Separate opinion of Judge Tomka

Document Number
166-20191108-JUD-01-02-EN
Parent Document Number
166-20191108-JUD-01-00-EN
Document File
Bilingual Document File

SEPARATE OPINION OF JUDGE TOMKA
Jurisdiction ratione materiae of Court under ICSFT  Criminal law nature of ICSFT  Ukraine’s claims related to support in internal armed conflict  Rights Ukraine seeks to protect implausible at provisional measures stage  Court should have analysed whether Ukraine’s claims within scope of ICSFT  Supply of arms outside scope of “funds”  Ukraine’s claims outside Court’s jurisdiction.
Jurisdiction ratione materiae of Court under the CERD  Court should have analysed Ukraine’s claims in detail  No absolute right under CERD to native-language education  Alleged discrimination in equality before law within scope of CERD  Some but not all of Ukraine’s claims within scope of Court’s jurisdiction under CERD  Court has jurisdiction over those claims.
Procedural preconditions to jurisdiction under CERD  Recourse to negotiation and CERD procedures not overly burdensome relative to Court  Logical reading of text of Article 22 requires preconditions to be cumulative  Precondition to engage CERD procedures supported by context  Departure from practice not to consider travaux préparatoires  Travaux confirm preconditions are cumulative  Requiring recourse to Committee procedures however excessively formalistic in circumstances of present case.
State responsibility  Requirement of breach of international obligation for State responsibility.
1. The way in which the Court has dealt with the preliminary objections of the Russian Federation as regards its jurisdiction ratione materiae and determined that it has jurisdiction under both of the Conventions relied on by Ukraine calls for some comments. I will start with the International Convention for the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism (hereinafter the “ICSFT”).
I. The International Convention for the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism
2. The ICSFT is a typical criminal law convention. It precisely defines, in Article 2, the offence of the financing of terrorism by describing both its objective element (the act itself or actus reus) and its subjective element (mens rea). States parties to the Convention have the obligation  as is typical for criminal law conventions  to establish as criminal offences under their domestic law the offences defined in Article 2 and to provide for appropriate penalties which take into account the grave nature of the offences. States parties have the obligation  again typical for criminal law conventions  to establish as may be necessary their jurisdiction over the offences defined in the Convention. The Convention also creates an obligation for the States parties to co-operate in the prevention of the offences. That obligation of co-operation is further specified in the Convention (Article 18). The object of the Convention is clearly spelled out in its preamble, which provides that States have agreed on this Convention,
“[b]eing convinced of the urgent need to enhance international cooperation among States in devising and adopting effective measures for the prevention of the financing of terrorism, as well as for its suppression through the prosecution and punishment of its perpetrators”.
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The Convention has to be viewed and interpreted in light of its object and purpose, taking into account its nature as a criminal law convention.
3. According to Ukraine this Convention is applicable to acts involving the use of arms and armed force in the eastern part of Ukraine, which have occurred in what can be characterized as an internal armed conflict. The Memorial of Ukraine refers in particular to actions by the so-called Donetsk People’s Republic (“DPR”) and Luhansk People’s Republic (“LPR”) opposing the efforts of the Government of Ukraine, also involving the use of force, to reinstate its full control over the region.
4. It is to be recalled that, in its Order on provisional measures of 19 April 2017, the Court declined the request of Ukraine based on the ICSFT. The Court did not consider that the rights for which Ukraine sought protection were at least plausible, not having been convinced that there were “sufficient reasons for considering that the other elements set out in Article 2, paragraph 1, such as the elements of intention or knowledge . . . [were] present” (Application of the International Convention for the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism and of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (Ukraine v. Russian Federation), Provisional Measures, Order of 19 April 2017, I.C.J. Reports 2017, pp. 131-132, para. 75). As the Court noted, “[a]t th[at] stage of the proceedings, Ukraine ha[d] not put before the Court evidence which affords a sufficient basis to find it plausible that these elements [specified in Article 2] [were] present” (ibid.).
5. This conclusion of the Court has led Ukraine to “repackage” its original claims, as presented in its Application instituting proceedings (Judgment, paragraph 18) into a new version as formulated in its Memorial (Judgment, paragraph 19), while in substance they remain more or less the same. It is apparent from the Memorial of Ukraine that it continues to charge the Russian Federation of committing acts which, in its view, are contrary to the ICSFT. Chapter 2, consisting of some forty pages, of that written pleading is entitled “Russian Financing of Terrorism in Ukraine”. Its purpose is to describe “the myriad ways in which the Russian Federation, acting through numerous state officials, not only tolerated but fostered and supported the funding of illegal armed groups in Ukraine, including by providing weapons used for the acts of terrorism recounted in Chapter 1” (Memorial of Ukraine, p. 80, para. 132). Ukraine submits that “Russian financing of terrorism in Ukraine” consisted of “massive” supply of weapons and ammunition to “illegal armed groups in Ukraine” (ibid., pp. 81-85, paras. 133-136), the supply or “transfer” of the Russian Buk anti-aircraft missile used to destroy flight MH17 (ibid., pp. 86-98, paras. 137-154), the supply of multiple launch rocket systems, which were used to shell Ukrainian civilians, to the DPR and LPR (ibid., pp. 98-104, paras. 155-161), the provision of explosives used to bomb Ukrainian cities (ibid., pp. 104-108, paras. 162-168), “comprehensive training on Russian territory” of the DPR, LPR and other armed groups (ibid., pp. 109-113, paras. 169-173) and Russian fundraising for illegal armed groups in Ukraine (ibid., pp. 113-119, paras. 174-180).
6. On the one hand, the Court recalls that, as it stated in its Judgment on the preliminary objection in Oil Platforms (Islamic Republic of Iran v. United States of America) (I.C.J. Reports 1996 (II), pp. 809-810),
“in order to determine the Court’s jurisdiction ratione materiae under a compromissory clause concerning disputes relating to the interpretation or application of a treaty, it is necessary to ascertain whether the acts of which the applicant complains ‘fall within the provisions’ of the treaty containing the clause” (Judgment, paragraph 57).
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On the other hand, the Court ultimately fails to ascertain whether the above-mentioned acts, described in Chapter 2 of Ukraine’s Memorial, fall within the provisions of the ICSFT. Instead, the Court focuses its attention on the definition of perpetrators of offences of financing acts of terrorism. Not surprisingly, the ICSFT, as a criminal law convention, uses in Article 2 the expression “any person”. This is typical language used in many criminal codes and statutes to describe a perpetrator. The Court leaves the other element of the offences (mens rea), specifically either the intention of a perpetrator that the funds should be used or his knowledge that they are to be used to commit an act of terrorism, for the merits stage of the proceedings (Judgment, paragraph 63).
7. The Court has also refrained from determining the scope of the term “funds” used in the Convention, in particular whether it includes the provisions of weapons by a State, despite the fact that it is determining its jurisdiction ratione materiae (Judgment, paragraph 56). As the Court acknowledges “[t]his may require the interpretation of the provisions that define the scope of the treaty” (Judgment, paragraph 57). One such provision is Article 1, paragraph 1, of the ICSFT, which defines the term “funds” for the purposes of that Convention. The Court accepts that the scope of this term “relate[s] to the scope of the ICSFT” (Judgment, paragraph 62) but rather surprisingly takes the view that it “need not be addressed at the present stage of the proceedings” (ibid.). According to the Court, the interpretation of the definition of “funds” “could be relevant as appropriate at the stage of an examination of the merits” (ibid.).
8. I am not convinced that this is the right approach. The ascertainment of the scope of the term “funds” is a distinctly legal issue which is a matter of interpretation of the Convention. The scope of that term “relate[s] to the scope of the ICSFT” (ibid.) and thus has a direct bearing on the scope of the Court’s jurisdiction ratione materiae. Determining the scope of jurisdiction ratione materiae more precisely at this jurisdictional stage of the proceedings would have assisted in clarifying which of the claims presented by Ukraine, if any, fall within the Court’s jurisdiction and could be further argued at the merits stage. This issue has been left open despite the fact that the legal definition of the term “funds” for the purposes of the ICSFT is not closely intertwined with the merits. Thus, the principal task of the jurisdictional stage of the proceedings has not been fully realized. Moreover, it is useful to recall the past jurisprudence of the Court. In 1972, the Court stated that it “must . . . always be satisfied that it has jurisdiction, and must if necessary go into that matter proprio motu” (Appeal Relating to the Jurisdiction of the ICAO Council (India v. Pakistan), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1972, p. 52, para. 13). Although this statement was made by the Court in response to India’s argument that Pakistan could not challenge the Court’s jurisdiction as it did not raise it as a “preliminary” objection, the Court resorted to that jurisprudence some thirty-five years later when it asserted that its 1996 Judgment on jurisdiction and admissibility in the Genocide case dealt implicitly with an issue that neither party raised before it in 1996 during the jurisdictional phase of the proceedings, but which was relevant for the Court’s jurisdiction (Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Serbia and Montenegro), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2007 (I), p. 91, para. 118).
9. On the basis of the extremely cursory treatment of the Russian Federation’s objection, without really applying the Oil Platforms test and without considering whether various acts of the Russian Federation of which the Applicant complains in Chapter 2 of the Memorial fall within the provisions of Articles 8, 9, 10, 12 and 18 identified by Ukraine as relevant for its claims in its submissions (Memorial of Ukraine, pp. 362-363, para. 653), the Court “concludes that the objection raised by the Russian Federation to its jurisdiction ratione materiae under the ICSFT cannot be upheld” (Judgment, paragraph 64).
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10. Despite the above comments on the treatment by the Court of the preliminary objections raised by the Russian Federation against the Court’s jurisdiction on the basis of Article 22 of the ICSFT, I agree with the Court’s view that “[t]he financing by a State of acts of terrorism is not addressed by the ICSFT” and that such activity “lies outside the scope of the Convention” (Judgment, paragraphs 59, 60 and 61). The Court’s conclusion on its jurisdiction under the ICSFT should be read in light of this view, which is expressed repeatedly in its Judgment.
11. The acts of which Ukraine complains of in Chapter 2 of its Memorial (pp. 80-119), describing them as “Russian Financing of Terrorism in Ukraine”, referred to already in paragraph 5 of this opinion, are the acts of the Russian Federation, to a great extent consisting of providing weapons to the DPR and the LPR. Even if proven, they, in my view, do not fall within the scope of the ICSFT. This has led me to respectfully disagree with the conclusion of the majority.
II. The International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination
12. This brings me to the Court’s treatment of the jurisdictional objections of the Russian Federation as to Ukraine’s claims under the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (hereinafter “the CERD”).
