Dissenting opinion of Judge Crawford

Document Number
159-20161005-JUD-01-13-EN
Parent Document Number
159-20161005-JUD-01-00-EN
Document File
Bilingual Document File

D ISSENTING OPINION OF JUDGE C RAWFORD

Jurisdiction of the Court under Article 36 (2) of Statute  Existence of a dispute 
Awareness or objective awareness not a legal requirement  No prior negotiations or notice
necessary before seising the Court  Dispute in principle to exist at the time of Application 

Flexible approach  Finding of dispute may be based on post-Application conduct or evidence 
Mavrommatis principle  Existence of multilateral dispute  Existence of dispute between
Marshall Islands and Pakistan.

Monetary Gold objection  Issue for the merits.

I. Introduction

1. This is the first time that the International Court of Justice (or its predecessor) has rejected
a case outright on the ground that there was no dispute at the time the Application was lodged. In
determining whether there was then a dispute, the Judgment imposes a new requirement of
“objective awareness”, which I shall use as a shorthand for the rather awkward phrase “aware, or
could not have been unaware” (Judgment, paragraph 38). But a requirement of objective

awareness is not to be found in the case law of the Court. The established test for a dispute does
not require a high formal threshold to be met, nor an analysis of that indefinite object, the state of
mind of a State. It simply requires, as the Permanent Court put it early on, a “conflict of legal
views or of interests” (Mavrommatis Palestine Concessions, Judgment No. 2, 1924, P.C.I.J.,
Series A, No. 2, p. 11). A more recent formulation is that one party’s claim must be “positively
opposed by the other” (South West Africa, (Ethiopia v. South Africa; Liberia v. South Africa),

Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1962, p. 328; see Judgment, paragraph 34).

2. In this opinion, I first discuss the case law on the meaning of “dispute” within
Article 36 (2) of the Court’s Statute. The key point is that the test for a dispute has always been a
minimum one, not a demanding threshold. The Court has been flexible about the ways in which it
can be satisfied, and has referred to post-application conduct for various purposes of jurisdiction

and admissibility. In the case of what I will term a “multilateral dispute”, such flexibility is
particularly called for. I will then explain why, applying this test, a dispute existed here between
the Marshall Islands and Pakistan at the time the Application was lodged.

II. The threshold for a “dispute” and the objective awareness requirement

3. The case law of the Court and its predecessor clearly shows that the threshold for

establishing a dispute is a low one. In Certain German Interests in Polish Upper Silesia, the
Permanent Court held that “a difference of opinion does exist as soon as one of the Governments
concerned points out that the attitude adopted by the other conflicts with its own views . . . this
condition could at any time be fulfilled by means of unilateral action on the part of the applicant
Party” (Certain German Interests in Polish Upper Silesia, Germany v. Poland, Jurisdiction,
Judgment, P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 6, 1925, p. 14). Similarly, in the Chorzów Factory case, the

Court stated

“that it cannot require that the dispute should have manifested itself in a formal way;
according to the Court’s view, it should be sufficient if the two Governments have in
fact shown themselves as holding opposite views in regard to the meaning or scope of
a judgment of the Court.” (Interpretation of Judgments Nos. 7 and 8 (Factory of
Chorzów), Judgment No. 11, 1927, P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 13, p. 11.) - 2 -

In East Timor, this Court reasoned simply, “Portugal has, rightly or wrongly, formulated
complaints of fact and law against Australia which the latter has denied. By virtue of this denial,

there is a legal dispute.” (East Timor (Portugal v. Australia), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1995,
p. 100.) In none of these cases was there any analysis of whether the respondent was aware of the
applicant’s claim before it was filed. The rationale behind requiring a legal dispute is to ensure that
the Court has something to determine: it protects the Court’s judicial function which, in a
contentious case, is to determine such disputes.

4. The Court now adopts a requirement of objective awareness, but for no persuasive reason.

It relies heavily on a judgment which had not been delivered at the time of oral argument in this
case: Alleged Violations of Sovereign Rights and Maritime Spaces in the Caribbean Sea
(Nicaragua v. Colombia), Preliminary Objections, Judgment of 17 March 2016. But that decision
is not authority for the objective awareness requirement: the Court simply observed that, as a
matter of fact, Colombia knew of the existence of the dispute. It said:

“The Court notes that, although Nicaragua did not send its formal diplomatic

Note to Colombia in protest at the latter’s alleged violations of its maritime rights at
sea until 13 September 2014, almost ten months after the filing of the Application, in
the specific circumstances of the present case, the evidence clearly indicates that, at
the time when the Application was filed, Colombia was aware that its enactment of
Decree 1946 and its conduct in the maritime areas declared by the 2012 Judgment to
belong to Nicaragua were positively opposed by Nicaragua. Given the public
statements made by the highest representatives of the Parties, . . . Colombia could not

have misunderstood the position of Nicaragua over such differences.” (Para. 73.)

5. At no point did the Court say that awareness was a legal requirement. Rather it repeated
that it must objectively determine whether there is a dispute based on “an examination of the facts.
The matter is one of substance, not of form” (ibid., para. 50). It is instructive to compare this short
statement of law on the requirement of a dispute with the lengthy statement in the present case
(Judgment, paragraphs 33-40), which effectively transforms a non-formalistic requirement into a

formalistic one through the use of the term “awareness”.

6. While the term “awareness” has sometimes been used in other cases in deciding whether
there was a dispute, it has never been stated as a legal requirement, only as a description of the
factual situation (see, e.g., Application of the International Convention on the Elimination of All
Forms of Racial Discrimination (Georgia v. Russian Federation), Preliminary Objections,
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2011 (I), pp. 109-110, para. 87; Certain Phosphate Lands in Nauru

(Nauru v. Australia), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1992, p. 253, para. 30).
Awareness is relevant as a matter of fact in determining whether a dispute exists. But that does not
mean that it is a necessary legal component without which a dispute cannot exist.

III. The Court’s flexible approach to the “dispute” requirement: in principle

7. In its earlier case law, the Court has shown flexibility in deciding on the existence and

scope of a dispute. Mavrommatis marks the beginning of this tradition, holding that “[t]he Court,
whose jurisdiction is international, is not bound to attach to matters of form the same degree of
importance which they might possess in municipal law” (Mavrommatis Palestine Concessions,
Judgment No. 2, 1924, P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 2, p. 34). I pause to note that this generalized
reference to municipal law is hardly accurate today. While approaches to civil jurisdiction and - 3 -

civil process of course vary, they are undoubtedly less formalistic than they were 90 years ago . 1

But the Court appears to be proceeding in the opposite direction.

8. The flexibility principle was best expressed in its modern form in Croatia v. Serbia:

“However, it is also to be recalled that the Court, like its predecessor, has also

shown realism and flexibility in certain situations in which the conditions governing
the Court’s jurisdiction were not fully satisfied when proceedings were initiated but
were subsequently satisfied, before the Court ruled on its jurisdiction.” (Application
of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide
(Croatia v. Serbia), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2008, p. 438,
para. 81.)

This has led the Court to adopt a broad discretion, applied in Mavrommatis Palestine Concessions
and in many cases since, which allows it to overlook defects in the application when to insist on
them would lead to circularity of procedure. This was formulated in Croatia v. Serbia in the
following terms:

“What matters is that, at the latest by the date when the Court decides on its

jurisdiction, the applicant must be entitled, if it so wishes, to bring fresh proceedings
in which the initially unmet condition would be fulfilled. In such a situation, it is not
in the interests of the sound administration of justice to compel the applicant to begin
the proceedings anew  or to initiate fresh proceedings  and it is preferable, except
in special circumstances, to conclude that the condition has, from that point on, been

fulfilled.” (Ibid., p. 441, para. 85.)

9. Accordingly, the Court applied the Mavrommatis principle (as I will call it) and decided to
proceed to the merits, even though the respondent, Serbia, was not a member of the United Nations,
and thus Article 35 (1) of the Court’s Statute was not satisfied at the time Croatia filed its
Application. This condition was subsequently met by Serbia’s admission to the United Nations.

The decision is all the more remarkable in that it applies the Mavrommatis principle to a situation
where, because of a subsequent Serbian reservation to Article IX of the Genocide Convention, it
was likely no longer open to the applicant State to recommence proceedings. It was enough that, at
some time in the interim, the applicant could have re-filed its application (see the separate opinion
of Judge Abraham, ibid., pp. 539-542, paras. 49-55). Evidently the decision puts the emphasis on

the “sound administration of justice”, prioritizing substance over form (Croatia v. Serbia, p. 442,
para. 87).

10. The Court in the present case discards this tradition of flexibility. As well as insisting on
a stringent requirement of “awareness”, it departs from past holdings that “the Court must
in principle decide the question of jurisdiction on the basis of the conditions that existed at the time

of the institution of the proceedings” (Croatia v. Serbia, p. 438, para. 80 (emphasis added)); see
also Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of
Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Yugoslavia), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J.
Reports 1996 (II), p. 613, para. 26); Application of the International Convention on the
Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (Georgia v. Russian Federation), Preliminary
Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2011 (I), p. 85, para. 30). The words “in principle” allow for

some nuance in the application of the rule. By contrast, the approach of the majority would give no
meaning to them.

See, e.g., J. A. Jolowicz, On Civil Procedure (CUP, Cambridge, 2000), esp. Chaps. 2, 17. - 4 -

11. None of the cases dealing with the question of a dispute has treated the date of the
application as fatal. Rather, the Court has relaxed the rule, referring to evidence before the date of

the application and to the position of the parties during the proceedings without distinction, or
relying only on the position of the parties during the proceedings, even though pre-application
evidence was available (see East Timor (Portugal v. Australia), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1995,
p. 99, para. 22; Certain Property (Liechtenstein v. Germany), Preliminary Objections, Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 2005, p. 19, para. 25). While the Court here rejects the Marshall Islands’ reliance on
Certain Property with the explanation that the “dispute was clearly referenced by bilateral
exchanges between the Parties prior to the date of the Application” (Judgment, paragraph 50), the

Court in that case was clear that the conclusion that there was a dispute was reached solely on the
basis of the statements made “in the present proceedings”, and that the position of Germany in a
letter and in bilateral consultations was only of “evidentiary value in support of the proposition that
Liechtenstein’s claims were positively opposed by Germany and that this was recognized by the
latter” (Certain Property (Liechtenstein v. Germany), Preliminary Objections, Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 2005, p. 19, para. 25, emphasis added). In Land and Maritime Boundary between
Cameroon and Nigeria, the Court held there was a broader dispute between the parties by

reference to Nigeria’s equivocation with respect to the Cameroonian claim (pre- and
post-application) and in particular its answer to a question asked by a judge at the oral hearing
(Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1998, pp. 316-317, paras. 91, 93). The
Judgment here also fails to explain its departure from Application of the Convention on the
Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Yugoslavia).
While the Court in that case was focused on whether the dispute fell within the scope of the
compromissory clause, it could not get to this question before first determining that there was such

a dispute, which it did so solely on the basis of post-application conduct: “by reason of the
rejection by Yugoslavia of the complaints formulated against it by Bosnia and Herzegovina, ‘there
is a legal dispute’ between them” (Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1996 (II),
pp. 614-615, paras. 28-29; see Judgment, paragraph 50).

12. Commentators on the Statute endorse the flexible view. According to Rosenne, the
Court’s jurisdiction must normally be assessed as at the date of the filing of the Application

instituting the proceedings, but he and Kolb both agree that the Mavrommatis principle applies to
the question whether a dispute exists as at the critical date.

“The Court will not allow itself to be hampered by a mere defect of form the
removal of which depends solely on the party concerned, for example where
proceedings are instituted shortly before the entry into force of the title of jurisdiction
for the parties concerned, so that a new application in identical terms could be filed

after the relevant date had come.” (Rosenne, The Law and Practice of the
International Court: 1920-2005, (4th ed, 2006), pp. 510-511.)

Similarly, Kolb says:

“before the parties seise the Court, there must at least be the beginnings of a dispute.
The definitive dispute can, however, crystallise later, in the course of the proceedings.
And it can equally well be modified or evolve as the case progresses.

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

It is certainly right to say that the institution of proceedings does not
automatically create a dispute. If it did, the distinct requirement that a dispute exists
would be devoid of all justification and value.

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - 5 -

[T]he Mavrommatis principle discussed above also applies . . .. It remains
necessary to consider whether the conditions for bringing a case are satisfied at the

moment the case is brought to the Court, although ‘it would always have been possible
for the applicant to re-submit his application in the same terms after.’ . . . It is
however, unnecessary to oblige the claimant to start again the case by a new
application, for want of a dispute at the initial critical date. This would be an
excessively formalistic exercise, with no significant effects except to increase the
administrative burden on the Court and the parties.” (Robert Kolb, The International
Court of Justice (2013), p. 315.)

