Dissenting opinion of Vice-President Yusuf

Document Number
160-20161005-JUD-01-02-EN
Parent Document Number
160-20161005-JUD-01-00-EN
Document File
Bilingual Document File

D ISSENTING OPINION OF V ICE-PRESIDENT Y USUF

Judgment fails to distinguish three cases brought by the Marshall Islands  Different facts
and arguments relevant to each case  Existence of a dispute  Matter for objective

determination  Positively opposed juridical views required  Subjective criterion of
“awareness” not a condition  “Awareness” has no basis in jurisprudence of Court  It also
undermines sound administration of justice  Incipient dispute must exist prior to application to
the Court  Dispute can crystallize during proceedings  Subject-matter of a dispute must be

defined  At issue is the United Kingdom’s compliance with its obligation under Article VI of the
Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty  Evidence shows nascent dispute prior to application.

I.NTRODUCTION

1. I find myself unable to subscribe to the decision of the Court which upholds the first
preliminary objection of the United Kingdom based on the absence of a dispute. The reasons for
my dissent are succinctly set forth in the following paragraphs.

2. First, the Judgment fails to distinguish the objections raised by the United Kingdom, and
its arguments regarding the inexistence of a dispute with the Republic of the Marshall Islands, from
those in the two other cases of the Marshall Islands v. India and Marshall Islands v. Pakistan. The
issues of fact and law underlying the objections raised were quite different in the three cases. But
the Judgments treat the three cases as though they were almost identical and argued in the same
manner by the respondent States. I will discuss in this opinion the distinctive features and the facts

underlying the Marshall Islands v. United Kingdom case and the preliminary objections submitted
by the United Kingdom.

3. Secondly, I disagree with the introduction by the majority of the subjective criterion of

“awareness” in the determination of the existence or inexistence of a dispute. This is a clear  and
undesirable  departure from the consistent jurisprudence of the Court on this matter.

4. Thirdly, it is difficult in my view to determine the existence or inexistence of a dispute
without specifying its subject-matter. The Judgment does not clearly identify or circumscribe the

subject-matter of the dispute which is claimed to exist between the Parties.

5. Finally, I am of the view that an incipient dispute existed between the Republic of the
Marshall Islands and the United Kingdom prior to the submission of the application by the former,
and that this dispute further crystallized during the proceedings before the Court. The evidence on

which this conclusion is based is examined in Section VI below.

II. HE DISTINCTIVE FEATURES OF THE M ARSHALL ISLANDS V . UNITED K INGDOM
CASE WITH REGARD TO THE EXISTENCE OF A DISPUTE

6. The first distinctive feature of this case, as compared to the other two cases submitted by
the Republic of the Marshall Islands against India and Pakistan respectively, which deserves to be
noted is that both the Republic of the Marshall Islands and the United Kingdom are parties to the
Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT), the former having acceded to it - 2 -

in 1995, while the latter ratified it in 1968. The proceedings instituted by the Republic of the
Marshall Islands against the United Kingdom are about the interpretation and application of this

Treaty, and in particular Article VI thereof.

7. Article VI reads as follows:

“Each of the Parties to the Treaty undertakes to pursue negotiations in good
faith on effective measures relating to cessation of the nuclear arms race at an early
date and to nuclear disarmament, and on a treaty on general and complete

disarmament under strict and effective international control.”

8. The Republic of the Marshall Islands contends that the United Kingdom failed to pursue
nuclear disarmament negotiations in good faith, and has consequently violated its obligations under
Article VI of the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons. It affirms that it made its
views known to the United Kingdom through, among others, its statement at the
Second Conference on the Humanitarian Impact of Nuclear Weapons held in Nayarit, Mexico, on

13 February 2014. At this conference, it expressed its belief that States possessing nuclear arsenals
are failing to fulfil their legal obligations regarding nuclear disarmament negotiations, and declared
that the “immediate commencement and conclusion of such negotiations is required by legal
obligation of nuclear disarmament resting upon each and every State under Article VI of the
Non-Proliferation Treaty and customary international law”. The Republic of the Marshall Islands
requests the Court to order the United Kingdom to take all steps necessary to comply with those
obligations, including through “the pursuit, by initiation, if necessary, of negotiations in good faith

aimed at the conclusion of a convention on nuclear disarmament in all its aspects under strict and
effective international control” (Memorial of the Marshall Islands (MMI), para. 240).

9. Other distinguishing features relate to the main arguments put forward by the
United Kingdom in its preliminary objections to claim the inexistence of a dispute between the
Parties. In the first place, the United Kingdom contended that:

“on the date of the filing of the Marshall Islands’ Application, there was no justiciable
dispute between the UK and Marshall Islands in relation to the UK’s obligations,
whether arising under the NPT or under customary international law, to pursue
negotiations in good faith on effective measures of nuclear disarmament” (Preliminary
Objections of the United Kingdom (POUK), para. 26).

Secondly, the United Kingdom asserted that “no legal dispute can be said to exist where the State
submitting the dispute has given no notice thereof to the other State” (POUK, para. 27).

10. These arguments are clearly distinguishable from those advanced by India and Pakistan
in the two other cases under consideration by the Court with respect to the Applications by the
Republic of the Marshall Islands. The issues of fact and law relating to the existence of the dispute
are also different, but I will deal with those below in paragraphs 48 to 60. Two elements of the first
argument deserve to be highlighted here: the use of the old concept of “justiciable dispute”, and
the requirement that the dispute must have existed on the date of the filing of the Application by the

Republic of the Marshall Islands. The Judgment addresses the second element, which I will also
deal with in paragraphs 33 to 41 below, but is totally silent on the unusual use by the
United Kingdom of the old and controversial concept of “justiciable dispute”, which had some
currency in international law literature in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century. - 3 -

11. At that time, “non-justiciable” disputes were used to denote either political disputes, as
opposed to legal ones, or disputes generally unsuitable for juridical settlement either because

adjudication would not provide a genuine settlement or because the dispute was not about the
interpretation or application of existing international law. The United Kingdom has not explained,
during the proceedings before the Court, why it had decided to unearth this legal relic for the
specific purposes of this case, but it might be reasonable to assume that this has much to do with
the subject-matter of the Application by the Republic of the Marshall Islands, namely the
obligation contained in the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons to pursue
negotiations on nuclear disarmament.

12. Interestingly, it might be recalled that the Institute of International Law, at its meeting in
Grenoble in 1922, adopted the following resolution:

“1. All disputes, whatever their origin and character, are, as a general rule, and
subject to the following reservations, susceptible to judicial settlement or arbitral
decision.

2. At the same time, when in the opinion of the defendant State, the dispute is
not susceptible of being settled judicially, the preliminary question, whether it is or is
not justiciable, is to be submitted to the Permanent Court of international Justice,
which will decide in accordance with its ordinary procedure.”

13. If it was the intention of the respondent State in this case to signal to the Court that the
dispute submitted to it by the applicant was not susceptible of being settled judicially, that signal

went undetected by the Court, which has not at all taken up the issue of “non-justiciable” disputes
in its analysis of the preliminary objection of the United Kingdom. It is indeed a pity that the Court
missed the opportunity to say something about the use of this concept in proceedings before it in
the twenty-first century. It could have at least referred in this context to its Statute, and in
particular to Article 36, paragraph 2, which contains a list of categories of legal disputes in respect
of which the Court may exercise its jurisdiction.

14. The other distinctive argument presented by the United Kingdom on the inexistence of a
dispute with the Republic of the Marshall Islands is the absence of notice by the latter to the
United Kingdom authorities prior to the institution of judicial proceedings. Such notice is, in the
view of the United Kingdom, a condition of the existence of a legal dispute over which the Court
may exercise its jurisdiction. The Judgment of the Court correctly notes that “the Court has
rejected the view that notice or prior negotiations are required where it has been seised on the basis

of declarations made pursuant to Article 36, paragraph 2, of the Statute, unless one of those
declarations so provides” (paragraph 45).

With regard to Article 43 of the International Law Commission’s Articles on the
Responsibility of States for Internationally Wrongful Acts (ARSIWA), the Judgment refers to the
commentary on Article 44, paragraph 1, which specifies that the Articles “are not concerned with
questions of the jurisdiction of international courts and tribunals, or in general with the conditions
for the admissibility of cases brought before such courts or tribunals” (paragraph 45).

15. Having rejected the requirement of notice for the existence of a dispute, the Judgment
unfortunately raises “awareness” to a precondition for the existence of a dispute. This clearly
contradicts the jurisprudence of the Court on the concept of a dispute and the objective
determination of its existence by the Court. - 4 -

III. THE CONCEPT OF A DISPUTE AND THE NEW “AWARENESS ” TEST

16. The jurisdiction of the Court is to be exercised in contentious cases only in respect of
legal disputes submitted to it by States. This case was submitted to the Court on the basis of
Article 36, paragraph 2, of the Statute. This provision does not define what is meant by a
“legal dispute”; it therefore falls to the Court not only to define it, but also to determine its
existence or inexistence in a case such as this one before proceeding to the merits.

17. The jurisprudence of the Court is replete with such definitions. The first one, which is
still frequently cited by the Court, was in the Mavrommatis Palestine Concessions case, in which
the Court stated that: “A dispute is a disagreement on a point of law or fact, a conflict of legal
views or of interests between two persons.” (Mavrommatis Palestine Concessions, Judgment
No. 2, 1924, P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 2, p. 11.) It has since then, however, been further elaborated
and enriched by subsequent jurisprudence.

18. The Court has clearly established in its jurisprudence that: “[w]hether there exists an
international dispute is a matter for objective determination” (Interpretation of Peace Treaties with
Bulgaria, Hungary and Romania, Advisory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports 1950, p. 74). It has also
observed, in elaborating further on the definition given by the PCIJ in the Mavrommatis case, that:

“A mere assertion is not sufficient to prove the existence of a dispute any more

than a mere denial of the existence of the dispute proves its non-existence. Nor is it
adequate to show that the interests of the two parties to such a case are in conflict. It
must be shown that the claim of one party is positively opposed by the other.” (South
West Africa cases (Ethiopia v. South Africa; Liberia v. South Africa), Preliminary
Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1962, p. 328.)

19. More recently, the Court stated in Georgia v. Russian Federation that: “The Court’s
determination must turn on an examination of the facts. The matter is one of substance, not of
form.” (Application of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial
Discrimination (Georgia v. Russian Federation), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports
2011 (I), p. 84, para. 30).

20. Notwithstanding this jurisprudence of the Court, it is stated in paragraph 41 of the
Judgment that: “a dispute exists when it is demonstrated, on the basis of the evidence, that the
respondent was aware, or could not have been unaware, that its views were ‘positively opposed’ by
the applicant”. The Judgment claims that this requirement is reflected “in previous decisions of the
Court in which the existence of a dispute was under consideration”, and invokes as authority for
this statement two judgments, namely the Judgments on preliminary objections in the cases of

Alleged Violations of Sovereign Rights and Maritime Spaces in the Caribbean Sea (Nicaragua v.
Colombia), and the Application of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of
Racial Discrimination (Georgia v. Russian Federation) (ibid.).

21. Neither of the two referenced judgments provides support for a subjective requirement of
“awareness” by the respondent in the determination of the existence of a dispute. In the

Alleged Violations Judgment on preliminary objections, the Court determined that a dispute existed
on the basis of statements made by the “highest representatives of the Parties” (Alleged Violations
of Sovereign Rights and Maritime Spaces in the Caribbean Sea (Nicaragua v. Colombia),
Preliminary Objections, Judgment of 17 March 2016, para. 73). The Court simply stated as a - 5 -

matter of fact that Colombia was aware that its actions were positively opposed by Nicaragua.
“Awareness” was not identified as a criterion for the existence of a dispute, nor was it treated as

such by the Court.

22. Similarly, in the Application of the International Convention on the Elimination of All
Forms of Racial Discrimination (Georgia v. Russian Federation), the Court merely noted that
Russia was or was not aware of the position taken by Georgia in certain documents or statements.
It did not identify “awareness” as a requirement for the existence of a dispute at any point in the
Judgment nor was this implicit in the Court’s reasoning (Application of the International

Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (Georgia v.
Russian Federation), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2011 (I), pp. 117-120,
paras. 106-113).

23. It is indeed the first time that such a subjective element has been introduced into the
assessment by the Court of the existence of a dispute. As pointed out above, the Court’s
jurisprudence has always viewed the existence of a dispute as an objective matter. The Court has

underlined on many occasions that the determination of the existence of a dispute is a “matter . . .
of substance, not of form” (see, for example, Application of the International Convention on the
Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (Georgia v. Russian Federation),
Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2011 (I), p. 84, para. 30). The function of the
Court is to determine the existence of a conflict of legal views on the basis of the evidence placed
before it and not to delve into the consciousness, perception and other mental processes of States
(provided they do possess such cerebral qualities) in order to find out about their state of

awareness. Moreover, I find it contradictory that the Court should reject notice and notification as
a condition of the existence of a dispute, but then raise to a precondition of such existence the
subjective element of awareness. How is such “awareness” to be created if not through notification
or some sort of notice?

24. The introduction of an “awareness” test into the determination of the existence of a
dispute would not only go against the consistent jurisprudence of the Court; it would also

undermine judicial economy and the sound administration of justice by inviting submissions of
second applications on the same dispute. If a subjective element or a formalistic requirement such
as “awareness” is to be demanded as a condition for the existence of a dispute, the applicant State
may be able to fulfil such a condition at any time by instituting fresh proceedings before the Court.
The respondent State would, of course, be aware of the existence of the dispute in the context of
these new proceedings. It is to avoid exactly this kind of situation that the Permanent Court of
International Justice observed in the Polish Upper Silesia case that: “the Court cannot allow itself

to be hampered by a mere defect of form, the removal of which depends solely on the Party
concerned” (Certain German Interests in Polish Upper Silesia, Jurisdiction, Judgment No. 6, 1925,
P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 6, p. 14).

25. More recently, in the Military and Paramilitary Activities case (Nicaragua v.
United States of America), the Court stated that: “It would make no sense to require Nicaragua
now to institute fresh proceedings based on the Treaty, which it would be fully entitled to do.”

(Military and Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v. United States of
America), Jurisdiction and Admissibility, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1984, pp. 428-429, para. 83.)

26. Thus, in those circumstances where an applicant State may be entitled to bring fresh
proceedings to fulfil an initially unmet formal condition, it is not in the interests of the sound
administration of justice to compel it to do so (see, for example, Application of the Convention on - 6 -

the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Croatia v. Serbia),
Preliminary Objections, I.C.J. Reports 2008, para. 87). The introduction of a test of “awareness”

constitutes an open invitation to the applicant State to institute such proceedings before the Court,
having made the respondent State aware of its opposing views.

27. The existence of a dispute has to stand objectively by itself. What matters is that there is
a positive opposition of juridical viewpoints, a disagreement on a point of law or fact. It is not for
both Parties to define or to circumscribe the dispute before it comes to the Court, except when
drawing up a compromis. In all other instances it is the task of the Court to do so. Nor is it a legal

requirement for the existence of a dispute that the applicant State provide prior notice or raise
awareness of the Respondent before coming to the Court.

