. 194 and p. 321, para. 209).
9. May I here add that attention to the need to preserve human
beings from their own violence and propensity to destruction has been
constant in human history and thinking 2, until current times 3, at
times focusing attention on certain historical occurrences 4. Already in
antiquity, there were endeavours in search of the recta
2 For an aetiology of evil in the historical evolution of human thinking,
cf. A.-D. Sertillanges, Le problème du mal, Paris, Aubier/Ed. Montaigne, 1948, pp. 5-412;
A. J. Toynbee, Civilization on Trial, Oxford/N.Y., Oxford University Press, 1948, pp. 3-263;
A. J. Toynbee, Guerra y Civilización (1952), Madrid/Buenos Aires, Alianza/Emecé Eds.,
1984 (reed.), pp. 7-169; S. Weil, Force et malheur (1933), Bordeaux, Ed. La Tempête, 2019
(reed.), pp. 21-50, and cf. pp. 197-209; S. Weil, L’agonie d’une civilisation (1943), Saint
Clément de Rivière, Ed. Fata Morgana, 2017 (reed.), pp. 9-51; S. Weil, OEuvres (1929-
1943), Paris, Gallimard, 1999 (reed.), pp. 449-462 and 503-507; R. Rolland and S. Zweig,
Correspondence (1910-1919), Paris, Ed. A. Michel, 2014, pp. 73-622; S. Zweig, Seuls les
vivants créent le monde (1914-1918), Paris, Ed. R. Laffont, 2018, pp. 25-160; A. Schweitzer,
Pilgrimage to Humanity (1961), N.Y., Philosophical Library Ed., 1961, pp. 1-106; and
cf., subsequently, e.g., G. Bataille, La littérature et le mal (1957), Paris, Gallimard, 2016
(reed.), pp. 9-201; F. Alberoni, Las Razones del Bien y del Mal, Mexico, Ed. Gedisa, 1988,
pp. 9-196; P. Ricoeur, Le mal — Un défi à la philosophie et à la théologie, 3rd ed., Geneva,
Ed. Labor et Fides, 2004, pp. 19-65; P. Ricoeur, A Simbólica do Mal, Lisbon, Edic. 70, 2017,
pp. 17-375; C. Crignon (coord.), Le mal, Paris, Flammarion, 2000, pp. 11-232; M. Buber,
Imágenes del Bien y del Mal, Buenos Aires, Ed. Lilmod, 2006, pp. 11-227; among others.
3 Cf., e.g., N. Dubos (coord.), Le mal extrême — La guerre civile vue par les philosophes,
Paris, CNRS Ed., 2010, pp. V-XXI and 1-361; H. Bouchilloux, Qu’est-ce que le
mal?, 2nd ed., Paris, Ed. J. Vrin, 2010, pp. 7-124; J. Waller, Becoming Evil — How Ordinary
People Commit Genocide and Mass Killing, 2nd ed., Oxford University Press, 2007,
pp. 3-330; L. Svendsen, A Philosophy of Evil, 2nd ed., Champaign, Dalkey Archive Press,
2011, pp. 17-282; S. Baron-Cohen, The Science of Evil — On Empathy and the Origins of
Cruelty, N.Y., Basic Books Ed., 2012, pp. 1-194; D. J. Goldhagen, Worse than War —
Genocide, Eliminationism, and the Ongoing Assault on Humanity, London, Abacus, 2012
(reed.), pp. 3-628; E. Barnavi, Dix thèses sur la guerre, Paris, Flammarion, 2014, pp. 7-137;
S. Neiman, Evil in Modern Thought — An Alternative History of Philosophy, Princeton/
Oxford, Princeton University Press, 2015, pp. 1-359; [Various Authors], Le sarcasme du
mal — Histoire de la cruauté de la Renaissance à nos jours (eds. F. Chauvaud, A. Rauch and
M. Tsikounas), Rennes, Presses Universitaires de Rennes, 2016, pp. 9-356; F.-X. Putallaz,
Le mal, Paris, Ed. du Cerf, 2017, pp. 7-185; L. Devillairs, Etre quelqu’un de bien — Philosophie
du bien et du mal, Paris, PUF, 2019, pp. 9-217; among others.
4 Cf., e.g., J. de Romilly, La Grèce antique contre la violence, Paris, Ed. de Fallois,
2000, pp. 7-214; K. Mann, Contre la barbarie (1925-1948), Paris, Ed. Phébus, 2009 (reed.),
pp. 19-436; C. G. Jung, Aspects du drame contemporain, Geneva/Paris, Libr. Univ. Georg/
Eds. Colonne Vendôme, 1948, pp. 71-233; K. Jaspers, The Question of German Guilt
(1947), N.Y., Fordham University Press, 2000 (reed.), pp. 1-117; H. Arendt, Compreensão
e Política e Outros Ensaios (1930-1954), Lisbon, Antropos/Relógio d’Agua Ed., 2001,
pp. 41-287, esp. pp. 61-75; H. Arendt, Responsabilité et jugement, Paris, Ed. Payot
& Rivages, 2009 (reed.), pp. 57-359; S. Sontag, Regarding the Pain of Others, London,
Penguin Books, 2004 (reed.), pp. 3-113; R. Muchembled, Une histoire de la violence — De
la fin du Moyen Age à nos jours, Paris, Ed. du Seuil, 2008, pp. 7-460; Ph. Spencer, Genocide
since 1945, London/N.Y., Routledge, 2012, pp. 1-142; J.-J. Becker, Comment meurent les
civilisations, Paris, Vendémiaire Ed., 2013, pp. 5-182; D. Muchnik, La Humanidad frente
application de la cirft et de la ciedr (op. ind. cançado trindade) 628
74
rendre la justice sur le fondement d’un traité relatif aux droits de l’homme
tel que la CIEDR qu’en tenant dûment compte et en prenant la mesure
des souffrances des victimes au sein de la population et de leurs besoins de
protection (C.I.J. Recueil 2011 (I), p. 316, par. 194, et p. 321, par. 209).
9. Je me permettrai d’ajouter que la nécessité de protéger les êtres
humains contre leur propension à la violence et à la destruction a été une
constante de l’histoire et de la pensée humaine 2 jusqu’à nos jours 3,
conduisant parfois à s’interroger plus particulièrement sur certains événements
historiques 4. Dès l’Antiquité, des tentatives ont été faites pour par-
2 Pour une étiologie du mal dans l’évolution historique de la pensée humaine, on consultera
utilement les ouvrages suivants, entre autres : A. D. Sertillanges, Le problème du mal,
Paris, Aubier- Montaigne, 1948, p. 5-412 ; A. J. Toynbee, Civilization on Trial, Oxford/New
York, Oxford University Press, 1948, p. 3-263 ; A. J. Toynbee, Guerra y Civilización (1952),
Madrid/Buenos Aires, Alianza/Emecé Eds., 1984 (rééd.), p. 7-169 ; S. Weil, Force et malheur
(1933), Bordeaux, sous la dir. de La Tempête, 2019 (rééd.), p. 21-50 et p. 197-209 ; S. Weil,
L’agonie d’une civilisation (1943), Saint Clément de Rivière, Ed. Fata Morgana, 2017 (rééd.),
p. 9-51 ; S. Weil, OEuvres (1929-1943), Paris, Gallimard, 1999 (rééd.), p. 449-462 et 503-507 ;
R. Rolland et S. Zweig, Correspondance (1910-1919), Paris, Albin Michel, 2014, p. 73-622 ;
S. Zweig, Seuls les vivants créent le monde (1914-1918), Paris, Robert Laffont, 2018, p. 25-160 ;
A. Schweitzer, Pilgrimage to Humanity (1961), N.Y., Philosophical Library Ed., 1961, p. 1-106 ;
et plus récemment, par exemple, G. Bataille, La littérature et le mal (1957), Paris, Gallimard,
2016 (rééd.), p. 9-201 ; F. Alberoni, Las Razones del Bien y del Mal, Mexico, Ed. Gedisa, 1988,
p. 9-196 ; P. Ricoeur, Le mal — Un défi à la philosophie et à la théologie, 3e éd., Genève, Labor
et Fides, 2004, p. 19-65 ; P. Ricoeur, A Simbólica do Mal, Lisbonne, Edic. 70, 2017, p. 17-375 ;
C. Crignon (dir. publ.), Le mal, Paris, Flammarion, 2000, p. 11-232 ; M. Buber, Imágenes del
Bien y del Mal, Buenos Aires, Ed. Lilmod, 2006, p. 11-227.
3 Voir par exemple N. Dubos, Le mal extrême — La guerre civile vue par les philosophes,
Paris, CNRS Ed., 2010, p. V-XXI et 1-361 ; H. Bouchilloux, Qu’est-ce que le mal ?, 2e éd.,
Paris, J. Vrin, 2010, p. 7-124 ; J. Waller, Becoming Evil — How Ordinary People Commit
Genocide and Mass Killing, 2e éd., Oxford University Press, 2007, p. 3-330 ; L. Svendsen,
A Philosophy of Evil, 2e éd., Champaign, Dalkey Archive Press, 2011, p. 17-282 ; S. Baron-
Cohen, The Science of Evil — On Empathy and the Origins of Cruelty, New York, Basic
Books, 2012, p. 1-194 ; D. J. Goldhagen, Worse than War — Genocide, Eliminationism, and
the Ongoing Assault on Humanity, Londres, Abacus, 2012 (rééd.), p. 3-628 ; E. Barnavi,
Dix thèses sur la guerre, Paris, Flammarion, 2014, p. 7-137 ; S. Neiman, Evil in Modern
Thought — An Alternative History of Philosophy, Princeton/Oxford, Princeton University
Press, 2015, p. 1-359 ; F.-X. Putallaz, Le mal, Paris, Ed. du Cerf, 2017, p. 7-185 ; L. Devillairs,
Etre quelqu’un de bien — Philosophie du bien et du mal, Paris, PUF, 2019, p. 9-217.
4 Voir par exemple J. de Romilly, La Grèce antique contre la violence, Paris, Ed. de
Fallois, 2000, p. 7-214 ; K. Mann, Contre la barbarie (1925-1948), Paris, Phébus, 2009 (rééd.),
p. 19-436 ; C. G. Jung, Aspects du drame contemporain, Paris/Genève, Libr. Univ. Georg/Eds.
Colonne Vendôme, 1948, p. 71-233 ; K. Jaspers, The Question of German Guilt (1947), New
York, Fordham University Press, 2000 (rééd.), p. 1-117 ; H. Arendt, Compreensão e Política
e Outros Ensaios (1930-1954), Lisbonne, Antropos/Relógio d’Agua Ed., 2001, p. 41-287, en
particulier p. 61-75 ; H. Arendt, Responsabilité et jugement, Paris, Payot & Rivages, 2009
(rééd.), p. 57-359 ; S. Sontag, Regarding the Pain of Others, Londres, Penguin Books, 2004
(rééd.), p. 3-113 ; R. Muchembled, Une histoire de la violence — De la fin du Moyen Age à
nos jours, Paris, Seuil, 2008, p. 7-460 ; Ph. Spencer, Genocide since 1945, Londres/New York,
Routledge, 2012, p. 1-142 ; J.-J. Becker, Comment meurent les civilisations, Paris, Vendémiaire,
2013, p. 5-182 ; D. Muchnik, La Humanidad frente a la Barbarie — Reflexiones sobre
629 application of the icsft and cerd (sep. op. cançado trindade)
75
ratio 5 (as in the writings of Cicero, and in the Moral Letters to Lucilius of
Seneca), as the search of the perfection of reason. The exponents of the
school of thinking of stoicism (Seneca, Epictetus, Marcus Aurelius)
always valued the use of reason, seeking the correct attitude in face of the
fragility of human life, dedicating particular attention to the ethical questions.
10. In face of the presence of evil, there has been advice given which
has maintained its perennial value over the centuries. For example, the
words of Seneca’s Of Anger, dated from the year 49 ad, seem to have
been written nowadays :
“There is nothing more dangerous than animosity: it is anger that
breeds this. Nothing is more deadly than war (. . .); it repudiates
human nature, (. . .) while it incites hatred (. . .) to do harm. (. . .)
[O]ne may learn (. . .): how much evil is inherent in anger when it has
at its service all the power of extremely powerful men (. . .).
(. . .) [O]ne should take into account the boundaries of our human
condition, if we are to be fair judges of all that happens (. . .). Let us
grant to our soul that peace which will be provided by constant study
of beneficial instruction, by noble actions, and a mind fixed on desire
only for what is honourable.
(. . .) The benefits of life are not to be squandered (. . .). Fate stands
above our heads and numbers our days as they go by, drawing nearer
and nearer to us (. . .). Let us rather spend the brief span we have left
in rest and peace (. . .). [L]et us behave as men should; let us not be
a cause of fear or danger to anyone (. . .)”. 6
III. The Rationale of the Compromissory Clause of the
CERD Convention (Article 22)
11. Keeping in mind the importance of the basis of jurisdiction for the
protection of vulnerable persons under UN human rights conventions, I
shall now turn to my consideration to the rationale of the compromissory
clause of the CERD Convention (Art. 22), as related to the justiciables’
right of access to justice. This is a key point that I have been addressing
within the ICJ over this last decade. Once again, in the present separate
opinion, I shall stress the need and relevance of a proper understanding
of the compromissory clause within a victim- oriented human rights convention,
like CERD.
a la Barbarie — Reflexiones sobre la Guerra, la Muerte y la Supervivencia, Buenos Aires,
Ariel, 2017, pp. 13-194; among others.
5 And virtue itself was at times described as recta ratio.
6 Seneca, Of Anger (circa 49 ad), Book 3, Parts 5, 13, 26 and 41-43.
application de la cirft et de la ciedr (op. ind. cançado trindade) 629
75
venir à la recta ratio 5 (comme dans les écrits de Cicéron ou les Lettres à
Lucilius de Sénèque), ces tentatives constituant en quelque sorte une quête
de la perfection de la raison. Les stoïques comme Sénèque, Epictète et
Marc Aurèle ont toujours exalté l’usage de la raison et cultivé une juste
attitude face à la fragilité de la vie humaine, en prêtant une attention
toute particulière aux questions éthiques.
10. L’existence du mal a suscité un certain nombre de conseils au cours
des âges qui n’ont rien perdu de leur pertinence. Ainsi, les observations de
Sénèque dans son essai De la colère résonnent encore de nos jours :
« Rien n’est plus funeste que les inimitiés : c’est la colère qui les
suscite ; point de plus grand fléau que la guerre … ; elle abjure la
nature humaine…, nous convie à la haine … et nous ordonne de
faire le mal … [O]n peut apprendre … quel fléau c’est que la colère,
quand elle pousse à l’extrême l’abus de la toute- puissance.
… Nous devons considérer les limites de notre humaine condition
si nous voulons juger équitablement de tout ce qui arrive … Donnons
la paix à notre âme ; or ce qui la lui donne c’est la constante
méditation des préceptes de la sagesse, et la pratique du bien, et la
pensée vouée tout entière à l’unique passion de l’honnête !
… Ces jours que tu peux dépenser en honnêtes distractions, que
sert de les faire tourner aux souffrances et au désespoir d’autrui ? Ils
n’admettent point un tel gaspillage ; nul n’en a assez pour en perdre …
Le destin plane sur nos têtes et nous compte ces heures perdues, et de
plus en plus se rapproche … Que n’es-tu plutôt avare de ces jours
bornés ? Fais plutôt qu’ils soient doux et à toi-même et aux autres …
Tant que nous sommes parmi les humains, sacrifions à l’humanité ;
ne soyons pour personne un objet de crainte ou de péril. » 6
III. De la raison d’être de la clause compromissoire
de la CIEDR (article 22)
11. Etant donné l’importance de la question de la base de compétence
du point de vue de la protection garantie aux personnes vulnérables par
les conventions des Nations Unies relatives aux droits de l’homme, j’en
viens maintenant à la raison d’être de la clause compromissoire résultant
de l’article 22 de la CIEDR, en ce qu’elle concerne le droit d’accès à la
justice du justiciable. Il s’agit là d’une question essentielle, que j’ai soulevée
tout au long de cette décennie ici à la Cour. Je soulignerai donc une
fois de plus, dans la présente opinion individuelle, la nécessité et l’intérêt
de bien cerner la clause compromissoire d’une convention relative aux
droits de l’homme axée sur les victimes telle que la CIEDR.
la Guerra, la Muerte y la Supervivencia, Buenos Aires, Ariel, 2017, p. 13-194.