13. Since 1922, there have been three occasions on which the absence of a dispute has
resulted in the Court or its predecessor determining that it could not hear part of a claim. In each,
there had been prior correspondence or statements but the applicant later sought to add other issues
or claims. In such a case, it was open for the Court to focus on what the parties had previously
treated as the gist of the dispute. The absence of any discussion of the additional claim, in a
context in which the parties were conducting bilateral discussions on a closely related matter,

showed that there was in truth no dispute over the additional claim.

14. In Electricity Company of Sofia, the Permanent Court considered that the claim by
Belgium against a Bulgarian tax was inadmissible (The Electricity Company of Sofia and Bulgaria
(Belgium v. Bulgaria), Preliminary Objection, 1939, P.C.I.J., Series. A/B, No. 77, p. 83). In that
case, there had been a letter sent by Belgium to Bulgaria on 24 June 1937 clearly notifying it of the
other matters that were ultimately brought to the Court but ignoring the tax claim. In that context,

it was open to the Court to determine that there was no dispute on the additional issue.

15. In Belgium v. Senegal, the Court determined that there was no dispute as to whether
Senegal had breached a customary international law obligation to bring criminal proceedings
against Mr. Habré for crimes of humanity allegedly committed by him, including torture, war
crimes and genocide. The Court concluded that “[i]n the light of the diplomatic exchanges between
the Parties . . . the Court considers that such a dispute did not exist on that date” (Questions relating

to the Obligation to Prosecute or Extradite (Belgium v. Senegal), Judgment, I.C.J.
Reports 2012 (II), p. 444, para. 54). In particular, it noted that those exchanges did not refer to any
customary international law obligation, but only to the treaty obligation under the Convention
against Torture. Moreover, in a Note Verbale sent two months before filing its application,
Belgium did not mention any customary international law obligation, even though the Note Verbale
otherwise set out clearly the dispute between the parties “regarding the application and
interpretation of the obligations resulting from the relevant provisions of the [Convention against

Torture]” (ibid., p. 445, para. 54). Belgium had thus used the diplomatic channel to define the
subject-matter and scope of its dispute with Senegal. In this context, it was open for the Court to
infer that there was no dispute on the additional issue. Moreover, there was no need for the Court
to apply a flexible approach, since it had already determined that it had jurisdiction over the treaty
dispute as to the obligation to charge or extradite Mr. Habré, a matter closely related to the alleged
customary international law obligation.

16. More recently, in Alleged Violations of Sovereign Rights and Maritime Spaces in the
Caribbean Sea, the Court held that there was no dispute over Nicaragua’s claim that Colombia had
violated Article 2 (4) of the United Nations Charter and the customary international law obligation
prohibiting the use or threat of use of force. The Court there had relied on statements made by the
highest representatives of the parties to support its conclusion that a closely related dispute existed
over Colombia’s alleged breaches of Nicaragua’s maritime rights (Alleged Violations of Sovereign
Rights and Maritime Spaces in the Caribbean Sea (Nicaragua v. Colombia), Preliminary - 6 -

Objections, Judgment of 17 March 2016, paras. 69, 73). As to the use of force, the Court stressed
that Nicaraguan officials had expressly said that there was no issue, stating just eight days before

the application was filed that the two countries “have not had any conflicts in those waters” (ibid.,
para. 76). Taking into account the conduct of the parties, it was open for the Court to conclude that
no such dispute existed. As in Belgium v. Senegal, the Court may also have been influenced by the
fact that the substance of the dispute as to the maritime rights of Nicaragua in the Caribbean Sea
would be dealt with, so that it was not necessary to apply the Mavrommatis principle to find that a
dispute had subsequently come into existence.

17. Moreover, as the Court says here (but does not seem to apply), there is no requirement
for formal notification. This was confirmed by the Court in Alleged Violations of Sovereign Rights
and Maritime Spaces in the Caribbean Sea, where it rejected Colombia’s argument based on the
failure of Nicaragua to notify it through diplomatic channels (ibid., para. 72).

18. The Court here relies on the series of cases discussed above to bolster its conclusion and
also relies on Georgia v. Russia. Although this case is in line with the recent rise of formalism, it

cannot be seen in the same terms as the Optional Clause cases. It involved a set of specific issues
in relation to the Convention for the Elimination of Racial Discrimination (CERD), notably its
compromissory clause, Article 22, which provides:

“Any dispute between two or more States parties with respect to the
interpretation or application of this Convention, which is not settled by negotiation or
by the procedures expressly provided for in this Convention, shall, at the request of

any of the parties to the dispute, be referred to the International Court of Justice for
decision, unless the disputants agree to another mode of settlement.”

That clause stipulates a requirement of prior negotiation and/or other procedures (including
arbitration) before the “dispute” can be submitted to the Court. Evidently the dispute must have
existed, and have been the subject of negotiation, before that time. Moreover, in Georgia v. Russia
there could be no doubt that a long-standing dispute existed between the parties. Rather, the doubt
was whether that dispute really concerned racial discrimination, however broadly defined, or

whether Article 22 was being used as a device to bring a wider set of issues before the Court.

IV. Multilateral disputes

19. In the present case, the Marshall Islands does not suggest that there were any of the
normal indicators of a bilateral dispute, most obviously because there had not been any
correspondence between the States or any bilateral discussion on the subject. Rather it argues that

a dispute had arisen through statements made in multilateral fora.

20. South West Africa (Preliminary Objections) is crucial in this regard. There, the Court
held that:

“diplomacy by conference or parliamentary diplomacy has come to be recognized in
the past four or five decades as one of the established modes of international

negotiation. In cases where the disputed questions are of common interest to a group
of States on one side or the other in an organized body, parliamentary or conference
diplomacy has often been found to be the most practical form of negotiation. The
number of parties to one side or the other of a dispute is of no importance; it depends
upon the nature of the question at issue. If it is one of mutual interest to many States,
whether in an organized body or not, there is no reason why each of them should go - 7 -

through the formality and pretence of direct negotiation with the common adversary

State after they have already fully participated in the collective negotiations with the
same State in opposition.” (South West Africa, (Ethiopia v. South Africa; Liberia v.
South Africa), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1962, p. 346.)

That case involved a requirement for prior negotiation in the relevant compromissory clause. But
the passage cited is also authority for the broader point that disputes can crystallize in multilateral

fora involving a plurality of States. The Court in 1962 was sharply divided between those holding
that a dispute in a multilateral framework is simply an aggregate of disputes, each to be assessed in
its own right, and a broader view that some disputes can be genuinely multilateral. In the present
Judgment, the Court does not deny that a dispute between two States may be demonstrated by
multilateral exchanges, but it states that they must demonstrate that the claim of one party is
opposed by the other (Judgment, paragraphs 36, 45). No doubt any multilateral dispute must

ultimately be fitted within the bilateral mode of dispute settlement. But this does not require the
Court to treat the underlying relations as bilateral ab initio.

21. It is now established  contrary to the inferences commonly drawn from the merits

phase of South West Africa  that States can be parties to disputes about obligations in the
performance of which they have no specific material interests. This much is clear from Article 48
of the International Law Commission’s Articles on the Responsibility of States for Internationally
Wrongful Acts (ILC Articles). It is the case here, notwithstanding the Marshall Islands’ historic
connection as the location of nuclear weapons testing by the United States, and the resulting
concerns of its government and people about nuclear issues. The importance of the South West

Africa cases lies in the recognition that a multilateral disagreement can crystallize for adjacent
purposes as a series of individual disputes coming within the Statute.

22. Finally, I should say a word about Article 43 of the ILC Articles, on which both India
and the United Kingdom relied, although it was not mentioned by Pakistan (which elected not to

make oral submissions). The ILC’s Commentary confirms that Article 43 does not address the
jurisdiction of courts or the admissibility of disputes. It nonetheless deals with an analogical
question: notice in relation to a claim of responsibility of a State. But there is nothing in the
Commentary that prevents such notice being given by filing an application. Article 43 is not a
pre-notification requirement, it is a notification requirement.

23. The ILC Commentary relies in part on Certain Phosphate Lands to support the idea that
there is flexibility in how notification may occur (Certain Phosphate Lands in Nauru, (Nauru v.
Australia), Preliminary Objections, I.C.J. Reports 1992, p. 240). According to paragraph (4) of the
Commentary on Article 43, “it is not the function of the articles to specify in detail the form which
an invocation of responsibility should take” . Nothing in Certain Phosphate Lands supports the
proposition that a dispute must be notified (or that the respondent must be objectively aware of it)

before it can be said to exist. Australia did not contest that the dispute existed, rather it queried
whether the dispute had been submitted within a reasonable time, and sought to infer that Nauru’s
rehabilitation claim had been waived. In that context, it was relevant that Nauru had taken steps
(limited and informal) to bring the matter again to Australia’s attention.

The ILC rejected the Special Rapporteur’s proposal that notification be in writing. - 8 -

V. The present case

24. Turning to the present case, I share the Court’s view that a dispute cannot be created
simply by the filing of an application (see Judgment, paragraphs 40, 50) because otherwise the
requirement that a dispute exist would be completely nullified. Rather, the question is whether
enough of the dispute was in existence prior to the Application here and whether the Court has
enough flexibility to recognize it as a dispute.

25. To put it at its lowest, there was an incipient dispute between the Marshall Islands and

the nuclear weapon States at the time of Nayarit. This was not an accidental development, but the
expression of a real underlying disagreement of a legal character as to the trajectory of Article VI
and a corresponding legal obligation at customary international law (if one exists). The
Marshall Islands is a very small State, with compelling individual interests vis-à-vis several of the
nuclear-weapon States. But by the time of Nayarit, by stages, tentatively, but in time, the
Marshall Islands had associated itself with one side of that multilateral disagreement, revealing
sufficiently for present purposes a claim in positive opposition to the conduct and claims of the

nuclear-weapons States, including the respondent State.

26. The Court here says the Nayarit statement was insufficient because (i) it did not name the
opposing States, (ii) it did not specify the conduct that had given rise to the alleged breach by the
Respondent, and (iii) it was delivered in a context not strictly relating to nuclear disarmament,
since the title of the Conference was the “Humanitarian Impact of Nuclear Weapons”, such that
nothing can be inferred from the lack of reply by Pakistan (Judgment, paragraphs 45, 47, 55).

These arguments impose too high a threshold for determining the existence of a dispute. There is
no doubt that Pakistan is one of the “States possessing nuclear weapons”: Pakistan publicly
acknowledges that it has such weapons. Moreover, in a context in which the very scope of
Article VI of the NPT and a corresponding customary international law obligation is the
subject-matter of a disagreement articulated by a group of States, the Marshall Islands should not
be required at this stage to particularize further the specific steps Pakistan should take or have
taken. Finally, the Conference title itself included the words “Nuclear Weapons”; and one of its

purposes was to discuss nuclear disarmament in order to prevent the devastating humanitarian
impacts that nuclear weapons could cause. This is an appropriate multilateral context, and it does
not dilute the force of what the Marshall Islands said, which was not limited to a single forgettable
sentence:

“As stated by representatives of our government during the High-Level Meeting
on Nuclear Disarmament, the United Nations must stop the spread of nuclear
weapons, while securing peace in a world without nuclear weapons. We urgently
renew our call to all states possessing nuclear weapons to intensify efforts to address
their responsibilities in moving towards an effective and secure disarmament.

It has been almost 68 years since the General Assembly in its very first

resolution established a mechanism for the elimination from national arsenals of
nuclear weapons and other weapons adaptable to mass destruction. It has been more
than 45 years since the conclusion of the Treaty on Non-Proliferation of Nuclear
Weapons. Yet today, we still fear the day where we are forced to relive the horrors.
We do not want other people to suffer the same consequences we did!

Mr. Chairman, the Marshall Islands is convinced that multilateral negotiations

on achieving and sustaining a world free of nuclear weapons are long overdue. Indeed
we believe that states possessing nuclear arsenals are failing to fulfill their legal
obligations in this regard. Immediate commencement and conclusion of such
negotiations is required by legal obligation of nuclear disarmament resting upon each
and every state under Article VI of the Non Proliferation Treaty and customary - 9 -

international law. It also would achieve the objective of nuclear disarmament long
and consistently set by the United Nations, and fulfill our responsibilities to present
and future generations while honoring the past ones.”

27. It is not necessary  and indeed would be inappropriate at this stage  to go into the

substance of the conflict over Article VI of the NPT. However, the fact of that conflict is public
knowledge, to which the Court need not be blind. Thus, for instance, the “New Agenda” Coalition,
which currently comprises Brazil, Egypt, Ireland, Mexico, New Zealand and South Africa, has, at
least since 2013, condemned the failure by all State parties, particularly the nuclear-weapon States,
to comply with the obligation to pursue in good faith and bring to a conclusion negotiations leading

to nuclear disarmament in all its aspects under strict and effective international control. A
2014 Working Paper stated that it was “not acceptable” that the nuclear-weapon States

“have refused to engage in or support meaningful discussions about the humanitarian
impact of nuclear weapons, the follow-up process to the high-level meeting of the
General Assembly on nuclear disarmament, or the Open-ended Working Group on
3
taking forward nuclear disarmament negotiations” .

