Separate opinion of Judge Tomka

Document Number
160-20161005-JUD-01-04-EN
Parent Document Number
160-20161005-JUD-01-00-EN
Document File
Bilingual Document File

SEPARATE OPINION OF J UDGE T OMKA

Jurisdiction of the Court under Article 36 (2) of Statute  Existence of a dispute  No prior

negotiations or notice necessary before seising Court  Existence of a dispute a condition for
exercise of jurisdiction  Dispute in principle to exist at date of Application  Court has applied
condition flexibly and taken into account subsequent events  Proceedings clarified that a dispute

between the Marshall Islands and the United Kingdom exists  Court should have considered
other objections to jurisdiction.

Admissibility  Article VI of 1968 Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons 

Nature of obligations thereunder  Disarmament requires co-operation between all States, in
particular nuclear States  Court cannot consider position of one nuclear State without
considering and understanding positions of other nuclear States  Absence of other nuclear

powers before Court prevents consideration of claims in proper multilateral context  Application
inadmissible.

1. For the first time in almost a century of adjudication of inter-State disputes in the Peace

Palace, the “World” Court (the Permanent Court of International Justice and the International Court
of Justice) has dismissed a case on the ground that no dispute existed between the Applicant and
the Respondent prior to the filing of the Application instituting proceedings . The Court seems not
to be interested in knowing whether a dispute between them exists now.

2. I am not convinced by the approach taken by the Court, despite many references to its case
law. In my view, other decisions of the Court, and its predecessor, point in a different direction.
Therefore, to my regret, I am unable to support the Court’s upholding of the objection based on the

absence of a dispute.

3. Is it really the case that the Marshall Islands and the United Kingdom did not, by
April 2014, have a dispute relating to the latter’s compliance with Article VI of the 1968 Treaty on

the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (hereinafter the “NPT”), and that they do not have such
a dispute now? Do the positions of the Marshall Islands and the United Kingdom on the latter’s
performance of its obligations under the provisions of the NPT coincide?

4. The Marshall Islands in its Application alleges, inter alia, that

“[t]he UK has not pursued in good faith negotiations to cease the nuclear arms race at
an early date through comprehensive nuclear disarmament or other measures, and
instead is taking actions to improve its nuclear weapons system and to maintain it for

the indefinite future.

1
This does not include requests for interpretation under Article 60 of the Court’s Statute, which also  at least in
the English version  uses the term “dispute” (the French text of the Statute uses the term “contestation”) (see,
e.g., Request for Interpretation of the Judgment of 20 November 1950 in the Asylum Case (Colombia v. Peru), I.C.J.
Reports 1950, p. 403). Where there is no disagreement between the parties about the meaning and scope of a Judgment,
there is nothing to interpret (see Request for Interpretation of the Judgment of 31 March 2004 in the Case concerning
Avena and Other Mexican Nationals (Mexico v. United States of America) (Mexico v. United States of America),
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2009, p. 17, para. 45). Requests for interpretation cannot serve the purpose of seeking a
decision of the Court on matters not brought before the Court in the original proceedings (see, e.g., Request for
Interpretation of the Judgment of 15 June 1962 in the Case concerning the Temple of Preah Vihear (Cambodia v.
Thailand) (Cambodia v. Thailand), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2013, pp. 303-304, para. 56). - 2 -

Similarly, the UK has not fulfilled its obligation to pursue in good faith
negotiations leading to nuclear disarmament in all its aspects under strict and effective

international control and instead has opposed the efforts of the great majority of States
to initiate such negotiations.”

On the basis of these allegations, the Marshall Islands requests the Court to issue a declaratory

judgment finding “that the United Kingdom has violated and continues to violate its international
obligations under the NPT, more specifically under Article VI of the Treaty” through various acts
and omissions (emphasis added) . The Marshall Islands further requests the Court

“to order the United Kingdom to take all steps necessary to comply with its
obligations under Article VI of the [NPT] and under customary international law
within one year of the Judgment, including the pursuit, by initiation if necessary, of
negotiations in good faith aimed at the conclusion of a convention on nuclear

disarmament in all its aspects under strict and effective international control.”

5. The same submissions have been made by the Marshall Islands in its Memorial filed on

16 March 2015.

6. There can be no doubt that the United Kingdom denies that it is in breach of its obligations
under the NPT. In its written pleading on preliminary objections, it made clear that “[t]he United

Kingdom considers the allegations to be manifestly unfounded on the merits.” Indeed, it was not
only in the pleadings that the United Kingdom rejected the views of the Marshall Islands. While
the Court was deliberating in this case, Her Majesty’s Government took a decision to modernize
the country’s nuclear arsenal, through the replacement of four nuclear submarines, the decision
3
having been approved by the Parliament at Westminster . Such modernization appears to have
been envisaged as being undertaken at great expense, with an apparent intention that the system be
used for several decades to come . While it is not appropriate at this stage for me to take a position

on whether such a decision is in conformity with the United Kingdom’s obligations under the NPT,
there cannot, in my mind, be any doubt that it is in opposition to the view of the Marshall Islands,
which is critical of the United Kingdom “taking actions to improve its nuclear weapons system and
to maintain it for the indefinite future” (see paragraph 4 above).

I. JURISDICTION

7. The United Kingdom has raised five preliminary objections. According to the first one,

“there is no justiciable ‘dispute’ between the Marshall Islands and the United Kingdom . . . within
the meaning of this term in Articles 36 (2), 38 (1) and 40 (1) of the Court’s Statute, Article 38 (1)
of the Rules, and relevant applicable customary international law and jurisprudence”. The
Respondent emphasizes that

2For the full text of the request, see paragraph 11 of the Judgment.
3
See the decision of the United Kingdom Parliament reported in House of Commons, Hansard, vol. 613, columns
656-660, https://hansard.parliament.uk/Commons/2016-07-18/debates/16071818000001…-
4854 (18 July 2016).
4
See the United Kingdom’s National Security Strategy and Strategic Defence and Security Review (2015),
https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/fi…
Review_web_only.pdf, para. 4.76, which estimated the nuclear submarines’ manufacturing cost at £31 billion, “with the
first submarine entering service in the early 2030s”. See also Claire Mills, Replacing the UK’s “Trident” Nuclear
Deterrent, House of Commons Briefing Paper No. 7353, http://researchbriefings.files.parliament.uk/documents/CBP-
7353/CBP-7353.pdf (12 July 2016), pp. 47-48. - 3 -

“[i]n particular, relying inter alia on the principle set out in Article 43 of the
International Law Commission’s Articles on State Responsibility . . . and addressed in
the Court’s recent judgments in Georgia v. Russia and Belgium v. Senegal, the United
Kingdom contends that the failure by the Marshall Islands to give the United Kingdom
any notice whatever of its claim renders the asserted dispute non-justiciable, with the

effect of depriving the Court of jurisdiction to decide on the claims related thereto
and/or making them inadmissible” (reference omitted).

8. The Court has concluded that it “does not have jurisdiction under Article 36, paragraph 2,
of its Statute” (Judgment, paragraph 58).

9. It is to be recalled that the basis of jurisdiction relied upon by the Marshall Islands is two
declarations under Article 36, paragraph 2, of the Statute of the Court, one deposited by the
Marshall Islands on 24 April 2013 and the other by the United Kingdom on 5 July 2004.

10. When analysing issues of jurisdiction, caution has to be taken in relying on different
pronouncements of the Court, in particular, depending upon whether the basis invoked is
Article 36 (2) declarations or a compromissory clause contained in a treaty. Both declarations and
compromissory clauses may set certain preconditions for the seising of the Court. The Court’s
jurisprudence has to be viewed in light of the relevant provisions underpinning its jurisdiction in

any given case.

11. The Court in the present Judgment (see paragraph 38) recalls its previous view, that
when “[i]t has been seised on the basis of declarations made . . . which . . . do not contain any
condition relating to prior negotiations to be conducted within a reasonable time” (Land and

Maritime Boundary between Cameroon and Nigeria (Cameroon v. Nigeria), Preliminary
Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1998, p. 322, para. 109), no such negotiations are required
prior to the filing of the Application. In the same Judgment, the Court clarified that a State is “not
bound to inform [the other State] of its intention to bring proceedings before the Court” (ibid.,
p. 297, para. 39).

12. The United Kingdom’s reliance on the ILC Articles on State Responsibility for its
argument that the Marshall Islands’ failure to give it any notice of its claims “renders the asserted
dispute non-justiciable, with the effect of depriving the Court of jurisdiction” (see paragraph 7
above), is of no assistance to the Respondent. As the Court notes (see paragraph 45 of the
Judgment) the commentaries adopted by the Commission state expressis verbis that “[t]he present

articles are not concerned with questions of the jurisdiction of international courts and tribunals, or
in general with the conditions for the admissibility of cases brought before such courts or
tribunals” .

13. The United Kingdom also argues that “the existence of a legal dispute” is one of “the

conditions for the Court’s jurisdiction” and “must be satisfied at the time of the Application”. It
presents the argument also in a modified form, stating that “[t]he existence of a dispute  a
necessary condition for the exercise of the Court’s jurisdiction in terms of Article 36 (2) of the

Yearbook of the International Law Commission 2001, Vol. II, Part Two, p. 120, paragraph 1 of the commentary
to Article 44 entitled “Admissibility of claims”; see also James Crawford, The International Law Commission’s Articles
on State Responsibility: Introduction, Text and Commentaries, Cambridge University Press, 2002, p. 264. - 4 -

Statute of the Court  must also be determined on [the] date [on which the act instituting

proceedings is filed]” (emphasis added).

14. Although the Court has, on a number of occasions, stated that the existence of a dispute
is a condition for its jurisdiction, in my view, it is more properly characterized as a condition for
the exercise of the Court’s jurisdiction. The jurisdiction of this Court is based on the consent of
States. If States make declarations under Article 36 (2) of the Statute “they recognize as
compulsory ipso facto and without special agreement, in relation to any other State accepting the

same obligation, the jurisdiction of the Court in all legal disputes concerning [the matters specified
in letters (a) to (d) of that paragraph].” The Court’s jurisdiction in relation to a State which has
made a declaration is established from the moment the declaration is deposited with the
Secretary-General of the United Nations, and remains in force as long as it is either not withdrawn
or has not lapsed if it has been made for a specified period of time. The Court has explained that

“by the deposit of its Declaration of Acceptance [of the Court’s jurisdiction under
Article 36 (2) of the Statute] with the Secretary-General, the accepting State becomes

a Party to the system of the Optional Clause in relation to the other declarant States,
with all the rights and obligations deriving from Article 36. The contractual relation
between the Parties and the compulsory jurisdiction of the Court resulting therefrom
are established, ‘ipso facto and without special agreement’, by the fact of the making
of the Declaration.” (Right of Passage over Indian Territory (Portugal v. India),
Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1957, p. 146; emphasis added.)

The Court further specified that it is on the date when the second declarant State deposits its
Declaration of Acceptance “that the consensual bond, which is the basis of the Optional Clause,
comes into being between the States concerned” (ibid.).

15. Thus, it is not the emergence of a dispute which establishes the Court’s jurisdiction or
perfects it. The emergence of a dispute is a necessary condition, in the event that one of the
disputing parties which has accepted the Court’s jurisdiction decides to bring an Application

instituting proceedings before the Court against another State with an Article 36 declaration in
force, for the Court to exercise that jurisdiction. The disappearance of the dispute during the
proceedings, either because the parties have reached a settlement or because of intervening
circumstances, does not deprive the Court of its jurisdiction. However, the Court in such situation
will not give any judgment on the merits, as there is nothing upon which to decide. It would limit
itself either to taking note of the settlement in its Order and directing the Registrar “that the case be
removed from the list” (see, e.g., Passage through the Great Belt (Finland v. Denmark), Order of

10 September 1992, I.C.J. Reports 1992, pp. 348-349) or concluding that a claim “no longer has
any object and that the Court is therefore not called upon to give a decision thereon” (see,
e.g., Nuclear Tests (Australia v. France), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1974, p. 272, para. 62; Nuclear
Tests (New Zealand v. France), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1974, p. 478, para. 65).

16. The function of the Court “is to decide in accordance with international law such
disputes as are submitted to it” (Article 38, paragraph 1, of the Statute). The Court does so as the

principal judicial organ of the United Nations, thus contributing to the achievement of its purposes,
one of them being “to bring about by peaceful means, and in conformity with the principles of
justice and international law, adjustment or settlement of international disputes” (Article 1,
paragraph 1 of the Charter of the United Nations). In order to discharge this function, the dispute
must still exist when the Court decides on its merits, provided that it has jurisdiction and the
Application is admissible. While the formulation of Article 38, paragraph 1, of the Statute implies
that the dispute will already exist when proceedings before the Court are instituted, the phrase

about the Court’s function, added to the text of Article 38 at the Conference in San Francisco, was - 5 -

not intended to constitute a condition for the Court’s jurisdiction. Article 38 concerns the law to be

applied by the Court, while for its jurisdiction  in addition to Articles 34 and 35  Articles 36
and 37 are particularly relevant. What the Court says in paragraph 42 of its present Judgment
should thus be viewed as a mere observation and not as determinative for its jurisdiction.

17. As the Court has stated on a number of occasions the “dispute must in principle exist at
the time the Application is submitted to the Court” (Questions relating to the Obligation to
Prosecute or Extradite (Belgium v. Senegal), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2012 (II), p. 442, para. 46,

quoting Application of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial
Discrimination (Georgia v. Russian Federation), Preliminary Objections, Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 2011 (I), p. 85, para. 30 (emphasis added); see also Alleged Violations of Sovereign
Rights and Maritime Spaces in the Caribbean Sea (Nicaragua v. Colombia), Preliminary
Objections, Judgment of 17 March 2016, para. 52; Application of the Convention on the
Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Croatia v. Serbia), Preliminary Objections,
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2008, p. 438, para. 80 and pp. 437-438, para. 79, quoting Application of

the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and
Herzegovina v. Yugoslavia), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1996 (II), p. 613,
para. 26).

18. Despite repeating this general rule (see Judgment, paragraph 42), the Court has, however,
adopted rather a very strict requirement that the dispute must have existed prior to the filing of the
Marshall Islands’ Application.

