Separate opinion of Judge Sebutinde

Document Number
160-20161005-JUD-01-10-EN
Parent Document Number
160-20161005-JUD-01-00-EN
Document File
Bilingual Document File

SEPARATE OPINION OF JUDGE S EBUTINDE

Object and purpose of the United Nations Charter  Maintenance of international peace

and security  Role of the Court in the peaceful settlement of disputes  The Court’s compulsory
jurisdiction derives from the optional clause declarations pursuant to Article 36, paragraph 2, of
the Court’s Statute and not from the existence of a dispute  The existence of a dispute is merely
the precondition for the exercise of that jurisdiction  Article 38 of the Statute of the Court  The

objective determination of the existence of a dispute is the prerogative of the Court and is a matter
of substance, not of form or procedure  Conduct of the Parties is relevant evidence  The new
legal prerequisite of “awareness by the Respondent that its views were positively opposed” is
formalistic and alien to the Court’s jurisprudence.

INTRODUCTION

1. I have voted against the operative paragraph of the Judgment because I am unable to agree

with the decision of the Court upholding the first preliminary objection of the United Kingdom, as
well as the underlying reasoning. In my view, the majority of the Court has unjustifiably departed
from the flexible and discretionary approach that it has consistently hitherto adopted in determining
the existence of a dispute, choosing instead, to introduce a new rigorous and formalistic test of
“awareness” that raises the evidentiary threshold and that is bound to present the Court with

difficulties in future. Furthermore, given the importance of the subject matter of this case not only
to the Parties involved but to the international community as a whole, I find it regrettable that the
Court has opted to adopt an inflexible approach that has resulted in summarily disposing of this
case at this early stage. I explain my views in more detail in this separate opinion.

RESPONSIBILITY FOR THE MAINTENANCE OF INTERNATIONAL PEACE AND SECURITY

2. If there is one lesson that the international community learnt from the human catastrophes
that were the First and Second World Wars, it was the need for a concerted, global effort

“[t]o save succeeding generations from the scourge of war, which twice in our lifetime
has brought untold sorrow to mankind, and to reaffirm faith in fundamental human
rights, in the dignity and worth of the human person, in the equal rights of men and
women and of nations large and small, and to establish conditions under which justice

and respect for the obligat1ons arising from treaties and other sources of international
law can be maintained . . .” .

3. It is also important to recollect the purpose for which the United Nations was created,

namely,

“to maintain international peace and security, and to that end: to take effective
collective measures for the prevention and removal of threats to peace, and for the
suppression of acts of aggression or other breaches of the peace, and to bring about by

peaceful means, and in conformity with the principles of justice and international law,
adjustment or settlement of international disputes or situations which might lead to a
breach of the peace” .

1United Nations, Charter of the United Nations, 24 Oct. 1945, 1 UNTS XVI, Preamble (hereinafter the “UN
Charter”).

2UN Charter, Art. 1. - 2 -

Under the Charter, although the primary responsibility for the maintenance of international peace
and security lies with the Security Council , and to a lesser extent, the General Assembly , the 4
5
International Court of Justice, as the principal judicial organ of the United Nations does contribute
to the maintenance of international peace and security through its judicial settlement of such
6
inter-State disputes as are referred to it for adjudication and through t7e exercise of its advisory
role in accordance with the Charter and the Statute of the Court . Today there is no greater threat
to international peace and security, or indeed to humanity, than the threat or prospect of a nuclear

war.

T HE NPT AND NUCLEAR DISARMAMENT

4. It may also be useful to briefly recall the historical background to the present case. The
8
Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT) which entered into force in 1970 and
whose objectives are, to prevent the spread of nuclear weapons and weapons technology; to

promote co-operation in the peaceful use of nuclear energy and to further the goal of achieving
nuclear disarmament, currently has 191 States parties including the Marshall Islands and the 9
United Kingdom . However, contrary to the NPT objectives, State practice demonstrates that for

the past nearly 70 years, some States have continued to manufacture, acquire, upgrade, test and/or
deploy nuclear weapons and that a threat of possible use is inherent in such deployment.

Furthermore, State practice demonstrates that far from proscribing the threat or use of nuclear
weapons in all circumstances, the international community has, by treaty and through the United
Nations Security Council, recognized in effect that in certain circumstances the use or threat of use

of nuclear weapons may even be justified.

5. In December 1994 the United Nations General Assembly sought an advisory opinion from
the Court regarding the legality of the threat or use of nuclear weapons . The question posed by

the General Assembly was quite simply “Is the threat or use of nuclear weapons in any
circumstance permitted under international law?” In response, the Court considered that it was
being asked “to determine the legality or illegality of the threat or use of nuclear weapons” . After 12

taking into account the body of international law (including Art. 2, para. 4 and Art. 51 of the
United Nations Charter) as well as the views of a vast number of States that filed their written

submissions before the Court, the Court opined that:

3
UN Charter, Art. 24 (1).
4Ibid., Art. 11.

5Ibid., Art. 92.

6United Nations, Statute of the International Court of Justice, 18 Apr. 1946 (hereinafter the “Statute”), Art. 38.
7
UN Charter, Art. 96 and Statute, Arts. 65-68.
8
Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons, 729 UNTS 161, opened for signature at London, Moscow
and Washington on 1 July 1968 and entered into force 5 March 1970.
9
The Republic of the Marshall Islands (RMI) acceded to the NPT on 30 January 1995. See United Nations Office
of Disarmament Affairs, Marshall Islands: Accession to Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons, available
at: http://disarmament.un.org/treaties/a/npt/marshallislands/acc/washington.
10
The United Kingdom signed the NPT on 1 July 1968 in London, Moscow and Washington and it ratified it on
27 November 1968 in London and Washington and on 29 November 1968 in Moscow. See United Nations Office of
Disarmament Affairs, United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland: Ratification of the NPT, available at:
http://disarmament.un.org/treaties/a/npt/unitedkingdomofgreatbritainand….

11UN General Assembly resolution A/RES/49/75 K, 15 Dec. 1994, Request for an advisory opinion from the
International Court of Justice on the legality of the threat or use of nuclear weapons.

12Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons, Advisory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports 1996 (I), p. 238, para. 20. - 3 -

 there is no specific authorization of the threat or use of nuclear weapons in either
13
customary or conventional international law ;

 there is no comprehensive and universal prohibition of the threat or use of nuclear
weapons as such, in either customary or conventional international law ; 14

 a threat or use of nuclear weapons that was contrary to Article 2, paragraph 4, or
that failed to meet all the requirements of Article 51 of the United Nations
Charter; or that is incompatible with the principles and rules of international

humanitarian law applicable in armed conflict or that is incompatible with treaties
specifically dealing with nuclear weapons, is illegal . 15

6. However, the Court did make one exception to its findings (albeit in an evenly divided
manner ) when it opined that:

“in view of the current state of international law, and of the elements of fact at its
disposal, the Court cannot conclude definitively whether the threat or use of nuclear
weapons would be lawful or unlawful in an extreme circumstance of self-defence, in
which the very survival of a State would be at stake” . 17

7. Finally, although this does not appear to have been in direct answer to the question posed
by the General Assembly, the Court went an extra mile in what, in my view, is the real contribution

of the Court to world peace and security as far as the question of nuclear weapons is concerned. It
stated in paragraphs 98 to 100 of the Advisory Opinion, as follows:

“98. Given the eminently difficult issues that arise in applying the law on the

use of force and above all the law applicable in armed conflict to nuclear weapons, the
Court considers that it now needs to examine one further aspect of the question before
it, seen in a broader context.

In the long run, international law, and with it the stability of the international
order which it is intended to govern, are bound to suffer from the continuing
difference of views with regard to the legal status of weapons as deadly as nuclear

weapons. It is consequently important to put an end to this state of affairs: the
long-promised complete nuclear disarmament appears to be the most appropriate
means of achieving that result.

99. In these circumstances, the Court appreciates the full importance of the
recognition by Article VI of the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons
of an obligation to negotiate in good faith a nuclear disarmament . . . The legal import
of that obligation goes beyond that of a mere obligation of conduct; the obligation

involved here is an obligation to achieve a precise result  nuclear disarmament in all
its aspects  by adopting a particular course of conduct, namely, the pursuit of
negotiations on the matter in good faith.

13Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons, Advisory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports 1996 (I), p. 266,
para. 105 (2) A.
14
Ibid., p. 266, para. 105 (2) B.
15Ibid., p. 266, para. 105 (2) C and D.

16By seven to seven votes with the President having to use his casting vote.
17
Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons, Advisory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports 1996 (I), p. 266,
para. 105 (2) E. - 4 -

100. This twofold obligation to pursue and to conclude negotiations formally
concerns the 182 States parties to the [NPT], or, in other words, the vast majority of

the international community . . . Indeed any realistic search for general and complete
disarmament, especially nuclear disarmament, necessitates the co-operation of all
States.”

8. The Court then unanimously opined in the operative clause that, “There exists an
obligation to pursue in good faith and to bring to a conclusion negotiations leading to nuclear
disarmament in all its aspects under strict and effective international control.” 18 The Advisory

Opinion of the Court, although not legally binding, was well received by the vast majority of NPT
States parties, although it was less welcome by those nuclear-weapon States that were of the view
that the Court had over-stepped its judicial function by rendering this opinion. In December 1996,
the General Assembly passed a resolution endorsing the conclusion of the Court relating to the

existence of “an obligation to pursue in good faith and to bring to a conclusion, negotiations
leading to disarmament in all its aspects under strict and effective international control” and calling
upon all States to immediately commence multilateral negotiations leading to a nuclear weapons
convention prohibiting “the development, production, testing, deployment, stockpiling, threat or
19
use of nuclear weapons” and providing for their elimination .

9. Regrettably, since the adoption of the Court’s Advisory Opinion 20 years ago, the

international community has made little progress towards nuclear disarmament and even the
prospect of negotiations on the conclusion of a nuclear weapons convention seems illusory. It is in
this context that, on 24 April 2014, the Republic of the Marshall Islands (RMI) filed an Application
against each of the nine respondent States (USA, Russia, United Kingdom, France, China, India,

Pakistan, Israel and North Korea) which the Applicant maintains currently possess nuclear
weapons, alleging a failure by the respondent States to fulfil obligations concerning negotiations
relating to the cessation of the nuclear arms race at an early date and to nuclear disarmament. Of
the nine respondent States, only Pakistan, India and the United Kingdom (UK) formally responded

to the RMI Application, each of the three States having previously filed declarations pursuant to
Article 36, paragraph 2 of the Statute of the Court recognizing the compulsory jurisdiction of the
Court (Judgment, paragraph 22).

T HE THRESHOLD FOR DETERMINING THE EXISTENCE OF A DISPUTE
AND THE NEW CRITERION OF “AWARENESS ”

10. The RMI bases the jurisdiction of the Court on its optional clause declaration pursuant to
Article 36, paragraph 2, of the Statute of the Court dated 15 March 2013 and deposited on
24 April 2013, recognizing the compulsory jurisdiction of the Court , and that of the UK made on

1Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons, Advisory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports 1996 (I), p. 267,
para. 105 (2) F.
19
UN General Assembly resolution A/RES/51/45 M, 10 Dec. 1996, Advisory Opinion of the International Court
of Justice on the legality of the threat or use of nuclear weapons. The General Assembly has been adopting an almost
identical resolution every year, since the handing down of the Nuclear Weapons Advisory Opinion. See UN General
Assembly resolutions 52/38 O of 9 Dec. 1997;53/77 W of 4 Dec. 1998; 54/54 Q of 1 Dec. 1999; 55/33 X of
20 Nov. 2000; 56/24 S of 29 Nov. 2001; 57/85 of 22 Nov. 2002; 58/46 of 8 Dec. 2003; 59/83 of 3 Dec. 2004; 60/76 of
8 Dec. 2005; 61/83 of 6 Dec. 2006; 62/39 of 5 Dec. 2007; 63/49 of 2 Dec. 2008; 64/55 of 2 Dec. 2009; 65/76 of
8 Dec. 2010; 66/46 of 2 Dec. 2011; 67/33 of 3 Dec. 2012; 68/42 of 5 Dec. 2013; 69/43 of 2 Dec. 2014; 70/56 of
7 Dec. 2015.
20
Optional Clause Declaration of the Marshall Islands, 24 Apr. 2013, available at: http://www.icj-cij.org/juris-
diction/index.php?p1=5&p2=1&p3=3&code=MH. - 5 -

5 July 2004, and deposited on 5 July 2004 (Judgment, paragraph 1) , which Declarations the RMI
22
claims are “without pertinent reservations” . Paragraph 23 of the Judgment outlines the five
preliminary objections raised by the UK against the RMI claim. In support of its preliminary

objection based on the absence of a dispute, the UK argues that (a) prior to filing its Application,
the RMI never brought its claim to the UK’s attention , nor attempted to hold diplomatic
24
negotiations with the UK regarding its claims ; and (b) that claim of the RMI is artificial and
political in nature.

11. The UK further points out that the RMI Memorial only made reference to two statements
as proof of the existence of a dispute between the Parties, and that neither the content of these
statements nor the circumstances in which they were made provide any evidence of the existence of
25
a dispute between the RMI and the UK on the date of the filing of the Application . The first
statement was made in the aforementioned United Nations High-level Meeting, and was addressed
26
to “all nuclear weapon States” . The Respondent observes this statement did not specifically
mention the UK and that it could not in any way be viewed as invoking the latter’s responsibility
27
under international law for any breach of the NPT or of customary international law . The
Respondent further observes that the second statement relied upon by the RMI was made at an
28
international conference at which the UK was not present . The UK argues that the RMI took no
steps to bring this statement to the attention of the UK . Accordingly there could be no conflict of
30
legal positions between the two Parties, and as such no legal dispute between them .

12. During oral arguments the UK affirmed that it views the obligation established in
Article VI of the NPT as the “cornerstone” of that treaty , and that as a nuclear-weapon State, it

has acted unilaterally, significantly reducing not only its own stockpile of weapons but also their
delivery systems . The UK also cited statements made by then Prime Minister Gordon Brown,
33
accepting the disarmament obligations established in the NPT , and those made by the Preparatory
Committees leading to the 2015 NPT Review Conference as proof that the UK is in fact committed
34
to fulfilling its obligations regarding nuclear disarmament .

2Optional Clause Declaration of the United Kingdom, 5 Jul. 2004, available at: http://www.icj-cij.org/juris-
diction/index.php?p1=5&p2=1&p3=3&code=GB.

2Application of the Marshall Islands (AMI), para. 114 and Memorial of the Marshall Islands (MMI),
paras. 93-94.

2Preliminary Objections of the United Kingdom (POUK), p. 14, para. 29, citing Art. 43 of the ILC Articles on

State Responsibility.
2CR 2016/3, p. 19, para. 25 and CR 2016/7, p. 13, paras. 17-18.

2Ibid., and CR 2016/3, p. 26, para. 41 (Bethlehem).

2POUK, p. 22, para. 47, citing MMI, p. 98, Ann. 71.

2Ibid. and CR 2016/3, pp. 26-27, para. 42 (Bethlehem).

2POUK, p. 23, para. 48 and CR 2016/3, p. 27, para. 44.

2POUK, p. 23, para. 48.
30
POUK, p. 24, para. 52.
31
CR 2016/7, p. 14, para. 20.
32
CR 2016/7, p. 14, para. 20.
33
CR 2016/7, p. 15, paras. 21-22.
34
CR 2016/7, p. 15, para. 22, the cited statement reads: - 6 -

13. The RMI requests the Court to overrule the UK’s preliminary objections, maintaining

that a dispute did exist at the time it filed its Application, the subject-matter of which is “the UK’s
non-compliance with its legal obligations under Article VI of the NPT and under customary
international law to pursue in good faith, and bring to a conclusion, negotiations leading to the
cessation of the nuclear arms race at an early date and to nuclear disarmament” . The RMI further

submits that prior notification to the UK of its intention to commence proceedings is not a
necessary requirement. The RMI argues further that it has repeatedly called for nuclear-weapon
States, including the UK, to comply with their international obligations and to negotiate nuclear
36
disarmament . In particular it refers to two of its statements made publicly in multilateral
international conferences before the Application was filed. First, on 26 September 2013, at the
United Nations High-level Meeting on Nuclear Disarmament, the Minister of Foreign Affairs of the
RMI called upon “all nuclear weapon States to intensify efforts to address their responsibilities in
37
moving towards an effective and secure disarmament” . Secondly, on 13 February 2014, during
the Second Conference on the Humanitarian Impact of Nuclear Weapons at Nayarit, Mexico, the
RMI representative made similar remarks . 38

14. The RMI submits that these and other public statements illustrate “with extreme clarity
the content of the claim” and that these statements were “unequivocally directed against all States
39
possessing nuclear arsenals, including the United Kingdom” (emphasis added). The fact that the
UK participated in at least one of those conferences was, according to the RMI, sufficient to
consider it notified of the claim of the RMI, in particular, because the RMI statements were very

clear on the subject-matter of the dispute as well as its legal basis, namely, the failure of
nuclear-weapon States to seriously engage in multilateral negotiations leading to nuclear
disarmament arising under the NPT and/or customary international law.

15. In its Judgment, the Court upholds the UK’s preliminary objection to jurisdiction on the
ground that there was no dispute between the Parties prior to the filing of the RMI Application
(Judgment, paragraph 59). I respectfully disagree with that decision as well as the underlying

reasoning, and set out my reasons in this separate opinion. In my view, the evidence on record,
when properly tested against the criteria well-established in the Court’s jurisprudence, shows that a
dispute did exist, albeit in a nascent form, between the Parties before the filing of the Application

and that this dispute crystallized during the proceedings. I particularly disagree with the new
criterion of “awareness” that the majority introduces, as well as the formalistic and inflexible
approach taken in the determination of whether or not a dispute exists (Judgment,

paragraphs 41-53).

16. First, as the Judgment rightly points out, the Court’s function under Article 38 of its

Statute, is to decide such inter-State disputes as are referred to it (Judgment, paragraph 36). In
cases such as this one, where States have made declarations (with or without reservations)

“our enduring commitment to the fulfillment of our obligations under article VI of the Non-Proliferation
Treaty and noted our ‘determination to work together in pursuit of our shared goal of nuclear
disarmament under article VI, including engagement on the steps outlined in action 5 of the 2010 Review
Conference action plan, as well as other efforts called for in the action plan”.
35
MMI, pp. 17-18, para. 42.
36MMI, p. 9, para. 16.