5 La vertu elle-même était parfois désignée sous le terme de recta ratio.
6 Sénèque, De la colère (vers 49 après J.-C.), livre 3, chap. 5, 13, 26 et 41-43 [trad. Baillard].
630 application of the icsft and cerd (sep. op. cançado trindade)
76
1. Compromissory Clause and the Justiciables’ Right of Access to Justice
12. In effect, over the years, the ICJ has unfortunately been experiencing
an unnecessary difficulty in understanding the rationale of a compromissory
clause within a human rights convention. May I recall that, in the
aforementioned earlier case of the Application of the CERD Convention
(Georgia v. Russian Federation), I found it necessary to present my strong
and extensive dissenting opinion furthermore sustaining that the ICJ’s
strict interpretation of its compromissory clause (Art. 22) of
the CERD Convention was mistaken: in my understanding — I
explained — compromissory clauses such as that of Article 22 of the
CERD Convention are directly linked to the justiciables’ right of access to
justice itself, under human rights treaties (I.C.J. Reports 2011 (I), p. 320,
para. 207).
13. In that case, the ICJ should have, in my understanding, dismissed
the preliminary objections, by means of the interpretation of the compromissory
clause in the light of the CERD Convention as a whole, keeping
in mind its legal nature, its material content, and its object and purpose
(ibid., pp. 265-276, paras. 64-78), mainly to protect the justiciables in situations
of particular vulnerability (ibid., p. 313, para. 185). Only in this
way it would secure the CERD Convention’s proper effects, to the benefit
of human beings in need of protection (ibid., p. 276, para. 78).
14. In that decision of 2011, the ICJ, in declaring itself without competence
to proceed to the examination of the claim as to the merits, in my
understanding failed to value, from the correct humanist perspective, the
sufferings and needs of protection of the victimized population (summum
jus, summa injuria) (ibid., pp. 300-307, paras. 145-166). Human rights
conventions are essentially victim- oriented, and can only be properly
interpreted and applied from a humanist outlook, and not at all from a
State- centric and voluntarist one.
15. In my aforementioned dissenting opinion I further sustained that
the compromissory clause (Art. 22) of the CERD Convention ought to be
interpreted bearing in mind the nature and material content of that Convention,
besides its object and purpose, as a human rights treaty (ibid.,
pp. 265-291, paras. 64-118), and I underlined the pressing need of the
realization of justice on the basis of that compromissory clause ; I thus
disagreed with the voluntarist and restrictive posture assumed by the
Court’s majority in the cas d’espèce (ibid., pp. 240-322, paras. 1-214).
16. In the present case of Application of the ICSFT and CERD (Ukraine
v. Russian Federation), the ICJ once again reiterated its finding in the
case of Application of the CERD Convention (Georgia v. Russian Federation)
that the phrase any dispute which is “not settled by negotiation or
by the procedures expressly provided for in this Convention” sets up procedural
“preconditions” to be fulfilled by the Parties for the Court to be
validly seized (Judgment, para. 106).
17. On my part, just as I explained in my dissenting opinion attached
to the ICJ Judgment of eight years ago in the aforementioned case oppos-
application de la cirft et de la ciedr (op. ind. cançado trindade) 630
76
1. De la clause compromissoire et du droit d’accès à la justice du justiciable
12. Tout au long de ces années en effet, la Cour a malheureusement et
inexplicablement eu bien du mal à saisir la raison d’être de la clause compromissoire
d’une convention relative aux droits de l’homme. Je rappellerai
à nouveau que, dans l’affaire relative à l’Application de la CIEDR
(Géorgie c. Fédération de Russie), j’avais jugé nécessaire de joindre à l’arrêt
rendu par la Cour le 1er avril 2011 un exposé long et approfondi de
mon opinion dissidente, dans lequel je soutenais que la stricte interprétation
que faisait la Cour de la clause compromissoire de l’article 22 de la
CIEDR était erronée : j’y expliquais qu’à mon avis les clauses compromissoires
telles que celle qui résulte de l’article 22 de la CIEDR sont directement
liées au droit d’accès à la justice garanti au justiciable par les traités
relatifs aux droits de l’homme (C.I.J. Recueil 2011 (I), p. 320, par. 207).
13. Dans cette affaire, la Cour aurait dû, à mon sens, rejeter les exceptions
préliminaires en interprétant la clause compromissoire à la lumière
de la CIEDR dans son ensemble et en gardant à l’esprit la nature juridique,
la teneur, l’objet et le but de cette convention (ibid., p. 265-276,
par. 64-78), principalement pour protéger les justiciables en situation de
vulnérabilité (ibid., p. 313, par. 185). C’était le seul moyen pour elle de
faire en sorte que cette convention produise les effets escomptés, au service
d’êtres humains ayant besoin d’être protégés (ibid., p. 276, par. 78).
14. A mon avis, en concluant, dans son arrêt de 2011, qu’elle n’avait
pas compétence pour connaître du fond de l’affaire, la Cour n’a pas pris
la mesure, du point de vue humaniste qui s’imposait, des souffrances et du
besoin de protection des victimes (summum jus, summa injuria) (ibid.,
p. 300-307, par. 145-166). Etant essentiellement axées sur les victimes, les
conventions relatives aux droits de l’homme ne peuvent être correctement
interprétées et appliquées que selon une perspective humaniste, et certainement
pas selon une perspective axée sur l’Etat et la volonté de l’Etat.
15. Dans la même opinion dissidente, je soutenais que, en interprétant
la clause compromissoire de l’article 22 de la CIEDR, la Cour aurait dû
garder à l’esprit, outre le but et l’objet de cette convention, sa nature et sa
teneur en tant que traité relatif aux droits de l’homme (ibid., p. 265-291,
par. 64-118), et je soulignais l’impérieuse nécessité de réaliser la justice sur
la base de cette clause compromissoire ; je m’inscrivais ainsi en faux contre
la position restrictive, privilégiant la volonté des Etats, adoptée par la
majorité des membres de la Cour en l’espèce (ibid., p. 240-322, par. 1-214).
16. Dans son arrêt de 2019 en l’affaire Ukraine c. Fédération de Russie,
la Cour reproduit la conclusion qu’elle avait formulée dans son arrêt de
2011 en l’affaire Géorgie c. Fédération de Russie, à savoir que les termes de
l’article 22 (« tout différend qui n’aura pas été réglé par voie de négociation
ou au moyen des procédures expressément prévues par ladite Convention
») établissent des conditions préalables auxquelles il doit être satisfait
par les Parties pour que la Cour puisse être valablement saisie (par. 106).
17. De mon côté, je persiste à dire, comme dans mon opinion dissidente
de 2011 en l’affaire Géorgie c. Fédération de Russie, que l’article 22
631 application of the icsft and cerd (sep. op. cançado trindade)
77
ing Georgia to the Russian Federation, I keep on sustaining that Article
22 of the CERD Convention does not provide that “preconditions”
should be fulfilled for seizing the ICJ (I.C.J. Reports 2011 (I), p. 282,
para. 92). As I then stressed, Article 22 of the CERD Convention, taking
into account the object and purpose of the Convention, “a victim-oriented
human rights treaty”, should have led the ICJ to interpret it as not setting
forth any procedural “precondition” (ibid., pp. 282-284, paras. 92-96).
18. As to the present Judgment of the ICJ in the case of Application of
the ICSFT and CERD, I can live — not entirely pleased — with its finding
that the “preconditions” set forth in Article 22 are not “cumulative”, as
such characterization would not be reasonable in respect of the relevant
CERD provisions ; the “cumulative” approach creates an unnecessary
obstacle to access to justice, and the ICJ itself ponders that this would not
be reasonable (Judgment, para. 110). Although I do not agree with the
view that Article 22 of the CERD Convention sets out “preconditions”
(supra), as the Court’s majority here interprets rather distinctly that
“preconditions” are alternative (not at all cumulative), I can then live
with that, to the extent that it preserves the ICJ’s jurisdiction.
19. In the present case of Application of the ICSFT and CERD (Ukraine
v. Russian Federation), the ICJ, in addressing what it considers the “preconditions”
under Article 22 of the CERD Convention, rightly concluded
that Article 22 “must also be interpreted in light of the object and purpose
of the Convention” (Judgment, para. 111, and cf. also para. 112). In
this respect, I go further than the ICJ. The due attention to the object and
purpose of a human rights convention like CERD also calls, in my understanding,
for a proper understanding of the relevance of the basis of jurisdiction
under human rights conventions (Article 22 of CERD), as I have
already pointed out, with fundamental human rights and values standing
well above a misguided search for State “consent” (paras. 4-10 supra).
20. After all, the approach (of alternatives) adopted by the ICJ in the
cas d’espèce is confirmed by the nature and substance of the CERD Convention,
a victim- oriented human rights treaty. To attempt to consider
that the “preconditions” would be “cumulative” would be contrary to the
object and purpose of the CERD Convention, as I warned in my dissenting
opinion in the previous ICJ decision in the case of Application of the
CERD Convention (Georgia v. Russian Federation) (I.C.J. Reports
2011 (I), pp. 283-284, para. 96). And as I further stated in my dissenting
opinion in that earlier case,
“with regard to the question whether the previous engagement in negotiations
and recourse to the procedures expressly provided for in the
CERD Convention (referred to in Article 22) are cumulative or alternative,
the conjunction ‘or’ indicates that the draftsmen of the CERD Con-
application de la cirft et de la ciedr (op. ind. cançado trindade) 631
77
de la CIEDR n’établit pas de « conditions préalables » auxquelles il doit
être satisfait avant toute saisine de la Cour (C.I.J. Recueil 2011 (I),
p. 282, par. 92). J’affirmais alors que, compte tenu de l’objet et du but de
la CIEDR, « instrument des droits de l’homme orienté vers les victimes »,
la Cour n’aurait pas dû interpréter cet article comme établissant des
« conditions préalables » de nature procédurale (ibid., p. 282-284,
par. 92-96).
18. En ce qui concerne le présent arrêt en l’affaire Ukraine c. Fédération
de Russie, je peux me contenter — sans en être entièrement satisfait
— de la conclusion de la Cour selon laquelle les « conditions
préalables » énoncées à l’article 22 ne sont pas « cumulatives », au motif
qu’une telle qualification ne serait pas raisonnable compte tenu des dispositions
pertinentes de la CIEDR ; la conception « cumulative » entrave en
effet sans nécessité l’accès à la justice, ce qui, de l’avis de la Cour ellemême,
ne serait pas raisonnable (arrêt, par. 110). Je ne souscris pas à
l’opinion de la Cour selon laquelle l’article 22 de la CIEDR établirait des
« conditions préalables » (voir plus haut), mais comme la majorité des
membres regarde clairement ici ces prétendues « conditions préalables »
comme ayant un caractère alternatif et non cumulatif, je peux m’en
accommoder dans la mesure où cette interprétation ne remet pas en cause
la compétence de la Cour.
19. En la présente affaire relative à l’Application de la CIRFT et de la
CIEDR (Ukraine c. Fédération de Russie), la Cour conclut à bon droit,
au sujet de ce qu’elle considère comme les « conditions préalables » énoncées
à l’article 22 de la CIEDR, que cet article « doit également être interprété
à la lumière de l’objet et du but de la convention » (arrêt, par. 111
et 112). Sur ce point, j’irai plus loin que la Cour. Un examen attentif de
l’objet et du but de toute convention relative aux droits de l’homme
comme la CIEDR exige, à mon sens, de bien apprécier l’intérêt d’une
compétence tirée de conventions de cette nature (article 22 de la CIEDR),
étant entendu, comme je l’ai déjà signalé, que les droits de l’homme et les
valeurs fondamentales l’emportent de très loin sur une recherche malavisée
du « consentement » de l’Etat (voir par. 4-10 supra).
20. La décision prise par la Cour d’attribuer en l’espèce un caractère
alternatif aux conditions préalables trouve appui dans la nature et la
teneur de la CIEDR en tant que traité relatif aux droits de l’homme axé
sur les victimes. Prétendre que les « conditions préalables » seraient
« cumulatives » serait contraire à l’objet et au but de la CIEDR, comme je
le faisais valoir au paragraphe 96 de mon opinion dissidente jointe à l’arrêt
rendu en 2011 par la Cour en l’affaire Géorgie c. Fédération de Russie
(C.I.J. Recueil 2011 (I), p. 283-284). Dans la même opinion dissidente, je
faisais également valoir que,
« s’agissant de la question de savoir si l’ouverture préalable de négociations
et les procédures expressément prévues par la Convention
(évoquées à l’article 22) sont cumulatives ou alternatives, la conjonction
« ou » indique que les rédacteurs de la CIEDR considéraient
632 application of the icsft and cerd (sep. op. cançado trindade)
78
vention clearly considered ‘negotiation’ or ‘the procedures expressly
provided for in this Convention’ as alternatives. The Court could well —
and should — have discarded any doubts that could persist on this
point; instead, it deliberately preferred to abstain from pronouncing
(para. 183) on this aspect of the controversy raised before it. Instead of
clarifying the point, of saying what the law is (juris dictio), it felt there
was ‘no need’ to do so.” (I.C.J. Reports 2011 (I), p. 290, para. 116.)
21. In the present case of Application of the ICSFT and CERD (Ukraine
v. Russian Federation), once again, throughout the arguments of the Parties
on preliminary objections submitted to the ICJ, attention has been
concentrated on Article 22 of the CERD Convention 7, from two distinct
approaches. Thus, in the preliminary objections it submitted, the Russian
Federation presents its view that the requirements contained in Article 22
are cumulative, requiring Ukraine to have exhausted negotiations and to
have attempted to resolve the dispute using the special procedures provided
for in the CERD Convention itself (Preliminary Objections of the
Russian Federation, paras. 373-410) 8. Russia further refers to four other
human rights conventions 9, arguing that the compromissory clauses
found in them are similar to those in the CERD Convention, and that the
cumulative requirements are to be complied with by the applicant State
before seizing the ICJ (ibid., paras. 404-410).
22. For its part, Ukraine, in its written statement, firmly contests this
view, holding that Article 22 of the CERD Convention does not contain
preconditions, there being a misconstruction in reading Article 22 as
requiring a dispute to be referred to the CERD Committee after negotiations
have failed and before seizing the ICJ. Ukraine relies on the ordinary
meaning of the disjunctive word “or” in interpreting Article 22 of
the CERD Convention, indicating alternatives (ibid., para. 314). To
Ukraine, this is the most natural reading and the ordinary meaning of
Article 22 (ibid., para. 315).
7 Which reads as follows:
“Any dispute between two or more States Parties with respect to the interpretation
or application of this Convention, which is not settled by negotiation or by the
procedures expressly provided for in this Convention, shall, at the request of any of
the parties to the dispute, be referred to the International Court of Justice for decision,
unless the disputants agree to another mode of settlement.”
8 On their view of the “cumulative meaning” of Article 22, cf. also paragraphs 376, 378
and 387-403 of the Preliminary Objections of the Russian Federation.
9 Namely, Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment
or Punishment (CAT), Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant
Workers and Members of their Families (CMW), Convention for the Protection of All
Persons from Enforced Disappearance (CED), and Convention on the Elimination of All
Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW).
application de la cirft et de la ciedr (op. ind. cançado trindade) 632
78
manifestement « la négociation » ou « les procédures expressément
prévues par la Convention » comme alternatives. La Cour pouvait —
et aurait dû — dissiper tout doute pouvant subsister sur ce point ; au
lieu de quoi elle a délibérément choisi de s’abstenir de se prononcer
(par. 183) sur cet aspect de la controverse. Elle n’a pas jugé nécessaire
d’éclaircir ce point, de dire ce qu’est le droit (juris dictio). »
(C.I.J. Recueil 2011 (I), p. 290, par. 116.)
21. En la présente espèce, les Parties ont essentiellement tiré leurs
moyens de l’article 22 de la CIEDR 7, dont elles ont donné deux interprétations
différentes. La Fédération de Russie a soutenu que les conditions
visées à l’article 22 étaient cumulatives et que l’Ukraine devait donc épuiser
la voie des négociations et tenter de régler le différend en empruntant
les procédures prévues par la convention (exceptions préliminaires,
par. 373-410) 8. Invoquant quatre autres conventions relatives aux droits
de l’homme 9, elle a fait valoir que leurs clauses compromissoires étaient
semblables à celles de la CIEDR et qu’un Etat devait avoir satisfait à
leurs conditions cumulatives avant de pouvoir saisir la Cour (ibid.,
par. 404-410).
22. L’Ukraine, pour sa part, dans son exposé écrit sur les exceptions
préliminaires, a vigoureusement contesté la thèse de la Fédération de
Russie et soutenu, à l’opposé, que l’article 22 de la CIEDR ne prescrivait
aucune condition préalable et que c’était une interprétation erronée de cet
article qui faisait dire à la Russie qu’un différend qui n’aurait pas été réglé
par la voie des négociations devait être renvoyé devant le comité pour
l’élimination de la discrimination raciale avant toute saisine de la Cour.
Pour interpréter l’article 22, l’Ukraine a tiré argument du sens ordinaire
de la conjonction de coordination disjonctive « ou », qui introduit une
alternative (ibid., par. 314). Pour elle, c’est là l’interprétation la plus naturelle
et le sens ordinaire de l’article 22 (ibid., par. 315).