28. The positively opposed legal viewpoints may consist of a claim by one party, which is
contested or rejected by the other, or by a course of conduct of one party which is met by the
protest or resistance of another party (see South West Africa cases (Ethiopia v. South Africa;
Liberia v. South Africa), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1962; dissenting

opinion of Judge Morelli, p. 567, para. 2). In the latter case, the dispute may be considered to be
only at an incipient stage until such time as the State whose conduct is protested is afforded an
opportunity either to reject the protest or to accede to the protesting States’ demands and
consequently change its conduct. The institution of proceedings before the Court may, however,
result in the subsequent crystallization of the nascent dispute if the juridical viewpoints of the
Parties in relation to the subject-matter of the dispute continue to be positively opposed (see
paragraphs 39-40 below).

29. Thus, what matters is the presence of the constitutive elements of a legal dispute
susceptible of adjudication by the Court in the form of two conflicting legal views, or legal
positions positively opposed to each other, which are manifested by the Parties with respect to the
subject-matter of the dispute and which may be subsequently defined and argued by the Parties
before the Court. It is the function of the Court, as a judicial organ, to ascertain the existence of
such conflicting legal views.

30. Nevertheless, as the Court stated in its Advisory Opinion on the Applicability of the
Obligation to Arbitrate under Section 21 of the United Nations Headquarters Agreement of
26 June 1947:

“where one party to a treaty protests against the behaviour or a decision of another
party, and claims that such behaviour or decision constitutes a breach of the treaty, the

mere fact that the party accused does not advance any argument to justify its conduct
under international law does not prevent the opposing attitudes of the parties from
giving rise to a dispute concerning the interpretation or application of the treaty”
(I.C.J. Reports 1988, p. 28, para. 38).

31. Similarly, the Court held previously that “the existence of a dispute may be inferred from
the failure of a State to respond to a claim in circumstances where a response is called for”

(Application of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of
Racial Discrimination (Georgia v. Russian Federation), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J.
Reports 2011 (I), p. 84, para. 30). Thus, the absence of a reaction in the face of events, such as a
protest or a complaint that call for a reaction, may be considered to give rise to an incipient dispute. - 7 -

32. In the present case, it appears from the evidence on the record, which is examined in
paragraphs 48 to 60 below, that there was the start of a dispute between the Republic of the

Marshall Islands and the United Kingdom resulting from the alleged course of conduct of the
United Kingdom with respect to the obligation under Article VI of the Non-Proliferation Treaty to
pursue and conclude negotiations on a general treaty on nuclear disarmament and the
Marshall Islands’ protest through statements in multilateral forums, in particular its statement at the
Nayarit conference on 14 February 2014. This is another important feature which distinguishes
this case from the two other cases in Marshall Islands v. India and Marshall Islands v. Pakistan.

IV. THE EXISTENCE OF A DISPUTE PRIOR TO THE FILING OF AN APPLICATION

33. One of the important arguments put forward by the United Kingdom in support of its
preliminary objections to jurisdiction and admissibility was that the dispute must have existed on
the date of the filing of the Application by the Republic of the Marshall Islands. The Court has
recently stated in some of its Judgments that a dispute must “in principle” exist at the time of the
Application (Alleged Violations of Sovereign Rights and Maritime Spaces in the Caribbean Sea

(Nicaragua v. Colombia), Preliminary Objections, Judgment of 17 March 2016, para. 52;
Questions relating to the Obligation to Prosecute or Extradite (Belgium v. Senegal), Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 2012 (II), p. 442, para. 46; Application of the International Convention on the
Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (Georgia v. Russian Federation), Preliminary
Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2011 (I), p. 84, para. 30). The term “in principle” clearly
indicates that this does not always have to be the case, and that there are bound to be exceptions.

34. The use of the term “in principle” also suggests that it is not an absolute precondition for
the Court’s jurisdiction that a full-fledged dispute exist at the date of the application. Such a
dispute may be in the process of taking shape or at an incipient stage at the time the application is
submitted but may clearly manifest itself during the proceedings before the Court. The Court’s
insistence on the use of the term “ in principle” evidences its desire to avoid excessive formalism in
the determination of the existence of a dispute, which is a matter of substance, and not of form.

35. This flexible approach regarding the date for the determination of the existence of a
dispute is borne out by the case law of the Court, in which it has occasionally founded the existence
of a dispute on opposing statements of parties made during written and oral pleadings. For
example, in the preliminary objections phase of the Application of the Convention on the
Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Yugoslavia), the
Court noted that:

“While Yugoslavia has refrained from filing a Counter-Memorial on the merits
and has raised preliminary objections, it has nevertheless wholly denied all of Bosnia
and Herzegovina’s allegations, whether at the stage of proceedings relating to the
requests for the indication of provisional measures, or at the stage of the present
proceedings relating to those objections.

In conformity with well-established jurisprudence, the Court accordingly notes
that there persists

‘a situation in which the two sides hold clearly opposite views concerning
the question of the performance or non-performance of certain treaty
obligations’

and that, by reason of the rejection by Yugoslavia of the complaints formulated
against it by Bosnia and Herzegovina, ‘there is a legal dispute’ between them.” - 8 -

(Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of
Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Yugoslavia), Preliminary Objections,

Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1996 (II), pp. 614-615, paras. 28-29; emphasis added,
citation omitted.)

36. The Court in the above-mentioned case did not examine any evidence that demonstrated
that the Parties held positively opposed views prior to the date of application; it solely relied on the
views expressed in written and oral proceedings before it.

37. A slightly different situation arose in the Aerial Incident at Lockerbie cases. In those
cases, the Court established the existence of several disputes between the Parties. The main dispute
concerned the question of whether the destruction of the plane over Lockerbie was governed by the
Montreal Convention. This dispute was evidenced by the assertion of the relevance of the
Montreal Convention by Libya and the subsequent rejection of its applicability by the
United Kingdom and the United States prior to the submission of the Application to the Court.
More interesting for our purposes is that the Court determined that more specific disputes existed

between the Parties regarding the interpretation of Articles 7 and 11 of the Montreal Convention,
which were evidenced by the Parties’ opposing positions advanced in written and oral pleadings
(Questions of Interpretation and Application of the 1971 Montreal Convention arising from the
Aerial Incident at Lockerbie (Libyan Arab Jamahiriya v. United States of America),
Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1998, paras. 28, 32; Questions of Interpretation
and Application of the 1971 Montreal Convention arising from the Aerial Incident at Lockerbie
(Libyan Arab Jamahiriya v. United Kingdom), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J.

Reports 1998, paras. 29, 33). These disputes, according to the Court, fell within the
compromissory clause of the Montreal Convention and were therefore subject to the jurisdiction of
the Court.

38. More recently, the Court founded its holding in Certain Property on the ground that the
Parties’ expressed positively opposed views in written and oral proceedings. In the paragraph in
which the Court determined the existence of a dispute, it mentioned only the positions that the

Parties adopted in pleadings, concluding that “[t]he Court thus finds that in the present proceedings
complaints of fact and law formulated by Liechtenstein against Germany are denied by the latter”,
and hence that a dispute existed (Certain Property (Liechtenstein v. Germany), Preliminary
Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2005, p. 19, para. 25). Later in that paragraph, the Court went
on to note that this conclusion was supported by the positions taken by Parties in the course of
bilateral negotiations and by letters exchanged by the Parties prior to the submission of the
Application.

39. Although these Judgments lend some support to the idea that a dispute can be evidenced
by positions taken by the Parties in the course of proceedings subsequent to the filing of an
application, they do not overturn the basic position taken by the Court in previous cases that a
dispute cannot solely arise from the institution of proceedings before the Court. There must be, as
a minimum, the start or the onset of a dispute prior to the filing of an application, the continuation
or crystallization of which may become more evident in the course of the proceedings. However,

the seisin of the Court cannot by itself bring into being a dispute between the Parties.

40. In other words, although the beginning of a dispute must have existed prior to the filing
of the application (Northern Cameroons (Cameroon v. United Kingdom), Preliminary Objections,
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1963, separate opinion of Sir Gerald Fitzmaurice, p. 109) the decisive - 9 -

factor is that the positively opposed viewpoints have continued to be evidenced by the position of

the Parties during the post-application period when the Court takes cognizance of the positions of
the Parties (see Nuclear Tests (New Zealand v. France), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1974, p. 476,
para. 58; Nuclear Tests (Australia v. France), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1974, pp. 270-271, para.
55)). Thus, there is a continuum between the pre-application and post-application state of the
dispute in the sense that while it must have its beginning prior to the application, its persistence
must be confirmed by the Court during the judicial proceedings.

41. The relevance of this to the present case is that it appears from the evidence placed
before the Court, as discussed in paragraphs 48 to 60 below, that there was an incipient dispute
arising from the alleged course of conduct of the Respondent in relation to the obligation, under
Article VI of the Non-Proliferation Treaty, to pursue negotiations and conclude a general treaty on
nuclear disarmament that was met by a protest of the Applicant prior to the filing of its Application,
particularly through its statement at the Nayarit conference. This nascent opposition of legal

viewpoints in relation to the Non-Proliferation Treaty further manifested itself during the
proceedings as the Parties expressed positively opposed positions in relation to the interpretation
and application of Article VI of the Non-Proliferation Treaty obligations, and the obligation to
pursue and conclude negotiations on nuclear disarmament.

V. THE SUBJECT -MATTER OF THE DISPUTE

42. It is for the Court itself to determine on an objective basis the subject-matter of the
dispute between the Parties, that is, to “isolate the real issue in the case and to identify the object of
the claim” (Nuclear Tests (Australia v. France), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1974, p. 262, para. 29;
Nuclear Tests (New Zealand v. France), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1974, p. 466, para. 30).
However, in doing so, the Court examines the positions of both Parties, while giving particular
attention to the manner in which the subject-matter of the dispute is framed by the applicant State

(Fisheries Jurisdiction (Spain v. Canada), Jurisdiction of the Court, Judgment, I.C.J.
Reports 1998, p. 448, para. 30; see also Territorial and Maritime Dispute (Nicaragua v.
Colombia), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2007 (II), p. 848, para. 38).

43. In its Written Statement, the Republic of the Marshall Islands describes the scope of its
dispute with the United Kingdom in the following terms: the obligation “to pursue in good faith,

and bring to a conclusion, negotiations leading to nuclear disarmament in all its aspects under strict
and effective international control” (WSMI, para. 30).

44. This framing of the subject-matter of the dispute was further clarified during the oral
proceedings when the Co-Agent of the Republic of the Marshall Islands stated that:

“[a]t no time during these proceedings or  for that matter  outside of these
proceedings, has the United Kingdom claimed that it entirely honours the obligation
which is central to these proceedings. I will repeat this in order to clarify to the
Respondent what precisely the case is about: ‘There exists an obligation to pursue in
good faith and bring to a conclusion negotiations leading to nuclear disarmament in all
its aspects under strict and effective international control.’” (CR 2016/5, pp. 15-16,

para. 5 (van den Biesen).)

45. Moreover, the Republic of the Marshall Islands relies on its statement at the
Nayarit conference, as evidence of the existence of a dispute with the United Kingdom. In that
statement, the Republic of the Marshall Islands declared that the immediate commencement and - 10 -

conclusion of negotiations on nuclear disarmament is “required by legal obligation of nuclear

disarmament resting upon each and every State under Article VI of the Non-Proliferation Treaty
and customary international law”.

46. Thus, the subject-matter of the dispute in this case may be defined as whether the alleged
opposition of the United Kingdom to various initiatives for the immediate commencement and

conclusion of multilateral negotiations on nuclear disarmament constitutes a breach of the
obligation to negotiate nuclear disarmament in good faith under Article VI of the
Non-Proliferation Treaty.

47. This is confirmed by the fact that the main focus of the Republic of the Marshall Islands’
written and oral submissions, as well as its statement at the Nayarit conference on which it relies

for the existence of the dispute, is on the alleged non-compliance of the United Kingdom with its
obligation to pursue in good faith negotiations on nuclear disarmament and bring them to a
conclusion. In this connection, the Republic of the Marshall Islands refers to the statements of
British officials and the United Kingdom’s voting record in the United Nations General Assembly
in support of its claim that the United Kingdom has “opposed the efforts of the great majority of

States to initiate such negotiations” (Application of the Marshall Islands, para. 104). We will
examine those statements and voting record below in so far as they have been presented as
evidence of the existence of a dispute between the Parties, since the issue of the alleged non-
compliance of the United Kingdom with its Non-Proliferation Treaty obligations belongs to the
merits and cannot be dealt with here.

VI. THE OPPOSING VIEWPOINTS OF THE P ARTIES ON THE INTERPRETATION AND
APPLICATION OF ARTICLE VI OF THE N ON -PROLIFERATION TREATY

48. For the Republic of the Marshall Islands, the dispute is about the interpretation and
application of Article VI of the Non-Proliferation Treaty, and in particular the obligation to pursue
in good faith and bring to a conclusion negotiations leading to nuclear disarmament in all its

aspects under strict and effective international control. This was expressed prior to the submission
of the application by the representative of the Republic of the Marshall Islands at the
Nayarit conference and has been reiterated in these proceedings. In the words of the Co-Agent of
the Republic of the Marshall Islands, “[s]o far as the application of Article VI of the
Non-Proliferation Treaty is concerned, the Marshall Islands believed that each one of the
nuclear-weapon States, including the United Kingdom, were and, indeed, continued to be in breach

of those obligations” (CR 2016/9, p. 8, para. 2 (van den Biesen)).

49. To support these allegations, the Republic of the Marshall Islands refers to the opposition
of the United Kingdom to all the attempts made in the context of resolutions adopted by the
United Nations General Assembly to call for the immediate commencement of negotiations with a

view to the conclusion of a convention on nuclear disarmament, to convene a working group to
prepare the ground for such a convention, or to ensure concrete follow-up to the advisory opinion
of the Court which underscored the existence of an obligation to pursue negotiations on
nuclear disarmament.

50. According to the Republic of the Marshall Islands, this opposition is also evidenced by

the statements made by the United Kingdom’s representatives to the United Nations organs
following the adoption of resolutions by such organs, including the United Nations - 11 -

General Assembly, or to international conferences on nuclear disarmament as well as the
statements made by the United Kingdom’s politicians in parliamentary forums or in documents
published by the United Kingdom’s Government.

51. With regard to the United Nations resolutions, the Republic of the Marshall Islands
argues that the United Kingdom has consistently voted against all United Nations
General Assembly resolutions on the follow-up to the Advisory Opinion of the International Court
of Justice of 8 July 1996, which have been adopted every year since December 1996. These
resolutions called for immediate commencement of multilateral negotiations to fulfil the

obligations underlined by the Court. The United Kingdom does not deny this consistent pattern of
conduct vis-à-vis the fulfilment of the obligation underlined in the Advisory Opinion and the
United Nations General Assembly’s attempts to implement it, but it claims that various political
and legal factors account for its position on these resolutions (see response dated 23 March 2016 of
the United Kingdom to the questions by Judge Cançado Trindade, para. 2).