37MMI, Vol. I, Ann. 4: Statement by Hon. Mr. Phillip Muller, Minister of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of the
Marshall Islands, 26 Sep. 2013.
38
MMI, Vol. II, Ann. 72: Marshall Islands Statement, Second Conference on the Humanitarian Impact of Nuclear
Weapons, Nayarit, Mexico, 13-14 Feb. 2014; CR 2016/1, pp. 18-19, para. 14 (deBrum), and CR 2016/1, p. 37, para. 20
(Condorelli).
39
Written Statement of the Marshall Islands (WSMI), p. 16, para. 34. - 7 -

recognizing the compulsory jurisdiction of the Court under Article 36, paragraph 2, of that Statute,

the jurisdiction of the Court emanates from those very declarations rather than from the existence
of a dispute as such (Judgment, paragraph 36). The existence of a dispute between the contending
States is merely a precondition for the exercise of that jurisdiction.

17. Secondly, the Judgment rightly defines a dispute as “a disagreement on a point of law or
fact, a conflict of legal views or of interests between parties” (Judgment, paragraph 37). The
Judgment also correctly states that it is for the Court and not the Parties to determine objectively

whether a dispute exists after examining the facts or evidence before it (Judgment, paragraph 39)
and that such determination is a matter of substance and not procedure or form (Judgment,
paragraph 38). Thirdly, it is clear from the Court’s jurisprudence that neither prior notification by

the applicant, of its claim to the respondent, nor a formal diplomatic protest by the applicant, are
necessary prerequisites for purposes of determining the existence of a dispute (Judgment
paragraph 38). This is particularly so since the NPT, to which both the UK and RMI are party,

contains no provision requiring prior notification or diplomatic negotiations.

18. While the Judgment correctly rehearses the Court’s jurisprudence regarding the

definition of a “dispute” and the fact that determination of the existence of a dispute is “a matter of
substance, and not a question of form or procedure”, I disagree with the approach and analysis that
the majority has employed in arriving at the conclusion that there is no dispute between the Parties.
I find that approach not only to be both formalistic and procedural, but also lacking in addressing

the substantive aspects of the Applicant’s claim, such as the conduct of the Respondent. Given the
importance of the subject-matter of nuclear disarmament to the international community at large, I
believe that this is not a case that should have been easily dismissed on a formalistic or procedural

finding that no dispute exists between the contending Parties. Instead, a more substantive approach
that analyses the conduct of the contesting States right up until 24 April 2014 should have been
undertaken in determining whether the Parties had “clearly opposite views” . 40 The Court’s
jurisprudence clearly demonstrates the Court’s consistent preference for a flexible approach that

steers clear of formality or procedural rigour, right from the days of the Permanent Court of
International Justice , and until more recently in Croatia v. Serbia . 42

19. Under Article 40, paragraph 1, of the Statute and Article 38, paragraph 2, of the Rules of
Court, an applicant is required to indicate the “subject of the dispute” in the Application and to
specify therein the “precise nature of the claim” . The RMI did specify its claim or subject-matter

of the dispute in its Application and Memorial as “the failure of the UK to honour its obligation
towards the Applicant (and other States) to pursue in good faith and bring to a conclusion,
negotiations leading to nuclear disarmament in all its aspects under strict and effective international
44
control” . However, it is not sufficient, for purposes of demonstrating the existence of a dispute,
for the RMI to articulate its claims in its Application and Memorial. Nor is it sufficient merely for

40Alleged Violations of Sovereign Rights and Maritime Spaces in the Caribbean Sea (Nicaragua v. Colombia),

Preliminary Objections, Judgment of 17 March 2016, para. 50.
41Mavrommatis Palestine Concessions, Judgment No. 2, 1924, P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 2, p. 34; Certain German
Interests in Polish Upper Silesia, Jurisdiction, Judgment No. 6, 1925, P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 6, p. 14.

42Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Croatia v. Serbia),
Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2008, pp. 428-441, paras. 80-85; Application of the International
Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (Georgia v. Russian Federation), Preliminary
Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2011 (I), pp. 84-85, para. 30.
43
Obligation to Negotiate Access to the Pacific Ocean (Bolivia v. Chile), Preliminary Objection, Judgment, I.C.J.
Reports 2015 (II), p. 602, para. 25; Fisheries Jurisdiction (Spain v. Canada), Jurisdiction of the Court, Judgment, I.C.J.
Reports 1998, p. 448, para. 29.
44
AMI, parts III and IV and MMI, para. 2. - 8 -

one party to assert that a dispute exists or for the other to deny that it does. It must, in this case, be
demonstrated that the claims of the RMI are positively opposed by the UK or that there is “a
disagreement on a point of law or fact, a conflict of legal views or of interests” between the two
45
Parties and that this was the case at the time the Application was filed.

20. In order for the Court to determine on an objective basis, whether or not an international

dispute exists between the Parties, it must examine the facts or evidence before it, “isolate[ing] the
real issue in the case and identify[ing] the object of the claim” . As previously emphasized, the
matter is one of substance, not form . Although the dispute must in principle exist at the time the
48
Application is submitted to the Court , there have been cases in which the Court has adopted a
more flexible position, considering that facts arising after the application has been filed may be
taken into account. For example, in the Border and Transborder Armed Actions (Nicaragua v.

Honduras) case, the Court held that:

“It may however be necessary, in order to determine with certainty what the

situation was at the date of filing of the Application, to examine the events, and in
particular the relations between the Parties, over a period prior to that date, and indeed
during the subsequent period.” 49

21. Furthermore, although the Court has stated in the South West Africa cases that in order
50
for a dispute to exist, the claim of one party must be “positively opposed” by the other , such
“positive opposition” should not be perceived as a formal or procedural disagreement on a point of
law or fact only. In my view, the Court should, consistent with its jurisprudence rehearsed in the

Judgment (paragraphs 37–40), adopt a substantive approach whereby if one State adopts a course
of conduct to achieve its own interests, which conduct is then protested by the other, a positive
opposition of views or interests is demonstrated. The perspective that takes into account the

conduct of the contesting parties in determining the existence or otherwise of a dispute, and with
which I agree, was aptly expressed by Judge Gaetano Morelli in his dissenting opinion in the South
West Africa cases when he stated as follows:

“1. As to a disagreement upon a point of law or fact, it is to be observed that,
while such a disagreement may be present and commonly (but not necessarily) is

present where there is a dispute, the two things (disagreement and dispute) are not the
same. In any event it is abundantly clear that a disagreement on a point of law or fact,

45Mavrommatis Palestine Concessions, P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 2, Judgment, 1924, p. 11; emphasis added. It has

also been repeated by the ICJ in: Application of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial
Discrimination (Georgia v. Russian Federation), Preliminary Objections, I.C.J. Reports 2011 (I), pp. 84-85, para. 30;
Applicability of the Obligation to Arbitrate under Section 21 of the United Nations Headquarters Agreement of
26 June 1947, Advisory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports 1988, p. 12, paras. 37-44.
46
Nuclear Tests (Australia v. France), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1974, p. 262, para. 29; Nuclear Tests (New
Zealand v. France), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1974, p. 466, para. 30; Obligation to Negotiate Access to the Pacific
Ocean (Bolivia v. Chile), Preliminary Objection, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2015 (I), p. 602, para. 26.
47Application of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination

(Georgia v. Russian Federation), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2011 (I), pp. 84-85, para. 30.
48Ibid.; Questions of Interpretation and Application of the 1971 Montreal Convention arising from the Aerial
Incident at Lockerbie (Libya v. United Kingdom), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1998, pp. 25-26,
paras. 43-45; Questions of Interpretation and Application of the 1971 Montreal Convention arising from the Aerial

Incident at Lockerbie (Libya v. United States of America), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1998,
pp. 130-131, paras. 42-44.
49Border and Transborder Armed Actions (Nicaragua v. Honduras), Jurisdiction and Admissibility, Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports, 1988, p. 95, para. 66.

50South West Africa (Ethiopia v. South Africa; Liberia v. South Africa) Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J.
Reports 1962, p. 328. - 9 -

which may indeed be theoretical, is not sufficient for a dispute to be regarded as

existing.

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2. In my opinion, a dispute consists, not of a conflict of interests as such,
but rather in a contrast between the respective attitudes of the parties in relation
to a certain conflict of interests. The opposing attitudes of the parties, in

relation to a given conflict of interests, may respectively consist of the
manifestations of the will by which each of the parties requires that its own
interest be realized. It is the case of a dispute resulting, on the one side, from a

claim by one of the parties and, on the other side, of the contesting of that claim
by the other party. But it may also be that one of the opposing attitudes of the
parties consists, not of a manifestation of the will, but rather of a course of

conduct by means of which the party pursuing that course directly achieves its
own interest. This is the case of a claim which is followed not by the contesting
of the claim but by the adoption of a course of conduct by the other party
inconsistent with the claim. And this is the case too where there is in first place

a course of conduct by one of the parties to achieve its own interest, which the
other party meets by a protest.” 51

22. In order to determine with certainty what the situation was at the date of filing of the
RMI Application, it is necessary to examine the conduct of the Parties over the period prior to that
date, and during the subsequent period. The conduct and position of each of the Parties over the

years regarding the possession of nuclear weapons is not in dispute. The UK, on the one hand,
maintains that as one of the nuclear-weapon States, it has significantly reduced its nuclear arsenal , 52
but is entitled, in the interests of national security to maintain a minimum level of nuclear arsenal

for “primarily deterrent purposes” w53se use would only be contemplated in “extreme
circumstances of self-defence” . Further, the UK accepts that it is bound by the NPT and in
particular Article VI thereof, but considers that the maintenance of nuclear arsenal for the stated
54
purposes is not in any way incompatible with its obligations under the NPT . The UK also
remains committed to multilateral negotiations under the NPT towards nuclear disarmament.
However, the conduct of the UK that the RMI has raised issue with, not only in its statements in the

multilateral conferences but also in its Application and Memorial, is “the UK’s non-compliance
with its legal obligations under the NPT and customary international law to pursue in good faith,
and bring to a conclusion, negotiations leading to nuclear disarmament” . Furthermore, the RMI
has also objected to the UK’s qualitative and quantitative improvement of its nuclear arsenal . 56

23. The RMI maintains that the UK’s course of conduct, consisting on the one hand, its

participation in the nuclear arms race and, on the other hand, its failure to pursue multilateral

51
South West Africa (Ethiopia v. South Africa; Liberia v. South Africa) Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J.
Reports 1962; dissenting opinion of Judge Morelli, pp. 566-567, Part II, paras. 1-2.
52MMI, Ann. 15: Security Britain in an Age of Uncertainty: The Strategic Defence and Security Review,
19 Oct. 2010 Cm 7948, available at: https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/ attachment_data-
/file/62482/strategic-defence-security-review.pdf; AMI, pp. 14-15, para. 34.

53Statement by Defence Secretary of the United Kingdom, Des Browne, in the House of Commons, on
22 May 2006, available at: http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm200506/cmhansrd/vo060522/tex…-
.htm#06052325002261.

54The UK’s position is evident from the statements of high-ranking Government officials made both domestically
and during international conferences, some of which statements have been referred to by the Parties in their pleadings.
55
MMI, pp. 17-18, para. 42.
56AMI, p. 39, paras. (a) to (d). - 10 -

negotiations towards nuclear disarmament, is inconsistent with its obligations under the NPT and

customary international law. Without prejudging the issue of whether or not the UK’s conduct
referred to above actually constitutes a breach of an obligation under the NPT or customary
international law (an issue clearly for the merits), the question for determination is whether, before

filing its Application against the UK on 24 April 2014, the Parties held clearly opposite views
concerning the United Kingdom’s performance or non-performance of certain international
obligations.

24. In this regard, I have taken into account relevant statements of high-ranking officials of

each 57 the Parties. The RMI specifically mentions the statements it made when it joined the
NPT , and those made during the 2010 NPT Review Conference; the 2013 United Nations
High-level Meeting on Nuclear Disarmament , and the 2014 Conference on the Humanitarian
59
Impact of Nuclear Weapons . The RMI argues that those statements were sufficient to make each
and every one of the nuclear-weapon States, including the UK, aware of the RMI position on the
matter .0

25. First, on 6 May 2010 at the NPT Review Conference where the UK was
well represented, the RMI representative declared: “We have no tolerance for anything less than
61
strict adherence by Parties to their legal obligations under the NPT.” On another occasion, the
views of the RMI on nuclear disarmament were clearly communicated to all nuclear-weapon States
present in New York on 26 September 2013, at the UN High-level Meeting on Nuclear

Disarmament, when the Minister of Foreign Affairs of the RMI called upon: “all nuclear weapon
states to intensify efforts to address their responsibilities in moving towards an effective and secure
disarmament” . Again the UK was well represented at this conference. The UK was represented

at that meeting by Mr. Alistair Burt, Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State of the
United Kingdom and Northern Ireland, who also made a joint statement on behalf of the UK,
France and the USA . 63 In that statement, Mr. Burt emphasized the need for a methodical,

step-by-step approach towards the ultimate goal of nuclear disarmament, including the negotiation
of a Fissile Material Cut-off Treaty and the entry into force of the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty
(an approach preferred by the three States), as opposed to initiatives such as “the humanitarian
consequences campaign” (favoured by the RMI). In my view, the content of the two statements at

this conference (i.e., that of the UK and that of the RMI) further demonstrate the opposing views of
the Parties regarding the UK’s performance or non-performance of international obligations.

26. Furthermore, the views of the RMI on nuclear disarmament were clearly communicated
to all nuclear-weapon States present on 13 February 2014, at the Second Conference on the

Humanitarian Impact of Nuclear Weapons, when the RMI made the so-called “Nayarit
Declaration” stating that:

57
CR 2016/5, p. 9, paras. 9-11 (deBrum), citing: Letter dated 22 June 1995 from the Permanent Representative of
the Marshall Islands to the United Nations, together with Written Statement of the Government of the Marshall Islands.
58
MMI, p. 43, para. 98 and CR 2016/9, p. 18, para. 7 (Condorelli).
5WSMI, p. 16, para. 34 and CR 2016/5, p. 27, para. 18 (Condorelli).

6WSMI, p. 16, para. 35.
61
WSMI, p. 15, para. 32.
6MMI, pp. 18-19, para. 45, citing Statement by Hon. Mr. Phillip Muller, Minister of Foreign Affairs of the
Republic of the Marshall Islands, 26 Sep. 2013; emphasis added.

6POUK, Ann. 9: Statement of the Parliamentary Under Secretary of State of the United Kingdom of
Great Britain and Northern Ireland, Alistair Burt, on behalf of France, the United Kingdom and the United States at the
UN General Assembly High-level Meeting on Nuclear Disarmament on 26 Sep. 2013. - 11 -

“the Marshall Islands is convinced that multilateral negotiations on achieving and
sustaining a world free of nuclear weapons are long overdue. Indeed we believe that
states possessing nuclear arsenals are failing to fulfill their legal obligations in this
regard. Immediate commencement and conclusion of such negotiations is required by
legal obligation of nuclear disarmament resting upon each and every State under
64
Article VI of the Non Proliferation Treaty and customary international law.”
(Emphasis added.)

27. However, the UK made a deliberate decision not to attend this Conference. Its absence

was explained as follows:

“The UK Government outlined its general position towards the Conference in a
letter to Jeremy Corbyn on 12 February 2014. This was in relation to the question of
UK attendance at the Conference in Mexico in February . . .

In that letter, Mr. Robertson explained that the UK ‘shares the deep concern at
the catastrophic humanitarian consequences of any use of nuclear weapons, expressed
by the NPT State Parties at the 2010 Review Conference’. He added, however, that
after careful consideration, the Foreign and Commonwealth Office had decided
against attending the Mexico conference because of concerns that ‘some efforts under

the humanitarian consequences initiative appear increasingly aimed at pursuing a
Nuclear Weapons Convention prohibiting nuclear weapons outright’. He went on to
state that ‘the UK believes the NPT should remain the cornerstone of the international
nuclear non-proliferation regime and the essential foundation for the pursuit of nuclear
disarmament and for peaceful uses of nuclear energy’. As such the best way to

achieve the goal of a world without nuclear weapons is ‘through gradu65 disarmament
negotiated using the NPT Step by Step process and Review cycle’.”

28. The UK’s decision not to participate in this conference was clearly consistent with its

long-standing position on multilateral negotiations towards nuclear disarmament. It is also clear
that the UK was wary of what it describes as “efforts under the humanitarian consequences
initiative aimed at pursuing a Nuclear Weapons Convention prohibiting nuclear weapons outright”,
as this is clearly not the kind of approach to nuclear disarmament the UK favours. Based on the
above explanation, it cannot be said that the UK was totally oblivious of the Nayarit agenda or of

the fact that non-nuclear-weapon States like the RMI would be taking a view opposed to that of the
UK as far as multilateral negotiations on nuclear disarmament are concerned. Quite to the
contrary, the UK anticipated the thrust of the discussions at Nayarit and decided it was not
meaningful for it to attend the conference. Thus, far from proving the UK’s ignorance or
“unawareness” (to use the new criterion adopted by the majority) of what transpired at Nayarit, this

tactical or deliberate avoidance of the Nayarit conference is further demonstration of the opposing
views between the UK and the RMI. The Court should have taken into account the UK’s conduct
in this regard instead of taking a formalistic approach and concluding that it was “unaware” of the
RMI position at Nayarit.

