Dissenting opinion of Judge Robinson

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160-20161005-JUD-01-12-EN
Parent Document Number
160-20161005-JUD-01-00-EN
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Bilingual Document File

D ISSENTING OPINION OF JUDGE R OBINSON

I disagree with the Majority’s conclusion that there is no dispute in this case  Role of the
Court as envisaged by the United Nations Charter  Linear development of the Court’s case law

stressing objectivity, flexibility and substance over form in the determination of dispute  The
Court’s enquiry is empirical and pragmatic, focused simply on whether or not the evidence reveals
clearly opposite views  Court’s case law does not support criterion applied by the Majority that
the Respondent was aware or could not have been unaware that its views were “positively

opposed” by the Applicant  Awareness may be confirmatory, but is not a prerequisite for
determining the existence of a dispute  The Court has previously relied upon post-Application
evidence as determinative of the existence of a dispute  Even if the test set out by the Majority is
applied to the facts of the case, there is a dispute between the Parties.

1. In this opinion, I explain why I have dissented from the Majority decision that there was
no dispute between the Marshall Islands and the United Kingdom.

I. NTRODUCTION

2. In the period of twenty months that I have served on this Court, I have been privileged to
consider the interpretation and application of five treaties in cases before the Court. But I dare say
that, were I to examine another fifty treaties in the rest of my term, none would be, by virtue of the
existential threat to mankind posed by nuclear weapons, as critically important for the work of the
Court and the interests of the international community as the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of

Nuclear Weapons (NPT) that is the subject of the Marshall Islands v. United Kingdom case.

3. The United Nations Charter has assigned the Court a special role, giving it a particular
relevance in the maintenance of international peace and security through the exercise of its judicial
functions. It is regrettable that the Majority did not seize the opportunity presented by this case to

demonstrate the Court’s sensitivity to that role. It is even more regrettable that this failure could
have been avoided had the Court simply followed its own case law. The Court’s case law has been
consistent in the approach to be adopted in determining the existence of a dispute; an approach that
is not reflected in the Judgment.

4. The jurisprudence of the Court calls for an objective, flexible and pragmatic approach in
determining the existence of a dispute. It is firmly established in the Court’s jurisprudence that a
dispute arises where, examined objectively, there are “clearly opposite views concerning the
question of the performance or non-performance” of a State’s obligations. There is not a single
case in the Court’s case law that authorizes the Majority’s proposition that the determination of the
existence of a dispute requires a finding of the respondent’s awareness of the applicant’s positive

opposition to its views; that is, that the absence of evidence of the respondent’s awareness of the
other party’s opposing view is fatal to a finding that a dispute exists.

5. The requirement that there be a “dispute” is designed to ensure that what the Court is

being asked to decide is susceptible to its authority and competence, or, as Judge Fitzmaurice in his
separate opinion in Northern Cameroons said, the dispute must be “capable of engaging the

1Interpretation of Peace Treaties with Bulgaria, Hungary and Romania, First Phase, Advisory Opinion, I.C.J.
Reports 1950, p. 74. - 2 -

judicial function of the Court” . 2 It is a question of the nature and character, determined

objectively, of the claim presented to the Court. It is not about mandating that an applicant State
jump through various hoops suggesting a formal approach before it can appear in the Great Hall of
Justice.

6. The Court and its predecessor, the Permanent Court of International Justice (PCIJ), have
developed a significant body of jurisprudence interpreting the requirement that the Court can only
decide a “dispute” or “legal dispute”, as discussed in the next section of this opinion. However, it

is important to note, that while many respondents have raised the objection that the Court does not
have jurisdiction because there is no dispute, the Court has more often than not rejected this
objection . This is in keeping with a flexible approach to finding a dispute — the criteria for

determining the existence of a dispute are not intended to create a high bar.

Before examining the Court’s case law, I look briefly at the Court’s role under the
United Nations Charter.

II. T HE ROLE OF THE C OURT AS ENVISAGED BY THE

U NITED N ATIONS C HARTER

7. An objective, flexible and pragmatic approach to finding a dispute is called for by the role
envisaged for the Court by the United Nations Charter. As I explained in my separate opinion in

the case concerning Certain Activities in the Border Area (Costa Rica v. Nicaragua) issued in
December 2015:

“The United Nations Charter also highlights the important role the Court has in

the peaceful settlement of disputes, ‘the continuance of which is likely to endanger the
maintenance of international peace and security’ and thus undermine the Purposes of
the United Nations Charter . Article 92 of the United Nations Charter identifies the

Court as the principal judicial organ of the United Nations and provides that its
Statute — annexed to the United Nations Charter — is an integral part of the
United Nations Charter. Article 36 (3) of the United Nations Charter provides that the
Security Council ‘should also take into consideration that legal disputes, as a general

rule, be referred by the parties to the International Court of Justice’. It is thus clear
that the Court is expected, through its judicial function, to contribute to the
maintenance of international peace and security. Therefore, the discharge by the

Court of its judicial functions is not peripheral to, but is an integral part of the 5
post-World War II system for the maintenance of international peace and security.”

Judge Fitzmaurice, separate opinion to case concerning the Northern Cameroons (Cameroon v.
United Kingdom), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1963, p. 98.

See, for example, the cases cited later in this opinion. In Alleged Violations, the Court determined that
“Nicaragua makes two distinct claims — one that Colombia has violated Nicaragua’s sovereign rights and maritime
zones, and the other that Colombia has breached its obligation not to use or threaten to use force”. The Court found that
there was a dispute in respect of the first claim and no dispute in respect of the second. Alleged Violations of Sovereign
Rights and Maritime Spaces in the Caribbean Sea (Nicaragua v. Colombia), Preliminary Objections, Judgment of
17 March 2016, paras. 67, 74, 78. See also C. Tomuschat, Commentary to Article 36, Andreas Zimmermann et al. (eds.),
The Statute of the International Court of Justice: A Commentary (2nd edition, 2012), p. 642, para. 9.

“[w]ith this limitation [that the applicant must advance a legal claim], the concept of jurisdiction
has always been interpreted in a truly broad sense. As far as can be seen, no case has been rejected as not
encapsulating a dispute.”
4
Article 33 of the UN Charter.
Judge Robinson, separate opinion in the case concerning Certain Activities in the Border Area (Costa Rica v.

Nicaragua), Judgment of 16 December 2015, para. 30. - 3 -

8. The Court has a different relationship with the United Nations Charter from that between

the PCIJ and the Covenant of the League of Nations. Although the latter provided for the
establishment of the PCIJ, it gave that Court no pre-eminence in relation to other methods of
international dispute resolution . The United Nations Charter, on the other hand, identifies the
Court as the “principal judicial organ of the United Nations” . 7 Each party to the

United Nations Charter is ipso facto party to the ICJ Statute. This is logically linked to
(i) Article 36 (3) — that while States may choose between a variety of dispute resolution methods,
Article 36 (3) envisages that legal disputes should — as a general rule — be referred to the ICJ;

and (ii) Article 1 (1), identifying the purposes of the United Nations as including “to bring about by
peaceful means, and in conformity with the principles of justice and international law, adjustment
or settlement of international disputes or situations which might lead to a breach of the peace” . 8
“Having recourse to the ICJ, whose function is to decide disputes in accordance with international
9
law . . . is the most obvious way to realize that purpose.” Therefore the Court’s exercise of its
judicial functions cannot be divorced from the architecture of the system established to respond to
the atrocities of World War II. The Court was intended to play a positive role in the maintenance

of international peace and security. It is difficult to see how the Court can discharge its
responsibility to contribute to the maintenance of international peace and security through the
peaceful settlement of disputes, if it establishes additional criteria that have no basis in its case law,

thus making it more difficult for parties to avail themselves of its jurisdiction.

III. THE C OURT ’S JURISPRUDENCE

9. In paragraph 41 of the Judgment, the Majority states:

“The evidence must show that the parties ‘hold clearly opposite views’ with

respect to the issue brought before the Court . . . As reflected in previous decisions of
the Court in which the existence of a dispute was under consideration, a dispute exists
when it is demonstrated, on the basis of the evidence, that the respondent was aware,
or could not have been unaware, that its views were ‘positively opposed’ by the

applicant (Alleged Violations of Sovereign Rights and Maritime Spaces in the
Caribbean Sea (Nicaragua v. Colombia), Preliminary Objections, Judgment of

6Article 14 of the Covenant of the League of Nations reads:

“[t]he Council shall formulate and submit to the Members of the League for adoption plans for the
establishment of a Permanent Court of International Justice. The Court shall be competent to hear and
determine any dispute of an international character which the parties thereto submit to it. The Court may
also give an advisory opinion upon any dispute or question referred to it by the Council or by the
Assembly.”

Article 13 states:

“Disputes as to the interpretation of a treaty, as to any question of international law, as to the
existence of any fact which if established would constitute a breach of any international obligation, or as
to the extent and nature of the reparation to be made for any such breach, are declared to be among those
which are generally suitable for submission to arbitration or judicial settlement.

For the consideration of any such dispute, the court to which the case is referred shall be the
Permanent Court of International Justice, established in accordance with Article 14, or any tribunal
agreed on by the parties to the dispute or stipulated in any convention existing between them.”
7Article 92 of the UN Charter.

8Thomas Giegerich, Commentary to Article 36 (above fn. 3), p. 154, para. 52.
9
Ibid. See also United States Diplomatic and Consular Staff in Tehran (United States of America v. Iran),
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1980, p. 22, para. 40.
“It is for the Court, the principal judicial organ of the United Nations, to resolve any legal
questions that may be in issue between parties to a dispute ; and the resolution of such legal questions by
the Court may be an important, and sometimes decisive, factor in promoting the peaceful settlement of

the dispute.” - 4 -

17 March 2016, para. 73; Application of the International Convention on the
Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (Georgia v. Russian Federation),
Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2011 (I), p. 99, para. 61,
pp. 109-110, para. 87, p. 117, para. 104).”

It is on the basis of this finding that the Majority upholds the Respondent’s objection that there is
no dispute in this case. The burden of this opinion is that this holding is, as is shown by the
analysis of the Court’s case law below, incorrect, as a matter of doctrine, of law, and of fact.

1. The Mavrommatis Palestine Concessions

10. Mavrommatis was a Greek national who owned “concessions for certain public works to
be constructed in Palestine” under contracts and agreements signed with the Ottoman Empire. The

Government of the Greek Republic, espousing the claim of its national, claimed that the
Government of Palestine and the Government of His Britannic Majesty (Great Britain), by virtue of
its power as a Mandate, failed to recognize the extent of Mavrommatis’s rights under two groups of
concessions, and requested that the PCIJ order the payment of compensation as a result. The claim
was brought under Article 9 of Protocol XII annexed to the Peace Treaty of Lausanne 1923, and

Articles 11 and 26 of the Mandate for Palestine conferred on Britain 1922.

11. The British Government objected to the PCIJ’s jurisdiction, and the PCIJ proceeded to
examine whether or not it had jurisdiction under Article 26 of the Mandate. Article 26 gave the

PCIJ jurisdiction over disputes “between the Mandatory and another Member of the League of
Nations relating to the interpretation or the application of the provisions of the Mandate”, that
could not “be settled by negotiation”. In determining that there was a dispute susceptible to its
jurisdiction, the PCIJ proceeded to set out its famous dictum on the definition of a dispute:
“[a] dispute is a disagreement on a point of law or fact, a conflict of legal views or of interests
10
between two persons” .

12. The PCIJ found that the dispute “certainly possess[ed] these characteristics” . The 11
Greek Republic was asserting that the Palestinian or British authorities had treated one of its

citizens in a manner incompatible with internation12 law obligations by which they were bound,
and had requested an “indemnity” on this basis .

13. In this case, which is very much the Alpha in the Court’s examination of the criteria for

the existence of a dispute, and which is cited in the Judgment at paragraph 37, there is no reference,
express or implied, to the mental state of the respondent State, as a criterion for the existence of a
dispute. The focus of the case is simply on a disagreement or conflict between the Parties. Implicit
in the dictum from Mavrommatis is that, in determining the existence of a dispute, the Court carries
out an analysis of the facts that may show a conflict of legal views or interests; there is no

suggestion that this analysis is in any way influenced by the respondent’s awareness of the
applicant’s position.

14. The Mavrommatis definition has been frequently relied upon by the Court, as the brief

survey of jurisprudence below reveals. Although the definition of a dispute has been developed
and consolidated over time, these developments have, for the most part, followed a path that is in

10
Mavrommatis Palestine Concessions, Judgment No. 2, 1924, P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 2, p. 11.
1Ibid.

1Ibid., p 12. - 5 -

line with the position taken in Mavrommatis. The addition of awareness as a prerequisite for a

finding of a dispute, on the other hand, is not a minor deviation, but represents a seismic 13ange in
what the Court requires before it will proceed to examine the merits of a claim . Attempts to
debunk Mavrommatis from its pedestal will fail. Mavrommatis will always retain its significance
when considering what constitutes a “dispute” for the purposes of Article 36 of the Statute, not

merely because it was the first case to set out a definition, but more importantly because it
identifies the parameters of a dispute between States.

2. Interpretation of Peace Treaties

15. By means of a resolution dated 22 October 1949, the General Assembly decided to

request an advisory opinion on two questions relating to the Treaties of Peace signed with Bulgaria,
Hungary and Romania.

16. The first question put before the Court was whether or not diplomatic exchanges between
Bulgaria, Hungary and Romania and “certain Allied and Associated Powers signatories to the
Treaties of Peace” regarding the implementation of certain provisions in those treaties disclosed
“disputes” subject to the dispute settlement provisions of those treaties. The diplomatic exchanges

included concerns and accusations regarding the observance of human rights and fundamental
freedoms by the three Governments. In order to determine this question, the Court divided the
issues, and examined, first, whether or not the diplomatic exchanges disclosed any disputes per se.

17. The Court started by setting out its now oft-repeated mantra: “[w]hether there exists an
international dispute is a matter for objective determination” . In my view, this is one of the

Court’s most important dicta in determining the criteria for a dispute. The logical result of
objective determination is that: “[t]he mere denial of the existence of a dispute does not prove its
non-existence” . 15

18. In its application to the facts, the Court noted that the diplomatic exchanges included
allegations that the Governments of Bulgaria, Romania and Hungary had violated various

provisions of the Peace Treaties and requested that they take remedial measures. Bulgaria,
Romania and Hungary, on the other hand, denied the charges. The exchanges thus showed that
“[t]here has . . . arisen a situation in which the two sides hold clearly opposite views concerning the
question of the performance or non-performance of certain treaty obligations” . On this basis, the
17
Court concluded that international disputes had arisen .

19. Here again, as in Mavrommatis, the question of the awareness of the respondent, was not
a factor. The focus was not on Bulgaria, Hungary and Romania’s awareness of the dispute. The
Court’s formulation, that a dispute was present where “the two sides hold clearly opposite views
concerning the question of the performance or non-performance of certain treaty obligations”, is a

13
See, for example, Robert Kolb’s examination of the Court’s jurisprudence up until [2009], where he notes that
the Mavrommatis definition has been followed “in a remarkably consistent and continuous way”, although it “has now
and then been subjected to subtle minor variations, and also to some rather questionable additions”.Kolb, The
International Court of Justice (Hart, 2013), p. 302.
14Interpretation of Peace Treaties with Bulgaria, Hungary and Romania, First Phase, Advisory Opinion, I.C.J.

Reports 1950, p. 74.
15Ibid.
16
Ibid.
17
Ibid., pp. 74-75. - 6 -

classic illustration of the application of an objective approach. It requires no more than that the
Court simply look at the parties’ positions, and determine whether they “have shown themselves as
18
holding opposite views” ; in doing so there is not the slightest suggestion of the need to resort to
any question of the respondent’s awareness of the applicant’s position.

3. South West Africa cases

20. Liberia and Ethiopia both brought cases against South Africa, which were joined by
order of the Court on 20 May 1961. The applicants alleged that South Africa was acting in

violation of various provisions of the Covenant of the League of Nations and the Mandate for
South West Africa, including by practising apartheid in its administration of South West Africa.
As a preliminary matter, the Court examined whether or not the subject-matter of the Applications

filed by Liberia and Ethiopia constituted a dispute between the Applicants and South Africa. The
Court repeated its definition of a dispute from the case of Mavrommatis Palestine Concessions (as
set out above), and noted that it is not sufficient for one party to assert or deny that a dispute exists,
a position consistent with the objective task that the Court has set itself:

“A mere assertion is not sufficient to prove the existence of a dispute any more
than a mere denial of the existence of the dispute proves its non-existence. Nor is it
adequate to show that the interests of the two parties to such a case are in conflict. It
19
must be shown that the claim of one party is positively opposed by the other.”

Applying this test to the facts of the case before it, the Court noted that there could “be no doubt”
about the existence of a dispute between the Parties in the South West Africa cases. A dispute was

“clearly constituted” by the opposing attitudes of the Parties to South Africa’s performance of its
international obligations as Mandatory . 20

21. Judge Morelli, in his dissenting opinion, drew a distinction between a dispute and a
disagreement; and between a dispute and a conflict of interests. He noted that the opposing
attitudes of the parties may consist of a “manifestation of the will” or a “course of conduct by

means of which the party pursuing that course directly achieves its own interest” which is
“inconsistent with the claim. And this is the case too where there is in the first place a course of
conduct by one of the parties to achieve its own interest, which the other party meets by a
protest.”21 The Judgment, at paragraphs 40 and 57, also acknowledges the evidentiary value of a

party’s conduct in the determination of a dispute.

22. Here, again, the Court made no explicit or implicit reference to awareness as a criterion

for finding the existence of a dispute. Rather, the Court’s st22ss was on the Parties’ “opposing
attitudes relating to the performance of the obligations” . In searching for positive opposition, the
Court was reaffirming the test that it had set out in Interpretation of Peace Treaties, that a dispute
was constituted where the parties held “clearly opposite views concerning the question of the

performance or non-performance” of international obligations. It was not developing a new test

18
Interpretation of Judgments Nos. 7 and 8 (Factory of Chorzów), Judgment No. 11, 1927, P.C.I.J. Series A,
No. 13, pp. 10-11.
19
South West Africa (Ethiopia v. South Africa; Liberia v. South Africa), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J.
Reports 1962, p. 328.
20Ibid.
21
Dissenting opinion of Judge Morelli, South West Africa (Ethiopia v. South Africa; Liberia v. South Africa),
Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C. J. Reports 1962, p. 567.
22
South West Africa (Ethiopia v. South Africa; Liberia v. South Africa), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J.
Reports 1962, p. 328. - 7 -

nor establishing any additional criteria; whether States hold “clearly opposite views” or whether
“the claim of one party is positively opposed by the other” is essentially the same question, inviting
the same objective determination, without recourse to any mental element, such as awareness, on
the part of the respondent.

IV. P ARAGRAPH 41 OF THE JUDGMENT

23. The manner in which the Court considers opposition of views in the current case calls for

close examination. As noted above, paragraph 41 provides:

“The evidence must show that the parties ‘hold clearly opposite views’ with
respect to the issue brought before the Court (see paragraph 37 above). As reflected in
previous decisions of the Court in which the existence of a dispute was under

consideration, a dispute exists when it is demonstrated, on the basis of the evidence,
that the respondent was aware, or could not have been unaware, that its views were
‘positively opposed’ by the applicant (Alleged Violations of Sovereign Rights and
Maritime Spaces in the Caribbean Sea (Nicaragua v. Colombia), Preliminary
Objections, Judgment of 17 March 2016, para. 73; Application of the International

Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (Georgia v.
Russian Federation), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2011 (I),
p. 99, para. 61, pp. 109-110, para. 87, p. 117, para. 104).”

24. The first point to note about this paragraph is that it plunges us, quite unnecessarily, into
the murky legal world of the state of mind of a State. The emphasis placed on awareness would
seem to introduce through the back door a requirement that the Court has previously rejected , 23
i.e., an obligation on the applicant to notify the other State of its claim.

25. It is a misinterpretation of the approach set out by the Court in its prior case law (and
discussed earlier in this opinion) to state that the determination that a dispute exists requires a
showing of the respondent’s awareness of the applicant’s positive opposition to its views. To
establish whether the parties hold clearly opposite views, it is sufficient to examine the positions of

the parties on the issue as objectively revealed by the evidence before the Court, without regard to
their awareness of the other party’s position. It is, of course, perfectly possible to conduct an
objective examination of a subjective factor; however, the issue in this case is whether there is any
legal basis for that subjective element.

26. In paragraph 41, the Majority refers to two cases in support of its position: Alleged
Violations of Sovereign Rights and Maritime Space in the Caribbean Sea (Nicaragua v. Colombia)
(Alleged Violations) and Application of the Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Racial
Discrimination (Georgia v. Russia) (Application of the CERD). In paragraph 73 of Alleged

2See paragraph 38 of the Judgment. In Alleged Violations of Sovereign Rights and Maritime Space in the
Caribbean Sea (Nicaragua v. Colombia), Preliminary Objections, Judgment of 17 March 2016, para. 72, the Court
stated:

“Concerning Colombia’s argument that Nicaragua did not lodge a complaint of alleged violations
with Colombia through diplomatic channels until long after it filed the Application, the Court is of the
view that although a formal diplomatic protest may be an important step to bring a claim of one party to
the attention of the other, such a formal protest is not a necessary condition. As the Court held in the case
concerning Application of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial
Discrimination (Georgia v. Russian Federation), in determining whether a dispute exists or not, ‘[t]he
matter is one of substance, not of form’ (Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2011 (I), p. 84,
para. 30).” - 8 -

Violations, cited by the Majority, the Court was responding to Colombia’s argument t24t Nicaragua
had not “indicate[d] . . . by any modality, that Colombia was violating . . .” its international
obligations vis-à-vis Nicaragua, and had not raised any complaints until it sent a diplomatic Note
after the Application had been filed. The Court noted:

“although Nicaragua did not send its formal diplomatic Note to Colombia in protest at
the latter’s alleged violations of its maritime rights at sea until 13 September 2014,
almost ten months after the filing of the Application, in the specific circumstances of
the present case, the evidence clearly indicates that, at the time when the Application
was filed, Colombia was aware that its enactment of Decree 1946 and its conduct in

the maritime areas declared by the 2012 Judgment to belong to Nicaragua were
positively opposed by Nicaragua. Given the public statements made by the highest
representatives of the Parties, such as those referred to in paragraph 69, Colombia
could not have misunderstood the position of Nicaragua over such differences.”

27. The Court’s statement represents the application of an objective standard, with the Court
eschewing formalities as a particular bar to finding a dispute. The Court examined the evidence
presented and emphasized by the Parties, including statements and conduct, to conclude that there
was positive opposition. Far from establishing awareness as a criterion of the dispute, the

references to awareness and understanding are factual statements made in the specific
circumstances of the case in support of the Court’s conclusion. There is no suggestion that these
references are an expression of a legal test. While the element of awareness may sharpen the
positive opposition, it is not expressed as a prerequisite for that opposition. Moreover, the Court
emphasized that the finding of a dispute is a matter of substance and not of form . 25

28. The Majority’s reliance on Application of the CERD is as unsatisfactory as the use it
made of Alleged Violations. The Court’s primary purpose in carrying out an examination of the
documents and exchanges presented by the applicant as evidence of a dispute was to establish
whether, in light of the specific objections raised, Russia was the intended addressee of the

documents, and, if so, whether the documents related to the application or interpretation of the
Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Racial Discrimination (CERD). In many instances,
the Court found that the documents were not addressed to Russia and, in any event, that they did
not reveal a dispute concerning the application and interpretation of the CERD, as per Article 22.

29. At the outset, it is worth noting the particular circumstances before the Court in
Application of the CERD. The Court upheld Russia’s second preliminary objection in this case
because it decided that Georgia had not satisfied the negotiations and procedures expressly
provided for in the CERD before a dispute could be brought under Article 22. This decision is of

limited value as a precedent in the circumstances of this case.

30. In any case, the passages relied upon by the Majority, do not support its conclusion that,
the Court, in Application of the CERD, invoked awareness as a requirement in the finding of a
dispute. Given the Court’s cautionary statement as to the significance of the analysis it carried out

in Section II (4) of the Judgment, it is not at all clear how reliance on the finding in paragraph 61
becomes helpful to the position of the Majority. Section II (4) is devoted to documents and
statements from the period before the CERD entered into force between the Parties on 2 July 1999.
The Court was careful to explain in paragraph 50 that it was only carrying out an examination of

24
Alleged Violations of Sovereign Rights and Maritime Space in the Caribbean Sea (Nicaragua v. Colombia),
Preliminary Objections, Judgment of 17 March 2016, para. 55 et seq.
2Ibid., para. 50 and 72. - 9 -

documents and statements in that period because Georgia contended that its dispute with the
Russian Federation was “long-standing and legitimate and not of recent invention”. The Court then
went on to say that those earlier documents “may help to put into context those documents or
statements which were issued or made after the entry into force of CERD between the Parties” . 26
Why anyone would rely on a dictum from that section in relation to the question of the existence of

a dispute is difficult to understand, since, for the purposes of that case, there could be no dispute
which fell within the terms of CERD between the Parties at the time under examination, and the
Court had explained the limited and very specific context in which it was examining documents
and statements from that period.

31. Paragraph 61 relevantly reads: “There is no evidence that this Parliamentary statement,
directed at ‘separatists’ and alleging violations of agreements which could not at that time have
included CERD, was known to the authorities of the Russian Federation.” One of the issues before
the Court was Russia’s argument that it was not a party to a dispute with Georgia; that and it was
27
nothing more than a facilitator and that the real disputants were Abkhazia and South Ossetia .
Thus, the reference to Russia’s lack of knowledge should also be viewed in light of the fact that
much of the evidence pointed to by Georgia as relevant to the question of the existence of a dispute
was actually directed to other parties. The reference to Russia’s lack of knowledge was a factual
statement highlighting that Russia was not the addressee of the Parliamentary statement. There is

nothing, either in express or implied terms, in paragraph 61 to suggest that the Court was setting up
awareness or knowledge that its views were positively opposed on the part of the respondent as a
requirement for a finding of a dispute. The Court dismissed the statement on the basis that it did
not have any legal significance in the determination of the dispute.

32. In paragraph 87, the Court notes that Russia was aware of a Georgian Parliamentary
action relating to Russia’s peacekeeping operations. However, the Court makes this statement
without seeking to develop it and with no suggestion that this was a vital element in its
consideration of the question of the existence of a dispute. Indeed, the Court went on to dismiss the
documents as not having any legal significance in the determination of the dispute. Again, the

Court’s analysis must be viewed in light of the disagreement about the proper parties to the dispute
and, more particularly, whether Georgia’s claims were made against Russia. The difficulty for the
Majority in relying upon paragraph 87 in support of its position that awareness is a condition for
the finding of a dispute is that the Court in the Application of the CERD does not state this
explicitly, nor is there anything in the text that allows the reader to infer awareness as such a

condition. In fact, the Court does not develop its analysis in any way beyond a factual statement of
the particular circumstances surrounding the documents in question. Moreover, the Majority
decision itself offers no explanation as to how paragraph 87 is an authority for the proposition that
awareness is a prerequisite for the finding of the existence of a dispute.

