Dissenting opinion of Judge Bennouna

Document Number
159-20161005-JUD-01-05-EN
Parent Document Number
159-20161005-JUD-01-00-EN
Document File
Bilingual Document File

D ISSENTING OPINION OF JUDGE B ENNOUNA

Exercise in pure formalism  Introduction of a subjective criterion in determining the
existence of the dispute  Sound administration of justice  Realism and flexibility of the case
law of the Court  The existence of the dispute, a question to be objectively decided.

The Court has declared that it lacks jurisdiction in the three cases brought by the Marshall
Islands against India, Pakistan and the United Kingdom respectively, on the same grounds: the
non-existence of a dispubetween the Parties. Consistently, I have voted against each of the three
Judgments adopted by the Court, and for the same reasons set forth in this opinion.

Naturally, the Marshall Islands has invoked the 1968 Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of
Nuclear Weapons (NPT) as well as customary international law in the proceedings against the

United Kingdom, these two States being parties to the treaty. However, the Marshall Islands has
referred only to customary international law regarding India and Pakistan, which are not parties to
the NPT.

The reasoning of the Court, however, does not address the issue of the customary nature of
Article VI of the NPT which goes to the merits of the case. The same applies to the Court’s
consideration of whether or not the Respondents have complied with the obligation to negotiate,

which is the subject-matter of the proceedings brought by the Marshall Islands.

Yet, with regard to the existence of a dispute, the Court has followed the same approach to
achieve a similar result in each of the three Judgments.

*

* *

The Marshall Islands has brought before the Court a dispute between itself and nine
countries which hold, or are presumed to hold, nuclear weapons, regardless of whether those
countries are parties to the NPT. The Court listed three cases against India, Pakistan and the

United Kingdom, which have made declarations recognizing the jurisdiction of the Court, pursuant
to Article 36, paragraph 2, of the Statute. The Court has found that it lacks jurisdiction in these
three cases, on the grounds that no disputes exist between each of the three States and the Marshall
Islands.

This is the first time that the International Court of Justice has found that it has no

jurisdiction on the sole basis of the non-existence of a dispute between the Parties. A reading of
the Judgment of the Court reflects the fact that the majority came to this conclusion only by an
exercise in pure formalism, artificially stopping the time of law and analysis at the date of
submission of the request by the Marshall Islands. And as if that were not enough, the majority has
resorted to a “criterion” bearing no relation to the well-established case law whereby in order for a
dispute to exist, the respondent must have been “aware, or could not have been unaware, that its
views were ‘positively opposed’ by the applicant” (paragraph 38). - 2 -

The introduction of this criterion, linked to the subjective views of the Respondent and of
those conducting the analysis, clearly goes against the entire case law of the ICJ and PCIJ,

according to which the existence of a dispute is determined objectively by the Court on the basis of
the evidence available to it, when it adopts its judgment. The Court has thus been able to
administer justice soundly and avoid the absurd situation in which it now finds itself after declaring
that it lacks jurisdiction in the three Judgments on Obligations concerning Negotiations relating to
Cessation of the Nuclear Arms Race and to Nuclear Disarmament. Indeed, the Parties have
disagreed clearly before the Court on points of fact and law, thereby demonstrating the existence of
legal disputes on the questions submitted to it.

In other words, the disputes are indeed there  and it would be sufficient for the Marshall
Islands to file fresh applications before the Court in order to prevent the ground of lack of
jurisdiction on which it has based itself in handing down its Judgments from being invoked again!

The Court, when faced with such situations, has first noted that its jurisdiction must normally
be ascertained at the time of the institution of the proceedings. But it has gone further and recalled

that “like its predecessor, [it] has also shown realism and flexibility in certain situations in which
the conditions governing the Court’s jurisdiction were not fully satisfied when proceedings were
initiated but were subsequently satisfied, before the Court ruled on its jurisdiction” (Application of
the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Croatia v. Serbia,
Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2008, p. 438, para. 81)

In particular, the Court refused to declare itself incompetent when it was sufficient for the
Applicant to “file a new application, identical to the present one, which would be unassailable in

this respect” (Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of
Genocide, Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1996 (II), p. 614, para. 26). Many
more instances could be cited in which the PCIJ, and then the ICJ, have rejected resorting to a
formalism that is excessive and contrary to the sound administration of justice.

In the relationship between international law and time, there is a rational element, namely the
determination of a point in time beyond which, theoretically, one must stop the watch, and a

pragmatic element in order to take into account the particular circumstances of the situation. The
judge in exercising its art, has to strike the right balance between these elements, so that justice is
done and seen to be done.

International judges had a duty to be even more vigilant in the present case, which concerns
a question of crucial importance for security in the world. That is another reason for the principal
judicial organ of the United Nations to undertake its role fully. Indeed, how can it shelter behind
purely formalistic considerations which both legal professionals and ordinary citizens would find

difficult to understand, rather than contributing, as it should do, to peace through international law,
which is the raison d’être of the Court.

The only issue here was the scope of the obligation to negotiate laid down in Article VI of
the NPT, an obligation that is also part of customary international law according to the Marshall
Islands:

“Each of the Parties to the Treaty undertakes to pursue negotiations in good

faith on effective measures relating to cessation of the nuclear arms race at an early
date and to nuclear disarmament, and on a treaty on general and complete
disarmament under strict and effective international control.” - 3 -

This obligation is well known to all those who have attended the meetings of States parties to
the NPT, which have been held regularly for more than 40 years or so. It is also known to the

Court, which, in its famous Advisory Opinion of 8 July 1996 on Legality of the Threat or Use of
Nuclear Weapons, pronounced clearly on the subject as follows:

“[t]he legal import of that obligation goes beyond that of a mere obligation of conduct;
the obligation involved here is an obligation to achieve a precise result  nuclear
disarmament in all its aspects  by adopting a particular course of conduct, namely,

the pursuit of negotiations on the matter in good faith” (I.C.J. Reports 1996 (I), p. 264,
para. 99).

For the background to the dispute in question, its human substance, we have to consider a
small State, the Marshall Islands, whose population of a few tens of thousands of people has
suffered terribly from the nuclear testing carried out in an area of its territory. This State has turned
to the principal judicial organ of the United Nations to seek justice, so that such suffering does not
occur again in future, through compliance with a conventional and/or customary obligation under

international law. That, however, is a matter which the Court would have had to deal with when
considering this case on the merits. And we have not reached that point, we are simply at the stage
of jurisdiction.