29. In my view, those statements also represent the RMI’s claim that nuclear-weapon States,
including the UK, are obliged under the NPT and/or customary international law, to pursue
negotiations leading to nuclear disarmament. Furthermore, I do not subscribe to the view that in

64
MMI, Vol. II, Ann. 72; Marshall Islands Statement, Second Conference on the Humanitarian Impact of Nuclear
Weapons, Nayarit, Mexico, 13-14 Feb. 2014.
6Conference on the Humanitarian Impact of Nuclear Weapons, House of Commons Research Note prepared by
Claire Mills, 3 Dec. 2014, p. 7. - 12 -

the context of these multilateral conferences, it was necessary for the RMI to single out and name
each of the nine nuclear States in order for it to validly express its claim against each of them

(Judgment, paragraphs 49-50). A distinction ought to be drawn between a purely bilateral setting
where the applicant must single out the respondent and articulate to that respondent the particular
conduct to which the applicant is opposed, and a setting involving multilateral exchanges or

processes such as the present case, where it is well known throughout the international community,
that amongst the over 191 member States to the NPT, only nine possess nuclear weapons. To insist
that the RMI should have identified each of these States by name and mentioned the conduct of
each one that it objects to, is to apply form over substance.

THE NEW CRITERION OF “AWARENESS ” IN DETERMINING THE EXISTENCE
OF A DISPUTE IS ALIEN TO THE C OURT ’S JURISPRUDENCE

30. Hitherto, the Court has not made it a legal prerequisite for an applicant to prove that
before the application was filed, the respondent State “was aware or could not have been unaware
that its views are positively opposed by the applicant” State, before making a determination that a

dispute exists (Judgment, paragraph 41). This new test is not only alien to the established
jurisprudence of the Court but also directly contradicts what the Court has stated in the past and
with no convincing reasons. On every occasion that the Court has had to examine the issue of

whether or not66 dispute exists, it has emphasized that this is a role reserved for its objective
determination (not that of the parties) and that that determination must involve an examination in
substance and not form, of the facts or evidence before the Court . For example, the Court has
categorically stated in the South West Africa cases that:

“A mere assertion is not sufficient to prove the existence of a dispute any more than a
mere denial of the existence of the dispute proves its non-existence. Nor is it adequate to

show that the interests of the two parties to such a case a68 in conflict. It must be shown that
the claim of one party is positively opposed by the other.”

Also in Nicaragua v. Colombia the Court stated that,

“although a formal diplomatic protest may be an important step to bring the claim of one
party to the attention of the other, such a formal protest is not a necessary condition [for the
69
existence of a dispute]” .

31. By introducing proof of “awareness” as a new legal requirement, what the majority has

done was to raise the evidentiary threshold that will from now on require not only an applicant, but
the Court itself, to delve into the “mind” of a respondent State in order to find out about its state of
awareness. In my view, this formalistic requirement is not only problematic but also directly
contradicts the principle in Nicaragua v. Colombia quoted above, since the surest way of ensuring

awareness is for an applicant to make some form of formal notification or diplomatic protest. The

6Interpretation of Peace Treaties with Bulgaria, Hungary and Romania, Second Phase, Advisory Opinion, I.C.J.

Reports 1950, p. 74.
6Application of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination
(Georgia v. Russian Federation), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2011 (I), pp. 84-85, para. 30.
68
South West Africa (Ethiopia v. South Africa; Liberia v. South Africa), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J.
Reports 1962, p. 328.
69
Alleged Violations of Sovereign Rights and Maritime Spaces in the Caribbean Sea (Nicaragua v. Colombia)
Preliminary Objections, Judgment of 17 March 2016, para. 72. - 13 -

test also introduces subjectivity into an equation previously reserved “for the Court’s objective

determination”.

32. It is also pertinent to note that paragraph 73 of Nicaragua v. Colombia cited by the

majority at paragraph 41 of the Judgment as the basis for the new “awareness” test, merely sets out 70
the factual assessment conducted by the Court to determine whether a dispute existed in that case ,
and not the legal test applicable. In paragraph 72 of Nicaragua v. Colombia, immediately
preceding, the Court had just observed that,

“although a formal diplomatic protest may be an important step to bring a claim of one
party to the attention of the other, such a formal protest is not a necessary condition.

. . . in deter71ning whether a dispute exists or not, ‘[t]he matter is one of substance,
not of form’” .

It is clear that the Court in that case was not prepared to turn a specific factual finding into a

formalistic legal requirement for prior notification. In my view, it would be inappropriate to turn
what was clearly a factual observation into a rigid legal test that was rejected by the Court in that
case.

72
33. Similarly, Georgia v. Russian Federation , also cited in the Judgment at paragraph 41 in
support of the majority view, is inapplicable and should be distinguished. That case involved the

interpretation and application of a specific treaty (the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms
of Racial Discrimination) to which both Georgia and Russia were party. Article 22 of that treaty
(the compromissory clause conferring jurisdiction on the Court) has an express requirement that,
prior to filing a case before the Court, the contending parties must first try to settle the dispute by
73
negotiation or by other processes stipulated in the Convention . It was imperative in that case for
the Applicant to prove that prior to seising the Court, it had not only notified the Respondent of its
claims but that the two had attempted negotiating a settlement. It was therefore logical that the

respondent formally be made “aware” of the applicant’s claim before negotiations could take place.
That case is in stark contrast to the present case where no such compromissory clause exists
requiring prior negotiations or formal notification or “awareness”. Accordingly Georgia v. Russian

Federation is, in my view, distinguishable and inapplicable as an authority for the “awareness” test.

70The exact quotation of para. 73 is “Colombia was aware that its enactment of Decree 1946 and its conduct in
the maritime areas declared by the 2012 Judgment to belong to Nicaragua were positively opposed by Nicaragua”. The

applicable legal framework regarding the existence of the dispute is quoted at: Alleged Violations of Sovereign Rights
and Maritime Spaces in the Caribbean Sea (Nicaragua v. Colombia), Preliminary Objections, Judgment of
17 March 2016, paras. 49-52.
71Ibid., para. 72.

72Application of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination
(Georgia v. Russian Federation) Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2011 (I).
73
Art. 22 of the Convention stipulated that:
“Any dispute between two or more States parties with respect to the interpretation or application
of this Convention, which is not settled by negotiation or by procedures expressly provided for in this
Convention, shall, at the request of any of the parties to the dispute, be referred to the International Court

of Justice for decision, unless the disputants agree to another mode of settlement.” - 14 -

CONCLUSION

34. Based on the evidence examined above, my view is that, as at the date on which the
Application was filed, there existed a dispute between the Parties concerning the alleged violation
by the UK, of an obligation under Article VI of the NPT and under customary international law to
pursue in good faith and bring to a conclusion, negotiations leading to nuclear disarmament in all
its aspects under strict and effective international control.

(Signed) Julia EBUTINDE .