33. The discussion in paragraph 104 of the Application of the CERD as to whether a press
release was brought to Russia’s attention is cited by the Majority as evidence that previous
decisions set down awareness as a condition of finding the existence of a dispute. The Court, in
paragraph 104, does not make clear the significance to be attached to this statement. It is expressed

in terms that show that it is nothing more than a simple statement of fact, which does not expressly
or impliedly set out an additional limb for the legal test for the finding of a dispute. Again, the
Court’s statement must be seen in the context of the particular facts of the case: whether Russia
was truly a party to the dispute, or whether Georgia’s grievances lay elsewhere, and whether the

26
Application of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination
(Georgia v. Russian Federation), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2011 (I), p. 94, para. 50.
2Ibid., p. 87, para. 38. - 10 -

dispute concerned the interpretation and application of the CERD. In any event, the Court
dismissed the press release as having no legal significance in the determination of the dispute.

34. An inescapable comment on the four citations taken from Application of the CERD and
Alleged Violations in paragraph 41 is that, surely, if the Court intended to set up awareness as a
criterion for determining the existence of a dispute, it would have spent much more time examining
and explaining the basis and rationale for its approach, including looking at its case law. There

would have been no need for the Court to introduce an additional limb of the test in such an
indirect and non-transparent manner.

35. The paragraphs relied upon by the Majority as establishing awareness as a criterion of a

dispute should be contrasted with the establishment of an “awareness” or “knowledge” test in other
decisions of the Court, and the care the Court takes in setting up a test of this nature. For example,
in the Bosnia Genocide case, the Court stated:

“But whatever the reply to this question, there is no doubt that the conduct of an
organ or a person furnishing aid or assistance to a perpetrator of the crime of genocide
cannot be treated as complicity in genocide unless at the least that organ or person
acted knowingly, that is to say, in particular, was aware of the specific intent (dolus
specialis) of the principal perpetrator. ”

Even though the element of knowledge or awareness is necessarily a part of complicity in
genocide, it is nonetheless noteworthy how assiduously and explicitly the Court approaches the
construction of a test which contains the criterion of awareness.

36. Moreover, if the three passages in Application of the CERD were intended to set up an
additional limb of the test for the existence of a dispute, it is strange that they were not cited in
paragraph 73 of Alleged Violations. This is all the more peculiar as passages from Application of

the CERD were cited five times in the treatment of Colombia’s Second Preliminary Objection as
authority for various other propositions in relation to the finding of a dispute.

37. Significantly, in Section II (6), where the Court did find that the evidence established the

existence of a dispute between Russia and Georgia, there is not a single reference to Russia’s
awareness of Georgia’s opposing views. The Court was content to conclude that the exchanges
showed that there was a dispute between the two countries about Russia’s performance of its
obligations under CERD. In fact, the Court continued to be most concerned about the parties to the
29
dispute and whether or not the dispute was about the interpretation and application of CERD . It
is also noteworthy that, in the many instances in which the Court discounted the documents and
exchanges as having any legal value, it did so without any reliance on Russia’s lack of awareness,
including in relation to the documents cited in paragraphs 61, 87 and 104 . What this shows is that
the reference to awareness or knowledge in those three instances is nothing more than a mere

happenstance, similar to the references to awareness and understanding in paragraph 73 of Alleged
Violations. The irresistible conclusion in the analysis of the four cited passages is that the Majority
has confused the incidental with the essential.

28
Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and
Herzegovina v. Serbia and Montenegro), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2007 (I), p. 218, para. 421.
2Application of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination
(Georgia v. Russian Federation), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2011 (I), p. 120, para. 113.

3Ibid., paras. 62, 89 and 104. - 11 -

38. It is indeed striking that among the many cases in the Court’s jurisprudence on the
existence of a dispute the Majority has only been able to cite two cases in support of its position,

one of which  Application of the CERD  is of limited value as a precedent given the
peculiarities of Article 22 of the CERD, the other  Alleged Violations  clearly wrongly
construed by the Majority, and both of which were handed down in the last six years. Implicit in
these citations  from 2011 and 2016  is an acceptance that the jurisprudence prior to
April 2011 does not support the Majority’s position. In reaching this conclusion, it should be

recalled that the passages cited by the Majority do not contain references to prior jurisprudence
because they are, themselves, no more than factual statements.

39. In Application of the CERD, the Court importantly confirmed that the finding of a
dispute is a matter of substance and not of form (as the Judgment notes at paragraph 38). This is
consistent with the pragmatic, flexible approach that has already been discussed in the context of
former jurisprudence. It follows that the Court’s case law has eschewed a formal approach,

including suggestions that formalities are a precondition of the existence of a dispute, such as
notice of the intention to file a case, formal diplomatic protest and negotiations (unless specifically
required by the Optional Declaration) (see paragraph 38 of the Judgment) and any specific mental
element.

40. On the basis of the examination of the jurisprudence set out above, it is clear that:

(1) the development of the Court’s case law in this area has been linear in the stress that it has

placed on objectivity, flexibility and substance over form; whether or not a dispute exists is a
matter for objective determination by the Court on the basis of the evidence before it;

(2) the enquiry, which is empirical and pragmatic, is focused on whether or not the States
concerned have shown themselves as holding opposite views, i.e., whether the evidence reveals
a difference of views, regarding the performance or non-performance of an international
obligation;

(3) the positive opposition that is required by case law does not have to be manifested in a formal
manner, for example, that the positions be set out in a diplomatic Note. Further, there is no
need for notice and/or response. The opposition of positions may be evidenced by a course of
conduct and evidence of the Parties’ attitudes, and this is the enquiry that the Court must
undertake. There is no particular way in which a claim must be made. Moreover, the case law
establishes that the requirement that a dispute exist is not intended to set a high threshold for

the Court’s exercise of its jurisdiction, a conclusion that is entirely consistent with the role of
the Court as described in Section II;

(4) properly seen, therefore, awareness may be confirmatory of positive opposition of views, but it
is not, as paragraph 41 suggests, a prerequisite for, nor decisive in determining the existence of
a dispute.

V. T HE DATE AT WHICH A DISPUTE MUST EXIST

41. Another conundrum raised by the Judgment relates to the date at which the dispute must
exist. Paragraph 42 reads “[i]n principle, the date for determining the existence of a dispute is the
date on which the application is submitted to the Court”. Similar formulations with the words “in
principle” are to be found in cases cited in the same paragraph. However, the plain meaning of the
sentence beginning with “in principle” is that it admits of the possibility that the date at which the
dispute is determined may be a date other than the date on which the Application was submitted to

the Court, i.e., that post-Application evidence may be determinative of the existence of a dispute - 12 -

rather than simply confirmatory as is stated in paragraph 42. Consequently, the entire analysis in
paragraphs 42 and 43 fails to acknowledge the nuance and flexibility that is denoted by the phrase
“in principle”.

42. That post-Application evidence may be determinative of the existence of a dispute is
entirely consistent with the flexible, pragmatic approach that is the hallmark of the Court’s
jurisprudence on this question.

43. Paragraph 42 cites two cases in support of its statement that —“[i]n principle, the date
for determining the existence of a dispute is the date on which the application is submitted to the
Court” — Alleged Violations and Application of the CERD. The relevant paragraphs of both cases

cite Questions of Interpretation and Application of the 1971 Montreal Convention ari31ng from the
Aerial Incident at Lockerbie (Libyan Arab Jamahiriya v. United Kingdom) and Questions of
Interpretation and Application of the 1971 Montreal Convention arising from the Aerial Incident at
Lockerbie (Libyan Arab Jamahiriya v. United States of America) . The cited paragraphs from

these cases begin: “Libya furthermore dr[ew] the Court’s attention to the principle that ‘[t]he
critical date for determining the admissibility of an application is the date on which it is filed’” (my
emphasis) and reflect the Court’s conclusion that it would uphold Libya’s submission in this
regard. The Court concluded that “[t]he date, 3 March 1992, on which Libya filed its Application,
is in fact the only relevant date for determining the admissibility of the Application” . It may be

that the difficulty arising from the phrase “in principle” could be traced to Libya’s reference to “the
principle” that the critical date was the date on which the Application was filed. The two phrases
are, of course, totally different in meaning.

44. In paragraph 54, the Majority rejected the Marshall Islands’ contention that the Court
had, in prior cases, relied upon statements made by the parties during proceedings as evidence of
the existence of a dispute. The Majority discussed the three cases cited by the Marshall Islands in
support of its contentions: Certain Property (Lichtenstein v. Germany), Preliminary Objections,

Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2005; Land and Maritime Boundary between Cameroon and Nigeria
(Cameroon v. Nigeria), I.C.J. Reports 1998; and Application of the Convention on the Prevention
and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Yugoslavia), I.C.J. Reports
1996 (II). However, the Majority’s analysis of these three cases is too categorical and does not

allow for the flexibility that the Court has given itself in this regard. These cases show that the
Court has afforded significant weight to statements made during proceedings in its determination of
whether or not a dispute exists, and, at times, did so, to the exclusion of other evidence.

45. In Certain Property, the Court’s analysis indicates that it relied primarily on the positions
taken by the Parties before the Court in finding a dispute. At paragraph 54, the Majority states that
in Certain Property “the existence of a dispute was clearly referenced by bilateral exchanges
between the parties prior to the date of the application”. However, Germany submitted a

preliminary objection on the basis that there was no dispute between the parties. While
Liechtenstein and Germany characterized the subject of the dispute differently, Germany’s

31
Questions of Interpretation and Application of the 1971 Montreal Convention arising from the Aerial Incident
at Lockerbie (Libyan Arab Jamahiriya v. United Kingdom), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1998,
pp. 25-26, paras. 43-45.
3Questions of Interpretation and Application of the 1971 Montreal Convention arising from the Aerial Incident
at Lockerbie (Libyan Arab Jamahiriya v. United States of America), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J.
Reports 1998, pp. 130-131, paras. 42-44.

3Ibid., p. 130, paras. 42 and 43. - 13 -

preferred characterization suggested that it was not a true party to the dispute and thus that there
was no dispute between the parties.

46. After setting out the positions of the Parties, the Court proceeded to note:

“[t]he Court thus finds that in the present proceedings complaints of fact and law
formulated by Liechtenstein against Germany are denied by the latter. In conformity
with well-established jurisprudence . . . the Court concludes that ‘[b]y virtue of this
denial, there is a legal dispute’ between Lichtenstein and Germany (East Timor

(Portugal v. Australia), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1995, p. 100, para. 22; Application
of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide,
Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1996, p. 615, para. 29).” 34

The Court then added that pre-Application consultations and exchanges had “evidentiary value” in
support of a finding of positive opposition. The Court therefore relied on Germany’s denial during
the proceedings as determinative of the existence of a dispute and merely had recourse to the

pre-Application consultations and exchanges as supporting evidence.

47. In Land and Maritime Boundary, Nigeria’s submission was that there was no dispute as

such throughout the length of the boundary and therefore Cameroon’s request to definitively settle
the boundary was inadmissible (more specifically that there was no dispute, subject, within
Lake Chad, to the question of the title over Darak and adjacent islands, and without prejudice to the
title over the Bakassi Peninsula) . The Court concluded that in the oral proceedings it had become
36
clear that there was also a dispute over the boundary at the village of Tipsan .

48. The Court noted that Nigeria had not indicated whether or not it agreed with Cameroon’s

position on the course of the boundary or its legal basis. In reaching this conclusion, the Court
relied particularly on Nigeria’s response to a question posed by a Member of the Court. The Court
decided that, while Nigeria did not have to advance arguments pertaining to the merits, “[the Court]

cannot decline to examine t37 submission of Cameroon on the ground that there is no dispute
between the two States” . While it is true, as stated in paragraph 54, that the Court was concerned
with the scope of the dispute (i.e., the extent to which the boundary was in dispute between the
Parties) , the Court did examine the submissions of the Parties and their positions before the Court

in determining that Nigeria had not indicated its agreement, and thus that it could not uphold
Nigeria’s objection.

49. Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of
Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Yugoslavia) is, perhaps, the strongest case in support of the
position taken by the Marshall Islands because the only evidence on which the Court relied in
relation to the existence of a dispute was Yugoslavia’s denial of Bosnia and Herzegovina’s

allegations during the proceedings: “that, by reason of the rejection by Yugoslavia of the

34
Certain Property (Lichtenstein v. Germany), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2005, p. 19,
para. 25.
35
Land and Maritime Boundary between Cameroon and Nigeria (Cameroon v. Nigeria), Preliminary Objections,
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1998, pp. 313-314, 316.
36Ibid., p. 313, para. 85.

37Ibid., p. 317, para. 93.
38
The Court’s examination of materials showed that there was a dispute “at least as regards the legal bases of the
boundary”. The Court was not able to determine “the exact scope of the dispute”; Ibid. - 14 -

complaints formulated against it by Bosnia and Herzegovina, ‘there is a legal dispute’
between them (East Timor (Portugal v. Australia), I. C. J. Reports 1995, p. 100, para. 22)” . The 39
Majority’s attempt to distinguish this case is far from satisfactory.

50. The Court’s approach to this question has been less definitive and uncompromising than
the Majority would like to suggest. The Court has given itself room to afford significant weight to

statements made during the proceedings, particularly the denial of allegations by the Respondent,
not just to confirm but to establish a dispute.

51. I note that the Majority has advanced the view that: “[i]f the Court had jurisdiction with

regard to disputes resulting from exchanges in the proceedings before it, a respondent would be
deprived of the opportunity to react before the institution of proceedings to the claim made against
its own conduct” . This appears to be nothing more than a reflection of the Majority’s doctrinal
attachment to the awareness criterion. It is inconsistent with the case law that notification of a

dispute is not required. A respondent’s opportunity to react is more properly addressed as a
question of procedural due process rather than as an element of the dispute criterion. If a party is
embarrassed by hearing for the first time, through the commencement of Court proceedings, a
claim against it, it is surely open to the Court to address that matter by recourse to the rules of

procedure.

VI. T HE PRINCIPLE OF THE SOUND ADMINISTRATION OF JUSTICE

52. Another reason for rejecting the Majority decision is that it militates against the sound
administration of justice, a principle that the Court has emphasized on more than one occasion. In
Mavrommatis, the PCIJ held:

“Even if the grounds on which the institution of proceedings was based were
defective for the reason stated, this would not be an adequate reason for the dismissal
of the applicant’s suit. The Court, whose jurisdiction is international, is not bound to
attach to matters of form the same degree of importance which they might possess in

municipal law. Even, therefore, if the application were premature because the Treaty
of Lausanne had not yet been ratified, this circumstance would now be covered by the
subsequent deposit of the necessary ratifications.” 41

53. This dictum is in keeping with the rejection of formalism in determining access to
international justice, as discussed throughout the opinion. It is a principle that promotes judicial
economy, and thus the sound administration of justice. In Upper Silesia, in considering whether
there was a “difference of opinion” for the purposes of Article 23 of the Geneva Convention (the

1922 Convention between Germany and Poland relating to Upper Silesia), the PCIJ held:

“Even if, under Article 23, the existence of a definite dispute were necessary, this

condition could at any time be fulfilled by means of unilateral action on the part of the

39
Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide
(Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Yugoslavia), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1996 (II), pp. 614-615,
para. 29.
4Paragraph 43 of the Judgment.
41
Mavrommatis Palestine Concessions, Judgment No. 2, 1924, P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 2, p. 34. - 15 -

applicant Party. And the Court cannot allow itself to be hampered by a mere defect of form,
42
the removal of which depends solely on the Party concerned. ”

54. This principle was also cited by the Court in the Paramilitaries case, refusing to reject

Nicaragua’s claim when it could remedy 43defect unilaterally (to have expressly invoked a treaty in
its negotiations) and refile the case . The Court continued as follows:

“It would make no sense to require Nicaragua now to institute fresh proceedings

based on the Treaty, which it would be fully entitled to do. As the Permanent Court
observed, ‘the Court cannot allow itself to be hampered by a mere defect of form, the
removal of which depends solely on the party concerned’ (Certain German Interests

in Polish Upper Silesia, Jurisdiction, Judgment No. 6, 1925, P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 6,
p. 14).”

55. Further, in Croatia v. Serbia, the Court cited the passage from Mavrommatis and held
that:

“What matters is that, at the latest by the date when the Court decides on its

jurisdiction, the applicant must be entitled, if it so wishes, to bring fresh proceedings
in which the initially unmet condition would be fulfilled. In such a situation, it is not
in the interests of the sound administration of justice to compel the applicant to begin

the proceedings anew — or to initiate fresh proceedings — and it is preferable, except
in special circumstances, to conclude that the condition has, from that point on, been
fulfilled”.44

The Court spoke ag45nst an approach that would lead to, what it termed the “needless proliferation 46
of proceedings” or what Judge Crawford in his dissent calls a “circularity of procedure” . An
odd result of the Majority Judgment is that, given the basis on which the claim has been dismissed,

the Marshall Islands could, in theory, file another Application against the United Kingdom. Any
objection based on lack of awareness of “opposite views” could not be upheld. The “unmet
condition” would have already been remedied. The formal approach adopted by the Majority
Judgment is incongruous with previous dicta on this point, and militates against judicial economy

and the sound administration of justice.

VII. F ACTS

56. The subject-matter of the dispute with the United Kingdom is the failure of the
respondent to fulfil its conventional and customary obligations to pursue in good faith and bring to

a conclusion nuclear disarmament in all its aspects under strict and effective control; the phrase “in
all its aspects” includes negotiations on effective measures for the cessation of the arms race and a
treaty on general and complete disarmament.

42
Certain German Interests in Polish Upper Silesia, Jurisdiction, Judgment No. 6, 1925, P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 6,
p. 14.
43Military and Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v. United States of America),
Jurisdiction and Admissibility, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1984, pp. 427-429, paras. 81-83.

44Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Croatia v. Serbia),
Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2008, p. 441, para. 85.
45
Ibid., p. 443, para. 89.
46
See dissenting opinion of Judge Crawford in this case, paragraph 8. - 16 -

The subject-matter of the dispute reflects the bargain at the heart of the NPT, the package
deal: the quid is that non-nuclear-weapon States will not acquire nuclear weapons; the quo is that

nuclear-weapon States may keep their nuclear weapons but must negotiate in good faith for nuclear
disarmament.

57. In my view, the United Kingdom’s first preliminary objection should be dismissed. This
conclusion flows from application of the facts to the analysis of the law set out above. However,
even when the facts are assessed against the criterion set out by the Majority, this conclusion still
stands . An objective examination of the evidence reveals a fundamental difference (or views that

are positively opposed) between the Applicant and Respondent on the date of the Application in
relation to the United Kingdom’s performance of its obligations under Article VI of the NPT, both
because of the latter’s negotiating position and the action it has taken in respect of its nuclear
arsenal, as evidenced by the statements of the parties and the conduct of the United Kingdom.

58. The Marshall Islands made three statements that are relevant to the consideration of the
existence of a dispute with the United Kingdom. On 6 May 2010, at an NPT Review Conference,

at which the United Kingdom was present, the Marshall Islands stated:

“We are alarmed that, although almost all NPT members are achieving
obligations, there are a small few who appear to be determined to violate the rules

which bind them, and whose actions thus far appear evasive, particularly in testing or
assembling nuclear weapons. We have no tolerance for anything less than strict
adherence by Parties to their legal obligations under the NPT.” 48

On 26 September 2013, at the High-Level Meeting of the General Assembly on Nuclear

Disarmament, it “urge[d] all nuclear weapon States to intensify efforts to address their
responsibilities in moving towards an effective and secure disarmament” . While these statements
did not allege any breach by nuclear-weapon States specifically of their responsibilities, they are

indicative of the general posture of the Marshall Islands on the subject of nuclear disarmament. In
my view, they can certainly be seen as placing nuclear-weapon States on notice that the
Marshall Islands was concerned about the discharge by those States of their responsibilities relating
to disarmament. The United Kingdom’s expression of regret at the High-Level Meeting of the

General Assembly on Nuclear Disarmament about the “energy . . being directed towards initiatives
such as this High-Level Meeting, the humanitarian consequences campaign, the Open-Ended
Working Group and the push for a Nuclear Weapons Convention” 50may be taken as a sign of a
nascent dispute between the parties about the steps to be adopted to discharge the obligations under

Article VI of the NPT.

59. At the Second Conference on the Humanitarian Impact of Nuclear Weapons in Nayarit,

Mexico, 13-14 February 2014, the Marshall Islands was more explicit:

47
See paragraphs 62 and 63 of the Judgment.
4Statement by H.E. Mr. Phillip H. Muller, Ambassador & Permanent Representative, Permanent Mission of the
Republic of the Marshall Islands, to the United Nations at the 2010 Review Conference of the Parties to the Treaty on the
Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons, 6 May 2010, as referred to in the Marshall Islands’ Statement of Observations on
the Preliminary Objections of the United Kingdom (WSMI), para. 32.

4Memorial of the Marshall Islands (MMI), p. 43, para. 98; Ann. 71.
50
Statement by Minister Alistair Burt, Parliamentary Under Secretary of State, United Kingdom of Great Britain
and Northern Ireland, to the UN General Assembly on Nuclear Disarmament, 26 September 2013, as referred to in
POUK, p. 43, para. 98, and Ann. 6; see also MMI, para. 90 and Ann. 69. - 17 -

“the Marshall Islands is convinced that multilateral negotiations on achieving and

sustaining a world free of nuclear weapons are long overdue. Indeed we believe that
states possessing nuclear arsenals are failing to fulfill their legal obligations in this
regard. Immediate commencement and conclusion of such negotiations is required by
legal obligation of nuclear disarmament resting upon each and every state under
Article VI of the Non-Proliferation Treaty and customary international law.”

60. This statement alleges a breach by nuclear-weapon States of their international
obligations. It is immaterial that the Marshall Islands did not cite each of the nuclear-weapon
States by name, since those States are constituted by a small number of countries (nine) and the
identity of those States is common knowledge. The United Kingdom explicitly recognizes itself as
a nuclear-weapon State. Contrary to what is stated in paragraph 50 of the Judgment, this statement

does identify the conduct that has given rise to a breach by the United Kingdom; as a failure to
fulfil its obligations under Article VI of the NPT, specifically in relation to the negotiations
required by that Article. The statement not only identifies the breach, but also indicates how it is to
be remedied.

61. The Judgment also comments negatively, in paragraph 50, on the place and context in
which the statement was made, indicating that it was at a conference not directly concerned with
negotiations seeking nuclear disarmament — at the Second Conference on the Humanitarian
Impact of Nuclear Weapons  as distinct from a conference on negotiating nuclear disarmament.
This is a strange criticism because the questions that arise from the humanitarian impact of nuclear
weapons cannot be divorced from the fulfilment of obligations under Article VI of the NPT, as is

indicated clearly in the first line of the Preamble to the NPT, which notes that the States parties
were mindful of “the devastation that would be visited upon all mankind by a nuclear war and the
consequent need to make every effort to avert the danger of such a war and to take measures to
safeguard the security of peoples”.

62. The absence of the United Kingdom from the meeting is immaterial. While awareness is
not a requirement for the finding that there is a dispute, it is reasonable to assume that the
United Kingdom was aware of the Marshall Islands’ statements. The United Kingdom argues that
the Marshall Islands made no attempts to bring the statements to its attention. The Majority has
dismissed the United Kingdom’s argument that there must be a record of bilateral exchanges. It is
beyond question that modern technological developments have made communication more certain,

quicker and, in many cases, instantaneous. It has done away with classic images of how
statements and positions of one State may be brought to the attention of another. In today’s world,
statements of this nature are rapidly reported and made widely available in various media. Given
the importance that the United Kingdom has confirmed that it attaches to this question , it is hard
to believe that the Marshall Islands’ statement escaped its attention. It is safe to assume that, by the
very next day at the latest, a copy of the statement would have been on the desk of an officer in the

United Kingdom’s Foreign and Commonwealth Office.

63. I make it clear that the thesis advanced by this opinion is that awareness is not a
prerequisite for determining the existence of a dispute, but it is certainly noteworthy that, in any
case, the United Kingdom’s position would fall within the parameters of the test set out by the

Majority. The latter part of the test in paragraph 41  “could not have been unaware”  invites
an objective examination based upon a standard of reasonableness. In the modern world of

5Sir Daniel Bethlehem on behalf of the UK confirmed: “I do not tread into the merits of the case when I say that
the United Kingdom has always explicitly acknowledged the imperative of Article VI of the NPT and has acted and
continues to act towards the end that it mandates” (CR 2016/7 p. 9, para. 3 (Sir Daniel Bethlehem)). - 18 -

communications technology, it is reasonable to conclude that the Marshall Islands’ statement
would not have escaped the United Kingdom’s attention. Thus the United Kingdom could not have
been unaware that its views and conduct here were opposed by the Marshall Islands.

64. I now turn to look at whether an objective assessment of the Parties’ statements and
conduct evidenced positive opposition as at the date of the Application. As noted by
Judge Morelli, a course of conduct, inconsistent with the other party’s position, may evidence
positive opposition. Consistent with the position taken in this dissenting opinion, this assessment is

made on the basis that awareness is not a requirement for finding a dispute, and that positive
opposition may be deduced without reference to any mental element.

65. At the date of the Application, there was clearly a dispute about the manner in which the

United Kingdom’s obligation was to be discharged: whereas the Marshall Islands favoured a 52
comprehensive multilateral approach at that time, calling for “total nuclear disarmament” , the
United Kingdom prioritized a step-by-step approach. The following evidence presented to the
Court are indicia of these positions:

(i) the public position taken by the United Kingdom on the Open-Ended Working Group
(OEWG) when it was established by the General Assembly in December 2012, when the
United Kingdom noted several concerns, including relating to working methods and
budgetary impact, and that, as a result, the United Kingdom would not support “the
establishment of the OEWG and any outcome it may produce”, as well as its refusal to
53
participate in the working group’s deliberations , which the Marshall Islands views as
evidence of the United Kingdom’s “systematic opposition” to the commencement of
multilateral negotiations on complete nuclear disarmament ; 54

(ii) the statements of the Parties on 26 September 2013, at the High-Level Meeting of the

General Assembly on Nuclear Disarmament, where the Marshall Islands “urge[d] all
nuclear weapon States to intensify efforts to address their responsibilities in moving
towards an effective and secure disarmament”, and the United Kingdom’s expression of
regret about the “energy . . . being directed towards initiatives such as this High-Level

Meeting, the humanitarian consequences campaign, the Open-Ended Working Group and
the push for a Nuclear Weapons Convention”;

(iii) the statement of the Marshall Islands at Nayarit in 2014;

And the following evidence after the date of the Application confirms this position:

(i) the United Kingdom delegation’s statement on 9 December 2014 at the third International
Conference on the Humanitarian Impact of Nuclear Weapons, hosted by the Austrian
Foreign Ministry in Vienna:

“The UK agrees that we must also pursue the goal of a world without nuclear
weapons, and we are active here too. Some have argued that the way to this goal is to
ban nuclear weapons now, or to fix a timetable for their elimination. The UK
considers that this approach fails to take account of, and therefore jeopardises, the

stability and security which nuclear weapons can help to ensure. The UK believes that

52
MMI, p. 18, para. 25, where the Marshall Islands argues that the UK has “continuously and actively oppos[ed]
efforts of a great majority of the States of the world to initiate negotiations that are to lead to total nuclear disarmament”.
5Explanation of Vote, 6 November 2012, MMI, p. 38, para. 77 and Ann. 60.