13. The Court’s determination of its jurisdiction ratione materiae under the CERD is not much more detailed. In fact it consists of just three paragraphs. In the first one (Judgment, paragraph 94), the Court says what it does not need to do at this stage of the proceedings. In the next paragraph (Judgment, paragraph 95), the Court recalls that at the jurisdictional stage of the proceedings it “only needs to ascertain whether the measures of which Ukraine complains fall within the provisions of the Convention”. And in the final paragraph of its “analysis”, the Court simply considers that “taking into account the broadly formulated rights and obligations contained in the Convention . . . and the non-exhaustive list of rights in Article 5, . . . the measures of which Ukraine complains . . . are capable of having an adverse effect on the enjoyment of certain rights protected under CERD” (Judgment, paragraph 96). It concludes that “[t]hese measures thus fall within the provisions of the Convention” (ibid.). The Court simply asserts this conclusion without reasonably and sufficiently demonstrating it.
14. Again, there is no specific analysis of the preliminary objections of the Russian Federation, presented on almost forty pages (Preliminary Objections submitted by the Russian Federation, Vol. I, pp. 139-182, paras. 294-359). By way of example, the Respondent argues that “Article 5 (e) (v) of CERD does not include, as Ukraine alleges, an absolute right to education ‘in native language’” (ibid., p. 158, para. 329). The Court provides no answer to this argument, which concerns the scope of the CERD, rather leaving the issue open for the merits.
15. However, certain of the claims of Ukraine, like the claim that the Respondent “fail[s] to guarantee the right of members of the Crimean Tatar and Ukrainian communities to equality before the law, notably in the enjoyment of . . . the right to equal treatment before the tribunals and all other organs administering justice” (Memorial of Ukraine, p. 363, para. 653 (i)), fall within the scope of the CERD. Whether the Respondent has failed to comply with this obligation still remains to be proven by the Applicant, while the Respondent will have full opportunity to rebut these allegations. This, however, is a matter properly for the merits. Since at least some of the claims of Ukraine fall within the scope of the CERD, although I am not satisfied that the Court refrained to specify which ones, I have in the end voted with the majority.
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16. Moreover, I am not convinced by the Court’s treatment of the question of the procedural preconditions for seising it contained in Article 22 of the CERD. When interpreting the nature of these preconditions, the Court concludes that they are alternative. Accordingly, prior to seising the Court with a dispute under the CERD, either, at least, a good-faith attempt of negotiations on the issues falling within the subject-matter of the Convention must have been made, or the dispute must have been referred to the Committee on the Elimination of the Racial Discrimination (hereinafter “the Committee”) without that dispute having been settled.
17. The main basis for this conclusion by the Court is its view that
“should negotiation and the CERD Committee procedure be considered cumulative, States would have to try to negotiate an agreed solution to their dispute and, after negotiation has not been successful, take the matter before the Committee for further negotiation, again in order to reach an agreed solution” (Judgment, paragraph 110).
According to the Court “the context of Article 22 of CERD does not support this interpretation” (ibid.).
18. However, the relevant provisions for the procedure before the Committee are contained in Articles 11 to 13 of the Convention. Nowhere is the condition of prior negotiations before referring the matter to the Committee stipulated in those three Articles. Under Article 11, paragraph 1, of the Convention “[i]f a State Party considers that another State Party is not giving effect to the provisions of this Convention, it may bring the matter to the attention of the Committee”. The Committee then transfers the communication to the State party concerned. Under paragraph 2 of the same Article, if the matter is not adjusted within six months, either by bilateral negotiations or by any other procedure, either State shall have the right to refer the matter again to the Committee. As is clear from the provisions of Article 11, negotiations are an element of the process instituted before the Committee, not a precondition for seising it of the matter.
19. It follows from the above that, once a State brings a matter to the attention of the Committee under Article 11, it demonstrates its willingness to enter into negotiations with the other State party within the context of the procedures in the Committee. If that negotiation or the continuation of the procedures do not lead to the settlement of a dispute, either party may bring it to the Court, as both negotiations and conciliation procedures under Articles 11-13 of the CERD will have been tried to no result.
20. The Court believes that such expressions as “without delay” (Article 2, paragraph 1) or “speedily” (preamble) support its interpretation as these provisions “show the States parties’ aim to eradicate all forms of racial discrimination effectively and promptly” (Judgment, paragraph 111). And the Court adds that “the achievement of such aims could be rendered more difficult if the procedural preconditions under Article 22 were cumulative”.
21. This view can underestimate the usefulness of other means of peaceful settlement of disputes and the role of other bodies and, on the other hand, unrealistically estimate that the Court can resolve a dispute “speedily”. The present dispute was brought before the Court on 16 January 2017 and, taking into account the current docket of the Court, the Court’s Judgment on the merits most likely will not be rendered earlier than sometime in 2023.
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22. In my view, Article 22 should be interpreted to the effect that the conditions provided therein are cumulative. Under Article 22, a dispute which is to be referred to the Court must be one that “is not settled by negotiation or by the procedures expressly provided for in this Convention”. Ukraine focuses heavily on the ordinary meaning of the word “or” to support its position that the preconditions are alternative. However, it is not the ordinary meaning of “or” which the Court must determine; it is the ordinary meaning of the phrase “which is not settled by negotiation or by the procedures . . .”. This phrase admits two meanings. First, it could refer to a dispute which is not settled by negotiation and which is not settled by the procedures, as the Russian Federation argues. Second, it could refer to a dispute which is not settled by negotiation or is not settled by the procedures before the Committee, as Ukraine maintains. Which of these interpretations is correct depends on the reading to be given to “not” and “or” together in this phrase.
23. A logical reading of the text of Article 22 favours the interpretation that the conditions are cumulative. The words “not” and “or” are logical connectors, so it is reasonable to apply propositional logic to the interpretation of the phrase in which they are used. According to the first De Morgan Law of formal propositional logic “the negation of a disjunction is equal to the conjunction of the negation of the alternates — that is not (p or q) equals not p and not q, or symbolically ~(p˅q) ≡ ~p∙~q”1. This is consistent with the semantic context of Article 22. A dispute can be settled either by direct negotiation between the parties or by the procedures referred to in Articles 11-13 of the CERD, but not by both simultaneously. Accordingly, with respect to a dispute that is outside the jurisdiction of the Court, the “or” must be disjunctive. The negation of this disjunction should accordingly be read to refer to disputes settled neither by negotiation nor by the CERD procedure. Only when negotiation and the procedures have not led to the resolution of a dispute, is the condition met in accordance with the ordinary meaning of the terms of Article 22.
24. When the context is taken into account, a cumulative reading that requires recourse to the inter-State dispute settlement procedures of the Committee should also be preferred in order to preserve the effectiveness of Articles 11 to 13 of the CERD and the Conciliation Commissions foreseen thereunder. According to the rule codified in Article 31, paragraph 2, of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, the context to be considered comprises the full text of the CERD, including its preamble. The particular context for the interpretation of Article 22 of the CERD includes the Conciliation Commission process established in Articles 12 to 13.
25. It would undermine the procedures in the Committee to interpret recourse to them as optional before seisin of the Court. The principle of effectiveness “has an important role in the law of treaties and in the jurisprudence of this Court” (Fisheries Jurisdiction (Spain v. Canada), Jurisdiction of the Court, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1998, p. 455, para. 52). The necessity of a cumulative reading to preserve the effectiveness of Articles 11 to 13 of the CERD is reflected in the difference between the procedures in the Committee and the Court. From the perspective of a claiming State, there are several reasons to prefer the Court. First, the procedures in the Committee produce a report containing findings of fact and recommendations (Article 13, para. 1), while a judgment of the Court has binding effect in accordance with Article 94, paragraph 1, of the Charter of the United Nations and Article 59 of the Statute. Additionally, there is no possibility for interim relief during the procedures in the Committee, while the Court has the power to indicate binding provisional measures under Article 41 of its Statute.
1 “Augustus De Morgan”, Britannica Academic, Encyclopædia Britannica, 26 Oct. 2016, academic.eb.com/levels/ collegiate/article/Augustus-De-Morgan/29609. Accessed 3 October 2019.
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26. This preference is borne out in the practice of States. States do not resort to the inter-State procedures before the Committee unless there is no access to the Court. The only exception is the case between Qatar and the United Arab Emirates, Application of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination, which is also pending before the Court. In view of the above, the context strongly favours the interpretation of the procedural preconditions of Article 22 of the CERD as cumulative. To hold otherwise is tantamount to holding that States anticipated Articles 11 to 13 of the CERD to serve as a residual mechanism against States which make reservations to Article 22, thus not accepting the jurisdiction of the Court. However, nothing suggests that this was the intention of States when they negotiated the text of the future Convention.
27. Indeed, the travaux préparatoires of the CERD indicate the opposite, and confirm the interpretation that the preconditions are cumulative. The Court, in a departure from its recent practice  even in paragraph 59 of the Judgment as regards the ICSFT  declines to look at the CERD travaux. Although “[t]he Court notes that both Parties rely on the travaux préparatoires of CERD in support of their respective arguments”, in its view “there is no need for [the Court] to examine the travaux préparatoires” (Judgment, paragraph 112). This is rather a “spectacular” turn-around, as just eight years ago, when the Court interpreted the same provision, Article 22 of the CERD, the travaux were not ignored. There, also after noting that “both Parties have made extensive arguments relating to the travaux préparatoires, citing them in support of their respective interpretations” of Article 22 and after mentioning by example four other cases when it resorted to the travaux préparatoires, the Court came to the conclusion that “in this case . . . an examination of the travaux préparatoires is warranted” (Application of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (Georgia v. Russian Federation), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2011 (I), p. 128, para. 142; emphasis added). As consistency is a virtue in judicial approach and reasoning, I see no reason for the Court to change its approach.
28. The draft of the Convention submitted by the Economic and Social Council to the General Assembly on the basis of the report of the Commission on Human Rights contained neither institutional provisions establishing the Committee nor a provision on dispute resolution (Draft International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination, E/RES/1015 B (XXXVII)). Instead, these provisions were added to the text during negotiations in the Third Committee (Report of the Third Committee: Draft International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination, United Nations, doc. A/6181). In addition to the draft text, the Council submitted to the Assembly a working paper prepared by the Secretary-General containing draft final clauses, including a dispute resolution clause (UN doc. E/CN.4/L.679; see also doc. A/6181, para. 4 (d)). In that paper, the Secretary-General provided four examples of compromissory clauses based on previous multilateral treaties (UN doc. E/CN.4/L.679, pp. 15-16). The Third Committee discussed the question of a compromissory clause at its 1367th Meeting on 7 December 1965 (see UN doc. A/C.3/SR.1367). As a basis for discussion, the officers of the Committee suggested a similar text:
“Any dispute between two or more Contracting States over the interpretation or application of this Convention, which is not settled by negotiation, shall at the request of any of the parties to the dispute be referred to the International Court of Justice for decision, unless the disputants agree to another mode of settlement.” (UN doc. A/C.3/L.1237, p. 4; see also doc. A/6181, para. 197.)