The statement of the Marshall Islands should be viewed in the context of this broader multilateral
disagreement.

28. For these reasons, in my view there was, as at the date of the Application in the present
case, a dispute between the Marshall Islands and the respondent State as to the latter’s compliance
with Article VI of the NPT. That being so, it is unnecessary to consider whether any deficiency in
that regard can and should be remedied in the exercise of the Mavrommatis discretion, recognized
in Croatia v. Serbia.

VI. The Monetary Gold principle

29. Finally, I should say something about what was perhaps the most plausible of the other
objections to jurisdiction and admissibility made by the Respondent. This is the proposition that
the Court lacks competence in a contentious case between State A and State B to determine that an

extant third State, State C, is in breach of its legal obligations; if the case cannot be decided in
consequence, because State C has not consented to jurisdiction, State A’s claim is inadmissible.
That proposition, originating in Monetary Gold, is now well-established (Monetary Gold Removed
from Rome in 1943 (Italy v. France, United Kingdom and United States of America), Preliminary
Question, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1954, p. 32; see also: Military and Paramilitary Activities in

and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v. United States of America), Jurisdiction and Admissibility,
Judgment, I.C.J Reports 1984, p. 431, para. 88; Land, Island and Maritime Frontier Dispute
(El Salvador/Honduras), Application for Permission to Intervene, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1990,
pp. 114-116, paras. 54-56; Certain Phosphate Lands in Nauru (Nauru v. Australia), Preliminary
Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1992, pp. 259-262, paras. 50-55; East Timor (Portugal v.

Australia), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1995, pp. 104-105, paras. 34-35). The case law has however
set firm limits to the Monetary Gold principle. It applies only where a determination of the legal
position of a third State is a necessary prerequisite to the determination of the case before the Court
(see: Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide

Preparatory Committee for the 2015 Review Conference of the Parties to the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of
Nuclear Weapons, 2 April 2014, available at:http://www.reachingcriticalwill.org/images/documents/Disarmament-
fora/npt/prepcom14/documents/WP18.pdf, last visited: 14 September 2016. - 10 -

(Croatia v. Serbia), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2015 (I), pp. 57-58, para. 116). An inference or

implication as to the legal position of that third State is not enough: its position is protected by
Article 59 of the Statute (Certain Phosphate Lands in Nauru, pp. 260-262, paras. 54-55).

30. The Monetary Gold ground of inadmissibility is particularly sensitive to the precise basis
of the Applicant’s claim. The decision of a given case may or may not rest on a prior
determination of the legal position of a third State depending on how the case is put. In the present

case, Monetary Gold may well impose limits on the consequences that can be drawn from the
Respondent’s conduct, if indeed it is held to involve a breach of international law. But precisely
what those limits are will depend on the ground of decision. It is true, for example, that the Court
cannot order third States to enter into negotiations, and that one cannot negotiate alone. But a third
State could breach an obligation to negotiate by its own conduct and the Court could determine as
much. Everything depends on what the precise scope and application of Article VI of the NPT, or
any parallel customary international law obligation, entail. This is at the heart of the dispute in the

present case. But these are all issues for the merits.

(Signed) James C RAWFORD .