5CR 2016/5, pp. 46-47, paras. 6-8 (Grief). - 19 -

the step-by-step approach through the NPT is the only way to combine the imperatives
of disarmament and of maintaining global stability.”

(ii) On 14 January 2015, in answer to a question in Parliament about the Vienna Conference
on the Humanitarian Impact of Nuclear Weapons, Foreign and Commonwealth Office
minister, Tobias Ellwood, declared: “as stated at the Conference, the UK will continue to
follow the step-by-step approach to disarmament through the existing UN disarmament

machinery and the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty.”

(iii) The United Kingdom’s Report on the implementation plan of the 2010 NPT Review
Conference, dated 22 April 2015, in which the United Kingdom stated that it:

“is committed to a world without nuclear weapons in line with our obligations under
Article VI of the [NPT] and firmly believes that the best way to achieve this goal is
through gradual disarmament negotiated using a step-by-step approach and within the
framework of the United Nations disarmament machinery and the Treaty on the

Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons.

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

We remain determined to continue to work with partners across the
international community to prevent proliferation and to make progress on multilateral
nuclear disarmament, to build trust and confidence between nuclear and non-nuclear
weapon States, and to take tangible steps towards a safer and more stable world, in

which countries with nuclear weapons feel able to relinquish them.

The United Kingdom has a strong record on nuclear disarmament. We have
steadily reduced the size of our own nuclear forces by well over 50 per cent since our

Cold War peak and since 1998 55l of our air-delivered nuclear weapons have been
withdrawn and dismantled.”

66. The Parties also take opposite views as to whether or not the United Kingdom’s conduct

in respect of its nuclear arsenal complies with the United Kingdom’s international obligations. The
United Kingdom has confirmed its view that the replacement of the Trident System is in
compliance with its NPT obligations, for example:

(i) David Cameron, during a Parliamentary Debate on 19 October 2010, stating the
Government’s position on whether the replacement of the Trident nuclear system was to
be regarded as illegal under the terms of the NPT: “[o]ur proposals are within the spirit
and the letter of the non-proliferation treaty” .

(ii) Letter from the Ministry of Defence, dated 27 September 2013: “[t]he renewal of our
nuclear deterrent is fully consistent with our obligations under this treaty [i.e., the
NPT]” .57

5National report on the implementation of actions 5, 20, and 21 of the action plan of the 2010 Review

Conference of the Parties to the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons, Report submitted by the
United Kingdom, 22 April 2015, pp. 1-2.
5HC Deb., 16 October 2010, cl 814, cited at WSMI, p. 17, para. 38 (http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/
cm201011/cmhansrd/cm101019/debtext/101019- 0001.htm).
57
Letter sent by the Minister for State for the Armed Forces, Andrew Robathan, 27 September 2013, cited at
WSMI, p. 17, para. 39 (https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/mod-response-about-the-uks-n…). - 20 -

(iii) In a Research Paper of the House of Commons, entitled “The Trident Successor
Programme: An Update”, it is stated: “Successive Governments have insisted that
replacing Trident is compatible with the UK’s obligations under the NPT, arguing that the

treaty contains no prohibition on updat58g existing weapons systems and gives no explicit
timeframe for nuclear disarmament” .

The Marshall Islands argues the contrary: that the United Kingdom’s qualitative
improvement and maintenance and extension of its nuclear weapons system are in breach of

Article VI. The substantiation of the Marshall Islands’ allegations, and the legality of the
United Kingdom’s actions vis-à-vis Article VI of the NPT, are issues for the merits. However, the
divergent positions of the Parties on this issue are sufficient to effect a dispute between the two
countries. In this respect, the most important aspect of the obligation under Article VI of the NPT

is that States should pursue negotiations in good faith.

67. The analysis in this opinion shows that there was a dispute between the Parties as at the
date of the Application. It is clear that the Parties had different views as to the content of and the

United Kingdom’s compliance with its obligations. This includes the speed and manner in which
negotiations were to take place, as well as the United Kingdom’s actions in respect of its nuclear
arsenal. This conclusion is confirmed by the position taken by the Parties during the proceedings.
The United Kingdom, in its Preliminary Objections, noted that it “considers the allegations [of the

Marshall Islands regarding the United Kingdom’s breach of Article VI 59 the NPT and parallel
customary obligations] to be manifestly unfounded on the merits” .

VIII. C ONCLUSION

68. The Majority decision in this case represents a conspicuous aberration and an unwelcome
deviation from the Court’s long-applied position on this question. International law, like any other
branch of law, is not static and some of the greatest developments in history would not have taken
place but for the dynamism of law. But where current law can be applied to serve the interests of

the international community as a whole, such a dramatic change is only warranted if there is a
compelling consideration in favour of doing so. Indeed such an approach is confirmed by the
Court’s own holding that:

“To the extent that the decisions contain findings of law, the Court will treat
them as it treats all previous decisions: that is to say that, while those decisions are in
no way binding on the Court, it will not depart from its settled jurisprudence unless it
finds very particular reasons to do so.”60

69. The Majority has advanced no such reasons. Its holding today has placed an additional
and unwarranted hurdle in the way of claims that may proceed to be examined on the merits. In so
doing, it has detracted from the potential of the Court to play the role envisaged for it as a standing

body for the peaceful settlement of the disputes and through this function, as an important
contributor to the maintenance of international peace and security. This conclusion is rendered
even more telling by the subject-matter of the dispute before us today.

58
The Trident Successor Programme: An Update, Commons Briefing papers SN06526, 10 March 2015, p. 14,
cited at WSMI, p. 17, para. 39 (http://researchbriefings.parliament.uk/ResearchBriefing/Summary/SN06526…).
5POUK, p. 3, para. 5. Discussed by Marshall Islands, e.g., CR 2016/9, p. 17.
60
Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Croatia v. Serbia),
Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2008, p. 428, para. 53. - 21 -

70. Seen in the light of the considerations set out in Sections I and II of this opinion, one

would be forgiven for concluding that, with this Judgment, it is as though the Court has written the
Foreword in a book on its irrelevance to the role envisaged for it in the peaceful settlement of
disputes that implicate highly sensitive issues such as nuclear disarmament.

(Signed) Patrick R OBINSON .