7 L’article 22 de la CIEDR se lit comme suit :
« Tout différend entre deux ou plusieurs Etats parties touchant l’interprétation
ou l’application de la présente Convention qui n’aura pas été réglé par voie de négociation
ou au moyen des procédures expressément prévues par ladite Convention
sera porté, à la requête de toute partie au différend, devant la Cour internationale
de Justice pour qu’elle statue à son sujet, à moins que les parties au différend ne
conviennent d’un autre mode de règlement. »
8 Sur la position de la Fédération de Russie concernant l’« interprétation cumulative » de
l’article 22, voir aussi les paragraphes 376, 378 et 387-403 de ses exceptions préliminaires.
9 Ces conventions sont la convention contre la torture et autres peines ou traitements
cruels, inhumains ou dégradants, la convention internationale sur la protection des droits
de tous les travailleurs migrants et des membres de leur famille, la convention internationale
pour la protection de toutes les personnes contre les disparitions forcées et la convention
sur l’élimination de toutes les formes de discrimination à l’égard des femmes.
633 application of the icsft and cerd (sep. op. cançado trindade)
79
23. Ukraine contends that the CERD Committee procedures referred
to in Article 22 are voluntary and not mandatory, and the respondent
State’s interpretation of it would deprive the compromissory clause of
effect ; moreover, Article 11 concerns only the application of the Convention.
Ukraine adds that if the draftsmen of the CERD Convention had
intended the ICJ’s jurisdiction to be contingent upon the use of the
CERD Committee procedures, they would have addressed such conditions
in Part II and not in Part III of the Convention (Preliminary Objections
of the Russian Federation, paras. 316-323).
24. According to Ukraine, the drafting history of Article 22, and the
object and purpose of the CERD Convention (the prompt elimination of
racial discrimination), support the conclusion that Article 22 does not
require recourse to the CERD Convention inter-State complaints procedure
(ibid., paras. 324-327). In considering the ICJ’s treatment of
Article 22 of the CERD Convention in the earlier case of Application of
the CERD Convention (Georgia v. Russian Federation), ibid., paras. 341-
348, Ukraine submits that the better interpretation of Article 22 (ibid.,
para. 346) is to read it as creating no “precondition” to the ICJ’s jurisdiction
to hear disputes concerning the interpretation or application of
the CERD Convention.
2. Compromissory Clause Within a Victim- Oriented Human Rights
Convention
25. On my part, may I recall that, in my dissenting opinion in the earlier
Judgment of the ICJ (of 1 April 2011) in the case of Application of the
CERD Convention (Georgia v. Russian Federation), I sustained the understanding
that Article 22 of the CERD Convention does not set up “preconditions”
for the ICJ to be seized (I.C.J. Reports 2011 (I), p. 283,
para. 92); this is in conformity with the object and purpose of the Convention,
“a victim- oriented” human rights treaty (ibid., p. 284, para. 96).
As I clearly explained in my dissenting opinion of eight years ago,
“In effect, Article 22 is located in Part III of the CERD Convention,
dealing with the settlement of disputes concerning the interpretation
and application of the Convention as a whole. Article 11,
located in Part II of the CERD Convention, establishes a special
complaints procedure, which is not mandatory. The location of Article
22 in a part of the Convention distinct from that which governs
the functioning of the Committee (Part II) is thus not without relevance,
and should not pass unnoticed. A brief analysis of the special
complaints procedure contained in Article 11 of the CERD Convention
indicates that Article 22 of the CERD Convention is not to be
read as requiring prior ‘exhaustion’ of the procedures set forth in
Articles 11 and 12 of the CERD Convention, as an alleged ‘precondition’
to the Court’s jurisdiction.
application de la cirft et de la ciedr (op. ind. cançado trindade) 633
79
23. L’Ukraine a également fait valoir que la procédure devant le comité
pour l’élimination de la discrimination raciale visée à l’article 22 avait un
caractère volontaire et non obligatoire, et que l’interprétation donnée de
celle-ci par l’Etat demandeur priverait d’effet la clause compromissoire ; à
cela s’ajoute que l’article 11 concerne la seule application de la convention.
L’Ukraine a fait observer que, s’ils avaient entendu faire du recours
préalable à la procédure du comité pour l’élimination de la discrimination
raciale une condition de la saisine de la Cour, les rédacteurs de la CIEDR
auraient inséré cette condition dans la deuxième partie de la convention et
non dans sa troisième partie (exceptions préliminaires, par. 316-323).
24. Selon l’Ukraine, la genèse de l’article 22 et l’objet et le but de la
CIEDR (à savoir l’élimination rapide de la discrimination raciale) autorisent
à conclure que l’article 22 n’impose pas de recourir à la procédure
de réclamation interétatique sous les auspices du comité pour l’élimination
de la discrimination raciale (ibid., par. 324-327). Examinant la façon
dont la Cour avait analysé l’article 22 de la CIEDR dans l’affaire Géorgie
c. Fédération de Russie (ibid., par. 341-348), l’Ukraine a conclu que la
juste interprétation de l’article 22 est que cette disposition ne met aucune
condition préalable à l’exercice par la Cour de sa compétence à l’égard
des différends touchant l’interprétation ou l’application de la convention
(ibid., par. 346).
2. De la clause compromissoire dans une convention relative aux droits
de l’homme axée sur les victimes
25. Dans mon opinion dissidente jointe à l’arrêt du 1er avril 2011 de la
Cour dans l’affaire Géorgie c. Fédération de Russie, j’ai soutenu que l’article
22 de la CIEDR n’établissait pas de « conditions préalables » à la
saisine de la Cour (C.I.J. Recueil 2011 (I), p. 283, par. 92), cette interprétation
étant conforme à l’objet et au but de la convention, « instrument
des droits de l’homme orienté vers les victimes » (ibid., p. 284, par. 96). Je
le précisais en ces termes :
« En effet, l’article 22 se trouve dans la partie III de la Convention,
qui traite du règlement des différends touchant l’interprétation et
l’application de la Convention dans son ensemble. L’article 11, qui se
trouve dans la partie II, établit une procédure de plainte spéciale qui
n’est pas obligatoire. Si l’article 22 figure dans une partie de la
Convention distincte de celle qui régit le fonctionnement du Comité
(partie II), ce n’est donc pas le fait du hasard et ne devrait pas passer
inaperçu. Une brève analyse de la procédure de plainte spéciale
énoncée à l’article 11 de la CIEDR montre que l’article 22 ne doit
pas être interprété comme exigeant l’« épuisement » préalable des
procédures prévues aux articles 11 et 12 de la Convention, en tant
que « condition préalable » à la compétence de la Cour.
634 application of the icsft and cerd (sep. op. cançado trindade)
80
It may be recalled that Article 11 (1) of the CERD Convention
establishes a distinct procedure that allows a State party to bring to
the attention of the CERD Committee its concerns as to acts or omissions
of another State party. The language provides that a State party
‘may’ (not ‘shall’) invoke this procedure if it wishes to do so; this
makes it clear that it is not required to refer to this procedure for any
further purpose. The language is clearly not mandatory, and this is
not the only indication to this effect.
It is noteworthy, moreover, that Article 11 (2) of the CERD Convention,
which deals with the right to return to the CERD Committee
‘if the matter is not adjusted’, is subject to two procedural conditions,
namely: (a) the right must be exercised within six months from the
receipt by the receiving State of the initial communication to the Committee;
and (b) the Committee must have determined that the matter
has not been adjusted to the satisfaction of both Parties, either by
bilateral negotiations or by any other procedure open to them. In case
these two conditions were not met, the State concerned could not go
back to the CERD Committee.
This confirms that, when the draftsmen of the CERD Convention
considered it necessary to establish a procedural condition, they
clearly did so, leaving no margin or room for further interpretation
or doubts. If no such condition was clearly set forth, it could not at
all be simply inferred, as that would not be in conformity with the
nature and substance of the CERD Convention, a victim- oriented
human rights treaty, and would clearly militate against the fulfilment
of its object and purpose. This discloses the ordinary meaning of Article
22 of the CERD Convention.” (I.C.J. Reports 2011 (I), pp. 283-
284, paras. 93-96.) 10
26. Moreover, from the standpoint of the justiciables, a compromissory
clause such as that of Article 22 of the CERD Convention is directly
related to their access to justice ; the realization of justice thereunder can
hardly be attained from a strict State- centered voluntarist perspective,
and a recurring search for State “consent”. As I further sustained in that
dissenting opinion,
“[I]n my understanding, consent is not ‘fundamental’, it is not even
a ‘principle’. What is ‘fundamental’, i.e., what lays in the foundations
of this Court, since its creation, is the imperative of the realization of
10 I added that the travaux préparatoires of the CERD Convention do not support or
confirm the conclusion of the Court’s majority (paras. 97-109), and that resort to negotiation
was generally referred to as a factual effort or attempt only, rather than as a resolutory
obligation (para. 101).
application de la cirft et de la ciedr (op. ind. cançado trindade) 634
80
On se souvient peut-être que le paragraphe 1 de l’article 11 de la
CIEDR établit une procédure distincte permettant à un Etat partie
d’appeler l’attention du Comité pour l’élimination de la discrimination
raciale sur les actes ou omissions d’un autre Etat partie. Il est dit
dans cet article qu’un Etat partie « peut » appeler l’attention du
Comité (et non qu’il appelle l’attention du Comité) s’il le souhaite ;
cela montre bien que l’Etat partie n’est pas dans l’obligation d’avoir
recours à cette procédure à des fins ultérieures. Le texte n’a rien d’impératif,
et ce n’est pas là la seule indication dans ce sens.
De plus, il est intéressant de noter que le paragraphe 2 de l’article
11 de la Convention, qui traite du droit de soumettre à nouveau
la question au Comité « si [elle] n’est pas réglée », énonce deux conditions
de procédure, à savoir : a) ce droit doit être exercé dans un
délai de six mois à compter de la date de réception de la communication
originale du Comité par l’Etat destinataire ; et b) le Comité doit
avoir déterminé que la question n’est pas réglée à la satisfaction des
deux Etats, par voie de négociations bilatérales ou par toute autre
procédure qui serait à leur disposition. Si ces deux conditions n’ont
pas été réunies, l’Etat concerné ne peut saisir à nouveau le Comité de
la question.
Cela confirme que, lorsque les rédacteurs de la CIEDR ont jugé
nécessaire d’élaborer une condition de procédure, ils l’ont manifestement
fait sans laisser la moindre place à une autre interprétation ou
au doute. Puisqu’une condition de cette nature n’a pas été clairement
énoncée, elle ne saurait résulter d’une déduction, étant donné qu’elle
ne serait pas conforme à la nature et au fond de la Convention, instrument
des droits de l’homme orienté vers les victimes, et qu’elle
empêcherait manifestement la réalisation de son objet et de son but.
Cela montre bien le sens ordinaire de l’article 22 de la CIEDR. »
(C.I.J. Recueil 2011 (I), p. 283-284, par. 93-96.) 10
26. De plus, une clause compromissoire comme celle de l’article 22 de
la CIEDR a un rapport direct avec l’accès du justiciable à la justice, la
réalisation de la justice à laquelle elle tend pouvant difficilement être
atteinte si l’on s’en tient à une perspective strictement centrée sur la
recherche constante du « consentement » des Etats. Comme je l’expliquais
dans la même opinion dissidente,
« à mes yeux, le consentement n’est pas « fondamental », et n’est
même pas un « principe ». Ce qui est « fondamental », autrement dit
ce qui forme le fondement de la Cour depuis sa création, c’est l’impé-
10 J’ajoutais que les travaux préparatoires de la CIEDR ne permettaient pas d’étayer
ou de confirmer la conclusion de la majorité des membres de la Cour (par. 97-109) et
que le recours à la négociation n’était généralement évoqué que d’une manière factuelle,
comme un effort ou une tentative par exemple, et non comme une obligation catégorique
(par. 101).
635 application of the icsft and cerd (sep. op. cançado trindade)
81
justice, by means of compulsory jurisdiction. State consent is but a
rule to be observed in the exercise of compulsory jurisdiction for the
realization of justice. It is a means, not an end, it is a procedural
requirement, not an element of treaty interpretation; it surely does
not belong to the domain of the prima principia. (. . .)
Fundamental principles are those of pacta sunt servanda, of equality
and non- discrimination (at substantive law level), of equality of
arms (égalité des armes — at procedural law level). Fundamental principle
is, furthermore, that of humanity (permeating the whole corpus
juris of international human rights law, international humanitarian
law, and international refugee law). Fundamental principle is, moreover,
that of the dignity of the human person (laying a foundation of
international human rights law). (. . .)
These are some of the true prima principia, which confer to the
international legal order its ineluctable axiological dimension. These
are some of the true prima principia, which reveal the values which
inspire the corpus juris of the international legal order, and which,
ultimately, provide its foundations themselves.” (I.C.J. Reports
2011 (I), pp. 321-322, paras. 211-213.)
27. In sum, in my aforementioned dissenting opinion of 2011, I firmly
disagreed with the Court’s majority in the cas d’espèce, and I stressed that
Article 22 of the CERD Convention does not establish “preconditions”
to the Court’s jurisdiction ; neither the ordinary meaning of Article 22,
nor its drafting history, would support any such formal “preconditions”
to the ICJ’s jurisdiction. Article 22 refers only to “alternatives”, pursuant
to a teleological approach, ensuring and rendering effective human rights
protection under the CERD Convention (ibid., p. 290, para. 116). Article
22 must therefore be interpreted in a manner that is conducive to
ensuring human rights protection. To this effect, the ICJ is to construe
the options contained in Article 22 as alternatives, and not at all as “preconditions”.
28. As I have already pointed out, in its present Judgment in the case
of Application of the ICSFT and CERD (Ukraine v. Russian Federation),
the ICJ does not reiterate the strict outlook that it adopted in the earlier
case of Application of the CERD Convention (Georgia v. Russian Federation),
also under the CERD Convention, and does not sustain any of the
corresponding preliminary objections ; it correctly dismisses them. Yet, I
find it necessary to reiterate my dissenting reflections of 2011 at this end
of the present decade (2019), so as to keep on contributing to achieve a
proper understanding of the rationale of the compromissory clause of the
CERD Convention (Art. 22) as well as of other UN human rights conventions.
application de la cirft et de la ciedr (op. ind. cançado trindade) 635
81
ratif de la réalisation de la justice au moyen de la juridiction obligatoire.
Le consentement des Etats n’est qu’une règle à respecter dans
l’exercice de la juridiction obligatoire en vue de la réalisation de la
justice. C’est un moyen et non une fin, c’est une exigence procédurale
et non un élément d’interprétation des traités. Ce n’est en aucun cas
l’un des prima principia…
Les principes fondamentaux sont ceux dits pacta sunt servanda, de
l’égalité et de la non- discrimination (dans le droit matériel), de l’égalité
des armes (dans le droit procédural), de l’humanité (qui imprègne
l’ensemble du corpus juris du droit international des droits de
l’homme, du droit international humanitaire et du droit international
des réfugiés) et de la dignité de la personne humaine (qui est l’un
des fondements du droit international des droits de l’homme)…
Voilà quelques-uns des véritables prima principia qui révèlent les
valeurs dont s’inspire le corpus juris de l’ordre juridique international
et qui, en fin de compte, en sont le fondement. » (C.I.J.
Recueil 2011 (I), p. 321-322, par. 211-213.)
27. En somme, j’ai, dans mon opinion dissidente de 2011, exprimé un
ferme désaccord avec la majorité de la Cour, soulignant que l’article 22 de
la CIEDR n’établissait pas de « conditions préalables » à la compétence
de la Cour et que ni le sens ordinaire des termes dudit article ni sa genèse
n’étayaient l’hypothèse de « conditions préalables » formelles. Les
solutions résultant de l’article 22 sont « alternatives », envisagées selon
une approche téléologique qui garantit et rend effective la protection
des droits de l’homme organisée par la CIEDR (ibid., p. 290, par. 116).
L’article 22 doit donc s’interpréter dans un sens qui serve la protection
des droits de l’homme. Pour cela, la Cour doit considérer les solutions
prévues par cet article comme alternatives et non comme des « conditions
préalables ».
28. Comme je l’ai déjà signalé, c’est à juste titre que la Cour, s’écartant
de la solution restrictive qu’elle avait retenue dans son arrêt de 2011 en
l’affaire Géorgie c. Fédération de Russie, elle aussi introduite sur le fondement
de la CIEDR, rejette par son présent arrêt les exceptions préliminaires
soulevées par la Fédération de Russie. Je n’en ai pas moins estimé
nécessaire de réitérer, en cette fin de décennie, mon point de vue dissident
de 2011, pour continuer de mieux faire comprendre la raison d’être de la
clause compromissoire de l’article 22 de la CIEDR et des clauses correspondantes
des autres conventions des Nations Unies relatives aux droits
de l’homme.