52. It is true that it is not always easy to infer from votes cast in the United Nations
General Assembly the existence of a dispute on matters covered by the resolution. However, such
votes are not devoid of evidentiary value, particularly where there is a consistent pattern of voting
against a series of resolutions which call for the same type of action, in this case the immediate

commencement of negotiations and conclusion of a general convention on nuclear disarmament, or
where statements of explanation of vote were made by the party voting against the resolutions.

53. The Republic of the Marshall Islands provides several examples of explanation of vote

made by the United Kingdom in conjunction with the casting of a negative vote on resolutions
adopted by the United Nations General Assembly on commencement of immediate negotiations on
nuclear disarmament or the establishment of mechanisms for such negotiations. Some of the
statements were made on behalf of the United Kingdom only, while others were made by the
United Kingdom jointly with other nuclear-weapons States (NWS) . 1

54. Some of these resolutions called for taking forward multilateral disarmament
negotiations for the achievement of a world without nuclear weapons. The United Kingdom, after
voting, for example, against one of these resolutions, stated in its explanation of vote that “we see
little value in this initiative to take forward multilateral nuclear disarmament negotiations outside
2
of the established fora” . Other resolutions called for a “high-level meeting of the
General Assembly on nuclear disarmament”. Again, the United Kingdom voted against them and
stated in explanation of its negative vote that: “we question the value of holding a high-level
meeting of the General Assembly on nuclear disarmament when there are already sufficient venues
for such discussion” .

55. The statements on which the Republic of the Marshall Islands relies as evidence of the
United Kingdom’s opposition to the immediate commencement and conclusion of negotiations on
nuclear disarmament also include statements made in the British House of Lords, or by the

1
The resolutions cited included resolution 68/32 of 5 December 2013, resolution 68/46 of 5 December 2013,
resolution 67/56 of 3 December 2012, and resolution 67/39 of 3 December 2012 (see CR 2016/9, pp. 13-14, para. 11
(van den Biesen)).
See resolution 67/56 and the explanation of vote by the United Kingdom of 6 November 2012 (A/C.1/67/PV.21). - 12 -

United Kingdom Prime Minister, in which the officials concerned explain the objections of their

Government to such comprehensive negotiations and advocate a step-by-step approach to
denuclearization.

56. For example, in a debate in the House of Lords, the Senior Minister of State for the
Foreign and Commonwealth Office stated on 15 July 2013:

“The UK voted against the Resolution in the United Nations General Assembly
First Committee that proposed the Open Ended Working Group (OEWG), has not
attended past meetings of the OEWG, and does not intend to attend coming
meetings. . . . The Government considers that a practical step by step approach is
needed, using existing mechanisms such as the Non Proliferation Treaty and the

Conference on Disarmament.”

57. Also, the Republic of the Marshall Islands refers to a statement of the United Kingdom
Prime Minister David Cameron in August 2011, in which he declared, inter alia, that: “He did not
agree that ‘negotiations now on a nuclear weapons convention should be the immediate means of
getting us to a world free of nuclear weapons’.” However, he acknowledged that such a convention

“could ultimately form the legal underpinning for this endpoint”, but the prospects of reaching
agreement on a convention “are remote at the moment” (MMI, para. 89).

58. The United Kingdom responded to the allegations made by the RMI by declaring that:

“the MI at no stage, ever, at any time in the past raised with the UK its concerns, or

allegations or claims, notwithstanding this apparent apprehension of long-term bad
faith conduct by the UK. This goes to the UK’s objection to jurisdiction . . . to the
effect that there is no justiciable dispute between the MI and the UK.” (POUK,
para. 20.)

59. The statement made by the Republic of the Marshall Islands at the Nayarit conference, as
well as its other statements calling on nuclear powers, including the United Kingdom, to fulfil their
obligation under Article VI of the Non-Proliferation Treaty, may be considered as a protest meant
to contest the attitude of the United Kingdom towards the immediate commencement of
negotiations on a comprehensive convention for the elimination of nuclear weapons. For the
Marshall Islands this attitude is evidenced by the course of conduct of the United Kingdom relating

to the obligation to pursue and conclude such negotiations, evidenced by its voting record at the
United Nations General Assembly, its statements in explanation of such votes, as well as
statements made by United Kingdom leaders in parliamentary or diplomatic forums.

60. Thus, the Nayarit statement by the Republic of the Marshall Islands, taken together with

the statements made by the United Kingdom with regard to the calls by the United Nations
General Assembly for the immediate commencement of nuclear disarmament negotiations appear,
in my view, to have given rise to an incipient dispute prior to the submission of the Application by
the Republic of the Marshall Islands. The prior existence of the beginning of a dispute relating to
the interpretation and application of Article VI of the Non-Proliferation Treaty, evidenced by the
opposed positions of the Parties on negotiations on nuclear disarmament and their timely

3See resolution 67/39, and the explanation of vote by the United Kingdom of 7 November 2012
(A/C.1/67/PV.22). - 13 -

conclusion, distinguishes this case from the two other cases of Marshall Islands v. India and

Marshall Islands v. Pakistan. This nascent dispute has fully crystallized during the proceedings
before the Court where the Parties continued to manifest positively opposed views on the
subject-matter of the dispute as defined in paragraph 46 above.

(Signed) Abdulqawi A. Y USUF .