___________

Bilingual Content

1063
234
DISSENTING OPINION OF JUDGE ROBINSON
I disagree with the majority’s conclusion that there is no dispute in this case —
Role of the Court as envisaged by the United Nations Charter — Linear
development of the Court’s case law stressing objectivity, flexibility and substance
over form in the determination of dispute — The Court’s enquiry is empirical and
pragmatic, focused simply on whether or not the evidence reveals clearly opposite
views — Court’s case law does not support criterion applied by the majority that
the Respondent was aware or could not have been unaware that its views were
“positively opposed” by the Applicant — Awareness may be confirmatory, but is
not a prerequisite for determining the existence of a dispute — The Court has
previously relied upon post‑Application evidence as determinative of the existence
of a dispute — Even if the test set out by the majority is applied to the facts of the
case, there is a dispute between the Parties.
1. In this opinion, I explain why I have dissented from the majority
decision that there was no dispute between the Marshall Islands and the
United Kingdom.
I. Introduction
2. In the period of twenty months that I have served on this Court, I
have been privileged to consider the interpretation and application of five
treaties in cases before the Court. But I dare say that, were I to examine
another fifty treaties in the rest of my term, none would be, by virtue of
the existential threat to mankind posed by nuclear weapons, as critically
important for the work of the Court and the interests of the international
community as the Treaty on the Non‑Proliferation of Nuclear
Weapons
(NPT) that is the subject of the Marshall Islands v. United Kingdom
case.
3. The United Nations Charter has assigned the Court a special role,
giving it a particular relevance in the maintenance of international
peace and security through the exercise of its judicial functions. It is
regrettable that the majority did not seize the opportunity presented by
this case to demonstrate the Court’s sensitivity to that role. It
is even more regrettable that this failure could have been avoided
had the Court simply followed its own case law. The Court’s case law has
been consistent in the approach to be adopted in determining
1063
234
OPINION DISSIDENTE DE M. LE JUGE ROBINSON
[Traduction]
Désaccord avec la conclusion de la majorité selon laquelle il n’existe pas de
différend entre les Parties — Rôle assigné à la Cour par la Charte des
Nations Unies — Développement linéaire de la jurisprudence de la Cour quant à
l’existence d’un différend privilégiant l’objectivité, la souplesse et la prise en
considération du fond plutôt que du respect des formes — Détermination par la
Cour de l’existence d’un différend devant procéder d’une démarche empirique et
pragmatique dont le but est simplement d’établir si les éléments de preuve révèlent
ou non chez les parties des points de vue nettement opposés — Jurisprudence de la
Cour ne cautionnant pas le critère retenu par la majorité selon lequel il ne peut
exister un différend que si le défendeur avait connaissance, ou ne pouvait pas ne pas
avoir connaissance, de ce que ses vues se heurtaient à l’« opposition manifeste » du
demandeur — Connaissance préalable de l’opposition des points de vue pouvant
confirmer, mais non déterminer, l’existence d’un différend — Précédents où la Cour
s’est fondée sur des éléments de preuve avancés après le dépôt de la requête pour
établir l’existence d’un différend — Application aux faits de l’espèce du critère
retenu par la majorité n’excluant pas l’existence d’un différend entre les Parties.
1. J’explique dans le présent exposé de mon opinion pourquoi je n’ai
pas suivi la majorité lorsqu’elle a décidé qu’il n’existait pas de différend
entre les Iles Marshall et le Royaume‑Uni.
I. Introduction
2. Au cours des vingt mois qui se sont écoulés depuis que j’ai pris mes
fonctions de juge, j’ai eu le privilège de pouvoir réfléchir à l’interprétation
et à l’application de cinq traités invoqués dans les affaires portées devant
la Cour. Or, j’ose affirmer que, s’il m’est donné, d’ici la fin de mon mandat,
de me pencher sur cinquante autres traités, il ne s’en trouvera pas un
seul, parmi eux, dont l’importance, du point de vue aussi bien de l’oeuvre
de la Cour que de l’intérêt de la communauté internationale, puisse se
comparer à celle, cruciale, du traité sur la non-prolifération
des armes
nucléaires (TNP) qui est l’objet de l’instance que les Iles Marshall ont
introduite contre le Royaume-Uni.
3. La Charte des Nations Unies a assigné à la Cour un rôle spécial, qui
lui permet d’apporter une contribution particulièrement importante au
maintien de la paix et de la sécurité internationales en exerçant sa fonction
judiciaire. Il est regrettable que la majorité n’ait pas saisi l’occasion
que cette affaire offrait à la Cour de montrer combien cette contribution
lui tient à coeur, d’autant plus regrettable que, pour saisir cette occasion,
il aurait suffi à la Cour de suivre tout simplement sa propre jurisprudence.
Celle‑ci est constante quant à la démarche que la Cour a adoptée pour
1064 nuclear arms and disarmament (diss. op. robinson)
235
the existence
of a dispute; an approach that is not reflected in the
Judgment.
4. The jurisprudence of the Court calls for an objective, flexible and
pragmatic approach in determining the existence of a dispute. It is firmly
established in the Court’s jurisprudence that a dispute arises where, examined
objectively, there are “clearly opposite views concerning the question
of the performance or non‑performance” 1 of a State’s obligations. There
is not a single case in the Court’s case law that authorizes the majority’s
proposition that the determination of the existence of a dispute requires a
finding of the respondent’s awareness of the applicant’s positive opposition
to its views; that is, that the absence of evidence of the respondent’s
awareness of the other party’s opposing view is fatal to a finding that a
dispute exists.
5. The requirement that there be a “dispute” is designed to ensure that
what the Court is being asked to decide is susceptible to its authority and
competence, or, as Judge Fitzmaurice in his separate opinion in Northern
Cameroons said, the dispute must be “capable of engaging the judicial
function of the Court” 2. It is a question of the nature and character,
determined objectively, of the claim presented to the Court. It is not
about mandating that an applicant State jump through various hoops
suggesting a formal approach before it can appear in the Great Hall of
Justice.
6. The Court and its predecessor, the Permanent Court of International
Justice (PCIJ), have developed a significant body of jurisprudence
interpreting the requirement that the Court can only decide a “dispute”
or “legal dispute”, as discussed in the next section of this opinion. However,
it is important to note, that while many respondents have raised the
objection that the Court does not have jurisdiction because there is no
dispute, the Court has more often than not rejected this objection 3. This
is in keeping with a flexible approach to finding a dispute — the criteria
1 Interpretation of Peace Treaties with Bulgaria, Hungary and Romania, First Phase,
Advisory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports 1950, p. 74.
2 Judge Fitzmaurice, separate opinion to case concerning the Northern Cameroons
(Cameroon v. United Kingdom), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1963, p. 98.
3 See, for example, the cases cited later in this opinion. In Alleged Violations, the Court
determined that “Nicaragua makes two distinct claims — one that Colombia has violated
Nicaragua’s sovereign rights and maritime zones, and the other that Colombia has breached
its obligation not to use or threaten to use force”. The Court found that there was a dispute
in respect of the first claim and no dispute in respect of the second. Alleged Violations
of Sovereign Rights and Maritime Spaces in the Caribbean Sea (Nicaragua v. Colombia),
Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2016 (I), pp. 31, 33, paras. 67, 74, 78. See
also Christian Tomuschat, Commentary to Article 36, Andreas Zimmermann et al. (eds.),
The Statute of the International Court of Justice: A Commentary (2nd edition, 2012), p. 642,
para. 9:
“[w]ith this limitation [that the applicant must advance a legal claim], the concept of
jurisdiction has always been interpreted in a truly broad sense. As far as can be seen,
no case has been rejected as not encapsulating a dispute.”
armes nucléaires et désarmement (op. diss. robinson) 1064
235
déterminer l’existence d’un différend ; or, cette démarche n’est pas celle
dont procède l’arrêt.
4. Il ressort de la jurisprudence que, pour établir l’existence d’un différend,
la Cour doit suivre une méthode objective, souple et pragmatique. Et
cette jurisprudence établit fermement qu’il existe un différend lorsqu’une
appréciation objective montre que « les points de vue des … parties, quant
à l’exécution ou à la non‑exécution de certaines obligations » de l’Etat, sont
« nettement opposés » 1. Il ne se trouve pas, dans la jurisprudence, une seule
affaire dont la majorité ait pu s’autoriser pour conclure que l’existence d’un
différend ne peut être établie que si le défendeur avait connaissance avant le
dépôt de la requête de l’opposition manifeste du demandeur à ses vues ;
cette conclusion signifie que la Cour ne peut pas établir l’existence d’un
différend si elle n’a pas la preuve de cette connaissance préalable.
5. L’obligation d’établir qu’il existe un « différend » a pour objet de
faire en sorte que ce sur quoi la Cour est invitée à se prononcer se prête à
l’exercice de son autorité et de sa compétence ou, pour reprendre ce qu’a
dit le juge Fitzmaurice dans l’opinion individuelle jointe à l’arrêt en l’affaire
du Cameroun septentrional, que le différend « implique la fonction
normale de l’institution judiciaire qu’est un tribunal » 2. Il s’agit pour la
Cour d’apprécier objectivement la nature et le caractère de la demande
qui lui est présentée. Il ne s’agit pas, en suivant une démarche empreinte
de formalisme, d’imposer à l’Etat demandeur de franchir divers obstacles
avant de pouvoir se présenter dans la grande salle de justice.
6. La Cour et, avant elle, la Cour permanente de Justice internationale
(CPJI) ont constitué un important corpus de jurisprudence sur l’interprétation
de l’obligation faite à la Cour de ne trancher que des « différends »
ou des « différends d’ordre juridique », obligation dont je traiterai dans la
section suivante de l’exposé de mon opinion. Il importe cependant de
noter d’emblée que, si, dans de nombreuses affaires, les Etats défendeurs
ont soulevé une exception d’incompétence en invoquant l’absence de différend,
la Cour a le plus souvent rejeté cette exception 3. Cette pratique
1 Interprétation des traités de paix conclus avec la Bulgarie, la Hongrie et la Roumanie,
première phase, avis consultatif, C.I.J. Recueil 1950, p. 74.
2 Opinion individuelle du juge Fitzmaurice en l’affaire du Cameroun septentrional
(Cameroun c. Royaume‑Uni), exceptions préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1963, p. 99.
3 Voir, par exemple, les affaires que je cite plus loin. En l’affaire des Violations alléguées,
la Cour a constaté que « le Nicaragua formul[ait] deux demandes distinctes, faisant grief
à la Colombie, d’une part, d’avoir violé ses droits souverains et ses espaces maritimes et,
d’autre part, d’avoir manqué à l’obligation lui incombant de s’abstenir de recourir à la
menace ou à l’emploi de la force ». La Cour a établi l’existence d’un différend au sujet de
la première demande, mais non de la seconde (Violations alléguées de droits souverains et
d’espaces maritimes dans la mer des Caraïbes (Nicaragua c. Colombie), exceptions préliminaires,
arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2016 (I), p. 31, 33, par. 67, 74, 78). Voir également Christian
Tomuschat, Commentary to Article 36, Andreas Zimmermann et al. (dir. publ.), The
Statute of the International Court of Justice : A Commentary (2e éd., 2012), p. 642, par. 9 :
« [é]tant donné cette limitation [l’obligation pour le demandeur de formuler une
demande sur une question de droit], la notion de compétence a toujours été interprétée
dans un sens vraiment large. En fait, autant que l’on puisse voir, la Cour ne
s’est jamais dessaisie d’une affaire au motif qu’elle ne portait pas sur un différend. »
1065 nuclear arms and disarmament (diss. op. robinson)
236
for determining the existence of a dispute are not intended to create a
high bar.
Before examining the Court’s case law, I look briefly at the Court’s role
under the United Nations Charter.
II. The Role of the Court as Envisaged
by the United Nations Charter
7. An objective, flexible and pragmatic approach to finding a dispute
is called for by the role envisaged for the Court by the United Nations
Charter. As I explained in my separate opinion in the case concerning
Certain Activities/Construction of a Road issued in December 2015:
“The United Nations Charter also highlights the important role the
Court has in the peaceful settlement of disputes, ‘the continuance of
which is likely to endanger the maintenance of international peace
and security’ and thus undermine the purposes of the United Nations
Charter 4. Article 92 of the United Nations Charter identifies the
Court as the principal judicial organ of the United Nations and provides
that its Statute — annexed to the United Nations Charter — is
an integral part of the United Nations Charter. Article 36 (3) of the
United Nations Charter provides that the Security Council ‘should
also take into consideration that legal disputes, as a general rule, be
referred by the parties to the International Court of Justice’. It is thus
clear that the Court is expected, through its judicial function, to contribute
to the maintenance of international peace and security. Therefore,
the discharge by the Court of its judicial functions is not
peripheral to, but is an integral part of the post‑World War II system
for the maintenance of international peace and security.” 5
8. The Court has a different relationship with the United Nations Charter
from that between the PCIJ and the Covenant of the League of
Nations. Although the latter provided for the establishment of the PCIJ,
it gave that Court no pre‑eminence in relation to other methods of
international
dispute resolution 6. The United Nations Charter, on the
4 Article 33 of the UN Charter.
5 Judge Robinson, separate opinion in the case concerning Certain Activities Carried
Out in Nicaragua in the Border Area (Costa Rica v. Nicaragua) and Construction of a
Road in Costa Rica along the San Juan River (Nicaragua v. Costa Rica), Judgment, I.C.J.
Reports 2015 (II), p. 815, para. 30.
6 Article 14 of the Covenant of the League of Nations reads:
“[t]he Council shall formulate and submit to the Members of the League for adoption
armes nucléaires et désarmement (op. diss. robinson) 1065
236
procède d’une démarche souple dans la détermination de l’existence d’un
différend — les critères de l’existence d’un différend ne sont pas censés
élever un obstacle bien haut.
Avant d’examiner la jurisprudence, je vais traiter brièvement du rôle
que la Charte des Nations Unies assigne à la Cour.
II. Le rôle de la Cour selon la Charte
des Nations Unies
7. Tel qu’il est envisagé dans la Charte des Nations Unies, le rôle de la
Cour implique qu’elle suive une démarche objective, souple et pragmatique
pour déterminer s’il existe un différend. Comme je l’ai expliqué dans l’opinion
individuelle dont j’ai joint l’exposé à l’arrêt rendu en décembre 2015
en l’affaire relative à Certaines activités/Construction d’une route,
« [l]a Charte des Nations Unies souligne en outre le rôle essentiel
dévolu à la Cour dans le règlement pacifique des différends, des différends
« dont la prolongation est susceptible de menacer le maintien
de la paix et de la sécurité internationales » et d’aller ainsi à
l’encontre
des buts qu’elle énonce 4. Son article 92 désigne la
Cour comme l’organe judiciaire principal de l’Organisation et précise
que le Statut de celle‑ci, qui y est annexé, en fait partie intégrante.
L’article
36 indique en son paragraphe 3 que le Conseil de
sécurité « doit aussi tenir compte du fait que, d’une manière générale,
les différends d’ordre juridique devraient être soumis par les parties
à la Cour internationale de Justice ». Il est donc clair que, en
exerçant
sa fonction judiciaire, la Cour a vocation à contribuer au
maintien de la paix et de la sécurité internationales. Cet exercice ne
revêt dès lors pas un caractère secondaire, bien au contraire : il
constitue un élément
essentiel du système établi à l’issue de la seconde
guerre mondiale en vue du maintien de la paix et de la sécurité
internationales.
» 5
8. La place faite à la Cour par la Charte des Nations Unies n’est pas la
même que celle que faisait à la CPJI le Pacte de la Société des Nations. Le
Pacte prévoyait certes la création de la CPJI, mais n’accordait pas prééminence
à la saisine de celle‑ci par rapport aux autres modes de règlement
des différends internationaux 6. La Charte, en revanche, désigne la Cour
4 Charte des Nations Unies, art. 33.
5 Opinion individuelle du juge Robinson jointe à l’arrêt du 16 décembre 2015
en l’affaire
relative à Certaines activités menées par le Nicaragua dans la région frontalière
(Costa Rica c. Nicaragua) et Construction d’une route au Costa Rica le
long du fleuve San Juan (Nicaragua c. Costa Rica), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2015 (II),
p. 815, par. 30.
6 L’article 14 du Pacte de la Société des Nations se lit comme suit :
« Le Conseil est chargé de préparer un projet de Cour permanente de Justice inter-
1066 nuclear arms and disarmament (diss. op. robinson)
237
other hand, identifies the Court as the “principal judicial organ of the
United Nations” 7. Each party to the United Nations Charter is ipso
facto party to the ICJ Statute. This is logically linked to (i) Article
36 (3) — that while States may choose between a variety of dispute
resolution methods, Article 36 (3) envisages that legal disputes should —
as a general rule — be referred to the ICJ; and (ii) Article 1 (1), identifying
the purposes of the United Nations as including “to bring about by
peaceful means, and in conformity with the principles of justice and international
law, adjustment or settlement of international disputes or situations
which might lead to a breach of the peace” 8. “Having recourse to
the ICJ, whose function is to decide disputes in accordance with international
law . . . is the most obvious way to realize that purpose.” 9 Therefore
the Court’s exercise of its judicial functions cannot be divorced from
the architecture of the system established to respond to the atrocities of
World War II. The Court was intended to play a positive role in the
maintenance of international peace and security. It is difficult to see how
the Court can discharge its responsibility to contribute to the maintenance
of international peace and security through the peaceful settlement
of disputes, if it establishes additional criteria that have no basis in its
case law, thus making it more difficult for parties to avail themselves of its
jurisdiction.
plans for the establishment of a Permanent Court of International Justice. The Court
shall be competent to hear and determine any dispute of an international character
which the parties thereto submit to it. The Court may also give an advisory opinion
upon any dispute or question referred to it by the Council or by the Assembly.”
Article 13 states:
“Disputes as to the interpretation of a treaty, as to any question of international
law, as to the existence of any fact which if established would constitute a breach of
any international obligation, or as to the extent and nature of the reparation to be
made for any such breach, are declared to be among those which are generally suitable
for submission to arbitration or judicial settlement.
For the consideration of any such dispute, the court to which the case is referred
shall be the Permanent Court of International Justice, established in accordance with
Article 14, or any tribunal agreed on by the parties to the dispute or stipulated in any
convention existing between them.”
7 Article 92 of the UN Charter.
8 Thomas Giegerich, Commentary to Article 36 (above note 3), p. 154, para. 52.
9 Ibid. See also United States Diplomatic and Consular Staff in Tehran (United States of
America v. Iran), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1980, p. 22, para. 40.
“It is for the Court, the principal judicial organ of the United Nations, to resolve
any legal questions that may be in issue between parties to a dispute; and the resolution
of such legal questions by the Court may be an important, and sometimes decisive,
factor in promoting the peaceful settlement of the dispute.”
armes nucléaires et désarmement (op. diss. robinson) 1066
237
comme « l’organe judiciaire principal des Nations Unies » 7. Chaque Etat
partie à la Charte est ipso facto partie au Statut de la CIJ. La disposition
de la Charte à cet effet est dans la logique du paragraphe 3 de son
article 36, qui — bien que les Etats aient la faculté de choisir entre
plusieurs
méthodes de règlement des différends — prévoit que, de manière
générale, les différends d’ordre juridique devraient être soumis à la CIJ ;
elle est également dans la logique du second membre du paragraphe 1 de
l’article premier, qui dispose que l’un des buts des Nations Unies est de
« réaliser, par des moyens pacifiques, conformément aux principes de la
justice et du droit international, l’ajustement ou le règlement de différends
ou de situations, de caractère international, susceptibles de mener à une
rupture de la paix » 8. « Le recours à la CIJ, qui a pour fonction de
trancher
les différends conformément au droit international …, constitue
le moyen le plus évident d’atteindre ce but. » 9 L’exercice par la Cour de
sa fonction judiciaire ne peut donc pas être dissocié de l’architecture du
système institué pour éviter que ne se reproduisent les atrocités de
la seconde guerre mondiale. La mission de la Cour est de contribuer
au maintien de la paix et de la sécurité internationales. On voit mal comment
la Cour pourrait continuer de s’acquitter de cette mission si elle
en vient à établir des critères supplémentaires d’existence d’un différend
que ne cautionne pas sa jurisprudence et qui ajoutent aux difficultés
d’accès
que doivent surmonter les Etats qui entendent se prévaloir de sa
juridiction.
nationale et de le soumettre aux Membres de la Société. Cette Cour connaîtra de tous
différends d’un caractère international que les Parties lui soumettront. Elle donnera
aussi des avis consultatifs sur tout différend ou tout point dont la saisira le Conseil
ou l’Assemblée. »
L’article 13 du Pacte renferme les dispositions suivantes :
« Parmi ceux qui sont généralement susceptibles de solution arbitrale, on déclare
tels les différends relatifs à l’interprétation d’un Traité, à tout point de droit international,
à la réalité de tout fait qui, s’il était établi, constituerait la rupture d’un
engagement international, ou à l’étendue ou à la nature de la réparation due pour
une telle rupture.
[L]a cause [sera] soumise [à la Cour permanente de Justice internationale,] [créée
conformément à l’article 14,] [ou à toute juridiction ou cour] désignée par les Parties
ou prévue dans leurs conventions antérieures. »
7 Charte des Nations Unies, art. 92.
8 Thomas Giegerich, Commentary to Article 36 (op. cit. supra note 3) p. 154,
par. 52.
9 Ibid. ; voir également Personnel diplomatique et consulaire des Etats-Unis à Téhéran
(Etats‑Unis d’Amérique c. Iran), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1980, p. 22, par. 40 :
« [C]’est à la Cour, organe judiciaire principal des Nations Unies, qu’il appartient
de résoudre toute question juridique pouvant opposer des parties à un différend ;
et la résolution de ces questions juridiques par la Cour peut jouer un rôle important
et parfois déterminant dans le règlement pacifique du différend. »
1067 nuclear arms and disarmament (diss. op. robinson)
238
III. The Court’s Jurisprudence
9. In paragraph 41 of the Judgment, the majority states:
“The evidence must show that the parties ‘hold clearly opposite
views’ with respect to the issue brought before the Court . . . As
reflected in previous decisions of the Court in which the existence of
a dispute was under consideration, a dispute exists when it is demonstrated,
on the basis of the evidence, that the respondent was aware,
or could not have been unaware, that its views were ‘positively
opposed’ by the applicant (Alleged Violations of Sovereign Rights and
Maritime Spaces in the Caribbean Sea (Nicaragua v. Colombia), Preliminary
Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2016 (I), p. 32, para. 73;
Application of the International Convention on the Elimination of All
Forms of Racial Discrimination (Georgia v. Russian Federation), Preliminary
Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2011 (I), p. 99, para. 61,
pp. 109‑110, para. 87, p. 117, para. 104).”
It is on the basis of this finding that the majority upholds the Respondent’s
objection that there is no dispute in this case. The burden of this
opinion is that this holding is, as is shown by the analysis of the Court’s
case law below, incorrect, as a matter of doctrine, of law, and of fact.
1. The Mavrommatis Palestine Concessions
10. Mavrommatis was a Greek national who owned “concessions for
certain public works to be constructed in Palestine” under contracts and
agreements signed with the Ottoman Empire. The Government of the
Greek Republic, espousing the claim of its national, claimed that the
Government of Palestine and the Government of His Britannic Majesty
(Great Britain), by virtue of its power as a Mandate, failed to recognize
the extent of Mavrommatis’s rights under two groups of concessions, and
requested that the PCIJ order the payment of compensation as a result.
The claim was brought under Article 9 of Protocol XII annexed to the
Peace Treaty of Lausanne 1923, and Articles 11 and 26 of the Mandate
for Palestine conferred on Britain 1922.
11. The British Government objected to the PCIJ’s jurisdiction, and
the PCIJ proceeded to examine whether or not it had jurisdiction under
Article 26 of the Mandate. Article 26 gave the PCIJ jurisdiction over disputes
“between the Mandatory and another Member of the League of
Nations relating to the interpretation or the application of the provisions
of the Mandate”, that could not “be settled by negotiation”. In determining
that there was a dispute susceptible to its jurisdiction, the PCIJ proceeded
to set out its famous dictum on the definition of a dispute:
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238
III. La jurisprudence de la Cour
9. Au paragraphe 41 de l’arrêt, la majorité affirme ce qui suit :
« Les éléments de preuve doivent montrer que les « points de vue
des … parties [sont] nettement opposés » en ce qui concerne la question
portée devant la Cour… Ainsi que cela ressort de décisions antérieures
de la Cour dans lesquelles la question de l’existence d’un
différend était à l’examen, un différend existe lorsqu’il est démontré,
sur la base des éléments de preuve, que le défendeur avait connaissance,
ou ne pouvait pas ne pas avoir connaissance, de ce que ses
vues se heurtaient à l’« opposition manifeste » du demandeur (Violations
alléguées de droits souverains et d’espaces maritimes dans la mer
des Caraïbes (Nicaragua c. Colombie), exceptions préliminaires, arrêt,
C.I.J. Recueil 2016 (I), p. 32, par. 73 ; Application de la convention
internationale sur l’élimination de toutes les formes de discrimination
raciale (Géorgie c. Fédération de Russie), exceptions préliminaires,
arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2011 (I), p. 99, par. 61, p. 109‑110, par. 87,
p. 117, par. 104). »
C’est en se fondant sur cette constatation que la majorité a retenu l’exception
soulevée par le défendeur en invoquant l’absence de différend.
Comme le montre l’analyse ci‑après de la jurisprudence de la Cour en la
matière, la difficulté que soulève cette opinion est qu’elle n’est pas cautionnée
par la doctrine et est erronée en droit comme en fait.
1. L’affaire des Concessions Mavrommatis en Palestine
10. M. Mavrommatis était un ressortissant grec titulaire de « concessions
pour certains travaux publics à exécuter en Palestine » en application de
contrats et d’accords signés avec l’Empire ottoman. La République hellénique
soutenait la prétention de son ressortissant selon laquelle le Gouvernement
de Palestine ainsi que le Gouvernement de Sa Majesté britannique
(le Gouvernement du Royaume‑Uni), en tant que puissance mandataire,
avaient refusé à tort de reconnaître dans toute leur étendue les droits que
M. Mavrommatis tenait de deux groupes de concessions, et demandait à la
CPJI d’ordonner le paiement d’une indemnité en réparation du préjudice
qui en était résulté. L’instance avait été introduite en vertu de l’article 9 du
protocole XII annexé au traité de paix de Lausanne de 1923 et des articles 11
et 26 du mandat pour la Palestine conféré à la Grande‑Bretagne en 1922.
11. Le Gouvernement britannique ayant soulevé une exception d’incompétence,
la CPJI a recherché si elle avait ou non compétence en vertu
de l’article 26 du mandat. Cet article lui conférait juridiction à l’égard de
tout différend « qui viendrait à s’élever entre [le mandataire] et un autre
Membre de la Société des Nations, relatif à l’interprétation ou à l’application
du Mandat » et ne serait pas « susceptible d’être réglé par des
négociations
». Pour déterminer s’il existait un différend relevant de sa
compétence, la CPJI a suivi un raisonnement qui l’a conduite à énoncer
1068 nuclear arms and disarmament (diss. op. robinson)
239
“[a] dispute is a disagreement on a point of law or fact, a conflict of legal
views or of interests between two persons” 10.
12. The PCIJ found that the dispute “certainly possess[ed] these
characteristics” 11. The Greek Republic was asserting that the Palestinian
or British authorities had treated one of its citizens in a manner incompatible
with international law obligations by which they were bound, and
had requested an “indemnity” on this basis 12.
13. In this case, which is very much the Alpha in the Court’s examination
of the criteria for the existence of a dispute, and which is cited in the
Judgment at paragraph 37, there is no reference, express or implied, to
the mental state of the respondent State, as a criterion for the existence of
a dispute. The focus of the case is simply on a disagreement or conflict
between the Parties. Implicit in the dictum from Mavrommatis is that, in
determining the existence of a dispute, the Court carries out an analysis
of the facts that may show a conflict of legal views or interests; there is no
suggestion that this analysis is in any way influenced by the respondent’s
awareness of the applicant’s position.
14. The Mavrommatis definition has been frequently relied upon by the
Court, as the brief survey of jurisprudence below reveals. Although the
definition of a dispute has been developed and consolidated over time,
these developments have, for the most part, followed a path that is in line
with the position taken in Mavrommatis. The addition of awareness as a
prerequisite for a finding of a dispute, on the other hand, is not a minor
deviation, but represents a seismic change in what the Court requires
before it will proceed to examine the merits of a claim 13. Attempts to
debunk Mavrommatis from its pedestal will fail. Mavrommatis will always
retain its significance when considering what constitutes a “dispute” for
the purposes of Article 36 of the Statute, not merely because it was the
first case to set out a definition, but more importantly because it identifies
the parameters of a dispute between States.
10 Mavrommatis Palestine Concessions, Judgment No. 2, 1924, P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 2,
p. 11.
11 Ibid.
12 Ibid., p. 12.
13 See, for example, Robert Kolb’s examination of the Court’s jurisprudence up until
[2009], where he notes that the Mavrommatis definition has been followed “in a remarkably
consistent and continuous way”, although it “has now and then been subjected to
subtle minor variations, and also to some rather questionable additions”. Robert Kolb,
The International Court of Justice (Hart Publishing, 2013), p. 302.
armes nucléaires et désarmement (op. diss. robinson) 1068
239
son célèbre dictum quant à la définition d’un différend : « [un] différend est
un désaccord sur un point de droit ou de fait, une contradiction, une
opposition de thèses juridiques ou d’intérêts entre deux personnes » 10.
12. La CPJI a conclu que « tel [était] certainement le caractère du
litige » 11. La République hellénique soutenait que les autorités palestiniennes
ou britanniques avaient traité l’un de ses ressortissants d’une
manière incompatible avec des obligations de droit international auxquelles
elles étaient tenues, et demandait une indemnité de ce chef 12.
13. L’arrêt rendu en cette affaire, largement considéré comme la référence
première sur laquelle s’appuie la Cour pour examiner les critères de
l’existence d’un différend, et qui est cité au paragraphe 37 de l’arrêt de ce
jour, n’indique ni expressément ni implicitement que l’état d’esprit du
défendeur doive constituer un critère de l’existence d’un différend. La CPJI
a concentré son attention sur la simple question de savoir s’il y avait ou
non désaccord ou contradiction entre les parties. Le dictum énoncé en l’affaire
des Concessions Mavrommatis signifie implicitement que, pour établir
l’existence d’un différend, la Cour doit procéder à une analyse des faits qui
peut révéler une opposition de thèses juridiques ou d’intérêts entre les parties
; rien, dans le dictum, ne donne à entendre que cette analyse doive en
quoi que ce soit être influencée par la réponse à la question de savoir si le