19. In some cases, circumstances will dictate that the dispute must indeed exist as at the date
of the Application. Such was the situation in the recent case concerning Alleged Violations of
Sovereign Rights and Maritime Spaces in the Caribbean Sea (Nicaragua v. Colombia), for in that
case Colombia’s denunciation of the Pact of Bogotá took effect almost immediately after the
Application was filed (see Preliminary Objections, Judgment of 17 March 2016, paras. 17, 24, 34,
48). As Colombia’s acceptance of the jurisdiction of the Court under the Pact had thus been

terminated upon the taking effect of its denunciation, Nicaragua could not have subsequently filed
an Application and the Court thus considered whether a dispute had previously emerged (ibid.,
paras. 52 et seq.). Likewise, in the Georgia v. Russia case, the Court was considering a specific
compromissory clause contained in the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms
of Racial Discrimination that required that there be a “dispute . . . with respect to the interpretation
or application of this Convention, which is not settled by negotiation or by the procedures expressly
provided for in this Convention . . .” (Article 22, quoted in Application of the International

Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (Georgia v. Russian
Federation), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2011 (I), p. 81, para. 20; emphasis
added). There thus had to be a dispute that “is not settled by negotiation”, a requirement which the
Court characterized as among the “preconditions to be fulfilled before the seisin of the Court”
(ibid., p. 128, para. 141). If a compromissory clause requires prior negotiations before filing the
Application as one of the “preconditions” for seising the Court, logically the dispute should have
arisen prior to instituting the proceedings before the Court. Moreover, the dispute and the required

negotiations should have been related to the subject-matter of the Convention which contains the
compromissory clause  racial discrimination in the Georgia v. Russia case. Any kind of bilateral
political talks would not satisfy that requirement. The Judgment in Georgia v. Russia should be
viewed in this light. Therefore, I cannot agree with the view of those who consider that it indicates
the beginning of a more formalistic approach to the existence of a dispute in the Court’s
jurisprudence. - 6 -

20. Where there are no circumstances requiring that the dispute exist by a particular date, the
Court has been rather more flexible in not limiting itself only to the period prior to the filing of the

Application in order to ascertain whether a dispute existed between the parties before it.

21. In the Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of
Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Yugoslavia) case, that Court, when “verify[ing] whether
there [was] a dispute between the Parties that falls within the scope of [the] provision [of Article IX
of the Convention]” (Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1996 (II), p. 614, para. 27),
observed that

“[w]hile Yugoslavia has refrained from filing a Counter-Memorial on the merits and
has raised preliminary objections, it has nevertheless wholly denied all of Bosnia and
Herzegovina’s allegations, whether at the stage of proceedings relating to the requests
for the indication of provisional measures, or at the stage of the present proceedings
relating to those objections” (ibid., p. 614, para. 28; emphasis added).

Manifestly, a very serious military conflict in Bosnia and Herzegovina had been going on already

for a year prior to the filing of the Application on 20 March 1993. The war on the territory of
Bosnia and Herzegovina broke out shortly after its declaration of independence on 6 March 1992.
The Court, however, did not inquire whether any allegation or claim of a breach of the obligations
under the Genocide Convention had been made prior to the submission of the case to the Court. It
limited itself to noting that “the principal requests submitted by Bosnia and Herzegovina are for the
Court to adjudge and declare that Yugoslavia has in several ways violated the Genocide
Convention” (ibid.) and then noting, in the passage quoted above, the denial of these allegations by

the Respondent in the course of the proceedings before the Court. The Court did not refer to a
denial of such allegations prior to its seisin by the Applicant.

22. Moreover, from an early period of its adjudication the World Court has shown a
reasonable amount of flexibility, not being overly formalistic, when it comes to the timing at which
jurisdictional requirements are to be met (see similarly Application of the Convention on the
Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Croatia v. Serbia), Preliminary Objections,

Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2008, p. 438, para. 81).

23. In a case decided in 1925, the Respondent argued, inter alia, “that the Court has no
jurisdiction because the existence of a difference of opinion in regard to the construction and
application of the Geneva Convention had not been established before the filing of the Application”
(Certain German Interests in Polish Upper Silesia, P.C.I.J. Series A, No. 6, p. 13; emphasis

added). The Court looked at the compromissory clause, and noticed that it “does not stipulate that
diplomatic negotiations must first of all be tried” and that under that clause “recourse may be had
to the Court as soon as one of the Parties considers that a difference of opinion arising out of the
construction and application of [certain Articles of the Convention] exists” (ibid., p. 14). In
dismissing the objection the Court made a pronouncement which, in my view, is clearly apposite to
the case at hand. It said:

“Now a difference of opinion does exist as soon as one of the Governments

concerned points out that the attitude adopted by the other conflicts with its own
views. Even if, under [the compromissory clause], the existence of a definite dispute
were necessary, this condition could at any time be fulfilled by means of unilateral - 7 -

action on the part of the applicant Party. And the Court cannot allow itself to be

hampered by a mere defect of form, the removal of which depends solely on the Party
concerned.” (Certain German Interests in Polish Upper Silesia, P.C.I.J. Series A,
No. 6, p. 14.)

24. This dictum originated from the principle which the Permanent Court had enunciated a

year earlier, in 1924, in the Mavrommatis Palestine Concessions case (see Application of the
Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and
Herzegovina v. Yugoslavia), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1996 (II), p. 613,
para. 26). In response to an argument that the proceedings were not validly instituted because “the
application was filed before [the relevant protocol] had become applicable”, the Permanent Court
stated:

“Even if the grounds on which the institution of proceedings was based were
defective for the reason stated, this would not be an adequate reason for the dismissal
of the applicant’s suit. The Court, whose jurisdiction is international, is not bound to
attach to matters of form the same degree of importance which they might possess in
municipal law. Even, therefore, if the application were premature because the Treaty

of Lausanne had not yet been ratified, this circumstance would now be covered by the
subsequent deposit of the necessary ratifications.” (Mavrommatis Palestine
Concessions, P.C.I.J. Series A, No. 2, p. 34.)

25. The Court applied this principle in Application of the Convention on the Prevention and
Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Yugoslavia), Preliminary

Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1996 (II), pp. 613-614, para. 26. As the Court there observed
(ibid.), it also did so in Northern Cameroons (Cameroon v. United Kingdom), Preliminary
Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1963, p. 28, and in Military and Paramilitary Activities in and
against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v. United States of America), Jurisdiction and Admissibility,
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1984, pp. 428-429, para. 83. Indeed, in the former Judgment, the Court

highlighted that “the Court, like its predecessor, the Permanent Court of International Justice, has
always had recourse to the principle according to which it should not penalize a defect in a
procedural act which the applicant could easily remedy” (Application of the Convention on the
Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Yugoslavia),
Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1996 (II), p. 613, para. 26; emphasis added).

26. More recently, the Court invoked this principle in 2008 in the case concerning the
Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide
(Croatia v. Serbia), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2008, p. 412. The Court
“emphasized that a State which decides to bring proceedings before the Court should carefully
ascertain that all the requisite conditions for the jurisdiction of the Court have been met at the time
proceedings are instituted” (ibid., p. 438, para. 80). Nonetheless, the Court went on that it “has also

shown realism and flexibility in certain situations in which the conditions governing the Court’s
jurisdiction were not fully satisfied when proceedings were initiated but were subsequently
satisfied” (ibid., p. 438, para. 81). It referred (ibid., p. 439, para. 82) to the principle outlined in the
Mavrommatis case, noted above, whereby the Court “is not bound to attach to matters of form the
same degree of importance which they might possess in municipal law”. The Court concluded that

“What matters is that, at the latest by the date when the Court decides on its
jurisdiction, the applicant must be entitled, if it so wishes, to bring fresh proceedings

The force of this statement is strengthened by the fact that it seems all elected Judges were in agreement with it;
only a “National Judge”, as judges ad hoc were at that time designated, chosen by the Respondent, dissented. - 8 -

in which the initially unmet condition would be fulfilled. In such a situation, it is not
in the interests of the sound administration of justice to compel the applicant to begin

the proceedings anew — or to initiate fresh proceedings — and it is preferable, except
in special circumstances, to conclude that the condition has, from that point on, been
fulfilled.” (Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the
Crime of Genocide (Croatia v. Serbia), Preliminary Objections, Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 2008, p. 441, para. 85.)

It explained the rationale behind the principle as follows:

“it is concern for judicial economy, an element of the requirements of the sound
administration of justice, which justifies application of the jurisprudence deriving
from the Mavrommatis Judgment in appropriate cases. The purpose of this
jurisprudence is to prevent the needless proliferation of proceedings.” (Ibid., p. 443,
para. 89.)

27. If the existence of a dispute is considered necessary for the Court’s jurisdiction (as stated

above in paragraph 14, I consider it rather a condition for the exercise of the Court’s jurisdiction),
there is no compelling reason why the principle cannot be applied to such a condition. As I have
already outlined, that was the position taken in the Certain German Interests case, which was cited
by the Court in the more recent Croatia v. Serbia case (see ibid., p. 439, para. 82). Indeed, the
Court in the latter case highlighted that “it is of no importance which condition was unmet at the
date the proceedings were instituted, and thereby prevented the Court at that time from exercising
its jurisdiction, once it has been fulfilled subsequently” (ibid., p. 442, para. 87).

28. This is, as I understand it, the jurisprudence of the Court on the conditions to be met for
its jurisdiction  not excessively formalistic, but rather reasonable, allowing it to exercise its
function to resolve disputes between States brought before it. I cannot agree with the view that the
Judgment in Questions relating to the Obligation to Prosecute or Extradite (Belgium v. Senegal)
(I.C.J. Reports 2012 (II), p. 422) represents a departure in the Court’s jurisprudence. That case was

about the failure of Senegal to bring to justice Hissène Habré to account for acts committed during
his rule as President of Chad. In the diplomatic exchanges prior to bringing the matter before the
Court, Belgium always argued in terms of obligations under the Convention against Torture (ibid.,
pp. 444-445, para. 54). It was only in the Application instituting proceedings that the alleged
crimes against humanity under customary international law were mentioned. The Court concluded
that there existed a dispute in regard to “the interpretation and application of Articles 6,
paragraph 2, and 7, paragraph 1, of the Convention” (ibid., p. 444, para. 52), but that it “did not

relate to breaches of obligations under customary international law” (ibid., p. 445, para. 55). The
Court knew that it thus had jurisdiction, under the compromissory clause contained in Article 30,
paragraph 1, of the Convention against Torture, to deal with the matter brought before it, and it
could thus resolve the dispute. It was clear that Belgium would not contemplate re-submitting to
the Court a dispute relating to obligations under customary international law. In fact, Belgium
welcomed the Judgment and was among those States which, in addition to the African Union and
the European Union, assisted Senegal  in particular financially  to comply with the Judgment.

Senegal is to be commended for the measures it has taken in implementation of its obligations. It
charged Hissène Habré, who was found guilty of, inter alia, torture by a Judgment rendered on
30 May 2016 and sentenced to life imprisonment. The victims finally, after more than a quarter of
a century, have seen justice delivered. In light of these facts, the Court’s Judgment in Questions
relating to the Obligation to Prosecute or Extradite (Belgium v. Senegal) should rather be seen as
wise and not overly formalistic. The Court was certainly prudent not to foreclose any future
developments in respect of obligations of States that might exist under customary international law

to prosecute perpetrators of alleged crimes against humanity. - 9 -

29. It is true that the Marshall Islands had, for some time, not taken a particularly active
position on nuclear disarmament in multilateral fora, and its voting until 2012 in the United Nations

on these issues, for reasons which do not need elaboration, did not indicate a disagreement with the
United Kingdom. However, as it appears from the record, the Marshall Islands has, since 2010,
and in particular since 2013, revisited its position and voiced its dissatisfaction about the
compliance, or rather lack thereof, with obligations under Article VI of the NPT by nuclear powers,
among them the United Kingdom. In September 2013, its Foreign Minister diplomatically “urge[d]
all nuclear-weapons states to intensify efforts to address their responsibilities in moving towards an
effective and secure disarmament” (see Judgment, paragraph 49; emphasis added). I do not take

issue with the Court’s analysis of this statement, although it does indicate a shift in the Marshall
Islands’ approach.

30. In February 2014, the Marshall Islands, while renewing its call to all nuclear powers
made in the United Nations in September 2013, expressed its views more openly, asserting that
“States possessing nuclear arsenals are failing to fulfil their legal obligations” regarding
“multilateral negotiations on achieving and sustaining a world free of nuclear weapons [which] are

long overdue” (Judgment, paragraph 28). The allegation is made against all nuclear-weapon States,
without exception. This has been subsequently confirmed by the fact that the Marshall Islands
filed, on 24 April 2014, nine Applications against the nine States which are known or believed to
possess nuclear weapons.

31. The fact that the United Kingdom did not participate at the Conference in Nayarit is not,
in my view, legally relevant, since under international law a State is not required to give notice to

another State of its intention to institute proceedings before the Court. A State can formulate its
claim in the Application seising the Court if it believes that it has a dispute with another State, or
considers that the other State is in breach of international obligations owed to the Applicant. To
require a State to give prior notice may entail, in the present optional clause system of the Court’s
compulsory jurisdiction, a risk that the Court will be deprived of its jurisdiction prior to receiving
an Application instituting proceedings. A number of declarations made under Article 36,
paragraph 2, of the Court’s Statute may be modified or withdrawn with immediate effect by simple

notification to the Secretary-General of the United Nations. And it is not unknown that some
declarations have been modified in the past, including recently, in order to prevent another State
from bringing before the Court a particular dispute or a particular category of disputes.

32. The proceedings before the Court in this case have clarified that there is a dispute
between the Marshall Islands and the United Kingdom about the latter’s performance of its
obligations under Article VI of the NPT. Therefore, in my view, the conclusion that the Court has

no jurisdiction in the absence of a dispute is not justified in the case at hand. In order to affirm its
jurisdiction the Court would have to deal with the other objections of the United Kingdom to its
jurisdiction. The Court did not consider it necessary to proceed that way in light of the conclusion
it reached on the first objection.

II. ADMISSIBILITY

33. Assuming that all objections to jurisdiction raised by the United Kingdom were to be
rejected, the Court would proceed to the merits, provided that the Application and the claims
formulated therein are admissible. In my view, however, the nature of the obligations in the field
of nuclear disarmament, including of the obligations under Article VI of the NPT, renders the
Application inadmissible under the present, rather unsatisfactory, system of the Court’s
jurisdiction. Article VI of the NPT reads as follows: - 10 -

“Each of the Parties to the Treaty undertakes to pursue negotiations in good
faith on effective measures relating to cessation of the nuclear arms race at an early

date and to nuclear disarmament, and on a treaty on general and complete
disarmament under strict and effective international control.”

34. The Court in its advisory opinion analysed this provision and expressed its view in the
following terms:

“The legal import of that obligation goes beyond that of a mere obligation of

conduct; the obligation involved here is an obligation to achieve a precise result 
nuclear disarmament in all its aspects  by adopting a particular course of conduct,
namely, the pursuit of negotiations on the matter in good faith.” (Legality of the
Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons, Advisory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports 1996 (I), p. 264,

para. 99.)

The Court characterized the obligation as “twofold”  as an “obligation to pursue and to conclude

negotiations” (ibid., para. 100). It emphasized that “any realistic search for general and complete
disarmament, especially nuclear disarmament, necessitates the co-operation of all States” (ibid.).