But what is the Court doing? Something novel, by concluding that no dispute exists, so that
it does not have to consider the merits of the case. In a sense, the Court is setting little store by its
jurisprudence, which is nonetheless what ensures that it is both visible and credible.

Judge Abraham referred to the well-established approach of the Court, in his separate
opinion appended to the Judgment in the Georgia v. Russian Federation case (Judgment on
Preliminary Objections of 1 April 2011):

“I shall first observe that until the present case the Court, whenever required to
decide on a preliminary objection based on the respondent’s contention that there was
no dispute, has made its decision  rejecting the objection  in a few short

paragraphs, and has made the determination as of the date on which it was ruling,
finding that the parties held clearly conflicting views at that date on the matters
constituting the subject of the application and consequently that a dispute existed
between them.” (I.C.J. Reports 2011 (I), p. 226, para. 8.)

However, the Court did not change its position when dealing with that case between Georgia
and the Russian Federation in 2011. In fact, it accepted that a dispute existed between the Parties

about the interpretation or application of the International Convention on the Elimination of All
Forms of Racial Discrimination (CERD), as Judge Abraham acknowledged. But it was obliged to
decline jurisdiction in the case because the compromissory clause in the Convention on which the
case was based (Art. 22) relates to “[a]ny dispute . . . which is not settled by negotiation or by the
procedures expressly provided for in this Convention”. It was this prior condition for referral to the
Court which had not been satisfied, and not that of the existence of the dispute.

We therefore do indeed have a jurisprudence which takes “a strictly realistic and practical

view, free of all hints of formalism”, as Judge Abraham put it in his opinion (I.C.J.
Reports 2011 (I), p. 228, para. 14), and which allows the Court to determine the existence of a
dispute not only on the basis of acts that took place prior to the filing of the Application, but also - 4 -

on that of the positions adopted by the Parties in the course of the written and oral proceedings.
The important thing is to establish “a disagreement on a point of law or fact, a conflict of legal

views or of interests”, to use the classic wording of the PCIJ’s Judgment in the Mavrommatis
Concessions case in 1924 (Judgment No. 2, 1924, P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 2, p. 11).

In the cases brought before the Court by the Marshall Islands, the latter has placed emphasis
on the statement that it made, before the filing of its Application, at the Second Conference on the
Humanitarian Impact of Nuclear Weapons, held in Narayit (Mexico) on 13 and 14 February 2014,
when it declared:

“Indeed we believe that States possessing nuclear arsenals are failing to fulfil
their legal obligations in this regard. Immediate commencement and conclusion of
such negotiations is required by legal obligation of nuclear disarmament resting upon
each and every State under Article VI of the Non-Proliferation Treaty and customary
international law. It also would achieve the objective of nuclear disarmament long
and consistently set by the United Nations, and fulfil our responsibilities to present
and future generations while honouring the past ones.”

The Court has recalled on numerous occasions that its determination of the existence of a
dispute “must turn on an examination of the facts”, and that “[t]he matter is one of substance, not of
form” which requires “objective determination”. Such a dispute “may be inferred from the failure
of a State to respond to a claim in circumstances where a response is called for” (Georgia v.
Russian Federation, I.C.J. Reports 2011 (I), p. 84, para. 30). Hence in the present case, in order for
the Court to determine objectively that the dispute exists, it is sufficient to establish that the

Marshall Islands has clearly accused the “nuclear” States of failing to comply with Article VI of the
NPT or the corresponding customary obligation, and that the Respondent countries have
maintained, each for its own part, that they were fulfilling the obligation in question.

In its previous case law, the Court took account of the positions adopted by the Parties
during the proceedings when it sought to determine the dispute objectively. If it had not proceeded
in such a way, the Court could have arrived at an absurd conclusion by making time stand still on
the date when the Application was filed; the subject of the dispute might have changed, or even

disappeared, according to the positions set forth before the Court. Let us even suppose that the
premises of a dispute have taken shape before the filing of the Application and that the opposing
views have been expressed clearly during the proceedings, can the Court then declare that it lacks
jurisdiction on the basis of a question of form and not of substance or content? At the risk, as in the
present case, of seeing the Applicant file a new application immediately after the finding of lack of
jurisdiction is announced! Where is the sound administration of justice in all of that?

The Court has in fact operated in a “realistic and practical” way, and with pragmatism, since
its function is to settle disputes when they are established before it, and not to shelter behind some
kind of formalism, at the risk of witnessing a deterioration in the situation between the Parties.

Thus, in the Judgment on Preliminary Objections delivered on 11 July 1996 in the case
concerning Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of
Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Yugoslavia), Yugoslavia contested the existence of a dispute
with Bosnia and Herzegovina regarding violation of the Convention on the Prevention and - 5 -

Punishment of the Crime of Genocide. The Court found that Yugoslavia had “wholly denied all of
Bosnia and Herzegovina’s allegations, whether at the stage of proceedings relating to the requests

for the indication of provisional measures, or at the stage of the . . . proceedings relating to
[preliminary] objections” (I.C.J. Reports 1996 (II), p. 614, para. 28), i.e., after the date when the
Application was filed.

In the Judgment on Preliminary Objections delivered on 10 February 2005 in the case
concerning Certain Property (Liechtenstein v. Germany), the Court referred to the Parties’
positions during the proceedings in order to determine the existence of a dispute. It thus found that

“in the present proceedings complaints of fact and law formulated by Liechtenstein against
Germany are denied by the latter”, concluding that “[i]n conformity with well-established
jurisprudence . . . there is a legal dispute . . . between Liechtenstein and Germany”. The Court
relied in this respect on the precedent from the Genocide case in 1996, as cited above. For the sake
of completeness, it should be mentioned that:

“[t]he Court further notes that Germany’s position taken in the course of bilateral
consultations and in the letter . . . of 20 January 2000 [before the filing of the

Application] has evidentiary value in support of the proposition that Liechtenstein’s
claims were positively opposed by Germany” (I.C.J. Reports 2005, pp. 18-19,
para. 25).

In other words, the Court took note of the positions of the Parties prior to the filing of the
Application only once it had determined the existence of a dispute on the basis of the exchanges
between them during the proceedings. All of this serves to reinforce the practical, realistic and

pragmatic nature of the Court’s jurisprudence, in accordance with the principle of consent upon
which its jurisdiction is founded and with the principle of equality between the Parties.