défendeur avait ou non connaissance de la position du demandeur.
14. La Cour actuelle s’en est souvent remise à la définition que renferme
l’arrêt rendu en l’affaire des Concessions Mavrommatis, comme le montre le
bref rappel de sa jurisprudence auquel je procède plus loin. Bien qu’elle ait
par la suite été développée et consolidée, cette définition a essentiellement
évolué dans un sens conforme à la position adoptée par la CPJI dans l’affaire
précitée. Faire de la connaissance préalable de la position du demandeur
une condition nécessaire de l’existence d’un différend, en revanche,
revient non pas à s’écarter légèrement de cette position, mais à bouleverser
radicalement l’agencement des conditions dont la Cour exige qu’elles soient
remplies avant qu’elle puisse procéder à l’examen au fond d’une demande 13.
Toute tentative de déboulonner la définition Mavrommatis de son piédestal
ne peut qu’être vouée à l’échec. L’arrêt rendu en l’affaire des Concessions
Mavrommatis continuera de peser de tout son poids dans l’examen de
ce qui constitue un « différend », non seulement parce qu’il est le premier à
avoir énoncé une définition, mais aussi, et surtout, parce qu’il précise quels
sont les paramètres d’un différend entre Etats.
10 Concessions Mavrommatis en Palestine, arrêt no 2, 1924, C.P.J.I. série A no 2,
p. 11.
11 Ibid.
12 Ibid., p. 12.
13 Voir, par exemple, l’analyse de la jurisprudence de la Cour jusqu’à [2009] à laquelle a
procédé Robert Kolb, dans laquelle il relève que la définition figurant dans l’arrêt relatif aux
Concessions Mavrommatis a été suivie « de manière remarquablement fidèle et constante »,
même si « elle a parfois été retenue moyennant de légères et subtiles modifications, mais
aussi des ajouts dont le bien-fondé est discutable ». Robert Kolb, The International Court
of Justice (Hart Publishing, 2013), p. 302.
1069 nuclear arms and disarmament (diss. op. robinson)
240
2. Interpretation of Peace Treaties Case
15. By means of a resolution dated 22 October 1949, the General
Assembly decided to request an advisory opinion on two questions
relating
to the Treaties of Peace signed with Bulgaria, Hungary and
Romania.
16. The first question put before the Court was whether or not diplomatic
exchanges between Bulgaria, Hungary and Romania and “certain
Allied and Associated Powers signatories to the Treaties of Peace” regarding
the implementation of certain provisions in those treaties disclosed
“disputes” subject to the dispute settlement provisions of those treaties.
The diplomatic exchanges included concerns and accusations regarding
the observance of human rights and fundamental freedoms by the three
Governments. In order to determine this question, the Court divided the
issues, and examined, first, whether or not the diplomatic exchanges disclosed
any disputes per se.
17. The Court started by setting out its now oft‑repeated mantra:
“[w]hether there exists an international dispute is a matter for objective
determination” 14. In my view, this is one of the Court’s most important
dicta in determining the criteria for a dispute. The logical result of objective
determination is that: “[t]he mere denial of the existence of a dispute
does not prove its non‑existence” 15.
18. In its application to the facts, the Court noted that the diplomatic
exchanges included allegations that the Governments of Bulgaria, Romania
and Hungary had violated various provisions of the Peace Treaties
and requested that they take remedial measures. Bulgaria, Romania and
Hungary, on the other hand, denied the charges. The exchanges thus
showed that “[t]here has . . . arisen a situation in which the two sides hold
clearly opposite views concerning the question of the performance or
non‑performance of certain treaty obligations” 16. On this basis, the Court
concluded that international disputes had arisen 17.
19. Here again, as in Mavrommatis, the question of the awareness of
the respondent, was not a factor. The focus was not on Bulgaria, Hungary
and Romania’s awareness of the dispute. The Court’s formulation,
that a dispute was present where “the two sides hold clearly opposite
views concerning the question of the performance or non‑performance of
certain treaty obligations”, is a classic illustration of the application of an
14 Interpretation of Peace Treaties with Bulgaria, Hungary and Romania, First Phase,
Advisory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports 1950, p. 74.
15 Ibid.
16 Ibid.
17 Ibid., pp. 74‑75.
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2. L’affaire relative à l’Interprétation des traités de paix
15. Par une résolution en date du 22 octobre 1949, l’Assemblée générale
des Nations Unies avait demandé à la Cour de rendre un avis consultatif
sur deux questions relatives à l’interprétation des traités de paix
conclus avec la Bulgarie, la Hongrie et la Roumanie.
16. La première question sur laquelle la Cour était invitée à donner son
avis était celle de savoir si la correspondance diplomatique échangée par
la Bulgarie, la Hongrie et la Roumanie et « certaines Puissances alliées et
associées, signataires des traités de paix » au sujet de l’application de certaines
dispositions de ceux‑ci révélait l’existence d’un « différend » relevant
des clauses desdits traités relatives au règlement des différends. Ces
échanges se rapportaient notamment à des inquiétudes et des accusations
concernant le respect des droits de l’homme et des libertés fondamentales
par les trois gouvernements. Avant de se prononcer sur cette question, la
Cour a sérié les points à régler et décidé d’examiner en premier lieu si les
échanges de correspondance diplomatique révélaient en eux‑mêmes l’existence
de différends.
17. La Cour s’est tout d’abord assigné une règle qui a par la suite été
maintes fois réaffirmée, à savoir que « [l’]existence d’un différend international
demande à être établie objectivement » 14. A mon sens, ce dictum est
l’un des plus importants que la Cour ait énoncé au sujet du choix des
critères de l’existence d’un différend. La conséquence logique de cette
démarche objective est que « [l]e simple fait que l’existence d’un différend
est contestée ne prouve pas que ce différend n’existe pas » 15.
18. En appliquant cette règle à l’examen des faits, la Cour a constaté
que figuraient dans les échanges de correspondance diplomatique des allégations
selon lesquelles les Gouvernements de la Bulgarie, de la Roumanie
et de la Hongrie avaient violé diverses dispositions des traités de paix,
violations auxquelles les trois gouvernements étaient invités à remédier.
La Bulgarie, la Roumanie et la Hongrie, pour leur part, rejetaient ces
allégations. Les échanges de correspondance montraient donc qu’« [i]l
s’[était] … produit une situation dans laquelle les points de vue des …
parties, quant à l’exécution ou à la non‑exécution de certaines obligations
découlant des traités » 16, étaient nettement opposés. La Cour en a conclu
que s’étaient effectivement élevés des différends internationaux 17.
19. Là encore, comme en l’affaire des Concessions Mavrommatis, la
question de savoir si les Etats mis en cause avaient ou non eu connaissance
préalable de leur implication dans un différend n’est pas entrée en
ligne de compte. La Cour ne s’est pas arrêtée à la conscience que la Bulgarie,
la Hongrie et la Roumanie avaient pu avoir ou non d’être chacune
engagée dans un différend. Le dictum que je viens de citer, qui veut qu’il
14 Interprétation des traités de paix conclus avec la Bulgarie, la Hongrie et la Roumanie,
première phase, avis consultatif, C.I.J. Recueil 1950, p. 74.
15 Ibid.
16 Ibid.
17 Ibid., p. 74‑75.
1070 nuclear arms and disarmament (diss. op. robinson)
241
objective approach. It requires no more than that the Court simply look
at the parties’ positions, and determine whether they “have shown themselves
as holding opposite views” 18; in doing so there is not the slightest
suggestion of the need to resort to any question of the respondent’s
awareness of the applicant’s position.
3. South West Africa Cases
20. Liberia and Ethiopia both brought cases against South Africa,
which were joined by order of the Court on 20 May 1961. The applicants
alleged that South Africa was acting in violation of various provisions of
the Covenant of the League of Nations and the Mandate for
South West Africa, including by practising apartheid in its administration
of South West Africa. As a preliminary matter, the Court examined
whether or not the subject‑matter of the Applications filed by Liberia and
Ethiopia constituted a dispute between the Applicants and South Africa.
The Court repeated its definition of a dispute from the case of Mavrommatis
Palestine Concessions (as set out above), and noted that it is not
sufficient for one party to assert or deny that a dispute exists, a position
consistent with the objective task that the Court has set itself:
“A mere assertion is not sufficient to prove the existence of a dispute
any more than a mere denial of the existence of the dispute proves its
non-existence.
Nor is it adequate to show that the interests of the two
parties to such a case are in conflict. It must be shown that the claim
of one party is positively opposed by the other.” 19
Applying this test to the facts of the case before it, the Court noted that
there could “be no doubt” about the existence of a dispute between the
parties in the South West Africa cases. A dispute was “clearly constituted”
by the opposing attitudes of the parties to South Africa’s performance of
its international obligations as Mandatory 20.
21. Judge Morelli, in his dissenting opinion, drew a distinction between
a dispute and a disagreement; and between a dispute and a conflict of
interests. He noted that the opposing attitudes of the parties may consist
18 Interpretation of Judgments Nos. 7 and 8 (Factory at Chorzów), Judgment No. 11,
1927, P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 13, pp. 10‑11.
19 South West Africa (Ethiopia v. South Africa; Liberia v. South Africa), Preliminary
Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1962, p. 328.
20 Ibid.
armes nucléaires et désarmement (op. diss. robinson) 1070
241
existe un différend lorsque, « quant à l’exécution ou à la non‑exécution de
certaines obligations découlant des traités, [les positions des parties] sont
nettement opposé[e]s », est une illustration classique de ce que doit être
une démarche objective. Ce dictum ne demande rien d’autre à la Cour que
d’examiner les positions respectives des parties et de déterminer si elles
montrent que celles‑ci ont « manifesté des opinions opposées » 18 ; absolument
rien n’indique que, pour ce faire, la Cour doive se poser une question
quelconque sur la connaissance que le défendeur peut avoir eue ou
non de la position du demandeur.
3. Les affaires du Sud‑Ouest africain
20. Le Libéria et l’Ethiopie ayant chacun introduit une instance contre
l’Afrique du Sud, la Cour avait décidé de joindre les deux affaires par
ordonnance du 20 mai 1961. Les demandeurs alléguaient que l’Afrique du
Sud agissait en violation de diverses dispositions du Pacte de la Société
des Nations et du mandat pour le Sud‑Ouest africain, y compris en pratiquant
l’apartheid dans l’administration du territoire. A titre préliminaire,
la Cour a examiné la question de savoir si l’objet des requêtes déposées
par le Libéria et l’Ethiopie était ou non un différend entre les demandeurs
et l’Afrique du Sud. La Cour a repris la définition d’un différend figurant
dans l’arrêt de la CPJI en l’affaire des Concessions Mavrommatis (que j’ai
citée plus haut) et a noté qu’il ne suffisait pas, pour prouver l’existence
d’un différend, qu’une partie affirme ou nie cette existence, position qui
concordait avec son intention de procéder à une appréciation objective :
« La simple affirmation ne suffit pas pour prouver l’existence d’un
différend, tout comme le simple fait que l’existence d’un différend est
contestée ne prouve pas que ce différend n’existe pas. Il n’est pas
suffisant non plus de démontrer que les intérêts des deux parties à
une telle affaire sont en conflit. Il faut démontrer que la réclamation
de l’une des parties se heurte à l’opposition manifeste de l’autre. » 19
La Cour a constaté que l’application de ce critère aux faits de la cause
dont elle était saisie montrait que l’existence d’un différend entre les parties
ne pouvait pas « faire de doute ». Selon elle, le différend « résult[ait]
clairement » des attitudes opposées des parties à propos de l’exécution par
l’Afrique du Sud des obligations internationales qui lui incombaient en
tant que mandataire 20.
21. Dans l’exposé de son opinion dissidente joint à l’arrêt en ces
affaires, le juge Morelli a opéré une distinction entre un différend et un
désaccord, ainsi qu’entre un différend et un conflit d’intérêts. Il a relevé
18 Interprétation des arrêts nos 7 et 8 (usine de Chorzów), arrêt no 11, 1927, C.P.J.I.
série A no 13, p. 10‑11.
19 Sud‑Ouest africain (Ethiopie c. Afrique du Sud ; Libéria c. Afrique du Sud), exceptions
préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1962, p. 328.
20 Ibid.
1071 nuclear arms and disarmament (diss. op. robinson)
242
of a “manifestation of the will” or a “course of conduct by means of
which the party pursuing that course directly achieves its own interest”
which is “inconsistent with the claim. And this is the case too where there
is in the first place a course of conduct by one of the parties to achieve its
own interest, which the other party meets by a protest.” 21 The Judgment,
at paragraphs 40 and 57, also acknowledges the evidentiary value of a
party’s conduct in the determination of a dispute.
22. Here, again, the Court made no explicit or implicit reference to
awareness as a criterion for finding the existence of a dispute. Rather, the
Court’s stress was on the Parties’ “opposing attitudes relating to the performance
of the obligations” 22. In searching for positive opposition, the
Court was reaffirming the test that it had set out in Interpretation of Peace
Treaties, that a dispute was constituted where the parties held “clearly
opposite views concerning the question of the performance or non‑performance”
of international obligations. It was not developing a new test nor
establishing any additional criteria; whether States hold “clearly opposite
views” or whether “the claim of one party is positively opposed by the
other” is essentially the same question, inviting the same objective determination,
without recourse to any mental element, such as awareness, on
the part of the respondent.
IV. Paragraph 41 of the Judgment
23. The manner in which the Court considers opposition of views in
the current case calls for close examination. As noted above, paragraph 41
provides:
“The evidence must show that the parties ‘hold clearly opposite
views’ with respect to the issue brought before the Court (see paragraph
37 above). As reflected in previous decisions of the Court in
which the existence of a dispute was under consideration, a dispute
exists when it is demonstrated, on the basis of the evidence, that the
respondent was aware, or could not have been unaware, that its views
were ‘positively opposed’ by the applicant (Alleged Violations of Sovereign
Rights and Maritime Spaces in the Caribbean Sea (Nicaragua v.
21 Dissenting opinion of Judge Morelli, South West Africa (Ethiopia v. South Africa;
Liberia v. South Africa), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1962, p. 567.
22 Ibid., p. 328.
armes nucléaires et désarmement (op. diss. robinson) 1071
242
que les attitudes opposées des parties pouvaient consister en « une manifestation
de volonté » ou « une conduite, par laquelle la partie, qui adopte
une telle conduite, réalise directement son propre intérêt » par un comportement
« contraire » à la prétention de l’autre partie. Toujours selon le
juge Morelli, « c’est le cas aussi où il y a, en premier lieu, une conduite de
l’une des parties réalisant l’intérêt de celle‑ci, conduite à laquelle l’autre
partie oppose sa protestation » 21. Aux paragraphes 40 et 57 de l’arrêt, la
Cour reconnaît la valeur probante que peut avoir la conduite d’une partie
lorsqu’il s’agit de déterminer s’il existe un différend.
22. Dans l’arrêt qu’elle a rendu dans les affaires du Sud‑Ouest africain,
la Cour n’a pas non plus fait explicitement ou implicitement référence à la
connaissance préalable, de la part du défendeur, de la position du demandeur
en tant que critère de l’existence d’un différend. Elle a en revanche
insisté sur les « attitudes opposées [des parties] à propos de l’accomplissement
des obligations » 22. Lorsqu’il s’est agi pour elle de déterminer s’il y
avait opposition manifeste, la Cour a réaffirmé la validité du critère
qu’elle avait énoncé dans son arrêt sur l’Interprétation des traités de paix,
à savoir qu’il existe un différend lorsque « les points de vue des deux parties,
quant à l’exécution ou à la non‑exécution » d’obligations internationales,
sont « nettement opposés ». Elle n’a pas entrepris de définir un
nouveau critère, ni de poser des conditions supplémentaires ; dire que les
parties doivent avoir des points de vue « nettement opposés » ou que « la
réclamation de l’une des parties [doit] se heurte[r] à l’opposition manifeste
de l’autre » revient essentiellement au même, l’une et l’autre formule tendant
à la même appréciation objective, exempte de référence à des facteurs
cognitifs tels que le point de savoir si le défendeur avait eu ou non
connaissance de la position du demandeur.
IV. Le paragraphe 41 de l’arrêt
23. La manière dont la Cour a traité la question de l’opposition des
points de vue mérite d’être examinée de près. Le paragraphe 41 de l’arrêt,
que j’ai déjà eu l’occasion de citer, est libellé comme suit :
« Les éléments de preuve doivent montrer que les « points de vue
des … parties [sont] nettement opposés » en ce qui concerne la question
portée devant la Cour (voir le paragraphe 37 ci‑dessus). Ainsi
que cela ressort de décisions antérieures de la Cour dans lesquelles la
question de l’existence d’un différend était à l’examen, un différend
existe lorsqu’il est démontré, sur la base des éléments de preuve, que
le défendeur avait connaissance, ou ne pouvait pas ne pas avoir
connaissance, de ce que ses vues se heurtaient à l’« opposition mani-
21 Opinion dissidente du juge Morelli, Sud-Ouest africain (Ethiopie c. Afrique du Sud ;
Libéria c. Afrique du Sud), exceptions préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1962, p. 567.
22 Ibid., p. 328.
1072 nuclear arms and disarmament (diss. op. robinson)
243
Colombia), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2016 (I),
p. 32, para. 73; Application of the International Convention on the
Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (Georgia v.
Russian
Federation), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports
2011 (I), p. 99, para. 61, pp. 109‑110, para. 87, p. 117, para. 104).”
24. The first point to note about this paragraph is that it plunges us,
quite unnecessarily, into the murky legal world of the state of mind of a
State. The emphasis placed on awareness would seem to introduce
through the back door a requirement that the Court has previously
rejected 23, i.e., an obligation on the applicant to notify the other State of
its claim.
25. It is a misinterpretation of the approach set out by the Court in its
prior case law (and discussed earlier in this opinion) to state that the
determination that a dispute exists requires a showing of the respondent’s
awareness of the applicant’s positive opposition to its views. To establish
whether the parties hold clearly opposite views, it is sufficient to examine
the positions of the parties on the issue as objectively revealed by the evidence
before the Court, without regard to their awareness of the other
party’s position. It is, of course, perfectly possible to conduct an objective
examination of a subjective factor; however, the issue in this case is
whether there is any legal basis for that subjective element.
26. In paragraph 41, the majority refers to two cases in support of its
position: Alleged Violations of Sovereign Rights and Maritime Space in the
Caribbean Sea (Nicaragua v. Colombia) (Alleged Violations) and Application
of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination
(Georgia v. Russian Federation) (Application of the CERD).
In paragraph 73 of Alleged Violations, cited by the majority, the Court
was responding to Colombia’s argument that Nicaragua had not
23 See paragraph 38 of the Judgment. In Alleged Violations of Sovereign Rights and
Maritime Space in the Caribbean Sea (Nicaragua v. Colombia), Preliminary Objections,
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2016 (I), p. 32, para. 72, the Court stated:
“Concerning Colombia’s argument that Nicaragua did not lodge a complaint
of alleged violations with Colombia through diplomatic channels until long after it
filed the Application, the Court is of the view that although a formal diplomatic
protest may be an important step to bring a claim of one party to the attention of
the other, such a formal protest is not a necessary condition. As the Court held in
the case concerning Application of the International Convention on the Elimination of
All Forms of Racial Discrimination (Georgia v. Russian Federation), in determining
whether a dispute exists or not, ‘[t]he matter is one of substance, not of form’ (Preliminary
Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2011 (I), p. 84, para. 30).”
armes nucléaires et désarmement (op. diss. robinson) 1072
243
feste » du demandeur (Violations alléguées de droits souverains et d’espaces
maritimes dans la mer des Caraïbes (Nicaragua c. Colombie),
exceptions préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2016 (I), p. 32, par. 73 ;
Application de la convention internationale sur l’élimination de toutes
les formes de discrimination raciale (Géorgie c. Fédération de Russie),
exceptions préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2011 (I), p. 99, par. 61,
p. 109‑110, par. 87, p. 117, par. 104). »
24. Le premier point à relever à propos de ce paragraphe est que, sans
nécessité aucune, il nous force à nous aventurer dans le bourbier juridique
que constitue l’appréciation de l’état d’esprit dans lequel agit un Etat. Il
semble que le poids accordé à la connaissance que peut avoir le défendeur
de la position de l’Etat demandeur introduit par la bande une condition
de l’existence d’un différend que la Cour avait précédemment rejetée 23, à
savoir l’obligation qu’aurait le demandeur d’informer l’autre Etat de sa
prétention.
25. Affirmer que, pour qu’il existe un différend, il doit être démontré
que le défendeur avait connaissance de ce que ses vues se heurtaient à l’opposition
manifeste du demandeur procède d’une interprétation erronée de
la méthode précédemment suivie par la Cour, telle qu’elle ressort de sa
jurisprudence. Pour établir que les vues des parties sont nettement opposées,
il suffit en effet à la Cour d’examiner les positions de ces dernières sur
la question en cause telles qu’elles sont révélées objectivement par les éléments
de preuve qui ont été versés au dossier, sans chercher à savoir si
l’une avait connaissance de la position de l’autre. Il est certes tout à fait
possible de procéder à une appréciation objective d’un facteur subjectif ;
cependant, en la présente affaire, se pose la question de savoir si la prise en
considération d’un tel élément subjectif est juridiquement fondée.
26. Au paragraphe 41, la majorité, pour étayer sa position, invoque
deux affaires : Violations alléguées de droits souverains et d’espaces maritimes
dans la mer des Caraïbes (Nicaragua c. Colombie) et Application de
la convention internationale sur l’élimination de toutes les formes de discrimination
raciale (Géorgie c. Fédération de Russie). Au paragraphe 73 de
l’arrêt en l’affaire des Violations alléguées, que la majorité a cité, la Cour
répondait à l’argument de la Colombie selon lequel le Nicaragua « ne lui
23 Voir le paragraphe 38 de l’arrêt. En l’affaire des Violations alléguées de droits souverains
et d’espaces maritimes dans la mer des Caraïbes (Nicaragua c. Colombie), exceptions
préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2016 (I), p. 32, par. 72, la Cour a dit ce qui suit :
« S’agissant de l’argument de la Colombie selon lequel le Nicaragua ne s’est, par
la voie diplomatique, plaint auprès d’elle de violations que longtemps après avoir
déposé sa requête, la Cour estime que, si la protestation diplomatique officielle peut
constituer un moyen important pour une partie de porter à l’attention de l’autre une
prétention, pareille protestation officielle n’est pas une condition nécessaire. Comme
elle l’a affirmé dans l’affaire relative à l’Application de la convention internationale sur
l’élimination de toutes les formes de discrimination raciale (Géorgie c. Fédération de
Russie), la Cour, lorsqu’elle détermine s’il existe ou non un différend, s’attache au
« fond, et non [à la] forme » (exceptions préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2011 (I),
p. 84, par. 30). »
1073 nuclear arms and disarmament (diss. op. robinson)
244
“indicate[d] . . . by any modality, that Colombia was violating . . .” 24 its
international obligations vis‑à‑vis Nicaragua, and had not raised any
complaints until it sent a diplomatic Note after the Application had been
filed. The Court noted:
“[A]lthough Nicaragua did not send its formal diplomatic Note to
Colombia in protest at the latter’s alleged violations of its maritime
rights at sea until 13 September 2014, almost ten months after the
filing of the Application, in the specific circumstances of the present
case, the evidence clearly indicates that, at the time when the Application
was filed, Colombia was aware that its enactment of Decree
1946 and its conduct in the maritime areas declared by the 2012 Judgment
to belong to Nicaragua were positively opposed by Nicaragua.
Given the public statements made by the highest representatives of
the Parties, such as those referred to in paragraph 69, Colombia could
not have misunderstood the position of Nicaragua over such differences.”
(I.C.J. Reports 2016 (I), pp. 32‑33, para. 73.)
27. The Court’s statement represents the application of an objective
standard, with the Court eschewing formalities as a particular bar to finding
a dispute. The Court examined the evidence presented and emphasized
by the parties, including statements and conduct, to conclude that
there was positive opposition. Far from establishing awareness as a criterion
of the dispute, the references to awareness and understanding are
factual statements made in the specific circumstances of the case in support
of the Court’s conclusion. There is no suggestion that these references
are an expression of a legal test. While the element of awareness
may sharpen the positive opposition, it is not expressed as a prerequisite
for that opposition. Moreover, the Court emphasized that the finding of
a dispute is a matter of substance and not of form 25.
28. The majority’s reliance on Application of the CERD is as unsatisfactory
as the use it made of Alleged Violations. The Court’s primary purpose
in carrying out an examination of the documents and exchanges
presented by the applicant as evidence of a dispute was to establish
whether, in light of the specific objections raised, Russia was the intended
addressee of the documents, and, if so, whether the documents related to
the application or interpretation of the Convention on the Elimination of
24 Alleged Violations of Sovereign Rights and Maritime Space in the Caribbean Sea
(Nicaragua v. Colombia), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2016 (I), p. 28,
para. 55 et seq.
25 Ibid., para. 50 and 72.
armes nucléaires et désarmement (op. diss. robinson) 1073
244
avait [pas] indiqué, sous quelque forme que ce fût, qu’elle violait … » 24 ses
obligations internationales envers lui, et n’avait jamais élevé de protestation
avant de lui adresser une note diplomatique postérieurement au
dépôt de sa requête. Dans ce paragraphe, la Cour a noté ce qui suit :
« [M]ême si ce n’est que le 13 septembre 2014 — soit près de dix
mois après le dépôt de la requête — que le Nicaragua a envoyé à la
Colombie une note diplomatique officielle pour protester contre les
violations de ses droits maritimes auxquelles celle‑ci se serait livrée
en mer, les éléments de preuve indiquent clairement, dans les circonstances
propres à l’affaire, que, à la date de ce dépôt, la Colombie
savait que la promulgation du décret 1946 et son comportement dans
les espaces maritimes que la Cour avait reconnus au Nicaragua dans
son arrêt de 2012 se heurtaient à l’opposition manifeste du Nicaragua.
Compte tenu des déclarations publiques faites par les plus hauts
représentants des Parties, telles que celles qui sont mentionnées au
paragraphe 69, la Colombie n’aurait pu se méprendre sur la position
du Nicaragua quant à leurs divergences. » (C.I.J. Recueil 2016 (I),
p. 32‑33, par. 73.)
27. Ce que la Cour a dit là montre qu’elle a appliqué un critère objectif
pour établir l’existence d’un différend, sans s’arrêter à la question du respect
des formes. Elle a examiné les éléments de preuve avancés par les
parties, dont des déclarations et des comportements, pour conclure que
leurs positions étaient manifestement opposées. Loin de faire de la connaissance
préalable, de la part du défendeur, de la position du demandeur un
critère de l’existence d’un différend, les références à ce que savait et comprenait
la Colombie sont de simples constatations de faits et, dans les circonstances
propres à l’affaire, confortent la Cour dans sa conclusion. Rien
ne donne à penser que ces références puissent être l’expression de l’application
d’un critère juridique. Bien que la connaissance préalable de la position
du demandeur puisse donner plus de relief à l’opposition manifeste
qu’il y a lieu d’établir, la Cour ne la présente pas comme une condition
nécessaire de la constatation de cette opposition. De plus, elle souligne,
dans les paragraphes précédents, que la détermination de l’existence d’un
différend repose sur des considérations de fond plutôt que de forme 25.
28. Les arguments que la majorité tire de l’affaire relative à l’Application
de la convention internationale sur l’élimination de toutes les formes de
discrimination raciale sont tout aussi peu satisfaisants que ceux qu’elle tire
de l’affaire des Violations alléguées. En l’affaire relative à l’Application de
la convention, le but premier de l’examen par la Cour des documents et
des échanges présentés par le demandeur comme preuves de l’existence
d’un différend était d’établir si, au vu des points soulevés dans les excep-
24 Violations alléguées de droits souverains et d’espaces maritimes dans la mer des
Caraïbes (Nicaragua c. Colombie), exceptions préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2016 (I),
p. 28, par. 55 et suiv.
25 Ibid., par. 50 et 72.
1074 nuclear arms and disarmament (diss. op. robinson)
245
All Forms of Racial Discrimination (CERD). In many instances, the
Court found that the documents were not addressed to Russia and, in any
event, that they did not reveal a dispute concerning the application and
interpretation of the CERD, as per Article 22.
29. At the outset, it is worth noting the particular circumstances before
the Court in Application of the CERD. The Court upheld Russia’s second
preliminary objection in this case because it decided that Georgia had not
satisfied the negotiations and procedures expressly provided for in the
CERD before a dispute could be brought under Article 22. This decision
is of limited value as a precedent in the circumstances of this case.
30. In any case, the passages relied upon by the majority do not support
its conclusion that, the Court, in Application of the CERD, invoked
awareness as a requirement in the finding of a dispute. Given the Court’s
cautionary statement as to the significance of the analysis it carried out in
Section II (4) of the Judgment, it is not at all clear how reliance on the
finding in paragraph 61 becomes helpful to the position of the majority.
Section II (4) is devoted to documents and statements from the period
before the CERD entered into force between the parties on 2 July 1999.
The Court was careful to explain in paragraph 50 that it was only carrying
out an examination of documents and statements in that period
because Georgia contended that its dispute with the Russian Federation
was “long‑standing and legitimate and not of recent invention”. The
Court then went on to say that those earlier documents “may help to put
into context those documents or statements which were issued or made
after the entry into force of CERD between the Parties” 26. Why anyone
would rely on a dictum from that section in relation to the question of the
existence of a dispute is difficult to understand, since, for the purposes of
that case, there could be no dispute which fell within the terms of CERD
between the parties at the time under examination, and the Court had
explained the limited and very specific context in which it was examining
documents and statements from that period.
31. Paragraph 61 relevantly reads: “There is no evidence that this Parliamentary
statement, directed at ‘separatists’ and alleging violations of
agreements which could not at that time have included CERD, was
known to the authorities of the Russian Federation.” One of the issues
26 Application of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of
Racial Discrimination (Georgia v. Russian Federation), Preliminary Objections, Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 2011 (I), p. 94, para. 50.
armes nucléaires et désarmement (op. diss. robinson) 1074
245
tions préliminaires, les documents s’adressaient bien à la Russie et, dans
l’affirmative, s’ils portaient sur l’application ou l’interprétation de la
convention internationale sur l’élimination de toutes les formes de discrimination
raciale (CIEDR). Dans bien des cas, la Cour a constaté que les
documents ne s’adressaient pas à la Russie et que, de toute manière, ils ne
révélaient pas un différend concernant l’application ou l’interprétation de
la convention au sens de son article 22.