___________

Bilingual Content

1039
210
SEPARATE OPINION OF JUDGE SEBUTINDE
Object and purpose of the United Nations Charter — Maintenance of
international peace and security — Role of the Court in the peaceful settlement of
disputes — The Court’s compulsory jurisdiction derives from the optional clause
declarations pursuant to Article 36, paragraph 2, of the Court’s Statute and not
from the existence of a dispute — The existence of a dispute is merely the
precondition for the exercise of that jurisdiction — Article 38 of the Statute of the
Court — The objective determination of the existence of a dispute is the prerogative
of the Court and is a matter of substance, not of form or procedure — Conduct of
the Parties is relevant evidence — The new legal prerequisite of “awareness by the
Respondent that its views were positively opposed” is formalistic and alien to the
Court’s jurisprudence.
Introduction
1. I have voted against the operative paragraph of the Judgment
because I am unable to agree with the decision of the Court upholding the
first preliminary objection of the United Kingdom, as well as the underlying
reasoning. In my view, the majority of the Court has unjustifiably
departed from the flexible and discretionary approach that it has consistently
hitherto adopted in determining the existence of a dispute, choosing
instead, to introduce a new rigorous and formalistic test of “awareness”
that raises the evidentiary threshold and that is bound to present the
Court with difficulties in future. Furthermore, given the importance of the
subject-matter
of this case not only to the Parties involved but to the
international community as a whole, I find it regrettable that the Court
has opted to adopt an inflexible approach that has resulted in summarily
disposing of this case at this early stage. I explain my views in more detail
in this separate opinion.
Responsibility for the Maintenance
of International Peace and Security
2. If there is one lesson that the international community learnt from
the human catastrophes that were the First and Second World Wars, it
was the need for a concerted, global effort
“[t]o save succeeding generations from the scourge of war, which
twice in our lifetime has brought untold sorrow to mankind, and to
reaffirm faith in fundamental human rights, in the dignity and worth
1039
210
OPINION INDIVIDUELLE DE Mme LA JUGE SEBUTINDE
[Traduction]
Objet et but de la Charte des Nations Unies — Maintien de la paix et de la
sécurité internationales — Rôle de la Cour dans le règlement pacifique des
différends — Juridiction obligatoire de la Cour découlant des déclarations faites en
vertu de la clause facultative énoncée au paragraphe 2 de l’article 36 du Statut de
la Cour, et non de l’existence d’un différend — Existence d’un différend n’étant
que la condition préalable à l’exercice de la compétence — Article 38 du Statut de
la Cour — Détermination objective de l’existence d’un différend étant une
prérogative de la Cour et une question de fond, et non de forme ou de procédure —
Comportement des Parties constituant un élément de preuve pertinent — Nouvelle
condition préalable de la « connaissance, [par le défendeur], de ce que ses vues se
heurtaient à l’« opposition manifeste » du demandeur » étant formaliste et étrangère
à la jurisprudence de la Cour.
Introduction
1. J’ai voté contre le dispositif de l’arrêt car je ne saurais souscrire à la
décision de la Cour consistant à retenir la première exception préliminaire
du Royaume‑Uni, ni au raisonnement qui la sous‑tend. Selon moi, la
majorité s’est, de manière injustifiable, écartée de l’approche souple et discrétionnaire
qui avait jusqu’alors toujours été celle de la Cour pour déterminer
l’existence d’un différend, préférant introduire un nouveau critère
strict et formaliste — celui de la « connaissance » — qui élève le seuil
requis en matière de preuve et posera assurément problème à l’avenir. De
surcroît, compte tenu de l’importance de l’objet de la présente affaire, non
seulement pour les Parties en cause mais aussi pour la communauté internationale
dans son ensemble, je regrette que la Cour ait décidé d’adopter
une approche rigide ayant abouti à un règlement expéditif à ce stade précoce
de la procédure. J’exposerai mes vues plus en détail dans la présente
opinion individuelle.
Responsabilité du maintien
de la paix et de la sécurité internationales
2. S’il est un enseignement que la communauté internationale a tiré des
tragédies humaines des première et seconde guerres mondiales, c’est la
nécessité d’oeuvrer de manière globale et concertée pour
« préserver les générations futures du fléau de la guerre qui deux fois
en l’espace d’une vie humaine a infligé à l’humanité d’indicibles souffrances,
… proclamer à nouveau notre foi dans les droits fondamen-
1040 nuclear arms and disarmament (sep. op. sebutinde)
211
of the human person, in the equal rights of men and women and of
nations large and small, and to establish conditions under which justice
and respect for the obligations arising from treaties and other
sources of international law can be maintained . . .” 1.
3. It is also important to recollect the purpose for which the
United Nations was created, namely,
“to maintain international peace and security, and to that end: to take
effective collective measures for the prevention and removal of threats
to peace, and for the suppression of acts of aggression or other
breaches of the peace, and to bring about by peaceful means, and in
conformity with the principles of justice and international law, adjustment
or settlement of international disputes or situations which might
lead to a breach of the peace” 2.
Under the Charter, although the primary responsibility for the maintenance
of international peace and security lies with the Security Council 3,
and to a lesser extent, the General Assembly 4, the International Court of
Justice, as the principal judicial organ of the United Nations 5 does contribute
to the maintenance of international peace and security through its
judicial settlement of such inter‑State disputes as are referred to it for
adjudication 6 and through the exercise of its advisory role in accordance
with the Charter and the Statute of the Court 7. Today there is no greater
threat to international peace and security, or indeed to humanity, than
the threat or prospect of a nuclear war.
The NPT and Nuclear Disarmament
4. It may also be useful to briefly recall the historical background to
the present case. The Treaty on the Non‑Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons
(NPT) which entered into force in 1970 8 and whose objectives are, to
prevent the spread of nuclear weapons and weapons technology; to promote
co‑operation in the peaceful use of nuclear energy and to further the
goal of achieving nuclear disarmament, currently has 191 States parties
1 United Nations, Charter of the United Nations, 24 October 1945, 1 UNTS XVI,
Preamble (hereinafter the “UN Charter”).
2 UN Charter, Art. 1.
3 Ibid., Art. 24 (1).
4 Ibid., Art. 11.
5 Ibid., Art. 92.
6 United Nations, Statute of the International Court of Justice, 18 April 1946 (hereinafter
the “Statute”), Art. 38.
7 UN Charter, Art. 96 and Statute, Arts. 65-68.
8 Treaty on the Non‑Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons, 729 UNTS 161, opened for
signature at London, Moscow and Washington on 1 July 1968 and entered into force
5 March 1970.
armes nucléaires et désarmement (op. ind. sebutinde) 1040
211
taux de l’homme, dans la dignité et la valeur de la personne humaine,
dans l’égalité de droits des hommes et des femmes, ainsi que des
nations, grandes et petites, … créer les conditions nécessaires au
maintien de la justice et du respect des obligations nées des traités et
autres sources du droit international… » 1.
3. Il convient également de rappeler le but qui a présidé de la création
des Nations Unies, à savoir
« [m]aintenir la paix et la sécurité internationales et à cette fin :
prendre des mesures collectives efficaces en vue de prévenir et d’écarter
les menaces à la paix et de réprimer tout acte d’agression ou autre
rupture de la paix, et réaliser, par des moyens pacifiques, conformément
aux principes de la justice et du droit international, l’ajustement
ou le règlement de différends ou de situations, de caractère
international, susceptibles de mener à une rupture de la paix » 2.
Aux termes de la Charte, même si la responsabilité du maintien de la paix
et de la sécurité internationales incombe principalement au Conseil de
sécurité 3 et, dans une moindre mesure, à l’Assemblée générale 4, la Cour
internationale de Justice, en tant qu’organe judiciaire principal de l’Organisation
des Nations Unies 5, y contribue également en réglant les différends
entre Etats qui lui sont soumis 6 et en exerçant son rôle consultatif
conformément à la Charte et à son Statut 7. Or, aujourd’hui, le plus grand
danger qui pèse sur la paix et la sécurité internationales — et, de fait, sur
l’humanité tout entière — est la menace ou la perspective d’une guerre
nucléaire.
Le TNP et le désarmement nucléaire
4. Il convient sans doute également de revenir brièvement sur le
contexte historique de l’affaire. Le traité sur la non‑prolifération des
armes nucléaires (TNP), qui est entré en vigueur en 1970 8 et dont les
objectifs sont de prévenir la prolifération des armes nucléaires et la diffusion
de la technologie y afférente, de promouvoir la coopération en ce qui
concerne l’utilisation pacifique de l’énergie nucléaire et de concourir au
1 Charte des Nations Unies, 24 octobre 1945, Recueil des traités (RTNU), vol. 1,
p. XVI, préambule (ci‑après, la « Charte »).
2 Charte des Nations Unies, art. 1.
3 Ibid., art. 24 1).
4 Ibid., art. 11.
5 Ibid., art. 92.
6 Statut de la Cour internationale de Justice, 18 avril 1946 (ci‑après, le « Statut »),
art. 38.
7 Charte des Nations Unies, art. 96, et Statut, art. 65‑68.
8 Traité sur la non‑prolifération des armes nucléaires, RTNU, vol. 729, p. 161, ouvert
à la signature à Londres, Moscou et Washington le 1er juillet 1968 et entré en vigueur le
5 mars 1970.
1041 nuclear arms and disarmament (sep. op. sebutinde)
212
including the Marshall Islands 9 and the United Kingdom 10. However,
contrary to the NPT objectives, State practice demonstrates that for the
past nearly 70 years, some States have continued to manufacture, acquire,
upgrade, test and/or deploy nuclear weapons and that a threat of possible
use is inherent in such deployment. Furthermore, State practice demonstrates
that far from proscribing the threat or use of nuclear weapons in
all circumstances, the international community has, by treaty and through
the United Nations Security Council, recognized in effect that in certain
circumstances the use or threat of use of nuclear weapons may even be
justified.
5. In December 1994 the United Nations General Assembly sought an
advisory opinion from the Court regarding the legality of the threat or
use of nuclear weapons 11. The question posed by the General Assembly
was quite simply “Is the threat or use of nuclear weapons in any circumstance
permitted under international law?” In response, the Court considered
that it was being asked “to determine the legality or illegality of the
threat or use of nuclear weapons” 12. After taking into account the body
of international law (including Article 2, paragraph 4, and Article 51 of
the United Nations Charter) as well as the views of a vast number of
States that filed their written submissions before the Court, the Court
opined that:
— there is no specific authorization of the threat or use of nuclear weapons
in either customary or conventional international law 13;
— there is no comprehensive and universal prohibition of the threat or
use of nuclear weapons as such, in either customary or conventional
international law 14;
— a threat or use of nuclear weapons that was contrary to Article 2,
paragraph 4, or that failed to meet all the requirements of Article 51
of the United Nations Charter; or that is incompatible with the prin-
9 The Republic of the Marshall Islands (RMI) acceded to the NPT on 30 January 1995.
See United Nations Office of Disarmament Affairs, Marshall Islands: Accession to Treaty
on the Non‑Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons, available at: http://disarmament.un.org/
treaties/a/npt/marshallislands/acc/washington.
10 The United Kingdom signed the NPT on 1 July 1968 in London, Moscow and
Washington and it ratified it on 27 November 1968 in London and Washington and on
29 November 1968 in Moscow. See United Nations Office of Disarmament Affairs, United
Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland: Ratification of the NPT, available
at: http://disarmament.un.org/treaties/a/npt/unitedkingdomofgreatbritainand…
nland/rat/london.
11 UN General Assembly resolution A/RES/49/75 K, 15 December 1994, Request for
an advisory opinion from the International Court of Justice on the legality of the threat or
use of nuclear weapons.
12 Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons, Advisory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports
1996 (I), p. 238, para. 20.
13 Ibid., p. 266, para. 105 (2) A.
14 Ibid., para. 105 (2) B.
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désarmement nucléaire, compte actuellement 191 Etats parties, dont les
Iles Marshall 9 et le Royaume‑Uni 10. Nonobstant les objectifs énoncés
dans ce traité, il ressort de la pratique des Etats que, au cours de ces
soixante‑dix dernières années, certains ont continué à fabriquer, acquérir,
moderniser, expérimenter ou déployer des armes nucléaires, et que la
menace de l’éventuelle utilisation de ces armes va de pair avec leur
déploiement. De plus, la pratique des Etats montre que, loin de les proscrire
en toute circonstance, la communauté internationale a en réalité, par
voie de traité et à travers l’action du Conseil de sécurité de l’Organisation
des Nations Unies, reconnu que la menace ou l’emploi d’armes nucléaires
pouvait même, dans certains cas, se justifier.
5. Au mois de décembre 1994, l’Assemblée générale des Nations Unies
a demandé un avis consultatif à la Cour sur la question de la licéité de la
menace ou de l’emploi d’armes nucléaires 11. La question posée par l’Assemblée
générale était assez simple : « Est‑il permis en droit international
de recourir à la menace ou à l’emploi d’armes nucléaires en toute circonstance
? » Dans son avis, la Cour a considéré qu’il lui était demandé de
« déterminer ce qu’il en [était] de la licéité ou de l’illicéité de la menace ou
de l’emploi d’armes nucléaires » 12. Après avoir examiné le corpus de droit
international pertinent (notamment le paragraphe 4 de l’article 2 et l’article
51 de la Charte), ainsi que les vues d’un grand nombre d’Etats qui lui
avaient présenté des exposés écrits, elle s’est dite d’avis que :
— ni le droit international coutumier ni le droit international conventionnel
n’autorisaient spécifiquement la menace ou l’emploi d’armes
nucléaires 13 ;
— ni le droit international coutumier ni le droit international conventionnel
ne comportaient d’interdiction complète et universelle de la
menace ou de l’emploi des armes nucléaires en tant que telles 14 ;
— était illicite la menace ou l’emploi de la force au moyen d’armes
nucléaires qui serait contraire à l’article 2, paragraphe 4, de la Charte
des Nations Unies, qui ne satisferait pas à toutes les prescriptions de
9 La République des Iles Marshall a adhéré au TNP le 30 janvier 1995. Voir Bureau des
affaires de désarmement des Nations Unies, Marshall Islands : Accession to Treaty on the
Non‑Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons ; consultable en anglais à l’adresse suivante : http://
disarmament.un.org/treaties/a/npt/marshallislands/acc/washington.
10 Le Royaume-Uni a signé le TNP le 1er juillet 1968 à Londres, Moscou et Washington,
et l’a ratifié le 27 novembre 1968 à Londres et Washington, et deux jours plus tard à
Moscou. Voir Bureau des affaires de désarmement des Nations Unies, Marshall Islands :
Accession to Treaty on the Non‑Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons ; consultable en anglais
à l’adresse suivante : http://disarmament.un.org/treaties/a/npt/unitedkingdomofgreatbri
tainandnorthernireland/rat/london.
11 Nations Unies, doc. A/RES/49/75 K, 15 décembre 1994, demande d’avis consultatif
de la Cour internationale de Justice sur la légalité de la menace ou de l’emploi d’armes
nucléaires.
12 Licéité de la menace ou de l’emploi d’armes nucléaires, avis consultatif,
C.I.J. Recueil 1996 (I), p. 238, par. 20.
13 Ibid., p. 266, par. 105, point 2) A du dispositif.
14 Ibid., point 2) B du dispositif.
1042 nuclear arms and disarmament (sep. op. sebutinde)
213
ciples and rules of international humanitarian law applicable in armed
conflict or that is incompatible with treaties specifically dealing with
nuclear weapons, is illegal 15.
6. However, the Court did make one exception to its findings (albeit in
an evenly divided manner 16) when it opined that:
“in view of the current state of international law, and of the elements
of fact at its disposal, the Court cannot conclude definitively whether
the threat or use of nuclear weapons would be lawful or unlawful in
an extreme circumstance of self‑defence, in which the very survival of
a State would be at stake” 17.
7. Finally, although this does not appear to have been in direct answer
to the question posed by the General Assembly, the Court went an extra
mile in what, in my view, is the real contribution of the Court to world
peace and security as far as the question of nuclear weapons is concerned.
It stated in paragraphs 98 to 100 of the Advisory Opinion, as follows:
“Given the eminently difficult issues that arise in applying the law
on the use of force and above all the law applicable in armed conflict
to nuclear weapons, the Court considers that it now needs to examine
one further aspect of the question before it, seen in a broader
context.
In the long run, international law, and with it the stability of the
international order which it is intended to govern, are bound to suffer
from the continuing difference of views with regard to the legal status
of weapons as deadly as nuclear weapons. It is consequently important
to put an end to this state of affairs: the long‑promised complete
nuclear disarmament appears to be the most appropriate means of
achieving that result.
In these circumstances, the Court appreciates the full importance of
the recognition by Article VI of the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation
of
Nuclear Weapons of an obligation to negotiate in good faith a nuclear
disarmament . . . The legal import of that obligation goes beyond that
of a mere obligation of conduct; the obligation involved here is an
obligation to achieve a precise result — nuclear disarmament in all its
aspects — by adopting a particular course of conduct, namely, the
pursuit of negotiations on the matter in good faith.
This twofold obligation to pursue and to conclude negotiations
formally concerns the 182 States parties to the [NPT], or, in other
words, the vast majority of the international community . . . Indeed
15 Op. cit. supra note 12, p. 266, para. 105 (2) C and D.
16 By seven to seven votes with the President having to use his casting vote.
17 Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons, Advisory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports
1996 (I), p. 266, para. 105 (2) E.
armes nucléaires et désarmement (op. ind. sebutinde) 1042
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son article 51, ou qui serait incompatible avec les exigences du droit
international humanitaire applicable dans les conflits armés, ainsi
qu’avec les traités qui ont expressément trait aux armes nucléaires 15.
6. La Cour a toutefois énoncé une exception aux conclusions qu’elle
venait de formuler (même s’il faut préciser que, sur ce point, les juges
étaient divisés à égalité de voix) 16, estimant que,
« [a]u vu de l’état actuel du droit international, ainsi que des éléments
de fait dont elle dispos[ait], [elle] ne p[ouvai]t … conclure de façon
définitive que la menace ou l’emploi d’armes nucléaires serait licite
ou illicite dans une circonstance extrême de légitime défense dans
laquelle la survie même d’un Etat serait en cause » 17.
7. Enfin, même si elle ne semble pas l’avoir fait directement en réponse
à la question posée par l’Assemblée générale, la Cour est allée plus loin en
formulant des observations qui, selon moi, constituent sa véritable contribution
à la paix et la sécurité dans le monde pour ce qui est des armes
nucléaires. Aux paragraphes 98 à 100 de son avis consultatif, elle a ainsi
indiqué ce qui suit :
« Compte tenu des questions éminemment difficiles que soulève
l’application à l’arme nucléaire du droit relatif à l’emploi de la force,
et surtout du droit applicable dans les conflits armés, la Cour estime
devoir examiner maintenant un autre aspect de la question posée,
dans un contexte plus large.
A terme, le droit international et avec lui la stabilité de l’ordre
international qu’il a pour vocation de régir ne peuvent que souffrir
des divergences de vues qui subsistent aujourd’hui quant au statut
juridique d’une arme aussi meurtrière que l’arme nucléaire. Il s’avère
par conséquent important de mettre fin à cet état de choses : le désarmement
nucléaire complet promis de longue date se présente comme
le moyen privilégié de parvenir à ce résultat.
La Cour mesure dans ces circonstances toute l’importance de la
consécration par l’article VI du traité sur la non‑prolifération des armes
nucléaires d’une obligation de négocier de bonne foi un désarmement
nucléaire… La portée juridique de l’obligation considérée dépasse celle
d’une simple obligation de comportement ; l’obligation en cause ici est
celle de parvenir à un résultat précis — le désarmement nucléaire dans
tous ses aspects — par l’adoption d’un comportement déterminé, à
savoir la poursuite de bonne foi de négociations en la matière.
Cette double obligation de négocier et de conclure concerne
formellement
les cent quatre‑vingt‑deux Etats parties au [TNP],