___________

Bilingual Content

861
32
DISSENTING OPINION
OF VICE-PRESIDENT
YUSUF
Judgment fails to distinguish three cases brought by the Marshall Islands —
Different facts and arguments relevant to each case — Existence of a dispute —
Matter for objective determination — Positively opposed juridical views
required — Subjective criterion of “awareness” not a condition — “Awareness”
has no basis in jurisprudence of Court — It also undermines sound administration
of justice — Incipient dispute must exist prior to application to the Court —
Dispute can crystallize during proceedings — Subject‑matter of a dispute must be
defined — At issue is the United Kingdom’s compliance with its obligation under
Article VI of the Nuclear Non‑Proliferation Treaty — Evidence shows nascent
dispute prior to application.
I. Introduction
1. I find myself unable to subscribe to the decision of the Court which
upholds the first preliminary objection of the United Kingdom based on
the absence of a dispute. The reasons for my dissent are succinctly set
forth in the following paragraphs.
2. First, the Judgment fails to distinguish the objections raised by the
United Kingdom, and its arguments regarding the inexistence of a dispute
with the Republic of the Marshall Islands, from those in the two
other cases of the Marshall Islands v. India and Marshall Islands v. Pakistan.
The issues of fact and law underlying the objections raised were
quite different in the three cases. But the Judgments treat the three cases
as though they were almost identical and argued in the same manner by
the respondent States. I will discuss in this opinion the distinctive features
and the facts underlying the Marshall Islands v. United Kingdom case and
the preliminary objections submitted by the United Kingdom.
3. Secondly, I disagree with the introduction by the majority of the
subjective criterion of “awareness” in the determination of the existence
or inexistence of a dispute. This is a clear — and undesirable — departure
from the consistent jurisprudence of the Court on this matter.
4. Thirdly, it is difficult in my view to determine the existence or inexistence
of a dispute without specifying its subject‑matter. The Judgment
does not clearly identify or circumscribe the subject‑matter of the dispute
which is claimed to exist between the Parties.
861
32
OPINION DISSIDENTE DE M. LE JUGE YUSUF,
VICE‑PRÉSIDENT
[Traduction]
Absence de distinction dans l’arrêt entre les trois affaires portées devant la Cour
par les Iles Marshall — Faits et arguments pertinents étant différents dans chaque
affaire — Existence d’un différend — Question devant être tranchée objectivement —
Nécessité de thèses juridiques manifestement opposées — Critère subjectif de la
« connaissance » n’étant pas une condition — Critère de la « connaissance » étant
sans fondement dans la jurisprudence de la Cour — Critère par ailleurs préjudiciable
à la bonne administration de la justice — Début de différend devant exister avant le
dépôt d’une requête — Différend pouvant se cristalliser en cours d’instance —
Nécessité de définir l’objet d’un différend — Mise en cause, en l’espèce, du respect
par le Royaume‑Uni de l’obligation lui incombant au titre de l’article VI du traité
de non‑prolifération nucléaire — Eléments de preuve démontrant l’existence d’un
début de différend avant le dépôt de la requête.
I. Introduction
1. Je me vois dans l’impossibilité de souscrire à la décision de la Cour
consistant à retenir la première exception préliminaire du Royaume‑Uni
fondée sur l’absence de différend. J’exposerai succinctement les raisons de
mon désaccord dans les paragraphes suivants.
2. Premièrement, l’arrêt n’établit pas de distinction entre les exceptions
soulevées par le Royaume‑Uni et les arguments avancés par lui quant à
l’absence de différend avec la République des Iles Marshall, et ceux qui
l’ont été dans les deux autres affaires opposant cette dernière à l’Inde,
d’une part, et au Pakistan, d’autre part. Les questions de fait et de droit
sous‑jacentes aux exceptions soulevées étaient fort différentes dans les
trois affaires. Or la majorité les a traitées comme si elles étaient presque
identiques et comme si les Etats défendeurs avaient formulé les mêmes
arguments dans les trois cas. Dans la présente opinion, j’examinerai les
caractéristiques distinctives de l’affaire opposant les Iles Marshall au
Royaume‑Uni et les faits qui la sous‑tendent, ainsi que les exceptions préliminaires
présentées par le Royaume‑Uni.
3. Deuxièmement, je suis en désaccord avec l’introduction par la majorité
d’un critère subjectif de la « connaissance » aux fins d’apprécier l’existence
d’un différend. En cela, le présent arrêt s’écarte nettement de la jurisprudence
constante de la Cour sur cette question, ce qui n’est pas souhaitable.
4. Troisièmement, il est difficile, à mon sens, d’apprécier l’existence
d’un différend sans en préciser l’objet. Or l’arrêt ne définit ni ne circonscrit
clairement l’objet du différend qui, selon le demandeur, opposait les
Parties.
862 nuclear arms and disarmament (diss. op. yusuf)
33
5. Finally, I am of the view that an incipient dispute existed between
the Marshall Islands and the United Kingdom prior to the submission of
the Application by the former, and that this dispute further crystallized
during the proceedings before the Court. The evidence on which this conclusion
is based is examined in Section VI below.
II. The Distinctive Features of the Marshall Islands v.
United Kingdom Case with regard
to the Existence of a Dispute
6. The first distinctive feature of this case, as compared to the other
two cases submitted by the Marshall Islands against India and Pakistan
respectively, which deserves to be noted is that both the Marshall Islands
and the United Kingdom are parties to the Treaty on the Non‑Proliferation
of Nuclear Weapons (NPT), the former having acceded to it in 1995,
while the latter ratified it in 1968. The proceedings instituted by the Marshall
Islands against the United Kingdom are about the interpretation
and application of this Treaty, and in particular Article VI thereof.
7. Article VI reads as follows:
“Each of the Parties to the Treaty undertakes to pursue negotiations
in good faith on effective measures relating to cessation of the
nuclear arms race at an early date and to nuclear disarmament, and
on a treaty on general and complete disarmament under strict and
effective international control.”
8. The Marshall Islands contends that the United Kingdom failed to
pursue nuclear disarmament negotiations in good faith, and has consequently
violated its obligations under Article VI of the Treaty on the
Non-Proliferation
of Nuclear Weapons. It affirms that it made its views
known to the United Kingdom through, among others, its statement at
the Second Conference on the Humanitarian Impact of Nuclear Weapons
held in Nayarit, Mexico, on 13 February 2014. At this conference, it
expressed its belief that States possessing nuclear arsenals are failing to
fulfil their legal obligations regarding nuclear disarmament negotiations,
and declared that the “immediate commencement and conclusion of such
negotiations is required by legal obligation of nuclear disarmament resting
upon each and every State under Article VI of the Non‑Proliferation
Treaty and customary international law” (Memorial of the Marshall
Islands (MMI), para. 99). The Marshall Islands requests the Court to
order the United Kingdom to take all steps necessary to comply with
those obligations, including through “the pursuit, by initiation, if necessary,
of negotiations in good faith aimed at the conclusion of a convention
on nuclear disarmament in all its aspects under strict and effective
international control” (MMI, para. 240).
armes nucléaires et désarmement (op. diss. yusuf) 862
33
5. Enfin, je suis d’avis qu’il existait un début de différend entre la
République des Iles Marshall et le Royaume‑Uni avant le dépôt de la
requête, et que ce différend s’est cristallisé davantage durant l’instance.
Les éléments de preuve sur lesquels repose cette conclusion sont examinés
dans la section VI ci‑dessous.
II. Les caractéristiques distinctives de l’affaire Îles Marshall
c. Royaume‑Uni en ce qui concerne la question de l’existence
d’un différend
6. La première caractéristique notable de la présente espèce, par rapport
aux deux autres affaires qu’a introduites la République des
Iles Marshall contre l’Inde et le Pakistan, est que le demandeur et le
défendeur sont tous deux parties au traité de non‑prolifération des armes
nucléaires (ci‑après le « TNP »), le premier y ayant adhéré en 1995, le
second l’ayant ratifié en 1968. L’instance introduite par la République des
Iles Marshall contre le Royaume‑Uni avait trait à l’interprétation et à
l’application de ce traité, et notamment de son article VI.
7. L’article VI du TNP est ainsi libellé :
« Chacune des Parties au Traité s’engage à poursuivre de bonne foi
des négociations sur des mesures efficaces relatives à la cessation de
la course aux armements nucléaires à une date rapprochée et au
désarmement nucléaire, et sur un traité de désarmement général et
complet sous un contrôle international strict et efficace. »
8. La République des Iles Marshall soutenait que le Royaume‑Uni
n’avait pas poursuivi de bonne foi des négociations sur le désarmement
nucléaire et avait par conséquent manqué aux obligations qui lui
incombent au titre de l’article VI du TNP. Elle affirmait avoir fait
connaître ses vues au défendeur, notamment par sa déclaration faite le
13 février 2014, lors de la deuxième conférence sur l’impact humanitaire
des armes nucléaires qui s’est tenue à Nayarit, au Mexique. A cette occasion,
elle avait indiqué que, selon elle, les Etats possédant un arsenal
nucléaire ne respectaient pas leurs obligations juridiques en ce qui
concerne les négociations sur le désarmement nucléaire, et déclaré que
« [l]’obligation d’oeuvrer au désarmement nucléaire qui incombe à chaque
Etat en vertu de l’article VI du traité de non‑prolifération nucléaire et du
droit international coutumier impos[ait] l’ouverture immédiate et l’aboutissement
de telles négociations » (mémoire des Iles Marshall (ci-
après,
« MIM »), par. 99). La République des Iles Marshall priait la Cour
de prescrire au Royaume‑Uni de prendre toutes les mesures nécessaires
pour se conformer à ces obligations, notamment « celle de mener des
négociations de bonne foi, si nécessaire en engageant celles‑ci, en vue de
conclure une convention relative à un désarmement nucléaire dans tous
ses aspects effectué sous un contrôle international strict et efficace »
(MIM, par. 240).
863 nuclear arms and disarmament (diss. op. yusuf)
34
9. Other distinguishing features relate to the main arguments put forward
by the United Kingdom in its preliminary objections to claim the
inexistence of a dispute between the Parties. In the first place, the
United Kingdom contended that:
“on the date of the filing of the Marshall Islands’ Application, there
was no justiciable dispute between the United Kingdom and Marshall
Islands in relation to the United Kingdom’s obligations, whether arising
under the NPT or under customary international law, to pursue
negotiations in good faith on effective measures of nuclear disarmament”
(Preliminary Objections of the United Kingdom (POUK),
para. 26).
Secondly, the United Kingdom asserted that “no legal dispute can be said
to exist where the State submitting the dispute has given no notice thereof
to the other State” (POUK, para. 27).
10. These arguments are clearly distinguishable from those advanced
by India and Pakistan in the two other cases under consideration by the
Court with respect to the Applications by the Marshall Islands. The issues
of fact and law relating to the existence of the dispute are also different,
but I will deal with those below in paragraphs 48 to 60. Two elements of
the first argument deserve to be highlighted here: the use of the old concept
of “justiciable dispute”, and the requirement that the dispute must
have existed on the date of the filing of the Application by the Marshall
Islands. The Judgment addresses the second element, which I will also
deal with in paragraphs 33 to 41 below, but is totally silent on the unusual
use by the United Kingdom of the old and controversial concept of “justiciable
dispute”, which had some currency in international law literature
in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century.
11. At that time, “non-justiciable”
disputes were used to denote either
political disputes, as opposed to legal ones, or disputes generally unsuitable
for juridical settlement either because adjudication would not provide
a genuine settlement or because the dispute was not about the
interpretation or application of existing international law. The
United Kingdom has not explained, during the proceedings before the
Court, why it had decided to unearth this legal relic for the specific purposes
of this case, but it might be reasonable to assume that this has
much to do with the subject‑matter of the Application by the Marshall
Islands, namely the obligation contained in the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation
of Nuclear Weapons to pursue negotiations on nuclear
disarmament.
12. Interestingly, it might be recalled that the Institute of International
Law, at its meeting in Grenoble in 1922, adopted the following resolution:
“1. All disputes, whatever their origin and character, are, as a general
rule, and subject to the following reservations, susceptible to judicial
settlement or arbitral decision.
armes nucléaires et désarmement (op. diss. yusuf) 863
34
9. Les autres caractéristiques distinctives de la présente affaire
concernent les principaux arguments avancés par le Royaume‑Uni dans
l’exposé de ses exceptions préliminaires pour arguer de l’inexistence d’un
différend entre les Parties. Le défendeur a tout d’abord soutenu que,
« à la date du dépôt de la requête des Iles Marshall, il n’existait, entre
les deux Etats, aucun différend susceptible de faire l’objet d’un règlement
judiciaire concernant ses obligations de poursuivre de bonne
foi des négociations sur des mesures efficaces relatives au désarmement
nucléaire, que lesdites obligations lui incombent au regard du
TNP ou du droit international coutumier » (exceptions préliminaires
du Royaume‑Uni (ci‑après, « EPRU »), par. 26).
Il a ensuite affirmé que « l’on ne saurait conclure à l’existence d’un différend
juridique si l’Etat qui soumet ce différend à la Cour n’en a pas
informé l’autre Etat » (EPRU, par. 27).
10. Ces arguments se distinguent clairement de ceux qui ont été avancés
par l’Inde et le Pakistan dans les deux autres affaires dont la Cour a eu à
connaître par suite des requêtes déposées par la République des Iles Marshall.
Les questions de fait et de droit relatives à l’existence du différend sont elles
aussi différentes, mais j’aborderai ce sujet aux paragraphes 48 à 60 ci‑après.
Deux aspects du premier argument méritent d’être examinés ici : le recours à
la notion ancienne de « différend susceptible de faire l’objet d’un règlement
judiciaire » et l’exigence que le différend ait existé à la date du dépôt de la
requête par la République des Iles Marshall. L’arrêt traite du second
— point sur lequel je reviendrai aux paragraphes 33 à 41 ci‑après —, mais
passe totalement sous silence la manière inhabituelle dont le Royaume‑Uni
a employé la notion ancienne et controversée de « différend susceptible de
faire l’objet d’un règlement judiciaire », qui a connu un certain succès dans
la doctrine du droit international à la fin du XIXe siècle et au début du XXe.
11. Etaient à l’époque considérés comme étant « non susceptibles de
faire l’objet d’un règlement judiciaire » les différends d’ordre politique, par
opposition à ceux d’ordre juridique, ou bien les différends non susceptibles
de règlement judiciaire de façon générale, soit parce qu’un jugement n’aurait
pas apporté de véritable règlement, soit parce que le différend en cause
ne concernait pas l’interprétation ou l’application du droit international
existant. Bien que le Royaume‑Uni n’ait pas expliqué devant la Cour
pourquoi il avait décidé d’exhumer cette relique juridique précisément aux
fins de la présente affaire, il est raisonnablement permis de penser que cela
est étroitement lié à l’objet de la requête de la République des Iles Marshall,
à savoir l’obligation de mener des négociations sur le désarmement
nucléaire contenue dans le traité de non‑prolifération des armes nucléaires.
12. A cet égard, il est intéressant de rappeler que l’Institut de droit
international, lors de la session qu’il a tenue à Grenoble en 1922, a adopté
la résolution suivante :
« 1. Tous les conflits, quels qu’en soient l’origine et le caractère, sont
en règle générale, et sous les réserves indiquées ci‑après, susceptibles
d’un règlement judiciaire ou d’une solution arbitrale.
864 nuclear arms and disarmament (diss. op. yusuf)
35
2. At the same time, when in the opinion of the defendant State, the
dispute is not susceptible of being settled judicially, the preliminary
question, whether it is or is not justiciable, is to be submitted
to the Permanent Court of international Justice, which will decide
in accordance with its ordinary procedure.”
13. If it was the intention of the respondent State in this case to signal
to the Court that the dispute submitted to it by the applicant was not
susceptible of being settled judicially, that signal went undetected by the
Court, which has not at all taken up the issue of “non-justiciable”
disputes
in its analysis of the preliminary objection of the United Kingdom.
It is indeed a pity that the Court missed the opportunity to say something
about the use of this concept in proceedings before it in the twenty‑first
century. It could have at least referred in this context to its Statute, and
in particular to Article 36, paragraph 2, which contains a list of categories
of legal disputes in respect of which the Court may exercise its jurisdiction.
14. The other distinctive argument presented by the United Kingdom
on the inexistence of a dispute with the Marshall Islands is the absence of
notice by the latter to the United Kingdom authorities prior to the institution
of judicial proceedings. Such notice is, in the view of the
United Kingdom, a condition of the existence of a legal dispute over
which the Court may exercise its jurisdiction. The Judgment of the Court
correctly notes that “the Court has rejected the view that notice or prior
negotiations are required where it has been seised on the basis of declarations
made pursuant to Article 36, paragraph 2, of the Statute, unless one
of those declarations so provides” (Judgment, para. 45).
With regard to Article 43 of the International Law Commission’s Articles