29. Il me paraît utile de relever d’abord que des circonstances particulières
se présentaient à la Cour en l’affaire relative à l’Application de la
CIEDR. La Cour a retenu la deuxième exception préliminaire soulevée
par la Russie parce qu’elle avait constaté que la Géorgie, avant d’introduire
une instance en invoquant l’article 22 de la convention, aurait dû
remplir certaines conditions de négociation et de procédure expressément
stipulées dans la CIEDR. Au regard des circonstances de la présente
affaire, cette décision n’a guère valeur de précédent.
30. En tout état de cause, les passages auxquels la majorité a fait référence
ne viennent pas étayer sa conclusion, selon laquelle la Cour, en l’affaire
relative à l’Application de la CIEDR, aurait fait de la connaissance
préalable de la position du demandeur une condition nécessaire de la
constatation de l’existence d’un différend. Etant donné ce qu’avait dit la
Cour quant à la prudence avec laquelle il convenait de mesurer le poids
de l’analyse exposée à la section II 4) de son arrêt, on ne voit pas bien en
quoi une référence aux constatations énoncées au paragraphe 61 de l’arrêt
vient conforter la position de la majorité. La section II 4) est en effet
consacrée à des documents et des déclarations antérieurs à l’entrée en
vigueur de la CIEDR entre les parties le 2 juillet 1999. La Cour a pris soin
d’expliquer, au paragraphe 50, qu’elle n’examinait les documents et déclarations
datant de cette période que parce que la Géorgie prétendait que
son différend avec la Fédération de Russie « exist[ait] depuis longtemps,
[était] fondé et n’[était] pas [une] invention récente ». La Cour a dit ensuite
que ces documents et déclarations « [pouvaient] aider à replacer dans leur
contexte les documents ou déclarations postérieurs à l’entrée en vigueur
de la CIEDR entre les Parties » 26. On voit mal comment quiconque pourrait
s’appuyer sur un dictum énoncé dans cette section de l’arrêt quant à
la question de l’existence d’un différend, étant donné que, pendant la
période considérée, il n’avait pas pu exister de différend entre les parties
au sens de la CIEDR, et que la Cour a expliqué dans quelles limites et
dans quel contexte très précis elle procédait à l’examen des documents et
déclarations remontant à ladite période.
31. Il est utile de noter qu’au paragraphe 61 de l’arrêt figure l’observation
suivante : « Rien n’atteste que les autorités de la Fédération de Russie
aient eu connaissance de cette déclaration du Parlement géorgien visant
les « séparatistes » et contenant des allégations selon lesquelles des accords
26 Application de la convention internationale sur l’élimination de toutes les formes de
discrimination raciale (Géorgie c. Fédération de Russie), exceptions préliminaires, arrêt,
C.I.J. Recueil 2011 (I), p. 94, par. 50.
1075 nuclear arms and disarmament (diss. op. robinson)
246
before the Court was Russia’s argument that it was not a party to a dispute
with Georgia; that and it was nothing more than a facilitator and
that the real disputants were Abkhazia and South Ossetia 27. Thus, the
reference to Russia’s lack of knowledge should also be viewed in light of
the fact that much of the evidence pointed to by Georgia as relevant to
the question of the existence of a dispute was actually directed to other
parties. The reference to Russia’s lack of knowledge was a factual statement
highlighting that Russia was not the addressee of the Parliamentary
statement. There is nothing, either in express or implied terms, in paragraph
61 to suggest that the Court was setting up awareness or knowledge
that its views were positively opposed on the part of the respondent
as a requirement for a finding of a dispute. The Court dismissed
the
statement
on the basis that it did not have any legal significance in the
determination of the dispute.
32. In paragraph 87, the Court notes that Russia was aware of a Georgian
Parliamentary action relating to Russia’s peacekeeping operations.
However, the Court makes this statement without seeking to develop it
and with no suggestion that this was a vital element in its consideration
of the question of the existence of a dispute. Indeed, the Court went on to
dismiss the documents as not having any legal significance in the determination
of the dispute. Again, the Court’s analysis must be viewed in light
of the disagreement about the proper parties to the dispute and, more
particularly, whether Georgia’s claims were made against Russia. The difficulty
for the majority in relying upon paragraph 87 in support of its
position that awareness is a condition for the finding of a dispute is that
the Court in the Application of the CERD does not state this explicitly,
nor is there anything in the text that allows the reader to infer awareness
as such a condition. In fact, the Court does not develop its analysis in any
way beyond a factual statement of the particular circumstances surrounding
the documents in question. Moreover, the majority decision itself
offers no explanation as to how paragraph 87 is an authority for the
proposition that awareness is a prerequisite for the finding of the existence
of a dispute.
27 Application of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of
Racial Discrimination (Georgia v. Russian Federation), Preliminary Objections, Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 2011 (I), p. 87, para. 38.
armes nucléaires et désarmement (op. diss. robinson) 1075
246
qui ne pouvaient, à l’époque, inclure la CIEDR auraient été violés. » La
Cour devait entre autres se prononcer sur la validité de l’argumentation
de la Russie, qui soutenait qu’il n’y avait pas de différend entre elle et la
Géorgie, qu’elle n’avait agi qu’en qualité de facilitateur et que le véritable
différend opposait la Géorgie à l’Abkhazie et à l’Ossétie du Sud 27. La
référence au défaut de connaissance, de la part de la Russie, de l’existence
d’un différend devrait donc être également considérée à la lumière du fait
qu’une bonne partie des éléments de preuve avancés par la Géorgie
comme pertinents pour trancher la question de l’existence d’un différend
était en réalité des documents et déclarations s’adressant à d’autres parties.
La référence au défaut de connaissance, de la part de la Russie, de
l’existence d’un différend n’était autre qu’une constatation factuelle faisant
ressortir que la déclaration du Parlement géorgien ne s’adressait pas
à la Russie. Rien de ce que dit expressément ou implicitement le paragraphe
61 ne peut donner à penser que la Cour ait voulu faire de la
connaissance ou de la conscience, de la part du défendeur, de l’opposition
manifeste de ses vues à celles du demandeur une condition nécessaire de
la détermination de l’existence d’un différend. La Cour a écarté la déclaration
du Parlement géorgien au motif qu’elle n’avait aucune valeur juridique
aux fins de la détermination de l’existence d’un différend.
32. Au paragraphe 87 de son arrêt, la Cour a relevé que la Russie avait
eu connaissance d’une décision du Parlement géorgien concernant ses
opérations de maintien de la paix. Cependant, la Cour a énoncé cette
constatation sans chercher à la développer ni donner à entendre qu’il
s’agissait là d’un élément essentiel de la détermination de l’existence d’un
différend. De fait, elle en est venue à rejeter les documents comme n’ayant
aucune valeur juridique aux fins de l’établissement de l’existence d’un différend.
Une fois encore, l’analyse à laquelle a procédé la Cour doit être
considérée compte tenu de ce qu’il y avait désaccord entre les deux Etats
sur le point de savoir qui étaient les véritables parties au différend et, en
particulier, si les griefs de la Géorgie s’adressaient bien à la Russie. La
faiblesse du parti qu’a pris la majorité d’invoquer le paragraphe 87 de
l’arrêt en l’affaire relative à l’Application de la CIEDR pour étayer sa
position, selon laquelle la connaissance préalable serait une condition de
l’existence d’un différend, tient à ce que la Cour, dans ladite affaire, n’a
rien dit explicitement de tel, et à ce que rien, dans le texte considéré, ne
permet au lecteur d’inférer pareille condition. En fait, la Cour s’est bornée
à énoncer une constatation de fait portant sur les circonstances dans lesquelles
les documents en question avaient été établis et utilisés, sans chercher
à développer plus avant son analyse. De plus, la majorité n’offre
dans sa décision aucune explication montrant que le paragraphe 87 ferait
autorité pour valider la proposition selon laquelle la connaissance préalable
serait une condition nécessaire de l’existence d’un différend.
27 Application de la convention internationale sur l’élimination de toutes les formes de
discrimination raciale (Géorgie c. Fédération de Russie), exceptions préliminaires, arrêt,
C.I.J. Recueil 2011 (I), p. 87‑88, par. 38.
1076 nuclear arms and disarmament (diss. op. robinson)
247
33. The discussion in paragraph 104 of the Application of the CERD as
to whether a press release was brought to Russia’s attention is cited by
the majority as evidence that previous decisions set down awareness as a
condition of finding the existence of a dispute. The Court, in paragraph
104, does not make clear the significance to be attached to this
statement. It is expressed in terms that show that it is nothing more than
a simple statement of fact, which does not expressly or impliedly set out
an additional limb for the legal test for the finding of a dispute. Again,
the Court’s statement must be seen in the context of the particular facts
of the case: whether Russia was truly a party to the dispute, or whether
Georgia’s grievances lay elsewhere, and whether the dispute concerned
the interpretation and application of the CERD. In any event, the Court
dismissed the press release as having no legal significance in the determination
of the dispute.
34. An inescapable comment on the four citations taken from Application
of the CERD and Alleged Violations in paragraph 41 is that, surely, if
the Court intended to set up awareness as a criterion for determining the
existence of a dispute, it would have spent much more time examining
and explaining the basis and rationale for its approach, including looking
at its case law. There would have been no need for the Court to introduce
an additional limb of the test in such an indirect and non‑transparent
manner.
35. The paragraphs relied upon by the majority as establishing awareness
as a criterion of a dispute should be contrasted with the establishment
of an “awareness” or “knowledge” test in other decisions of the
Court, and the care the Court takes in setting up a test of this nature. For
example, in the Bosnia Genocide case, the Court stated:
“But whatever the reply to this question, there is no doubt that the
conduct of an organ or a person furnishing aid or assistance to a
perpetrator of the crime of genocide cannot be treated as complicity
in genocide unless at the least that organ or person acted knowingly,
that is to say, in particular, was aware of the specific intent (dolus
specialis) of the principal perpetrator. 28”
28 Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime
of Genocide
(Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Serbia and Montenegro), Judgment, I.C.J.
Reports 2007 (I), p. 218, para. 421.
armes nucléaires et désarmement (op. diss. robinson) 1076
247
33. Le paragraphe 104 de l’arrêt, où il est question d’un communiqué de
presse dont la Cour a relevé qu’il n’était pas certain qu’il ait été porté à la
connaissance de la Russie, est cité par la majorité comme preuve qu’il y a
des précédents dans lesquels la Cour a fait de la connaissance préalable
d’une divergence entre les parties une condition de la constatation de l’existence
d’un différend. Cependant, dans ce même paragraphe, la Cour a indiqué
clairement quelle importance il y avait lieu d’attacher à ce qu’elle disait
de la connaissance du communiqué. Ce qu’elle en disait était exprimé dans
des termes qui montrent qu’il ne s’agissait que de la simple constatation
d’un fait, constatation qui, expressément ou implicitement, n’ajoutait rien
aux éléments juridiques de la détermination de l’existence d’un différend.
Là encore, ce qu’a dit la Cour doit être considéré dans le contexte des faits
de la cause, qui pouvaient porter à douter que la Russie fût véritablement
partie au différend allégué, ou à se demander si ce différend portait bien sur
l’interprétation et l’application de la CIEDR. De toute façon, la Cour a
écarté le communiqué de presse parce qu’il n’avait à son avis aucune valeur
juridique aux fins de la détermination de l’existence du différend.
34. Les quatre citations de l’arrêt rendu en l’affaire relative à l’Application
de la CIEDR et de celui qui a été rendu en l’affaire des Violations
alléguées que la majorité a fait figurer au paragraphe 41 du présent arrêt
donnent inéluctablement à penser que, si la Cour avait vraiment voulu
faire de la connaissance préalable d’une divergence un critère de détermination
de l’existence d’un différend, elle n’aurait pas manqué de consacrer
beaucoup plus de temps à exposer les fondements et à expliquer la logique
de sa démarche, notamment en explorant sa jurisprudence. Elle ne se
serait pas contentée, pour introduire un nouvel élément d’appréciation,
de la formulation oblique et opaque que j’ai évoquée.
35. Les paragraphes de l’exposé de son raisonnement sur lesquels la majorité
s’est fondée pour faire de la connaissance préalable un critère de l’existence
d’un différend doivent être comparés aux passages pertinents des autres
arrêts dans lesquels elle a retenu un critère de « conscience » ou de « connaissance
», en tenant compte des précautions qu’elle a prises dans chaque cas
avant de le retenir. Ainsi, en l’affaire relative à l’Application de la convention
pour la prévention et la répression du crime de génocide (Bosnie‑Herzégovine
c. Serbie-et-Monténégro),
par exemple, la Cour a dit ce qui suit :
« Mais quelle que soit la réponse que l’on donne à cette question,
il n’est pas douteux que le comportement d’un organe ou d’une personne
qui fournit aide ou assistance à l’auteur du crime de génocide
ne peut être qualifié de complicité dans le génocide que si, à tout le
moins, cet organe ou cette personne agit en connaissance de cause,
c’est‑à‑dire, notamment, connaît l’existence de l’intention spécifique
(dolus specialis) qui anime l’auteur principal. » 28
28 Application de la convention pour la prévention et la répression du crime de génocide
(Bosnie‑Herzégovine c. Serbie-et-Monténégro),
arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2007 (I), p. 218,
par. 421.
1077 nuclear arms and disarmament (diss. op. robinson)
248
Even though the element of knowledge or awareness is necessarily a part
of complicity in genocide, it is nonetheless noteworthy how assiduously
and explicitly the Court approaches the construction of a test which contains
the criterion of awareness.
36. Moreover, if the three passages in Application of the CERD were
intended to set up an additional limb of the test for the existence of a
dispute, it is strange that they were not cited in paragraph 73 of Alleged
Violations. This is all the more peculiar as passages from Application of
the CERD were cited five times in the treatment of Colombia’s second
preliminary objection as authority for various other propositions in relation
to the finding of a dispute.
37. Significantly, in Section II (6), where the Court did find that the
evidence established the existence of a dispute between Russia and Georgia,
there is not a single reference to Russia’s awareness of Georgia’s
opposing views. The Court was content to conclude that the exchanges
showed that there was a dispute between the two countries about Russia’s
performance of its obligations under CERD. In fact, the Court continued
to be most concerned about the parties to the dispute and whether or not
the dispute was about the interpretation and application of CERD 29. It is
also noteworthy that, in the many instances in which the Court discounted
the documents and exchanges as having any legal value, it did so
without any reliance on Russia’s lack of awareness, including in relation
to the documents cited in paragraphs 61, 87 and 104 30. What this shows
is that the reference to awareness or knowledge in those three instances is
nothing more than a mere happenstance, similar to the references to
awareness and understanding in paragraph 73 of Alleged Violations. The
irresistible conclusion in the analysis of the four cited passages is that the
majority has confused the incidental with the essential.
38. It is indeed striking that among the many cases in the Court’s jurisprudence
on the existence of a dispute the majority has only been able to
cite two cases in support of its position, one of which — Application of the
CERD — is of limited value as a precedent given the peculiarities of Article
22 of the CERD, the other — Alleged Violations — clearly wrongly
29 Application of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of
Racial Discrimination (Georgia v. Russian Federation), Preliminary Objections, Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 2011 (I), p. 120, para. 113.
30 Ibid., paras. 62, 89 and 104.
armes nucléaires et désarmement (op. diss. robinson) 1077
248
S’il est vrai que, pour être qualifié de complicité du crime de génocide, un
acte doit nécessairement avoir été accompli en connaissance de cause, il
n’en importe pas moins de relever le soin méticuleux et la volonté de clarté
qui caractérisent la manière dont la Cour, dans son arrêt, a établi un critère
de qualification comportant un facteur de connaissance ou de conscience.
36. Qui plus est, si les trois passages de l’arrêt rendu en l’affaire relative à
l’Application de la CIEDR ont été cités par la majorité dans l’intention d’ajouter
un élément aux critères de détermination de l’existence d’un différend, on
peut trouver étrange que ces mêmes passages ne soient pas cités aussi au
paragraphe 73 de l’arrêt en l’affaire des Violations alléguées. D’autant plus
étrange que, dans la partie de ce même arrêt qui traite de la deuxième exception
préliminaire soulevée par la Colombie, la Cour a cité cinq fois lesdits
passages, dont elle s’est autorisée pour avancer diverses autres propositions
concernant la détermination de l’existence d’un différend.
37. En particulier, il importe de relever qu’à la section II (6) de l’arrêt
rendu en l’affaire relative à l’Application de la CIEDR, où la Cour constate
que les éléments de preuve établissent l’existence d’un différend entre la
Russie et la Géorgie, il n’est pas question une seule fois de la connaissance
que la Russie pouvait avoir ou non de l’opposition de ses vues à celles de
la Géorgie. La Cour s’est contentée de conclure que les échanges entre les
deux Etats montraient qu’un différend les opposait quant à l’exécution
par la Russie de ses obligations au titre de la CIEDR. En fait, il ressort de
cette section de l’arrêt que la Cour continuait de s’intéresser avant tout à
la question de savoir quelles étaient véritablement les parties en litige et à
celle de savoir si le différend portait ou non sur l’interprétation et l’application
de la CIEDR 29. Il y a lieu de noter également que, dans les nombreux
cas où la Cour a écarté les documents et échanges avancés comme
éléments de preuve parce qu’elle les jugeait dénués de valeur juridique,
elle l’a fait sans jamais invoquer le défaut de connaissance de la Russie, y
compris lorsqu’elle a écarté les documents cités aux paragraphes 61, 87
et 104 de son arrêt 30. Il en ressort que, dans les trois passages en question,
les références à la connaissance ou la conscience que la Russie pouvait
avoir ou non d’une divergence de vues étaient simplement circonstancielles,
tout comme l’est la référence analogue figurant au paragraphe 73
de l’arrêt rendu en l’affaire des Violations alléguées. L’analyse des
quatre passages cités conduit inéluctablement à conclure que la majorité
n’a pas su distinguer le circonstanciel de l’essentiel.
38. De fait, il est frappant de constater que, parmi les nombreux arrêts
qui, dans la jurisprudence, traitent des critères de l’existence d’un différend,
la majorité n’a pu en citer que deux pour étayer sa position, dont
l’un — celui relatif à l’Application de la CIEDR — n’a qu’une valeur limitée
en tant que précédent en raison des particularités de l’article 22 de la
29 Application de la convention internationale sur l’élimination de toutes les formes de
discrimination raciale (Géorgie c. Fédération de Russie), exceptions préliminaires, arrêt,
C.I.J. Recueil 2011 (I), p. 120, par. 113.
30 Ibid., par. 62, 89 et 104.
1078 nuclear arms and disarmament (diss. op. robinson)
249
construed by the majority, and both of which were handed down in the
last six years. Implicit in these citations — from 2011 and 2016 — is an
acceptance that the jurisprudence prior to April 2011 does not support
the majority’s position. In reaching this conclusion, it should be recalled
that the passages cited by the majority do not contain references to prior
jurisprudence because they are, themselves, no more than factual statements.
39. In Application of the CERD, the Court importantly confirmed that
the finding of a dispute is a matter of substance and not of form (as the
Judgment notes at paragraph 38). This is consistent with the pragmatic,
flexible approach that has already been discussed in the context of former
jurisprudence. It follows that the Court’s case law has eschewed a formal
approach, including suggestions that formalities are a precondition of the
existence of a dispute, such as notice of the intention to file a case, formal
diplomatic protest and negotiations (unless specifically required by the
optional declaration) (see paragraph 38 of the Judgment) and any specific
mental element.
40. On the basis of the examination of the jurisprudence set out above,
it is clear that:
(1) the development of the Court’s case law in this area has been linear in
the stress that it has placed on objectivity, flexibility and substance over
form; whether or not a dispute exists is a matter for objective determination
by the Court on the basis of the evidence before it;
(2) the enquiry, which is empirical and pragmatic, is focused on whether
or not the States concerned have shown themselves as holding opposite
views, i.e., whether the evidence reveals a difference of views, regarding
the performance or non‑performance of an international obligation;
(3) the positive opposition that is required by case law does not have
to be manifested in a formal manner, for example, that the positions
be set out in a diplomatic Note. Further, there is no need for notice
and/or response. The opposition of positions may be evidenced by a
course of conduct and evidence of the parties’ attitudes, and this is
the enquiry that the Court must undertake. There is no particular
way in which a claim must be made. Moreover, the case law establishes
that the requirement that a dispute exist is not intended to set a
high threshold for the Court’s exercise of its jurisdiction, a conclusion
that is entirely consistent with the role of the Court as described
in Section
II;
armes nucléaires et désarmement (op. diss. robinson) 1078
249
convention, et l’autre — celui relatif aux Violations alléguées — a manifestement
été mal interprété par la majorité ; il convient de noter aussi que
ces arrêts se rapportent à deux affaires qui ont été réglées au cours des
six dernières années. Le choix de ces citations — qui renvoient à des arrêts
rendus en 2011 et 2016 — signifie implicitement que la majorité s’est
rendu compte que la jurisprudence de la Cour antérieure à avril 2011 ne
venait pas étayer sa position. A l’appui de cette conclusion, il y a lieu de
rappeler que les passages cités par la majorité ne renvoient aucunement à
la jurisprudence plus ancienne de la Cour, parce qu’ils ne sont eux‑mêmes
rien d’autre que des constatations de faits.
39. En l’affaire relative à l’Application de la CIEDR, la Cour a confirmé
que la détermination de l’existence d’un différend était une question de
fond et non de forme (voir le paragraphe 38 de l’arrêt). Cette confirmation
va dans le sens de la démarche pragmatique et souple dont j’ai déjà traité
à propos de la jurisprudence antérieure à avril 2011. Il s’ensuit que la Cour
s’est gardée d’adopter une optique formaliste subordonnant la constatation
de l’existence d’un différend au respect de certaines formes, telles que
la notification par l’Etat demandeur de son intention d’introduire une instance,
l’émission d’une protestation officielle par la voie diplomatique ou
l’engagement de négociations (sauf lorsqu’une déclaration est faite en
vertu de la clause facultative) (voir le paragraphe 38 de l’arrêt), ou encore
des actes attestant l’existence de tel ou tel élément subjectif.
40. De l’analyse de la jurisprudence à laquelle j’ai procédé plus haut, il
ressort clairement ce qui suit :
1) la jurisprudence de la Cour sur la question considérée s’est développée
de façon linéaire en ce sens que l’on y relève une insistance constante
sur l’objectivité, la souplesse et la primauté du fond sur la forme ;
l’existence d’un différend doit être déterminée objectivement par la
Cour sur la foi des éléments de preuve dont elle est saisie ;
2) l’examen, auquel il doit être procédé empiriquement et pragmatiquement
doit être centré sur le fait de savoir si les Etats concernés ont ou
non des points de vue opposés ; autrement dit, il doit tendre à déterminer
si les éléments de preuve révèlent des divergences de vues au sujet
de l’exécution ou de l’inexécution d’une obligation internationale ;
3) l’opposition manifeste des points de vue que requiert la jurisprudence
n’a pas à être formellement exprimée, par exemple dans une note
diplomatique. En outre, il n’est pas nécessaire que la divergence fasse
l’objet d’une notification suivie ou non d’une réponse. L’opposition
des points de vue peut être attestée par un comportement et des éléments
de preuve révélateurs de l’attitude des parties, et ce sont là les
éléments sur lesquels doit porter l’examen auquel procède la Cour.
Peu importe la manière dont un Etat avance ses prétentions. De plus,
la jurisprudence établit que les conditions de la constatation de l’existence
d’un différend n’ont pas été posées dans l’intention d’élever une
barrière plus élevée à l’exercice par la Cour de sa compétence, conclusion
qui cadre avec le rôle de la Cour décrit à la section II ;
1079 nuclear arms and disarmament (diss. op. robinson)
250
(4) properly seen, therefore, awareness may be confirmatory of positive
opposition of views, but it is not, as paragraph 41 suggests, a prerequisite
for, nor decisive in determining the existence of a dispute.
V. The Date at which a Dispute Must Exist
41. Another conundrum raised by the Judgment relates to the date at
which the dispute must exist. Paragraph 42 reads “[i]n principle, the date
for determining the existence of a dispute is the date on which the application
is submitted to the Court”. Similar formulations with the words
“in principle” are to be found in cases cited in the same paragraph. However,
the plain meaning of the sentence beginning with “in principle” is
that it admits of the possibility that the date at which the dispute is determined
may be a date other than the date on which the Application was
submitted to the Court, i.e., that post‑Application evidence may be determinative
of the existence of a dispute rather than simply confirmatory as
is stated in paragraph 42. Consequently, the entire analysis in paragraphs
42 and 43 fails to acknowledge the nuance and flexibility that is
denoted by the phrase “in principle”.
42. That post‑Application evidence may be determinative of the existence
of a dispute is entirely consistent with the flexible, pragmatic
approach that is the hallmark of the Court’s jurisprudence on this question.
43. Paragraph 42 cites two cases in support of its statement that —“[i]n
principle, the date for determining the existence of a dispute is the date on
which the application is submitted to the Court” — Alleged Violations
and Application of the CERD. The relevant paragraphs of both cases cite
Questions of Interpretation and Application of the 1971 Montreal Convention
arising from the Aerial Incident at Lockerbie (Libyan Arab Jamahiriya
v. United Kingdom) 31 and Questions of Interpretation and
Application of the 1971 Montreal Convention arising from the Aerial Incident
at Lockerbie (Libyan Arab Jamahiriya v. United States of America) 32.
The cited paragraphs from these cases begin: “Libya furthermore dr[ew]
the Court’s attention to the principle that ‘[t]he critical date for determin-
31 Questions of Interpretation and Application of the 1971 Montreal Convention arising
from the Aerial Incident at Lockerbie (Libyan Arab Jamahiriya v. United Kingdom), Preliminary
Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1998, pp. 25‑26, paras. 43‑45.
32 Questions of Interpretation and Application of the 1971 Montreal Convention arising
from the Aerial Incident at Lockerbie (Libyan Arab Jamahiriya v. United States of America),
Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1998, pp. 130‑131, paras. 42‑44.
armes nucléaires et désarmement (op. diss. robinson) 1079
250
4) considérée dans la perspective qui convient, la connaissance d’une
divergence de vues peut donc venir confirmer qu’il existe une opposition
manifeste des points de vue, mais pas, comme le laisse entendre le
paragraphe 41 du présent arrêt, constituer une condition ou un facteur
décisif de la détermination de l’existence d’un différend.
V. La question de la date à laquelle doit être constatée
l’existence d’un différend
41. L’arrêt soulève une autre question difficile, celle de la date à compter
de laquelle il doit être établi qu’il existe un différend. Il y est dit ce qui
suit au paragraphe 42 : « [e]n principe, la date à laquelle doit être appréciée
l’existence d’un différend est celle du dépôt de la requête ». On trouve
des formules semblables, comprenant l’expression « en principe », dans les
arrêts relatifs aux affaires auxquelles renvoie le paragraphe. Or, interprétée
dans son sens ordinaire une phrase qui commence par « en principe »
admet la possibilité de retenir une date autre que celle du dépôt de
la requête, ce qui signifie que des éléments de preuve postérieurs à cette
date peuvent déterminer l’existence d’un différend au lieu de simplement
la confirmer comme il est dit au paragraphe 42 de l’arrêt. Il s’ensuit
que, d’un bout à l’autre, l’analyse exposée aux paragraphes 42 et
43 néglige la nuance et la latitude introduites par l’expression « en
principe
».
42. Admettre la possibilité que des éléments de preuve postérieurs au
dépôt de la requête déterminent l’existence d’un différend cadre tout à fait
avec la démarche souple et pragmatique qui ressort de la jurisprudence de
la Cour en la matière.
43. Au paragraphe 42 sont citées, pour étayer l’affirmation selon
laquelle, « [e]n principe, la date à laquelle doit être appréciée l’existence
d’un différend est celle du dépôt de la requête », l’affaire relative aux Violations
alléguées et celle relative à l’Application de la CIEDR. Les paragraphes
pertinents des arrêts rendus dans ces deux affaires renvoient
quant à eux aux décisions prises par la Cour dans les affaires relatives à
des Questions d’interprétation et d’application de la convention de Montréal
de 1971 résultant de l’incident aérien de Lockerbie (Jamahiriya arabe
libyenne c. Royaume‑Uni) 31 et à des Questions d’interprétation et d’application
de la convention de Montréal de 1971 résultant de l’incident aérien de
Lockerbie (Jamahiriya arabe libyenne c. Etats‑Unis d’Amérique) 32. Dans
31 Questions d’interprétation et d’application de la convention de Montréal
de 1971 résultant
de l’incident aérien de Lockerbie (Jamahiriya arabe libyenne
c. Royaume‑Uni), exceptions
préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1998, p. 25‑26,
par. 43‑45.
32 Questions d’interprétation et d’application de la convention de Montréal de 1971
résultant
de l’incident aérien de Lockerbie (Jamahiriya arabe libyenne c. Etats‑Unis
d’Amérique),
exceptions préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1998, p. 130‑131,
par. 42-44.
1080 nuclear arms and disarmament (diss. op. robinson)
251
ing the admissibility of an application is the date on which it is filed’” (my
emphasis) and reflect the Court’s conclusion that it would uphold Libya’s
submission in this regard. The Court concluded that “[t]he date,
3 March 1992, on which Libya filed its Application, is in fact the only
relevant date for determining the admissibility of the Application” 33. It
may be that the difficulty arising from the phrase “in principle” could be
traced to Libya’s reference to “the principle” that the critical date was the
date on which the Application was filed. The two phrases are, of course,
totally different in meaning.
44. In paragraph 54, the majority rejected the Marshall Islands’ contention
that the Court had, in prior cases, relied upon statements made by
the parties during proceedings as evidence of the existence of a dispute.
The majority discussed the three cases cited by the Marshall Islands in
support of its contentions: Certain Property (Liechtenstein v. Germany),
Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2005; Land and Maritime
Boundary between Cameroon and Nigeria (Cameroon v. Nigeria),
Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1998; and Application of
the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide
(Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Yugoslavia), Preliminary Objections, Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 1996 (II). However, the majority’s analysis of these
three cases is too categorical and does not allow for the flexibility that the
Court has given itself in this regard. These cases show that the Court has
afforded significant weight to statements made during proceedings in its
determination of whether or not a dispute exists, and, at times, did so, to
the exclusion of other evidence.
45. In Certain Property, the Court’s analysis indicates that it relied primarily