c’est‑à‑dire la très grande majorité de la communauté internatio-
15 Op. cit. supra note 12, p. 266, par. 105, point 2) C et D du dispositif.
16 Par sept voix contre sept, le président ayant dû faire usage de sa voix prépondérante.
17 Licéité de la menace ou de l’emploi d’armes nucléaires, avis consultatif,
C.I.J. Recueil 1996 (I), p. 266, par. 105, point 2) E du dispositif.
1043 nuclear arms and disarmament (sep. op. sebutinde)
214
any realistic search for general and complete disarmament, especially
nuclear disarmament, necessitates the co‑operation of all States.”
(Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons, Advisory Opinion,
I.C.J. Reports 1996 (I), pp. 263‑264, paras. 98-100.)
8. The Court then unanimously opined in the operative clause that,
“There exists an obligation to pursue in good faith and to bring to a conclusion
negotiations leading to nuclear disarmament in all its aspects
under strict and effective international control.” 18 The Advisory Opinion
of the Court, although not legally binding, was well received by the vast
majority of NPT States parties, although it was less welcome by those
nuclear‑weapon States that were of the view that the Court had
over‑stepped its judicial function by rendering this opinion. In December
1996, the General Assembly passed a resolution endorsing the conclusion
of the Court relating to the existence of “an obligation to pursue in
good faith and to bring to a conclusion, negotiations leading to disarmament
in all its aspects under strict and effective international control” and
calling upon all States to immediately commence multilateral negotiations
leading to a nuclear weapons convention prohibiting “the development,
production, testing, deployment, stockpiling, threat or use of
nuclear weapons” and providing for their elimination 19.
9. Regrettably, since the adoption of the Court’s Advisory Opinion
20 years ago, the international community has made little progress
towards nuclear disarmament and even the prospect of negotiations on
the conclusion of a nuclear weapons convention seems illusory. It is in
this context that, on 24 April 2014, the Republic of the Marshall Islands
(RMI) filed an Application against each of the nine respondent States
(United States, Russia, United Kingdom, France, China, India, Pakistan,
Israel and North Korea) which the Applicant maintains currently possess
nuclear weapons, alleging a failure by the respondent States to fulfil obligations
concerning negotiations relating to the cessation of the nuclear
arms race at an early date and to nuclear disarmament. Of the nine
respondent States, only Pakistan, India and the United Kingdom formally
responded to the RMI Application, each of the three States having
18 I.C.J. Reports 1996 (I), p. 267, para. 105 (2) F.
19 UN General Assembly resolution A/RES/51/45 M, 10 December 1996, Advisory
Opinion of the International Court of Justice on the legality of the threat or use of
nuclear weapons. The General Assembly has been adopting an almost identical resolution
every year, since the handing down of the Nuclear Weapons Advisory Opinion. See UN
General Assembly resolutions 52/38 O of 9 December 1997; 53/77 W of 4 December 1998;
54/54 Q of 1 December 1999; 55/33 X of 20 November 2000; 56/24 S of 29 November
2001; 57/85 of 22 November 2002; 58/46 of 8 December 2003; 59/83 of 3 December
2004; 60/76 of 8 December 2005; 61/83 of 6 December 2006; 62/39 of 5 December 2007;
63/49 of 2 December 2008; 64/55 of 2 December 2009; 65/76 of 8 December 2010; 66/46
of 2 December 2011; 67/33 of 3 December 2012; 68/42 of 5 December 2013; 69/43 of
2 December 2014; 70/56 of 7 December 2015.
armes nucléaires et désarmement (op. ind. sebutinde) 1043
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nale… De fait, toute recherche réaliste d’un désarmement général et
complet, en particulier nucléaire, nécessite la coopération de tous les
Etats. » (Licéité de la menace ou de l’emploi d’armes nucléaires, C.I.J.
Recueil 1996 (I), p. 263‑264, par. 98-100.)
8. Dans le dispositif de son avis, la Cour a ensuite estimé à l’unanimité
qu’« il exist[ait] une obligation de poursuivre de bonne foi et de mener à
terme des négociations conduisant au désarmement nucléaire dans tous
ses aspects, sous un contrôle international strict et efficace » 18. L’avis
consultatif de la Cour, bien que n’étant pas juridiquement contraignant,
a été bien accueilli par l’immense majorité des Etats parties au TNP ; il a
cependant été moins favorablement reçu par les Etats dotés d’armes
nucléaires, qui considéraient que la Cour avait outrepassé sa fonction
judiciaire en donnant cet avis. En décembre 1996, l’Assemblée générale a
adopté une résolution dans laquelle elle faisait sienne la conclusion de la
Cour concernant l’existence d’« une obligation de poursuivre de bonne foi
et de mener à terme des négociations conduisant au désarmement
nucléaire dans tous ses aspects, sous un contrôle international strict et
efficace », et appelant tous les Etats à engager immédiatement des négociations
multilatérales en vue de parvenir à la conclusion d’une convention
sur les armes nucléaires interdisant « la mise au point, la fabrication,
l’essai, le déploiement, le stockage, le transfert, la menace ou l’emploi de
ces armes » et prévoyant leur élimination 19.
9. Hélas, depuis que la Cour a donné son avis consultatif, il y a
vingt ans de cela, la communauté internationale n’a guère progressé sur la
voie du désarmement nucléaire, et la perspective même de négociations en
vue de conclure une convention sur les armes nucléaires semble illusoire.
C’est dans ce contexte que la République des Iles Marshall a, le
24 avril 2014, déposé une requête contre chacun des neuf Etats (la Chine,
les Etats‑Unis d’Amérique, la Fédération de Russie, la France, l’Inde,
Israël, le Pakistan, la Corée du Nord et le Royaume‑Uni de Grande‑Bretagne
et d’Irlande du Nord), qui, selon elle, détiendraient actuellement
pareilles armes, et auxquels elle faisait grief d’avoir manqué à leurs obligations
relatives aux négociations concernant la cessation de la course
aux armements nucléaires à une date rapprochée et le désarmement
nucléaire. Sur ces neuf Etats, seuls le Pakistan, l’Inde et le Royaume‑Uni
18 C.I.J. Recueil 1996 (I), p. 267, point 2) F du dispositif.
19 Nations Unies, doc. A/RES/51/45 M, 10 décembre 1996, avis consultatif de la Cour
internationale de Justice sur la licéité de la menace ou de l’emploi d’armes nucléaires.
Depuis le prononcé de l’avis consultatif sur les armes nucléaires, l’Assemblée générale
adopte chaque année une résolution quasiment identique. Voir les résolutions de l’Assemblée
générale 52/38 O du 9 décembre 1997 ; 53/77 W du 4 décembre 1998 ; 54/54 Q
du 1er décembre 1999 ; 55/33 X du 20 novembre 2000 ; 56/24 S du 29 novembre 2001 ;
57/85 du 22 novembre 2002 ; 58/46 du 8 décembre 2003 ; 59/83 du 3 décembre 2004 ;
60/76 du 8 décembre 2005 ; 61/83 du 6 décembre 2006 ; 62/39 du 5 décembre 2007 ;
63/49 du 2 décembre 2008 ; 64/55 du 2 décembre 2009 ; 65/76 du 8 décembre 2010 ; 66/46
du 2 décembre 2011 ; 67/33 du 3 décembre 2012 ; 68/42 du 5 décembre 2013 ; 69/43 du
2 décembre 2014 ; 70/56 du 7 décembre 2015.
1044 nuclear arms and disarmament (sep. op. sebutinde)
215
previously filed declarations pursuant to Article 36, paragraph 2, of the
Statute of the Court recognizing the compulsory jurisdiction of the Court
(Judgment, para. 22).
The Threshold for Determining the Existence of a Dispute
and the New Criterion of “Awareness”
10. The Marshall Islands bases the jurisdiction of the Court on its
optional clause declaration pursuant to Article 36, paragraph 2, of the
Statute of the Court dated 15 March 2013 and deposited on 24 April
2013, recognizing the compulsory jurisdiction of the Court 20, and that of
the United Kingdom made on 5 July 2004, and deposited on 5 July 2004
(Judgment, para. 1) 21, which declarations the Marshall Islands claims are
“without pertinent reservations” 22. Paragraph 23 of the Judgment outlines
the five preliminary objections raised by the United Kingdom against
the Marshall Islands claim. In support of its preliminary objection based
on the absence of a dispute, the United Kingdom argues that (a) prior to
filing its Application, the Marshall Islands never brought its claim to the
United Kingdom’s attention 23, nor attempted to hold diplomatic negotiations
with the United Kingdom regarding its claims 24; and (b) that claim
of the Marshall Islands is artificial and political in nature.
11. The United Kingdom further points out that the RMI Memorial
only made reference to two statements as proof of the existence of a dispute
between the Parties, and that neither the content of these statements
nor the circumstances in which they were made provide any evidence of
the existence of a dispute between the Marshall Islands and the United
Kingdom on the date of the filing of the Application 25. The first statement
was made in the aforementioned United Nations High‑Level Meeting,
and was addressed to “all nuclear weapon States” 26. The Respondent
observes this statement did not specifically mention the United Kingdom
and that it could not in any way be viewed as invoking the latter’s responsibility
under international law for any breach of the NPT or of customary
international law 27. The Respondent further observes that the second
20 Optional Clause Declaration of the Marshall Islands, 24 April 2013, available
at: http://www.icj-cij.org/jurisdiction/index.php?p1=5&p2=1&p3=3&code=MH.
21 Optional Clause Declaration of the United Kingdom, 5 July 2004, available at: http://
www.icj-cij.org/jurisdiction/index.php?p1=5&p2=1&p3=3&code=GB.
22 Application of the Marshall Islands (AMI), para. 114 and Memorial of the Marshall
Islands (MMI), paras. 93‑94.
23 Preliminary Objections of the United Kingdom (POUK), p. 14, para. 29, citing
Article 43 of the ILC Articles on State Responsibility.
24 CR 2016/3, p. 19, para. 25 and CR 2016/7, p. 13, paras. 17‑18.
25 Ibid., and CR 2016/3, p. 26, para. 41 (Bethlehem).
26 POUK, p. 22, para. 47, citing MMI, p. 98, Ann. 71.
27 Ibid., and CR 2016/3, pp. 26‑27, para. 42 (Bethlehem).
armes nucléaires et désarmement (op. ind. sebutinde) 1044
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ont formellement répondu à la requête des Iles Marshall, ces trois Etats
ayant fait une déclaration d’acceptation de la juridiction obligatoire de la
Cour en vertu du paragraphe 2 de l’article 36 du Statut (arrêt, par. 22).
Le seuil requis aux fins de déterminer l’existence d’un différend
et le nouveau critère de la « connaissance »
10. Les Iles Marshall fondaient la compétence de la Cour sur la déclaration
reconnaissant la juridiction obligatoire de celle‑ci qu’elles ont faite
le 15 mars 2013 en vertu de la clause facultative du paragraphe 2 de l’article
36 du Statut, et déposée le 24 avril 2013 20 ; et sur celle que le
Royaume-Uni a faite le 5 juillet 2004, et déposée le même jour (arrêt,
par. 1) 21. Selon le demandeur, ces déclarations ne contenaient « aucune
réserve pertinente en l’espèce » 22. Les cinq exceptions préliminaires soulevées
par le Royaume-Uni contre la requête des Iles Marshall sont résumées
au paragraphe 23 de l’arrêt. A l’appui de l’exception fondée sur
l’absence de différend, le Royaume‑Uni soutenait que a), avant de déposer
leur requête, les Iles Marshall ne l’avaient jamais informé de leur
grief 23, et n’avaient pas tenté d’engager avec lui des négociations diplomatiques
au sujet de leurs réclamations 24 ; et b) la demande des
Iles Marshall était artificielle et revêtait un caractère politique.
11. Le Royaume-Uni soulignait également que les Iles Marshall, dans
leur mémoire, ne mentionnaient que deux déclarations pour établir l’existence
d’un différend entre les Parties, et que ni le contenu de ces déclarations
ni les circonstances dans lesquelles elles avaient été faites ne
permettaient d’attester qu’un différend existait à la date du dépôt de la
requête 25. La première déclaration avait été faite lors de la réunion de
haut niveau des Nations Unies susmentionnée, et était adressée à « tous
les Etats dotés d’armes nucléaires » 26. Le défendeur a relevé qu’elle ne le
visait pas spécifiquement et ne pouvait d’aucune manière être considérée
comme mettant en cause sa responsabilité au regard du droit international
à raison d’une quelconque violation du TNP ou du droit international
coutumier 27. Il a également fait observer que la seconde déclaration invo-
20 Déclaration faite par les Iles Marshall en vertu de la clause facultative, 24 avril 2013,
consultable à l’adresse suivante : http://www.icj-cij.org/jurisdiction/index.php?p1=5&p2
=1&p3=3&code=MH.
21 Déclaration faite par le Royaume-Uni en vertu de la clause facultative, 5 juillet 2004,
consultable à l’adresse suivante : http://www.icj-cij.org/jurisdiction/index.php?p1=5&p2=1
&p3=3&code=GB.
22 Requête des Iles Marshall (RIM), p. 58, par. 114, et mémoire des Iles Marshall
(MIM), p. 42, par. 93‑94.
23 Exceptions préliminaires du Royaume-Uni (EPRU), p. 14, par. 29, citant l’article 43
des articles sur la responsabilité de l’Etat de la CDI.
24 CR 2016/3, p. 19, par. 25, et CR 2016/7, p. 13, par. 17‑18.
25 Ibid., et CR 2016/3, p. 26, par. 41 (Bethlehem).
26 EPRU, p. 22, par. 47, citant MIM, p. 98, annexe 71.
27 Ibid. et CR 2016/3, p. 26‑27, par. 42 (Bethlehem).
1045 nuclear arms and disarmament (sep. op. sebutinde)
216
statement relied upon by the Marshall Islands was made at an international
conference at which the United Kingdom was not present 28. The
United Kingdom argues that the Marshall Islands took no steps to bring
this statement to the attention of the United Kingdom 29. Accordingly
there could be no conflict of legal positions between the two Parties, and
as such no legal dispute between them 30.
12. During oral arguments the United Kingdom affirmed that it views
the obligation established in Article VI of the NPT as the “cornerstone”
of that treaty 31, and that as a nuclear‑weapon State, it has acted unilaterally,
significantly reducing not only its own stockpile of weapons but also
their delivery systems 32. The United Kingdom also cited statements made
by then Prime Minister Gordon Brown, accepting the disarmament obligations
established in the NPT 33, and those made by the Preparatory
Committees leading to the 2015 NPT Review Conference as proof that
the United Kingdom is in fact committed to fulfilling its obligations
regarding nuclear disarmament 34.
13. The Marshall Islands requests the Court to overrule the United
Kingdom’s preliminary objections, maintaining that a dispute did exist at
the time it filed its Application, the subject‑matter of which is “the United
Kingdom’s non‑compliance with its legal obligations under Article VI of
the NPT and under customary international law to pursue in good faith,
and bring to a conclusion, negotiations leading to the cessation of the
nuclear arms race at an early date and to nuclear disarmament” 35. The
Marshall Islands further submits that prior notification to the United Kingdom
of its intention to commence proceedings is not a necessary requirement.
The Marshall Islands argues further that it has repeatedly called for
nuclear‑weapon States, including the United Kingdom, to comply with
their international obligations and to negotiate nuclear disarmament 36. In
particular it refers to two of its statements made publicly in multilateral
international conferences before the Application was filed. First, on 26 September
2013, at the United Nations High‑Level Meeting on Nuclear Disarmament,
the Minister of Foreign Affairs of the Marshall Islands called
28 POUK, p. 23, para. 48 and CR 2016/3, p. 27, para. 44.
29 POUK, p. 23, para. 48.
30 Ibid., para. 52.
31 CR 2016/7, p. 14, para. 20.
32 Ibid.
33 Ibid., p. 15, paras. 21-22.
34 Ibid., para. 22, the cited statement reads:
“our enduring commitment to the fulfilment of our obligations under Article VI
of the Non‑Proliferation Treaty and noted our determination to work together
in pursuit of our shared goal of nuclear disarmament under Article VI, including
engagement on the steps outlined in action 5 of the 2010 Review Conference action
plan, as well as other efforts called for in the action plan.”
35 MMI, pp. 17‑18, para. 42.
36 Ibid., p. 9, para. 16.
armes nucléaires et désarmement (op. ind. sebutinde) 1045
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quée par les Iles Marshall avait été faite lors d’une conférence internationale
à laquelle il ne participait pas 28, et ajouté que le demandeur n’avait
rien fait pour la porter à son attention 29. En conséquence, il ne pouvait,
selon le Royaume-Uni, exister entre les Parties aucun désaccord sur un
point de droit et, partant, aucun différend d’ordre juridique 30.
12. A l’audience, le défendeur a indiqué qu’il considérait que l’obligation
énoncée à l’article VI du TNP était la « pierre angulaire » de cet instrument
31, et affirmé que, en sa qualité d’Etat doté d’armes nucléaires, il avait
agi de sa propre initiative en réduisant de façon significative non seulement
son arsenal, mais aussi les systèmes de lancement afférents 32. Il a également
cité certaines déclarations de son premier ministre de l’époque, M. Gordon
Brown, dans lesquelles celui‑ci prenait acte des obligations de désarmement
énoncées dans le TNP 33, et celles faites dans le cadre des comités préparatoires
de la conférence d’examen de 2015, pour montrer qu’il était déterminé
à respecter ses obligations relatives au désarmement nucléaire 34.
13. Les Iles Marshall demandaient à la Cour de rejeter les exceptions
préliminaires soulevées par le Royaume-Uni, soutenant qu’il existait bel et
bien un différend au moment du dépôt de leur requête, différend ayant pour
objet « la question de savoir si le Royaume‑Uni respectait « les obligations
juridiques qui lui incombent, au titre de l’article VI du TNP et du droit
international coutumier, de poursuivre de bonne foi et de mener à terme des
négociations conduisant au désarmement nucléaire » 35. Le demandeur
avançait également qu’il n’était pas tenu de notifier au préalable le Royaume-
Uni de son intention d’engager une procédure judiciaire. Il a également fait
valoir qu’il avait, à maintes reprises, appelé les Etats dotés d’armes
nucléaires, y compris le Royaume‑Uni, à respecter leurs obligations internationales
et à négocier en vue du désarmement nucléaire 36. Les Iles Marshall
se référaient en particulier à deux de leurs déclarations faites publiquement
lors de conférences multilatérales, avant que la requête ne soit déposée.
Tout d’abord, le 26 septembre 2013, lors de la réunion de haut niveau des
Nations Unies sur le désarmement nucléaire, le ministre des affaires étran-
28 EPRU, p. 23, par. 48, et CR 2016/3, p. 27, par. 44.
29 EPRU, p. 23, par. 48.
30 Ibid., p. 24, par. 52.
31 CR 2016/7, p. 14, par. 20.
32 Ibid.
33 Ibid., p. 15, par. 21‑22.
34 Ibid., par. 22. La déclaration citée se lit comme suit :
« nous sommes résolus à exécuter les obligations qui nous incombent au titre de
l’article VI du Traité sur la non-prolifération
… avec la détermination d’oeuvrer
ensemble en faveur de la réalisation de notre objectif commun de désarmement
nucléaire énoncé à l’article VI, y compris en ce qui concerne les mesures énoncées
dans l’action 5 du plan d’action de la Conférence d’examen de 2010, ainsi que les
autres efforts préconisés dans le plan ».
35 MIM, par. 42.
36 Ibid., par. 16.
1046 nuclear arms and disarmament (sep. op. sebutinde)
217
upon “all nuclear weapon States to intensify efforts to address their responsibilities
in moving towards an effective and secure disarmament” 37. Secondly,
on 13 February 2014, during the Second Conference on the
Humanitarian Impact of Nuclear Weapons at Nayarit, Mexico, the Marshall
Islands representative made similar remarks 38.
14. The Marshall Islands submits that these and other public statements
illustrate “with extreme clarity the content of the claim” and that
these statements were “unequivocally directed against all States possessing
nuclear arsenals, including the United Kingdom” 39 (emphasis added).
The fact that the United Kingdom participated in at least one of those
conferences was, according to the Marshall Islands, sufficient to consider
it notified of the claim of the Marshall Islands, in particular, because
the Marshall Islands statements were very clear on the subject‑matter of
the dispute as well as its legal basis, namely, the failure of
nuclear‑weapon States to seriously engage in multilateral negotiations
leading to nuclear disarmament arising under the NPT and/or customary
international law.
15. In its Judgment, the Court upholds the United Kingdom’s preliminary
objection to jurisdiction on the ground that there was no dispute
between the Parties prior to the filing of the RMI Application (Judgment,
para. 59). I respectfully disagree with that decision as well as the underlying
reasoning, and set out my reasons in this separate opinion. In my
view, the evidence on record, when properly tested against the criteria
well‑established in the Court’s jurisprudence, shows that a dispute did
exist, albeit in a nascent form, between the Parties before the filing of the
Application and that this dispute crystallized during the proceedings. I
particularly disagree with the new criterion of “awareness” that the
majority introduces, as well as the formalistic and inflexible approach
taken in the determination of whether or not a dispute exists (ibid.,
paras. 41‑53).
16. First, as the Judgment rightly points out, the Court’s function
under Article 38 of its Statute, is to decide such inter‑State disputes as are
referred to it (Judgment, para. 36). In cases such as this one, where States
have made declarations (with or without reservations) recognizing the
compulsory jurisdiction of the Court under Article 36, paragraph 2,
of that Statute, the jurisdiction of the Court emanates from those very
declarations rather than from the existence of a dispute as such
37 MMI, Vol. I, Ann. 4: Statement by Honourable Mr. Phillip Muller, Minister of
Foreign Affairs of the Republic of the Marshall Islands, 26 September 2013.