___________

Bilingual Content

794
246
DISSENTING OPINION OF JUDGE CRAWFORD
Jurisdiction of the Court under Article 36 (2) of Statute — Existence of a
dispute — Awareness or objective awareness not a legal requirement — No prior
negotiations or notice necessary before seising the Court — Dispute in principle to
exist at the time of Application — Flexible approach — Finding of dispute may be
based on post-Application conduct or evidence — Mavrommatis principle —
Existence of multilateral dispute — Existence of dispute between Marshall Islands
and Pakistan.
Monetary Gold objection — Issue for the merits.
I. Introduction
1. This is the first time that the International Court of Justice (or its
predecessor) has rejected a case outright on the ground that there was no
dispute at the time the Application was lodged. In determining whether
there was then a dispute, the Judgment imposes a new requirement of
“objective awareness”, which I shall use as a shorthand for the rather
awkward phrase “aware, or could not have been unaware” (Judgment,
para. 38). But a requirement of objective awareness is not to be found in
the case law of the Court. The established test for a dispute does not
require a high formal threshold to be met, nor an analysis of that indefinite
object, the state of mind of a State. It simply requires, as the Permanent
Court put it early on, a “conflict of legal views or of interests”
(Mavrommatis Palestine Concessions, Judgment No. 2, 1924, P.C.I.J.,
Series A, No. 2, p. 11). A more recent formulation is that one party’s
claim must be “positively opposed by the other” (South West Africa,
(Ethiopia v. South Africa; Liberia v. South Africa), Preliminary Objections,
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1962, p. 328; see Judgment, para. 34).
2. In this opinion, I first discuss the case law on the meaning of “dispute”
within Article 36 (2) of the Court’s Statute. The key point is that
the test for a dispute has always been a minimum one, not a demanding
threshold. The Court has been flexible about the ways in which it can be
satisfied, and has referred to post‑application conduct for various purposes
of jurisdiction and admissibility. In the case of what I will term a
“multilateral dispute”, such flexibility is particularly called for. I will then
794
246
OPINION DISSIDENTE DE M. LE JUGE CRAWFORD
[Traduction]
Juridiction de la Cour aux termes du paragraphe 2 de l’article 36 du Statut —
Existence d’un différend — Connaissance ou connaissance objective du différend
ne constituant pas une condition juridique — Négociations ou notification
préalables n’étant pas nécessaires pour saisir la Cour — Différend devant en
principe exister à la date de la requête — Approche souple — Constatation de
l’existence d’un différend pouvant être fondée sur des comportements ou des
éléments de preuve postérieurs à la requête — Principe Mavrommatis — Existence
d’un différend multilatéral — Existence d’un différend entre les Iles Marshall et le
Pakistan.
Exception tirée de l’affaire de l’Or monétaire — Question relevant de l’examen
au fond.
I. Introduction
1. C’est la première fois que la Cour internationale de Justice rejette
d’emblée une affaire au motif qu’il n’existait pas de différend à la date du
dépôt de la requête, ce que sa devancière n’avait jamais fait. Pour déterminer
s’il existait un différend à cette date, le présent arrêt impose de satisfaire à
une nouvelle condition de « connaissance objective », expression que j’emploierai
de préférence à la formule plutôt disgracieuse « avait connaissance,
ou ne pouvait pas ne pas avoir connaissance » (arrêt, par. 38). Or, on ne
trouve dans la jurisprudence de la Cour aucune référence à cette condition
de connaissance objective. Le critère établi pour déterminer l’existence d’un
différend n’impose ni de satisfaire à une stricte condition de forme ni d’analyser
cet objet indéfini qu’est l’état d’esprit d’un Etat. Il demande seulement,
comme l’a très tôt déclaré la Cour permanente de Justice internationale,
« une opposition de thèses juridiques ou d’intérêts » (Concessions Mavrommatis
en Palestine, arrêt no 2, 1924, C.P.J.I. série A no 2, p. 11). Une formulation
plus récente veut que « la réclamation de l’une des parties se heurte
à l’opposition manifeste de l’autre » (Sud‑Ouest africain (Ethiopie c.
Afrique du Sud ; Libéria c. Afrique du Sud), exceptions préliminaires,
arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1962, p. 328 ; voir le paragraphe 34 du présent
arrêt).
2. Dans cet exposé, j’examinerai tout d’abord la jurisprudence relative
au sens du mot « différend » employé au paragraphe 2 de l’article 36 du
Statut. Le principal point à relever est que le critère permettant d’établir
l’existence d’un différend a toujours été fort peu strict. La Cour a traditionnellement
fait preuve de souplesse quant aux moyens d’y satisfaire, et
il lui est arrivé d’admettre des actes postérieurs à la requête à diverses fins
de compétence et de recevabilité. Une telle souplesse s’impose dans le cas
795 nuclear arms and disarmament (diss. op. crawford)
247
explain why, applying this test, a dispute existed here between the Marshall
Islands and Pakistan at the time the Application was lodged.
II. The Threshold for a “Dispute”
and the Objective Awareness Requirement
3. The case law of the Court and its predecessor clearly shows that the
threshold for establishing a dispute is a low one. In Certain German Interests
in Polish Upper Silesia, the Permanent Court held that “a difference
of opinion does exist as soon as one of the Governments concerned points
out that the attitude adopted by the other conflicts with its own views . . .
this condition could at any time be fulfilled by means of unilateral
action on the part of the applicant Party” (Certain German Interests
in Polish Upper Silesia, Jurisdiction, Judgment No. 6, 1925, P.C.I.J.,
Series A, No. 6, p. 14). Similarly, in the Factory at Chorzów case, the
Court stated
“that it cannot require that the dispute should have manifested itself
in a formal way; according to the Court’s view, it should be sufficient
if the two Governments have in fact shown themselves as holding
opposite views in regard to the meaning or scope of a judgment
of the Court” (Interpretation of Judgments Nos. 7 and 8 (Factory at
Chorzów), Judgment No 11, 1927, P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 13, p. 11).
In East Timor, this Court reasoned simply, “Portugal has, rightly or
wrongly, formulated complaints of fact and law against Australia which
the latter has denied. By virtue of this denial, there is a legal dispute.”
(East Timor (Portugal v. Australia), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1995,
p. 100.) In none of these cases was there any analysis of whether the
respondent was aware of the applicant’s claim before it was filed. The
rationale behind requiring a legal dispute is to ensure that the Court has
something to determine: it protects the Court’s judicial function which, in
a contentious case, is to determine such disputes.
4. The Court now adopts a requirement of objective awareness, but for
no persuasive reason. It relies heavily on a judgment which had not been
delivered at the time of oral argument in this case: Alleged Violations of
Sovereign Rights and Maritime Spaces in the Caribbean Sea (Nicaragua
v. Colombia), Preliminary Objections, Judgment of 17 March 2016.
But that decision is not authority for the objective awareness requirement:
the Court simply observed that, as a matter of fact, Colombia knew
of the existence of the dispute. It said:
armes nucléaires et désarmement (op. diss. crawford) 795
247
de ce que j’appellerai un « différend multilatéral ». J’expliquerai ensuite
pourquoi, si l’on applique ce critère, il existait en l’espèce un différend
entre les Iles Marshall et le Pakistan à la date du dépôt de la requête.
II. Le critère permettant d’établir l’existence
d’un « différend » et l’exigence de connaissance objective
3. La jurisprudence de la Cour et de sa devancière montre clairement que
le critère permettant d’établir l’existence d’un différend est fort peu strict.
Dans son arrêt en l’affaire relative à Certains intérêts allemands en Haute‑Silésie
polonaise, la Cour permanente de Justice internationale a déclaré
qu’« une divergence d’opinion se manifest[ait] dès qu’un des gouvernements
en cause constat[ait] que l’attitude observée par l’autre [était] contraire à la
manière de voir du premier » et que « cette condition pou[vait] être à tout
moment remplie par un acte unilatéral de la Partie demanderesse » (Certains
intérêts allemands en Haute‑Silésie polonaise, compétence, arrêt no 6, 1925,
C.P.J.I. série A no 6, p. 14). De même, dans l’affaire relative à l’Interprétation
des arrêts nos 7 et 8 (usine de Chorzów), la Cour permanente a estimé
« ne pas pouvoir exiger que la contestation se soit formellement
manifestée ; à son avis, il d[evait] suffire que les deux Gouvernements
aient en fait manifesté des opinions opposées quant au sens et à la
portée d’un arrêt de la Cour » (Interprétation des arrêts nos 7 et 8
(usine de Chorzów), arrêt no 11, 1927, C.P.J.I. série A no 13, p. 11).
Dans l’affaire du Timor oriental, la Cour a simplement tenu le raisonnement
suivant : « A tort ou à raison, le Portugal a formulé des griefs en fait
et en droit à l’encontre de l’Australie et celle‑ci les a rejetés. Du fait de ce
rejet, il existe un différend d’ordre juridique. » (Timor oriental (Portugal
c. Australie), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1995, p. 100.) La question de savoir si
le défendeur avait connaissance de la réclamation du demandeur avant le
dépôt de la requête n’est posée dans aucune de ces affaires. Si un différend
juridique doit exister c’est parce qu’il faut garantir à la Cour un objet sur
lequel statuer : cela protège sa fonction judiciaire qui, dans une affaire
contentieuse, consiste à trancher pareils différends.
4. La Cour a donc adopté aujourd’hui un critère de connaissance objective,
mais sans raison convaincante de le faire. Elle s’appuie abondamment
sur un arrêt qui n’avait même pas encore été rendu à la date des audiences
en la présente instance, celui de l’affaire relative à des Violations alléguées
de droits souverains et d’espaces maritimes dans la mer des Caraïbes (Nicaragua
c. Colombie), exceptions préliminaires, arrêt du 17 mars 2016.
De plus, cette décision ne fait pas autorité en ce qui concerne le critère
de la connaissance objective, puisque la Cour s’y est contentée de relever
que, dans les faits, la Colombie avait connaissance de l’existence du
différend :
796 nuclear arms and disarmament (diss. op. crawford)
248
“The Court notes that, although Nicaragua did not send its formal
diplomatic Note to Colombia in protest at the latter’s alleged violations
of its maritime rights at sea until 13 September 2014, almost ten
months after the filing of the Application, in the specific circumstances
of the present case, the evidence clearly indicates that, at the time
when the Application was filed, Colombia was aware that its enactment
of Decree 1946 and its conduct in the maritime areas declared
by the 2012 Judgment to belong to Nicaragua were positively opposed
by Nicaragua. Given the public statements made by the highest representatives
of the Parties . . . Colombia could not have misunderstood
the position of Nicaragua over such differences.” (Preliminary
Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2016 (I), pp. 32-33, para. 73.)
5. At no point did the Court say that awareness was a legal requirement.
Rather it repeated that it must objectively determine whether there
is a dispute based on “an examination of the facts. The matter is one of
substance, not of form” (ibid., p. 27, para. 50). It is instructive to compare
this short statement of law on the requirement of a dispute with the
lengthy statement in the present case (Judgment, paras. 33‑40), which
effectively transforms a non‑formalistic requirement into a formalistic
one through the use of the term “awareness”.
6. While the term “awareness” has sometimes been used in other cases
in deciding whether there was a dispute, it has never been stated as a legal
requirement, only as a description of the factual situation (see, e.g., Application
of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of
Racial Discrimination (Georgia v. Russian Federation), Preliminary Objections,
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2011 (I), pp. 109‑110, para. 87; Certain
Phosphate Lands in Nauru (Nauru v. Australia), Preliminary Objections,
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1992, p. 253, para. 30). Awareness is relevant as
a matter of fact in determining whether a dispute exists. But that does not
mean that it is a necessary legal component without which a dispute cannot
exist.
III. The Court’s Flexible Approach
to the “Dispute” Requirement: in Principle
7. In its earlier case law, the Court has shown flexibility in deciding on
the existence and scope of a dispute. Mavrommatis marks the beginning
of this tradition, holding that “[t]he Court, whose jurisdiction is international,
is not bound to attach to matters of form the same degree of
importance which they might possess in municipal law” (Mavrommatis
armes nucléaires et désarmement (op. diss. crawford) 796
248
« La Cour relève que, même si ce n’est que le 13 septembre 2014 —
soit près de dix mois après le dépôt de la requête — que le Nicaragua
a envoyé à la Colombie une note diplomatique officielle pour protester
contre les violations de ses droits maritimes auxquelles celle‑ci se
serait livrée en mer, les éléments de preuve indiquent clairement,
dans les circonstances propres à l’affaire, que, à la date de ce dépôt,
la Colombie savait que la promulgation du décret 1946 et son comportement
dans les espaces maritimes que la Cour avait reconnus au
Nicaragua dans son arrêt de 2012 se heurtaient à l’opposition manifeste
du Nicaragua. Compte tenu des déclarations publiques faites
par les plus hauts représentants des Parties, … la Colombie n’aurait
pu se méprendre sur la position du Nicaragua quant à leurs divergences.
» (Exceptions préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2016 (I),
p. 32-33, par. 73.)
5. A aucun moment la Cour n’a dit que la connaissance du différend
était une condition juridique. Elle a en revanche réaffirmé qu’elle devait
établir objectivement s’il existait un différend, et que, « pour se prononcer,
[elle devait] s’attacher aux faits. Il s’agit d’une question de fond, et non de
forme » (ibid., p. 27, par. 50). Il est intéressant de comparer ce bref exposé
de droit sur la condition de l’existence d’un différend au long exposé figurant
dans le présent arrêt (par. 33‑40), qui aboutit à transformer une
condition non formaliste en une condition formaliste par l’emploi du
terme « connaissance ».
6. Si ce mot de « connaissance » a parfois été employé dans d’autres
affaires où il fallait décider s’il existait un différend, il n’a jamais été présenté
comme une condition juridique, mais seulement comme le descriptif
d’une situation de fait (voir, par exemple, l’affaire relative à l’Application
de la convention internationale sur l’élimination de toutes les formes de discrimination
raciale (Géorgie c. Fédération de Russie), exceptions préliminaires,
arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2011 (I), p. 109-110, par. 87, et l’affaire de
Certaines terres à phosphates à Nauru (Nauru c. Australie), exceptions
préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1992, p. 253, par. 30). Le fait d’avoir
connaissance du différend est certes un élément pertinent pour apprécier
l’existence de celui‑ci, mais cela ne veut pas dire qu’il en constitue une
composante juridique nécessaire sans laquelle il ne saurait y avoir de
différend.
III. Souplesse de principe de la Cour dans son approche
de l’existence d’un « différend »
7. Dans sa jurisprudence antérieure, la Cour a fait preuve de souplesse
lorsqu’elle a eu à se prononcer sur l’existence et la portée d’un différend.
Cette tradition remonte à l’arrêt Mavrommatis, où il est dit que « [l]a
Cour, exerçant une juridiction internationale, n’est pas tenue d’attacher à