35. Indeed, “disarmament treaties or treaties prohibiting the use of particular weapons” have

been regarded as an instance of the kind of treaty, “the objective of which c7n only be achieved
through the interdependent performance of obligations by all parties” . One respected scholar, and
now international judge, observes in this respect :

“It is clear . . . in the context of a disarmament treaty, that each state reduces its
military power because and to the extent that the other parties do likewise.
Non-performance, or material breach, of the treaty by one of its parties would threaten
8
the often fragile military balance brought by the agreement.”

In other words, the performance of the obligation by a State is conditional on the performance of
the same obligation by the other States . In the field of nuclear disarmament, it is unrealistic to

expect that a State will disarm unilaterally. International law does not impose such an obligation.
It rather provides for achieving that goal through negotiations in good faith, through the
co-operation of all States.

36. The most noble and important goal of getting the world rid of nuclear arms, to which the
absolute majority  if not all  nations subscribe, can realistically be achieved only through
balancing the security interests of the States concerned, in particular all nuclear powers and other

countries with significant military capabilities.

7Bruno Simma and Christian J. Tams, “1969 Vienna Convention, Article 60: Termination or suspension of the
operation of a treaty as a consequence of its breach”, in Olivier Corten and Pierre Klein (eds.), The Vienna Convention on
the Law of Treaties: A Commentary, Vol. II, Oxford University Press, 2011, p. 1365. See also Yearbook of the
International Law Commission 2001, Vol. II, Part Two, p. 119, paragraph 13 of the commentary to Article 42, or
James Crawford, The International Law Commission’s Articles on State Responsibility: Introduction, Text and
Commentaries, Cambridge University Press, 2002, p. 259.
8
Linos-Alexander Sicilianos, “The Classification of Obligations and the Multilateral Dimension of the Relations
of International Responsibility” (2002) 13 (5) European Journal of International Law 1127, p. 1134.
9
The nature of the obligation is well described in the commentary to the Articles on State Responsibility as
referring to an obligation “where each party’s performance is effectively conditioned upon and requires the performance
of each of the others”: Yearbook of the International Law Commission 2001, Vol. II, Part Two, p. 119, paragraph 13 of
the commentary to Article 42; see also James Crawford, The International Law Commission’s Articles on State
Responsibility: Introduction, Text and Commentaries, Cambridge University Press, 2002, p. 259. - 11 -

37. It seems that the Marshall Islands is aware of this reality. It has filed Applications
against all nuclear powers alleging that they are in breach of their obligations under the NPT and/or

customary international law. Six of the nuclear powers are not before the Court as they have not
accepted the Marshall Islands’ invitation to accept the Court’s jurisdiction under Article 38,
paragraph 5, of the Rules of Court.

38. Enquiry into the compliance by one nuclear power with its obligations relating to nuclear
disarmament, including any obligation to negotiate in good faith, invites consideration of the
position taken by all other nuclear powers in relation to the same obligations which are or may be

binding on them. It is only with an understanding of the positions taken by other States that the
Court can stand on safe ground in considering the conduct of any one State alone, which
necessarily is influenced by the positions of those other States, and whether that one State alone is
open to achieving the goal set down in Article VI of the NPT through bona fide negotiations. This
is not a question of ruling on the responsibility of those other States as a precondition for ruling on
the responsibility of the Respondent such that the Monetary Gold principle would apply. It is
rather a question of whether it is possible for the Court, in this context, to undertake consideration

of a single State’s conduct without considering and understanding the positions taken by the other
States with which that State (the Respondent in the case at hand) would need to have negotiated,
and with which it would need to agree on the steps and measures to be taken by all concerned in
order to achieve the overall goal of nuclear disarmament.

39. The issues raised in the present proceedings are not of a bilateral nature between the
Marshall Islands and the United Kingdom. I am convinced that the Court cannot meaningfully

engage in a consideration of the United Kingdom’s conduct when other States  whose conduct
would necessarily also be at issue  are not present before the Court to explain their positions and
actions.

40. This case illustrates the limits of the Court’s function, resulting from the fact that it has
evolved from international arbitration, which is traditionally focused on bilateral disputes. The

Statute of the Court is expressly based on the Statute of its predecessor, the Permanent Court of
International Justice. That Statute was drafted in 1920 and major powers opposed the idea of
granting the Court compulsory jurisdiction. That approach did not change in 1945 when the
International Court of Justice was conceived as the principal judicial organ of the United Nations.
Had the founders of that Organization endowed the Court with universal compulsory jurisdiction,
all Members of the United Nations would have been subject to its jurisdiction. There would not
have then existed obstacles to the Court’s exercising its jurisdiction fully and thus contributing to

the achievement of the purposes and goals of the Organization.

41. To my sincere and profound regret, I have to conclude that the absence of other nuclear
powers in the proceedings prevents the Court from considering the Marshall Islands’ claims in their
proper multilateral context, which is also determined by the positions taken by those other powers,
and thus renders the Application inadmissible. For this reason I have joined those of my colleagues

who have concluded that the Court cannot proceed to the merits of the case.

(Signed) Peter T OMKA .