636 application of the icsft and cerd (sep. op. cançado trindade)
82
IV. Rationale of the Local Remedies Rule in International
Human Rights Protection: Protection and Redress, Rather
than Exhaustion
29. May I turn to the next selected point to consider, namely, that of
the rationale of the local remedies rule under human rights conventions.
Once again, the point is raised in respect of the CERD Convention. I
shall first review the undue invocation of the rule in the recent case of
Application of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms
of Racial Discrimination (Qatar v. United Arab Emirates) (hereinafter
Application of the CERD Convention (Qatar v. United Arab Emirates)).
Then, I shall proceed to consider the undue invocation of the rule in the
present case of Application of the ICSFT and CERD, opposing Ukraine to
the Russian Federation. I shall then examine the overriding importance
of redress.
1. Undue Invocation of the Rule, in the Case of Application of the
CERD Convention, Opposing Qatar to UAE
30. Moving now to the other point, this is not the first time that I deem
it necessary to warn against the inadequacy of the invocation of the local
remedies rule in an inter-State case before the ICJ pertaining to the application
of the CERD Convention. In a recent case of the kind, opposing
Qatar to UAE, for example, I appended a separate opinion to the ICJ’s
Order of 23 July 2018, where I began by finding entirely inadequate and
regrettable the invocation of the rule of exhaustion of local remedies at
the early stage of a request for provisional measures of protection, and
not on admissibility (Provisional Measures, Order of 23 July 2018,
I.C.J. Reports 2018 (II), p. 454, para. 48).
31. And I added that the incidence of the local remedies rule in human
rights protection is certainly distinct from its application in the practice of
diplomatic protection of nationals abroad, there being nothing to hinder
the application of that rule with greater or lesser rigour in such different
domains (ibid., para. 49). And I then pondered that
“Its rationale is quite distinct in the two contexts. In the domain of
the safeguard of the rights of the human person, attention is focused
on the need to secure the faithful realization of the object and purpose
of human rights treaties, and on the need of effectiveness of local
remedies; attention is focused, in sum, on the needs of protection. The
rationale of the local remedies rule in the context of diplomatic protection
is entirely distinct, focusing on the process of exhaustion of
such remedies.
application de la cirft et de la ciedr (op. ind. cançado trindade) 636
82
IV. De la raison d’être de la règle de l’épuisement des voies
de recours internes dans la protection internationale des droits
de l’homme : protection et réparation, et non épuisement
29. J’en viens maintenant au point suivant, qui est celui de la raison
d’être de la règle de l’épuisement des voies de recours internes édictée par
les conventions relatives aux droits de l’homme. Une fois de plus, je tire
mon argument de la CIEDR. J’examinerai d’abord l’invocation fautive
récente de cette règle dans l’affaire relative à l’Application de la convention
internationale sur l’élimination de toutes les formes de discrimination raciale
(Qatar c. Emirats arabes unis) (2018) ; puis l’invocation fautive de la
même règle dans la présente affaire ; et enfin l’extrême importance que
revêt la question de la réparation.
1. De l’invocation fautive de la règle en l’affaire relative à l’Application
de la CIEDR (Qatar. c. Emirats arabes unis)
30. Ce n’est pas la première fois que j’estime nécessaire de mettre en
garde contre le caractère fautif de l’invocation de la règle de l’épuisement
des voies de recours internes dans une affaire interétatique portée devant
la Cour et touchant à l’application de la CIEDR. C’est ainsi que, récemment,
dans une affaire similaire opposant le Qatar aux Emirats arabes
unis, j’ai joint à l’ordonnance du 23 juillet 2018 de la Cour un exposé de
mon opinion individuelle dans lequel, pour commencer, je disais trouver
surprenant et même déplorable que la règle de l’épuisement des voies de
recours internes ait été invoquée à un stade aussi précoce que celui d’une
demande en indication de mesures conservatoires et non au stade de la
recevabilité (C.I.J. Recueil 2018 (II), p. 454, par. 48).
31. J’ajoutais que la règle de l’épuisement des voies de recours internes
jouait assurément de façon différente en matière de protection des droits
de l’homme et en matière de protection diplomatique des nationaux à
l’étranger, et que rien ne s’opposait à ce que cette règle s’appliquât avec
une plus ou moins grande rigueur dans des domaines aussi différents
(ibid., par. 49). Je faisais valoir ensuite que
« [l]a règle des recours internes a une raison d’être différente dans
chacun de ces deux domaines. Dans celui de la sauvegarde des droits
de la personne, elle répond principalement au souci d’assurer la fidèle
réalisation de l’objet et du but des traités relatifs aux droits de
l’homme et de garantir le caractère effectif des recours internes ; l’attention
se porte essentiellement sur les besoins de protection. Dans le
contexte de la protection diplomatique, la règle des recours internes
a une raison d’être entièrement différente, qui est axée sur le processus
d’épuisement des recours.
637 application of the icsft and cerd (sep. op. cançado trindade)
83
Local remedies, in turn, form an integral part of the very system of
international human rights protection, the emphasis falling on the
element of redress rather than on the process of exhaustion. The local
remedies rule bears witness of the interaction between international
law and domestic law in the present context of protection 11. We are
here before a droit de protection, with a specificity of its own, fundamentally
victim- oriented, concerned with the rights of individual
human beings rather than of States. Such rights are accompanied by
obligations of States.
Generally recognized rules of international law (which the formulation
of the local remedies rule in human rights treaties refers to),
besides following an evolution of their own in the distinct contexts in
which they apply, necessarily undergo, when inserted in human rights
treaties, a certain degree of adjustment or adaptation, dictated by the
special character of the object and purpose of those treaties
and by the widely recognized specificity of the international protection
of human rights.” (I.C.J. Reports 2018 (II), pp. 454-455,
paras. 50-52.)
32. In my same separate opinion in the case of Application of the
CERD Convention (Qatar v. United Arab Emirates), I further pointed out
that, in its handling of successive cases under the CERD Convention, for
example, the Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination
(CERD Committee) has deemed it necessary to single out that petitioners
are only required to exhaust local remedies which are effective in the circumstances
of the cas d’espèce (ibid., p. 455, paras. 53-54). And I concluded,
on this point, that
“The local remedies rule has a rationale of its own under human
rights treaties; this cannot be distorted by the invocation of the handling
of inter-State cases in the exercise of diplomatic protection,
where the local remedies rule has an entirely distinct rationale. The
former stresses redress, the latter outlines exhaustion. One cannot
deprive a human rights convention of its effet utile by using the distinct
rationale of the rule in diplomatic protection.
11 Cf. A. A. Cançado Trindade, The Application of the Rule of Exhaustion of Local
Remedies in International Law, Cambridge University Press, 1983, pp. 1-445; A. A. Cançado
Trindade, O Esgotamento de Recursos Internos no Direito Internacional, 2nd ed., Brasília,
Edit. University of Brasília, 1997, pp. 1-327; A. A. Cançado Trindade, “Origin and Historical
Development of the Rule of Exhaustion of Local Remedies in International Law”, 12
Revue belge de droit international/Belgisch Tijdschrift voor internationaal Recht, Brussels
(1976), pp. 499-527.
application de la cirft et de la ciedr (op. ind. cançado trindade) 637
83
Les recours internes font partie intégrante du système international
de protection des droits de l’homme, la prééminence étant accordée
dans ce contexte à l’élément de réparation plutôt qu’au processus
d’épuisement. La règle des recours internes est un reflet des interactions
entre droit international et droit interne dans le contexte
contemporain de la protection 11. Nous nous trouvons ici en présence
d’un droit de protection, qui a une spécificité propre, est fondamentalement
axé sur les victimes, et s’intéresse aux droits des personnes
plutôt qu’à ceux des Etats. A ces droits des personnes correspondent
des obligations des Etats.
Les règles généralement reconnues du droit international (auxquelles
renvoie la formulation de la règle des recours internes dans
les traités relatifs aux droits de l’homme), outre qu’elles évoluent
d’elles-mêmes dans les différents contextes où elles s’appliquent,
subissent, lorsqu’elles sont insérées dans des traités relatifs aux droits
de l’homme, un certain degré d’ajustement ou d’adaptation dicté par
le caractère particulier que revêtent le but et l’objet de ces traités et
par la spécificité largement admise de la protection internationale des
droits de l’homme. » (C.I.J. Recueil 2018 (II), p. 454-455, par. 50-52.)
32. Dans la même opinion individuelle, je faisais observer que, saisi
d’un certain nombre d’affaires intéressant la CIEDR, le comité pour l’élimination
de la discrimination raciale, par exemple, avait jugé bon de souligner
que les pétitionnaires n’étaient tenus d’épuiser que « des recours
qui [étaient] effectifs dans les circonstances » de l’espèce (ibid., p. 455,
par. 53-54). Et je concluais, sur ce sujet, que
« [l]a règle des recours internes a une raison d’être spécifique dans les
traités relatifs aux droits de l’homme ; c’est pourquoi il est vain d’invoquer
à son sujet la jurisprudence internationale concernant l’exercice
de la protection diplomatique, puisque cette dernière a une
raison d’être entièrement différente. Dans les traités relatifs aux droits
de l’homme, la règle des recours internes insiste sur la réparation,
tandis que, dans l’exercice de la protection diplomatique, elle insiste
sur l’épuisement. Il ne saurait être question d’ôter à une convention
relative aux droits de l’homme son effet utile en lui appliquant la
raison d’être différente de cette règle dans le contexte de la protection
diplomatique.
11 A. A. Cançado Trindade, The Application of the Rule of Exhaustion of Local Rem -
edies in International Law, Cambridge University Press, 1983, p. 1-445 ; A. A. Cançado
Trindade, O Esgotamento de Recursos Internos no Direito Internacional, 2e éd., Brasília,
Editora Universidade de Brasília, 1997, p. 1-327 ; A. A. Cançado Trindade, « Origin and
Historical Development of the Rule of Exhaustion of Local Remedies in International
Law », Revue belge de droit international/Belgisch Tijdschrift voor internationaal Recht,
vol. 12, Bruxelles, 1976, p. 499-527.
638 application of the icsft and cerd (sep. op. cançado trindade)
84
Contemporary international tribunals share the common mission
of realization of justice. There is here a fundamental unity of conception
and mission. International human rights tribunals, created by
conventions at regional levels, operate within the conceptual framework
of the universality of human rights. International human rights
tribunals have been faithful to the rationale of effectiveness of local
remedies and redress 12. There is in this respect a complementarity in
outlook between mechanisms of dispute- settlement at UN and
regional levels, all operating under the conceptualized universality of
the rights inherent to the human person.” (I.C.J. Reports 2018 (II),
pp. 455-456, paras. 55-56.)
2. Undue Invocation of the Rule, in the Case of Application of
the CERD Convention 13, Opposing Ukraine to Russian Federation
33. In its Judgment in the present case opposing Ukraine to the Russian
Federation, the ICJ, in the part relating to the CERD Convention,
rightly dismissed the preliminary objection of alleged non- exhaustion of
local remedies. In its submission, the Russian Federation intended to
widen its scope (p. 223, para. 447) so as to cover any claim under the
CERD Convention, — in the light of its Articles 11 (3) and 14 (7) (a), —
including inter-State claims (p. 224, paras. 448-449).
34. Ukraine, for its part, contested the applicability of the local remedies
rule in this context, and held that this rule applied only in claims by
a State on behalf of specific individuals or entities ; in the present case,
however, —Ukraine added, —its claims under the CERD Convention
related to “a broad pattern of conduct” by the respondent State resulting
in breaches of its obligations under the CERD Convention (p. 199,
para. 373).
35. As to my own position on the matter at issue, it is clear from the
wording of Article 11 (3) of the CERD Convention that the local remedies
rule only applies to procedures before the CERD Committee. More
12 To this effect, cf., for an analysis of the vast case law of the ECtHR on the matter,
e.g., P. van Dijk, F. van Hoof, A. van Rijn and Leo Zwaak, Theory and Practice of the
European Convention on Human Rights, 4th ed., Antwerp/Oxford, Intersentia, 2006,
pp. 125-161 and 560-563; D. J. Harris, M. O’Boyle, E. P. Bates and C. M. Buckley, Law
of the European Convention on Human Rights, 2nd ed., Oxford University Press, 2009,
pp. 759-776; as to the case law of the IACtHR, cf. A. A. Cançado Trindade, El Agotamiento
de los Recursos Internos en el Sistema Interamericano de Protección de los Derechos
Humanos, San José/C.R., IIDH, 1991, pp. 1-60; and as to the case law of the African Court
on Human and Peoples’ Rights (AfCtHPR), cf. M. Löffelmann, Recent Jurisprudence of
the African Court on Human and Peoples’ Rights — Developments 2014 to 2016, Arusha,
Tanzania/Eschborn, Germany, Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit
(GIZ), 2016, pp. 1-63, esp. pp. 5-8, 22, 24-26 and 29-30.
13 Besides the Convention for the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism (ICSFT).
application de la cirft et de la ciedr (op. ind. cançado trindade) 638
84
Les juridictions internationales contemporaines partagent une
même mission de réalisation de la justice. Il y a là une unité fondamentale
de conception et de mission. Les juridictions internationales
garantes des droits de l’homme créées par des conventions régionales
fonctionnent dans un cadre théorique qui est celui de l’universalité
des droits de l’homme. Elles sont fidèles à une raison d’être qui insiste
sur le caractère effectif des recours internes et sur la réparation 12. Il
existe à cet égard une complémentarité entre les mécanismes de règlement
des différends de l’ONU et ceux des organisations régionales,
du fait que tous inscrivent leur action dans le cadre théorique de
l’universalité des droits inhérents à la personne humaine. » (C.I.J.
Recueil 2018 (II), p. 455-456, par. 55-56.)
2. De l’invocation fautive de la règle en l’affaire relative à l’Application
de la CIEDR 13 (Ukraine c. Fédération de Russie)
33. Dans la partie consacrée à la CIEDR de son arrêt en la présente
affaire opposant l’Ukraine à la Fédération de Russie, la Cour rejette, à
juste titre, l’exception préliminaire tirée du non- épuisement présumé des
voies de recours internes. Dans ses conclusions, la Fédération de Russie a
cherché à étendre l’empire de cette règle (p. 223, par. 447) à toute prétention
tirée de la CIEDR sur la base du paragraphe 3 de l’article 11 et du
paragraphe 7, alinéa a), de l’article 14, y compris les contestations entre
Etats (p. 224, par. 448-449).
34. L’Ukraine a, à l’opposé, contesté l’applicabilité de la règle de
l’épuisement des voies de recours internes en l’espèce, arguant que cette
règle ne trouvait application que dans les cas où l’Etat agissait en justice
pour le compte de tel ou tel individu ou entité bien spécifiés, alors que, en
l’espèce, elle tirait grief de la CIEDR contre « une ligne de conduite générale
» de l’Etat défendeur à l’origine de violations par celui-ci des obligations
mises à sa charge par la CIEDR (p. 199, par. 373).
35. Ma position sur cette question est qu’il ressort clairement du texte
du paragraphe 3 de l’article 11 de la CIEDR que la règle de l’épuisement
des voies de recours internes ne joue que dans le cas de procédures devant
12 On trouvera une analyse de l’importante jurisprudence de la Cour européenne
des droits de l’homme en la matière dans P. van Dijk, F. van Hoof, A. van Rijn et Leo
Zwaak, Theory and Practice of the European Convention on Human Rights, 4e éd., Anvers/
Oxford, Intersentia, 2006, p. 125-161 et 560-563 ; D. J. Harris, M. O’Boyle, E. P. Bates et
C. M. Buckley, Law of the European Convention on Human Rights, 2e éd., Oxford University
Press, 2009, p. 759-776 ; pour la jurisprudence de la Cour interaméricaine des droits
de l’homme, voir A. A. Cançado Trindade, El Agotamiento de los Recursos Internos en el
Sistema Interamericano de Protección de los Derechos Humanos, San José (Costa Rica),
IIDH, 1991, p. 1-60 ; pour la jurisprudence de la Cour africaine des droits de l’homme et
des peuples, voir M. Löffelmann, Recent Jurisprudence of the African Court on Human and
Peoples’ Right — Developments 2014 to 2016, Arusha (Tanzanie) et Eschborn (Allemagne),
Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ), 2016, p. 1-63, et en particulier
p. 5-8, 22, 24-26 et 29-30.
13 Et de la convention pour la répression du financement du terrorisme (CIRFT).
639 application of the icsft and cerd (sep. op. cançado trindade)
85
specifically, it is only when the dispute is brought before the CERD Committee
for the second time, because the matter is not adjusted to the satisfaction
of both parties, that the Committee will ascertain that local
remedies have been exhausted in the case at issue.