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29. The addition of words “or by the procedures expressly provided for in this Convention” after “negotiation” was jointly proposed as an amendment by Ghana, Mauritania and the Philippines (UN doc. A/C.3/L.1313; see also doc. A/6181, para. 199). This proposed amendment was adopted unanimously by the Third Committee (UN doc. A/C.3/SR.1367, para. 41). During the discussion, only Ghana provided views on the amendment. Its delegate
“said that [it] was self-explanatory. Provision had been made in the draft Convention for machinery which should be used in the settlement of disputes before recourse was had to the International Court of Justice. The amendment simply referred to the procedures provided for in the Convention.” (UN doc. A/C.3/SR.1367, para. 29; emphasis added.)
The amendment was not further discussed prior to the adoption of the Convention by the plenary of the General Assembly at its 1406th Meeting on 21 December 1965 (UN doc. A/PV.1406).
30. I admit that in the case at hand, in view of the very strenuous relationship between the two Parties in the period from 2014 to 2017, there was no chance of settling their dispute even if it had been referred to the Committee. It would have been a futile exercise. For that reason, while maintaining my interpretation of Article 22 of the Convention, I did not vote against the Court’s jurisdiction under the CERD. To insist, in the circumstances of the present case, on the prior referral of the dispute to the Committee would have been an exercise in excessive formalism. Even if the Application was premature, this defect could have been remedied by the Applicant and it would make no sense to require Ukraine to institute fresh proceedings (cf. Certain German Interests in Polish Upper Silesia, Jurisdiction, Judgment No. 6, 1925, P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 6, p. 14; Mavrommatis Palestine Concessions, Judgment No. 2, 1924, P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 2, p. 34; Military and Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v. United States of America), Jurisdiction and Admissibility, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1984, pp. 428-429, para. 83).
III. Breaches of an “international obligation”
31. A final point on precision in drafting merits mention. The Court occasionally refers to “breaches of the Convention”, “breaches of Articles” or “violat[ions] of a number of provisions of the ICSFT and CERD” (e.g. Judgment, paragraphs 30, 79, 90 and 93). It is rather regrettable that the principal judicial organ of the United Nations does not pay sufficient attention to the precision of the language it uses. Under international law, for an act of a State to be wrongful, such act, consisting of an action or omission, must both be attributable to the State and constitute a breach of an international obligation of the State (Article 3 of ARSIWA). The International Law Commission intentionally chose this language because it is “long established” (Yearbook of the International Law Commission (YILC), 2001, Vol. II, Part Two, p. 35, Commentary to Article 2, para. 7). As the Commission correctly stated in its Commentary to then Article 3 of the Draft Articles adopted in the first reading, it is “more appropriate to refer . . . to ‘breach of an international obligation’ rather than ‘breach of a rule’ or of a ‘norm of international law’” (YILC, 1973, Vol. II, p. 184, Commentary to Article 3, para. 15; emphasis in the original). As the Commission explained, that expression is
“the most accurate. A rule is the objective expression of the law; an obligation is a subjective legal phenomenon and it is by reference to that phenomenon that the conduct of a subject of international law is judged, whether it is in compliance with the obligation or whether it is in breach of it.” (Ibid.)
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And as the Commission observed, the phrase “breach of an international obligation” corresponds to the language of Article 36, paragraph 2 (c), of the Statute of the International Court of Justice (YILC, 2001, Vol. II, Part Two, p. 35, Commentary to Article 2, para. 7). The Court could have been inspired by the language of its own basic instrument.
(Signed) Peter TOMKA.
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Bilingual Content

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SEPARATE OPINION OF JUDGE TOMKA
Jurisdiction ratione materiae of Court under ICSFT — Criminal law nature of
ICSFT — Ukraine’s claims related to support in internal armed conflict — Rights
Ukraine seeks to protect implausible at provisional measures stage — Court should
have analysed whether Ukraine’s claims within scope of ICSFT — Supply of arms
outside scope of “funds” — Ukraine’s claims outside Court’s jurisdiction.
Jurisdiction ratione materiae of Court under the CERD — Court should have
analysed Ukraine’s claims in detail — No absolute right under CERD to
native-language education — Alleged discrimination in equality before law within
scope of CERD — Some but not all of Ukraine’s claims within scope of Court’s
jurisdiction under CERD — Court has jurisdiction over those claims.
Procedural preconditions to jurisdiction under CERD — Recourse to negotiation
and CERD procedures not overly burdensome relative to Court — Logical reading
of text of Article 22 requires preconditions to be cumulative — Precondition to
engage CERD procedures supported by context — Departure from practice not to
consider travaux préparatoires — Travaux confirm preconditions are
cumulative — Requiring recourse to Committee procedures however excessively
formalistic in circumstances of present case.
State responsibility — Requirement of breach of international obligation for
State responsibility.
1. The way in which the Court has dealt with the preliminary objections
of the Russian Federation as regards its jurisdiction ratione
materiae and determined that it has jurisdiction under both of the Conventions
relied on by Ukraine calls for some comments. I will start with
the International Convention for the Suppression of the Financing of
Terrorism (hereinafter the “ICSFT”).
I. The International Convention for the Suppression of
the Financing of Terrorism
2. The ICSFT is a typical criminal law convention. It precisely defines,
in Article 2, the offence of the financing of terrorism by describing both
its objective element (the act itself or actus reus) and its subjective element
(mens rea). States parties to the Convention have the obligation — as is
typical for criminal law conventions — to establish as criminal offences
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OPINION INDIVIDUELLE DE M. LE JUGE TOMKA
[Traduction]
Compétence ratione materiae de la Cour au titre de la CIRFT — CIRFT en
tant qu’instrument de droit pénal — Demandes de l’Ukraine relatives au soutien
apporté lors d’un conflit armé interne — Droits que l’Ukraine cherche à protéger
ayant été jugés dépourvus de plausibilité au stade des mesures conservatoires —
Regret que la Cour n’ait pas analysé si les demandes de l’Ukraine relevaient de la
CIRFT — Fourniture d’armes excédant la portée du terme « fonds » — Demandes
de l’Ukraine échappant à la compétence de la Cour.
Compétence ratione materiae de la Cour au titre de la CIEDR — Regret que la
Cour n’ait pas analysé en détail les demandes de l’Ukraine — CIEDR ne prévoyant
pas de droit absolu à un enseignement dans la langue maternelle — Discrimination
alléguée en matière d’égalité devant la loi entrant dans le champ d’application de
la CIEDR — Compétence de la Cour au titre de la CIEDR ne s’étendant qu’à
certaines des demandes de l’Ukraine — Cour compétente pour connaître de ces
demandes.
Conditions procédurales préalables à la compétence de la Cour au titre de la
CIEDR — Recours à la négociation et aux procédures prévues par la CIEDR ne
devant pas constituer une charge trop lourde préalablement à la saisine de la
Cour — Lecture logique du libellé de l’article 22 exigeant le cumul des conditions
préalables — Contexte corroborant la nécessité de recourir au préalable aux
procédures prévues par la CIEDR — Rupture avec la pratique en ne considérant
pas les travaux préparatoires — Travaux préparatoires confirmant le caractère
cumulatif des conditions préalables — Nécessité toutefois, dans les circonstances
de la présente affaire, de ne pas pécher par excès de formalisme en exigeant le
recours aux procédures sous les auspices du Comité.
Responsabilité de l’Etat — Violation d’une obligation internationale nécessaire
pour que la responsabilité de l’Etat puisse être engagée.
1. La manière dont la Cour a traité les exceptions préliminaires de la
Fédération de Russie quant à sa compétence ratione materiae et dont elle
s’est déclarée compétente au titre des deux conventions invoquées par
l’Ukraine appelle certaines observations. Je commencerai par la convention
internationale pour la répression du financement du terrorisme
(ci-après la « CIRFT »).
I. La convention internationale pour la répression
du financement du terrorisme
2. La CIRFT est une convention de droit pénal classique. En son
article 2, elle définit avec précision l’infraction de financement du terrorisme
en décrivant tant son élément objectif (l’acte en lui-même ou l’actus
reus) que son élément subjectif (la mens rea). Elle impose aux Etats
parties — comme toute convention de droit pénal — d’ériger en infrac-
615 application of the icsft and cerd (sep. op. tomka)
61
under their domestic law the offences defined in Article 2 and to provide
for appropriate penalties which take into account the grave nature of the
offences. States parties have the obligation — again typical for criminal
law conventions — to establish as may be necessary their jurisdiction over
the offences defined in the Convention. The Convention also creates an
obligation for the States parties to co-operate in the prevention of the
offences. That obligation of co-operation is further specified in the Convention
(Art. 18). The object of the Convention is clearly spelled out in its
preamble, which provides that States have agreed on this Convention,
“[b]eing convinced of the urgent need to enhance international cooperation
among States in devising and adopting effective measures for
the prevention of the financing of terrorism, as well as for its suppression
through the prosecution and punishment of its perpetrators”.
The Convention has to be viewed and interpreted in light of its object and
purpose, taking into account its nature as a criminal law convention.
3. According to Ukraine, this Convention is applicable to acts involving
the use of arms and armed force in the eastern part of Ukraine, which
have occurred in what can be characterized as an internal armed conflict.
The Memorial of Ukraine refers in particular to actions by the so-called
Donetsk People’s Republic (“DPR”) and Luhansk People’s Republic
(“LPR”) opposing the efforts of the Government of Ukraine, also
involving the use of force, to reinstate its full control over the region.
4. It is to be recalled that, in its Order on provisional measures of
19 April 2017, the Court declined the request of Ukraine based on the
ICSFT. The Court did not consider that the rights for which Ukraine
sought protection were at least plausible, not having been convinced that
there were “sufficient reasons for considering that the other elements set
out in Article 2, paragraph 1, such as the elements of intention or knowledge
. . . [were] present” (Application of the International Convention for
the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism and of the International Convention
on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination
(Ukraine v. Russian Federation), Provisional Measures, Order of 19 April
2017, I.C.J. Reports 2017, pp. 131-132, para. 75). As the Court noted,
“[a]t th[at] stage of the proceedings, Ukraine ha[d] not put before the
Court evidence which affords a sufficient basis to find it plausible that
these elements [specified in Article 2] [were] present” (ibid.).
5. This conclusion of the Court has led Ukraine to “repackage” its
original claims, as presented in its Application instituting proceedings
(Judgment, para. 18) into a new version as formulated in its Memorial
(ibid., para. 19), while in substance they remain more or less the same. It
is apparent from the Memorial of Ukraine that it continues to charge the
Russian Federation of committing acts which, in its view, are contrary to
the ICSFT. Chapter 2, consisting of some forty pages, of that written
pleading is entitled “Russian Financing of Terrorism in Ukraine”. Its
application de la cirft et de la ciedr (op. ind. tomka) 615
61
tions pénales au regard de leur droit interne les infractions visées en son
article 2 et de prévoir des peines appropriées tenant compte de la gravité
de telles infractions. Elle leur fait également obligation — là encore, de
manière tout à fait habituelle pour les instruments de ce type — d’établir,
s’il y a lieu, leur compétence à l’égard des infractions visées et de coopérer
à la prévention de celles-ci (cette dernière obligation étant précisée davantage
à l’article 18). En son préambule, la convention énonce clairement
son objet, à savoir que les Etats l’ont adoptée parce qu’ils étaient
« [c]onvaincus de la nécessité urgente de renforcer la coopération
internationale entre [eux] pour l’élaboration et l’adoption de mesures
efficaces destinées à prévenir le financement du terrorisme ainsi qu’à
le réprimer en en poursuivant et punissant les auteurs ».