___________

Bilingual Content

885
56
SEPARATE OPINION OF JUDGE TOMKA
Jurisdiction of the Court under Article 36 (2) of Statute — Existence of a
dispute — No prior negotiations or notice necessary before seising Court —
Existence of a dispute a condition for exercise of jurisdiction — Dispute in principle
to exist at date of Application — Court has applied condition flexibly and taken
into account subsequent events — Proceedings clarified that a dispute between the
Marshall Islands and the United Kingdom exists — Court should have considered
other objections to jurisdiction.
Admissibility — Article VI of 1968 Treaty on the Non‑Proliferation of Nuclear
Weapons — Nature of obligations thereunder — Disarmament requires
co‑operation between all States, in particular nuclear States — Court cannot
consider position of one nuclear State without considering and understanding
positions of other nuclear States — Absence of other nuclear powers before Court
prevents consideration of claims in proper multilateral context — Application
inadmissible.
1. For the first time in almost a century of adjudication of inter‑State
disputes in the Peace Palace, the “World” Court (the Permanent Court of
International Justice and the International Court of Justice) has dismissed
a case on the ground that no dispute existed between the Applicant and
the Respondent prior to the filing of the Application instituting proceedings
1. The Court seems not to be interested in knowing whether a dispute
between them exists now.
2. I am not convinced by the approach taken by the Court, despite
many references to its case law. In my view, other decisions of the Court,
and its predecessor, point in a different direction. Therefore, to my regret,
I am unable to support the Court’s upholding of the objection based on
the absence of a dispute.
1 This does not include requests for interpretation under Article 60 of the Court’s
Statute, which also — at least in the English version — uses the term “dispute” (the French
text of the Statute uses the term “contestation”) (see, e.g., Request for Interpretation of
the Judgment of 20 November 1950 in the Asylum Case (Colombia v. Peru), Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 1950, p. 403). Where there is no disagreement between the parties about the
meaning and scope of a Judgment, there is nothing to interpret (see Request for Interpretation
of the Judgment of 31 March 2004 in the Case concerning Avena and Other Mexican
Nationals (Mexico v. United States of America) (Mexico v. United States of America),
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2009, p. 17, para. 45). Requests for interpretation cannot serve the
purpose of seeking a decision of the Court on matters not brought before the Court in the
original proceedings (see, e.g., Request for Interpretation of the Judgment of 15 June 1962
in the Case concerning the Temple of Preah Vihear (Cambodia v. Thailand) (Cambodia v.
Thailand), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2013, pp. 303‑304, para. 56).
885
56
OPINION INDIVIDUELLE DE M. LE JUGE TOMKA
[Traduction]
Compétence de la Cour au titre du paragraphe 2 de l’article 36 du Statut —
Existence d’un différend — Négociations ou notification préalables n’étant pas
requises pour saisir la Cour — Existence d’un différend étant une condition à
l’exercice de la compétence — Différend devant exister en principe à la date du
dépôt de la requête — Cour ayant appliqué cette condition avec souplesse et tenu
compte des événements ultérieurs — Présente instance ayant clairement révélé
qu’un différend existait entre les Iles Marshall et le Royaume‑Uni — Fait que la
Cour aurait dû examiner les autres exceptions d’incompétence.
Recevabilité — Article VI du traité de 1968 sur la non‑prolifération des armes
nucléaires — Nature des obligations en découlant — Désarmement exigeant la
coopération de tous les Etats, notamment les puissances nucléaires — Cour ne
pouvant apprécier la position d’un Etat doté d’armes nucléaires sans prendre en
considération celles des autres puissances nucléaires — Absence à l’instance des
autres puissances nucléaires ayant empêché la Cour d’examiner les demandes des
Iles Marshall dans le contexte multilatéral qui les caractérisait — Requête étant
irrecevable.
1. Pour la première fois depuis près d’un siècle qu’elle règle les différends
entre Etats dans l’enceinte du Palais de la Paix, la Cour « mondiale
» (la Cour permanente de Justice internationale, puis la Cour
internationale de Justice) a écarté une affaire au motif qu’il n’existait,
avant le dépôt de la requête introductive d’instance, aucun différend entre
le demandeur et le défendeur 1 ; elle n’a pas semblé s’intéresser à la question
de savoir si pareil différend existe aujourd’hui.
2. Je ne suis pas convaincu par l’approche suivie dans l’arrêt, et ce, en
dépit des nombreux renvois à la jurisprudence de la Cour qui y sont
contenus. Selon moi, d’autres décisions rendues par cette dernière, ainsi
que par sa devancière, ne vont pas dans le même sens, et je regrette donc
de ne pouvoir souscrire à celle qui a consisté à retenir l’exception du
Royaume-Uni en se fondant sur l’absence de différend.
1 Ne sont pas ici prises en compte les demandes en interprétation au sens de l’article 60
du Statut, qui mentionne également, dans sa version anglaise, le terme « dispute » (le
texte français se référant à une « contestation ») (voir notamment Demande d’interprétation
de l’arrêt du 20 novembre 1950 en l’affaire du droit d’asile (Colombie c. Pérou), arrêt,
C.I.J. Recueil 1950, p. 403). En l’absence de désaccord entre les parties sur le sens et la
portée de l’arrêt, il n’y a rien à interpréter (voir Demande en interprétation de l’arrêt du
31 mars 2004 en l’affaire Avena et autres ressortissants mexicains (Mexique c. Etats‑Unis
d’Amérique) (Mexique c. Etats‑Unis d’Amérique), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2009, p. 17,
par. 45). Les demandes en interprétation ne peuvent servir à rechercher une décision de la
Cour sur des questions dont elle n’a pas été saisie dans l’instance initiale (voir notamment
Demande en interprétation de l’arrêt du 15 juin 1962 en l’affaire du Temple de Préah Vihéar
(Cambodge c. Thaïlande) (Cambodge c. Thaïlande), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2013, p. 303‑304,
par. 56).
886 nuclear arms and disarmament (sep. op. tomka)
57
3. Is it really the case that the Marshall Islands and the United Kingdom
did not, by April 2014, have a dispute relating to the latter’s compliance
with Article VI of the 1968 Treaty on the Non‑Proliferation of
Nuclear Weapons (hereinafter the “NPT”), and that they do not have
such a dispute now? Do the positions of the Marshall Islands and the
United Kingdom on the latter’s performance of its obligations under the
provisions of the NPT coincide?
4. The Marshall Islands in its Application alleges, inter alia, that
“[t]he United Kingdom has not pursued in good faith negotiations to
cease the nuclear arms race at an early date through comprehensive
nuclear disarmament or other measures, and instead is taking actions
to improve its nuclear weapons system and to maintain it for the
indefinite future.
Similarly, the UK has not fulfilled its obligation to pursue in good
faith negotiations leading to nuclear disarmament in all its aspects
under strict and effective international control and instead has
opposed the efforts of the great majority of States to initiate such
negotiations.” (Application instituting proceedings, pp. 12 and 14,
paras. 15-16.)
On the basis of these allegations, the Marshall Islands requests the Court
to issue a declaratory judgment finding “that the United Kingdom has
violated and continues to violate its international obligations under the
NPT, more specifically under Article VI of the Treaty” through various
acts and omissions (emphasis added) 2. The Marshall Islands further
requests the Court
“to order the United Kingdom to take all steps necessary to comply
with its obligations under Article VI of the [NPT] and under customary
international law within one year of the Judgment, including the
pursuit, by initiation if necessary, of negotiations in good faith aimed
at the conclusion of a convention on nuclear disarmament in all its
aspects under strict and effective international control.” (Ibid., p. 60,
para. 116.)
5. The same submissions have been made by the Marshall Islands in its
Memorial filed on 16 March 2015.
6. There can be no doubt that the United Kingdom denies that it is in
breach of its obligations under the NPT. In its written pleading on preliminary
objections, it made clear that “[t]he United Kingdom considers the
allegations to be manifestly unfounded on the merits.” Indeed, it was not
only in the pleadings that the United Kingdom rejected the views of the
Marshall Islands. While the Court was deliberating in this case, Her
Majesty’s
Government took a decision to modernize the country’s nuclear
arsenal, through the replacement of four nuclear submarines, the
2 For the full text of the request, see paragraph 11 of the Judgment.
armes nucléaires et désarmement (op. ind. tomka) 886
57
3. Est‑il vraiment exact qu’il n’existait, en avril 2014, aucun différend
entre les Iles Marshall et le Royaume‑Uni concernant le respect par ce
dernier de l’article VI du traité de 1968 sur la non‑prolifération des armes
nucléaires (ci‑après, le « TNP ») ? Est‑il vraiment exact qu’il n’existe aucun
différend entre les Parties aujourd’hui ? Celles‑ci ont‑elles des positions
concordantes sur la question de l’exécution par le Royaume‑Uni des obligations
que lui imposent les dispositions du TNP ?
4. Dans leur requête, les Iles Marshall soutenaient notamment que,
« [a]u lieu de poursuivre de bonne foi des négociations pour mettre
fin à la course aux armements nucléaires à une date rapprochée
par un désarmement nucléaire complet ou d’autres mesures, le
Royaume‑Uni cherch[ait] à améliorer son système d’armes nucléaires
et à le conserver pour une durée illimitée.
De même, le Royaume‑Uni, au lieu de s’acquitter de son obligation
de poursuivre de bonne foi des négociations conduisant à un
désarmement nucléaire dans tous ses aspects effectué sous un contrôle
international strict et efficace, s’est opposé aux efforts déployés par la
grande majorité des Etats pour engager de telles négociations. »
(Requête introductive d’instance, p. 13 et 15, par. 15-16.)
Les Iles Marshall priaient la Cour, sur le fondement de ces allégations, de
rendre un jugement déclaratoire indiquant que, par un certain nombre
d’actes et d’omissions, « le Royaume‑Uni a[vait] manqué et continu[ait]
de manquer aux obligations internationales qui lui incombent au regard
du TNP, et en particulier de son article VI » (les italiques sont de moi) 2.
Elles demandaient également à la Cour
« d’ordonner au Royaume‑Uni de prendre toutes les mesures nécessaires
pour se conformer, dans un délai d’un an à compter du prononcé
de l’arrêt, aux obligations qui lui incombent en vertu de
l’article VI du TNP et du droit international coutumier, parmi lesquelles
celle de mener des négociations de bonne foi, si nécessaire en
engageant celles‑ci, en vue de conclure une convention relative à un
désarmement nucléaire dans tous ses aspects effectué sous un contrôle
international strict et efficace ». (Ibid., p. 61, par. 116.)
5. Les Iles Marshall ont présenté des conclusions identiques dans leur
mémoire déposé le 16 mars 2015.
6. Il ne fait aucun doute que le Royaume‑Uni contestait avoir manqué
aux obligations lui incombant au regard du TNP. Dans ses exceptions
préliminaires, il a ainsi clairement indiqué que « les allégations [des
Iles Marshall] [étaient], selon [lui], manifestement dépourvues de fondement
». De fait, il n’a pas seulement rejeté les vues des Iles Marshall
devant la Cour. Alors que celle‑ci délibérait en la présente affaire, le Gouvernement
de Sa Majesté a en effet pris la décision de moderniser l’arsenal
nucléaire du pays en remplaçant quatre de ses sous‑marins nucléaires,
2 Pour le texte intégral des demandes, voir le paragraphe 11 du présent arrêt.
887 nuclear arms and disarmament (sep. op. tomka)
58
decision
having been approved by the Parliament at Westminster 3. Such
modernization appears to have been envisaged as being undertaken at great
expense, with an apparent intention that the system be used for several
decades to come 4. While it is not appropriate at this stage for me to take a
position on whether such a decision is in conformity with the United Kingdom’s
obligations under the NPT, there cannot, in my mind, be any doubt
that it is in opposition to the view of the Marshall Islands, which is critical
of the United Kingdom “taking actions to improve its nuclear weapons
system and to maintain it for the indefinite future” (see paragraph 4 above).
I. Jurisdiction
7. The United Kingdom has raised five preliminary objections. According
to the first one,
“there is no justiciable ‘dispute’ between the Marshall Islands and the
United Kingdom . . . within the meaning of this term in Articles 36 (2),
38 (1) and 40 (1) of the Court’s Statute, Article 38 (1) of the Rules,
and relevant applicable customary international law and jurisprudence”.
The Respondent emphasizes that
“[i]n particular, relying inter alia on the principle set out in Article 43
of the International Law Commission’s Articles on State Responsibility
. . . and addressed in the Court’s recent judgments in Georgia v.
Russia and Belgium v. Senegal, the United Kingdom contends that
the failure by the Marshall Islands to give the United Kingdom any
notice whatever of its claim renders the asserted dispute non‑justiciable,
with the effect of depriving the Court of jurisdiction to decide on
the claims related thereto and/or making them inadmissible” (reference
omitted).
8. The Court has concluded that it “does not have jurisdiction under
Article 36, paragraph 2, of its Statute” (Judgment, para. 58).
3 See the decision of the United Kingdom Parliament reported in House of Commons,
Hansard, Vol. 613, columns 656‑660, https://hansard.parliament.uk/Commons/2016-07-18/
debates/16071818000001/UKSNuclearDeterrent#division-4854 (18 July 2016).
4 See the United Kingdom’s National Security Strategy and Strategic Defence and Security
Review (2015), https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_
data/file/478933/52309_Cm_9161_NSS_SD_Review_web_only.pdf, para. 4.76, which estimated
the nuclear submarines’ manufacturing cost at £31 billion, “with the first submarine
entering service in the early 2030s”. See also Claire Mills, Replacing the UK’s “Trident”
Nuclear Deterrent, House of Commons Briefing Paper No. 7353, http://researchbriefings.
files.parliament.uk/documents/CBP-7353/CBP-7353.pdf (12 July 2016), pp. 47‑48.
armes nucléaires et désarmement (op. ind. tomka) 887
58
décision qui avait été approuvée par le Parlement à Westminster 3. Cette
modernisation impliquait, semble‑t‑il, un coût important, l’intention
étant manifestement de pouvoir utiliser le système pendant plusieurs
dizaines d’années 4. Bien qu’il ne soit pas opportun, à ce stade, que je me
prononce sur la conformité de cette décision aux obligations incombant
au Royaume‑Uni aux termes du TNP, celle‑ci allait sans aucun doute, me
semble‑t‑il, à l’encontre de la position des Iles Marshall, qui reprochaient
au défendeur de « cherche[r] à améliorer son système d’armes nucléaires et
à le conserver pour une durée illimitée » (voir le paragraphe 4 ci‑dessus).
I. Compétence
7. Le Royaume‑Uni avait soulevé cinq exceptions préliminaires. La
première consistait à affirmer que
« il n’exist[ait] entre les Iles Marshall et le Royaume-Uni … aucun
« différend » susceptible de faire l’objet d’un règlement judiciaire au
sens du paragraphe 2 de l’article 36, du paragraphe premier de
l’article
38 et du paragraphe premier de l’article 40 du Statut de la
Cour, du paragraphe premier de l’article 38 du Règlement, ainsi que
des dispositions applicables du droit international coutumier et de la
jurisprudence en la matière ».
Le défendeur soulignait ce qui suit :
« Se fondant notamment sur le principe énoncé à l’article 43 des
articles de la Commission du droit international sur la responsabilité
de l’Etat … — qui a été examiné dans les arrêts qu’a récemment rendus
la Cour dans les affaires Géorgie c. Fédération de Russie et Belgique
c. Sénégal —, le Royaume‑Uni soutient en particulier que, les
Iles Marshall ne l’ayant nullement informé de leurs griefs, le différend
allégué ne saurait faire l’objet d’un règlement judiciaire et que, en
conséquence, la Cour n’a pas compétence pour connaître des demandes
y afférentes, ou ces demandes sont irrecevables. » (Référence omise.)
8. La Cour a conclu qu’elle « n’a[vait] pas compétence en la présente
espèce au titre du paragraphe 2 de l’article 36 de son Statut » (arrêt, par. 58).
3 Voir la décision du Parlement du Royaume‑Uni présentée à la Chambre des Com-
munes, Hansard, vol. 613, colonnes 656‑660, https://hansard.parliament.uk/Commons/2016-
07-18/debates/16071818000001/UKSNuclearDeterrent#division-4854 (18 juillet 2016).
4 Voir Royaume‑Uni, National Security Strategy and Strategic Defence and Security
Review (2015), https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/
file/478933/52309_Cm_9161_NSS_SD_Review_web_only.pdf, par. 4.76, où le coût de
production des sous‑marins nucléaires est estimé à 31 milliards de livres sterling, « le
premier sous‑marin devant être mis en service au début des années 2030 ». Voir également
Claire Mills, Replacing the UK’s « Trident » Nuclear Deterrent, Chambre des Communes,
document d’information no 7353, http://researchbriefings.files.parliament.uk/documents/
CBP-7353/CBP-7353.pdf (12 juillet 2016), p. 47‑48.
888 nuclear arms and disarmament (sep. op. tomka)
59
9. It is to be recalled that the basis of jurisdiction relied upon by the
Marshall Islands is two declarations under Article 36, paragraph 2, of the
Statute of the Court, one deposited by the Marshall Islands on
24 April 2013 and the other by the United Kingdom on 5 July 2004.
10. When analysing issues of jurisdiction, caution has to be taken in
relying on different pronouncements of the Court, in particular, depending
upon whether the basis invoked is Article 36 (2) declarations or a
compromissory clause contained in a treaty. Both declarations and compromissory
clauses may set certain preconditions for the seising of the