In light of the Court’s well-established jurisprudence on the existence of a dispute, which
takes account of all the evidence available to the Court at the point when it decides on and adopts
its judgment, one might have thought that the positive opposition between the respective views of
the Marshall Islands and each of the Respondents should logically have led the Court to dismiss the
objection of lack of jurisdiction based on the absence of a dispute. However, the matters at stake in

these cases are such that the majority has sought to adduce another argument, of a subjective
nature, which has nothing to do with that jurisprudence. This is said to be the “determination” that
the Respondent “was aware or could not have been unaware that its views were ‘positively
opposed’ by the Applicant”. The majority relies in this respect on the Judgment on Preliminary
Objections delivered on 17 March 2016 in the case concerning Alleged Violations of Sovereign
Rights and Maritime Spaces in the Caribbean Sea (Nicaragua v. Colombia). First, however, the
Marshall Islands and the Respondent States had no knowledge of that Judgment, since it was

handed down on 17 March 2016, after the closure of the oral proceedings in the present case, which
took place from 9 to 16 March 2016. And, second, it concerned a case in which, in the face of all
the evidence, Colombia argued that it was unaware of Nicaragua’s position with regard to the
implementation of and compliance with a judgment of the Court.

The second Judgment invoked in support of this subjective argument employed in order to
conclude that there is no dispute is taken from the Georgia v. Russian Federation case. In that

case, however, the point at issue was the application of a compromissory clause, Article 22 of
CERD, which lays down, as a precondition for the Court’s jurisdiction, the existence of a dispute
that falls within the scope of that Convention and, above all, the holding of negotiations on the
matter beforehand between the Parties. - 6 -

To my mind, the so-called determination of “being aware or having been aware” cannot be

used as a lifeline for a decision which is in no way related to the well-established case law of the
Court on this question. The majority has tried to remove these two cases from their contexts. In
the Nicaragua v. Colombia case, the latter could not have been unaware of the problem posed by
the application of a judgment in a case to which it had been party. In putting forward, on that basis,
a new criterion for the existence of a dispute, the majority is seriously compromising the approach
of the Court in future to the question of whether a dispute exists.

By placing itself, in this way, in a difficult position which it has attempted to justify, but
without success, the majority is consequently not allowing the Court to fulfil its function as the
principal judicial organ of the United Nations, whose task is to assist the Parties in settling their
disputes and thereby to contribute to peace through the implementation of international law.

(Signed) Mohamed B ENNOUNA .