Il convient de considérer et d’interpréter la convention à la lumière de son
objet et de son but, en tenant compte de son caractère pénal.
3. Selon l’Ukraine, la CIRFT s’applique aux actes impliquant le
recours à des armes et à la force armée dans la partie orientale de son
territoire, qui ont eu lieu dans le cadre de ce que l’on peut qualifier de
conflit armé interne. Dans son mémoire, l’Ukraine fait en particulier état
d’actes accomplis par les prétendues République populaire de Donetsk
( ci-après la « RPD ») et République populaire de Louhansk ( ci-après la
« RPL ») pour contrer, y compris par la force, les efforts déployés par le
Gouvernement ukrainien afin de restaurer son plein contrôle sur la région.
4. Il convient de rappeler que, dans son ordonnance en indication de
mesures conservatoires du 19 avril 2017, la Cour a rejeté la demande de
l’Ukraine fondée sur la CIRFT. Elle n’a pas jugé que les droits dont
l’Ukraine recherchait la protection étaient au moins plausibles, n’ayant
pas été convaincue qu’il existait « des raisons suffisantes pour considérer
que les autres éléments figurant au paragraphe 1 de l’article 2, tels que les
éléments de l’intention ou de la connaissance … [étaient] réunis » (Application
de la convention internationale pour la répression du financement du
terrorisme et de la convention internationale sur l’élimination de toutes les
formes de discrimination raciale (Ukraine c. Fédération de Russie), mesures
conservatoires, ordonnance du 19 avril 2017, C.I.J. Recueil 2017, p. 131-132,
par. 75). Ainsi que l’a relevé la Cour, « [à] ce stade de la procédure,
l’Ukraine [ne lui avait] pas soumis … de preuves offrant une base suffisante
pour que la réunion de ces éléments [visés à l’article 2] [pût] être
jugée plausible » (ibid.).
5. Cette conclusion a conduit l’Ukraine à remanier dans son mémoire
(arrêt, par. 19) les demandes qu’elle avait initialement présentées dans sa
requête introductive d’instance (arrêt, par. 18) — encore que, sur le fond,
celles-ci demeurent peu ou prou identiques. Il ressort de son mémoire que
l’Ukraine continue de faire grief à la Fédération de Russie d’avoir commis
des actes qui, à son sens, sont contraires à la CIRFT. D’une quarantaine
de pages, le chapitre 2 de cette pièce s’intitule « Financement russe
du terrorisme en Ukraine » et décrit « les multiples manières dont, par le
616 application of the icsft and cerd (sep. op. tomka)
62
purpose is to describe “the myriad ways in which the Russian Federation,
acting through numerous state officials, not only tolerated but fostered
and supported the funding of illegal armed groups in Ukraine, including
by providing weapons used for the acts of terrorism recounted in Chapter
1” (Memorial of Ukraine, p. 80, para. 132). Ukraine submits that
“Russian financing of terrorism in Ukraine” consisted of “massive” supply
of weapons and ammunition to “illegal armed groups in Ukraine”
(ibid., pp. 81-85, paras. 133-136), the supply or “transfer” of the Russian
Buk anti-aircraft missile used to destroy flight MH17 (ibid., pp. 86-98,
paras. 137-154), the supply of multiple launch rocket systems, which were
used to shell Ukrainian civilians, to the DPR and LPR (ibid., pp. 98-104,
paras. 155-161), the provision of explosives used to bomb Ukrainian
cities (ibid., pp. 104-108, paras. 162-168), “comprehensive training on
Russian territory” of the DPR, LPR and other armed groups
(ibid., pp. 109-113, paras. 169-173) and Russian fundraising for illegal
armed groups in Ukraine (ibid., pp. 113-119, paras. 174-180).
6. On the one hand, the Court recalls that, as it stated in its Judgment
on the preliminary objection in Oil Platforms (Islamic Republic of Iran v.
United States of America) (I.C.J. Reports 1996 (II), pp. 809-810),
“in order to determine the Court’s jurisdiction ratione materiae under
a compromissory clause concerning disputes relating to the interpretation
or application of a treaty, it is necessary to ascertain whether
the acts of which the applicant complains ‘fall within the provisions’
of the treaty containing the clause” (Judgment, para. 57).
On the other hand, the Court ultimately fails to ascertain whether the
above-mentioned acts, described in Chapter 2 of Ukraine’s Memorial, fall
within the provisions of the ICSFT. Instead, the Court focuses its attention
on the definition of perpetrators of offences of financing acts of terrorism.
Not surprisingly, the ICSFT, as a criminal law convention, uses
in Article 2 the expression “any person”. This is typical language used in
many criminal codes and statutes to describe a perpetrator. The Court
leaves the other element of the offences (mens rea), specifically, either the
intention of a perpetrator that the funds should be used or his knowledge
that they are to be used to commit an act of terrorism, for the merits
stage of the proceedings (ibid., para. 63).
7. The Court has also refrained from determining the scope of the term
“funds” used in the Convention, in particular whether it includes the provisions
of weapons by a State, despite the fact that it is determining its
jurisdiction ratione materiae (ibid., para. 56). As the Court acknowledges
“[t]his may require the interpretation of the provisions that define the
scope of the treaty” (ibid., para. 57). One such provision is Article 1, paragraph
1, of the ICSFT, which defines the term “funds” for the purposes
of that Convention. The Court accepts that the scope of this term
“relate[s] to the scope of the ICSFT” (ibid., para. 62) but rather surpris-
application de la cirft et de la ciedr (op. ind. tomka) 616
62
truchement de nombreux représentants de l’Etat, la Fédération de Russie
a non seulement toléré, mais aussi encouragé et soutenu le financement de
groupes armés illicites en Ukraine, notamment en leur fournissant les
armes qui ont été utilisées aux fins des actes de terrorisme relatés au chapitre
1 » (mémoire de l’Ukraine, p. 80, par. 132). Le « financement russe
du terrorisme en Ukraine » aurait ainsi compris la fourniture « massive »
d’armes et de munitions à des « groupes armés illicites en Ukraine » (ibid.,
p. 81-85, par. 133-136), la fourniture ou le « transfert » du missile antiaérien
russe de type Bouk utilisé pour abattre l’appareil assurant le
vol MH17 (ibid., p. 86-98, par. 137-154), la fourniture à la RPD et à la
RPL de lance- roquettes multiples qui ont servi à des tirs d’artillerie contre
des civils ukrainiens (ibid., p. 98-104, par. 155-161), la fourniture d’explosifs
utilisés pour bombarder des villes ukrainiennes (ibid., p. 104-108,
par. 162-168), la fourniture à la RPD, la RPL et à d’autres groupes armés
d’un « entraînement complet sur le sol russe » (ibid., p. 109-113,
par. 169-173), ainsi que la levée de fonds destinés à des groupes armés
illicites présents en Ukraine (ibid., p. 113-119, par. 174-180).
6. Dans un premier temps, la Cour rappelle que, comme elle l’a déclaré
dans son arrêt sur l’exception préliminaire en l’affaire des Plates-formes
pétrolières (République islamique d’Iran c. Etats-Unis d’Amérique)
(C.I.J. Recueil 1996 (II), p. 809-810),
« pour déterminer si elle a compétence ratione materiae au titre d’une
clause compromissoire visant les différends concernant l’interprétation
ou l’application d’un traité, il lui faut rechercher si les actes dont
le demandeur tire grief « entrent dans les prévisions » du traité contenant
la clause » (arrêt, par. 57).
Mais, en fin de compte, la Cour ne vérifie pas si les actes susmentionnés,
décrits au chapitre 2 du mémoire de l’Ukraine, entrent dans les prévisions
de la CIRFT. En lieu et place, elle s’attache à définir l’expression « auteurs
d’infractions de financement d’actes de terrorisme ». Comme l’on peut s’y
attendre dans un instrument de droit pénal, la CIRFT emploie, en son
article 2, l’expression « toute personne », une formule usitée dans nombre
de lois et codes pénaux pour désigner l’auteur d’une infraction. La Cour
réserve au stade du fond l’examen de l’autre élément des infractions (la
mens rea), c’est-à-dire l’intention d’un auteur de voir les fonds utilisés aux
fins d’un acte de terrorisme, ou sa connaissance d’une telle utilisation
(ibid., par. 63).
7. La Cour s’abstient également de déterminer la portée du terme
« fonds » employé dans la convention, et en particulier de dire si ce terme
inclut les armes fournies par un Etat, alors même qu’elle se prononce sur
sa compétence ratione materiae (ibid., par. 56). Ainsi qu’elle le reconnaît,
pour établir sa compétence, « [i]l peut … se révéler nécessaire d’interpréter
les dispositions qui définissent le champ d’application du traité » (ibid.,
par. 57). L’une de ces dispositions est le paragraphe 1 de l’article premier
de la CIRFT, qui définit le terme « fonds » aux fins de la convention. La
Cour admet que la portée de ce terme « touch[e] au champ d’application
617 application of the icsft and cerd (sep. op. tomka)
63
ingly takes the view that it “need not be addressed at the present stage of
the proceedings” (Judgment, para. 62). According to the Court, the interpretation
of the definition of “funds” “could be relevant as appropriate at
the stage of an examination of the merits” (ibid.).
8. I am not convinced that this is the right approach. The ascertainment
of the scope of the term “funds” is a distinctly legal issue which is a
matter of interpretation of the Convention. The scope of that term
“relate[s] to the scope of the ICSFT” (ibid.) and thus has a direct bearing
on the scope of the Court’s jurisdiction ratione materiae. Determining the
scope of jurisdiction ratione materiae more precisely at this jurisdictional
stage of the proceedings would have assisted in clarifying which of the
claims presented by Ukraine, if any, fall within the Court’s jurisdiction
and could be further argued at the merits stage. This issue has been left
open despite the fact that the legal definition of the term “funds” for the
purposes of the ICSFT is not closely intertwined with the merits. Thus,
the principal task of the jurisdictional stage of the proceedings has not
been fully realized. Moreover, it is useful to recall the past jurisprudence
of the Court. In 1972, the Court stated that it “must . . . always be satisfied
that it has jurisdiction, and must if necessary go into that matter
proprio motu” (Appeal Relating to the Jurisdiction of the ICAO Council
(India v. Pakistan), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1972, p. 52, para. 13).