Court. The Court’s jurisprudence has to be viewed in light of the relevant
provisions underpinning its jurisdiction in any given case.
11. The Court in the present Judgment (see paragraph 38) recalls its
previous view, that when “[i]t has been seised on the basis of declarations
made . . . which . . . do not contain any condition relating to prior negotiations
to be conducted within a reasonable time” (Land and Maritime
Boundary between Cameroon and Nigeria (Cameroon v. Nigeria), Preliminary
Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1998, p. 322, para. 109), no
such negotiations are required prior to the filing of the Application. In
the same Judgment, the Court clarified that a State is “not bound to
inform [the other State] of its intention to bring proceedings before the
Court” (ibid., p. 297, para. 39).
12. The United Kingdom’s reliance on the ILC Articles on State
Responsibility for its argument that the Marshall Islands’ failure to give
it any notice of its claims “renders the asserted dispute non‑justiciable,
with the effect of depriving the Court of jurisdiction” (see paragraph 7
above), is of no assistance to the Respondent. As the Court notes (see
paragraph 45 of the Judgment) the commentaries adopted by the Commission
state expressis verbis that “[t]he present articles are not concerned
with questions of the jurisdiction of international courts and tribunals, or
in general with the conditions for the admissibility of cases brought before
such courts or tribunals” 5.
13. The United Kingdom also argues that “the existence of a legal dispute”
is one of “the conditions for the Court’s jurisdiction” and “must be
satisfied at the time of the Application”. It presents the argument also in
a modified form, stating that “[t]he existence of a dispute — a necessary
condition for the exercise of the Court’s jurisdiction in terms of Article
36 (2) of the Statute of the Court — must also be determined on [the]
date [on which the act instituting proceedings is filed]” (emphasis added).
5 Yearbook of the International Law Commission, 2001, Vol. II, Part Two, p. 120,
para 1, of the commentary to Article 44 entitled “Admissibility of claims”; see also
James Crawford, The International Law Commission’s Articles on State Responsibility:
Introduction, Text and Commentaries, Cambridge University Press, 2002, p. 264.
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59
9. Il y a lieu de rappeler que les Iles Marshall invoquaient, comme base
de compétence, les déclarations faites par les Parties en vertu du paragraphe
2 de l’article 36 du Statut, celle des Iles Marshall ayant été déposée
le 24 avril 2013, et celle du Royaume‑Uni, le 5 juillet 2004.
10. Lorsqu’elle se penche sur des questions de compétence, la Cour
doit faire preuve de prudence avant de s’appuyer sur des conclusions
qu’elle a pu formuler par le passé, notamment dans le contexte de déclarations
d’acceptation de sa juridiction ou de clauses compromissoires
figurant dans des traités, qui peuvent, les unes et les autres, établir certaines
conditions préalables à sa saisine. La jurisprudence de la Cour doit
donc être examinée à la lumière des dispositions particulières qui fondaient
sa compétence dans chaque affaire.
11. Dans le présent arrêt (voir le paragraphe 38), la Cour rappelle la
position qu’elle a déjà exprimée, selon laquelle, lorsqu’« [e]lle a été saisie
sur la base de déclarations … qui ne contiennent aucune condition relative
à des négociations préalables à mener dans un délai raisonnable »
(Frontière terrestre et maritime entre le Cameroun et le Nigéria (Cameroun
c. Nigéria), exceptions préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1998, p. 322,
par. 109), la tenue de pareilles négociations préalables au dépôt de la
requête n’est pas requise. La Cour avait précisé, dans cette même décision,
que l’Etat n’était pas « tenu d’informer [l’autre] de son intention de
[la] saisir » (ibid., p. 297, par. 39).
12. L’invocation par le Royaume‑Uni des articles de la CDI sur la responsabilité
de l’Etat à l’appui de son argument, selon lequel, les
Iles Marshall ne l’ayant pas informé de leurs griefs, « le différend allégué
ne saurait faire l’objet d’un règlement judiciaire et …, en conséquence, la
Cour n’a pas compétence pour connaître des demandes y afférentes »
(voir le paragraphe 7 ci‑dessus) n’étayait en rien les thèses du défendeur.
En effet, ainsi que la Cour l’a relevé (voir le paragraphe 45 de l’arrêt), les
commentaires adoptés par la Commission indiquent expressément que
« [l]es présents articles ne traitent pas des problèmes de compétence des
cours et tribunaux internationaux, ni en général des conditions de recevabilité
des instances introduites devant eux » 5.
13. Le Royaume‑Uni avançait par ailleurs que « l’existence d’un différend
d’ordre juridique » était l’une des « conditions régissant la compétence
de la Cour » et qu’il devait « [y] être satisfait au moment du dépôt de
la requête ». Ce même argument était également présenté sous une forme
différente, le défendeur affirmant que « [c]’est également à [la] date
[du dépôt de la requête] que doit être déterminée l’existence d’un différend,
condition nécessaire pour l’exercice de la compétence de la Cour
au titre du paragraphe 2 de l’article 36 de son Statut » (les italiques sont
de moi).
5 Annuaire de la Commission du droit international, 2001, vol. II, 2e partie, p. 120, paragraphe
1 du commentaire de l’article 44 intitulé « Recevabilité de la demande » ; voir également
James Crawford, The International Law Commission’s Articles on State Responsibility
: Introduction, Text and Commentaries, Cambridge University Press, 2002, p. 264.
889 nuclear arms and disarmament (sep. op. tomka)
60
14. Although the Court has, on a number of occasions, stated that the
existence of a dispute is a condition for its jurisdiction, in my view, it is
more properly characterized as a condition for the exercise of the Court’s
jurisdiction. The jurisdiction of this Court is based on the consent of
States. If States make declarations under Article 36 (2) of the Statute
“they recognize as compulsory ipso facto and without special agreement,
in relation to any other State accepting the same obligation, the jurisdiction
of the Court in all legal disputes concerning [the matters specified in
letters (a) to (d) of that paragraph]”. The Court’s jurisdiction in relation
to a State which has made a declaration is established from the moment
the declaration is deposited with the Secretary‑General of the United
Nations, and remains in force as long as it is either not withdrawn or has
not lapsed if it has been made for a specified period of time. The Court
has explained that
“by the deposit of its Declaration of Acceptance [of the Court’s jurisdiction
under Article 36 (2) of the Statute] with the Secretary‑General,
the accepting State becomes a Party to the system of the Optional
Clause in relation to the other declarant States, with all the rights and
obligations deriving from Article 36. The contractual relation between
the Parties and the compulsory jurisdiction of the Court resulting
therefrom are established, ‘ipso facto and without special agreement’,
by the fact of the making of the Declaration.” (Right of Passage over
Indian Territory (Portugal v. India), Preliminary Objections, Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 1957, p. 146; emphasis added.)
The Court further specified that it is on the date when the second declarant
State deposits its Declaration of Acceptance “that the consensual
bond, which is the basis of the Optional Clause, comes into being between
the States concerned” (ibid.).
15. Thus, it is not the emergence of a dispute which establishes the
Court’s jurisdiction or perfects it. The emergence of a dispute is a necessary
condition, in the event that one of the disputing parties which has accepted
the Court’s jurisdiction decides to bring an Application instituting proceedings
before the Court against another State with an Article 36 declaration
in force, for the Court to exercise that jurisdiction. The disappearance of
the dispute during the proceedings, either because the parties have reached
a settlement or because of intervening circumstances, does not deprive the
Court of its jurisdiction. However, the Court in such a situation will not
give any judgment on the merits, as there is nothing upon which to decide.
It would limit itself either to taking note of the settlement in its Order and
directing the Registrar “that the case be removed from the list” (see, e.g.,
Passage through the Great Belt (Finland v. Denmark), Order of 10 September
1992, I.C.J. Reports 1992, p. 349) or concluding that a claim “no longer
has any object and that the Court is therefore not called upon to give a
decision thereon” (see, e.g., Nuclear Tests (Australia v. France), Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 1974, p. 272, para. 62; Nuclear Tests (New Zealand
v.
France), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1974, p. 478, para. 65).
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14. Bien que la Cour ait maintes fois déclaré que l’existence d’un différend
était une condition pour qu’elle ait compétence, il est, selon moi, plus
exact de considérer qu’il s’agit en réalité d’une condition à l’exercice de
cette compétence. La compétence de la Cour est fondée sur le consentement
des Etats. Lorsqu’ils font une déclaration en vertu du paragraphe 2 de l’article
36 du Statut, ceux‑ci « reconna[issent] comme obligatoire de plein droit
et sans convention spéciale, à l’égard de tout autre Etat acceptant la même
obligation, la juridiction de la Cour sur tous les différends d’ordre juridique
ayant pour objet [les questions visées aux alinéas a) à d) de ce paragraphe]
». La compétence de la Cour à l’égard d’un Etat ayant fait pareille
déclaration est donc établie à compter du moment où ladite déclaration est
déposée auprès du Secrétaire général de l’Organisation des Nations Unies,
et demeure en vigueur jusqu’à son retrait ou, si elle a été faite pour une
durée déterminée, son expiration. La Cour a ainsi confirmé que,
« par le dépôt de sa déclaration d’acceptation [de la juridiction de la
Cour au titre du paragraphe 2 de l’article 36 du Statut] entre les
mains du Secrétaire général, l’Etat acceptant dev[enait] partie au système
de la disposition facultative à l’égard de tous autres Etats déclarants,
avec tous les droits et obligations qui découlent de l’article 36.
Le rapport contractuel entre les Parties et la juridiction obligatoire de
la Cour qui en découle sont établis « de plein droit et sans convention
spéciale » du fait du dépôt de la déclaration. » (Droit de passage sur
territoire indien (Portugal c. Inde), exceptions préliminaires, arrêt,
C.I.J. Recueil 1957, p. 146 ; les italiques sont de moi.)
La Cour a également précisé que c’est à la date à laquelle est déposée la
déclaration du second Etat que « le lien consensuel qui constitue la base
de la disposition facultative prend naissance entre les Etats intéressés »
(ibid.).
15. La compétence de la Cour ne se trouve donc pas établie ou parachevée
par la naissance d’un différend, laquelle est une condition nécessaire
à son exercice, dans l’hypothèse où un Etat ayant accepté la
juridiction de la Cour décide d’introduire une instance devant elle contre
un autre Etat lui aussi auteur d’une déclaration en vigueur. La disparition
d’un différend en cours de procédure — parce que les parties sont parvenues
à un arrangement ou en raison de développements nouveaux — ne
prive pas la Cour de sa compétence, mais celle‑ci n’a plus, en pareil cas, à
se prononcer au fond, aucune question ne restant à trancher. Elle se
contente alors de prendre acte, par voie d’ordonnance, de l’arrangement
intervenu en demandant au greffier « que l’affaire soit rayée du rôle » (voir
notamment Passage par le Grand‑Belt (Finlande c. Danemark), ordonnance
du 10 septembre 1992, C.I.J. Recueil 1992, p. 349), ou de conclure
que la demande « est désormais sans objet et qu’il n’y a dès lors pas lieu à
statuer » (voir notamment Essais nucléaires (Australie c. France), arrêt,
C.I.J. Recueil 1974, p. 272, par. 62 ; Essais nucléaires (Nouvelle‑Zélande
c. France), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1974, p. 478, par. 65).
890 nuclear arms and disarmament (sep. op. tomka)
61
16. The function of the Court “is to decide in accordance with international
law such disputes as are submitted to it” (Article 38, paragraph 1,
of the Statute). The Court does so as the principal judicial organ of the
United Nations, thus contributing to the achievement of its purposes, one
of them being “to bring about by peaceful means, and in conformity with
the principles of justice and international law, adjustment or settlement of
international disputes” (Article 1, paragraph 1, of the Charter of the
United Nations). In order to discharge this function, the dispute must still
exist when the Court decides on its merits, provided that it has jurisdiction
and the Application is admissible. While the formulation of Article
38, paragraph 1, of the Statute implies that the dispute will already
exist when proceedings before the Court are instituted, the phrase about
the Court’s function, added to the text of Article 38 at the Conference in
San Francisco, was not intended to constitute a condition for the Court’s
jurisdiction. Article 38 concerns the law to be applied by the Court, while
for its jurisdiction — in addition to Articles 34 and 35 — Articles 36 and
37 are particularly relevant. What the Court says in paragraph 42 of its
present Judgment should thus be viewed as a mere observation and not as
determinative for its jurisdiction.
17. As the Court has stated on a number of occasions the “dispute
must in principle exist at the time the Application is submitted to the
Court” (Questions relating to the Obligation to Prosecute or Extradite
(Belgium v. Senegal), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2012 (II), p. 442, para. 46,
quoting Application of the International Convention on the Elimination of
All Forms of Racial Discrimination (Georgia v. Russian Federation), Preliminary
Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2011 (I), p. 85, para. 30
(emphasis added); see also Alleged Violations of Sovereign Rights and
Maritime Spaces in the Caribbean Sea (Nicaragua v. Colombia), Preliminary
Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2016 (I), p. 27, para. 52; Application
of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of
Genocide (Croatia v. Serbia), Preliminary Objections, Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 2008, pp. 437‑438, paras. 79-80, quoting Application of the
Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide
(Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Yugoslavia), Preliminary Objections, Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 1996 (II), p. 613, para. 26).
18. Despite repeating this general rule (see Judgment, paragraph 42),
the Court has, however, adopted rather a very strict requirement that the
dispute must have existed prior to the filing of the Marshall Islands’
Application.
19. In some cases, circumstances will dictate that the dispute must
indeed exist as at the date of the Application. Such was the situation in
the recent case concerning Alleged Violations of Sovereign Rights and
Maritime Spaces in the Caribbean Sea (Nicaragua v. Colombia), for in
that case Colombia’s denunciation of the Pact of Bogotá took effect
almost immediately after the Application was filed (see Preliminary Objec-
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16. La Cour a pour mission « de régler conformément au droit international
les différends qui lui sont soumis » (article 38, paragraphe 1, du Statut),
mission dont elle s’acquitte en sa qualité d’organe judiciaire principal
de l’Organisation des Nations Unies, apportant ainsi sa contribution aux
buts de l’Organisation, et notamment à celui de « réaliser, par des moyens
pacifiques, conformément aux principes de la justice et du droit international,
l’ajustement ou le règlement de différends … de caractère international
» (paragraphe 1 de l’article 1 de la Charte des Nations Unies). Elle ne
peut effectivement le faire que si le différend entre les parties existe toujours
au moment où elle est appelée à se prononcer au fond, et à condition
qu’elle ait compétence et que la requête soit recevable. Toutefois, et même
si la formulation du paragraphe 1 de l’article 38 implique que le différend
existe déjà lorsque l’instance est introduite devant la Cour, le membre de
phrase relatif à la mission de celle‑ci, qui a été ajouté au texte dudit article
à la conférence de San Francisco, ne visait pas à énoncer une condition à
sa compétence. L’article 38 a en effet pour objet de définir le droit que la
Cour est tenue d’appliquer, les dispositions concernant plus particulièrement
sa compétence étant — outre les articles 34 et 35 — les articles 36
et 37. Ce qui est indiqué au paragraphe 42 du présent arrêt doit donc être
considéré comme une simple observation de la Cour, et non comme un
élément déterminant aux fins d’établir sa compétence.
17. Ainsi que la Cour l’a souligné à plusieurs reprises, « [e]n principe,
le différend doit exister au moment où la requête [lui] est soumise » (Questions
concernant l’obligation de poursuivre ou d’extrader (Belgique c. Sénégal),
arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2012 (II), p. 442, par. 46, citant Application de
la convention internationale sur l’élimination de toutes les formes de discrimination
raciale (Géorgie c. Fédération de Russie), exceptions préliminaires,
arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2011 (I), p. 85, par. 30 (les italiques sont de
moi) ; voir également Violations alléguées de droits souverains et d’espaces
maritimes dans la mer des Caraïbes (Nicaragua c. Colombie), exceptions
préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2016 (I), p. 27, par. 52 ; Application de
la convention pour la prévention et la répression du crime de génocide
(Croatie c. Serbie), exceptions préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2008,
p. 437‑438, par. 79-80, citant Application de la convention pour la prévention
et la répression du crime de génocide (Bosnie‑Herzégovine c. Yougoslavie),
exceptions préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1996 (II), p. 613,