36. This is in contrast with the respondent State’s argument of drawing
the relevance of the wording in Articles 11 (3) and 14 (7) (a) of the
CERD Convention, which cannot be sustained 14. On the contrary, Article
22 of the CERD Convention, as the compromissory clause on the
basis of which the ICJ is seized, makes no mention of a requirement to
exhaust local remedies prior to seizing the Court. In effect, Article 22 is to
be interpreted in a way conducive to ensuring human rights protection,
and thus provides alternative (not cumulative) options.
37. In the present case, Ukraine, instead of protecting nationals, complains
of an alleged internationally wrongful act of the respondent State
against it, in breach of the CERD Convention. As such, it cannot be litigated
in domestic courts of another State, and the local remedies rule
does not apply. Ukraine is thus correct in pointing to the impossibility of
bringing such a case in the respondent State’s domestic courts.
38. It is clear that individual rights are here also at stake, and human
rights treaties such as the CERD Convention protect them to the benefit
of the human persons concerned. But a breach of the CERD Convention
also entails the commission of an internationally wrongful act by a State,
and here the Convention’s enforcement does not require the application
of the rule of exhaustion of local remedies. In the cas d’espèce, Ukraine
points out that it does bring its claim on behalf of the individuals concerned,
but rather in its own right ; as a result, the respondent State’s
preliminary objection of alleged non- exhaustion of local remedies does
not stand, and has been rightly dismissed by the ICJ.
3. The Overriding Importance of Redress
39. In any case, the ultimate beneficiaries of the application of the
CERD Convention, among other human rights treaties, are the human
beings protected by them, even in an inter-State claim thereunder, as the
present one. It is necessary to keep in mind that the fundamental rights of
human beings stand well above the States, which were historically created
to secure those rights. After all, States exist for human beings, and not
vice versa.
14 The respondent State’s invocation of those provisions is linked to its unsustainable
view that Article 22 of the CERD Convention contains cumulative requirements to be
fulfilled for the Court to have jurisdiction over the case.
application de la cirft et de la ciedr (op. ind. cançado trindade) 639
85
le comité pour l’élimination de la discrimination raciale. Plus précisément,
ce n’est que lorsqu’il est saisi une seconde fois du différend, celui-ci
n’ayant pas été réglé à la satisfaction des deux parties, que ledit comité
apprécie si les voies de recours internes ont été épuisées en l’espèce.
36. Cette constatation est à l’opposé du moyen tiré par l’Etat défendeur
du texte du paragraphe 3 de l’article 11 et du paragraphe 7, alinéa
a), de l’article 14 de la CIEDR, moyen qui ne saurait prospérer 14. Au
contraire, l’article 22 de la CIEDR, en tant que clause compromissoire
fondant la saisine de la Cour, ne prescrit nullement d’épuiser les voies de
recours internes avant de se pourvoir devant la Cour. En effet, devant
s’interpréter d’une manière propre à permettre de pourvoir à la protection
des droits de l’homme, l’article 22 ménage ainsi des conditions alternatives
(et non cumulatives).
37. En la présente espèce, l’Ukraine, loin d’agir en protection de tels de
ses ressortissants, fait grief à l’Etat défendeur d’un acte internationalement
illicite présumé contre elle en violation de la CIEDR. Ce grief
n’étant pas, en tant que tel, justiciable des tribunaux internes d’un autre
Etat, la règle de l’épuisement des voies de recours internes ne saurait trouver
à s’appliquer. L’Ukraine est dès lors fondée à affirmer qu’un tel différend
ne saurait être porté devant les tribunaux internes de l’Etat défendeur.
38. A l’évidence, sont également en jeu ici les droits de l’individu que
les traités relatifs aux droits de l’homme comme la CIEDR viennent protéger
dans l’intérêt des personnes humaines concernées. Mais toute violation
de la CIEDR emporte également commission de quelque acte
internationalement illicite par tel Etat et, en l’occurrence, il n’est pas
nécessaire de faire jouer la règle de l’épuisement des voies de recours
internes pour pouvoir donner effet à la convention. En l’espèce, l’Ukraine
précise agir non pas tant pour le compte des individus concernés qu’en
son nom propre et que, par suite, l’exception préliminaire tirée par l’Etat
défendeur de la règle des recours internes ne peut prospérer ; c’est à juste
titre que la Cour l’a rejetée.
3. De l’importance primordiale de la réparation
39. En tout état de cause, est l’ultime bénéficiaire de l’application de la
CIEDR et des autres traités relatifs aux droits de l’homme la personne
humaine protégée par lesdits traités même en présence de litige opposant
tel Etat à tel autre comme cela est le cas en la présente espèce. Il ne faut
jamais oublier que les droits fondamentaux de la personne humaine l’emportent
nettement sur l’Etat, lequel a historiquement pour mission de
garantir lesdits droits. Après tout, l’Etat existe pour servir la personne
humaine et non l’inverse.
14 L’Etat défendeur invoque les dispositions en question pour soutenir à tort que l’article
22 de la CIEDR prescrit des conditions cumulatives à satisfaire pour donner à la Cour
compétence en l’affaire.
640 application of the icsft and cerd (sep. op. cançado trindade)
86
40. The prevalence of human beings over States marked presence in
the writings of the “founding fathers” of the law of nations, already attentive
to the need of redress for the harm done to the human person. This
concern marks presence in the writings of the “founding fathers” of the
sixteenth century, namely : Francisco de Vitoria (Second Relectio — De
Indis, 1538-1539) 15; Juan de la Peña (De Bello contra Insulanos, 1545) ;
Bartolomé de Las Casas (De Regia Potestate, 1571) ; Juan Roa Dávila
(De Regnorum Justitia, 1591) ; and Alberico Gentili (De Jure Belli, 1598).
41. Attention to the need of redress is likewise present in the writings
of the “founding fathers” of the following seventeenth century, namely :
Juan Zapata y Sandoval (De Justitia Distributiva et Acceptione Personarum
ei Opposita Disceptatio, 1609) ; Francisco Suárez (De Legibus ac Deo
Legislatore, 1612) ; Hugo Grotius (De Jure Belli ac Pacis, 1625, Book II,
Chap. 17) ; and Samuel Pufendorf (Elementorum Jurisprudentiae Universalis
— Libri Duo, 1672 ; and On the Duty of Man and Citizen According
to Natural Law, 1673) ; and is also present in the writings of other thinkers
of the eighteenth century. This is to be kept in mind.
42. The rationale of the local remedies rule in human rights protection
discloses the overriding importance of the element of redress, the provision
of which being a matter of ordre public ; what ultimately matters is
the redress obtained for the wrongs complained of, and not the mechanical
exhaustion of local remedies. The incidence of the local remedies rule
in human rights protection is certainly distinct from its application in diplomatic
protection ; as those two contexts are also distinct, there is nothing
to hinder the application of that rule with lesser or greater rigour in
such different situations 16.
43. This law of protection of the rights of the human person, within the
framework of which international and domestic law appear in constant
interaction, is inspired by common superior values : this goes pari passu
with an increasing emphasis on the State’s duty to provide effective local
remedies. In sum, as I have been pointing out over the years,
“local remedies form an integral part of the very system of international
human rights protection, the emphasis falling on the element
of redress rather than on the process of exhaustion. The local remedies
15 Already in his pioneering writings, F. de Vitoria conceived the law of nations (droit
des gens) as regulating an international community (totus orbis) comprising human beings
organized socially in emerging States and conforming humanity; the reparation of violations
of their rights reflected an international necessity addressed by the law of nations
(droit des gens), with the same principles of justice applying likewise to States and individuals
and peoples conforming them. Cf. A. A. Cançado Trindade, “Totus Orbis: A Visão
Universalista e Pluralista do Jus Gentium: Sentido e Atualidade da Obra de Francisco de
Vitoria”, 24 Revista da Academia Brasileira de Letras Jurídicas, Rio de Janeiro (2008),
No. 32, pp. 197-212.
16 A. A. Cançado Trindade, The Access of Individuals to International Justice, Oxford
University Press, 2011, pp. 101, 103 and 105.
application de la cirft et de la ciedr (op. ind. cançado trindade) 640
86
40. La prééminence de la personne humaine sur l’Etat ressort clairement
des écrits des « pères fondateurs » du droit des gens, déjà attentifs à
la nécessité de voir réparer tout tort causé à la personne humaine. Ce
souci de justice trouve expression dans la littérature des « pères fondateurs
» du XVIe siècle, à savoir Francisco de Vitoria (Relectio De Indis,
1538-1539) 15 ; Juan de la Peña (De Bello contra Insulanos, 1545) ; Bartolomé
de Las Casas (De Regia Potestate, 1571) ; Juan Roa Dávila (De
Regnorum Justitia, 1591) ; et Alberico Gentili (De Jure Belli, 1598).
41. On retrouve également l’expression de ce souci de réparation dans
les ouvrages des « pères fondateurs » du XVIIe siècle, à savoir Juan Zapata
y Sandoval (De Justitia Distributiva et Acceptione Personarum ei Opposita
Disceptatio, 1609) ; Francisco Suárez (De Legibus ac Deo Legislatore,
1612) ; Hugo Grotius (De Jure Belli ac Pacis, 1625, livre II, chap. 17) ; et
Samuel Pufendorf (Elementorum Jurisprudentiae Universalis — Libri Duo,
1672 ; et Les Droits de l’Homme du citoyen, tels qu’ils lui sont prescrits par
la loi naturelle, 1673), sans oublier les écrits d’autres penseurs du
XVIIIe siècle.
42. La raison d’être de la règle de l’épuisement des voies de recours
internes en matière de protection des droits de la personne humaine réside
dans la primauté de l’élément de réparation, dont l’octroi relève de l’ordre
public ; ce qui importe en dernier ressort, c’est la réparation du tort invoqué
et non l’épuisement mécanique des voies de recours internes. Le rôle
de la règle des recours internes en matière de protection des droits de
l’homme est incontestablement différent de ce qu’il est dans la pratique de
la protection diplomatique ; s’agissant ici de deux domaines distincts, rien
ne s’oppose à ce que cette règle s’applique avec une plus ou moins grande
rigueur dans des domaines aussi différents 16.
43. Ce droit de la protection des droits de la personne humaine, dans le
cadre duquel le droit international et le droit interne apparaissent en
constante interaction, s’inspire de valeurs communes supérieures : ce qui
va de pair avec l’affirmation de plus en plus forte de l’obligation faite à
l’Etat d’organiser des recours internes effectifs. En somme, comme je l’ai
fait observer au fil des ans,
« les recours internes font partie intégrante du système international
de protection des droits de l’homme, la prééminence étant accordée
dans ce contexte à l’élément de réparation plutôt qu’au processus
15 Déjà dans ses ouvrages de pionnier, F. de Vitoria regarde le droit des gens comme
venant réglementer une communauté internationale (totus orbis) composée d’êtres
humains organisés socialement en Etats naissants et constituant l’humanité ; la réparation
de toutes violations de leurs droits traduisait une nécessité internationale voulue par le
droit des gens, les mêmes principes de justice s’appliquant également aux Etats et aux individus
et populations qui le constituent. Voir. A. A. Cançado Trindade, « Totus Orbis : A
Visão Universalista e Pluralista do Jus Gentium : Sentido e Atualidade da Obra de Francisco
de Vitoria », 24 Revista da Academia Brasileira de Letras Jurídicas, Rio de Janeiro
(2008), n. 32, p. 197-212.
16 A. A. Cançado Trindade, The Access of Individuals to International Justice, Oxford
University Press, 2011, p. 101, 103 et 105.
641 application of the icsft and cerd (sep. op. cançado trindade)
87
rule bears witness to the interaction between international law and
domestic law in the present domain of protection, applying only when
those remedies are indeed effective and capable to provide redress.
We are here before a droit de protection, with a specificity of its own,
fundamentally victim- oriented, concerned with the rights of individual
human beings rather than of States. Generally recognized rules of
international law (which the formulation of the local remedies rule in
human rights treaties refers to), besides following an evolution of their
own in the distinct contexts in which they apply, necessarily undergo,
when inserted in human rights treaties, a certain degree of adjustment
or adaptation, dictated by the special character of the object and
purpose of those treaties and by the widely recognized specificity of
the international protection of human rights.” 17
V. The Relevance of Jurisdiction in Face of the Need to Secure
Protection to Those in Situations of Vulnerability
44. My considerations in the present separate opinion leave it clear
that there are aggravating circumstances which increase the need to secure
protection to those directly affected by them. This is another point which
cannot pass here unnoticed. The factual context of the present case of
Application of the ICSFT and the CERD Conventions discloses that those
who seek protection find themselves in utmost vulnerability, if not
defencelessness, and, in addition, in need to safeguard themselves against
arbitrariness. The ICJ cannot, and does not, make abstraction of such
increased need of protection.
1. Protection in Face of Vulnerability
45. In effect, even in an earlier stage of the handling of the cas d’espèce, I
had appended a separate opinion to the ICJ’s Order (of 19 April 2017) on
provisional measures of protection, wherein I dwelt upon the importance of
such measures in face of the aggravated human vulnerability and defencelessness
of the segments of the population affected (I.C.J. Reports 2017,
pp. 164-166, paras. 21-29). As shown in the course of the proceedings, indiscriminate
shelling against civilians (in eastern Ukraine) struck and damaged
residential buildings, hospitals, schools, kindergartens, ambulances (ibid.,
pp. 166-167, paras. 30-31), causing physical injuries and imposing limitations
on freedom of movement (ibid., pp. 168-169, paras. 32-35).
17 Cf. supra note 16, p. 107; and cf. A. A. Cançado Trindade, The Application of the
Rule of Exhaustion of Local Remedies in International Law, op. cit. supra note 11, 1983,
pp. 1-443.
application de la cirft et de la ciedr (op. ind. cançado trindade) 641
87
d’épuisement. La règle des recours internes est un reflet des interactions
entre droit international et droit interne dans le contexte contemporain
de la protection, ne jouant que lorsque ces recours sont bel et
bien effectifs et susceptibles de permettre d’obtenir réparation. Nous
nous trouvons ici en présence d’un droit de protection, qui a une spécificité
propre, est fondamentalement axé sur les victimes, et s’intéresse
aux droits des personnes plutôt qu’à ceux des Etats. Les règles
généralement reconnues du droit international (auxquelles renvoie la
formulation de la règle des recours internes dans les traités relatifs
aux droits de l’homme), outre qu’elles évoluent d’elles-mêmes dans les
différents contextes où elles s’appliquent, subissent, lorsqu’elles sont
insérées dans des traités relatifs aux droits de l’homme, un certain
degré d’ajustement ou d’adaptation, dicté par le caractère particulier
que revêtent l’objet et le but de ces traités, et par la spécificité largement
admise de la protection internationale des droits de l’homme. » 17
V. De l’intérêt de la compétence face à la nécessité d’assurer
la protection de personnes en état de vulnérabilité
44. Il ressort des développements qui précèdent qu’il est des circonstances
aggravantes qui renforcent la nécessité d’assurer la protection de
personnes souffrant directement de ces circonstances. C’est là un autre
aspect à ne pas passer sous silence. Les éléments factuels de la présente
espèce montrent bien que les personnes ayant besoin de protection se
trouvent dans un état d’extrême vulnérabilité, sinon d’impuissance et, de
surcroît, forcées de se prémunir contre l’arbitraire. La Cour ne saurait
faire abstraction d’un tel besoin accru de protection et ne le fait d’ailleurs
pas.
1. De la protection face à un état de vulnérabilité
45. Déjà à un stade antérieur de la présente espèce, le 19 avril 2017,
j’avais joint une opinion individuelle à l’ordonnance rendue par la Cour
sur la demande en indication de mesures conservatoires ; je m’y étais
arrêté sur la valeur de telles mesures au vu de l’extrême vulnérabilité et de
l’impuissance des groupes de population affectés (C.I.J. Recueil 2017,
p. 164-166, par. 21-29). Ainsi qu’il a été démontré en cours d’instance, des
tirs d’artillerie sans discrimination contre des civils (en Ukraine orientale)
ont frappé et endommagé des bâtiments résidentiels, des hôpitaux, des
ambulances, des écoles et des jardins d’enfants (ibid., p. 166-167,
par. 30-31), causé des blessés et entravé la liberté de mouvement des personnes
(ibid., p. 168-169, par. 32-35).
17 Cf. supra note 16, p. 107 ; et voir A. A. Cançado Trindade, The Application of the
Rule of Exhaustion of Local Remedies in International Law, op. cit. supra note de bas de
page 11, 1983, p. 1-443.
642 application of the icsft and cerd (sep. op. cançado trindade)
88
46. Hence the importance — I proceeded — of due consideration of
the test of human vulnerability, insufficiently considered by the ICJ at
that stage (I.C.J. Reports 2017, p. 169, para. 36 and pp. 170-171,
paras. 41-44). I then deemed it fit to recall that
“the CERD Convention is a core UN human rights convention
intended to protect rights of the human person at intra-State level.