___________

Bilingual Content

608
60
DISSENTING OPINION OF JUDGE BENNOUNA
[Original English Text]
Exercise in pure formalism — Introduction of a subjective criterion in
determining the existence of the dispute — Sound administration of justice —
Realism and flexibility of the case law of the Court — The existence of the dispute,
a question to be objectively decided.
The Court has declared that it lacks jurisdiction in the three cases
brought by the Marshall Islands against India, Pakistan and the United
Kingdom respectively, on the same grounds: the non‑existence of a dispute
between the Parties. Consistently, I have voted against each of the
three Judgments adopted by the Court, and for the same reasons set forth
in this opinion.
Naturally, the Marshall Islands has invoked the 1968 Treaty on the
Non‑Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT) as well as customary international
law in the proceedings against the United Kingdom, these
two
States being parties to the treaty. However, the Marshall Islands
has referred only to customary international law regarding India and
Pakistan, which are not parties to the NPT.
The reasoning of the Court, however, does not address the issue of
the customary nature of Article VI of the NPT which goes to the merits
of the case. The same applies to the Court’s consideration of whether or
not the Respondents have complied with the obligation to negotiate,
which is the subject-matter
of the proceedings brought by the Marshall
Islands.
Yet, with regard to the existence of a dispute, the Court has followed
the same approach to achieve a similar result in each of the three Judgments.
* * *
The Marshall Islands has brought before the Court a dispute between
itself and nine countries which hold, or are presumed to hold, nuclear
weapons, regardless of whether those countries are parties to the NPT.
The Court listed three cases against India, Pakistan and the United
Kingdom,
which have made declarations recognizing the jurisdiction of
the Court, pursuant to Article 36, paragraph 2, of the Statute. The Court
has found that it lacks jurisdiction in these three cases, on the grounds
that no disputes exist between each of the three States and the Marshall
Islands.
This is the first time that the International Court of Justice has found
that it has no jurisdiction on the sole basis of the non-existence
of a dis-
608
60
OPINION DISSIDENTE DE M. LE JUGE BENNOUNA
[Texte original français]
Exercice de pur formalisme — Introduction d’un facteur subjectif dans la
détermination de l’existence du différend — Bonne administration de la justice —
Réalisme et souplesse de la jurisprudence de la Cour — L’existence du différend,
une question qui doit être établie objectivement.
La Cour s’est déclarée incompétente dans les trois affaires qui ont été
engagées par les Iles Marshall, respectivement contre l’Inde, le Pakistan et
le Royaume-Uni, sur le même fondement : l’inexistence d’un différend
entre les Parties. Dans une attitude cohérente, j’ai voté contre chacun de
ces trois arrêts adoptés par la Cour et pour les mêmes raisons que j’expose
dans la présente opinion.
Bien entendu, les Iles Marshall ont invoqué le traité de 1968 sur la
non‑prolifération des armes nucléaires (TNP), ainsi que le droit international
coutumier, dans leur recours contre le Royaume-Uni, ces deux
Etats étant parties à ce traité. Cependant, les Iles Marshall se sont référées
uniquement au droit international coutumier pour ce qui est de l’Inde
et du Pakistan, qui ne sont pas parties au TNP.
Mais le raisonnement de la Cour n’aborde pas la question du caractère
coutumier de l’article VI du TNP qui relève du fond de l’affaire. Il en
va ainsi également de l’appréciation par la Cour du respect ou non par
les défendeurs de l’obligation de négocier, objet du recours des Iles
Marshall.
Il reste que, en ce qui concerne l’existence du différend, la Cour a suivi
la même démarche pour aboutir à un résultat similaire dans chacun des
trois arrêts.
* * *
La Cour a été saisie par les Iles Marshall d’un différend l’opposant aux
neuf pays détenteurs ou présumés détenteurs d’armes nucléaires, parties
ou non au TNP. Elle a inscrit, à son rôle, les requêtes des Iles Marshall
concernant trois d’entre eux (l’Inde, le Pakistan et le Royaume-Uni), qui
étaient liés respectivement par des déclarations d’acceptation de la juridiction
de la Cour, conformément au paragraphe 2 de l’article 36 du Statut.
La Cour s’est déclarée incompétente dans ces trois affaires, au motif
de l’inexistence d’un différend entre chacun de ces trois Etats et les Iles
Marshall.
C’est la première fois que la Cour internationale de Justice se déclare
incompétente sur le seul fondement de l’inexistence d’un différend entre
609 nuclear arms and disarmament (diss. op. bennouna)
61
pute between the Parties. A reading of the Judgment of the Court reflects
the fact that the majority came to this conclusion only by an exercise in
pure formalism, artificially stopping the time of law and analysis at the
date of submission of the request by the Marshall Islands. And as if that
were not enough, the majority has resorted to a “criterion” bearing no
relation to the well‑established case law whereby in order for a dispute to
exist, the respondent must have been “aware, or could not have been
unaware, that its views were ‘positively opposed’ by the applicant”
(para. 38).
The introduction of this criterion, linked to the subjective views of the
Respondent and of those conducting the analysis, clearly goes against the
entire case law of the ICJ and PCIJ, according to which the existence of a
dispute is determined objectively by the Court on the basis of the evidence
available to it, when it adopts its judgment. The Court has thus been able
to administer justice soundly and avoid the absurd situation in which it
now finds itself after declaring that it lacks jurisdiction in the three
Judgments
on Obligations concerning Negotiations relating to Cessation of
the Nuclear Arms Race and to Nuclear Disarmament. Indeed, the Parties
have disagreed clearly before the Court on points of fact and law, thereby
demonstrating the existence of legal disputes on the questions submitted
to it.
In other words, the disputes are indeed there — and it would be sufficient
for the Marshall Islands to file fresh applications before the Court in
order to prevent the ground of lack of jurisdiction on which it has based
itself in handing down its Judgments from being invoked again!
The Court, when faced with such situations, has first noted that its
jurisdiction must normally be ascertained at the time of the institution of
the proceedings. But it has gone further and recalled that “like its predecessor,
[it] has also shown realism and flexibility in certain situations in
which the conditions governing the Court’s jurisdiction were not fully
satisfied
when proceedings were initiated but were subsequently satisfied,
before the Court ruled on its jurisdiction” (Application of the Convention
on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Croatia v.
Serbia), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2008, p. 438,
para. 81)
In particular, the Court refused to declare itself incompetent when it
was sufficient for the Applicant to “file a new application, identical to the
present one, which would be unassailable in this respect” (Application of
the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide
(Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Yugoslavia), Preliminary Objections, Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 1996 (II), p. 614, para. 26). Many more instances
could be cited in which the PCIJ, and then the ICJ, have rejected resorting
to a formalism that is excessive and contrary to the sound administration
of justice.
In the relationship between international law and time, there is a rational
element, namely the determination of a point in time beyond which,
theoretically, one must stop the watch, and a pragmatic element in order