38 Ibid., Vol. II, Ann. 72: Marshall Islands statement, Second Conference on the
Humanitarian Impact of Nuclear Weapons, Nayarit, Mexico, 13-14 February 2014;
CR 2016/1, pp. 18‑19, para. 14 (deBrum), and CR 2016/1, p. 37, para. 20 (Condorelli).
39 Written Statement of the Marshall Islands (WSMI), p. 16, para. 34.
armes nucléaires et désarmement (op. ind. sebutinde) 1046
217
gères des Iles Marshall avait appelé « tous les Etats dotés d’armes nucléaires
à intensifier leurs efforts pour assumer leurs responsabilités en vue d’un
désarmement effectif réalisé en toute sécurité » 37. Ensuite, le 13 février 2014,
dans le cadre de la deuxième conférence sur l’impact humanitaire des armes
nucléaires, tenue à Nayarit, au Mexique, le représentant des Iles Marshall
avait formulé des observations analogues 38.
14. La République des Iles Marshall affirmait que ces déclarations
publiques, tout comme d’autres, « illustr[aient] on ne peut plus clairement
la teneur [de leur] grief » et qu’elles visaient « sans équivoque … tous les
Etats détenteurs d’un arsenal nucléaire, ce qui, de toute évidence, inclut le
défendeur » (les italiques sont de moi) 39. Selon le demandeur, le fait que le
Royaume-Uni ait participé à l’une de ces conférences au moins suffisait
pour considérer qu’il était informé de la réclamation des Iles Marshall, en
particulier parce que les déclarations de ces dernières étaient extrêmement
claires concernant l’objet du différend, ainsi que du fondement juridique
de ladite réclamation, à savoir le manquement des Etats dotés d’armes
nucléaires à l’obligation d’engager sérieusement des négociations multilatérales
conduisant à un désarmement nucléaire découlant du TNP ou
du droit international coutumier.
15. Dans son arrêt, la Cour a retenu l’exception préliminaire d’incompétence
soulevée par le Royaume-Uni selon laquelle aucun différend
n’opposait les Parties avant le dépôt de la requête des Iles Marshall (arrêt,
par. 59). Avec tout le respect que je dois à mes collègues, je suis en désaccord
avec cette décision ainsi qu’avec le raisonnement qui la sous‑tend, et
j’en expose les motifs dans la présente opinion individuelle. Selon moi, les
éléments de preuve versés au dossier, s’ils sont appréciés comme il
convient à l’aune des critères bien établis dans la jurisprudence de la
Cour, montrent qu’un différend, quoique naissant, existait bel et bien
entre les Parties avant le dépôt de la requête et qu’il s’est cristallisé au
cours de la procédure. Je suis particulièrement en désaccord avec le nouveau
critère de la « connaissance » introduit par la majorité, ainsi qu’avec
l’approche formaliste et rigide que la Cour a suivie pour rechercher s’il
existait ou non un différend (ibid., par. 41‑53).
16. Premièrement, comme il est souligné à raison dans l’arrêt, la mission
de la Cour aux termes de l’article 38 de son Statut est de régler les
différends entre Etats qui lui sont soumis (arrêt, par. 36). Dans des affaires
telles que la présente, lorsque les Etats ont fait des déclarations (assorties
ou non de réserves) acceptant la juridiction obligatoire de la Cour en
vertu du paragraphe 2 de l’article 36 du Statut, celle‑ci tire sa compétence
de ces déclarations et non de l’existence du différend en tant que telle
37 MIM, vol. I, annexe 4 : déclaration de M. Phillip Muller, ministre des affaires étrangères
de la République des Iles Marshall, en date du 26 septembre 2013.
38 Ibid., vol. II, annexe 72 : déclaration des Iles Marshall faite à la deuxième conférence
sur l’impact humanitaire des armes nucléaires tenue à Nayarit, au Mexique, les
13‑14 février 2014 ; CR 2016/1, p. 18‑19, par. 14 (deBrum), et CR 2016/1, p. 37, par. 20
(Condorelli).
39 Exposé écrit des Iles Marshall (EEIM), p. 16, par. 34.
1047 nuclear arms and disarmament (sep. op. sebutinde)
218
(Judgment,
para. 36). The existence of a dispute between the contending
States is merely a precondition for the exercise of that jurisdiction.
17. Secondly, the Judgment rightly defines a dispute as “a disagreement
on a point of law or fact, a conflict of legal views or of interests
between parties” (ibid., para. 37). The Judgment also correctly states that
it is for the Court and not the Parties to determine objectively whether a
dispute exists after examining the facts or evidence before it (ibid.,
para. 39) and that such determination is a matter of substance and not
procedure or form (ibid., para. 38). Thirdly, it is clear from the Court’s
jurisprudence that neither prior notification by the applicant, of its claim
to the respondent, nor a formal diplomatic protest by the applicant, are
necessary prerequisites for purposes of determining the existence of a dispute
(ibid.). This is particularly so since the NPT, to which both the
United Kingdom and Marshall Islands are party, contains no provision
requiring prior notification or diplomatic negotiations.
18. While the Judgment correctly rehearses the Court’s jurisprudence
regarding the definition of a “dispute” and the fact that determination
of the existence of a dispute is “a matter of substance, and not a question
of form or procedure”, I disagree with the approach and analysis that the
majority has employed in arriving at the conclusion that there is no
dispute
between the Parties. I find that approach not only to be both
formalistic
and procedural, but also lacking in addressing the substantive
aspects of the Applicant’s claim, such as the conduct of the Respondent.
Given the importance of the subject‑matter of nuclear disarmament to
the international community at large, I believe that this is not a case
that should have been easily dismissed on a formalistic or procedural
finding that no dispute exists between the contending Parties. Instead, a
more substantive approach that analyses the conduct of the contesting
States right up until 24 April 2014 should have been undertaken in
determining
whether the Parties had “clearly opposite views” 40. The
Court’s jurisprudence clearly demonstrates the Court’s consistent preference
for a flexible approach that steers clear of formality or procedural
rigour, right from the days of the Permanent Court of International Justice
41, and until more recently in Croatia v. Serbia 42.
40 Alleged Violations of Sovereign Rights and Maritime Spaces in the Caribbean Sea
(Nicaragua v. Colombia), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2016 (I),
p. 26, para. 50.
41 Mavrommatis Palestine Concessions, Judgment No. 2, 1924, P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 2,
p. 34; Certain German Interests in Polish Upper Silesia, Jurisdiction, Judgment No. 6, 1925,
P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 6, p. 14.
42 Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of
Genocide (Croatia v. Serbia), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2008,
pp. 428‑441, paras. 80‑85; Application of the International Convention on the Elimination
of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (Georgia v. Russian Federation), Preliminary Objections,
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2011 (I), pp. 84‑85, para. 30.
armes nucléaires et désarmement (op. ind. sebutinde) 1047
218
(arrêt, par. 36). L’existence d’un différend entre les Etats en litige n’est
qu’une condition préalable à l’exercice de cette compétence.
17. Deuxièmement, la Cour définit à juste titre un différend comme « un
désaccord sur un point de droit ou de fait, une contradiction, une opposition
de thèses juridiques ou d’intérêts » entre des parties (ibid., par. 37). Elle précise
également que c’est à elle (et non aux Parties) qu’il appartient de déterminer
objectivement s’il existe un différend après avoir examiné les faits ou
les éléments de preuve qui lui ont été soumis (ibid., par. 39), et qu’il s’agit là
d’une question de fond, et non de forme ou de procédure (ibid., par. 38).
Troisièmement, il ressort de la jurisprudence de la Cour que ni la notification,
par le demandeur, de sa réclamation au défendeur, ni une protestation
diplomatique officielle ne sont des conditions préalables à la détermination
de l’existence d’un différend (ibid.), d’autant qu’aucune aucune disposition
du TNP, auquel le Royaume-Uni comme les Iles Marshall sont parties,
n’impose une notification préalable ou des négociations diplomatiques.
18. Si la Cour, dans son arrêt, a raison de rappeler sa jurisprudence
relative à la définition d’un « différend » et de souligner que la détermination
de l’existence d’un différend est « une question de fond, et non de
forme ou de procédure », je ne puis souscrire à l’approche suivie par la
majorité ni à l’analyse que cette dernière a effectuée pour parvenir à la
conclusion qu’il n’existait pas de différend entre les Parties. Je considère
non seulement que cette approche privilégie la forme et la procédure, mais
aussi qu’elle est insuffisante pour traiter les aspects matériels de la réclamation
du demandeur, tels que la question du comportement du défendeur.
Vu l’importance du désarmement nucléaire pour la communauté internationale,
j’estime que cette affaire n’aurait pas dû être écartée aussi facilement
sur la base d’une constatation formaliste et procédurale selon laquelle
il n’existait aucun différend entre les Parties en litige. Au lieu de cela, il
aurait fallu, pour rechercher si les Parties avaient des points de vue « nettement
opposés » 40, suivre un raisonnement accordant davantage d’importance
au fond et examiner le comportement des Etats en litige jusqu’au
24 avril 2014. Il ressort en effet clairement de la jurisprudence de la Cour
de La Haye que celle‑ci a toujours privilégié une approche souple en s’abstenant
de tout formalisme ou rigidité procédurale, et ce, déjà du temps de
la Cour permanente de Justice internationale 41. Du reste, tel a encore
récemment été le cas dans l’affaire Croatie c. Serbie 42.
40 Violations alléguées de droits souverains et d’espaces maritimes dans la mer des
Caraïbes (Nicaragua c. Colombie), exceptions préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2016 (I),
p. 26, par. 50.
41 Concessions Mavrommatis en Palestine, arrêt no 2, 1924, C.P.J.I. série A no 2, p. 34 ;
Certains intérêts allemands en Haute‑Silésie polonaise, compétence, arrêt no 6, 1925, C.P.J.I.
série A no 6, p. 14.
42 Application de la convention pour la prévention et la répression du crime de génocide
(Croatie c. Serbie), exceptions préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2008, p. 438-441,
par. 80‑85 ; Application de la convention internationale sur l’élimination de toutes les formes
de discrimination raciale (Géorgie c. Fédération de Russie), exceptions préliminaires, arrêt,
C.I.J. Recueil 2011 (I), p. 84‑85, par. 30.
1048 nuclear arms and disarmament (sep. op. sebutinde)
219
19. Under Article 40, paragraph 1, of the Statute and Article 38, paragraph
2, of the Rules of Court, an applicant is required to indicate the
“subject of the dispute” in the Application and to specify therein the
“precise nature of the claim” 43. The Marshall Islands did specify its claim
or subject‑matter of the dispute in its Application and Memorial as
“the failure of the United Kingdom to honour its obligation towards
the Applicant (and other States) to pursue in good faith and bring to
a conclusion, negotiations leading to nuclear disarmament in all its
aspects under strict and effective international control” 44.
However, it is not sufficient, for purposes of demonstrating the existence
of a dispute, for the Marshall Islands to articulate its claims in its Application
and Memorial. Nor is it sufficient merely for one party to assert
that a dispute exists or for the other to deny that it does. It must, in this
case, be demonstrated that the claims of the Marshall Islands are positively
opposed by the United Kingdom or that there is “a disagreement on
a point of law or fact, a conflict of legal views or of interests” between the
two Parties 45 and that this was the case at the time the Application was
filed.
20. In order for the Court to determine on an objective basis, whether
or not an international dispute exists between the parties, it must examine
the facts or evidence before it, “isolate[ing] the real issue in the case
and identify[ing] the object of the claim” 46. As previously emphasized,
the matter is one of substance, not form 47. Although the dispute must
in principle exist at the time the Application is submitted to the Court 48,
there have been cases in which the Court has adopted a more flexible
43 Obligation to Negotiate Access to the Pacific Ocean (Bolivia v. Chile), Preliminary
Objection, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2015 (II), p. 602, para. 25; Fisheries Jurisdiction
(Spain v. Canada), Jurisdiction of the Court, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1998, p. 448,
para. 29.
44 AMI, Parts III and IV and MMI, para. 2.
45 Mavrommatis Palestine Concessions, 1924, Judgment No. 2, P.C.I.J., Series A,
No. 2, p. 11; emphasis added. It has also been repeated by the ICJ in: Application of
the International
Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination
(Georgia v. Russian Federation), Preliminary Objections, I.C.J. Reports 2011 (I), pp. 84‑85,
para. 30; Applicability of the Obligation to Arbitrate under Section 21 of the United Nations
Headquarters Agreement of 26 June 1947, Advisory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports 1988, pp. 28-30,
paras. 37-44.
46 Nuclear Tests (Australia v. France), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1974, p. 262, para. 29;
Nuclear Tests (New Zealand v. France), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1974, p. 466, para. 30;
Obligation to Negotiate Access to the Pacific Ocean (Bolivia v. Chile), Preliminary Objection,
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2015 (II), p. 602, para. 26.
47 Application of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of
Racial Discrimination (Georgia v. Russian Federation), Preliminary Objections, Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 2011 (I), pp. 84‑85, para. 30.
48 Ibid.; Questions of Interpretation and Application of the 1971 Montreal Convention
arising from the Aerial Incident at Lockerbie (Libyan Arab Jamahiriya v. United Kingdom),
armes nucléaires et désarmement (op. ind. sebutinde) 1048
219
19. Aux termes du paragraphe 1 de l’article 40 du Statut de la Cour et
du paragraphe 2 de l’article 38 de son Règlement, tout demandeur est
tenu d’indiquer l’« objet du différend » dans la requête ainsi que la « nature
précise de la demande » 43. Dans leur requête comme dans leur mémoire,
les Iles Marshall ont ainsi défini leur demande ou l’objet du différend
comme étant
« le manquement du Royaume‑Uni … à l’obligation qui lui incombe
à leur égard (ainsi qu’à l’égard d’autres Etats) de poursuivre de
bonne foi et de mener à terme des négociations devant conduire au
désarmement nucléaire dans tous ses aspects, sous un contrôle international
strict et efficace » 44.
Il ne suffisait cependant pas, pour démontrer l’existence d’un différend,
que les Iles Marshall aient formulé leurs demandes dans leur requête et
leur mémoire — de même qu’il ne suffit pas, à cet effet, qu’une partie
affirme qu’un différend existe ou que l’autre partie le conteste. En la présente
espèce, il devait être démontré que les demandes des Iles Marshall se
heurtaient à l’opposition manifeste du Royaume-Uni ou qu’il existait « un
désaccord sur un point de droit ou de fait, une contradiction, une opposition
de thèses juridiques ou d’intérêts » entre les deux Parties 45, et que tel était
le cas au moment du dépôt de la requête.
20. Pour que la Cour puisse déterminer, de manière objective, s’il existe
ou non un différend international entre les parties, elle doit examiner les
éléments de preuve et les faits qui lui sont présentés, en « circonscri[vant]
le véritable problème en cause et [en] précis[ant] l’objet de la demande » 46.
Comme cela a déjà été souligné, il s’agit d’une question de fond, non de
forme 47. Bien que le différend doive, en principe, exister au moment où la
requête lui est soumise 48, la Cour a, dans certains cas, fait preuve de
43 Obligation de négocier un accès à l’océan Pacifique (Bolivie c. Chili), exception préliminaire,
arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2015 (II), p. 602, par. 25 ; Compétence en matière de pêcheries
(Espagne c. Canada), compétence de la Cour, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1998, p. 448, par. 29.
44 RIM, parties III et IV, et MIM, par. 2.
45 Concessions Mavrommatis en Palestine, arrêt no 2, 1924, C.P.J.I. série A no 2, p. 11.
Cela a également été confirmé par la CIJ dans les affaires suivantes : Application de la
convention internationale sur l’élimination de toutes les formes de discrimination raciale
(Géorgie c. Fédération de Russie), exceptions préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2011 (I),
p. 84‑85, par. 30 ; Applicabilité de l’obligation d’arbitrage en vertu de la section 21 de l’accord
du 26 juin 1947 relatif au siège de l’Organisation des Nations Unies, avis consultatif,
C.I.J. Recueil 1988, pp. 28-30, par. 37‑44.
46 Essais nucléaires (Australie c. France), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1974, p. 262, par. 29 ;
Essais nucléaires (Nouvelle‑Zélande c. France), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1974, p. 466, par. 30 ;
Obligation de négocier un accès à l’océan Pacifique (Bolivie c. Chili), exception préliminaire,
arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2015 (II), p. 602, par. 26.
47 Application de la convention internationale sur l’élimination de toutes les formes de
discrimination raciale (Géorgie c. Fédération de Russie), exceptions préliminaires, arrêt,
C.I.J. Recueil 2011 (I), p. 84‑85, par. 30.
48 Ibid. ; Questions d’interprétation et d’application de la convention de Montréal de 1971
résultant de l’incident aérien de Lockerbie (Jamahiriya arabe libyenne c. Royaume‑Uni),
1049 nuclear arms and disarmament (sep. op. sebutinde)
220
position, considering that facts arising after the application has been filed
may be taken into account. For example, in the Border and Transborder
Armed Actions (Nicaragua v. Honduras) case, the Court held that:
“It may however be necessary, in order to determine with certainty
what the situation was at the date of filing of the Application, to
examine the events, and in particular the relations between the Parties,
over a period prior to that date, and indeed during the subsequent
period.” 49
21. Furthermore, although the Court has stated in the South West
Africa cases that in order for a dispute to exist, the claim of one party
must be “positively opposed” by the other 50, such “positive opposition”
should not be perceived as a formal or procedural disagreement on a
point of law or fact only. In my view, the Court should, consistent with
its jurisprudence rehearsed in the Judgment (paras. 37-40), adopt a substantive
approach whereby if one State adopts a course of conduct to
achieve its own interests, which conduct is then protested by the other, a
positive opposition of views or interests is demonstrated. The perspective
that takes into account the conduct of the contesting parties in determining
the existence or otherwise of a dispute, and with which I agree, was
aptly expressed by Judge Gaetano Morelli in his dissenting opinion in the
South West Africa cases when he stated as follows:
“As to a disagreement upon a point of law or fact, it is to be
observed that, while such a disagreement may be present and commonly
(but not necessarily) is present where there is a dispute, the two
things (disagreement and dispute) are not the same. In any event it is
abundantly clear that a disagreement on a point of law or fact, which
may indeed be theoretical, is not sufficient for a dispute to be regarded
as existing.
�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������
In my opinion, a dispute consists, not of a conflict of interests as
such, but rather in a contrast between the respective attitudes of the
parties in relation to a certain conflict of interests. The opposing attitudes
of the parties, in relation to a given conflict of interests, may
respectively consist of the manifestations of the will by which each of
Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1998, pp. 25‑26, paras. 43‑45; Questions
of Interpretation and Application of the 1971 Montreal Convention arising from the Aerial
Incident at Lockerbie (Libyan Arab Jamahiriya v. United States of America), Preliminary
Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1998, pp. 130‑131, paras. 42‑44.
49 Border and Transborder Armed Actions (Nicaragua v. Honduras), Jurisdiction and
Admissibility, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1988, p. 95, para. 66.
50 South West Africa (Ethiopia v. South Africa; Liberia v. South Africa) Preliminary
Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1962, p. 328.
armes nucléaires et désarmement (op. ind. sebutinde) 1049
220
davantage de souplesse, estimant qu’il pouvait être tenu compte de faits
survenus après le dépôt de la requête. Dans l’affaire relative à des Actions
armées frontalières et transfrontalières (Nicaragua c. Honduras), elle a
ainsi conclu ce qui suit :
« Il peut toutefois être nécessaire, pour déterminer avec certitude
quelle était la situation à la date du dépôt de la requête, d’examiner
les événements, et en particulier les relations entre les Parties, pendant
une période antérieure à cette date, voire pendant la période qui
a suivi. » 49
21. En outre, bien que la Cour ait dit, dans les affaires du Sud‑Ouest
africain, que, pour qu’un différend existe, la demande d’une partie devait
se heurter à « l’opposition manifeste » de l’autre 50, un simple désaccord de
forme ou de procédure sur un point de droit ou de fait ne saurait constituer
pareille opposition. Selon moi, la Cour aurait dû, conformément à la
jurisprudence qui est la sienne et qu’elle a d’ailleurs rappelée dans le présent
arrêt (par. 37‑40), suivre une approche privilégiant le fond en considérant
que, si un Etat adopte une certaine ligne de conduite pour défendre