Accordingly, concern for the protection of vulnerable segments of the
population must inform the Court’s finding that the test of human
vulnerability here applies, requiring provisional measures of protection”
(ibid., p. 172, para. 48).
47. In effect, this is a consideration to be kept in mind in all stages of
the handling of the present case, including the present one on preliminary
objections, here duly dismissed. I then stressed that “the vulnerability of
victims, with its implications, are (. . .) clearly acknowledged in contemporary
international case law, of distinct international tribunals” (ibid.,
p. 173, para. 53). I recalled, e.g., that the European Court of Human
Rights (ECtHR), has likewise been seized, since 2015, of two cases of
Ukraine v. Russian Federation (ibid., pp. 176-177, paras. 60-61), — the
matter remaining pending with it 18 to date (November 2019).
48. I then pointed out that the handling of the present case of the
Application of the ICSFT Convention and of the CERD Convention
requires “a humanist outlook”, going beyond the strict inter-State dimension,
given the great need of protection of those in situations of great
vulnerability or even defencelessness (ibid., pp. 184-185, paras. 84 and
86). I added that here “[t]he principle of humanity comes to the fore” ; it
“permeates the whole corpus juris of contemporary international law”
with “a clear incidence on the protection of persons in situations of great
vulnerability. The raison d’humanité prevails here over the raison d’Etat.
Human beings stand in need, ultimately, of protection against evil, which
lies within themselves” (ibid., p. 186, paras. 90-91).
2. Protection against Arbitrariness
49. In cases of extreme violence like the present one, human
beings stand in need of protection against arbitrariness on the part not
only of State authorities, but also of other (unidentified) individuals. In a
wider horizon, human beings need protection ultimately against themselves
19. Human rights conventions, like CERD, enable the exercise of
18 Cf. ECtHR, Press Release ECHR 173 (2018), of 9 May 2018, pp. 1-3.
19 Extreme violence has regrettably accompanied human relations over the centuries.
Even those who survived acts of brutality became deeply harmed physically and psychologically
by them for the rest of their lives. To recall only one example, of the mid- twentieth
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46. D’où l’importance — poursuivais-je — de tenir dûment compte du
critère de vulnérabilité humaine, insuffisamment pris en considération par
la Cour à ce stade-là (C.I.J. Recueil 2017, p. 169, par. 36, et p. 170-171,
par. 41-44). J’avais alors jugé bon de rappeler que
« [l]a CIEDR, qui fait partie des traités fondamentaux relatifs aux droits
de l’homme conclus sous l’égide de l’Organisation des Nations Unies, a
pour objet de protéger les droits de la personne humaine au niveau
intraétatique. La nécessité de protéger les groupes vulnérables de la
population aurait donc dû amener la Cour à conclure que le critère de
vulnérabilité humaine s’appliquait en la présente affaire et que l’indication
de mesures conservatoires s’imposait. » (Ibid., p. 172, par. 48.)
47. De fait, c’est là une exigence à retenir à tous les stades de la présente
cause, y compris à celui des exceptions préliminaires qui nous intéresse ici,
exceptions que la Cour a, en l’occurrence, écartées à juste titre. Je soulignais
alors que « la vulnérabilité des victimes, et ses implications, est …
clairement reconnue dans la jurisprudence internationale contemporaine
de différentes instances judiciaires internationales » (ibid., p. 173, par. 53).
Je rappelais à titre d’exemple que la Cour européenne des droits de
l’homme (CEDH) était de même saisie depuis 2015 de deux affaires opposant
l’Ukraine à la Fédération de Russie (ibid., p. 176-177, par. 60-61),
affaires à ce jour (novembre 2019) encore pendantes devant elle 18.
48. Je faisais observer alors que la Cour devait envisager la présente
affaire relative à l’Application de la CIRFT et de la CIEDR selon « une
perspective humaniste », lui imposant, étant donné la nécessité pressante
d’assurer la protection des êtres humains en situation de grande vulnérabilité,
voire d’impuissance, de dépasser la dimension strictement interétatique
(ibid., p. 184-185, par. 84 et 86). J’ajoutais qu’ici « [l]e principe
d’humanité pass[ait] en premier », qu’il « impr[égnait] l’ensemble du corpus
juris du droit international contemporain », et « a[vait] une incidence
avérée sur la protection des êtres humains particulièrement vulnérables, la
raison d’humanité l’emport[ant] … sur la raison d’Etat, les êtres humains
ayant en définitive besoin d’être protégés du mal inhérent à l’homme »
(ibid., p. 186, par. 90-91).
2. De la protection contre l’arbitraire
49. L’être humain en proie à une violence extrême comme en la présente
espèce a besoin d’être protégé contre l’arbitraire de la part non seulement
d’autorités étatiques, mais également de tous individus (non
identifiés). Dans une plus large perspective, l’homme doit en définitive être
protégé contre lui-même 19. Les conventions relatives aux droits de l’homme,
18 Voir CEDH, communiqué de presse CEDH 173 (2018) du 9 mai 2018, p. 1-3.
19 La violence extrême a malheureusement accompagné les relations humaines au cours
des âges. Même ceux qui ont survécu à la sauvagerie en ont été profondément marqués
dans leur corps et leur âme le restant de leur vie. Pour ne citer qu’un seul exemple tiré du
643 application of the icsft and cerd (sep. op. cançado trindade)
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protection against arbitrariness, in any circumstances. There is an absolute
prohibition of arbitrariness in the rationale of those conventions, in
support of the imperative of access to justice lato sensu, the right to the
Law (le droit au Droit, el derecho al Derecho), to secure the realization of
justice even in situations of utmost human vulnerability 20.
50. Fundamental principles of law reveal the right to the Law of which
are titulaires all human beings in need of protection. Those principles do
not depend on the State’s “will” or “consent”, and the inalienable rights
under human rights conventions, like CERD, rest on the foundations of
jus gentium itself 21. Human beings in situations of great vulnerability or
adversity stand in need of a higher standard of protection under human
rights conventions, like CERD. The Court cannot remain hostage of
State “consent” to the point of losing sight of the imperative of realization
of justice, also in these situations.
51. After all, the safeguard and prevalence of dignity of the human
person, — even amidst utmost vulnerability and facing arbitrariness, —
are identified with the end itself of Law. General principles of law conform
the substratum of the legal order itself, guaranteeing its unity,
integrity and cohesion. Such indispensable principles, consubstantial to
the international legal order itself, form the jus necessarium (not a jus
voluntarium), prior and superior to the State’s “will”, and expressing an
idea of objective justice, in the line of jusnaturalist thinking.
VI. Concluding Considerations
52. In effect, UN human rights conventions, like CERD, attribute a
central place to the human person in the domain of protection of rights
century, a survival of the acts of cruelty of the Second World War, Elie Wiesel, expressed
in his reflections (of 1958-1961) his deep anguish. In referring to “the tragic fate of those
who came back, left over, living-dead”, he pondered:
“Anyone who has seen what they have seen cannot be like the others, cannot
laugh, love, pray, bargain, suffer, have fun, or forget. (. . .) Something in them shudders
and makes you turn your eyes away. These people have been amputated; they
haven’t lost their legs or eyes but their will and their taste for life. (. . .) What it
comes down to is that man lives while dying, that he represents death to the living,
and that’s where tragedy begins.” E. Wiesel, The Night Trilogy — Night, Dawn, Day
(1958-1961), N.Y., Hill and Wang, 2008 (reed.), pp. 295-296 and 298.
20 Cf. A. A. Cançado Trindade, El Principio Básico de Igualdad y No- Discriminación:
Construcción Jurisprudencial, Santiago de Chile, Ed. Librotecnia, 2013, pp. 308 and
706-708.
21 A. A. Cançado Trindade, Tratado de Direito Internacional dos Direitos Humanos,
Vol. III, Porto Alegre/Brazil, S.A. Fabris Ed., 2003, pp. 524-525, and cf. pp. 376-380, 383,
386 and 389-390.
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comme la CIEDR, organisent la protection de la personne contre l’arbitraire
en toutes circonstances. Ces instruments viennent faire interdiction
absolue de l’arbitraire, au profit de l’impératif d’accès à la justice lato sensu,
du droit au Droit (el derecho al Derecho), de la réalisation de la justice
même en présence d’un état d’extrême vulnérabilité humaine 20.
50. Les principes de droit fondamentaux donnent expression au droit au
Droit dont sont titulaires toutes personnes humaines ayant besoin de protection.
Ces principes ne sont pas subordonnés à la « volonté » ou au « consentement
» de l’Etat, les droits inaliénables résultant de conventions relatives
aux droits de l’homme comme la CIEDR reposant sur les fondements du
jus gentium même 21. Tous les êtres humains en état de grande vulnérabilité
ou de détresse méritent un régime de protection plus élevé sous l’empire de
conventions relatives aux droits de l’homme telles que la CIEDR. La Cour
ne saurait demeurer prisonnière du « consentement » de l’Etat au point de
perdre de vue l’impératif de réalisation de la justice, y compris en pareils cas.
51. Après tout, la sauvegarde et la prééminence de la dignité de la personne
humaine, même en présence de cas d’extrême vulnérabilité et d’arbitraire,
se confondent avec la finalité du Droit proprement dite. Les
principes généraux du droit constituent le substrat de l’ordre juridique
même, venant en garantir l’unité, l’intégrité et la cohésion. Ces principes
cardinaux, consubstantiels à l’ordre juridique international, forment le jus
necessarium (et non un jus voluntarium), antérieur et supérieur à la
« volonté » de l’Etat, donnant expression à l’idée de justice objective qui
marque la pensée jusnaturaliste.
VI. Conclusion
52. De fait, à l’exemple de la CIEDR, les conventions relatives aux
droits de l’homme conclues sous l’égide des Nations Unies attribuent une
milieu du XXe siècle, Elie Wiesel, rescapé de la barbarie de la seconde guerre mondiale,
dira le profond désarroi qu’il ressent dans ses souvenirs (de 1958-1961). Evoquant « le sort
tragique de ceux qui sont revenus, ont été abandonnés, cadavres ambulants », il a eu cette
réflexion :
« Quiconque a vu ce qu’ils ont vécu ne peut être comme les autres, ne peut rire,
aimer, prier, marchander, souffrir, s’amuser ou oublier… Quelque chose en eux vous
fait frémir et détourner le regard. Ces personnes ont été amputées — elles n’ont pas
perdu de jambes ou la vue mais leur volonté et le goût de la vie… En fin de compte,
l’homme est un cadavre ambulant, qui représente la mort aux yeux des vivants et
c’est là que commence la tragédie. » E. Wiesel, The Night Trilogy — Night, Dawn,
Day (1958-1961), N.Y., Hill and Wang, 2008 (rééd.), p. 295-296 et 298.
20 Voir. A. A. Cançado Trindade, El Principio Básico de Igualdad y No- Discriminación:
Construcción Jurisprudencial, Santiago du Chili, Ed. Librotecnia, 2013, p. 308 et 706-708.
21 A. A. Cançado Trindade, Tratado de Direito Internacional dos Direitos Humanos,
vol. III, Porto Alegre/Brésil, S.A. Fabris, 2003, p. 524-525, et voir p. 376-380, 383, 386
et 389-390.
644 application of the icsft and cerd (sep. op. cançado trindade)
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inherent to her, setting limits to State voluntarism, and thus safeguarding
their integrity and the primacy of considerations of ordre public over the
“will” of individual States. May I recall that, in the ICJ Judgment in the
case of Jurisdictional Immunities of the State (Germany v. Italy: Greece
intervening), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2012 (I), where the Court upheld
the sovereign immunities of Germany in the cas d’espèce (originated historically
in the crimes of the Third Reich in the Second World War, in
1943-1945), I presented my extensive dissenting opinion (ibid., pp. 179-290,
paras. 1-316), strongly opposing the ICJ’s voluntarist-positivist approach,
based on the “will” of the States; I further singled out that situations of
injustice are unsustainable.
53. There have unfortunately been other recent examples to the same
effect, wherein I have appended other lengthy dissenting opinions 22. The
central place — may I here reiterate — as clearly indicated by cases concerning
human rights, is that of the human person, and the basic posture
is principiste, without making undue concessions to State voluntarism.
The assertion of an objective law, beyond the “will” of individual States,
is, in my perception, a revival of jusnaturalist thinking.
54. After all, the basic foundations of international law, the law of
nations (droit des gens), emanate ultimately from the human conscience,
from the universal juridical conscience, and not from the “will” of individual
States. Human rights conventions, like CERD, are people- centered
and victim- oriented (rather than State- centric), focusing on the protection
of human beings, in particular in situations of vulnerability or defenselessness.
They acknowledge the need, in the adjudication of cases, to go
beyond the strict inter-State outlook, with due attention to the persons in
need of protection, in pursuance of a humanist outlook, and in the light
of the principle of humanity 23.
22 For example, in its Judgment (of 3 February 2015) in the case of the Application of the
Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Croatia v. Serbia), the
ICJ held that, while the prohibition of genocide has the character of jus cogens, with obligations
erga omnes, its own jurisdiction is based on consent, on which it depends even when
the dispute submitted to it relates to alleged violation of norms having peremptory character.
After its own examination of the facts, it decided to reject the Applicant’s claim, and
once again I appended an extensive dissenting opinion (I.C.J. Reports 2015 (I), pp. 202-380,
paras. 1-547). Other recent examples to the same effect can be found in the three recent Judgments
(of 10 May 2016) of the ICJ in the three cases of Obligations concerning Negotiations
relating to Cessation of the Nuclear Arms Race and to Nuclear Disarmament (Marshall Islands
v. India/Pakistan/United Kingdom). The ICJ decided, by a split- majority, to uphold one of the
preliminary objections, grounded on the alleged absence of a dispute between the contending
parties, and, thus, not to proceed to the merits of the cases. Once again, I appended three
extensive dissenting opinions of over three hundred paragraphs to those three Judgments.
23 For a recent study, cf. A. A. Cançado Trindade, “Reflexiones sobre la Presencia de
la Persona Humana en el Contencioso Interestatal ante la Corte Internacional de Justicia:
Desarrollos Recientes”, 17 Anuario de los Cursos de Derechos Humanos de Donostia-San
Sebastián, Universidad del País Vasco (2017), pp. 223-271.
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place centrale à la personne humaine s’agissant de la protection des droits
qui lui appartiennent en propre, posant des limites à la primauté de la
volonté de l’Etat, et sauvegardant ainsi leur intégrité et la prééminence des
impératifs d’ordre public sur la « volonté » de tel ou tel Etat. Qu’il me soit
permis de rappeler que, dans le cadre de l’affaire relative aux Immunités
juridictionnelles de l’Etat (Allemagne c. Italie ; Grèce (intervenant)), qui
traitait de crimes commis par le troisième Reich pendant la Seconde
Guerre mondiale, entre 1943 et 1945, et dans laquelle la Cour a, par son
arrêt du 3 février 2012 (C.I.J. Recueil 2012 (I)), confirmé les immunités
souveraines de l’Allemagne, je m’étais vigoureusement élevé, dans une
longue opinion dissidente (ibid., p. 179-290, par. 1-316), contre l’approche
positiviste de la Cour adossée à la « volonté » de l’Etat, faisant notamment
observer qu’aucune situation d’injustice n’est défendable.
53. Malheureusement, d’autres exemples analogues récents sont venus
m’inspirer de nouvelles longues opinions dissidentes 22. Je le répète : comme
le montrent clairement les affaires concernant les droits de l’homme, la personne
humaine occupe une place centrale, fondamentalement par principisme,
nulle concession indue n’étant faite à une conception privilégiant la
volonté des Etats. L’affirmation d’un droit objectif, au-delà de la « volonté »
de tel ou tel Etat, marque, à mon sens, le renouveau du jusnaturalisme.
54. Après tout, les fondements mêmes du droit international, du droit
des gens, sont en dernier ressort l’émanation de la conscience humaine, de
la conscience de la justice universelle et non de la « volonté » des Etats pris
individuellement. Les conventions relatives aux droits de l’homme, telles
que la CIEDR, sont axées sur les personnes et sur les victimes (et non sur
l’Etat), privilégiant la protection de la personne humaine, surtout lorsque
celle-ci se trouve en état de vulnérabilité ou d’impuissance. Elles reconnaissent
la nécessité, s’agissant de dire le droit, d’aller au-delà de la stricte
perspective interétatique pour accorder l’attention voulue à toutes personnes
ayant besoin de protection, au service d’une optique humaniste,
adossée au principe d’humanité 23.