des considérations de forme la même importance qu’elles pourraient avoir
797 nuclear arms and disarmament (diss. op. crawford)
249
Palestine Concessions, Judgment No. 2, 1924, P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 2,
p. 34). I pause to note that this generalized reference to municipal law is
hardly accurate today. While approaches to civil jurisdiction and civil
process of course vary, they are undoubtedly less formalistic than they
were 90 years ago 1. But the Court appears to be proceeding in the opposite
direction.
8. The flexibility principle was best expressed in its modern form in
Croatia v. Serbia:
“However, it is to be recalled that the Court, like its predecessor,
has also shown realism and flexibility in certain situations in which
the conditions governing the Court’s jurisdiction were not fully satisfied
when proceedings were initiated but were subsequently satisfied,
before the Court ruled on its jurisdiction.” (Application of the Convention
on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide
(Croatia v. Serbia), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports
2008, p. 438, para. 81, hereinafter “Croatia v. Serbia”.)
This has led the Court to adopt a broad discretion, applied in Mavrommatis
Palestine Concessions and in many cases since, which allows it to
overlook defects in the application when to insist on them would lead to
circularity of procedure. This was formulated in Croatia v. Serbia in the
following terms:
“What matters is that, at the latest by the date when the Court
decides on its jurisdiction, the applicant must be entitled, if it so
wishes, to bring fresh proceedings in which the initially unmet condition
would be fulfilled. In such a situation, it is not in the interests of
the sound administration of justice to compel the applicant to begin
the proceedings anew — or to initiate fresh proceedings — and it is
preferable, except in special circumstances, to conclude that the
condition
has, from that point on, been fulfilled.” (Ibid., p. 441,
para. 85.)
9. Accordingly, the Court applied the Mavrommatis principle (as I will
call it) and decided to proceed to the merits, even though the Respondent,
Serbia, was not a member of the United Nations, and thus Article 35 (1)
of the Court’s Statute was not satisfied at the time Croatia filed its Application.
This condition was subsequently met by Serbia’s admission to the
United Nations. The decision is all the more remarkable in that it applies
the Mavrommatis principle to a situation where, because of a subsequent
Serbian reservation to Article IX of the Genocide Convention, it was
likely no longer open to the applicant State to recommence proceedings.
It was enough that, at some time in the interim, the applicant could have
re‑filed its application (see the separate opinion of Judge Abraham, ibid.,
1 See, e.g., J. A. Jolowicz, On Civil Procedure (Cambridge University Press, 2000), esp.
Chaps. 2, 17.
armes nucléaires et désarmement (op. diss. crawford) 797
249
dans le droit interne » (Concessions Mavrommatis en Palestine, arrêt no 2,
1924, C.P.J.I. série A no 2, p. 34). Je fais observer en passant que cette
référence d’ordre général au droit interne ne vaut plus aujourd’hui. S’il
est vrai que les règles régissant la compétence et la procédure en matière
civile se caractérisent par une importante diversité, il est indéniable
qu’elles sont moins formalistes qu’il y a quatre-vingt-dix ans 1. Or la Cour
emprunte la direction opposée.
8. Cette souplesse de principe a trouvé son expression la plus juste sous
sa forme moderne dans l’arrêt Croatie c. Serbie :
« Cependant, il convient de rappeler que la Cour, comme sa devancière,
a aussi fait preuve de réalisme et de souplesse dans certaines
hypothèses où les conditions de la compétence de la Cour n’étaient
pas toutes remplies à la date de l’introduction de l’instance mais
l’avaient été postérieurement, et avant que la Cour décide sur sa
compétence. » (Application de la convention pour la prévention et la
répression du crime de génocide (Croatie c. Serbie), exceptions préliminaires,
arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2008, p. 438, par. 81.)
Ce principe a conduit la Cour à s’accorder une grande latitude, dans l’affaire
Mavrommatis et de nombreuses affaires depuis, qui lui permet de ne
pas tenir compte de certains défauts d’une requête pour éviter une « circularité
» de la procédure en donnant trop d’importance à ces défauts. Dans
l’arrêt Croatie c. Serbie, elle a expliqué son approche ainsi :
« En effet, ce qui importe, c’est que, au plus tard à la date à laquelle
la Cour statue sur sa compétence, le demandeur soit en droit, s’il le
souhaite, d’introduire une nouvelle instance dans le cadre de laquelle
la condition qui faisait initialement défaut serait remplie. En pareil
cas, cela ne servirait pas l’intérêt d’une bonne administration de la
justice d’obliger le demandeur à recommencer la procédure — ou à
en commencer une nouvelle — et il est préférable, sauf circonstances
spéciales, de constater que la condition est désormais remplie. »
(Ibid., p. 441, par. 85.)
9. En conséquence, la Cour a appliqué ce que j’appellerai le principe
Mavrommatis et décidé de passer à la phase du fond, alors même que le
défendeur, à savoir la Serbie, n’était pas Membre de l’Organisation des
Nations Unies et que la condition posée par le paragraphe 1 de l’article 35
du Statut de la Cour n’était donc pas remplie à la date à laquelle la Croatie
avait déposé sa requête. Cette condition a été remplie ultérieurement,
lorsque la Serbie a adhéré à l’ONU. La décision de la Cour était d’autant
plus remarquable qu’elle appliquait le principe Mavrommatis à une situation
où, du fait d’une réserve introduite ultérieurement par la Serbie à
l’article IX de la convention sur le génocide, il n’était probablement plus
possible à l’Etat demandeur d’introduire une nouvelle requête. La Cour a
1 Voir, par exemple, J. A. Jolowicz, On Civil Procedure (Cambridge University Press,
2000), chap. 2 et 17 en particulier.
798 nuclear arms and disarmament (diss. op. crawford)
250
pp. 539‑542, paras. 49‑55). Evidently the decision puts the emphasis on
the “sound administration of justice”, prioritizing substance over form
(Croatia v. Serbia, p. 442, para. 87).
10. The Court in the present case discards this tradition of flexibility.
As well as insisting on a stringent requirement of “awareness”, it departs
from past holdings that “the Court must in principle decide the question
of jurisdiction on the basis of the conditions that existed at the time of the
institution of the proceedings” (Croatia v. Serbia, p. 438, para. 80 (emphasis
added)); see also Application of the Convention on the Prevention and
Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Yugoslavia),
Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1996 (II), p. 613,
para. 26); Application of the International Convention on the Elimination of
All Forms of Racial Discrimination (Georgia v. Russian Federation), Preliminary
Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2011 (I), p. 85, para. 30).
The words “in principle” allow for some nuance in the application of the
rule. By contrast, the approach of the majority would give no meaning
to them.
11. None of the cases dealing with the question of a dispute has treated
the date of the application as fatal. Rather, the Court has relaxed the
rule, referring to evidence before the date of the application and to the
position of the parties during the proceedings without distinction, or relying
only on the position of the parties during the proceedings, even
though pre‑application evidence was available (see East Timor (Portugal
v. Australia), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1995, p. 99, para. 22; Certain
Property (Liechtenstein v. Germany), Preliminary Objections, Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 2005, p. 19, para. 25). While the Court here rejects the
Marshall Islands’ reliance on Certain Property with the explanation that
the “dispute was clearly referenced by bilateral exchanges between the
parties prior to the date of the application” (Judgment, para. 50), the
Court in that case was clear that the conclusion that there was a dispute
was reached solely on the basis of the statements made “in the present
proceedings”, and that the position of Germany in a letter and in bilateral
consultations was only of “evidentiary value in support of the proposition
that Liechtenstein’s claims were positively opposed by Germany and that
this was recognized by the latter” (Certain Property (Liechtenstein v. Germany),
Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2005, p. 19,
para. 25; emphasis added). In Land and Maritime Boundary between Cameroon
and Nigeria, the Court held there was a broader dispute between the
parties by reference to Nigeria’s equivocation with respect to the Cameroonian
claim (pre‑ and post‑application) and in particular its answer to a
question asked by a judge at the oral hearing (Preliminary Objections,
Judgment, I.C.J Reports 1998, pp. 316‑317, paras. 91, 93). The Judgment
here also fails to explain its departure from Application of the Convention
on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and
armes nucléaires et désarmement (op. diss. crawford) 798
250
considéré comme suffisant que le demandeur ait pu, dans l’intervalle,
engager une nouvelle procédure devant elle (voir l’opinion individuelle de
M. le juge Abraham, Croatie c. Serbie, C.I.J. Recueil 2008, p. 539‑542,
par. 49‑55). De toute évidence, cette décision met l’accent sur la « bonne
administration de la justice » et privilégie le fond sur la forme (ibid.,
p. 442, par. 87).
10. Dans la présente espèce, la Cour va à rebours de cette tradition de
souplesse. Outre qu’elle insiste sur une stricte condition de « connaissance
», elle s’écarte de ses positions antérieures voulant qu’elle « doi[ve]
en principe se prononcer sur sa compétence au regard des conditions qui
existaient à la date de l’introduction de l’instance » (ibid., p. 438, par. 80
(les italiques sont de moi) ; voir aussi Application de la convention pour la
prévention et la répression du crime de génocide (Bosnie‑Herzégovine
c. Yougoslavie), exceptions préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1996 (II),
p. 613, par. 26 ; Application de la convention internationale sur l’élimination
de toutes les formes de discrimination raciale (Géorgie c. Fédération de
Russie), exceptions préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2011 (I), p. 85,
par. 30). Les mots « en principe » autorisent une certaine latitude dans
l’application de la règle. Or, la solution retenue par la majorité leur retire
tout leur sens.
11. Dans aucune des affaires où la question de l’existence du différend
a été soulevée, la date de la requête n’a été considérée comme fatidique.
La Cour a préféré assouplir la règle, en examinant indifféremment des
éléments de preuve antérieurs à la date de la requête et les positions défendues
par les parties pendant la procédure, voire en s’appuyant exclusivement
sur ces positions, alors même qu’elle avait à sa disposition des
éléments de preuve antérieurs à la requête (voir Timor oriental (Portugal
c. Australie), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1995, p. 99, par. 22 ; Certains
biens (Liechtenstein c. Allemagne), exceptions préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J.
Recueil 2005, p. 19, par. 25). Bien qu’elle rejette en l’espèce l’argument
tiré par les Iles Marshall de l’affaire Certains biens, en expliquant que « les
échanges bilatéraux qui avaient eu lieu entre les parties avant la date du
dépôt de la requête attestaient clairement l’existence d’un différend »
(arrêt, par. 50), dans ladite affaire, la Cour disait clairement que cette
conclusion était fondée exclusivement sur les déclarations faites « dans la
présente instance », et que la position adoptée par l’Allemagne dans une
lettre et dans le cadre de consultations bilatérales ne faisait que
« conforte[r] l’affirmation selon laquelle les revendications du
Liechtenstein s[’étaient] heurtées à l’opposition manifeste de l’Allemagne
et que cette dernière l’a[vait] reconnu » (Certains biens (Liechtenstein
c. Allemagne), exceptions préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2005, p. 19,
par. 25 ; les italiques sont de moi). Dans l’affaire de la Frontière terrestre
et maritime entre le Cameroun et le Nigéria, la Cour a conclu qu’il existait
un différend plus large entre les parties en se référant à l’attitude équivoque
du Nigéria face à la demande du Cameroun (avant et après le
dépôt de la requête), et en particulier à sa réponse à une question
posée par un juge à l’audience (exceptions préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J.
799 nuclear arms and disarmament (diss. op. crawford)
251
Herzegovina v. Yugoslavia). While the Court in that case was focused on
whether the dispute fell within the scope of the compromissory clause, it
could not get to this question before first determining that there was such
a dispute, which it did so solely on the basis of post‑application conduct:
“by reason of the rejection by Yugoslavia of the complaints formulated
against it by Bosnia and Herzegovina, ‘there is a legal dispute’ between
them” (Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1996 (II),
pp. 614‑615, paras. 28‑29; see Judgment, para. 50).
12. Commentators on the Statute endorse the flexible view. According
to Rosenne, the Court’s jurisdiction must normally be assessed as at the
date of the filing of the Application instituting the proceedings, but he
and Kolb both agree that the Mavrommatis principle applies to the question
whether a dispute exists as at the critical date.
““The Court will not allow itself to be hampered by a mere defect
of form the removal of which depends solely on the party concerned,
for example where proceedings are instituted shortly before the entry
into force of the title of jurisdiction for the parties concerned, so that
a new application in identical terms could be filed after the relevant
date had come.” (Shabtai Rosenne, The Law and Practice of the International
Court: 1920‑2005, (4th ed., 2006), pp. 510‑511.)
Similarly, Kolb says:
“before the parties seise the Court, there must at least be the beginnings
of a dispute. The definitive dispute can, however, crystallize
later, in the course of the proceedings. And it can equally well be
modified or evolve as the case progresses.
�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������
It is certainly right to say that the institution of proceedings does
not automatically create a dispute. If it did, the distinct requirement
that a dispute exists would be devoid of all justification and value.
�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������
[T]he Mavrommatis principle discussed above also applies . . . It
remains necessary to consider whether the conditions for bringing a
case are satisfied at the moment the case is brought to the Court,
although ‘it would always have been possible for the applicant to
re-submit his application in the same terms after.’. . . It is however,
unnecessary to oblige the claimant to start again the case by a new
armes nucléaires et désarmement (op. diss. crawford) 799
251
Recueil 1998, p. 316‑317, par. 91 et 93). Dans le présent arrêt, la Cour
n’explique pas pourquoi elle s’écarte du précédent de l’affaire relative à
l’Application de la convention pour la prévention et la répression du crime
de génocide (Bosnie‑Herzégovine c. Yougoslavie). S’il est vrai que, dans
cette affaire, la Cour s’intéressait surtout à la question de savoir si le différend
entrait dans les prévisions de la clause compromissoire, elle n’avait
pu arriver à cette question qu’en établissant tout d’abord que ce différend
existait, ce qu’elle a fait exclusivement sur la base d’un comportement
postérieur à la requête : « du fait du rejet, par la Yougoslavie, des griefs
formulés à son encontre par la Bosnie‑Herzégovine, « il existe un différend
d’ordre juridique » entre elles » (exceptions préliminaires, arrêt,
C.I.J. Recueil 1996 (II), p. 614‑615, par. 28 et 29 ; voir le présent arrêt,
par. 50).