par. 26).
18. Bien qu’ayant rappelé cette règle générale (voir arrêt, par. 42), la
Cour a choisi d’adopter un critère très strict, estimant que le différend
devait avoir existé avant le dépôt de la requête par les Iles Marshall.
19. Dans certaines circonstances, le différend doit effectivement exister à
la date à laquelle la requête est déposée. Tel était par exemple le cas dans la
récente affaire relative aux Violations alléguées de droits souverains et d’espaces
maritimes dans la mer des Caraïbes (Nicaragua c. Colombie), puisque
la dénonciation du pacte de Bogotá par la Colombie avait pris effet presque
immédiatement après le dépôt de la requête (voir exceptions préliminaires,
891 nuclear arms and disarmament (sep. op. tomka)
62
tions, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2016 (I), pp. 49-50, para. 17, pp. 52-53,
para. 24, p. 56, para. 34, and p. 60, para. 48). As Colombia’s acceptance
of the jurisdiction of the Court under the Pact had thus been terminated
upon the taking effect of its denunciation, Nicaragua could not have subsequently
filed an Application and the Court thus considered whether a
dispute had previously emerged (ibid., paras. 52 et seq.). Likewise, in the
Georgia v. Russia case, the Court was considering a specific compromissory
clause contained in the International Convention on the Elimination
of All Forms of Racial Discrimination that required that there be a “dispute
. . . with respect to the interpretation or application of this Convention,
which is not settled by negotiation or by the procedures expressly
provided for in this Convention . . .” (Article 22, quoted in Application of
the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination
(Georgia v. Russian Federation), Preliminary Objections,
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2011 (I), p. 81, para. 20; emphasis added).
There thus had to be a dispute that “is not settled by negotiation”, a
requirement which the Court characterized as among the “preconditions
to be fulfilled before the seisin of the Court” (ibid., p. 128, para. 141). If a
compromissory clause requires prior negotiations before filing the Application
as one of the “preconditions” for seising the Court, logically the
dispute should have arisen prior to instituting the proceedings before the
Court. Moreover, the dispute and the required negotiations should have
been related to the subject‑matter of the Convention which contains the
compromissory clause — racial discrimination in the Georgia v. Russia
case. Any kind of bilateral political talks would not satisfy that requirement.
The Judgment in Georgia v. Russia should be viewed in this light.
Therefore, I cannot agree with the view of those who consider that it
indicates the beginning of a more formalistic approach to the existence of
a dispute in the Court’s jurisprudence.
20. Where there are no circumstances requiring that the dispute exist
by a particular date, the Court has been rather more flexible in not limiting
itself only to the period prior to the filing of the Application in order
to ascertain whether a dispute existed between the parties before it.
21. In the Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment
of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Yugoslavia)
case, that Court, when “verify[ing] whether there [was] a dispute between
the Parties that falls within the scope of [the] provision [of Article IX of
the Convention]” (Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports
1996 (II), p. 614, para. 27), observed that
“[w]hile Yugoslavia has refrained from filing a Counter‑Memorial on
the merits and has raised preliminary objections, it has nevertheless
wholly denied all of Bosnia and Herzegovina’s allegations, whether at
the stage of proceedings relating to the requests for the indication of
provisional measures, or at the stage of the present proceedings relating
to those objections” (ibid., para. 28; emphasis added).
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arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2016 (I), p. 49‑50, par. 17, p. 52‑53, par. 24, p. 56,
par. 34, et p. 60, par. 48). L’acceptation par la Colombie de la juridiction de
la Cour au titre du pacte ayant expiré dès la prise d’effet de ladite dénonciation,
le Nicaragua ne pouvait plus, après cela, introduire une instance contre
cet Etat, et la Cour a donc recherché si un différend s’était fait jour antérieurement
(ibid., par. 52 et suiv.). De la même manière, en l’affaire Géorgie
c. Fédération de Russie, la Cour a été amenée à examiner une clause compromissoire
particulière contenue dans la convention internationale sur l’élimination
de toutes les formes de discrimination raciale, qui exigeait qu’il existât
un « différend … touchant l’interprétation ou l’application de la … Convention
qui n’aura[it] pas été réglé par voie de négociation ou au moyen des
procédures expressément prévues par ladite Convention… » (article 22, cité
dans Application de la convention internationale sur l’élimination de toutes les
formes de discrimination raciale (Géorgie c. Fédération de Russie), exceptions
préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2011 (I), p. 81, par. 20 ; les italiques sont
de moi). Il devait donc exister un différend qui n’eût « pas été réglé par voie
de négociation », exigence dont la Cour a estimé qu’elle faisait partie des
« conditions préalables auxquelles il d[evait] être satisfait avant toute saisine
de la Cour » (ibid., p. 128, par. 141). Lorsqu’une clause compromissoire
impose, parmi les « conditions préalables » à la saisine de la Cour, que des
négociations soient menées avant le dépôt de la requête, le différend doit
logiquement s’être fait jour avant l’introduction de l’instance. De surcroît, le
différend et les négociations ainsi prescrites doivent porter sur l’objet de la
convention dans laquelle figure ladite clause compromissoire — soit, dans le
cas de l’affaire Géorgie c. Fédération de Russie, celle relative à la discrimination
raciale —, condition à laquelle il ne saurait être satisfait par n’importe
quel type de discussions politiques bilatérales. L’arrêt Géorgie c. Fédération
de Russie doit donc être analysé à la lumière de ce qui précède, et je ne partage
pas l’idée selon laquelle cette décision aurait marqué l’apparition, dans
la jurisprudence de la Cour, d’une approche plus formaliste quant à la question
de l’existence d’un différend.
20. Quand aucune circonstance ne requérait qu’un différend ait existé
entre les parties à une date particulière, la Cour a en revanche fait preuve
de souplesse à cet égard en ne limitant pas son examen à la période antérieure
au dépôt de la requête.
21. En l’affaire relative à l’Application de la convention pour la prévention
et la répression du crime de génocide (Bosnie‑Herzégovine c. Yougoslavie),
la Cour, amenée à « vérifier s’il exist[ait] entre les Parties un
différend entrant dans les prévisions de [l’article IX de la convention] »
(exceptions préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1996 (II), p. 614, par. 27),
a ainsi relevé ce qui suit :
« [s]i la Yougoslavie s’est abstenue de déposer un contre‑mémoire au
fond et a soulevé des exceptions préliminaires, elle n’en a pas moins
globalement rejeté toutes les allégations de la Bosnie‑Herzégovine,
que ce soit au stade des procédures afférentes aux demandes en indication
de mesures conservatoires, ou au stade de la présente procédure
relative auxdites exceptions » (ibid., par. 28 ; les italiques sont de moi).
892 nuclear arms and disarmament (sep. op. tomka)
63
Manifestly, a very serious military conflict in Bosnia and Herzegovina
had been going on already for a year prior to the filing of the Application
on 20 March 1993. The war on the territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina
broke out shortly after its declaration of independence on 6 March 1992.
The Court, however, did not inquire whether any allegation or claim of a
breach of the obligations under the Genocide Convention had been made
prior to the submission of the case to the Court. It limited itself to noting
that “the principal requests submitted by Bosnia and Herzegovina are for
the Court to adjudge and declare that Yugoslavia has in several ways
violated the Genocide Convention” (I.C.J. Reports 1996 (II), p. 614,
para. 28) and then noting, in the passage quoted above, the denial of
these allegations by the Respondent in the course of the proceedings
before the Court. The Court did not refer to a denial of such allegations
prior to its seisin by the Applicant.
22. Moreover, from an early period of its adjudication the World
Court has shown a reasonable amount of flexibility, not being overly formalistic,
when it comes to the timing at which jurisdictional requirements
are to be met (see similarly Application of the Convention on the Prevention
and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Croatia v. Serbia), Preliminary
Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2008, p. 438, para. 81).
23. In a case decided in 1925, the Respondent argued, inter alia, “that
the Court has no jurisdiction because the existence of a difference of opinion
in regard to the construction and application of the Geneva Convention
had not been established before the filing of the Application” (Certain
German Interests in Polish Upper Silesia, Jurisdiction, Judgment No. 6,
1925, P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 6, p. 13; emphasis added). The Court looked
at the compromissory clause, and noticed that it “does not stipulate that
diplomatic negotiations must first of all be tried” and that under that
clause “recourse may be had to the Court as soon as one of the Parties
considers that a difference of opinion arising out of the construction and
application of [certain Articles of the Convention] exists” (ibid., p. 14). In
dismissing the objection the Court made a pronouncement which, in my
view, is clearly apposite to the case at hand. It said:
“Now a difference of opinion does exist as soon as one of the Governments
concerned points out that the attitude adopted by the other
conflicts with its own views. Even if, under [the compromissory clause],
the existence of a definite dispute were necessary, this condition could
at any time be fulfilled by means of unilateral action on the part of the
applicant Party. And the Court cannot allow itself to be hampered by
a mere defect of form, the removal of which depends solely on the
Party concerned.” (Ibid.) 6
6 The force of this statement is strengthened by the fact that it seems all elected judges
were in agreement with it; only a “National Judge”, as judges ad hoc were at that time
designated, chosen by the Respondent, dissented.
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Il était manifeste que, lorsque la requête avait été déposée le 20 mars 1993,
un très grave conflit militaire faisait déjà rage depuis un an en Bosnie‑Herzégovine,
la guerre ayant éclaté sur son territoire peu de temps après
sa déclaration d’indépendance le 6 mars 1992. La Cour n’a cependant pas
recherché si le demandeur avait formulé quelque allégation ou prétention
fondée sur un manquement aux obligations découlant de la convention
avant l’introduction de l’instance. Elle s’est contentée de relever que
« les demandes présentées à titre principal par la Bosnie‑Herzégovine
tend[aient] à ce qu[’elle] dise et juge que la Yougoslavie a[vait] violé de
diverses façons la convention sur le génocide » (C.I.J. Recueil 1996 (II),
p. 614, par. 28), avant de constater, dans le passage précité, que le défendeur
avait rejeté ces allégations au cours de la procédure, sans faire
aucune mention d’un rejet antérieur à sa saisine par le demandeur.
22. Par ailleurs, s’agissant de la date à laquelle il doit être satisfait aux
conditions de sa compétence, la Cour mondiale a, depuis ses premières
années d’existence, toujours fait preuve d’une relative souplesse, s’abstenant
de tout formalisme excessif (sur ce point, voir Application de la convention
pour la prévention et la répression du crime de génocide (Croatie c. Serbie),
exceptions préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2008, p. 438, par. 81).
23. Dans une affaire tranchée en 1925, le défendeur avait notamment
allégué que « [l]a Cour n[’était] pas compétente parce qu’une divergence
de vues au sujet de l’interprétation et de l’application de la convention de
Genève n’[avait] pas été constatée avant l’introduction de la requête »
(Certains intérêts allemands en Haute‑Silésie polonaise, compétence,
arrêt no 6, 1925, C.P.J.I. série A no 6, p. 13 ; les italiques sont de moi). La
Cour a toutefois relevé que la clause compromissoire « ne pos[ait] pas la
condition de négociations diplomatiques qui devraient être tentées en première
ligne », et que, en vertu de cette clause, « [elle] p[ouvait] être saisie …
aussitôt que l’une des parties estim[ait] qu’il y a[vait] divergence d’opinion
résultant de l’interprétation et de l’application de [certaines dispositions
de la convention] » (ibid., p. 14). Rejetant l’exception qui lui était soumise,
la Cour a fait un prononcé qui, selon moi, est clairement pertinent aux
fins de la présente espèce. Il se lit comme suit :
« Or, une divergence d’opinion se manifeste dès qu’un des gouvernements
en cause constate que l’attitude observée par l’autre est
contraire à la manière de voir du premier. Même si la nécessité d’une
contestation formelle ressortait de [la clause compromissoire], cette
condition pourrait être à tout moment remplie par un acte unilatéral
de la Partie demanderesse. La Cour ne pourrait s’arrêter à un défaut
de forme qu’il dépendrait de la seule Partie intéressée de faire disparaître.
» (Ibid.) 6
6 Cet énoncé a d’autant plus de force qu’il reflétait, semble‑t‑il, un consensus de l’ensemble
des membres élus de la Cour ; seul un « juge national », ainsi qu’étaient alors désignés
les juges ad hoc, choisi par le défendeur, s’y était opposé.
893 nuclear arms and disarmament (sep. op. tomka)
64
24. This dictum originated from the principle which the Permanent
Court had enunciated a year earlier, in 1924, in the Mavrommatis Palestine
Concessions case (see Application of the Convention on the Prevention
and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v.
Yugoslavia), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1996 (II),
p. 613, para. 26). In response to an argument that the proceedings were
not validly instituted because “the application was filed before [the relevant
protocol] had become applicable”, the Permanent Court stated:
“Even if the grounds on which the institution of proceedings was
based were defective for the reason stated, this would not be an adequate
reason for the dismissal of the applicant’s suit. The Court,
whose jurisdiction is international, is not bound to attach to matters
of form the same degree of importance which they might possess in
municipal law. Even, therefore, if the application were premature
because the Treaty of Lausanne had not yet been ratified, this circumstance
would now be covered by the subsequent deposit of the necessary
ratifications.” (Mavrommatis Palestine Concessions, Judgment
No. 2, 1924, P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 2, p. 34.)
25. The Court applied this principle in Application of the Convention on
the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina
v. Yugoslavia), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports
1996 (II), pp. 613‑614, para. 26. As the Court there observed (ibid.), it
also did so in Northern Cameroons (Cameroon v. United Kingdom), Preliminary
Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1963, p. 28, and in Military
and Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v. United
States of America), Jurisdiction and Admissibility, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports
1984, pp. 428‑429, para. 83. Indeed, in the former Judgment, the Court
highlighted that “the Court, like its predecessor, the Permanent Court of
International Justice, has always had recourse to the principle according
to which it should not penalize a defect in a procedural act which
the applicant could easily remedy” (Application of the Convention on the
Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and
Herzegovina
v. Yugoslavia), Preliminary Objections, Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 1996 (II), p. 613, para. 26; emphasis added).
26. More recently, the Court invoked this principle in 2008 in the case
concerning the Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment
of the Crime of Genocide (Croatia v. Serbia), Preliminary Objections,
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2008, p. 412. The Court “emphasized that
a State which decides to bring proceedings before the Court should carefully
ascertain that all the requisite conditions for the jurisdiction of the
Court have been met at the time proceedings are instituted” (ibid., p. 438,
para. 80). Nonetheless, the Court went on that it “has also shown realism
and flexibility in certain situations in which the conditions governing the
armes nucléaires et désarmement (op. ind. tomka) 893
64
24. Ce dictum trouvait son origine dans le principe que la Cour permanente
avait énoncé un an auparavant, en 1924, en l’affaire des Concessions
Mavromatis en Palestine (voir Application de la convention pour la prévention
et la répression du crime de génocide (Bosnie‑Herzégovine c. Yougoslavie),
exceptions préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1996 (II), p. 613,
par. 26). Examinant un argument suivant lequel la requête introductive
d’instance n’était pas valide au motif « qu’elle [était] antérieure à l’époque
où le [protocole invoqué] [était] devenu applicable », la Cour permanente
avait souligné ceci :
« Même si la base de l’introduction d’instance était défectueuse
pour la raison mentionnée, ce ne serait pas une raison suffisante pour
débouter le demandeur de sa requête. La Cour, exerçant une juridiction
internationale, n’est pas tenue d’attacher à des considérations de
forme la même importance qu’elles pourraient avoir dans le droit
interne. Dans ces conditions, même si l’introduction avait été prématurée,
parce que le Traité de Lausanne n’était pas encore
ratifié,
ce fait aurait été couvert par le dépôt ultérieur des ratifications