Although this statement was made by the Court in response to India’s
argument that Pakistan could not challenge the Court’s jurisdiction as it
did not raise it as a “preliminary” objection, the Court resorted to that
jurisprudence some thirty-five years later when it asserted that its
1996 Judgment on jurisdiction and admissibility in the Genocide case
dealt implicitly with an issue that neither party raised before it in 1996
during the jurisdictional phase of the proceedings, but which was relevant
for the Court’s jurisdiction (Application of the Convention on the Prevention
and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v.
Serbia and Montenegro), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2007 (I), p. 91,
para. 118).
9. On the basis of the extremely cursory treatment of the Russian Federation’s
objection, without really applying the Oil Platforms test and
without considering whether various acts of the Russian Federation of
which the Applicant complains in Chapter 2 of the Memorial fall within
the provisions of Articles 8, 9, 10, 12 and 18 identified by Ukraine as relevant
for its claims in its submissions (Memorial of Ukraine, pp. 362-363,
para. 653), the Court “concludes that the objection raised by the Russian
Federation to its jurisdiction ratione materiae under the ICSFT cannot be
upheld” (Judgment, para. 64).
10. Despite the above comments on the treatment by the Court of the
preliminary objections raised by the Russian Federation against the
Court’s jurisdiction on the basis of Article 24 of the ICSFT, I agree with
the Court’s view that “[t]he financing by a State of acts of terrorism is not
application de la cirft et de la ciedr (op. ind. tomka) 617
63
de la CIRFT » (arrêt, par. 62) mais, contre toute attente, estime qu’il n’y
a « nul besoin de traiter de cette question … au stade actuel de la procédure
» (ibid.). Selon elle, l’interprétation de la définition du terme « fonds »
« pourrait toutefois être pertinente, le cas échéant, lors de l’examen au
fond » (ibid.).
8. Je ne suis pas convaincu qu’il s’agisse de la bonne méthode. La
détermination de la portée du terme « fonds » est une question clairement
juridique qui dépend de l’interprétation de la convention. La portée de ce
terme « touch[e] au champ d’application de la CIRFT » (ibid.) et a donc
une incidence directe sur celle de la compétence ratione materiae de la
Cour. Etablir avec davantage de précision la portée de cette compétence
à ce stade aurait permis de préciser quelles demandes de l’Ukraine pouvaient
éventuellement en relever et être examinées plus avant à l’étape du
fond. Cette question a été laissée en suspens, alors que la définition juridique
du terme « fonds » aux fins de la CIRFT n’est pas étroitement liée
au fond. Ainsi, le principal objectif de cette phase de la procédure consacrée
à la compétence n’est pas pleinement réalisé. En outre, il est bon de
rappeler la jurisprudence de la Cour. En 1972, celle-ci avait affirmé qu’elle
« d[evait] … toujours s’assurer de sa compétence et [qu’]elle d[evait], s’il y
a[vait] lieu, l’examiner d’office » (Appel concernant la compétence du
Conseil de l’OACI (Inde c. Pakistan), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1972, p. 52,
par. 13). Même si, par cette déclaration, elle répondait à l’argument de
l’Inde selon lequel le Pakistan ne pouvait contester sa compétence au
motif qu’il n’avait pas soulevé d’exception « préliminaire », la Cour a
invoqué cette jurisprudence quelque trente-cinq ans plus tard, lorsqu’elle
a dit que son arrêt de 1996 sur la compétence et la recevabilité en l’affaire
du Génocide traitait implicitement une question qu’aucune des parties
n’avait soulevée devant elle à l’époque, lors de la phase juridictionnelle,
mais qui était pertinente pour sa compétence (Application de la convention
pour la prévention et la répression du crime de génocide (Bosnie-Herzégovine
c. Serbie-et-Monténégro), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2007 (I), p. 91,
par. 118).
9. Sur la base d’un examen extrêmement superficiel de l’exception préliminaire
de la Fédération de Russie, sans réellement appliquer le critère
énoncé dans l’arrêt des Plates-formes pétrolières et analyser si les différents
actes de la Fédération de Russie dont l’Ukraine tire grief au chapitre
2 de son mémoire entrent dans les prévisions des articles 8, 9, 10, 12
et 18 de la CIRFT, invoqués par l’Ukraine à l’appui des demandes qu’elle
a présentées dans ses conclusions (mémoire de l’Ukraine, p. 362-363,
par. 653), la Cour « conclut que l’exception soulevée par la Fédération de
Russie quant à sa compétence ratione materiae au titre de la CIRFT ne
peut être retenue » (arrêt, par. 64).
10. Nonobstant les observations qui précèdent sur la manière dont ont été
traitées les exceptions préliminaires d’incompétence soulevées par la Fédération
de Russie au titre de l’article 24 de la CIRFT, je conviens avec la Cour
que « [l]e financement par un Etat d’actes de terrorisme n’est pas visé par la
618 application of the icsft and cerd (sep. op. tomka)
64
addressed by the ICSFT” and that such activity “lies outside the scope of
the Convention” (Judgment, paras. 59, 60 and 61). The Court’s conclusion
on its jurisdiction under the ICSFT should be read in light of this
view, which is expressed repeatedly in its Judgment.
11. The acts of which Ukraine complains of in Chapter 2 of its Memorial
(pp. 80-119), describing them as “Russian Financing of Terrorism in
Ukraine”, referred to already in paragraph 5 of this opinion, are the acts
of the Russian Federation, to a great extent consisting of providing weapons
to the DPR and the LPR. Even if proven, they, in my view, do not
fall within the scope of the ICSFT. This has led me to respectfully disagree
with the conclusion of the majority.
II. The International Convention on the Elimination of
All Forms of Racial Discrimination
12. This brings me to the Court’s treatment of the jurisdictional
objections of the Russian Federation as to Ukraine’s claims under the
International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial
Discrimination (hereinafter “the CERD”).
13. The Court’s determination of its jurisdiction ratione materiae under
the CERD is not much more detailed. In fact it consists of just three
paragraphs. In the first one (Judgment, para. 94), the Court says what it
does not need to do at this stage of the proceedings. In the next paragraph
(ibid., para. 95), the Court recalls that at the jurisdictional stage of
the proceedings it “only needs to ascertain whether the measures of which
Ukraine complains fall within the provisions of the Convention”. And in
the final paragraph of its “analysis”, the Court simply considers that
“taking into account the broadly formulated rights and obligations
contained in the Convention . . . and the non-exhaustive list of rights
in Article 5, . . . the measures of which Ukraine complains . . . are
capable of having an adverse effect on the enjoyment of certain rights
protected under CERD” (ibid., para. 96).
It concludes that “[t]hese measures thus fall within the provisions of the
Convention” (ibid.). The Court simply asserts this conclusion without
reasonably and sufficiently demonstrating it.
14. Again, there is no specific analysis of the preliminary objections of
the Russian Federation, presented on almost forty pages (Preliminary
Objections submitted by the Russian Federation, Vol. I, pp. 139-182,
paras. 294-359). By way of example, the Respondent argues that “Article
5 (e) (v) of CERD does not include, as Ukraine alleges, an absolute
right to education ‘in native language’” (ibid., p. 158, para. 329). The
Court provides no answer to this argument, which concerns the scope of
the CERD, rather leaving the issue open for the merits.
application de la cirft et de la ciedr (op. ind. tomka) 618
64
CIRFT » et qu’« [u]n tel financement n’entre pas dans le champ d’application
de cet instrument » (arrêt, par. 59, 60 et 61). La décision de la Cour relative
à sa compétence au titre de la CIRFT devrait être lue sous l’éclairage de cette
conclusion, qui est énoncée à plusieurs reprises dans l’arrêt.
11. Les actes dont l’Ukraine tire grief au chapitre 2 de son mémoire
(p. 80-119) sous l’intitulé « Financement russe du terrorisme en Ukraine »,
et qui sont énumérés au paragraphe 5 ci-dessus, consistent dans une large
mesure en la fourniture d’armes à la RPD et à la RPL par la Fédération
de Russie. Quand bien même ils seraient prouvés, ces actes n’entrent pas,
à mon sens, dans le champ d’application de la CIRFT. C’est pourquoi je
ne souscris pas à la conclusion de la majorité.
II. La convention internationale sur l’élimination
de toutes les formes de discrimination raciale
12. J’en viens maintenant à la manière dont la Cour a traité les exceptions
préliminaires d’incompétence soulevées par la Fédération de Russie
relativement aux demandes présentées par l’Ukraine au titre de la convention
internationale sur l’élimination de toutes les formes de discrimination
raciale ( ci-après la « CIEDR »).
13. La décision que la Cour a prise au sujet de sa compétence ratione
materiae au titre de la CIEDR n’est guère plus détaillée. Elle tient en fait
en trois paragraphes. Dans le premier (arrêt, par. 94), la Cour dit ce
qu’elle n’a pas besoin de faire à ce stade de la procédure. Dans le suivant
(ibid., par. 95), elle rappelle que, au stade de la compétence, elle « doit
seulement déterminer si les mesures dont l’Ukraine tire grief entrent dans
les prévisions de la convention ». Enfin, dans le dernier paragraphe de son
« analyse », elle se borne à considérer que,
« compte [tenu] des droits et obligations formulés en termes généraux
dans la convention, y compris … la liste non exhaustive de droits
figurant à l’article 5, … les mesures dont l’Ukraine tire grief … sont
susceptibles de porter atteinte à la jouissance de certains droits protégés
par la CIEDR » (ibid., par. 96).
Et de conclure que « [c]es mesures entrent dès lors dans les prévisions de
cet instrument » (ibid.). La Cour se contente d’énoncer cette conclusion
sans l’appuyer sur une démonstration raisonnable et suffisante.
14. Là encore, la Cour ne procède à aucune analyse détaillée des exceptions
préliminaires de la Fédération de Russie, présentées sur près de quarante
pages (exceptions préliminaires soulevées par la Fédération de
Russie, vol. I, p. 139-182, par. 294-359). Par exemple, le défendeur soutient
que « [l]e point v) de l’alinéa e) de l’article 5 de la CIEDR ne prévoit
pas, contrairement à ce que prétend l’Ukraine, de droit absolu à un enseignement
« dans la langue maternelle » » (ibid., p. 158, par. 329). La Cour
ne répond pas à cet argument, qui porte sur le champ d’application de la
CIEDR, et laisse cette question irrésolue pour le stade du fond.
619 application of the icsft and cerd (sep. op. tomka)
65
15. However, certain of the claims of Ukraine, like the claim that the
Respondent “fail[s] to guarantee the right of members of the Crimean
Tatar and Ukrainian communities to equality before the law, notably in
the enjoyment of . . . the right to equal treatment before the tribunals and
all other organs administering justice” (Memorial of Ukraine, p. 363,
para. 653 (i)), fall within the scope of the CERD. Whether the Respondent
has failed to comply with this obligation still remains to be proven
by the Applicant, while the Respondent will have full opportunity to
rebut these allegations. This, however, is a matter properly for the merits.