on the Responsibility of States for Internationally Wrongful Acts
(ARSIWA), the Judgment refers to the commentary on Article 44, paragraph
1, which specifies that the Articles “are not concerned with questions
of the jurisdiction of international courts and tribunals, or in general
with the conditions for the admissibility of cases brought before such
courts or tribunals” (ibid.).
15. Having rejected the requirement of notice for the existence of a
dispute, the Judgment unfortunately raises “awareness” to a precondition
for the existence of a dispute. This clearly contradicts the jurisprudence of
the Court on the concept of a dispute and the objective determination of
its existence by the Court.
III. The Concept of a Dispute
and the New “Awareness” Test
16. The jurisdiction of the Court is to be exercised in contentious cases
only in respect of legal disputes submitted to it by States. This case was
armes nucléaires et désarmement (op. diss. yusuf) 864
35
2. Toutefois, lorsque, de l’avis de l’Etat cité en justice, le conflit n’est
pas susceptible d’être réglé par la voie judiciaire, la question préalable
de savoir s’il est justiciable est soumise à l’examen de la
Cour permanente de Justice internationale, qui en décide suivant
sa procédure ordinaire. »
13. Si l’intention du défendeur en la présente affaire était de signaler à
la Cour que le différend qui lui avait été soumis par le demandeur n’était
pas susceptible d’être réglé par la voie judiciaire, cela est passé totalement
inaperçu, puisque la Cour n’a pas du tout abordé la question des différends
« non susceptibles de faire l’objet d’un règlement judiciaire » dans
son analyse de l’exception préliminaire du Royaume‑Uni. De fait, il est
regrettable qu’elle n’ait pas saisi cette occasion pour se prononcer sur l’emploi
de cette notion dans les affaires portées devant elle au XXIe siècle. Sur
ce point, elle aurait au moins pu se référer à son Statut, et en particulier au
paragraphe 2 de l’article 36, qui énumère les catégories de différends
d’ordre juridique à l’égard desquels la Cour peut exercer sa juridiction.
14. L’autre argument distinctif avancé par le Royaume‑Uni pour
démontrer qu’aucun différend ne l’opposait à la République des
Iles Marshall est le fait que cette dernière ne lui ait pas notifié le différend
allégué avant l’introduction de l’instance. Pareille notification est en effet,
selon le défendeur, une condition à l’existence d’un différend d’ordre juridique
à l’égard duquel la Cour pourrait exercer sa juridiction. Dans son
arrêt, la Cour fait à juste titre observer qu’« [elle] a rejeté l’idée selon
laquelle une notification ou des négociations préalables seraient requises
lorsqu’elle a été saisie sur la base de déclarations faites en vertu du paragraphe
2 de l’article 36 du Statut, à moins que cela ne soit prévu dans
l’une de ces déclarations » (arrêt, par. 45).
En ce qui concerne l’article 43 des Articles de la Commission du droit
international sur la responsabilité de l’Etat pour fait internationalement
illicite, il est fait référence dans l’arrêt au paragraphe 1 du commentaire
relatif à l’article 44, qui précise que lesdits articles « ne traitent pas des
questions de compétence des cours et tribunaux internationaux, ni en
général des conditions de recevabilité des instances introduites devant
eux » (ibid.).
15. Après avoir rejeté l’exigence de notification, l’arrêt pose malheureusement
la « connaissance » comme condition préalable à l’existence
d’un différend. Cela va clairement à l’encontre de la jurisprudence de la
Cour relative à la notion de différend et à la nécessité que l’existence d’un
différend soit établie objectivement par la Cour.
III. La notion de différend et le nouveau critère
de la « connaissance »
16. Dans les affaires contentieuses, la Cour ne peut exercer sa compétence
qu’à l’égard de différends d’ordre juridique que lui soumettent les
865 nuclear arms and disarmament (diss. op. yusuf)
36
submitted to the Court on the basis of Article 36, paragraph 2, of the
Statute. This provision does not define what is meant by a “legal dispute”;
it therefore falls to the Court not only to define it, but also to
determine its existence or inexistence in a case such as this one before
proceeding to the merits.
17. The jurisprudence of the Court is replete with such definitions. The
first one, which is still frequently cited by the Court, was in the Mavrommatis
Palestine Concessions case, in which the Court stated that: “A dispute
is a disagreement on a point of law or fact, a conflict of legal views
or of interests between two persons.” (Mavrommatis Palestine Concessions,
Judgment No. 2, 1924, P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 2, p. 11.) It has since
then, however, been further elaborated and enriched by subsequent jurisprudence.
18. The Court has clearly established in its jurisprudence that:
“[w]hether there exists an international dispute is a matter for objective
determination” (Interpretation of Peace Treaties with Bulgaria, Hungary
and Romania, First Phase, Advisory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports 1950, p. 74).
It has also observed, in elaborating further on the definition given by the
PCIJ in the Mavrommatis case, that:
“A mere assertion is not sufficient to prove the existence of a dispute
any more than a mere denial of the existence of the dispute proves its
non‑existence. Nor is it adequate to show that the interests of the two
parties to such a case are in conflict. It must be shown that the claim
of one party is positively opposed by the other.” (South West Africa
cases (Ethiopia v. South Africa; Liberia v. South Africa), Preliminary
Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1962, p. 328.)
19. More recently, the Court stated in Georgia v. Russian Federation
that: “The Court’s determination must turn on an examination of the
facts. The matter is one of substance, not of form.” (Application of the
International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination
(Georgia v. Russian Federation), Preliminary Objections,
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2011 (I), p. 84, para. 30).
20. Notwithstanding this jurisprudence of the Court, it is stated in
paragraph 41 of the Judgment that: “a dispute exists when it is demonstrated,
on the basis of the evidence, that the respondent was aware, or
could not have been unaware, that its views were ‘positively opposed’ by
the applicant”. The Judgment claims that this requirement is reflected “in
previous decisions of the Court in which the existence of a dispute was
under consideration”, and invokes as authority for this statement two
judgments, namely the Judgments on preliminary objections in the cases
of Alleged Violations of Sovereign Rights and Maritime Spaces in the
Caribbean Sea (Nicaragua v. Colombia) and the Application of the Inter-
armes nucléaires et désarmement (op. diss. yusuf) 865
36
Etats. La présente instance a été introduite devant la Cour sur le fondement
du paragraphe 2 de l’article 36 du Statut. Or cette disposition ne
définit pas ce qu’il faut entendre par « différend d’ordre juridique » ; il
revenait par conséquent à la Cour non seulement de définir cette notion,
mais également d’établir l’éventuelle existence de pareil différend dans
une affaire telle que la présente espèce, avant de procéder à l’examen au
fond.
17. La jurisprudence de la Cour abonde en définitions de la notion de
différend. La première, encore souvent citée par la Cour, a été donnée
dans l’affaire des Concessions Mavrommatis en Palestine, dans laquelle la
Cour permanente de Justice internationale a déclaré qu’« [u]n différend
[était] un désaccord sur un point de droit ou de fait, une contradiction,
une opposition de thèses juridiques ou d’intérêts entre deux personnes
» (Concessions Mavrommatis en Palestine, arrêt no 2, 1924, C.P.J.I.
série A no 2, p. 11). Cette définition a toutefois été développée depuis, et
enrichie par la jurisprudence ultérieure.
18. La Cour a par ailleurs clairement indiqué que « [l]’existence d’un
différend international demand[ait] à être établie objectivement » (Interprétation
des traités de paix conclus avec la Bulgarie, la Hongrie et la Roumanie,
première phase, avis consultatif, C.I.J. Recueil 1950, p. 74).
Revenant sur la définition donnée par la Cour permanente dans l’affaire
Mavrommatis, elle a en outre fait observer ceci :
« La simple affirmation ne suffit pas pour prouver l’existence d’un
différend, tout comme le simple fait que l’existence d’un différend est
contestée ne prouve pas que ce différend n’existe pas. Il n’est pas
suffisant non plus de démontrer que les intérêts des deux parties à
une telle affaire sont en conflit. Il faut démontrer que la réclamation
de l’une des parties se heurte à l’opposition manifeste de l’autre. »
(Sud‑Ouest africain (Ethiopie c. Afrique du Sud ; Libéria c. Afrique du
Sud), exceptions préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1962, p. 328.)
19. Plus récemment, dans l’affaire Géorgie c. Fédération de Russie, la
Cour a précisé que, « pour se prononcer, [elle devait] s’attacher aux faits
[et qu’i]l s’agi[ssait] d’une question de fond, et non de forme » (Application
de la convention internationale sur l’élimination de toutes les formes de discrimination
raciale (Géorgie c. Fédération de Russie), exceptions préliminaires,
arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2011 (I), p. 84, par. 30).
20. Nonobstant cette jurisprudence, au paragraphe 41 du présent arrêt,
la Cour déclare qu’« un différend existe lorsqu’il est démontré, sur la base
des éléments de preuve, que le défendeur avait connaissance, ou ne pouvait
pas ne pas avoir connaissance, de ce que ses vues se heurtaient à
l’« opposition manifeste » du demandeur ». Selon l’arrêt, cette condition
« ressort de décisions antérieures de la Cour dans lesquelles la question de
l’existence d’un différend était à l’examen ». A l’appui de cette assertion,
la Cour invoque comme précédents les deux arrêts qu’elle a rendus sur les
exceptions préliminaires soulevées dans les affaires relatives à des Violations
alléguées de droits souverains et d’espaces maritimes dans la mer des
866 nuclear arms and disarmament (diss. op. yusuf)
37
national Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination
(Georgia v. Russian Federation) (Judgment, para. 41).
21. Neither of the two referenced Judgments provides support for a
subjective requirement of “awareness” by the respondent in the determination
of the existence of a dispute. In the Alleged Violations Judgment
on preliminary objections, the Court determined that a dispute existed on
the basis of statements made by the “highest representatives of the Parties”
(Alleged Violations of Sovereign Rights and Maritime Spaces in the
Caribbean Sea (Nicaragua v. Colombia), Preliminary Objections, Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 2016 (I), pp. 32‑33, para. 73). The Court simply
stated as a matter of fact that Colombia was aware that its actions were
positively opposed by Nicaragua. “Awareness” was not identified as a
criterion for the existence of a dispute, nor was it treated as such by the
Court.
22. Similarly, in the Application of the International Convention on the
Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (Georgia v. Russian Federation),
the Court merely noted that Russia was or was not aware of the
position taken by Georgia in certain documents or statements. It did not
identify “awareness” as a requirement for the existence of a dispute at any
point in the Judgment nor was this implicit in the Court’s reasoning
(Preliminary
Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2011 (I), pp. 117‑120,
paras. 106‑113).
23. It is indeed the first time that such a subjective element has been
introduced into the assessment by the Court of the existence of a dispute.
As pointed out above, the Court’s jurisprudence has always viewed the
existence of a dispute as an objective matter. The Court has underlined
on many occasions that the determination of the existence of a dispute is
a “matter . . . of substance, not of form” (see, for example, ibid., p. 84,
para. 30). The function of the Court is to determine the existence of a
conflict of legal views on the basis of the evidence placed before it and not
to delve into the consciousness, perception and other mental processes of
States (provided they do possess such cerebral qualities) in order to find
out about their state of awareness. Moreover, I find it contradictory that
the Court should reject notice and notification as a condition of the existence
of a dispute, but then raise to a precondition of such existence the
subjective element of awareness. How is such “awareness” to be created if
not through notification or some sort of notice?
24. The introduction of an “awareness” test into the determination of
the existence of a dispute would not only go against the consistent jurisprudence
of the Court; it would also undermine judicial economy and the
sound administration of justice by inviting submissions of second applications
on the same dispute. If a subjective element or a formalistic requirement
such as “awareness” is to be demanded as a condition for the
armes nucléaires et désarmement (op. diss. yusuf) 866
37
Caraïbes (Nicaragua c. Colombie) et à l’Application de la convention internationale
sur l’élimination de toutes les formes de discrimination raciale
(Géorgie c. Fédération de Russie) (arrêt, par. 41).
21. Or aucun de ces deux arrêts n’étaye la thèse d’une condition subjective
de l’existence d’un différend qui serait la « connaissance », par le
défendeur, de l’opposition manifeste du demandeur. Dans l’arrêt qu’elle a
rendu sur les exceptions préliminaires en l’affaire relative à des Violations
alléguées, la Cour a conclu à l’existence d’un différend sur la base de
déclarations « faites par les plus hauts représentants des Parties » (Violations
alléguées de droits souverains et d’espaces maritimes dans la mer
des Caraïbes (Nicaragua c. Colombie), exceptions préliminaires, arrêt,
C.I.J. Recueil 2016 (I), p. 33, par. 73). Elle a simplement déclaré que la
Colombie avait, de fait, connaissance de l’opposition manifeste du Nicaragua
à l’égard de ses actes, sans présenter ni traiter cette « connaissance »
comme un critère régissant l’existence d’un différend.
22. De même, dans l’affaire relative à l’Application de la convention
internationale sur l’élimination de toutes les formes de discrimination raciale
(Géorgie c. Fédération de Russie), la Cour a simplement relevé que la
Russie avait ou n’avait pas « connaissance » de la position adoptée par la
Géorgie dans tels ou tels documents et déclarations. Le fait que la
« connaissance » puisse être une condition de l’existence d’un différend
n’est mentionné nulle part dans l’arrêt et n’est pas non plus implicite
dans le raisonnement de la Cour (exceptions préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J.
Recueil 2011 (I), p. 117‑120, par. 106‑113).
23. C’est, de fait, la première fois qu’une condition subjective de cette
nature est introduite dans l’appréciation par la Cour de l’existence d’un
différend. Comme je l’ai dit plus haut, et ainsi que cela ressort de sa jurisprudence,
la Cour a toujours considéré que la détermination de l’existence
d’un différend était une question objective. Elle a souligné à plusieurs
reprises qu’il s’agissait là d’« une question de fond, et non de forme »
(ibid., p. 84, par. 30). La fonction de la Cour est d’établir objectivement
l’existence d’une opposition de thèses juridiques sur la base des éléments
de preuve qui lui sont soumis, et non de sonder la conscience, la perception
et les autres processus mentaux des Etats (pour autant que ceux‑ci
possèdent pareilles qualités cérébrales) pour savoir ce dont ils ont connaissance.
Je trouve de surcroît contradictoire que la Cour rejette l’avis et la
notification comme conditions de l’existence d’un différend pour ensuite
faire de l’élément subjectif de la connaissance une condition préalable à
cette existence. Comment peut‑on faire en sorte que le défendeur ait
« connaissance » du différend si ce n’est par une notification ou une forme
quelconque d’avis ?
24. L’introduction d’un critère de la « connaissance » pour établir
l’existence d’un différend va non seulement à l’encontre de la jurisprudence
établie de la Cour, mais elle nuit également à l’économie judiciaire
et à la bonne administration de la justice, puisqu’elle incite à soumettre
une nouvelle requête portant sur le même différend. Si l’existence d’un
différend est soumise à un élément subjectif ou à une condition de forme
867 nuclear arms and disarmament (diss. op. yusuf)
38
existence of a dispute, the applicant State may be able to fulfil such a condition
at any time by instituting fresh proceedings before the Court. The
respondent State would, of course, be aware of the existence of the dispute
in the context of these new proceedings. It is to avoid exactly this kind of
situation that the Permanent Court of International Justice observed in
the Polish Upper Silesia case that: “the Court cannot allow itself to be
hampered by a mere defect of form, the removal of which depends solely
on the Party concerned” (Jurisdiction, Judgment No. 6, 1925, P.C.I.J.,
Series A, No. 6, p. 14).
25. More recently, in the Military and Paramilitary Activities in and
against Nicaragua case (Nicaragua v. United States of America), the
Court stated that: “It would make no sense to require Nicaragua now to
institute fresh proceedings based on the Treaty, which it would be fully
entitled to do.” (Jurisdiction and Admissibility, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports
1984, pp. 428‑429, para. 83.)
26. Thus, in those circumstances where an applicant State may be entitled
to bring fresh proceedings to fulfil an initially unmet formal condition,
it is not in the interests of the sound administration of justice to
compel it to do so (see, for example, Application of the Convention on the
Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Croatia v. Serbia),
Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2008, para. 87). The
introduction of a test of “awareness” constitutes an open invitation to the
applicant State to institute such proceedings before the Court, having
made the respondent State aware of its opposing views.
27. The existence of a dispute has to stand objectively by itself. What
matters is that there is a positive opposition of juridical viewpoints, a
disagreement on a point of law or fact. It is not for both parties to define
or to circumscribe the dispute before it comes to the Court, except when
drawing up a compromis. In all other instances it is the task of the Court
to do so. Nor is it a legal requirement for the existence of a dispute that