requises. » (Concessions Mavromatis en Palestine, arrêt no 2, 1924,
C.P.J.I. série A no 2, p. 34.)
25. La Cour internationale de Justice a appliqué ce principe dans l’arrêt
qu’elle a rendu au stade des exceptions préliminaires en l’affaire relative
à l’Application de la convention pour la prévention et la répression du
crime de génocide (Bosnie‑Herzégovine c. Yougoslavie) (C.I.J. Recueil
1996 (II), p. 613‑614, par. 26), relevant (ibid.) qu’elle en avait fait de
même dans son arrêt sur les exceptions préliminaires en l’affaire du Cameroun
septentrional (Cameroun c. Royaume‑Uni) (C.I.J. Recueil 1963,
p. 28), ainsi que dans son arrêt sur la compétence et la recevabilité en
l’affaire des Activités militaires et paramilitaires au Nicaragua et contre
celui‑ci (Nicaragua c. Etats‑Unis d’Amérique) (C.I.J. Recueil 1984,
p. 428‑429, par. 83). Dans le premier arrêt susmentionné, la Cour a ainsi
rappelé que, « comme sa devancière, la Cour permanente de Justice internationale,
[elle] a[vait] toujours eu recours au principe selon lequel elle ne
d[evait] pas sanctionner un défaut qui affecterait un acte de procédure et
auquel la partie requérante pourrait aisément porter remède » (Application
de la convention pour la prévention et la répression du crime de génocide
(Bosnie‑Herzégovine c. Yougoslavie), exceptions préliminaires, arrêt,
C.I.J. Recueil 1996 (II), p. 613, par. 26 ; les italiques sont de moi).
26. Plus récemment, la Cour a invoqué ce même principe en 2008, dans
l’arrêt qu’elle a rendu au stade des exceptions préliminaires en l’affaire
relative à l’Application de la convention pour la prévention et la répression
du crime de génocide (Croatie c. Serbie) (C.I.J. Recueil 2008, p. 412).
Après avoir « soulign[é] qu’un Etat qui décide de saisir la Cour d[evait]
vérifier avec attention que toutes les conditions nécessaires à la compétence
de celle‑ci sont remplies à la date à laquelle l’instance est introduite »
(ibid., p. 438, par. 80), elle a néanmoins relevé qu’elle « a[vait] aussi fait
preuve de réalisme et de souplesse dans certaines hypothèses où les condi-
894 nuclear arms and disarmament (sep. op. tomka)
65
Court’s jurisdiction were not fully satisfied when proceedings were initiated
but were subsequently satisfied” (Application of the Convention on
the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Croatia v.
Serbia),
Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2008, p. 438,
para. 81). It referred (ibid., p. 439, para. 82) to the principle outlined in
the Mavrommatis case, noted above, whereby the Court “is not bound to
attach to matters of form the same degree of importance which they
might possess in municipal law”. The Court concluded that
“what matters is that, at the latest by the date when the Court decides
on its jurisdiction, the applicant must be entitled, if it so wishes, to
bring fresh proceedings in which the initially unmet condition would
be fulfilled. In such a situation, it is not in the interests of the sound
administration of justice to compel the applicant to begin the proceedings
anew — or to initiate fresh proceedings — and it is preferable,
except in special circumstances, to conclude that the condition
has, from that point on, been fulfilled.” (Ibid., p. 441, para. 85.)
It explained the rationale behind the principle as follows:
“it is concern for judicial economy, an element of the requirements of
the sound administration of justice, which justifies application of the
jurisprudence deriving from the Mavrommatis Judgment in appropriate
cases. The purpose of this jurisprudence is to prevent the needless
proliferation of proceedings.” (Ibid., p. 443, para. 89.)
27. If the existence of a dispute is considered necessary for the Court’s
jurisdiction (as stated above in paragraph 14, I consider it rather a condition
for the exercise of the Court’s jurisdiction), there is no compelling
reason why the principle cannot be applied to such a condition. As I have
already outlined, that was the position taken in the Certain German Interests
case, which was cited by the Court in the more recent Croatia v. Serbia
case (see ibid., p. 439, para. 82). Indeed, the Court in the latter case
highlighted that “it is of no importance which condition was unmet at the
date the proceedings were instituted, and thereby prevented the Court at
that time from exercising its jurisdiction, once it has been fulfilled subsequently”
(ibid., p. 442, para. 87).
28. This is, as I understand it, the jurisprudence of the Court on the
conditions to be met for its jurisdiction — not excessively formalistic, but
rather reasonable, allowing it to exercise its function to resolve disputes
between States brought before it. I cannot agree with the view that the
Judgment in Questions relating to the Obligation to Prosecute or Extradite
(Belgium v. Senegal) (I.C.J. Reports 2012 (II), p. 422) represents a
departure in the Court’s jurisprudence. That case was about the failure of
Senegal to bring to justice Hissène Habré to account for acts committed
during his rule as President of Chad. In the diplomatic exchanges prior to
armes nucléaires et désarmement (op. ind. tomka) 894
65
tions de [s]a compétence … n’étaient pas toutes remplies à la date de l’introduction
de l’instance mais l’avaient été postérieurement » (Application
de la convention pour la prévention et la répression du crime de génocide
(Croatie c. Serbie), exceptions préliminaires, C.I.J. Recueil 2008, p. 438,
par. 81). Se référant (ibid., p. 439, par. 82) au principe précité qui avait été
énoncé en l’affaire des Concessions Mavrommatis en Palestine — selon
lequel la Cour « n’est pas tenue d’attacher à des considérations de forme
la même importance qu’elles pourraient avoir dans le droit interne » —,
elle a conclu que
« ce qui import[ait], c’[était] que, au plus tard à la date à laquelle la
Cour statu[ait] sur sa compétence, le demandeur [fût] en droit, s’il le
souhait[ait], d’introduire une nouvelle instance dans le cadre de
laquelle la condition qui faisait initialement défaut serait remplie. En
pareil cas, cela ne servirait pas l’intérêt d’une bonne administration
de la justice d’obliger le demandeur à recommencer la procédure
— ou à en commencer une nouvelle — et il est préférable, sauf circonstances
spéciales, de constater que la condition est désormais
remplie. » (Ibid., p. 441, par. 85.)
Pour expliquer la logique sous‑tendant ce principe, la Cour a précisé que
« c’[était] le souci d’économie de procédure, qui est une composante
des exigences de bonne administration de la justice, qui justifi[ait],
dans les cas appropriés, l’application de la jurisprudence issue de
l’arrêt Mavrommatis. Cette jurisprudence vise à éviter la multiplication
inutile des procédures. » (Ibid., p. 443, par. 89.)
27. Si l’on considère que l’existence d’un différend est une condition
nécessaire à la compétence de la Cour (ou plutôt, selon moi, à l’exercice
de cette compétence, ainsi que je l’ai précisé au paragraphe 14 ci‑dessus),
aucune raison impérieuse ne fait obstacle à ce que le principe en question
soit appliqué à cette condition. Telle est, comme je l’ai déjà exposé, la
position qui fut adoptée en l’affaire relative à Certains intérêts allemands,
à laquelle la Cour s’est référée dans une affaire plus récente, celle qui a
opposé la Croatie à la Serbie (voir ibid., p. 439, par. 82), soulignant, de
fait, que « peu import[ait] la condition qui, à la date d’introduction de
l’instance, faisait défaut, empêchant ainsi la Cour, à ce moment‑là, d’exercer
sa compétence, dès lors qu’elle a[vait] été remplie par la suite » (ibid.,
p. 442, par. 87).
28. A mon sens, la jurisprudence de la Cour relative aux conditions auxquelles
il doit être satisfait pour que celle‑ci ait compétence appelle donc
une approche raisonnable, sans formalisme excessif, qui lui permette d’exercer
sa mission consistant à régler les différends que lui soumettent les Etats.
Je ne puis souscrire à l’idée selon laquelle, dans l’arrêt qu’elle a rendu en
l’affaire relative à des Questions concernant l’obligation de poursuivre ou
d’extrader (Belgique c. Sénégal) (C.I.J. Recueil 2012 (II), p. 422), la Cour
s’en serait écartée. Dans cette affaire, il était reproché au Sénégal de n’avoir
pas traduit M. Hissène Habré en justice pour qu’il réponde de certains actes
895 nuclear arms and disarmament (sep. op. tomka)
66
bringing the matter before the Court, Belgium always argued in terms of
obligations under the Convention against Torture (I.C.J. Reports 2012 (II),
pp. 444‑445, para. 54). It was only in the Application instituting proceedings
that the alleged crimes against humanity under customary international
law were mentioned. The Court concluded that there existed a
dispute in regard to “the interpretation and application of Articles 6,
paragraph 2, and 7, paragraph 1, of the Convention” (ibid., p. 444,
para. 52), but that it “did not relate to breaches of obligations under customary
international law” (ibid., p. 445, para. 55). The Court knew that it
thus had jurisdiction, under the compromissory clause contained in Article
30, paragraph 1, of the Convention against Torture, to deal with the
matter brought before it, and it could thus resolve the dispute. It was
clear that Belgium would not contemplate re‑submitting to the Court a
dispute relating to obligations under customary international law. In fact,
Belgium welcomed the Judgment and was among those States which, in
addition to the African Union and the European Union, assisted Senegal
— in particular financially — to comply with the Judgment. Senegal
is to be commended for the measures it has taken in the implementation
of its obligations. It charged Hissène Habré, who was found guilty of,
inter alia, torture by a Judgment rendered on 30 May 2016 and sentenced
to life imprisonment. The victims finally, after more than a quarter of a
century, have seen justice delivered. In light of these facts, the Court’s
Judgment in Questions relating to the Obligation to Prosecute or Extradite
(Belgium v. Senegal) should rather be seen as wise and not overly formalistic.
The Court was certainly prudent not to foreclose any future developments
in respect of obligations of States that might exist under
customary international law to prosecute perpetrators of alleged crimes
against humanity.
29. It is true that the Marshall Islands had, for some time, not taken a
particularly active position on nuclear disarmament in multilateral fora,
and its voting until 2012 in the United Nations on these issues, for reasons
which do not need elaboration, did not indicate a disagreement with
the United Kingdom. However, as it appears from the record, the Marshall
Islands has, since 2010, and in particular since 2013, revisited its
position and voiced its dissatisfaction about the compliance, or rather
lack thereof, with obligations under Article VI of the NPT by nuclear
powers, among them the United Kingdom. In September 2013, its Foreign
Minister diplomatically “urge[d] all nuclear‑weapons states to intensify
efforts to address their responsibilities in moving towards an effective
and secure disarmament” (see Judgment, para. 49; emphasis added). I do
not take issue with the Court’s analysis of this statement, although it does
indicate a shift in the Marshall Islands’ approach.
armes nucléaires et désarmement (op. ind. tomka) 895
66
commis alors qu’il était président du Tchad. Dans les échanges diplomatiques
antérieurs à l’introduction de l’instance devant la Cour, la Belgique
avait toujours invoqué des obligations découlant de la convention contre la
torture (C.I.J. Recueil 2012 (II), p. 444‑445, par. 54). Ce n’est que dans la
requête qu’avaient été formulées des allégations de crimes contre l’humanité
au titre du droit international coutumier. Dans son arrêt, la Cour a
conclu qu’il existait un différend concernant « l’interprétation et l’application
de l’article 6, paragraphe 2, et de l’article 7, paragraphe 1, de la convention
» (ibid., p. 444, par. 52), mais que ce différend « n’était pas relatif à des
manquements à des obligations relevant du droit international coutumier »
(ibid., p. 445, par. 55). Elle savait qu’elle avait ainsi compétence au titre de
la clause compromissoire figurant au paragraphe 1 de l’article 30 de la
convention contre la torture pour connaître de l’instance introduite devant
elle et pouvait, en conséquence, régler le différend. Il était évident que la
Belgique n’envisagerait pas de la saisir à nouveau au sujet d’obligations
découlant du droit international coutumier ; de fait, le demandeur s’est félicité
de l’arrêt et a fait partie des Etats qui ont, aux côtés de l’Union africaine
et de l’Union européenne, apporté leur concours — notamment
financier — pour aider le Sénégal à s’y conformer. Déployant de louables
efforts à cet effet, ce dernier a inculpé M. Habré, qui, par une décision rendue
le 30 mai 2016, a été notamment reconnu coupable de torture et
condamné à une peine d’emprisonnement à perpétuité. Plus d’un quart de
siècle après les faits, les victimes ont ainsi enfin obtenu que justice leur soit
rendue. Au vu de ce qui précède, l’arrêt de la Cour en l’affaire relative à des
Questions concernant l’obligation de poursuivre ou d’extrader (Belgique
c. Sénégal) se caractérise donc par sa sagesse, et non par un formalisme
excessif. La Cour a assurément fait preuve de prudence en n’excluant
aucune évolution future en ce qui concerne les obligations de droit international
coutumier susceptibles de prescrire aux Etats de poursuivre les
auteurs présumés de crimes contre l’humanité.
29. Il est vrai que, pendant un certain temps, les Iles Marshall ne se
sont pas montrées particulièrement actives, dans les enceintes multilatérales,
sur la question du désarmement nucléaire et — pour des raisons
qu’il n’y a pas lieu d’expliciter — les votes qu’elles ont exprimés à cet
égard au sein de l’Organisation des Nations Unies jusqu’en 2012 ne révélaient
pas l’existence d’un désaccord avec le Royaume‑Uni. Il ressort toutefois
du dossier de l’affaire qu’elles ont, depuis 2010, et en particulier
depuis 2013, revu leur position et manifesté leur mécontentement quant à
l’exécution — ou plutôt l’inexécution — de certaines obligations incombant
aux puissances nucléaires, dont le Royaume‑Uni, au titre de l’article
VI du TNP. Ainsi, au mois de septembre 2013, leur ministre des
affaires étrangères a, en des termes diplomatiques, « appel[é] instamment
toutes les puissances nucléaires [à] intensifier leurs efforts pour assumer
leurs responsabilités en vue d’un désarmement effectif réalisé en toute
sécurité » (voir arrêt, par. 49 ; les italiques sont de moi). Quoique je ne
conteste pas l’analyse qu’en fait la Cour, cette déclaration indique bien un
changement dans la position des Iles Marshall.
896 nuclear arms and disarmament (sep. op. tomka)
67
30. In February 2014, the Marshall Islands, while renewing its call to
all nuclear powers made in the United Nations in September 2013,
expressed its views more openly, asserting that “States possessing nuclear
arsenals are failing to fulfil their legal obligations” regarding “multilateral
negotiations on achieving and sustaining a world free of nuclear weapons
[which] are long overdue” (Judgment, para. 28). The allegation is made
against all nuclear‑weapon States, without exception. This has been subsequently
confirmed by the fact that the Marshall Islands filed, on
24 April 2014, nine Applications against the nine States which are known
or believed to possess nuclear weapons.
31. The fact that the United Kingdom did not participate at the
Conference
in Nayarit is not, in my view, legally relevant, since under
international law a State is not required to give notice to another State
of its intention to institute proceedings before the Court. A State can formulate
its claim in the Application seising the Court if it believes that it
has a dispute with another State, or considers that the other State is in
breach of international obligations owed to the Applicant. To require a
State to give prior notice may entail, in the present optional clause system
of the Court’s compulsory jurisdiction, a risk that the Court will be
deprived of its jurisdiction prior to receiving an Application instituting
proceedings. A number of declarations made under Article 36, paragraph
2, of the Court’s Statute may be modified or withdrawn with immediate
effect by simple notification to the Secretary‑General of the United
Nations. And it is not unknown that some declarations have been modified
in the past, including recently, in order to prevent another State from
bringing before the Court a particular dispute or a particular category
of disputes.
32. The proceedings before the Court in this case have clarified that
there is a dispute between the Marshall Islands and the United Kingdom
about the latter’s performance of its obligations under Article VI of the
NPT. Therefore, in my view, the conclusion that the Court has no jurisdiction
in the absence of a dispute is not justified in the case at hand. In
order to affirm its jurisdiction the Court would have to deal with the
other objections of the United Kingdom to its jurisdiction. The Court did
not consider it necessary to proceed that way in light of the conclusion it
reached on the first objection.
II. Admissibility
33. Assuming that all objections to jurisdiction raised by the United
Kingdom were to be rejected, the Court would proceed to the merits,
provided that the Application and the claims formulated therein are
admissible. In my view, however, the nature of the obligations in the field
of nuclear disarmament, including of the obligations under Article VI of
the NPT, renders the Application inadmissible under the present, rather
armes nucléaires et désarmement (op. ind. tomka) 896
67
30. En février 2014, tout en réitérant l’appel qu’elles avait lancé à la
tribune de l’Organisation des Nations Unies en septembre 2013 à l’intention
de toutes les puissances nucléaires, les Iles Marshall ont affirmé, de
manière plus directe, que « les Etats possédant un arsenal nucléaire ne
respect[aient] pas leurs obligations » quant aux « négociations multilatérales
visant à créer et à maintenir un monde dépourvu d’armes nucléaires
[qui] auraient dû être engagées depuis longtemps » (arrêt, par. 28). Cette
accusation visait toutes les puissances nucléaires, sans exception, comme
l’a ensuite confirmé le dépôt, par les Iles Marshall, le 24 avril 2014, de