ses propres intérêts, et qu’un autre Etat proteste, l’opposition manifeste
de thèses ou d’intérêts se trouve établie. Le point de vue selon lequel le
comportement des parties en litige doit être pris en considération pour
déterminer s’il existe ou non un différend — point de vue auquel je souscris
— a été fort bien exposé par le juge Gaetano Morelli dans l’opinion
dissidente dont il a joint l’exposé à l’arrêt rendu dans les affaires du
Sud‑Ouest africain. L’extrait pertinent se lit comme suit :
« Pour ce qui est du désaccord sur un point de droit ou de fait, il
faut faire remarquer que, si un tel désaccord peut accompagner et
accompagne normalement (mais non pas nécessairement) le différend,
il ne s’identifie pas avec lui. En tout cas, il est tout à fait évident
qu’un désaccord sur un point de droit ou de fait, désaccord qui pourrait
être même purement théorique, ne suffit pas pour qu’on puisse
considérer qu’il existe un différend.
�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������
A mon avis, un différend consiste, non pas dans un conflit d’intérêts
en tant que tel, mais plutôt dans un contraste entre les attitudes
respectives des parties par rapport à un certain conflit d’intérêts. Les
attitudes opposées des parties, par rapport à un conflit d’intérêts
donné, peuvent consister, l’une et l’autre, dans des manifestations de
exceptions préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1998, p. 25‑26, par. 43‑45 ; Questions d’interprétation
et d’application de la convention de Montréal de 1971 résultant de l’incident
aérien de Lockerbie (Jamahiriya arabe libyenne c. Etats‑Unis d’Amérique), exceptions préliminaires,
arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1998, p. 130‑131, par. 42‑44.
49 Actions armées frontalières et transfrontalières (Nicaragua c. Honduras), compétence
et recevabilité, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1988, p. 95, par. 66.
50 Sud‑Ouest africain (Ethiopie c. Afrique du Sud ; Libéria c. Afrique du Sud), exceptions
préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1962, p. 328.
1050 nuclear arms and disarmament (sep. op. sebutinde)
221
the parties requires that its own interest be realized. It is the case of
a dispute resulting, on one side, from a claim by one of the parties
and, on the other side, of the contesting of that claim by the other
party. But it may also be that one of the opposing attitudes of the
parties consists, not of a manifestation of the will, but rather of a
course of conduct by means of which the party pursuing that course
directly achieves its own interest. This is the case of a claim which is
followed not by the contesting of the claim but by the adoption of a
course of conduct by the other party inconsistent with the claim. And
this is the case too where there is in the first place a course of conduct
by one of the parties to achieve its own interest, which the other party
meets by a protest.” 51
22. In order to determine with certainty what the situation was at the
date of filing of the RMI Application, it is necessary to examine the conduct
of the Parties over the period prior to that date, and during the
subsequent period. The conduct and position of each of the Parties over
the years regarding the possession of nuclear weapons is not in dispute.
The United Kingdom, on the one hand, maintains that as one of the
nuclear‑weapon States, it has significantly reduced its nuclear arsenal 52,
but is entitled, in the interests of national security to maintain a minimum
level of nuclear arsenal for “primarily deterrent purposes” whose use
would only be contemplated in “extreme circumstances of self‑defence” 53.
Further, the United Kingdom accepts that it is bound by the NPT and in
particular Article VI thereof, but considers that the maintenance of
nuclear arsenal for the stated purposes is not in any way incompatible
with its obligations under the NPT 54. The United Kingdom also remains
committed to multilateral negotiations under the NPT towards nuclear
disarmament. However, the conduct of the United Kingdom that the
Marshall Islands has raised issue with, not only in its statements in the
multilateral conferences but also in its Application and Memorial, is “the
United Kingdom’s non‑compliance with its legal obligations under the
NPT and customary international law to pursue in good faith, and bring
51 South West Africa (Ethiopia v. South Africa; Liberia v. South Africa) Preliminary
Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1962; dissenting opinion of Judge Morelli,
pp. 566‑567, Part II, paras. 1‑2.
52 MMI, Ann. 15: Security Britain in an Age of Uncertainty: The Strategic Defence and
Security Review, 19 October 2010, Cm 7948, available at: https://www.gov.uk/government/
uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/62482/strategic-defence-
security-review.pdf;
AMI, pp. 14‑15, para. 34.
53 Statement by Defence Secretary of the United Kingdom, Des Browne, in the House
of Commons, on 22 May 2006, available at: http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/
cm200506/cmhansrd/vo060522/text/60522w0014.htm#06052325002261.
54 The United Kingdom’s position is evident from the statements of high‑ranking
Government officials made both domestically and during international conferences, some
of which statements have been referred to by the Parties in their pleadings.
armes nucléaires et désarmement (op. ind. sebutinde) 1050
221
volonté par lesquelles chacune des parties exige que son propre intérêt
soit réalisé. C’est le cas d’un différend résultant, d’un côté, de la
prétention de l’une des parties et, de l’autre, de la contestation, par
l’autre partie, d’une telle prétention. Mais il se peut aussi que l’une
des attitudes opposées des parties consiste, non pas dans une
manifestation
de volonté, mais plutôt dans une conduite, par laquelle
la partie, qui adopte une telle conduite, réalise directement son
propre intérêt. C’est le cas d’une prétention suivie, non pas
de la contestation d’une telle prétention, mais d’une conduite de
l’autre partie contraire à la même prétention. Et c’est le cas aussi où
il y a, en premier lieu, une conduite de l’une des parties réalisant
l’intérêt de celle‑ci : conduite à laquelle l’autre partie oppose sa protestation.
» 51
22. Afin de déterminer avec certitude quelle était la situation au
moment du dépôt de la requête des Iles Marshall, il convenait d’examiner
le comportement des Parties dans la période qui avait précédé cette date
et au cours de celle qui a suivi. Le comportement et la position adoptés
par chacune des Parties au fil des ans en ce qui concerne la possession
d’armes nucléaires n’étaient pas contestés. Le Royaume-Uni, de son côté,
soutenait avoir, en sa qualité de puissance nucléaire, considérablement
réduit son arsenal 52, mais être en droit, pour des raisons de sécurité nationale,
de conserver un arsenal nucléaire minimal « essentiellement à des
fins de dissuasion », dont l’utilisation ne serait envisagée que « dans des
circonstances extrêmes de légitime défense » 53. Il reconnaissait par ailleurs
être lié par le TNP et, en particulier, par son article VI, mais estimait que
le fait de conserver un arsenal nucléaire aux fins susmentionnées n’était en
aucune manière incompatible avec les obligations découlant de cet instrument
54. En outre, il se déclarait attaché aux négociations multilatérales
prévues par le TNP afin de parvenir au désarmement nucléaire. Toutefois,
le comportement du Royaume-Uni contre lequel protestaient les
Iles Marshall dans leurs déclarations lors de conférences multilatérales,
mais aussi dans leur requête et leur mémoire, était « la violation par [le
défendeur] des obligations juridiques qui lui incombent, au titre de l’ar-
51 Sud‑Ouest africain (Ethiopie c. Afrique du Sud ; Libéria c. Afrique du Sud), exceptions
préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1962, opinion dissidente de M. le juge Morelli,
p. 566‑567, partie II, par. 1‑2.
52 MIM, annexe 15 : Securing Britain in an Age of Uncertainty: The Strategic Defence
and Security Review », octobre 2010, Cm 7948, consultable à l’adresse suivante : https://
www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/62482/
strategic-defence-
security-review.pdf ; RIM, p. 14‑15, par. 34.
53 Déclaration du ministre de la défense du Royaume-Uni, Des Browne, à la
Chambre des communes, le 22 mai 2006, consultable à l’adresse suivante : http://
www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm200506/cmhansrd/vo060522/text/60522….
htm#06052325002261.
54 La position du Royaume-Uni ressort clairement de déclarations faites par de hauts
représentants de cet Etat lors de conférences nationales et internationales, les Parties
s’étant référées à certaines d’entre elles dans leurs écritures et plaidoiries.
1051 nuclear arms and disarmament (sep. op. sebutinde)
222
to a conclusion, negotiations leading to nuclear disarmament” 55. Furthermore,
the Marshall Islands has also objected to the United Kingdom’s
qualitative and quantitative improvement of its nuclear arsenal 56.
23. The Marshall Islands maintains that the United Kingdom’s course
of conduct, consisting on the one hand, its participation in the nuclear
arms race and, on the other hand, its failure to pursue multilateral negotiations
towards nuclear disarmament, is inconsistent with its obligations
under the NPT and customary international law. Without prejudging the
issue of whether or not the United Kingdom’s conduct referred to above
actually constitutes a breach of an obligation under the NPT or customary
international law (an issue clearly for the merits), the question for
determination is whether, before filing its Application against the United
Kingdom on 24 April 2014, the Parties held clearly opposite views concerning
the United Kingdom’s performance or non‑performance of certain
international obligations.
24. In this regard, I have taken into account relevant statements of
high‑ranking officials of each of the Parties. The Marshall Islands specifically
mentions the statements it made when it joined the NPT 57, and
those made during the 2010 NPT Review Conference; the 2013 United
Nations High‑Level Meeting on Nuclear Disarmament 58, and the 2014
Conference on the Humanitarian Impact of Nuclear Weapons 59. The
Marshall Islands argues that those statements were sufficient to make
each and every one of the nuclear‑weapon States, including the United
Kingdom, aware of the Marshall Islands position on the matter 60.
25. First, on 6 May 2010 at the NPT Review Conference where the
United Kingdom was well represented, the Marshall Islands representative
declared: “We have no tolerance for anything less than strict adherence
by Parties to their legal obligations under the NPT.” 61 On another
occasion, the views of the Marshall Islands on nuclear disarmament were
clearly communicated to all nuclear‑weapon States present in New York
on 26 September 2013, at the UN High‑Level Meeting on Nuclear Disarmament,
when the Minister of Foreign Affairs of the Marshall
Islands called upon: “all nuclear weapon States to intensify efforts to
address their responsibilities in moving towards an effective and secure
55 MMI, pp. 17‑18, para. 42.
56 AMI, p. 39, paras. (a) to (d).
57 CR 2016/5, p. 9, paras. 9‑11 (deBrum), citing: Letter dated 22 June 1995 from the
Permanent Representative of the Marshall Islands to the United Nations, together with
Written Statement of the Government of the Marshall Islands.
58 MMI, p. 43, para. 98 and CR 2016/9, p. 18, para. 7 (Condorelli).
59 WSMI, p. 16, para. 34 and CR 2016/5, p. 27, para. 18 (Condorelli).
60 WSMI, p. 16, para. 35.
61 Ibid., p. 15, para. 32.
armes nucléaires et désarmement (op. ind. sebutinde) 1051
222
ticle VI du TNP et du droit international coutumier, de poursuivre de
bonne foi et de mener à terme des négociations conduisant au désarmement
nucléaire » 55. Le demandeur faisait également grief au Royaume-
Uni de l’amélioration et de l’accroissement de son arsenal nucléaire 56.
23. Les Iles Marshall soutenaient que la ligne de conduite du Royaume-
Uni — qui consistait, d’une part, à participer à la course aux armements
nucléaires et, d’autre part, à ne pas poursuivre de négociations multilatérales
en vue du désarmement nucléaire — n’était pas conforme aux obligations
qui lui incombent au regard du TNP et du droit international
coutumier. Sans préjuger la question de savoir si le comportement du
défendeur décrit plus haut constituait effectivement un manquement à ces
obligations (question qui, de toute évidence, relève de l’examen au fond),
le point à trancher était de savoir si, avant le dépôt de la requête contre le
Royaume-Uni le 24 avril 2014, les points de vue des Parties étaient nettement
opposés quant à l’exécution ou à la non‑exécution de certaines obligations
internationales.
24. A cet égard, j’ai examiné les déclarations pertinentes de hauts responsables
des deux Etats. Les Iles Marshall se sont expressément référées
aux déclarations qu’elles ont faites lorsqu’elles ont adhéré au TNP 57,
ainsi qu’à celles qui ont été prononcées au cours de la conférence d’examen
du TNP de 2010, de la réunion de haut niveau des Nations Unies sur
le désarmement nucléaire de 2013 58 et de la conférence sur l’impact humanitaire
des armes nucléaires de 2014 59. Le demandeur faisait valoir que
ces déclarations suffisaient pour que chacun des Etats dotés d’armes
nucléaires, y compris le Royaume-Uni, soit informé de leur position sur
la question 60.
25. Tout d’abord, le 6 mai 2010, lors de la conférence d’examen du
TNP à laquelle participait le Royaume-Uni, le représentant des
Iles Marshall a déclaré ce qui suit : « nous ne tolérerons rien de moins que
le strict respect par les Parties des obligations juridiques que leur impose
le TNP » 61. Les Iles Marshall ont ensuite clairement fait connaître leurs
vues à l’ensemble des puissances nucléaires qui étaient présentes à
New York le 26 septembre 2013, lors de la réunion de haut niveau des
Nations Unies sur le désarmement nucléaire, leur ministre des affaires
étrangères ayant appelé « tous les Etats dotés d’armes nucléaires à intensifier
leurs efforts pour assumer leurs responsabilités en vue d’un désarme-
55 MIM, p. 17-18, par. 42.
56 RIM, p. 39, par. a)-b).
57 CR 2016/5, p. 9, par. 9‑11 (deBrum), citant la lettre du 22 juin 1995 du représentant
permanent des Iles Marshall auprès de l’Organisation des Nations Unies, accompagnée de
l’exposé écrit du Gouvernement des Iles Marshall.
58 MIM, p. 43, par. 98, et CR 2016/9, p. 18, par. 7 (Condorelli).
59 EEIM, p. 16, par. 34, et CR 2016/5, p. 27, par. 18 (Condorelli).
60 EEIM, p. 16, par. 35.
61 Ibid., p. 15, par. 32.
1052 nuclear arms and disarmament (sep. op. sebutinde)
223
disarmament” 62. Again the United Kingdom was well represented at this
conference. The United Kingdom was represented at that meeting by
Mr. Alistair Burt, Parliamentary Under‑Secretary of State of the
United Kingdom and Northern Ireland, who also made a joint statement
on behalf of the United Kingdom, France and the United States 63. In
that statement, Mr. Burt emphasized the need for a methodical,
step‑by‑step approach towards the ultimate goal of nuclear disarmament,
including the negotiation of a Fissile Material Cut‑off Treaty and the
entry into force of the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (an approach preferred
by the three States), as opposed to initiatives such as “the humanitarian
consequences campaign” (favoured by the Marshall Islands). In
my view, the content of the two statements at this conference (i.e., that of
the United Kingdom and that of the Marshall Islands) further demonstrate
the opposing views of the Parties regarding the United Kingdom’s
performance or non‑performance of international obligations.
26. Furthermore, the views of the Marshall Islands on nuclear disarmament
were clearly communicated to all nuclear‑weapon States present
on 13 February 2014, at the Second Conference on the Humanitarian
Impact of Nuclear Weapons, when the Marshall Islands made the
so‑called “Nayarit Declaration” stating that:
“the Marshall Islands is convinced that multilateral negotiations on
achieving and sustaining a world free of nuclear weapons are long
overdue. Indeed we believe that states possessing nuclear arsenals are
failing to fulfil their legal obligations in this regard. Immediate commencement
and conclusion of such negotiations is required by legal
obligation of nuclear disarmament resting upon each and every State
under Article VI of the Non Proliferation Treaty and customary international
law.” 64 (Emphasis added.)
27. However, the United Kingdom made a deliberate decision not to
attend this Conference. Its absence was explained as follows:
“The United Kingdom Government outlined its general position
towards the Conference in a letter to Jeremy Corbyn on 12 Febru-
62 MMI, pp. 18‑19, para. 45, citing statement by Honourable Mr. Phillip Muller,
Minister of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of the Marshall Islands, 26 September 2013;
emphasis added.
63 POUK, Ann. 9: Statement of the Parliamentary Under Secretary of State of the
United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, Alistair Burt, on behalf of France,
the United Kingdom and the United States at the UN General Assembly High‑Level
Meeting on Nuclear Disarmament on 26 September 2013.
64 MMI, Vol. II, Ann. 72; Marshall Islands Statement, Second Conference on the
Humanitarian Impact of Nuclear Weapons, Nayarit, Mexico, 13‑14 February 2014.
armes nucléaires et désarmement (op. ind. sebutinde) 1052
223
ment effectif réalisé en toute sécurité » 62. Le Royaume-Uni était également
représenté à cette conférence par M. Alistair Burt, sous‑secrétaire d’Etat
du Gouvernement du Royaume-Uni de Grande-Bretagne
et d’Irlande du
Nord, qui a fait une déclaration commune au nom du Royaume-Uni, de
la France et des Etats‑Unis d’Amérique 63. M. Burt y soulignait la nécessité
de suivre une approche méthodique et progressive pour atteindre
l’objectif ultime du désarmement nucléaire, incluant la négociation d’un
traité sur l’arrêt de la production de matières fissiles et l’entrée en vigueur
du traité d’interdiction complète des essais nucléaires (méthode qui a la
préférence des trois Etats susmentionnés), par opposition à des initiatives
telles que la « campagne sur les conséquences humanitaires » (promue par
les Iles Marshall). Selon moi, la teneur des deux déclarations faites lors
de cette conférence (c’est‑à‑dire celle du Royaume-Uni et celle
des Iles Marshall) est une nouvelle preuve de l’existence d’une divergence
de vues entre les Parties en ce qui concerne l’exécution ou la non-exécution,
par le Royaume-Uni, des obligations internationales qui lui
incombent.
26. Les vues des Iles Marshall sur le désarmement nucléaire ont par
ailleurs été clairement communiquées à l’ensemble des Etats dotés d’armes
nucléaires présents le 13 février 2014 à la deuxième conférence sur l’impact
humanitaire des armes nucléaires, lorsque le demandeur a fait ce
qu’il est convenu d’appeler la « déclaration de Nayarit », dans laquelle il
indiquait ce qui suit :
« les Iles Marshall sont convaincues que des négociations multilatérales
visant à créer et à maintenir un monde dépourvu d’armes
nucléaires auraient dû être engagées depuis longtemps. Nous estimons
en effet que les Etats possédant un arsenal nucléaire ne respectent
pas leurs obligations à cet égard. L’obligation d’oeuvrer au
désarmement nucléaire qui incombe à chaque Etat en vertu de l’article
VI du traité de non‑prolifération nucléaire et du droit international
coutumier impose l’ouverture immédiate de telles négociations
et leur aboutissement. » 64 (Les italiques sont de moi.)
27. Or, le Royaume-Uni avait décidé de ne pas participer à cette conférence,
justifiant son absence de la manière suivante :
« Le Gouvernement britannique a exposé sa position générale à
l’égard de la conférence dans une lettre adressée à Jeremy Corbyn en
62 MIM, p. 18‑19, par. 45, citant la déclaration de M. Phillip Muller, ministre des
affaires étrangères de la République des Iles Marshall, en date du 26 septembre 2013 (les
italiques sont de moi).
63 EPRU, annexe 6 : Déclaration faite au nom de la France, du Royaume-Uni et
des Etats-Unis d’Amérique par M. Alistair Burt, sous-secrétaire
d’Etat du Gouvernement
du Royaume-Uni de Grande-Bretagne
et d’Irlande du Nord, à la réunion de
haut niveau de l’Assemblée générale des Nations Unies sur le désarmement nucléaire,
26 septembre 2013.
64 MIM, vol. II, annexe 72 : déclaration faite par les Iles Marshall à la deuxième conférence
sur l’impact humanitaire des armes nucléaires, Nayarit, Mexique, 13‑14 février 2014.
1053 nuclear arms and disarmament (sep. op. sebutinde)
224
ary 2014. This was in relation to the question of United Kingdom
attendance at the Conference in Mexico in February . . .
In that letter, Mr. Robertson explained that the United Kingdom
‘shares deep concern at the catastrophic humanitarian consequences
of any use of nuclear weapons, expressed by the NPT State parties at
the 2010 Review Conference’. He added, however, that after careful
consideration, the Foreign and Commonwealth Office had decided
against attending the Mexico conference because of concerns that
‘some efforts under the humanitarian consequences initiative appear
increasingly aimed at pursuing a Nuclear Weapons Convention prohibiting
nuclear weapons outright’. He went on to state that ‘the
United Kingdom believes the NPT should remain the cornerstone of
the international nuclear non‑proliferation regime and the essential
foundation for the pursuit of nuclear disarmament and for peaceful
uses of nuclear energy’. As such the best way to achieve the goal
of a world without nuclear weapons is ‘through gradual disarmament
negotiated using the NPT Step-by-Step process and Review
cycle’.” 65
28. The United Kingdom’s decision not to participate in this conference
was clearly consistent with its long‑standing position on multilateral
negotiations towards nuclear disarmament. It is also clear that the United
Kingdom was wary of what it describes as “efforts under the humanitarian