Since at least some of the claims of Ukraine fall within the scope of the
CERD, although I am not satisfied that the Court refrained to specify
which ones, I have in the end voted with the majority.
16. Moreover, I am not convinced by the Court’s treatment of the
question of the procedural preconditions for seising it contained in Article
22 of the CERD. When interpreting the nature of these preconditions,
the Court concludes that they are alternative. Accordingly, prior to seising
the Court with a dispute under the CERD, either, at least, a goodfaith
attempt of negotiations on the issues falling within the subject-matter
of the Convention must have been made, or the dispute must have been
referred to the Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination
(hereinafter “the Committee”) without that dispute having been settled.
17. The main basis for this conclusion by the Court is its view that
“should negotiation and the CERD Committee procedure be considered
cumulative, States would have to try to negotiate an agreed solution
to their dispute and, after negotiation has not been successful,
take the matter before the [CERD] Committee for further negotiation,
again in order to reach an agreed solution” (Judgment,
para. 110).
According to the Court “the context of Article 22 of CERD does not support
this interpretation” (ibid.).
18. However, the relevant provisions for the procedure before the
Committee are contained in Articles 11 to 13 of the Convention. Nowhere
is the condition of prior negotiations before referring the matter to the
Committee stipulated in those three Articles. Under Article 11, paragraph
1, of the Convention “[i]f a State Party considers that another State
Party is not giving effect to the provisions of this Convention, it may
bring the matter to the attention of the Committee”. The Committee then
transfers the communication to the State party concerned. Under paragraph
2 of the same Article, if the matter is not adjusted within six
months, either by bilateral negotiations or by any other procedure, either
State shall have the right to refer the matter again to the Committee. As
is clear from the provisions of Article 11, negotiations are an element of
application de la cirft et de la ciedr (op. ind. tomka) 619
65
15. Cela étant, certaines des demandes de l’Ukraine relèvent du
champ d’application de la CIEDR, entre autres celle selon laquelle le
défendeur « manqu[e] de garantir le droit des membres des communautés
ukrainienne et tatare de Crimée à l’égalité devant la loi, notamment
dans la jouissance … du droit à un traitement égal devant les tribunaux et
tout autre organe administrant la justice » (mémoire de l’Ukraine,
p. 363, par. 653 i)). Le point de savoir si le défendeur manque effectivement
à cette obligation reste à prouver par le demandeur, et le défendeur
aura tout loisir de réfuter ces allégations. C’est toutefois au stade
du fond qu’il conviendra de traiter cette question. Etant donné qu’au
moins certaines des demandes de l’Ukraine entrent dans le champ
d’application de la CIEDR, encore que la Cour n’ait malheureusement
pas précisé lesquelles, j’ai finalement voté dans le même sens que la
majorité.
16. J’éprouve en outre des réserves sur la manière dont la Cour a traité
la question des conditions procédurales préalables à sa saisine qui sont
énoncées à l’article 22 de la CIEDR. Après analyse, la Cour conclut que
ces conditions ont un caractère alternatif. En conséquence, avant toute
saisine de la Cour au titre de la CIEDR, il faut au moins soit qu’une tentative
de négocier de bonne foi sur les questions relevant de l’objet de la
convention ait eu lieu, soit que le Comité pour l’élimination de la discrimination
raciale ( ci-après le « Comité ») ait été saisi du différend, sans que
celui-ci ait pu être réglé.
17. Pour parvenir à cette conclusion, la Cour s’appuie essentiellement
sur la considération suivante :
« [S]i [la négociation et le recours aux procédures sous les auspices
du Comité] devaient être tenu[s] pour des conditions cumulatives,
les Etats devraient tenter de négocier en vue de convenir d’un règlement
de leur différend puis, après l’échec de leurs négociations, porter
la question devant le Comité en vue d’engager une nouvelle
négociation visant, là encore, à convenir d’un règlement. » (Arrêt,
par. 110.)
Selon elle, « pareille interprétation n’est pas étayée par le contexte de l’article
22 de la CIEDR » (ibid.).
18. Pourtant, il n’est dit nulle part dans les dispositions pertinentes
concernant les procédures sous les auspices du Comité, à savoir les
articles 11 à 13 de la convention, que des négociations préalables doivent
avoir été menées avant que la question puisse être portée devant le
Comité. Aux termes du paragraphe 1 de l’article 11, « [s]i un Etat partie
estime qu’un autre Etat également partie n’applique pas les dispositions
de la présente Convention, il peut appeler l’attention du Comité sur la
question ». Le Comité transmet alors la communication à l’Etat partie
intéressé. Selon le paragraphe 2 de ce même article, si la question n’est
pas réglée dans un délai de six mois, soit par voie de négociations bilatérales
soit par toute autre procédure, l’un et l’autre Etats auront le droit de
la soumettre à nouveau au Comité. Il ressort donc clairement des disposi-
620 application of the icsft and cerd (sep. op. tomka)
66
the process instituted before the Committee, not a precondition for seising
it of the matter.
19. It follows from the above that, once a State brings a matter to the
attention of the Committee under Article 11, it demonstrates its willingness
to enter into negotiations with the other State party within the context of
the procedures in the Committee. If that negotiation or the continuation of
the procedures do not lead to the settlement of a dispute, either party may
bring it to the Court, as both negotiations and conciliation procedures
under Articles 11-13 of the CERD will have been tried to no result.
20. The Court believes that such expressions as “without delay”
(Art. 2, para. 1) or “speedily” (preamble) support its interpretation as
these provisions “show the States parties’ aim to eradicate all forms of
racial discrimination effectively and promptly” (Judgment, para. 111).
And the Court adds that “the achievement of such aims could be rendered
more difficult if the procedural preconditions under Article 22 were
cumulative”.
21. This view can underestimate the usefulness of other means of
peaceful settlement of disputes and the role of other bodies and, on the
other hand, unrealistically estimate that the Court can resolve a dispute
“speedily”. The present dispute was brought before the Court on 16 January
2017 and, taking into account the current docket of the Court, the
Court’s Judgment on the merits most likely will not be rendered earlier
than sometime in 2023.
22. In my view, Article 22 should be interpreted to the effect that the
conditions provided therein are cumulative. Under Article 22, a dispute
which is to be referred to the Court must be one that “is not settled by
negotiation or by the procedures expressly provided for in this Convention”.
Ukraine focuses heavily on the ordinary meaning of the word “or”
to support its position that the preconditions are alternative. However, it
is not the ordinary meaning of “or” which the Court must determine ; it
is the ordinary meaning of the phrase “which is not settled by negotiation
or by the procedures . . .”. This phrase admits two meanings. First, it
could refer to a dispute which is not settled by negotiation and which is
not settled by the procedures, as the Russian Federation argues. Second,
it could refer to a dispute which is not settled by negotiation or is not
settled by the procedures before the Committee, as Ukraine maintains.
Which of these interpretations is correct depends on the reading to be
given to “not” and “or” together in this phrase.
23. A logical reading of the text of Article 22 favours the interpretation
that the conditions are cumulative. The words “not” and “or” are logical
connectors, so it is reasonable to apply propositional logic to the interpretation
of the phrase in which they are used. According to the first De Mor-
application de la cirft et de la ciedr (op. ind. tomka) 620
66
tions de l’article 11 que les négociations constituent l’un des éléments du
processus institué devant le Comité, et non une condition préalable à la
saisine de celui-ci.
19. Il en découle que, en portant une question à l’attention du Comité
en vertu de l’article 11, un Etat prouve sa volonté d’engager des négociations
avec l’autre Etat partie dans le cadre des procédures devant le
Comité. Si ces négociations ou la poursuite des procédures n’aboutissent
pas, l’une ou l’autre des parties peut saisir la Cour, car il aura été tenté,
sans succès, de régler le différend tant par la voie des négociations que par
les procédures de conciliation prévues aux articles 11 à 13 de la CIEDR.
20. La Cour estime que des expressions telles que « sans retard » et
« rapidement », figurant respectivement au paragraphe 1 de l’article 2 et
dans le préambule de la convention, étayent son interprétation au motif
que lesdites dispositions montrent que « les Etats parties avaient pour
objectif d’éliminer effectivement et rapidement toutes les formes de discrimination
raciale » (arrêt, par. 111). Et d’ajouter qu’« un tel objectif pourrait
… être plus difficile à atteindre si les conditions procédurales
préalables énoncées à l’article 22 étaient cumulatives ».
21. Je crains que cette position tende à sous- estimer l’utilité d’autres
moyens de règlement pacifique des différends ainsi que le rôle d’autres
organes et, par ailleurs, qu’elle laisse entendre que la Cour peut régler un
différend « rapidement », ce qui n’est guère réaliste. La Cour a été saisie
du présent différend le 16 janvier 2017 et, compte tenu du nombre d’affaires
actuellement inscrites à son rôle, il est fort peu probable qu’elle
rende son arrêt sur le fond avant 2023.
22. A mes yeux, l’article 22 de la CIEDR devrait être interprété comme
imposant des conditions cumulatives. En vertu de cet article, pour pouvoir
être porté devant la Cour, un différend doit « n[e] pas [avoir] été réglé
par voie de négociation ou au moyen des procédures expressément prévues
par l[a] Convention ». L’Ukraine insiste beaucoup sur le sens ordinaire
de la conjonction « ou » pour étayer le caractère alternatif qu’elle
prête aux conditions préalables. Mais ce n’est pas le sens ordinaire de
cette conjonction que la Cour doit déterminer ; c’est celui du membre de
phrase « qui n’aura pas été réglé par voie de négociation ou au moyen des
procédures… », lequel peut se lire de deux manières. D’une part, il peut
faire référence à un différend qui n’aura pas été réglé par voie de négociation
et qui n’aura pas été réglé au moyen des procédures prévues, ainsi
que l’entend la Fédération de Russie. De l’autre, il peut faire référence à
un différend qui n’aura pas été réglé par voie de négociation ou qui n’aura
pas été réglé au moyen des procédures sous les auspices du Comité, ainsi
que le maintient l’Ukraine. Le choix de l’interprétation à retenir dépend
de la lecture que l’on fait conjointement de la tournure négative (« n’aura
pas ») et de la conjonction « ou » dans cette phrase.
23. Une lecture logique du libellé de l’article 22 milite en faveur d’une
lecture cumulative. La négation (« ne pas ») et la conjonction « ou » étant
des connecteurs logiques, il est raisonnable d’appliquer une logique propositionnelle
lorsque l’on interprète la phrase dans laquelle elles sont
621 application of the icsft and cerd (sep. op. tomka)
67
gan’s law of formal propositional logic “the negation of a disjunction is
equal to the conjunction of the negation of the alternates — that is not
(p or q) equals not p and not q, or symbolically ~(p􀂛q) 􀅁 ~p·~q” 1. This is
consistent with the semantic context of Article 22. A dispute can be
settled either by direct negotiation between the parties or by the procedures
referred to in Articles 11-13 of the CERD, but not by both simultaneously.