neuf requêtes contre les neuf Etats possédant ou supposés posséder
pareilles armes.
31. Le fait que le Royaume‑Uni n’ait pas participé à la conférence où
a été formulée ladite accusation, qui s’est tenue à Nayarit, est selon moi
dépourvu de pertinence sur le plan juridique, puisqu’un Etat n’est pas
tenu, en droit international, d’informer un autre Etat de son intention
d’introduire contre lui une instance devant la Cour, et peut formuler ses
griefs dans la requête, s’il estime qu’un différend l’oppose à cet autre Etat
ou que celui‑ci manque à des obligations internationales qui lui sont dues.
Dans le système actuel de la clause facultative, imposer pareille obligation
de notification préalable risquerait de priver la Cour de sa compétence
avant qu’une requête lui soit soumise. Les déclarations faites en vertu du
paragraphe 2 de l’article 36 du Statut sont souvent assorties d’une possibilité
de retrait ou de modification avec effet immédiat par simple notification
au Secrétaire général de l’Organisation des Nations Unies, et l’on
sait bien que certains Etats ont, y compris tout récemment, modifié leur
déclaration pour empêcher tout autre Etat de saisir la Cour d’un différend
particulier ou d’une catégorie particulière de différends.
32. La présente instance a clairement révélé qu’un différend existait
entre les Parties concernant l’exécution, par le Royaume‑Uni, des obligations
qui lui incombent au titre de l’article VI du TNP. Je suis donc d’avis
que la conclusion selon laquelle la Cour n’avait pas compétence au motif
qu’il n’existait pas de différend n’était pas justifiée. Pour se déclarer compétente,
la Cour aurait toutefois eu à examiner les autres exceptions d’incompétence
soulevées par le Royaume‑Uni. Compte tenu de la conclusion
à laquelle elle était parvenue s’agissant de la première exception, elle n’a
pas jugé nécessaire de le faire.
II. Recevabilité
33. A supposer que toutes les exceptions d’incompétence soulevées par le
Royaume‑Uni aient été rejetées, la Cour aurait procédé à l’examen de l’affaire
au fond, à condition que la requête et les demandes qui y étaient formulées
soient recevables. Or, je suis d’avis que, dans le système peu
satisfaisant qui régit aujourd’hui la compétence de la Cour, la requête des
Iles Marshall était irrecevable, et ce, en raison de la nature des obligations
897 nuclear arms and disarmament (sep. op. tomka)
68
unsatisfactory, system of the Court’s jurisdiction. Article VI of the NPT
reads as follows:
“Each of the Parties to the Treaty undertakes to pursue negotiations
in good faith on effective measures relating to cessation of the
nuclear arms race at an early date and to nuclear disarmament, and
on a treaty on general and complete disarmament under strict and
effective international control.”
34. The Court in its advisory opinion analysed this provision and
expressed its view in the following terms:
“The legal import of that obligation goes beyond that of a mere
obligation of conduct; the obligation involved here is an obligation
to achieve a precise result — nuclear disarmament in all its aspects —
by adopting a particular course of conduct, namely, the pursuit of
negotiations on the matter in good faith.” (Legality of the Threat or
Use of Nuclear Weapons, Advisory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports 1996 (I),
p. 264, para. 99.)
The Court characterized the obligation as “twofold” — as an “obligation
to pursue and to conclude negotiations” (ibid., para. 100). It emphasized
that “any realistic search for general and complete disarmament,
especially
nuclear disarmament, necessitates the co‑operation of all
States” (ibid.).
35. Indeed, “disarmament treaties or treaties prohibiting the use of
particular weapons” have been regarded as an instance of the kind of
treaty, “the objective of which can only be achieved through the interdependent
performance of obligations by all parties” 7. One respected
scholar, and now international judge, observes in this respect:
“It is clear . . . in the context of a disarmament treaty, that each
State reduces its military power because and to the extent that the
other parties do likewise. Non‑performance, or material breach, of
the treaty by one of its parties would threaten the often fragile military
balance brought by the agreement.” 8
7 Bruno Simma and Christian J. Tams, “1969 Vienna Convention, Article 60: Termination
or suspension of the operation of a treaty as a consequence of its breach”, in Olivier
Corten and Pierre Klein (eds.), The Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties: A Commentary,
Vol. II, Oxford University Press, 2011, p. 1365. See also Yearbook of the International Law
Commission, 2001, Vol. II, Part Two, p. 119, paragraph 13 of the commentary to Article 42,
or James Crawford, The International Law Commission’s Articles on State Responsibility:
Introduction, Text and Commentaries, Cambridge University Press, 2002, p. 259.
8 Linos-Alexander
Sicilianos, “The Classification of Obligations and the Multilateral
Dimension of the Relations of International Responsibility” (2002) 13 (5) European
Journal of International Law, p. 1134.
armes nucléaires et désarmement (op. ind. tomka) 897
68
existant dans le domaine du désarmement nucléaire, et notamment celles qui
découlent de l’article VI du TNP. L’article VI du TNP se lit comme suit :
« Chacune des Parties au Traité s’engage à poursuivre de bonne foi
des négociations sur des mesures efficaces relatives à la cessation de
la course aux armements nucléaires à une date rapprochée et au
désarmement nucléaire, et sur un traité de désarmement général et
complet sous un contrôle international strict et efficace. »
34. Lorsqu’elle a analysé cette disposition dans son avis consultatif, la
Cour a formulé ses vues comme suit :
« La portée juridique de l’obligation considérée dépasse celle d’une
simple obligation de comportement ; l’obligation en cause ici est celle
de parvenir à un résultat précis — le désarmement nucléaire dans
tous ses aspects — par l’adoption d’un comportement déterminé, à
savoir la poursuite de bonne foi de négociations en la matière. »
(Licéité de la menace ou de l’emploi d’armes nucléaires, avis consultatif,
C.I.J. Recueil 1996 (I), p. 264, par. 99.)
La Cour a estimé qu’était en jeu une « double obligation » — celle « de
négocier et de conclure » (ibid., par. 100) —, soulignant que « toute
recherche réaliste d’un désarmement général et complet, en particulier
nucléaire, nécessit[ait] la coopération de tous les Etats » (ibid.).
35. De fait, les « traités portant sur le désarmement ou interdisant
l’emploi
d’armes particulières » ont été considérés comme des exemples de
traités « dont l’objectif ne peut être réalisé que par l’exécution, par toutes
les parties et de manière interdépendante, des obligations qui y sont énoncées
» 7. A cet égard, un éminent auteur, devenu juge international, a
relevé ce qui suit :
« Il est évident … dans le cadre d’un traité sur le désarmement, que
chacun des Etats parties ne réduit sa puissance militaire que parce
que les autres le font également, et qu’il le fait dans la même proportion.
Toute inexécution ou violation grave du traité par l’une des
parties menacerait l’équilibre militaire souvent fragile établi par cet
instrument. » 8
7 Bruno Simma et Christian J. Tams, « 1969 Vienna Convention, Article 60: Termination
or suspension of the operation of a treaty as a consequence of its breach », dans
Olivier Corten et Pierre Klein (dir. publ.), The Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties :
A Commentary, vol. II, Oxford University Press, 2011, p. 1365. Voir également Annuaire de
la Commission du droit international (2001), vol. II, deuxième partie, p. 127, paragraphe 13
du commentaire de l’article 42, ou James Crawford, The International Law Commission’s
Articles on State Responsibility: Introduction, Text and Commentaries, Cambridge University
Press, 2002, p. 259.
8 Linos‑Alexander Sicilianos, « The Classification of Obligations and the Multilateral
Dimension of the Relations of International Responsibility » (2002), Journal européen de
droit international, vol. 13, no 5, p. 1134.
898 nuclear arms and disarmament (sep. op. tomka)
69
In other words, the performance of the obligation by a State is conditional
on the performance of the same obligation by the other States 9. In
the field of nuclear disarmament, it is unrealistic to expect that a State
will disarm unilaterally. International law does not impose such an obligation.
It rather provides for achieving that goal through negotiations in
good faith, through the co‑operation of all States.
36. The most noble and important goal of getting the world rid of
nuclear arms, to which the absolute majority — if not all — nations subscribe,
can realistically be achieved only through balancing the security
interests of the States concerned, in particular all nuclear powers and
other countries with significant military capabilities.
37. It seems that the Marshall Islands is aware of this reality. It has
filed Applications against all nuclear powers alleging that they are in
breach of their obligations under the NPT and/or customary international
law. Six of the nuclear powers are not before the Court as they
have not accepted the Marshall Islands’ invitation to accept the Court’s
jurisdiction under Article 38, paragraph 5, of the Rules of Court.
38. Enquiry into the compliance by one nuclear power with its obligations
relating to nuclear disarmament, including any obligation to negotiate
in good faith, invites consideration of the position taken by all other
nuclear powers in relation to the same obligations which are or may be
binding on them. It is only with an understanding of the positions taken
by other States that the Court can stand on safe ground in considering
the conduct of any one State alone, which necessarily is influenced by the
positions of those other States, and whether that one State alone is open
to achieving the goal set down in Article VI of the NPT through bona fide
negotiations. This is not a question of ruling on the responsibility of those
other States as a precondition for ruling on the responsibility of the
Respondent such that the Monetary Gold principle would apply. It is
rather a question of whether it is possible for the Court, in this context,
to undertake consideration of a single State’s conduct without considering
and understanding the positions taken by the other States with which
that State (the Respondent in the case at hand) would need to have negotiated,
and with which it would need to agree on the steps and measures
to be taken by all concerned in order to achieve the overall goal of nuclear
disarmament.
39. The issues raised in the present proceedings are not of a bilateral
nature between the Marshall Islands and the United Kingdom. I am con-
9 The nature of the obligation is well described in the commentary to the Articles on
State Responsibility as referring to an obligation “where each party’s performance is effectively
conditioned upon and requires the performance of each of the others”: Yearbook of
the International Law Commission, 2001, Vol. II, Part Two, p. 119, paragraph 13 of the
commentary to Article 42; see also James Crawford, The International Law Commission’s
Articles on State Responsibility: Introduction, Text and Commentaries, Cambridge University
Press, 2002, p. 259.
armes nucléaires et désarmement (op. ind. tomka) 898
69
Autrement dit, l’exécution d’une obligation par un Etat dépend de l’exécution
de cette même obligation par les autres Etats 9. Dans le domaine du
désarmement nucléaire, il n’est pas réaliste de s’attendre à ce qu’un Etat
prenne des mesures unilatérales. Le droit international ne l’impose d’ailleurs
pas, prévoyant simplement la nécessité d’atteindre l’objectif du désarmement
par des négociations de bonne foi et la coopération de tous les Etats.
36. L’objectif supérieur et primordial consistant à débarrasser le monde
des armes nucléaires, qui emporte l’adhésion de la très grande majorité
des nations — si ce n’est de toutes —, ne pourra être réalistement atteint
qu’en trouvant un équilibre entre les intérêts en matière de sécurité des
Etats concernés, notamment l’ensemble des puissances nucléaires et les
autres Etats dotés de capacités militaires importantes.
37. Sans doute conscientes de cette réalité, les Iles Marshall avaient
déposé des requêtes contre toutes les puissances nucléaires en alléguant
que celles‑ci manquaient aux obligations qui leur incombent au titre du
TNP ou du droit international coutumier. Six d’entre elles ne sont pas
parties à des instances devant la Cour, n’ayant pas, ainsi que les y invitaient
les Iles Marshall, accepté sa compétence en vertu du paragraphe 5
de l’article 38 du Règlement.
38. Pour rechercher si un Etat possédant des armes nucléaires s’acquitte
de ses obligations en matière de désarmement, y compris toute
obligation de négocier de bonne foi, il y a lieu de prendre en considération
l’attitude des autres puissances nucléaires à l’égard des mêmes obligations
qui leur incombent ou sont susceptibles de leur incomber. Ce n’est
qu’à la lumière des positions adoptées par d’autres Etats et de l’influence
que celles‑ci exercent nécessairement que la Cour peut sérieusement
apprécier le comportement d’un Etat particulier et déterminer si celui‑ci
est disposé, en poursuivant des négociations de bonne foi, à oeuvrer en
vue de l’objectif énoncé à l’article VI du TNP. Cela ne revient pas à dire
que la détermination de la responsabilité du défendeur suppose de déterminer
préalablement celle d’Etats tiers — auquel cas le principe de l’Or
monétaire s’appliquerait —, la question étant plutôt, dans ce contexte, de
savoir si la Cour peut examiner le comportement d’un Etat donné sans
considérer et comprendre les positions adoptées par les Etats tiers avec
lesquels ce dernier (le défendeur, dans la présente affaire) aurait dû négocier,
et avec lesquels il devrait convenir des mesures à mettre en oeuvre par
l’ensemble des parties concernées en vue d’atteindre l’objectif général du
désarmement nucléaire.
39. Les questions soulevées en la présente espèce n’étaient pas de
nature bilatérale. Je suis convaincu que la Cour ne pouvait se livrer à un
9 Les commentaires des articles sur la responsabilité des Etats comprennent une description
fort juste de la nature de cette obligation, « dont l’exécution par chacune des parties
dépend effectivement de son exécution par chacune des autres parties, et exige cette exécution
», Annuaire de la Commission du droit international (2001), vol. II, deuxième partie,
p. 127, paragraphe 13 du commentaire de l’article 42 ; voir également James Crawford,
The International Law Commission’s Articles on State Responsibility: Introduction, Text and
Commentaries, Cambridge University Press, 2002, p. 259.
899 nuclear arms and disarmament (sep. op. tomka)
70
vinced that the Court cannot meaningfully engage in a consideration of
the United Kingdom’s conduct when other States — whose conduct
would necessarily also be at issue — are not present before the Court to
explain their positions and actions.
40. This case illustrates the limits of the Court’s function, resulting
from the fact that it has evolved from international arbitration, which is
traditionally focused on bilateral disputes. The Statute of the Court is
expressly based on the Statute of its predecessor, the Permanent Court of
International Justice. That Statute was drafted in 1920 and major powers
opposed the idea of granting the Court compulsory jurisdiction. That
approach did not change in 1945 when the International Court of Justice
was conceived as the principal judicial organ of the United Nations. Had
the founders of that Organization endowed the Court with universal compulsory
jurisdiction, all Members of the United Nations would have been
subject to its jurisdiction. There would not have then existed obstacles to
the Court’s exercising its jurisdiction fully and thus contributing to the
achievement of the purposes and goals of the Organization.
41. To my sincere and profound regret, I have to conclude that the
absence of other nuclear powers in the proceedings prevents the Court
from considering the Marshall Islands’ claims in their proper multilateral
context, which is also determined by the positions taken by those other
powers, and thus renders the Application inadmissible. For this reason I
have joined those of my colleagues who have concluded that the Court
cannot proceed to the merits of the case.
(Signed) Peter Tomka.
armes nucléaires et désarmement (op. ind. tomka) 899
70
examen sérieux du comportement du Royaume-Uni dès lors que d’autres
Etats — dont le comportement aurait été, lui aussi, nécessairement en
cause — n’étaient pas présents devant elle pour expliquer leurs positions
et leurs actes.
40. La présente affaire illustre les limites de la mission de la Cour, qui
est issue de l’arbitrage international, traditionnellement axé sur les différends
bilatéraux. Le Statut de la Cour est expressément fondé sur celui de
sa devancière, la Cour permanente de Justice internationale. Lorsque ce
premier texte fut rédigé en 1920, les principales puissances s’opposèrent à
l’idée de conférer à la Cour permanente une juridiction obligatoire, opposition
qui se manifesta de nouveau en 1945, lors de la création de la Cour
internationale de Justice en tant qu’organe judiciaire principal de l’Organisation
des Nations Unies. Si les fondateurs de l’Organisation avaient
doté la Cour d’une juridiction obligatoire universelle, tous les Etats
Membres y auraient été soumis. Rien n’aurait alors pu faire obstacle à ce
que la Cour exerce pleinement sa compétence et contribue ainsi à la réalisation
des buts et des objectifs de l’Organisation.
41. A mon sincère et profond regret, je me vois contraint de conclure
que l’absence à l’instance des autres puissances nucléaires empêchait la
Cour d’examiner, dans le contexte multilatéral qui les caractérise — et qui
est également déterminé par les positions adoptées par ces autres Etats —,
les demandes présentées par les Iles Marshall, et que, partant, la requête
était irrecevable. C’est la raison pour laquelle je me suis rallié à ceux de
mes collègues qui ont conclu que la Cour ne pouvait procéder à l’examen
de l’affaire au fond.
(Signé) Peter Tomka.

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