12. Les commentateurs du Statut souscrivent à l’idée d’une approche
souple. Selon Rosenne, la compétence de la Cour doit normalement
s’apprécier
à la date du dépôt de la requête introductive d’instance,
mais Kolb et lui conviennent tous deux que le principe Mavrommatis
s’applique dès qu’il s’agit de savoir si un différend existe à la date
critique.
« La Cour ne pourrait s’arrêter à un défaut de forme qu’il dépendrait
de la seule partie intéressée de faire disparaître, par exemple
lorsqu’une instance est introduite peu de temps avant l’entrée en
vigueur du titre de compétence pour les parties concernées, si bien
qu’une nouvelle requête formulée dans des termes identiques pourrait
être déposée après la date pertinente. » (Shabtai Rosenne, The
Law and Practice of the International Court : 1920‑2005, 4e éd., 2006,
p. 510‑511.)
Kolb tient un discours similaire :
« avant que les parties ne puissent saisir la Cour, il doit y avoir au
moins un commencement de différend. Le différend définitif peut,
quant à lui, se cristalliser plus tard, au cours de l’instance. Et il peut
également changer de forme ou évoluer au fur et à mesure du déroulement
de la procédure.
�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������
Il est assurément juste de dire que l’introduction d’une instance ne
crée pas automatiquement un différend. Si elle le faisait, la condition
expresse de l’existence d’un différend n’aurait aucun sens ni aucune
utilité.
�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������
[L]e principe Mavrommatis examiné plus haut s’applique aussi… Il
reste nécessaire d’examiner si les conditions pour introduire une instance
sont remplies à la date à laquelle la Cour est saisie de ladite
instance, même s’« il [est] toujours possible, pour la partie demanderesse,
de présenter à nouveau sa requête, dans les mêmes termes,
après… » Il n’est cependant pas nécessaire d’obliger le demandeur à
800 nuclear arms and disarmament (diss. op. crawford)
252
application, for want of a dispute at the initial critical date. This
would be an excessively formalistic exercise, with no significant effects
except to increase the administrative burden on the Court and the
parties.” (Robert Kolb, The International Court of Justice (2013),
p. 315.)
13. Since 1922, there have been three occasions on which the absence
of a dispute has resulted in the Court or its predecessor determining that
it could not hear part of a claim. In each, there had been prior correspondence
or statements but the applicant later sought to add other issues or
claims. In such a case, it was open for the Court to focus on what the
parties had previously treated as the gist of the dispute. The absence of
any discussion of the additional claim, in a context in which the parties
were conducting bilateral discussions on a closely related matter, showed
that there was in truth no dispute over the additional claim.
14. In Electricity Company of Sofia, the Permanent Court considered
that the claim by Belgium against a Bulgarian tax was inadmissible (Electricity
Company of Sofia and Bulgaria [Belgium v. Bulgaria], Preliminary
Objection, 1939, P.C.I.J., Series A/B, No. 77, p. 83). In that case, there
had been a letter sent by Belgium to Bulgaria on 24 June 1937 clearly
notifying it of the other matters that were ultimately brought to the Court
but ignoring the tax claim. In that context, it was open to the Court to
determine that there was no dispute on the additional issue.
15. In Belgium v. Senegal, the Court determined that there was no dispute
as to whether Senegal had breached a customary international law
obligation to bring criminal proceedings against Mr. Habré for crimes of
humanity allegedly committed by him, including torture, war crimes and
genocide. The Court concluded that “[i]n the light of the diplomatic
exchanges between the Parties . . . the Court considers that such a dispute
did not exist on that date”. (Questions relating to the Obligation to Prosecute
or Extradite (Belgium v. Senegal), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports
2012 (II), p. 444, para. 54.) In particular, it noted that those exchanges
did not refer to any customary international law obligation, but only to
the treaty obligation under the Convention against Torture. Moreover, in
a Note Verbale sent two months before filing its Application, Belgium did
not mention any customary international law obligation, even though the
Note Verbale otherwise set out clearly the dispute between the parties
“regarding the application and interpretation of the obligations resulting
from the relevant provisions of the [Convention against Torture]” (ibid.,
p. 445, para. 54). Belgium had thus used the diplomatic channel to define
the subject-matter and scope of its dispute with Senegal. In this context,
it was open for the Court to infer that there was no dispute on the additional
issue. Moreover, there was no need for the Court to apply a flexible
approach, since it had already determined that it had jurisdiction over the
armes nucléaires et désarmement (op. diss. crawford) 800
252
introduire à nouveau l’instance en déposant une nouvelle requête au
motif que le différend n’existait pas à la date critique initiale. Ce
serait une approche formaliste, qui n’aurait d’autre effet que d’augmenter
la charge administrative pesant sur la Cour et les parties. »
(Robert Kolb, The International Court of Justice, 2013, p. 315.)
13. Depuis 1922, on compte trois affaires dans lesquelles l’absence de
différend a conduit la Cour ou sa devancière à décider qu’elle ne pouvait
connaître d’une partie d’une requête. Dans chacune de ces affaires, il y
avait eu des correspondances ou des déclarations antérieures, mais le
demandeur avait par la suite essayé d’ajouter d’autres questions ou réclamations.
Dès lors, il était loisible à la Cour de se concentrer sur ce que les
parties avaient présenté jusque‑là comme l’essentiel de leur différend.
L’absence de toute discussion au sujet de la réclamation supplémentaire,
alors que les parties avaient des échanges bilatéraux sur une question
étroitement liée, montrait bien qu’il n’existait en vérité aucun différend au
sujet de ladite réclamation.
14. Dans l’affaire de la Compagnie d’électricité de Sofia et de Bulgarie,
la Cour permanente a déclaré irrecevable une réclamation de la Belgique
contre un impôt bulgare (Compagnie d’électricité de Sofia et de Bulgarie,
arrêt, 1939, C.P.J.I. série A/B no 77, p. 83). La Belgique avait adressé à la
Bulgarie une lettre datée du 24 juin 1937 par laquelle elle lui notifiait clairement
les autres questions dont a été finalement saisie la Cour permanente,
mais ne mentionnait pas sa réclamation relative à l’impôt bulgare.
Il était donc loisible à la Cour permanente de statuer qu’il n’existait pas
de différend au sujet de cette réclamation supplémentaire.
15. Dans l’affaire Belgique c. Sénégal, la Cour internationale de Justice
a conclu qu’il n’existait pas de différend sur les manquements éventuels
du Sénégal à une obligation de droit international coutumier qui lui commanderait
d’engager des poursuites pénales à l’encontre de M. Habré à
raison des crimes contre l’humanité que celui‑ci aurait commis, y compris
des actes de torture, des crimes de guerre et des actes de génocide. On
peut lire dans son arrêt que, « [a]u vu de la correspondance diplomatique
échangée entre les Parties, … la Cour estime qu’un tel différend n’existait
pas à cette date » (Questions concernant l’obligation de poursuivre ou d’extrader
(Belgique c. Sénégal), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2012 (II), p. 444,
par. 54). En effet, la Cour a relevé que cette correspondance diplomatique
ne mentionnait que des obligations conventionnelles au titre de la convention
contre la torture, et aucune obligation de droit international coutumier.
De plus, même dans une note verbale adressée au Sénégal deux
mois avant le dépôt de sa requête, la Belgique ne mentionnait toujours
aucune obligation de droit international coutumier, alors qu’elle y faisait
clairement état du différend entre les parties « au sujet de l’application et
de l’interprétation des obligations résultant des dispositions pertinentes
de la convention … contre la torture » (ibid., p. 445, par. 54). La Belgique
avait ainsi utilisé la voie diplomatique pour définir l’objet et la portée de
son différend avec le Sénégal. Dans ces conditions, la Cour était fondée à
801 nuclear arms and disarmament (diss. op. crawford)
253
treaty dispute as to the obligation to charge or extradite Mr. Habré,
a matter closely related to the alleged customary international law
obligation.
16. More recently, in Alleged Violations of Sovereign Rights and Maritime
Spaces in the Caribbean Sea, the Court held that there was no dispute
over Nicaragua’s claim that Colombia had violated Article 2 (4) of
the United Nations Charter and the customary international law obligation
prohibiting the use or threat of use of force. The Court there had
relied on statements made by the highest representatives of the Parties to
support its conclusion that a closely related dispute existed over Colombia’s
alleged breaches of Nicaragua’s maritime rights (Alleged Violations
of Sovereign Rights and Maritime Spaces in the Caribbean Sea (Nicaragua
v. Colombia), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2016
(I), pp. 31-33, paras. 69, 73). As to the use of force, the Court stressed
that Nicaraguan officials had expressly said that there was no issue, stating
just eight days before the application was filed that the two countries
“have not had any conflicts in those waters” (ibid., p. 33, para. 76). Taking
into account the conduct of the parties, it was open for the Court to
conclude that no such dispute existed. As in Belgium v. Senegal, the Court
may also have been influenced by the fact that the substance of the dispute
as to the maritime rights of Nicaragua in the Caribbean Sea would
be dealt with, so that it was not necessary to apply the Mavrommatis
principle to find that a dispute had subsequently come into existence.
17. Moreover, as the Court says here (but does not seem to apply),
there is no requirement for formal notification. This was confirmed by the
Court in Alleged Violations of Sovereign Rights and Maritime Spaces in
the Caribbean Sea, where it rejected Colombia’s argument based on the
failure of Nicaragua to notify it through diplomatic channels (Alleged
Violations of Sovereign Rights and Maritime Spaces in the Caribbean Sea
(Nicaragua v. Colombia), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports
2016 (I), p 32, para. 72).
18. The Court here relies on the series of cases discussed above to bolster
its conclusion and also relies on Georgia v. Russian Federation.
Although this case is in line with the recent rise of formalism, it cannot be
seen in the same terms as the Optional Clause cases. It involved a set of
specific issues in relation to the Convention for the Elimination of Racial
Discrimination (CERD), notably its compromissory clause, Article 22,
which provides:
armes nucléaires et désarmement (op. diss. crawford) 801
253
en déduire qu’il n’existait pas de différend entre les parties au sujet de la
question supplémentaire. En outre, elle n’avait nul besoin de faire preuve
de souplesse, puisqu’elle avait déjà conclu qu’elle était compétente pour
statuer sur le différend de droit conventionnel relatif à l’obligation de
poursuivre ou d’extrader M. Habré, c’est‑à‑dire sur une question étroitement
liée à l’obligation de droit international coutumier alléguée.
16. Plus récemment, dans l’affaire relative à des Violations alléguées de
droits souverains et d’espaces maritimes dans la mer des Caraïbes, la Cour
a conclu qu’il n’existait pas de différend au sujet de la demande du Nicaragua
selon laquelle la Colombie avait manqué à l’obligation qui lui
incombait en vertu du paragraphe 4 de l’article 2 de la Charte des
Nations Unies et du droit international coutumier interdisant de recourir
à la menace ou à l’emploi de la force. Elle s’est appuyée sur des déclarations
faites par les plus hauts représentants des parties pour conclure à
l’existence d’un différend étroitement lié concernant les violations qu’aurait
commises la Colombie à l’égard des droits du Nicaragua dans certains
espaces maritimes (Violations alléguées de droits souverains et
d’espaces maritimes dans la mer des Caraïbes (Nicaragua c. Colombie),
exceptions préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2016 (I), p. 31-33, par. 69
et 73). Quant à l’emploi de la force, la Cour a souligné que les responsables
nicaraguayens avaient déclaré qu’il n’y avait aucun problème, affirmant
huit jours à peine avant le dépôt de la requête que les deux pays n’avaient
eu « aucun conflit dans ces eaux » (ibid., p. 33, par. 76). Compte tenu du
comportement des parties, la Cour a conclu qu’il n’existait pas de différend
sur ce point. Comme dans l’affaire Belgique c. Sénégal, la Cour a pu être
aussi influencée par le fait que le différend relatif aux droits maritimes du
Nicaragua dans la mer des Caraïbes ferait l’objet d’un examen sur le fond,
si bien qu’il n’était pas nécessaire d’appliquer le principe Mavrommatis
pour conclure qu’un différend avait vu le jour ultérieurement.
17. De surcroît, comme le dit la Cour ici (apparemment sans l’appliquer),
il n’existe pas d’obligation de notification officielle. La Cour l’a
confirmé dans l’affaire relative à des Violations alléguées de droits souverains
et d’espaces maritimes dans la mer des Caraïbes lorsqu’elle a rejeté
l’argument de la Colombie selon lequel le Nicaragua ne lui avait pas
notifié
l’existence du différend par la voie diplomatique (Violations
alléguées
de droits souverains et d’espaces maritimes dans la mer des
Caraïbes (Nicaragua c. Colombie), exceptions préliminaires, arrêt,
C.I.J. Recueil 2016 (I), p. 32, par. 72).
18. La Cour s’appuie ici sur la série d’arrêts examinés plus haut pour
étayer sa conclusion, et invoque également l’affaire Géorgie c. Fédération
de Russie. Bien que cette dernière affaire participe de la récente montée du
formalisme, elle ne saurait être appréhendée dans les mêmes termes que
les affaires faisant intervenir la clause facultative. Elle comprenait en effet
un certain nombre de questions spécifiques en rapport avec la convention
internationale sur l’élimination de toutes les formes de discrimination
raciale, notamment la clause compromissoire de son article 22, qui se lit
comme suit :
802 nuclear arms and disarmament (diss. op. crawford)
254
“Any dispute between two or more States parties with respect to
the interpretation or application of this Convention, which is not settled
by negotiation or by the procedures expressly provided for in this
Convention, shall, at the request of any of the parties to the dispute,
be referred to the International Court of Justice for decision, unless
the disputants agree to another mode of settlement.”
That clause stipulates a requirement of prior negotiation and/or other
procedures (including arbitration) before the “dispute” can be submitted
to the Court. Evidently the dispute must have existed, and have been the
subject of negotiation, before that time. Moreover, in Georgia v. Russian
Federation there could be no doubt that a long‑standing dispute existed
between the parties. Rather, the doubt was whether that dispute really
concerned racial discrimination, however broadly defined, or whether
Article 22 was being used as a device to bring a wider set of issues before
the Court.
IV. Multilateral Disputes
19. In the present case, the Marshall Islands does not suggest that
there were any of the normal indicators of a bilateral dispute, most obviously
because there had not been any correspondence between the States
or any bilateral discussion on the subject. Rather it argues that a dispute
had arisen through statements made in multilateral fora.
20. South West Africa (preliminary objections) is crucial in this regard.
There, the Court held that:
“diplomacy by conference or parliamentary diplomacy has come to
be recognized in the past four or five decades as one of the established
modes of international negotiation. In cases where the disputed questions