Accordingly, with respect to a dispute that is outside the
jurisdiction of the Court, the “or” must be disjunctive. The negation of
this disjunction should accordingly be read to refer to disputes settled
neither by negotiation nor by the CERD procedure. Only when negotiation
and the procedures have not led to the resolution of a dispute, is the
condition met in accordance with the ordinary meaning of the terms of
Article 22.
24. When the context is taken into account, a cumulative reading that
requires recourse to the inter-State dispute settlement procedures of the
Committee should also be preferred in order to preserve the effectiveness
of Articles 11 to 13 of the CERD and the Conciliation Commissions foreseen
thereunder. According to the rule codified in Article 31, paragraph 2,
of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, the context to be considered
comprises the full text of the CERD, including its preamble. The
particular context for the interpretation of Article 22 of the CERD
includes the Conciliation Commission process established in Articles 12
to 13.
25. It would undermine the procedures in the Committee to interpret
recourse to them as optional before seisin of the Court. The principle of
effectiveness “has an important role in the law of treaties and in the jurisprudence
of this Court” (Fisheries Jurisdiction (Spain v. Canada), Jurisdiction
of the Court, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1998, p. 455, para. 52).
The necessity of a cumulative reading to preserve the effectiveness of
Articles 11 to 13 of the CERD is reflected in the difference between the procedures
in the Committee and the Court. From the perspective of a claiming
State, there are several reasons to prefer the Court. First, the procedures
in the Committee produce a report containing findings of fact and recommendations
(Art. 13, para. 1), while a judgment of the Court has binding
effect in accordance with Article 94, paragraph 1, of the Charter of the
United Nations and Article 59 of the Statute. Additionally, there is no
possibility for interim relief during the procedures in the Committee,
while the Court has the power to indicate binding provisional measures
under Article 41 of its Statute.
1 “Augustus De Morgan”, Britannica Academic, Encyclopædia Britannica, 26 October
2016, https://academic.eb.com/levels/collegiate/article/Augustus-De- Morgan/29609. Accessed
3 October 2019.
application de la cirft et de la ciedr (op. ind. tomka) 621
67
employées. D’après la première loi de Morgan sur la logique propositionnelle
formelle, « la négation de la disjonction [de deux propositions] est
équivalente à la conjonction des négations des deux propositions, autrement
dit, « non (p ou q) » est égal à « (non p) et (non q) », ce que l’on peut
encore exprimer par la formule « ~(p􀂛q) 􀅁 ~p·~q » » 1. Cette lecture est
conforme au contexte sémantique de l’article 22. Un différend peut être
réglé soit par voie de négociation directe entre les parties soit au moyen des
procédures visées aux articles 11 à 13 de la CIEDR, mais pas de ces deux
manières simultanément. En conséquence, s’agissant d’un différend hors de
la compétence de la Cour, la conjonction « ou » doit être disjonctive. La
négation de cette disjonction doit donc être comprise comme renvoyant à
des différends qui n’ont été réglés ni par voie de négociation ni par les procédures
sous les auspices du Comité. Ce n’est que lorsque les négociations
et les procédures en question n’ont pas permis de régler un différend qu’il
est satisfait à la condition selon le sens ordinaire des termes de l’article 22.
24. Lorsque l’on tient compte du contexte, il convient également, afin
de préserver l’efficacité des articles 11 à 13 de la CIEDR et de la commission
de conciliation qui y est prévue, de privilégier une lecture cumulative
imposant le recours aux procédures de règlement des différends interétatiques
sous les auspices du Comité. Conformément à la règle codifiée au
paragraphe 2 de l’article 31 de la convention de Vienne sur le droit des
traités, le contexte à prendre en considération est le texte intégral de la
CIEDR, préambule inclus. Il convient en particulier de tenir compte, aux
fins de l’interprétation de l’article 22, du mécanisme de la commission de
conciliation établi aux articles 12 et 13.
25. Il serait préjudiciable à l’efficacité des procédures sous les auspices du
Comité d’interpréter le recours à celles-ci comme étant facultatif avant la
saisine de la Cour. Le principe de l’effet utile « joue … un rôle important en
droit des traités et dans la jurisprudence de cette Cour » (Compétence en
matière de pêcheries (Espagne c. Canada), compétence de la Cour, arrêt,
C.I.J. Recueil 1998, p. 455, par. 52). La nécessité d’une lecture cumulative
pour préserver l’effet utile des articles 11 à 13 de la CIEDR est mise en évidence
par la différence qui existe entre les procédures sous les auspices du
Comité et celle de la Cour. Du point de vue d’un Etat demandeur, il existe
plusieurs motifs de préférer la Cour. Tout d’abord, les procédures sous les
auspices du Comité ne donnent lieu qu’à un rapport contenant des constatations
de fait et des recommandations (art. 13, par. 1), alors qu’un arrêt de
la Cour a force obligatoire, conformément au paragraphe 1 de l’article 94 de
la Charte des Nations Unies et à l’article 59 du Statut de la Cour. En outre,
il n’est pas possible d’obtenir l’indication de mesures conservatoires durant
les procédures sous les auspices du Comité, tandis que la Cour a le pouvoir
d’indiquer de telles mesures contraignantes en vertu de l’article 41 de son
Statut.
1 « Augustus De Morgan », Britannica Academic, Encyclopædia Britannica, 26 octobre
2016, accessible à l’adresse suivante : https://academic.eb.com/levels/collegiate/article/
Augustus-De- Morgan/29609 (dernière consultation le 3 octobre 2019).
622 application of the icsft and cerd (sep. op. tomka)
68
26. This preference is borne out in the practice of States. States do not
resort to the inter-State procedures before the Committee unless there is
no access to the Court. The only exception is the case between Qatar and
the United Arab Emirates, Application of the International Convention on
the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination, which is also pending
before the Court. In view of the above, the context strongly favours
the interpretation of the procedural preconditions of Article 22 of the
CERD as cumulative. To hold otherwise is tantamount to holding that
States anticipated Articles 11 to 13 of the CERD to serve as a residual
mechanism against States which make reservations to Article 22, thus not
accepting the jurisdiction of the Court. However, nothing suggests that
this was the intention of States when they negotiated the text of the future
Convention.
27. Indeed, the travaux préparatoires of the CERD indicate the opposite,
and confirm the interpretation that the preconditions are cumulative.
The Court, in a departure from its recent practice — even in paragraph 59
of the Judgment as regards the ICSFT — declines to look at the CERD
travaux. Although “[t]he Court notes that both Parties rely on the
travaux préparatoires of CERD in support of their respective arguments”,
in its view “there is no need for [the Court] to examine the travaux préparatoires”
(Judgment, para. 112). This is rather a “spectacular” turn-around,
as just eight years ago, when the Court interpreted the same provision,
Article 22 of the CERD, the travaux were not ignored. There, also after
noting that “both Parties have made extensive arguments relating to the
travaux préparatoires, citing them in support of their respective interpretations”
of Article 22 and after mentioning, by example, four other cases
when it resorted to the travaux préparatoires, the Court came to the conclusion
that “in this case . . . an examination of the travaux préparatoires
is warranted” (Application of the International Convention on the Elimination
of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (Georgia v. Russian Federation),
Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2011 (I), p. 128,
para. 142 ; emphasis added). As consistency is a virtue in judicial approach
and reasoning, I see no reason for the Court to change its approach.
28. The draft of the Convention submitted by the Economic and Social
Council to the General Assembly on the basis of the report of the Commission
on Human Rights contained neither institutional provisions
establishing the Committee nor a provision on dispute resolution (Draft
International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination,
UN doc. E/RES/1015 B (XXXVII)). Instead, these provisions
were added to the text during negotiations in the Third Committee (Report
of the Third Committee : Draft International Convention on the Elimination
of All Forms of Racial Discrimination, UN doc. A/6181). In addition
to the draft text, the Council submitted to the Assembly a working
paper prepared by the Secretary-General containing draft final clauses,
application de la cirft et de la ciedr (op. ind. tomka) 622
68
26. Cette préférence se trouve confirmée par la pratique des Etats.
Ceux-ci ne recourent aux procédures interétatiques devant le Comité que
s’ils n’ont pas la possibilité de saisir la Cour. La seule exception est l’affaire
opposant le Qatar aux Emirats arabes unis, qui concerne l’Application
de la convention internationale sur l’élimination de toutes les formes de
discrimination raciale et qui est également pendante devant la Cour.
Compte tenu de ce qui précède, le contexte est clairement en faveur d’une
interprétation cumulative des conditions procédurales préalables énoncées
à l’article 22 de la CIEDR. Toute autre conclusion reviendrait à dire
que les articles 11 à 13 de la CIEDR ont été conçus comme un dispositif
supplétif contre les Etats qui émettraient des réserves à l’article 22 et ne
reconnaîtraient donc pas la compétence de la Cour. Or rien ne laisse à
penser que telle était l’intention des Etats lorsqu’ils ont négocié le texte de
la future convention.
27. Les travaux préparatoires de la CIEDR indiquent même le
contraire et confirment l’interprétation selon laquelle les conditions préalables
sont cumulatives. S’écartant de sa pratique récente — y compris du
paragraphe 59 de l’arrêt concernant la CIRFT —, la Cour a refusé de se
pencher sur ces travaux. Bien qu’elle « relève que les deux Parties
invoquent les travaux préparatoires de la CIEDR à l’appui de leurs arguments
respectifs », « la Cour est d’avis que point n’est besoin pour elle [de
les] examiner » (arrêt, par. 112). Il s’agit là d’un revirement « spectaculaire
» étant donné que, voici tout juste huit ans, lorsqu’elle avait interprété
cette même disposition — l’article 22 de la CIEDR —, la Cour
n’avait pas négligé les travaux préparatoires. A l’époque, après avoir de
même relevé que « les Parties [avaient] présenté de nombreux arguments
relatifs aux travaux préparatoires et les [avaient] cités à l’appui de leurs
interprétations respectives » de l’article 22, et après avoir cité quatre
exemples d’affaires dans lesquelles elle s’était penchée sur les travaux préparatoires,
la Cour était parvenue à la conclusion qu’« il conv[enait],
en l’espèce, … [de les] examiner » (Application de la convention internationale
sur l’élimination de toutes les formes de discrimination raciale
(Géorgie c. Fédération de Russie), exceptions préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J.
Recueil 2011 (I), p. 128, par. 142 (les italiques sont de moi)). En
matière d’approche et de raisonnement judiciaires, la constance est une
vertu et je ne vois donc aucune raison pour la Cour de changer de cap.