armes nucléaires et désarmement (op. diss. bennouna) 609
61
les Parties. La lecture de l’arrêt de la Cour montre que la majorité n’est
parvenue à ce résultat qu’au terme d’un exercice de pur formalisme
consistant à arrêter artificiellement le temps du droit et de l’analyse à la
date de la soumission de la requête par les Iles Marshall. Et comme si cela
ne suffisait pas, la majorité a recouru à un « critère », sans rapport avec la
jurisprudence bien établie, selon lequel pour qu’un différend existe le
défendeur devait avoir « connaissance, ou ne pouvait pas ne pas avoir
connaissance, de ce que ses vues se heurtaient à l’« opposition manifeste »
du demandeur » (par. 38).
L’introduction de ce facteur, lié à la subjectivité du défendeur et de
l’analyste, va manifestement à l’encontre de toute la construction jurisprudentielle
de la CIJ et de la CPJI, selon laquelle l’existence du différend
est déterminée objectivement par la Cour sur la base des éléments dont
elle dispose, au moment où elle adopte son jugement. La Cour a pu ainsi
exercer une bonne administration de la justice et éviter la situation
absurde où elle se trouve désormais après s’être déclarée incompétente
dans les trois arrêts portant sur les Obligations relatives à des négociations
concernant la cessation de la course aux armes nucléaires et le désarmement
nucléaire. En effet, les Parties se sont opposées clairement devant elle sur
des points de droit et de fait manifestant ainsi l’existence de différends
juridiques sur les questions soumises à la Cour.
Autrement dit, les différends sont bien là, il suffirait que les Iles Marshall
déposent de nouvelles requêtes devant la Cour pour que le chef d’incompétence
sur lequel celle-
ci s’est fondée pour rendre ses arrêts ne puisse être
invoqué de nouveau !
La Cour, lorsqu’elle a été confrontée à de telles situations, a commencé
par souligner que sa compétence doit normalement s’apprécier à la date
du dépôt de l’acte introductif d’instance. Mais, elle ne s’est pas arrêtée là,
elle a tenu à rappeler que, « comme sa devancière, [elle] a aussi fait preuve
de réalisme et de souplesse dans certaines hypothèses où les conditions de
la compétence de la Cour n’étaient pas toutes remplies à la date de l’introduction
de l’instance mais l’avaient été postérieurement, et avant que la
Cour décide sur sa compétence » (Application de la convention pour la prévention
et la répression du crime de génocide (Croatie c. Serbie), exceptions
préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2008, p. 438, par. 81).
En particulier, la Cour a refusé de se déclarer incompétente lorsqu’il
suffisait au demandeur de « déposer une nouvelle requête, identique à la
présente, qui serait de ce point de vue inattaquable » (Application de
la convention pour la prévention et la répression du crime de génocide
(Bosnie‑Herzégovine
c. Yougoslavie), exceptions préliminaires, arrêt,
C.I.J. Recueil 1996 (II), p. 614, par. 26). On pourrait multiplier les
exemples où la CPJI puis la CIJ ont rejeté le recours à un formalisme
excessif et contraire à une bonne administration de la justice.
Dans la relation du droit international au temps, il y a la part du
rationnel, la détermination d’un moment au-
delà duquel on arrête en
principe la montre, et la part du pragmatisme, afin de tenir compte des
610 nuclear arms and disarmament (diss. op. bennouna)
62
to take into account the particular circumstances of the situation. The
judge in exercising its art, has to strike the right balance between these
elements, so that justice is done and seen to be done.
International judges had a duty to be even more vigilant in the present
case, which concerns a question of crucial importance for security in the
world. That is another reason for the principal judicial organ of the
United Nations to undertake its role fully. Indeed, how can it shelter
behind purely formalistic considerations which both legal professionals
and ordinary citizens would find difficult to understand, rather than contributing,
as it should do, to peace through international law, which is the
raison d’être of the Court.
The only issue here was the scope of the obligation to negotiate laid
down in Article VI of the NPT, an obligation that is also part of customary
international law according to the Marshall Islands:
“Each of the Parties to the Treaty undertakes to pursue negotiations
in good faith on effective measures relating to cessation of the
nuclear arms race at an early date and to nuclear disarmament, and
on a treaty on general and complete disarmament under strict and
effective international control.”
This obligation is well known to all those who have attended the meetings
of States parties to the NPT, which have been held regularly for
more than 40 years or so. It is also known to the Court, which, in its
famous Advisory Opinion of 8 July 1996 on Legality of the Threat or Use
of Nuclear Weapons, pronounced clearly on the subject as follows:
“The legal import of that obligation goes beyond that of a mere
obligation of conduct; the obligation involved here is an obligation
to achieve a precise result — nuclear disarmament in all its aspects —
by adopting a particular course of conduct, namely, the pursuit of
negotiations on the matter in good faith.” (I.C.J. Reports 1996 (I),
p. 264, para. 99.)
For the background to the dispute in question, its human substance,
we have to consider a small State, the Marshall Islands, whose population
of a few tens of thousands of people has suffered terribly from the nuclear
testing carried out in an area of its territory. This State has turned to the
principal judicial organ of the United Nations to seek justice, so that such
suffering does not occur again in future, through compliance with a conventional
and/or customary obligation under international law. That,
however, is a matter which the Court would have had to deal with when
considering this case on the merits. And we have not reached that point,
we are simply at the stage of jurisdiction.
But what is the Court doing? Something novel, by concluding that no
dispute exists, so that it does not have to consider the merits of the case.
In a sense, the Court is setting little store by its jurisprudence, which is
nonetheless what ensures that it is both visible and credible.
armes nucléaires et désarmement (op. diss. bennouna) 610
62
caractéristiques de telle ou telle situation. L’art du juge est de parvenir au
bon dosage afin que justice soit faite et qu’elle soit perçue comme telle.
Le juge international se devait d’être encore plus vigilant dans la présente
affaire qui concerne une question d’une importance cruciale pour la
sécurité dans le monde. C’est une raison de plus pour que l’organe judiciaire
principal des Nations Unies assume pleinement la fonction qui est
la sienne. En effet, comment peut-il s’abriter derrière des considérations
de pure forme, que les professionnels du droit et les simples citoyens
auraient du mal à comprendre, et ne pas contribuer, comme il le doit, à la
paix par le droit international, ce qui est la raison d’être de la Cour.
L’enjeu concernait uniquement la portée de l’obligation de négocier
inscrite à l’article VI du TNP, laquelle relève également selon les Iles
Marshall du droit international coutumier :
« Chacune des Parties au Traité s’engage à poursuivre de bonne foi
des négociations sur des mesures efficaces relatives à la cessation de
la course aux armements nucléaires à une date rapprochée et au
désarmement nucléaire, et sur un traité de désarmement général et
complet sous un contrôle international strict et efficace. »
Cette obligation est bien connue de tous ceux qui ont fréquenté les
assemblées des Etats parties au TNP, qui se sont tenues régulièrement
depuis plus d’une quarantaine d’années. Elle est bien connue aussi de la
Cour, qui, dans son célèbre avis consultatif du 8 juillet 1996 sur la Licéité
de la menace ou de l’emploi des armes nucléaires, s’est prononcée clairement
à ce sujet de la sorte :
« La portée juridique de l’obligation considérée dépasse celle d’une