the applicant State provide prior notice or raise awareness of the respondent
before coming to the Court.
28. The positively opposed legal viewpoints may consist of a claim by
one party, which is contested or rejected by the other, or by a course of
conduct of one party which is met by the protest or resistance of another
party (see South West Africa cases (Ethiopia v. South Africa; Liberia v.
South Africa), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1962; dissenting
opinion of Judge Morelli, p. 567, para. 2). In the latter case, the
dispute may be considered to be only at an incipient stage until such time
as the State whose conduct is protested is afforded an opportunity either
to reject the protest or to accede to the protesting States’ demands and
consequently change its conduct. The institution of proceedings before
armes nucléaires et désarmement (op. diss. yusuf) 867
38
telle que la « connaissance », l’Etat demandeur pourra remplir cette
condition
à tout moment en engageant une nouvelle procédure devant la
Cour. L’Etat défendeur aura alors bien évidemment connaissance de
l’existence du différend dans le cadre de cette nouvelle procédure. C’est
précisément pour éviter ce type de situations que, dans l’affaire relative
à Certains intérêts allemands en Haute‑Silésie polonaise, la Cour permanente
de Justice internationale a fait observer qu’elle « ne pou[vait]
s’
arrêter
à un défaut de forme qu’il dépendrait de la seule Partie
intéressée
de faire disparaître » (compétence, arrêt no 6, 1925, C.P.J.I.
série A no 6, p. 14).
25. Plus récemment, dans l’affaire des Activités militaires et paramilitaires
au Nicaragua et contre celui‑ci (Nicaragua c. Etats‑Unis d’Amérique),
la Cour a fait observer qu’« [i]l n’y aurait aucun sens à
obliger maintenant le Nicaragua à entamer une nouvelle procédure
sur la base du traité — ce qu’il aurait pleinement le droit de faire »
(compétence
et recevabilité, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1984, p. 428‑429,
par. 83).
26. Ainsi, dans les cas où un Etat demandeur aurait le droit d’introduire
une nouvelle instance pour satisfaire à une condition de forme qu’il
avait manqué de remplir dans un premier temps, il n’est pas dans l’intérêt
d’une bonne administration de la justice de le contraindre à procéder de
cette manière (voir l’affaire relative à l’Application de la convention pour la
prévention et la répression du crime de génocide (Croatie c. Serbie), exceptions
préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2008, p. 442, par. 87). L’introduction
du critère de la « connaissance » constitue une invitation à l’Etat
demandeur, dont les points de vue nettement opposés seront déjà connus
de l’Etat défendeur, à engager une nouvelle instance devant la Cour.
27. La question de l’existence d’un différend doit être examinée de
manière autonome et objective. L’important est qu’il y ait une opposition
manifeste de thèses juridiques, un désaccord sur un point de droit ou de
fait. Il n’appartient pas aux parties de définir ou de circonscrire le différend
avant que celui-
ci ne soit soumis à la Cour, sauf lorsqu’il l’est par
compromis. Dans tous les autres cas, c’est à la Cour qu’il revient de le
faire. Le fait que l’Etat demandeur ait préalablement notifié un différend
au défendeur ou l’ait porté d’une autre façon à sa connaissance avant de
saisir la Cour ne constitue pas non plus une condition juridique de l’existence
de ce différend.
28. Les thèses juridiques manifestement opposées peuvent consister en
une prétention d’une partie qui se trouve contestée ou rejetée par l’autre,
ou en une ligne de conduite d’une partie qui se heurte à la protestation ou
à la résistance d’une autre partie (voir affaires du Sud‑Ouest africain
(Ethiopie c. Afrique du Sud ; Libéria c. Afrique du Sud), exceptions préliminaires,
arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1962, opinion dissidente de M. le juge
Morelli, p. 567, par. 2). Dans ce dernier cas, on peut considérer qu’il
existe seulement un début de différend jusqu’à ce que l’occasion soit donnée
à l’Etat dont le comportement est contesté soit de rejeter cette contestation,
soit d’accéder aux exigences de l’Etat protestataire et de modifier
868 nuclear arms and disarmament (diss. op. yusuf)
39
the Court may, however, result in the subsequent crystallization of the
nascent dispute if the juridical viewpoints of the parties in relation to the
subject‑matter of the dispute continue to be positively opposed (see paragraphs
39‑40 below).
29. Thus, what matters is the presence of the constitutive elements of a
legal dispute susceptible of adjudication by the Court in the form of two
conflicting legal views, or legal positions positively opposed to each other,
which are manifested by the parties with respect to the subject‑matter of
the dispute and which may be subsequently defined and argued by the
parties before the Court. It is the function of the Court, as a judicial
organ, to ascertain the existence of such conflicting legal views.
30. Nevertheless, as the Court stated in its Advisory Opinion on the
Applicability of the Obligation to Arbitrate under Section 21 of the
United Nations Headquarters Agreement of 26 June 1947:
“where one party to a treaty protests against the behaviour or a decision
of another party, and claims that such behaviour or decision
constitutes a breach of the treaty, the mere fact that the party accused
does not advance any argument to justify its conduct under international
law does not prevent the opposing attitudes of the parties from
giving rise to a dispute concerning the interpretation or application
of the treaty” (I.C.J. Reports 1988, p. 28, para. 38).
31. Similarly, the Court held previously that “the existence of a dispute
may be inferred from the failure of a State to respond to a claim in circumstances
where a response is called for” (Application of the International
Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination
(Georgia v. Russian Federation), Preliminary Objections, Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 2011 (I), p. 84, para. 30). Thus, the absence of a reaction
in the face of events, such as a protest or a complaint that call for a reaction,
may be considered to give rise to an incipient dispute.
32. In the present case, it appears from the evidence on the record,
which is examined in paragraphs 48 to 60 below, that there was the start
of a dispute between the Marshall Islands and the United Kingdom
resulting from the alleged course of conduct of the United Kingdom with
respect to the obligation under Article VI of the Non‑Proliferation Treaty
to pursue and conclude negotiations on a general treaty on nuclear
disarmament
and the Marshall Islands’ protest through statements in
multilateral forums, in particular its statement at the Nayarit conference
on 14 February 2014. This is another important feature which
distinguishes this case from the two other cases in Marshall Islands v.
India and Marshall Islands v. Pakistan.
armes nucléaires et désarmement (op. diss. yusuf) 868
39
son comportement en conséquence. L’introduction d’une instance devant
la Cour peut toutefois entraîner la cristallisation ultérieure du différend
naissant si les thèses juridiques des Parties quant à l’objet de celui‑ci
continuent d’être manifestement opposées (voir les paragraphes 39‑40
ci‑dessous).
29. Ce qui importe, c’est donc la présence des éléments constitutifs
d’un différend d’ordre juridique susceptible d’être tranché par la Cour,
sous la forme de deux thèses juridiques opposées, ou de positions juridiques
manifestement opposées l’une à l’autre, que les Parties expriment
en ce qui concerne l’objet d’un différend et qu’elles peuvent ensuite exposer
et défendre devant la Cour. C’est à celle‑ci, en tant qu’organe judiciaire,
qu’il revient de s’assurer de l’existence de pareilles thèses.
30. Toutefois, ainsi que la Cour l’a précisé dans l’avis consultatif
qu’elle a donné au sujet de l’Applicabilité de l’obligation d’arbitrage en
vertu de la section 21 de l’accord du 26 juin 1947 relatif au siège de l’Organisation
des Nations Unies,
« lorsqu’une partie à un traité proteste contre une décision ou un
comportement adoptés par une autre partie et prétend que cette décision
ou ce comportement constituent une violation de ce traité, le
simple fait que la partie accusée ne présente aucune argumentation
pour justifier sa conduite au regard du droit international n’empêche
pas que les attitudes opposées des parties fassent naître un différend
au sujet de l’interprétation ou de l’application du traité »
(C.I.J. Recueil 1988, p. 28, par. 38).
31. De même, la Cour a eu l’occasion de préciser que « l’existence d’un
différend p[ouvait] être déduite de l’absence de réaction d’un Etat à une
accusation dans des circonstances où une telle réaction s’imposait »
(Application de la convention internationale sur l’élimination de toutes les
formes de discrimination raciale (Géorgie c. Fédération de Russie), exceptions
préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2011 (I), p. 84, par. 30). Ainsi,
l’absence de réaction à un événement, tel qu’une protestation ou une
plainte appelant pareille réaction, peut être considérée comme donnant
naissance à un début de différend.
32. Dans la présente affaire, il ressort des éléments de preuve versés
au dossier, qui sont examinés aux paragraphes 48 à 60 ci‑après, qu’un
début de différend s’est fait jour entre la République des Iles Marshall et
le Royaume‑Uni par suite de la ligne de conduite suivie par ce dernier en
ce qui concerne l’obligation de poursuivre et de mener à terme des négociations
en vue de conclure un traité général relatif au désarmement
nucléaire, énoncée à l’article VI du traité de non‑prolifération, et de la
contestation de cette ligne de conduite par les Iles Marshall au moyen de
déclarations faites dans des enceintes multilatérales, notamment à la
conférence de Nayarit le 14 février 2014. Il s’agit là d’une autre caractéristique
importante distinguant la présente affaire des deux autres, qui
opposaient les Iles Marshall à l’Inde, d’une part, et au Pakistan, d’autre
part.
869 nuclear arms and disarmament (diss. op. yusuf)
40
IV. The Existence of a Dispute prior
to the Filing of an Application
33. One of the important arguments put forward by the United Kingdom
in support of its preliminary objections to jurisdiction and admissibility
was that the dispute must have existed on the date of the filing of
the Application by the Marshall Islands. The Court has recently stated in
some of its Judgments that a dispute must “in principle” exist at the time
of the Application (Alleged Violations of Sovereign Rights and Maritime
Spaces in the Caribbean Sea (Nicaragua v. Colombia), Preliminary Objections,
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2016 (I), p. 27, para. 52; Questions relating
to the Obligation to Prosecute or Extradite (Belgium v. Senegal),
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2012 (II), p. 442, para. 46; Application of the
International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination
(Georgia v. Russian Federation), Preliminary Objections,
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2011 (I), p. 84, para. 30). The term “in principle”
clearly indicates that this does not always have to be the case, and
that there are bound to be exceptions.
34. The use of the term “in principle” also suggests that it is not an
absolute precondition for the Court’s jurisdiction that a full-fledged
dispute
exist at the date of the application. Such a dispute may be in the
process of taking shape or at an incipient stage at the time the application
is submitted but may clearly manifest itself during the proceedings before
the Court. The Court’s insistence on the use of the term “in principle”
evidences its desire to avoid excessive formalism in the determination of
the existence of a dispute, which is a matter of substance, and not of
form.
35. This flexible approach regarding the date for the determination of
the existence of a dispute is borne out by the case law of the Court, in
which it has occasionally founded the existence of a dispute on opposing
statements of parties made during written and oral pleadings. For example,
in the preliminary objections phase of the Application of the Convention
on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia
and Herzegovina v. Yugoslavia), the Court noted that:
“While Yugoslavia has refrained from filing a Counter-Memorial
on the merits and has raised preliminary objections, it has nevertheless
wholly denied all of Bosnia and Herzegovina’s allegations, whether at
the stage of proceedings relating to the requests for the indication of
provisional measures, or at the stage of the present proceedings relating
to those objections.
In conformity with well-established
jurisprudence, the Court
accordingly notes that there persists
‘a situation in which the two sides hold clearly opposite views
concerning the question of the performance or non-performance
of certain treaty obligations’ [. . .]
armes nucléaires et désarmement (op. diss. yusuf) 869
40
IV. L’existence d’un différend
avant le dépôt d’une requête
33. L’un des arguments importants avancés par le Royaume‑Uni à
l’appui de ses exceptions préliminaires d’incompétence et d’irrecevabilité
était que le différend devait avoir existé à la date du dépôt de la requête
par la République des Iles Marshall. Dans certains arrêts qu’elle a récemment
rendus, la Cour a indiqué que, « [e]n principe », le différend devait
exister au moment où la requête lui était soumise (Violations alléguées de
droits souverains et d’espaces maritimes dans la mer des Caraïbes (Nicaragua
c. Colombie), exceptions préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2016 (I),
p. 27, par. 52 ; Questions concernant l’obligation de poursuivre ou d’extrader
(Belgique c. Sénégal), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2012 (II), p. 442, par. 46 ;
Application de la convention internationale sur l’élimination de toutes les
formes de discrimination raciale (Géorgie c. Fédération de Russie), exceptions
préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2011 (I), p. 84, par. 30). Il ressort
clairement de l’expression « en principe » que tel ne doit pas toujours être
le cas et qu’il existe nécessairement des exceptions.
34. L’emploi de l’expression « en principe » suggère également que
l’existence d’un différend pleinement développé à la date du dépôt de la
requête n’est pas un prérequis absolu à la compétence de la Cour. Un
différend peut être en cours de formation ou n’être que naissant à cette
date, mais se manifester clairement au cours de l’instance introduite devant
la Cour. Le fait que celle‑ci insiste sur l’emploi de l’expression « en principe
» démontre qu’elle souhaite éviter tout formalisme excessif en ce qui
concerne la détermination de l’existence d’un différend, qui est une question
de fond et non de forme.
35. Cette souplesse quant à la date à laquelle il convient d’apprécier
l’existence d’un différend est étayée par la jurisprudence de la Cour, qui
s’est parfois appuyée à ce sujet sur des déclarations antagonistes faites par
les parties dans leurs exposés écrits ou oraux. Ainsi, dans la phase des
exceptions préliminaires en l’affaire relative à l’Application de la convention
pour la prévention et la répression du crime de génocide (Bosnie‑Herzégovine
c. Yougoslavie), la Cour a relevé que,
« [s]i la Yougoslavie s’[était] abstenue de déposer un contre‑mémoire
au fond et a[vait] soulevé des exceptions préliminaires, elle n’en
a[vait] pas moins globalement rejeté toutes les allégations de la
Bosnie‑Herzégovine,
que ce soit au stade des procédures afférentes
aux demandes en indication de mesures conservatoires, ou au stade de
la présente procédure relative auxdites exceptions.
Conformément à une jurisprudence bien établie, la Cour constate
en conséquence qu’il persiste
« une situation dans laquelle les points de vue des deux parties,
quant à l’exécution ou à la non‑exécution de certaines obligations
découlant d[’un traité], sont nettement opposés »…
870 nuclear arms and disarmament (diss. op. yusuf)
41
and that, by reason of the rejection by Yugoslavia of the complaints
formulated against it by Bosnia and Herzegovina, ‘there is a legal dispute’
between them.” (Application of the Convention on the Prevention
and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v.
Yugoslavia), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports
1996 (II), pp. 614‑615, paras. 28‑29; emphasis added, citation omitted.)
36. The Court in the above-mentioned
case did not examine any evidence
that demonstrated that the parties held positively opposed views
prior to the date of application; it solely relied on the views expressed in
written and oral proceedings before it.
37. A slightly different situation arose in the Aerial Incident at Lockerbie
cases. In those cases, the Court established the existence of several
disputes between the parties. The main dispute concerned the question of
whether the destruction of the plane over Lockerbie was governed by the
Montreal Convention. This dispute was evidenced by the assertion of the
relevance of the Montreal Convention by Libya and the subsequent rejection
of its applicability by the United Kingdom and the United States
prior to the submission of the Application to the Court. More interesting
for our purposes is that the Court determined that more specific disputes
existed between the parties regarding the interpretation of Articles 7 and
11 of the Montreal Convention, which were evidenced by the parties’
opposing positions advanced in written and oral pleadings (Questions of
Interpretation and Application of the 1971 Montreal Convention arising
from the Aerial Incident at Lockerbie (Libyan Arab Jamahiriya v. United
States of America), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports
1998, paras. 28, 32; Questions of Interpretation and Application of the 1971
Montreal Convention arising from the Aerial Incident at Lockerbie (Libyan
Arab Jamahiriya v. United Kingdom), Preliminary Objections, Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 1998, paras. 29, 33). These disputes, according to the
Court, fell within the compromissory clause of the Montreal Convention
and were therefore subject to the jurisdiction of the Court.
38. More recently, the Court founded its holding in Certain Property
on the ground that the parties’ expressed positively opposed views in
written
and oral proceedings. In the paragraph in which the Court determined
the existence of a dispute, it mentioned only the positions that the
parties adopted in pleadings, concluding that “[t]he Court thus finds that