28. Le projet de convention soumis par le Conseil économique et social
à l’Assemblée générale sur la base du rapport de la Commission des droits
de l’homme ne contenait ni dispositions institutionnelles établissant le
Comité ni disposition relative au règlement des différends (Projet de
convention internationale sur l’élimination de toutes les formes de discrimination
raciale, Nations Unies, doc. E/RES/1015 B (XXXVII)). En fait,
celles-ci ont été ajoutées au cours des débats de la Troisième Commission
(rapport de la Troisième Commission : Projet de convention internationale
sur l’élimination de toutes les formes de discrimination raciale,
Nations Unies, doc. A/6181). Outre ce projet, le Conseil a soumis à l’Assemblée
un document de travail préparé par le Secrétaire général conte-
623 application of the icsft and cerd (sep. op. tomka)
69
including a dispute resolution clause (UN doc. E/CN.4/L.679 ; see also
UN doc. A/6181, para. 4 (d)). In that paper, the Secretary-General provided
four examples of compromissory clauses based on previous multilateral
treaties (UN doc. E/CN.4/L.679, pp. 15-16). The Third Committee
discussed the question of a compromissory clause at its 1367th Meeting
on 7 December 1965 (see UN doc. A/C.3/SR.1367). As a basis for discussion,
the officers of the Committee suggested a similar text :
“Any dispute between two or more Contracting States over the
interpretation or application of this Convention, which is not settled
by negotiation, shall at the request of any of the parties to the dispute
be referred to the International Court of Justice for decision,
unless the disputants agree to another mode of settlement.”
(UN doc. A/C.3/L.1237, p. 4; see also UN doc. A/6181, para. 197.)
29. The addition of words “or by the procedures expressly provided
for in this Convention” after “negotiation” was jointly proposed as an
amendment by Ghana, Mauritania and the Philippines
(UN doc. A/C.3/L.1313 ; see also UN doc. A/6181, para. 199). This proposed
amendment was adopted unanimously by the Third Committee
(UN doc. A/C.3/SR.1367, para. 41). During the discussion, only Ghana
provided views on the amendment. Its delegate
“said that [it] was self- explanatory. Provision had been made in the
draft Convention for machinery which should be used in the settlement
of disputes before recourse was had to the International Court
of Justice. The amendment simply referred to the procedures provided
for in the Convention.” (UN doc. A/C.3/SR.1367, para. 29; emphasis
added.)
The amendment was not further discussed prior to the adoption of the
Convention by the plenary of the General Assembly at its 1406th Meeting
on 21 December 1965 (UN doc. A/PV.1406).
30. I admit that in the case at hand, in view of the very strenuous relationship
between the two Parties in the period from 2014 to 2017, there
was no chance of settling their dispute even if it had been referred to the
Committee. It would have been a futile exercise. For that reason, while
maintaining my interpretation of Article 22 of the Convention, I did not
vote against the Court’s jurisdiction under the CERD. To insist, in the
circumstances of the present case, on the prior referral of the dispute to
the Committee would have been an exercise in excessive formalism. Even
if the Application was premature, this defect could have been remedied
by the Applicant and it would make no sense to require Ukraine to
institute fresh proceedings (cf. Certain German Interests in Polish Upper
Silesia, Jurisdiction, Judgment No. 6, 1925, P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 6,
p. 14 ; Mavrommatis Palestine Concessions, Judgment No. 2, 1924, P.C.I.J.,
application de la cirft et de la ciedr (op. ind. tomka) 623
69
nant un projet de clauses finales, dont une relative au règlement des
différends (Nations Unies, doc. E/CN.4/L.679 ; voir également
doc. A/6181, par. 4 d)). Dans ce document, le Secrétaire général donnait
l’exemple de quatre clauses compromissoires tirées de traités multilatéraux
existants (Nations Unies, doc. E/CN.4/L.679, p. 15-16). La Troisième
Commission a examiné la question d’une clause compromissoire le
7 décembre 1965, lors de sa 1367e séance (voir Nations Unies, doc. A/C.3/
SR.1367). Comme base de discussion, le Bureau de la Commission avait
proposé un texte similaire :
« Tout différend entre deux ou plusieurs Etats contractants touchant
l’interprétation ou l’application de la présente Convention, qui
n’aura pas été réglé par voie de négociation, sera porté, à la requête
de toute partie au différend, devant la Cour internationale de Justice
pour qu’elle statue à son sujet, à moins que les parties au différend ne
conviennent d’un autre mode de règlement. » (Nations Unies,
doc. A/C.3/L.1237, p. 4 ; voir aussi doc. A/6181, par. 197.)
29. L’ajout, après le terme « négociation », de la formule « ou au moyen
des procédures expressément prévues par ladite Convention » a été proposé
conjointement par le Ghana, la Mauritanie et les Philippines
(Nations Unies, doc. A/C.3/L.1313 ; voir aussi doc. A/6181, par. 199) et a
été approuvé à l’unanimité par la Troisième Commission (Nations Unies,
doc. A/C.3/SR.1367, par. 41). Au cours des débats, seul le Ghana a exposé
ses vues à ce sujet, son représentant ayant
« estim[é] que l’amendement … s’expliqu[ait] de lui-même. Le projet
de convention prévoit certains dispositifs qu’il convient d’utiliser
pour le règlement des différends avant de saisir la Cour internationale
de Justice. L’amendement se réfère simplement aux procédures prévues
par la convention. » (Nations Unies, doc. A/C.3/SR.1367,
par. 29 ; les italiques sont de nous.)
Cet amendement n’a pas fait l’objet d’autres discussions avant l’adoption
de la convention par l’Assemblée générale en formation plénière lors de
sa 1406e séance, le 21 décembre 1965 (Nations Unies, doc. A/PV.1406).
30. Je reconnais que, dans l’affaire qui nous occupe, compte tenu de
leurs relations extrêmement tendues pendant la période allant de 2014
à 2017, les deux Parties n’auraient eu aucune chance de régler leur différend
même si elles l’avaient porté devant le Comité. C’eût été peine perdue.
C’est pour cette raison que, tout en maintenant mon interprétation
de l’article 22 de la convention, je n’ai pas voté contre la déclaration par
la Cour de sa compétence. Dans les circonstances de la présente affaire,
insister sur le renvoi du différend devant le Comité aurait été pécher par
un excès de formalisme. Même à supposer la requête prématurée,
l’Ukraine aurait pu y remédier et il serait absurde de lui demander d’introduire
une nouvelle procédure (voir Certains intérêts allemands en
Haute-Silésie polonaise, compétence, arrêt no 6, 1925, C.P.J.I., série A
no 6, p. 14 ; Concessions Mavrommatis en Palestine, arrêt no 2, 1924,
624 application of the icsft and cerd (sep. op. tomka)
70
Series A, No. 2, p. 34 ; Military and Paramilitary Activities in and against
Nicaragua (Nicaragua v. United States of America), Jurisdiction and
Admissibility, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1984, pp. 428-429, para. 83).
III. Breaches of an “International Obligation”
31. A final point on precision in drafting merits mention. The Court
occasionally refers to “breaches of the Convention”, “breaches of Articles”
or “violat[ions] of a number of provisions of the ICSFT and CERD”
(e.g. Judgment, paras. 30, 79, 90 and 93). It is rather regrettable that the
principal judicial organ of the United Nations does not pay sufficient
attention to the precision of the language it uses. Under international law,
for an act of a State to be wrongful, such act, consisting of an action or
omission, must both be attributable to the State and constitute a breach
of an international obligation of the State (Article 3 of ARSIWA). The
International Law Commission intentionally chose this language because
it is “long established” (Yearbook of the International Law Commission
(YILC), 2001, Vol. II, Part Two, p. 35, Commentary to Article 2,
para. 7). As the Commission correctly stated in its Commentary to then
Article 3 of the Draft Articles adopted in the first reading, it is “more
appropriate to refer . . . to ‘breach of an international obligation’ rather
than ‘breach of a rule’ or of a ‘norm of international law’” (YILC, 1973,
Vol. II, p. 184, Commentary to Article 3, paragraph 15; emphasis in the
original). As the Commission explained, that expression is
“the most accurate. A rule is the objective expression of the law; an
obligation is a subjective legal phenomenon and it is by reference to
that phenomenon that the conduct of a subject of international law
is judged, whether it is in compliance with the obligation or whether
it is in breach of it.” (Ibid.)
And as the Commission observed, the phrase “breach of an international
obligation” corresponds to the language of Article 36, paragraph 2 (c),
of the Statute of the International Court of Justice (YILC, 2001, Vol. II,
Part Two, p. 35, Commentary to Article 2, paragraph 7). The Court could
have been inspired by the language of its own basic instrument.
(Signed) Peter Tomka.
application de la cirft et de la ciedr (op. ind. tomka) 624
70
C.P.J.I., série A no 2, p. 34 ; Activités militaires et paramilitaires au Nicaragua
et contre celui-ci (Nicaragua c. Etats-Unis d’Amérique), compétence
et recevabilité, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1984, p. 428-429, par. 83).
III. Violations d’une « obligation internationale »
31. Un dernier point mérite d’être soulevé quant à la précision du langage
utilisé. La Cour fait quelquefois référence à des « violations » de la
« convention », de ses « articles » ou de « plusieurs dispositions de la
CIRFT et de la CIEDR » (voir, par exemple, arrêt, par. 30, 79, 90 et 93).
Je trouve assez regrettable que l’organe judiciaire principal de l’Organisation
des Nations Unies ne prête pas davantage attention à la justesse des
termes qu’il emploie. En droit international, pour être qualifié d’illicite, le
fait d’un Etat, qu’il s’agisse d’une action ou d’une omission, doit à la fois
être attribuable à cet Etat et constituer une violation d’une obligation
internationale lui incombant (article 3 du projet d’articles sur la responsabilité
de l’Etat pour fait internationalement illicite). La Commission du
droit international a choisi cette qualification à dessein parce que celle-ci
était « établie de longue date » (Annuaire de la Commission du droit international,
2001, vol. II, 2e partie, p. 35, par. 7 du commentaire de l’article
2). Ainsi que la Commission l’avait déclaré à juste titre dans son
commentaire de ce qui était alors l’article 3 du projet d’articles, qui fut
adopté en première lecture, il est « plus approprié de parler … de « violation
d’une obligation internationale » que de violation « d’une règle » ou
« d’une norme » de droit international » (Annuaire de la Commission du
droit international, 1973, vol. II, p. 187, par. 15 du commentaire de l’article
3, les italiques sont dans l’original). Selon les termes de la Commission,
cette expression est
« la plus exacte. La règle est le droit au sens objectif ; l’obligation est
une situation juridique subjective, et c’est par rapport à cette situation
qu’intervient le comportement du sujet, soit qu’il se conforme à
l’obligation, soit qu’il la transgresse. » (Ibid.)
Et, comme la Commission l’a fait observer, l’expression « violation d’une
obligation internationale » correspond à celle (« violation d’un engagement
international ») employée à l’alinéa c) du paragraphe 2 de l’article
36 du Statut de la Cour (Annuaire de la Commission du droit
international, 2001, vol. II, 2e partie, p. 36, par. 7 du commentaire de l’article
2). La Cour aurait pu s’inspirer des termes de son propre instrument
constitutif.
(Signé) Peter Tomka.

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Separate opinion of Judge Tomka

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