simple obligation de comportement ; l’obligation en cause ici est celle
de parvenir à un résultat précis — le désarmement nucléaire dans
tous ses aspects — par l’adoption d’un comportement déterminé, à
savoir la poursuite de bonne foi de négociations en la matière. »
(C.I.J. Recueil 1996 (I), p. 264, par. 99.)
Quant à l’arrière-plan du différend en question, sa consistance humaine,
il nous ramène à un petit Etat, les Iles Marshall, dont la population,
quelques dizaines de milliers de personnes, a souffert terriblement des
essais nucléaires perpétrés dans une zone de son territoire. Cet Etat s’est
adressé à l’organe judiciaire principal des Nations Unies pour demander
justice afin que de telles souffrances ne se renouvellent pas à l’avenir, pour
le respect d’une obligation conventionnelle et/ou coutumière de droit
international. Mais, c’est là une question que la Cour aurait eu à traiter
lors de l’examen au fond de cette affaire. Et nous n’en sommes pas là,
nous sommes au stade simplement de la compétence.
Or, que fait la Cour ? Elle innove, en concluant à l’absence de différend,
pour ne pas avoir à examiner le fond de l’affaire. En quelque sorte, la
Cour fait ici peu de cas de sa jurisprudence, garante pourtant de sa visibilité
et de sa crédibilité.
611 nuclear arms and disarmament (diss. op. bennouna)
63
Judge Abraham referred to the well‑established approach of the Court,
in his separate opinion appended to the Judgment in the Georgia v. Russian
Federation case (Judgment on Preliminary Objections of 1 April 2011):
“I shall first observe that until the present case the Court, whenever
required to decide on a preliminary objection based on the respondent’s
contention that there was no dispute, has made its decision —
rejecting the objection — in a few short paragraphs, and has made
the determination as of the date on which it was ruling, finding that
the parties held clearly conflicting views at that date on the matters
constituting the subject of the application and consequently that a
dispute existed between them.” (I.C.J. Reports 2011 (I), p. 226,
para. 8.)
However, the Court did not change its position when dealing with that
case between Georgia and the Russian Federation in 2011. In fact, it
accepted that a dispute existed between the parties about the interpretation
or application of the International Convention on the Elimination of
All Forms of Racial Discrimination (CERD), as Judge Abraham
acknowledged. But it was obliged to decline jurisdiction in the case
because the compromissory clause in the Convention on which the case
was based (Art. 22) relates to “[a]ny dispute . . . which is not settled by
negotiation or by the procedures expressly provided for in this Convention”.
It was this prior condition for referral to the Court which had not
been satisfied, and not that of the existence of the dispute.
We therefore do indeed have a jurisprudence which takes “a strictly
realistic and practical view, free of all hints of formalism”, as Judge Abraham
put it in his opinion (Application of the International Convention on
the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (Georgia v. Russian
Federation), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2011 (I), p. 228, para. 14), and
which allows the Court to determine the existence of a dispute not only
on the basis of acts that took place prior to the filing of the Application,
but also on that of the positions adopted by the parties in the course of
the written and oral proceedings. The important thing is to establish “a
disagreement on a point of law or fact, a conflict of legal views or of
interests”, to use the classic wording of the PCIJ’s Judgment in the Mavrommatis
Concessions case in 1924 (Judgment No. 2, 1924, P.C.I.J.,
Series A, No. 2, p. 11).
In the cases brought before the Court by the Marshall Islands, the latter
has placed emphasis on the statement that it made, before the filing of
its Application, at the Second Conference on the Humanitarian Impact of
Nuclear Weapons, held in Narayit (Mexico) on 13 and 14 February 2014,
when it declared:
“Indeed we believe that States possessing nuclear arsenals are failing
to fulfil their legal obligations in this regard. Immediate commencement
and conclusion of such negotiations is required by legal
obligation of nuclear disarmament resting upon each and every State
armes nucléaires et désarmement (op. diss. bennouna) 611
63
Le juge Abraham s’est référé à l’attitude constante de la Cour, dans son
opinion individuelle jointe à l’affaire Géorgie c. Fédération de Russie (arrêt
sur les exceptions préliminaires en date du 1er avril 2011) :
« J’observe d’abord que jusqu’à la présente affaire, chaque fois que
la Cour a eu à répondre à une exception préliminaire tirée, par la
partie défenderesse, de l’absence de différend, elle l’a fait — pour
rejeter l’exception — en quelques brefs paragraphes, en se plaçant
à la date où elle statuait et en relevant qu’à cette date les vues des
parties étaient nettement opposées sur les questions formant l’objet
de la requête, de sorte qu’il existait un différend entre elles. » (C.I.J.
Recueil 2011 (I), p. 226, par. 8.)
Or, la Cour n’a pas changé de position en 2011 dans cette affaire Géorgie
c. Fédération de Russie. Elle a admis, en effet, l’existence d’un différend
entre les parties relatif à l’interprétation ou à l’application de la convention
internationale sur l’élimination de toutes les formes de discrimination
raciale (CIEDR), ainsi que le reconnaît le juge Abraham. Seulement, elle a
dû décliner sa compétence en cette affaire dans la mesure où la clause compromissoire
de la convention sur laquelle elle est fondée (art. 22) concerne
« [t]out différend … qui n’aura pas été réglé par voie de négociation ou au
moyen des procédures expressément prévues par ladite Convention ». C’est
cette condition préalable à la saisine de la Cour qui n’a pas été satisfaite,
avant le dépôt de la requête, et non l’existence du différend.
Dès lors, nous nous trouvons bien en présence d’une jurisprudence
« réaliste et concrète [qui] ne comporte pas la moindre dose de formalisme
», selon les termes du juge Abraham dans son opinion (Application
de la convention internationale sur l’élimination de toutes les formes de discrimination
raciale (Géorgie c. Fédération de Russie), exceptions préliminaires,
arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2011 (I), p. 228, par. 14), et qui permet à la
Cour de constater l’existence du différend en se fondant aussi bien sur des
actes préalables au dépôt de la requête que sur les positions adoptées par
les parties au cours de la procédure écrite et orale. L’essentiel est de
constater « un désaccord sur un point de droit ou de fait, … une opposition
de thèses juridiques ou d’intérêts », pour reprendre la terminologie
classique de l’arrêt de la CPJI dans l’affaire des Concessions Mavrommatis
en Palestine en 1924 (arrêt no 2, 1924, C.P.J.I. série A no 2, p. 11).
Dans les affaires portées par les Iles Marshall devant la Cour, cet Etat
a mis l’accent sur la déclaration qu’il a faite, avant le dépôt de sa requête,
à la deuxième conférence sur l’impact humanitaire des armes nucléaires,
tenue à Nayarit (Mexique), les 13 et 14 février 2014, aux termes de laquelle
il affirme :
« Nous estimons en effet que les Etats possédant un arsenal
nucléaire ne respectent pas leurs obligations à cet égard. L’obligation
d’oeuvrer au désarmement nucléaire qui incombe à chaque Etat
en vertu de l’article VI du traité de non‑prolifération nucléaire et
612 nuclear arms and disarmament (diss. op. bennouna)
64
under Article VI of the Non‑Proliferation Treaty and customary
international law. It also would achieve the objective of nuclear disarmament
long and consistently set by the United Nations, and fulfil
our responsibilities to present and future generations while honouring
the past ones.”
The Court has recalled on numerous occasions that its determination
of the existence of a dispute “must turn on an examination of the facts”,