are of common interest to a group of States on one side or the
other in an organized body, parliamentary or conference diplomacy
has often been found to be the most practical form of negotiation.
The number of parties to one side or the other of a dispute is of no
importance; it depends upon the nature of the question at issue. If it
is one of mutual interest to many States, whether in an organized
body or not, there is no reason why each of them should go through
the formality and pretence of direct negotiation with the common
adversary State after they have already fully participated in the collective
negotiations with the same State in opposition.” (South West
Africa, (Ethiopia v. South Africa; Liberia v. South Africa), Preliminary
Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1962, p. 346.)
armes nucléaires et désarmement (op. diss. crawford) 802
254
« Tout différend entre deux ou plusieurs Etats parties touchant
l’interprétation ou l’application de la présente Convention qui n’aura
pas été réglé par voie de négociation ou au moyen des procédures
expressément prévues par ladite Convention sera porté, à la requête
de toute partie au différend, devant la Cour internationale de Justice
pour qu’elle statue à son sujet, à moins que les parties au différend ne
conviennent d’un autre mode de règlement. »
Cette clause fait de la tenue de négociations ou du recours à d’autres
procédures de règlement, parmi lesquelles l’arbitrage, une condition préalable
à remplir pour pouvoir saisir la Cour d’un « différend ». Il va donc
de soi que le différend doit avoir existé et avoir fait l’objet de négociations
avant cette saisine. De plus, dans l’affaire Géorgie c. Fédération de Russie,
il n’y avait aucun doute qu’un différend existait depuis longtemps entre
les parties. Le doute portait plutôt sur la question de savoir si le différend
portait vraiment sur la discrimination raciale, dans son acception la plus
large, ou si l’article 22 n’était pas instrumentalisé afin de saisir la Cour
d’un ensemble plus vaste de questions.
IV. Différends multilatéraux
19. Dans la présente espèce, les Iles Marshall n’ont pas prétendu produire
les indices normaux de l’existence d’un différend bilatéral, probablement
parce qu’il n’y avait eu entre les Etats concernés aucun échange
de correspondance ni aucune discussion sur la question. Elles ont préféré
déclarer qu’un différend était né par le biais de déclarations faites dans
des enceintes internationales.
20. L’arrêt rendu dans les affaires du Sud‑Ouest africain (exceptions
préliminaires) est crucial à cet égard. La Cour y a précisé ce qui suit :
« depuis quarante ou cinquante ans, la diplomatie pratiquée au sein
des conférences ou diplomatie parlementaire s’est fait reconnaître
comme l’un des moyens établis de conduire des négociations internationales.
Lorsque des questions en litige intéressent à la fois un
groupe d’Etats, de part ou d’autre, au sein d’un corps organisé, la
diplomatie parlementaire ou diplomatie par conférences s’est souvent
avérée la voie de négociation la plus pratique. Peu importe le
nombre de parties s’opposant dans un différend ; tout dépend de la
nature de la question en litige. Lorsqu’il s’agit d’une question affectant
les intérêts mutuels de nombreux Etats, qu’ils fassent ou non
partie d’un corps organisé, il n’y a aucune raison pour que chacun
d’eux se conforme au formalisme et aux faux‑semblants d’une
négociation
directe avec l’Etat auquel ils s’opposent s’ils ont déjà
pleinement participé aux négociations collectives avec cet Etat
adverse. » (Sud‑Ouest africain (Ethiopie c. Afrique du Sud ; Libéria
c. Afrique du Sud), exceptions préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil
1962, p. 346.)
803 nuclear arms and disarmament (diss. op. crawford)
255
That case involved a requirement for prior negotiation in the relevant
compromissory clause. But the passage cited is also authority for the
broader point that disputes can crystallize in multilateral fora involving a
plurality of States. The Court in 1962 was sharply divided between those
holding that a dispute in a multilateral framework is simply an aggregate
of disputes, each to be assessed in its own right, and a broader view that
some disputes can be genuinely multilateral. In the present Judgment, the
Court does not deny that a dispute between two States may be demonstrated
by multilateral exchanges, but it states that they must demonstrate
that the claim of one party is opposed by the other (Judgment, paras. 36,
45). No doubt any multilateral dispute must ultimately be fitted within
the bilateral mode of dispute settlement. But this does not require the
Court to treat the underlying relations as bilateral ab initio.
21. It is now established — contrary to the inferences commonly drawn
from the merits phase of South West Africa — that States can be parties
to disputes about obligations in the performance of which they have no
specific material interests. This much is clear from Article 48 of the International
Law Commission’s Articles on the Responsibility of States for
Internationally Wrongful Acts (ILC Articles). It is the case here, notwithstanding
the Marshall Islands’ historic connection as the location of
nuclear weapons testing by the United States, and the resulting concerns
of its Government and people about nuclear issues. The importance of
the South West Africa cases lies in the recognition that a multilateral disagreement
can crystallize for adjacent purposes as a series of individual
disputes coming within the Statute.
22. Finally, I should say a word about Article 43 of the ILC Articles,
on which both India and the United Kingdom relied, although it was not
mentioned by Pakistan (which elected not to make oral submissions). The
ILC’s Commentary confirms that Article 43 does not address the jurisdiction
of courts or the admissibility of disputes. It nonetheless deals with an
analogical question: notice in relation to a claim of responsibility of a
State. But there is nothing in the Commentary that prevents such notice
being given by filing an application. Article 43 is not a pre‑notification
requirement, it is a notification requirement.
23. The ILC Commentary relies in part on Certain Phosphate Lands to
support the idea that there is flexibility in how notification may occur
(Certain Phosphate Lands in Nauru, (Nauru v. Australia), Preliminary
Objections, I.C.J. Reports 1992, p. 240). According to paragraph (4) of
the Commentary on Article 43, “it is not the function of the articles to
specify in detail the form which an invocation of responsibility should
armes nucléaires et désarmement (op. diss. crawford) 803
255
Dans ces affaires, la clause compromissoire en question comprenait une
condition de négociations préalables. Mais le passage précité fait également
autorité en affirmant plus largement que les différends peuvent « se
cristalliser » dans des enceintes multilatérales réunissant une pluralité
d’Etats. En 1962, la Cour était profondément divisée entre ceux qui
tenaient qu’un différend dans un cadre multilatéral n’était rien d’autre
qu’un agrégat de différends dont chacun devait être analysé individuellement,
et les tenants d’une conception plus large voulant que certains différends
soient véritablement multilatéraux. Dans le présent arrêt, la Cour
ne nie pas qu’un différend entre deux Etats puisse être attesté par des
échanges multilatéraux, mais elle déclare que ces échanges doivent montrer
que les réclamations de l’une des parties se heurtent à l’opposition de
l’autre (arrêt, par. 36 et 45). Il ne fait pas de doute que tout différend
multilatéral doit en fin de compte être ajusté au mode bilatéral de règlement
des différends. Mais cela n’impose pas à la Cour de traiter les relations
en cause comme bilatérales ab initio.
21. Il est aujourd’hui bien établi que — contrairement aux conclusions
communément tirées de l’examen au fond des affaires du Sud‑Ouest
africain
— les Etats peuvent être parties à des différends relatifs à des
obligations dans l’exécution desquelles ils n’ont aucun intérêt concret particulier.
Cela ressort clairement de l’article 48 des articles de la Commission
du droit international (ci‑après, la « CDI ») sur la responsabilité de
l’Etat pour fait internationalement illicite. Et c’est le cas ici, nonobstant
l’intérêt historique que font valoir les Iles Marshall en leur qualité de lieu
d’expérimentation d’armes nucléaires par les Etats‑Unis d’Amérique, et
les préoccupations à l’égard des questions nucléaires qui en ont résulté
pour leur gouvernement et leurs citoyens. L’importance des affaires du
Sud‑Ouest africain tient à ce qu’elles ont permis de reconnaître qu’un
désaccord multilatéral pouvait se cristalliser à des fins connexes en une
série de différends individuels entrant dans le champ d’application du
Statut.
22. Enfin, même si le Pakistan (qui a décidé de ne pas participer à la
procédure orale) ne l’a pas mentionné, je voudrais dire un mot de l’article
43 des articles de la CDI, sur lequel l’Inde et le Royaume‑Uni se sont
appuyés. Le commentaire de la CDI confirme que cet article ne traite pas
des questions de compétence des cours et tribunaux et de recevabilité des
différends. Il n’en traite pas moins d’une question analogue, qui est celle
de la notification permettant de mettre en cause la responsabilité d’un
Etat. Rien dans le commentaire n’empêche cependant que cette notification
puisse être effectuée par dépôt d’une requête. L’article 43 prévoit une
obligation de notification et non de notification préalable.
23. Le commentaire de la CDI s’appuie en partie sur l’affaire de Certaines
terres à phosphates à Nauru pour défendre l’idée d’une certaine souplesse
dans l’appréciation de la forme revêtue par la notification (Certaines
terres à phosphates à Nauru (Nauru c. Australie), exceptions préliminaires,
arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1992, p. 240). Selon le paragraphe 4 du commentaire
relatif à l’article 43, « [l]es présents articles n’ont pas vocation à détailler
804 nuclear arms and disarmament (diss. op. crawford)
256
take” 2. Nothing in Certain Phosphate Lands supports the proposition
that a dispute must be notified (or that the respondent must be objectively
aware of it) before it can be said to exist. Australia did not contest that
the dispute existed, rather it queried whether the dispute had been
submitted
within a reasonable time, and sought to infer that Nauru’s
rehabilitation claim had been waived. In that context, it was relevant
that Nauru had taken steps (limited and informal) to bring the matter
again to Australia’s attention.
V. The Present Case
24. Turning to the present case, I share the Court’s view that a dispute
cannot be created simply by the filing of an application (see Judgment,
paras. 40, 50) because otherwise the requirement that a dispute exist
would be completely nullified. Rather, the question is whether enough of
the dispute was in existence prior to the Application here and whether the
Court has enough flexibility to recognize it as a dispute.
25. To put it at its lowest, there was an incipient dispute between the
Marshall Islands and the nuclear-weapon States at the time of Nayarit.
This was not an accidental development, but the expression of a real
underlying disagreement of a legal character as to the trajectory of Article
VI and a corresponding legal obligation at customary international
law (if one exists). The Marshall Islands is a very small State, with compelling
individual interests vis‑à‑vis several of the nuclear‑weapon States.
But by the time of Nayarit, by stages, tentatively, but in time, the Marshall
Islands had associated itself with one side of that multilateral disagreement,
revealing sufficiently for present purposes a claim in positive
opposition to the conduct and claims of the nuclear‑weapons States,
including the respondent State.
26. The Court here says the Nayarit statement was insufficient because
(i) it did not name the opposing States, (ii) it did not specify the conduct
that had given rise to the alleged breach by the Respondent, and (iii) it
was delivered in a context not strictly relating to nuclear disarmament,
since the title of the Conference was the “Humanitarian Impact of
Nuclear Weapons”, such that nothing can be inferred from the lack of
reply by Pakistan (Judgment, paras. 45, 47, 55). These arguments impose
too high a threshold for determining the existence of a dispute. There is
no doubt that Pakistan is one of the “States possessing nuclear weapons”:
Pakistan publicly acknowledges that it has such weapons. Moreover, in a
2 The ILC rejected the Special Rapporteur’s proposal that notification be in writing.
armes nucléaires et désarmement (op. diss. crawford) 804
256
la forme que l’invocation de la responsabilité doit revêtir » 2. Rien dans
l’arrêt rendu en l’affaire de Certaines terres à phosphates n’accrédite l’idée
qu’un différend doit avoir été notifié (ou que le défendeur doive en avoir
objectivement connaissance) pour être réputé exister. L’Australie n’a pas
contesté l’existence du différend, elle a plutôt contesté qu’il ait été soumis
à la Cour dans des délais raisonnables et cherché à accréditer l’idée que,
de ce fait, Nauru avait renoncé à ses revendications concernant la remise
en état des terres à phosphates. Dans ce contexte, il s’est révélé utile que
Nauru ait pris des mesures (limitées et officieuses) pour appeler à nouveau
l’attention de l’Australie sur la question.
V. La présente affaire
24. En ce qui concerne la présente affaire, je conviens avec la Cour que
le simple dépôt d’une requête ne saurait créer un différend (voir arrêt,
par. 40 et 50), car cela viderait de sa substance la règle selon laquelle un
différend doit exister. La question est plutôt de savoir, dans le cas présent,
si le différend existait suffisamment avant le dépôt de la requête et si la
Cour avait la latitude voulue pour le reconnaître en tant que différend.
25. A tout le moins, il existait, au moment de la conférence de Nayarit,
un différend naissant entre les Iles Marshall et les Etats dotés d’armes
nucléaires. Il s’agissait là non pas d’un événement accidentel, mais de l’expression
d’un désaccord latent et réel, d’ordre juridique, sur la portée de
l’article VI et d’une éventuelle obligation correspondante de droit international
coutumier. Les Iles Marshall sont un tout petit Etat, dont des intérêts
essentiels sont en jeu, à titre individuel, vis‑à‑vis de plusieurs des
Etats dotés d’armes nucléaires. A la date de la conférence de Nayarit, les
Iles Marshall s’étaient rangées par étapes, de façon d’abord hésitante,
mais finalement en temps voulu, dans l’un des camps de ce désaccord
multilatéral, mettant ainsi suffisamment en évidence, aux fins de la présente
affaire, une réclamation en opposition manifeste au comportement
et aux points de vue des Etats dotés d’armes nucléaires, y compris l’Etat
défendeur.
26. La Cour a avancé que la déclaration de Nayarit était insuffisante
parce qu’elle : i) ne nommait pas les Etats adverses ; ii) ne précisait pas le
comportement qui était à l’origine du manquement allégué du défendeur ;
et iii) avait été faite dans un contexte qui ne portait pas spécifiquement
sur le désarmement nucléaire, puisque le titre de la conférence était
« Impact humanitaire des armes nucléaires », de sorte que l’on ne pouvait
rien déduire de l’absence de réaction du Pakistan (arrêt, par. 45, 47 et 55).
Ces arguments imposent un critère trop strict pour établir l’existence d’un
différend. Il ne fait aucun doute que le Pakistan soit l’un des « Etats dotés
d’armes nucléaires » : il revendique publiquement la possession de ce type
2 La CDI a rejeté la proposition de son rapporteur spécial tendant à ce que la notification
soit faite par écrit.
805 nuclear arms and disarmament (diss. op. crawford)
257
context in which the very scope of Article VI of the NPT and a corresponding
customary international law obligation is the subject‑matter of
a disagreement articulated by a group of States, the Marshall Islands
should not be required at this stage to particularize further the specific
steps Pakistan should take or have taken. Finally, the Conference title