on the positions taken by the parties before the Court in finding a
dispute. At paragraph 54, the majority states that in Certain Property
“the existence of a dispute was clearly referenced by bilateral exchanges
between the parties prior to the date of the application”. However, Germany
submitted a preliminary objection on the basis that there was no
dispute between the parties. While Liechtenstein and Germany characterized
the subject of the dispute differently, Germany’s preferred characterization
suggested that it was not a true party to the dispute and thus that
there was no dispute between the parties.
33 Questions of Interpretation and Application of the 1971 Montreal Convention arising
from the Aerial Incident at Lockerbie (Libyan Arab Jamahiriya v. United States of America),
Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1998, p. 130, para. 43.
armes nucléaires et désarmement (op. diss. robinson) 1080
251
les deux cas, les paragraphes cités commencent par la phrase suivante :
« [l]a Libye appelle en outre l’attention de la Cour sur le principe selon
lequel « [l]a date critique à retenir pour déterminer la recevabilité d’une
requête est celle de son dépôt » » (les italiques sont de moi), et indiquent
que la Cour admet cette position de la Libye. La Cour conclut ce qui suit :
« [l]a date du 3 mars 1992 à laquelle la Libye a déposé sa requête est en
effet la seule date pertinente aux fins d’apprécier la recevabilité de
celle‑ci » 33. Il se peut que la difficulté soulevée par l’emploi de l’expression
« en principe » remonte à la référence faite par la Libye au « principe »
selon lequel, à son sens, la date critique à retenir était celle du dépôt de la
requête. Or, est‑il besoin de le préciser, invoquer un « principe » a un sens
tout autre que nuancer une affirmation en employant l’expression « en
principe ».
44. Au paragraphe 54 de l’arrêt, la majorité a rejeté l’assertion des
Iles Marshall selon laquelle, dans des affaires précédentes, la Cour avait
retenu comme preuves de l’existence d’un différend des déclarations faites
par les parties en cours d’instance. Pour parvenir à cette conclusion, elle
a examiné les trois affaires citées par les Iles Marshall, à savoir : Certains
biens (Liechtenstein c. Allemagne), exceptions préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J.
Recueil 2005 ; Frontière terrestre et maritime entre le Cameroun et le Nigéria
(Cameroun c. Nigéria), exceptions préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J.
Recueil 1998 ; Application de la convention pour la prévention et la répression
du crime de génocide (Bosnie‑Herzégovine c. Yougoslavie), exceptions
préliminaires,
arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1996 (II). Cependant, la majorité s’est
montrée trop catégorique dans son analyse et ne s’est pas prévalue de la
latitude que la Cour s’était accordée précédemment pour répondre à des
assertions semblables. Il ressort des arrêts rendus dans les trois
affaires citées que la Cour, pour déterminer s’il existait ou non un différend,
avait accordé un poids important aux déclarations faites par les
parties en cours d’instance, parfois au point d’écarter tout autre élément
de preuve.
45. En l’affaire relative à Certains biens, l’analyse à laquelle a procédé
la Cour indique qu’elle s’est fondée principalement sur les prises de position
des parties pour établir l’existence d’un différend. Au paragraphe 54
du présent arrêt, la majorité relève que, dans l’affaire relative à Certains
biens, « les échanges bilatéraux qui avaient eu lieu entre les parties avant
la date du dépôt de la requête attestaient clairement l’existence d’un différend
». Or, il y a lieu de relever que, dans cette affaire, l’Allemagne avait
soulevé une exception d’incompétence fondée sur l’absence de différend,
que chacune des parties qualifiait différemment l’objet des griefs du
demandeur, et que la qualification que préférait l’Allemagne donnait à
entendre qu’elle n’était pas partie au différend allégué et qu’aucun différend
ne l’opposait donc au Liechtenstein.
33 Questions d’interprétation et d’application de la convention de Montréal de 1971
résultant
de l’incident aérien de Lockerbie (Jamahiriya arabe libyenne c. Etats‑Unis
d’Amérique),
exceptions préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1998, p. 130, par. 43.
1081 nuclear arms and disarmament (diss. op. robinson)
252
46. After setting out the positions of the parties, the Court proceeded
to note:
“[T]he Court thus finds that in the present proceedings complaints
of fact and law formulated by Liechtenstein against Germany are
denied by the latter. In conformity with well‑established jurisprudence
. . . the Court concludes that ‘[b]y virtue of this denial, there is
a legal dispute’ between Liechtenstein and Germany (East Timor
(Portugal v. Australia), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1995, p. 100,
para. 22; Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment
of the Crime of Genocide, Preliminary Objections, Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 1996 (II), p. 615, para. 29).” 34
The Court then added that pre‑Application consultations and exchanges
had “evidentiary value” in support of a finding of positive opposition.
The Court therefore relied on Germany’s denial during the proceedings as
determinative of the existence of a dispute and merely had recourse to the
pre‑Application consultations and exchanges as supporting evidence.
47. In Land and Maritime Boundary, Nigeria’s submission was that
there was no dispute as such throughout the length of the boundary and
therefore Cameroon’s request to definitively settle the boundary was
inadmissible (more specifically that there was no dispute, subject, within
Lake Chad, to the question of the title over Darak and adjacent islands,
and without prejudice to the title over the Bakassi Peninsula) 35. The
Court concluded that in the oral proceedings it had become clear that
there was also a dispute over the boundary at the village of Tipsan 36.
48. The Court noted that Nigeria had not indicated whether or not it
agreed with Cameroon’s position on the course of the boundary or its
legal basis. In reaching this conclusion, the Court relied particularly on
Nigeria’s response to a question posed by a Member of the Court. The
Court decided that, while Nigeria did not have to advance arguments pertaining
to the merits, “[the Court] cannot decline to examine the submission
of Cameroon on the ground that there is no dispute between the two
States” 37. While it is true, as stated in paragraph 54, that the Court was
concerned with the scope of the dispute (i.e., the extent to which the
boundary was in dispute between the parties) 38, the Court did examine
the submissions of the parties and their positions before the Court in
34 Certain Property (Liechtenstein v. Germany), Preliminary Objections, Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 2005, p. 19, para. 25.
35 Land and Maritime Boundary between Cameroon and Nigeria (Cameroon v. Nigeria),
Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1998, pp. 313‑314, 316.
36 Ibid., p. 313, para. 85.
37 Ibid., p. 317, para. 93.
38 The Court’s examination of materials showed that there was a dispute “at least as
regards the legal bases of the boundary”. The Court was not able to determine “the exact
scope of the dispute”; ibid.
armes nucléaires et désarmement (op. diss. robinson) 1081
252
46. Après avoir exposé les positions des parties, la Cour a dit ce qui
suit :
« [L]a Cour relève en conséquence que, dans la présente instance,
les griefs formulés en fait et en droit par le Liechtenstein contre
l’Allemagne
sont rejetés par cette dernière. Conformément à sa jurisprudence
bien établie …, la Cour conclut que, « [d]u fait de ce rejet,
il existe un différend d’ordre juridique » entre le Liechtenstein et
l’Allemagne
(Timor oriental (Portugal c. Australie), arrêt, C.I.J.
Recueil 1995, p. 100, par. 22 ; Application de la convention pour la
prévention et la répression du crime de génocide, exceptions préliminaires,
arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1996 (II), p. 615, par. 29). » 34
La Cour a ajouté que les consultations et les échanges qui avaient eu lieu
avant le dépôt de la requête « confort[aient] » la constatation d’une opposition
manifeste des points de vue des parties. Elle a donc considéré que
les allégations avancées par l’Allemagne au cours de la procédure étaient
le facteur déterminant de l’existence d’un différend, et n’a invoqué les
consultations et échanges antérieurs au dépôt de la requête qu’à titre de
preuves complémentaires.
47. En l’affaire de la Frontière terrestre et maritime, le Nigéria soutenait
qu’il n’existait pas de différend l’opposant au Cameroun au sujet de la délimitation
de la frontière en tant que telle sur toute sa longueur et que la demande
de ce dernier tendant à la délimitation définitive de cette frontière était donc
irrecevable (plus précisément, le Nigéria affirmait qu’il n’existait pas de différend,
sans préjudice de la question du titre sur Darak et les îles avoisinantes
du lac Tchad, ni de la question du titre sur la presqu’île de Bakassi) 35. La Cour
a conclu que les audiences avaient révélé qu’il existait également un différend
sur le tracé de la frontière à hauteur du village de Tipsan 36.
48. La Cour a relevé que le Nigéria n’avait pas indiqué s’il était ou non
d’accord avec la position du Cameroun sur le tracé de la frontière ou sur son
fondement juridique. Pour parvenir à cette conclusion, elle s’est appuyée en
particulier sur la réponse du Nigéria à une question posée par un membre de
la Cour. Elle a décidé que, bien que le Nigéria n’ait pas à avancer des arguments
se rapportant au fond, « elle ne saurait se refuser à examiner les
conclusions du Cameroun par le motif qu’il n’existerait pas de différend
entre les deux Etats » 37. Il est certes vrai que, comme il est relevé au paragraphe
54 du présent arrêt, dans l’affaire Cameroun c. Nigéria, la Cour s’intéressait
à la portée du différend (c’est‑à‑dire la mesure dans laquelle les
parties avaient des positions divergentes sur le tracé de la frontière) 38, mais
34 Certains biens (Liechtenstein c. Allemagne), exceptions préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J.
Recueil 2005, p. 19, par. 25.
35 Frontière terrestre et maritime entre le Cameroun et le Nigéria (Cameroun c. Nigéria),
exceptions préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1998, p. 313‑314, 316.
36 Ibid., p. 313, par. 85.
37 Ibid., p. 317, par. 93.
38 L’examen par la Cour du dossier montrait qu’il existait un différend « à tout le moins
en ce qui concern[ait] les bases juridiques de la frontière ». La Cour a estimé qu’elle n’était
pas en mesure de déterminer « l’étendue exacte [du différend] » ; ibid.
1082 nuclear arms and disarmament (diss. op. robinson)
253
determining that Nigeria had not indicated its agreement, and thus that it
could not uphold Nigeria’s objection.
49. Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of
the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Yugoslavia) is, perhaps,
the strongest case in support of the position taken by the Marshall
Islands because the only evidence on which the Court relied in relation to
the existence of a dispute was Yugoslavia’s denial of Bosnia and Herzegovina’s
allegations during the proceedings: “that, by reason of the rejection
by Yugoslavia of the complaints formulated against it by Bosnia and
Herzegovina, ‘there is a legal dispute’ between them (East Timor (Portugal
v. Australia), I.C.J. Reports 1995, p. 100, para. 22)” 39. The majority’s
attempt to distinguish this case is far from satisfactory.
50. The Court’s approach to this question has been less definitive and
uncompromising than the majority would like to suggest. The Court has
given itself room to afford significant weight to statements made during
the proceedings, particularly the denial of allegations by the Respondent,
not just to confirm but to establish a dispute.
51. I note that the majority has advanced the view that: “[i]f the Court
had jurisdiction with regard to disputes resulting from exchanges in the
proceedings before it, a respondent would be deprived of the opportunity
to react before the institution of proceedings to the claim made against its
own conduct” 40. This appears to be nothing more than a reflection of the
majority’s doctrinal attachment to the awareness criterion. It is inconsistent
with the case law that notification of a dispute is not required. A
respondent’s opportunity to react is more properly addressed as a question
of procedural due process rather than as an element of the dispute
criterion. If a party is embarrassed by hearing for the first time, through
the commencement of Court proceedings, a claim against it, it is surely
open to the Court to address that matter by recourse to the rules of procedure.
VI. The Principle of the Sound Administration of Justice
52. Another reason for rejecting the majority decision is that it militates
against the sound administration of justice, a principle that the
39 Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of
Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Yugoslavia), Preliminary Objections, Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 1996 (II), pp. 614‑615, para. 29.
40 Paragraph 43 of the Judgment.
armes nucléaires et désarmement (op. diss. robinson) 1082
253
elle n’en a pas moins examiné les conclusions des parties et leurs positions
respectives, pour conclure que le Nigéria n’avait pas signifié son accord avec
le Cameroun, et qu’elle ne pouvait donc pas retenir l’exception qu’il avait
soulevée.
49. L’affaire relative à l’Application de la convention pour la prévention et
la répression du crime de génocide (Bosnie‑Herzégovine c. Yougoslavie) est
peut‑être celle qui étaye le mieux la position adoptée par les Iles Marshall,
parce que les seuls éléments de preuve sur lesquels la Cour s’y est appuyée
pour déterminer s’il existait un différend étaient les dénégations opposées
par le défendeur aux allégations de la Bosnie‑Herzégovine en cours d’instance
: « du fait du rejet, par la Yougoslavie [(Serbie-et-Monténégro)],
des
griefs formulés à son encontre par la Bosnie‑Herzégovine, « il existe un différend
d’ordre juridique » entre elles (Timor oriental (Portugal c. Australie),
C.I.J. Recueil 1995, p. 100, par. 22) » 39. Cependant, la tentative faite par la
majorité pour singulariser cette décision est loin d’être convaincante.
50. La manière dont la Cour a traité cette question est moins définitive
et intransigeante que la majorité ne voudrait le faire croire. La Cour s’est
ménagé une certaine latitude afin de pouvoir accorder un poids notable
aux déclarations faites en cours d’instance, en particulier aux dénégations
par le défendeur des griefs du demandeur, et ce, non seulement pour
confirmer, mais pour établir l’existence d’un différend.
51. Je relève que la majorité a avancé la thèse suivante : « Si la Cour
était compétente à l’égard de différends résultant d’échanges qui ont eu
lieu au cours de la procédure devant elle, le défendeur se trouverait privé
de la possibilité de réagir, avant l’introduction de l’instance, à la réclamation
visant son comportement. » 40 Cette thèse semble n’être rien d’autre
qu’un signe de l’attachement doctrinal de la majorité au critère de la
connaissance préalable. Elle s’écarte de la jurisprudence de la Cour selon
laquelle la notification préalable d’un différend n’est pas une condition
nécessaire de la constatation de son existence. La possibilité offerte au
défendeur de réagir est une question touchant le respect de formes procédurales
plutôt qu’un élément des critères de détermination de l’existence
du différend. Si un Etat défendeur se trouve dans l’embarras parce qu’il
n’a eu connaissance des griefs portés contre lui qu’à la suite de l’introduction
de l’instance, il appartient à la Cour de remédier à cette difficulté par
les moyens que lui offrent les règles de procédure.
VI. Le principe de la bonne administration de la justice
52. J’ai une autre raison de ne pas être d’accord avec la décision de la
majorité, à savoir qu’elle va à l’encontre du principe de la bonne adminis-
39 Application de la convention pour la prévention et la répression du crime de
génocide
(Bosnie‑Herzégovine c. Yougoslavie), exceptions préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J.
Recueil 1996 (II), p. 614‑615, par. 29.
40 Paragraphe 43 de l’arrêt.
1083 nuclear arms and disarmament (diss. op. robinson)
254
Court has emphasized on more than one occasion. In Mavrommatis, the
PCIJ held:
“Even if the grounds on which the institution of proceedings was
based were defective for the reason stated, this would not be an adequate
reason for the dismissal of the applicant’s suit. The Court,
whose jurisdiction is international, is not bound to attach to matters
of form the same degree of importance which they might possess in
municipal law. Even, therefore, if the application were premature
because the Treaty of Lausanne had not yet been ratified, this circumstance
would now be covered by the subsequent deposit of the necessary
ratifications.” 41
53. This dictum is in keeping with the rejection of formalism in determining
access to international justice, as discussed throughout the opinion.
It is a principle that promotes judicial economy, and thus the sound
administration of justice. In Upper Silesia, in considering whether there
was a “difference of opinion” for the purposes of Article 23 of the Geneva
Convention (the 1922 Convention between Germany and Poland relating
to Upper Silesia), the PCIJ held:
“Even if, under Article 23, the existence of a definite dispute were
necessary, this condition could at any time be fulfilled by means of
unilateral action on the part of the applicant Party. And the Court
cannot allow itself to be hampered by a mere defect of form, the
removal of which depends solely on the Party concerned.” 42
54. This principle was also cited by the Court in the Paramilitary
Activities case, refusing to reject Nicaragua’s claim when it could remedy
a defect unilaterally (to have expressly invoked a treaty in its negotiations)
and refile the case 43. The Court continued as follows:
“It would make no sense to require Nicaragua now to institute fresh
proceedings based on the Treaty, which it would be fully entitled to
do. As the Permanent Court observed, ‘the Court cannot allow itself
to be hampered by a mere defect of form, the removal of which
depends solely on the party concerned.’ (Certain German Interests in
41 Mavrommatis Palestine Concessions, Judgment No. 2, 1924, P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 2,
p. 34.
42 Certain German Interests in Polish Upper Silesia, Jurisdiction, Judgment No. 6, 1925,
P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 6, p. 14.
43 Military and Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v.
United States of America), Jurisdiction and Admissibility, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1984,
pp. 427‑429, paras. 81-83.
armes nucléaires et désarmement (op. diss. robinson) 1083
254
tration de la justice, sur l’importance duquel la Cour a maintes fois insisté.
Dans l’affaire des Concessions Mavrommatis, par exemple, la CPJI a dit
ce qui suit :
« Même si la base de l’introduction d’instance était défectueuse
pour la raison mentionnée, ce ne serait pas une raison suffisante pour
débouter le demandeur de sa requête. La Cour, exerçant une juridiction
internationale, n’est pas tenue d’attacher à des considérations de
forme la même importance qu’elles pourraient avoir dans le droit
interne. Dans ces conditions, même si l’introduction avait été prématurée,
parce que le Traité de Lausanne n’était pas encore ratifié, ce
fait aurait été couvert par le dépôt ultérieur des ratifications
requises. » 41
53. Ce dictum va dans le sens du rejet du formalisme dans la détermination
des conditions d’accès à la justice internationale, thème récurrent
de la présente opinion. Il pose un principe qui procède du souci d’économie
de procédure, et donc du souci de la bonne administration de la justice.
En l’affaire relative à la Haute‑Silésie, la CPJI, pour déterminer s’il y
avait « une divergence de vues » entre les parties au sens de l’article 23 de
la convention de Genève (la convention de 1922 entre l’Allemagne et la
Pologne relative à la Haute‑Silésie), a retenu ce qui suit :
« Même si la nécessité d’une contestation formelle ressortait de
l’article 23, cette condition pourrait être à tout moment remplie par
un acte unilatéral de la Partie demanderesse. La Cour ne pourrait
s’arrêter à un défaut de forme qu’il dépendrait de la seule Partie intéressée
de faire disparaître. » 42
54. Ce principe a également été cité par la Cour actuelle en l’affaire des
Activités militaires et paramilitaires, pour étayer son refus de rejeter la
demande du Nicaragua alors que celui‑ci pouvait remédier unilatéralement
à un défaut (consistant à ne pas avoir expressément invoqué un
traité au cours de négociations) et ensuite engager une nouvelle procédure
43. Et la Cour d’ajouter :
« Il n’y aurait aucun sens à obliger maintenant le Nicaragua à
entamer une nouvelle procédure sur la base du traité — ce qu’il
aurait pleinement le droit de faire. Pour citer la Cour permanente :
« La Cour ne pourrait s’arrêter à un défaut de forme qu’il dépendrait
de la seule Partie intéressée de faire disparaître. » (Certains intérêts
41 Concessions Mavrommatis en Palestine, arrêt no 2, 1924, C.P.J.I. série A no 2, p. 34.
42 Certains intérêts allemands en Haute‑Silésie polonaise, compétence, arrêt no 6, 1925,
C.P.J.I. série A no 6, p. 14.
43 Activités militaires et paramilitaires au Nicaragua et contre celui‑ci (Nicaragua
c. Etats‑Unis d’Amérique), compétence et recevabilité, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1984, p. 427‑429,
par. 81‑83.
1084 nuclear arms and disarmament (diss. op. robinson)
255
Polish Upper Silesia, Jurisdiction, Judgment No. 6, 1925, P.C.I.J.,
Series A, No. 6, p. 14.)”
55. Further, in Croatia v. Serbia, the Court cited the passage from
Mavrommatis and held that:
“What matters is that, at the latest by the date when the Court
decides on its jurisdiction, the applicant must be entitled, if it so
wishes, to bring fresh proceedings in which the initially unmet condition
would be fulfilled. In such a situation, it is not in the interests of
the sound administration of justice to compel the applicant to begin
the proceedings anew — or to initiate fresh proceedings — and it is
preferable, except in special circumstances, to conclude that the condition
has, from that point on, been fulfilled.” 44
The Court spoke against an approach that would lead to, what it termed
the “needless proliferation of proceedings” 45 or what Judge Crawford in
his dissent calls a “circularity of procedure” 46. An odd result of the majority
Judgment is that, given the basis on which the claim has been dismissed,
the Marshall Islands could, in theory, file another Application
against the United Kingdom. Any objection based on lack of awareness
of “opposite views” could not be upheld. The “unmet condition” would
have already been remedied. The formal approach adopted by the majority
Judgment is incongruous with previous dicta on this point, and militates
against judicial economy and the sound administration of justice.
VII. Facts
56. The subject‑matter of the dispute with the United Kingdom is the
failure of the respondent to fulfil its conventional and customary obligations
to pursue in good faith and bring to a conclusion nuclear disarmament
in all its aspects under strict and effective control; the phrase “in all
its aspects” includes negotiations on effective measures for the cessation
of the arms race and a treaty on general and complete disarmament.
The subject‑matter of the dispute reflects the bargain at the heart of the
NPT, the package deal: the quid is that non‑nuclear‑weapon States will
44 Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide
(Croatia v. Serbia), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2008, p. 441,
para. 85.
45 Ibid., p. 443, para. 89.
46 See dissenting opinion of Judge Crawford in this case, para. 8.
armes nucléaires et désarmement (op. diss. robinson) 1084
255
allemands en Haute-Silésie
polonaise, compétence, arrêt n. 6, 1925,
C.P.J.I. série A no 6, p. 14.) »
55. De plus, en l’affaire Croatie c. Serbie, la Cour, après avoir cité le
passage de l’arrêt rendu en l’affaire des Concessions Mavrommatis, a
poursuivi en ces termes :
« En effet, ce qui importe, c’est que, au plus tard à la date à laquelle
la Cour statue sur sa compétence, le demandeur soit en droit, s’il le
souhaite, d’introduire une nouvelle instance dans le cadre de laquelle
la condition qui faisait initialement défaut serait remplie. En pareil
cas, cela ne servirait pas l’intérêt d’une bonne administration de la
justice d’obliger le demandeur à recommencer la procédure — ou à
en commencer une nouvelle — et il est préférable, sauf circonstances
spéciales, de constater que la condition est désormais remplie. » 44
La Cour s’est ainsi prononcée contre une démarche conduisant, pour
reprendre ses termes, à « la multiplication inutile des procédures » 45, ou à
ce que le juge Crawford, dans l’exposé de son opinion dissidente joint au
présent arrêt, appelle « la circularité de la procédure » 46. L’une des conséquences
perverses de l’arrêt voté par la majorité est que, vu le motif du
rejet de leur demande, les Iles Marshall pourraient fort bien, en théorie,
déposé une nouvelle requête contre le Royaume‑Uni. Toute exception
fondée sur le défaut de connaissance, de la part du défendeur, de l’« opposition
» du demandeur à son point de vue ne pourrait alors qu’être rejetée,
la condition qui « faisait initialement défaut » étant désormais remplie. Le
formalisme que dénote la décision de la majorité va à l’encontre des dicta
précédemment énoncés en la matière, ainsi que de l’économie de procédure
et du principe de la bonne administration de la justice.
VII. Les faits
56. L’objet du différend opposant les Iles Marshall au Royaume-Uni
est le manquement de celui‑ci à ses obligations conventionnelles et coutumières
de poursuivre de bonne foi et de mener à terme des négociations
conduisant au désarmement nucléaire dans tous ses aspects, effectué sous
un contrôle strict et efficace ; l’expression « dans tous ses aspects » recouvre
des négociations sur des mesures efficaces relatives à la cessation de la
course aux armements et un traité de désarmement général et complet.
L’objet de ce différend reflète l’accord global qui sous-tend le TNP : les
Etats non dotés d’armes nucléaires s’engagent à ne pas en acquérir ; en
44 Application de la convention pour la prévention et la répression du crime de génocide
(Croatie c. Serbie), exceptions préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2008, p. 441, par. 85.
45 Ibid., p. 443, par. 89.
46 Voir l’exposé de l’opinion dissidente du juge Crawford joint à l’arrêt en la présente
affaire, par. 8.
1085 nuclear arms and disarmament (diss. op. robinson)
256
not acquire nuclear weapons; the quo is that nuclear‑weapon States may
keep their nuclear weapons but must negotiate in good faith for nuclear
disarmament.
57. In my view, the United Kingdom’s first preliminary objection
should be dismissed. This conclusion flows from application of the facts
to the analysis of the law set out above. However, even when the facts are
assessed against the criterion set out by the majority, this conclusion still
stands 47. An objective examination of the evidence reveals a fundamental
difference (or views that are positively opposed) between the Applicant
and Respondent on the date of the Application in relation to the
United Kingdom’s performance of its obligations under Article VI of the
NPT, both because of the latter’s negotiating position and the action it
has taken in respect of its nuclear arsenal, as evidenced by the statements
of the parties and the conduct of the United Kingdom.
58. The Marshall Islands made three statements that are relevant to
the consideration of the existence of a dispute with the United Kingdom.
On 6 May 2010, at an NPT Review Conference, at which the United Kingdom
was present, the Marshall Islands stated:
“We are alarmed that, although almost all NPT members are
achieving obligations, there are a small few who appear to be determined
to violate the rules which bind them, and whose actions thus
far appear evasive, particularly in testing or assembling nuclear weapons.
We have no tolerance for anything less than strict adherence by
Parties to their legal obligations under the NPT.” 48
On 26 September 2013, at the High‑Level Meeting of the General Assembly
on Nuclear Disarmament, it “urge[d] all nuclear weapon States to
intensify efforts to address their responsibilities in moving towards an
effective and secure disarmament” 49. While these statements did not
allege any breach by nuclear‑weapon States specifically of their responsibilities,
they are indicative of the general posture of the Marshall Islands
on the subject of nuclear disarmament. In my view, they can certainly be
seen as placing nuclear‑weapon States on notice that the Marshall Islands
was concerned about the discharge by those States of their responsibilities
relating to disarmament. The United Kingdom’s expression of regret at
the High‑Level Meeting of the General Assembly on Nuclear Disarmament
about the “energy” being directed towards initiatives such as this
47 See paragraphs 62 and 63 of the Judgment.
48 Statement by H.E. Mr. Phillip H. Muller, Ambassador and Permanent Representative,
Permanent Mission of the Republic of the Marshall Islands, to the United Nations
at the 2010 Review Conference of the Parties to the Treaty on the Non‑Proliferation of
Nuclear Weapons, 6 May 2010, as referred to in the Marshall Islands’ Statement of Observations
on the Preliminary Objections of the United Kingdom (WSMI), para. 32.
49 Memorial of the Marshall Islands (MMI), p. 43, para. 98; Ann. 71.
armes nucléaires et désarmement (op. diss. robinson) 1085
256
échange, les puissances nucléaires sont autorisées à conserver celles
qu’elles possèdent mais doivent négocier de bonne foi en vue du désarmement
nucléaire.
57. A mon sens, la première exception préliminaire du Royaume-Uni
aurait dû être rejetée. Cette conclusion s’impose si l’on examine les faits à
la lumière de l’analyse juridique exposée plus haut. Toutefois, même en
appliquant le critère énoncé par la majorité, le résultat est le même 47. Un
examen objectif des éléments de preuve met en évidence l’existence d’une
divergence fondamentale (ou d’une opposition manifeste) entre le demandeur
et le défendeur à la date du dépôt de la requête au sujet du respect,
par le Royaume-Uni, des obligations qui lui incombent au titre de l’article
VI du TNP, tant en raison de la position de cet Etat dans les négociations
qu’en raison des dispositions qu’il a prises concernant son arsenal
nucléaire ; cela ressort aussi bien des déclarations des Parties que du comportement
du Royaume-Uni.
58. Les Iles Marshall ont fait trois déclarations pertinentes aux fins de
l’examen de la question de l’existence d’un différend avec le Royaume-
Uni. Le 6 mai 2010, lors d’une conférence d’examen du TNP, à laquelle
participait le défendeur, elles ont déclaré ce qui suit :
« Nous nous inquiétons de ce que, bien que la quasi‑totalité des
Etats parties au TNP respectent leurs obligations, un petit nombre
d’entre eux paraissent déterminés à enfreindre les règles qui sont
obligatoires à leur égard, et ce, alors que les mesures que ces derniers
ont prises jusqu’ici sont équivoques, particulièrement en ce qui
concerne les essais nucléaires ou l’assemblage d’armes nucléaires.
Nous ne tolérerons rien de moins que le strict respect par les Parties
des obligations juridiques que leur impose le TNP. » 48
Le 26 septembre 2013, lors de la réunion de haut niveau des Nations
Unies sur le désarmement nucléaire, les Iles Marshall ont exhorté « toutes
les puissances nucléaires [à] intensifier leurs efforts pour faire face à leurs
responsabilités à l’égard d’un désarmement effectif et sûr » 49. Si ces déclarations
n’accusaient aucun Etat doté d’armes nucléaires en particulier
d’avoir manqué à ses responsabilités, elles exprimaient néanmoins la position
générale des Iles Marshall en matière de désarmement nucléaire.
Selon moi, l’on peut assurément considérer qu’elles avisaient les Etats
dotés d’armes nucléaires de ce que les Iles Marshall s’inquiétaient de la
manière dont ils s’acquittaient de leurs responsabilités relatives au désarmement.
Le fait que le Royaume-Uni ait dit regretter, lors de la réunion
de haut niveau des Nations Unies sur le désarmement nucléaire, que « ces
47 Voir les paragraphes 62 et 63 de l’arrêt.
48 Déclaration faite par S. Exc. M. Phillip Muller, représentant permanent des
Iles Marshall auprès des Nations Unies, lors de la conférence d’examen du TNP de 2010,
6 mai 2010, citée dans l’exposé contenant les observations des Iles Marshall sur les exceptions
préliminaires soulevées par le Royaume-Uni (EEIM), par. 32.
49 Mémoire des Iles Marshall (MIM), p. 43, par. 98 ; annexe 71.
1086 nuclear arms and disarmament (diss. op. robinson)
257
High‑Level Meeting, the humanitarian consequences campaign, the
Open‑Ended Working Group and the push for a Nuclear Weapons
Convention” 50 may be taken as a sign of a nascent dispute between the
parties about the steps to be adopted to discharge the obligations under
Article VI of the NPT.
59. At the Second Conference on the Humanitarian Impact of Nuclear
Weapons in Nayarit, Mexico, 13‑14 February 2014, the Marshall Islands
was more explicit:
“the Marshall Islands is convinced that multilateral negotiations on
achieving and sustaining a world free of nuclear weapons are long
overdue. Indeed we believe that States possessing nuclear arsenals are
failing to fulfil their legal obligations in this regard. Immediate commencement
and conclusion of such negotiations is required by legal
obligation of nuclear disarmament resting upon each and every state
under Article VI of the Non‑Proliferation Treaty and customary
international law.”