and that “[t]he matter is one of substance, not of form” which requires
“objective determination”. Such a dispute “may be inferred from the failure
of a State to respond to a claim in circumstances where a response is
called for” (Application of the International Convention on the Elimination
of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (Georgia v. Russian Federation),
Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2011 (I), p. 84, para. 30).
Hence in the present case, in order for the Court to determine objectively
that the dispute exists, it is sufficient to establish that the Marshall Islands
has clearly accused the “nuclear” States of failing to comply with Article
VI of the NPT or the corresponding customary obligation, and that
the Respondent countries have maintained, each for its own part, that
they were fulfilling the obligation in question.
In its previous case law, the Court took account of the positions
adopted by the parties during the proceedings when it sought to determine
the dispute objectively. If it had not proceeded in such a way, the
Court could have arrived at an absurd conclusion by making time stand
still on the date when the Application was filed; the subject of the dispute
might have changed, or even disappeared, according to the positions set
forth before the Court. Let us even suppose that the premises of a dispute
have taken shape before the filing of the Application and that the opposing
views have been expressed clearly during the proceedings, can the
Court then declare that it lacks jurisdiction on the basis of a question of
form and not of substance or content? At the risk, as in the present case,
of seeing the Applicant file a new application immediately after the finding
of lack of jurisdiction is announced! Where is the sound administration
of justice in all of that?
The Court has in fact operated in a “realistic and practical” way, and
with pragmatism, since its function is to settle disputes when they are
established before it, and not to shelter behind some kind of formalism,
at the risk of witnessing a deterioration in the situation between the parties.
Thus, in the Judgment on preliminary objections delivered on 11 July
1996 in the case concerning Application of the Convention on the Prevention
and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v.
Yugoslavia), Yugoslavia contested the existence of a dispute with Bosnia
and Herzegovina regarding violation of the Convention on the Prevention
and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide. The Court found that
Yugoslavia had “wholly denied all of Bosnia and Herzegovina’s allega-
armes nucléaires et désarmement (op. diss. bennouna) 612
64
du droit international coutumier impose l’ouverture immédiate et
l’aboutissement de telles négociations. Celles-
ci permettraient également
d’atteindre l’objectif de désarmement nucléaire établi depuis
longtemps et réaffirmé sans relâche par les Nations Unies, et d’honorer
nos responsabilités envers les générations présentes et futures,
tout en rendant hommage aux générations passées. »
La Cour a maintes fois rappelé que, pour se prononcer sur l’existence
d’un différend, elle doit « s’attacher aux faits » et qu’il « s’agit d’une question
de fond et non de forme » qui demande « à être « établie objectivement
» ». Une telle question « p[ouvait] être déduite de l’absence de
réaction d’un Etat à une accusation dans des circonstances où une telle
réaction s’imposait » (Application de la convention internationale sur l’élimination
de toutes les formes de discrimination raciale (Géorgie c. Fédération
de Russie), exceptions préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2011 (I),
p. 84, par. 30). Dès lors, dans l’affaire qui nous concerne, il suffit de
constater que les Iles Marshall ont clairement accusé les Etats « nucléaires »
de ne pas respecter l’article VI du TNP ou l’obligation coutumière correspondante
et que les pays défendeurs ont soutenu, chacun en ce qui le
concerne, qu’ils respectaient l’obligation en question pour que la Cour
établisse objectivement l’existence du différend.
Dans sa jurisprudence antérieure, la Cour a pris en compte les positions
adoptées par les parties au cours de la procédure, lorsqu’elle cherchait
à établir objectivement le différend. Si elle n’avait pas procédé ainsi,
la Cour aurait pu aboutir à un résultat absurde en arrêtant le temps à la
date du dépôt de la requête ; le différend pourrait changer d’objet ou
même ne plus en avoir, en fonction des positions défendues devant la
Cour. Supposons même que les prémisses du différend se soient dessinées
avant le dépôt de la requête et que les positions opposées se soient clairement
affirmées au cours de la procédure, la Cour peut‑elle se déclarer
incompétente en se fondant sur une question de forme et non de fond ou
de substance ? Au risque de voir, comme dans la présente affaire, le
demandeur introduire, aussitôt après le prononcé de la décision d’incompétence,
une nouvelle requête ! Où est la bonne administration de la justice
dans tout cela ?
La Cour a, en effet, opéré de façon « réaliste et concrète », et avec pragmatisme
dans la mesure où sa fonction est de régler les différends lorsqu’ils
s’affirment devant elle et non de s’abriter derrière un quelconque
« formalisme » au risque d’assister à une détérioration de la situation entre
les parties.
C’est ainsi que, dans l’arrêt sur les exceptions préliminaires, en date du
11 juillet 1996, rendu en l’affaire relative à l’Application de la convention
pour la prévention et la répression du crime de génocide (Bosnie-Herzégovine
c. Yougoslavie), la Yougoslavie contestait l’existence d’un différend relatif
à la violation de la convention pour la prévention et la répression
du crime de génocide, avec la Bosnie-Herzégovine.
La Cour a constaté
que la Yougoslavie
avait « globalement rejeté toutes les allégations de la
613 nuclear arms and disarmament (diss. op. bennouna)
65
tions, whether at the stage of proceedings relating to the requests for the
indication of provisional measures, or at the stage of the . . . proceedings
relating to [preliminary] objections” (I.C.J. Reports 1996 (II), p. 614,
para. 28), i.e., after the date when the Application was filed.
In the Judgment on preliminary objections delivered on 10 February
2005 in the case concerning Certain Property (Liechtenstein v. Germany),
the Court referred to the parties’ positions during the proceedings in
order to determine the existence of a dispute. It thus found that “in the
present proceedings complaints of fact and law formulated by Liechtenstein
against Germany are denied by the latter”, concluding that “[i]n
conformity with well‑established jurisprudence . . . there is a legal dispute
. . . between Liechtenstein and Germany” (I.C.J. Reports 2005, p. 19,
para. 25). The Court relied in this respect on the precedent from the
Genocide case in 1996, as cited above. For the sake of completeness, it
should be mentioned that:
“[t]he Court further notes that Germany’s position taken in the course
of bilateral consultations and in the letter . . . of 20 January 2000
[before the filing of the Application] has evidentiary value in support
of the proposition that Liechtenstein’s claims were positively opposed
by Germany” (ibid.).
In other words, the Court took note of the positions of the parties
prior to the filing of the Application only once it had determined the existence
of a dispute on the basis of the exchanges between them during the
proceedings. All of this serves to reinforce the practical, realistic and
pragmatic nature of the Court’s jurisprudence, in accordance with the
principle of consent upon which its jurisdiction is founded and with the
principle of equality between the parties.
In light of the Court’s well‑established jurisprudence on the existence of
a dispute, which takes account of all the evidence available to the Court
at the point when it decides on and adopts its judgment, one might have
thought that the positive opposition between the respective views of the