in the present proceedings complaints of fact and law formulated by
Liechtenstein against Germany are denied by the latter”, and hence that
a dispute existed (Certain Property (Liechtenstein v. Germany), Preliminary
Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2005, p. 19, para. 25). Later in
that paragraph, the Court went on to note that this conclusion was supported
by the positions taken by parties in the course of bilateral negotiations
and by letters exchanged by the parties prior to the submission of
the Application.
armes nucléaires et désarmement (op. diss. yusuf) 870
41
et que, du fait du rejet, par la Yougoslavie, des griefs formulés à son
encontre par la Bosnie‑Herzégovine, « il existe un différend d’ordre
juridique » entre elles. » (Exceptions préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J.
Recueil 1996 (II), p. 614‑615, par. 28‑29 ; les italiques sont de moi,
référence omise.)
36. Dans l’affaire susmentionnée, la Cour n’a examiné aucun élément
de preuve démontrant que les parties avaient des vues manifestement
opposées avant la date du dépôt de la requête ; elle s’est uniquement
appuyée sur les vues exprimées au cours de la procédure écrite et orale qui
s’est déroulée devant elle.
37. La situation était quelque peu différente dans les affaires relatives à
l’Incident aérien de Lockerbie, dans lesquelles la Cour a établi qu’il existait
plusieurs différends entre les parties. Le principal avait trait à la question
de savoir si la destruction de l’avion au‑dessus de Lockerbie était régie
par la convention de Montréal. L’existence de ce différend était attestée
par le fait que, avant le dépôt de la requête, la Libye avait soutenu que
ladite convention s’appliquait, tandis que le Royaume‑Uni et les
Etats‑Unis avaient rejeté cette thèse. Chose plus importante aux fins du
présent examen, la Cour a établi que des différends plus spécifiques existaient
en ce qui concerne l’interprétation des articles 7 et 11 de la convention
de Montréal, ce qu’attestaient les positions opposées exprimées par
les parties dans le cadre de la procédure écrite et orale (Questions d’interprétation
et d’application de la convention de Montréal de 1971 résultant de
l’incident aérien de Lockerbie (Jamahiriya arabe libyenne c. Etats‑Unis
d’Amérique), exceptions préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1998, par. 28
et 32 ; Questions d’interprétation et d’application de la convention de
Montréal
de 1971 résultant de l’incident aérien de Lockerbie (Jamahiriya
arabe libyenne c. Royaume‑Uni), exceptions préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J.
Recueil 1998, par. 29 et 33). La Cour a considéré que ces différends relevaient
de la clause compromissoire de la convention de Montréal et, partant,
de sa juridiction.
38. Plus récemment, la Cour a fondé sa conclusion quant à l’existence
d’un différend en l’affaire relative à Certains biens sur le fait que les parties
avaient exprimé des vues manifestement opposées dans le cadre des
procédures écrite et orale. Dans le paragraphe dans lequel elle a établi
qu’un différend existait, elle a uniquement mentionné les positions exposées
par les parties dans leurs écritures et plaidoiries, concluant « en
conséquence que, dans [cette] instance, les griefs formulés en fait et en
droit par le Liechtenstein contre l’Allemagne [étaient] rejetés par cette
dernière », et que, partant, il existait un différend (Certains
biens (Liechtenstein c. Allemagne), exceptions préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J.
Recueil 2005, p. 19, par. 25). Dans ce même paragraphe, la Cour a ensuite
relevé que cette conclusion était étayée par les positions adoptées par les
parties dans le cadre de négociations bilatérales ainsi que par des lettres
échangées par elles avant le dépôt de la requête.
871 nuclear arms and disarmament (diss. op. yusuf)
42
39. Although these Judgments lend some support to the idea that a
dispute can be evidenced by positions taken by the parties in the course
of proceedings subsequent to the filing of an application, they do not
overturn the basic position taken by the Court in previous cases that a
dispute cannot solely arise from the institution of proceedings before the
Court. There must be, as a minimum, the start or the onset of a dispute
prior to the filing of an application, the continuation or crystallization of
which may become more evident in the course of the proceedings. However,
the seisin of the Court cannot by itself bring into being a dispute
between the parties.
40. In other words, although the beginning of a dispute must have
existed prior to the filing of the application (Northern Cameroons (Cameroon
v. United Kingdom), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports
1963, separate opinion of Sir Gerald Fitzmaurice, p. 109) the decisive factor
is that the positively opposed viewpoints have continued to be evidenced
by the position of the parties during the post‑application period when the
Court takes cognizance of the positions of the parties (see Nuclear Tests
(New Zealand v. France), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1974, p. 476, para. 58;
Nuclear Tests (Australia v. France), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1974,
pp. 270‑271, para. 55)). Thus, there is a continuum between the pre‑application
and post‑application state of the dispute in the sense that while it
must have its beginning prior to the application, its persistence must be
confirmed by the Court during the judicial proceedings.
41. The relevance of this to the present case is that it appears from the
evidence placed before the Court, as discussed in paragraphs 48 to 60
below, that there was an incipient dispute arising from the alleged course
of conduct of the Respondent in relation to the obligation, under Article
VI of the Non-Proliferation
Treaty, to pursue negotiations and conclude
a general treaty on nuclear disarmament that was met by a protest
of the Applicant prior to the filing of its Application, particularly through
its statement at the Nayarit conference. This nascent opposition of legal
viewpoints in relation to the Non-Proliferation
Treaty further manifested
itself during the proceedings as the Parties expressed positively opposed
positions in relation to the interpretation and application of Article VI of
the Non-Proliferation
Treaty obligations, and the obligation to pursue
and conclude negotiations on nuclear disarmament.
V. The Subject-Matter
of the Dispute
42. It is for the Court itself to determine on an objective basis the
subject‑matter
of the dispute between the parties, that is, to “isolate the
real issue in the case and to identify the object of the claim” (Nuclear
Tests (Australia v. France), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1974, p. 262, para. 29;
armes nucléaires et désarmement (op. diss. yusuf) 871
42
39. Quoique ces arrêts étayent, dans une certaine mesure, l’idée selon
laquelle la preuve de l’existence d’un différend peut être apportée par les
positions prises par les parties au cours de la procédure faisant suite au
dépôt d’une requête, ils ne constituent pas un renversement de jurisprudence
par rapport à la position de principe qui avait été énoncée par la Cour dans
des affaires antérieures et selon laquelle un différend ne saurait naître du seul
fait de l’introduction d’une instance devant elle. Il doit en effet, à tout le
moins, exister un début ou un commencement de différend avant le dépôt
d’une requête, différend dont la poursuite ou la cristallisation peut devenir
plus évidente au cours de la procédure. La saisine de la Cour ne saurait
toutefois, en elle‑même, donner naissance à un différend entre les parties.
40. Autrement dit, s’il doit avoir existé un début de différend avant le
dépôt de la requête (Cameroun septentrional (Cameroun c. Royaume–
Uni), exceptions préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1963, opinion individuelle
de sir Gerald Fitzmaurice, p. 109), le facteur déterminant est que
les parties aient continué d’exprimer des vues manifestement opposées
durant la période postérieure au dépôt de la requête, au cours de laquelle
la Cour prend connaissance de leurs positions (voir Essais nucléaires
(Nouvelle‑Zélande c. France), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1974, p. 476, par. 58 ;
Essais nucléaires (Australie c. France), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1974,
p. 270‑271, par. 55). Il existe donc une continuité entre l’état du différend
avant et après le dépôt de la requête en ce sens que, bien qu’il doive trouver
son origine avant cette date, sa persistance doit être confirmée par la
Cour durant l’instance.
41. Si ces considérations sont pertinentes aux fins de la présente espèce,
c’est parce qu’il appert des éléments de preuve versés au dossier — lesquels
sont examinés aux paragraphes 48 à 60 ci‑après — qu’il existait un
commencement de différend du fait que la ligne de conduite alléguée du
défendeur en ce qui concerne l’obligation, au titre de l’article VI du traité
de non‑prolifération, de poursuivre des négociations et de conclure un
traité général sur le désarmement nucléaire avait été contestée par le
demandeur avant que celui‑ci ne dépose sa requête, notamment au moyen
de la déclaration qu’il avait faite à la conférence de Nayarit. Cette opposition
naissante de thèses juridiques au sujet du traité de non‑prolifération
a continué de se manifester au cours de l’instance, les Parties ayant
exprimé des positions manifestement opposées en ce qui concerne l’interprétation
et l’application des obligations découlant de l’article VI du
traité de non‑prolifération ainsi que de l’obligation de poursuivre et de
conclure des négociations sur le désarmement nucléaire.
V. L’objet du différend
42. Il appartient à la Cour de déterminer, sur une base objective, l’objet
du différend entre les parties, c’est‑à‑dire « de circonscrire le véritable problème
en cause et de préciser l’objet de la demande » (Essais nucléaires
(Australie c. France), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1974, p. 262, par. 29 ; Essais
872 nuclear arms and disarmament (diss. op. yusuf)
43
Nuclear Tests (New Zealand v. France), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1974,
p. 466, para. 30). However, in doing so, the Court examines the positions
of both parties, while giving particular attention to the manner in which
the subject‑matter of the dispute is framed by the applicant State (Fisheries
Jurisdiction (Spain v. Canada), Jurisdiction of the Court, Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 1998, p. 448, para. 30; see also Territorial and Maritime
Dispute (Nicaragua v. Colombia), Preliminary Objections, Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 2007 (II), p. 848, para. 38).
43. In its Written Statement, the Marshall Islands describes the scope
of its dispute with the United Kingdom in the following terms: the obligation
“to pursue in good faith, and bring to a conclusion, negotiations
leading to nuclear disarmament in all its aspects under strict and effective
international control” (Written Statement, para. 30).
44. This framing of the subject‑matter of the dispute was further clarified
during the oral proceedings when the Co‑Agent of the Republic of
the Marshall Islands stated that:
“[a]t no time during these proceedings or — for that matter — outside
of these proceedings, has the United Kingdom claimed that it entirely
honours the obligation which is central to these proceedings. I will
repeat this in order to clarify to the Respondent what precisely the
case is about: ‘There exists an obligation to pursue in good faith and
bring to a conclusion negotiations leading to nuclear disarmament in
all its aspects under strict and effective international control.’”
(CR 2016/5, pp. 15‑16, para. 5 (van den Biesen).)
45. Moreover, the Marshall Islands relies on its statement at the
Nayarit conference, as evidence of the existence of a dispute with the
United Kingdom. In that statement, the Marshall Islands declared that
the immediate commencement and conclusion of negotiations on nuclear
disarmament is “required by legal obligation of nuclear disarmament
resting upon each and every State under Article VI of the Non‑Proliferation
Treaty and customary international law”.
46. Thus, the subject‑matter of the dispute in this case may be defined
as whether the alleged opposition of the United Kingdom to various initiatives
for the immediate commencement and conclusion of multilateral
negotiations on nuclear disarmament constitutes a breach of the obligation
to negotiate nuclear disarmament in good faith under Article VI of
the Non‑Proliferation Treaty.
47. This is confirmed by the fact that the main focus of the Marshall
Islands’ written and oral submissions, as well as its statement at the
Nayarit conference on which it relies for the existence of the dispute, is on
the alleged non-compliance
of the United Kingdom with its obligation to
pursue in good faith negotiations on nuclear disarmament and bring
them to a conclusion. In this connection, the Marshall Islands refers to
the statements of British officials and the United Kingdom’s voting record
in the United Nations General Assembly in support of its claim that the
armes nucléaires et désarmement (op. diss. yusuf) 872
43
nucléaires (Nouvelle‑Zélande c. France), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1974, p. 466,
par. 30). Pour procéder à cette détermination, la Cour doit examiner les
positions des deux parties, tout en accordant une attention particulière à
la manière dont l’Etat demandeur formule l’objet du différend (Compétence
en matière de pêcheries (Espagne c. Canada), compétence de la Cour,
arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1998, p. 448, par. 30 ; voir également l’affaire du Différend
territorial et maritime (Nicaragua c. Colombie), exceptions préliminaires,
arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2007 (II), p. 848, par. 38).
43. Dans son exposé écrit, la République des Iles Marshall avait défini
la portée du différend qui l’opposait au Royaume‑Uni en ces termes :
l’obligation de « poursuivre de bonne foi et de mener à terme des négociations
conduisant au désarmement nucléaire dans tous ses aspects, sous un
contrôle international strict et efficace » (exposé écrit, par. 30).
44. La détermination de l’objet du différend a été clarifiée au cours de
la procédure orale, le coagent de la République des Iles Marshall ayant
déclaré ce qui suit :
« Le Royaume‑Uni n’a jamais affirmé dans le cadre de la présente
instance, ni même, d’ailleurs, en dehors de celle‑ci, qu’il s’acquittait
pleinement de l’obligation qui est au coeur de l’affaire. J’énoncerai
donc de nouveau cette obligation pour que le défendeur comprenne
bien quel est l’objet de la présente affaire : « [i]l existe une obligation
de poursuivre de bonne foi et de mener à terme des négociations
conduisant au désarmement nucléaire dans tous ses aspects, sous un
contrôle international strict et efficace ». » (CR 2016/5, p. 15‑16,
par. 5 (van den Biesen).)
45. Pour démontrer l’existence d’un différend avec le Royaume-Uni, la
République des Iles Marshall s’appuyait en outre sur la déclaration qu’elle
avait faite à la conférence de Nayarit. Elle avait alors soutenu que « [l]’oligation
d’oeuvrer au désarmement nucléaire qui incombe à chaque Etat en
vertu de l’article VI du traité de non‑prolifération nucléaire et du droit
international coutumier » imposait l’ouverture immédiate de négociations
sur le désarmement nucléaire et leur aboutissement.
46. L’objet du différend en la présente espèce pouvait donc être défini
comme étant la question de savoir si l’opposition alléguée du Royaume‑
Uni à diverses initiatives pour l’ouverture immédiate et l’aboutissement de
négociations multilatérales sur le désarmement nucléaire constituait un
manquement à l’obligation de négocier de bonne foi un désarmement
nucléaire qui découle de l’article VI du traité de non‑prolifération.
47. Cette définition est confirmée par le fait que, dans ses exposés écrits
et oraux, comme dans sa déclaration de Nayarit qu’elle invoquait pour
démontrer l’existence du différend, la République des Iles Marshall s’attachait
principalement au non‑respect par le Royaume‑Uni de son obligation
de poursuivre de bonne foi des négociations sur le désarmement
nucléaire et de les mener à terme. Elle s’est ainsi référée aux déclarations
émanant de dirigeants britanniques ainsi qu’aux votes émis par le
Royaume‑Uni à l’Assemblée générale de l’Organisation des Nations Unies
873 nuclear arms and disarmament (diss. op. yusuf)
44
United Kingdom has “opposed the efforts of the great majority of States
to initiate such negotiations” (Application of the Marshall Islands,
para. 104). We will examine those statements and voting record below in
so far as they have been presented as evidence of the existence of a dispute
between the Parties, since the issue of the alleged non-compliance
of the
United Kingdom with its Non-Proliferation
Treaty obligations belongs to
the merits and cannot be dealt with here.
VI. The Opposing Viewpoints of the Parties
on the Interpretation and Application
of Article VI of the Non-Proliferation
Treaty
48. For the Marshall Islands, the dispute is about the interpretation
and application of Article VI of the Non-Proliferation
Treaty, and in
particular
the obligation to pursue in good faith and bring to a conclusion
negotiations leading to nuclear disarmament in all its aspects under
strict and effective international control. This was expressed prior to the
submission of the Application by the representative of the Marshall
Islands at the Nayarit conference and has been reiterated in these proceedings.
In the words of the Co‑Agent of the Marshall Islands, “[s]o far
as the application of Article VI of the Non‑Proliferation Treaty is concerned,
the Marshall Islands believed that each one of the nuclear‑weapon
States, including the United Kingdom, were and, indeed, continued to be
in breach of those obligations” (CR 2016/9, p. 8, para. 2 (van den Biesen)).
49. To support these allegations, the Marshall Islands refers to the
opposition of the United Kingdom to all the attempts made in the context
of resolutions adopted by the United Nations General Assembly to
call for the immediate commencement of negotiations with a view to the
conclusion of a convention on nuclear disarmament, to convene a working
group to prepare the ground for such a convention, or to ensure concrete
follow‑up to the advisory opinion of the Court which underscored
the existence of an obligation to pursue negotiations on nuclear disarmament.
50. According to the Marshall Islands, this opposition is also evidenced
by the statements made by the United Kingdom’s representatives