60. This statement alleges a breach by nuclear‑weapon States of their
international obligations. It is immaterial that the Marshall Islands did
not cite each of the nuclear‑weapon States by name, since those States are
constituted by a small number of countries (nine) and the identity of
those States is common knowledge. The United Kingdom explicitly recognizes
itself as a nuclear‑weapon State. Contrary to what is stated in
paragraph 50 of the Judgment, this statement does identify the conduct
that has given rise to a breach by the United Kingdom; as a failure to
fulfil its obligations under Article VI of the NPT, specifically in relation
to the negotiations required by that Article. The statement not only identifies
the breach, but also indicates how it is to be remedied.
61. The Judgment also comments negatively, in paragraph 50, on the
place and context in which the statement was made, indicating that it was
at a conference not directly concerned with negotiations seeking nuclear
disarmament — at the Second Conference on the Humanitarian Impact
of Nuclear Weapons — as distinct from a conference on negotiating
nuclear disarmament. This is a strange criticism because the questions
that arise from the humanitarian impact of nuclear weapons cannot be
divorced from the fulfilment of obligations under Article VI of the NPT,
50 Statement by Minister Alistair Burt, Parliamentary Under-Secretary
of State, United
Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, to the UN General Assembly on Nuclear
Disarmament, 26 September 2013, as referred to in POUK, p. 43, para. 98, and Ann. 6; see
also MMI, para. 90 and Ann. 69.
armes nucléaires et désarmement (op. diss. robinson) 1086
257
efforts soient consacrés à des initiatives telles que la réunion [en question],
la campagne sur les conséquences humanitaires, le groupe de travail à
composition non limitée et l’appel à conclure une convention relative aux
armes nucléaires » 50 peut être interprété comme le signe qu’un différend
était en train de se faire jour entre les Parties au sujet des mesures à
prendre pour qu’il soit satisfait aux obligations découlant de l’article VI
du TNP.
59. Lors de la deuxième conférence sur l’impact humanitaire des armes
nucléaires, qui s’est tenue à Nayarit, au Mexique, les 13 et 14 février 2014,
les Iles Marshall ont été plus explicites :
« Les Iles Marshall sont convaincues que des négociations multilatérales
visant à créer et à maintenir un monde dépourvu d’armes
nucléaires auraient dû être engagées depuis longtemps. Nous estimons
en effet que les Etats possédant un arsenal nucléaire ne respectent
pas leurs obligations à cet égard. L’obligation d’oeuvrer au
désarmement nucléaire qui incombe à chaque Etat en vertu de l’article
VI du traité de non‑prolifération nucléaire et du droit international
coutumier impose l’ouverture immédiate de telles négociations
et leur aboutissement. »
60. Dans cette déclaration, les Iles Marshall affirmaient que les Etats
dotés d’armes nucléaires manquaient à leurs obligations internationales.
Il importe peu qu’elles n’aient pas nommément désigné chacun de ces
Etats, étant donné que leur nombre est limité (neuf), et leur identité,
connue de tous. Le Royaume-Uni a d’ailleurs explicitement reconnu faire
partie de ces Etats. Contrairement à ce qui est indiqué au paragraphe 50
de l’arrêt, cette déclaration mettait bel et bien en évidence le comportement
qui était à l’origine de la violation commise par le défendeur, à
savoir le manquement aux obligations qui lui incombaient au titre de l’article
VI du TNP, plus précisément en ce qui concerne les négociations
prescrites par cette disposition. Non seulement cette déclaration définissait
le manquement en cause, mais elle indiquait également la manière d’y
remédier.
61. La Cour a par ailleurs jugé contestables, au paragraphe 50 de l’arrêt,
le lieu et le contexte dans lesquels cette déclaration a été faite, à savoir
lors d’une conférence qui ne portait pas spécifiquement sur les négociations
en vue du désarmement nucléaire — la deuxième conférence sur
l’impact humanitaire des armes nucléaires —, et non pas au cours d’une
conférence qui aurait eu trait à pareilles négociations. Cette critique est
étrange, puisque les questions relatives à l’impact humanitaire des armes
nucléaires ne sauraient être dissociées du respect des obligations décou-
50 Déclaration faite le 26 septembre 2013 par M. Alistair Burt, sous-secrétaire
d’Etat
du Gouvernement du Royaume-Uni de Grande-Bretagne
et d’Irlande du Nord, à la
réunion de haut niveau de l’Assemblée générale des Nations Unies sur le désarmement
nucléaire, citée dans les exceptions préliminaires du Royaume-Uni (EPRU), p. 43, par. 98,
et annexe 6 ; voir aussi MIM, par. 90, annexe 69.
1087 nuclear arms and disarmament (diss. op. robinson)
258
as is indicated clearly in the first line of the Preamble to the NPT, which
notes that the States parties were mindful of “the devastation that would
be visited upon all mankind by a nuclear war and the consequent need to
make every effort to avert the danger of such a war and to take measures
to safeguard the security of peoples”.
62. The absence of the United Kingdom from the meeting is immaterial.
While awareness is not a requirement for the finding that there is a
dispute, it is reasonable to assume that the United Kingdom was aware of
the Marshall Islands’ statements. The United Kingdom argues that the
Marshall Islands made no attempts to bring the statements to its attention.
The majority has dismissed the United Kingdom’s argument that
there must be a record of bilateral exchanges. It is beyond question that
modern technological developments have made communication more certain,
quicker and, in many cases, instantaneous. It has done away with
classic images of how statements and positions of one State may be
brought to the attention of another. In today’s world, statements of this
nature are rapidly reported and made widely available in various media.
Given the importance that the United Kingdom has confirmed
that it attaches to this question 51, it is hard to believe that the Marshall
Islands’ statement escaped its attention. It is safe to assume that, by
the very next day at the latest, a copy of the statement would have been
on the desk of an officer in the United Kingdom’s Foreign and Commonwealth
Office.
63. I make it clear that the thesis advanced by this opinion is that
awareness is not a prerequisite for determining the existence of a dispute,
but it is certainly noteworthy that, in any case, the United Kingdom’s
position would fall within the parameters of the test set out by the majority.
The latter part of the test in paragraph 41 — “could not have been
unaware” — invites an objective examination based upon a standard of
reasonableness. In the modern world of communications technology, it is
reasonable to conclude that the Marshall Islands’ statement would not
have escaped the United Kingdom’s attention. Thus the United Kingdom
could not have been unaware that its views and conduct here were
opposed by the Marshall Islands.
64. I now turn to look at whether an objective assessment of the Parties’
statements and conduct evidenced positive opposition as at the date
of the Application. As noted by Judge Morelli, a course of conduct,
inconsistent with the other party’s position, may evidence positive opposition.
Consistent with the position taken in this dissenting opinion, this
assessment is made on the basis that awareness is not a requirement for
51 Sir Daniel Bethlehem on behalf of the United Kingdom confirmed: “I do not tread
into the merits of the case when I say that the United Kingdom has always explicitly
acknowledged the imperative of Article VI of the NPT and has acted and continues to
act towards the end that it mandates” (CR 2016/7, p. 9, para. 3 (Sir Daniel Bethlehem)).
armes nucléaires et désarmement (op. diss. robinson) 1087
258
lant de l’article VI du TNP, comme cela est clairement indiqué dès la première
ligne du préambule de cet instrument, aux termes duquel les Etats
parties ont conscience des « dévastations qu’une guerre nucléaire ferait
subir à l’humanité entière et la nécessité qui en résulte de ne ménager
aucun effort pour écarter le risque d’une telle guerre et de prendre des
mesures en vue de sauvegarder la sécurité des peuples ».
62. Le fait que le Royaume-Uni n’ait pas pris part à cette réunion n’a
aucune importance. Bien qu’il ne s’agisse pas d’un critère pour établir
l’existence d’un différend, il est raisonnablement permis de penser que le
Royaume-Uni avait connaissance des propos tenus par les représentants
des Iles Marshall. Celui‑ci soutenait que le demandeur n’avait rien fait
pour porter ces déclarations à son attention. La majorité a écarté son
argument, selon lequel il aurait dû exister une série d’échanges bilatéraux.
Il ne fait aucun doute que les progrès technologiques ont rendu les communications
plus sûres et plus rapides — voire, dans bien des cas, instantanées.
Les conceptions traditionnelles de la manière dont les Etats
peuvent porter leurs déclarations et positions à l’attention des autres
Etats s’en trouvent dépassées. Dans le monde actuel, les déclarations de
ce type sont promptement relayées et les médias s’en font largement
l’écho. Etant donné l’importance que le Royaume-Uni a confirmé attacher
à la question 51, il est difficile de croire que la déclaration des
Iles Marshall lui avait échappé. On peut raisonnablement penser que, dès
le lendemain, une copie de cette déclaration se trouvait sur le bureau d’un
responsable du ministère des affaires étrangères et du Commonwealth.
63. Je rappelle que la thèse défendue dans la présente opinion est que
la connaissance n’est pas une condition préalable à l’existence d’un différend
; il convient cependant de souligner que, en tout état de cause, la
situation du Royaume-Uni satisferait au critère énoncé par la majorité au
paragraphe 41 de l’arrêt. Le dernier élément dudit critère — « ne pouvait
pas ne pas avoir connaissance » — invite en effet à un examen objectif
reposant sur le point de savoir ce qu’il est raisonnable de penser. Or, ce
qu’il est raisonnable de penser, c’est que, dans notre monde moderne axé
sur la communication, la déclaration des Iles Marshall n’avait pas pu
échapper au Royaume‑Uni. En conséquence, ce dernier ne pouvait pas ne
pas avoir connaissance de ce que les Iles Marshall s’opposaient à ses vues
et à son comportement.
64. J’en viens à présent à la question de savoir si un examen objectif
des déclarations et du comportement des Parties permet de mettre en évidence
une opposition manifeste au moment du dépôt de la requête.
Comme le juge Morelli l’avait relevé, une ligne de conduite, incompatible
avec la position de la partie adverse, peut permettre d’établir l’existence
d’une opposition manifeste. Cette analyse, qui concorde avec les vues
51 Sir Daniel Bethlehem, s’exprimant au nom du Royaume-Uni, l’a confirmé : « Ce n’est
pas anticiper sur l’examen au fond que de dire que le Royaume-Uni a toujours expressément
reconnu l’impératif énoncé à l’article VI du TNP et qu’il a agi et continue d’agir pour
atteindre l’objectif qui y est fixé. » (CR 2016/7, p. 9, par. 3 (sir Daniel Bethlehem).)
1088 nuclear arms and disarmament (diss. op. robinson)
259
finding a dispute, and that positive opposition may be deduced without
reference to any mental element.
65. At the date of the Application, there was clearly a dispute about
the manner in which the United Kingdom’s obligation was to be discharged:
whereas the Marshall Islands favoured a comprehensive multilateral
approach at that time, calling for “total nuclear disarmament” 52,
the United Kingdom prioritized a step‑by‑step approach. The following
evidence presented to the Court are indicia of these positions:
(i) the public position taken by the United Kingdom on the Open‑Ended
Working Group (OEWG) when it was established by the General
Assembly in December 2012, when the United Kingdom noted
several concerns, including relating to working methods and budgetary
impact, and that, as a result, the United Kingdom would not support
“the establishment of the OEWG and any outcome it may
produce”, as well as its refusal to participate in the working group’s
deliberations 53, which the Marshall Islands views as evidence of the
United Kingdom’s “systematic opposition” to the commencement of
multilateral negotiations on complete nuclear disarmament 54;
(ii) the statements of the Parties on 26 September 2013, at the High‑Level
Meeting of the General Assembly on Nuclear Disarmament, where
the Marshall Islands “urge[d] all nuclear weapon States to intensify
efforts to address their responsibilities in moving towards an effective
and secure disarmament”, and the United Kingdom’s expression of
regret about the “energy . . . being directed towards initiatives such as
this High‑Level Meeting, the humanitarian consequences campaign,
the Open‑Ended Working Group and the push for a Nuclear Weapons
Convention”;
(iii) the statement of the Marshall Islands at Nayarit in 2014.
And the following evidence after the date of the Application confirms this
position:
(i) the United Kingdom delegation’s statement on 9 December 2014 at
the third International Conference on the Humanitarian Impact of
Nuclear Weapons, hosted by the Austrian Foreign Ministry in
Vienna:
52 MMI, p. 18, para. 25, where the Marshall Islands argues that the United Kingdom
has “continuously and actively oppos[ed] efforts of a great majority of the States of the
world to initiate negotiations that are to lead to total nuclear disarmament”.
53 Explanation of Vote, 6 November 2012, MMI, p. 38, para. 77 and Ann. 60.
54 CR 2016/5, pp. 46‑47, paras. 6‑8 (Grief).
armes nucléaires et désarmement (op. diss. robinson) 1088
259
exposées dans la présente opinion, part du principe que la connaissance
n’est pas une condition nécessaire à l’établissement de l’existence d’un différend,
et que l’opposition manifeste peut être déduite sans qu’il soit fait
référence à un quelconque élément psychologique.
65. A la date du dépôt de la requête, il existait de toute évidence un
différend au sujet de la manière dont le Royaume-Uni devait s’acquitter
de son obligation ; alors que les Iles Marshall militaient en faveur d’une
approche multilatérale globale, appelant à un « désarmement nucléaire
total » 52, le Royaume‑Uni, quant à lui, privilégiait une démarche progressive.
Les éléments de preuve ci‑après, qui avaient été présentés à la Cour,
témoignent de ces positions :
i) la position adoptée publiquement par le Royaume-Uni sur le groupe
de travail à composition non limitée, au moment de l’instauration de
celui‑ci par l’Assemblée générale en décembre 2012 : le défendeur avait
alors exprimé plusieurs inquiétudes, notamment au sujet des méthodes
de travail et de l’incidence budgétaire ; il avait par conséquent refusé
d’apporter son soutien à la « constitution du groupe de travail à composition
non limitée, [et aux] conclusions que celui-
ci [était] susceptible
de tirer », et n’avait pas voulu participer aux délibérations de ce
groupe 53, ce que les Iles Marshall avaient interprété comme démontrant
son « opposition systématique » à l’engagement de négociations
multilatérales sur un désarmement nucléaire total 54 ;
ii) les déclarations faites par les Parties le 26 septembre 2013, lors de la
réunion de haut niveau des Nations Unies sur le désarmement
nucléaire : les Iles Marshall avaient « appel[é] instamment tous les
Etats dotés d’armes nucléaires à intensifier leurs efforts pour assumer
leurs responsabilités en vue d’un désarmement effectif réalisé en toute
sécurité », tandis que le Royaume-Uni avait déploré que « ces efforts
soient consacrés à des initiatives telles que la réunion [en question], la
campagne sur les conséquences humanitaires, le groupe de travail à
composition non limitée et l’appel à conclure une convention relative
aux armes nucléaires » ;
iii) la déclaration faite par les Iles Marshall à Nayarit en 2014.
Les éléments de preuve ci‑après, postérieurs au dépôt de la requête, sont
venus confirmer la position du Royaume‑Uni :
i) la déclaration faite par la délégation britannique le 9 décembre 2014,
lors de la troisième conférence internationale sur l’impact humanitaire
des armes nucléaires organisée à Vienne par le ministère autrichien des
affaires étrangères :
52 MIM, p. 18, par. 25, où les Iles Marshall soutenaient que le Royaume-Uni s’était
« oppos[é] continuellement et activement aux efforts déployés par une grande majorité des
Etats du monde entier en vue d’engager des négociations devant conduire à un désarmement
nucléaire total ».
53 Déclaration expliquant le vote, 6 novembre 2012, MIM, p. 38, par. 77, et annexe 60.
54 CR 2016/5, p. 46‑47, par. 6‑8 (Grief).
1089 nuclear arms and disarmament (diss. op. robinson)
260
“The United Kingdom agrees that we must also pursue the goal of
a world without nuclear weapons, and we are active here too. Some
have argued that the way to this goal is to ban nuclear weapons now,
or to fix a timetable for their elimination. The United Kingdom considers
that this approach fails to take account of, and therefore jeopardises,
the stability and security which nuclear weapons can help to
ensure. The United Kingdom believes that the step‑by‑step approach
through the NPT is the only way to combine the imperatives of
disarmament
and of maintaining global stability.”
(ii) On 14 January 2015, in answer to a question in Parliament about the
Vienna Conference on the Humanitarian Impact of Nuclear Weapons,
Foreign and Commonwealth Office minister, Tobias Ellwood,
declared: “as stated at the Conference, the United Kingdom will continue
to follow the step‑by‑step approach to disarmament through
the existing UN disarmament machinery and the Nuclear Non‑Proliferation
Treaty.”
(iii) The United Kingdom’s Report on the implementation plan of the
2010 NPT Review Conference, dated 22 April 2015, in which the
United Kingdom stated that it:
“is committed to a world without nuclear weapons in line with our
obligations under Article VI of the [NPT] and firmly believes that the
best way to achieve this goal is through gradual disarmament negotiated
using a step‑by‑step approach and within the framework of the
United Nations disarmament machinery and the Treaty on the
Non‑Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons
�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������
We remain determined to continue to work with partners across
the international community to prevent proliferation and to make
progress on multilateral nuclear disarmament, to build trust and confidence
between nuclear and non‑nuclear weapon States, and to take
tangible steps towards a safer and more stable world, in which countries
with nuclear weapons feel able to relinquish them.
The United Kingdom has a strong record on nuclear disarmament.
We have steadily reduced the size of our own nuclear forces by well
over 50 per cent since our Cold War peak and since 1998 all of our
air‑delivered nuclear weapons have been withdrawn and dismantled.”
55
55 National report on the implementation of actions 5, 20, and 21 of the action plan
of the 2010 Review Conference of the Parties to the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation
of
Nuclear Weapons, Report submitted by the United Kingdom, 22 April 2015, pp. 1‑2.
armes nucléaires et désarmement (op. diss. robinson) 1089
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« Le Royaume‑Uni souscrit à l’idée qu’il faut aussi poursuivre l’objectif
d’un monde sans armes nucléaires, ce à quoi nous nous employons.
D’aucuns ont soutenu que, pour y parvenir, il fallait dès à présent interdire
les armes nucléaires ou établir un calendrier en vue de leur élimination.
Le Royaume‑Uni est d’avis que, en ne tenant pas compte du fait
que l’arme nucléaire peut contribuer à assurer la stabilité et la sécurité,
cette approche met celles‑ci en danger. Nous estimons que c’est seulement
en procédant de façon progressive, par le biais du traité de
non‑prolifération, que l’on pourra concilier les deux impératifs que sont
le désarmement et le maintien de la stabilité dans le monde. »
ii) Le 14 janvier 2015, répondant à une question posée au Parlement au
sujet de la conférence sur l’impact humanitaire des armes nucléaires
qui s’était tenue à Vienne, le ministre britannique des affaires étrangères
et du Commonwealth, Tobias Ellwood, a déclaré ceci : « Comme
nous l’avons dit à la conférence, le Royaume-Uni continuera d’oeuvrer
progressivement au désarmement par le biais des mécanismes créés à
cet effet par les Nations Unies et du traité de non-prolifération.
»
iii) Le rapport du Royaume-Uni sur le plan de mise en oeuvre de la conférence
d’examen du TNP de 2010, en date du 22 avril 2015, dans lequel
on lisait ce qui suit :
« [Le Royaume-Uni est] attaché à l’instauration d’un monde
exempt d’armes nucléaires conformément aux obligations qui lui
incombent en vertu de l’Article VI du TNP, et il est fermement
convaincu que le meilleur moyen d’atteindre cet objectif consiste à
négocier un désarmement progressif en procédant étape par étape et
dans le cadre du mécanisme de désarmement de l’ONU et du Traité
de non-prolifération
des armes nucléaires.
�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������
Le Royaume-Uni demeure déterminé à continuer de collaborer
avec des partenaires à tous les niveaux de la communauté internationale
pour empêcher la prolifération et progresser sur la voie d’un
désarmement nucléaire multilatéral, pour établir un climat de
confiance entre les Etats dotés d’armes nucléaires et ceux qui en sont
dépourvus, et prendre des mesures concrètes propres à favoriser
l’instauration d’un monde plus sûr et plus stable, dans lequel les pays
dotés d’armes nucléaires se sentent en mesure d’y renoncer.
Le Royaume-Uni peut s’enorgueillir d’un bilan solide en matière
de désarmement nucléaire. Il n’a cessé de réduire la taille de ses
propres forces nucléaires dans une proportion dépassant largement
50 % depuis qu’elle avait atteint son niveau maximal pendant la
guerre froide et, depuis 1998, toutes ses armes nucléaires à vecteur
aérien ont été retirées et démantelées. » 55
55 Rapport national sur la mise en oeuvre des mesures 5, 20 et 21 du plan d’action de la
conférence d’examen du TNP de 2010, présenté par le Royaume-Uni, 22 avril 2015, p. 1‑2.
1090 nuclear arms and disarmament (diss. op. robinson)
261
66. The Parties also take opposite views as to whether or not the
United Kingdom’s conduct in respect of its nuclear arsenal complies with
the United Kingdom’s international obligations. The United Kingdom
has confirmed its view that the replacement of the Trident System is in
compliance with its NPT obligations, for example:
(i) David Cameron, during a Parliamentary Debate on 19 October 2010,
stating the Government’s position on whether the replacement of the
Trident nuclear system was to be regarded as illegal under the terms
of the NPT: “[o]ur proposals are within the spirit and the letter of the
non‑proliferation treaty” 56.
(ii) Letter from the Ministry of Defence, dated 27 September 2013: “[t]he
renewal of our nuclear deterrent is fully consistent with our obligations
under this treaty [i.e., the NPT]” 57.
(iii) In a Research Paper of the House of Commons, entitled “The Trident
Successor Programme: An Update”, it is stated:
“Successive Governments have insisted that replacing Trident is
compatible with the UK’s obligations under the NPT, arguing that
the treaty contains no prohibition on updating existing weapons systems
and gives no explicit time frame for nuclear disarmament” 58.
The Marshall Islands argues the contrary: that the United Kingdom’s
qualitative improvement and maintenance and extension of its nuclear
weapons system are in breach of Article VI. The substantiation of the
Marshall Islands’ allegations, and the legality of the United Kingdom’s
actions vis‑à‑vis Article VI of the NPT, are issues for the merits. However,
the divergent positions of the Parties on this issue are sufficient to
effect a dispute between the two countries. In this respect, the most important
aspect of the obligation under Article VI of the NPT is that States
should pursue negotiations in good faith.
56 HC Deb., 16 October 2010, cl 814, cited at WSMI, p. 17, para. 38, http://www.publications.
parliament.uk/pa/cm201011/cmhansrd/cm101019/debtext/101019-0001.htm.
57 Letter sent by the Minister for State for the Armed Forces, Andrew Robathan,
27 September 2013, cited at WSMI, p. 17, para. 39, https://www.gov.uk/government/
publications/mod-response-
about-the-uks-nuclear-deterrent.
58 The Trident Successor Programme: An Update, Commons Briefing papers SN06526,
10 March 2015, p. 14, cited at WSMI, p. 17, para. 39, http://researchbriefings.parliament.
uk/ResearchBriefing/Summary/SN06526#fullreport.
armes nucléaires et désarmement (op. diss. robinson) 1090
261
66. Les vues des Parties divergeaient également sur la question de
savoir si le comportement du Royaume-Uni en ce qui concerne son arsenal
nucléaire était conforme aux obligations internationales qui lui
incombent. A cet égard, le défendeur a confirmé sa position, selon laquelle
le remplacement du système Trident était conforme aux obligations
découlant du TNP, ce qu’attestent notamment les éléments suivants :
i) La déclaration faite par M. David Cameron, au cours d’un débat parlementaire
le 19 octobre 2010, énonçant la position de son gouvernement
sur la question de savoir si le remplacement du système nucléaire
Trident devait être considéré comme contraire aux prescriptions du
TNP : « Nos propositions sont conformes à l’esprit et à la lettre du
traité de non-prolifération.
» 56
ii) Une lettre du 27 décembre 2013 émanant du ministère de la défense
dans laquelle figurait le passage suivant : « [l]e renouvellement de notre
dissuasion nucléaire est pleinement conforme aux obligations découlant
du traité [le TNP] » 57.
iii) Une étude de la Chambre des communes intitulée « The Trident Successor
Programme : An Update » [« Mise à jour relative au programme
de remplacement du système Trident »], dans laquelle il était précisé ce
qui suit :
« Les gouvernements successifs ont assuré que le remplacement du
système Trident était compatible avec les obligations que le TNP
impose au Royaume-Uni, affirmant que le traité n’interdisait nullement
de moderniser les systèmes d’armement existants et ne prévoyait
pas non plus de calendrier explicite pour procéder au
désarmement nucléaire. » 58
Les Iles Marshall défendaient la position inverse, à savoir que le fait que
le Royaume‑Uni améliore, conserve et développe son système d’armement
nucléaire emportait violation de l’article VI. L’appréciation des allégations
des Iles Marshall ainsi que la question de la licéité des mesures
prises par le Royaume-Uni au regard de l’article VI du TNP relèvent
certes du fond. Cependant, les vues divergentes des Parties sur ces questions
suffisaient à montrer qu’un différend opposait les deux Etats. A cet
égard, l’aspect le plus important de l’obligation découlant de l’article VI
du TNP est le fait qu’elle impose aux Etats de poursuivre de bonne foi des
négociations.
56 Débat à la Chambre des communes, 16 octobre 2010, col. 814, cité dans EEIM,
p. 17, par. 38 (http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm201011/cmhansrd/cm101019/
debtext/101019-0001.htm).
57 Lettre du ministre d’Etat aux forces armées, Andrew Robathan, en date du
27 septembre 2013, citée dans EEIM, p. 17, par. 39 (https://www.gov.uk/government/
publications/mod-response-
about-the-uks-nuclear-deterrent).
58 « The Trident Successor Programme : An Update », Commons Briefing papers
SN06526, 10 mars 2015, p. 14, cité dans EEIM, p. 17, par. 39 (http://researchbriefings.
parliament.uk/ResearchBriefing/Summary/SN06526#fullreport).
1091 nuclear arms and disarmament (diss. op. robinson)
262
67. The analysis in this opinion shows that there was a dispute between
the Parties as at the date of the Application. It is clear that the Parties
had different views as to the content of and the United Kingdom’s compliance
with its obligations. This includes the speed and manner in which
negotiations were to take place, as well as the United Kingdom’s actions
in respect of its nuclear arsenal. This conclusion is confirmed by the position
taken by the Parties during the proceedings. The United Kingdom,
in its preliminary objections, noted that it “considers the allegations [of
the Marshall Islands regarding the United Kingdom’s breach of Article
VI of the NPT and parallel customary obligations] to be manifestly
unfounded on the merits” 59.
VIII. Conclusion
68. The majority decision in this case represents a conspicuous aberration
and an unwelcome deviation from the Court’s long‑applied position
on this question. International law, like any other branch of law, is not
static and some of the greatest developments in history would not have
taken place but for the dynamism of law. But where current law can be
applied to serve the interests of the international community as a whole,
such a dramatic change is only warranted if there is a compelling consideration
in favour of doing so. Indeed such an approach is confirmed by
the Court’s own holding that:
“To the extent that the decisions contain findings of law, the Court
will treat them as it treats all previous decisions: that is to say that,
while those decisions are in no way binding on the Court, it will not
depart from its settled jurisprudence unless it finds very particular
reasons to do so.” 60
69. The majority has advanced no such reasons. Its holding today has
placed an additional and unwarranted hurdle in the way of claims that
may proceed to be examined on the merits. In so doing, it has detracted
from the potential of the Court to play the role envisaged for it as a
standing body for the peaceful settlement of the disputes and through this
function, as an important contributor to the maintenance of international
peace and security. This conclusion is rendered even more telling by the
subject‑matter of the dispute before us today.
59 POUK, p. 3, para. 5. Discussed by Marshall Islands, e.g., CR 2016/9, p. 17.
60 Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide
(Croatia v. Serbia), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2008, p. 428,
para. 53.
armes nucléaires et désarmement (op. diss. robinson) 1091
262
67. Il ressort de l’analyse que j’ai développée dans la présente opinion
qu’il existait un différend entre les Parties au moment du dépôt de la
requête. De toute évidence, celles‑ci avaient des vues divergentes quant à
la teneur des obligations incombant au Royaume-Uni et au point de
savoir si celui‑ci les respectait. Cela recouvrait notamment les modalités
des négociations et le délai dans lequel celles‑ci devaient se dérouler, ainsi
que les dispositions prises par le Royaume-Uni relativement à son arsenal.
Cette conclusion est confirmée par les positions adoptées par les Parties
en cours d’instance. Le Royaume-Uni a ainsi estimé, dans ses
exceptions préliminaires, qu’il considérait que « les allégations [des
Iles Marshall concernant son manquement à l’article VI du TNP et aux
obligations coutumières correspondantes étaient] manifestement dépourvues
de fondement » 59.
VIII. Conclusion
68. La décision prise en l’espèce par la majorité est une aberration
patente et s’écarte fâcheusement de la position à laquelle la Cour s’est
longtemps tenue pour établir l’existence d’un différend. Comme toute
autre branche du droit, le droit international n’est certes pas immuable, et
certains des grands changements du cours de l’histoire n’auraient pas été
possibles si le droit était statique. Cependant, lorsque l’application du
droit existant peut servir les intérêts de la communauté internationale
tout entière, s’en écarter radicalement ne saurait se justifier que si des
raisons impérieuses le commandent, comme la Cour l’a d’ailleurs
elle‑même confirmé :
« Pour autant que les décisions en question contiennent des conclusions
de droit, la Cour en tiendra compte, comme elle le fait habituellement
de sa jurisprudence ; autrement dit, quoique ces décisions ne
s’imposent pas à la Cour, celle‑ci ne s’écartera pas de sa jurisprudence
établie, sauf si elle estime avoir pour cela des raisons très particulières.
» 60
69. La majorité n’a nullement avancé de telles raisons. La position
adoptée aujourd’hui par la Cour crée sans nécessité une entrave supplémentaire
à l’examen au fond des demandes portées devant elle. La Cour
a ainsi restreint le rôle qu’elle peut jouer en tant qu’organe permanent
ayant pour mission de régler pacifiquement des différends et, partant,
d’apporter une importante contribution au maintien de la paix et de la
sécurité internationales. L’objet de l’affaire dont la Cour s’est aujourd’hui
dessaisie ne peut que mettre en relief la justesse de cette constatation.
59 EPRU, p. 3, par. 5. Par exemple évoqué par les Iles Marshall dans CR 2016/9, p. 17.
60 Application de la convention pour la prévention et la répression du crime de génocide
(Croatie c. Serbie), exceptions préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2008, p. 428, par. 53.
1092 nuclear arms and disarmament (diss. op. robinson)
263
70. Seen in the light of the considerations set out in Sections I and II
of this opinion, one would be forgiven for concluding that, with this
Judgment, it is as though the Court has written the Foreword in a book
on its irrelevance to the role envisaged for it in the peaceful settlement of
disputes that implicate highly sensitive issues such as nuclear disarmament.
(Signed) Patrick Robinson.
armes nucléaires et désarmement (op. diss. robinson) 1092
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70. A la lumière des considérations exposées aux sections I et II de la
présente opinion, on ne peut s’empêcher de penser que, en rendant le présent
arrêt, la Cour vient d’écrire l’avant‑propos d’un ouvrage annonçant
qu’elle n’est plus à la hauteur du rôle qui lui a été assigné dans le règlement
pacifique des différends lorsque sont en jeu des questions cruciales
et difficiles telles que le désarmement nucléaire.
(Signé) Patrick Robinson.

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