Marshall Islands and each of the Respondents should logically have led
the Court to dismiss the objection of lack of jurisdiction based on the
absence of a dispute. However, the matters at stake in these cases are such
that the majority has sought to adduce another argument, of a subjective
nature, which has nothing to do with that jurisprudence. This is said to be
the “determination” that the Respondent “was aware or could not have
been unaware that its views were ‘positively opposed’ by the Applicant”.
The majority relies in this respect on the Judgment on preliminary objections
delivered on 17 March 2016 in the case concerning Alleged Violations
of Sovereign Rights and Maritime Spaces in the Caribbean Sea
(Nicaragua v. Colombia) (I.C.J. Reports 2016 (I), p. 3). First, however,
the Marshall Islands and the Respondent States had no knowledge of
that Judgment, since it was handed down on 17 March 2016, after the
closure of the oral proceedings in the present case, which took place from
armes nucléaires et désarmement (op. diss. bennouna) 613
65
Bosnie‑Herzégovine,
que ce soit au stade des procédures afférentes
aux demandes en indication de mesures conservatoires, ou au stade de
la … procédure relative aux … exceptions [préliminaires] » (C.I.J.
Recueil 1996 (II), p. 614, par. 28), c’est‑à‑dire postérieurement à la date
du dépôt de la requête.
Dans l’arrêt sur les exceptions préliminaires, en date du 10 février 2005,
rendu en l’affaire relative à Certains biens (Liechtenstein c. Allemagne), la
Cour s’est référée à la position des parties au cours de la procédure pour
constater l’existence d’un différend. Elle a ainsi relevé que, « dans la
présente
instance, les griefs formulés en fait et en droit par le Liechtenstein
contre l’Allemagne sont rejetés par cette dernière » et elle
conclut « [c]onformément à sa jurisprudence bien établie … il existe un
différend d’ordre juridique entre le Liechtenstein et l’Allemagne » (C.I.J.
Recueil 2005, p. 19, par. 25). La Cour s’est appuyée à ce propos sur le
précédent déjà cité de l’affaire du Génocide en 1996. Pour être complet,
on doit mentionner que
« [l]a Cour note par ailleurs que la position adoptée par l’Allemagne
dans le cadre de consultations bilatérales et dans la lettre du 20 janvier
2000 … [avant le dépôt de la requête] conforte l’affirmation selon
laquelle les revendications du Liechtenstein se sont heurtées à l’opposition
manifeste de l’Allemagne » (ibid.).
Autrement dit, la Cour n’a noté les positions des parties, avant le dépôt
de la requête, qu’une fois qu’elle a conclu à l’existence du différend à partir
des échanges intervenus entre elles au cours de la procédure. Tout cela
renforce le caractère concret, réaliste et pragmatique de la jurisprudence
de la Cour dans le respect du principe du consentement qui fonde sa compétence
et du principe de l’égalité entre les parties.
En présence d’une jurisprudence bien établie de la Cour sur l’existence
du différend qui prend en compte tous les éléments dont elle dispose au
moment où elle décide et adopte son arrêt, on aurait pu penser que l’opposition
manifeste entre les positions des Iles Marshall et celle, respectivement
de chacune des Parties défenderesses, aurait dû logiquement amener
la Cour à rejeter l’exception d’incompétence fondée sur l’absence de différend.
Mais les enjeux dans ces affaires sont tels que la majorité est allée
rechercher, en renfort, un autre élément d’appréciation, de caractère subjectif,
qui n’a rien à voir avec cette jurisprudence. Il s’agirait du « constat »
que le défendeur « avait connaissance, ou ne pouvait pas ne pas avoir
connaissance, de ce que ses vues se heurtaient à l’« opposition manifeste »
du demandeur ». Elle s’appuie pour cela sur l’arrêt sur les exceptions préliminaires
du 17 mars 2016 rendu en l’affaire des Violations alléguées de
droits souverains et d’espaces maritimes dans la mer des Caraïbes (Nicaragua
c. Colombie) (C.I.J. Recueil 2016 (I), p. 3). Or, d’une part, cet arrêt
était inconnu des Iles Marshall et des Etats défendeurs puisqu’il a été
rendu, le 17 mars 2016, après la clôture des plaidoiries orales dans cette
affaire qui se sont déroulées du 9 au 16 mars 2016. D’autre part, il s’agis-
614 nuclear arms and disarmament (diss. op. bennouna)
66
9 to 16 March 2016. And, second, it concerned a case in which, in the face
of all the evidence, Colombia argued that it was unaware of Nicaragua’s
position with regard to the implementation of and compliance with a
judgment of the Court.
The second Judgment invoked in support of this subjective argument
employed in order to conclude that there is no dispute is taken from the
Georgia v. Russian Federation case. In that case, however, the point at
issue was the application of a compromissory clause, Article 22 of CERD,
which lays down, as a precondition for the Court’s jurisdiction, the existence
of a dispute that falls within the scope of that Convention and,
above all, the holding of negotiations on the matter beforehand between
the parties.
To my mind, the so‑called determination of “being aware or having
been aware” cannot be used as a lifeline for a decision which is in no way
related to the well‑established case law of the Court on this question. The
majority has tried to remove these two cases from their contexts. In the
Nicaragua v. Colombia case, the latter could not have been unaware of the
problem posed by the application of a judgment in a case to which it had
been party. In putting forward, on that basis, a new criterion for the existence
of a dispute, the majority is seriously compromising the approach of
the Court in future to the question of whether a dispute exists.
By placing itself, in this way, in a difficult position which it has
attempted to justify, but without success, the majority is consequently not
allowing the Court to fulfil its function as the principal judicial organ of
the United Nations, whose task is to assist the parties in settling their
disputes and thereby to contribute to peace through the implementation
of international law.
(Signed) Mohamed Bennouna.
armes nucléaires et désarmement (op. diss. bennouna) 614
66
sait d’une affaire où, contrairement à toute évidence, la Colombie plaidait
qu’elle n’avait pas connaissance de la position du Nicaragua en ce qui
concerne la mise en oeuvre et le respect d’un arrêt de la Cour.
Le deuxième arrêt invoqué en faveur de cet élément de caractère subjectif,
destiné à conclure à l’absence du différend, est tiré de l’affaire Géorgie
c. Fédération de Russie. Or, il s’agit dans cette affaire de la mise en oeuvre
d’une clause compromissoire, l’article 22 de la CIEDR, qui impose comme
condition à la compétence de la Cour l’existence d’un différend qui rentre
dans les perspectives de cette convention et, surtout, l’engagement de
négociations préalables, à ce sujet, entre les parties.
A mon avis, le prétendu constat du fait de « connaître ou avoir eu
connaissance » ne peut servir de bouée de sauvetage à une décision qui ne
se rattache d’aucune façon à la jurisprudence bien établie de la Cour en la
matière. La majorité a tenté de sortir les deux affaires de leur contexte.
Dans l’affaire Nicaragua c. Colombie, cette dernière ne pouvait ignorer le
problème posé par l’application d’un arrêt dans une affaire à laquelle elle
était partie. En avançant, à partir de là, un nouveau critère pour l’existence
d’un différend, la majorité compromet sérieusement la démarche de
la Cour à l’avenir, en ce qui concerne l’existence d’un différend.
En se plaçant ainsi dans une position bien difficile qu’elle a essayé de
justifier sans y parvenir, la majorité ne permet pas, en conséquence, à la
Cour de remplir sa fonction d’organe judiciaire principal des Nations
Unies qui doit assister les parties dans le règlement de leurs différends et
contribuer ainsi à la paix par la mise en oeuvre du droit international.
(Signé) Mohamed Bennouna.

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Dissenting opinion of Judge Bennouna

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