22 Par exemple, dans son arrêt (du 3 février 2015) en l’affaire relative à l’Application de
la convention pour la prévention et la répression du crime de génocide (Croatie c. Serbie), la
Cour a déclaré que, si la prohibition du génocide a le caractère de jus cogens, emportant
des obligations erga omnes, sa propre compétence repose sur le consentement, qui l’oblige
même lorsque le différend qui lui est soumis a trait à la violation alléguée de normes impératives.
Ayant examiné les faits, elle a décidé de rejeter la prétention du demandeur, ce qui m’a
inspiré une fois de plus une longue opinion dissidente (C.I.J. Recueil 2015 (I), p. 202-380,
par. 1-547). On trouvera d’autres exemples allant dans ce sens dans les trois arrêts rendus
récemment par la Cour (le 10 mai 2016) à l’occasion des trois affaires concernant les Obligations
relatives à des négociations concernant la cessation de la course aux armes nucléaires
et le désarmement nucléaire (Iles Marshall c. Royaume-Uni ; c. Inde ; c. Pakistan). La Cour a
décidé à la majorité de retenir l’une des exceptions préliminaires tirée de l’absence présumée
d’un différend entre les parties et, par suite, de ne pas examiner les affaires au fond, ce qui m’a
conduit à joindre trois longues opinions dissidentes (par. 1-331) à ces trois arrêts.
23 Voir A. A. Cançado Trindade, « Reflexiones sobre la Presencia de la Persona
Humana en el Contencioso Interestatal ante la Corte Internacional de Justicia: Desarrollos
Recientes », 17 Anuario de los Cursos de Derechos Humanos de Donostia-San Sebastián,
Universidad del País Vasco (2017), p. 223-271.
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91
55. In the course of the recent public hearings before the ICJ (of June
2019) on preliminary objections in the present case of Application of the
ICSFT and the CERD Conventions, the contending Parties, in addition to
their arguments on specific legal points, also addressed the factual context
of the cas d’espèce. In doing so, occurrences of extreme violence were
referred to by Ukraine 24 and the Russian Federation 25 (for example, the
indiscriminate shelling victimizing civilians in Eastern Ukraine : Mariupol,
Volnovakha, Kramatorsk and Avdiivka). This shows that, in a case
like the present one, in my perception, one cannot make abstraction of
events of extreme violence in the examination of preliminary objections
themselves.
56. The decision of the ICJ, in the present case opposing Ukraine to
the Russian Federation, to dismiss the preliminary objections, is in conformity
with the rationale of human rights conventions, like CERD, but
its reasoning could also have been likewise, if the Court had not once
again relied mechanically upon the relevance it is used to attribute to
State “consent” (cf. supra). Conscience stands above the “will”. Human
beings, even in the most adverse conditions, stand as subjects of international
law, endowed under human rights conventions with juridical personality
together with procedural capacity.
57. This is the position that I have been sustaining for a long time. For
example, almost two decades ago I pondered, in another international
jurisdiction 26, that
“The considerable scientific- technological advances of our times
has much increased the capacity of the human being to do all that is
both good and evil. As to this latter, one cannot deny nowadays the
importance and pressing need to devote greater attention to victimization,
human suffering, and rehabilitation of the victims, — keeping
in mind the current diversification of the sources of violations of
human rights. The systematic violations of human rights and the
growth of violence (in its multiple forms) in our days and everywhere
disclose that, regrettably, the much praised material progress (enjoyed,
in reality, by very few) has simply not been accompanied pari pasu of
concomitant advances at spiritual level.” 27
58. Attention is to remain turned to the victimized persons, rather than
to inter-State susceptibilities. In my perception, legal positivism has
24 Cf. CR 2019/10, of 4 June 2019, p. 13, paras. 8-9, and pp. 42-44, paras. 59-62
and 68-71; CR 2019/12, of 7 June 2019, p. 32, para. 6, p. 39, paras. 41-42, and pp. 40-42,
paras. 50-54 and 58-59.
25 Cf. CR 2019/9, of 3 June 2019, p. 18, paras. 22-23, and pp. 29-31, pp. 39-42;
CR 2019/11, of 6 June 2019, pp. 23-24, paras. 44-48.
26 The Inter- American Court of Human Rights (IACtHR).
27 Separate opinion (para. 23) of Judge Cançado Trindade, in the case of the “Street
Children” (Villagrán Morales and Others v. Guatemala), IACtHR’s Judgment (reparations)
of 26 May 2001.
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55. Lors des audiences publiques que la Cour a consacrées en juin 2019
aux exceptions préliminaires en la présente affaire, outre les arguments
qu’elles ont avancés sur tels ou tels points de droit donnés, les Parties se
sont également intéressées aux faits de la cause. L’Ukraine 24 et la Fédération
de Russie 25 ont ainsi évoqué des faits de violence extrême (par
exemple, des tirs d’artillerie sans discrimination ayant causé des victimes
civiles en Ukraine orientale — à Marioupol, Volnovakha, Kramatorsk et
Avdiivka), ce qui vient démontrer, à mon sens, que, s’agissant d’une
espèce comme la présente, l’on ne saurait faire abstraction de faits de
violence extrême en examinant les exceptions préliminaires proprement
dites.
56. La décision prise par la Cour en la présente espèce de rejeter les exceptions
préliminaires est conforme à la raison d’être des conventions relatives
aux droits de l’homme, comme la CIEDR ; mais la Cour aurait pu aussi
fonder son raisonnement sur cette raison d’être même, si elle n’avait pas, une
fois de plus, invoqué mécaniquement, comme elle a coutume de le faire, le
critère du « consentement » de l’Etat (voir supra). En effet, la conscience est
supérieure à la « volonté ». Même dans la plus grande détresse, l’être humain
est un sujet de droit international, qui tire des conventions relatives aux droits
de l’homme une personnalité juridique et la capacité d’agir.
57. C’est là la thèse que je défends depuis longtemps déjà. C’est ainsi
que, voici près de deux décennies, je faisais valoir dans une autre juridiction
internationale 26 que
« [d]u fait des prodigieuses avancées scientifiques et techniques de
notre temps, l’homme a bien davantage les moyens de faire le mal
tout autant que le bien. Pour ce qui est du mal, et compte tenu de la
prolifération des sources d’atteintes aux droits de l’homme à laquelle
nous assistons, on ne saurait nier de nos jours combien il importe et
est de pressante nécessité de consacrer une plus grande attention aux
victimes, à leurs souffrances et à leur réadaptation. Ces atteintes systématiques
aux droits de l’homme et la montée de la violence (dans
ses multiples formes) partout de nos jours viennent malheureusement
montrer que le progrès matériel tant vanté (dont jouit en réalité une
infime minorité) n’est tout simplement pas synonyme d’élévation de
l’esprit. » 27
58. Notre attention doit demeurer tournée vers la personne des victimes
davantage que vers les susceptibilités des Etats. A mon avis, le posi-
24 Voir CR 2019/10 du 4 juin 2019, p. 13, par. 8-9, et p. 42-44, par. 59-62 et 68-71 ;
CR 2019/12 du 7 juin 2019, p. 32, par. 6, p. 39, par. 41-42, et p. 40-42, par. 50-54 et 58-59.
25 Voir CR 2019/9, du 3 juin 2019, p. 18, par. 22-23, p. 29-31, et p. 39-42 ; CR 2019/11
du 6 juin 2019, p. 23-24, par. 44-48.
26 La Cour interaméricaine des droits de l’homme (CIDH).
27 Opinion individuelle du juge Cançado Trindade en l’affaire « Street Children »
(Villagrán Morales and Others v. Guatemala), arrêt de la CIDH (réparations) du 26 mai
2001, par. 23.
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always been subservient to the established power (irrespective of the orientation
of this latter), paving the way for decisions that do not realize
justice. This cannot be overlooked, in particular in cases under human
rights conventions ; law cannot prescind from justice, they come ineluctably
together.
59. Cases under UN human rights conventions, like the cas d’espèce,
call for a reasoning beyond the strict inter-State outlook, and transcending
the “will” of States. The voluntarist outlook is unsustainable. Nowadays,
more than ever, human beings stand in need of protection from
themselves. The basic foundations and the evolution of contemporary jus
gentium emanates from human conscience, the universal juridical conscience,
rather than the inscrutable “will” of States.
60. I have already made the point that the jus gentium of our times
finds its historical roots in the conception and the ideals of the “founding
fathers” of the law of nations during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries
(cf. paras. 40-41 supra). Theirs was, in my own perception, a universalist
perspective (the civitas maxima gentium),
“going beyond purely inter-State relations. Its foundations are
independent of the ‘will’ of its legal subjects (States or others). It
is ultimately the product of human conscience and is based on ethical
principles that integrate fundamental values shared by the
international community as a whole and by humanity.” 28
61. It may be argued that the world wherein the “founding fathers”
lived in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries is quite distinct from the
world of our times; yet, the ideals and aspirations are recurring for the
realization of justice (also at international level). I have considered this
point in an address that I delivered in Athens half a decade ago, wherein
I pondered that
“Although the contemporary international scene is (undeniably)
entirely different from that of the era of the renowned ‘founding
fathers’ of international law who propounded a civitas maxima governed
by the law of nations, there is a recurrent human aspiration,
28 A. A. Cançado Trindade, “Le droit international contemporain et la personne
humaine”, 120 Revue générale de droit international public (2016), No. 3, p. 501. And, on
the perennial legacy of the “founding fathers” of the law of nations, cf. A. A. Cançado
Trindade, “La Perennidad del Legado de los ‘Padres Fundadores’ del Derecho Internacional”,
13 Revista Interdisciplinar de Direito da Faculdade de Direito de Valença (2016),
No. 2, pp. 15-43 ; A. A. Cançado Trindade, “La Perennidad del Legado de los ‘Padres
Fundadores’ del Derecho Internacional”, Discurso del Acto de Investidura como Doctor
Honoris Causa del Profesor A. A. Cançado Trindade, Madrid, Ed. Universidad Autónoma
de Madrid, 20 May 2016, pp. 17-55, esp. pp. 25-26, 38, 42 and 55.
application de la cirft et de la ciedr (op. ind. cançado trindade) 646
92
tivisme juridique a toujours été inféodé au pouvoir établi (quelle qu’en
soit l’orientation), faisant ainsi le lit de décisions ennemies de la réalisation
de la justice. C’est là une chose dont nous devons avoir conscience,
singulièrement lorsque nous sommes en présence d’affaires touchant à des
conventions relatives aux droits de l’homme ; le droit ne peut divorcer de
la justice, l’un et l’autre étant intimement liés.
59. Les affaires qui, comme la présente, touchent aux conventions onusiennes
relatives aux droits de l’homme appellent un raisonnement qui
doit aller au-delà de la stricte perspective interétatique et transcender la
« volonté » des Etats, l’optique privilégiant cette dernière étant indéfendable
en l’occurrence. De nos jours, plus que jamais, l’être humain a
besoin d’être protégé contre lui-même. Les fondements mêmes et l’évolution
du jus gentium contemporain sont l’émanation de la conscience
humaine, de la conscience de la justice universelle, et non de l’insondable
« volonté » des Etats.
60. J’ai déjà fait valoir que le jus gentium contemporain plongeait ses
racines historiques dans l’esprit et les idéaux prônés par les « pères fondateurs
» du droit des gens au cours des XVIe et XVIIe siècles (voir par. 40-41
supra). Ils en avaient, selon moi, une conception universaliste (la civitas
maxima gentium),
« outrepassant les relations purement interétatiques. Ses fondements
sont indépendants de la « volonté » de ses sujets de droit (Etats ou
autres). Il est en définitive le fruit de la conscience humaine, et s’appuie
sur des principes éthiques qui intègrent des valeurs fondamentales
partagées par la communauté internationale dans son ensemble
et par l’humanité. » 28
61. On pourrait faire valoir que le monde des « pères fondateurs » des
XVIe et XVIIe siècles n’avait rien à voir avec celui dans lequel nous vivons
de nos jours ; pourtant les idéaux de justice et les aspirations à la réalisation
de la justice (y compris dans la sphère internationale) demeurent. Je
l’ai fait remarquer à l’occasion d’un discours que j’ai prononcé à Athènes
voici cinq ans en disant que
« [b]ien que le scénario international contemporain soit entièrement
distinct de celui de l’époque des célèbres « pères fondateurs » du droit
international (personne ne peut le nier) qui ont avancé une civitas
maxima régie par le droit des gens, il y a une aspiration humaine
28 A. A. Cançado Trindade, « Le droit international contemporain et la personne
humaine », Revue générale de droit international public (2016), vol. 120, n. 3, p. 501. Et
sur la pérennité de l’héritage légué par les « pères fondateurs » du droit des gens, voir
A. A. Cançado Trindade, « La Perennidad del Legado de los « Padres Fundadores » del
Derecho Internacional », Revista Interdisciplinar de Direito da Faculdade de Direito de
Valença (2016), vol. 13, n. 2, p. 15-43 ; A. A. Cançado Trindade, « La Perennidad del Legado
de los « Padres Fundadores » del Derecho Internacional », Discurso del Acto de Investidura
como Doctor Honoris Causa del Profesor A. A. Cançado Trindade, Madrid, Ed. Universidad
Autónoma de Madrid, 20 mai 2016, p. 17-55, en particulier les pages 25-26, 38, 42 et 55.
647 application of the icsft and cerd (sep. op. cançado trindade)
93
passed down from generation to generation over the centuries,
which has led to the construction of an international legal order
applicable both to States (and international organizations) and to
individuals, in accordance with certain universal standards of justice.
This explains the importance assumed, in this new corpus juris of
protection, by the international legal personality of the individual,
as subject of both domestic and international law.” 29
62. States have humane ends, emanating from recta ratio, human conscience,
resting on the foundations of jus gentium, as propounded by the
jusnaturalist vision. The rights inherent to the human person are anterior
and superior to the States, thus deauthorizing the archaic positivist
dogma which intended to reduce such rights to those “granted” by the
States. The State is not an end in itself, it was created for human beings,
and conceived to be law- abiding (état de Droit), so as to achieve its
humane ends.
63. Over nine decades ago, Nicolas Politis had warned that the State is
subjected to Law, which has always the same end, namely, “it is aimed at
human beings, and human beings alone. This is so evident that it would
be needless to dwell on the point, had not the mists of sovereignty
obscured the most basic of truths” 30. Human societies, he added, “exist
only to ensure that human beings have the possibility to live and
develop” 31. There are other related points that can here be added, in the
light of the evolution of contemporary international law.
64. Thus, the principle of humanity, with its wide dimension, gives
expression to the raison d’humanité imposing limits to the raison d’Etat. It
identifies itself, in my perception, with the aim of the international legal
order, in acknowledging the [relevance of the] rights inherent to the
human person. As I have been pointing out within the ICJ 32, the principle
of humanity permeates the whole corpus juris gentium, enhancing the
international protection of the rights of the human person.
65. Furthermore, the principle of humanity extends itself, in my perception,
to conventional and customary international law, having an incidence
on all and any circumstances, in particular when persons seeking
protection are in situations of great vulnerability or defencelessness. The
principle of humanity counts on judicial recognition in a corpus juris gen-
29 A. A. Cançado Trindade, “L’humanisation du droit international : la personne
humaine en tant que sujet du droit des gens”/“The Humanization of International Law :
The Human Person as Subject of the Law of Nations” [Discours de doctorat honoris
causa], TIMH/Hommage à A. A. Cançado Trindade for a Humanized International Law,
Athens, I. Sideris Ed., 1 July 2014, pp. 32-33.
30 N. Politis, Les nouvelles tendances du droit international, Paris, Libr. Hachette, 1927,
pp. 76-78.
31 Ibid., pp. 78-79.
32 Cf., earlier on, e.g., my dissenting opinion in the case of the Application of the Convention
on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Judgment of 3 February
2015), paras. 65, 68-69, 84 and 523.
application de la cirft et de la ciedr (op. ind. cançado trindade) 647
93
récurrente, transmise de génération en génération au cours des siècles,
menant à la construction d’un ordre juridique international applicable
à la fois aux Etats (et organisations internationales) et aux individus,
conformément à certains standards universels de justice. Cela
explique l’importance, dans ce nouveau corpus juris de protection,
que la personnalité juridique internationale de l’individu a assumé,
étant à la fois sujet de droit interne et de droit international. » 29
62. L’Etat a des fins humaines, émanation de la recta ratio, de la
conscience humaine, qui reposent sur les fondements du jus gentium, proposés
par le jusnaturalisme. Les droits inhérents à la personne humaine
sont antérieurs et supérieurs à l’Etat, démentant ainsi un positivisme
archaïque qui voudrait réduire lesdits droits à ceux « accordés » par l’Etat.
L’Etat n’est pas une fin en soi, ayant été créé pour les êtres humains et
voulu comme état de droit, au service de ses fins humaines.