consequences initiative aimed at pursuing a Nuclear Weapons Convention
prohibiting nuclear weapons outright”, as this is clearly not the
kind of approach to nuclear disarmament the United Kingdom favours.
Based on the above explanation, it cannot be said that the United Kingdom
was totally oblivious of the Nayarit agenda or of the fact that
non‑nuclear‑weapon States like the Marshall Islands would be taking a
view opposed to that of the United Kingdom as far as multilateral negotiations
on nuclear disarmament are concerned. Quite to the contrary, the
United Kingdom anticipated the thrust of the discussions at Nayarit and
decided it was not meaningful for it to attend the conference. Thus, far
from proving the United Kingdom’s ignorance or “unawareness” (to use
the new criterion adopted by the majority) of what transpired at Nayarit,
this tactical or deliberate avoidance of the Nayarit conference is further
demonstration of the opposing views between the United Kingdom and
the Marshall Islands. The Court should have taken into account the
United Kingdom’s conduct in this regard instead of taking a formalistic
approach and concluding that it was “unaware” of the Marshall Islands
position at Nayarit.
65 Conference on the Humanitarian Impact of Nuclear Weapons, House of Commons
Research Note prepared by Claire Mills, 3 December 2014, p. 7.
armes nucléaires et désarmement (op. ind. sebutinde) 1053
224
date du 12 février 2014. Il était question de la participation du
Royaume-Uni à la conférence qui se tenait au Mexique au même
moment…
Dans cette lettre, M. Robertson expliquait que le Royaume-Uni
« partageait les profondes inquiétudes quant aux conséquences humanitaires
catastrophiques qu’aurait l’utilisation d’armes nucléaires,
exprimées par les Etats parties au TNP lors de la conférence d’examen
de 2010 ». Il ajoutait cependant que le ministère des Affaires
étrangères et du Commonwealth avait décidé, après mûre réflexion,
de ne pas participer à la conférence devant se tenir au Mexique, étant
donné que « certaines actions entreprises dans le cadre de la campagne
sur les conséquences humanitaires sembl[ai]ent tendre de plus en plus
vers la conclusion d’une convention interdisant totalement les armes
nucléaires ». Il poursuivait en précisant ce qui suit : « le Royaume‑Uni
estime que le TNP doit demeurer la pierre angulaire du régime de
non‑prolifération nucléaire et le pilier des efforts menés en vue de parvenir
au désarmement nucléaire et de réserver l’utilisation de l’énergie
nucléaire à des fins pacifiques ». Ainsi, la meilleure façon d’arriver à
un monde exempt d’armes nucléaires était de « négocier un désarmement
progressif en procédant étape par étape, dans le cadre du TNP
et des conférences d’examen périodiques ». » 65
28. La décision de ne pas participer à cette conférence s’inscrivait de
toute évidence dans le droit fil de la position qui était depuis longtemps
celle du Royaume‑Uni à l’égard des négociations multilatérales en vue du
désarmement nucléaire. Il apparaît aussi clairement que le défendeur se
méfiait de ce qu’il considérait comme des « actions entreprises dans le cadre
de la campagne sur les conséquences humanitaires [tendant à] la conclusion
d’une convention interdisant totalement les armes nucléaires », telle n’étant
manifestement pas l’approche qu’il privilégie en matière de désarmement
nucléaire. Au vu de l’explication précitée, l’on ne saurait considérer que le
Royaume‑Uni ne faisait aucun cas des points devant être examinés à Nayarit
ou du fait que certains Etats non dotés d’armes nucléaires, tels que les
Iles Marshall, auraient une position opposée à la sienne au sujet des négociations
multilatérales sur le désarmement. Bien au contraire, le défendeur
avait anticipé la direction que prendraient les débats à Nayarit et décidé
qu’il n’était pas judicieux pour lui de participer à la conférence. Ainsi, loin
de prouver que le Royaume‑Uni ignorait ou n’avait pas « connaissance »
(pour reprendre le critère introduit par la majorité) des points discutés à
Nayarit, cet évitement tactique et délibéré ne fait qu’attester une fois encore
l’existence de vues divergentes entre les Parties. La Cour aurait dû tenir
compte du comportement du Royaume-Uni à cet égard plutôt que suivre
une approche formaliste, concluant que ce dernier n’avait pas « connaissance
» de la position des Iles Marshall à Nayarit.
65 Conférence sur l’impact humanitaire des armes nucléaires, document de travail établi
par Claire Mills à l’intention de la Chambre des communes, 3 décembre 2014, p. 7.
1054 nuclear arms and disarmament (sep. op. sebutinde)
225
29. In my view, those statements also represent the Marshall Islands’
claim that nuclear‑weapon States, including the United Kingdom, are
obliged under the NPT and/or customary international law, to pursue
negotiations leading to nuclear disarmament. Furthermore, I do not subscribe
to the view that in the context of these multilateral conferences, it
was necessary for the Marshall Islands to single out and name each of the
nine nuclear States in order for it to validly express its claim against each
of them (Judgment, paras. 49‑50). A distinction ought to be drawn
between a purely bilateral setting where the applicant must single out the
respondent and articulate to that respondent the particular conduct to
which the applicant is opposed, and a setting involving multilateral
exchanges or processes such as the present case, where it is well known
throughout the international community, that amongst the over 191
member States to the NPT, only nine possess nuclear weapons. To insist
that the Marshall Islands should have identified each of these States by
name and mentioned the conduct of each one that it objects to, is to
apply form over substance.
The New Criterion of “Awareness” in Determining
the Existence of a Dispute Is Alien
to the Court’s Jurisprudence
30. Hitherto, the Court has not made it a legal prerequisite for an
applicant to prove that before the application was filed, the respondent
State “was aware or could not have been unaware that its views are positively
opposed by the applicant” State, before making a determination
that a dispute exists (Judgment, para. 41). This new test is not only alien
to the established jurisprudence of the Court but also directly contradicts
what the Court has stated in the past and with no convincing reasons. On
every occasion that the Court has had to examine the issue of whether or
not a dispute exists, it has emphasized that this is a role reserved for its
objective determination 66 (not that of the parties) and that that determination
must involve an examination in substance and not form, of the
facts or evidence before the Court 67. For example, the Court has categorically
stated in the South West Africa cases that:
“A mere assertion is not sufficient to prove the existence
of a dispute any more than a mere denial of the existence of the
dispute
proves its non-existence.
Nor is it adequate to show that the
interests of the two parties to such a case are in conflict. It must be
66 Interpretation of Peace Treaties with Bulgaria, Hungary and Romania, First Phase,
Advisory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports 1950, p. 74.
67 Application of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of
Racial Discrimination (Georgia v. Russian Federation), Preliminary Objections, Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 2011 (I), pp. 84‑85, para. 30.
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225
29. Selon moi, ces déclarations illustrent également l’allégation des Iles
Marshall selon laquelle les Etats dotés d’armes nucléaires, y compris le
Royaume‑Uni, sont tenus de poursuivre des négociations conduisant au
désarmement nucléaire. En outre, je ne puis souscrire à l’idée selon
laquelle les Iles Marshall auraient dû, dans le cadre de ces conférences
multilatérales, désigner nommément chacune des neuf puissances
nucléaires pour que les demandes qu’elles avaient présentées à leur
encontre soient valables (arrêt, par. 49‑50). Il convient en effet d’établir
une distinction entre un contexte exclusivement bilatéral, où le demandeur
doit identifier le défendeur et faire part à celui‑ci du comportement
précis qu’il lui reproche, et un contexte d’échanges ou de processus multilatéraux
tel que celui de la présente espèce, où chaque membre de la communauté
internationale sait que, sur les 191 Etats parties au TNP, seuls
neuf possèdent des armes nucléaires. Soutenir que le demandeur aurait dû
désigner nommément chacun de ces Etats et préciser, pour chacun d’entre
eux, le comportement dont il tirait grief, revient à privilégier la forme sur
le fond.
Le nouveau critère de la « connaissance » aux fins
de déterminer l’existence d’un différend est étranger
à la jurisprudence de la Cour
30. A ce jour, jamais la Cour n’avait jugé que, pour qu’elle puisse
conclure à l’existence d’un différend, le demandeur devait démontrer que,
avant le dépôt de la requête, le défendeur « avait connaissance, ou ne pouvait
pas ne pas avoir connaissance, de ce que ses vues se heurtaient à
l’« opposition manifeste » du demandeur » (arrêt, par. 41). Non seulement
ce nouveau critère est étranger à la jurisprudence établie de la Cour, mais
encore il va directement à l’encontre de ce que celle‑ci a dit par le passé, et
ce, sans raison convaincante. Chaque fois qu’il lui a fallu rechercher s’il
existait ou non un différend, la Cour a souligné que ce point demandait à
être établi objectivement par elle 66 (et non par les parties), et que sa conclusion
à cet égard devait reposer sur un examen de fond et non de forme des
faits ou éléments de preuve qui lui avaient été présentés 67. Dans les affaires
du Sud‑Ouest africain, elle a ainsi catégoriquement indiqué ce qui suit :
« La simple affirmation ne suffit pas pour prouver l’existence d’un
différend, tout comme le simple fait que l’existence d’un différend est
contestée ne prouve pas que ce différend n’existe pas. Il n’est pas
suffisant non plus de démontrer que les intérêts des deux parties à
66 Interprétation des traités de paix conclus avec la Bulgarie, la Hongrie et la Roumanie,
première phase, avis consultatif, C.I.J. Recueil 1950, p. 74.
67 Application de la convention internationale sur l’élimination de toutes les formes de
discrimination raciale (Géorgie c. Fédération de Russie), exceptions préliminaires, arrêt,
C.I.J. Recueil 2011 (I), p. 84‑85, par. 30.
1055 nuclear arms and disarmament (sep. op. sebutinde)
226
shown that the claim of one party is positively opposed by the other.”
68
Also in Nicaragua v. Colombia the Court stated that, “although a formal
diplomatic protest may be an important step to bring the claim of one
party to the attention of the other, such a formal protest is not a necessary
condition [for the existence of a dispute]” 69.
31. By introducing proof of “awareness” as a new legal requirement,
what the majority has done was to raise the evidentiary threshold that
will from now on require not only an applicant, but the Court itself, to
delve into the “mind” of a respondent State in order to find out about its
state of awareness. In my view, this formalistic requirement is not only
problematic but also directly contradicts the principle in Nicaragua v.
Colombia quoted above, since the surest way of ensuring awareness is for
an applicant to make some form of formal notification or diplomatic protest.
The test also introduces subjectivity into an equation previously
reserved “for the Court’s objective determination”.
32. It is also pertinent to note that paragraph 73 of Nicaragua v.
Colombia cited by the majority at paragraph 41 of the Judgment as the
basis for the new “awareness” test, merely sets out the factual assessment
conducted by the Court to determine whether a dispute existed in that
case 70, and not the legal test applicable. In paragraph 72 of Nicaragua v.
Colombia, immediately preceding, the Court had just observed that,
“although a formal diplomatic protest may be an important step to
bring a claim of one party to the attention of the other, such a formal
protest is not a necessary condition . . . in determining whether a
dispute exists or not, ‘[t]he matter is one of substance, not of form’” 71.
It is clear that the Court in that case was not prepared to turn a specific
factual finding into a formalistic legal requirement for prior notification.
In my view, it would be inappropriate to turn what was clearly a factual
observation into a rigid legal test that was rejected by the Court in that
case.
68 South West Africa (Ethiopia v. South Africa; Liberia v. South Africa), Preliminary
Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1962, p. 328.
69 Alleged Violations of Sovereign Rights and Maritime Spaces in the Caribbean Sea
(Nicaragua v. Colombia) Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2016 (I), p. 32,
para. 72.
70 The exact quotation of paragraph 73 is “Colombia was aware that its enactment
of Decree 1946 and its conduct in the maritime areas declared by the 2012 Judgment to
belong to Nicaragua were positively opposed by Nicaragua”. The applicable legal framework
regarding the existence of the dispute is quoted at: Alleged Violations of Sovereign
Rights and Maritime Spaces in the Caribbean Sea (Nicaragua v. Colombia), Preliminary
Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2016 (I), pp. 26‑27, paras. 49‑52.
71 Ibid., para. 72.
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une telle affaire sont en conflit. Il faut démontrer que la réclamation
de l’une des parties se heurte à l’opposition manifeste de l’autre. » 68
Dans l’affaire Nicaragua c. Colombie, la Cour a en outre précisé que, « si
la protestation diplomatique officielle peut constituer un moyen important
pour une partie de porter à l’attention de l’autre une prétention,
pareille protestation officielle n’est pas une condition nécessaire » 69.
31. En introduisant le nouveau critère juridique de la « connaissance »,
la majorité a élevé le seuil requis en matière de preuve ; le demandeur mais
aussi la Cour elle‑même devront désormais sonder « l’esprit » de l’Etat
défendeur pour savoir si ce dernier avait ou non connaissance du différend.
Selon moi, cette exigence formaliste est non seulement problématique,
mais aussi en contradiction directe avec le principe énoncé dans
l’affaire Nicaragua c. Colombie précitée, puisque la meilleure manière
pour le demandeur de s’assurer que le défendeur a connaissance du différend
est de lui adresser, d’une façon ou d’une autre, une notification formelle
ou une protestation diplomatique.
32. Il convient également de noter que, au paragraphe 73 de l’arrêt
rendu en l’affaire Nicaragua c. Colombie — auquel la majorité se réfère au
paragraphe 41 du présent arrêt pour justifier l’introduction du nouveau
critère de la « connaissance » —, la Cour ne faisait qu’exposer l’analyse
factuelle à laquelle elle avait procédé pour déterminer s’il existait un différend
dans cette affaire 70 ; elle n’énonçait pas le critère juridique applicable
en la matière. Au paragraphe précédent de ce même arrêt, elle avait
d’ailleurs relevé que,
« si la protestation diplomatique officielle peut constituer un moyen
important pour une partie de porter à l’attention de l’autre une prétention,
pareille protestation officielle n’est pas une condition nécessaire
… la Cour, lorsqu’elle détermine s’il existe ou non un différend,
s’attache au « fond, et non [à la] forme » » 71.
Il apparaît donc clairement que, dans cette affaire, la Cour n’envisageait
pas de transformer une constatation spécifique en une exigence juridique
formelle de notification préalable. Selon moi, il serait inopportun de faire
de ce qui était manifestement une observation factuelle un critère juridique
strict, ce que la Cour avait alors exclu.
68 Sud‑Ouest africain (Ethiopie c. Afrique du Sud ; Libéria c. Afrique du Sud), exceptions
préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1962, p. 328.
69 Violations alléguées de droits souverains et d’espaces maritimes dans la mer des
Caraïbes (Nicaragua c. Colombie), exceptions préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2016 (I),
p. 32, par. 72.
70 La citation exacte du paragraphe 73 est la suivante : « la Colombie savait que la
promulgation du décret 1946 et son comportement dans les espaces maritimes que la Cour
avait reconnus au Nicaragua dans son arrêt de 2012 se heurtaient à l’opposition manifeste du
Nicaragua ». Le cadre juridique applicable à l’existence d’un différend est décrit dans Violations
alléguées de droits souverains et d’espaces maritimes dans la mer des Caraïbes (Nicaragua
c. Colombie), exceptions préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2016 (I), p. 26‑27, par. 49‑52.
71 Ibid., par. 72.
1056 nuclear arms and disarmament (sep. op. sebutinde)
227
33. Similarly, Georgia v. Russian Federation 72, also cited in the Judgment
at paragraph 41 in support of the majority view, is inapplicable and
should be distinguished. That case involved the interpretation and application
of a specific treaty (the Convention on the Elimination of All
Forms of Racial Discrimination) to which both Georgia and Russia were
party. Article 22 of that treaty (the compromissory clause conferring
jurisdiction on the Court) has an express requirement that, prior to filing
a case before the Court, the contending parties must first try to settle the
dispute by negotiation or by other processes stipulated in the Convention
73. It was imperative in that case for the Applicant to prove that prior
to seising the Court, it had not only notified the Respondent of its claims
but that the two had attempted negotiating a settlement. It was therefore
logical that the respondent formally be made “aware” of the applicant’s
claim before negotiations could take place. That case is in stark contrast
to the present case where no such compromissory clause exists requiring
prior negotiations or formal notification or “awareness”. Accordingly
Georgia v. Russian Federation is, in my view, distinguishable and inapplicable
as an authority for the “awareness” test.
Conclusion
34. Based on the evidence examined above, my view is that, as at the
date on which the Application was filed, there existed a dispute between
the Parties concerning the alleged violation by the United Kingdom, of
an obligation under Article VI of the NPT and under customary international
law to pursue in good faith and bring to a conclusion, negotiations
leading to nuclear disarmament in all its aspects under strict and effective
international control.
(Signed) Julia Sebutinde.
72 Application of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of
Racial Discrimination (Georgia v. Russian Federation) Preliminary Objections, Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 2011 (I), p. 70.
73 Article 22 of the Convention stipulated that:
“Any dispute between two or more States parties with respect to the interpretation
or application of this Convention, which is not settled by negotiation or by procedures
expressly provided for in this Convention, shall, at the request of any of the
parties to the dispute, be referred to the International Court of Justice for decision,
unless the disputants agree to another mode of settlement.”
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33. De la même manière, l’arrêt rendu en l’affaire Géorgie c. Fédération
de Russie 72, auquel il est également fait référence au paragraphe 41 du
présent arrêt pour étayer les vues de la majorité, n’était pas applicable et
doit être distingué de la présente espèce. Cette affaire avait trait à l’interprétation
et à l’application d’un traité particulier (la convention internationale
sur l’élimination de toutes les formes de discrimination raciale)
auquel la Géorgie comme la Russie étaient parties. L’article 22 de ce
traité (la clause compromissoire conférant compétence à la Cour) prévoit
expressément que, avant d’introduire une instance devant la Cour, les
parties en litige doivent d’abord tenter de régler le différend par voie de
négociation ou par d’autres moyens précisés dans la convention 73. Dans
cette affaire, il était donc impératif que le demandeur démontrât qu’il
avait, avant de saisir la Cour, non seulement notifié ses réclamations au
défendeur, mais aussi que tous deux avaient tenté de négocier pour parvenir
à un règlement. Il était donc logique que le défendeur eût formellement
« connaissance » de la réclamation du demandeur avant que des
négociations puissent avoir lieu. Cette affaire se distingue nettement de la
présente espèce, dans laquelle il n’existait aucune clause compromissoire
de ce type imposant des négociations préalables, une notification formelle
ou pareille « connaissance ». Selon moi, l’affaire Géorgie c. Fédération de
Russie doit donc être distinguée de la présente instance et ne pouvait être
invoquée à l’appui du critère de la « connaissance ».
Conclusion
34. A la lumière des éléments examinés ci‑dessus, je considère qu’il
existait, à la date du dépôt de la requête, un différend entre les Parties
concernant le manquement allégué du Royaume‑Uni à une obligation
découlant de l’article VI du TNP et du droit international coutumier de
poursuivre de bonne foi des négociations conduisant à un désarmement
nucléaire dans tous ses aspects, sous un contrôle international strict et
efficace.
(Signé) Julia Sebutinde.
72 Application de la convention internationale sur l’élimination de toutes les formes de
discrimination raciale (Géorgie c. Fédération de Russie), exceptions préliminaires, arrêt,
C.I.J. Recueil 2011 (I), p. 70.
73 L’article 22 de la convention est ainsi libellé :
« Tout différend entre deux ou plusieurs Etats parties touchant l’interprétation
ou l’application de la présente Convention qui n’aura pas été réglé par voie de négociation
ou au moyen des procédures expressément prévues par ladite Convention
sera porté, à la requête de toute partie au différend, devant la Cour internationale
de Justice pour qu’elle statue à son sujet, à moins que les parties au différend ne
conviennent d’un autre mode de règlement. »

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