to the United Nations organs following the adoption of resolutions by
such organs, including the United Nations General Assembly, or to international
conferences on nuclear disarmament as well as the statements
made by the United Kingdom’s politicians in parliamentary forums or in
documents published by the United Kingdom’s Government.
51. With regard to the United Nations resolutions, the Marshall Islands
argues that the United Kingdom has consistently voted against all
United Nations General Assembly resolutions on the follow-up to the
Advisory Opinion of the International Court of Justice of 8 July 1996,
armes nucléaires et désarmement (op. diss. yusuf) 873
44
pour étayer son allégation selon laquelle ce dernier s’était « opposé aux
efforts déployés par la grande majorité des Etats pour engager de telles
négociations » (requête des Iles Marshall, par. 104). Ces déclarations et
votes seront examinés ci‑après, dans la mesure où ils ont été présentés
comme preuves de l’existence d’un différend entre les Parties ; la question
du prétendu non‑respect par le Royaume‑Uni des obligations que lui
impose le traité de non‑prolifération relevait en effet du fond de l’affaire
et ne saurait être traitée ici.
VI. Les vues opposées des Parties en ce qui concerne
l’interprétation et l’application de l’article VI
du traité de non‑prolifération
48. Pour les Iles Marshall, le différend concernait l’interprétation
et l’application de l’article VI du traité de non‑prolifération et, en
particulier,
l’obligation de poursuivre de bonne foi et de mener à terme
des négociations conduisant au désarmement nucléaire dans tous ses
aspects, sous un contrôle international strict et efficace. Cela ressortait des
déclarations faites avant le dépôt de la requête par le représentant du
demandeur à la conférence de Nayarit, et a été réitéré en cours d’instance.
Pour reprendre les termes employés par le coagent de la République des
Iles Marshall, « [s]’agissant de l’application de [l’article VI du traité de
non‑prolifération], les Iles Marshall estimaient que chacun des Etats dotés
d’armes nucléaires — et notamment le Royaume-Uni — avait manqué à
ces obligations, et continuait d’ailleurs d’y manquer. » (CR 2016/9, p. 8,
par. 2 (van den Biesen).)
49. A l’appui de ces allégations, la République des Iles Marshall faisait
valoir que le Royaume‑Uni s’était opposé à toutes les tentatives effectuées
dans le cadre des résolutions adoptées par l’Assemblée générale des
Nations Unies pour demander l’ouverture immédiate de négociations en
vue de conclure une convention sur le désarmement nucléaire, pour réunir
un groupe de travail afin d’ouvrir la voie à une telle convention, ou pour
mesurer concrètement les suites données à l’avis consultatif par lequel la
Cour avait souligné l’existence d’une obligation de poursuivre des négociations
sur le désarmement nucléaire.
50. Selon la République des Iles Marshall, cette opposition ressortait
également de déclarations faites par les représentants du Royaume‑Uni
devant des organes des Nations Unies, dont l’Assemblée générale, après
l’adoption par ceux‑ci de résolutions, ou dans le cadre de conférences internationales
sur le désarmement nucléaire, ainsi que de déclarations faites par
des responsables politiques britanniques dans des enceintes parlementaires
ou dans des documents publiés par le Gouvernement britannique.
51. S’agissant des résolutions de l’Organisation des Nations Unies, la
République des Iles Marshall tirait argument de ce que le Royaume‑Uni
avait voté contre toutes les résolutions de l’Assemblée générale concernant
la suite donnée à l’avis consultatif rendu par la Cour internationale
874 nuclear arms and disarmament (diss. op. yusuf)
45
which have been adopted every year since December 1996. These resolutions
called for immediate commencement of multilateral negotiations to
fulfil the obligations underlined by the Court. The United Kingdom does
not deny this consistent pattern of conduct vis-
à-vis the fulfilment of the
obligation underlined in the Advisory Opinion and the United Nations
General Assembly’s attempts to implement it, but it claims that various
political and legal factors account for its position on these resolutions (see
response dated 23 March 2016 of the United Kingdom to the questions
by Judge Cançado Trindade, para. 2).
52. It is true that it is not always easy to infer from votes cast in the
United Nations General Assembly the existence of a dispute on matters
covered by the resolution. However, such votes are not devoid of evidentiary
value, particularly where there is a consistent pattern of voting
against a series of resolutions which call for the same type of action, in
this case the immediate commencement of negotiations and conclusion of
a general convention on nuclear disarmament, or where statements of
explanation of vote were made by the party voting against the resolutions.
53. The Republic of the Marshall Islands provides several examples of
explanation of vote made by the United Kingdom in conjunction with the
casting of a negative vote on resolutions adopted by the United Nations
General Assembly on commencement of immediate negotiations on
nuclear disarmament or the establishment of mechanisms for such negotiations.
Some of the statements were made on behalf of the United Kingdom
only, while others were made by the United Kingdom jointly with
other nuclear‑weapons States (NWS) 1.
54. Some of these resolutions called for taking forward multilateral
disarmament negotiations for the achievement of a world without nuclear
weapons. The United Kingdom, after voting, for example, against one of
these resolutions, stated in its explanation of vote that “we see little value
in this initiative to take forward multilateral nuclear disarmament negotiations
outside of the established fora” 2. Other resolutions called for a
“high-level meeting of the General Assembly on nuclear disarmament”.
Again, the United Kingdom voted against them and stated in explanation
of its negative vote that: “we question the value of holding a high‑level
meeting of the General Assembly on nuclear disarmament when there are
already sufficient venues for such discussion” 3.
1 The resolutions cited included resolution 68/32 of 5 December 2013, resolution 68/46
of 5 December 2013, resolution 67/56 of 3 December 2012, and resolution 67/39 of
3 December 2012 (see CR 2016/9, pp. 13‑14, para. 11 (van den Biesen)).
2 See resolution 67/56 and the explanation of vote by the United Kingdom of
6 November 2012 (UN doc. A/C.1/67/PV.21).
3 See resolution 67/39, and the explanation of vote by the United Kingdom of
7 November 2012 (UN doc. A/C.1/67/PV.22).
armes nucléaires et désarmement (op. diss. yusuf) 874
45
de Justice le 8 juillet 1996, lesquelles ont été adoptées chaque année depuis
décembre 1996. Dans ces résolutions, l’Assemblée générale demandait
l’ouverture immédiate de négociations multilatérales afin d’assurer l’exécution
des obligations mises en lumière par la Cour. Bien que n’ayant pas
contesté cette ligne de conduite constante en ce qui concerne l’exécution
desdites obligations et les tentatives de l’Assemblée générale de faire
appliquer l’avis consultatif, le Royaume-Uni soutenait que divers facteurs
politiques et juridiques expliquaient sa position à l’égard de ces résolutions
(voir la réponse du Royaume‑Uni aux questions posées par M. le
juge Cançado Trindade, datée du 23 mars 2016, par. 2).
52. Il est vrai qu’il n’est pas toujours aisé de déduire des votes émis à
l’Assemblée générale de l’Organisation des Nations Unies l’existence d’un
différend sur des questions couvertes par la résolution en cause. Ces votes
ne sont toutefois pas dépourvus de valeur probante, notamment lorsqu’ils
sont systématiquement dirigés contre un ensemble de résolutions appelant
au même type d’action — en l’espèce, l’ouverture immédiate de négociations
et la conclusion d’une convention générale sur le désarmement
nucléaire — ou lorsque la partie qui s’est prononcée contre a fait des
déclarations expliquant ce vote.
53. La République des Iles Marshall a ainsi donné plusieurs exemples
d’explications fournies par le Royaume‑Uni à l’occasion d’un vote émis
par lui contre des résolutions adoptées par l’Assemblée générale de
l’
Organisation
des Nations Unies pour demander l’ouverture immédiate
de négociations sur le désarmement nucléaire ou la création de mécanismes
en vue de telles négociations. Certaines de ces déclarations ont été faites
uniquement au nom du Royaume‑Uni, d’autres, conjointement avec
d’autres Etats dotés d’armes nucléaires 1.
54. Certaines des résolutions en question appelaient à faire avancer les
négociations multilatérales sur le désarmement en vue de créer un monde
dépourvu d’armes nucléaires. Après avoir voté contre l’une d’entre elles,
le Royaume‑Uni a expliqué qu’il ne « vo[yait] pas l’utilité de cette initiative
qui vis[ait] à faire avancer les négociations multilatérales sur le désarmement
nucléaire en dehors des instances établies » 2. D’autres résolutions
appelaient à la convocation d’une « réunion de haut niveau de l’Assemblée
générale sur le désarmement nucléaire ». Là encore, le Royaume‑Uni
a voté contre et s’en est expliqué en ces termes : « Nous avons des doutes
sur l’utilité de la tenue d’une réunion de haut niveau de l’Assemblée générale
consacrée au désarmement nucléaire alors qu’il existe suffisamment
d’instances pour débattre de cette question » 3.
1 Les résolutions citées sont la résolution 68/32 du 5 décembre 2013, la résolution 68/46
du 5 décembre 2013, la résolution 67/56 du 3 décembre 2012 et la résolution 67/39 du
3 décembre 2012 (voir CR 2016/9, p. 13‑14, par. 11 (van den Biesen)).
2 Voir résolution 67/56 et l’explication du vote fournie par le Royaume-Uni le
6 novembre 2012 (Nations Unies, doc. A/C.1/67/PV.21).
3 Voir résolution 67/39 et l’explication du vote fournie par le Royaume-Uni le
7 novembre 2012 (Nations Unies, doc. A/C.1/67/PV.22).
875 nuclear arms and disarmament (diss. op. yusuf)
46
55. The statements on which the Republic of the Marshall Islands
relies as evidence of the United Kingdom’s opposition to the immediate
commencement and conclusion of negotiations on nuclear disarmament
also include statements made in the British House of Lords, or by the
United Kingdom Prime Minister, in which the officials concerned explain
the objections of their Government to such comprehensive negotiations
and advocate a step-by-step approach to denuclearization.
56. For example, in a debate in the House of Lords, the Senior Minister
of State for the Foreign and Commonwealth Office stated on 15 July
2013:
“The United Kingdom voted against the resolution in the United
Nations General Assembly First Committee that proposed the Open
Ended Working Group (OEWG), has not attended past meetings of
the OEWG, and does not intend to attend coming meetings . . . The
Government considers that a practical step-by-step approach is
needed, using existing mechanisms such as the Non Proliferation
Treaty and the Conference on Disarmament.”
57. Also, the Republic of the Marshall Islands refers to a statement of
the United Kingdom Prime Minister David Cameron in August 2011, in
which he declared, inter alia, that: “He did not agree that ‘negotiations
now on a nuclear weapons convention should be the immediate means of
getting us to a world free of nuclear weapons’.” However, he acknowledged
that such a convention “could ultimately form the legal underpinning
for this endpoint”, but the prospects of reaching agreement on a
convention “are remote at the moment” (MMI, para. 89).
58. The United Kingdom responded to the allegations made by the
Republic of the Marshall Islands by declaring that:
“the Marshall Islands at no stage, ever, at any time in the past raised
with the United Kingdom its concerns, or allegations or claims, notwithstanding
this apparent apprehension of long‑term bad faith conduct
by the United Kingdom. This goes to the United Kingdom’s
objection to jurisdiction . . . to the effect that there is no justiciable
dispute between the Marshall Islands and the United Kingdom.”
(POUK, para. 20.)
59. The statement made by the Republic of the Marshall Islands at the
Nayarit conference, as well as its other statements calling on nuclear powers,
including the United Kingdom, to fulfil their obligation under Article
VI of the Non-Proliferation
Treaty, may be considered as a protest
meant to contest the attitude of the United Kingdom towards the immediate
commencement of negotiations on a comprehensive convention for
the elimination of nuclear weapons. For the Marshall Islands this attitude
armes nucléaires et désarmement (op. diss. yusuf) 875
46
55. Parmi les déclarations sur lesquelles s’appuyait la République des
Iles Marshall pour démontrer l’opposition du Royaume‑Uni à l’ouverture
immédiate et à la conclusion de négociations sur le désarmement nucléaire
figurent également des déclarations faites à la Chambre des Lords ou par
le premier ministre britannique, dont les auteurs exposaient les objections
de leur gouvernement à des négociations aussi complètes et plaidaient en
faveur d’une approche progressive de la dénucléarisation.
56. Ainsi, dans un débat à la Chambre des Lords le 15 juillet 2013, la
secrétaire d’Etat au ministère des affaires étrangères et du Commonwealth
a déclaré ce qui suit :
« Le Royaume‑Uni a voté contre la résolution par laquelle la première
commission de l’Assemblée générale de l’Organisation des
Nations Unies proposait de créer le groupe de travail à composition
non limitée, n’a pris part à aucune des réunions de ce groupe qui se
sont tenues par le passé et n’a pas l’intention d’y participer à l’avenir…
Le gouvernement estime qu’il convient d’adopter une approche
pragmatique permettant d’avancer progressivement, en employant
les mécanismes existants tels que le traité de non‑prolifération et la
conférence sur le désarmement. »
57. Le demandeur invoquait également une déclaration faite en
août 2011 par le premier ministre britannique, M. David Cameron, dans
laquelle celui‑ci a notamment indiqué qu’il « ne souscri[vait] pas à l’idée
selon laquelle le moyen immédiat pour débarrasser le monde des armes
nucléaires consist[ait] à mener des négociations en vue de l’adoption d’une
convention sur les armes nucléaires ». Tout en reconnaissant qu’un tel instrument
« pourrait, à terme, constituer le fondement juridique permettant
la réalisation de cet objectif ultime », il a considéré qu’il y avait « peu de
chance, à l’heure actuelle », qu’un accord puisse être trouvé sur une telle
convention (MIM, par. 89).
58. Le Royaume‑Uni a répondu aux allégations de la République des
Iles Marshall en déclarant que
« [celle‑ci] n’[avait] jamais, en aucune circonstance, formulé à son
égard le moindre doute, ni la moindre allégation ou réclamation, et
ce, en dépit du comportement de mauvaise foi qui serait le sien de
longue date. Cela va dans le sens de l’exception d’incompétence soulevée
par le Royaume-Uni …, à savoir qu’il n’existe, entre les Parties,
aucun différend susceptible de faire l’objet d’un règlement judiciaire.
» (EPRU, par. 20.)
59. La déclaration faite par la République des Iles Marshall à la conférence
de Nayarit, ainsi que les autres déclarations du demandeur appelant
les puissances nucléaires, dont le Royaume‑Uni, à s’acquitter de l’obligation
que leur impose l’article VI du traité de non‑prolifération pouvait
être considérée comme une protestation visant à contester le comportement
du défendeur en ce qui concerne l’ouverture immédiate de négociations
en vue de conclure une convention complète tendant à l’élimination
876 nuclear arms and disarmament (diss. op. yusuf)
47
is evidenced by the course of conduct of the United Kingdom relating to
the obligation to pursue and conclude such negotiations, evidenced by its
voting record at the United Nations General Assembly, its statements in
explanation of such votes, as well as statements made by United Kingdom
leaders in parliamentary or diplomatic forums.
60. Thus, the Nayarit statement by the Marshall Islands, taken together
with the statements made by the United Kingdom with regard to the calls
by the United Nations General Assembly for the immediate commencement
of nuclear disarmament negotiations appear, in my view, to have
given rise to an incipient dispute prior to the submission of the Application
by the Marshall Islands. The prior existence of the beginning of a
dispute relating to the interpretation and application of Article VI of the
Non-Proliferation
Treaty, evidenced by the opposed positions of the Parties
on negotiations on nuclear disarmament and their timely conclusion,
distinguishes this case from the two other cases of Marshall Islands v.
India and Marshall Islands v. Pakistan. This nascent dispute has fully
crystallized during the proceedings before the Court where the Parties
continued to manifest positively opposed views on the subject‑matter of
the dispute as defined in paragraph 46 above.
(Signed) Abdulqawi A. Yusuf.
armes nucléaires et désarmement (op. diss. yusuf) 876
47
des armes nucléaires. Selon les Iles Marshall, ce comportement était
démontré par la ligne de conduite suivie par le Royaume‑Uni à l’égard de
l’obligation de poursuivre et de conclure de telles négociations, telle
qu’elle ressortait des votes que le défendeur avait émis à l’Assemblée
générale de l’Organisation des Nations Unies, des déclarations qu’il avait
faites pour expliquer ces votes, et des déclarations faites par des dirigeants
britanniques devant leur Parlement ou dans des enceintes diplomatiques.
60. Selon moi, la déclaration du demandeur à la conférence de Nayarit,
mise en regard des déclarations du défendeur au sujet des appels à
l’ouverture immédiate de négociations sur le désarmement nucléaire formulés
par l’Assemblée générale de l’Organisation des Nations Unies, semblait
donc avoir engendré un début de différend avant le dépôt de la
requête. L’existence d’un commencement de différend relatif à l’interprétation
et à l’application de l’article VI du traité de non‑prolifération avant
l’introduction de l’instance, telle qu’elle ressortait des vues opposées des
Parties en ce qui concerne la tenue de négociations sur le désarmement
nucléaire et leur prompte conclusion, distinguait la présente affaire des
deux autres, qui opposaient les Iles Marshall à l’Inde, d’une part, et au
Pakistan, d’autre part. Ce différend naissant s’est pleinement cristallisé
durant l’instance introduite devant la Cour, les Parties ayant continué
d’exprimer des vues manifestement opposées en ce qui concerne l’objet du
différend tel que défini au paragraphe 46 ci‑dessus.
(Signé) Abdulqawi A. Yusuf.

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Dissenting opinion of Vice-President Yusuf

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