63. Voici près d’un siècle, Nicolas Politis avertissait que l’Etat est soumis
au Droit, qui a toujours la même fin, en ce qu’« il vise partout
l’homme, et rien que l’homme. Cela est tellement évident, qu’il serait inutile
d’y insister si les brumes de la souveraineté n’avaient pas obscurci les
vérités les plus élémentaires » 30. Les sociétés humaines, ajoutait-il,
« n’existent que pour assurer à l’homme la possibilité de vivre et de se
développer » 31. L’évolution du droit international contemporain autoriserait
à en dire plus sur ce sujet.
64. Le principe d’humanité, qui doit s’entendre au sens large, donne
ainsi expression à la raison d’humanité en venant imposer des limites à la
raison d’Etat. Il s’identifie, à mon sens, à la finalité de l’ordre juridique
international, en ce qu’il reconnaît [l’intérêt] des droits inhérents à la personne
humaine. Ainsi que je ne cesse de le souligner depuis mon arrivée à
la Cour 32, le principe d’humanité imprègne l’ensemble du corpus juris gentium,
venant renforcer la protection internationale des droits de la personne
humaine.
65. De plus, à mon avis, le principe d’humanité s’étend au droit international
tant conventionnel que coutumier, trouvant à s’appliquer en toutes
circonstances, singulièrement lorsque les personnes en quête de protection
se trouvent en état de grande vulnérabilité ou d’impuissance. Le principe
d’humanité tend à trouver sa consécration par la justice dans un corpus
29 A. A. Cançado Trindade, « L’humanisation du droit international : la personne
humaine en tant que sujet du droit des gens/The Humanization of International Law : The
Human Person as Subject of the Law of Nations » [Discours de doctorat honoris causa],
TIMH/Hommage à A. A. Cançado Trindade for a Humanized International Law, Athènes,
I. Sideris Ed., 1er juillet 2014, p. 32-33.
30 N. Politis, Les nouvelles tendances du droit international, Paris, Hachette, 1927,
p. 76-78.
31 Ibid., p. 78-79.
32 Voir, par exemple, mon opinion dissidente jointe à l’arrêt du 3 février 2015 de la
Cour en l’affaire de l’Application de la convention contre le génocide, par. 65, 68-69, 84
et 523.
648 application of the icsft and cerd (sep. op. cançado trindade)
94
tium oriented towards the victims, in the line — as I have already pointed
out — of jusnaturalist thinking. Human rights conventions have enriched
this corpus juris, conforming a true law of protection (droit de protection),
well beyond the outdated and strict inter-State dimension.
66. Such conception has thus paved the way to the evolution of the law
of nations itself. The imperative of the realization of justice acknowledges
that conscience (recta ratio), the universal juridical conscience, necessarily
stands well above the “will” of States. It is in this understanding that
the realization of justice at international level has been assuming a much
wider dimension. There is nowadays a vast corpus juris communis on matters
of concern to the international community as a whole (e.g., those
dealt with by UN human rights conventions), overcoming the traditional
inter-State paradigm of the international legal order.
67. In effect, the inter-State mechanism of the contentieux before the
ICJ cannot be invoked in justification for a strictly inter-State reasoning
in cases concerning the safeguard of vulnerable or defenceless human
beings. The nature and substance of a case of the kind before the ICJ, on
the basis of a human rights convention like CERD, thus calls for a reasoning
going well beyond that strict inter-State dimension, with attention
focused on victimized human beings, in pursuance of a humanist
outlook.
68. In sum, the law of nations is endowed with universality, with
human conscience (recta ratio) prevailing over the “will” of States, of all
legal subjects. Moreover, the concomitant expansion of international
jurisdiction, responsibility, personality and capacity, rescues and enhances
the position of the human person as subject of international law. As I
have been firmly sustaining over the years, the evolution of contemporary
jus gentium does not emanate from the inscrutable “will” of the States,
but rather from human conscience (recta ratio), — the universal juridical
conscience as the ultimate material source of the law of nations.
VII. Epilogue: A Recapitulation
69. I deem it fit, at this final stage of my present separate opinion in the
cas d’espèce, to recapitulate briefly, in this epilogue, the points of my own
reasoning developed herein, for the sake of clarity, and in order to stress
their interrelatedness. Primus: The rationale of UN human rights conventions,
like CERD, cannot be overlooked by a misguided search for State
“consent”. Secundus: Attention is to focus on the relevance of the basis of
jurisdiction for the protection of the vulnerable under human rights conventions.
70. Tertius : Human rights conventions, like CERD, go beyond the
outdated inter-State outlook, ascribing a central position to the individ-
application de la cirft et de la ciedr (op. ind. cançado trindade) 648
94
juris gentium axé sur les victimes, dans la droite ligne, je l’ai déjà dit, de
l’école jusnaturaliste. Les conventions relatives aux droits de l’homme sont
venues enrichir ce corpus juris, pour constituer un véritable droit de protection,
transcendant nettement une logique interétatique étriquée et dépassée.
66. Cette manière de voir a rendu possible l’évolution du droit des gens
même. L’impératif de réalisation de la justice reconnaît que la conscience
(recta ratio), la conscience de la justice universelle, est nécessairement bien
au- dessus de la « volonté » de l’Etat. C’est à cette manière de voir que l’impératif
de réalisation de la justice dans l’ordre international doit d’avoir pris
une dimension nettement plus large. Il existe de nos jours, s’agissant de
matières qui intéressent la communauté internationale dans son ensemble
(par exemple, celles dont traitent les conventions des Nations Unies relatives
aux droits de l’homme), tout un corpus juris communis qui dépasse le
paradigme interétatique classique de l’ordre juridique international.
67. De fait, on ne saurait s’autoriser du mécanisme interétatique du
contentieux devant la Cour pour envisager, selon une perspective strictement
interétatique, des affaires intéressant la sauvegarde d’êtres humains
vulnérables ou sans défense. Etant donné la nature et le fond de l’affaire
dont elle est saisie sur la base d’une convention relative aux droits de
l’homme telle la CIEDR, la Cour doit, par-delà la perspective strictement
interétatique, s’intéresser avant tout aux victimes humaines, dans une
optique humaniste.
68. Bref, le droit des gens est universel, imprégné d’une conscience
humaine (recta ratio) qui prime sur la « volonté » de l’Etat et de tous
sujets de droit. Au surplus, l’expansion concomitante, dans la sphère
internationale, du domaine de compétence, de la responsabilité, de la personnalité
et de la capacité pour agir vient préserver et asseoir la position
de la personne humaine en tant que sujet de droit international. Comme
je n’ai cessé de le soutenir fermement au fil des ans, le jus gentium doit son
évolution non pas tant à la « volonté » insondable des Etats qu’à la
conscience humaine (recta ratio) — à la conscience de la justice universelle
comme source matérielle première du droit des gens.
VII. Épilogue : récapitulatif
69. J’estime bon, à ce stade de mon opinion individuelle en l’espèce, de
revenir brièvement, par souci de clarté mais aussi pour mettre en évidence
les rapports qu’elles entretiennent entre elles, sur les idées que je viens
d’exposer. Primus : on ne saurait méconnaître la raison d’être des conventions
des Nations Unies relatives aux droits de l’homme telles que la
CIEDR en recherchant à tort le « consentement » de tel Etat. Secundus : il
convient de s’attacher avant tout à l’importance de la base de compétence
pour la protection de personnes vulnérables au titre des conventions relatives
aux droits de l’homme.
70. Tertius : les conventions relatives aux droits de l’homme comme la
CIEDR transcendent la perspective interétatique, dépassée, pour attri-
649 application of the icsft and cerd (sep. op. cançado trindade)
95
ual victims, rather than to their States. Quartus : In doing so, human
rights conventions, like CERD, are turned to securing the effective protection
of the rights of the human person, in light of the principle pro
persona humana, pro victima. Quintus : Had the inter-State dimension not
been surmounted, not much development would have taken place in the
present domain.
71. Sextus : Careful account is to be taken of the needs of protection of
persons in situations of vulnerability or defencelessness. Septimus : The
realization of justice, with the judicial recognition of the sufferings of the
victims, is an imperative. Octavus : The compromissory clause of a victimoriented
human rights convention, like CERD (Art. 22), is related to the
justiciables’ right of access to justice. Nonus : This requires a necessary
humanist outlook, and not at all a State-centric and voluntarist one.
72. Decimus : In the consideration of utmost vulnerability or defencelessness
of the human person, the principle of humanity comes to the
fore. Undecimus : The principle of humanity assumes a clear incidence in
the protection of human beings, in particular in situations of vulnerability
or defencelessness of those victimized. Duodecimus : The principle of
humanity, which has met with judicial recognition, permeates human
rights conventions, and the whole corpus juris of protection of human
beings.
73. Tertius decimus : The principle of humanity is in line with the longstanding
jusnaturalist thinking (recta ratio), permeating likewise the law
of the United Nations. Quartus decimus : General principles of law
enshrine common and superior values, shared by the international community
as a whole. Quintus decimus : Article 22 of the CERD Convention
does not set forth “preconditions” ; in any case, the ICJ’s jurisdiction is
rightly preserved in the cas d’espèce, with due attention to be given to the
object and purpose of the Convention, as a victim- oriented human rights
treaty.
74. Sextus decimus : We are here before a law of protection (droit de
protection), where the local remedies rule has a rationale entirely distinct
from the one in diplomatic protection : the former stresses redress, the
latter outlines exhaustion. Septimus decimus : The prevalence of
human beings over States marked presence in the writings of the “founding
fathers” of the law of nations (sixteenth- seventeenth centuries),
already attentive to the need of redress for the harm done to the human
person.
75. Duodevicesimus : Human beings stand in need of protection against
evil, they need protection ultimately against themselves. Undevicesimus :
Furthermore, they stand in need of protection against arbitrariness, hence
the importance of the imperative of access to justice lato sensu, the right
to the Law (le droit au Droit, el derecho al Derecho), to secure the realization
of justice also in situations of utmost human vulnerability. Vicesi-
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95
buer une place centrale aux victimes prises dans leur individualité et non
à l’Etat dont elles sont ressortissantes. Quartus : les conventions relatives
aux droits de l’homme comme la CIEDR ont ainsi pour vocation d’organiser
la protection effective des droits de la personne humaine, sur la base
du principe pro persona humana, pro victima. Quintus : on n’aurait guère
connu d’évolution dans ce domaine si l’on n’avait pas triomphé de la
logique interétatique.
71. Sextus : il convient de tenir dûment compte de l’impératif de protection
de toutes personnes en état de vulnérabilité ou sans défense. Septimus
: la réalisation de la justice est un impératif, les souffrances des victimes
devant être reconnues devant elle. Octavus : la clause compromissoire de
toute convention relative aux droits de l’homme axée sur les victimes,
comme la CIEDR (article 22), entretient un rapport étroit avec le droit
d’accès à la justice qui appartient à tous justiciables. Nonus : pour donner
effet à ce droit, force est de l’envisager selon une perspective humaniste,
tout à l’opposé d’une logique qui privilégierait la volonté de l’Etat.
72. Decimus : le principe d’humanité prime lorsqu’il s’agit de traiter du
cas de toute personne en état d’extrême vulnérabilité ou d’impuissance.
Undecimus : le principe d’humanité trouve manifestement à s’appliquer en
matière de protection d’êtres humains, singulièrement dans le cas de victimes
en état de vulnérabilité ou sans défense. Duodecimus : consacré par
la justice, le principe d’humanité imprègne les conventions relatives aux
droits de l’homme et l’ensemble du corpus juris de la protection de la personne
humaine.
73. Tertius decimus : le principe d’humanité qui s’inscrit dans le prolongement
de la pensée jusnaturaliste (recta ratio), déjà ancienne, imprègne
de même le droit des Nations Unies. Quartus decimus : les principes généraux
de droit consacrent des valeurs communes supérieures partagées par
la communauté internationale dans son ensemble. Quintus decimus : l’article
22 de la CIEDR n’édicte pas de « conditions préalables » ; en tout
état de cause, la Cour a eu raison de se déclarer compétente en l’espèce,
compte dûment tenu de l’objet et du but de la convention en tant que
traité relatif aux droits de l’homme axé sur les victimes.
74. Sextus decimus : on est ici en présence d’un droit de protection, la
règle des recours internes trouvant à s’appliquer tout à fait autrement
qu’en matière de protection diplomatique, l’accent étant mis sur la réparation
dans la première hypothèse et sur l’épuisement dans la seconde.
Septimus decimus : la prééminence de l’être humain par rapport à l’Etat
apparaît dans les écrits des « pères fondateurs » du droit des gens (aux
XVIe et XVIIe siècles), déjà attentifs à la nécessité de voir réparé tout tort
causé à la personne humaine.
75. Duodevicesimus : l’être humain a besoin d’être protégé contre le mal
et, en définitive, contre lui-même. Undevicesimus : il a en outre besoin
d’être protégé contre l’arbitraire, d’où l’importance de l’impératif d’accès
à la justice lato sensu, le droit au Droit (the right to Law ; el derecho al
Derecho), aux fins de la réalisation de la justice, y compris en présence de
cas d’extrême vulnérabilité humaine. Vicesimus : les principes de droit
650 application of the icsft and cerd (sep. op. cançado trindade)
96
mus : Fundamental principles of law conform the substratum of the jus
necessarium (not a jus voluntarium) in protection of human beings,
expressing an idea of objective justice, in the line of jusnaturalist
thinking.
76. Vicesimus primus : The basic foundations of the law of nations
emanate ultimately from the universal juridical conscience. Vicesimus
secundus : Human beings are subjects of the law of nations, and attention
is to remain turned to the victimized persons, rather than to inter-State
susceptibilities. Vicesimus tertius : Overcoming the limitations of legal
positivism, attention is to focus on the humane ends of States, emanating
from recta ratio, as propounded by the jusnaturalist vision. Vicesimus
quartus : Rights inherent to the human person are anterior and superior
to the States.
77. Vicesimus quintus : The principle of humanity counts on judicial
recognition in a corpus juris gentium oriented towards the victims, in the
line of jusnaturalist thinking. Vicesimus sextus : The universal juridical
conscience (recta ratio) necessarily prevails over the “will” of States. Vicesimus
septimus : A decision under human rights conventions, like CERD,
calls for a reasoning going well beyond the strict inter-State dimension,
with attention turned to victimized human beings, in pursuance of a
humanist outlook.
78. Vicesimus octavus : The concomitant expansion of international
jurisdiction, responsibility, personality and capacity, rescues and enhances
the position of the human person as subject of international law. Vicesimus
nonus : The law of nations is endowed with universality, with human
conscience (recta ratio) prevailing over the “will” (of any of the subjects
of law), as its ultimate material source. Trigesimus : The prevalence
of the universal juridical conscience as the ultimate material source of the
law of nations points to securing the realization of justice in any circumstances.
(Signed) Antônio Augusto Cançado Trindade.
application de la cirft et de la ciedr (op. ind. cançado trindade) 650
96
fondamentaux forment le substrat du jus necessarium (et non d’un jus
voluntarium) de la protection de l’être humain, étant l’expression de l’idée
d’une justice objective venant s’inscrire dans le sillage de la pensée jusnaturaliste.
76. Vicesimus primus : le droit des gens tire en définitive ses fondements
premiers de la conscience de la justice universelle. Vicesimus secundus :
l’être humain est sujet du droit des gens et il convient de toujours privilégier
la personne des victimes et non les susceptibilités interétatiques.
Vicesimus tertius : triomphant du positivisme juridique, il convient
de s’attacher avant tout aux fins humaines de l’Etat, qui sont l’émanation
de la recta ratio, tel que prôné par le jusnaturalisme. Vicesimus quartus :
les droits inhérents à la personne humaine précèdent et transcendent
l’Etat.
77. Vicesimus quintus : le principe d’humanité tend à sa consécration en
justice dans un corpus juris gentium axé sur les victimes, dans la droite
ligne de la pensée jusnaturaliste. Vicesimus sextus : la conscience de la
justice universelle (recta ratio) l’emporte nécessairement sur la « volonté »
des Etats. Vicesimus septimus : toute décision fondée sur une convention
relative aux droits de l’homme telle que la CIEDR doit s’appuyer sur un
raisonnement allant au-delà de l’étroite logique interétatique et tendre à
une solution humaniste privilégiant la victime humaine.
78. Vicesimus octavus : l’expansion concomitante, dans la sphère internationale,
du domaine de compétence, de la responsabilité, de la personnalité
et de la capacité pour agir vient préserver et asseoir la position de
la personne humaine en tant que sujet de droit international. Vicesimus
nonus : le droit des gens est universel et la conscience humaine (recta
ratio), étant sa source matérielle première, prime la « volonté » (de tout
sujet de droit). Trigesimus : la prééminence de la conscience de la justice
universelle, source matérielle première du droit des gens, tend à la réalisation
de la justice en toutes circonstances.
(Signé) Antônio Augusto Cançado Trindade.

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Separate opinion of Judge Cançado Trindade

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