itself included the words “Nuclear Weapons”; and one of its purposes
was to discuss nuclear disarmament in order to prevent the devastating
humanitarian impacts that nuclear weapons could cause. This is an
appropriate multilateral context, and it does not dilute the force of what
the Marshall Islands said, which was not limited to a single forgettable
sentence:
“As stated by representatives of our Government during the
High‑Level Meeting on Nuclear Disarmament, the United Nations
must stop the spread of nuclear weapons, while securing peace in a
world without nuclear weapons. We urgently renew our call to all
states possessing nuclear weapons to intensify efforts to address their
responsibilities in moving towards an effective and secure disarmament.
It has been almost 68 years since the General Assembly in its very
first resolution established a mechanism for the elimination from
national arsenals of nuclear weapons and other weapons adaptable
to mass destruction. It has been more than 45 years since the
conclusion
of the Treaty on Non‑Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons.
Yet today, we still fear the day where we are forced to relive the
horrors.
We do not want other people to suffer the same consequences
we did!
Mr. Chairman, the Marshall Islands is convinced that multilateral
negotiations on achieving and sustaining a world free of nuclear
weapons are long overdue. Indeed we believe that States possessing
nuclear arsenals are failing to fulfil their legal obligations in this
regard. Immediate commencement and conclusion of such negotiations
is required by legal obligation of nuclear disarmament resting
upon each and every State under Article VI of the Non Proliferation
Treaty and customary international law. It also would achieve the
objective of nuclear disarmament long and consistently set by the
United Nations, and fulfil our responsibilities to present and future
generations while honouring the past ones.”
27. It is not necessary — and indeed would be inappropriate at this
stage — to go into the substance of the conflict over Article VI of the
NPT. However, the fact of that conflict is public knowledge, to which the
Court need not be blind. Thus, for instance, the “New Agenda” Coalition,
which currently comprises Brazil, Egypt, Ireland, Mexico, New Zea-
armes nucléaires et désarmement (op. diss. crawford) 805
257
d’armes. De plus, dans un contexte où la portée même de l’article VI du
traité sur la non‑prolifération (ci‑après, le « TNP ») et de l’obligation correspondante
de droit international coutumier fait l’objet d’un désaccord
exprimé par un groupe d’Etats, les Iles Marshall ne devraient pas se voir
imposer, à ce stade, de préciser plus avant les mesures spécifiques que le
Pakistan devrait prendre ou aurait dû prendre. Enfin, le titre même de la
conférence contenait les mots « armes nucléaires » ; et l’un des objectifs de
la conférence était de débattre du désarmement nucléaire en vue de prévenir
l’impact humanitaire désastreux que peuvent avoir ces armes. Il s’agit
là d’un contexte multilatéral approprié qui ne dilue en rien le vigoureux
message adressé par les Iles Marshall, lequel ne se limitait pas à une seule
phrase sans grand intérêt :
« Comme l’ont déclaré les représentants de notre gouvernement à la
réunion de haut niveau sur le désarmement nucléaire, l’Organisation
des Nations Unies doit mettre un terme à la prolifération des armes
nucléaires et garantir la paix dans un monde délivré de ces armes.
Nous réitérons instamment notre appel à tous les Etats dotés d’armes
nucléaires à intensifier leurs efforts pour assumer leurs responsabilités
en vue d’un désarmement effectif réalisé en toute sécurité.
Cela fait près de soixante-huit ans que l’Assemblée générale, dans
sa toute première résolution, a créé un mécanisme visant à éliminer,
des armements nationaux, les armes atomiques et toutes autres armes
importantes permettant des destructions massives. Cela fait plus de
quarante-cinq ans que le traité sur la non‑prolifération des armes
nucléaires a été conclu. Or nous continuons aujourd’hui encore à
redouter le jour où nous serons forcés de revivre les horreurs que
nous avons connues. Nous ne voulons pas que d’autres aient à subir
les mêmes conséquences que nous.
Monsieur le président, les Iles Marshall sont convaincues que des
négociations multilatérales visant à créer et à maintenir un monde
dépourvu d’armes nucléaires auraient dû être engagées depuis longtemps.
Nous estimons en effet que les Etats possédant un arsenal
nucléaire ne respectent pas leurs obligations à cet égard. L’obligation
d’oeuvrer au désarmement nucléaire qui incombe à chaque Etat en
vertu de l’article VI du traité sur la non‑prolifération nucléaire et du
droit international coutumier impose l’ouverture immédiate de telles
négociations et leur aboutissement. Nous réaliserions ainsi l’objectif
de désarmement nucléaire poursuivi depuis longtemps et avec
constance par l’ONU, assumerions nos responsabilités à l’égard des
générations actuelles et futures et rendrions hommage aux générations
passées. »
27. Il n’est pas nécessaire — et ce serait même inapproprié à ce stade —
d’examiner au fond le différend au sujet de l’article VI du TNP. Cela dit,
ce différend est un fait de notoriété publique sur lequel la Cour ne saurait
fermer les yeux. Ainsi, la « Coalition pour un nouvel ordre du jour », qui
comprend actuellement l’Afrique du Sud, le Brésil, l’Egypte, l’Irlande, le
806 nuclear arms and disarmament (diss. op. crawford)
258
land and South Africa, has, at least since 2013, condemned the failure by
all State parties, particularly the nuclear‑weapon States, to comply with
the obligation to pursue in good faith and bring to a conclusion negotiations
leading to nuclear disarmament in all its aspects under strict and
effective international control. A 2014 Working Paper stated that it was
“not acceptable” that the nuclear‑weapon States
“have refused to engage in or support meaningful discussions about
the humanitarian impact of nuclear weapons, the follow‑up process
to the high‑level meeting of the General Assembly on nuclear disarmament,
or the Open‑ended Working Group on taking forward
nuclear disarmament negotiations” 3.
The statement of the Marshall Islands should be viewed in the context of
this broader multilateral disagreement.
28. For these reasons, in my view there was, as at the date of the Application
in the present case, a dispute between the Marshall Islands and the
respondent State as to the latter’s compliance with Article VI of the NPT.
That being so, it is unnecessary to consider whether any deficiency in that
regard can and should be remedied in the exercise of the Mavrommatis
discretion, recognized in Croatia v. Serbia.
VI. The Monetary Gold Principle
29. Finally, I should say something about what was perhaps the most
plausible of the other objections to jurisdiction and admissibility made by
the Respondent. This is the proposition that the Court lacks competence
in a contentious case between State A and State B to determine that an
extant third State, State C, is in breach of its legal obligations; if the case
cannot be decided in consequence, because State C has not consented to
jurisdiction, State A’s claim is inadmissible. That proposition, originating
in Monetary Gold, is now well-established (Monetary Gold Removed from
Rome in 1943 (Italy v. France; United Kingdom and United States of
America), Preliminary Question, I.C.J. Reports 1954, p. 32; see also:
Military
and Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua
v. United States of America), Jurisdiction and Admissibility, Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 1984, p. 431, para. 88; Land, Island and Maritime Frontier
3 Preparatory Committee for the 2015 Review Conference of the Parties to the Treaty
on the Non‑Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons, 2 April 2014, available at: http://www.
reachingcriticalwill.org/images/documents/Disarmament-fora/npt/prepcom14/documents/
WP18.pdf, last visited, 14 September 2016.
armes nucléaires et désarmement (op. diss. crawford) 806
258
Mexique et la Nouvelle‑Zélande, condamne depuis au moins 2013 les
Etats parties, et en particulier les Etats dotés d’armes nucléaires, pour ne
pas s’être acquittés de leur obligation de poursuivre de bonne foi et de
mener à terme des négociations conduisant au désarmement nucléaire
dans tous ses aspects sous un contrôle international strict et efficace.
Selon un document de travail de 2014, « il est inacceptable » que les Etats
dotés d’armes nucléaires
« refusent de participer à des débats productifs sur les conséquences
humanitaires des armes nucléaires, au processus de suivi de la réunion
de haut niveau de l’Assemblée générale sur le désarmement
nucléaire ou au groupe de travail à composition non limitée chargé
d’élaborer des propositions visant à faire avancer les négociations
multilatérales sur le désarmement nucléaire, ainsi que de leur apporter
leur soutien » 3.
La déclaration des Iles Marshall devait s’entendre dans le contexte de ce
désaccord multilatéral plus large.
28. Pour ces motifs, il existait à mon avis, à la date du dépôt de la
requête introduisant la présente instance, un différend entre les Iles Marshall
et l’Etat défendeur au sujet de l’exécution par ce dernier des dispositions
de l’article VI du TNP. Dans ces conditions, il n’y avait pas lieu d’examiner
la question de savoir si un éventuel défaut par rapport à la date de la
requête pouvait et devait être corrigé en usant de la latitude permise par
l’arrêt Mavrommatis et reconnue dans l’affaire Croatie c. Serbie.
VI. Principe de l’Or monétaire
29. Pour finir, je voudrais formuler quelques observations sur ce qui
était peut‑être la plus plausible des autres exceptions à la compétence et à
la recevabilité soulevées par le défendeur. Il s’agit de la thèse suivant
laquelle la Cour n’aurait pas compétence dans une affaire contentieuse
entre un Etat A et un Etat B pour décider si un Etat tiers, l’Etat C, a manqué
à ses obligations juridiques ; s’il s’ensuit que l’affaire ne peut pas être
jugée au motif que l’Etat C n’a pas donné son consentement à la compétence
de la Cour, la demande de l’Etat A serait irrecevable. Cette thèse, qui
trouve son origine dans l’arrêt rendu en l’affaire de l’Or monétaire, est
maintenant admise (Or monétaire pris à Rome en 1943 (Italie c. France,
Royaume-Uni et Etats‑Unis d’Amérique), question préliminaire, arrêt, C.I.J.
Recueil 1954, p. 32 ; voir également Activités militaires et paramilitaires au
Nicaragua et contre celui‑ci (Nicaragua c. Etats‑Unis d’Amérique), compé‑
3 Comité préparatoire de la Conférence des Parties chargée d’examiner le Traité
sur la non‑prolifération des armes nucléaires en 2015, 2 avril 2014, Nations Unies,
doc. NPT/CONF.2015/PC.III/WP.18 ; ce document peut être consulté à l’adresse Internet
suivante : http://www.un.org/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=NPT/CONF.2015/PC.III/
WP.18&Lang=F.
807 nuclear arms and disarmament (diss. op. crawford)
259
Dispute (El Salvador/Honduras), Application for Permission to Intervene,
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1990, pp. 114‑116, paras. 54‑56; Certain Phosphate
Lands in Nauru (Nauru v. Australia), Preliminary Objections, Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 1992, pp. 259‑262, paras. 50‑55; East Timor
(Portugal v. Australia) Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1995, pp. 104‑105,
paras. 34‑35). The case law has however set firm limits to the Monetary
Gold principle. It applies only where a determination of the legal
position of a third State is a necessary prerequisite to the determination
of the case before the Court (see: Application of the Convention on the
Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Croatia v. Serbia),
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2015 (I), pp. 57-58, para. 116). An inference or
implication as to the legal position of that third State is not enough: its
position is protected by Article 59 of the Statute (Certain Phosphate Lands
in Nauru (Nauru v. Australia), Preliminary Objections, Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 1992, pp. 260‑262, paras. 54‑55).
30. The Monetary Gold ground of inadmissibility is particularly sensitive
to the precise basis of the Applicant’s claim. The decision of a given
case may or may not rest on a prior determination of the legal position of
a third State depending on how the case is put. In the present case, Monetary
Gold may well impose limits on the consequences that can be drawn
from the Respondent’s conduct, if indeed it is held to involve a breach of
international law. But precisely what those limits are will depend on the
ground of decision. It is true, for example, that the Court cannot order
third States to enter into negotiations, and that one cannot negotiate
alone. But a third State could breach an obligation to negotiate by its
own conduct and the Court could determine as much. Everything depends
on what the precise scope and application of Article VI of the NPT, or
any parallel customary international law obligation, entail. This is at the
heart of the dispute in the present case. But these are all issues for the
merits.
(Signed) James Crawford.
armes nucléaires et désarmement (op. diss. crawford) 807
259
tence et recevabilité, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1984, p. 431, par. 88 ; Différend
frontalier terrestre, insulaire et maritime (El Salvador/Honduras), requête à
fin d’intervention, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1990, p. 114‑116, par. 54‑56 ; Certaines
terres à phosphates à Nauru (Nauru c. Australie), exceptions préliminaires,
arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1992, p. 259‑262, par. 50‑55 ; Timor oriental
(Portugal c. Australie), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1995, p. 104‑105, par. 34-35).
La jurisprudence a cependant strictement circonscrit le principe de l’Or
monétaire. Celui‑ci ne s’applique en effet qu’aux affaires où il est nécessaire
pour la Cour de se prononcer d’abord sur la situation juridique d’un Etat
tiers pour pouvoir statuer ensuite sur une demande dont elle est saisie (voir
Application de la convention pour la prévention et la répression du crime de
génocide (Croatie c. Serbie), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2015 (I), p. 57, par. 116).
Une simple déduction ou implication quant à la situation juridique de
pareil Etat ne suffit pas : les intérêts des Etats tiers sont protégés par l’article
59 du Statut de la Cour (Certaines terres à phosphates à Nauru (Nauru
c. Australie), exceptions préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1992, p. 260‑262,
par. 54 et 55).
30. Le motif d’irrecevabilité établi dans l’affaire de l’Or monétaire est
particulièrement sensible au fondement juridique exact de la réclamation
du demandeur. La décision qui sera prise dans une affaire donnée peut ou
non dépendre de la détermination préalable de la situation juridique d’un
Etat tiers et sera fonction de la façon dont l’affaire aura été présentée. En
l’espèce, le principe de l’Or monétaire aurait bien pu imposer des limites
aux conséquences susceptibles d’être tirées du comportement du défendeur,
à supposer qu’il ait été considéré que ce comportement impliquait
une violation du droit international. La nature précise de ces limites
aurait été fonction du motif invoqué dans la décision. Il est certain, par
exemple, que la Cour ne peut ordonner à des Etats tiers d’engager des
négociations, et que personne ne saurait négocier seul. Un Etat tiers pourrait
toutefois manquer par son propre comportement à une obligation de
négocier, et la Cour pourrait établir ce manquement. Tout dépend de ce
qu’autorisent exactement la portée et le champ d’application de l’article
VI du TNP ou d’une éventuelle obligation de droit international coutumier.
Ces questions se trouvaient au coeur du différend en la présente
espèce. Elles relevaient cependant toutes de la phase du fond.
(Signé) James Crawford.

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Dissenting opinion of Judge Crawford

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